ee yee aa oS eS on Weer oa KE wy Se a, ne ae ; : . ; : i =e not : ate Se ee Fe eS ee = r wareeser ia . ‘ . Me . . 3 Soe ae * a r a ty nat ae hPa ae abut ja ish ih MS : > "2 * _ ' eee sf $ + ae Kee | ° s i rs * i? t , 4 * : oa. - ois , Ral date : ¥ ah a figs oe a ate ‘ ’ Pa ; Ba: engi paca ae Rent 9 . % rT ay “Sip any ¥ t fs | ies : eek Ni ‘Woe t BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE REPORT OF THE NINETY-SEVENTH MEETING (NINETY-NINTH YEAR) SOUTH AFRICA—1929 joLy 22-AUGUST 3 LONDON OFFICE OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION BURLINGTON HOUSE, LONDON, W.1 1930 ill CONTENTS. RMIGHES AND COUNCIL, 1929-30 cocci cee ete ee teehee eens Executive CoMMITTEE FOR THE MEETING IN SoutTH Arrica, 1929 .. SECTIONAL OFFICERS, SouTH AFRICA, 1929 .... 0.2... cee eee ee ees ANNUAL MEETINGS: PLACES AND DatsEs, PRESIDENTS, ATTENDANCES, Recriers, Sums Patp on Account oF GRANTS FOR SCIENTIFIC PeGP OSES (S30 1929) oes orecoce es abs ssw ueua ¢ xe) Wine sve. pe ats ausl s/eigee «is ReEportT OF THE COUNCIL TO THE GENERAL COMMITTEE (1928-29) .... RESOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS (South ArricAN MEETING) .. GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT (1928-29).......... 0... e cee ee eee RHSHARCH COMMITTEHS (1929-30), ....0.. 0250. -c oe ie Sees ee ee ee eee NARRATIVE OF THE SouTH AFRICAN MERETING.................-20-. Tur PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION : Africa and Science. By Jan H. Hormnyr .................. Tue PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION : The International Relationship of Minerals. By Sir Tuomas H. IE OPIR SEIS RRS 1S epcc IStaEM ean vis: Stags: ol eteiGpeic.s (sone + semua “Sieshelel=s SECTIONAL PRESIDENTS’ ADDRESSES : A.—Some Problems of Cosmical Physics, solved and unsolved. By TTY Me RAW DELENET Go geSic treo ica ER B.—tThe Relation of Organic Chemistry to Biology. By Prof. G. TES APCS an clea cD oothnd. cit c CITA RICO OOe OC OSIARID oO OF C.—The Utility of Geological Surveys to Colonies and Protectorates of the British Empire. By Sir AtBert EK. Kitson .... D.—Adaptation. By Prof. D. M.S. WaTson...........:-.+.-- E.—National Surveys. By Brigadier BE. M. Jack.............. F.—The Public Regulation of Wages in Great Britain. By Prof. IE Aipe SEY OASYS Way «eve cos cnsste, cc ceseateed re ORCI el oe noReegerate pr ahors OR PAGE Vv Vii viii Xiv 22 iv CONTENTS G.—Science and Engineering. By Prof. F. C. Lua ............ H.—South Africa’s Contribution to Prehistoric Archeology. By HSN R We BATERO UR eiisiejn sc: > 0s =ineaetete een aterooysl oa oar eters I.—Physiology the Basis of Treatment. By Prof. W. E. Drxon J.—Experimental Method in Psychology. By F. C. Bartierr.. K.—Botanical Records of the Rocks. By Prof. A. C. Sz—warp .. L.—Modern Movements in Education. By Dr. C. W. Kmmrys.. M.—Agriculture and the Empire. By Sir Roper B. Grzic .... REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. ..........0.e00ceeee ewes SHOPLOMAT DRANSA OPTIONS iticies:. cesme Goon ole sgrntiacare ole Sc I eae ee MeeEetTiIne or L’Assoctation FRANOAISE POUR L’AVANCEMENT DES ScrmNcES, HavRE: CoNFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPOND- ING \SOOLWT ING! 5 1. ctsttee ee once s oie ion boo ek eee ee PAGE 138 153 164 187 199 217 230 244 310 424 427 431 —- -_ Hritish Association for the Adbancement of Serence. OFFICERS & COUNCIL, 1929-30. ‘PATRON. HIS MAJESTY THE KING. PRESIDENT. Sir THomas H. Horuanp, K.C.S8.I., K.C.I.E., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. PRESIDENT-ELECT FOR THE BRISTOL MEETING. Prof. F. O. Bowsr, Sc.D., D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S. VICE-PRESIDENTS FOR THE SOUTH AFRICAN MEETING. H.E. the GovERNOR-GENERAL. The Prime MINISTER OF THE UNION OF Sours Arrica. The MrInIsTER FOR EDUCATION. Lt.-Gen. the Rt. Hon. J. C. Smuts, P.C., C.H. The ADMINISTRATOR OF THE CAPE PROVINCE. The ADMINISTRATOR OF THE NATAL PROVINCE. The ADMINISTRATOR OF THE ORANGE FREE STATE. The ADMINISTRATOR OF THE TRANSVAAL PROVINCE. The Vicr-CHANCELLOR OF THE UNI- VERSITY OF SouTH AFRICA. The Vicr-CHANCELLOR OF THE UNI- VERSITY oF Cape Town. The Vick-CHANCELLOR OF THE UNI- VERSITY OF STELLENBOSCH. The Vicr-CHANCELLOR OF THE Unt- VERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND. The Mayor or JOHANNESBURG. The Mayor or Carr Town. The Mayor or PRETORIA. The PRINCIPAL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND. The PRESIDENT OF THE TRANSVAAL CHAMBER OF MINEs. The PRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATED CHAMBERS OF COMMERCE. The PRESIDENT OF THE SoUTH AFRICAN FEDERATED CHAMBER OF INDUSTRIES. Sir F. Drummonp Cnaptin, K.C.M.G., M.L.A. Sir Witt1am Datrympiz, Chairman of Council, University of the Witwaters- rand. Hon. J. W. Jacarr, M.L.A. Prof. J. A. WiLKInson, Chairman of the General Committee of the South African Association. The PRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATED ScrENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SOCIETIES or SoutH Arrica. ALPHEvs F, Witt1aMs, General Manager, De Beers Consolidated Mines, Ltd. Mr. Justice JAcOB DE VILLIERS. vl OFFICERS AND COUNCIL. VICE-PRESIDENTS-ELECT FOR THE BRISTOL MEETING. The Rt. Hon. the Lorp Mayor or BRISTOL. The SHERIFF OF BRISTOL. His Grace the DUKE oF BEAUFORT. The Most Honourable the MARQUESS OF Baru, Lord Lieutenant of the County of Somerset. The Rt. Hon. the Eart or BERKELEY, F.R.S. The Rt. Rev. the Lorp BIsHoP oF BRISTOL. The Rt. Rev. the Lorp BisHopr or Batu AND WELLS. The Rt. Rev. the BisHop oF CLIFTON. The Rt. Hon. Lorp Stracuis, P.C. The Rt. Hon. Lord WraxaLt, P.C. The Rt. Hon. Lorp DuLyvErRTon. Sir Stantey WuirTeE, Bart. Sir Vernon WILLs. Sir Jonn Swaisu, K.B.E. Sir Witt1am Hower. DaviEs. Sir Ernest Cook. The Rt. Worshipful the Mayor or Batu. His Honour JupGE Parsons. W. J. Baker, M.P. C. T. CULVERWELL, M.P. Dr. Stantey Bapock (Pro-Chancellor of the University). Dr. T. Lovepay (Vice-Chancellor of the University). The MastTER OF THE SociETY OF MER- CHANT VENTURERS. Alderman EpwarpD RoBInson. Alderman FRANK SHEPPARD. | The PresIDENT OF THE BRISTOL CHAMBER OF COMMERCE. | Dr. H. C. Manper. | NorMAN Wuatitey, Headmaster of Clifton College. Capt. MELVILLE WILLs. GENERAL TREASURER. Sir Josran Stamp, G.B.E., D.Sc. GENERAL SECRETARIES. ee J.L. Mynss, O.B.E., D.Sc., F.S.A., B.A. Adie Gen. Secretary (from December 1929)—Prof. F. J. M. Stratton, F, E. Surru, C.B., C.B.E., D.Sc., F.R.S. (retired December 1929). D.S.0O., M.A. SECRETARY. O. J. R. Howarra, O.B.E., M.A., Burlington House, London, W. 1. ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. Prof. J. H. Ashwortn, F.R.S. F. C. BartLert. Dr. F. A. Batuer, F.R.S. Prof. A. L. BowLEy. Prof. C. Burr. Prof. W. Dausy, F.R.S. Prof. C. Lovatr Evans,’ F.R.S. Sir Jonn Fier7, K.B.E., F.R.S. Sir HENRY Fow ter, K. B. E. Sir RicHaRD GREGORY. Prof. Dame HELEN GWYNNE-VAUGHAN, D.B.E. Dr. A. C. Happon, F.B.S. Sir Danret Hatt, K.C.B., F.R.S. Sir James HENDERSON. A. R. Hoyas, C.B.E., F.R.S. Col. Sir H. G. Lyons, F.R.S. C. G. T. Morison. Prof. T. P. Nunn. Prof. A. O. RANKINE. C. Tate Reaan, F.R.S. Prof. A. C. Sewarp, F.R.S. Dr. F. C. SHRUBSALL. Dr. N. V. Stipewicx, F.R.S. Dr. G. C. Suweson, C.B., F.R.S. Prof. J. F. THorpsr, C.B.E., F.R.S. EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. Past-Presidents of the Association, the President for the year, the President and Vice-Presidents for the ensuing Annual Meeting, past and present General Treasurers and General Secretaries, past Assistant General Secretaries, and the Local Treasurers and Local Secretaries for the Annual Meetings immediately past and ensuing. : : OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, vil PAST-PRESIDENTS OF THE ASSOCIATION. Rt. Hon. the Eart or Batroour, O.M., | Sir Ernest Ruruerrorp, O.M., Pres. R.S. F.R.S -R.S. Major-Gen. Sir Daviy Bruoz, K.C.B., Sir J. J. Txomson, O.M., F.R.S. F.R.8. Sir E. SoHarpey-Sonarer, F.R.S. Prof. Horace Lams, F.R.S. Sir Ortver Lopaz, F.R.S. H.R.H. The Princr or Watss, K.G., Sir Artuur Sonuster, F.R.S. D.C.L., F.R.S. Sir ArtHurR Evans, F.R.S. Prof. Sir ArtrHur Ketru, F.R.S. Hon. Sir C. A. Parsons, O.M., K.C.B., | Prof. Sir Wimu1am H. Braaa, K.B.E., F.R.S. F.R.S. Prof. Sir C. S. SHerrineton, O-M., G.B.E., F.R.S. PAST GENERAL OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION. Sir E. SHarpry-Sonarer, F.R.S. Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S. Dr. D. H. Scort, F.R.S. Dr. E. H. Grrertras, F.R.S. Dr. J. G. Garson. HON. AUDITORS. Prof. A. BowLry. | Prof. A. W. Kirgatpy. HON. CURATOR OF DOWN HOUSE. G. Bucxston Browne, F.R.C.S. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE FOR THE MEETING IN SOUTH AFRICA. Prof. J. A. Witxinsoyn, M.A., F.C.S., Johannesburg, Chairman. C. Granam Bora, Cape Town. Jas. Gray, F.1.C., Johannesburg (Hon. Gen. Treasurer, §.A.A.A.8.). Dr. C. F. Jurtrz, Cape Town (Hon. Gen. Secretary, §.A.A.A.S.). H. E. Woop, M.8c., F.R.A.S., Johannesburg (Hon. Gen. Secretary, 8.A.A.A.5.). ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY, SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. H. A. G. Jerrreys, O.B.E. LOCAL OFFICERS FOR THE BRISTOL MEETING. LOCAL HON. SECRETARIES. Dr. W. Luprorp FREEMAN. Dr. Bertram H. RoGers. Prof. A. M. Tynpatt. LOCAL HON. TREASURER. Frank N. Cow. Vili SECTIONAL OFFICERS. A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. President.—Rt. Hon. Lord Rayteteu, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Dr. H. SPENCER JONES; Prof. A. Oaa; H. E. Woou. Recorder.—Prof. A. M. TYNDALL. Secretaries —_W. M. H. Greaves; Prof. E. H. NEVILLE. Local Secretaries.—Dr. J. S. VAN DER Lincren; Prof. H. H. Parr. B.—CHEMISTRY. President.—Prof. G. Barcer, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. E. C. C. Baty, C.B.E., F.R.S.; Dr. J. McCraz; Prof. B. DE St. J. VAN DER RIET. Recorder.—Prof. C. S. Gipson. Secretary.—Prof. F. J. Winson. Local Secretaries.—Prof. J. SmzatH THomas; Dr. G. J. R. Krice. C.—GEOLOGY. President.—Sir ALBERT E. Krrson, C.M.G., C.B.E. Vice-Presidents.—Dr. L. Gin; Dr. A. L. Hatt; T. N. Lestiz; Dr. A. W. Roaers ; Dr. A. L. pv Torr; Prof. A. Youne; Prof. R. B. Youna. Recorder.—l. §. DouBLeE. Secretaries.—H. C. Versry; Dr. A. K. WELLS. Local Secretaries.—Dr. P. A. WAGNER; W. P. pE Koox. D.—ZOOLOGY. President.—Prof. D. M. 8. Watson, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Dr. C. VAN BonDE; Dr. R. Broom, F.R.S.; Prof. J. E. DUERDEN ; Prof. H. B. Fantoam; Dr. L. Git. Recorder.—G. LESLIE PURSER. Secretary.—Prof. W. M. TATTERSALL. Local Secretaries.—Prof. L. T. Hoapen ; Dr. ANNIE PoRTER. E.—GEOGRAPHY. President.—Brigadier E. M. Jack, C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O. Vice-Presidents.—J. J. Bissett; Prof. J. L. Myrzs, F.B.A.; Prof. F. E. PLumMsr; Dr. A. W. Rogers; Prof. P. Szrton; Lt.-Gen. Rt. Hon. J. C. Smuts, P.C.; Prof. G. A. WATERMEYER. Recorder.—R. H. Ki1nvia. Secretary.— LEONARD BROOKS. Local Secretaries.—J. A. JAMIESON: Prof. J. A. WELLINGTON. F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. President.—Prof. HmEnRY CLAY. Bo a Armen; W. H. Cueae; Prof. R. Lestre; Sir Jonn Mann, .B.E. Recorder.—R. B. FoRRESTER. Secretaries.—Dr. J. A. Bowie; Dr. K. G. FEnEton. Local Secretaries—D. M. GoopFELLOW; Dr. S. H. FRANKEL. G.—ENGINEERING. President.—Prof. F. C. Lma. Vice-Presidents.—Sir T. Hopson BEaRE; Col. F. R. Coxtrss; Prof. G. W. 0. Hower; Prof. A. E. Snare; Lt.-Col. R. S. G. Stoxszs, D.S.0., O.B.E. Recorder.—J. S. Witson. Secretary.—Prof. G. Coox. ; Local Secretaries.—Prof, D, McMmian ; Prof, J. W. WALKER. EEO ————— hl OFFICERS OF SECTIONS, 1929. ix H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. President—Hrnry Batrour, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. A. Rapctirr—E Brown; Prof. M. R. Drennan; Prof. R. A. Dart. Recorder.—E. N. FALuaize. Secretary.—R. U. Saycr. Local Secretaries —Prof. T. T. Barnarnp; Mrs. Hoprnue. I.—PHYSIOLOGY. President.—Prof. W. E. Dixon, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. J. W. C. Gunn; Dr. L. G. Invinr; Prof. W. A. Jotty; A. Mavroagorpato; Dr. A. V. ORENSTEIN. Recorder.—Dr. M. H. MacKerra, Secretary.—Prof. E. Metuansy, F.R.S. Local Secretaries.—T. Linpsay Sanpes, O.B.E.; Dr. E. H. Cruver. J.—PSYCHOLOGY. President.—F. C. BARtTLurr. Vice-Presidents.—Dr. J. T. Dunston; Prof. G. Dawrs Hicks; Dr. C. S. Myers, C.B.E., F.R.S.; Prof. H. A. Rrysurn; Prof. R. W. Witcocks. Recorder.—Dr. 8. Dawson. Secretaries.—_R. J. BartLeTT; Dr. Mary Cox.ins. Local Secretaries.—Dr. H. F. Verworrp; F. BRUMMER. K.—BOTANY. President.—Prof. A. C. Sewarp, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. ADAMSON ; Prof. J. W. Bnws; Dr. R. Martorn; Prof. C. BE. Moss; Dr. A. B. Renpuz, F.R.S.; Miss E. R. Saunpers; Lt.-Gen. Rt. Hon. J.C. Smuts, P.C.; C. Luaat (Dept. of Forestry). Recorder.—F. T. Brooks. Secretaries—Prof. H. S. Hotpen; Dr. H. M. Steven (Dept. of Forestry). Local Secretaries——Prof. R. H. Compron; Prof. C. E. B. Bremexamp; C. C. Rosinson (Dept. of Forestry). L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. President.—Dr. C. W. Kimmins. Vice-Presidents.—Sir Jonn Apamson; Prof. F. Crarkn; Dr. S. F. N. Gre; Dr. D. F. Mauan; Principal H. R. Rares. Recorder.—G. D. DUNKERLEY. Secretary.—H. R. THomas. Local Secretaries—Miss A. M. Manan; A. M. Ross. M.—AGRICULTURE. President.—Sir Ropert B. Greta. Vice-Presidents.—Dr. I. B. Potr Evans, C.M.G.; Prof. ©. W. Matty; Prof. P. J. Dou Torr. Recorder.—Prof. G. Scorr RoBertson. Secretary.—Dr. B. A. Krrn. Local Secretaries.—Prof. P. A. Van per By: Dr. E. P. Putturs. CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. President.—Dr. F. A. Baruer, F.B.S. Secretary.—Dr. C. Tierney. Acting Secretary —T. SHEPPARD. | 1878, Aug. | 1889, Sept. | 1893, Sept. | 1899, Sept. ANNUAL MERTINGS. Date of Meeting 1831, Sept. 27 1832, June 19 1833, June 25 1834, Sept. 8 1835, Aug. 10 1836, Aug. 22 1837, Sept. 11 1838, Aug. 10 1839, Aug. 26 1840, Sept. 17 1841, July 20 1842, June 23., 1843, Aug. 17., 1844, Sept. 26 1845, June 19 ...... 1846, Sept. 10,,,... 1847, June 23 1848, Aug. 9 1849, Sept. 12 1850, July 21 1851, July 2,........ 1852, Sept.1 ...... 1853, Sept.3 .. 1854; Sept. 20. 1855, Sept. 12 .. 1856, Aug.6 _.... 1857, Aug. 26 . 1858, Sept. 22 1859, Sept. 14 1860, June 27 1861, Sept. 4 1862, Oct. 1 1863, Aug. 1864, Sept. 13 1865, Sept. 1866, Aug. 1867, Sept. 1868, Aug. 1869, Aug. 1870, Sept. 1871, Aug. 1872, Aug. 1873, Sept. 1874, Aug. 1875, Aug. 1876, Sept. 1877, Aug. 1879, Aug. 1880, Aug. 1881, Aug. 1882, Aug. 1883, Sept. 1884, Aug. 1885, Sept. 1886, Sept. 1887, Aug. 1888, Sept. 1890, Sept. 1891, Aug. 1892, Aug. 1894, Aug. 1895, Sept. 1895, Sept. 1897, Aug. 1898, Sept. TABLE OF | ) - Old Life New Life Where held | Presidents / Menberas/aNteni bare | MORK ech cee | Viscount Milton, D.O.L., F.R.S. ..... = _— Oxtorde ee | The Rey. W. Buckland, IRS: . garees = = Cambridge ..| The Rev. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S. ........ = = Edinburgh ..| Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.O.L., F. RS. ...| _ — Dublin ..... ..| The Rev. Provost Lloyd,LL.D.,F.R.S.| = — = Bristol ..... ..| The Marquis of Lansdowne, F.R.S.... — = Liverpool The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S.......... = = Newcastle-on-Tyne...| The Duke of Northumberland, F.R.S. — = Birmingham ......... The Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S. _ — Glasgow.......... ..| The Marquis of Breadalbane, F.R.S. _— — Plymouth ....... ..| The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S. .... 169 | 65 .| Manchester . ..| The Lord Francis Egerton, F.GS. . 303 | 169 .| Cork The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. ............... | 109 28 York ...| The Rev. G. Peacock, D.D., F.R.S. ...| 226 / 150 Cambri ..| Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart., ERS. 313 36 Southampton .| Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart., »E.R.S.! 241 10 Oxford 22.55.00. .. | Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart., ERS. 314 18 Swansea.......... ...| TheMarquis ofNorthampton, Pres.R.S. | 149 3 Birmingham ...| The Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D., F.R.S. | 227 12 Edinburgh "| Sir David Brewster, K.H.,FRS......| 235 | 9 Ipswich ...,... ...| G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal, E.R.S.' 172 8 Belfast ...| Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S. ......... 164 10 15 fri) oem ...| William Hopkins, FRS............ 141 13 Liverpool ...| The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S. .. 238 23 . Glasgow....... ...| The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. ............ 194 33 Cheltenham , .| Prof. 0. G. B. Daubeny, M.D., F.R.S... 182 14 ... Dublin .... .| The Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., F. RS. 236 15 | Leeds ....... .| Richard Owen, M.D., D. 6. L., F.R.. Ses. 222 42 Aberdeen ...| H.R.H. The Prince Gonsort A 184 27 | Oxford ....... ...| The Lord Wrottesley, M.A., F 286 21 | Manchester . .| William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S....... 321 113 Cambridge ............ The Rev. Professor Willis, M.A. 239 15 Newoastle-on-Tyne..,| SirWilliam G. Armstrong.0. B. 203 | 36 Bathe; ctoustetieccsces Sir Oharles Lyell, Bart., M.A. 287 | 40 Birmingham.., ...| Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL. D., H 292 44 Nottingham... ...| William R. Grove, Q. 0. F.R.S....... 207 31 .| Dundee ....... ...| The Duke of Buccleuch, K.O.B.,F.R.S. 167 25 Norwich . ...| Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, (ORI Sed 196 18 ..| Exeter .... .| Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.O.L., F.R.S....... 204 21 ..| Liverpool . Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D., F.RB.S. ... 314 39 .| Edinbur; gh Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D., F.R.S. 246 28 Brighton Dr. W. B. Oarpenter, F.R.S. a 245 36 Bradford ...| Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S. 212 27 Belfast ...| Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S 162 13 Bristol ...| Sir John ae GRAS: ces 239 36 Glasgow ...| Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S.......... 221 35 Plymouth ...| Prof. A. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. 173 19 Dublin .| W. Spottiswoode, M. PAss HGE.Ss eeewaias 201 18 Sheffield .| Prof. G. J. Allman, M.D., F.R.S. 184 16 Swansea .| A. O. Ramsay, LL. D. ugitiekistlol cy ses canteens 144 11 OVE fo ccssncsnes .| Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S. 272 28 Southampton .| Dr. O. W. Siemens, MaRS .-223, heer 178 17 Southport ...... .| Prof. A. Oayley, D.O.L. ., ERS. . 203 60 Montreal . .| Prof. Lord Raylei gh, RCA rere 235 20 Aberdeen ..., Sir Lyon Playfair, K.O.B., F RS.. 225 18 Birmingham .| Sir J. W. Dawson, O.M.G.. * F.B.S.. 314 25 Manchester .., .| Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.O.L., F.R.S. . 428 86 Rathi Venn acces Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.B.S. .......... 266 36 Newcastle-on-Tyne...) Prof. W. H. Flower, O.B. . F.R.S 277 20 | Sir F. A. Abel, O.B., F.R.S. .... 259 21 ....| Dr. W. Huggins, TRS. ceo 189 24 Edinburgh ., .| Sir A. Geikie, LL.D., F.R.S. ............ 280 14 Nottingham ., .. Prof. J. S. Burdon Sanderson, F.R.S. 201 17 Oxford ..... .| The Marquis of Salisbury,K.' co “RS. 327 21 Ipswich .| Sir Douglas Galton, K.O.B., F.R.S. ... 214 | 13 Liverpool ., Sir Joseph Lister, pote ee RS. ... 330 | 31 Toronto ..... .| Sir John Evans, K.O.B., F.R.S. ......... | 120 | 8 Bristol ..| Sir W. Orookes, F.R.S. ........cceeceseeees | 281 19 Dover..... ., Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., Sec.R.S8.,, 296 20 * Ladies were not admitted by purchased tickets until 1843. + Tickets of Admission to Sections only. [ Continued on p. xii, ANNUAL MEETINGS, x1 | Sums paid | Old New were | fincas on account | | Annual | Annual © aiites Ladies |Foreigners Total | f ig of Grants Year Members | Members } Ti a IC for Scientific | | Purposes | = Beas || ee = == 353 | = x 1831 _ — | _ eee! Re Ses = = 1832 _ - | — - — 900 | — — 1833 _ = 3} — 4 — — 1298 -- £20 0 0 1834 — - | = _ — — _ 167 0 0} 1885 _ | — | _ _ a 1350 —_ 435 0 0. 1836 _ — | _— — i 1840 — 922 12 6 | 1837 | MES ial ee 1100* = S200esa hi = 932 2 2/| 1838 _— = | _— = 34 1438 | — 1595 11 0 1839 — _— — -- 40 | 1353 | _ 1546 16 4/ 1840 46 317 — 60* — 891 | — 1235 1011 | 1841 75 376 33+ 331* 28 1315 — 144917 8| 1842 71 185 — 160 _— — — 156510 2! 1848 45 190 9+ 260 _— — — 98112 8 1844 94 22 407 172 35 1079 — 831 9 9 1845 65 39 270 196 36 857 — 685 16 0| 1846 197 40 | 495 203 53 1320 — 208 5 4) 1847 54 25» . | 376 197 15 819 £707 0 0 275 1 8} 1848 93 33 447 237 22 1071 | 963 0 0} 15919 6| 1848 128 42 510 273 44 1241 | 1085 0 0 345 18 0 | 1850 61 47 244 141 37 710 620 0 0 391 9 7 1851 63 60 510 | 292 9 1108 1085 0 0} 304 6 7 | 1852 56 57 367 236 6 | 876 903 0 0| 205 0 0| 1853 121 121 765 524 10 1802 1882 0 0; 38019 7); 1854 142 101 1094 543 26 2133 2311 0 0 480 16 4 1855 104 48 412 346 9 1115 §| 1098 0 0; 73413 9); 1856 156 120 900 569 26 2022 «=§=62015 0 0} 50715 4, 1857 111 91 710 509 13 |} 1698 | 1931 0 0} 61818 2 1858 126 179 1206 821 22 2564 2782 0 0 684 11 1 1859 | 177 59 636 463 47 1689 1604 0 0 76619 6 1860 | 184 125 1589 791 15 3138 3944 0 0/1111 510; 1861 150 57 433 242 25 1161 _; 1089 0 0 | 129316 6 | 1862 | 154 209 1704 1004 25 3335 3640 0 0/ 1608 3 10 1863 182 103 1119 1058 13 2802 2965 0 0|128915 8| 1864 215 149 766 508 23 1997 2227 0 0/1591 710! 1865 | 218 105 960 771 11 2303 2469 0 0/|175013 4); 1866 | 193 118 1163 771 7 2444 2613 0 9/1739 4 0} 1867 | 226 117 720 682 45} 2004 2042 0 0/1940 0 0} 1868 229 107 678 600 17 1856 1931 0 0 | 1622 0 0 1869 | 303 195 1103 910 14 2878 3096 0 0/| 1572 0 0 1870 $11 127 976 754 21 2463 2575 O 0/| 1472 2 6 1871 280 80 937 912 43 2533 2649 0 0/ 1285 0 0 1872 | 237 99 796 601 ll 1983 2120 0 0| 1685 0 0}; 1873 , 232 85 817 630 12 1951 1979 0 0} 115116 0 1874 307 93 884 672 17 2248 2397 0 0| 960 0 0| 1876 331 185 1265 712 25 2774 3023 0 0| 1092 4 2| 1876 238 59 446 283 11 1229 1268 0 0/1128 9 7 1877 290 93 1285 674 ire 2578 2615 0 0 72516 6, 1878 | 239 74 529 349 13 1404 1425 0 0} 1080 11 11 1879 | 171 41 389 147 12 915 899 0 0 7321 7 7) 1880 313 176 1230 514 24 2557 2689 0 0| 476 8 1) 1881 ‘ 253 79 516 189 21 1253 1286 0 0/1126 111 1882 330 323 952 841 5 2714 3369 0 0 | 1083 3 3 1883 317 219 826 74 26 & 60 H.§ 1777 1855 0 0/1173 4 0 1884 122 1053 447 6 2203 2256 0 0 | 1385 0 0 1885 179 1067 429 =| 11 2453 2532 0 0 995 0 6 1886 244 1985 493 92 3838 4336 0 0/| 118618 0, 1887 100 639 509 12 1984 2107 0 0| 1511 0 5 1888 113 1024 579 | 21 2437 2441 0 0O/| 1417 O11 1889 92 680 334 | 12 1775 1776 0 0; 78916 8 1890 | 152 672 TO eet 35 1497 1664 0 0/102910 0; 1891 | 141 733 439 50 2070 2007 0 0} 86410 0 1892 | 57 773 268 17 1661 1653 0 0| 90715 6) 1893 69 941 451 77 2321 2175 0 0| 58315 6} 1894 3] 493 261 22 1324 1236 0 0] 97715 5]|] 1895 | 1389 1384 873 41 3181 3228 0 0/1104 6 1; 1896 | 125 682 100 41 1362 1398 0 0); 105910 8, 1897 96 1051 639 33 2446 2399 0 0 1212 0 0} 1898 | 68 548 120 27 1403 1328 0 0 143014 2 | 1899 { Including Ladies. § Fellows of the American Association were admitted as Hon. Members for this Meeting. [ Continued on p. xiii. Xl Date of Meeting 1900, Sept. 5 1901, Sept. 11...... 1902, Sept. 10...... 1903, Sept.9 ...... 1904, Aug. 17..... 1905, Aug. 15...... 1906, Aug. {1 w..... 1907, July 31 .,,... 1908, Sept. 2 ...,.. 1909, Aug. 25...... 1910, Aug, 31 1911, Aug. 30 1912, Sept. 4 ...... 1913, Sept. 10 ..., 1914. July-Sept.... 1915, Sept. 7 1916, Sept. 5 1917 1918 1919, Sept. 9 1920, Aug, 24 1921, Sept. 7 1922, Sept. 6 1923, Sept. 12 1924, Aug. 6 1925, Aug 26 1926, Aug. 4 1927, Aug. 31...... 1928, Sept.5 .., . 1929, July 22.,.... ANNUAL MEETINGS. Table of Old Life | New Life | Where held Presidents Members | Members | AE A en ee Se LE pe SSS eee ot Bradford ...... Sir William Turner, D.O.L., F.R.S. .. 267 13 | Glasgow... .| Prof. A. W. Riicker, D.Sc. ‘Sine 310 37 Belfast ... .| Prof, J. Dewar, LL.D., F. na 243 21 Southport ..| Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C. -» FR. 250 21 .| Cambridge... ..| Rt. Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.P., F.R.S. 419 32 South Africa .| Prof. G. H. Darwin, LL. D. BR QE Tins ee 115 40 | OTK ass sc0tese Prof. E. Ray Leanbeser 322 | 10 Leicester ..| Sir David Gill, K.O.B., F. 276 19 Dublin ...... ..| Dr. Francis Darwin, F. Ri 294 24 ! Winnipeg .| Prof. Sir J. J. Thomson, DT | 13 Sheffield..... Rev. Prof. T. G. Bonney, F. 293 | 6 Portsmouth Prof. Sir W. Ramsay, K.C. ua F.R.S. 284 21 | Dundee ...... Prof. E. A. Schafer, F.R.S, 288 14 | ..| Birmingham .| Sir Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S. 376 | 40 Australia ........ .| Prof. W. Bateson, F.B.S. .. 172 13 Manchester _......... Prof. A. Schuster, F.R.S. 242 19 | Newcastle-on Tyne... 164 12 (No Meeting) ...... : of Sir Arthur Evans, F.R.S. ......... —> = (No Meeting) ......... a re Bournemouth . .| Hon. Sir O. Parsons, K.O.B., F.R.S.... 235 47 | Oarditt> 2s! Prof. W. A. Herdman, O.B.E.,F.RS.) 288 lb | Edinburgh ..| Sir T, E. Thorpe, O.B., F.K.S. . 336 9 | Hull Sir 0. 28s Sherrington, GB. E., | | FE DIP TERMINI eseetes cteataaacunds te tte as 228 «6| = #613 Liverpool .., ...........| Sir Ernest Rutherford, F.R.S. ......... 326 12 Toronto ........ .| Sir David Bruce, K.C.B., F.R.S.. 119 7 Southampton Prof. Horace Lamb, FRS. .... 280 | 8 Oxford: A eeHek seaces H.R.H. The Prince of Wales, a MOSER Ss Seen coasitiestcestaa. ssuuclossmctekh en 358 9 Teed SY =. AaB, cused Sir Arthur Keith, “ERS. 249 9 | Glasgow........ .| Sir William Brage, K.B.E., F.R.S” .., 260 10 South Africa Sir Thomas Holland, K.O.S. se K.O.1 H., F.R.S. .......... pectocos 81 1 | ? Including 848 Members of the South African Association. 2 Including 137 Members of the American Association. > Special arrangements were wade for Members and Associates joining locally in Australia, see The numbers include 80 Members who joined in order to attend the Meeting of L’ Association Francaise at Le Havre. * Including Students’ Tickets, 10s. * Including Exhibitioners granted tickets without charge. Report, 1914, p. 686. ANNUAL MERTINGS. XU Annual Meetings—(continued). \ | Sums paid Old New We Amount | on othe Annual Annual oiatas Ladies |Foreigners| Total a a of Grants Year Members Members Tiok ta \for Scientific ey erg abe c | Purposes 297 45 801 482 9 1915 £1801 0 \g1072 10 0 1900 374 131 794 246 | 20 1912 2046 0 | 920 911 1901 314 86 647 305 6 1620 1644 0 | 947 0 O 1902 319 90 688 365 21 1754 1762 0 | 845 13 2 1903 449 113 1338 317 | 121 2789 2650 O | 887 18 11 1904 937" 411 430 | 181 16 2130 2422 0/928 2 2 | 1905 356 93 817 352 22 1972 1811 0} 882 0 9 | 1906 339 61 659 251 42 1647 1561 0 | 7571210 | 1907 465 112 1166 222 14 2297 2317 +O |1157 18 8 1908 290? 162 789 | 90 7 1468 1623 0/1014 9 9 1909 379 67 563 123 8 1449 1489 0 | 9638 17 0 1910 349 61 414 81 31 1241 1176 0 | 922 0 O 1911 368 95 1292 359 88 2504 2349 0 | 845 7 6 | 1912 480 149 1287 291 20 2643 9756 0} 97817 1 | 1913 139 4160* 539° _— 21 5044* 4873 0 |1861 16 4° | 1914 287 116 §28* 141 8 1441 1406 0 |1569 2 8 | 1915 250 76 251* 73 — | 826 821 0/985 1810 | 1916 — —- -- — eel = 67717 2 | 1917 —_ — = _ _ _ —_ 326 13 3 1918 254 | 102 688* 153 3 1482 1736 0} 410 0 0 | 1919 Annual Members | Ola |__ Transfer- , ee mite (Suadonts Members ecree Meeting | Tickets a | Report only | 136 192 571 42 120 20 1389 1272 10 |1251 13 0° | 1920 | 133 410 1394 121 343 22 2768 2699 15 | 6518 110 1921 =| 90 294 767 89 2355 | 24 1730 1699 5 |772 0 7 | 1922 | ~ Compli-— | mentary. i | 123 380 1434 163 550 3087 3296 2735 15 | 777 18 6° 1923 | 37 520 1866 41 89 139 2818 3165 19'91197 5 9 1924 97 264 878 62 119 74 1782 1630 5 {1231 0 0 | 1925 | 101 453 2338 169 225 69 3722 3542 0/917 1 6 | 1926 84 334 1487 82 264 161 2670 2414 5 | 76110 O 1927 76 H 654 1835 64 201 74 ) 3074 3072 10 |1259 10 0 1928 BOY 177 1227 -- 161 83 | 1764 1477 15 |1838 2 1 1929 | * Including grants from the Oaird Fund in this and subsequent years. 7 Including Foreign Guests, Exhibitioners, and others. * The Bournemouth Fund for Research, initiated by Sir O. Parsons, enabled grants on account of scientific purposes to be maintained. * Including grants from the Caird Gift for research in radioactivity in this and subsequent years to 1926. 1° Subscriptions paid in Oanada were $5 for Meeting only and others pro rata ; ‘here was some gain on exchange. 4 Including 450 Members of the South African Association. REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1928-29. I. Presidency of the Association—Professor F. O. Bower, F.R.S., has been unanimously nominated to fill the office of President of the Association for the year 1930-31 (Bristol Meeting). II. Obitwary—The Council has had to deplore the loss by death of the following office-bearers and supporters :— Sir Hugh K. Anderson. Mr. Douglas Berridge, till lately Recorder of Section L (Educational Science). Prof. R. A. Berry, who rendered valued service to Section M (Agriculture) as Local Secretary at the recent Meeting in Glasgow. Prof. G. H. Bryan. Sir Horace Darwin. Sir William Boyd Dawkins. Sir George Fordham, who had accepted the presidency of the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies at Havre, July, 1929. Dr. J. W. L. Glaisher. Rev. Dr. H. B. Gray. Dr. Alex Hili. Prof. Micaiah Hill. H.H. the Maharaj Rana of Jhalawar. Sir Alexander Kennedy. Sir Hercules Read. Sir Henry Rew. Mr. Mark L. Sykes, till lately a member of the Corresponding Societies Com- mittee. Sir Bertram Windle. Prof. R. H. Yapp, whose ill-health prevented his occupation of the chair of Section K (Botany) at the Glasgow Meeting. Prof. Allyn Young, who occupied the chair of Section F (Heconomics) at Glasgow. The Council conveyed to Sir Oliver Lodge an expression of condolence on the death of Lady Lodge, and to the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science on the death of its President, Mr. R. H. Cambage. III. Representation Representatives of the Association have been appointed as follow :— Folklore Society (50th Anniversary) ; Prof. J. L. Myres Gesellschaft Deutscher Naturforscher : (Hamburg Meeting) . : ‘ : Prof. G. Barger National Association for the Prevention of , Tuberculosis (Meeting, 1928) . : Dr. J. G. Garson Ecole Centrale des Arts et Manufactures, Paris (Centenary Meeting) : ‘ Dr. A. Loir (Havre) American Association for the Advancemen of Science (New York Meeting) . 5 Prof. H. H. Turner King’s College, London, Centenary Service of Thanksgiving, Westminster Abbey . Dr. F. E. Smith With reference to the attendance of Prof. H. H. Turner as the Associa- tion’s representative at the New York Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the Council has been favoured by REPORT OF ‘THE COUNCIL, 1928-29. XV Dr. Burton E. Livingston, Permanent Secretary, with the following extracts from the Minutes of his Council, and remarks :— Professor Herbert Hall Turner, Savilian professor of astronomy in Oxford University, was introduced to the Council as the official representative of the British Association for the Advancement of Science at this meeting of the American Associa- tion. He had been invited to attend the council sessions and to take part in the discussions. He presented a letter of greeting from the British Association, which the secretary read to the Council. The letter follows: ‘The Council of the British Association for the Advancement of Science through its representative, Professor Herbert Hall Turner, F'.R.S. (lately a General Secretary of the Association) desires to convey to the American Association for the Advancement of Science an expression of its cordial good will and every hope for a most successful meeting.’—W. H. Bragg, President. The Chairman expressed to Professor Turner the pleasure of the Council in having him in attendance at this meeting, saying that the American Association was very greatly honoured by having as special delegate from its sister association a research worker of Professor Turner’s eminence and a past general secretary of the British Association. Professor Turner responded by expressing his gratification at being the official representative of the British Association on this occasion, and added an interesting and valuable account of some features of the manner in which prepara- tions are made for British Association meetings. He emphasized the excellent results obtained by bringing the section secretaries together early in the year for a day or two devoted to discussions of plans for the approaching meeting. Professor Turner emphasized the fact that these preliminary conferences of section secretaries had resulted in specially valuable joint sessions of two or more sections, in which science workers in different but related fields are brought together. Professor Turner suggested that it might be desirable to have arrangements by which some funds might be used to encourage young workers in science to attend the Association meetings, thus bringing them into early contact with the older members. He described briefly how this is accomplished in some instances by the British Associa- tion. A brief discussion followed, and attention was called to the fact that some of the special scientific societies in America have junior or associate membership by which students may have the benefit of the meetings without paying the whole of the regular dues. This whole question was referred to the Executive Committee with the request that it consider the possibilities and report to the Council at a later session. Professor Turner... presented a message from Mr. O. J. R. Howarth, Secre- tary of the British Association, calling attention to the exceedingly high prices charged by some European publishers of scientific periodicals, and suggesting that the American Association take this under consideration. After considerable discussion, this was referred to the Executive Committee. The Council expressed to the British Association for the Advancement of Science its hearty appreciation of the courtesy of that Association in sending to the New York meeting a special official representative . . . and thanked Professor Turner for taking part in its deliberations and for delivering an address at one of the general sessions of this meeting. * * * Professor Turner gave a lecture on ‘ The Scientific Retrospect,’ which was very well received, at one of our afternoon general sessions. He also introduced Dr. Harlow Shapley, who gave a popular lecture, on ‘ Galaxies outside of the Milky Way,’ at the last evening session of the meeting. I am sure that Professor Turner’s visit was very productive and stimulating in many ways. * * * Another matter that I wish to bring to your attention is indicated by the following minute from one of the Council sessions. “On recommendation by the Executive Committee the Council requested the _ Permanent Secretary to communicate with the British Association with regard to the desirability of forming a joint committee to consider the interrelations of these two organisations and their relations with other scientific associations. The Council ‘named the President and the Permanent Secretary to represent the American Associa- tion in the proposed Committee.’ Xvl REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1928-29. The idea of this minute was suggested by some of those who were official representa- tives of the American Association at the last meeting of the British Association. Professor Kennelly was particularly interested in the general thought that some arrangement might be made by which these two great English-speaking associations might operate together when occasion might arise. Our Council and Executive Committee did not give very much attention to possible details but instructed me to — take this matter up with the British Association. I shall be glad to receive suggestions from you in this connection. IV. South African Meeting.—Preparations for this Meeting have fully occupied the executive officers during the year. The South African Committee of the Council has held seventeen meetings. It has been charged, among other important duties, with the allocation of the funds generously furnished by the Government of the Union of South Africa and the South African Association for the Advancement of Science, supple- mented by a fund raised at home through the instrumentality of Dr. F. E. Smith. Contributors to this latter fund,whose generosity has been acknowledged by the Council, are Barclays Bank (Dominion, Colonial and Overseas), Sir Otto Beit, the Central Mining and Investment Corporation, Mr. T. B. Davis, Mr. F. Dudley Docker, Rt. Hon. Lord Glendyne, Imperial Chemical Industries, Ltd., Hon. Henry Mond, Sir John Mullens, the Standard Bank of South Africa, the Union Castle Mail Steamship Co., td. The thanks of the Council have been conveyed to these generous donors. These funds have been devoted mainly to grants in aid of travelling expenses of officers and other invited members, and a reserve has been held to assist the funds of the Association in covering expenses connected with the Meeting. The Council received from the Rhodes Trustees the generous offer of three grants of £70 each to selected students, or junior members of staff, from home Universities, to enable them to attend the Meeting, and the Committee added thereto three equivalent grants, thus enabling the principle (though not the number) of the British Association Exhibi- tions awarded in recent years to be maintained. The previous offer of the Rhodes Trustees (referred to in the last Report of the Council) to make a grant of £250 toward a further authoritative investigation of the ruins at Great Zimbabwe or a neighbouring site, was supplemented by the Council out of accumulated interest of the Caird Fund, so as to provide a total of £1,000. The Council was fortunate in securing the services of Miss Gertrude Caton-Thompson to supervise the necessary excavation, with the assistance of Miss Norie and Miss Kenyon, and desired her to report the results at the Meeting. The co-operation of the Southern Rhodesian authorities in allocating sites at Great Zimbabwe and Dhlo-Dhlo for Miss Caton-Thompson’s investigation is gratefully acknowledged. Following the Secretary’s report of his consultation with the Executive in South Africa last year, the Council resolved to exercise its power, so far as its South African Committee might judge necessary, of imposing condi- tions in respect of membership of the visiting party. At the outset it required of new applicants for membership the recommendation of a member of the General Committee. Subsequently the visiting party increased to REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1928-29. xvii a number in excess of the largest estimate originally formed, and the South African Committee found it desirable to limit late entries to practising scientific workers invited by the Committee. V. Association Frangaise pour l Avancement des Sciences.—Following upon the cordial invitation received by the General Committee from the French Association through Dr. A. Loir, and accepted, for any members of the British Association not visiting South Africa to attend the meeting of the French Association in July, the Council appointed Sir Henry Lyons as its official representative at that meeting and as Chairman of an Organising Committee for arrangements in connection with the visit. The Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies was appointed to take place in Havre under the Presidency of Dr. F. A. Bather (vice the late Sir George Fordham), with Dr. C. Tierney as Secretary and Mr. T. Sheppard as Acting Secretary for the Meeting. VI. Centenary Meeting, 1931.—The General Committee having expressed the wish that the Centenary Meeting should take place in London, the Council is happy to report the receipt of a letter, dated February 26, 1929, from the Town Clerk of the City of London, in the following terms :— Iam asked by the Court of Common Council to express the hope that London will be selected as the place for the holding of the Centenary Meeting of the British Association in 1931. In that event, the Corporation will be happy to give an Enter- tainment to the Association—the precise form of which can be determined later. I may add that it is proposed to appoint a Ward Committee to carry out the arrangements decided upon. Under the authority delegated to it by the General Committee at the Glasgow Meeting, the Council gratefully accepted this invitation, and has under consideration the venue of the inaugural and other meetings, etc., which could not be conveniently accommodated within the City boundaries. The Council was represented by Prof. J. L. Myres, with the Secretary in attendance, at a meeting of representatives of interested societies convened by the Royal Institution to consider the celebration in 1931 of the centenary of Faraday’s discovery of electro-magnetic induction, and subsequently, by invitation, appointed Dr. F. E. Smith to represent it on a Committee formed to further this object. It is desired that this celebration may immediately precede the Centenary Meeting of the British Association, and the Council feels that such an arrangement would enhance the scientific importance of both occasions. In view of the known desire in York, the birthplace of the Association, that the Centenary Meeting should take place there, the Council gave instructions that the reasons which had led to the reluctant rejection of this proposal should be fully laid before the authorities in York. They were at the same time informed of the alternative suggestion mentioned to the General Committee at Glasgow, namely (a) that there should be a week-end excursion to York during the Centenary Meeting, (6) that the Annual Meeting in 1932 should be held in York (a course to which the authorities of Leicester present at the Glasgow Meeting gave assent, expressing their willingness to defer their own invitation to the year 1933). The authorities in York accepted the above suggestion, and with the con- currence of those in Leicester it is now confirmed that the Annual Meeting in 1932 will be held in York, and that in 1933 in Leicester. b evi REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1928-29. VII. Suggested Meeting in India—A suggestion was received as to the possibility of a meeting of the Association in India, but the Council felt that on the score of season and climate any proposal to hold an ordinary meeting there could not be encouraged. The Council however suggested, on its part, that the Indian Science Congress or other suitable authority might invite the British Association to send a scientific deputation to a joint meeting. VIII. Down House-—Thanks to the generosity of Mr. G. Buckston Browne, the Association now possesses, in custody for the nation, Down House, where Darwin thought and worked for forty years, and died in 1882. Mr. Buckston Browne, besides vesting in the Association the sum of £20,000 for the maintenance of the property, has fully restored the house (an extensive and urgent work), and has placed the ground floor in a con- dition appropriate to exhibition to the public; im particular, the Old Study, where the Origin of Species was written, has been brought as nearly as possible to an exact replica of its condition in Darwin’s time, with much of the original furnishing and copies of, or close approximations to, the rest. Under Mr. Buckston Browne’s inspiration, members of Darwin’s family, and others, have liberally given original furniture and other objects of interest for preservation in the house. The restoration of the gardens and the Sand Walk is also in progress. Thanks again to Mr. Buckston Browne, the house is adequately staffed. The Council desired the Secre- tary, Mr. Howarth, to occupy the residential portion of the house as resident officer, for a period of not less than five years, and he will do so. Full consideration will be given to the possibility of applying the estate to some direct scientific purpose. The personnel of the Down House Committee appointed by the General Committee on September 5, 1928, was completed by the nomination of Sir Arthur Keith as representative of the Royal College of Surgeons. The Council learned with pleasure that the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at the instance of Prof. H. Fairfield Osborn, has appointed a Committee to co-operate with the Association for the benefit of the estate: an important collection of letters from Darwin to Fritz Muller has already been secured from South America through this generous agency. With a view to the exemption from rates of premises held for ‘ charitable ’ purposes, the Association has been registered by the Registrar of Friendly Societies as entitled to the benefit of the Scientific Societies Act, 1843. Down House was formally dedicated to the public access on June 7 at a meeting attended by many members of the General Committee, representatives of Darwin’s family, scientific societies with which Darwin was connected, and other invited guests. Dr. Joseph Leidy represented the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, and has generously presented to Down House the bust of Darwin exhibited by Mr. C. L. Hartwell in this year’s Royal Academy. Prof. KE. B. Poulton represented Prof. H. F. Osborn and the American Museum of Natural History, Prof. R. Anthony represented French science, and Prof. Abe the Japanese Darwin Society. The American Ambassador also was represented. REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1928-29. X1x At this meeting, the desire was expressed to nominate Mr. Buckston Browne as Hon. Curator of Down House, and this proposal was received with acclamation. IX. Income Tax.—The Council reported last year that the cases taken as test cases upon the liability of scientific Societies to taxation of income had been decided against the Societies by the Special Commissioners and the High Court ; to these were subsequently added the Court of Appeal, and the question was not carried to the House of Lords. The position is that the two societies concerned, the Geologists’ Association and the Midland Counties Institution of Engineers, were adjudged on the facts, as found by the Special Commissioners, not to be ‘ charities ’ exempted from taxation under the Income Tax Act, 1918. The Council caused a further meeting of representatives of affected Societies to be summoned, when the following principal considerations emerged :— (1) No satisfactory definition. of a ‘charity’ applicable to scientific societies generally has been found. The cases referred to above were brought as test cases : the judgments show that they do not provide a common ‘ test’ and indicate that no individual case can indeed act as such. (2) It has been laid down by the judicature that :— (a) If a society exists mainly for the purpose of furthering science and incident- ally its own members benefit, such society is entitled to exemption. (6) If a society exists mainly to benefit its members individually (as in the ease of conferring professional prestige), while incidentally furthering science, such society is not entitled to exemption. (3) Some societies definitely fall on the side of non-liability, some on that of liability : as to a third category, it is arguable on which side they should fall. (4) Therefore the case of each society must be separately investigated. (5) But in the mutual interest of societies, the meeting recommended community of action in order to ensure a pooling of experience, and to that end the officers of the British Association offered :— . (a) To advise societies (so far as lies in their power) as to procedure, and (6) To file in the office of the Association records of the results of individual . societies’ appeals and of the grounds of their success or failure, in order that such records may be available for consultation and general guidance. It became clear that the above statements (3) and (4) correctly represented the position from the fact that the Association itself, and certain other societies, since the judicial decisions referred to, have been allowed remission of tax as heretofore, on a review of their activities by the Inland Revenue authorities. Others have not, and consideration of individual cases is understood to be in progress. The expert assistance of the General Treasurer in this important matter has been deeply appreciated. X. Resolutions referred by the General Committee at the Glasgow _ Meeting to the Council for consideration, and, if desirable, for action, were dealt with as follows :— (a) Resolutions from Section E (Geography), relating to the completion of the thirtieth meridian are in Hast Africa, the uniform map of Africa (Geographical Section, General Staff, 1: 2,000,000), and the periodical revision of the Ordnance Survey, were referred, with commentaries, to the appropriate Government Departments (Colonial Office, War Office, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries). In regard to the first, it is understood that Col. H. St. J. b2 xx REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1928-29. Winterbotham, in the course of a tour through the British Empire for the purpose of advising the various Governments on survey matters, will pay special attention to the question of this meridian are. In regard to the publication of the uniform map of Africa, the Army Council agreed with the principle of the resolution, and a full statement kindly furnished by the Colonial Office and that Council shows that in regard to a large part of Africa the objects indicated by the resolution are in process of realisation. The revision of the Ordnance Survey is understood to receive constant attention subject to the limits imposed by financial con- siderations. (b) On the question of the high cost of foreign scientific publications, the Council was represented at a meeting of the Library Committee of the Royal Society dealing with this matter, and also brought it, through Prof. H. H. Turner (§ III), to the attention of the American Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science. (Resolution of Section H, Anthro- pology.) (c) The Council is in correspondence with Australian authorities on the question of the study of Australian aboriginal languages. It has received from the Canadian authorities a sympathetic reply on the question of publishing results of field work of the Anthropological Division of the Geological Survey of Canada. (Resolutions of Section H, Anthropology.) (d) The Council resolved against action upon the resolution relating to key industries duty upon scientific apparatus for use in educational laboratories. (Resolution of Section J, Psychology.) (e) On the question of increased research and expenditure upon the preservation of timber, the Council resolved to make no recommendation, while willing to forward specific suggestions for researches to the proper quarters. (Resolution of Section K, Botany.) (f) In regard to the recommendation that past Recorders should be ex-officio members of Organising Sectional Committees, the Council considers the existing opportunity to include these ex-officers, if desired, by appointment is sufficient. (Resolution of Section L, Educational Science.) (g) The resolution referring to the preservation of scenic amenity in town and country was forwarded to H.M. Secretary of State for Home Affairs, together with the address by Dr. Vaughan Cornish and the report of the discussion which gave rise to the resolution. (Resolution of the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies.) XI. General Treasurer's Account—The Council has received reports from the General Treasurer throughout the year. With the knowledge that his account for the year ending June 30, 1929, could not be prepared in time for presentation to the General Committee at the South African Meet- ing, the Committee has already delegated to the Council the power to receive and deal with the account, in November next. The Council made grants of £100 each from the income of the Caird Fund to the Naples Table Committee and the Seismology Committee. Accumulated interest on the fund was allocated toward the cost of the excavations at Great Zimbabwe, etc. (§ IV). REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1928-29—RESOLUTIONS. XXl XII. General Officers —The General Officers have been nominated by the Council as follows : General Treasurer, Sir Josiah Stamp. General Secretaries, Prof. J. L. Myres and Dr. F. KE. Smith. XIII. Council Membership—tThe retiring Ordinary Members of the Council are :—Lord Bledisloe, Prof. E. G. Coker, Dr. H. H. Dale, Mr. C. T. Heycock, Dr. C. 8. Myers. The Council nominates the following new members :—Sir Daniel Hall, Sir James Henderson, Prof. J. F. Thorpe; leaving two vacancies to be filled by the General Committee without nomination by the Council. The full list of nominations of Ordinary Members is as follows :— Prof. J. H. Ashworth. | Mr. A. R. Hinks. Dr. F. A. Bather. Sir Henry Lyons. Prof. A. L. Bowley. Mr. C. G. T. Morison. Prof. C. Burt. Prof. T. P. Nunn. Prof. W. Dalby. Prof. A. O. Rankine. Prof. C. Lovatt Evans. Mr. C. Tate Regan. Sir John Flett. Prof. A. C. Seward. Sir Henry Fowler. Dr. F. C. Shrubsall. Sir Richard Gregory. Dr. N. V. Sidgwick. Prof. Dame Helen Gwynne- Vaughan. Dr. G. C. Simpson. Sir Daniel Hall. Prof. J. F. Thorpe. Sir James Henderson. XIV. General Committee Membership.——Mr. F. Puryer White has been admitted as a member of the General Committee. XV. Corresponding Societies Committee.—The Corresponding Societies Committee has been nominated as follows: The President of the Associa- tion (Chairman ex-officio), Mr. T. Sheppard (Vice-Chatrman), Dr. C. Tierney (Secretary), The General Treasurer, the General Secretaries, Mr. C. O. Bartrum, Dr. F. A. Bather, Sir Richard Gregory, Sir David Prain, Sir John Russell, Prof. W. M. Tattersall. XVI. Honorary Members—The Council has received the thanks of the Hon. Sir Charles Parsons, Sir Alfred Yarrow, and Mr. G. Buckston Browne fer their election to honorary membership of the Associatioy by the General Committee. RESOLUTIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS. The following resolutions and recommendations were referred to the Council by the General Committee at Johannesburg for consideration and, if desirable, for action :— From Section A. To urge the importance of the establishment, on a suitable site in South Africa, of an observatory for the study of terrestrial magnetism and atmospheric electricity. The establishment of such an observatory would add very greatly to the accuracy and value of the magnetic survey of South Africa which is now in progress, The Committee desires to call attention, moreover, to the fact that at present there is only one magnetic observatory, viz. at Helwan, Egypt, and regular observations in South _ Africa are much needed for the study of the Earth’s magnetism. XXU RESOLUTIONS, ETC. From Section C (supported by Section H). That the British Association for the Advancement of Science strongly support the South African Association for the Advancement of Science in its endeavours to preserve Nooitgedacht Farm, near Riverton, as a national monument. The glacially striated pavements there, with their rock carvings, are of such interest and importance that every effort should be made to preserve them. From Section D. That the Section is strongly of opinion that some system of temporary exchange between the staffs of the Government museums throughout the Empire would be in the public interest, and urges the Council to press the matter with the appropriate authorities. Alternatively, a system of ‘ study leave ’ similar to that in force in India is suggested. From Section D. That the Section considers that it is of the greatest importance that an inter- national biological and oceanographical station should be established in the Malay Archipelago, and urges the Council to support the Fourth Pan-Pacific Science Congress by every means in its power to make their efforts in this matter effective. From Section D. That the Section is of opinion that it is very desirable that more adequate facilities should be available for marine biological investigation in South Africa, especially in the form of more marine laboratory accommodation; and recommends that the matter should receive the careful attention of the appropriate authorities. From Section E. To recommend that the British Association represent to the South African Government the need, when sufficient funds are available, for expediting the topographical survey of South Africa, the completion of which appears to be urgently required for all scientific and educational purposes. From Section H. In the Committee of Section H it was resolved to ask the Council of the Association to represent to the Federal Government of Australia the urgent need for More effective measures, before it is too late, to protect the aborigines of Australia and prevent their extinction. Apart from humanitarian considerations, the Australian natives are among the most interesting and the most valuable peoples for scientific study, and, if they are allowed to die out, Science will lose material that may be of unique importance for future investigations in the early history of mankind. From Section H. To call attention to the destruction of monuments, objects and sites in South Africa, of anthropological, archzological and other interest, which are of permanent national value ; and to ask the Council to consider, in conjunction with public bodies and scientific societies in South Africa, what provision may best be made for their preservation. From Section H. The Sectional Committee asks that a report of Miss Caton-Thompson’s paper appear in the Annual Report, and that the Council be desired to consider the full publication of her results as a monograph. BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT JULY 1, 1928, To JUNE 30, 1929. Note.—Owing to the early date of the South African Meeting, the General Committee authorised the Council to receive and adopt these accounts, which could not be presented at the meeting itself. The large apparent increase in cost of printing is due in part to the special requirements of the South African Meeting, but also to the early date of that meeting, which brought into the current year expenditure which normally would fall in the year following. The absence of Prof. A. W. Kirkaldy’s signature as Hon. Auditor was due to indisposition, of which the Council learned with great regret. XX1V GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. Balance Sheet, Corresponding Figures June 30, 1928. £ Ss. d. 10,692 19 1 9,582 16 3 72 13 10,000 O Sm 9,700 0 0 1,308 12 2 182 18 10 250 0 O 49,032 15 9 LIABILITIES. To General Fund— Asat July 1,1928 . 0,692 a 1 Add Prof. A. W. Scott's Legacy as ‘at July 1, 1928 250 0 | As per contra (Subject to Depreciation in Value of Investments) |,, Caird Fund— As percontra . (Subject to Depreciation in Value of Investments) » Caird Fund Revenue Account— Balance at July 1, 1928 z io eee Less Excess of Expenditure over Income for the year : . - : 51317 8 As per contra _ » Sir F. Bramwell’s Gift for Enquiry into Prime Movers, 1931— £50 Consols now accumulated to £151 12s As per contra . 5 », Str Charles Parsons’ Gift—as per contra . » Sir Alfred Yarrow’s Gifi— As per last Account g 9 931 00-0F aa | Less Transferred to Income and Expendi- ture Account under the terms of the Gift 380 17 9 As per contra - » Life Compositions— As per last Account . c 2 «+ 1;308° 22949 Add Received during year - . : 330 0 0 | As per contra — ,, Loronto University Presentation EF’ EE As per last Account . 3 : : 182 18 10 Add Dividends . c - 5 Z 8 15 0 191 13 10 Less Awards given 815 0 As per contra | »» Prof. A.W. Scott's Legacy A 3 » South Africa Meeting— Sundry Donations in Aid of Expenses 17,5600 Wf Less Returnable to the South African Association in respect of Grants not paid 245 0 0 17,315 Less Grants in Aid of Travelling Expenses 15,586 1 As per contra = », Down House Endowment Fund— Aspercontra . = >», Loyal Charter Expenses— Balance as per last Account * - 3 47 19 3 Less Further Expenditure . £18 4 », Unexpended Balance transferred to Income and Expenditure Account 29 11 11 ’ ——_—____— 47 1 3 oo »» Revenue Account— Sundry Creditors - : S = - 1,448 19 1 Do. Do. (Down House) . : 5 625 17 1 », Income and Expenditure Account— 2,074 16 2 Balance at July 1, 1928. + 56; c00 nL OeerD Less Excess of Expenditure over Income for the year ile aL ———— 6,318 8 4 | As per contra Se £ s. d. 10,942 19 1 9,582 16 3 201 310 76 7 3 10,000 0 0 9,389 2 3 1,638 12 2 182 18 10 A,72859 3 20,000 0 0 8,393 4 6 -Carried forward . . £72,135 13 5 GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. June 30, 1929. XXV Corresponding Figures June 30, 1923s. £ 6. d@. 10,692 19 1 9,582 16 3 10,000 0 @O 9,700 0 9 1,308 12 i) 182 15 10 250 0 0 42,553 0 9 ASSETS. By JZnvestments on Capital Accounts — . 3 3 . . ” ” ” ” General Fu £4,651 10s. bd. Consolidated 24 percent. Sheek at cost . 3,9 £3,600 India 3 per cent. Stock at cost 4s; £879 14s. 9d. £43 Great Indian Peninsula Railway ‘B’ Annuity at cost . £52 12s. 7d. War Stock (Post Office Tssue) at cost £834 16s. 6d. 44 percent. Conversion Loan atcost £1,400 War Stock 5 per cent. 1929/47 at cost 1, £94 78. rd per cent. Conversion Stock 1940/44 at cos gare 10d. 34 per cent. Conversion Stock at. cos 3 Cash at Bank 54 835 393 no on & Po bw £8,443 13s. (Value of Stocks at date, £8,134 2s. 3d.) te Caird Fun £2, 627 Os. 10d. India 34 per cent. Stock at cost 2, £27100 London Midland and Scottish Railway Conon eate ds? 4 per cent. Preference Stock a “, £2,500 Canada "34 per cent. 1930/50 ‘Regis- tered Stock at cost . 2; £2,000 Southern Railway Consolidated 5 per cent. Preference Stock at cost . 2 £7,342 6s. 8d. (Value at date, £6,878 4s. 3d.) Caird Fund Revenue Account— Cash at Bank : - Sir F. Bramvell’s Gift— £145 1 3 Self-Accumulating Consolidated Stock as per last Balance Sheet GA0r 9 ie Accumulations to June 30, £151 12 0 = (Value at date, £82 12s. 5d.) Sir Charles Parsons’ Gift— £10,300 44 per cent. Conversion Loan . £10, 145 10s. (Value at date, £9,733 10s.) Sir ‘Alfred Yarrow’s Gift— £9,700 5 per cent. War Loan (£50 Bonds) 1929/47 400 2,190 397 2,594 La?) i= — ee oe oD gq AN wow 13 13 3 13 as per last Balance Sheet 9,700 Less Sale of £310 17s. 9d. Stock under terms of the Gift 2 (Value at date, £9, 459 10s. 6d.) Life Compositions— £2,361 7s. 8d. Local Loans at cost . . ae (Value at date, oe Sa 1s. +e) Cash at Bank . Toronto University Presentation Fund— £175 5 percent. War Stock at cost £177 16s. 11d. (Value at pate: ALG 6s. 3a. ) Cash at Bank 4 Prof. A. W. Scott’s Legacy— £326 9s. 10d. 3k per cent. Conversion Stock South Africa Meeting Fund— Cash at Bank Mr. G. Buckston Browne’ s Gift in M emory of Darwin, Down House, Kent (not valued)— Do. Endowment Fund— £5,500 India 44 per cent. Stock 1958/68 at cost . 5, £2,500 Australia 5 per cent. Stock 1945/75 at cost 2, £3,000 Fishguard & Rosslare Railway 34 per cent. Guaranteed Preference Stock at cost 2, £2,500 New South Wales 5 per cent. 1945/65 001 1468 139 Stock at cost 2.467 £2,500 Western Australia 5 per cent. “Stock 1945/75 at cost 5 2,472 £3,340 Great Western Railway 5 per cent. Guar- anteed Stock at cost 3,436 £2,500 Birkenhead Railway 4 per cent. Consoli- dated Stock at cost 2 2,013 (Value at date, £19, 247 6s. ) —- Royal Charter Eapenses— Cash at Bank = Carried forward 19 17 SO SC KRDO Aw - 10,9 42 19 9,582 16 10,000 0 o 3 | 2 mo wo © wo 1,6 ~ ow OF a or 38 12 10 10 aes GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. Balance Sheet, patenendice Figures, 88.” LIABILITIES—continued. 5 2 gs. le ee Brought forward ° 3 : . é : 72,135 13 5 49,032 15 9 £72,135 13 5 I have examined the foregoing Accounts with the Books and Vouchers and certify the same inspected the Deeds of Down House and the Mortgage on Isleworth House. Approved, ARTHUR L. BOWLEY, Auditor. November 1929. Down House, EXPENDITURE. [Swe Bre re k & 8. a To Wages of Gardeners 126 0 6 », Rates, Insurance, etc. 12 9 3 > Heat, Light and Drainage 1 By We Baas ae | 3 Repairs, Renewals and Alterations to Buildings, Fences, Paths, ete. . 277 6 7 A House and Garden Equipments 183 15 5 » Sundry Expenses 4 : : ites tea » Photographs e ; C j é . 1 », Printing Booklet : : ; Bs - + i (pale 3 11411 2 » Law Costs— Collection of Rents . F , 5 : She See Surrender of Lease 2 3 1414 0 —— 18 2 9 » Opening Ceremony— Catering and Conveyance 192 0 6 £1,035 9 11 GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. XXVll June 30, 1929—continued. _ Corresponding Figures, June 30, , 1928. ASSETS—continued. Se Sie i 2, a UBL ew a 42,553 0 Brought forward . ; F 63,742 811 By Revenue Account—- ! £2,098 1s. 9d. Consolidated z per ary Stock at cost 1,200 0 0O £4,338 6s. 2d. Conversion 34 per cent. Stock at cost . 3,300 0 0 £400 5 per cent. are ‘Loan Inscribed Stock at cost. 404 16 0 £4,970 148. 8a. Value at date, £4,854 8s. 4d. Second Mortgage on Isleworth speeds Sg ; pington A 700 0 O Down House Suspense Account — Compensation paid to nike S Tenant. . £800 0 0 Hedaipiion of Tithe Fi h 138 7 0 ———. 988 7 0 Do. Excess of Expenditure for Upkeep over Income for the period as per separate Income and Expenditure Account ; 699 13 7 Sundry Debtors and Paymentsin Advance . 410 5 10 Do. (Down House) ‘ 172 3 4 Cash at Bank—General Account £1, 7394 0 : Less Down House overdraft . rp 184 6 10 . — — 655417 2 Cash in Hand . - 2 s ‘ iS ieee Ca | 6,479 15 0 ————————. 8, 393 4 6 m 49:032 15 9 £72,135 13 5 to be correct. I have also verified the Balances at the Bankers and the Investments, and have W. B. KEEN, Chartered Acccuntant, June 30, 1929. INCOME. By Rents Receivable . ‘ s : ‘ > in » Dividends— 43 per cent. India Stock : ~ ~ 61 12 0 Fishguard and Rosslare Railway : 5 42 0 0 New South Wales Stock 2 ; : 3 50 0 0 . q ; b Great Western Railway Stock c : e 66 16 0 290° 8-0 ,, Balance, being excess of Expenditure over Income 699 13 7 £1,035 911 GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. XXV111 Income and FOR THE YEAR ENDED on pe ming erio June 30, EXPENDITURE. 1928. Le ASIA £8: as £ s. d 24 2 1) To Heat, Lighting and Powe: . : ; Y 2613 7 68 16 3 ~ Stationery 5 ; : - : 94 010 140 0 » Rent . : : ; . ; z LOO) 6 TILLER O » Postages ; c 5 e 3 201 14 6 165 19 1 » Travelling Expenses 3 . 5 - : 438 11 9 9113 8 54 Bxhibitioners 5 i; 5 3 5 ty 70 19 11 212 3 11 », General Expenses . : A : 5 C 286 4 6 fe er mn £1195 I Wesdian 29.10: », Salaries and Wages = : 3 : . 71,5439 9 3 ja 0 0 », Pension Contribution . " 5 : ; Tou 716 1,385 16 11 ,, Printing, Binding, etc. . S A ¥ . 2,882 0 3 SU EEEEEEEEEEEEE 515 14 7 38,541 12 11 Le, Secretary’ s Travelling Expenses to South A ee ee Africa, recoverable per contra —- Peas iO Ae De Klercker’s Research Donation per contra. 25 0 ;, Prof. T. T. Barnard for Excavations at Bambata 80° LON 30 ;, Miss Caton-Thompson for Zimbabwe Excavations per contra ‘ 5 250 0 O , Grants to Research Committees— Trent Committee 5 3 5 20 0 0 Pigment in Insecta Committee 4 3 Ua) Sumerians Committee i : : 4 100 0 0O School Certificate Committee . ; 2) 3) ae Transplant Committee 3 i a5. 0 3 Sex Ratio Committee : : bE L 10 0 0 | Macedonia Committee c - < 50 0 0 Quaternary Peats C ommittee . r P 10 0 0 British Flora Committee . - : 3 a0) 106 Tables of Constants Committee. ; 3 5 0-0 African Lakes Committee . 5 A ‘ 50 0 0 Bronze Implements Committee . “ = 50 0 0 Plymouth Table Committee : 5 5 50 0 0 Taxation Committee i 5 : Zo: 0) 40 Zoological Record Committee . 5 : 50 0 0 Great Barrier Reef Committee . 5 5 200 0 0 Ductless Glands Committee A : a 30 0 0 Overseas Training Committee . 5 : 10 0 0 Palzozoic Rocks Committee = . - 25 0° 0 Vocational Tests Committee SOP Ole): | Population Map of the British Isles Committee 50 0 0 ‘“ ——__— 888 2 1 é ie 5 I1| ,, Law Costs of Second Mortgage Isleworth House 2410 2 1, 1 0) |, Balance, being excess of Income over Expenditure for the year : 3 : ; = pe eae bes) £6,783 6 10 eee Caird EXPENDITURE. Eees: Brats £° s te To Grants Paid— a 100 0 O Seismology Committee . ee 4 +, 100) 10) x0 100 0 O Naples Tables Committee . . . : 50 0 0 Zimbabwe Excavations 750 0 O Notes and Queries on Anthropology (th Edition 5 0 0 950 0 0 10 10 O Technical Education Committee 5 5 => , Balance being Excess el Income over Hxpenditure 80 5 0 for the year A 5 - : = 9 1 = ose peel eo" £950 0 0 —- GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. xXX1X Expenditure Account JuNE 30, 1929. Corresponding erio June 30, INCOME. 1928. £ sa da , d. SP pe a. By Annual Regular Members (Including £61, ig SNE 185 10 O and £1, 1930/31) : 185 0 0 » AnDnual Temp porary Members" (Including £408, 1,508 5 O 1929/30,and £1, 1930/31) . 1,944 0 0 » Annual Members with Report (Including £190 108. n 523 10 0 1929/30) . ; 832" 0 (0 108 15 0} ,, Transferable "Tickets 74375. '0 iat {0 ‘0 », Students’ Tickets (Including £5 10s. for 1929/30) 9110 0 (Total Tickets as above, issued in advance for 1929/30 South African Meeting, £665) » The Secretary's Travelling Expenses to South Africa, recoverable from the South African vt a fw 2 Association per contra : ; — 22.50 .'0 », Donation—Dr. Klercker, per contra’ 25 0 0 », Donation (Fes. 10,000) per L’Abbé Breuil, for Excavations at Bambata . £0. 9 6 », Donation—Rhodes Trustees for Zimbabwe Ex- cavations, per contra i 250 0 0 5 0 0 », Lift Rent . Get ee Ci (ll MS », Interest on Deposits 104 5 6 705 17 6 », Sale of Publications 568 4 1 223 15 3 », Advertisement Revenue 241 2 9 »» Lnucome Tax recovered— : Year 1926-27 298 18 7 Year 1927-28 303 .1 11 — 602 0 6 813 6 », Unexpended Balance of Grants rejamed 37.1611 22 10 @O| ,, Liverpool Exhibitioners - 22 10 oO ;, Royal Charter Expenses— Unexpended Balance transferred 29 11 12 », Dividends— £135 0 0. Consols . . “ = peo Ol AO) 8 8 9 | India 3 per cent. Stock: 86 8 0 26 13 3 | GreatIndian Peninsula Rly.‘ B’ Annuity a6 #5 AZ 30 1 21] 43 per font. Conversion Loan . 6 0 370 16 0 | Ditto, Sir Charles Perouse ba 370 16 0 53 11 70 | Local Loans 53-6 6 68 12 6 | War Stock 78 12 6 388 0 0 Ditto, Series ‘ A,’ Sir A. Yarrow’s Gitt 428 14 6 2 130 12 4) 3} percent. Conversion Loan. 130 12 4 1,289 15 1 | ———____ -—— 1,344 11 ©O By Sir Alfred Yarrow’s Gift— Proceeds of Sale of £310 17s. 9d. War oars in accordance with ats of the Gift 310 17 9 Profit on Sale : 4 2.3 307 0 3 315 0 0 », Interest on Mortgage 16 8 10 ;, Balance, being excess of Expenditure over Tncome i for the year iva [he | 6,234 1 2 £6,783 6 10 Fund. INCOME. ae. Set Bie, A 8. By Dividends— India 34 per cent. Stock , < E Ss feo Canada 34 per cent. Stock 70 0 O London Midland and Scottish Railway Consoli- dated 4 per cent. Preference Stock “ 67 4 0O Southern Railway Aansclidatest 5 per. cent. Preference Stock . = 80 0 0 ; 290 15 0 a 290 15 0 By Income Tax recovered— _ Year 1926-27 ; 7213 8 Year 1927-28 72:13 8 = 1ao) st & , Balance, being excess et EsEouureee e over be "a x for the year ip ily aaa £290 15 0 £950 0 0 XXX RESEARCH COMMITTEES. RESEARCH COMMITTEES, Etc. APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE, MEETING IN SOUTH AFRICA, 1929. Grants of money, if any, from the Association for expenses connected with researches are indicated in heavy type. SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. Seismological Investigations.—Prof. H. H. Turner (Chairman), Mr. J. J. Shaw (Secretary), Mr. C. Vernon Boys, Dr. J. E. Crombie, Dr. C. Davison, Sir F. W. Dyson, Sir R. T. Glazebrook, Dr. H. Jeffreys, Prof. H. Lamb, Sir J. Larmor, Prof. A. E. H. Love, Prof. H. M. Macdonald, Dr. A. Crichton Mitchell, Mr. R. D. Oldham, Prof. H. C. Plummer, Rey. J. P. Rowland, 8.J., Prof. R. A. Sampson, Sir A. Schuster, Sir Napier Shaw, Sir G. T. Walker, Dr. F. J. W. Whipple. £100 (Caird Fund grant). Tides.—Prof. H. Lamb (Chairman), Dr. A. T. Doodson (Secretary), Dr. G. R. Goldsbrough, Dr. H. Jeffreys, Prof. J. Proudman, Prof. G. I. Taylor, Prof. D’Arcy W. Thompson, Commander H. D. Warburg. Annual Tables of Constants and Numerical Data, chemical, physical, and technological. —Sir E. Rutherford (Chairman), Prof. A. W. Porter (Secretary), Mr. Alfred Egerton. £5. Calculation of Mathematical Tables.—Prof. J. W. Nicholson (Chairman), Prof. A. Lodge (Vice-chairman), Dr. L. J. Comrie (Secretary), Dr. R. A. Fisher (General Editor), Dr. J. R. Airey, Dr. A. T. Doodson, Dr. J. Henderson, Mr. J. O. Irwin, Prof. A. E. H. Love, Prof. E. H. Neville, Dr. A. J. Thompson, Dr. J. E. Tocher, Mr. T. Whitwell, Dr. J. Wishart, Dr. Dorothy Wrinch. £30. SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY. To consider the possibilities of publishing a compilation of recent material on the subject of Colloid Chemistry.—Prof. F. G. Donnan (Chairman), Dr. W. Clayton (Secretary), Mr. E. Hatschek, Prof. W. C. McC. Lewis, Dr. E. K. Rideal, Sir R. Robertson. Absorption Spectra and Chemical Constitution of Organic Compounds.—Prof. I. M. Heilbron (Chairman), Prof. E. C. C. Baly (Secretary), Prof. A. W. Stewart. SECTION C.—GEOLOGY. To excavate Critical Sections in the Paizozoic Rocks of England and Wales.—Prof. W. W. Watts (Chairman), Prof. W. G. Fearnsides (Secretary), Mr. W. S. Bisat, Dr. H. Bolton, Prof. W. 8S. Boulton, Mr. E. 8. Cobbold, Prof. A. H. Cox, Mr. E. E. L. Dixon, Dr. Gertrude Elles, Prof. E. J. Garwood, Prof. H. L. Hawkins, Prof. V. C. Illing, Prof. O. T. Jones, Prof. J. E. Marr, Dr. F. J. North, Mr. J. Pringle, Dr. T. F. Sibly, Dr. W. K. Spencer, Dr. A. E. Trueman, Dr. F. 8. Wallis. £25. The Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of Photographs of Geo- logical Interest.—Prof. E. J. Garwood (Chairman), Prof. S. H. Reynolds (Secre- tary), Mr. C. V. Crook, Mr. A. 8. Reid, Prof. W. W. Watts, Mr. R. I. Welch. To investigate Critical Sections in the Tertiary Rocks of the London Area. To tabulate and preserve records of new excavations in that area.—Prof. W. T. Gordon (Chairman), Dr. S. W. Wooldridge (Secretary), Miss M. C. Crosfield, Prof. H. L. Hawkins, Prof. G. Hickling. £10. ‘To consider the opening up of Critical Sections in the Mesozoic Rocks of Yorkshire.— Prof. P. F. Kendall (Chairman), Mr. M. Odling (Secretary), Prof. H. L. Hawkins, Dr. Spath, Mr. J. W. Stather, Mr. H. C. Versey. ct a tee oo -- RESEARCH COMMITTEES. XXXI To assemble information regarding the Distribution of Cleavage in North and Central Wales.—Prof. W. G. Fearnsides (Chairman), Prof. P. G. H. Boswell and Mr. W. H. Wilcockson (Secretaries), Prof. A. H. Cox, Mr. I. 8. Double, Dr. Gertrude Elles, Prof. O. T. Jones, Dr. E. Greenly, Mr. W. B. R. King, Prof. W. J. Pugh, Dr. Bernard Smith, Dr. A. K. Wells, Dr. L. J. Wills. SECTIONS C, D, E, K.—GEOLOGY, ZOOLOGY, GEOGRAPHY, BOTANY. To organise an expedition to investigate the Biology, Geology, and Geography of the Australian Great Barrier Reef.—Rt. Hon. Sir M. Nathan (Chairman), Prof. J. Stanley Gardiner and Mr, F. A. Potts (Secretaries), Sir Edgeworth David, Prof. W. T. Gordon, Prof. A. C. Seward, and Dr. Herbert H. Thomas (from Section C); Mr. E. Heron-Allen, Dr. E. J. Allen, Prof. J. H. Ashworth, Dr. G. P. Bidder, Dr. W. T. Calman, Sir Sidney Harmer, Dr. C. M. Yonge (from Section D); Dr. R. N. Rudmose Brown, Sir G. Lenox Conyngham, Mr. F, Debenham, Admiral Douglas, Mr. A. R. Hinks (from Section BE) ; Prof. F. E. Fritsch, Dr. Margery Knight, Prof. A. C. Seward (from Section K). SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY. To aid competent Investigators selected by the Committee to carry on definite pieces of work at the Zoological Station at Naples.—Prof. E. S. Goodrich (Chairman), Prof. J. H. Ashworth (Secretary), Dr. G. P. Bidder, Prof. F. O. Bower, Prof. Munro Fox, Sir W. B. Hardy, Sir Sidney Harmer, Prof. E. W. MacBride. £100 (Caird Fund grant). Zoological Bibliography and Publication.—Prof. E. B. Poulton (Chairman), Dr. F. A: Bather (Secretary), Mr. E. Heron-Allen, Dr. W. T. Calman, Sir P. Chalmers Mitchell, Mr. W. L. Sclater. To nominate competent Naturalists to perform definite pieces of work at the Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.—Prof. J. H. Ashworth (Chairman and Secretary), Prof. H. Graham Cannon, Prof. J. Stanley Gardiner, Prof. 8, J. Hickson. £50. To co-operate with other Sections interested, and with the Zoological Society, for the purpose of obtaining support for the Zoological Record.—Sir Sidney Harmer (Chairman), Dr. W. T. Calman (Secretary), Prof, E. S. Goodrich, Prof. D. M. 8. Watson. £50. On the Influence of the Sex Physiology of the Parents on the Sex-Ratio of the Offspring. —Prof. J. H. Orton (Chairman), Mrs. Bisbee ( Secretary), Prof. Carr-Saunders, Miss E. C. Herdman. £10. Investigations on Pigment in the Insecta.—Prof. W. Garstang (Chairman), Prof. J. W. Heslop Harrison (Secretary), Prof. A. D. Peacock, Prof. E. B. Poulton. To consider the position of Animal Biology in the School Curriculum and matters relating thereto.—Prof. R. D. Laurie (Chairman and Secretary), Mr. H. W. Ballance, Dr. Kathleen E. Carpenter, Mr. O. H. Latter, Prof. E. W. MacBride, Miss M. McNicol, Miss A. J. Prothero, Prof. W. M. Tattersall. A Preliminary Survey of Certain Tropical Lakes in Kenya in 1929.—Prof. J. Stanley Gardiner (Chairman), Miss P. M. Jenkin (Secretary), Dr. W. T. Calman, Prof. J. Graham Kerr, Mr. J. T. Saunders. SECTIONS D, I, K.—ZOOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY, BOTANY. Nomenclature of Cell Structures.—Prof. C. Lovatt Evans (Chairman), Prof. H. E. Roaf (Secretary) (for Section I), Dr. J. B. Gatenby, Mr. L. A. Harvey (for Section D), Dr. K. B. Blackburn, Dr. Margery Knight (for Section K). SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY. To report further as to the method of construction and reproduction of a Population Map of the British Isles with a view to the census of 1931.—Mr. H. O. Beckit (Chairman), Mr. A. G. Ogilvie (Vice-Chairman), Mr. J. Cossar (Secretary), Mr. J. Bartholomew, Mr. F. Debenham, Prof. C. B. Fawcett, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Mr. R. H. Kinvig, Prof. O. H. T. Rishbeth, Prof. P. M. Roxby, Mr. A. Stevens, Col. H. 8. L. Winterbotham. £75. XXX RESEARCH COMMITTEES. To inquire into the present state of knowledge of the Human Geography of Tropica} Africa, and to make recommendations for furtherance and development.—Prof.~ P. M. Roxby (Chairman), Mr. A. G. Ogilvie (Secretary), Prof. C. B. Fawcett, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Mr. J. McFarlane, Mr. R. U. Sayce, Col. H. 8S. L. Winter-. botham. £50. = SECTIONS E, L.—_GEOGRAPHY, EDUCATION. To report on the present position of Geographical Teaching in Schools and of Geography in the training of teachers ; to formulate suggestions for a syllabus for the teaching of geography both to Matriculation Standard and in Advanced Courses and to report, as occasion arises, to Council through the Organising Committee of Section E upon the practical working of Regulations issued by the Board of Education (including Scotland) affecting the position of Geography in Scheols and Training Colleges.—Prof. T. P. Nunn (Chairman), Mr. L. Brooks (Secretary), Mr. A. B. Archer, Mr. C. C. Carter, Mr. J. Cossar, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Mr. O. J. R. Howarth, Mr. H. E. M. Icely, Mr. J. McFarlane, Rt. Hon. Sir Halford J. Mackinder, Prof. J. L. Myres, Dr. Marion Newbigin, Mr. A. G. Ogilvie, Mr. A. Stevens (from Section EZ); Mr. C. E. Browne, Sir R. Gregory, Mr. E. R. Thomas,. Miss O. Wright (from Section L). - £5. SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. To investigate certain aspects of Taxation in relation to the Distribution of Wealth.— Sir Josiah Stamp (Chairman), Mr. R. B. Forrester (Secretary), Prof. E. Cannan, Prof. H. Clay, Mr. W. H. Coates, Miss L. Grier, Prof. H. M. Hallsworth, Prof. D. H. Macgregor, Prof. J. G. Smith, Mr. J. Wedgwood, Sir A. Yarrow. £30. SECTION G.—ENGINEERING. Earth Pressures.—Mr. F. E. Wentworth-Sheilds (Chairman), Dr. J. S. Owens (Secretary), Prof. A. Barr, Prof. G. Cook, Mr. T. E. N. Fargher, Prof. A. R. Fulton, Prof. F. C. Lea, Prof. R. V. Southwell, Dr. R. E. Stradling, Dr. W. N. Thomas, Mr. E. G. Walker, Mr. J. S. Wilson. (Unexpended balance.) Electrical Terms and Definitions.—Prof. Sir J. B. Henderson (Chairman), Prof. F. G. Baily and Prof. G.W.O. Howe (Secretaries), Prof. W. Cramp, Dr. W. H. Kecles, Prof. C. L. Fortescue, Prof. E. W. Marchant, Dr. F. E. Smith, Prof. L. R-. Wilberforce, with Dr. A. Russell and Mr. C. C. Wharton. Stresses in overstrained materials.—Sir Henry Fowler (Chairman), Mr. J. G. Docherty (Secretary), Prof. G. Cook, Prof. B. P. Haigh, Mr. J. 8. Wilson. £5. SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. To report on the Distribution of Bronze Age Implements.—Prof. J. L. Myres (Chair- man), Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Secretary), Mr. A. Leslie Armstrong, Mr. H. Balfour, Prof. T. H. Bryce, Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton, Prof. V. Gordon Childe, Mr. O. G. S- Crawford, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Dr. Cyril Fox, Mr. G. A. Garfitt. To conduct Explorations with the object of ascertaining the Age of Stone Circles.— Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chairman), Mr. H. Balfour (Secretary), Dr. G. A. Auden, Mr. O. G. S. Crawford, Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir Arthur Evans, Prof. J. L. Myres. To excavate Early Sites in Macedonia.—Prof. J. L. Myres (Chairman), Mr. 8- Casson (Secretary), Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth, Mr. M. Thompson. £50. To report on the Classification and Distribution of Rude Stone Monuments.—Mr. G. A. Garfitt (Chairman), Mr. E. N. Fallaize (Secretary), Mr. O. G. 8. Crawford, Miss R. M. Fleming, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Dr. C. Fox, Mr. G. Marshall, Prof. J. L. Myres, Mr. H. J. E. Peake, Rev. Canon Quine. Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of Photographs of Anthro- pological Interest.—Mr. E. Torday (Chairman), Mr. E. N. Fallaize (Secretary), Dr. G. A. Auden, Dr. H. A. Auden, Mr. L. J. P. Gaskin, Mr. E. Heawood, Prof. J. L. Myres. Th ® RESEARCH COMMITTEERS. XXXill To report on the probable sources of the supply of Copper used by the Sumerians.— Mr. H. J. B. Peake (Chairman), Mr. G. A. Garfitt (Secretary), Mr. H. Balfour, Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton, Prof. V. Gordon Childe, Prof. C. H. Desch, Prof. H. J. Late Prof. 8. Langdon, Mr. E. Mackay, Sir Flinders Petrie, Mr. C. Leonard oolley. To conduct Archeological and Ethnological Researches in Crete.—Prof. J. L. Myres (Chairman), Mr. L, Dudley Buxton (Secretary), Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth, Sir A. Evans, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall. £50. The Investigation of a hill fort site at Llanmelin, near Caerwent.—Dr. Willoughby Gardner (Chairman), Dr. Cyril Fox (Secretary), Dr. T. Ashby, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Mr. H. J. E. Peake, Prof. H. J. Rose, Dr. R. Mortimer Wheeler. To co-operate with the Torquay Antiquarian Society in investigating Kent’s Cavern.— Sir A. Keith (Chairman), Prof. J. L. Myres (Secretary), Mr. M. C. Burkitt, Dr. R. V. Favell, Mr. G. A. Garfitt, Miss D. A. E. Garrod, Prof. W. J. Sollas. To conduct Anthropological investigations in some Oxfordshire villages.—Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chairman), Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton (Secretary), Dr. Vaughan Cornish, Miss R. M. Fleming, Prof. F. G. Parsons. To report on the present state of knowledge of the relation of early Paleolithic Implements to Glacial Deposits—Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chairman), Mr. E. N. Fallaize (Secretary), Mr. H. Balfour, Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, Mr. M. C. Burkitt, Prof. J. EK. Marr. To co-operate with a Committee of the Royal Anthropological Institute in the explora- tion of Caves in the Derbyshire district.—Mr. M. C. Burkitt (Chairman), Mr. G. A. Garfitt (Secretary), Mr. A. Leslie Armstrong, Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, Mr. E. N. Fallaize, Dr. R. V. Favell, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Miss D. A. E. Garrod, Dr. A. C. Haddon, Dr. J. Wilfrid Jackson, Dr. L.S. Palmer, Prof. F.G. Parsons, Mr. H. J. E. Peake. £50. - To investigate processes of Growth in Children, with a view to discovering Differences due to Race and Sex, and further to study Racial Differences in Women.—Sir A. Keith (Chairman), Prof. H. J. Fleure (Secretary), Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton, Dr. A. Low, Prof. F. G. Parsons, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall. To report on proposals for an Anthropological and Archeological Bibliography, with power to co-operate with other bodies.—Dr. A. C. Haddon (Chairman), Mr. E. N. Fallaize (Secretary), Dr. T. Ashby, Mr. O. G. S. Crawford, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Prof. J. L. Myres, Mr. H. J. E. Peake, Dr. D. Randall-MacIver, Mr. T. Sheppard. To report on the progress of Anthropological Teaching in the present century.— Dr. A. C. Haddon (Chairman), Prof. J. L. Myres (Secretary), Prof. H. J. Fleure, Dr. R. R. Marett, Prof. C. G. Seligman. To conduct explorations on Early Neolithic Sites in Holderness.—Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chairman), Mr. A. Leslie Armstrong (Secretary), Mr. M. C. Burkitt, Dr. R. V. Fayell, Mr. G. A. Garfitt, Dr. J. Wilfrid Jackson, Prof. H. Ormerod, Dr. L. 8. Palmer. To investigate the antiquity and cultural relations of the Ancient Copper Workings in the Katanga and Northern Rhodesia.—Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chairman), Mr. E.N. Fallaize and Mr. G. A. Wainwright (Secretaries), Mr. H. Balfour, Mr. G. A. Garfitt, Dr. D. Randall-Maclver, Dr. P. A. Wagner. To arrange for the publication of a new edition of ‘ Notes and Queries on Anthro- pology.’—Dr. A. C. Haddon (Chairman), Mr. E. N. Fallaize (Secretary), Mrs. Robert Aitken, Mr. H. Balfour, Capt. T. A. Joyce, Prof. J. L. Myres, Mrs. Seligman, Prof. C. G. Seligman. To consider the lines of Investigation which might be undertaken in Archzological and Anthropological Research in South Africa prior to and in view of the meeting of the Association in that Dominion in 1929.—Sir H. Miers (Chairman), Dr. D. Randall-Maclver (Secretary), Mr. H. Balfour, Dr. A. C. Haddon, Prof. J. L. Myres. To co-operate with Dr. Klercker’s archeological laboratory in Scania in research.— Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chairman), Mr. A. Leslie Armstrong (Secretary), Prof. H. J. Fleure, Prof. J. L. Myres, Mr. E. K. Tratman. 1929 Cc XXX1V RESEARCH COMMITTEES, SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY. The Investigation of the Medullary Centres.—Prof. C. Lovatt Evans (Chairman), Dr. J. M. Duncan Scott (Secretary), Dr. H. H. Dale. Colour Vision, with particular reference to the classification of Colour-blindness.— Sir C. Sherrington (Chairman), Prof. H. E. Roaf (Secretary), Prof. E. N. da C. Andrade, Dr. Mary Collins, Dr. F. W. Edridge-Green, Prof. H. Hartridge. Ductless Glands, with particular reference to the effect of autacoid activities on vasomotor reflexes.—Prof. J. Mellanby (Chairman), Prof. B. A. McSwiney (Secretary), Prof. Swale Vincent. £30. - SECTION J.—PSYCHOLOGY. Vocational Tests.—Dr. C. 8. Myers (Chairman), Dr. G. H. Miles (Secretary), Prof. C. Burt, Mr. F. M. Earle, Dr. Ll. Wynn Jones, Prof. T. H. Pear, Prof. C. Spearman. £50. SECTION K.—BOTANY. The effect of Ultra-violet Light on Plants.—Prof. W. Neilson Jones (Chairman), Dr. E. M. Delf (Secretary). The Chemical Analysis of Upland Bog Waters.—Prof. J. H. Priestley (Chairman), Mr. A. Malins Smith (Secretary), Dr. B. M. Griffiths, Dr. E. K. Rideal. (Unexpended balance.) Transplant Experiments.—Dr. A. W. Hill (Chairman), Mr. W. B. Turrill (Secretary), Prof. F. W. Oliver, Dr. E. J. Salisbury, Prof. A. G. Tansley. Breeding Experiments as part of an intensive study of certain species of the British Flora.__Sir Danie] Hall (Chairman), Mr. E. Marsden Jones (Secretary), Dr. K. B. Blackburn, Prof. R. R. Gates, Mr. W. B. Turrill, Mr. A. J. Wilmott. £32 2s. 6d. (unexpended balance). . The Ecology of Selected Tributaries of the River Trent, with a view to determining the effect of progressive pollution.—Prof. F. E. Fritsch (Chairman), Prof. H. 8. Holden (Secretary), Miss D. Bexon, Mr. H. Lister. £3 16s. 8d. (unexpended balance). The Flora of Northern Rhodesia.—Prof. D, Thoday (Chairman), Dr. J. Burtt Davy (Secretary), Prof. R. S. Adamson, Prof. J. W. Bews. £25. To consider the organisation of a body to further the protection of British Wild Plants.—Dr. A. W. Hill (Chairman), Dr. H. H. Thomas (Secretary), Dr. G. Claridge Druce, Prof. J. W. Heslop Harrison, Mr. H. A. Hyde, Prof. F. W. Oliver, Sir D. Prain, Dr. E. J. Salisbury, Mr. C. E. Salmon, Mr. A. J. Wilmott, Dr. T. W. Woodhead. To consider and report on the provision made for Instruction in Botany in courses of Biology, and matters related thereto.—Prof. V. H. Blackman (Chairman), Dr. E. N. M. Thomas (Secretary), Prof. F. E. Fritsch, Prof. S. Mangham, Mr. J. Sager. Mycorrhiza in relation to Forestry.—Mr. F. T. Brooks (Chairman), Dr. M. C. Rayner (Secretary), Dr. H. M. Steven. £50, Fossil Plants at Fort Gray, near East London.—Dr. A. W. Rogers (Chairman), Prof. R. 8. Adamson (Secretary), Prof. A. C. Seward. £25. The Morphology and Systematics of certain South African Liverworts and Ferns.— Prof. R. 8. Adamson (Chairman), Prof. H. S. Holden (Secretary), Prof. R. H. Compton, Mrs. M. R. Levyns, Prof. C. E. Moss, Mr. N.S. Pillans. £12. South African Desert Plants.—Dr. I. B. Pole-Evans (Chairman), Prof. C. E. Moss (Secretary), Prof. R. S. Adamson. £60. SECTION L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. To consider the Educational Training of Boys and Girls in Secondary Schools for over- seas life.—Sir J. Russell (Chairman), Mr. C. E. Browne (Secretary), Major A. G. Church, Mr. H. W. Cousins, Dr. J. Vargas Eyre, Sir R. A. Gregory, Mr. O. H. Latter, Miss E. H. McLean, Miss Rita Oldham, Mr. G. W. Olive, Miss Gladys Pott, Mr. A. A. Somerville, Dr. G. K. Sutherland, Mrs. Gordon Wilson. £10. RESEARCH CUMMITTEES. XXXV The bearing on School Work of recent views on formal training.—Dr. C. W. Kimmins (Chairman), Mr. H. E. M. Icely (Secretary), Prof. R. L. Archer, Prof. Cyril Burt, Prof. F. A. Cavenagh, Miss E. R. Conway, Sir Richard Gregory, Prof. T. P. Nunn, Prof. T. H. Pear, Prof. G. Thomson, Prof. C. W. Valentine. £10. The teaching of General Science in Schools, with special reference to the teaching of Biology.—Prof. T. P. Nunn (Chairman), Mr. G. W. Olive (Secretary), Mr. C. E. Browne, Dr, Lilian J. Clarke, Mr. G. D. Dunkerley, Mr. S. R. Humby, Dr. E. W. Shann, Mr. E. R. Thomas, Mrs. Gordon Wilson, Miss von Wyss. £10. Educational and Documentary Films: To enquire into the production and distribu- tion thereof, to consider the use and effects of films on pupils of school age and older students, and to co-operate with other bodies which are studying those problems.—Sir Richard Gregory (Chairman), Mr. J. L. Holland (Secretary), Mr. L. Brooks, Miss E. R. Conway, Mr. G. D. Dunkerley, Dr. B. A. Keen, Dr. C. W. Kimmins, Prof. J. L. Myres, Mr. G. W. Olive, Dr. Spearman, Dr. H. Hamshaw Thomas. £50. CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. Corresponding Societies Committee.—The President of the Association (Chairman ex-officio), Mr. T. Sheppard (Vice-Chairman), Dr. G. Tierney (Secretary), the General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, Mr. C. O. Bartrum, Dr. F. A. Bather, Sir Richard Gregory, Sir David Prain, Sir Jobn Russell, Prof. W. M. Tattersall. a NARRATIVE OF NARRATIVE OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MEETING. The invitation to the British Association to hold a meeting in South Africa was given by the South African Association for the Advancement of Science, with the full support of the Government of the Union of South Africa. On July 8, 1926, a deputation from the South African Association interviewed the Prime Minister of the Union of South Africa, General the Hon. J. B. M. Hertzog. As the result of this interview the following cablegram was despatched to the British Association: “ Please convey to His Royal Highness [The Prince of Wales], President of British Associa- tion, cordial invitation to British Association from President and Council of South African Association to visit South Africa in 1929.’ On September 3, 1927, a cable was despatched from the Leeds Meeting of the British Association as follows: ‘General Committee British Association unanimously and gratefully accepts invitation South Africa, 1929.’ The Union Government allocated to the South African Association a grant of £10,000, of which £6,000 was transmitted to the British Associa- tion for distribution in the form of grants, in aid of travelling expenses, to members selected by a committee of the Council, mainly on the nomination of the sectional committees. A sum of about £1,300 was allocated by the South African Association toward the travelling expenses of the Presi- dent of the British Association and certain selected guests, British and foreign. A sum of £10,000 was collected in Great Britain as detailed in the Report of the Council preceding this narrative (p. xvi), and was devoted to further grants in aid of travelling expenses, and to assist in covering the extraordinary expenses necessarily falling upon the funds of the British Association in connection with a meeting overseas. The Rhodes Trustees generously contributed £250 toward the expenses of certain university students selected by the Committee of Council to attend the meeting. In the Report of the Council referred to above, and in that for the preceding year (Report of the British Association, Glasgow Meeting, p. xlu), further particulars relating to the preliminary organisation will be found. The number of visiting members from overseas was 535. They travelled for the most part in three ships, the Union Castle Mail 8S. Co.’s Llandovery Castle, the Blue Funnel SS. Nestor, and the Union Castle R.M.S. Windsor Castle, which arrived at Cape Town respectively on July 18, 19, and 22. The Inaugural General Meeting in Cape Town was held in the City Hall on Monday, July 22, at 4.30 p.m., and was attended by H.E. the Governor-General (the Rt. Hon. the Earl of Athlone) and H.R.H. Princess Alice, the Hon. the Prime Minister, the Minister for Education (Dr. D. F. Malan), Lt.-Gen. the Rt. Hon. J. C. Smuts, and H.M. the Sultan of Zanzibar. Sir Thomas H. Holland, K.C.S.1., K.C.1LE., F.R.S., was inducted into the presidency of the British Association and the chair of the meeting by the Hon. Sir Charles Parsons, O.M., K.C.B., F.R.S., in the unavoidable absence of the retiring president, Sir William Bragg, THE SOUTH AFRICAN MEETING. THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. bearer. In no other capacity dare I venture to address you. It was once said by a literary man of some distinction that the man of science appears to be the only man in the world who has something to say, and he is the only man who does not know how to say it. There is an obvious rejoinder, that the man of letters frequently has nothing to say, but says it at great length. I dare not claim to be a man of science. I can only hope that I shall not be deemed to-night to have qualified for consideration as a man of letters in the sense of that retort. The honour which has been conferred upon me is the greater because of the special significance which attaches to my year of office. It is the year of the keenly anticipated second visit of the British Association for the Advancement of Science to South Africa, and for that reason my first words to-night are, happily, words of welcome. Not merely the Association for which I speak, but all South Africa, rejoices in the presence of the British Association and its distinguished members. To its parent body, which can look back upon all but a century of glorious achievement, this stripling Association brings its tribute of respectful admiration and goodwill. To the great organisation of scientific men, the history of which is the history of the advancement of Science in Britain, which has a Presidential Roll adorned by names such as Brewster and Tyndall, Huxley and Kelvin, Rayleigh and Lister, this land of ours, mindful of its debt to Science, conscious of the gifts that Science can yet bring to it, extends the hand of friendship, in gratitude for the honour of this visit, and in appreciation of the stimulus to its progress and development which must needs attend it. We have reason, indeed, to be grateful to the British Association for its achievement and its significance. If I might select three distinctive features in its record, they would be these. First, its contribution, direct and indirect, to those great triumphs of British Science in the nineteenth century which are the possession not of an age, nor of a nation, but of all time and of every land. Directly it has initiated, correlated, and contri- buted towards work of great scientific value; indirectly it has inspired much constructive activity, while its meetings year after year have done more than any other single factor to stimulate and hasten the onward march of science. Next I would dwell on its maintenance of a broad view of the scope and function of Science, and, coupled with that, the emphasis laid by it on the essential homogeneity of Science conceived thus broadly, and the interdependence of its several branches. The Association had no lack SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION. 3 of opposition to encounter at its coming to birth. Those who interpreted Science primarily in the medieval sense as being limited to the sciences of introspection had still but scant respect for the claims of the sciences of observation. When in the second year of its existence the Association visited Oxford, Keble protested vigorously against the University’s reception of what he called a hodge-podge of philosophers. This hodge- podge, be it noted, included Brewster and Dalton and Faraday. But the Association did not react into narrowness. It remained true to the broad conception of Scientia which was held by its founders, one of whom affirmed in striking language at the first meeting, that ‘ The chief inter- preters of nature have always been those who have grasped the widest fields of inquiry, who have listened with the most universal curiosity to all information, and felt an interest in every question which the one great system of nature represents.’ The Association has imposed no narrow restrictions on the extension of the sphere of its activity ; within that ever-widening sphere it has maintained a spirit of co-operation between workers in diverse fields which has been worthy of the best traditions of Francis Bacon. It has had its reward—in greater effective- ness of work in its own sphere, and in the permeation of the Kingdom of Learning with the atmosphere of goodwill. By way of illustration of this last point, may I, as one whose first allegiance is to the Classics, mention the fact that the roll of twenty-six Presidents of the Classical Association of England includes five Fellows of the Royal Society, names such as Geikie, Osler, and D’Arcy Thomson, and if it is not too pre- sumptuously personal to refer to it, I would add, that when the South African Association elected me as its President, it chose one who was then President of the Classical Association of South Africa. Lastly, I would select as characteristic of the British Association its success in maintaining the contacts of Science with the public on the one hand and the state on the other. One of the aims which its founders set forth was ‘ to obtain more general attention for the objects of Science’ ; they sought to create a body which would make its appeal to the educated public as a whole, to fashion an instrument for the interpretation of the sometimes highly technical results of scientific investigation to the man in the street. They realised that the scientist received much from the public, that to the public he must freely give, and that the giving would not be without its due reward of new inspiration and renewed enthusiasms. There were some who opposed the nascent Association in the fear that Science might degrade itself by making too popular an appeal. That B2 4 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. fear has been belied in the passing of the years. The Association has kept touch with the public, it has ‘ demonstrated to all men that Science is thinking with them and for them,’ it has secured their interest and their sympathy, but it has never paid for that achievement the price of a lowering of its aims or of its standards. It is its success in this respect that has secured for it the prestige which has enabled it time and again to stand forth as the ambassador of Science to the state, and so to play an important part in initiating and furthering enterprises of great national and scientific significance. For these reasons and for much else South Africa is proud and happy to be able to welcome and do honour to the British Association for the Advancement of Science. We welcome it the more heartily because of our consciousness of the greatness of our indebtedness to the first visit of the Association twenty-four years ago. To that visit, with which there will always be linked a name honoured in the history of South Africa, as it is in the annals of Science—I refer to Sir David Gill—this country still looks back with grateful recollection. It marked the commencement of an epoch in our scientific history, the epoch of the consolidation of the position of Science in South Africa. Let us view the position of Science in our country as it was in 1905. On the academic side it is the nakedness of the land that chiefly impresses us. South Africa then had but one University, and it was in reality only a Board of Examiners for the candidates presented by various Colleges, which were all, without exception, inadequately staffed and poorly equipped. In the subjects which fell within the scope of the Association, as it was defined in 1905, there were in all the Colleges taken together in that year only forty-nine workers, thirty-three professors, and sixteen others. When it is remembered that this was the total number of teachers of all branches of Science spread over seven different institutions, all purporting to do University work, it is painfully obvious how little time was available for scientific research and investigation. Nor was the work done, measured in terms of the number of graduates, very impressive. The number of those who in 1905 qualified for degrees in Pure and Applied Science was only twenty-seven. Outside of the Colleges scientific workers were to be found mainly in Government Departments, then still small and inadequately staffed, and working in isolation in the four South African Colonies. In most branches the State’s scientific activities were still in their earliest infancy. The organisation was only just commencing to be built up. As part of these activities there fall SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION. 5 to be mentioned the two astronomical Observatories at that time in operation : the Royal Observatory at Cape Town, then already full of years and of honour, and the Johannesburg Observatory which, thanks largely to the representations made by this Association of ours, had been established a few months before the 1905 meeting. In regard to Scientific Societies there is but little to record. There were in existence in 1905 a small South African Philosophical Society (now known as the Royal Society of South Africa), the Geological Society of South Africa, the Cape Society of Engineers, the Chemical Metallurgical and Mining Society, and also this Association for the Advancement of Science, which had come into existence a bare three years previously. It was, indeed, the day of small things, and small also was the achievement which Science in South Africa at that date had to its credit. If one leaves out of account the work of Sir David Gill and the scientific endeavour which had been put into the development of the gold mining industry of the Witwatersrand, there is little indeed of permanent significance that remains. Against this picture it is appropriate to set the picture of South African Science as it will unfold itself to our visitors to-day. They will find three vigorous single-College teaching Universities, which have in recent years made remarkable progress in the attainment of the standards of similar institutions in older lands, and also a federal University with six constituent Colleges, which, like the single-College Universities are, in human and material equipment and in the output of the results of scientific investigation, very far ahead of their predecessors of 1905. Against the forty-nine workers of 1905 we can now set 467—144 professors and 323 others—within the range at present covered by the activities of this Association. The twenty-seven graduates of 1905 have increased to 314 in 1928. To the Scientific Societies of 1905 there have been added, since the last visit of the British Association, the South African Institute of Electrical Engineers, the South African Institution of Engineers, the Cape Chemical Society, the South African Chemical Institute, the Botan- ical Society of South Africa, the South African Biological Society, the Astronomical Society of South Africa, the South African Geographical Society, and the South African Economic Society, and this Association _ of ours has become an active, vigorous, and powerful body, proud of the — achievements which it already has to its credit, challenging eagerly the tasks that await it in the future. The two Observatories of 1905, our _ visitors will find, have increased to six, including the Smithsonian Solar Observatory in South-West Africa, and the equipment of these institutions 6 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. includes four great telescopes, with objectives of 27 inches, 26} inches, 26 inches, and 24 inches respectively, to which will shortly be added a 24-inch refractor and a 60-inch reflecting telescope—surely a remarkable astronomical equipment for so young a country. The stimulus of the 1905 visit, in which so many prominent European astronomers partici- pated, has indeed borne rich fruit in the advancement of astronomical work in South Africa. But perhaps our visitors will be impressed not least by the development and consolidation of the scientific departments of our Civil Service, by the magnificent Institute of Veterinary Research which the state has created at Onderstepoort and the effective work which through its scientific officers it is doing for the development of South Africa, and by the remarkably efficient and well-equipped Institute for Medical Research at Johannesburg, the credit of the establishment and main- tenance of which falls jointly to the Government and the Mining Industry. Significant also of the attitude of the state to Science, and full of promise for the future, has been the establishment of a Research Grant Board, which advises the Government on the practical measures necessary for the encouragement of scientific research in the Union, and acts as its agent in the distribution of grants in aid of individual investigations. Nor have we reason to be ashamed of the positive achievements of Science in South Africa during the past quarter of a century. Most impressive, perhaps, regarded cumulatively, have been the advances made in our knowledge of the diseases of plants, animals, and men, and of the methods of preventing them. In 1905 we knew practically nothing of the plant diseases of South Africa. In that year the first steps were taken towards their scientific investigation. To-day a general survey has been completed, most of the important diseases have been worked out, and a highly efficient service for combating them is in operation. In 1905 also the Transvaal Crown Colony Government voted £1,500 as a first instalment towards the establishment of a laboratory for the investi- gation of stock diseases. From that has sprung the magnificent body of work in veterinary science, which has won world-wide recognition for the Onderstepoort Institution which I mentioned a moment ago. More recently there has been founded the South African Institute for Medical Research, to which is allied the Miners Phthisis Medical Bureau. The researches conducted there in the control of pneumonic infection, and the advances made in industrial hygiene in the fight against silicosis, have ; } SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION. 0 brought great lustre to these two institutions and to South Africa. But in other fields also South African scientific workers have won recognition. In Geology, Marine Biology, the Mathematical Theory of Determinants, the Economics of Gold Production, and along several other lines of investigation, important scientific work has been done in South Africa ; a succession of discoveries has been made throwing light on the origins of the human race; and applied science has by means of the conquest of distance in this far-flung land of ours, and of the construction of important irrigation and other engineering works, contributed generously to South Africa’s progress. It may, perhaps, be taken as a measure of the achievement of Science in South Africa in one of its aspects that, while in 1906 the value of products of the land exported from South Africa amounted to £5,928,000, the corresponding figure for 1927 was £27,815,000. But if I were asked to select the most broadly significant feature in the development of Science in South Africa since 1905, I think I would pick out what one might describe as its South Africanisation. In 1905 Science in South Africa was in large measure exotic. The workers had come almost exclusively from other lands. They were only beginning to apply them- selves to our South African problems. In many cases they had not yet acquired a South African background, nor a South African outlook. In the years that have passed South Africa has claimed those workers for her own, and they have given themselves to her service. They to whom this is the land of their adoption, no less than those to whom it is the land of their birth, and whom they have taught and inspired, have made it the land of their vigorous and devoted service. , In its personnel Science in South Africa has become essentially South African. And Science has given itself with enthusiasm to the problems of South Africa. It has emphasised the specific contributions of South Africa to the wider problems of Science, it has applied itself to the removal of those obstacles which hamper the material development of South Africa, it has taken up vigor- ously the study of South African Economics and Sociology and Anthro- pology. Perhaps also one may claim that it has brought to bear on scientific investigation what we regard as the distinctive features of the South African outlook—freshness and breadth of view, receptivity to new illuminations, and readiness to see old truths in new settings and in the light of their wider bearings. Is it not South Africa that has given to Science and the world the conception of Holism? And there is surely no gift more worthily representative of the South African outlook at its 8 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. best that we could have offered. It may indeed be that that very South Africanisation of our South African Science of which I have been speaking is but another instance of the Holistic principle at work. As I speak of the South African outlook in Science, I cannot but refer you with that deep appreciation which I know we all feel, to the masterly address which four years ago General Smuts delivered from this chair, when he demon- strated in so compelling a manner (I quote his own description of the task he set himself) ‘ that there is something valuable and fruitful for Science in the South African point of view, that our particular angle of vision supplies a real vantage point of attack on some of the great problems of Science; and that, so far from the South African view-point being parochial in Science, it may prove helpful and fruitful in many ways to workers in the fields of scientific research and investigation.’ Science in South Africa, then, has made itself truly South African, and in doing so it has established itself in the admiration and affection of the people of this land. As a nation we are grateful to our scientists for their contributions to our intellectual and material progress. The liberal policy of the state in supporting scientific effort we heartily endorse, the increase in the mental stature and the prestige of the nation which Science brings to us we sincerely welcome. We are proud of our South African Science, not least because we know that we can regard it as distinctively ours. But while our Science has been South Africanised, we can rejoice that there is nothing narrow about its South Africanism. Were it other- wise, it would have been false to the spirit of Science. In applying itself to the problems of South Africa, it has succeeded in attracting the atten- tion of the scientific world to South Africa. In that address to which I have already referred, General Smuts emphasised the fact that recent events had drawn the eyes of the world to this land of ours as a rich field for scientific investigation. ‘The scope for scientific work,’ he said, ‘ in this department of knowledge ’ (he was referring more especially to Human Paleontology, but his words are of wider applicability) ‘is therefore immense; the ground lies literally cumbered with the possibilities of great discoveries. ... Science has in South Africa a splendid field of labour ; other nations may well envy us the rich ores of this great “‘ scien- tific divide ” which is our heritage.’ Those words are well worth remember- ing. We speak sometimes of our wealth in South Africa—mineral wealth, agricultural wealth, potential industrial wealth—but great also is our scientific wealth, and great is the debt we owe to South African Science for what it has done to reveal that wealth to ourselves and to the world. SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION. 9 There, then, in brief outlines, all too imperfectly drawn, is a picture of South African Science in 1929. Contrast it with the picture of 1905, and you have the measure of the achievement of a great epoch. Science consolidated, Science South Africanised, Science recognised as of great national value, both in the spiritual and in the material spheres, Science drawing to our country the eyes of the world—surely that is no unworthy achievement. And as to-night, once again after the lapse of many days, our Association makes its report to the parent body, to which it gladly pays the tribute of filial reverence, it does so with pride and satisfaction in the work of the intervening period, but also with grateful recognition of the inspiration which that visit of 1905 brought to South Africa as one of the constitutive factors in the progress of the last quarter of a century. And now it has been our privilege to welcome this second visit of the British Association. Is it strange if we ask ourselves, as we gratefully remember the stimulus of 1905, what will be the stimulus of 1929? That visit had abiding results. What will be the results of this one? That visit inaugurated a new epoch. Are we not justified in believing that once again we stand on the threshold of a great advance? If that be so, what are to be the characteristics of the period on which we are now entering, what will be its achievement ? In the period that followed the first visit of the British Association we South Africanised Science in South Africa. Is it too much to hope that in the next we shall Africanise it ? Will not this visit perhaps give us the impulse and the inspiration to a bigger and a bolder enterprise? One of the most significant tendencies evidenced in South Africa in the last few years has been the growing consciousness of our obligations in relation to the Continent of Africa. We have come to realise that the position of this European civilisation of ours set upon the verge of this great continent is a position of unique strategic import- ance, that it presents us with at once an opportunity and a challenge. While in the past we thought, as a nation, almost exclusively of our own problems and difficulties, we are now ceasing to limit our horizon by the Limpopo, we are beginning to envisage the task that awaits us beyond our own borders. And in the mind of the nation there is being developed a new conception of South Africa, of a South Africa that consciously and deliberately seeks to play its part on the African continent, not aiming at conquest or domination, but never failing in its readiness to give its intellectual and material resources to aid all who are engaged in the task of developing this great undeveloped area of the earth’s surface, which is so full of potentialities for the future welfare of the world. If then 10 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. South Africa aspires to leadership in Africa in other branches of activity, why not also in Science ? If the outlook of the nation is broadening, why should not its scientists also begin to think in continents? If as a people we are anxious to make our contribution to Africa, eager to give it of our best, rather than to get from it that which will be to our material advantage, why should not our Science also become consciously and deliberately African in its outlook, its ideals, and the tasks to which it applies itself. If Science has consolidated its position in South Africa, as we believe it has, is it not fitting that, with South Africa as its base, it should enter now into the new sphere of opportunity and achievement which stretches mightily outwards from its borders ? To you, our visitors, I look to give us the stimulus and the encourage- ment to that enterprise. You have come to Africa. This great land-mass which has reared itself against time’s passage, almost since time’s beginning, and holds inviolate so many of the records of that passage, has challenged your attention. You have come to Africa to seek new inspiration for the study of the problems that interest you, by seeing them against a different background which has for many of you an unaccustomed vastness. But while Africa was your goal, you did not think fit to enter it at the point nearest to your homes. You steamed down, day after day, skirting the long coast-line of this vast expanse of veld and forest, and have entered it by its Southern gateway. For a great body of scientists, it is the only point of effective entry into Africa. It isby way of this Southern gateway that Science itself can most effectively be made to permeate Africa. And to you, having so come, to you, the ambassadors of Science, I present— Africa. It is Africa and Science, which, I would like to think, are to- day met together. Happy indeed should be the fruits of the mating. It is to that theme—Africa and Science—that I propose now to invite your attention. What can Africa give to Science? What can Science give to Africa? Those are the questions to which I would address myself. But as I speak, I would ask you all to remember, that it is for the South African scientist that the answers to these questions have primary signifi- cance. It is for him that they have significance, because for the solution of many of the problems of South Africa a greater knowledge of Africa as a whole than is at present available is essential, and the extension of that knowledge is his personal responsibility. It is for him that they have significance because he dwells in a land which is strategically placed for attacking the problems of Africa and for drawing forth its hidden resources of scientific discovery for the enrichment of Science throughout the world. eee oe er — SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION. 11 What then can Africa give to Science? In reply to that I can do no more than suggest some of the lines along which Africa seems to be called upon to make a distinctive contribution to Science. First there are the related fields of Astronomy and Meteorology. To Astronomy I shall but make a passing reference. This continent of Africa, more especially the highlands of its interior plateau, with its clear skies and its cloudless nights, offers wonderful facilities to the astronomer. As proof of the necessity of utilising those facilities, especially with a view to the study of the Southern heavens, I need but quote the words used by Professor Kapteyn on the occasion of the 1905 visit: ‘ In all researches bearing on the construction of the universe of stars, the investigator is hindered by our ignorance of the Southern heavens. Work is accumulating in the North, which is to a great extent useless, until similar work is done in the South.’ Africa has to its credit considerable achievements in the past in the field of astronomical research. The increased equipment now available should make it possible to increase greatly the amount of systematic work now being done, and to offer important contributions to astronomical science. But probably of greater importance is the work waiting to be done in Meteorology. Few branches of Science have a more direct effect upon the welfare of mankind—that is a lesson which we in South Africa should have learnt only too well—but in few has less progress been made. And in meteorological work Africa is probably the most backward of the continents. It is not so long since Dr. Simpson of the London Meteoro- logical Office declared that, save from Egypt, his office received practically no meteorological information from the great continent of Africa. More- over, the backwardness of Meteorology is in large measure due to the intricacy of the problems involved, and the necessity of having world- wide information made available. The problems of Meteorology are emphatically not the problems of one country or of one region. The South African meteorologist must see his problems sub specie Africae (the seasonal changes in South Africa depend on the northward and southward oscillations of the great atmospheric system overlying the continent as a whole); and quite apart from what he can learn from the rest of Africa, the Antarctic regions have much to teach him. But while the develop- ment of meteorological research throughout Africa is of supreme economic importance for Africa, Africa in its turn has its contributions to make to other continents. In particular should we not forget the close inter- relation of the meteorological problems of the lands of the Southern hemi- 12 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. sphere. The central position of Africa in relation to those lands gives not only special opportunities but also special responsibilities for meteoro- logical observation and research. For the sake both of South Africa and of Science in general I would venture to express the hope that this second visit of the British Association will give as powerful a stimulus to Meteorology as did the first to Astronomy. Next, I would refer to Africa’s potential contributions to Geological Science. Africa is a continent, portions of which have always had a special interest for the geologist because of the great diversity of the geological phenomena manifested, and the vast mineral wealth which, as its ancient workings so abundantly prove, has attracted man’s industry from the very earliest times. But in our day the opportunities which it offers to the geologist to make contributions to the wider problems of Science are coming to be more fully realised than ever before. Of special interest in this connection is the light which African Geology, more especially in the form of the study of ancient glacial deposits, can throw on the Wegener hypothesis of continental drift. In the past our geologists have thought mainly of the correlation of our formations with those of Europe. It is time that they paid more attention to their possible affiliations with those of the continents to east and west of us. If Geology can establish the hypothesis that Africa is the mother continent from which India, Madagascar, and Australia on the one side and South America on the other have been dislodged, it will give a new orientation to many branches of scientific activity. For that investigation also Africa occupies a central and determinative position in relation to the other continents, such as we have noted to be the case in the sphere of Meteorology. There are many other geological problems on which Africa can probably shed much light. There is, for instance, the constitution of the earth’s deeper sub-strata, in regard to which, as Dr. Wagner has recently pointed out, the study of the volcanic Kimberlite pipes, so numerous throughout Africa south of the Equator, and of the xenoliths they contain, including the determination of their radium and thorium contents, may be of the greatest significance. There is the possibility that the exploitation of Africa’s great wealth in potentially fossil-bearing rocks of presumably pre-Cambrian age will yet yield us remains of living beings more primitive than any yet discovered ; there are the great opportunities of study which the African deserts offer in the field of desert Geology and Morphology, and there is the assistance which African Geology has rendered to vertebrate and plant Paleontology, and can render to African Anthropology in the investigation of this great SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION, 13 museum of human remains and relics, which we call the continent of Africa. I pass on to Medical Science. I have referred already to the contri- butions to the study of the problems of industrial medicine and hygiene which the special circumstances of the South African gold mining industry have made possible. Those contributions have, we may well hope, but prepared the way for advances of a revolutionary character in the early detection, prevention, and treatment of all forms of respiratory disease. But even greater are the opportunities which the continent of Africa offers for the study of tropical diseases, of which it may well be described as the homeland. In Africa there have been and necessarily must be studied the problems connected with malaria, blackwater fever, sleeping sickness, yellow fever, and many other scourges of civilisation, and from Africa there may well come hope and healing for mankind. There are other problems of Medical Science for the study of which Africa is uniquely fitted. There are the physiological questions, important also from the political point of view, which bear on the fitness of the white races to maintain a healthy existence in tropical surroundings, at high altitudes, and in excessive sunlight. For these investigations the diversity of conditions prevailing in the various regions of the African continent make it a magnificent natural laboratory. There is the elucidation of the factors which account for the varying susceptibility of white and coloured races to acute infectious diseases, tuberculosis, and certain types of malignant disease, together with the light which such elucidation may throw on the physical and chemical composition of the human body. Lastly, I would mention the exploration of that most interesting border- land between Psychiatry and Psychological Science by an analysis of the mentality of the diverse African peoples. That investigation has an important bearing not only on the limitations and capacities of racial intelligence, but also on the methods which the ruling races in Africa should follow in seeking to discharge their obligations towards their uncivilised and unenlightened fellow-Africans. Closely linked with Medical Science is the study of Animal Biology. In some instances the problems of the two branches of Science are to be approached along parallel lines; in others biological investigations are fundamental to the growth of Medical Science ; of no less significance is that unity which there is in nature, making it possible for the truths of Animal Biology to be translated into facts concerning mankind. In the African continent there is no lack of opportunity to advance Science by 14 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. physiological inquiries into animal structure, by the isolation of the parasites of human and animal diseases, and by the tracing of the life histories more especially of the minuter forms of animal life. ‘ Nowa- days’ in the words of Professor J. A. Thomson, ‘ the serpent that bites man’s heel is in nine cases out of ten microscopic.’ But scarcely less impor- tant are the extensive facilities which Africa still offers for the study of the habits and behaviour of the larger mammals. The naturalistic study of these animals, not as stuffed museum species, but in the laboratories of their native environment, has received all too scanty attention from the scientist, and this is a reproach which African Science, with its rich dowry of mammal and primate material, may confidently be expected to remove. Nor will this study of animal behaviour, especially of those animals which approach nearest to the human type, be without its bearings on our in- vestigations of the workings of the human mind. [If in this hasty survey I may take time to mention one more point within this field, I would refer to the results which await the intensified activity of the marine biologist and the oceanographer in the as yet all but virgin territory of the African coast-line. This Association of ours has long dreamed of an African Marine Biological Station as broad in its conception and comparably as useful from the wider scientific and the more narrowly economic points of view as those of Plymouth or Naples or Woods Hole, and withal a rallying point for the naturalist, the zoologist, the botanist, the geographer, the anatomist, the physiologist, indeed for all those workers whose diverse problems meet at the margin of the sea. From Animal Biology we pass by an easy transition to Anthropology, the study of man himself. And here Africa seems full of splendid promise of discovery that may verify Darwin’s belief in the probability that some- where in this land-mass was the scene of nature’s greatest creative effort. It would seem to be not without significance that Africa possesses in the chimpanzee and the gorilla those primate types which approach most nearly the form and structure of primitive man. To that must be added that in the Bushman, Pygmy, and negroid races Africa has at least two and possibly three early human stocks which are characteristi- cally her own and belong to no other continent. No less striking is the fact that in Gibraltar, in Malta, and in Palestine, that is, at each and every one of the three portals into Africa from Europe and Asia in Pleistocene times, there have been discovered evidences of the presence of Neanderthal man. In Africa itself there was found at Broken Hill some nine years ago a skull with the most primitive or bestial facial form SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION. 15 yet seen, and so closely akin to the Neanderthal stock as to establish firmly the expectation of finding further compelling evidence of a long continued Neanderthaloid occupation of the African continent. The discovery at Taungs on the one hand, which reaches out towards the unknown past, and the finds at Boskop and in the Tsitsikama on the other, which assist in linking up the period of Rhodesian man with the coming of the Bushfolk, open up to us, in conjunction with the afore- mentioned facts, a vista of anthropological continuity in Africa such as no other continent can offer. The recent investigations in the Great Rift Valley, near Elementeita in Kenya, and the fossil discoveries on the Springbok Flats, north of Pretoria, have again fixed the attention of the anthropologist on Africa. Nor are the data presently available restricted to these discoveries. The efforts of archeologists, and the application of improved scientific methods in excavation, are giving us stratigraphical evidence of the succession of stone cultures which is of the utmost importance. I have already mentioned the assistance which Geology can render in this work, but there is needed also the co-operation of those who labour in the converging fields of Anatomy, Archeology, Paleontology, and Compara- tive Zoology. That co-operation has already commenced. In the investigation of the Vaal River gravels it has yielded important results, and we may look forward to its continuance and expansion in the years that lie ahead. Of the importance of African Anthropology for the understanding of that of Kurope there can be no question. Work of importance has already been done in the study of the relations between Paleolithic Art in Kurope and Paleolithic Art in Africa. The significance of these comparisons is but emblematic of the importance of similar investigations in regard to stone cultures, rock engravings, ancient mining, stone circles and ancient ruins, methods of primitive mining and agri- culture, tribal organisation, laws and customs, indeed the whole range of the hitherto unexplained or partially explained phenomena of living and extinct cultures. There is no lack of avenues which the student of African Anthropology may follow in the hope of finding at the end of them results of supreme value for Science in general. I would speak next of the vast field, as yet almost uncharted, of phonological and philological study. Here in Africa we have great opportunities for the examination of linguistic problems, and some of them have bearings which extend far beyond the limits of Africa. One thinks first of the opportunities which Africa offers for investigating the 16 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. results of the transplantation of languages, which have a long history of cultural development behind them, to regions inhabited by primitive peoples. Here there are two sets of phenomena, each with its own special interest. On the one hand, we have the modification of the languages of those European peoples who have established themselves in Africa as permanent settled communities, under pressure of the new linguistic influences into contact with which they have been brought. Of these phenomena the study of Afrikaans offers perhaps the best examples to be found in the whole field of linguistics—its importance for the student of comparative philology is very far from being adequately appreciated. On the other hand, we have those cases where European languages have come to Africa as the languages not of settled communities, but of officials and others like them who are but temporarily domiciled in this continent, and leave no descendants behind them to carry on the process of evolu- tion of distinctive forms of speech. Here the phenomena which are of interest to the student of linguistics are to be found in the wealth of deformation and adaptation which the native populations have introduced in their endeavours to speak the European languages of their rulers. Work such as has been done by Schuchardt in Negro-Portuguese and Negro-French opens up a wide area of most attractive investigation. But the most important task in the field of African linguistics is the actual recording of the native languages of Africa, our backwardness in respect of which is a reproach to Science. Such study is, of course, im- portant in relation to Africa itself, but of even greater significance for my present purpose is its bearing on scientific problems of wider scope. In that connection I would suggest two points. We are still only at the beginning of the study of Comparative Bantu. That in due course should lead to a knowledge of Ur-Bantu. Such a study and such a knowledge will necessarily be of importance to the comparative philologist, both because of the light shed by the study of one group of languages on the study of other groups, and also because it opens the way to the investi- gation of the relationship of Bantu to the other African tongues, and its place in the general scheme of the languages of the world. But of even greater interest is the study of African languages as throwing light on the inter-penetrations and interactions of primitive peoples. Language is a function of social relationship, and its study is therefore of great value for ethnological and historical investigations. May I give one instance of what I have in mind? Two millennia back South-West Arabia was the seat of the powerful commercial civilisations of the SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION, 17 Mineans, the Sabeeans, and the Himyarites, radiating eastwards to India and south-westwards to Africa. The extent of their relationship with Africa it has hitherto been most difficult to trace, but linguistic evidence may prove to be of great value. Professor Maingard has pointed out to me that the Makaranga who live near Zimbabwe call water ‘ Bahri,’ a word closely related in form to ‘ Bahr,’ the ‘ sea’ of the Arabs, although the Makaranga themselves are not a sea-board people, and that ‘ Shava’ is their word for ‘ to sell or barter,’ while to the Himyarites ‘ Saba’ meant “to travel for a commercial purpose.’ Not less suggestive is the study of place-names, and while I do not suggest that I have evidence on which any conclusion can be based, I do contend that these investigations may prove to be of a most fruitful character. It would be interesting indeed to see what evidence linguistics can bring in respect of the relationship of South Africa with Madagascar, and also with Polynesia through Madagascar, where the tribe once dominant politically, the copper- coloured Hova, are ethnologically and linguistically Melanesians amid the darker-hued Sakalavas and other negroid tribes. It may even be that such studies will conjure up to our minds pictures of great migratory movements with Arab dhows and South Sea proas cleaving the waters of the Indian Ocean. Only last year a canoe constructed of wood native to South-Eastern Asia was found in Algoa Bay. And, finally, in this survey of what Africa can give to Science I would refer, with the utmost brevity perforce, to Africa as a field, favoured as is no other, for the study of all those complicated problems which arise from the contact of races of different colours and at diverse stages of civilisation. Of those problems, ranging from the investigations of the biological factors involved in the conception of race to the practical problems of the administration of backward peoples, I need not speak. They have come to be part almost of the everyday thinking of most civilised men. What I would emphasise is that in Africa, as nowhere else, the factors which constitute these problems can be studied both in isolation and in varying degrees of complexity of inter-relationship, that in Africa we have a great laboratory in which to-day there are going on _ before our eyes experiments which put to the test diverse social and ; political theories as to the relations between white and coloured races, that in Africa there are racial problems which demand solution, and the solution of which will affect or determine the handling of similar problems eo: the world. We hear men speak of the clash of colour, and are sometimes told that Africa is the strategic point in that struggle. e 1929 Cc 18 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. I think of it rather as the continent which offers the richest opportunities to those who would investigate racial problems in the true spirit of Science, and so discover the solutions, which may yet enable that clash to be averted and the threat which it implies to our civilisation to be dispelled. I have sought—briefly and all too inadequately—to indicate some of the lines along which Africa seems to be able to make a distinctive contribution to Science. It remains for me, yet more briefly, to speak of Africa’s challenge to Science, and to seek to answer the question, What can Science give to Africa? I shall not stop to emphasise the point, that the greatness of Africa’s potential contributions to Science, the key which perhaps she holds to the riddle of human origins, the intriguing vistas opened up in the study of her relatioriship with South America and Australasia with its suggestion of past continental continuity, that all these and more constitute a challenge to Science to actualise those — potentialities. Let me seek rather to define the two-fold challenge of Africa in another way. Firstly, Africa defies Science to unravel her past. Throughout history she has ever been the continent of mystery. She was so to that pioneer of geographers, Herodotus, to whom nothing that was told him about Africa was so improbable that he declined to give it credence. She was so to the Romans, who regarded Africa as the natural home and source of what was strange and novel and unaccustomed. She was so to the navigators who did so much to break down the barrier wall between the Middle Ages and the Modern World. And though in our day the geographical mysteries of Africa have in large measure been solved, the work of the prober of her scientific secrets is only beginning. Then, secondly, Africa challenges Science to define, to determine, and to guide her future. If the great resources of this vast undeveloped conti- nent are to be made available for humanity in our own and the succeeding generations, Science must make it possible for the man of Kuropean race to undertake that work of development, by showing him how to protect himself, his stock, and his crops against disease, by enabling him to conserve and utilise to the greatest extent the soils, the vegetation, and the water supplies of the continent, by bringing to bear the resources of modern engineering on the exploitation of its wealth, and not least by determining the lines along which white and coloured races can best live together in harmony and to their common advantage. That is the challenge of Africa to civilisation and to Science. It is not now thrown out for the first time ; it is not the first time that it will have been taken up. It is in Africa that the Greco-Roman civilisation SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION. 19 won some of its most glorious triumphs, in Africa that the spade of the archeologist has in our day, by uncovering great Roman towns with noble public buildings and efficient irrigation systems, provided impressive evidence of the magnitude of the achievement of Roman Imperialism. But Rome failed to conquer Africa for civilisation, and left the challenge to those who were to follow after. She failed chiefly for two reasons: the might of African barbarism and the defiant resistance of African nature. We in our day, confronted by the same challenge, still have the same enemies, hitherto victorious, to contend against. But we meet them with the advantage of having resources at our disposal which our Roman predecessors lacked. It is to use those resources effectively that Africa challenges Science. In dealing with African barbarism we have weapons such as Rome could never dream of, and not the least valuable are those provided by the scientific investigation of the native peoples of Africa. The way to the solution of the problems presented by African barbarism is to be sought in an understanding of the character and mentality of primitive peoples, in the exploration of those regions in their social life where are to be found the factors that determine their reaction to diverse methods of administration. The study of African languages and of African Anthropology is therefore fundamental to the development of the continent. For that work Africa possesses special advantages, and one can but hope that the facilities now being built up in our South African Universities will be recognised in Britain and elsewhere, and become an important factor in the response of Science to the challenge of Africa. - Not less formidable is the conquest of African nature, for the achieve- ment of which also we in our day are far better placed than were the Romans. It is modern Science which gives us that advantage. Three great tasks confront Science in the conquest of African nature. First, Science must make Africa safe for the white man to live in. I have spoken of the opportunities which Africa offers for the study of tropical diseases as likely to yield results of significance for Science in general. But ‘primarily will those results be of significance for the development of BD itrica: This part of the challenge of Africa is not lightly to be taken up. Africa has taken heavy toll of Science. The recent deaths in Nigeria of tokes, Young, and Noguchi, worthy followers in the tradition of Lazear and Myers, are a reaffirmation of the gravity and insistence of that allenge. The importance for the cause of civilisation of a successful yonse to that challenge cannot be illustrated better than by the story c2 20 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. of the construction of the Panama Canal. De Lesseps attempted the task and failed. For every cubic yard of earth excavated by him a human life was sacrificed to yellow fever or malaria. It was the suc- cessful attack—some twenty years later—on the death-dealing mosquito, under the direction of General Gorgas, that made possible the completion of one of the most important engineering enterprises of modern times. Secondly, Science must combat the foes which have to be contended with in the development of African agriculture. Africa is prodigal indeed in the production of insect and other foes to cattle and to crops. Science is already making an effective response to this part of the challenge. But there is much that remains to be done. And we shall be none the worse for the timely realisation by the politician and the administrator of the contributions which Science can make. All too often in the past settlement schemes have been undertaken and ended in disaster in areas unhealthy to man, beast, or crops, when, if the scientist had first been called in, precautions might have been taken which would have averted the calamity. Finally, Science must harness the great resources of Africa. And here there are suggested to us all the varied contributions which the engineer can make in the work of development. Has not the Institution of Civil Engineers defined the ideal underlying all engineering activity as ‘ the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man’? Africa offers abundance of opportunities for the realisation of that ideal. It is not by working in isolation that the engineer will realise it, but rather by co-operation with his colleagues in other branches of Science, and by the correlation and co-ordination of the essential data which they must do so much to provide. First in the order of engineering development come the civil and mining engineers. Their tasks are the provision of facilities for communication, for health, for the conservation of agricultural assets, for the production of raw material, and for the development of mineral resources. In their train there follow, with the advent of industrial activity, the mechanical and electrical engineers. Their tasks are to make the fullest use of the revolu- tion in ideas of transport, including transport by air, which have resulted from the perfecting of the internal combustion engine, and to secure the maximum advantage possible from cheap production and efficient distri- bution of electrical power. The day must come, to give a concrete instance, when the Victoria Falls, with their immense water resources, will mean much more for Africa than Niagara to-day means for America. | SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION. 21 Later still there will be called in the services of the chemical engineer, ever engaged in problems of research to ascertain the most advantageous processes of converting raw materials into manufactured articles. In all these tasks it is the South African engineer who has, under the conditions of an undeveloped land, built up a technique and practice suitable to African requirements and showing promise of wider applicability, that we may well expect to assume a position of leadership and of inspiration. These are some of the ways in which Science can respond to the challenge of Africa. The picture which I set out to portray I have now completed. I have tried to suggest something of the magnitude of the rewards which Africa has in store for the scientist who has the enterprise to adventure and the vision to see. I have sought also to be the medium of the challenge presented to Science by Africa’s opportunities and needs. It is a vast canvas on which I have had to work. On it I have drawn but a few sketchy outlines. Yet I hope that the vision stands out clear. I hope that I have said enough to convey the power of its inspiration. Not least do I hope that you, our visitors, will play a great part, in the time that you will spend with us, in filling in some of the details of the picture, and in quickening and vitalising its message for the scientists of South Africa. It is to them chiefly that it makes its appeal. The development of Science in Africa, of Africa by Science—that is the Promised Land that beckons them. I believe that they will not be disobedient to the vision. = YOu BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. THE INTERNATIONAL RELATIONSHIP OF MINERALS. BY Sir THOMAS HOLLAND, K.C.8.1., K.C.LE., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., PRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION. A FEW years ago Members of this Association looked forward annually to a generalised statement of the results of their President’s own research work in science. The rapid specialisation of science, with its consequent terminology,. has, however, made it increasingly more difficult in recent years for any worker to express himself to his fellow-members. Last year at Glasgow most of us expected that the hidden secrets of crystals would be revealed by one whose capacity for popular exposition accompanies a recognised power for extending the boundaries of science. Instead, Sir William Bragg released his store of accumulated thought on the relationship of science to craftsmanship in a way which gave each specialised worker an opportunity to adjust his sense of relativity and proportion. If I attempted now to summarise my scattered ideas on the outstanding problems of micro-petrology, I might possibly find half-a-dozen members charitably disposed to listen, and of them perhaps one might partly agree with my theoretical speculations. We have indeed to admit that the science of petrology, which vitalised geological thought at the end of the last century, has since passed into the chrysalid stage, but, we hope, only to emerge as a more perfect imago in the near future. Coincident with the excessive degree of specialisation which has developed with embarrassing rapidity within the present century, the problems of the Great War drew scientific workers from their laboratories and forced them to face problems of applied science of wider human interest. And the atmosphere of this great mining field’ stirs ideas of this wider sort—ideas concerning a field of human activity which, in recent years, has affected the course of civilised evolution more profoundly 1 The Witwatersrand. ee a ee ee ee a eee THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 23 than seems to be recognised even by students of mineral economics. This must be my excuse for inviting you to consider the special ways in which the trend of mineral exploitation since the War has placed a new meaning on our international relationships. With knowledge of the shortcomings which were felt during the War, in variety as well as quantity of metals, it was natural immediately after to review our resources, with the object in view of obtaining security for the future. But events have since developed rapidly, both in international relationships and in mineral technology. The evolution of metallurgy during the present century, and the developments in mining on which metallurgy depend, have placed new and rigid limitations on a nation’s ability to undertake and maintain a war; consequently, the control of the mineral industries may be made an insurance for peace. Let us first consider briefly how these circumstances have arisen, how each country has passed from the stage of being self-contained in variety of essential products to the most recent of all developments, the change to large-scale production that has tended to the concentration of the mineral and metal industries to certain specially favoured regions which will hold the position of dominance for several generations to come. The names of Isis, Cybele, Demeter and Ceres seem to suggest that the ancient theologians in different lands formed the same conception of those peculiar conditions in pre-historic times which made it likely that a woman—tied for long periods to the home-cave—rather than a man, was the one who first discovered the possibility of raising grain-crops by sowing seed. Whoever it was who first made this discovery was the one who diverted the evolution of man along an entirely new branch, and so laid the foundation on which our civilisation was subsequently built—the beginning of what Rousseau called ‘Le premier et plus respectabie de — tous les arts.’ Compared with this economic application of observational science, the later inventions, which seem so important to us—explosives, printing, the steam engine—were but minor incidents in the evolution of civilised activities. Previous uncertainty regarding the supply of the products of the chase, and the dangers which were necessarily attached to the collection of berries and edible roots in the jungle, became less important to the family-man when it was found possible to raise food-supplies nearer home. This discovery was thus not one of merely material advantage ; for it QA BRITISH ASSOCIATION. necessarily led to the idea of storage, and so opened up a new mental outlook for primitive man. But then this new possession of field-crops—the acquisition of cultivated real-estate—created fresh cares and new anxieties, which contained the germ of future political problems. In addition to the previous dangers from nomadic hunters and predatory carnivora, new troubles arose from other enemies—herbivorous animals, birds, insects, droughts and floods. The formation of village-groups for protection, and the development later of tribal communities resulted necessarily in the radial extension of field ‘ claims ’—what our modern politicians, with careless disregard for geometrical terminology, now call ‘ spheres of influence ’"—always dominated by the extending necessities of agriculture, the growing of crops for food and then, with the scarcity of skins, for textile materials. The mineralogist and the metallurgist were perhaps before the farmer among those earliest research workers in applied science ; but they were small folk, mere specialists in science. They have obtained a place of undue prominence in the minds of our modern students because of the adoption of their products for purposes of terminology in our conventional time-scale for those ages that preceded history. But this is due merely to the durability of implements as index ‘ fossils,’ and is in no sense a certain indication of their political and industrial importance. And then afterwards, long afterwards—indeed, up to historically recent times—national boundaries became extended or were fought for, but still mainly because agricultural products in some form were a necessity for the maintenance of communal life. When British traders first went to India, for instance, they extended their influence first along the navigable rivers for the trade in vegetable products which were raised on the alluvial lands around; and so British India, as we call it to-day to distinguish the administered areas from the residual native States, is now mainly agricultural. Even when the permanent settlement of Bengal was made in 1793 no one thought of reserving for the State the underlying coal which has since become so surprisingly important. It was the field, and the field only, that was considered to be of commercial and political importance. Agricultural products, therefore, until recently dominated the political ambitions of national units. Whether, and to what extent, the possession and use of mineral resources may now modify that dominant spirit is the principal question to which I wish to invite your attention this evening. = THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 25 Tn the evolution of man, as in the evolution of the animals that occupied the world before him, there are no sharply defined, world-wide period limits: the pre-agricultural Bushman still survives and lives the life of pre-agricultural man in this Union of South Africa. The recognition of agriculture as a leading inspiration for acquiring and holding territory has been modified occasionally by ‘ gold rushes’ into lands previously un- occupied, but they have generally had a temporary, often a relatively small, importance. The ‘ gold fever’ may be what our lighter species of newspaper calls ‘dramatic,’ but a fever is a short item in the life of a healthy man; heat-waves do not make climates. Possibly our school children are still told that Australia is noted for its goldfields, but the whole of the gold produced there since its discovery in 1851 is less in value than that of three years’ output of Australian agriculture. Even here in South Africa, which produces half the world’s supply of gold, the value of the metal is still less than that of the pastoral and agri- cultural products. Itis true that gold and diamonds introduced temporary diversions in the political expansion of South Africa, but the dominant interests of the Union are still determined by the boer-plaas and the wevveld. The adventures of the Spanish conquistadores in the sixteenth century and of their enemies, the sea-roving Norse buccaneers, were inspired by stories of gold in El Dorado. And yet the whole of the South American output of gold, even under its modern development, is almost negligible beside the pastoral and agricultural products—wheat, maize, wool, tobacco, coffee, cocoa, sugar, meat and hides. The total production of gold for the whole continent last year was worth no more than a hundredth part of the surplus of agricultural products which the Argentine alone could spare for export. Truly there is a substantial difference between the bait and the fish, between the sprat and the mackerel. The discovery and colonisation of a continent are not the only ways in which the lure of gold has often brought results more valuable than the metal itself. The efforts of philosophers from the time of the Alexandrian Greeks in trying to transmute the base metals into gold resulted in accumulating the raw materials with which Paracelsus laid the foundations of a new chemistry. Metals, we know, have been used since early times for simple imple- ments and weapons, but it was not until the industrial revolution in Great Britain that the mechanisation of industries led to any considerable development of our mineral resources, first slowly and with a limited range of products, then on a large scale and with an extended variety. 26 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. But to distinguish clearly cause from effect is not always simple. We were told at school of the remarkable series of inventors who laid the foundation of the textile industries in the north of England, and of the timely invention of the steam engine ; its application to mine pumping ; the successive construction of the steamer and the locomotive ; the pro- duction of gas from coal. But the close association of ore, fuel and flux made it possible not only to improve machinery, but to increase facilities for the transport of raw materials and their products. When Josiah Wedgwood obtained his inspiration from the remains of Greek art, then being unearthed from the ancient graves of Campania, he first turned to account the raw materials of his native county of Staffordshire, and then promoted canal and road construction to introduce the china clay from Cornwall. It is obvious that the growth, if not with equal certainty the origin of the industrial revolution was due to the close association of suitable minerals in England. It was because non-phosphoric ores were still available that, at a later stage, Bessemer was able to give that new impetus which increased the lead of the English steel maker; and so, when Thomas and Gilchrist came still later, with their invention of a basic process applicable to pig-iron made from phosphoric ores, their invention fell on barren soil in Britain. The new process, however, found applica- tions elsewhere, and, instead of adding to the stability of the English steel industry, it gave the United States the very tonic they required, whilst the industrialists of Germany—where political stability had by then been established—found the opportunity of developing the enormous phosphoric ore deposits of Alsace-Lorraine, which had been borrowed from France eight years before. And so it was through the genius of Sidney Gilchrist Thomas, and his cousin, Percy Carlyle Gilchrist, that yeciaiaie as was enabled in 1914 to try the fortune of war. For the first half-century after the industrial revolution, Great Britain was able to raise its own relatively small requirements of iron as well as of the other metals that consequently came into wider use—copper, zinc, lead and tin. The rapid expansion in steel production which followed Bessemer’s announcement of his invention at the Cheltenham meeting of the British Association in 1856, brought with it the necessity of going further afield for the accessory ores and for further supplies of non- phosphoric iron ores. The next important step in metallurgical advance came in 1888, when Sir Robert Hadfield produced his special manganese-steel ; for this led to —_— —— THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 27 the production of other ferro-alloys, and so extended our requirements in commercial quantities of metals which were previously of interest mainly in the laboratory—vanadium, tungsten, molybdenum, aluminium, chromium, cobalt and nickel. The adoption of alloys, especially the ferro-alloys, at the end of the last century opened up a new period in the newly established mineral era of the World’s history ; for, beside the in- crease in the quantity of the commoner base metals which were wanted for the growing industries of Great Britain, it was necessary now to look further afield for supplies of those metals that had hitherto been regarded as rare in quantity and nominal in value. The country in which the industrial revolution originated and gathered momentum, because of the close association of a few base metals, could no longer live on its own raw materials, and never again will do so. Even in peace time Great Britain alone consumes twice as much copper and just as much lead as the whole Empire produces. Meanwhile, developments had occurred elsewhere, notably in Germany, where political stability had been secured, and in the United States, where the Thomas-Gilchrist process also had stimulated expansion. Thus, by the beginning of the twentieth century, the industrial activities of the World had entered a new phase, which was characterised, if not yet dominated, by the necessity for minerals to maintain the expanding Arts of Peace. From this time on no nation could be self-contained ; a new era of international dependence was inaugurated, but the extent and the signifi- cance of the change was not consciously realised by our public leaders until 1914, when it was found that the developments of peace had fundamentally changed the requirements for war. Indeed, not even the German General Staff, with all its methodical thoroughness, had formed what the tacticians call a true ‘appreciation of the situation.’ Two illustrations of short- sightedness on both sides are sufficient for the present argument. Up to the outbreak of war, although the wolfram deposits of South Burma were worked almost entirely by British companies, the whole of the mineral went to Germany for the manufacture of the metal, tungsten, which was an essential constituent of high-speed tool steel. Sheffield still occupied a leading place in the production of this variety of steel, but was dependent on Germany for the metal, which the Germans obtained mainly from British ore. Under the compulsion of necessity, and without consideration of commercial cost, we succeeded before the middle of 1915 in making tungsten, whilst Germany, failing to obtain an early and favourable decision in war, used up her stocks of imported ore and turned to the 28 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Norwegian molybdenum for a substitute, until this move again was partly countered by our purchase of the Norwegian output. Germany then found that she wanted ten times more nickel than Central Europe could produce ; so she imported her supplies from the Scandinavian countries, and they being neutral, obtained nickel from another neutral country, where the Canadian ores—the World’s main source—had hitherto chiefly been smelted and refined. We thus realised, not only our dependence on other lands for the essential raw minerals, but we had the mortification of finding that, through our own previous shortcomings in the metallurgical industries, we were compelled to face lethal munitions made of metal obtained from our own ores. The political boundaries of the nations, originally delimitated on con- siderations dominantly agricultural in origin, have now no natural relation to the distribution of their minerals, which are nevertheless essential for the maintenance of industries in peace time as well as for the requirements of defence. This circumstance, as I hope to show in the sequel, gives a special meaning to measures recently designed on supplementary lines in Europe and America for the maintenance of international peace, measures which, as I also hope to show, can succeed only if the facts of mineral distribution become recognised as a controlling feature in future inter- national dealings. If minerals are essential for the maintenance of our new civilisation, they are, according to the testimony of archeology and history, worth fight- ing for; and if, according to the bad habits which we have inherited from our Tertiary ancestors, they are worth fighting for, their effective control under our reformed ideas of civilisation should be made an insurance for peace. In so attempting to correlate the facts of mineral distribution with questions of public policy, there is no danger of introducing matters controversial ; everyone here must agree on two things, namely, our desire and even hope for international peace, and consequently the necessity of surveying the mineral situation as developments in techno- logical science change the configuration of the economic world. Since the industrial revolution in Great Britain, the increase of mechanisation and consequent consumption of metals has been accelerated with each decade. It is not necessary to quote the statistical returns available for estimating the r°*~ of this acceleration, for it can be expressed in a single sentence which justifies the serious consideration of every political economist : during the first quarter of this present century alone, the world has exploited and consumed more of its mineral resources than I ———— THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 29 in all its previous history, back to the time when Eolithic man first shaped a flint to increase his efficiency as a hunter. To save you from the narcotic effect of statistical statements, I will limit myself to one illustration of this generalised statement; for this special example not only illustrates the rate of general acceleration in exploitation, but introduces an important subsidiary question, namely, the way in which activity is becoming pronounced, if not substantially limited, to a group of special areas. In the year 1870 the United States produced 69,000 tons of steel; in 1880, 1} million tons; in 1890, 4} millions ; in 1900, 10 millions, and in 1928, 45 millions. Figures like these raise questions regarding the future which would take us beyond our present thesis. For the present we can assume with fair confidence that, taking the world as a whole, the depletion of natural stores is not yet alarming, although the rate of acceleration, by reason of its local variation, forces into prominence some international problems, which will influence, and if effectively tackled will facilitate, the efforts to stabilise conditions of international relations. I have elsewhere? made estimates of the quantities of metals stored in that part of the outer film of the earth’s crust which may be regarded as reasonably accessible to the miner. The actual figures in billions of tons convey no precise mental impression to us, and need not be quoted here, but certain of the outstanding conclusions have a bearing on our present line of argument. The first feature of surprising interest to the man in the street is perhaps the relative abundance of those metals with which he is familiar in the Arts—copper, lead, tin, zinc and nickel. Nickel, in spite of its price and limited use, is twice as abundant as copper, five times as abundant as zinc, ten times as abundant as lead, and from fifty to one hundred times as abundant as tin. There are, indeed, among the so-called rare metals some which are distinctly more abundant than lead, although this is the cheapest of the lot in price, and is consumed at the rate of over a million tons a year. And so one gets at once an indication of two important features. Firstly, the miner works only those deposits in which the metal is concen- trated sufficiently to make their exploitation a profitable business; and secondly, the metalliferous ores vary greatly in the completeness with which they have been concentrated in special places to form workable 2? Presidential Address, Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, Z'rans. Vol. xxxiv. 1925, p. lvii. 30 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. ore-deposits. Nickel-ore, for instance, occurs under conditions which con- spicuously hinder its freedom of local concentration; and consequently the wide distribution of the metal and its relative abundance bring little comfort to those who are anxious about their supplies of a metal which jumps suddenly into importance with every rumour of war. We are safe in predicting that we shall never recover for use in the Arts any fraction of our total supplies of nickel as large as we shall of most of the others which have been mentioned. Indeed, nickel stands apart from the others; for, whilst it is important in peace time and is dangerously important during war, yet, under the present state of mining and metal- lurgical practice, the deposits in the world worth working for nickel can be numbered on the fingers of one hand, and nine-tenths of our supplies come from a single district in Canada. . Before discussing more precisely the significance of this and similar facts on the question of international relationships, let us consider for a moment the nature of our exploitation methods. Our reference to nickel shows that the metalliferous ores vary in their degrees of concentration, and, therefore, in their suitability for working; but, as the result of estimates made for a few common metals, we shall not be far from the average in assuming that we shall never recover more than about one- millionth of the total that lies within workable distance from the surface of our accessible dry Jand. And another conclusion, based on a similar group of calculations, shows that our greatest total tonnages are not contained in the rich deposits, but in those of low-grade. | It follows, therefore, that every advance in metallurgical science and in mining technology that makes it possible to work our low-grade ores adds appreciably to the actuarial value of civilisation ; for our mineral resources can be worked once and once only in the history of the World, and when our supplies of metalliferous ores approach exhaustion, civilisation such as we have now developed during the last century must come to anend. When a miner raises a supply of ore in concentrated form for the metallurgist, he damages, and so places beyond reach for ever, far larger quantities of residual ore than he makes available for use. When a metallurgist takes over the product of the miner and separates the refined metal for use in the Arts, he also incurs serious losses, although not to the same extent. There are thus before both the miner and the metallurgist opportunities for extending the actuarial value of civilisation; and because the cost of labour is the principal constituent in the total bill, and has recently swamped contemporaneous advances in technology, the THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 31 gradual elimination of manual labour by mechanisation is obviously the most profitable line of research. But mechanisation carries with it in general a tendency to limit opera- tions to the larger deposits, with the concurrent neglect of those propositions which are widely scattered over the earth, and, though individually small, represent in the aggregate a serious section of our limited resources. And so our operations in mining, with the family of industries dependent on minerals, tend more and more to be restricted to a few special regions, where work can be done on a large scale. So now, with this thumb-nail sketch of the way in which the new mineral era is developing, we are free to examine more closely the influence which this change in the configuration of the industrial world is likely to have on international relationships. © In the first’ place, it becomes obvious that no single country, not even the United States, is self-contained, whether for the requirements of peace or for the necessities of war. Not even the more scattered sections of the Earth that are politically united to form the British Empire contain the full variety of those minerals that are the essential raw materials of our established activities. Between them these two—the British Empire and the United States—produce over two-thirds of the 2,000 million tons of mineral that the world now consumes annually. Each of them has more than it wants of some minerals; but, in order to obtain its own requirements at economic rates, each finds it necessary to sell its surplus output to othernations. Each produces less than it wants of some minerals, and so must obtain supplies from other nations to keep its industries alive. Each of them is practically devoid of a few but not always the same § For purposes of reference I give a list of minerals, showing how the resources of the British Empire, so far as our present information goes, can be relied on. This list has been kindly revised by Mr. T. Crook of the Imperial Institute. 1. Those for which the World now depends mainly on the Empire :—Asbestos, china clay, chromite, diamonds, gold, mica, monazite, nickel and strontium. 2. Those of which we have enough and to spare :—Arsenic, cadmium, cobalt, coal fluorspar, fuller’s earth, graphite, gypsum, lead, manganese, salt, silver, tin and zinc. 3. Those in which we could be self-contained if necessary :—Bauxite, barium minerals, felspar, iron ore, magnesite, molybdenum, platinum, talc, tungsten and vanadium. 4. Those for which we are now dependent on outside sources :—Antimony, bismuth, borates, copper, petroleum, phosphates, potash, pyrites, quicksilver, sulphur and radium. A corresponding list for the United States was prepared in 1925 by a Committee under the chairmanship of Prof. C. K. Leith, and published under the joint authority of the two Mining and Metallurgical Institutions in New York. 32 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. minerals, which, though relatively small in quantity, are none the less essential links in the chain of industrial operations. Even if these two could ‘ pool ’ their resources they would still be compelled to obtain from other nations the residual few. For it is important to remember that, unlike organic substance, it is not possible to make synthetic metals, and it never will be; it is not even possible to make artificial substitutes for many essential minerals that are used as such and not merely for their metallic constituents. There is no other mineral and no artificial substance for instance that can combine the qualities which give to the mineral mica its position of importance in the Arts—its fissility in thin sheets, its transparency to light and opacity to heat rays, its stability at high temperatures, its toughness and the degree of its insulating properties. There will never be a synthetic mica. Thus the international exchange of minerals is an inevitable con- sequence of our new civilisation ; and the cry for freedom of movement, for the ‘open door’ and for equal opportunity for development comes into conflict with the unqualified formula of ‘ self-determination.’ What- ever may have been possible before the industrial revolution, when the mineral industry’ merely contributed to the simple wants of agriculture, when most national units were self-contained, the formula of ‘ self- determination ’ has come too late in the World’s history to do good without a more than consequent amount of harm. We cannot even live now without the free interchange of our minerals for those of other nations ; in the name of civilisation we dare not go to war. There is one more group of fundamental data to recall before we are in a position to point the practical lessons which follow from the newly established and prospective mineral situation. I have already referred to the way in which economic considerations tend, through large-scale produc- tion, to restrict operations to a limited number of specially favoured areas. There was a time within my memory when the primitive lohar, a survival of the aboriginal inhabitants of India, could be found in every province, nearly every district. He collected the granular mineral from the weathered outcrops of relatively lean iron-ore bodies, and, by using charcoal as a fuel, turned out blooms of malleable iron in a miniature clay furnace, using a pair of goat skins to produce the necessary blast. These primitive workers also produced small ingots of steel by the carbonisation of wrought iron in clay crucibles many centuries before the same process made Sheffield famous. But with the large-scale production of steel in western countries, a ee aes THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 33 attended by the opening of the Suez Canal, cheaper transport by steamers and the spread of railways from the coast of India, the lohar has been exterminated from all but the most remote parts of the country. His history is similar to that of other workers ; the small ore-bodies that he used are of no interest to the modern iron-master, and one result therefore of the modern movement is the neglect of a large fraction of our total resources. We are discussing, however, what is actually happening, not what we think should be a less wasteful course of evolution; natural evolution, like ‘ trial and error’ methods, is always wasteful. Primitive workers in various lands have opened up to relatively shallow depths rich but small deposits of other ores, and in Eastern countries especially, where forms of civilisation extend far back into history, the numerous and widespread ‘old workings’ have given rise to travellers’ impressions of great mineral wealth. But low-grade deposits that the ancient miner could not utilise are now opened up by mechanical! methods on a large scale; and, on the other hand, what satisfied the primitive metallurgist in abundance would be of little use to the modern furnace. We have now to revalue the tales of travellers which have had a dangerous influence on those who have directed the course of international competition ; we have to strike out of consideration the integers of the primitive worker to whom a great tonnage would form a mere decimal point in the modern unit; we have to realise that our mid-Victorian standards of metal production are gone for ever, and that the comforting after-war formula of ‘ back to normal ’ is merely a hypnotic drug to conceal the uncomfortable, one might say regrettable, dynamic conditions which have since developed at a speed that is not sufficiently recognised within our Empire. It is now misleading to speak of the wide distribution of minerals within a country as we could have done some fifteen years ago; we must now rule out the smaller deposits, and so form a new picture composed of those concentrations that are on a scale sufficient to support modern metal- lurgical units. For this reason it is necessary to review afresh the resources of the undeveloped Far East, which has for many years been regarded as a menace to Western industrial dominance. The vague general notion that mineral deposits are evenly distributed throughout the Earth’s crust has fed the impression that the development of China, which is much larger than the United States, may yet shift the centre of industrial gravity when 1929 D 34 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. her great population becomes awakened and organised by western technical science. It is true that the people of the Hast are rapidly adopting the methods and using the mechanical facilities of western nations—railways, telegraphs, power factories, steel ships and other metal-consuming devices ; but the critical investigations made by mining geologists, especially since the war, tend, with a striking degree of unanimity towards recognising the remark- able circumstances that China, as well as other countries of the Far East, is deficient in those essential deposits of minerals on which our mechanised form of civilisation is based.‘ When China was still an unknown land it was possible for after-dinner speakers to impress non-critical hearers by talk of the ‘ yellow peril’ and the ‘ challenge of Asia’; but these expressions have been used without thought of the circumstances that natural resources in minerals now sets a rigid limit to power, whether industrial or military. We have known for some time of the natural limitations of India, of Japan and of smaller political units in the East; but until very recently we have had insuffi- ciently precise data for estimating the quantitative value of the terms ‘vast’ and ‘unlimited’ which have been so often applied to China. Assuming that China may yet become a homogeneous national unit, or even assuming that her resources may become developed by Japanese energy, there is very little doubt now that, as an industrial area, the country is deficient in those minerals that form the essential basework of the modern form that civilisation has definitely taken. And the obvious limit in development, as defined by local natural resources, can be extended only to a limited degree by the importation of raw materials from other areas; for a country can buy metals only by the exchange of other products; its buying powers are limited by its selling powers. Abundant cheap labour, assisted by a semi-tropical climate, can produce an exportable surplus of food stuffs only in limited parts of the Far Hast; even the so-called luxury products, which to our early navigators formed the inspiration of what we call geographical research, are now obtained elsewhere, and some are being replaced by artificial products evolved from the chemical laboratory. Exploratory work by mining geologists tends more and more to show that the essential mineral products are far from evenly distributed over 4 A comprehensive study of this question with bibliography has recently been published by a competent and judicial authority, H. Foster Bain: “ Ores and Industry in the Far East,’ 1927. THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 35 the land areas of the world. Western Europe and North America have an undue share of those deposits that can be worked on a large scale, and it is the large-scale movement that marks the specialised character of the new industrialism. Anglo-Saxon character would have found limited scope for its energy but for the fact that nine-tenths of the coal, two-thirds of the copper and as much as 98 per cent. of the iron-ore consumed by the world come from the countries that border the North Atlantic. Dr. Wegener might like to add this fact to the data on which he has based his theory of drifting continental fragments. The industrial revolution, which began in Great Britain, has always been recognised as a dominant phase in western civilisation, but it is now assuming a new character. It spread first to the western countries of Europe, and developed there because of the favourable conditions of mineral resources, but the force of the movement faded out towards the Slavic East and the Latin South; the mechanical industries of Italy are based on imported scrap. When the new industries became transplanted west of the Atlantic the natural conditions which originally favoured Great Britain were found to be reproduced on a larger scale. Thus, in these two main areas, separated by the Atlantic Ocean, a family of industries based on mineral resources has arisen to dominate the world ; for no similar area, so far as our geological information tends to show, seems to combine the essential features in any other part of the world. Other parts of the world will continue to supply minor accessories ; and the isolated basic industries associated with coal and iron will supply local needs on a relatively small scale. But political control, which follows industrial dominance, must lie with the countries that border the North Atlantic. It is only in this region that there is any approach to the state of being self-contained. And yet since the war there has arisen, first in Europe and then by imitation in Asia, a degree of national exclusiveness more pronounced than any which marked international relations before 1914. Each small political unit has become vaguely conscious of the value of minerals, and has shown a tendency to conserve its resources for national exploitation on the assumption that they add appreciably to military security. There is, however, no such thing now as equality of nations in mineral resources ; ‘self-determination’ and the ‘closed door’ are misleading guides to the smaller nations. Political control may hamper, but cannot stem, the current of the new industrialisation ; commercial and industrial D2 36 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. integrations are stretching across political boundary-lines; and the demand for the interchange of mineral products will be satisfied in spite of fiscal barriers. It would have been a shock to our members if, before the war, political problems were discussed from this Chair, and party politics may always be inconsistent with the mental products of culture. But the results of science and technology now limit the effects of national ambitions, and therefore dominate the international political atmosphere for good or evil. One is justified always in suggesting non-controversial measures that tend to good ; and this it is proposed to do very briefly as the direct suggestion”of the new configuration of the mining and metallurgical world. The League of Nations has accomplished a large measure of inter- national understanding in questions of social value ; its influence in fore- stalling possible causes of war has raised new hopes; but fortunately, so far, it has not been compelled to use any such instrument of force as a blockade, and any such measure that clashed with the vital economic considerations of first-class powers would probably cause stresses well beyond its elastic limits. The more recent and simpler pact of Paris associated with the name of Mr. F. B. Kellogg wants equally an ultimate instrument for its practical enforcement. It was with this ultimate object in mind that the outline of my argument was drafted after the Glasgow meeting last year; but I am glad to find that my views have since been expressed independently. Senator Capper, of Kansas, in February last submitted a resolution to the American Legislature recognising this shortcoming of the simple treaty, and pro- posing to supplement its moral obligations by a corollary which, if passed, will empower the Government on behalf of the United States to refuse munitions to any nation that breaks the multilateral treaty for the renunciation of war. Senator Capper’s resolution, however, still leaves unsolved a residual problem of practical importance. Those of us who had the painful duty of deciding between civil and military necessities in the Great War, know well that there is now but little real difference between the materials required to maintain an army on a war footing and those that are essential to the necessary activities of the civilian population ; materzals essential for one purpose can be converted to articles required for the other. Thus, if Senator Capper’s resolution be adopted by those who have signed the Kellogg Treaty, either sympathy for the civil population would be stirred, or the armies would be still supplied with many essential munitions: the THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 37 definition of ‘ conditional contraband’ would still remain as a cause for international friction. A formula, still simpler but equally effective, is indicated by this review of the new situation arising from the essential use of minerals. It is suggested, therefore, as an amendment to Senator Capper’s resolution, that the simple words ‘mineral products’ be substituted for ‘arms, munitions, implements of war or other articles for use in war.’ The only two nations that can fight for long on their own natural resources are the British Empire and the United States. If they agree in refusing to export mineral products to those countries that infringe the Kellogg Pact, no war can last very long. As our friends across the Atlantic have recently learnt, it is easier to stop exports than to prevent imports : the Customs’ officer is more effective, less expensive and far less dangerous than a blockading fleet. The confederaticn of American States has the advantage of forming a compact geographical unit, without inter-State fiscal barriers to hamper the interchange of mineral products. The British Empire, in the words of Principal Nicholas Murray Butler, ‘has passed by natural and splendid evolution into the British Commonwealth of Nations’; it is composed of geographically scattered and independent political units, among which freedom of interchange, with due regard to local interests, can be effected safely only by more complete knowledge of our resources. Next year the Empire Congress of Mining and Metallurgy will meet in this city to discuss the proposition which I submitted to it at Montreal in 1927; and this Address must be regarded, therefore, as an introduction to a movement which one hopes will supply the necessary data, and so facilitate a working agreement between the two great Mineral Powers that alone have the avowed desire and the ability to ensure the peace of the world. SECTION A.—-MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. SOME PROBLEMS OF COSMICAL PHYSICS, SOLVED AND UNSOLVED. ADDRESS BY LORD RAYLEIGH, F.B.S., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. Or the activities of our section, the Cape has perhaps been more identified with astronomy than with any other branch. In the middle of the eighteenth century, when exact astronomy of the southern hemisphere may be considered to have begun, there were few, if any, other places in a considerable southern latitude where an astronomer could work in safety with the necessary help of trained artisans. This tradition worthily begins with Lacaille (1750-1751). Other landmarks were the foundation of the Cape Observatory (1821), the expedition of Sir John Herschel (1833-1838), and the forceful and energetic career of Sir David Gill, who was the life and soul of our organisation on its visit to South Africa in 1905. Shortly afterwards he retired, and I then had the privilege of friendship with him in London. Indeed I have taken these few facts and dates from the copy of his ‘ History of the Cape Observatory,’ which he gave me very shortly before his death. Although past his prime at the time I knew him, he was still vigorous and keenly interested in scientific developments ; though, if one brought anything new to his notice, a severe cross-examination as to the validity of the evidence had to be faced. It is partly on account of this association of South Africa with astronomy that I have chosen to lean as far towards this direction as I feel able, and to pass in review some subjects lying on the border-line between astronomy and physics. After the first period of success in identifying the origin of the spectral lines of the sun and stars with terrestrial materials certain outstanding cases remained which were obviously important, but in which the identification could not readily be made. The first of these cases to yield was that of helium, which was un- ravelled while some of the pioneers in astronomical spectroscopy were still active. Although in my youth I was privileged to see the discovery of helium at close quarters, I shall not go back so far. When we hear of the gas being used in millions of cubic feet for inflating large airships, we have to realise that its discovery is an old story. Kindred to the hypothesis of helium, so triumphantly vindicated by terrestrial experience, were the hypotheses of nebulium, geocoronium and coronium. The problems epitomised by the two former words have now been solved, though the solution has taken quite a different turn from what was expected by the older generation of astrophysicists. A.—_MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 89 Tue NEBULAR SPECTRUM. In the nebule are spectrum lines which have never been observed terrestrially. These are not faint members of otherwise complex spectra, such, for instance, as we have in nearly all remaining unidentified lines of the solar spectrum, but they stand out, bold and challenging, on a dark background, presenting a puzzle that was the more intriguing from its apparent simplicity. According to spectroscopic experience, now made precise and rational, simple spectra are due to light elements, This, taken with the fact that lines known to be due to hydrogen and helium accompanied the nebular lines, strongly suggested that they too were due to light elements of the class which terrestrially are known as perma- nent gases. But the fact remained that no one had succeeded in observing them in the laboratory, and as time went on the originally convenient resource of relegating them to an unknown element had become less con- venient. For the scheme of the elements became definite, and there was no room in it for new light elements. This was one of the many cases in science where the method of frontal attack has been exhausted in vain. More systematic knowledge of spectra in general, and of the spectra of the light elements in particular, was wanted before the question could be resolved. The clue was afforded by the circumstance that important nebular lines occur in pairs, obviously associated by their closeness and their constant relative intensity in different nebule and in different parts of the same nebula. The consideration of such pairs or multiplets has more than once proved an advantageous point of attack on spectroscopic problems. It was in this way that Hartley, examining the diffuse triplets of magnesium, first established the constancy of frequency intervals, thus suggesting for the first time that addition and subtraction of frequencies was the proper method of analysing spectra—an idea which appeared at that time sufficiently paradoxical. Again, the recognition of the frequency intervals of multiplets afforded the clue by which complex spectra such as manganese and iron were first unravelled. It is found then that the frequency difference of the green pair of lines originally discovered by Huggins, and known as N, and N, is 193 waves per centimetre. I. 8. Bowen, to whom we owe the final elucidation of this enigma, sought for an equal interval in the spectrum of doubly ionised oxygen which he was analysing and found it in the interval between the low-lying levels designated as I°P, and I’P,. This is hardly enough in itself to establish the suggested origin ; to do that it is necessary to fix, not only the interval between the nebular lines, but their position as well. The lines were attributed to intercombination between one singlet upper level and two lower levels belonging to a triplet, the third being excluded by the rule of inner quantum numbers. To fix the differences of the terms concerned it was necessary to connect the singlet and triplet levels by an intercombination line observed in the laboratory _ spectrum of doubly ionised oxygen. This was done by A. Fowler, who, - combining Bowen’s laboratory data with his own, was able to get a fairly _ satisfactory check on the observed position of the nebular pair. Practically no doubt remains, in view of the fact that other less well-known nebular 40 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. lines can be similarly explained as due to singly ionised nitrogen and singly ionised oxygen. The identification of these lines was made by ignoring so far as conveni- ent the rules of the quantum theory which had been evolved from labora- tory experience, and given some theoretical basis by Bohr and his followers. These rules forbid certain lines which might occur according to the com- bination principle. When a state of excitation of the atom is such that it cannot directly pass to a lower state without breaking one of these rules, that state is called metastable ; and this is the case which we have in the nebular lines. JI shall return presently to the consideration of metastable states and ‘ forbidden ’ lines. Tue AvURORAL SPECTRUM. The next cosmical problem I wish to refer to is the long outstanding one of the green line of the aurora. This was first seen by A. J. Angstrom at Upsala in 1868, and he recorded the observation in one of the supple- mentary notes at the end of his great paper in which an extensive scale of wave-lengths for the solar spectrum was first established. In this case the enigmatic line is even more isolated than in the case of the nebule, since, except in the case of unusually bright auroras, one can see nothing else in the spectrum at all. For some years I took every available opportunity of looking at this spectrum, and never did so without a deep sense of mystery. The origin of the line was not in this case in the depths of space, but in our own atmosphere at the distance of a short railway journey from the observer. Yet an apparently exhaustive study of the spectra to be obtained from terrestrial gases by the combined efforts of very many experimenters gave no clue to its origin. As is well known, the clue was eventually found by McLennan, who was able to produce the line by heavy electric discharges in a mixture of oxygen and helium, or, better, oxygen and argon. Oxygen is essential, and there is now no doubt that the aurora line is an oxygen line, but the function of the inert gas is not very clear, though various more or less plausible guesses may be made. To have established that the line is due to oxygen is an immense step forward. There is, however, yet more to be done, for we do not know how to get the green line alone or with only the negative nitrogen bands as we see it in the sky. In the artificial spectrum the ordinary oxygen lines and the lines of the inert gas, helium or argon as the case may be, are conspicuous. The wave-length of the auroral line could not be foreseen or calculated from our present knowledge of the arc spectrum of oxygen. In this case we have only a single line to deal with, and are thus without the invaluable clue afforded in the”case of the nebule”by the frequency separations of a doublet or triplet. There is, however, no difficulty in finding a conjectural place for it in the scheme of the oxygen arc spectrum as given by Hund’s theory. This theory, which may be regarded as a generalisation of all our knowledge of line spectra, affords a kind of frame into which we may confidently hope to fit new empirical knowledge as it accumulates. McLennan, arguing from the fact that nitrogen bands do not appear in the spectrum of the night sky, which, however, shows the green line, A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 41 takes the excitation potential as less than 11°5 volts. This condition excludes very many possibilities. Indeed, if we are to be bound by the selection rules, it excludes all the possibilities. So, with the example of the nebule before him, McLennan waives these rules, and assigns the green line to a transition from one or other of the low-lying metastable states which the theory indicates. The lowest state of all should be a triplet, and owing to the absence of companions to the green line this may very probably be excluded. Tf so, only one alternative remains, and the successful determination of the Zeeman effect carried out in McLennan’s laboratory is in harmony with the choice so arrived at. An independent investigation by L. H. Sommer, published immediately afterwards, covered exactly the same ground, and led him to the same choice. This is satisfactory so far, but the position will be much strengthened and consolidated when we have an independent determination of the levels in question, giving the means of calculating a theoretical wave-length for comparison with that observed. To do this will require a fuller survey of the Schumann region of the are spectrum than has yet been made. For the aurora line we have the experi- mental production from oxygen but not the numerical spectroscopic relation. For the nebular lines our position is exactly the reverse. The origin of the green auroral line has thus been definitely cleared up, at all events in so far that it is attributable to the arc spectrum of oxygen. There are, however, other features of the auroral spectrum which are still obseure. I will limit myself to discussion of one of them—the red line of the aurora. Red auroras are comparatively rare, and when they do occur the distribution of colour presents very curious features. In some cases the ends of the streamers are tipped with red, while the greater part of the length is green. The only reddish aurora which I have been privi- leged to observe at my home in the south of England (May 14, 1921) was of a different character, the colour ranging rapidly through various shades of purple. The light was distributed in irregular patches high up near the zenith, though predominantly in the north. At the same time its position was highly unstable, and the general impression produced was reminiscent of high potential discharges in highly exhausted vacuum tubes. Vegard has described cases where the whole sky suddenly turned crimson. He has obtained good small-scale spectrograms of the red line, which give the position as 46322, which, however, is subject to a probable error of at least =1A°. A determination by V. M. Slipher of the Lowell Observatory gave A6320. So far as can be judged from the evidence available, no pair of the low- lying levels of the oxygen are scheme which McLennan has discussed in connection with the aurora are suitably placed to yield this red line by combination. We naturally turn to the consideration of nitrogen spectra, which, as is well known, are represented in the blue and violet regions of the auroral spectrum. I described in 1922 a spectrum in which one of the first positive bands of nitrogen (6323 was very much intensified relative to the neighbouring red bands, which ordinarily are of comparable brightness. This spectrum was produced by adding a large excess of helium to the nitrogen afterglow, and the source had a visual red colour dominated by this band. In 42 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. describing this work it was suggested as a possibility that this was the origin of the red auroral line, and somewhat similar ideas have been revived by McLennan in his recent Bakerian lecture. But there are difficulties to be met. Photographically two yellow nitrogen bands come in with intensity equal or superior to the red one, and these have no counterpart in auroral spectra. Moreover, the wave-length data for the red auroral line are far from being accurate enough for an identification depending on a single coincidence only. One of the most urgent problems in auroral work is an adequate wave-length determination of this red line from a large-scale spectrogram. CoRONIUM. A problem which has generally been classed with those we have been discussing is that of the lines in the sun’s corona, attributed to a hypothetical coronium. In the light of our present knowledge it is not probable, perhaps we may say not possible, that an unknown element coronium exists. Attempts have not been wanting to identify these lines with known elements. The latest is by Freeman, working in the Ryerson Laboratory of Chicago, who seeks to attribute the lines to argon. He thinks, for instance, that the strong visual green line, from which the conception of coronium arose, may result from two different transitions in the argon atom, being in reality double. One of his proposed transitions would give the fifth line of a possible series, and the other the ninth member of an actual series. But none of the earlier members of either of these series are seen in the corona, and this seems fatal to the identification proposed. We could not assign an observed line at A3771 as H, (H iota) if H , H, and H, and the other earlier members of the series were miss- ing, yet this would be an analogous case. T think we must consider the origin of the strong lines of the corona as an unsolved problem. The possibility of their being in reality heads of molecular bands must be kept in view. EXCITATION OF THE VARIOUS SPECTRA. We have discussed these cosmical spectra so far chiefly from the standpoint of the spectroscopist. It will now be of interest to consider the probable mode of excitation of some of them. Let us consider first the polar aurora ;- this, as is well known, is closely bound up with exceptional conditions of magnetic disturbance, and these in turn are conditioned by solar influence. As regards the nature of this influence, the theory of Birkeland, elaborated by Stérmer, still holds the field. The sun was regarded by them as emitting localised streams of electrically-charged particles from limited areas of its surface. The unrivalled advantages of this theory are that it allows the solar action to be emitted in a highly specialised direction, thus accounting for the sudden commencements of magnetic storms all over the globe, and their tendency to recur after the twenty-seven days of a solar rotation have passed: and further, that by the earth’s magnetic field the action can be got round to the night side of the earth. But this theory in its original simplicity has required a good deal of patching, and it is difficult ~ a e A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 48 to feel much satisfaction with the special ad hoc hypotheses which have had to be introduced into it. A stream of particles with a charge of one sign only is open to the criticism, first put forward by Schuster, that the stream will dissipate itself by electrostatic repulsion, and loses the hard outline which is one of the most essential features. Lindemann has proposed to get over the difficulty by making the stream neutral on the whole, still consisting, however, of charged particles of both signs. Here, however, we lose too much of the magnetic flexibility of the stream. Chapman proposes to retain a slight excess of charge of one sign, and in this way is able to arrive at a tolerable compromise. But one feels that more experimental guidance is badly needed before we can venture with confidence into these theoretically dark regions. The search for direct evidence might not seem at first sight very hopeful, but not long ago a sensational suggestion was made by Stérmer. His attention was drawn by Hals to echoes heard after short-wave (131 metres) wireless signals sent out from EKindhoven in Holland. These echoes have been found by Stérmer and Hals at long intervals up to as much as fifteen seconds after the original reception. Now, if we bear in mind that with the velocity of light the longest terrestrial distances only give intervals about + of a second, it seems inevitable that some extra-terrestrial reflector should be looked for. Stormer finds this in the corpuscular stream as bent round by the earth’s magnetic force. Though the boldness of the idea is staggering, it is difficult to suggest any alternative view. Stormer states that ‘the variability of the phenomenon indicated by the observations agrees well with the corresponding variability of aurora and the magnetic registrations.’ T. L. Eckersley has made an observation on electrical disturbances of natural origin which he interprets as analogous to Stérmer’s. A click is heard in a telephone attached to a large aerial, which is followed at an interval of about three seconds by a ‘ whistler’ or musical note of short duration. Further whistlers follow at intervals of 3:8 seconds, each more drawn out than the previous. The musical notes are regarded as due to the spreading action of a dispersive medium on an electrical impulse. It is only at times of magnetic storm that these phenomena are frequent. Further development of observations of this kind will be awaited with keen interest. To return to the nebular spectrum: although the main problem has been cleared up in the way described, it would still be an important step to imitate the spectrum in the laboratory, not so much to confirm the origin of the lines as to get direct information about the conditions under which they may be excited. No success has yet been obtained in this direction, but it is fairly clear how the attempt should be made. We must have conditions capable of exciting the lines of doubly ionised oxygen and attempt to work in a large volume at high rarefaction. A large volume and high rarefaction (rarity of collisions) is suggested by the nebular conditions, and was plausibly held by Bowen to be an essential. It must be allowed, however, that such experimental evidence as we have at present on passage downwards from metastable states does not definitely point in this direction. 44 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. In such attempts what Darwin called ‘fool experiments’ and what prospectors for oil call ‘ wild catting,’ are not to be discouraged. Indeed, many of the most fruitful discoveries are really made in this way. The logic is put in afterwards. That is what happened in the case of the 3-electrode thermionic valve. Thanks to the work of Wright, Hubble and others, the source of excita- tion in the bright line nebule no longer appears inexplicable. We have the cardinal fact that in nearly all cases stars of early type, capable of affording radiations of high frequency, are involved in the nebule. The two or three apparent exceptions, though deserving of the closest scrutiny, do not at present seem to have enough weight to upset a generalisation which rests on a great number of cases. It is true that we cannot observe these short waves, the maximum of intensity in the spectrum being hidden from our view by the layer of ozone overhead, which I shall say more of presently. But we can confidently infer their existence by extrapolating from what we can see, and correcting for what we know of atmospheric absorption. The cases of some of the central nuclei of the planetary nebule are specially satisfying from the definite relation of the star to the nebula and the adequate character of the star itself. W. H. Wright, writing in 1918, before these views had emerged, and without any thesis to maintain, expressed himself as follows :— ‘I cannot but believe that this wonderful richness in ultraviolet light which gives the spectra of nebular nuclei their characteristic appearance, in spite of the great difference which they exhibit in the matter of bright bands, is the dominating peculiarity which must be regarded as the distinguishing mark of this group of objects.’ It has been suggested that the general penetrating cosmic radiation of which we have heard so much of late stimulates the nebular spectrum ; but upon the facts available this hypothesis hardly seems necessary or helpful. THE Dark PaTcHES IN THE NEBULA. There is another aspect of the diffuse galactic nebule which remains obscure in more senses than one. It is seen to special advantage in such objects as the ‘trifid’ nebula in Sagittarius. Dark regions are, as it were, interlarded with the bright ones in a way which strongly suggests that we have to do with complementary aspects of the same phenomenon somewhat in the same way that, for instance, the emission of a fluorescent body is connected with its absorption. Yet it is very difficult to pursue this line of thought into satisfactory detail. The opacity is quite unrelated to the emission, and indeed it presents the baffling peculiarity of having no peculiarity. For apparently every part of the spectrum of the stars lying beyond is obscured in the same ratio. Experimenters in the field of optics know how difficult it is to secure a result of this kind in the laboratory, particularly when the ultraviolet spectrum has to be included. Even fairly opaque gases like iodine vapour which are at our disposal show markedly selective absorption, and in terrestrial experiment recourse is usually had to the partial action of a solid obstruction such as a spinning 1 Lick Observatory, vol. xiii, p. 252, 1918. A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 45 sector or a wire gauze not seen in focus. The astronomical equivalent of these devices is a swarm of meteorites, and it may be necessary to invoke their aid, but the rare gaseous atmosphere required to give the line spectrum of hydrogen, helium, nitrogen and oxygen cannot be considered to blend harmoniously with a swarm of meteorites or to have anything like a comple- mentary relation to it ; and it is particularly difficult to understand from this pot of view how it can come about that the bright nebular lines are often seen on a profoundly dark background almost or quite free from continuous spectrum. CoMETS. A kindred problem is that of the luminosity of comets. This has been discussed by Zanstra in a recent paper. [M.N., Dec., 1928]. He takes the view that the Swan bands of carbon are resonance bands excited by light from the sun in the visual spectrum, the gases being at an ordinary temperature such as prevails at the earth’s surface. If these are really the conditions, the problem of imitating the comet seems ideally easy from the laboratory point of view. The Swan spectrum should appear in absorption of suitable carbonaceous gases, contained in a vessel at the ordinary temperature ; and it should be observable in lateral emission. I cannot help thinking that if nothing more than this was necessary, the thing would have been done before now. In the case of the D line sodium, treated by Zanstra as quite analogous, it has of course been done long ago in the phenomenon described by R. W. Wood, and called resonance radiation. METASTABLE SraTEs. In discussing the nebular and auroral spectra, we encountered the idea of “metastable states.’ At present this conception is not in a very satisfactory condition. The original idea was of a state which did not allow of direct transition by emission of radiation to the stable ordinary state. Let us compare the level of the atom to the stories of a building and the optical electron to a man inside the building. The ordinary state of the atom is represented by the man being on the ground floor, and the meta- stable state by placing him on the first floor. But the internal architecture of our building must be pictured as peculiar. A staircase connects the first floor with the second floor, and another staircase connects the second floor with the ground floor: but there is no connection between the first floor and the ground floor except by going up higher and coming down again. Such, I say, was the original conception, but facts which have since come to light require some revision of it. In the nebulz the electron manages somehow to escape from its prison- house, and descend to the level below not by the legitimate route of going upstairs and down again, but by illicitly breaking through the floor, contrary to the rules of the establishment. Abandoning the metaphor, and the attempt to use popular language, the selection rule which forbids transitions not involving a change in the azimuthal quantum number is violated in all such cases. The inner quantum number rule, which requires that the inner quantum number should not change from 2 to 0 or from 0 to 0 is also violated in one class of cases, and rather meticulously observed in another. 46 SECTIONAL ADDRESSKES. This rule permits only the pair of green nebular lines in doubly ionised oxygen which we have discussed ; and in deference to it only two are observed, instead of the three which apart from this might have been expected from the triplet ground state. Yet we find the blue singlet line A4363 of this ion violating the same rule, and the same’ applies to the analogous case of the aurora line, if we adopt McLennan’s view of its position in the scheme of the arc spectrum. In the case of the mercury spectrum, which lends itself well to experi- mental observation and of which much detail is known, we have laboratory examples of the violation of this rule, as originally shown by experiments of Takamine, Fukuda and other Japanese physicists. The lines were originally obtained under conditions where a strong electric field was acting, and this was sometimes urged in mitigation for breaking the rule. Again, the lines were of low intensity, and this too was thought to be a partial excuse. Whatever might have been thought of these apologies originally their irrelevance was, I think, clearly shown in some experiments of my own, in which one of the ‘forbidden’ mercury lines was obtained as the second strongest line in the entire mercury emission spectrum, in the vapour passing through a discharge, but altogether away from the region in which the discharge itself was taking place, and consequently in the absence of an extraneous electric field. In another experiment I was able to obtain the other forbidden line as an absorption line in unexcited mercury vapour, and thus apparently in the absence of any disturbing conditions. In this experiment the quantity of vapour used was very large, about ten million times the amount required to bring out the resonance line of mercury in absorption. The probability of the transition thus indicated is very low, and for the other forbidden line it is apparently still lower. But for all that, as we have seen, this forbidden line can be got in considerable intensity in emission. The necessary condition in the mercury experiments appears to be a large accumulation of mercury atoms in the relevant metastable state, so that. even with a low probability of transition for the individual excited atom a considerable number of transitions occur. It has even been proposed to define a metastable state as one with a low probability of transition. This takes us far from the original concep- tion, and makes ‘ metastability’ merely a question of degree. Some recent results which I hope to bring before the section at a later stage in our proceedings seem to indicate that even the normal excited state may possibly persist for a much longer time than has hitherto been supposed. If this conclusion is accepted, a far-reaching revision of our present notions may become necessary. The general softening of outline in our picture of atomic events resulting from the substitution of wave groups for particles seems likely to afford what is required, and to allow the occasional transition downwards from a metastable state. OZONE. The case of the nebular spectrum affords an illustration of how spectro- scopic theory, working on laboratory data gained in the remote ultraviolet region, enables us to some extent to turn the difficulties which arise from A.—_MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 47 our inability to examine this region in celestial spectra. The veil of atmospheric ozone overhead cuts off the spectra of the sun and stars and thus hides much of the ultraviolet, constituting a great obstacle to astro- physical research. On the other side of the account we may remember that it protects our persons from the harmful ultraviolet rays, and that without it we might not be here to conduct research at all. It has been ‘suggested by Cario, R. W. Wood and others that on the view that atmospheric ozone is generated by the absorption of short-wave lengths in the sun’s spectrum, it may be absent in the Arctic during the polar night. This possibility has been put to the test by Rosseland, but with negative results. It is doubtful whether his station was far enough away from the sunlight to make his result absolutely final. But other omens are un- favourable. Thus Chalonge has found that the amount of ozone present in the night (using the moon as a source) is notably more than by day ; and Dobson, Harrison and Lawrence have found that when the meteoro- logical conditions are such as to bring air from the Arctic, the ozone content goes up, and that this is particularly marked in spring, when the Arctic has been without sunlight for months. The point is, however, of great interest in itself, and makes the question acute of how the ozone is generated. For in view of these facts it seems hard, as Dobson has pointed out, to regard it as the product of the sun’s ultraviolet radiation. No search seems yet to have been made for ozone in the planetary atmospheres. In the cases of Mars, Jupiter and Saturn at all events, the problem is not at first sight specially difficult. It would not be easy to establish a positive result, however, unless the atmospheres of these planets possess an ozone stratum at least comparable in effective thickness with the terrestrial one. PossIBILITY oF UNKNowN ELEMENTS or Higu Atomic WEIGHT. Although we are no longer at liberty to postulate unknown light elements, we are free up to the present to postulate heavier ones than any known terrestrially. Jeans, as is well known, has made use of this hypothesis to explain the origin of stellar energy. In common with other authorities he provides it by the destruction of matter, with radiation of the equivalent quantity of energy (MC’) demanded by the theory of relativity. So far there seems to be fairly general agreement. The difficulties arise when we come to the question of stability, and here agreement is not general. Jeans considers that the source must liberate energy at a rate independent of the temperature. I am not qualified, and shall not attempt, to discuss this point. The object of postulating un- known heavy elements is to endow them with the property of going out of existence spontaneously at a rate which is independent of external condition, except in so far as ionisation, which involves the removal of some of the electrons from the neighbourhood of protons, tends to hinder the process. . In the known radioactive elements we have of course instances of unstable forms of matter, and Jeans regards these as transitional ; but it must be admitted that substances which undergo spontaneous disin- tegration do not at first sight form an altogether satisfactory halfway house between those which are quite stable on the one side and those which 48 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. spontaneously go out of existence on the other. Then we have to explain why these heavy atoms are not found on the earth, which, it is generally agreed, originally formed part of the same mass as the sun. Jeans mentions this difficulty, and gives reasons for thinking that the heavy elements would sink to the interior of the mass, so that the earth, formed from the exterior part of it, would not contain them. That a vera causa is here appealed to cannot be doubted; but there seem to be some difficulties in assuming that it operates with enough precision to secure the desired result. The list of known elements ends with uranium, and we must notice that the occupants of the 92 places up to and including uranium in the list, nearly all answer to their proper numbers when the roll is called. The only exceptions are 85 and 87. And he would be a rash philosopher who attached much importance to these vacant places, which may be filled up any day. Roughly speaking, we may say that the elements up to uranium are all present, and the higher members assumed to exist in the stars are all absent. It is putting a heavy burden on the mechanism of gravitational separation to expect it to achieve this result. The inventors of ore-dressing machinery would, I should imagine, despair of accomplishing anything like it. Nature works on a vast scale and with plenty of time at her disposal, and it may well be urged that we must be careful of measuring her possible achievements by our own. We may ask, however, whether the more direct indications available suggest that she has in fact made this separa- tion. If there is this cut between the atomic numbers 92 and 93, we should expect most of 92 to have gone into limbo in order to ensure the whole of 93 having done so. Yet 92 (uranium) is a relatively abundant element compared with most, being in fact No. 25 on the list of abundance in igneous rocks, according to the estimate of Clark and Washington. Again, we happen to be in a position to say that on the earth at least, uranium, so far from having sunk to the centre, is concentrated near the surface. This is inferred from the known outflow of heat from the earth, which is difficult to reconcile with the observed amount of radioactive matter near the surface, and impossible to reconcile with the existence of a comparable amount in the interior. Assuming that uranium exists on the sun as on the earth, then, as first pointed out by Lindemann, there are strong grounds for thinking that it must be in course of formation there, for the life of uranium is too short in comparison with the probable age of the sun to allow us to suppose otherwise. Those who remember the early development of radioactivity will recall that a parallel argument was successfully used by Rutherford to prove that radium must have originated on the earth before the fact was directly proved that it is being generated here. Radium (it was later shown) is generated from a parent body of higher atomic weight, namely uranium. Jeans would regard the origin of uranium itself as analogous, and if this analogy is accepted it would require the presence of an element of still higher atomic weight, capable of undergoing radio- active disintegration, but, it is to be observed, incapable, ex hypothest, of dissolving entirely into radiation. No doubt these are very deep waters, and we can hardly expect at A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 49 present to fathom them. What would really be most helpful would be a theory of atomic structure in sufficiently definite agreement with experi- ment as regards known elements to enable us to proceed to investigate the properties of elements of higher number than 92 with confidence. On the general question of whether the evolution of elements has proceeded from the simple to the complex, or from the complex to the simple, it does not seem to me very much to the purpose to appeal to evolutionary doctrine and the analogy of organic evolution, in favour of the former alternative. Is it not more to the point that the only cases we can observe (radioactive changes and those induced by radioactive bombard- ment) are of the latter class? At present this is a question of scientific taste. Perhaps it is not irrelevant to remark that even in organic evolution degeneration of organisms sometimes occurs, and I do not know whether our biological colleagues are in a position to assert that the whole course of organic evolution may not at some future time be reversed by a change of conditions. At all events it is something to have formulated the more restricted question of whether uranium now comes into being on the sun by a synthetic or an analytic process. It would seem that this is a well-framed question, and that the answer can hardly be either both or neither. CoNCLUSION. The great success of theoretical investigations in recent times naturally leads enterprising spirits to use them not only in interpreting what we know or can verify by observation, but to lead us into regions where experiment is not available as a check. I believe that this does nothing but good in times like ours, when there is no danger of the doctrines even of a master being unduly pressed, if the evidence of observed fact turns against them. At the same time, we must not expect too much of pure intellect unchecked by observation. Theories that do not stand the test of time pass for the most part into complete oblivion, and we are apt to forget how appallingly ° large a mass of wreckage the total of them represents. The next generation remembers chiefly those that survive, and does not take full advantage of the lesson of how easy it is for an apparently inevitable conclusion to be wrong. Unless the argument carries its own verification by some accurate and previously unforeseen numerical coincidence, it is hard indeed to tell if we are on the right track. Though some of the problems we have been discussing have been only partially or not at all resolved, yet many possible points of approach are opening to our view. The attack on Nature’s secrets is now conducted along a long line of battle. No sooner does the defence show signs of crumbling at any point than an eager crowd of combatants, not restrained by any undue respect for the traditional modes of scientific thinking, are ready to throw them- _ selves into the breach. The great array of trained workers in pure science existing in the modern community is powerfully reinforced by workers in applied science, who are backed by the resources of the industrial and financial world and hand back to the physical laboratory the devices which had their birth there in a form infinitely strengthened in power and convenience of application. Thus rearmed with weapons of greater power 1929 E 50 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. and precision, pure science advances again to the attack of fresh territory, and so the process goes on at an ever accelerating rate.. How long this acceleration is destined to continue it is impossible to say. It shows few signs of abating at present. But for all that I for one am not afraid that our successors will be able to complain that we have left them no more worlds to conquer. CO SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY. THE RELATION OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY TO BIOLOGY ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR GEORGE BARGER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. Since the British Association first met in South Africa, Afrikaans has become an official language, and I will therefore take as my point of departure the Dutch word for chemistry, still commonly used in Holland : Scheikunde, the science of separating. The German analogue, ‘ Scheide- kunst,’ hardly applies to chemistry as a whole, and is now mainly restricted to the separation of gold and silver—‘ parting, as we say. Since the purification of a substance is merely the separation of impurities, and since purification constitutes no small part of the labours of the chemist, whether he be an inorganic, an organic, or a biochemist, it will be seen that the Dutch term is really apt ; it is, moreover, an accurate description of chemical analysis; perhaps it will appeal least to those physical chemists who are content to leave the purification of their materials to the manufacturer. Since, in the last resort, we are dependent on naturally occurring materials, which hardly ever occur in a state of purity, it follows that the early chemists were even more concerned with separating one substance from another than many of us are to-day. Progress was at first limited to mineral substances capable of withstanding powerful reagents and a high temperature ; much of the old chemistry is concerned with the heavy metals. The substances formed in such large numbers by living beings are much less stable, and their isolation demands a special technique. It is significant that, in spite of their knowledge of the smelting of ores, of the manufacture of glass, and of many other arts, the ancients failed to distil alcohol. Later, the chemical investigation of organic material was apt to consist in destructive distillation, naturally adding little to knowledge. Only the more volatile and stable substances - could be isolated in this fashion. Thus, in 1770, four acids were known, formic and acetic, obtained by distillation, succinic and benzoic, obtained _ by sublimation. Oxalates and tartrates were known, but not the free acids. By distilling alcohol with strong acids, ether, ethyl nitrate, and _ ethyl chloride had been obtained.1 The wet method of separation, by a P q crystallisation from solution, had scarcely been applied to organic substances. Nevertheless Marggraf of Berlin had isolated beet sugar in 1747 ; this chemist was also the first to purify glucose. 1T have taken these and some other details from Graebe’s Geschichte der organischen Chemie. E2 52 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. An important systematic advance was made by C. W. Scheele (1742-1786), whose contributions to organic chemistry are almost as important as his discovery of oxygen. Scheele was a pharmacist, and most of the early chemists were trained as such, or as physicians, from the iatro-chemical period onwards. This old connection between chemistry and medicine was, however, hardly a biological one. Joseph Black’s work on fixed air and the mild alkalies indeed originated in medicine, from his M.D. dissertation, ‘De humore acido a cibis orto et magnesia alba,’ but the subsequent developments of Black’s work were not biological in character. Again, although Berzelius was trained as a physician, his work had little connection with biology. The use of vegetable drugs, however, led pharmacists to examine the constituents of plants, and thus the foundations of descriptive biochemistry were laid. Scheele investigated a number of organic acids in the wet way. He obtained tartaric acid in 1769, and later benzoic acid by boiling gum benzoin with lime. He first prepared lactic acid (1780) from sour milk, and mucic acid by oxidation of milk sugar. When soon afterwards mucic acid was also obtained from gum tragacanth, it became evident that one and the same substance may be derived from both animal and vegetable sources. Oxalic acid was obtained from the acid potassium salt in Ozalis acetosella, and shown to be identical with an oxidation product of cane sugar. Scheele also obtained citric, malic, and even gallic acid by crystallisation from solution. Of more general biological interest is his discovery of uric acid, of glycerol and of hydrocyanic acid ; the last (acidum berolinense) by heating potassium ferrocyanide with dilute sulphuric acid. Scheele’s discovery that esterification is greatly furthered by the presence of mineral acids Jater became important in connection with catalysis, but theoretical speculations were foreign to his nature, and he was not greatly concerned with the essential character of acids. Such questions appealed more strongly to Lavoisier, who improved the nomenclature of organic acids and also investigated alcoholic fermentation, a biochemical process which early engaged the attention of chemists. Of course both Scheele and Lavoisier benefited biology more by dis- covering and investigating oxygen than by their contributions to organic chemistry. These latter contributions already illustrate two trends in organic chemical research. There were those who, like Lavoisier, were attracted by theoretical questions. Such were Gay-Lussac, Bunsen, and Frankland, who investigated radicles; Dumas, Gerhardt, and Laurent, who evolved the theory of substitution and of types; Wurtz, Hofmann, and Williamson, the forerunners of Kekulé in establishing the theory of structure, which soon became the common ground of all organic chemists. A knowledge of structure gave a great impetus to organic synthesis, not only in the laboratory, for theoretical purposes, but also in the factory for practical uses; the manufacture of dyes, of synthetic drugs, of explosives became an important industry. The number of known carbon compounds grew at an enormous rate. In 1883 some 20,000 were regis- tered in Richter’s Lexicon, in 1899 74,000, in 1910 144,000, and the number now is probably not much short of a quarter of a million. More than half of these are derived from coal tar, and only a small proportion occur B.—CHEMISTRY. 538 in animals and plants. Instead of being the chemistry of organised beings, organic chemistry became the chemistry of carbon compounds. Until the present century the proportion of chemists who, like Scheele, _ were interested in natural products steadily declined, and biology became of little interest to chemists as a whole, but physiologists have more and _ more realised the importance of chemistry for their subject and the intermediate subject of biochemistry has rapidly developed. The systematic study of natural products, inaugurated by Scheele, was at first continued most successfully in France, by Fourcroy, Vauquelin, and their pupils. Both were at the Jardin des Plantes, and Vauquelin was afterwards at the Faculté de Médecine. Conjointly they discovered urea and hippuric acid, Vauquelin allantoin and asparagin. In 1800 about twenty acids were known, but only one hydrocarbon (ethylene) and one alcohol. The knowledge of organic substances slowly increased. Braconnot, a pharmacist and later director of the botanic garden at Nancy, examined plants and discovered substances such as salicin and ellagic acid, of no particular importance to physiology, but also obtained glucose from cellulose (linen) and ‘sucre de gélatine’ or glycine from glue, thus making _ two fundamental observations in biochemistry. Kirchhoff, a German pharmacist, working at St. Petersburg, had already shown in 1811 that glucose is formed from starch, and investigated the process of malting. In 1833 Payen and Persoz discovered the first enzyme diastase and in _ 1827 a medical practitioner of London, W. Prout, better known to chemists in another connection, could say in a paper: ‘ On the ultimate composi- tion of simple alimentary substances’ that they might be arranged in three classes, ‘ the saccharine, the oily, and the albuminous.’ Thus, quite early, pharmacists and physicians brought organic chemistry into close relation with biology, but further advance could not take place without the development of organic analysis, by Gay-Lussac and Thénard (1810), by Berzelius, Liebig, and others. At first the difficulties were enormous. In 1814 Berzelius wrote to Berthollet: * J'ai employé un travail de 12 mois 4 l’analyse de seulement 14 substances végétales.’ But by analysis Gay-Lussac was able to establish the funda- mental equation for the fermentation of glucose into alcohol and carbon dioxide, and the first systematic advance in biochemistry, also due to analysis, was Chevreul’s great work on the fats. Chevreul doubtless acquired an interest in natural substances from his teacher Vauquelin ; he was attracted to the study of fats by the accidental crystallisation of a potassium soap from hydrolysed lard. He altogether isolated seven fatty acids and discovered cholesterol and cetyl alcohol. In his ‘ Analyse organique,’ published in 1824, he already considered as contrary to the spirit of science the assumption that animal and vegetable substances could not be produced artificially. In that very year, 1824, Wohler obtained oxalic acid from cyanogen, the first synthesis of a vital product, if we except Scheele’s production of cyanides from carbon, potassium carbonate, and ammonium chloride. Four years later, in 1828, Wohler’s synthesis of urea attracted universal attention, and since then much labour has been expended on the synthesis of vital products as an ultimate proof of their structure. 54 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. Wohler had apparently no connection with medicine or pharmacy, but Liebig was a pharmaceutical apprentice for one year, Frankland a druggist’s assistant, Dumas, Schorlemmer, and even Wilhelmy, who investigated the kinetics of sugar hydrolysis, were pharmacists. Gmelin, Mitscherlich, Wurtz, and Cannizzaro studied medicine; even in the present century medically qualified professors of general chemistry survived (Crum Brown, Emerson Reynolds). The pharmacists soon found a special field of research in alkaloids, essential oils, and other products of the materia medica. Within a few years of the recognition of the first organic base, morphine, by the German pharmacist Sertiirner, a dozen alkaloids had been discovered, mostly in France, by Pelletier and Caventou, professors at the Ecole de Pharmacie. It is presumably due to this institution, and to the high standard of pharmaceutical education in France that the scientific output of French pharmacists has been so long maintained. For recent times we may refer to Bourquelot, professor at the Ecole de Pharmacie, and to Charles and Georges Tanret, father and son, both practical pharmacists, who not only made important contributions to our knowledge of drugs but also to that of sugars. In Germany contributions of pharmacists to organic chemistry were of less importance, compared with the great developments in university research, inaugurated by Liebig and fostered by the German states. In Britain the state did very little for the universities and nothing for pharmaceutical teaching ; although British pharmacists have the exclusive legal right to call themselves ‘chemists’ the state has not helped them to justify the title. At first the British themselves contributed little to organic chemistry ; of the pioneers Faraday, Frankland, Perkin, and Williamson, only two were teachers. The sojourn of Hofmann in London, from 1845-1865, from the age of twenty-seven to that of forty-seven, was of the greatest influence on the development of organic chemistry in England, but it did not lead to biological applications. Particularly through the inauguration of the dye industry, by Hofmann’s pupil, Perkin, and Mansfield, attention was directed to practical problems. The determining factor in Hofmann’s decision to return to Germany as professor at Berlin is stated to have been the more idealistic attitude towards science of German students, in contrast to the practical sense of his English pupils, who desired knowledge of a more utilitarian kind. Germany was not yet industrialised, and the insistence on research in her universities favoured ‘ Natur- forschung’ and the study of products of vegetable and animal origin. Characteristically, Liebig’s practical applications of chemistry to agricul- ture seem to have attracted more attention in Britain than in his own country. But in physiological chemistry Germany began to lead the way, as witnessed by the foundation of Maly’s Jahresbericht tiber die Fortschritte der Tierchemie (1871) and of Hoppe-Seyler’s Zeitschrift fiir physiologische Chemie (1877). The latter remained for a generation the only journal exclusively devoted to the new border line subject and even now is perhaps more largely concerned with organic chemistry than its contemporaries. German organic chemists investigated not only substances such as alkaloids, colouring matters, and terpenes, which are mostly restricted to a few species, but systematically studied whole classes of biologically B.—CHEMISTRY. 55 important compounds, in the same way as Chevreul had much earlier investigated the fats. Such was Baeyer’s work on uric acid and its derivatives. Emil Fischer, after a short period of work on triphenylme- thane, devoted the labours of a lifetime to the purines, the simpler carbohydrates, the proteins, and the tannins. As a result of Fischer’s work the new science of biochemistry was firmly established in the beginning of the present century, and the year 1906 marked its recognition in three countries, when three new journals first appeared: the Biochemische Zeitschrift in Germany, the Biochemical Journal in Britain, and the Journal of Biological Chemistry in America ; the first named absorbed Hofmeister’s Beitrdge zur chemischen Physiologie und Pathologie, already a competitor of Hoppe-Seyler’s Zeitschrift. The interest of German organic chemists in substances of general biological importance may be further illustrated by Willstatter’s work on chlorophyll, carotin, the anthocyanins and enzymes, by Windaus’ investigations on the sterols, by Wieland’s work on the bile acids and by Hans Fischer’s study of the porphyrins, which recently resulted in the synthesis of heemin. British organic chemists appear to be more interested in theoretical problems. I find that during the years 1927 and 1928 about 580 papers on organic chemistry were published by the Chemical Society, consti- tuting much the largest portion of the Journal. Of these rather less than 20 per cent. may be said to deal with natural products and were inspired largely by W. H. Perkin (himself a pupil of Baeyer) and by Perkin’s pupil, Robinson. About 45 per cent. of British papers on organic chemistry are more or less directly concerned with such theoretical questions as stereo-chemistry, the nature of valency, reactivity, tautomer- ism, and the remaining 35 per cent. deal with the synthesis of new com- pounds devoid of theoretical and biological interest, although occasionally having practical importance. German organic chemists seem to be more interested in natural products. I estimate that of the organic chemical papers in the Berichte for 1928 about 40 per cent. are concerned directly or indirectly with such substances. It should not be supposed that organic chemical theory is wholly unconnected with biology. Two examples out of many will show the contrary. When a protein is “racesimed’ as far as possible, by Kossel’s method, by leaving it for some weeks at 37° in half-normal alkali, it is found that certain amino- acids retain their optical activity and these Dakin has assumed to be the ones with free carboxyl groups, situated at the ends of chains. The others undergo racemisation probably because in their case tautomerism is possible : —CO.NH.CR’'H.CO.NH.CR”H. COOH +t —CO.NH.CR’: COH. NH. CR”H .COOH On subsequent acid hydrolysis the amino-acid NH,.CR’H.COOH would be racemic, but NH,.CR’’H.COOH optically active. Dakin’s views were first applied by Dudley and Woodman to show a structural difference between the caseinogens from cow’s milk and sheep’s milk, which had 56 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. been considered by some to be identical. Elementary analysis shows no difference : Cc H N iS) P Cow . . 52°96 7:05 15°65 0.758 0°847 Sheep . : - 52°92 7:05 15°60 0°771 0-809 and individual amino-acids are obtained in the same amounts after hydrolysis. After racemisation, however, Dudley and Woodman found the tyrosine from cow’s caseinogen to be wholly inactive, that from the sheep fully active. In the former animal the tyrosine is probably inside the molecule, in the latter it is on the periphery. We are thus able to discover differences in the intimate pattern of the molecule. Dakin and Dale connected these differences with antigenic specificity. Crystallised albumins from the whites of hens’ and ducks’ eggs are very similar and seem to be composed of the same units in equal amounts, but Dakin found that three amino-acids, leucine, aspartic acid, and histidine, behave differently to alkali in the two molecules, and appear to occupy different places. Hen’s albumin has some aspartic acid but no leucine or histidine on the periphery ; duck’s albumin, on the other hand, has no aspartic acid, but some leucine and histidine on the outside of the molecule. By the very sensitive anaphylactic reaction of the isolated guinea pig’s uterus, Dale showed that the two proteins are specifically different as antigens. Differences in arrangement, even of the same amino-acids, help to differ- entiate the proteins of various species. It is on the diversity of the proteins that the difference of species is based. Another recent example of the application of organic chemical theory to biology is due to Stedman. Having traced the miotic action of physostigmine to a urethane grouping, he synthesised a number of ure- thanes of simple dimethylamino phenols, e.g. R.NH.CO.0.C,H.,N(CHs5)o. The physiological activities of the tertiary bases is generally in the order ortho and para > meta, but on conversion into quarternary salts the ortho and para become less active, the meta more so and the order is meta > ortho or para. This recalls the reactivities of disubstituted benzene derivatives, which have of late been studied in connection with the polarity theory. Whilst organic chemists are often eager to investigate the constitution of animal and vegetable substances, they are less ready to undertake the preliminaries of purification and isolation, and are therefore less apt to discover new ones. By esterification and by the use of a high vacuum Emil Fischer made the monamino acids amenable to fractional distilla- tion, a standard operation of organic chemistry. He discovered several new members of the group. But most substances of physiological interest require a special technique, on the development of which the biochemist may spend much labour. Thus Kossel showed how to separate the purine and pyrimidine bases of the cell nucleus, and the important diamino-acids, histidine, arginine, and lysine. Hopkins, by his special reagent, was able to isolate tryptophane, the parent substance of indigo, long after indigo itself was being manufactured synthetically. Dakin found that monoamino acids can be extracted from aqueous solution by butyl alcohol, and using this new technique and Foreman’s method | { B.—CHEMISTRY. 57 of separating aspartic and glutamic acids by their calcium salts, Dakin discovered hydroxyglutamic acid, an entirely unsuspected unit of protein. A knowledge of the structure of amino-acids may throw light on how other nitrogenous constituents arise, particularly in plants. As an example, the most recently discovered amino-acid may be quoted. The American bacteriologist Mueller found in casein and other proteins a new constituent containing sulphur, quite different from the well-known eystine. Dr. Coyne and I have recently established its constitution by synthesis. It turns out to be y-methylthiol-a-amino-n-butyric acid, CH;.8.CH,.CH(NH,)COOH, and we named it methionine. The methyl- thiol grouping at once indicates that it is the source of methylmercaptan, the occurrence of which in putrefaction was known, although not hitherto intelligible. Methionine is evidently also the parent substance of cheirolin occurring in the seeds of the wallflower and of other Cruciferae. Schneider had long ago established for this substance the remarkable constitution CH,.SO,.CH,.CH,.CH,.N.CS. We now see at once that cheirolin is the thiocarbimide of oxidised and decarboxylated methionine. Similarly Perkin and Robinson connected the chemistry of harmine and harmaline with tryptophane when they showed that the mysterious base C,,H,,)N,, which Hopkins and Cole obtained by oxidising tryptophane C,,H,,0,N, with ferric chloride, is identical with harman OL? NH CH, This observation not only settled the constitution of the alkaloids in question, but also explained the fitful yield of the oxidation product of tryptophane, which, after decarboxylation, had condensed with acetalde- hyde. Soon afterwards Spath showed that harman itself occurs in nature, as the alkaloid aribine, which had been given the erroneous formula — Cy3Hy Ny. It is becoming increasingly evident that many alkaloids arise by condensation of amino-acid residues. Mezcaline and other alkaloids of Cactaceae are closely connected with phenylalanine and tyrosine, as Spath has shown, and the mode of origin of isoquinoline alkaloids from aromatic amino-acids has also become clear. Harmine, harmaline, physostigmine, and rutaecarpine are all derived from tryptophane, and it looks as if the same is true of other alkaloids whose constitution, like that of strychnine and of brucine, remains obscure. The isolation of some natural substances, of great physiological interest, is beset with difficulties because they are present in minute amount and have not the convenient solubility relations which! facilitate the separa- tion of the alkaloids. This applies to the hormones present in animal tissues. Here the American slaughter-houses provide valuable facilities, and it is significant that adrenaline, thyroxine, and insulin were first _ erystallised in America, although the constitution of the two former hormones was later established in Europe, where also their synthesis was effected, that of thyroxine only a few years ago, through the brilliant work of Harington. The difficulties of isolating vitamins is still more - formidable; in the case of the antineuritic vitamin B, which is almost 58 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. certainly a fairly simple substance, susceptible to attack by the methods of organic chemistry, most progress towards isolation has been achieved by selective adsorption and elution, the methods employed by Willstatter for enzymes. The discovery by Rosenheim and Windaus that vitamin D is formed by the irradiation of ergosterol has suddenly brought into prominence a substance which before was but a curiosity, chiefly known through the work of the French pharmacist, Tanret. At the same time the interest of biochemists in photochemistry has been stimulated, as well as in the extensive work of Windaus on the structure of cholesterol, which the latter had already shown to be connected with the bile acids, largely investigated by Wieland. The sudden emergence of ergosterol into prominence does not stand alone; another of Tanret’s ergot substances, ergothioneine, at first also an isolated curiosity, has acquired more general significance because it has been found in mammalian red corpuscles; it is likely that this will ultimately lead to the discovery in proteins of yet another sulphur- containing amino-acid, possibly a thiol histidine. Altogether ergot has yielded more substances of general biological interest than any other single plant. The above examples of the relation between biological and organic chemical work relate to that division of biochemistry which may be termed descriptive. A knowledge of structure is ‘also necessary in dynamic biochemistry, the study of the transformations which substances. undergo in the living organism. The recognition of the fats as esters, and their behaviour to fat-splitting enzymes, the transformation of starch into sugar under the influence of diastase, the end-products of alcoholic fermentation, all these were early discoveries in dynamic biochemistry. But just as the organic chemist may wish to know the mechanism of a reaction, for instance of the Skraup synthesis of quinoline, so the bio- chemist wishes to know the intermediate steps in the transformation of say glucose into alcohol. The detection of these stages of metabolism is a matter of considerable difficulty, since under normal conditions the intermediate substances generally disappear as rapidly as they are formed. They have to be trapped by suitable means, as did Neuberg with acetalde- hyde in alcoholic fermentation, or the metabolic process may sometimes. be cut short, by using an isolated organ, such as the surviving liver, or the precursor of the intermediate substance may be administered in large excess. Very little has been learned in this respect from the higher plants. The very process of photosynthesis is still beset with obscurity in spite of a plausible hypothesis; we know next to nothing about transforma- tion of carbohydrate into fats, and vice versa, and in particular we are ignorant of the stages by which amino-acids are formed in plants from nitrates and carbohydrates ; we simply do not know how the proteins of living beings originate. Nor have the higher plants given us much in- formation of the way in which their fats, carbohydrates, and proteins are ultimately broken down. Our knowledge of catabolism is principally derived from the animal world. It is found that the breakdown does not always occur in the manner in which the organic chemist would expect. Thus an organic chemist presented with the problem of transforming stearic acid into palmitic might brominate in the alpha position, and B.— CHEMISTRY. 59 break down the corresponding «-hydroxy acid ; or he might do a Hofmann degradation on the amide. In either case he would get an acid with 17 carbon atoms, and have to repeat the degradation in order to obtain palmitic acid. Knoop has shown, however, that in the animal organism the B-carbon atom is attacked so that the chain is shortened by two carbon atoms at a time, an acid with 18 carbon atoms being converted successively into one with 16, 14, 12, ete. In accordance with this scheme the principal fatty acids in nature are those with an even number of carbon atoms. Knoop established this by feeding w-phenyl fatty acids ; those with an even number of methylene groups in the side chain were converted into benzoic acid and appeared in the urine as hippuric, those with an odd number of methylene groups yielded phenyl acetic acid and were excreted as phenaceturic acid. Instead of using a resistant phenyl group and the whole animal, fatty acids themselves and the isolated liver may be used to establish the same result. Embden perfused the ten lowest members of the series of fatty acids through a surviving liver and obtained acetone formation only with those having an even number of carbon atoms; they are converted by -oxidation finally to acetoacetic acid, from which acetone results. Dakin found in hydrogen peroxide an oxidising agent which closely imitates the biochemical method in vitro and at a low temperature; thus butyric acid gives acetoacetic, and the higher fatty acids give methyl ketones, with loss of carbon dioxide. The same method of oxidation seems to occur in the vegetable kingdom, for plants are apt to contain ketones with an even number of carbon atoms in addition to a methyl group. Thus methylamyl-, methylheptyl- and methylnonyl-ketones of essential oils doubtless result from the decarboxylation of 6-keto acids, as in Dakin’s experiment, with hydrogen peroxide. The degradation of amino-acids in the body also proceeds contrary to the expectations of the organic chemist. If he were asked to bring about the degradation by gentle stages he would doubtless first convert the «-amino into the «-hydroxy acid. The organism forms the «-keto acid, however, as shown by Neubauer and by Knoop. This biochemical result suggested to Knoop an interesting and unlooked for synthesis of amino- acids in vitro, by reversing the normal breakdown. He shook solutions of «-keto acids, containing also ammonia and platinum black, in a hydrogen atmosphere when the corresponding amino-acid resulted by the reduction of the hypothetical imino compound. The transformation of tryptophane into kynurenic acid may be quoted as a particular problem of metabolism to which a good deal of organic chemistry has been applied. When large amounts of tryptophane, or of meat containing this amino acid, are given to dogs they excrete in their urine kynurenic-acid, a quinoline derivative N=C.COOH /~\ ——- cH,.CH(NH,)COOH > fe wie 60 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. and the question is which of the two nitrogen atoms of tryptophane survives. Is the pyrrole ring enlarged to a pyridine ring, as when indole is treated with chloroform and alkali, or is the pyrrole ring oxidised and does the pyridine ring arise from the side chain of tryptophane? It is almost certain that the latter alternative holds good. In 1914 Ellinger and Matsuoka synthesised Pr-2. methyltryptophane, but could not obtain any methylkynurenic acid from it; and having overlooked their publication, Ewins and I a few years afterwards made the same amino-acid, and obtained the same negative result. Later in Edinburgh I suggested to Dr. W. Robson the synthesis of a trytophane with a methyl group in the benzene nucleus, which would not interfere with the oxidation of the pyrrole ring. He synthesised Bz-3. methyl- tryptophane and also 6-methyl and 8-methylkynurenic acids, which might be expected to be formed from it according to the two rival theories : COH ABN AS Me i ‘| ca.cnise, coon ype a aegis © fee anne Theoryl _ VANS eeifl NH x Bz-3. methyltryptophane Pk 6-methylkynurenic acid Theory IT ~_ hae N=C.COOH Msi ie! OH \4 8-methylkynurenic acid Even this very considerable expenditure of organic chemical effort did not absolutely settle the matter, for the Bz methyltryptophane did not yield any kynurenic acid either. Robson found, however, that 6-methylkynurenic acid passes through the body unchanged, whereas 8-methylkynurenic acid is completely burnt. It is therefore likely that it is formed from Bz-3. methyltryptophane as a transitory intermediate product, for if 6-methylkynurenic acid were formed, the latter would resist oxidation. Robson concluded therefore, that the single nitrogen atom of kynurenic acid is the one from the side chain of tryptophane (Theory II). Ellinger and Matsuoka, in 1920, after obtaining kynurenic acid from indole pyruvic acid, concluded that the pyrrole ring is indeed opened up, but that its nitrogen atom ultimately survives in kynurenic acid (Theory I). The weakness in the latter’s reasoning is that indole pyruvic acid might conceivably be converted in the body into tryptophane, and may not yield kynurenic acid directly. The example of kynurenic acid will serve to show that there is scope for the application of organic chemistry to the problems of intermediate metabolism, and also the difficulties involved in drawing definite con- clusions. The first stage in the degradation of fatty acids and of amino-acids B.—CHEMISTRY. 61 seems pretty well established, and analogies in vitro have been found. Other problems are more obscure. Why is the benzene nucleus in phenyl- alanine oxidised, but not that in benzoic acid ?- And what is the mechanism in the former case ?- Why is p-hydroxyphenyl pyruvic acid easily oxidised, and the corresponding lactic acid not? Why is d-phenylglycine easily oxidised and l-phenylglycine excreted almost unchanged? Altogether the processes by which organic substances are burnt to carbon dioxide and water, by atmospheric molecular oxygen, at a low temperature, are still very puzzling, although Dakin, Hopkins, Knoop, Warburg, Wieland, and others have done much towards their elucidation. In the study of the chemical processes, as in that of the chemical constituents of living organisms, there is much scope for the application of organic chemistry, and in addition, physical chemistry requires to be utilised. I have endeavoured, by the mention of the above examples, to indicate the importance of organic chemistry both to descriptive and dynamic bio- chemistry, and thus to physiology. This is its main field of application to biological science, but there are others. There is no reason why an animal or a plant should be recognised entirely by its morphological characters, but systematists, not being chemists, are naturally apt to rely on what they can see, rather than what they can test for. It is very rarely that chemical characteristics are mentioned, although most floras refer to the odour of trimethylamine in the Stinking Goosefoot (Cheno- podium vulvaria) and that of sulphide oil in Sisymbrium Alliaria. With micro-organisms it is different. The bacteriologist cannot always dis- tinguish one bacillus from another merely by looking at it, nor even by staining it. He has to grow it in a variety of sugar solutions, and see _ whether it attacks these. In order to differentiate typhoid from para- <2 es - typhoid, he grows them in dulcitol solution, with neutral red, which may or may not be changed owing to the production of an organic acid from the sugar. In order to encourage an organism to grow, which is normally swamped by other species, he may use specific disinfectants, such as brilliant green and other dyes. The relation between microbiology and , organic chemistry is beneficial to both. The list of organic substances which can be produced by micro-organisms on an industrial scale, mostly from carbohydrates, is a growing one. During the world war the water power of Switzerland could temporarily compete with the fermentation industry in producing alcohol (wa calcium carbide), but later the potato reasserted its superiority. The same war period saw the industrial pro- duction of glycerol by yeast, and the production of acetone and butyl alcohol by bacteria, both from carbohydrates. The peculiar metabolism of many micro-organisms still awaits utilisation. The group of plants in which chemical constituents have been most widely used in classification is that of the Lichens. Lichenologists have _ long used chemical reactions with potassium hydroxide, bleaching powder and ferric chloride, for the identification of species and genera, and some 200 characteristic benzene derivatives have been isolated. In Phanero- grams the taxonomic value of the chemical constituents is slight. Sub- stances of obvious metabolic significance may extend throughout a whole order; thus inulin occurs as reserve carbohydrate in all divisions of the Compositae. 62 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. Probably the most extensive attempt to use chemical constituents for botanical classification has been made by R. T. Baker and H. G. Smith, in the case of the Australian genus Eucalyptus with about 200 species : the essential oils from well over half of these have been examined. Baker and Smith trace a relation between the venation of the mature leaves and the composition of their essential oil. The genus is thus divided into fairly well-marked groups, and it is possible to suggest the probable con- stituents of the oil of a given species by examining the venation of the leaves, and, conversely, by chemical investigation of the oil to gain a clue to the species. Maiden, the botanical expert on Eucalyptus, has not always agreed with the classification of the chemists, but upon occasion has discovered morphological differences after a delimitation of species had been proposed on chemical grounds. Among characteristic plant constituents perhaps most chemical labour has been expended in the alkaloids, which are usually restricted to a particular order, genus, or species. An increased knowledge of the various amino-acids of protein, and a study of many alkaloids has in many cases indicated a plausible way in which the alkaloids, particularly those con- taining an isoquinoline nucleus, may arise from aromatic amino-acids, by decarboxylation and ring formation from the side chain, but we are still very much in the dark as to the physiological importance of alkaloids to the plant. Nor is it easy to trace a connection between chemical structure and botanical classification. Thus, within the same genus differently constituted alkaloids may occur, or certain species may contain an alkaloid and others not. Some thirty-five species of Cyiisus were examined by Plugge and Rauwerda; about half contain cytisine, half do not. Yet cytisine occurs in Ulex, Genista, and several other genera of Leguminosae. It may even happen that in one and the same species the alkaloids change according to the age of the plant. Thus Papaver orientale contains during the vegetative period only thebaine, which is almost entirely replaced by isothebaine after the death of the aerial parts of the plant. Obviously it is very difficult under these circumstances to draw conclusions as to a taxonomic relationship. The only wide generalisa- tion which seems to me justified is that the large group of isoquinoline alkaloids are characteristic of the rather primitive cohort, Ranales, and the related order, Papaveraceae. The main biological interest of alkaloids is not botanical, in their distribution, but pharmacological, in their action. This leads to a mention of the great developments in synthetic drugs, due to organic chemistry. In particular there.is great scope for the organic chemist in chemotherapy, the combating of general infections of the host by synthetic drugs. The production of salvarsan which had made such a great change to the treat- ment of syphilis and other protozoal diseases and the subsequent intro- duction of germanin (or Bayer 205) in the treatment of sleeping sickness indicate great possibilities of applying organic chemistry to this particular department of medicine, and constitute a link between workers in very different fields. I have called attention to the many points of contact between organic chemistry and biology in the past and present and if finally I am permitted to draw a conclusion it would be an educational one. I hold it to be B.—CHEMISTRY. 63 desirable that biologists should have at least an elementary knowledge of organic chemistry, in spite of the difficulties imposed by ever-increasing specialisation in science. These difficulties are particularly felt in appor- tioning the time available for medical education among the many subjects of a crowded curriculum, and may to some extent be met by a careful consideration of what is really useful. The chemical training of the physician (and of the biologist) should not be identical with the preliminary training of the professional chemist, although it still is so in many uni- versities. In order to save time much elementary chemistry, particularly inorganic, must be abandoned, thus making room for those aspects of the subject which have biological applications. This differentiation between the chemical needs of various groups of students requires special courses, and teachers who have a sympathetic understanding of the peculiar needs of their students, medicaland biological. After writing this sentence, I found a similar one in last year’s address to Section I at Glasgow, by Professor Lovatt Evans. ‘The solution to the difficulty [of the medical curriculum] lies, in my opinion, in the exercise of a sympathetic under- standing on the part of specialist teachers of the difficulties of the student and a proper perspective of the relation of his own subject to the require- ments of the curriculum as a whole.’ I need hardly say I agree entirely with this. I also welcome another sentence from the same address : “It is significant that at the present time a steadily increasing number of young highly trained organic chemists consider it worth their while to turn to biochemistry; their welcome entry into our ranks gives us fresh hope and faith in our future, as well as in theirs.’ Professor Lovatt Evans also discusses the question, ‘ much debated in _ private, though little in public,’ whether a biochemist should be primarily a chemist or a biologist. He sees no reason why the biochemist should not be both. I imagine the biochemist cannot be both equally from the outset, but he may aspire to be both, or alternatively, biochemists can be made both out of chemists and out of biologists. Once more I heartily agree with Professor Lovatt Evans when he writes: ‘ If he must have one label, it is better that of the chemist, provided always that the biochemist works in the closest possible association with the physiologist. This is most essential if both are not to be deprived of much valuable interchange of ideas and, on a lower plane, of materials and apparatus. In fact, I am convinced that within the limits of administrative possibility, the greater the variety of workers brought together the better the results.’ SECTION C.—GEOLOGY. THE UTILITY OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS TO COLONIES AND PROTECTORATES OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE. ADDRESS BY SIR ALBERT E. KITSON, C.M.G., C.B.E. PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. THE importance and value of a geological survey to a country have long been recognised by all progressive nations that desire to utilise the mineral resources with which Nature has endowed them. But though such value is fully appreciated and freely acknowledged by all thoughtful, observant people, the nation as a whole has no understanding of it, and no definite views on the matter. The rapid advance of science, and the application of the wonders of science to industry, in practically all divisions of the activities of mankind, are incontrovertible facts, and no nation or community under present-day conditions can afford to neglect to utilise all the assistance that science can give towards increase in production and reduction in cost of the fruits of the industries upon which that nation is mainly or largely dependent for its existence and advancement. Where the question of cost is not an insuperable barrier to its establish- ment, a geological survey is formed. As regards our Empire, not only the United Kingdom, but the British Dominions—India, Canada, Newfound- land, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa—long since established such surveys and recognised their value. All these surveys have done most valuable work in the determination of the nature, not only of the pure geology of their countries, but also of the economic geology, in the form of mineral deposits, of the precious metals, base metals, non-metallic minerals and rocks, gem-stones, coal, gas, oil, and underground water-supplies. The direction and personnel of the Geological Surveys, the maps and reports published, the information and assistance given to general industry, pro- specting and mining, are recognised to be of the highest order, and to have benefited these countries immeasurably more than is yet realised by them. In his Presidential Address before this Section of the British Association at Newcastle-on-Tyne in 1916, Professor W. S. Boulton said—* We have ceased to hear rumours of Treasury misgivings as to whether the Geological Survey can justify, on financial grounds, its continued existence. When we call to mind the untold wealth of information and fact in the published maps, sections and memoirs, the enormous value of such knowledge to mining, civil engineering, agriculture, and education, and indirectly to the development of the mineral resources of the whole Empire, and then C.— GEOLOGY. 65 reflect that the total annual cost of the Geological Survey of England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland is somewhere near £20,000—less, that is to say, than the salary and fees we have been accustomed to pay every year to a single Law Officer of the Crown—we should find it difficult to bear patiently with any narrow or short-sighted official view.’ Granted, then, the value of a Geological Survey to a country already well established, and with many lucrative sources of production and wealth, how much more so is it to a young country, dependent to a greater or less extent for its existence during its infancy or adolescence, upon the financial benefactions of its guardian or sponsor ; a country the revenue of which in some cases is less than its expenditure; and the significance of whose natural features is scarcely understood, with its mineral resources almost unknown and entirely undeveloped. Surely a young country needs to have its possible economic mineral importance investigated and determined by competent persons specially trained in this respect. Thus, as regards all that appertains to geology in all its branches and connections, the trained geologist is the person to whom appeal should be made for such purpose. For the following information I am indebted to Dr. C, A. Matley :— ‘The earliest record there is apparently of a geological survey of a Colony is that of Trinidad, as shown in the Introductory Notice and Appendix O of the Report on the Geology of Trinidad, published as one of the “ Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain,” in 1860. This says: ‘‘ The Geological Survey of Trinidad originated with the late Sir William Molesworth, who, in 1855, when Secretary of State for the Colonies, induced the Lords Commissioners of the Treasury to appoint competent Geologists to undertake a general Survey of the Economic Geology of Trinidad, and the other West India Colonies.” The cost of the survey and publication of results were borne by the Home and Local Governments. Three Memoirs were published, the first in 1860, on Trinidad, the second in 1869, on Jamaica and the adjacent islands of Anguilla and Sombrero ; and the third in 1875, on British Guiana. ‘ This official geological survey of Jamaica, done between 1859 and 1866, was a creditable production of pioneer work. On the scientific side notable advances were made in the knowledge of the formations, fossils and tectonics of theisland. On the economic side valuable information was gained of the metalliferous and non-metalliferous resources of Jamaica, and the important role played by the various geological formations in controlling the surface and underground water-supply.’ Further valuable work on the geology of the island of Jamaica was done by Dr. Matley, from October, 1921, to near the middle of 1924, and _ important economic results obtained by him, specially with regard to water-supply, road-stones, and fossiliferous zones of the rocks. The Colonies do not seem to have had any more surveys of this kind till, through the broad vision and enlightened policy of the Colonial Office, Mineral Surveys were established in Southern Nigeria in 1908, Northern _ Nigeria in 1904, Ceylon in 1903, Nyasaland in 1906. These surveys did useful work and made important discoveries of mineral deposits. They _ were succeeded by Geological Surveys, with broader interests, as men- _ tioned hereunder. The Colonies and Protectorates that now have Geological Surveys in 1929 F 66 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. full operation and doing valuable work are Nigeria, the Gold Coast, and Sierra Leone in West Africa; in Central and East Africa—Uganda and Nyasaland, with the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and the Mandated Territory of Tanganyika; and the Federated Malay States. Among those which have had surveys for certain periods, but which have been varied, sus- pended, or concluded, are Jamaica, British Honduras, British Guiana, Gambia, Somaliland, Zanzibar, Ceylon, and the Falkland Islands. Geologi- cal advice is being given in Ceylon, Palestine, and Somaliland. In those now without surveys much useful work was done, and the discontinuance of operations was due to various causes. The interests of the geologist should be wide, and thus be available in various manners for the benefit of the country. His opportunities are perhaps greater than those of any other of the professions practised in a young country. His travels through many different districts enable him to see and note much that relates directly not only to his own department, but also in some respects to other departments, members of which may be unable at the time to make independent examinations, or to those of departments not then established. Observations thus made can be com- municated to such departments, or published in the Annual Reports of his own, for the information of all people interested therein. The following remarks of Professor W. W. Watts in his Presidential Address—‘ Geology in the Service of Man ’"—to this Section of the British Association at Toronto, in 1924, are appropriate: ‘It is because of the variety and intensity of observation essential to geological surveying . . - that the geologist must necessarily become a physiographer and geographer. There is a limit to the perfection of topographic maps and surveys, even when, as in the United States, there is close co-operation between the Topographic and Geological Surveys ; and it is the duty of the geologist to take note of innumerable features which have no delineation, still less explanation on such maps. The geologist is probably the only class of person who has to traverse large areas with his eyes open, not to one class of phenomena only, but to all that can help him to decide questions of concealed structure. . . . Nor can he confine himself to the purely physiographic aspect of his area. He is led into bypaths . . . and many facts with regard to the distribution of animals and plants, and of the dwellings, occupations and characteristics of the people, can scarcely escape his observation; neither can he shut his eyes to historic and prehistoric facts. Thus a geologist is generally possessed of a store of knowledge reaching far beyond the strict bounds of his science.’ There is a great deal of misconception regarding the functions of a Geological Survey, using the term geological in its broadest sense. By many it is thought to deal with the rocks of a country, to describe them, and to show on maps and in reports their divisions, disposition, and distribution ; perhaps also to include the economic minerals, such as coal, brown coal, lignite, rock-salt, ores of iron, manganese, copper, nickel, zinc and lead ; or valuable gem-stones, such as diamonds, rubies, sapphires and opals. But there is very little, if any, recognition of the great part that geology plays in a most unobtrusive manner in connection with mining, agriculture, stock-raising, water-supply, forestry, public works, sanitation, geography, ‘and education. The ramifications of geology are great. Its interconnec- ie eee - ooeer > Ax C.—GEOLOGY. 67 tion is close in some respects with other sciences, more especially with chemistry, zoology, botany, engineering and physics. This is not the place to discuss fully these various aspects, but let us consider them briefly in their economic relations. Chemistry tells us of what constituents any material—organic or in- organic—is composed. It shows us also how and under what natural conditions changes in the chemical compositions of rocks and minerals have taken place, what these changes signify, and their importance or otherwise to mankind—the differences between economic minerals which at the sur- face have certain characters, but which at varying depths below the surface have entirely different ones. Paleozoology shows us which remains of the former fauna of a region are still preserved in its rock-record, and Paleobotany similarly with respect to the flora. These sciences come to the assistance of Geology and reveal the true significance of these vestiges of creation that have been preserved. They determine their nature and indicate to which section of the geneal- ogical tree of life they belong. Thus Palexozoology, with its record of the fauna from the Cambrian to the Recent period, shows us the divisions, systems, and series of rocks containing certain types of fossils, specially those which are characteristic, such as graptolites and trilobites of the Palzozoic division, the great reptiles of the Mesozoic, the mammals of the Kainozoic. Palzobotany shows that certain types of plants characteristic of the Carboniferous system are distinctly associated with strata containing seams of black coal ; others, of the Jurassic, with beds of a younger black coal; still others, upward in geological time, of the Cretaceous system or the Kainozoic division, with brown coal and lignite, with their remains of characteristic plants, or of plants and mollusca. Therefore, when strata are found by him with fossils similar to those mentioned the geologist knows to what system of rocks they belong, and can then, in the case of the plants, hope to find beds of the kind of coal usually found occurring with them ; or, conversely, when a bed of coal is found he may search the associated beds for fossils to determine the system. Thus, it can be seen that a geological training is required to note the significance of any such discovery. The importance of the remote possessions of a great Empire is dependent upon many factors—such as natural resources and their situation, physical character of the country, lines of communication and transport, nature of climate, soils and water-supply, density and distribution of population, character of the peoples, conditions regarding agriculture and pasturage. To develop these fully there should be a Government with wide vision and foresight, capable and energetic, with a broad outlook on possibilities of development, and ready to assist financially and sympathetically all proposals that show reasonable prospects of economic success. A little consideration will show that a Geological Survey may have an important influence upon the material advancement of such a possession— a very important one in some cases, and less so in others. The extent to which geology is of benefit depends upon the geological formations of the country. Some countries have conditions much more favourable than others for the possession of natural resources that are of F2 68 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. economic value. These may consist of deposits of fuels and ores gf the metals indispensable for the industrial uses of man under twentieth century conditions of life ; or they may be of such minerals as are used by mankind for personal adornment and gratification. They may consist of materials that are essential for the construction and maintenance of rail- ways, roads, bridges, and buildings ; or they may comprise the occurrence of valuable supplies of water for domestic and stock purposes. They may embrace all these categories, and be really valuable in every material sense. On the other hand, the colony may be a small one, known to have its limitations as regards the possession of geological features unlikely, on investigation, to prove the presence of mineral deposits of economic import- ance, or to possess inorganic materials and supplies of direct or indirect value to a country. Such a country does not require a Geological Survey. It is, however, worthy of a careful geological investigation and report, which could be made in a comparatively short time, and which might possibly prove that the pessimistic surmise of its resources was wrong. There are, however, many colonies with vast areas of unknown resources, and it is to them specially that the substance of this address applies. The Colonies and Protectorates of the British Empire are almost without exception in the tropics. Many of them are wholly or partly in zones which are blessed with an abundant rainfall, and covered with dense forests or low vegetation. Some comprise areas of low rainfall, and, in consequence, have seasonally arid conditions, and little vegetation. A geological survey of the former is necessarily slow, for the dense vegetation and depth of soil effectually obscure the nature of the under- lying rocks and what they contain. In such country much time, labour, and expense are necessary to examine carefully the watercourses, by cutting and clearing lines along them and through the dense bush between them. Nevertheless, it should be remembered that such country may have valuable mineral deposits lying hidden within a few yards of any line of traverse through the forest, and merely awaiting discovery. In areas of low rainfall and scanty vegetation, however, the examination of the country is rendered much easier and can be done much more quickly and thoroughly. The numerous interests that need to be considered in connection with the development of any country, more or less uncivilised, involve the establishment of various public departments. Those dealing directly with the natural wealth of the country are principally Geological Survey, Mining, Agriculture, Veterinary, Water-Supply and Public Works, and to a less degree Lands Survey, Forestry, and Public Health. Obviously the most important department, so far as relates to the investigation of rocks, minerals, fuels, and water-supply, is that of Geological Survey, and on its activities a few remarks may be made. The interpretation of the geology of a country involves a knowledge of the kinds of rocks occurring in it, their division mainly into Sedimentary, Metamorphic, and Igneous; the relation of these to one another, both structurally and chronologically ; the separation of these main groups into their various divisions, and the nature of the rocks in these divisions, with a view to assistance towards a knowledge of what may be of economic value among them. i —-.". - C.—GEOLOGY. 69 In a young, undeveloped country, with a small revenue and a large expenditure, such as is often the case, it behoves one to attach greater importance to the economic than to the purely scientific side of geology. In his Presidential Address—‘ Functions of a State Geological Survey ’ —to the Mining and Geological Institute of India, in 1907, Sir Thos. Holland says :—‘ The official geologist in this country is bound by the terms of his appointment to remember that, either directly or indirectly, his work should aim in the long run at the development of our mineral resources’; also that—‘in general, the field-work of the Geological Survey ends with what is known as the exploratory stage, as regards minerals of economic value: that is, the stage at which sufficient informa- tion is obtained to warrant the outlay of money for systematic prospecting operations. The official operations normally end with the publication of the information available at this stage; but the Geological Survey still takes an interest in the work of prospecting and exploitation.’ This address deals particularly with the development of Indian metalliferous minerals and gives valuable information about the production of ores of aluminium (bauxite), iron, manganese, and copper, and the disposal of them in competition with similar ores from other countries. But before the economic can be properly appraised it is necessary to know what relation the scientific has to it. It is, therefore, imperative to keep this always in view. Let us consider the great division of sedimentary rocks and compare them with the rocks known in old countries, where their characteristics and associations have been thoroughly ascertained. Geological science has shown that for the sake of convenience sedimentary rocks have been placed in various groups, ranging from very ancient ones to those at present in a state of formation. Were these always present in their natural order of succession the matter would be an easy one, but since, in no part of the world, is there anything approaching a complete sequence or record—for there have been numberless changes in the relation between sea and land—the relative positions in sequence of _ these sediments have to be ascertained by some means. The most reliable are the types of fossils they contain. Further, the occurrence of subterranean water, as artesian, is dependent on the character of the strata and their disposition—that is the association of pervious and impervious beds, which are gently folded so as to form basins in which the surface water can collect under hydrostatic pressure, and be prevented from flowing away until tapped by a bore. This information is obtainable only by persons familiar with geology, and before any attempt be made to bore for artesian water a geological examination is necessary. Blind boring on sites selected by people without that knowledge has meant the expenditure of much money, labour and time, often without useful results. The same can be said of boring for oiland coal. Large sums have been thrown away through boring operations at unsuitable places and the continuance of boring into under- lying rocks devoid of oil and coal. Professor J. W. Gregory records’ the statement of J. E. Pogue, in ‘ Economics of Petroleum’ (1921, p. 243), 1 Gregory, J. W. ‘The Elements of Economic Geology,’ p. 1 (Methuen). 70 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. that of an extensive series of American oil-well records 85 per cent. of the wells sunk in accordance with geological advice proved successful, whereas of those sunk at random only 5 per cent. were productive. In his Presidential Address to this Section at the Bournemouth meeting in 1919, Dr. J. W. Evans, C.B.E., says :—* The sum total of the funds which have been uselessly expended in this country alone in hopeless explorations for minerals, in complete disregard of the most obvious geological evidence, would have been sufficient to defray many times over the cost of a com- plete scientific underground survey.’ One of many examples of useless boring for water, coal and oil, that have come under my own notice may be given. In this case boring for oil with a percussion drill was continued for several thousand feet in igneous and metamorphic rocks, underlying petroliferous sediments. My examina- tion of the core of the bore showed that material thought to be sandy micaceous clay of the petroliferous series, of marine Kainozoic age, was really comminuted biotite-schist, of a much older division of rocks, barren of oil. Had the core material been submitted to a geologist from time to time during the progress of boring its nature would have been recognised at once, and the expenditure of several thousand pounds sterling, as well as a great deal of time and labour, would have been saved. In this case the Kainozoic rocks were fossiliferous, but their lowermost portion consisted of material derived from rocks similar to those of the underlying meta- morphics, a fact that might be advanced as sufficient to excuse the mistake made by the technical men in charge of boring operations. But, since a great thickness of fossiliferous rocks had been bored through and then material found not only showing no fossils, but possessing sufficient evidence to distinguish it from the sediments that had been bored previously, this mistake should not have been made. The Directors of the Geological Surveys of several Colonies have informed me that many thousands of pounds have been spent fruitlessly in boring at unsuitable places in the attempt to get good supplies of underground water. These failures were not due to incompetent technical management of boring operations, but to a lack of geological knowledge of rock structure, of the nature of the sediments and rocks bored, the significance of fossils, and the correct interpretation of the evidence from the material obtained. Under existing conditions regarding the qualifications of boring engineers there are limitations to the value of their technical knowledge, unassisted by geological training or timely advice. Some bedded rocks, as shale, mudstone and clay, when inclined and saturated, or nearly so, with water, and under great superincumbent pressure, are unstable, and often give much trouble in various engineering works, such as dams, and railway and canal cuttings, as for instance the Culebra cut, Panama Canal. There are many examples of railway- and road-cuttings in which there has been so much sliding of beds that the ground on the inslope side has had to be cut back in numerous benches, some for upwards of 100 yards. Geological advice, if obtained before operations had far advanced, would certainly, in some instances, have shown a means of averting trouble by preventing the saturation of unstable beds. ; C.—GEOLOGY. 71 Timely geological advice would have been useful in a recent case, in connection with the excavation and exposure in a moist atmosphere of carbonaceous shales, containing much marcasite—the more easily decayable form of iron sulphide—occurring as large nodules or discoidal masses. This material swells considerably on decay and _ induces spontaneous combustion. Its use in the reclamation of a low-lying area caused settlement of the surface till the marcasite was converted into hydrous oxide of iron. FUNCTIONS OF A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF A CoLony. In considering this kind of geological survey it should be remembered that it differs greatly from the geological surveys of old countries in the mode of operations necessary. The fact that it functions in a young, undeveloped and comparatively unknown country, probably devoid of detailed maps, and with poor and slow means of transport, compels it to adopt methods and undertake duties entirely foreign to surveys long established. These surveys are able to place at once, on accurate maps, while in the field, the geological features of any district that is being examined. The geologist of the Colony, however, has not the great benefit of such maps, nor usually any reliable maps with good contours, and so, where field mapping in detail has to be done, or special areas surveyed, a ground-work map has to be made by himself. The collection of all information and the prepara- tion of the topographical map involve the expenditure of by far the greater portion of the time, labour, and expense of such a survey. This may represent upwards of four-fifths of the time in certain types of country, the geology of which is not of great variety. When comparing, therefore, the character and production of maps and reports of a young colony with those of Great Britain, due allowance should be made for these different conditions. Opinions differ as to how the work is to be commenced. One geologist may consider it advisable to make first a series of rapid reconnaissances through the various districts, along natural boundaries such as the coast- line, large rivers, main paths or ‘roads, railways, if any, or through promising belts of country; then later a series of rapid cross-traverses connecting with the first series, and later still numbers of others linking the two series in various directions. This method enables him to get, in the quickest manner, a general knowledge of the geology of the country as a whole. The mapping, in detail, of the geology, in conformance with a mathematical scheme of division of the country, can be done later as opportunity offers. Another geologist may prefer to survey in detail certain areas, such as a known mining field, a belt of country, or the main lines of communication, leaving outlying districts for later work. Both methods have their advantages and disadvantages, but these can- ~ not be discussed in this address. The particular features of the country and the wishes of the Government will determine the system of work. The following remarks indicate various activities of a survey of this kind. 72 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. Reconnaissances and rapid surveys through the country, noting specially the physiography, nature of rocks with their structural features (anticlines, synclines, strike, dip, foliation, cleavage, jointing, faults, dykes, and reefs), nature, occurrence and testing of minerals in rocks and gravels of streams by crushing and panning. Kinds of soils, nature and volumes of streams regarding irrigation and water-power, underground water supplies, sites for dams and reservoirs, archeological notes, collection of rocks, minerals and concentrates, with general reports on all, and pre- liminary special reports on mineral deposits and other interesting features. Detailed surveys and reports on particular areas, deposits and occurrences, such as mentioned in the preceding paragraph. Special reports on the country along routes of proposed railways, water-power, sanitation, and other matters. Assistance and advice to other Departments on geological matters. Surface and underground surveys of mines, with reports, maps, and sections. Advice to mining companies and prospectors on the examination of their mines, areas, and specimens of rocks and minerals. Assays, analyses and other determinations of samples of minerals collected by the survey, or received from the public, with reports on them. Advice to Government regarding operations of prospectors and prevention of fraudulent flotation of companies. Assistance to educational institutions by information supplied and descriptive museum collections. Scientific (mainly geological and geographical) reports, with micro- scopical and chemical descriptions of rocks, maps and photographs. Special examination of minerals in concentrates and reports on them. Publication of reports, maps, sections, assays, analyses, &c. Formation of a geological museum, mainly of practical geology, with descriptions and uses of the materials therein. There are numbers of other kinds of geological work that need enlarge- ments of the stafls of the Geological Surveys before they can be undertaken, such as observations with regard to :— Transport of sediment and chemical character of water in streams. Inland denudation, and coastal erosion. Underground flow of water through rocks. Decay of rocks under tropical conditions. Museum.—The formation of a Museum of practical geology, such as that of the British Geological Survey at Jermyn Street, London, but on a much smaller scale, and to have in addition local specimens, is a most valuable adjunct to a Survey. It is also of great assistance to all workers specially in Geology, Geography, Agriculture and Engineering, and of interest to all who have any love for natural history, or wish to understand something of the ground they travel over and the materials that cover it. A museum of this kind should have small collections of representative rocks of the great divisions grouped under (1) mode of origin, such as various kinds of igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic, chemical, eolian ; (2) broad general divisions of each of the groups specified in (1); (3) a stratigraphical table showing the various chronological divisions into which sedimentary rocks have been grouped, together with indications ee ee C.—GEOLOGY. 73 showing the relative chronological position of the numerous igneous rocks which are intrusive into them, or interbedded with them, as lava flows and tuffs (voleanic ashes); (4) typical fossils, characteristic of the main divisions of geological time, particularly those which are associated with economic minerals, such as coal, brown coal, lignite, oil-shale and mineral oil ; (5) typical fuels ; (6) the common metallic and non-metallic minerals (as far as possible these specimens should not be only of the beautiful, showy type that are seen in great museums, but also of the weather-beaten ones, such as one finds at or near the surface, during the course of prospecting for minerals); (7) gemstones; (8) clays, sands, gravels, pigments, abrasives, refractories ; (9) building, ornamental and engineering stones (with a section illustrating the various kinds of limestone and their products); (10) a collection showing the natural weathering of rocks ; (11) concentrates, and their minerals ; (12) a collection, specially for use in agriculture and forestry, and in assistance in the proper determination and mode of occurrence of rocks, the nature of which is more or less obscure. This should comprise groups of five or six specimens repre- senting :— (a) Fresh (undecayed), or non-disintegrating rock; (6) partially decayed, or disintegrating one, showing a crust of decayed rock round a core of fresh rock; (c) completely decayed rock; (d) subsoil from (c) ; (e) soil immediately above the subsoil ; (f) soil mixed with humus. A separate small collection of the typical rocks and minerals of the colony should also be shown. Since many rocks decay into soils which in colour differ greatly from the fresh or decaying rocks, it can be seen that a study of examples of this kind enables one to form shrewd conclusions regarding the rocks from which the soils have been derived, especially in tropical countries where decay has been so great—to upwards of 50 feet—that no rock, fresh or decaying, can be seen in natural sections, such as low cliffs, channels and landslips ; or artificial ones, as railway- and road-cuttings, drains, shafts, and pits. Thus the soil can be determined as a sedentary one—derived directly from the rock underlying—or one of transport, consisting of material usually quite different from a soil derivable from the rocks underlying. One useful aid to determination of a sedentary soil is the presence of lines of quartz representing disintegrated veins of that mineral. To appreciate fully the importance of specimens of this kind it is advisable to compare a series of groups of them. Accompanying these specimens there should be a diagram of transverse _ sections showing in profile the nature of the weathering from the surface soil to the underlying rock at the base, the chemical and physical analyses of the soil, the nature of the drainage, &c. Photographs and diagrams, showing various aspects and phases of all occurrences, with descriptive and explanatory notes, should be put with the specimens. Goxip Coast Meruop or Raprip Survey 1N UNMAPPED COUNTRY. It may be advisable to describe very briefly the main features of the method adopted in the Gold Coast in the rapid examination of country possessing no reliable maps. TA SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. Traverses are made, by bicycle mainly, with (a) the prismatic or pocket compass, for direction ; (b) cyclometer, or measuring wheel, for distance ; (c) aneroid barometer, with thermometer attached, for altitude and temperature ; and (d) watch, for time. On leaving a camp all four observations are taken, but instead of the traverse being tabulated in columns as usual—which method gives no graphic idea of the orientation of the traverse—the graphic method is used. This shows at once the direction being taken, for the bearing of each line is roughly plotted in the field-book, as to direction and length, and a continuous traverse obtained, in which, in its relative position, each natural feature is placed. The observations embrace features such as sites of camps, and prominent landmarks, edges of stream flats and banks, water-levels, gullies, tops of rises or ridges or plateaux, edges of plateaux or hills, huts, villages, outcrops of rocks, showing dips, strikes, characters and any special features. All four observations (a—d) are taken at each of such places, except the occasional omission of that for time when stoppages are frequent. But at places where the stoppage is for ten minutes or more the time observation also is taken on leaving, for the purpose of correction for altitude because of change in air-pressure. As far as possible samples of the gravels of all streams, as well as the loam beside outcrops of quartz reefs and dykes, and the material from road-gutters or paths, are panned, and concentrates of heavy minerals obtained. (In certain types of country panning is the most useful aid to prospecting, not only in the discovery of gems and stable metallic minerals, such as native gold, platinoid minerals, oxides of tin, thorium, titanium, iron, chromium, tungsten, and manganese, but also of many rock-forming minerals, which indicate the probable character of the rocks at the spot, or in the basin of the stream tested.) Specimens of rocks and samples of quartz are collected for reference, museum purposes, microscopic examination of thin sections, or testing by assay, analysis, or other methods. Coal, lignite, limestone, and other economic rocks, brick and pottery clays, and pigments are sought; also fossils, which, if found, are used to determine the age of the strata associated with them. In addition to the general observations indicated, notes are made of the colour, kind, and thickness of soil, the nature of the vegetation, size and kind of stream and gravel, and measurement of volume of water— when there is opportunity, and if of possible economic value, with regard to domestic supplies and possible hydro-electric power and irrigation. It will thus be seen that the geologist in a new country, by taking the opportunity to make the observations mentioned in the last section is helping his colleagues in other departments by collecting evidence of probable future value. On the completion of several traverses roughly parallel with one another, particularly if they have been made across the strike of the rocks, a large amount of useful geological and topographical information is available. From this a map can be prepared, with possibly a connection with some definitely fixed point, and on it all natural features observed — can be shown, sufficiently near to accuracy to serve fully the purpose of a map to a comparatively small scale. To this can be added the geology and mineral occurrences, the various ee C.--GEOLOGY. 75 geological divisions present in the area being shown in their respective colours, in agreement with the general scheme adopted for African geological surveys. It will, therefore, be seen that in a young country which has no topographical survey of its own, or one which is only partly surveyed, it is imperative that some such method as outlined should be adopted before anything approaching a real representation of the features can be shown. The only alternative to this is to attempt to describe with a flood of words what can be shown graphically as a picture, impressible on the visual memory by a brief examination of it. It should be clearly understood that such is advocated only in the absence of an accurate groundwork of survey, such as that of the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain, a map upon which the geologist can at once place his geological information with accuracy, and thank Heaven and his country that he has such a map available. Colonies such as these comprise some which are furnished with all Departments, others in which some of the smaller Departments have not yet been established. It is to a less advanced and less flourishing one that the following remarks specially refer. Such may not have a department of Lands Survey or of Water Supply, but it may have a Geological Survey. What then happens in the event of a discovery of some important deposit of mineral, or the collection of data of value respecting supplies of under- ground water, and of streams for the development of hydro-electric power ? There is no Lands Survey Department, and no Water Supply Department, so there is no one whose special duty it is to make a topographical survey of the ground and produce a map therefrom, upon which a concession to- Government can be obtained, if desired. Therefore the geologist makes the survey and the map. Similarly, the information respecting water supplies for domestic and stock purposes is collected by him, the streams crossed during his various traverses are examined, the volumes measured, possible sites for dams noted, and other useful data obtained for possible utilisation later of water-power for hydro-electric purposes. This informa- tion may not have any immediate value, or when obtained may not be regarded as of special interest, but conditions change and events happen rapidly in a young progressive country, so that often available information of this kind is found to be most opportune and useful. There are several instances of the special assistance given by Geological Surveys, two of which in the Gold Coast may be mentioned. In 1917, on the discovery by that Survey of a large deposit of bauxite of high grade, the Government decided to obtain a concession over the deposit and surrounding country. The Geological Survey that year consisted solely of the Director, and as no Lands Survey Department then existed in the Colony he himself surveyed the boundaries and prepared a map therefrom, so that the concession could be obtained. He also surveyed in - detail the area comprised by the deposits and prepared a map of it. _ Similarly, in the case of the large deposits of manganese ore found by the Survey. It may be specially mentioned here that not only on the economic mineral side of geology is a geological survey of value to a colony. It is of much assistance to such departments as Agriculture, Forestry, Water 76 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. Supply and Public Works, as indicated previously, but a few remarks may be made to show how this is so. Agriculture and Forestry—The growth of plants, whether grasses, herbs or trees, is dependent on the chemical and physical properties of the soil, on the configuration of the land, and on climatic and other conditions. Since plant foods consist largely of certain rock-forming minerals in a soluble condition it is necessary to know what is the chemical character of the soil. This can be ascertained by analyses of samples collected by geologists, for much of the value of the analyses depends upon a careful determination of the types of rock forming the base of the subsoil. Where such consists wholly of one kind, as granite or dolerite, and the soil is one derived. directly and wholly from it, a few analyses only are necessary to give results which may be generally applicable to the whole area. But this is not so with medium-bedded sedimentary rocks, comprising shales, ’ mudstones, sandstones, grits and conglomerates, and the chemically- formed rocks, such as limestones, when these are of no great thickness. The nature of the soil derived from them varies very much and depends not only on the kinds of rocks—pervious or impervious—but also on their disposition—flat-bedded or inclined—and whether the ground is flat or undulating. For the ascertainment of the character and disposition of all these rocks the geologist is essential. There is, however, another aspect to be considered. Many soils are not sedentary ones—derived directly from the underlying rocks—but are soils of transport. The character of the soil, or even the subsoil, often bears no genetic relation to the underlying rocks, and where such soil is of no great thickness a geological knowledge of the rocks underlying is necessary. In connection with irrigation the character of the soil of the supply channels needs the attention of the geologist. He should note if there is any crust of minerals on the soil, on the evaporation of water. If so, these minerals should be analysed to see if they are those injurious to plants, when in large proportion, such as certain sodium and magnesium salts. This is important in areas with soil derived directly from rocks of marine origin, particularly young clays, mudstones and sands deposited in brackish lagoons and estuaries. If these minerals be present he may be able to devise means by which the proportion of these harmful salts when in solution can be steadily reduced by flowing away with the water, and not being alternately and continuously precipitated and dissolved. Water-Supply.—This question of water supply is one that concerns some colonies much more than others, but all are affected to some degree. In cases involving the conservation of the water of annual streams, the problem is dependent largely upon geological considerations. But where underground water is sought, whether of the character of an artesian supply, or due to seasonal rains, the problem is a much wider one, and may be difficult to settle satisfactorily. For artesian water, not only the configuration of the country, but also the disposition and nature of the rocks must be known before any conclusion can be formed as to the chances of success in obtaining such supplies. This is essentially a work for the geologist, and even for him it is quite likely that the evidence available in the district may be msufficient—owing to the absence of natural sections hs ne C.—GEOLOGY. VT —and that he may be compelled to wait for the result of boring done at spots indicated by him. Therefore, it is advisable that a geological report should precede the efforts to obtain permanent water supplies, and not, as so frequently happens, be asked for after one or more costly attempts have failed. There are many examples in the Colonies of great waste of money in this manner, one case in which £20,000 was entirely wasted. A boring engineer usually has no knowledge of geology, or of the connection between stratigraphy and water supply, so he cannot be expected to do more than the mechanical part of the work. Public Works.—To this department, perhaps, more so than to any other, the geological survey can be of assistance, specially with regard to— (1) The discovery of rocks, suitable for constructional purposes (such as for houses, bridges, drains, macadam), and of limestone, for lime, mortar, concrete, cement and house-washes. (2) The character of the foundations for bridges, large buildings, dams and breakwaters. (3) The nature of the rocks in areas where new roads are to be made. This is mainly for possible variations of route with reduction of expense in construction and maintenance. In country without outcrops of wide-spread suitable rocks, the help of the geologist is necessary to ascertain if any suitable ones occur as dykes or as beds among other folded unsuitable ones. If they do, then he can possibly trace their extensions into other localities. In tropical climates, such as almost all our Colonies possess, the question of suitable road-metal becomes a pressing one. For this purpose it is advisable to get, if possible, rocks, such as dolerite, and gabbro, that are tough and hard, do not fracture naturally, but on abrasion yield a binding material, such as lime and iron, which under the action of intermittent saturation and evaporation becomes a cement. The case of Jamaica may be cited where Dr. Matley, in the course of his geological investigations found many dykes of basic rocks eminently suitable for macadam and available for replacement of the limestone—a much inferior rock—then being used in the Colony. The attrition of limestone is so rapid that it is usually found to be unsuitable for roads with heavy traffic, but for light traffic it is excellent. The search for limestone is an important duty of the geologist and should be continued until supplies of good limestone have been obtained, or failing that, till it seems quite unlikely that any such rocks exist in the country. A good limestone, if properly treated during the burning stage should produce good lime, and unless in remote districts under conditions _ of costly transport and burning it should be cheaper to produce it locally _ than to import it at great cost. Quartzite, quartz-schist, and hornstone are used largely in some countries, but the excessive wear of tyres, the brittleness of the rocks, the serious effect of hard sharp-edged particles of dust on the lungs, the non- binding character of the material—all are against the use of this type of stone, despite the lower cost of excavation and breakage. Hydro-Electric Power—This question may be regarded as quite outside the duties of a geologist. A little consideration, however, will show that 78 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. the geologist has a good deal to do with it, especially where the question of dam-building and reservoir-formation is concerned. For the construction of a dam, and the formation of a reservoir for hydro-electric purposes, it is of great importance to know the geology of the area and the nature of the rocks, whether soluble (as limestones) or insoluble ; porous and brittle, or impervious and firm, and all the variations between ; their normal or faulted condition ; their disposition, strike and dip, the latter against or with the direction of the current. The geologist has to help the engineer not only with regard to the suitability of the rocks at the site of the dam, but also in the whole of the area to be occupied by the proposed reservoir. As before mentioned, where a young colony has no special department and wishes to gather information respecting such water-power, it has to get help from another department. What more natural than that this should come from the _ geologist ? Sanitation.—Under the usual conditions for the disposal of nightsoil by burial in depots in the neighbourhood, where there is no proper sewerage or sterilisation system, the geological survey is able to help very con- siderably in the question of sanitation. The glaring lack of consideration of this question, shown not infre- quently, is a menace to the health of the people. There is an example known to me where all the nightsoil from a large town was buried on the ridge at the head of a valley in permeable soil, a valley in which were several wells from which the people were obtaining supplies of drinking water. The risk being run by using this water is illustrated by the case brought under notice some years ago on the Continent. In this the cause of an outbreak of typhoid fever could not be determined until a geologist said it was probably due to a nightsoil depot on the side of a ridge, several hundred yards distant from a spring on the opposite side of that ridge. He was laughed toscorn. But, by pouring water, stained with a permanent dye, on the depot he proved that the spring was taking the drainage from it. The geologist showed by scientific observation of the strata, that the beds were dipping through the ridge from the depot towards the spring. All work of this kind should have the inspection of a geologist before anything is done ; similarly, the sinking of wells in and near a town should be subject to his approval. Military Training. —It may seem strange to say that geology can be useful to military science, but modern warfare has shown that to be the ease. Prof. W. W. Watts, in his Presidential Address before this section at Toronto in 1924, has brought this clearly before us. He says, ‘ It will be readily admitted that geology has been of conspicuous service in connection with military operations in such ways as the siting of camps, trenches and dug-outs; while the minute study of the water-tablein Northern France during the late war was not only of value in obtaining water supplies, but was of conspicuous utility in miningandcounter-mining.’ Something can be said for geology in Africa in this connection. Military training and manceuvres are aided by a knowledge of the nature of the soil and underlying rocks, and of water supply. Country embracing all types from open to forest-capped plains, rises, hills and valleys, preferably in uninhabited or sparsely populated areas, are required for these opera- C.—GEOLOGY. v6) tions. For purposes of domestic water supplies, where the district is Jacking in surface water, and for indicating the nature of the soil, subsoil and underlying rocks for the excavation of trenches, earthworks and other purposes, the assistance of the geologist is most desirable, and this fact is now thoroughly recognised by military authorities. The supply of water that has to be transported long distances means great loss of time and opportunity, whereas geological advice can often enable it to be obtained on the spot by the sinking of shallow wells. Geological Reports—For the preparation of departmental reports on the physical features and geology of a young country—one that is for the special use of officials who may not be familiar with scientific or technical _ terms—it is desirable that language as simple as possible should be used in describing the various features. There are many scientific terms that are necessary to express what is desired, but it is advisable, when using them, to have accompanying explanations in parentheses, or a separate glossary, to which reference can be made. Whenever possible, however, it is preferable to avoid such terms, which are suitable only for a purely scientific report. Aerial Survey.—A few words may be said on the use of the aeroplane —and hydroplane where suitable—for a knowledge of the broad topo- graphical features such as the courses of streams, the nature of the drainage, hills, ranges, plains, and lakes of a country, and the assistance given to geological determination by that means. It is well known that certain rock masses weather with characteristic features. The geologist with ground experience of such will soon obtain aerial experience of the same, especially if during his flights he takes photographs from various angles and altitudes. This is particularly useful for open country where no thick forest hides the terrestrial features from view. A recon- -naissance of this kind yields much valuable physiographic information of the country in a small fraction of the time required to traverse the same area by terrestrial means. It shows the routes by which the geological features can best be ascertained by the usual modes of transport on land. ‘These planes also aid greatly in the transport of men and material. Geophysical Prospecting —Modern science has shown that a great deal of assistance can now be obtained by mechanical means, based on certain physical laws. The methods are the gravimetric, magnetic, seismic, acoustic or sonic, and electrical. They have now been tested and improved so much that the presence and approximate positions of bodies of certain substances below the surface of the ground—and of which there is no visible -evidence—can be determined by their application. _ These methods involve costly apparatus, high training, much time, expense and suitable conditions, both terrestrial and climatic, before they can be fully utilised, but of their importance and use there is no question of doubt. How far they can be applied to a young country depends upon natural conditions and the financial assistance available. a: _ Examptes oF Benerits To CoLonrzs FRoM SuRvEY DISCOVERIES. In order that a clear impression may be gained of the practical results following the activities of these surveys in Colonies a few remarks may 9e made regarding the development of certain mineral deposits dis- 80 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. covered solely and directly by the Geological and Mineral Surveys of three colonies. As there are definite results with figures available, these examples are given. There are also important discoveries by other such surveys in other colonies, but they either do not lend themselves definitely to being viewed in ‘ balance-sheet form,’ or their deposits have not yet been developed. Nigeria.—The mineral survey of Southern Nigeria discovered the large, black coal field in 1909, surveyed it in detail over the greater portion of a length of some 24 miles and width of 10 miles, and prepared a geological- topographical map of the country, showing altitudes, outcrops of coal and other information. Further work was done later and the coal-bearing area extended considerably. Mining operations by Government were commenced on the largest seam in 1916, and since then development has continued steadily. The total quantity of coal, in round numbers, pro- duced from 1916 to March 31, 1928, is 2,210,000 tons, valued at the mine at £1,282,000. The annual average over the three years ended March 31, 1928, is: coal production, 313,720 tons ; revenue, £148,340 ; expenditure, £82,234 ; profit, £66,106. The total net profit to Government to March 31, 1928, is £452,559. The mine now employs some 30 Europeans and 2,400 natives. The coal is used principally by the Nigerian and Gold Coast Railways, the Nigerian tin mines and by shippmg companies. The total cost of the geological survey of Nigeria since its inception in 1919 to March 31, 1928, is approximately £68,700, and of the mineral survey of Southern Nigeria for the period 1903-1913, about £20,000, or a total of approximately £88,700. Thus the total profit to the Government from this one discovery by a Government geologist is more than five times the total cost of the geological and mineral surveys, while the average annual profit for the past three years is nearly nine times the average annual cost of the geological survey during the same period. The surveys also discovered large and valuable deposits of good brown coal and lignite, some of which will probably be exploited later for the distillation of oil, or for sale of the coal in the form of briquettes. Besides these discoveries others were made of limestone of good quality in several districts, oil-shales, phosphate of lime—of value as a local fertiliser— excellent pottery, tile and brick clays, some lead-zinc-silver deposits, ornamental-, engineering- and building-stones. Doubtless some or all of these will be developed later and will prove of great value to the colony. Gold Coast.—The specially important discoveries made by the geological survey of the Gold Coast are huge deposits of manganese ore and bauxite (aluminium ore), and widespread alluvial deposits of diamonds. The manganese deposits were found in 1914 before the Great War, but not exploited until 1916, when the vital need for high-grade manganese ore caused the development of these deposits. Production of ore com- menced in 1916, and the total production to March 31, 1928, is 1,785,643 tons of high-grade ore, valued at £3,350,706, free on board ship at Sekondi. Of this quantity the annual average during the past three years is 364,975 tons, valued at £656,132. The Government Railway Department transports this ore to the sea- board at Sekondi, and has received, in round numbers, £550,000 for C.—GEOLOGY. 81 freight to March 31, 1928. Besides this, the Railway Department has obtained large sums for freight on the great quantities of mining machinery, building materials and supplies transported from Sekondi to the mine. In addition to the profit the Railway Department has made on freight of ore and supplies between the port and the mine, the Government gets a royalty of five per cent. on the profits of the company that owns the deposit. The mining royalty for the year 1927-28 was £10,000. During the last three years the average number of Europeans engaged on the mine staff was 52, and of natives, 2,000. Diamonds were first discovered in February, 1919. These diamonds, though small, are of very good quality, and have a ready sale for industrial purposes and jewellery. Since mining operations were commenced in 1921 there has been a large progressive increase each year till, for the year ended March 31, 1929, the figures are: production, 648,343 carats; value £538,860; export duty paid, nearly £27,000. The total weight of diamonds produced is 1,824,630 carats, valued at £1,758,348, on which the Government has received roundly £87,900 from the export duty of five per cent. on the total value. _ The annual average for the past three years is: production, 520,572 carats; value, £482,157 ; export duty, £24,108 ; mine stafi—Europeans, 21; natives, 1,163; cost of the Geological Survey, £9,342. The export _ duty received by Government for last year was nearly 23 times the cost of _ the Geological Survey for that year. 3 The benefit, therefore, that has accrued to the Gold Coast, directly _and indirectly, from these two discoveries by the Geological Survey is _ apparent, and it will continue for a long period. _ The Gold Coast has a great potential asset in its huge deposits of high _ grade bauxite—the total conservatively estimated quantity being upwards _ of 250 million tons. These deposits are not yet developed, owing mainly * the high cost of transport of bauxite to a port of shipment. Bauxite is an ore of low value and so cannot bear heavy charges for freight, but, with _ extension of railway communication and reduction of freight charges, the p Colony should see a great development of this particular source of wealth, and a further mineral example be added to revenue from Geological Survey _ discoveries. The Survey is also responsible for finding many occurrences of alluvial gold and some of reef gold, large deposits of iron ore (hematite), and good limestone, pottery, tile and brick clays, ornamental and general con- _ structional stones, refractory substances, and smaller occurrences of tin, arsenic, molybdenum, copper, and platinum. None of these is as yet _ developed. % Sterra Leone.—The Geological Survey of this Colony is much younger than those of Nigeria and the Gold Coast. The Director has discovered ‘large deposits of iron ore (hematite) of good quality, and considerable deposits of alluvial platinum and gold—all now being developed—besides _oceurrences of chromite, corundum, ilmenite, rutile, manganese, and ol aie all of them also minerals of economic value. If found on further “examination to occur in promising quantities these deposits should prove to be of commercial value. The West African Geological Surveys have no offices and laboratories 1929 fe} 82 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. in the Colonies. During the dry and tornado seasons of the year the geologists are engaged on geological surveys and examinations of various kinds in the Colonies, but during the rainy season field work is suspended and the staffs return to England. In these respects their organisation differs from that of the other Colonies. The specimens of rocks and con- centrates collected are then examined and distributed for various modes of treatment, and reports not made or completed on the Coast, as well as microscopic examination of thin sections of rocks, are done in London. The greater portion of the chemical work, such as assays and analyses, devolves upon the Imperial College of Science and Technology and the Imperial Institute under special arrangements. The field work comprises mainly the geological mapping of areas, detailed surface and underground surveys of mining fields, detailed and rapid surveys of special areas and deposits, and such other matters as are indicated in another section of this address. Sudan.—Owing to the geological character of the country the discoveries made by the Sudan Geological Survey are of non-metallic substances. They comprise valuable limestone deposits and underground water- supplies, while great assistance has been given in connection with sites for wells, tanks, dams, and buildings, and advice on building materials, fireclays, manufacture of salt, and other matters. Tanganyika.—The energies of the Tanganyika Geological Survey, a young one, have been devoted very largely towards mapping certain areas, examining deposits of minerals found in the country, and reporting on geological aspects relative to railway location. Besides, much valuable advice and assistance have been given in various directions in connection with water-supplies. Nyasaland.—The Geological and Mineral Surveys discovered large deposits of bauxite, and of limestone; also seams of coal and lignite, and deposits of asbestos, graphite, talc, tinstone, silver-lead, iron, and several other minerals. Owing to these discoveries a prospecting company has been formed with a view to examining the country thoroughly for minerals. Valuable work has been done in connection with the dis- covery of water-supplies in various districts, and most useful reports published. Federated Malay States.—The energies of the Federated Malay States Survey have been devoted chiefly to the exploration of large areas with alluvial and lode tin, the determination of the character and age of certain intrusive rocks and limestone deposits, reports on mineral deposits, advice on road metal, sites for dams and roads, schemes for boring and prospecting, assays of ores and minerals. As some of the benefits derived by Malaya from geological maps and advice given by the Survey may be mentioned the extension of tin- bearing country, in which dredging operations are now in progress, and the prevention of certain useless schemes proposed for boring for minerals, and prospecting for oil and water, thus saving much expense to the Government and private interests. As an example of non-acceptance of such advice may be cited a case in which nearly £20,000 was lost by a syndicate through boring for oil in a raised beach of dead shells, said by a tin miner to be an excellent indication of oil. C.— GEOLOGY. 83 ~~ Uganda—The operations of this Survey comprise mainly the geological mapping of the country. During such work areas likely to prove mineral-bearing are noted and mining companies and individual “prospectors advised to test them. The Survey, has, however, made discoveries directly, or through prospectors acting on advice given. In one such instance it was proved that owing to earth-movements the drainage of a stream had been reversed, and the source of the gold in it _ was found to be down, instead of up, the course of the stream. Another _ interesting discovery, a recent one, which may prove to be valuable, was the occurrence, in considerable quantity, of a bismuth-tantalum mineral, _ new to science, in pegmatite. A unique adjunct is a branch of seismological research, with a view to possible prediction of earthquakes, since Uganda is situated on an unstable portion of the earth’s crust. ~~ Ceylon.—The Mineral Survey of Ceylon made numbers of discoveries of valuable minerals, including deposits of limestone, mica, iron ore, monazite, corundum, gemstones, and various rarer minerals with _radio-active properties, notably one new to science—thorianite (thorium oxide), which occurs both in gravels of streams and in dykes of pegmatite. Occurrences of platinum, and of manganese, chromium, molybdenum and pper minerals were noted, and hot saline springs found. __ Jamaica.—Valuable stratigraphical work was done by this Survey ‘through its discovery of fossils. By their aid the various zones of the ‘strata were revealed, and the nature and occurrence of underground pplies of water determined. Numerous dykes and sills of basic rocks, pn which can be obtained vast quantities of road-metal, much more durable than the limestone then being used, were discovered by the Survey. British Honduras.—The operations of the Mineral Survey embraced ‘the geological mapping of the country, and the preparation and publication a useful geological sketch map. Large deposits of limestone were liscovered, and occurrences of tinstone and molybdenite noted. British Guiana—Following the original survey already mentioned, ‘much important work was done and reports published by the late Sir yhn Harrison, describing valuable occurrences of bauxite, diamonds, gold nd palladium. Other useful reports issued later were by Messrs. H. J. C. molly and Smith Bracewell, on the geology and economic features of gold and diamond fields. Gambia.—A rapid geological survey of this small colony has been de by Dr. W. G. G. Cooper of the Gold Coast Geological Survey, and a apprehensive report with map, sections and photographs published. interesting features were noted, and useful information given, lally with regard to water-supply and brick and pottery clays. Somaliland.—A brief examination by Mr. R. A. Farquharson of a on of this Protectorate resulted in his discovery of seams of black coal ignite, and of occurrences of lead and strontium minerals. Other rals and rocks were noted—among them salt, barite, oil-shale, marble large deposits of gypsum. Many useful remarks were also made ding water-supplies and soil, and a report with sketch map published. zibar.—An important report with map, sections and photographs a2 84 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. on the geological survey of these islands, by Mr. G. M. Stockley, has been published. Among the economic materials found are clays and limestones for building and road purposes, and gypsum—possibly of value for manure for the clove plantations. Useful information regarding water-supply was obtained and many fossils discovered, which have aided considerably in the correlation of the strata with those of the mainland of Kast Africa. Falkland Islands.—A geological survey of these islands was completed by Dr. H. A. Baker, and a report with map, sections and plates published. This survey extended the work done by geologists who had previously examined portions of the islands. Numerous additional fossils were discovered, and the close relations confirmed between certain formations of the islands and those of South Africa, as had been suggested by previous observers. It should be stated that the minerals mentioned under the various Colonies and Malaya do not embrace all that have been found in them. There are many others that were known, and in some cases were being mined, before geological and mineralogical surveys were established—such, for instance, as alluvial tinstone in Nigeria and the Federated Malay States, gold in the Gold Coast, Tanganyika, and Nyasaland, and diamonds in British Guiana. The Surveys, however, can fairly claim to have done most useful work in these tinfields by their examinations and reports before the regions were effectively developed. PROSPECTING PARTIES, OR A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—A CoMPARISON. The view has been advanced that a Colony without a Geological Survey can derive so much benefit from the geological and mineralogical results contributed to it by prospecting parties attached to mining groups operating in the country, or independent of them, that a Geological Survey is unnecessary. Opinions will differ as to the correctness of this view. If that is correct it is so only as long as such mining groups or individuals supply this information. But, since it is much more common that such mineral results are carefully conserved for their own interests solely, no great amount of information would probably be received by the Colony. Besides, it is well known that prospecting parties of this kind are looking specially for certain kinds of minerals or metals, and the whole of their energies are devoted usually to the search, discovery and economic aspect of deposits of such minerals. No interest is taken usually in anything which has no important structural or economic bearing upon the objects of special search. Even respecting those there are possibly aspects of interest or value to the country, but not regarded as having any such to the groups. Thus much information of value is either not observed or recorded, or lost if obtained, and the country does not benefit fully. Also, it sometimes happens that the operations of a private prospect- ing party are conducted with a view not to the discovery and legitimate exploitation of a promising deposit of a useful mineral, but to the successful flotation of a company, irrespective of its probable economic value. As already indicated, the energies of ordinary prospecting parties of companies are not devoted to the search for numerous different minerals, so many such are probably passed unnoticed or untested, due to want of i : . j . ; se i i i % zd % % C.—GEOLOGY. 85 knowledge, or of interest, or of both. Companies that exploit and develop their own discoveries, for example, gold or tin, do not usually take any active interest in, for instance, copper or lead. The development of such deposits to the metal-production stage involves a procedure entirely foreign to their activities and practice, and so their energies are directed solely to the metals which can be exploited more quickly and less expensively than those requiring smelting. Further, the records of much of the work done by small mining com- panies and independent prospectors are not carefully recorded. Usually their operations are continued for only comparatively short times, and when discontinued there is often little to show for all the energy, time and money expended upon them. In eases, however, where prospecting parties are under the direction of keen, capable geologists, interested in the numerous aspects of geology, and allowed by their principals to publish records of their observations, there is no doubt that much of interest and value to pure and economic geology will be the result, as has been shown recently in Northern Rhodesia. Such observers and the assistance rendered to Geology by them will be welcomed by Colonial Geological Surveys. Moreover, is the argument valid that a permanent Geological Survey is unnecessary because there are in the country large numbers of prospecting and mining parties at work ? Canit be said justifiably that an Agricultural Department is unnecessary in a country the natives of which are agricultur- ists and able to produce many products of the soil that are required for their food supply and. possibly available for export? No, else why the establishment of such departments, and the great importance attached, and deservedly so, to their efforts? They are there to assist the natives to add to their list of products ; to show them the best means to combat diseases of plants; to increase their production ; to introduce improved methods of culture, and generally to raise their status as agriculturists. Why then should not the same principle and policy be applied to search for the rock, mineral and fuel wealth of the country, and if found, and of economic value, then to assist in its development ? It seems but reasonable to concede the truth of this, and that being done it is time enough to consider the suspension or abandonment of the operations of such a survey if and when it has proved that the country does not possess such wealth. But there should be no time limit set to the proof or otherwise of this result. A country difficult to examine because of its natural features cannot be certainly expected to yield its mineral secrets, or confess its paucity of mineral deposits in the course of a few months, or even years of effort. Let it be borne steadfastly in mind that spectacular discoveries of valuable mineral deposits are not the only benefits that a geological survey can bestow upon a country, however important they may be, and however valuable may be their contributions to the revenue and prosperity of the country. There are many other ways in which such a survey can _be of benefit to it, indirectly and directly. It has already been shown ~~ how this can be done in connection with the extension of railways and toads ; the development of hydro-electric power ; the discovery and supply of water for pipe-borne supplies for large centres of population; the construction of dams, wells and tanks for the scattered population of seasonally arid districts, and for the permanent and travelling stock ; the ae 86 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. advice to be given respecting the character and distribution of soils; the utilisation of constructional stones ; limestone and its products ; brick and pottery clays ; formation of marine breakwaters ; silting and reclamation of lagoons and estuaries—a most important work for the future in some colonies—and prevention of coastal erosion. Now for a consideration of the belief, and the assertion often expressed that the ‘practical’ man, and he alone, be he miner, prospector, water-diviner, or any other ‘ practical specialist,’ and not the geologist, is the man who discovers deposits of minerals and supplies of underground water. Were we in the eighteenth century instead of the twentieth, with its great advance of scientific knowledge, such remarks might perhaps be justifiable, but who can honestly say that such is the case in nineteen hundred and twenty-nine? We have evidence on every hand that the managements of large industries recognise the value of science and have their own laboratory stafis ; mining companies—whether of the precious or base metals, non-metallic minerals, coal, oil and gas—have permanent or consulting geologists attached to their staffs to advise upon the general and special geological conditions—mainly structural, petrological, mineral- ogical—and character of the ore-bodies, rocks, seams and wells. That being so, it is high time that this legacy from medizevalism was dispelled. There is no desire to belittle the value and importance of the so-called ‘practical man,’ particularly the prospector with some knowledge of geology and the mode of occurrence of ore-deposits. It is well known that many valuable mineral deposits have been found by intelligent capable prospectors, men of keen observation, close reasoning and long experience, who thoroughly deserved their success. Similarly is it known that many others were the chance discoveries of novices who made no claim to the term of prospector, for with the proverbial ‘ luck of the beginner ’ they had been fortunate. All men conversant with the early history of mineral fields know numerous instances of this kind. But there are other prospect- ors, with more or less experience of searching for one particular kind of mineral, frequently gold or tinstone, and possessed of remarkable assurance, who, ignorant of the merest rudimentary knowledge of the origin and genetic relations of minerals generally, pose as prospectors of minerals of every de- scription. Theymay be entirely ignored so far as their value as prospectors is concerned. Nevertheless, the capable prospector, unless possessed of a good geological knowledge of the origin, association and distribution of minerals, has his limitations, for usually he has restricted his operations to some one or two—perhaps more—kinds of minerals, usually gold alone, or gold and tinstone, or perhaps copper or diamonds. If he has experience of the mode of occurrence of these minerals in several countries under different conditions he is usually successful in proving a locality with respect to the presence or absence of any or all of these minerals. But otherwise, if the modes of occurrence in his new sphere of operations differ from those with which he was acquainted previously he may not detect the minerals there. Two Gold Coast examples of this may be given. One prospector had ~ sunk a shallow hole on the side of a hill, apparently for gold, and unearthed good manganese ore, but not recognising its identity, and probably regarding it as iron slag, apparently took no special notice of it. While the Director of the Geological Survey was surveying the Insuta manganese ° C.—GEOLOGY. 87 ore deposit, after his discovery of it, he found this old hole, and noted that the prospector had failed to discover what later proved to be one of the largest and richest deposits of manganese ore in the world—one that was of great importance to the life of the British nation at a most critical period of the Great War, when sufficient supplies of high-grade manganese ore _were unobtainable for the manufacture of effective munitions. The other example is that of a prospector for gold, who had sunk a shaft, over 40 feet deep, through bauxite. He used the shaft constantly without knowing, until informed of that fact by the same geologist, that the ‘material he had excavated was bauxite. In both cases the want of - geological knowledge was the cause of the failure of the prospectors to Tecognize what they had excavated. To Dr. E. O. Teale, Tanganyika; Dr. R. C. Wilson, Nigeria ; Major N.R. Junner, M.C., Sierra Leone ; Dr. G. W. Grabham, Sudan; Mr. E. J. - Wayland, Uganda ; Dr. F. Dixey, C.B.E., Nyasaland ; Mr. J. B. Scrivenor, Federated Malay States, Directors of the existing Geological Surveys of Colonies and Protectorates, and to the Commissioner of Lands and - Mines, British Guiana, I am indebted for the useful information they have _ kindly supplied regarding the operations of their Surveys. The value of the contributions of their Surveys to the well-being and advancement of their Colonies is evident from the results obtained. There is no doubt that as work progresses in areas not yet explored and detailed surveys are made in those already examined cursorily, many more valuable natural _ resources will be discovered by them. __ My thanks are also tendered to Dr. C. A. Matley for the information - furnished regarding Jamaica, to Mr. L. B. Ower for that respecting British Honduras, and to Mr. T. Crook, Principal of the Mineral Resources j Department of the Imperial Institute, for some of that relating to several of the other Surveys. _ In this address an attempt has been made to show the value of Geological Surveys to young countries, and the application of scientific _ knowledge and methods, both theoretical and practical, to the discovery _ of the valuable inorganic and organic resources of Nature, as opposed to the search for them in a more or less haphazard manner. ___ Though Geology has yielded much definite evidence of the genetic _ relations, associations and occurrences of minerals in rocks and lodes, yet - discoveries from time to time have shown that some minerals have wider ssociations than had been known previously. It becomes necessary, herefore, to keep an open mind on many matters, to consider carefully the evidence available, and not to be dogmatic in opinions and con- sions. Geology is not an exact science—therein lies much of its cination—so, in the consideration of some of its aspects, uncertainty, agination, and speculation must be tempered with keen and correct ervation, sound reasoning and experience. Through the xons of the wth of our earth Nature has continuously added to the mineral secrets in her vast realm. Some of these secrets she herself has unveiled to man by her ceaseless variation ; others have been revealed by chance through the activities of man and animal; and still others through the application experience and science by man. To-day science plays the predominant e in these revelations, and is steadily forcing a recognition of this fact upon the peoples of the earth, for their common benefit. ; SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY. ADAPTATION. ADDRESS BY Pror. D. M. 8. WATSON, MSc., F.RS., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. My predecessors in this chair in choosing the subjects of their addresses have set no fashion which helps me to determine on what subject to talk to you. Sometimes they have chosen to expound the details of that particular field of zoology in which they have themselves worked, sometimes they have discussed broad questions involving the fundamental assump- tions of zoologists or speculated as to the beginnings of structures or of a phylum. When the section did me the honour to appoint me to this position I was naturally tempted to devote an hour to the discussion of those early reptiles which come from the Karroo system, animals which lie near to the base not only of the mammals but of all the important developments of the great class of reptiles. But on consideration I decided to make use of my opportunity to discuss the significance of adaptation in animals, The only great generalisation which has so far come from zoological studies is that of Evolution—the conception that the whole variety of animal life, and the system of interrelationships which exists between animals and their environment, both living and non-living, have arisen by gradual change from simpler or, at any rate, different conditions. Evolution itself is accepted by zoologists not because it has been ob- served to occur or is supported by logically coherent arguments, but because it does fit all the facts of Taxonomy, of Paleontology, and of Geographical Distribution, and because no alternative explanation is credible. But whilst the fact of evolution is accepted by every biologist the mode in which it has occurred and the mechanism by which it has been brought about are still disputable. The only two ‘ theories of Evolution’ which have gained any general currency, those of Lamark and of Darwin, rest on a most insecure basis ; the validity of the assumptions on which they rest has seldom been seriously examined, and they do not interest most of the younger zoologists. It is because I feel that recent advances in zoology have made possible a real investigation of these postulates that I am devoting my address to them. tins ea ae a 1" 24) Pa 9214 D.—ZOOLOGY. 89 Both Lamark and Darwin based their theories on the assumption that every structure in an animal had a definite use in the animal’s daily life or at some stage of its life history. They understood by adaptation a change in the structure, and by implication also in the habits of an animal which rendered it better fitted to its “ organic or inorganic conditions of life.”’ Thus, for Darwin at any rate, a general increase in the efficiency of an animal was an adaptation. _ But amongst his followers the term came to imply a definite structural change of a part or parts by which an animal became better suited to some special and characteristic mode of life. The adaptation of flowers to ensure fertilisation by definite species of insects is a characteristic case. Such definite adaptations can only be shown to exist by very long continued observation of the animal under its natural conditions of life. In the post-Darwinian literature the suggestion that such and such a structure could be used for some definite function is too often regarded as evidence that in fact it is actually so used. My colleagues amongst the palzontologists are, I am afraid, offenders in this way. _ But even if it can be shown that the structure of an animal is such that it is specially fitted for the life which it in fact pursues, it does not necessarily follow that this structure has arisen as a definite adaptation to such habits. It is always conceivable, and often probable, that after the structure had arisen casually the animal possessing it was driven to the appropriate mode of life. The only cases in which we can be certain that adaptation in this true sense has occurred are those, unfortunately rare, in which we can trace in fossil material the history of a phylogenetic series, and at the same time establish that throughout the period of development of the adaptation its members lived under similar conditions. . It is not unusual for a student of fossils to discuss the habits of an extinct animal on the basis of a structural resemblance of its ‘ adaptive features ’ with those of a living animal and then to pass on to make use of his conclusions as if they were facts in the discussion of an evolutionary history or of the mode of origin of a series of sediments. _,. In extreme cases such evidence may be absolutely reliable: no man faced with an ichthyosaur so perfectly preserved that the outlines of its _ fins are visible can possibly doubt that it is an aquatic animal, and such a conclusion based on structure is supported by the entire absence of ichthyosaurs in continental deposits of appropriate ages and their abund- ance in marine beds. But if extremes give good evidence, ordinary cases are always disputable. For example, there is, so far as I know, not the least evidence in the post-cranial skeleton that the hippopotamus is _ aquatic: its limbs show no swimming modification whatsoever, and the dorsal position of the eyes would be a small point on which to base assump- tions. © Most paleontologists believe that the dentition of a mammal, and by inference also that of a reptile or fish, is highly adaptive, that its character will be closely correlated with the animal’s food, and that from it the habits of an extinct animal can be inferred with safety. __ Here again the extreme cases are justified, the flesh-eating teeth of a _ eat and the grinding battery of the horse are clearly related to diet. — 90 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. Crushing dentitions, with the modification of skull and jaw shape and of musculature which go with them, seem equally characteristic. I had always believed that the horny plates and. the jaws of Platypus were adapted to hard food, and that that animal possessed them, whilst the closely allied Echidna was toothless, because it was aquatic and lived in rivers which might be expected to have a rich molluscan fauna which could serve as food. But the half-dozen specimens whose stomachs I have opened contained no molluscs whatsoever, and seem to have fed on insect larve, the ordinary soft bottom fauna of a stream. I do not know whether this is an accidental occurrence, dependent on a special abundance of insects in the Fish river in late spring, or whether it really represents the normal food. Nothing but continued observations made throughout the year can justify any statements about this case. One of the very few animals whose food is adequately known is the herring, where the long-continued researches carried out as part of the international investigation of the North Sea have been based on the examination of thousands of stomachs taken throughout the year. The mouth of the herring is clearly adapted to plankton, and mdeed it does commonly live on such a diet. But some herring may be found stuffed with specimens of the bottom-living sand-eels, whilst Mr. Ford has shown me others which in yoult contained nothing but cheironomus larvae. Thus even here, in the case of an animal with a very characteristic type of mouth, we should not be completely justified in assuming that wé could predict its diet. How much less justified are we in drawing such conclusions in the case of less highly modified dentitions ? In the face of this uncertainty can we make use of the character of the dentition of fossil vertebrates for the determination of the nature of their food, and thus by building up phylogenetic series investigate the gradual development both of habit and their adaptation ; one without the other is valueless. The classical case of the horse is, of course, familiar to everyone. From the time of Huxley the story of the gradual increase in depth of crown of the molar teeth and in the complexity of the pattern formed by the worn edge of the enamel which coats the cusps of the molars has been held to show a steady improvement in mechanism which enabled the Equide to take advantage of a wide extension of grass land which was assumed to have occurred in Meiocene times. But this assumption in its ordinary form rests on the basis of an inadequate analysis of all the factors involved. The modern horses are bigger than those of the Eocene: an ordinary hackney weighs about fifty times as much as Hohippus venticolus. Thus, omitting from consideration the relatively greater heat loss of the smaller animal, which will be of importance only in a temperate climate, and also differences in basal metabolic rate resulting irom other effects of size, the modern horse will wear away in a day fifty times as much tooth as its ancestor ; but the surface area of its cheek teeth is only about fifteen times as great, so that without a deepening of the tooth crown by three and a third times it would have a shorter life. Actually, the crown is deepened about thirteen times, so that its potential longevity is increased to about four times that of Eohippus on the assumption that the abrasive qualities of the food of the two animals D.—ZOOLOGY. 91 have not changed. Dr. Matthew has produced evidence to show that in Merychippus, the Meiocene genus of horse, tooth change took place at a younger age than it does in modern horses ; the implication being that the potential longevity was less than it now is. Thus the fact that Equus has proportionately some four times as much tooth as Eohippus may mean no more than that it lives longer, and its marvellous dentition may not be adaptive in the sense that it is specially modified for the trituration of a new type of food. It may represent no more than a reaction to the requirements of a large animal. Thus in its dentition the horse may show not a definite adaptation to ‘a special diet, but such an improvement as enables a large animal to live longer than its small ancestor. I believe that most adaptations whose history can be traced in fossil material are of a similar kind. The changes which go on in the limbs of a horse do unquestionably result in the forma- tion of a machine which is more efficient than that of the Eocene animal, In this case each leg is designed for rapid motion, the single toe is better fitted to stand the great stresses it receives than the three or four of earlier form, the interlocking of the third metapodial with three distal carpals or tarsals is clearly mechanically sounder than the old one to one relationship, and the reduction of the moment of inertia of the limb which results from the concentration of its muscles in the proximal half is a considerable improvement. How far these adaptations have resulted in an increased speed of galloping and how far they were necessary to enable an animal of much greater bulk to maintain the same speed we do not know, nor, unless a far more precise analysis of the whole mechanism prove possible, shall we ever know. Whether a change which enables a mammal to become larger and to have a greater potential longevity is an adaptation may be disputed. Certainly it is very different from the usual conception of a structural change fitting an animal for a definite type of life under particular circum- stances. A large herbivorous animal of no higher speed than a small one suffers from certain disadvantages, of which the increased demand for food is the most obvious, which tend to offset the advantages it gains by the reduction of its surface area proportionately to its weight. It is difficult to show that it and its descendants will tend to be preserved by natural selection, relatively to somewhat smaller forms. The increased potential length of life and of the reproductive period is perhaps balanced by the longer immaturity within which it is probable that much of the racial mortality occurs. Thus the history of the horse which appears to provide an admirable case of steady adaptation of a phyletic line to a definite mode of life may perhaps show no more than the internal adaptations which are necessary to enable a large animal to function as well as, but no better than, its small ancestor. There are, however, a few cases where we are, I think, on firmer ground. The slow and steady improvements in limb structure which go on in the mammal-like reptiles from Lower Permian to Lower Triassic times take place in animals which do not exhibit a steady increase in size, which indeed cover nearly the same range of sizes at the beginning and end of the story. 92 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. In the earliest of these animals the upper arm projected at night angles to the body, and the forearm lay at right angles to it, nearly parallel to the ground. The track was very wide, the stride absurdly short, and only one foot could be moved at a time, whilst some of the muscles were devoted entirely to the support of the weight of the body, leaving the whole propulsive force to be supplied by the remainder or rather by such of them as were not concerned with returning the limb to the position it occupied at the beginning of the stride. From these slow and clumsy ancestors we may trace the gradual acquirement of the structure found in Cyno- gnathus or in a mammal; where the arm moves nearly parallel to the princi- pal plane of the animal, the stride is greatly lengthened and every muscle contributes both to the support of the body and to its propulsion. Here we have a case where we can observe an improvement of an animal mechanism which definitely enabled an animal to move faster than its ancestor. But such general improvements in the mechanism of an animal’s body, which are the only adaptations which can be proved to have occurred, differ so greatly in scale and in their general nature from that detailed fitting of an animal to some particular niche in its environment which Darwin believed to occur, that it is important to investigate whether there is any general occurrence of such special relationship of structure and habit and whether if it occurs it is rightly to be regarded as of adaptive origin. It is, I believe, in the first part of such investigation that a good deal of the future value of physiological work in zoology lies. The physiological work which is at present being conducted by zoologists falls under two main heads. It may be concerned with the explanation in physico-chemical terms of definite life processes, such as fertilisation or cleavage, the activities of cilia or the nature of muscular activity. Such work is of value to zoology because it increases our know- ledge of the cell and all its parts and of the things which may control its activities. It will become essential for an understanding of the factors which underlie morphogenesis, that is of those factors some of which are carried as material bodies in the chromosomes. But it is clear that it will be long before even the fundamental phenomenon of cell division receives its explanation! Nevertheless, the present interest and ultimate value of such fundamental researches is certain ; only through them can zoology ever hope to approach its ultimate aim, the explanation of the Animal Kingdom in terms of chemistry and physics, or the demonstration that such explanation can never be adequate. But few zoologists have a suffi- ciently wide knowledge of physics and chemistry to go far with them. The other type of physiological work is that which, like the classical ‘ experimental physiology ’ of the medical school, is devoted to an attempt to understand the functioning of the different systems of organs and ulti- mately of the whole body of an animal. I believe that such studies hold out the greatest promise of results’ of any in zoology. We do not know even as a first approximate the mode of working of the body of any one member of the majority of the phyla of the Animal Kingdom. We know a good deal about what is called ‘Human Physiology,’ that ee D.—ZOOLOGY. 93 is the functioning of dogs and rabbits, with items from the frog. We know a little about the heart of a dogfish, and about its hemoglobin, but nothing of its respiration or the activities of its nervous system. Amongst the Mollusca we know a good deal about the food-collecting mechanism and digestive enzymes of Lamellibranchs, and even in some cases some details of the activities of the heart and the nature of their respiratory pigment. But in no single case do we know even the outlines of the whole physiology. We do not know how much food is eaten or the relative proportions of proteins, fats, &c. We do not know how this food is utilised, how much to maintenance, how much to growth, and soon. We have no real know- ledge of the function of excretion, we do not know the blood volume, nor the output of the heart under any circumstances whatsoever. We do not even know the oxygen-carrying power of the blood as a whole, nor the total consumption of oxygen and respiratory quotient in any one form. Until these things are known, in at least a few individual species of each phylum, we shall not be in a position to understand the possibilities of adaptation which each fundamental type of morphology holds out and the real significance of the fitting of an animal to its environment. The reason why such a series of investigations has not yet been carried out is clear; to do so implies a long-continued and perhaps tedious research involving the modification of many different physiological and biochemical techniques to enable them to be applied to new material ; without holding out the bait of a promise of spectacular results. Far too much work in comparative physiology has been no more than the partial exploitation of a ‘ nice preparation ’ found perhaps by a casual observation. But the ecological relationships of animals to their environments present many aspects which are now capable of investigation by simple physiological experiment. It would be a matter of extreme interest to know something about the amount of water required by two mammals, if possible members of different geographical races of the same species, or at any rate neighbouring species, one from an arid, the other from a more humid environment. To be valuable, such an experiment would have to be carried out under carefully controlled conditions of humidity and of temperature, and would necessarily involve an investigation of the variations in the composition of the urine under different conditions. Indeed this and all similar experiments would have to take into account that power of adjusting their activities to circumstances which all animals possess. But water requirements, and their variation under different conditions of humidity, important though they probably are, are only one of the many _ things of which the effects of variations of mean temperature and range of temperature, proportion of the year in which the temperature falls below some point or exceeds some other, exposure to light, the chemical _ nature of the food supplies, the possible absence or insufficient amount of individual elements like phosphorus or iodine, are others which are obviously open to relatively simple experiment. Only when such researches have been carried on for a number of pairs of animals shall we have any real understanding of the significance of the differences which separate one geographical race from another. 94. SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. South Africa seems to me the country of all others which could provide the subjects for such an investigation. But physiological work of the kind which I have suggested, although it will show to what extent there are variations between races and species of animals which fit them specially for life under definite physical environ- ments, will not in general elucidate those morphological differences which alone are recognisable in a museum, and which have commonly been assumed to be of an adaptive nature. That these structural differences are adaptive even in the sense that, no matter under what circumstances they arose, they do now in fact fit each form especially to its circumstances, is for the most part pure assump- tion. JI do not know a single case in which it has been shown that the differences which separate two races of a mammalian species from one another have the slightest adaptive significance. There is no branch of zoology in which assumption has played a greater or evidence a less part than in the study of such presumed adaptations. The implication which lies behind any statement that such and such a structure is an adaptation, is that under the existing environmental conditions an individual possessing it has a greater chance of survival than one which has not. Mr. G. C. Robson in his book ‘The Species Problem,’ which includes an invaluable summary of a widespread literature, could only refer to some eighteen papers in which an attempt was made to show by a definite statement of evidence that under natural conditions the death-rate of a population of animals is selective, sparing relatively those individuals which are distinguished from their fellows by the possession of definite structural peculiarities. My predecessor, Prof. Weldon, a convinced Darwinian, judged rightly when he devoted many years to an investigation of this funda- mental postulate of the theory of Natural Selection. A ‘selective death- rate ’ is a term which clearly is only applicable to a population, it has no meaning when applied to an individual ; thus any attempt to determine its incidence and the extent to which groups of individuals possessing definite characters are spared can only be carried out by a statistical method. But it is very difficult to discover cases in which it is possible to collect the data. Any investigation must show as a preliminary that the popula- tion considered is stable and that it is neither added to by immigration nor subject to emigration. The character of a sample must be determined, and in the nature of the case, if for example the character under investiga- tion is the efficiency of a concealing coloration, the sampling error may be | large and may be in the same direction as the divergence exhibited by that sample of the population which have died through some external cause. Amongst the processes so far investigated only one seems likely to provide at all a general method. This is the study by Dr. Schmidt of Zoarces. He showed that the unborn young extracted from individuals of this fish living at the end of a long fiord did not differ significantly in any of the characters he observed, number of fin rays and of vertebree for example, from adults taken some years later which could be regarded as having been born in the same season and place. Pu So ee ee ih M% d4ar + VVAber D.—ZOOLOGY. 95 It is possible that a study of the history of a single-year class of a population of fish living in such an isolated environment as a lake, would yield very valuable information on the adaptive significance of some determinable variations. It is unfortunate that the extensive migrations of herring in the West European waters render the data accumulated by Fisheries Investigators unsuitable for the purpose. The extraordinary lack of evidence to show that the incidence of death under natural conditions is controlled by small differences of the kind which separate species from one another or, what is the same thing from an observational point of view, by physiological differences correlated with such structural features, renders it difficult to appeal to. natural selection as the main or indeed an important factor in bringing about the evolutionary changes which we know to have occurred. _It may be important, it may indeed be the principle which overrides all others; but at present its real existence as a phenomenon rests on an extremely slender basis. The extreme difficulty of obtaining the necessary data for any quanti- tative estimation of the efficiency of natural selection makes it seem probable that this theory will be re-established, if it be so, by the collapse of alternative explanations which are more easily attacked by observation and experiment. Ii so, it will present a parallel to the Theory of Evolution itself, a theory universally accepted, not because it can be proved by logically coherent evidence to be true, but because the only alternative, special creation, is clearly incredible. The alternative explanations which are put forward of the existence of the differences which separate species from species or one geographical race from another are in essence three: either the difference is regarded as adaptive and its initiation and perfectioning are attributed to a reaction of the animal which alters its structure in a favourable manner followed by an inheritance of the character so acquired, or, secondly it is regarded as non- adaptive, or only accidentally of value,and held to have arisen by a change induced in the course of an individual development by the direct effect of some one or more environmental features, such change not necessarily being heritable in all cases. The third explanation is that the difference between one form and the other has arisen casually, isolation having enforced an inbreeding which led to the distribution of genes in different proportions in the two stocks. The first alternative explanation suffers from the defect that the characters in question have not in general been shown to be adaptive, and that an inheritance of an acquired character of the kind required has not _ been shown to occur. _. The second explanation, the direct influence of the environment, has the immense advantage that it is open to investigation by experimental methods, and suggests many attractive lines of work. Here again experiments have been few. The most successful is that on the induction of melanism in moths by Heslop Harrison and Garrett. By feeding caterpillars on food impregnated by salts of manganese or _ lead, these authors, in three independent series of experiments, ‘obtained ~ melanic individuals of a character which did not occur in the much larger 96 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. numbers of controls fed on untreated food, nor under natural conditions in the district of origin of the parent individuals. Harrison and Garrett attribute the melanism which appeared under these conditions to the direct effect of the metallic salts, either on the soma or, as is perhaps more probable, on the germ cells. They showed by a very adequate series of breeding experiments that the melanism which arose in this way is inherited as a simple Mendelian recessive. Although these experiments have not yet been repeated by other workers, there can be little doubt that their explanation is justified, and that they have for the first time brought about by artificial inter- ference a new mutation, dependent no doubt on a change in a single definite gene. But no one will pretend that this mutation in its visible soi has arisen because it is valuable to the animal. Nor is there any evidence that it is correlated with physiological differences which render the animals which exhibit it less liable to be killed by feeding on contaminated food. There is no published evidence that such food results in a higher death-rate than that in the controls. Thus there is at least one case where there is very strong evidence that the environment may induce the formation of mutations which are heritable. It is obvious that such a direct environmental effect, when taken in association with the completely established fact of the common occurrence of parallel or identical mutations in allied animals, provides a complete formal explanation of such facts as that the coat-colour of a race of a species of rodent from an arid region will in general be lighter in colour than that of a race from a more humid and therefore more thickly vegetated area. It is clear that such an explanation does not require that the coat- colour has any adaptive significance whatsoever: it is in complete contrast with the equally formally complete explanation by natural selection. But it has the advantage that it can be submitted to experi- mental confirmation. The neo-Darwinian would explain this occurrence by assuming that the dark-coloured forms were less visible against the moist and therefore darker soil of the humid locality than lighter animals would be, and would thus escape the attacks of carnivors for a longer period. The light forms would escape notice under the bright illumination and glitter of an arid and especially a desert country. Such a view assumes without ques- tion that the colour of the two groups is heritable, though it makes no demands for any particular type of heredity. The only experiments which have been made with geographical races of mammals are those which Sumner has carried on over many years. Sumner began his work by collecting considerable numbers of indi- viduals of a certain species of the deer-footed mouse Peromyscus from localities in California which present extreme variations in rainfall and temperature. He subjected each group to analysis, measuring such characters as the length of the tail and hind foot, and estimating the _colour-coat by physical methods which allow of a numerical statement. He thus showed that the mice from each locality varied, and that the distribution of the variates for each character formed a unimodal curve. He investigated by statistical methods the correlation between te D.—ZOOLOGY. 97 pairs of the characters with which he worked, showing that for many of them the correlation was small. He showed that the curves for different subspecies might overlap, so that no one individual could fairly represent its race. By a series of breeding experiments carried on with caged animals Sumner showed that, when allowance was made for certain bodily changes clearly caused by the artificial conditions of life, the races bred true in the sense that the modes of the curves of variation of the characters con- sidered remained stationary. The results of crossing individuals selected from different subspecies and treating in a biometric manner the offspring resulting from these crosses were uniform, in so much as that the fi generation were always intermediate in character between the parents, and the range of variation they exhibited was less than that of the parent stocks. In later genera- tions there was no obvious segregation, and the range of variation increased again. Sumner at first regarded these results as evidence of a blending inheri- tance without any Mendelian character ; but subsequently concluded that they could be explained on a multiple factor hypothesis, like that which is accepted for Castle’s hooded rats. The reduced variability of the fi generation is thus accounted for. Although as a paleontologist who has seen the extraordinarily small magnitude of the steps which separate successive members of a phyletic line I am temperamentally indisposed to do so, I am forced to accept the multiple factor hypothesis as an account of the majority of cases of blending inheritance. Castle’s experiments on hooded rats, carried as they have been over very many generations, seem conclusive for that particular case. It seems clear, furthermore, that any change in a spermatozoon which results in a change in the adult which arises from its conjugation with an egg, must be a chemical change; and chemical changes are all particulate, there are no intermediates between a hydrogen atom and a methyl group ! It follows therefore that the light-coloured mice of the arid interior of _ California differ from those of the coast because in them have been accumu- lated a number of genes for light pigmentation, much more sparsely sf ify _ present in the dark races. uch a differential distribution of genes is of course what is assumed to occur under the influence of natural selection. It is not perhaps very easy to believe that the direct action of the environment would result in the production of a series of mutations all ‘independent, and all in the same direction, yet this assumption is necessary _ for the alternative explanation of direct environmental effect ! But Sumner went further, and attempted to investigate the possibility of such environmental influences by direct experiment. He transplanted a small colony of mice into a very different environment, enclosing them im a small netted area and leaving them to breed. The offspring which appeared during the course of the experiment showed no tendency to approach the local races in their characters.. This experiment has been criticised because the numbers of individuals were small, and because they were unnaturally crowded in a small en- 1929 H 98 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. closure, and in other ways ; but it remains unique, the only attempt made with mammals to test this vital point. Schmidt has, however, conducted a similar experiment with the viviparous blenny, Zoarces vwiparus. This fish, which is a bottom-living animal supposed not to migrate extensively, forms a series of local races in the North Sea and the Danish waters. These are distinguished from one another by statistical differences of the curves representing the varia- tion in the number of vertebrae, of fin rays in the pectoral fin, and of similar characters. These races appear to be stable. Their distribution in some areas such as the Roskilde Fiord shows a gradation along a line over which the salinity also changes, but the correlation so suggested between this environmental condition and structure breaks down when other regions are taken into account. There is evidence derived statistically from the nature of the mothers that the variations are inherited, and an indication that, as in Peromyscus, the differences are not obviously Mendelian. Schmidt carried out trans- plantation experiments exactly parallel to those conducted by Sumner, and found, just as he did, that no direct environmental effect of the kind required was produced during the few generations he could in- vestigate. Thus here again we are faced with the fact that an apparent correlation of structure with the surrounding physical and chemical conditions exists, and that such evidence as there is does not confirm the view that this correlation has arisen directly. There remains as the only other alter- native the view that the apparent correlation is illusory. It may be accepted as a working hypothesis that the variable characters which separate one geographical race from another are produced under the influence of a number of genes, all independent, and all producing similar effects. As Prof. Karl Pearson pointed out in 1904, the effect of such multiple factors will be to produce an apparent blending inheritance; a view now very generally accepted. It follows that, in certain cases at any rate, if a small group of individuals phenotypically similar, though geno- typically different, differing from the norme of a population, be isolated and left to breed freely, they will, when considered as a population, tend to vary still more from the original mode in the population from which they sprang and that they will do so in the direction in which the original isolated group differed. Prof. Pearson has reached the same conclusion from his own very different standpoint and has evidence that the expected result does actually occur.. If then we can conceive of circumstances which will bring about such isolation in such a way that the individuals so separated are determined by an environmental condition, we shall have an explanation of the divergence of local races which will account for the appearance in them of individuals which lie outside the range of variation actually observed in the small samples of the parent races which have been investigated. An explanation of this type accounts for some of the peculiarities which Sumner has noticed in Peromyscus. For example, the existence side by side of very light and very dark individuals in the same spot will present no difficulties, and the fact that there is no or very little correlation between such characters as colour, hind-foot length; tail length and width of tail es