»*,' ‘ee - SS ea nyt acres eae ate - BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE REPORT OF THE ANNUAL MEETING, 1935 | (105 YEAR) NORWICH SEPTEMBER #11 LONDON OFFICE OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION BURLINGTON HOUSE, LONDON, W.1 1935 iil CONTENTS. PAGE PEERS HAND COUNCII 1 0O35—3Ol oo sis. oleve cis.0.5. 0» he a skpee is Walle sllaislelore v SECTIONAL OFFICERS, NORWICH MEETING, 1935 ...---++eeeeeeeees ix ANNUAL MEETINGS: PLACES AND DATES, PRESIDENTS, ATTENDANCES, RECEIPTS, SUMS PAID ON ACCOUNT OF GRANTS FOR SCIENTIFIC IBUREOSES! (183 1—1O35)) srersnedeieere a sveerttere « covclim oon mjcieyea seiela aay xii NARRATIVE OF THE NORWICH MEETING ............++.--ceseeees XVii REPORT OF THE COUNCIL TO THE GENERAL COMMITTEE (1934-35) -- XIX GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT (303435) etnias te stom emo ebdnstanras XXiX RRESEARCH COMMITTEES (1935—36).... 2.2.2.0 cecvcccceccccsacecae xlii RESOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS (NorwICH MEETING) ........ xIvii THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS : Form, Drift, and Rhythm of the Continents. By Prof. W. W. VVEASTUTIS MEL EROS oreic, « dee ei vhs yer atatiereceteneve ee oberokar evel Shake pay enapeite alee I SECTIONAL PRESIDENTS’ ADDRESSES : The Story of Isotopes. By Dr. F. W. AsTon, F.R.S.......... 23 The Molecular Structure of Carbohydrates. By Prof. W. N. EVAN OR DED ERS 0 aisle) ayellevenslst crate) vsdene here) ote teteite oteiel ated e]o) 3I Some Geological Aspects of Recent Research on Coal. By Prof. ela Ge. OAC, MEATGEROCIN GP gis ciccavare:= sip ikbafolslaieie «5 + ae wlardyoeienerayeiei 47 The Species Problem. By Prof. F. BALFOUR-BROWNE ........ 63 Some Aspects of the Polar Regions. By Prof. F. DEBENHAM... 79 Economic Nationalism and International Trade. By Prof. J. G. SMUTETG ES Rac atece ce crore eteaaioee cementite Tenuta Pee eeerete tess ohe Coreke 89 The Stability of Structures. By J.S. WILSON .............. 113 Recent Progress in the Study of Early Man. By Sir ARTHUR SMITE: VCODWWARDIG Eines | pac cgaperegele oa, 010 cantare abaliaye efala 129 The Pituitary Body and the Diencephalon. By Prof. P. T. TIERRING ("oases se Sia aah Sho Spit ARE AN Male tel cb ohare 143 Personality and Age. By Dr. LL. WYNN JONES. ............ 157 Some Aspects of Plant Pathology. By F. T. Brooks, F.R.S. .. 169 Education and Freedom. By Dr. A. W. PicKARD-CAMBRIDGE.. 189 The Financial and Economic Results of State Control in Agricul- ture. By Dr. J. A. VENN cece eee cc eset ee ee eee eeanes 203 iv CONTENTS PAGE REPORTS ON THE STATE-OF SCIENCE, ETC) ........0..seen:..-9028 223 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS ...... SO mR. <6 Anas 3 oro so 346 CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES ...... 2. A EVENING DISCOURSES ............ agomteusye etnies iat Ghorete Jive Luvana 487 REFERENCES TO PUBLICATION OF COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS 494 APPENDIX. A ScIENTIFIC SURVEY OF NORWICH AND DISTRICT ..............+ I-120 HERTDD IES) RRs © 4 020 A Memem es lS STs rand Paes, Mido pat po Ee tT Bie ities tp I21 Hritish Association for the Adbancement of Scrence. OFFICERS & COUNCIL, 1935-36. PATRON. HIS MAJESTY THE KING. PRESIDENT, 1935. Prof. W. W. Watts, LL.D., Sc.D., F.R.S. PRESIDENT, 1936. Sir JostaH C. Stamp, G.C.B., G.B.E., D.Sc., F.B.A. VICE-PRESIDENTS FOR THE NORWICH MEETING. The Lorp Mayor or Norwicu (P. W. JEwson, J.P.). The Ex-Lorp Mayor oF NorwicH (Alderman F. C. JEex, J.P.). The SHERIFF OF NorwicH (Councillor W. E. WaLKER, J.P.). The Ex-SHERIFF OF NoRWICcH (Coun- cillor E. J. Mortum). The Drputy Lorp Mayor or Nor- wicH (Alderman Sir Henry N. Homes, J.P.). H.M. LizuTENANT FOR NORFOLK (RUSSELL J. Cotman, J.P.). The Hicu SHERIFF OF NoRFOLK (C. H. FincH, J.P.). The Mayor oF GREAT YARMOUTH (Alderman A. HaRBoRD, M.P.). The Mayor or Kine’s Lynn (J. HARWoopD CaTLEeuGH, M.B.E.). The Mayor or Lowestorr (Major SELWYN W. HumpuHERY, J.P.). The Mayor OF THETFORD (Sir WILLIAM GENTLE, J.P.). The Most Hon. the Margurss oF Lorurian, C.H., M.A. The Rr. Hon. Lorp DEsBorovGH, HIG, G.C.V.O., J.E:, DL. The Rt. Hon. the Eart oF ALBE- MARLE, G.C.V.O., C.B., T.D. The Rt. Hon. the EARL oF LEICESTER, G.C.V.O., C.M.G. The Lorp BisHop oF Norwicu (Rt. Rev. BERTRAM PoLtock, K.C.V.O., D:D). The Rt. Hon. Lorp HaAstTINGs. The Rt. Hon. Sir SAMUEL Hoare, Bt., GC Sula Go Beek MEG: DCs Ee vie. Sir Epwarp Many, Bt., J.P. Sir BarTLE H. T. FRERE, K.C., J.P. Alderman Sir G. Ernest WHITE, J.P. The DowaGER LaDy SUFFIELD, J.P. The DEAN oF Norwicu (Very Rev. D.,. H. .S. CrRanace, B.D») Litt: D., E:S.A,). G.H. SHAKESPEARE, M.A., LL.B., M.P. Miss ETHEL M. CoLMaANn. Joun Cator, D.L., J.P. Alderman G. J. B. Durr, M.C., D.L., Pp Major E. H. Evans-Lomse, D.L., 1s j.P. Rev. C. T. Raz, M.A., B.D. vi OFFICERS AND COUNCIL VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT FOR THE BLACKPOOL MEETING, 1936. The Mayor or Bracxpoor (Alderman The Rt. Hon. the EArt or CRAWFORD W. Newman, J.P.). AND BaAtcaRREs, K.T., P.C., F.R.S. The Ex-Mayor oF Brackpoor (Alder- Sir J. TRavis-CLEGG, J.P. man G. WHITTAKER, J.P.). Sir GEORGE ETHERTON, O.B.E. The Mayor oF LytTHAM St. ANNES Sir CUTHBERT GRUNDY, J.P. (Councillor C. J. Urwin, J.P.). Sir A. LinpsAy PARKINSON, J.P. The Mayor oF FLEETWOOD (Alderman Sir DAVID SHACKLETON, K.C.B., J.P. Capt. CSAER, J.P.): His Honour JupGE PEEL, O.B.E., J.P. THE Mayor oF LANCASTER (Coun- The Rt. Rev. the BisHop oF BLack- cillor J. G. E. Crark, J.P). BURN. The Mayor oF Preston (Councillor The Ven. ARCHDEACON P. J. HornBy. EU Leyak Rev. W. S. MELLor. The Mayor oF SoutHport (Councillor | Rev. J. R. CARLYLE Litt. T. BALL). Alderman F. W. MiLiincTon, J.P. The Mayor oF MorREcAMBE (Coun- Alderman T. FENnToN, J.P. cillor W. Towns.Ley, J.P.). H. TALBOT DE VERE CLIFTON. The CHAIRMAN, THORNTON-LE-FYLDE ASHTON Davies, O.B.E. CounciL (Councillor A. SWARBRICK). SQUIRE G. H. ELLETSON. The VicE-CHANCELLOR, MANCHESTER J. R. Ropinson, M.P. University (Prof. J. S. B. Stop- H. Astiey Bett, J.P. FORD, F.R.S.). T. B. Sitcock, J.P. The VicE-CHANCELLOR, LivERPOOL Mrs. T. H. MILLER. University (Dr. H. J. W. HETHER- S. H. RENsHAw, O.B.E. INGTON, J.P.). Mrs. PERcy BIRLEyY. The Rt. Hon. Lorp DeErBy, K.G., GGB;, 'G:GiV_O.. EG; GENERAL TREASURER. Prof, P. G. A. BosweEty, ©.B.E., D:Sc., E.R:S. GENERAL SECRETARIES. F. T. Brooks, M.A., F.R.S. | Prof. ALLAN FERGuSON, D.Sc. SECRETARY. | ASSISTANT SECRETARY. O. J. R. Howartn, O.B.E., Ph.D. | D. N. Lowe, M.A., B.Sc. ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. Prof. F. AVELING. H. M. HaL~sworth, C.B.E. Sir T. Hupson BEARE. Dr. H. S. HARRISON. Rt. Hon. Viscount BLEDISsLoE, P.C., | Prof. A. V. HILu. G.C.M.G. Prof. G. W. O. Howe. Prof. R. N. RupMosE Brown. Dr. JULIAN S. HUXLEY. Prof. F. BALFoUR BROWNE. Dr. C. W. KImMMINs. Dr. W. T. Carman, C.B., F.R.S. Prof. R. Roprnson, F.R.S. Sir Henry Date, C.B.E., F.R.S. Dr. C. TIERNEY. Prof. J. DREVER. Prof. A. M. TYNDALL, F.R.S. Prof. W. G. FEARNSIDES, F.R.S. Dr. W. W. VauGcuHan, M.V.O. Prof. R. B. ForrEsTER. Dr. J. A. VENN. Prof. W. T. Gorpon. Prof. Sir GILBERT T. WALKER, F.R.S. Prof. DAME HELEN GWYNNE-VAUGHAN, Prof. F. E. Weiss, F.R.S. G.B.E. OFFICERS AND COUNCIL vii EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. Past-Presidents of the Association, the President for the year, the President and Vice-Presidents for the ensuing Annual Meeting, past and present General Treasurers and General Secretaries, and the Local Treasurers and Local Secretaries for the Annual Meetings immediately past and ensuing. PAST PRESIDENTS OF THE ASSOCIATION. Sir J. J. THomson, O.M., F.R.S. Prof. Sir Witt1AM H. Brace, O.M., Sir OLIVER LODGE, F.R.S. KeBsEy, Pak..Ss Sir ARTHUR Evans, F.R.S. | Sir THomas H. Hortanp, K.C.I.E., Prof. Sir C. S. SHERRINGTON, O.M., | KEC-SUL., FeRES: G.B.E., F.R.S. Prof. F. O. Bower, F.R.S. | | The Rt. Hon. Lorp RUTHERFORD OF | Gen. The Rt. Hon. J. C. Smuts, P.C., | NE son, O.M., F.R.S. CHERAB ERAS: H.R.H. The PrincE oF WALES, K.G., | Sir F. Gowranp Hopxins, O.M., DIG. BRS. Pres.R.S. Prof. Sir ARTHUR KEITH, F.R-S. Sir James H. Jeans, F.R.S. PAST GENERAL OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION. Prof. J. L. Myres, O.B.E., F.B.A. Sir JostaH Stamp, G.C.B., G.B.E. Sir Frank SmitH, K.C.B., C.B.E., | Prof. F. J. M. Srratton, D.S.O., Sec.R.S. OBE, HON. AUDITORS. Prof. A. L. BowLEY. | Dr. Ezer Grirritus, F.R.S. HON. CURATOR OF DOWN HOUSE. Sir BucKston Browne, F.R.C.S. LOCAL OFFICERS FOR THE NORWICH MEETING. CHAIRMAN OF LOCAL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. P. W. Jewson, J.P. (LorD Mayor oF Norwicx). VICE-CHAIRMAN OF LOCAL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Sir ERNEST WHITE, J.P. LOCAL HON. SECRETARY. HERBERT P. Gowen, F.S.A.A., J.P. LOCAL HON. TREASURER. Nort B. Rupp, M.A. (Town Clerk) ASSISTANT LOCAL SECRETARY. Miss Evetyn M. SHEARER, M.A. Viil OFFICERS AND COUNCIL LOCAL OFFICERS FOR THE BLACKPOOL MEETING. JOINT LOCAL HON. SECRETARIES. D. L. HarsortLe (Town Clerk). F, E. Harrison (Director of Educa- W. Foster (Director of Attractions tion). and Publicity). E. W. ReEEs Jones, M.D. (Medical | Officer of Health). LOCAL HON. TREASURER. T. L. Poynton (Borough Treasurer). ee ———S OFFICERS OF SECTIONS, 1935 SECTIONAL OFFICERS. A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. President.—Dr. F. W. Aston, F.R.S. ix Vice-Presidents.—Prof. W. H. McCrea, HuGH RAMAGE, Sir GILBERT T. WALKER, F.R.S. Recordey.—Prof. ALLAN FERGUSON. Secretavies —M. G. BENNETT, Dr. EzER GRIFFITHS, F.R.S., Dr. R. O. REDMAN, Dr. DorotHy M. WRINCH. Local Secretavy.—Dr. D. H. SMITH. B.—CHEMISTRY. President.—Prof. W. N. Haworth, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. T. S. MoorE, HuGH RAMAGE, Prof. R. Ropinson, F.R.S., W. LincoLn SuTTON. Recordey.—Dr. J. M. GULLAND. Secretavies.—Prof. J. E. Coates, T. W. J. TAYLOR. Local Secretary—J. W. CoRRAN. C.—GEOLOGY. President.—Prof. G. HICKLING. Vice-Presidents—Prof. W. T. Gorpon, Prof. H. L. Hawkins, Dr. BERNARD Smi1tTH, F.R.S. Recordey—Dr. A. K. WELLS. Secretavies —B. H1LTON BARRETT, W. H. WILcOcKSON. Local Secretavy.—J. E. SAINnTY. D.—ZOOLOGY. President.—Prof. F. BALFOUR BROWNE. Vice-Presidents —Dr. R. GurNEY, F. LeNEy, Dr. S. Lone, Dr. E. S. RUSSELL, Dr. W. Morton WHEELER. Recorvdey.—Prof. W. M. TATTERSALL. Secretavy.—Dr. G. S. CARTER. Local Secretary —H. J. Howarp. E.—GEOGRAPHY. President.—Prof. F. DEBENHAM. Vice-Presidents.—Miss E. M. Cotman, Prof. C. B. Fawcett, Prof. A. G. OGILVIE, OVB.E., Prof. E. G. R. Tayvror. Recordey.—H. KInc. Secretavies—J. N. L. Baker, Dr. R. O. BUCHANAN. Local Secretary —J. E. G. Mossy, D.S.O. xe OFFICERS OF SECTIONS, 1935 F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. President.—Prof. J. G. SMITH. Vice-President.—H. M. HALLSwortH, C.B.E. Recordey.—Dr. K. G. FENELON. Secretavies—Dr. P. Forp, J. MorGAN REEs. Local Secretaries —W. W. WiLiLiamMson, R. W. BuRLEIGH. A Department of Industrial Co-operation—Chaivman, Dr. J. A. Bowi£ ; Secretary, R. J. Mackay—arranged a special programme in connection with this and other Sections. G.—ENGINEERING. President. J. S. WiLson. Vice-Presidents—Prof. F. G. Batty, Sir JOHN DEWRANCE, G.B.E., Sir JAMES HENDERSON, G. ROADLEY-SIMKIN, D. P. Scott, W. H. Scort. Recordey.—Wing-Commander T. R. CAVE-BROWNE-CAVE, C.B.E. Secretavies —H. M. CLarkE, J. E. MontGomrey. Local Secretary. Dr. HENRY BAKER. H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. President.—Sir ARTHUR SMITH WOODWARD, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents —M. C. Burkitt, Capt. T. A. Joyce, O.B.E., H. Coorr Lake, F. LENEy, Dr. MARGARET Murray, Rt. Hon. Lord RaGuan. Recordey.—Dr. J. F. TocueEr. Secretaries —K. H. Jackson, V. E. NAsSH-WILLIAMs. Local Secretary.—Miss G. V. BARNARD. I.—PHYSIOLOGY. President.—Prof. P. T. HERRING. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. R. J. S. McDowa tt, Prof. H. E. Roar, Dr. H. J. STARLING. Recordey.—Prof. H. P. GiLpine. Secretavies—Dr. L. E. Bayuiss, Dr. R. C. Garry. Local Secretary —Dr. MicHAEL W. BULMAN. J.—PSYCHOLOGY. President.—Dr. LL. WYNN JONES. Vice-Presidents.—R. J. BARTLETT, Prof. BEATRICE EDGELL, E. FARMER, Prof. E. Rusin, Dr. R. J. THOULEss. Recordey.—Dr. Mary COLLINS. Secretavies—Dr. S. J. F. Puizpott, Dr. P. E. VERNON. Local Secretary.—W. J. DEARNALEY. K.—BOTANY. President.—F. T. Brooks, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents —Sir HuGH BEEVoR, Bt., Prof. A. W. Bortuwick, O.B.E., Prof. Lity Newron, Prof. E. J. SALisBurY, F.R.S., Prof. A. C. SEwarD, F.R.S., W. R. SMITH. Recordey.—Dr. B. BARNES. Secretaries —Dr. E. V. Lainc, Miss L. I. Scott, Dr. G. Taytor. Local Secretary.—Miss A. M. GELDART. OFFICERS OF SECTIONS, 1935 xi L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. President—Dr. A. W. PIcKARD-CAMBRIDGE. Vice-Presidents—Dr. D. H. S. CranaGE, Alderman F. C. Jex, J.P., The Most Hon. the Marquess of Lotuian, C.H., H. T. Tizarp, C.B., Jey Rete Recordey.—A. GRAY JONES. Secretavies—A. CLow Forp, S. R. HumBy. Local Secretaries —J. Beattie, E. W. WooDHEAD. M.—AGRICULTURE. President.—Dr. J. A. VENN. Vice-Presidents—Rt. Hon. Lord BrepisLoz, P.C., G.C.M.G., K.B.E., J. A. CHRISTIE, RussELL J. Corman, J.P., Rt. Hon. Lord Hastines, C. T. Jorce, Prof. J. A. S. Watson. Recordey—Dr. E. M. CROWTHER. Secretavy.—W. GODDEN. Local Secretary —F. Raywns. CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. President.—Prof. P. G. H. BosweEtu, O.B.E., F.R.S. Secretary—Dr. C. TIERNEY. Local Secretary.—F. LENEY. xii ANNUAL MEETINGS TABLE OF 5 7 5 Date of Meeting Where held Presidents en pi le 1831, Sept. 27...... VOrkeiyseatescasescce's Viscount Milton, D.C.L., ih R. B: eSist9 — — 1832, June 19 \...|\ Oxford!) \-::.... .--| The Rev. W. Buckland, F.R.S. Bre — _ 1833, June 25 ...| Cambridge.. ..-| The Rev. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S. ......... — _ 1834, Sept. 8 Edinburgh .. ...| Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.C.L., F.R.S. ... — _— 1835, Aug. 10 -| Dublin -| The Rev. Provost Lloyd, DD) ,F.R.S. —_ = 1836, Aug. 22 Bristol..... -| The Marquis of Lansdowne, F.R.S. ... _ _— 1837, Sept. 11 Liverpooliyiicwsccess<« The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S.......... - — 1838, Aug. I0...... Newcastle-on-Tyne | The Duke of Northumberland, F.R.S. — — 1839, Aug. 26...... Birmingham ......... The Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S. — — 1840, Sept. 17 ....| Glasgow ....... ..| The Marquis of Breadalbane, F.R.S. —- — 1841, July 20...... Plymouth .«..| The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S. ......... 169 65 1842, June 23...... Manchester. ---| The Lord Francis Egerton, F.G.S....... 303 169 1843, Aug. 17...... Corks ssensare ..-| The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. ...........000+ 109 28 1844, Sept. 26...... Worle tssses -| The Rev. G. Peacock, D.D., F.R.S.. 226 150 1845, June 19_ ...| Cambridge.... Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. pyle ist 313 36 1846, Sept. Io...... Southampton -| Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart.,F.R.S.| | 241 10 1847, June 23 «| Oxford: 5.500. ..-| Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart., F.R:S. 314 18 1848, Aug. 9 ......| Swamsea....... oho The Marquisof Northampton, Pres.R.S. 149 3 1849, Sept. 12 ...| The Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D., F.R.S. 227 12 1850, July 21 .| Sir David Brewster, K. H., RR Sea 235 9 1851, July 2 ...| G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal, E.RS. 172 8 1852, Sept. 1 ...| Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S. ......... 164 10 1853, Sept. 3 ...| William Hopkins, F. PUG Sade 141 13 1854, Sept. 20 ...| The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S 238 23 1855, Sept. 12.. -| The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. 194 33 1856, Aug. 6 .. -| Prof.C.G. B. Daubeney, M.D. 182 14 1857, Aug. 26 -..| The Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., ie 236 15 1858, Sept. 22......| Leeds ....... .| Richard Owen, M.D., 222 2 1859, Sept. 14...... Aberdeen ...| H.R.H. The Prince Come’ 184 27 1860, June 27__...| Oxford -..| The Lord Wrottesley, M.A., 286 21 1861, Sept. 4 ....., Manchester. -| William Fairbairn, LL.D., F E.R. 321 113 1862; Oct. 1 --:... Cambridge ..........+. The Rev. Professor Willis, M. A. 239 15 1863, Aug. 26...... Newcastle-on-Tyne | Sir William G. Armstrong, C.B. 203 36 1864, Sept. 13 RAT Vo Aiesse sieak costes Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A., 287 40 1865, Sept. 6 ......| Birmingham . .| Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., it sD, 292 44 1866, Aug. 22.. Nottingham . -| William R. Grove, OG. -R. 207 31 1867, Sept. 4 Dundee ....... ..-| The Duke of Buccleuch, K.C.B., F. 167 25 1868, Aug. 19...... Norwich -| Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R. 196 18 1869, Aug. 18...... Exeter «... Prof. G, G. Stokes, D.C.L., F. RSH Se 204 21 1870, Sept. I4...... Liverpool _ noes Prof. T. H. Huxley, CED. Bass ace 314 39 87D; AUG. 2 one. ue Edinburgh ..-| Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D., F.R.S. . 246 28 1872, AUB. I4 wa... Brighton -| Dr. W. B. Carpenter, IRUR SW tee 245 36 1873, Sept. 17...... Bradford Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R. 212 27 1874, Aug. Ig...... Belfast -| Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R. 162 13 1875, Aug. 25...... Bristol Sir John Hawkshaw, F.R.S. 239 36 1876, Sept. 6 ...... Glasgow .. Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F. R: Kaas 221 35 1877, Aug. 15...... Plymouth . ..-| Prof. A. Thomson, M.D., F.R. 173 19 1878, Aug. I4...... Dublin....... .| W. Spottiswoode, M.A., F.R. 201 18 1879, Aug. 20......| Sheffield .--| Prof. G. J. Allman, M.D., F. 184 16 1880, Aug. 25...... Swansea -| A. C. Ramsay, LL. D., ores 144 Il 1881, Aug. 31...... OEM gies waansncanaane Sir John Lubbock, Ba art. a5 F.R 272 28 1882, Aug. 23...... Southampton Dr. C. W. Siemens, PERISH recctenwer eens 178 17 1883, Sept. 19...... Southport ...... Prof. A. Cayley, D.C.L., F.R. 203 60 1884, Aug. 27...... Montreal .»-| Prof. Lord eeyisien, F.R.S. 235 20 1885, Sept. 9 ...... Aberdeen -| Sir Lyon Playfair, K.C.B., E.R 225 18 1886, Sept. 1. Birmingham . -| Sir J. W. OS acaag C.M.G. i se 314 25 1887, Aug. 31. Manchester -| Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., 428 86 1888, Sept. 5 ...... Bath «ict ievecss codecs Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R. es mee 266 36 1889, Sept. 11...... Newcastle-on-Tyne | Prof. W. H. Flower, C.B., FR: 277 20 1890, Sept. 3 ...... Weprishvecstcosusncsteasthy Sir F. A. Abel, C.B., F.R.S. 259 21 1891, Aug. I9...... Cardiff Sanat EK. Ns Huggins, ERIS ee ea 189 24 P8927, AUS. 3 coves Edinburgh . eee «| SinvA‘Geikies LE:D., FURS: ike ece 280 14 1893, Sept. 13 Nottingham . ..-| Prof. J.S. Burdon Sanderson, F.R.S. 201 17 1894, Aug. 8 ...... Oxford". 2.s. ...| The Marquis of Salisbury, K.G., F.R.S. 327 21 1895, Sept. 11...... Ipswich ...| Sir Douglas Galton, K.C.B., F.R.S.. 214 13 1896, Sept. 16 Liverpool .| Sir Joseph Lister, Bart., Pres. R.S. 330 31 1897, Aug. 18......| Toronto Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.R.S. ...... 120 8 1898, Sept. 7 ......| Bristol >| Sir W...Crookes, B.R°S) .c..sssueeeeeeene 281 19 1899, Sept. 13 DaWersceassss-cccascal Sir Michael Foster, K.C. B.,; Sec. Riss « 296 20 * Ladies were not admitted by purchased tickets until 1843. + Tickets of Admission to Sections only. [Continued on p. xiv. ANNUAL MEETINGS Xili ANNUAL MEETINGS. | | | | Sums paid | _ Old = New | Asso- | paved on account | Annual Annual lerciates Ladies | Foreigners Total 3 to. 5 | of Grants Year | Members | | Tickets for Scientific | Purposes | | = Ein al ioe a eeapust 353 = x 1831 | — = = = | = = as = 1832 | = = = CS = 900 quiet loss 1833 | _— + = a = 1298 Co 20.0 0 1834 | = = — — — _ — iwetG7,,. Of YOM| HBAS) || oid st a + and 1350 a 435 0 0} 1836 _ — —_ — = 1840 == 922 12 6 1837 | = = —- r110* — 2400 _ 082.42 5 2 1838 | — =_ = = 34 1438 = 1595 II 0 1839 | —_— — —_— — 40 1353 —_— 1546 16 4 1840 46 B07 7. — 60* _ 801 = 1235 IO Il 1841 75 376 33t 331* 28 1315 = 1449 17 8 1842 71 185 =z 160 = — = 1565 I0 2 1843 45 Igo | ot 260 | = = = g81 12 8 1844 94 22 407 172 | 35 1079 = 831 9 9 1845 65 39 270 196 36 857 _ 685 16 o 1846 197 40 495 203, 53 1320 = 208 5 4 1847 54 25- |) 376 197 15 819 | £707 0 0 | 275 r 8| 1848 93 334 447 237 22 1o7I | 963 0 oO 159 19 6 1849 i283. || 7 l| 510 273 44 124m | 1085 0 oO} 345 18 Oo 1850 61 cs ae | 244 TAG: | 37 710 | 626 0 0 gor 9 7 1851 63 60— | 510 | 292 9 | 1108 | 1085 0 oO] 304 6 7 1852 56 Beh 30720 ee S0 6 876 903 0 0| 205 0 oO 1853 , 121 12r | 765 524 | 10 | 1802 | 1882 0 o 380 19 _ 7 1854 142 IOI | 1004 543 26 2038)» | 23rr (0) 0) 480 16 4 1855 104 48 | Aize >| 346 | 9 III5 1098 0 Oo 734 13 9 1856 156 120 goo 569") 26 | 2022 | 2015 0 0 507 15 4 1857 | III gr 710} 509. | 13 | 2698 | 1931 0 oO 618 18 2 1858 125 179 1206 | 82zr.\} 22 2564 | 2782 0 oO} 684 11 I 1859 177 59 636 463 47 1689 1604 0 0 766 19 6 1860 184 125 | 1589 791 15 3138 3944 0 O| IIII 5 10 1861 150 57 433 242 25 | -I161 1089 O 0} 1293 16 6 1862 154 209 |} _ 1704: 1O04 25 3335 3640 0 O| 1608 Io 1863 582} 103 I1I9 1058 13 2802 2965 0 o| 1289 15 8 1864 215 149 766 | 508 23 1997 2227 Ov OWNF5or 7 0 1865 Breer pas ||| 960 771 II 2303 2469 0 0! 175013 4 1866 193 ES) | = neo3. | 771 gl 2444 2613 0 ©O}j.1739 4 0 1867 226 | 17 J20; =| 9 682) | 45t | 2004 2042 0 O| 1940 0 O 1868 229 107 678 | 600 17 1856 | 1931 0 Oj 1622 0 O 1869 303. | 195 1103 gio 14 2878 | 3096 0 O| 1572 0 O 1870 31I my || SP ag7e 754 21 | 2463 | 2575 © ©} 1472 2 6) 1872 280 80 937 QgI2 43 | 2533 2649 0 O| 1285 Oo oO 1872 237 99 796 6or | II | 1983 2120 0 O|} 1685 O oO 1873 232 85 8271; || 630 » | 12 1951 1979 O O/| II5I 16 O 1874 307 93 SCS 884 | 672 17 | 2248 2397 0 0| 960 0 o 1875 331 | 185 1265 712 25 | 29774 3023 © O| 1092 4 2 1876 23 59 446 283 II 1229 1268 0 oj 1128 9 7 1877 290 93 1285 674 17 | 2578 2615 0 oO 725 16 6 1878 239 74 529 349 13 1404 1425 0 oO| 1080 II Ir 1879 171 41 389 147 12 915 899 0 0; 731 7 7] 1880 313i 176 1230, | 514 24 2557 2689 0 oO 476 8 1 1881 253. | 79° | 516 189 21 | 1253 1286 0 ©O| 1126 I Ir 1882 330 323 952 841 5 | 2714 3369 0 0} 1083 3 3 1883 317 219 826 74 26&60H.§ 1777 1855 O O| 1173 4 0 1884 992....| 122 | 1053 UY | 6 2203 2256 0 0O| 1385 0 Oo 1885 428 179 1067 429 Ir 2453 2532 0 0} 995 0 6 1886 510 244 1985 493 g2 3838 4336 0 o]} 118618 o 1887 399 100 639 509 12 1984 2107 0 O/|} I5II O 5 1888 412 II3 102 579 21 2437 2441 O O]| 1417 OIL 1889 368 gz | 680 334 12 1775 1776 0 Oo 789 16 8 1890 341 The. see O72 107 | 35 1497. | 1664 0 ©| 1029 10 0| 18o9r 413 I4I 733 439 50 2070 2007 0 0} 864 10 o 1892 328 57 773 268 17 | 166r 1653 © ©} 90715 6| 1893 435 69 941 451 77 2321 2175 0 O/| 58315 6 1894 290 31 493 20K | 22 | 1324 1236 0 0 977 15 5 1895 383 139 1384 873 41 3181 3228 0 Oo | 1104 6 1 | 1896 286 m5 | 682 roo) | 41 1362 | 1398 Oo 0} 1059 10 8 1897 327° | 96 | 051 639 | 33 2446 | 2399 9 O| 1212 0 oO 1898 324 68 548 120 2 1403 1328 O O/} 1430 14 2 1899 t Including Ladies. § Fellows ofthe American Association were admitted as Hon. Members for this Meeting. [Continued on p. xv. Xiv ANNUAL MEETINGS Date of Meeting Where held 1900, Sept. 5 Igo1, Sept. 11...... 1902, Sept. 10...... 1906, Aug. I 1907, July 31 1908, Sept. 2 1909, Aug. 25 1gto, Aug. 31 rg1I, Aug. 30 Ig12, Sept. 4 1913; Sept. 10...... 1914, July—Sept. 9x5, Sept. 7 s«.25: 1916, Sept. 5 IQI7 1918 Ig19, Sept. 9 1920, Aug. 24 1921, Sept. 7 1922, Sept. 6 1923, Sept. 12...... 1924, Aug. 6 1925, Aug. 26 1926, Aug. 4 1927, Aug. 31 1928, Sept. 5 1929, July 22 1930, Sept. 3 1931, Sept. 23...... 1932, Aug. 31 1933, Sept. 6 1934, Sept. 5 1935, Sept. 4 .| Toronto Southport eee Cambridge ..... South Africa Winnipeg Sheffield ........ Portsmouth Dundee Birmingham Australia........ Manchester soo8 Newcastle-on-Tyne (No Meeting) (No Meeting) # Bournemouth......... Cardili snes sase Annual ; Nanas: Students’ pene Masi t# |‘Mecting| Tickets | T ae” Cee GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT, 1934-35 THE resumption this year of the practice of showing in the accounts comparative figures for the preceding year (interrupted in consequence of the alteration of the Association’s accounting period) reveals an increase of nearly £700 in membership subscriptions.. This improvement is attributable mainly to the large attendance at the Aberdeen Meeting, for which 2,938 members enrolled, the most since 1928 (Glasgow Meeting), excepting the Centenary Meeting ; but also partly to the encouraging response to the General Officers’ appeal two years ago for regular annual subscriptions by banker’s order, irrespective of actual attendance at the annual meeting in any year. Maintenance and extension of the Associa- tion’s service in aid of scientific research will be best assured by a stable income from membership subscriptions. By March 31 this year 235 members had adopted the labour-saving method of subscription by banker’s order, and I hope this promise of growth will be fulfilled, for, in spite of much economy and the free services of a host of volunteers, the need for greater financial resources still hinders the Association’s work. JostaH C. STAMP, General Treasurer. XXX GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT Balance Sheet as Corresponding Sie: | LIABILITIES 1934, | | By) site Be bo Stand Dic Stanadls GENERAL PuRPOSES :— seer Creditors . 4 117 8 2 Sir Charles Parsons? gift (£10, 000) and legacy (£2,000) 12,000 0 0 Yarrow Fund | As per last Account £5,731 14 8 | Less Transferred to In- come and Expendi- ture Account under terms of the gift 258 0 5,473 14 8 | Life Compositions ‘| AsperlastAccount. 2,490 12 2 Add Received dusting ; year 273 0 O P3163, Wia-2 Less Transferred to In- come and Expendi- ture Account 15 2,748 12 2 Contingency Fund As per last Account 769 17 i1 Add Amount. trans- ferred from Income and Expenditure Account 454 8 3} 1,224 6 23 Accumulated Fund 16,488 9 0 37,549 7 6 38,052 10 23 | SPECIAL PurRPosEs :— | Caird Fund | Balance at Ist April, 1934 . s> S767 ie Add Excess of Income over Expendi- ture for year . : 38 12 10 9,806 3 10 | Cunningham Bequest | Balance at Ist April, 1934 . 2,284 19 1 Less Excess of Expenditure over In- come for the year 735 15° 9 1/549) 3) 4 Toronto University Presentation Fund Capital 178 11 4 Revenue ae ts iG 182 18 10 Carried forward 49,590 16 2} GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT XXXi at 3lst March, 1935 Corresponding roe. ASSETS 34, St sr a Lo Sagas BE N83) ds GENERAL PURPOSES :— Investments as scheduled with Income and Expenditure Account, No.1 . 37,920 1 11 Catalogues in Stock, at cost (Penn House) 5 = 5 ‘ --—-— Sundry debtors and Be ice in ad- vance . 3 é 82 15 11 Cash at bank . F z P AY iis 37,549 7 6| Cashin hand . , ; ; - 7 14 114 EH MO SpeciAL PURPOSES :— Caird Fund Investments (see Income and Ex- penditure Account, No. 2) .- of WONSBZ Gres Cash at bank . : é Fee atl NT ==)» NQ806: 310 Cunningham Bequest Investments (see Income gud Ex- penditure Account, No. ae : = gSOle Siaae Cash at bank : : : 47 16 2 —— 1,549 3.4 Toronto University Presentation Fund Investments (see Income and Ex- penditure Account, No. meas ; 178 11 4 Cash at bank C , ‘ 4,4 6 182 18 10 Carried forward ° - 49,590 16 24 XXXII GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT Balance Sheet as Corresponding sist Meee, LIABILITIES (continued) 1934, iS 3: di fo aa) a: L SyeS' Side a Ws. i ged Brought forward 3 49,590 16 24 | Bernard Hobson Fund Capital . é 3 1,000 0 0 Revenue—Balance per last Account . AS Add Excess of Income over Expenditure for year ae. < ar IC aeRO ——__—— 44 16 0 ——— 1,044 16 0 Leicester and Leicestershire Fund, 1933 Capital . 2 ‘ 1,000 0 0 Excess of Income over Expenditure for year. - 5 > 2 34 4 2 1,034 4 2 Down House Endowment Fund é : . 20,000 0 0 Sundry Creditors and Credit Balances 4 : 4 P50 mi2e ys 34,3381 13 34 = CU ee Total of Special Funds 2 £33,767 18 10 NOTE,.—There are contingent Liabilities in respect of grants voted to Research Committees at Aberdeen in 1934, but not claimed at 3lst March, 1935, amounting to £509 6s. 1d. The amount which should, in accordance with Council’s resolu- tion, have been in the Contingency Fund at 3lst March, 1935, was £1,375, but the surplus income available for this purpose has been insufficient by £150 13s. 94d. to meet the full annual amount transferable. 71,881 0 9% £71,820 9 04% I have examined the foregoing Account with the Books and Vouchers and certify and the Investments, and the Bank have certified to me that they hold the Approved. ) ArTHuUR L. BowLey ; Auditors. ALLAN FERGUSON J 23 Queen Victoria St., London, E.C. 4. GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT XXXili at 3lst March, 1935 (continued) Corresponding F . 3ist March, ASSETS (continued) 1934. ys. 1d. sf tase ¥d.- if, ) poSsn ae BE Scene Brought forward : E 49,590 16 24 Bernard Hobson Fund Investments (see Income and Ex- penditure Account, No. 5) 2 1,000% 0 Cash at bank ; ‘ s 44 16 0 oO 1,044 16 0 Leicester and Leicestershire Fund, 1933 Investments (see Income and Ex- penditure Account, No. 6) cee OOOR ORO Cash at bank 5 F : s 34 4 —_——_—_— 1,034 4 2 Down House Endowment Fund Investments (see Income and Expenditure Account, INo: 7) u : : . 20,000 0 0 Cash at bank ; - - 3 ---— Cash in hand : 10 0 0 Sundry debtors and payments in advance . 36 14 3 Stock of Gualgmues ‘ : 3 64 15 0 Suspense Account Balance at credit ist April, 1934 - 45 9 8% Less Excess of Income over Expenditure for year todate . 84 13 13 —_—_—_——_ 39 5 34,331 13 3% = — 20;150 12 8 71,881 0 94 £71,820 9 0% the same to be correct. I have also verified the Balance at the Bankers Deeds of Down House. W. B. KEEN, Chartered Accountant. GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT XXXIV OI zz * — sxguoniqryxy yoodseary “| 9 or 2a fs €l p6e'b fe 6 suEF Gc ec] : : peuimjor ‘syue1s jo poouned pepusdxouy ‘| 9 6 ¢9 | Seto Wey) A) tae ‘ojo ‘Surpurq ‘Sunuig Il OL S9z : * — suorjeorqnd | O-70mECy : * uoTNqIyUOD UOTsUDg ‘| ‘Vq Ul sjuswesyaApy “* TI ¢ g8é | 6 Sha £6651 = * soSeM pur soreyeg | € 9LP : " suoneoyqng jo ares “fe or rap fe 0 oso‘t | 0 SI : ; + dryszaquiour | jo Amdxa uo passoysuesy SQsutr QCE- : : * sarmpung ‘| §9 9 902 qunoure : suorisodwmos ary ‘| 0 Oo Ig | € ZI g¢ * Aouvjunossy pur ypny ‘| or oF OF ZI s9g‘e. ——_————_ | O_§8I 991 sospeg ‘| 4 9 Ler 9.¢ dl. = ; sroquiowr yuspmysg “* | 9 OF £4 PO SE lives . * srouoniqryxg “| 9 8 ue Of © iceze < * sjaxory, aqesojsuery, “| g OF Zor Vicpeera tte * sasuodxe suroaery, “‘ | 6 ef Ost 0 0 8ZP wWodoay YIM ‘si9quIow fenuuy ce | 0 0 £9¢ 20. Shi. - : 2 * soseisog “‘| o TL 688 0 fe 826'I . . . . Ayuo | | 0 0 I ° . ° . qUoY ce 00T SUTJII JOF sJoqurour enuuy “| 9 TT EIg‘T f0l 8 OL ; : Arauoneyg ‘6 | g or £8 0 0 $6 sStequIay, IeINSoyjenuuy plo dg) o 4 OIT icouG =ze JaMog pure sunysry Weozy oy! 4 TF se *S oy ‘:p “s we | 8 5 ? “Ss FF ‘p *s Up | ‘PEGI AWOONI Ba aUNLIGNadxa | | Surpuodsezz09 (PIT 90 oss‘erF 11 1 oce‘Ley (‘prr ‘s& oLr‘obF FE/E/6e | Ir 1 oLe'ge ‘se/cicg 32 ———_——=— ap sys0j¢ fo anjog) | —————— $y90IG jo onjeA) preday g : ‘ : quay ‘u0}SurdiO ‘asnoFy YIIOMEISyT UO VSeS}10Py pucsag EcireLoe : : : * 4soo 3¥ ‘suvory jwooy “yuso tod ¢ = “pz SQ] HRI F 0 SI z9 y gn0D ze ones 2IJO 380g) SPOS UeTIaAuO;) aue9 Jod § “po ‘sl 6% Ih Sop0EG <* * 4809 38 “YO0}g UOISIOAUO: “JuUad Jod Fe ‘py, “scl ggetoF | b ZI SEes‘or ° : : "3809 ye “YO0}g UOIsIBAUOT) “U99 Jad Fh “pg sg] PEI ILF SE OV cOe =: : bog ace *Y901g Rea erOy HEOr San uee wd fe p9 59 6LOLF | TE OR e6e Tt i "4809 38 ‘spuog uvory iv “yu09 Jad Fe pO “50 «OOPS z ¢ + : ; * 4809 4v “(anss] 2OIYO 380g) FOOIG EM ‘PL “SZl eS F 0 SI Lzg 38D se ‘eb9 muy q , Aemprey eeu UvIPU] I¥9I4) "PG ‘SHl 6LEF ae de; 92 Ces © * 4800 3v “HO0Ig “uso Jed € VIPpUT “PO ‘sO OO‘EF | sap PESE € € CIS * °° + 4809 ye *yDOIg “yUB0 Jad Fz parepyosuor ‘pz sz] GFL‘O'F paad Eelg Tp ne F squauagsaauy Sujpuodses109) oInjipuodxy puv swoouy [e1suey) *T ‘ON "S61 “HOUVIN Ist€ GHGNA UVAA AHL YOA SLNNOOOV AINLIGNAIXA ANV AWOONI Gerke XXXV GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT fe g ore I Il 6er'sT NDS CO — ee. ee * umop 748noa1q souvjeq Ag * poiigjsuvsy yUNOUI ao) mag ee peyry 4s ‘ * suojeuog ‘* . S]UDUI}SS9AUL UO 4S919}UT cs : pozaaooer xv], euI09U Aa BOAT Abed) CEE 2 L Ol esee mur | te § She ee ——————oo $s FI 790'9 1 Il 6zer'st fe 8 Sh 0 0 €II 0 0 b 6 LO 0 9 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 € a 0 0 TF 9 OL Of ¢ ed eid ay 8 S$ 0 SOI So onwtroo oo oO oooo°o-70 _ I _—e ra oot pw ya you puny jmiuomayy Suosing 01 pajon junoupy * o}yep 0} pourreyo jou ynq ‘SuTIO9TA PEG] 2 PI}0A syuvID pung Aoussunuor 0} Jajsuvz} OT, uMop parties re9h 94} JoJ ainyrpuedxea JIAO 909 -UI JO ssooxa Sureq Ssouvjeg “* wore.ysuouIaC, 8§,20})TUIUIOD) ASON] JO sosuodxq ‘ pou JeMoursyy suosieg 0} jurID * ISION] JO MOTIONPY : saqqey, JeonewMsyIeyy SER) PS /M jo ASojouorqD * seuIq ueg SOILS POLY’ ASOjOUISIOS : s9013 Sutonp oan -roquiry, jo Awojeuy voupy [eotdory, -1ajuy jo Aydersoaxy ueunyy syusun Today queydsuery, ; wor} nas Teeoiera JayeMyYseLJ sjeutuy JO deur} yy : UIAVD) SUIS UOTZOYISSET) orydeaSoneg AvaIng J9}e\\ purpuy : : syooy uOpuo'T Areysiay, pue snovovj01) > PEGI ‘EEGT 2033TUTUIOL) Jesousy Aq soo}}TUIUIOF) vasoy 0} epeur syuvIE) OL | & St 268 0 0 OOF 2 Sl 26¢ | IT AT ¥6E | $9 I F90°9 | IT I #68 0 £ BE GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT XXXVI OM GINS GETS See 0 (0085 5 : q ALOE) -uoD a}e19du1a 7, pue eordoxy, tapun syx90y snosusy jo wistydiou -eyeyy, ydeisouoyy BOS RET ie *[ 41g 0 61 PF * — 99}}TUTUIOF eoryy [eordory -19,uy a0 ASE SIE 9) uvuinyy{ 0 0 OS * 90971 | “WOD IIqeI, YNoudTg 0 0 OOL ames ASojOuIsTag | 0 0 OS 9937 TUr “HOD procs [eo130;007 0 0 2 997]TUI OG score C . 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GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT #6 S sins #1 €1 78 i ——— yunosoy asuedsng 0} porriajsuen ‘aeah 94} OJ SUIO UT J9A0 2njIpuadxa jo sssoxe Suteq ‘sourjeg Aq 8 £ O©eT 6 S$ gInITt ¥L €1 v2 858 ZL Obese Ol 6 €L qunos97 asuadsng 0, passafsuvsy “avad ay} 4of ainprpuadxa 4200 auL09 -ur fo ssaoxa surag ‘aouvjog fle! - pjo foappsssatT 0 O & ajqui-suuip O OL aI sumumg fo aspysing “* > Arauone}s¢ pue ‘osuogd -3jay, ‘sasvisog ‘sunuig ‘ * soaq sjuvjunosoy ‘‘ + Seis pue yzodsuery, “ *oya ‘sayismnbay proyasnoyy ** : : * suonvuog ‘*‘ UOT}E][eISUT Joiog pue spiens dary, “ * ‘ojo ‘spermayey] Uepreyy “ . . apiseq yore Wyeag Aq eseueqd * TEM Uepiey usyoIry snoour] [Pos —s[emousy pur sieday OJ, —_—_ 8 2 OFT ¥8 6 GF 0 O16 RESEARCH COMMITTEES, Etc. APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE, MEETING IN NORWICH, 1935. Grants of money, if any, from the Association for expenses connected with researches are indicated in heavy type. SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. Seismological investigations.—Dr. F. J. W. Whipple (Chaiyman), Mr. J. I easel C.B.E. (Secretary), Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, O.B.E., F.R.S., Dr. A. Dollar, Prof. G. R. Goldsbrough, Dr. Wilfred Hall, Dr. H. Jeffreys, ne Sic Mr. Cosmo Johns, Mr. A. W. Lee, Prof. E. A. Milne, M.B.E., F.R.S., Mr. R. D. Oldham, F.R.S., Prof. H. H. Plaskett, Prof. H. C. Plummer, F.R.S., Prof. A.-O: Rankine, ©:B:E., Rev. J. P. Rowland, Si}; rok R.A. Sampson, F.R.S., Mr. F. J. Scrase, Capt. H. Shaw, Sir Frank Smith, K.C.B., C.B.E., Sec. R.S., Dr. R. Stoneley, F:R.S., Mr. E. Tillotson, Sir G. T. Walker, C.S.I., F.R.S. $150 (Caird Fund grant). Calculation of mathematical tables.—Prof. E. H. Neville (Chaivman), Dr. L. J. Comrie (Secretary), Prof. A. Lodge (Vice-Chaivman), Dr. J. R. Airey, Prof. R. A. Fisher, F.R.S., Dr. J. Henderson, Dr. E. L. Ince, Dr. J. O Irwin, Dr. J. C. P. Miller, Mr. F. Robbins, Mr. D. H. Sadler, Dr. A. J. Thompson, Dr. J. F. Tocher, Dr. J. Wishart. £200 (£150 Caird Fund grant). SECTIONS A, C.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, GEOLOGY. The direct determination of the thermal conductivities of rocks in mines or borings where the temperature gradient has been, or is likely to be, measured.—Dr. Ezer Griffiths, F.R.S. (Chaivman), Dr. E. C. Bullard, Dr. H. Jeffreys, F.R.S. (from Section A); Mr. E. M. Anderson, Prof. W. G. Fearnsides, F.R.S., Prof. G. Hickling, Prof. A. Holmes, Dr. D. W. Phillips, Dr. J. H. J. Poole. 85. SECTIONS A, J—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, PSYCHOLOGY. The possibility of quantitative estimates of sensory events.—Prof. A. Ferguson (Chairman), Dr. C. S. Myers, C.B.E., F.R.S. (Vice-Chaivman), Mr. R. J. Bartlett (Secretary), Dr. H. Banister, Prof. F. C. Bartlett, F.R.S., Dr. Wm. Brown, Dr. N. R. Campbell, Prof. J. Drever, Mr. J. Guild, Dr. R. A. Houstoun, Dr. J. O. Irwin, Dr. G. W. C. Kaye, Dr. S. J. F. Philpott, Dr. L. F. Richardson, F.R.S., Dr. J. H. Shaxby, Mr. T. Smith, F.R.S., Dr. R. H. Thouless, Dr. W. S. Tucker, O.B.E. SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY. To advise the Sectional Committee as to the best method of meeting the wishes of Council as expressed in the memorandum on the relation between the advance of science and the life of the community.— (Chaivman), (Secretary), Dr. N. V. Sidgwick, C.B.E., F.R.S., Prof. J. F. Thorpe, C.B.E., F.R.S., Mr. H. T. Tizard, C.B., F.R.S, RESEARCH COMMITTEES, ETC. xlili SECTION C.—GEOLOGY. To excavate critical geological sections in Great Britain—Prof. W. T. Gordon (Chairman), Prof. W. G. Fearnsides, F.R.S. (Secretary), Prof. E. B. Bailey, F.R.S., Mr. H. C. Berdinner, Mr. W. S. Bisat, Dr. H. Bolton, Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, O.B.E., F.R.S., Prof. W. S. Boulton, Dr. E. S. Cobbold, Prof. A. H. Cox, Miss M. C. Crosfield, Mr. E. E. L. Dixon, Dr. Gertrude Elles, M.B.E., Prof. E. J. Garwood, F.R.S., Mr. F. Gossling, Prof. H. L. Hawkins, Prof. G. Hickling, Prof. V. C. Illing, Prof. O. T. Jones, F.R.S., Dr. Murray Macgregor, Dr. F. J. North, Dr. J. Pringle, Dr. T. F. Sibly, Dr. W. K. Spencer, F.R.S., Prof. A. E. Trueman, Dr. F. S. Wallis, Prof. W. W. Watts, F.R.S., Dr. W. F. Whittard, Dr. S. W. Wooldridge. £40 (Contingent grant, part on Bernard Hobson Fund). To investigate the reptile-bearing oolite of Stow-on-the-Wold, subject to the con- dition that suitable arrangements be made for the disposal of the material. —Sir A. Smith Woodward, F.R.S. (Chaivman), Mr.C.1. Gardiner (Secretary), Prof. S. H. Reynolds, Mr. W. E. Swinton. £20 (Bernard Hobson Fund grant). To investigate the bone-bed in the glacial deposits of Brundon, near Sudbury, Suffolk.—Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, O.B.E., F.R.S. (Chaiyman), Mr. Guy Maynard (Secretary), Mr. D. F. W. Baden-Powell, Prof. W. B. R. King, O.B.E., Mr. J. Reid Moir, Mr. K. P. Oakley, Dr. J. D. Solomon, Sir A. Smith Woodward, F.R.S. $80 (Bernard Hobson Fund grant). To consider and report on questions affecting the teaching of Geology in schools. —Prof. W. W. Watts, F.R.S. (Chairman), Prof. A. E. Trueman (Secretary), Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, O.B.E., F.R.S., Mr. C. P. Chatwin, Prof. A. H. Cox, Miss E. Dix, Prof. G. Hickling, Dr. A. K. Wells. The collection, preservation, and systematic registration of photographs of geological interest.—Prof. E. J. Garwood, F.R.S. (Chaivman), Prof. S. H. Reynolds (Secretary), Mr. H. Ashley, Mr. C. V. Crook, Mr. G. Macdonald Davies, Mr. J. F. Jackson, Mr. J. Ranson, Prof. W. W. Watts, F.R.S., Mr. R. J. Welch. To consider and report upon petrographic classification and nomenclature.— Mr. W. Campbell Smith (Chaiyvman), Dr. A. K. Wells (Secretary), Prof. E. B. Bailey, F.R.S., Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, O.B.E., F.R.S., Prof. A. Brammall, Dr. R. Campbell, Prof. A. Holmes, Prof. A. Johannsen, Dr. W. Q. Kennedy, Mr. A. G. MacGregor, Prof. P. Niggli, Prof. H. H. Read, Prof. S. J. Shand, Prof. C. E. Tilley, Dr. G. W. Tyrrell, Dr. F. Walker. To make recommendations to the International Geological Congress for the formation of a committee to consider geological evidence of climatic change.— Dr. W. B. Wright (Chaivman), Mr. M. B. Cotsworth (Secretary), Prof. E. B. Bailey, F.R.S., Prof. W. N. Benson, Prof. J. K. Charlesworth, Sir Lewis L. Fermor, O.B.E., F.R.S., Dr. G. W. Grabham, Dr. E. M. Kindle, Dr. Murray Macgregor, Dr. A. Raistrick, Dr. S. W. Wooldridge. SECTIONS C, E.—GEOLOGY, GEOGRAPHY. To administer a grant in support of a topographical and geological survey of the Lake Rudolph area in E. Africa.—Sir Albert E. Kitson, C.M.G., C.B.E. (Chairman), Dr. A. K. Wells (Secretary), Mr. S. J. K. Baker, Prof. F. Debenham, Dr. V. Fuchs, Prof. W. T. Gordon, Brig. H. S. L. Winterbotham, C.M.G., D.S.O.. £85 (Unexpended balance). SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY. To nominate competent naturalists to perform definite pieces of work at the Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.—Prof. J. H. Ashworth, F.R.S. (Chairyman and Secretary), Prof. H. Graham Cannon, F.R.S., Prof. H. Munro Fox, Prof. J. Stanley Gardiner, F.R.S. £50. xliv RESEARCH COMMITTEES, ETC. To co-operate with other sections interested, and with the Zoological Society, for the purpose of obtaining support for the Zoological Record.—Sir Sidney Harmer, K.B.E., F.R.S. (Chaiyman), Dr. W. T. Calman, F.R.S. (Secretary), Prof. E. S. Goodrich, F.R.S., Prof. D. M. S. Watson, F.R.S. £50 (Caird Fund grant). To make an ecological survey of the Mollusca of the Upper Amazon.—Dr. W. T. Calman, F.R.S. (Chaiyman), Miss A. M. Laysaght (Secretary), Mr. G. C. Robson. £15. To investigate British immigrant insects.—Sir E. B. Poulton, F.R.S. (Chaiyman), Dr. C. B. Williams (Secretary), Prof. F. Balfour-Browne, Capt. N. D. Riley. £10. To consider the position of animal biology in the school curriculum and matters relating thereto.—Prof. R. D. Laurie (Chaivman and Secretary), Mr. H. W. Ballance, Prof. E. W. MacBride, F.R.S., Miss M. McNicol, Miss A. J. Prothero, Prof. W. M. Tattersall, Dr. E. N. Miles Thomas. The progressive adaptation to new conditions in Artemia salina (Diploid and Octoploid, Parthenogenetic v. Bisexual).—Prof. R. A. Fisher, F.R.S. (Chair- man), Dr. F. Gross (Secretary), Dr. J. Gray, F.R.S., Dr. E. S. Russell, O.B.E., Prof. D. M. S. Watson, F.R.S. SECTIONS D, I, K.—ZOOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY, BOTANY. To aid competent investigators selected by the Committee to carry on definite pieces of work at the Zoological Station at Naples.—Prof. J. H. Ashworth, F.R.S. (Chaivman and Secretary), Prof. J. Barcroft, C.B.E., F.R.S., Prof. E. W. MacBride, F.R.S., Dr. Margery Knight. £50 (Caird Fund grant). SECTIONS D, K.—ZOOLOGY, BOTANY. To aid competent investigators selected by the Committee to carry out definite pieces of work at the Freshwater Biological Station, Wray Castle, Winder- mere.—Prof. F. E. Fritsch, F.R.S. (Chaiyman), Prof. P. A. Buxton (Secretary), Miss P. M. Jenkin, Dr. C. H. O’Donoghue (from Section D); Dr. W. H. Pearsall (from Section K). 75. SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY. To inquire into the present state of knowledge of the human geography of Tropical Africa, and to make recommendations for furtherance and develop- ment.—Prof. P. M. Roxby (Chaivman), Prof. A. G. Ogilvie, O.B.E. (Secretary), Dr. A. Geddes (Assistant Secretary), Mr. S. J. K. Baker, Prof. C. B. Fawcett, Mr. W. Fitzgerald, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Mr. E. B. Haddon, Mr. R. H. Kinvig, Mr. J. McFarlane, Brig. M. N. MacLeod, D.S.O., Prof. J. L. Myres, O.B.E., F.B.A., Mr. R. A. Pelham, Mr. R. U. Sayce, Rev. E. W. Smith, Brig. H. S. L. Winterbotham, C.M.G., D.S.O. £16 (Unexpended balance). To study the land forms of the North-East Land.—Prof. F. Debenham, Prof. R. N. Rudmose Brown, Dr. K. S. Sandford. £25. To co-operate with bodies concerned with the cartographic representation of population, and in particular with the Ordnance Survey, for the production of population maps.— (Chaiyman), Prof. C. B. Fawcett (Secretary), The Director General of the Ordnance Survey, Col. Sir Charles Close, K.B.E., C.B., C.M.G., F.R.S., Prof. H. J. Fleure, Mr. A. C. O’Dell, Mr. A. V. Williamson. SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. Chronology of the world crisis from 1929 onwards.—Prof. J. H. Jones (Chaiyman), Dr. P. Ford (Secretary), Prof. G. C. Allen, Mr. H. M. Hallsworth, C.B.E., Mr. R. F. Harrod. Mr. A. Radford, Prof. J. G. Smith. $10 (Leicester and Leicestershire Fund grant). RESEARCH COMMITTEES, ETC. xlv SECTION G.—ENGINEERING. Earth pressures.—Mr. F. E. Wentworth-Sheilds, O.B.E. (Chaiyman), Dr. J. S. Owens (Secretary), Prof. G. Cook, Mr. T. E. N. Fargher, Prof. A. R. Fulton, Prof. F. C. Lea, Prof. R. V. Southwell, F.R.S., Dr. R. E. Stradling, C.B., Dr. W.N. Thomas, Mr. E. G. Walker, Mr. J. S. Wilson. £6 18s. 103d. (Unex- pended balance). To review the knowledge at present available for the reduction of noise, and the nuisances to the abatement of which this knowledge could best be applied.—Sir Henry Fowler, K.B.E. (Chaiyman), Wing-Commander T. R. Cave-Browne-Cave, C.B.E. (Secretary), Mr. R. S. Capon, Dr. A. H. Davis, Prof. G. W. O. Howe, Mr. E. S. Shrapnell-Smith,C.B.E. £5 (Leicester and Leicestershire Fund grant). Electrical terms and definitions.—Prof. Sir J. B. Henderson (Chaiyman), Prof. F. G. Baily and Prof. G. W. O. Howe (Secretaries), Prof. W. Cramp, Prof. W.H. Eccles, F.R.S., Prof. C. L. Fortescue, Sir R. T. Glazebrook, K.C.B., F.R.S., Prof. A. E. Kennelly, Prof. E. W. Marchant, Prof. J. Proudman, F.R.S., Sir Frank Smith, K.C.B., C.B.E., Sec. R.S., Prof. L. R. Wilberforce. SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. To carry out the excavation of Paleolith cave deposits on Mt. Carmel and other sites in Palestine —Prof. J. L. Myres, O.B.E., F.B.A. (Chaiyman), Mr. M. C. Burkitt (Secretary), Miss G. Caton-Thompson, Miss D. A. E.Garrod. £20. To co-operate with the local committee in the excavation of Pen Dinas hill fort, Cardiganshire.—Sir Cyril Fox (Chaiyman), Mr. V. E. Nash-Williams (Secre- tary), Prof. V. Gordon Childe, Prof. C. Daryll Forde, Rt. Hon. Lord Raglan, Dr. R. E. M. Wheeler. £20. To report on the probable sources of the supply of copper used by the Sumerians. —Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chaiyman), Dr. C. H. Desch, F.R.S. (Secretary), Mr. H. Balfour, F.R.S., Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton, Prof. V. Gordon Childe, Mr. O. Davies, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Sir Flinders Petrie, F.R.S., Dr. A. Rais- trick, Dr. R. H. Rastall. £25. To co-operate with the Torquay Antiquarian Society in investigating Kent’s Cavern.—Sir A. Keith, F.R.S. (Chairman), Prof. J. L. Myres, O.B.E., F.B.A. (Secretary), Mr. M. C. Burkitt, Dr. R. V. Favell, Miss D. A. E. Garrod, Mr. A. D. Lacaille. £10. To excavate the Roman fort at Brancaster, Norfolk.—Mr. M. C. Burkitt (Chair- man), Mr. V. E. Nash Williams (Secretary), Mr. K. H. Jackson. §25. To investigate blood groups among primitive peoples.—Prof. H. J. Fleure (Chaiyman), Prof. R. Ruggles Gates, F.R.S. (Secretary), Dr. J. H. Hutton, C.I.E., Mr. R. U. Sayce. §10. To co-operate with a Committee of the Royal Anthropological Institute in the exploration of caves in the Derbyshire district —Mr. M. C. Burkitt (Chair- -man), Dr. R. V. Favell (Secretary), Mr. A. Leslie Armstrong, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Miss D. A. E. Garrod, Dr. J. Wilfrid Jackson, Prof. L. S. Palmer, Mr. H. J. E. Peake. £25. To carry out research among the Ainu of Japan.—Prof. C. G. Seligman, F.R.S. (Chaiyman), Mrs. C. G. Seligman (Secretary), Dr. H. S. Harrison, Capt. T. A. Joyce, O.B.E., Rt. Hon. Lord Raglan. To report on the classification and distribution of rude stone monuments in the British Isles—Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chaivman), Dr. Margaret A. Murray (Secretary), Mr. A. L. Armstrong, Mr. H. Balfour, F.R.S., Prof. V. Gordon Childe, Sir Cyril Fox, Mr. T. D. Kendrick. To conduct archeological and ethnological researches in Crete.—Prof. J. L. Myres, O.B.E., F.B.A. (Chaivman), Mr. L. Dudley Buxton (Secretary), Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth. xlvi RESEARCH COMMITTEES, ETC. To co-operate with Miss Caton-Thompson in her researches in prehistoric sites in the Western Desert of Egypt.— Prof. J. L. Myres, O.B.E., F.B.A. (Chair- man), Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Secretary), Mr. H. Balfour, F.R.S. To report to the Sectional Committee on the question of re-editing ‘ Notes and Queries in Anthropology.’—Prof. H. J. Fleure (Chaivman), Dr. G. M. Morant (Secretary), Dr. H. S. Harrison, Prof. C. G. Seligman, F.R.S. To investigate early mining sites in Wales.—Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chaiyman), Mr. Oliver Davies (Secretary), Prof. V. Gordon Childe, Dr. C. H. Desch, F.R.S., Mr. E. Estyn Evans, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Prof. C. Daryll Forde, Sir Cyril Fox, Dr. F. J. North, Mr. V. E. Nash Williams. SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY. To deal with the use of a stereotactic instrument.—Prof. J. Mellanby, F.R.S. (Chaiyman and Secretary). To investigate the alleged differences in distribution of rods and cones in the retine of various animals.—Prof. H. E. Roaf (Chaivman), Dr. F. W. Edridge- Green, C.B.E. (Secretary), Prof. J. P. Hill, F.R.S., Dr. F. W. Law, Dr. S. Zuckerman. £10 (Caird Fund grant). SECTION J.—PSYCHOLOGY. To develop tests of the routine manual factor in mechanical ability.—Dr. C. S. Myers, C.B.E., F.R.S. (Chaiyman), Dr. G. H. Miles (Secretary), Prof. C. Burt, Dr. F. M. Earle, Dr. Ll. Wynn Jones, Prof. T. H. Pear. £380 (Leicester and Leicestershire Fund grant). ; The nature of perseveration and its testing.—Prof. F. Aveling (Chaiyman), Dr. W. Stephenson (Secretary), Prof. F.C. Bartlett, F.R.S., Dr. Mary Collins, Mr. E. Farmer, Dr. P. E. Vernon. To consider definite lines of research in social psychology.—Prof. J. Drever (Chaiyman), Mr. R. J. Bartlett (Secretary), Prof. F. Aveling, Prof. F. C. Bartlett, F.R.S., Prof. C. Burt, Dr. Mary Collins, Mr. E. Farmer, Miss E. J. Lindgren, Dr. C. S. Myers, C.B.E., F.R.S., Prof. T. H. Pear, Dr. R. H. Thouless, Mr. A. W. Wolters. SECTION K.—BOTANY. Transplant experiments.—Sir Arthur Hill, K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (Chaiyman), Dr. W. B. Turrill (Secretary), Prof. F. W. Oliver, F.R.S., Prof. E. J. Salisbury, F.R.S., Prof. A. G. Tansley, F.R.S. SECTION L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. To consider and report on the possibility of the Section undertaking more definite work in promoting educational research.—Dr. W. W. Vaughan, M.V.O. (Chaivman), Miss H. Masters (Secretary), Prof. H. R. Hamley, Mr. E. R. B. Reynolds, Mr. N. F. Sheppard. £5 (Leicester and Leicestershire Fund grant). SECTIONS M, E.—AGRICULTURE, GEOGRAPHY. To co-operate with the staff of the Imperial Soil Bureau to examine the soil resources of the Empire.—Sir John Russell, O.B.E., F.R.S. (Chairman), Mr. G. V. Jacks (Secretary), Dr. E. M. Crowther, Dr. W. G. Ogg, Prof. G. W. Robinson (from Section M), Prof. C. B. Fawcett, Mr. H. King, Mr. C. G. T. Morison (from Section M), Dr. L. D. Stamp, Mr. A. Stevens, Dr. S. W. Wooldridge (from Section E). CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. Corresponding Societies Committee.—The President of the Association (Chaiyman ex-officio), Mr. T. Sheppard (Vice-Chairman), Dr. C. Tierney (Secretary), the General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, Mr. C. O. Bartrum, Sir Richard Gregory, Bt., F.R.S., Sir David Prain, C.I.E., C.M.G., F.R.S., Dr. A. B. Rendle, F.R.S., Prof. W.M. Tattersall, Dr. R. E. Mortimer Wheeler. RESOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS xlvii RESOLUTIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS. The following resolutions and recommendations were referred to the Council by the General Committee at the Norwich Meeting for con- sideration, and, if desirable, for action :— From the General Committee. That the Council be authorised to publish, either by printing in extenso in the Annual Report or otherwise, certain contributions to the discussion on the Galapagos Islands (Section D, Zoology). From Sections A (Mathematical and Physical Sciences), C (Geology), E (Geography), and G (Engineering). In view of the importance of co-operation with the Ministry of Health Committee on Inland Water Survey and with the joint Committee of the two Houses on Water Resources and Supplies, it is suggested that a Committee of the Council of the British Association be appointed with representatives from Sections A, C, E and G. From Sections A (Mathematical and Physical Sciences), and G (Engineering). (Recommendation for communication by the Council to the Ministry of Transport) : In connection with the demonstration given at the Aberdeen Meeting, a year ago, of effective silencers made for the engines of bicycles, the Associa- tion understands that the general problem of the noise of motor transport is still under consideration by a Committee appointed by the Minister of Transport, and that until that Committee reports, no information about its work or proposals can be communicated. While recognising that there are administrative difficulties in giving _ practical effect to the improvements which technically are possible, the Association expresses a hope that the Minister will make an arrangement whereby new motor vehicles may be type-tested to ensure that they comply with a certain standard of silence, even though that standard may initially be a very lenient one. In doing so the Association draws attention to the great popular desire for improvement and also to the great extent by which many vehicles do exceed any noise level which could reasonably be defended as scientifically or technically necessary. i siliaiae From Section D (Zoology). 4 ___ The Committee of Section D recommends to the Council that the British _ Association, in view of its connection with the memory of Charles Darwin, should take the initiative in summoning a Committee of British bodies interested in the preservation of the fauna of the Galapagos Islands to dis- cover what steps can be taken in co-operation with similar bodies in other countries, to assist in giving effect to the legislation of the Government of Ecuador in this matter. xIvili RESOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS From Section F (Economics), supported by Section # (Psychology). The Committee recommends that the Association might indicate the importance which it attaches to the development of the social sciences by appointing a third General Secretary, who would be specially associated with this group of studies. This emphasis would convey to the public that the Association has always regarded this form of scientific inquiry as it regards the mathematical, physical, and biological sciences. From Section G (Engineering). Section G recommends that the desirability of adding, for those who desire to use it, a definition and specification of the lower yield-point to the specification of other properties of mild and moderately high tensile steel be brought to the notice of the British Standards Institution. The Section submits the following specification for consideration by that Institution : ‘ After yield has commenced in a tensile test on a standard piece (com- prising a portion that is tolerably uniform in section) and before it has spread along the whole of the portion of uniform section, the load shall be readjusted to a new, steady value (being reduced if necessary) so that yield spreads along the uniform portion while the machine continues to elongate the piece slowly. The stress value deduced by dividing the readjusted load by the initial cross-sectional area of the uniform portion of the test-piece shall be known as the lower yield-point.’ From Section H (Anthropology). That the Council of the Association be asked to approach H.M. First Commissioner of Works with a view to the immediate scheduling of the Pin Hole Cave at Creswell Crags, Derbyshire, as an Ancient Monument, and to a proper protection of the site. At the same time it was recommended that the following cave sites in the neighbourhood be also scheduled, namely, Mother Grundy’s Parlour and Langwith Cave. From the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies, supported by Section D (Zoology). (1) That the attention of the respective Councils for the Preservation of Rural England, Scotland and Wales be called to the serious effects upon the insectivorous bird population through the cutting of hedgerows during the breeding season, and the consequent destruction or desertion of the birds’ nests ; and recommends that the said Councils urge upon local adminis- trative authorities the desirability of suspending such operations during the nesting period. (2) That this Conference of Delegates of Societies in correspondence with the British Association for the Advancement of Science assembled at Norwich welcomes the facilities afforded by the Town and Country Planning Act, 1932, for the preservation of individual sites and objects of scientific interest, but views with grave apprehension the indiscriminate building development over wide areas of exceptional natural beauty and scientific importance ; and requests the Council of the Association to represent to H.M. Government the urgent necessity for taking immediate steps to schedule such areas, as recommended by the National Parks Committee (Report, Section 28 b), 1931, to be developed as national parks. 20JAN1936 BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. NORWICH, 1935. THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS FORM, DRIFT, AND RHYTHM OF THE CONTINENTS BY ProressorR W. W. WATTS, LL.D., Sc.D., F.R.S., PRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION. IT is now sixty-seven years since the British Association enjoyed the hospitality of the city of Norwich, a privilege which is being renewed to-day under the most happy auspices. At that meeting we find the scientific community was particularly interested in underground temperatures and tidal phenomena, in the application of the spectroscope to celestial objects, and in the discovery of the oldest Cambrian fossils and the earliest fossil mammals then known. Many papers were read on local natural history, including those on Norfolk farming and the drainage of the County and of the Fens. In his address at the meeting the President, Sir Joseph D. Hooker, made special reference to the work of Charles Darwin : not to the Origin of Species which had been acrimoniously discussed by the Association on previous occasions, and notably at Oxford in 1860, but to some of the work that followed. It should be remembered that Hooker was one of the three scientific men, representing botany, zoology and geology, whom Darwin had selected as judges with whose opinion on the soundness of his theory of the origin of species he would be content. The others were Huxley and Lyell; and of the three Lyell was the hardest to convince, chiefly because the record of life in the past then furnished by the rocks was manifestly so incomplete and un- satisfactory that its evidence was insufficient to warrant a definite verdict. Lyell had set out to ‘treat of such features of the economy of existing nature, animate and inanimate, as are illustrative of geology,’ B 2 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS and to make ‘an investigation of the permanent effects of causes now in action which may serve as records to after ages of the present condition of the earth and its inhabitants.’ By laborious study of the work of others, and by his own extensive travel and research, he had been able to enunciate, for the inorganic world, the principle of uniformitarianism, which in its original form we owe to Hutton. This principle involved that the history revealed by the rocks should be read as the effect of the slow but continuous operation of causes, most of them small, such as could be seen in action in some part or other of the world to-day. ‘This was set in opposition to the opinion of the older geologists who had postulated a succession of catastrophes which, by flood, fire and convulsion, had periodically wrecked the world and destroyed its inhabitants ; each catastrophe necessitating a new creation to provide the succession of life on the earth as it then was known. But in the organic world Lyell, like Hutton, had failed to detect any analogous principle, and, as he rejected all the theories of transmutation of species then in vogue, he had to accept their absolute fixity ; and to suppose that, as species became extinct one after another, replacement by special creations followed. And yet the reading to-day of the chapters devoted to this branch in the earlier editions of Lyell’s great work produces the haunting feeling that a better explanation had only just eluded him. It was the story revealed in Lyell’s work, Darwin tells us, the new conception that the earth had been in existence for vast zons of time, the proof that it had been continuously peopled by animals and plants, and that these had steadfastly advanced and improved throughout that time, which showed him the necessity for an explanation of the progression of life, and gave him the first hints of his theory. When he had enunciated this he was enabled to repay his master with the principle of organic evolution, which brought changes in the animate world into harmony with those of the inanimate. His Antiquity of Man shows that by 1863 Lyell had become a convert, and he afterwards rewrote much of the second volume of his Principles accepting the new point of view. This change earned from Hooker a testimonial in the 1868 address which, if not unique, must certainly be one of the most magnificent ever awarded to a scientific work : ‘I know no brighter example of heroism, of its kind, than this, of an author thus abandoning, late in life, a theory which he had regarded as one of the foundation stones of a work that had given him the highest position attainable amongst contemporary scientific writers. Well may he be proud of a superstructure, raised on the foundation of an insecure doctrine, when he finds THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 3 that he can underpin it and substitute a new foundation: and, after all is finished, survey his edifice, not only more secure, but more harmonious in proportions than before.’ Although infinitely richer than when Darwin wrote, the Geological Record still is, and must from its very nature remain, imperfect. Every major group of animal life but the vertebrates is represented in the Cambrian fauna, and the scant relics that have been recovered from earlier rocks give very little idea of what had gone before, and no evidence whatever as to the beginnings of life. But, from Cambrian time onward the chain of life is continuous and unbroken. ‘Type after type has arisen, flourished, and attained dominion. Some of them have met extinction in the heyday of their development ; others have slowly dwindled away ; others, again, have not finished their downhill journey, or are still advancing to their climax. Study of the succession of rocks and the organisms contained in them, in every case in which evidence is sufficiently abundant and particularly among the vertebrates and in the later stages of geological history, has now revealed that the great majority of species show close affinities with those which preceded and with those which followed them; that, indeed, they have been derived from their predecessors and gave origin to their successors. We may now fairly claim that paleontology has lifted the theory of evolution of organisms from the limbo of hypothesis into a fact completely demonstrated by the integral chain of life which links the animals and plants of to-day with the earliest of their forerunners of the most remote past. Further, the rocks themselves yield proof of the geographical changes undergone by the earth during its physical history ; and indicate with perfect clearness that these changes have been so closely attendant on variation in life, and the incoming of new ‘species, that it is impossible to deny a relation of cause and effect. Indeed, when we realise the delicate adjustment of all life to the four elements of the ancients which environ it, air, water, earth and fire ; to their composition, interrelationships and circulation ; itis perhaps one of the most remarkable facts established by geology that, in spite of the physical changes which we know to have occurred, the chain of life has never snapped in all the hundreds of millions of years through which its history has been traced. The physical changes with which Lyell and his successors were most closely concerned were, firstly, the formation of stratified rocks on horizontal sea-floors, situated in what is now often the interior 4 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS of continents, far removed from the oceans of the present day, and thus indicating important and repeated changes in the position of land and water ; and, secondly, the deformation of these flat deposits till they were rucked and ridged to build the mountain ranges. Before and since Lyell’s time geologists have devoted themselves to working out the exact and detailed succession of these stratified rocks, translating their sequence into history and their characters into terms of geography; the succession of physical conditions prevailing at the time of their formation. Further, although animals and plants migrate from place to place, the time occupied by the migrations of suitable forms is so negligible when compared with the length of the chapters of geological history that their fossil remains have proved to be the best means for correlating strata over broad stretches of the earth’s surface. ‘This correlation has converted the fragments of local history thus revealed into at least the outlines of the geological story of the world. It was not till 1885, however, that the accumulation of data of this type was sufficient to enable the great geologist, Suess, an Austrian but born in this country, to assemble and correlate them, and to deduce from them further principles which have been the mainstay and inspiration of his successors. We owe to Hertha Sollas and her father the rendering of this great work, The Face of the Earth, into English ; and to Emmanuel de Margerie and his colleagues a French translation enriched with a magnificent series of maps and sections such as could only have been brought together by one with the most remarkable bibliographic knowledge; a veritable recension of the original. The nature and associations and the distribution in time and space of modern changes in the relative levels of land and sea, as detected at sea-margins and by altitude survey, and of older changes betrayed by such evidence as submerged forests and raised beaches, had convinced geologists that the unstable element was not the fickle and mobile sea, but the solid if elastic earth-crust. They naturally applied the same explanation to those encroachments of the sea in the past which had resulted in the formation of our stratified rocks. But while some investigators were content with one form of move- ment—that due to lateral pressure—to explain both the formation of mountains and the rise and fall of the land, others called in a different cause for the latter. Without entering into a discussion of causes it may be well for us to distinguish the orogenic or mountain- forming from the epeirogenic or continental movement. The evidence collected by Suess proved that these last great land and sea changes had occurred simultaneously over whole continents or even wider regions. Such great submergences as those to which the Cambrian Rocks, the Oxford Clay, and the Chalk are due were THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 5 of this character; while, in between, there came times of broad expansions of continental land and regressions of the sea. ‘These changes were in his view on far too grand a scale to be compared with, or explained by, the trivial upheavals and depressions of land margins of the present day, which he showed could mostly be correlated with volcanoes or earthquakes, or with such incidents as the imposition or relief of ice-sheets on an elastic crust in connexion with glacial conditions. It became necessary for him to replace or supplement oscillations of the earth-crust by a world-wide periodic ebb and flow of the oceans, to and from the continents ; positive movements of trans- gression carrying the sea and its deposits over the lands, drowning them and their features under tens or hundreds of fathoms of water ; and negative movements or regressions when the oceans retreated to the deeps, leaving the continents bare or encrusted with recently formed sediments. Although the facts cried out for this generalisation Suess was at a loss to supply any mechanism competent to produce the wonderful rhythm. The problem was difficult because a liquid must maintain a horizontal, i.e. an equipotential, surface. It was manifestly im- possible to withdraw from the earth, and later to replace upon it, the vast quantity of water that would be required ; and, though a shifted water-level, or even a varied water-surface relative to the continents, might be caused by polar ice-caps, by redistribution of the continents carrying their local effects on gravitation, by variations in the rate of the earth’s rotation, or other far-reaching causes, none of these would supply an explanation that fitted all the facts. Regressions of the sea could be to some extent explained if Suess’s main postulate, that the great ocean basins had been slowly sinking throughout geological time, were granted. But this explanation only rendered more impotent the raising of ocean levels by deposits of sediment, and this was almost the only valid cause for transgressions that he had been able to suggest. Further, it is not possible to ignore the definite relationship that exists between the pulsation of the oceans and the raising of moun- tains by lateral or tangential stress. Periods of positive movement or advance of the seas were times of comparative tranquillity, when tangential pressure was in abeyance. Periods of negative movement and retreat were invariably marked by the operation of great stresses by which the earth’s face was ridged and wrinkled in the throes of mountain-birth. The theory that continuous cooling and shrinkage of the interior of the earth afforded an explanation of mountain ranges and other 6 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS rugosities on its surface was a legacy from the nebular hypothesis. In spite of the homely simile of a shrivelling apple, this explanation has never received a very enthusiastic welcome from geologists, though, in default of other resources, they had to make use of it. As knowledge has grown the difficulties have become insurmountable to them. First, there is its inadequacy to explain the vast amount of lateral movement required to account for the greater mountain ranges ; their rocks, originally spread over a wider area, having been folded and crushed into a narrower width. The shortening of the earth- crust thus effected has been estimated in the case of the Rocky Mountains at 29 miles, of the Himalayas at 62, the Alps at 76, and the Appalachians at the large figure of 200 miles. Then there is the periodicity of mountain growth. The great epochs of mountain-building, such as the Caledonian, to which the chief Scottish and Welsh mountains are due, the Hercynian, responsible for the Pennine and South Wales, and the Alpine, which gave us ‘the wooded, dim, blue goodness of the Weald,’ were associated with vast continental development ; and each was separated from the next by a period of relative inactivity lasting dozens of millions of years. Further, there is the fact that the vigour of mountain-building, of volcanoes, and of other manifestations of unrest, has shown no sign of senility or lack of energy. ‘The geologically recent Alpine- Himalayan range is as great, as lofty, and as complicated in structure, as were any of its precursors. ‘The active volcanoes of Kilauea, Krakatao, or St. Pierre, and those recently extinct in Northern Ireland and the Scottish Isles, were as violent and efficient as any of those of the Palzozoic Era. The earth is ‘a lady of a certain age,’ but she has contrived to preserve her youth and energy as well as her beauty. But it was when Lord Kelvin’s dictum struck from geology its grandest conception, time, that it became vital to re-examine the position. He had demonstrated that, if the earth had been con- tinuously cooling down at its present rate, its surface must have been too hot for the existence of life upon it a limited number of million years ago. ‘The concept of geological time, indicated by Hutton in his famous saying that in this enquiry ‘we find no vestige of a beginning—no prospect of an end,’ had been confirmed by data accumulated through the painstaking researches of a host of competent and devoted observers all over the world. To them, familiar with the tremendous changes, organic and inorganic, that the earth had passed through since Cambrian time, it was wholly impossible to compress the life story of the earth, or the history of life upon it, into a paltry 20 or 30 million years. The slow growth THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 7 and slow decay of mountain range after mountain range, each built out of, and in some cases upon, the ruins of its predecessor ; the chain of slowly evolving organisms, vast in numbers and infinite in variety ; told plainly of long zons of time. And the duration of these aeons can be dimly realised when it is recalled that, within a small fraction of the latest of them, man, with the most primitive of implements and the most rudimentary culture, has succeeded in penetrating to the uttermost corners of the world, and developed his innumerable languages and civilisations. Huxley, as our representative, took up the challenge in his address to the Geological Society in 1869, and asked the pertinent question ‘but is the earth nothing but a cooling mass “‘ like a hot water jar such as is used in carriages ”’ or ‘“‘ a globe of sandstone”? ?’ And he was able to point out at least some agencies which might regenerate the earth’s heat or delay its loss. So it is only fitting that the great physicist, who imposed a narrow limit to geological time, should have prepared the way for those who have proved that the earth possesses in its radioactive substances a ‘ hidden reserve ’ capable of supplying a continuous recrudescence of the energy wasted by radiation, thus lengthening out the time required to complete its total loss. These later physicists have given us time without stint ; and, though this time is the merest fraction of that envisaged by cosmogonists and astronomers, we are now so much richer than our original estimates that we are embarrassed by the wealth poured into our hands. So far from the last century’s urge to ‘hurry up our phenomena,’ we are almost at a loss for phenomena enough to fill up the time. The far-sighted genius of Lord Rutherford and Lord Rayleigh first saw the bearing of the rate of disintegration of radioactive substances in the minerals of rocks on the age of the parts of the earth-crust built of them. The extension and supplementing of this work by Joly, Holmes, and others, has now enabled us to look to the disintegration of uranium, thorium, and potassium, as the most promising of many methods that have been used in the endeavour to ascertain the age of those parts of the earth-crust that are accessible to observation. These methods also promise a means of dating the geological succession of Eras and Periods in terms of millions if not hundreds of thousands of years. The decline and early death to which Lord Kelvin’s dictum had condemned the earth, according so little with the vigour displayed in its geological story, is now transformed into a history of prolonged though not perennial youth. It was for Joly, of whose work the extent, variety, and fruitfulness are hardly yet fully appreciated, to take the next step and see in the release of radioactive energy a mechanism which could drive the pulse that geologists had so 8 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS long felt, and that Suess had so brilliantly diagnosed. As Darwin found the missing word for Lyell, so Joly in his theory of Thermal Cycles has indicated the direction of search for a mechanism to actuate the rhythm of Suess. In Joly’s conception the running down of the earth’s energy, though a continuous process, was, through the intervention of radio- activity, converted into a series of cycles, during each of which relative movements of sea and land must occur ; downward move- ments of the continents, associated with positive encroachments of the sea ; upward movements, with retreat of the sea, the formation of wide land masses, and the ridging of strata to form mountain ranges. ‘Thus he forged a link that could unite the continental or epeirogenic movement with orogenic or mountain movement. The visible parts of mountains and continents, as well as their lower and hidden portions, or ‘ roots,’ are made of comparatively light rocks. In order to stand up as they do their roots must be embedded in denser matter, in which they ‘ float ’ like ice-bergs in water. A far larger mass must exist below than is visible above, and the bigger the upstanding part the bigger the submerged root. Over the larger area of the ocean floor, on the other hand, the thickness of material of low density must be very slight, and the denser layer must come close to the surface. The study of earthquakes, to which the Seismology Committee of the British Association has made outstanding contributions, has yielded, from the times taken in transmission of vibrations through the earth, the best information as to the nature and state of the interior. It has proved that the dense layer is solid at the present time. It is probably no coincidence that the earth is also but just recovering from what is possibly the greatest period of mountain-building, if not the greatest negative movement of ocean retreat, that it has ever experienced. But solidity cannot be the permanent condition of the sub- stratum. Heat is generated in it by its own radioactivity, but, according to the terms of the hypothesis, cannot escape, in con- sequence of the higher temperature generated in the continental rocks which cover it. It is therefore retained in the substratum and stored as latent heat of liquefaction, so that, within a period which has been calculated approximately in millions of years, com- plete melting of the sub-crust must ensue. The resulting expansion of the liquefied stratum will have at least two effects of great importance to us. In the first place the unexpanded superficial layers will be too small to fit the swelling interior. They will, therefore, suffer tension, greater on the ocean floor than on land, and cracking and rifting will occur, with intrusion THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 9 and extrusion of molten rock. In the second place the continental masses, now truly floating in a substratum which has become fluid and less dense than before, will sink deeper into it, suffering dis- placement along the rift cracks or other planes of dislocation. As a result the ocean waters, unchanged in volume, must encroach on the edges of the continents, and spread farther and farther over their surfaces. Thus we have the mechanism which Suess vainly sought, causing positive movements of the oceans, their waters spreading over wide stretches of what was formerly continental land, and laying down as sediment upon it the marine stratified rocks which are our chief witness of the rhythmic advances of the sea. This condition, however, cannot be permanent, for by convection of the fluid basic substratum, supplemented by the influence of tides within it, and the slow westward tidal drag of the continental masses towards and over what had been ocean floor, there will now be dissipation of its heat, mainly into the ocean waters, at a rate much faster than it has been or could be accumulated. Resolidifica- tion ensues, and again there are two main consequences. First, the stratum embedding their roots having now become more dense, the continental masses rise, and as they do so the ocean waters retreat from their margins and epicontinental seas, leaving bare as new land, made of the recently deposited sediments, the areas previously drowned. Secondly, the expanded crust, left insufficiently supported by the withdrawal of shrunken substratum, will suffer from severe tangential stress, and, on yielding, will wrinkle like the skin of a withering apple. The wrinkles will be mountain ranges, formed along lines of weakness such as those at continental margins ; and they will be piled up and elevated to suffer from the intense erosion due to water action upon their exposed and upraised rocks. In this, again, we have a mechanism which supplies what was needed by Suess, and one, moreover, which secures the required relationship between continental and mountain movement, between the broader extensions of continental land and the growth of mountains with their volcanoes and earthquakes and the other concomitants of lateral thrust. Thus a Thermal Cycle may run its full course from the solid substratum, through a period of liquefaction accompanied by crustal tension, back to solidification and an era of lateral stress : and the stage is set for a new cycle. Professor Arthur Holmes, in checking Joly’s calculations, has concluded that the length of the cycles in a basic rock substratum should occupy from 25 to 40 million years, a period much too short B2 10 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS to fit the major periods of mountain movement, as determined by him from the radioactivity of minerals contained in the rocks. On this evidence the Alpine movement should date back from 20 to 60 millions of years ago, the Hercynian 200 to 250 millions, and the Caledonian from 350 to 375 million years. In a preliminary attempt to modify Joly’s hypothesis Holmes postulated the occurrence of similar, but longer cycles (Magmatic Cycles) in a denser, ultrabasic layer underlying the basic one, the rhythm of which would be nearer to 150 million years. ‘The shorter cycles due to the basic layer are held in part responsible for periods of minor disturbance, and also to account for the individual varia- tions in effect, duration, and intensity of the larger ones. Each of the later movements has also evidently been limited and conditioned by the results of foregoing ones, and especially by areas of fracture and weakness on the one hand, and by large stable masses composed of rocks intensely consolidated, or already closely packed, on the other. More recently Holmes has developed the possibility that the loss of heat is mainly due to convection in the liquid substrata, and that convection is the leading cause of the drifting and other movements of the crust, and the disturbances that have occurred in it. He says :— ‘Although the hypothesis involving sub-crustal convection currents cannot be regarded as established, it is encouraging to find that it is consistent with a wide range of geological and geo- physical data. Moreover, it is by no means independent of the best features of the other hypotheses. It requires the local operation of thermal cycles within the crust, and it necessarily involves contraction in regions where crustal cooling takes place. It is sufficiently complex to match the astonishing complexities of geological history, and sufficiently startling to stimulate research in many directions.’ The phenomena are difficult to disentangle as the number of operating causes has been so great and many of them are not fully understood. But, underlying them all there is unquestionably the pulse within pulse which Suess saw and of which Joly pointed the way to explanation. The view at which we have arrived is neither strictly uniformi- tarian nor strictly catastrophic, but takes the best from each hypothesis. As Lyell showed, most of the phenomena of geology can be matched somewhere and sometime on the earth of to-day ; but it would appear that they have varied in place, intensity, phase, and time. And, as Lyell was driven to accept evolution to explain the history of life on the earth, so must we employ the same word to THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS II express the life-processes of the earth itself, as was suggested by Huxley in 1869 and strongly advocated by Sollas in 1883. The contrast in outline and structure between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans had long been noted when Suess formulated and used the differences as the basis of his classification. The Pacific is bounded everywhere by steep slopes, rising abruptly from profound ocean depths to lofty lands crowned with mountain ranges, parallel to its shores and surrounding its whole area. On the American side the Coast Range is continued by the Andes. On the Asiatic side chains of mountainous peninsulas and islands, sepa- rated from the continent by shallow inland seas, extend in festoons from Kamchatka and Japan to the East Indies, eastern Australia and New Zealand. This mountain ring, as Charles Lapworth said, ‘is ablaze with volcanoes and creeping with earthquakes,’ testifying that it has been recently formed and is still unfinished. The Atlantic Ocean, on the other hand, is not bordered with con- tinuous ranges, but breaks across them all: the Scottish and Welsh ranges, the Armorican range, the continuation of the Pyrenees and Atlas ; and, on the American side, the uplands of Labrador, New- foundland and the eastern States, and the hill ranges of Guiana and Brazil. ‘The Atlantic is in disconformity with the grain of the land, while the Pacific conforms with it. The Pacific has the rock-folds of its ranges breaking like ocean waves towards it as though the land were being driven by pressure to advance upon it, while the Atlantic recalls the effects of fracture under tension. The middle and southern edges of the Atlantic, however, agree to some extent with the Pacific type. The Caribbean Sea, with the Antilles and the rest of its border girdle, recalls the similar structure of the Mediterranean, as it stretches eastwards, with breaks, to the East Indian Archipelago ; while the Andes are continued to Antarctica in a sweeping curve of islands. The rest of the Indian Ocean is of Atlantic type, as seen in the shores of eastern Africa and western Australia. Another feature of the Atlantic is the parallelism of much of its eastern and western coasts, the meaning of which has often attracted the speculations of geologists and geographers. With a little stretch of the imagination, and some ingenuity and elasticity of adjustment, plans or maps of the opposite sides may be fitted fairly closely, particularly if we plot and assemble the real edges of the continents, the steep slopes which divide the ‘ shelves’ on which they stand from the ocean depths. This has suggested the possibility that the two sides may once have been united, and have since broken and drifted apart till they are now separated by the ocean. 12 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS This view, outlined by others, has been emphasised by Wegener and dealt with by him in full detail in his work on The Origin of Continents and Oceans, and it now plays a leading part in what is known as the Wegener theory of continental drift. The hypothesis is supported by the close resemblances in the rocks and fossils of many ages in western Europe and Britain to those of eastern North America; by community of the structures by which these rocks are affected ; and by the strong likeness exhibited by the living animals and plants on the two sides, so that they can only be referred to a single biological and distributional unit, the Palearctic Region. The hypothesis, however, did not stop at this ; and in the South Atlantic and certain other areas Wegener and his followers have also given good reasons for believing that continental masses, once continuous, have drifted apart. Broad areas in southern Africa are built of rocks known as the Karroo Formation, of which the lower part, of late Carboniferous age, is characterised especially by species of the strange fern-like fossil plants Glossopteris and Gangamopteris. Associated with them are peculiar groups of fossil shells and fossil amphibia and reptiles. Similar rocks, with similar associations and contents, in Peninsular India have been named the Gondwana Formation. Comparable Formations also occupy large regions in Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand, in Madagascar, in the Falkland Islands and Brazil, and in Antarctica. The correspondence between these areas is so close that Suess supposed they must at that date have been connected together by lands, now sunk beneath the sea, and he named the continent thus formed Gondwanaland after the Indian occurrences. The break-up of this land can be followed from a study of the rocks, and it was a slow process, its steps occupying much of Mesozoictime. Dr. A. L. du Toit’s comparison of South African rocks with those of Brazil and elsewhere in South America favours even a closer union than this between the units now scattered. One of the most remarkable features shown by these rocks in all the areas mentioned, but to varying extents, is the presence of con- glomerates made of far-travelled boulders, scratched like those borne by the modern ice-sheets of Greenland and the Antarctic, associated with other deposits of a glacial nature, and often resting upon typical glaciated surfaces. ‘There is no possible escape from the con- clusion that these areas, now situated in or near the tropics, suffered an intense glaciation. ‘This was not a case of mere alpine glaciers, for the land was of low relief and not far removed from sea-level, but of extensive ice-sheets on a far larger scale than the glaciation of the northern parts of the new and old worlds in the Pleistocene Ice Age. I have never seen any geological evidence more impressive or con- THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 13 vincing than that displayed at Nooitgedacht, near Kimberley ; while the illustrations and other evidence published by David and Howchin from Australia are equally striking. Du Toit’s work on these glacial deposits brings out two remarkable facts ; first, that the movement of the ice was southerly, pole-ward and away from the equator, the opposite to what would be expected, and to the direction of the Pleistocene ice-movement ; secondly, that the ice in Natal invaded the land from what is now sea to the north-east. When it is realised that at this period there is no evidence of glacial action in northern Europe or America, but a climate in which grew the vegetation that formed the coal seams of our Coal Measures, it is clear that we are not dealing with any general refrigeration of the globe, even if that would produce such widespread glaciation : we are face to face with a special glaciation of Gondwanaland. On both sides of the Atlantic these glacial episodes in Carboniferous times were followed by dry and desert climates in Triassic time, and these by violent volcanic outbursts. Nor are the rocks alike only in mode of formation, the structures by which they are traversed correspond ; while even in details there is remarkable agreement, as in the peculiar manganese deposits, and the occurrence of diamonds in ‘ pipes ’ of igneous rock, both east and west of the Ocean. Rather than face the difficulties presented by the subsidence of lands connecting the severed portions of Gondwanaland, as pictured by Suess, Wegener has preferred, and in this he is supported by Du Toit and many other geologists, to bring into contact these severed parts, which could be fitted together as nearly as might be expected, considering the dates of severance. Du Toit’s map of the period places South America to the west and south of South Africa, Madagascar and India to the east, Antarctica to the south, and Australia farther to the south-east. Such a grouping would form a continent much less wide in extent than that envisaged by Suess, and would offer some explanation of the more remarkable features of the glaciation in the several areas, as well as the problems of the rocks, fossils, and structures involved. In its application to the geology of Gondwanaland the modified hypothesis of Wegener cuts a Gordian knot; but it still leaves a great climatal difficulty, unless we take his further step and conceive that at this date the terrestrial south pole was situated within Gondwanaland. No shift in the axis on which the earth rotates would, of course, be possible, nor is it postulated: only a drifting at that date of continental land across the pole. If a hypothesis of drift be admitted for Gondwanaland, it would be illogical to deny its application to other regions, including the north Atlantic. I have already mentioned some facts in its favour. 14 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS Others are the resemblances of all sedimentary rocks on the two sides from the Cambrian to the Ordovician, and from the Devonian to the Trias ; the links between the structures of the land, as, for instance, between Ireland and Newfoundland; and the instance given by Professor Bailey in his address to Section C in 1928. As Bailey then pointed out, the great Caledonian range which crosses Scotland, northern England and Wales from north-east to south- west on its course from Scandinavia is affected and displaced by the east to west Armorican (Hercynian) chain extending across from Brittany to South Wales. ‘The crossing of the chains, begun in the British Isles, is completed in New England ’ ; and from here the Armorican structure continues its westerly course. This is where it should cross if the continent of North America were brought back across the Atlantic and placed in the position which, according to Wegener, it would fit into in the European coast! Can the Pilgrim Fathers have ever dreamed of such a link between the Old England and the New ? The hypothesis of continental drift gave rich promise of solving so many difficult problems that it was hailed by many classes of investigators almost as a panacea. Geographers have seen in it an explanation of the forms of continents and the position of peninsulas, islands and mountains ; meteorologists have found it the solution of some of the problems of past climates and their anomalies of distribution over the world; biologists hope to get help with the intense complexities in the distribution of forms of lite and many strange facts in migration, and paleontologists with similar difficulties among the ancient faunas and floras as revealed by their fossil remains ; geodesists have welcomed escape from the rising and sinking of the crust, so difficult to reconcile with the demands of isostatic equilibrium ; and it has been already stated that drift forms a vital factor in Joly’s thermal cycles. But there has been no lack of criticism in all these directions. It has been assailed on the one hand for the detail attempted in its geo- graphical restorations, and on the other hand for its vagueness. — Prof. Schuchert quotes Termier as saying that it is ‘a beautiful dream, the dream of a great poet. One tries to embrace it, and finds that he has in his arms but a little vapour or smoke : it is at the same time alluring and intangible.’ It has been objected that ‘no plausible explanation of the mechanics involved has been offered’; that the continental connexions postulated present by no means so close a match, when fitted together, as has been claimed, in the structure or the nature of either igneous or sedimentary rocks ; that there is good evidence of extensive vertical movements in recent earthquakes, in the accumulation of tremendous thicknesses of sediment indicative of shallow-water from base to summit, and in the growth of coral THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 15 reefs; that Central America and the Mediterranean are a difficult obstacle ; and that the known distribution of the Karroo fossil reptiles is not by any means what the hypothesis demands. If the idea of drift be accepted it cannot be regarded as a royal road out of all our difficulties, nor can it be the only form of earth-movement to be reckoned with. The late J. W. Gregory, whose life was sacrificed to geological discovery, has studied ex- haustively the geological history of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, both as revealed by the sedimentary rocks and fossils on their borders, and by the distribution of life to-day. He finds that, according to our present knowledge, in the two oceans, facilities for migration have fluctuated from time to time, periods of great community of organisms alternating with periods of diversity. Again, at some times connexion seems to have been established north of the equator, at others to the south ; and we cannot ignore the possibility of migration across polar lands or seas when terrestrial climates haye differed from the present. The facts of life distribu- tion are far too complex to be explained by any single period of connexion followed by a definite breaking apart, even if that took place by stages. Mrs. Reid, too, has pointed out that resemblances between the Tertiary floras of America and Europe actually increased at the time when the Atlantic should have been widening. Unless continental drift has been a more complicated process than anyone has yet conceived, it seems impossible to escape from some form of the ‘ land bridges ’ of the older naturalists : ‘ Air-roads over islands lost— Ages since neath Ocean lost—’ We have no right to expect greater simplicity in the life of a planet than in that of an organism. As the question of drift must in the last appeal be one of fact, it is not unnaturally expected that the real answer will come from measurements of longitude and latitude with greater exactness and over periods longer than has yet been possible. None of the measurements hitherto made has indicated variations greater than the limits of errors of observation. ‘T'wo things, however, may militate against a definite answer from this source. Many parts of the crust, such as the shield-like masses of Archzean rock, may have completed their movement, or be now moving so slowly that the movement could not be measured. Careful selection of locality is essential, and at present we have little guidance. Also, as the displacement of crust must be dependent on the condition of its substratum, it will be a periodic phenomenon and the rate of move- ment may vary much in time. According to the theory of thermal cycles the sub-crust is at present solid, and may not permit of drift. 16 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS Drift, according to Joly and Holmes, is a cyclical phenomenon ; if present-day observations were to give a negative result they would not necessarily disprove it. The occurrence of recumbent rock-folds, and nearly horizontal slides or ‘nappes’ in mountain regions, gives positive proof that parts of the upper earth-crust have moved over the lower. In the North-west Highlands of Scotland a sliding of at least ten miles was proved by Peach and Horne, and in Scandinavia it amounts to sixty miles. For mountain packing as a whole the figures already given are far larger, while in Asia Argand has stated that packing of over 2,000 miles has occurred. ‘Thus, when all is said and done, movements on a colossal scale are established facts, and the question of the future is how far we shall accept the scheme of drift due to Wegener, or one or other of the modifications of it. It is for us to watch and test all the data under our own observation, feeling sure that we shall have to adapt to our own case Galileo’s words ‘ e pur si muove.’ Ever since it was realised that the inclination and folding of rocks must be attributed to lateral or tangential stress and not solely to uplift, shrinkage of the interior of the earth from its crust has been accepted as the prime mover, and whichever of the current theories we adopt we cannot deny the efficacy of so powerful a cause. The general course of events in the formation of a mountain range is fairly well known: the slow sinking of a downfold in the crust during long ages ; the filling of this with sediment pari passu with the sinking, and associated softening of the sub-crust due to accumu- lated heat; the oncoming of lateral pressure causing wave-like folds in the sediments and the base on which they rest ; the crushing of folds together till, like water waves, they bend over and break by over-driving from above or, it may be, under-driving from below ; fracture of the compressed folds and the travelling forward for great distances of slivers or ‘ nappes ’ or rock, generally of small relative thickness but of great length and breadth, and sliding upon floors of crushed rock; the outpouring and intrusion of igneous rocks, lubricating contacts and complicating the loading of the sediments ; metamorphism of many of the rocks by crystallisation at elevated temperatures and under stress, with the development of a new and elaborate system of planes of re-orientation and movement; and elevation of the whole, either independently or by thickening with compression and piling up to bring about a fresh equilibrium. Such a course of events would be brought about by lateral pressure developed during the consolidation phase of each of the thermal or magmatic cycles. At each period of their building, mountains have THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 17 arisen along lines of weakness in the crust, especially coast lines and the steep slopes marking the limits between continents and ocean basins. This is consistent with Joly’s theory that the thrust of ocean beds against land margins is the cause. But the advocates of continental drift point to the siting of ranges across the paths along which the drifting movement is supposed to have occurred, and they consider that the moving masses are responsible ; and indeed that the ridging and packing of the crust has in the end checked and stopped the movement. They note that the great western ranges of America occur in the path of any western drift of that continent, the Himalayas in the course of the postulated movement of India, the East Indies in front of Australia ; and that the Alpine ranges of Europe may be linked with the crushing of Africa towards the north. The ‘ nappes ’ of rock, cut off from their origin and sliding for dozens of miles, are a constant source of wonder to all who have considered the mechanics of mountain formation. They are so thin as compared with their great length and breadth, that it seems impossible to imagine them moved by any force other than one which would make itself felt throughout their every particle. Such a force is gravitation, and it is of interest that some Alpine geologists and Dr. Harold Jeffreys have used it in explanation of them. Professor Daly has also adopted gravitation on an even greater scale in his theory of continental sliding : and one cannot fail to notice the increasing use of the term ‘ crust-creep ’ by those working on earth-movement. Is there no other force, comparable in its method of action to gravitation, but capable of producing movement of the earth-crust in a direction other than downhill ? Is it not possible, for instance, that the tidal influence of the moon and sun, which is producing so much distortion of the solid earth that the ocean tides are less than they would be otherwise, and, dragging always in one direction is slowing down the earth’s rotation, may exert permanent distorting influence on the solid earth itself ? May it not be that such a stress, if not sufficiently powerful to produce the greater displacements of continental drift and mountain-building, may yet take advantage of structures of weakness produced by other causes, and itself contribute to the formation of nappes and to other movements of a nature at present unexplained ? Our knowledge of geology has been gained by the survey of the rocks, the study of their structures, and the delineation of both 18 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS upon maps and sections. This work is being accomplished by geologists all over the world, and this country and its dependencies have contributed their full share. It is therefore opportune to note that there has just been celebrated the Centenary of the Geo- logical Survey of Britain and, with it, the opening of the new Geological Museum at South Kensington. A century ago H. T. de la Beche, one of the devoted band of pioneer workers then studying the geology of the country, offered to ‘affix geological colours to the new maps of Devon and Cornwall’ then in course of issue by the Ordnance Survey. His offer was accepted, and, at his own expense and on his own feet, he carried out a geological survey of some 4,000 square miles. In 1835 he was appointed to continue this task, with a small salary and a few assistants. ‘Thus was started the first official geological survey, an example widely. followed by other nations and dominions. De la Beche’s conception included also a Museum of economic and prac- tical geology, a Library, a Record of Mines, for which he secured support from a strong Committee of the British Association in 1838, and a School of Mines for the scientific and technical education of those to be employed in the survey or exploitation of mineral resources. In these objects, and especially the last, he was warmly supported by the Prince Consort. He lived to see his visions all come true, as he collected round himself that wonderful band of surveyors, investigators, writers, and teachers, which included such men as Playfair, Logan, Ramsay, Aveline, Jukes, Forbes, Percy, Hooker, and Huxley. Some of the schemes he planned have budded off and grown into large and important entities, rendering conspicuous service to scientific record, education, and research. But the main duties of the Geological Survey remained with it, and have been carried on fora century. These are to map the geology of the country on the largest practicable scale, to describe and interpret the structure of the land, to preserve the evidence on which conclusions have been founded, and to illustrate for students and other workers the geology of the country and its applications to economics and industry. The broad detail of the structure of the whole country is now known, but much new work must be done to keep abreast of or to lead geological thought. For instance, the study of the cloak of ‘ super- ficial deposits,’ which often cover and conceal the structure of the more solid rocks below, is essential for the proper understanding of soils and agriculture; and a knowledge of the deep-seated geology of the country, which is often widely different from that nearer the surface and thus very difficult to interpret, is vital to the community for the successful location and working of coal and iron, THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 19 and for tracing supplies of water and oil and other resources at depth. Evolution of life on the earth has been by no means uniform ; there have been periods of waxing and waning which may be attributed to geographical, climatological, and biological influences. The development of large land areas, ranged longitudinally or latitudinally, the invasion of epicontinental seas, the isolation of mediterraneans or inland seas, the splitting of continental areas into archipelagos or the reunion of islands into continuous land, the making of barriers by the rearing of mountain chains or the formation of straits or arms of the sea, the oncoming of desert or glacial climates ; all such factors and many others have been of importance in quickening or checking competition, and in accelerating or retarding the evolution of life. Probably, however, even greater effects have followed the inter- action of groups of biological changes on one another. As an instance I might recall Starkie Gardner’s estimate of the results following upon the first appearance of grasses in the world. This seems to have been not earlier than Eocene, and probably late Eocene times. By the Oligocene they had made good their hold, peculiarities in their growth and structure enabling them to compete with the other vegetation that then existed; and gradually they spread over huge areas of the earth’s surface, formerly occupied by marsh, scrub, and forest. They have, as Ruskin says, ‘a very little strength . . . and a few delicate long lines meeting at a point . . . made, as it seems, only to be trodden on to-day, and to-morrow to be cast into the oven’; but, through their easy growth, their disregard of trampling and grazing, and by reason of the nourishment con- centrated in their seeds, they provided an ideal and plentiful source of food. On their establishment we find that groups of animals, which had previously browsed on shrubs and trees, adopted them, with consequent alterations and adaptations in their teeth and other bodily structures. To follow their food from over-grazed or sun-scorched regions they required to be able to migrate easily and quickly, and it was essential for them to discard sedentary defence and to flee from threatened danger. Such defence as was possible with heels, teeth, or horns, they retained; but the dominant modifications in their organisation were in the direction of speed as their most vital need. Side by side with this development, and in answer to increasing numbers, came bigger, stronger, and speedier carnivores, to feed on prey now so much more abundant, but more difficult to catch. 20 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS The answer of the grass-feeders, with their specialised hoofs, teeth and bones, better suited to flight than fight, was to seek safety in numbers, and thus develop the herd instinct, with its necessity for leadership and discipline ; but this, in turn, provoked a like rejoinder from some types of their enemies. When it is remembered how much of the meat and drink and life of mankind is bound up with the grasses, including wheat, maize, millet and other grains, sugar-cane, rice and bamboo, we must realise how close is his link with the development just outlined. Practically his whole food supply is provided by them, either directly by the agriculturist who grows little else but grasses, or indirectly by the herdsman whose domestic animals are fed chiefly on the same food. Nor must we forget that almost every one of our domesticated animals has been derived from the gregarious types just mentioned, which have accepted the leadership of man in place of that of their own species. It is perhaps not too much to say that the magnificent outburst of energy put out by the earth in the erection of the Alps, Andes, and Himalayas in Tertiary times was trivial in its influence for man’s advent and his successful occupation of the earth in comparison with the gentle but insidious growth of ‘ mere unconquerable grass ’ and its green carpet of “ wise turf ’ which in some form clothes by far the greater part of the land of the globe. The kind of developmental reaction of which this is but a single example must clearly have had influence on bodily features other than bones and horns, teeth and claws, speed and strength ; and one of the most striking has been on intellectual development and the size and shape of brain. We do not, and perhaps can never, know the quality of the material of which the brains of fossil creatures was made, for we have no instrument to pierce the veil of time as the spectroscope has pene- trated the abysm of space. But we are even now learning something about their shapes and convolutions, and more about their mass in its relation to the size of the bodies controlled; from the time of the earliest Ordovician fishes, through the history of the amphibia, reptiles, birds, and mammals, up to man himself. The brain of those gigantic if somewhat grotesque reptiles the dinosaurs, the tyrants of Mesozoic time, is relatively tiny. In Diplodocus, 80 feet in length and 20 tons in weight, the brain was about the size of a large hen’s egg. It is true that there was a big supplementary sacral ganglion which may have taken chief charge of locomotion and helped to secure co-ordination throughout the hinder part of its huge length and bulk ; but of true brain there was THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 21 not more than a quarter of an ounce to control each ton of body and limb ; and we begin to understand why they lost the lordship of creation. The proportion of brain to body improved in those reptiles which took to flying, possibly in relation to their acquisition of warm blood, and in the birds evolved from reptiles ; but it is only in mammals that a marked advance is seen. Here the brain of Uintatherium, a great rhinoceros-like animal of Eocene date, weighing 2 tons, was about the size of that ofa dog. This proportion of half a pound of brain to each ton of body shows how far the mammals had gone, and still had to go. A 12-stone man of the present day has about 34 pounds of brain— an amount not far short of half a hundredweight per ton. Even though we can know nothing of its material, this steadfast growth in the guiding principle, through the millions of centuries that have gone to its development, is surely one of the most remark- able conclusions that we owe to geology. Of all the wonders of the universe of which we have present knowledge, from the electron to the atom, from the virus and bacillus to the oak and the elephant, from the tiniest meteor to the most magnificent nebula, surely there is nothing to surpass the brain of man. An instrument capable of controlling every thought and action of the human body, the most intricate and efficient piece of mechanism ever devised ; of piercing the secrets and defining the laws of nature ; of recording and recalling every adventure of the individual from his cradle to his grave; of inspiring or of ruling great masses of mankind ; of producing all the gems of speech and song, of poetry and art, that adorn the world, all the thoughts of philosophy and all the triumphs of imagination and insight : it is indeed the greatest marvel of all. And when we contemplate the time and energy, the sacrifice and devotion, that this evolution has cost, we must feel that we are still far from the end of this mighty purpose: that we can confidently look forward to the further advance which alone could justify the design and skill lavished on this great task throughout the golden ages that have gone. =e 4 PA i ; + a Ho i ul fie We ee ter cic e to pboeiveb rove invinudgam to svvig insioiis bas mona ia d fo bid ao 16 iv raiaasanT — Wan cherie mai tows Japracros syne tis loleiers ~tilos yabiriob. sat owalogalt: ede binsiessbae ob Be oan ih nips ah nvtings ane fie rtateeno | teloiztur: edie waiscitsth peep iybodet aisrd tet (ebuoldceriew to coitielppss tisslio: noiteler. ni qdiaeog waivh of ‘toot. einem oi yieo aeeted peoloqer ctom: bovievasabtishdiiind. be ‘ yioubod ent tooled: ‘ot sioli Came) et occeeie badaen 63 Wetet oovcidsion, gota - esmsoct, to, Ieatine oilil-aonsboniy BENZLB “ae Mal Yo: peers iad ‘sida > yob & her aacip te a Sinmrsucrrl . , iL I ROM aay +t to Poancdy ne na aiegh vebtneaoug ods} a rebeomabane sos 29g, Wgiay bo: beod 5 Usd tociede en das shiioubersaitt Jistrieia ait to ooulten word ago-ew ilgptodl cis sornitien to opsoillien oily aly votiiysigioniag nalbivg, dd smicdama i wirenter Geom silt te sno yioive at sasetqalaveb ethos onoy avad indi ' gdt To ex9baow arlt lls ew x ‘ain ry of owe ww. deds 4 ‘ ‘oe aoriyels add moth oghs! vom Josearqsavad mH Agisivr, danqels-ort Bactalao ari 03 eullisadh bamaunin orltumontimnorae arteds vistue. sludomsavetiagacsdconr alt od adotenm snrieitasl to akdaquss Inonmuntan wh. vont Larwieed, o¢l3 aaaquamtolg teormortia bod nsatite! ai to noitombas Idgeods, VIII wirillgoor bre itihrogot to ; suites te ewel od? gainiob bana fo ; ovary eid of sibew aid rot! lmibivibai otto suinovbs oil Us gaisubuitg io pynidoein losogesce weg yallin tow ibitoveedto10bs seit sie bas grog lo gsop-bipekg J motsenigact to erlqamuy sal Us bam-ydqorclide im esaeuodiiort Jig to torreon teoteorg'eds hovbsi-es sto adgient sdeias soltitosasitt vos bre sort adi sselqmeinas aw W be lita ste-aw-tecdtdest denn sw jean eed-nonlova Bidar . Yhasbitnas neo oe. yedt) > se0qaug weleton 2idtgld: pe ‘orlt: ytiven, bluogweroh: loutw-sopevhp tdiwhodtotch mabloy? sift! ob vole ee wi ails aie) badeivel Miderd By : is ore UNO VG } Ge icq os Se Re ithe 0 se yet il ys wees ite halen ad Bee De ume Deve ‘ate: chiefs SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. THE STORY OF ISOTOPES ADDRESS BY FW ASTON, Se!D.YDSe.,' LED), FLOW RIS: PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. Tuts chapter in the history of science contains much to interest the philosopher and offers many illustrations of that interplay of theory and experiment by which advance takes place. Theory is the scaffolding of science, and just as in ordinary building operations, though some parts of it may only be used for a short time before removal, others may function for so long a period that they may well be mistaken for the permanent structure itself. The postulate of Dalton (1803) that atoms of the same element are equal in weight is a good example of yery permanent scaffold- ing. For over a hundred years it was practically undisputed and on it was founded the major part of atomic chemistry. About ten years later Prout made the more speculative suggestion that all atoms were made up of primordial particles which he thought might be atoms of hydrogen. On this view the weights of all atoms must be expressed as whole numbers, and if, as Dalton postulated, the atoms of any particular element were all equal in weight, the atomic weights and combining ratios of all elements must be whole numbers also. Chemists soon found that this was certainly not in agreement with experiment ; the more results they obtained the more impossible it was to express the atomic weights of all the elements as whole numbers, and of the two theories Prout’s was the one to be abandoned. In this decision they were perfectly justified for, as it cannot be too often emphasised, it is more important for a scientific theory to be simple than for it to be true. Besides it was of little practical importance to chemists if atoms were not equal in weight so long as in all the ordinary operations of chemistry they behaved as though they were. Crookes, however, thought that he had found evidence that they did not so behave, and in his remarkable Presidential Address to Section B, at Birmingham in 1886, he says: ‘I conceive, therefore, that when we say the atomic weight of, for instance, calcium is 40, we really express the fact that, while the majority of calcium atoms have an actual atomic weight of 40, there are not a few which are represented by 39 or 41, a less _ number by 38 or 42, and so on.’ Later, he developed this idea in con- nection with his pioneer work on the rare earths. He called the com- ponents ‘ meta-elements,’ but unfortunately for his reputation as a prophet the experimental results on which his idea was founded were later proved to be fallacious, and Dalton’s postulate was reinstated as an article of scientific faith more firmly than ever. Its overthrow, deferred for another twenty years, was one of the many atastrophic results of the tremendous shock due to the discovery of 24 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES radio-activity. In the rapid development of this, with which the school of Rutherford is so closely associated, the effects of individual atoms, as opposed to those of vast multitudes, were observed for the first time. Chemists could examine elements in the actual process of the making. In 1906 Boltwood observed that his newly discovered element ionium was so similar to thorium that if, by chance, their salts became mixed it was impossible to separate them by any chemical process. Other chemical identities among the products of radio-activity were soon ob- served and the most painstaking and delicate methods failed to effect or detect the slightest separation. Discussing these, Soddy, in 1910, boldly stated: ‘'These regularities may prove to be the beginning of some embracing generalisation, which will throw light, not only on radio-active processes, but on elements in general and the Periodic Law. . . . Chemical homogeneity is no longer a guarantee that any supposed element is not amixture of several of different atomic weights, or that any atomic weight is not merely a mean number.’ The generalisation underlying his views was the law connecting radio- activity and chemical change, in the discovery and enunciation of which he played so prominent a part. This law asserts that a radio-active element when it loses an alpha particle goes back two places in the periodic table ; when it loses a beta particle it goes forward one place. It follows that by the loss of one alpha particle followed by two beta particles, the atom, though weighing four units less, will have regained its nuclear charge and returned to its original place. Such changes result in bodies to which Soddy applied the following words: ‘ The same algebraic sum of the positive and negative charges in the nucleus when the arithmetical sum is different gives what I call ‘* isotopes ’”! or “‘ isotopic elements ”’ because they occupy the same place in the periodic table. ‘They are chemically identical, and save only as regards the relatively few physical properties which depend upon atomic mass directly, physically identical also.’ It was fortunately possible to put these revolutionary views to an experimental test in the case of one element—lead, the final inactive product of the thorium and uranium transformations. Uranium of atomic weight 238 loses eight alpha particles to become lead of atomic weight 206, while thorium of mass 232 loses six to become lead of atomic weight 208. Soddy maintained that the lead found in uranium minerals should be lighter, and that in thorium minerals heavier than ordinary lead of atomic weight 207-2. The complete chemical inseparability of the heavy isotopes formed in radio-active processes passed the most stringent tests and was soon accepted. It was later put to a most ingenious and elegant use by Paneth and Hevesy, who, by adding to an inactive element a small quantity of its radio-active isotope, gave it, so to speak, an indelible label by which its movements and reactions could be followed by the almost infinitely 1 Of recent years the word ‘ isotope’ has changed its meaning, and is now used, for lack of another, to designate any atomic species. In the same way the mean- ing of the word ‘ mass-spectograph ’ applied by me to one special type of instru- ment has now been extended to any form capable of analysing mass-rays. Such changes, though troublesome, are inevitable for the language of science is a living rather than a dead one.—F. W. A. A.—_MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES 25 delicate methods of radio-activity. These ‘ radio-active indicators’ have been applied to problems of chemistry, otherwise unapproachable, such as the rates of molecular diffusion in the liquid state and the move- ments of compounds of heavy elements in the sap of living organisms. The application of the theory of isotopes to elements generally was another matter. The idea that ordinary elements could consist of atoms of different mass received great opposition, for it appeared quite incom- patible with such facts as the constancy of chemical atomic weight, the apparently perfect homogeneity of elementary gases, and the almost incredible invariability of such accurately measurable constants as the electrical conductivity of mercury independent of its source. This reluctance of orthodox science to accept the theory was, I think, a perfectly natural and healthy reaction. Criticism very seldom destroys enthusiasm and is usually the best stimulant to further research, whereas too immediate a welcome of a new and sensational idea, the outstanding fault of the lay press in dealing with science, may lead to waste of effort. It appears to me a very regrettable thing that, of recent years, it has been repeatedly necessary for experienced research workers to waste their time on the thankless task of disproving the claims of well-meaning victims of self- deception, of whom Blondlot, with his N-rays, is the classical example. The only satisfactory criterion, a method of comparing the masses of individual atoms, was at the time in process of development. This was Sir J. J. Thomson’s ‘ parabola’ method of positive ray analysis, and here at first all the results seemed to support Dalton’s postulate, indeed the appearance on a sensitive screen of a clear-cut parabolic streak, caused by the impact of the atoms of hydrogen, was the first experimental proof that it was in any sense true of any element, previously it had been purely an article of scientific faith. Hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, present either as atoms or molecules, gave parabolas in the positions expected, and it was only when the rare gas neon was examined that an anomaly was observed. Neon, however pure, always gave two parabolas, a strong one at 20 and a weak one at 22. Referring to the latter in January 1913, Sir J. J. Thomson said: ‘ The origin of this line presents many points of interest ; there are no known gaseous compounds of any of the recognised elements which have this molecular weight. Again, if we accept Mendeléef’s Periodic Law, there is no room for a new element with this atomic weight. . . . There is, however, the possibility that we may be interpreting Mendeléef’s law too rigidly, and that in the neigh- bourhood of the atomic weight of neon there may be a group of two or more elements with similar properties, just as in another part of the table we have the group iron, nickel and cobalt.’ It was my privilege to be associated with him in this work, and as his attention was fully occupied with the investigation of a parabola of mass 3 —now known to be triatomic hydrogen—it fell to my lot to search for a proof that neon was not homogenious. This I endeavoured to do by partial separation of its hypothetical constituents, using as a test its density measured by a quartz micro-balance specially designed for the purpose. The first method, that of fractional distillation from charcoal cooled with liquid air, failed, as we now know was inevitable. ‘The second, diffusion 26 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES through pipeclay, though extremely tedious, had more success and I was able to announce at the meeting of the Association at Birmingham in 1913 that, after thousands of operations, a definite change of density, amounting to about 0-7 per cent., had been achieved. Further data from positive rays was obtained, and, when the War stopped work, there were several lines of reasoning indicating that neon consisted of two bodies of different mass, and that the behaviour of these was exactly that predicted by Soddy for isotopes, but none of these was sufficiently strong to carry conviction on so important a conclusion. During the War Soddy’s prediction concerning the atomic weights of leads from uranium and thorium minerals had been triumphantly vindi- cated by some of his most severe critics, the experts in chemical atomic weights, and when work was started again, although I continued for a time to experiment on separation by diffusion by means of an automatic apparatus, I realised that the most satisfactory proof of the existence of isotopes among the elements in general was only to be obtained by much more accurate analysis of positive rays. This was done by means of a sequence of electric and magnetic fields which gave focussed images of fine collimating slits, thus forming a spectrum dependent upon mass alone. This I called a ‘ mass-spectrograph’ (see footnote 1). It had a resolving power of about 1 in 130 and an accuracy of mass measurement of 1 in 1,000. This was ample to prove in 1919 that neon consisted, beyond doubt, of isotopes 20 and 22, and that its atomic weight 20-2 was the result of these being present in the ratio of about g to 1. Chlorine was found to contain 35 and 37, and bromine, of atomic weight almost exactly 80, and hence expected to be simple, gave two equally intense lines 79 and 81. Other elements were shown to be much more complex. Krypton, the first of these, had six isotopes, 78, 80, 82, 83, 84, 86; xenon and tin even more. Of the greatest theoretical importance was the fact that the weights of the atoms of all the elements measured, with the exception of hydrogen, were whole numbers to the accuracy of measure- ment. This ‘whole number rule’ enabled the simple view to be taken that atoms were built of two units, protons and electrons, all the former and about half the latter being bound together to form the nucleus. Although the interpretation of mass-spectra was often far from simple owing to the difficulty of distinguishing between lines due to compound molecules and those representing true atomic mass-numbers the analysis of the more suitable elements advanced rapidly. Dempster at Chicago discovered the isotopes of magnesium, calcium, and zinc by means of an instrument of his own design with semi-circular magnetic focussing. By 1925, when I replaced my first mass-spectograph, now in the Science Museum, South Kensington, with one of higher resolving power, informa- tion on the isotopic constitution of more than half the elements had already been obtained. ‘The new instrument was designed primarily for measuring the minute variations of the masses of atoms from the whole number rule, and had a resolving power ample for the heaviest elements. By its means the search for isotopes has been carried on until a few months ago. The difficulty of obtaining the necessary rays for analysis varies enormously from element to element. ‘Two main devices are employed : A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES 27 the ordinary gas discharge which requires the element to be volatile or form suitable volatile compounds ; and the anode ray discharge, in which the halide or other compound of the element is treated as the anode in a discharge at low pressure. The inert gases are particularly suitable to the first method, the alkali metals to the second, other groups of elements being intermediate. Our knowledge of the mechanism of the discharge in both methods is far from complete, so that working with them is still rather an art than ascience. The element of luck has played an important part in cases where the properties of the materials are unfamiliar and unfavourable to the conditions of the discharge. The analysis of the recently discovered element rhenium offers a good example. The only available volatile compound was the heptoxide, a sample of which has been kindly provided by the discoverer Noddack. The vapour of this crystalline solid was first admitted to the discharge bulb, but without success. The solid was then introduced into the bulb itself, and, although its vaporisation was so copious that a visible layer was formed on the walls, still no lines were obtained. At this stage the element was abandoned as quite hopeless and preparations were made to goon to another. Purely by chance, this happened to be gold, which it was intended to attack by means of its slightly volatile chloride. This compound gives off chlorine gas when heated, and, as previously it had been noticed that the presence of a halogen gas often stimulated the appearance of lines otherwise faint, it was considered just worth while to make one trial with it before the rhenium oxide deposit had been cleaned off the walls. This was successful beyond all hopes. No lines of gold were found but the rhenium doublet appeared in great strength giving convincing evidence that it consisted of two isotopes, 185 and 187. The technique of anode rays is, if anything, even more capricious but, when successful, yields spectra almost free from the lines of compounds and is for this reason particularly suitable for the identification of new isotopes. This method has been recently applied to the large group of the rare earth elements yielding some thirty new isotopes. From the point of view of the identification of the more abundant isotopes our knowledge is nearly complete. A year ago only four elements, palladium, iridium, platinum, and gold, remained without mass- spectograph data. Dempster has since developed an entirely new method of obtaining suitable rays by using a very intense spark discharge, and I have just heard from him that he has already identified five isotopes of platinum and one of gold. It seems very probable that the last two elements will have yielded before this address is delivered. In all some 253 stable isotopes are known of which seven were dis- covered by observations on optical spectra, and have since been confirmed by the mass-spectograph. This large assembly shows many emprical laws, of which perhaps the more remarkable is that no odd numbered element, with the possible extremely rare exception the isotope of hydrogen of mass 3, has more than two isotopes. Even elements are not so limited. The most complex element so far observed is tin, with eleven isotopes ranging in mass number from 112 to 124. One of the most astonishing results is that, for practically every natural number up to 210, a stable elementary atom is known, many are filled twice over and a few three 28 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES times with ‘ isobares,’ that is atoms of the same weight but different chemical properties. Schemes of tabulation of all the known species have led to the prediction of isotopes and to theories of nuclear structure to account for their occurrence. Study of the relative abundance of isotopes in the mixture we still call, for convenience, an element, is of interest from two entirely different points of view. In the first place since it appears to be perfectly invariable in nature, not only in terrestrial but also in meteoric matter, there was a slight hope that a systematic measurement of abundance ratios might disclose some simple relations bearing on the great problem of how the nuclei of atoms were evolved. ‘The relative abundance of isotopes can be estimated by several methods but that of the most general application is the photometry of mass-spectra. A technique of this was worked out in 1929, and a number of elements examined, but the ratios, obtained in numbers large enough for statistical treatment, showed no groupings other than would have been expected from pure chance. ‘These measure- ments have a second important practical value. If we know the masses of the isotopes of an element and their relative abundance it is easy to calculate their mean weight. This, with proper corrections, can be used to check the chemical atomic weight. During the past six years nearly every atomic weight has been determined by this purely physical method, which has the great advantage of being, in general, independent of purity, and requiring an almost infinitesimal quantity of material. Instead of the original view that the nuclei of atoms consisted of protons and electrons, it is now considered more likely that they are built of protons and neutrons. In either case the binding forces holding the particles together must represent loss of energy, that is, loss of mass. Hence it is that the atom of hydrogen has abnormally high mass, and that the accurate determinations of divergences from the whole number rule are of such profound theoretical importance. As I have stated, my second mass-spectograph was designed for this and found capable of an accuracy, in favourable cases, of 1 in 10,000. The atom of oxygen 16 was chosen as standard and the percentage divergences expressed in parts per 10,000, called ‘ packing fractions,’ were determined for a large number of elements. These, when plotted against mass number were found to lie roughly on a hyperbolic curve. This drops rapidly from hydrogen, passes through a minimum of about — 10 in the region of iron and nickel, and then rises gradually, crossing the zero line in the region of mercury. Our knowledge in this field has been notably increased by the brilliant work of Bainbridge, who set up at Swarthmore a powerful mass-specto- graph of an original design which made use of a velocity selector and semi- circular focussing. With this instrument he discovered new isotopes of tellurium, rectified results on zinc and germanium, and has made many of the most accurate comparisons of mass so far known. Fortunately for these comparisons, and particularly so for the extension of an accurate scale of mass to the heavy elements, particles occur in the discharge which carry more than one positive charge. A particle with two charges will give a line corresponding to half its mass, one with three charges will have an apparent mass of one third, and so on. These lines are called lines of the second, third and higher orders. The complex A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES 29 element mercury seems specially provided by nature to help in the work. Not only do its nine isotopes provide a most valuable scale of abundance but it usually occurs in the discharge, to which its presence is advantageous from the point of view of smooth running, and it is unique in its property of forming multiply charged ions. Mercury lines up to the fifth and sixth orders can be detected so that it provides a perfect natural scale, a link between light and heavy atoms absolutely necessary to extend accurate measurements to the latter. ‘The packing fraction of mercury, which is practically zero, was determined by means of its third order line °*8Hgt+ ++. Of the recent episodes in the story I relate certainly the most sensational is the discovery of deuterium, the heavy isotope of hydrogen. The events leading up to this and following it form a most remarkable sequence. In them the elements of nature seem to have joined in an impish, but fortunately benign, conspiracy to delude the observer and to turn his most sober researches into a sort of blind man’s buff. The first comparison of the masses, now termed ‘ isotopic weights,’ of the atoms 1H, 1##C, 14N, and 160 to a high degree of accuracy were made with my second mass-spectrograph and published in 1927. Various methods were used which cannot be given in detail here, but since the comparison of H with O could only be done through the intermediate 4He, and even then the ratios measured were very large, little reliance could have been placed on the figure for H unless it could be checked in some quite independent manner. It was possible to do this by means of the close doublet O—CH,, and, when measurements of this appeared to support my values for C and H, I had no reason to doubt their sub- stantial accuracy. In this I have been justified to some extent for the figures have stood for seven years, and a direct determination of the He,H ratio, made later by Bainbridge agreed exactly with mine. A further support was afforded by the fact that the figures for the four elements, all then supposed to be simple, agreed within 1 or 2 parts in , 10,000 with the accepted chemical atomic weights. This satisfactory agreement was completely upset in 1929 by the startling discovery of the heavy isotopes of oxygen 17 and 18 which, present in small quantity, had naturally been overlooked on mass-spectra of that element owing to the technical difficulty of ensuring the absence of the isobaric compound lines OH and OH,. The discovery was made by Giauque and Johnson by observations on band spectra, which are free from this confusing disability, and the careful quantitative work of Mecke, made later, showed that, owing to the presence of these isotopes, the chemical standard of atomic weight O = 16 was about 2 parts in 10,000 heavier than the physical one *O = 16. Examination of com- pounds of carbon and of nitrogen by the same method showed not only that these elements also contained heavy isotopes #8C and 1°N but that their apparent abundance, by a most incredible coincidence, was just about enough to bring their mean weights into line with that of oxygen. Birge pointed out that to satisfy my low estimate of 1H hydrogen must also contain at least one heavy isotope. Urey took up the problem and, happily unaware of the real uncertainty in the figures concerned, with the collaboration of Brickwedde and Murphy fractionated liquid hydrogen and proved by examination of the Balmer lines that "=H was present. 30 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES Washburn showed that its heavier atoms could be concentrated by the electrolysis of water. ‘This method was developed so rapidly and bril- liantly by Lewis that, soon after its discovery, pure heavy water had been obtained in appreciable quantity. ‘The isotope of hydrogen of mass 2 cannot be treated as a normal isotope. Its exceptional difference in mass enables it to be separated with comparative ease in a pure state. It has been given the name deuterium, symbol D, and heavy water D,O is now obtainable in quantity at reasonable prices, one of the most surprising reagents in the history of science and certainly one which would have dismayed the founders of the C.G.S. system of units. Now comes the interesting sequel. Deuterium and its triatomic molecule supply two links, missing before, of the three forming a closed chain of masses by which H can be directly connected with O, given a mass-spectrograph of sufficient resolving power. These links are the doublets D—H,, at mass 2, C++—D, at mass 6, and O—CH, at mass 16. By means of an improved collimator I have recently increased the resolving power of my mass-spectrograph to that necessary to achieve at least a partial separation of the extremely close doublet D—H,;, and to make a much more accurate estimate of the doublet O—CH,. The latter has disclosed the disturbing fact that-this is really wider than I had taken it to be and so no longer confirms the early value of C and H. Provisional work on the wide doublet C ++—-Dg makes it reasonably certain that my original value for H is 2 or 3 parts in 10,000 too low, as is also suggested by nuclear transformation experiments. Here we have the pretty paradox of the element discovered providing the means to remove that very discrepancy which seemed to point the way so clearly to its discovery. In view of its valuable results I am not likely to regret my mistake, however serious it turns out to be. The only moral to be drawn from this seems to be that you should make more, more and yet more measurements. Even a bad one may be of service, but, fortunately, it will be essential for you to make a considerable number of good ones first, or no notice will be taken of it. In the field of isotopes, as in so many fields of physical and chemical research to-day, the objective we now aim at is the next decimal place, an elusive object which always appears to be running away from the observer, like a distant spiral nebula. The need for isotopic weights of the highest accuracy is urgent. In artificial radio-activity and trans- mutation we see the real beginnings of a great new subject, the nuclear chemistry of the future. Its equations can only be founded securely upon direct determinations of masses by the mass-spectrograph, and the nuclear chemist already demands these to an accuracy of 1 in 100,000. I have little doubt we shall be able to provide him with these in the course of a year or two. Armed with reliable equations, and thereby with more and more definite knowledge of nuclear construction, he will transmute and synthesise atoms as his elder brother has done molecules, with results to be wondered at and possibly even misused by his fellow creatures. I foresee a time, not immeasurably far distant, when it will be possible for us to synthesise any element whatever, wherever and whenever we please; alchemy indeed in the service of man. SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY. THE MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF CARBOHYDRATES ADDRESS BY PROF. W. N. HAWORTH, F.RS.. PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. In his Testament of Beauty the late Poet Laureate, Robert Bridges, speaks of : “those many organic substances which, tho’ to sense wholly dissimilar and incomparable in kind, : are yet all combinations of the same simples, and even in like proportions differently disposed ; so that whether it be starch, oil, sugar or alcohol *tis ever our old customers, carbon and hydrogen, pirouetting with oxygen in their morris antics ; the chemist booketh them all as CHO, _ In my Presidential Address I shall endeavour to expand this estimate of the relations of starch and sugars and portray something of the sym- metry and the rhythm of the motions which differentiate these from cellulose and glycogen and the wealth of other substances which, ‘ in like proportions differently disposed,’ constitute the organic group of the ‘carbohydrates. The oil and wine I propose to leave with the poet. _ It would, however, be impossible in the time at my disposal to give more than a brief survey of the molecular structure of carbohydrates. Many have contributed to the advances in this subject. A number have been associated with me closely in my own work in this field, and if in this rapid summary I do not find it possible to mention the names of present and past colleagues, it must be recognised that I acknowledge and appreciate more than I can say the services they have rendered to this branch of chemistry. _ Ten years have elapsed since a structural model of glucose was first presented as a six-atom ring form, an observation I communicated to 32 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES Nature in 1925. The experimental work of the succeeding two years made it possible, with the aid of colleagues and pupils, to establish the broad generalisation that all normal sugars higher in the series than tetroses are constructed on the basis of the six-atom skeleton model which can cee ce cee os ese caus eee Skeleton Model of Glucose. Model of B-Glucose. be regarded now as the unit of the complex carbohydrates such as cellu- lose, starch, and many others. ‘This simple model assumes the character of a sugar as soon as it is clothed with hydrogen atoms and hydroxyl groups. This generalisation, published in 1927, had presented itself as a strong probability from the moment it was seen that the representative sugar occurring in nature, glucose, conformed to this structural type. The experimental basis for the whole of the preliminary work was strengthened and supported by the systematic study of the sugar lactones carried out between the years 1924 and 1927. In the latter year there appeared a paper on the formulation of normal and y-sugars as derivatives of pyran and furan, and the suggestion of a new nomenclature. The normal sugar types can all be given a standard structure recognisable under the name of a pyranose. ‘The labile or y-sugars, which had hitherto been but little investigated, were shown to be ascribable to the parent form of furan and therefore recognisable under a nomenclature describing them as a furanose type. The developments of this nomenclature were there- after simple, inasmuch as the spatial arrangement of hydroxyl groups and hydrogen atoms, which characterised structurally identical forms, could be made abundantly clear by the addition of the characteristic prefix defining the kind of configuration which differentiates one sugar ~ of any class. ‘This nomenclature has been generally adopted and with the advantageous result that much confusion has been banished from the literature. ‘Thus arabinose assumes two structural forms represented by the terms arabopyranose and arabofuranose and, similarly for the other pentoses, xylose, ribose and lyxose. The corresponding forms for glucose are represented by the expressions glucopyranose, glucofuranose and similarly mannopyranose and mannofuranose, and so on for all aldo- hexoses and also for the keto forms fructopyranose and fructofuranose. This scheme of nomenclature would only have academic interest if it con- B.—CHEMISTRY 33 cerned merely the crystalline sugars of the hexose and pentose series which are ordinarily accessible as free isolated substances. ‘The simple sugars \ c#—— Furan. a Arabo- pyranose 8-Gluco- pyranose HO B-Galakto- pyranose Pyranose Forms of Pentose and Hexose. Normal Pentoses H a-Xylo- pyranos HO B Manno- Ppyranose H B-Fructo- HO HO CHL OH pyranose OH H Furanose Forms of Pentose and Hexose. hO-CH, HO- CH. H ho SH 4 4 OH H OH OH 4 H OH a-Arabofuranose. a-Glucofuranose. Roc on HOH on H B-Fructofuranose. acquire their wider significance when regarded as the building-stones assembled as the constituent parts of those complex natural products comprised in the carbohydrate group. It is in such circumstances that the allocation of structural forms held in combination whether as a di-, tri- or polysaccharide assumes importance, and the allocation of the Cc 34 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES precise form constituting these complex carbohydrates is a fascinating experimental problem. Let us pass to consider the kind of atom model which must be ascribed to maltose, cellobiose, sucrose, and the relation- ship which these structural types bear to such important carbohydrates as starch, cellulose, and inulin. There are several ways in which two glucose units may be united through the intermediary of a common oxygen atom. Experimental work during the past twenty years has enabled us to proceed beyond the speculations of Fischer and to arrive at a precise picture for each of the disaccharides. The expressions C,H ,,0, + CgH 1.04 = CysHo901; + H,O merely indicate the union of two hexose residues with loss of water to give a biose. Of the several hydroxyl positions available for providing the point of union of two glucose residues it was found that it is those groups at the first carbon atom in one residue and the fourth carbon atom in a second residue which furnish the oxygen bond uniting two glucopyranose units in both maltose and cellobiose. ¢ H,OH CH;0H Sore Ce) OH os ee veer - 4 on Union of two B-Glucopyranose molecules. B-Cellobiose. It will be observed that in the latter formulations two 8-glucoses are shown united through two OH groups which are spatially above and below the planes of the pyranose rings. To bring the final cellobiose formula into alignment one of these rings is now inverted. It is of the highest im- portance to observe that although the units participating in the union of maltose are structurally identical with those assembled in cellobiose, yet these products are widely different in kind. The difference is entirely in the spatial arrangement of the left-hand components, indicated as «- or @-forms of glucose. It is this simple distinction which provides the reason for the different identities of starch, which is formulated on the maltose model, and cellulose, which is based on the formulation of cellobiose. There exist other polysaccharides in which the linking is different. This type may be illustrated by the assembly of two glucose B.—CHEMISTRY 35 molecules united through the hydroxyl positions at x and 6, which is found to occur in gentiobiose. Still another mode of union is exemplified Maltose skeleton. Cellobiose skeleton. nO-cH fo no AN aN CHO on 4 Gentiobiose skeleton. Sucrose. by the formula which applies to sucrose. Here two different hexose units are involved, namely, glucose and fructose which are assembled as a pair through sharing a common oxygen atom or glucosidic link situated at the first carbon atom in each hexose, and it will be observed that whilst «-glucose is present as the pyranose form the @-fructose on the other hand occurs in sucrose as the furanose. It may here be added that this struc- tural type established for the occurrence of the fructose residue in sucrose occurs also in the polysaccharides inulin and the levan from grass. It may well be the case that other furanose sugars occur more widely than we have suspected in complex polysaccharides. Recently one such residue has been found to be present as a terminal group in xylan, or wood gum. It appears to be the case that the arabofuranose we have found in xylan constitutes also a large part of the molecule of arabic acid, which is the modified polysaccharide in gum arabic. Returning from this rapid review of these structural forms, and of the modes of assembly of pairs of sugar units in a biose, let me now present 36 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES a picture illustrating similar experimental conclusions as to how more than two such sugar units are united in the various forms of carbo- hydrates. Without giving the intimate experimental basis for these conclusions, I may here show how two molecules of cellobiose are united in a continuous chain of such units in cellulose, and how maltose units are assembled in starch. Let us envisage this process, repeated by Two maltose units assembled Two cellobiose units assembled as in starch. as in cellulose. adding still more maltose units or cellobiose units to our lengthening chain and we approach to the constitutional picture representing starch and cellulose. Striking as the statement may appear, it is nevertheless the case that these two models are structurally identical. They owe their differences to the varied stereochemical forms of the same gluco- pyranose units which are found to be those of «-glucose in maltose and 6-glucose in cellobiose. Arranged as a continuous chain, it will be found that the models present a perfectly symmetrical picture in the case of cellobiose, showing the sixth carbon atom or side chain of each hexose residue alternately above and below in the picture, whereas, in the case of continuous units of maltose assembled in a chain, this sixth carbon atom occurs entirely on one side: a representation less symmetrical than that of cellobiose. Moreover, the continued repetition of «-gluco- pyranose units in the starch complex, represented by assembling numerous maltose residues, provides a model which departs markedly, in zig-zag or spiral fashion, from the more or less straight line which is furnished by the continuing units of cellobiose in cellulose. And so, as Milton puts it : “with many a winding bout Of linked sweetness long drawn out,’ we picture the sinuous track of glucose units assembled in the continuous chain of the starch molecule. This circumstance appears to account for the difficulty of obtaining a regular pattern for starch which marks the X-ray diagram obtained for native cellulose. It will be seen that not only does the cellobiose picture, as determined by the classical constitu- tional methods of organic chemistry, fit perfectly into the size of cell B.—CHEMISTRY 37 demanded by the X-ray diagram, but this diagram fulfils every particular dimension of the repeating pattern of the cellobiose formula : This mental picture of the constitution of cellulose will remain incom- plete if we can gain no knowledge of the number of @-glucose units constituting the chain length of cellulose. Here an endeavour has been made to reach an approximation of the size of the chemical molecule by a gravimetric assay of the end group of methylated cellulose. A specimen of the latter material, prepared under very carefully controlled conditions to avoid chemical rupture, enables us to gain an insight into this problem by investigation of its products of hydrolysis. An estimation of the weight of tetramethyl glucose obtained from these hydrolysis products has yielded under proper technique a value for the average length of the cellulose chain, which is thus found to consist approximately of 200 glucose units. In this connection, and especially when we come to consider the same problem in reference to starch, it must be recognised that native cellulose is most probably a molecular aggregate consisting of a much larger physical molecule than is here represented. A molecular aggregate of such chains, joined by physical links or by co-ordination end to end, is calculated to give a much enhanced value for the determina- tion of molecular weight by viscosity methods as interpreted by the Staudinger constants. Similarly a determination of particle size by the sedimentation method of the ultra-centrifuge is now found to give a much higher value than that of 200 glucose units. Here again the physical molecule or molecular aggregate may be expected to take account not only of an aggregation which increases the length of the chain but also of the forces which affect molecular aggregation laterally between adjacent chains. I think these factors must be recognised in any comparison of the molecular weights of cellulose determined by physical and chemical 38 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES methods. It may well be that in the formation of cellulose in the plant a limited chain length of the chemical molecule is imposed by thermo- CH OMe Tetramethyl glucose. Trimethyl glucose + methyl] alcohol. Methylated Cellulose (+ = 200). dynamic considerations. We shall see, however, in the case of starch that molecular aggregation of the chemical molecule occurs freely in vitro, and is promoted by a choice of chemical reagents. Similarly, it has been found possible to effect the reverse change of disaggregation in the case of starch. Doubtless many of the common reactions to which cellulose is subjected in the laboratory and in industry are unconsciously directed to a disaggregation of the physical unit in order to promote more facile chemical change in the preparation of derivatives. ‘There is no doubt, as shown by our recent experiments, that progressive chemical break- down occurs the more drastic are the reagents used. Hydrocellulose has been found by the method of chemical assay to correspond to a chain length of rather less than half that of cellulose and is evidently degraded cellulose. Again, the use of oxidising agents promoting the formation of oxycellulose is accompanied by a more profound breakdown with the formation of portions of very short modified chains, and also invariably a residual portion for the most part consisting of a chain of 60-80 glucose units. Both hydrocellulose and oxycellulose are frequently formed in processes to which cotton is subjected. ‘These products may also accom- pany the use of chemical reagents which are empirically employed for the preliminary disaggregation of cellulose in the manufacture of the newer textiles. But these shortened cellulose chains represent the more soluble portions and may be removed by solution. An insight into the difficult problem of starch is slowly being gained. We have shown that the mode of linking of a large portion of the starch com- plex is represented by continuous units of «-glucopyranose linked through the positions 1 and 4. Here side by side there are given in perspective formule parts of the continuing chains of starch and of cellulose. It is well known that the starches contain combined phosphorus and silica, but the B.—CHEMISTRY 39 quantities present of these so-called extraneous materials seem to have no easily recognisable stoicheiometric relation to the unit chemical molecule. CH,OH cH,04 cH,0H HOH CH,0H Y ,,0H Methylated starches of different origins have now been examined by the method of gravimetric assay of the end group, particularly the starches from potato and maize, and also a less common variety known as waxy maize starch. Investigated by these methods and prepared in a variety of ways, all three methylated starches from these sources show a remarkable uniformity in the chain-length of the chemical unit. This corresponds to a molecular weight for starch of about 5,000, or 25 glucose residues. CHOMe H fe} H H OMe ° rs] ome 1 Tetramethyl Trimethyl glucose. glucose. Methylated amylose and amylopectin (* = 25). Methylated glycogen (¥ = 12 — 18). Despite this fact the many different samples we have prepared of methy- lated starches exhibit viscosities which, by the use of the Staudinger constant, would seem to indicate a chain length of 5, 10, or 20 times that just given. The same may also be said of the starch acetates. The amylopectin or «-amylose portion, representing the less soluble part of 40 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES starch, shows a much greater molecular size as compared with that of amylose (or B-amylose). In spite of this, however, the end group method of determination yields invariably one and the same value for all specimens. Moreover, it is possible by keeping amylose for some time to observe its molecular aggregation to amylopectin, exhibiting enhanced viscosities both for the acetates and for the methylated derivatives. Recently we have been able to bring these factors into line and have succeeded in preparing, after surface etching of the starch grains with ethyl alcohol containing small quantities of hydrogen chloride, a disaggregated starch which, in the form of its acetate and its methylated derivatives, furnishes the same value for molecular weight both by viscosity methods and by the gravimetric assay of the end group. This simplified disaggregated variety of starch is not degraded. We believe that it represents the chemical unit of starch, and by keeping it for a short time it reverts by re-aggregation to physical assemblages of increasingly high viscosity corresponding to the original amylose or amylopectin of the starch grains. We shall have occasion to inquire into the factors controlling this change. In my view, however, there can be no doubt that the chemical unit of starch is of limited size, having an average molecular weight of about 5,000 and that these units undergo aggregation to physical units of much larger dimensions. In Birmingham we have now prepared a considerable number of break-down products of starch representing the starch dextrins of varying chain-length. ‘The study of these products has yielded results of interest and value from many points of view. ‘Their gravimetric assay has fur- nished progressively different values for the end group, and this graded diminution in value corresponds exactly to their properties, such as solubility of the dextrin and its acetates and the capacity to undergo re-aggregation. This convinced us that we were dealing with a terminated chain of glucose units and not a closed loop. If the latter model were adopted and a closed loop of glucose units, represented as a flat ring, were assumed to be the picture of starch, then, in interpreting results of the end-group assay method, we should have to envisage side chains of glucose extended at regular or irregular intervals from different parts of this loop and to con- sider that these side chains were responsible for the tetramethyl glucose isolated in the end-group assay of methylated starch. In such an event we should expect to find, in dealing with the break-down products of starch, no very regular and progressive value for the ‘ end-group,’ and indeed it would be possible to isolate a starch dextrin which gave the same ‘ end-group’” value as the undegraded methylated starch. This has never been found to be the case. Starch dextrins corresponding to 17, 12,9, 7, and 5 glucose units have been prepared. The «-amylodextrin obtained by the action of barley diastase on starch shows an end-group value corresponding to 17 glucose units. This product is significant in that it contains in its diminished chain-length almost all the phosphorus which was originally present in starch. Whether for this or other reasons this dextrin exhibits a remarkable capacity towards molecular aggregation and in this respect differs markedly from samples of glycogen which have similarly been examined. The factors which underlie this tendency B.—CHEMISTRY 41 are of absorbing interest and are under close investigation. ‘These glycogen specimens have chain lengths of 12 and 18 glucose units, but they display little or no tendency towards molecular aggregation. It may possibly be promoted by the interlocking of adjacent chains by forces corresponding to those which bring about co-ordination, and by the so- called extraneous materials such as combined phosphate or silica, What seems clear is that starch polysaccharides of comparatively short chain-lengths of ro or so glucose units are devoid of this property. The occurrence of cellulose and starch in the green leaf of the growing plant has long been recognised, and so also has the occurrence of a very different polysaccharide inulin in the root organ of the Composite and related families, where it replaces the starch found in other types of plant. The recent discovery of the presence of a water soluble polysaccharide in the leaf of certain grasses has shed new light on the réle of fructose and its synthetic operations in the plant. This polysaccharide is a levan and is composed of repeating units of fructofuranose united through the positions 2 and 6, thus displaying a different mode of combination of its fructose members from that which obtains in inulin. The formula of this levan is given below and its chain length is almost certainly that of ro such members of fructofuranose : Very different, although related to this, is the type of combination which characterises the mode of union of successive fructofuranose members comprised in inulin. The break-down of inulin is easily accomplished with the mildest acid reagents, giving rise to and indeed providing the best source of fructose. What has not been recognised until recently is that inulin may under the most unforeseen circumstances also give rise to a biose anhydride. An analogy may therefore be drawn between the break- down of this carbohydrate to a biose derivative and the break-down of starch and glycogen to maltose and that of cellulose to cellobiose. So sensitive is inulin in this respect that some of the dextro-rotatory products given in the literature as substituted inulins are really to be formulated as the 1 : 2-difructofuranose anhydride : HOCH, ig fag H HO SG Po NGA H 0 ——cHs CH;0H oH H on 4 H 42 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES The tendency for inulin to undergo this change is best understood from writing the complete constitution of this carbohydrate in the following way. 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Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Copper . . 48-18 55°59 55°66 67°23 Nickel . . trace 0°02 — 0°075 Arsenic . | O05 0°20 0°39 0°93 Tin was absent. On account of the highly corroded state of these specimens, it was not considered safe to calculate the composition of the original metal, but all may be described as arsenical copper. The first two contained much chloride, and were embedded in soil containing large quantities of soluble chlorides and sulphates, but no trace of tin, which might have been ex- tracted from the metal, was found. Specimens 1 and 2 contained sulphur, indicating a pyritic ore, but this was absent from 3 and 4. The amount retained by the metal would be accidental, and liable to vary greatly in successive casts. A copper rod sent with one of the vessels (Jemdet Nasr level), and marked PG Pit W. JNG, was less corroded, and gave on analysis : Copper . : , : . 82°33 per cent. ANTING : : : : tenes Nickel : : : 5 ur OF 05. Joga Arsenic . : : : my 1OKI94 is, Pha Sulphur . : ' ‘ tm HOTT phe Further specimens collected for the Oriental Institute of Chicago, by Dr. Frankfort and by Dr. von der Osten, have been examined, supple- menting the list given in the Fifth Report. Their composition is as follows : Copper. Tin. Nickel. Arsenic. Lead. Per Per Per Per Per Tell Asmar, Akkadian : cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. As. 32.1027 Pin » 85°15 — T-65..) O:30 — As. 32.1205 Haft . 63°62 — O°II 0°24 = As. 32.1239 Wire O2670 — 0°07 — — Tell Asmar, Early Dynastic : As. 32.1138 Chisel . 91°60 o°'40 + #1°70 — — fIronr:2 Khafaje, Early Dynastic : Kh. II 75 Arrow butt 74°22 — 0°06 0°47 — Kh. II 80 Nail head 79-93 — 0-02 )«=—0 "38 — Kh. II 87 Graver. 67:10 4°34 0°09 0°64 0°86 Kh. III 44 Dagger. 89:99 2:98 0°30 0°94 — nth ars, Pin - 88:98 3°44 0:09 1°06 — mo. trl G85", arene 4b ie ae TO? © G83 — ite cue 720'°-*5, Rag 73 Peg 33 OOF — trace Peel oso *t. . 87:50 10°64 0:09: 60°68 = Hh. III ‘904 Blade 1¥°83-22°" 9°82*'*0-16 ‘“o"23 — Kh. III 1072 Pierced Pin’'93 63°" (o* 290%" tr-42 '* THSO — K. 319 Pin mag 37 rears «O° O2 — — (Sulphur present) K. 344 Lump 80°63 —_ 0°06 ~~ ‘trace aa 342 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. Copper. Tin. Nickel. Arsenic. Lead. Per Per Per Per Per Alishar Hiiyiik : cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. e 832 : : . 85:29 0°22 #&2«X3Xtrace 0°05 trace e 860 ; ’ . 46°41 7°16 a OUlne 2202 e 936 : ; 51-75, O20... 0-07) OneD Ousm e 962 : : - 43°09 0°97 _ trace = = e€ 1554 4 : - 55°08 — — 2°43 — (Sulphur 2°75) e 1801 ; : i505 23.04. 0. 05.uc,..0 001. 10; 20 mons € 2037 . ; 6 3 = os = Some of these specimens being almost completely oxidised, the analyses have been reported as found, but it would probably be safe to recalculate to the unoxidised material, as when separate analyses of the outer crust and the metallic core have been made the results have been found to agree satisfactorily. As in the analyses previously reported from these sources, copper and true bronze are found in deposits of the same age, whilst some specimens contain intermediate quantities of tin. The presence of nickel and arsenic in most of them is characteristic, and points to a northern origin. A cup-shaped vessel of the Luristan bronze series, from Dr. Plenderleith, gave: Copper . 5 : ‘ - 90°59 per cent. "inte 3 ; : rope iey 5: » Nickel Oo L5). yueuanss Arsenic O20 254 een Iron Or 245 piss The rest oxygen. A fragment of a ‘ bronze’ lion from Shibam, Hadramout, Southern Arabia, was received from Dr. Plenderleith. It was only slightly corroded, and gave : Copper . ; : : . 81-6 per cent. Tin . ’ : : : Bi CGT: Reems Nickel : ; : : a 1023 eens Arsenic . ; ‘ : . trace Lead * re & % * 4 3 ° ”» ” Iron “i : 3 z . °° 5 ” ” Sulphur . ‘ é 3 =, yn OWe Mec mente An important series of objects, in a very perfect state of preservation, was received from the Wellcome Archzological Research Expedition, having been found at Tell Duweir (Lachish) by Mr. J. L. Starkey. ‘These are dated about 2700 B.c., and are mainly copper. Copper. Tin. Nickel. Arsenic. Lead. Iron. Per Per Per Per Per Per cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. D. 1500/2272 Lump . 94°26 — 0°07 — Male 3, Wa, 2s, D. 1513/1831 4 - 96'9 — 0°07. trace 0'5 o'5 D. 2009/2303 Dart - O5'I — rt » me o°5 D. 2032/2349 Javelin . 96°0 = = ”» Ba O°7 D. 2111/2481 Dart . 96°8 — = ” rs I°2 D. 2111/2482 Dagger . 93°7 — — ” =F 2°6 D. 2049/2381 Dart - 92°8 = trace » ae 0-3 SUMERIAN COPPER 343 Two daggers from the same tomb from Tell el Ajjul, about 2000 B.c., were examined for comparison : Copper. Tin. Nickel. Arsenic. Lead. Iron. Per Per Per Per Per Per cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. D. 1552/2197 Dagger . 97°4 — O°I trace — 0°3 D. 1552/2199 2 uae Sp ee +4 Rene ip ie Traces of sulphur were present in the last two. These copper objects from Palestine are clearly derived from a different source from the Mesopotamian objects. It was therefore of special interest to examine samples of ore and slag obtained by Mr. Starkey from the Arabah region. The ore, from Wadi Menaieieh, 35 km. north of Akaba, proved to be a mixture of malachite and azurite, giving 13-74 per cent. of insoluble matter, almost entirely silica, and 38-68 per cent. of copper. No tin, arsenic, nickel or lead could be detected. The slag, from Umrashrash shore, 5 km. west of Akaba, was a silicate of iron containing some manganese, with 4°30 per cent. of copper. There was no tin, nickel, arsenic or lead, and the slag is of such a composition that it might well have been produced in the smelting of the ore just described. Two slags, containing 2-02 and 0°44 per cent. of copper respectively, were obtained from sites to the west of Bandar Abbas. Both were silicate slags, rich in iron, with no nickel or tin, but a trace of arsenic was detected in the first. An Early Minoan triangular dagger, found in a tomb at Platana, in Crete, was submitted by Mr. O. Davies, and proved to be of bronze : Copper . : ; ‘ - 79°02 per cent. Tin . ; é 7 ‘ Diagonal ys ohiy Nickel ; : ; é eRosrpriiggriiss Arsenic . , = , 4 oeWF ole way Lead : : ‘ : SQUeOFZOO MATH; The presence of both nickel and arsenic, the two key elements in this investigation, is interesting. _ Two specimens, found by Mr. Mackay at Mohenjo-daro, marked D.K. 5016, proved to be an ore of copper and a block of metallic lead. ‘The ore _ gave: . Copper. : : : - 76°15 per cent. Tin s : f ; — Nickel : : : : ROSA Q ENT Pos | Arsenic . : : : SONS. nas Nlsp Lead - ; F 3 2 trace } Sulphur . 4 5 4 HT h., V5y Insoluble matter : ; of AS OON Sani 45 ; This would be an easily smelted ore. The lead, after removing a thin { crust of sulphate, was found to contain 99°70 per cent. of the metal, with only 0-05 per cent. of copper and a trace of silver. Such a metal must have _ been smelted from a very pure ore. Miss Winifred Lamb submitted a large number of specimens from her excavations at Thermi, Lesbos. These will appear, with those previously { reported to the Committee, in her forthcoming report on the site. Almost _ pure copper and true bronze are found irrespectively of the levels, and both Brickel and arsenic are frequently present, the latter occasionally to ‘the extent “of I or 2 per cent. Further specimens are under examination before "attempting a complete classification. f 344 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. The grant of the Association to the Committee has been supplemented by donations of £10 1os. from Sir Henry Wellcome and of £2 2s. from Miss W. Lamb. ‘Thanks to these generous aids, it is possible to examine sufficient objects to keep pace with the excavations proceeding on Sumerian sites or in regions connected with allied civilisations. A better knowledge of the ores available, especially in the Northern Highland region, is very desirable, but it has been found difficult to obtain specimens. A short paper ? by the Secretary states the position of the problem of the origin of bronze, and points out the need for more information as to sources of tin. There are at present no facilities, other than those provided by this Com- mittee, for the analysis of copper and bronze objects from these early sites, and the experience gained in this work is increasingly made use of by museums and by excavators, at home and abroad. ‘There are, however, no outside funds available for the purpose, although its importance is recognised. The Committee, therefore, asks for reappointment, with a grant of £25. BLOOD GROUPING. Report of Committee appointed to investigate the blood groups among primitive peoples (Prof. H. J. FLeure, Chairman ; Prof. R. RUGGLES Gates, F.R.S., Secretary ; Dr. J. H. Hutron, C.1E., Mr. R. U. SAYCE). Durinc the past year arrangements have been made for taking the blood groups of primitive peoples in various parts of the world. It is expected that the results of testing the Eskimos in the region West of Hudson Bay will be available when the Canadian Government Expedition returns this summer. Arrangements have been made for testing various tribes in Kenya, including the Masai, Kavirondo and Kikuyu. In India the Haffkine Institute has arranged to supply serum to Dr. E. J. Macfarlane for testing the so-called white Jews and black Jews of British Cochin, and to Mr. A. Aiyappan for testing certain jungle tribes. Connections have also been made with certain anthropologists in Western China, and as soon as condi- tions are more settled it is hoped that tests of the Lolo, Miao and other tribes in this region will be obtained. Blood tests of the Congo pygmies are now available. During the present summer it is hoped that tests will be obtained of the Micmac Indians in Nova Scotia. Serum for this purpose has been donated by the Wellcome Physiological Research Laboratories. SYSTEMATIC ANATOMY OF TIMBER-PRODUCING TREES. Report of Committee for the Investigation of the Systematic Anatomy of Timber-producing Trees (Prof. H. S. HoLpEN, Chairman; Dr. HELEN BaANcroFT, Secretary ; Prof. J. H. Prizsttey, D.S.O.). DuRING 1934-35 work has been continued on the Monotoidee (Diptero- carpacee) and the genus Ulmus. The following papers have been pub- lished : (1) ‘ New Material of Monotes Kerstingii from the Gold Coast’ (Kew Bulletin, No, 6, p. 233. 1934). 2 Newcomen Society Transactions, 1933-34, 14, 95. ANATOMY OF TIMBER-PRODUCING TREES 345 (2) ‘The Taxonomic History and Geographical Distribution of the Monotoidez ’ (American Fournal of Botany, xxii, 505. 1935). (3) ‘ Notes on the Status and Nomenclature of the British Elms’ (seven articles in the Gardener’s Chronicle, August to November 1934). (4) ‘ The Elm Problem’ (Quarterly Journal of Forestry, April 1935). The following will appear shortly : (1) ‘The Wood Anatomy of Representative Members of the Mono- toideze ’ (American Journal of Botany). (2) ‘ Material of Marquesia acuminata from Northern Rhodesia’ (Kew Bulletin). (3) ‘The Dipterocarps in Africa’ (a note in the Empire Forestry Journal). Continued work on the Monotoidez supports the view, expressed in last year’s report, that the members of the group are closely related to one another, and, as a whole, to the Dipterocarpacez rather than to the Tili- acez ; and that the timbers can be of little value economically outside the areas where they occur naturally. New material from Nigeria has just come to hand ; this, in conjunction with the fossil Dipterocarps from Mount Elgon (described in detail in the American fournal of Botany, vol. xxii, p. 164, 1935), indicates very interesting possibilities with regard to the previous history of the Dipterocarps in Africa. The work on the Elms has indicated that the genus is in a highly variable and plastic condition, and that hybridisation has taken place freely amongst the British species. A considerable amount of field-work outside the British area has also been carried out in this connection. The timbers of the different species and hybrids vary greatly in their value from the utilisation point of view; and a thorough systematic _ investigation of those types which produce easily worked timber is desirable. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS. SECTION A. MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. Thursday, September 5. Discussion on Nuclear physics (10.0). Rt. Hon. Lord RuTHERFORD oF NELson, O.M., F.R.S.—Recent advances in nuclear physics. Dr. C. D. ELtis— Some problems in induced radio-activity. Dr. J. D. Cocxcrorr.—The production of induced radio-activity on protons and deuterons. Mr. M. L. OvipHant.—The masses of the light elements as deduced from transmutation data. Mr. M. GotpuaBer.— The nuclear photo-electric effect. The paper deals with the nuclear photo-electric effect, the disintegration of nuclei by y-rays, which Dr. Chadwick and the author have been studying during the last year. Observations of such an effect were first made with heavy hydrogen, D, the nucleus of which can be split by high energy y-rays according to the equation DBs oie gee eS ce The photo-protons and neutrons have been observed. From the energy of the photo-protons the binding energy of the deuteron can be determined and the mass of the neutron linked up with the masses of H and D. The experimental value for the probability of this photo-electric disintegration of D agrees satisfactorily with quantum theoretical calculations. Investigations have also been made of the photo-disintegration of beryl- lium, first reported by Szilard and Chalmers. The energy necessary to remove a neutron from beryllium has been determined and a lower limit for the cross-section of disintegration of Be® by y-rays of radiothorium has been found. Dr. N. FeatHEer.—Photo-disintegration of the deuteron. A mixture of heavy methane and helium was introduced into an expansion chamber and photographs were taken with a source of radiothorium, of * ’ 9 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. 347 about 8 millicuries, placed directly above the chamber. Evidence for the disintegration H? + hv —> H!+ n! was obtained in the form of short tracks of the protons emitted in this process. About 60 of these tracks have been measured and their angular distribution, with respect to the direction of incidence of the quantum, has been investigated. ‘These data are discussed in respect of their bearing upon the mass of the neutron and the nature of the neutron-proton inter- action. Dr. P. B. Moon.—The influence of temperature on the properties of slow neutrons. Fermi and his collaborators in Rome, having discovered the effect of fast neutrons in converting many elements into their radioactive isotopes, and the enhancement of this effect when the neutrons are made slow by collisions in hydrogen-containing materials such as paraffin-wax, suggested that many of the neutrons might lose so much energy as to reach thermal equilibrium with the material through which they diffuse. This suggestion was sup- ported by the work of Bjerge and Westcott, whose investigations of the scattering, absorption and diffusion of slow neutrons showed that a neutron passing through wax or water should make very many collisions with hydrogen nuclei before becoming absorbed. The existence of ‘ thermal ’ neutrons was finally placed beyond reasonable doubt by the discovery that the amount of artificial radioactivity produced by slow neutrons in elements such as silver and copper depends upon the temperature of the medium through which the neutrons have been passing. For example, the artificial B-activity of silver may be increased by at least 30 per cent. if the neutrons producing it are cooled from room temperature to the temperature of liquid oxygen. No such change could occur with neutrons whose velocities were very much greater than those of thermal agitation. Friday, September 6. PRESIDENTIAL ApprEss by Dr. F. W. Aston, F.R.S., on The story of isotopes (10.0). (See p. 23.) Dr. G. Hertz.—The separation of isotopes by diffusion (11.0). The lecturer reported on the experiments he has carried out for separating gaseous isotope-mixtures. By a single diffusion through a porous wall the ratio of the isotope concentrations can, in general, only be varied by a factor which is equal to the square root of the ratio of the molecular weights. _ There are two possibilities of arriving at a greater variation of the concentra- tion ratio by a single diffusion process. One is: to let the mixture pass _ through a tube of porous material, with its outer wall adjoining a vacuum _and the other: to apply the method of diffusion in flowing gas. In either case it has been possible, with neon-isotopes, to attain a 20 per cent. higher degree of concentration of the heavy isotope by a single diffusion. By combining a large number of separating units an apparatus has been created for the separation of the isotopes. By both methods a practically complete Separation of the isotopes of neon and of hydrogen has been achieved. Neon 22 has been prepared containing less than 1 per cent. of neon 20. In experiments with water-vapour and with methane only a low degree of 348 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. separation of the rare isotopes of oxygen respectively carbon has been reached till now. This may be due to the adsorption of these gases in the porous tubes and at the glass-walls. Dr. G. W. C. Kays, O.B.E—Noise. (Experimental lecture followed by discussion) (11.30). Since its York meeting in 1932 the British Association has been alive to the many indications in the country of awakening general and industrial interest in the very old problem of noise and its abatement. The two major factors to be reckoned with at the present time are doubtless noisy road transport and noise-transparent dwellings. The volume of road traffic continues to expand and large sections of the population are now electing to make their homes in close three-dimensional packing in structures of which the designs and materials are pre-eminently favourable to the trans- mission of both air-borne and structure-borne noises. The Ministers of Transport and Health have set up noise committees to deal with motor vehicles and flats respectively, and both bodies have turned to the National Physical Laboratory for assistance. The British Standards Institution has very recently specified standards dealing with noise measure- ment ; and the great railway and aircraft companies are giving much atten- tion to the problem of reducing the background of noise for their travelling patrons. The cardinal principle of noise abatement is to reduce it at the source, and to this end the co-operation of the engineer is imperative in very many cases. Should noise reduction at the source be impracticable, one must interpose noise barriers, and in this connection much study is being directed to the elucidation of the primary factors which make or mar the soundproofing of floors, walls and windows. The last line of defence against noise is the judicious placing of surface absorbents which may assist in appreciably lowering the noise level in a room, whether of internal or external origin. Monday, September 9. Joint Discussion with Section G (Engineering) on Lubrication (Section A room) (10.0). Mr. J. H. Grsson.—Introduction. Adequate lubrication is the life-blood of every slider bearing, and, con- versely, all successful bearings, i.e. those which run with the minimum frictional loss, are designed and constructed to make the best use of the lubricating medium. A suitable oil may be regarded as the indispensable link in the mechanism. ‘The elements of bearing design consist in so arranging the several parts that oil, in ample quantity, but not necessarily under pressure, is fed in between the relatively moving surfaces, where it can be automatically entrained by its natural adhesion to the shaft or collar, then rejected and replenished ad lib. by the action of the bearing itself. The tapered clearance space existing in journal bearings facilitates the entry of the lubricant, and an internal pressure is generated in the oil film equal to the bearing load. The oil becomes heated, due to the resistance set up by the shearing action of successive layers. This heat is dissipated by radiation from the outer surface of the bearing or by cooling appliances— water-jackets or coils. In extreme cases the oil used is circulated through an external cooler. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. 349 For a long time thrust bearings presented an insoluble problem until Michell conceived the idea of providing tapered films round the thrust annulus, each film generating pressure to support its own share of the load. Single-collar thrusts have thus superseded the old standard multi-collar thrust blocks which, on account of their flat parallel bearing surfaces, were very limited as regards their load-carrying capacity and gave constant trouble due to unequal expansion of shaft and block. The success attending the universal adoption of the single-collar thrust was followed by the utilisation of the same principle in important journal bearings. The solid top and bottom brasses are replaced by a series of tipping pads all round the journal which produce a ring of tapered oil films carrying a greatly increased unit load on a much shorter length of shaft. Good clean oil of a viscosity dictated by load and speed is essential for all bearings. When they have been standing for some time and have to be started up under load, the lubricant should possess sufficient inherent “oiliness ’ to ensure that however attenuated the film it shall ‘ persist’ between the loaded surfaces and refuse to be squeezed out entirely. This obviates metallic drag and wear at starting, the full pressure film being _ “struck ’ and maintained as soon as the shaft begins to revolve. Bearings designed, constructed and operated as above described run for years without any sign of metallic wear or renewal of parts. The oil is the only element that wears, and this is easily replenished or renewed as may be required. Dr. F. P. Bowpen; Mr. D. Ciayton; Dr. A. E. Dunstan; Mr. H. HIGINBOTHAM ; Miss M. Norttace; Mr. J. E. SOUTHCOMBE ; Dr. W. J. D. Van Diyycx. Dr. F. J. W. Wuippte.—Recent advances in seismology (12.0). Seismology has two principal objects: one is to utilise the records of waves travelling through the earth to determine the structure of the planet ; the other is to study the nature of earthquakes, their geographical distribu- tion, the depth of the foci, the conditions under which they occur and their relation to regional geology. The method of investigation of the waves is to utilise the records from Seismographs in all parts of the world. An effective way of doing this is to collect the seismograms of a particular earthquake and compare the details. In general it is simpler to make use of the bulletins which are prepared at the observatories. Such bulletins are collected at Oxford, where the International Seismological Summary is prepared. By this system the €picentres of all but the very small earthquakes can be located and the times of transmission of the seismic waves can be compared. One of the objects of Prof. Turner in starting the I1.S.S. was to provide material from which accurate tables of the average transmission times could be deduced. This material has been used with great skill and ingenuity by Dr. Jeffreys, who Was assisted in the most laborious part of the work by Mr. Bullen, and Dr. Jeffreys is now able to state that the tables are consistent to a second. This remarkable achievement would not have been possible if it were not for the precision of the readings of the seismograms. This precision is to _ be attributed not only to the excellence of the seismographs, but also to the facility with which clocks can be regulated by the use of broadcast signals. ismology owes much to wireless telegraphy. _ The number of recognised types of wave is now quite large: Jeffreys and 350 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. Bullen include fifteen in their tables. Many of these were first identified by Gutenberg, who realised that waves striking the boundary of the earth’s liquid core would be in part reflected and in part transferred from waves of compression to shearing waves or vice versa. The great majority of earthquakes have their foci at depths less than so km., but there are others which have very deep foci. Turner insisted that this was the only possible interpretation of some of the observations discussed in the I1.S.S. In the last five years much attention has been devoted to deep-focus earthquakes. Scrase and Stoneley demonstrated that such earthquakes can be recognised on our seismograms. Wadati and other workers in Japan find that the deep-focus earthquakes are distributed in a very remarkable way, indicating that there are well-defined flaws in the earth at depths of a few hundred kilometres, far below the basic level of isostatic compensation. This is the most spectacular of the numerous recent advances in seismology. DiscussION on the above paper. Dr. A. T. J. Dotzar ; Prof. G. R. Gotpssroucn, F.R.S.; Dr. H. JerFREYS, F.R.S.; Mr. Cosmo Jouns ; Mr. E. 'TILLOTSON. Tuesday, September 10. Discussion on New stars (10.0). Dr. H. SPENCER Jones, F.R.S.—General phenomena of new stars. Definition of a nova. Historical nove and bright nove of recent years. General sequence of events in a nova outburst ; the light curve and spectral changes. The absolute magnitude at maximum brightness. Evidence for expansion of outer atmosphere of star and for ejection of one or more gaseous shells. The later stages of a nova outburst. Nove in the Andromeda nebula. Frequency of nova outburst and possibility that every star passes through the nova stage. The explanation, by Milne’s theory, of the nature of a nova outburst. Mr. J. P. M. Prentice.—The discovery of Nova Herculis, 1934 (10.20). Prof. F. J. M. Stratron, D.S.0., O.B.E.—The spectral changes of new stars (10.40). Before the principal maximum the usual spectrum is of « Cygni (or earlier) type, the absorption lines being markedly displaced to the violet and bordered on the red side by weak undisplaced emission lines. As maximum brightness is approached the displacements diminish and the spectrum becomes of later (or less highly ionised) type. After maximum the reverse takes place: displacements increase to the violet, multiple spectra are formed with different displacements and of different types— earlier types and larger displacements coming together. The absorption spectra give way gradually to emission spectra as the star becomes fainter ; the bright bands are usually complex in structure, the radial velocities of SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. 351 some of the components displaced to the violet agreeing with those found earlier from the absorption spectrum. Forbidden lines appear, notably of [O1], including the green auroral line, of [Feir] and later of [O1t), the well-known nebular lines. The final spectrum is that of a Wolf-Rayet star, broad bright bands, suggesting the continued emission of gases. A spectro- scopic examination of the growing disc round the nova shows that different parts of the bright bands come from different portions of the envelope. In the case of N Pictoris 1925, the nucleus of the star became multiple and the spectra suggest.in general jets or streams of gas rather than spherical shells. Prof. W. H. McCrea.—Problems of the atmospheres of nove (11.0). Theoretical work on the motion of the outer layers of a nova and of gases ejected by it; propagation of radiation, and radiation pressure, in the moving gases ; ‘ diffusion drag ’ of the gases on each other. Mr. E. G. WiLL1ams.—The photometry of new stars (11.20). Photometric measurements give important additional information about nove. ‘The measurements are of three types, as follows : (1) Magnitude observations—These indicate that in a typical nova the light flux increases by about.a hundred-thousand fold at the outburst. When in addition the colour and distance are known it is possible to estimate the amount of energy liberated. (2) Energy distribution data for the continued spectrum—When we know this we can find the ‘ colour temperature’ of the star. For R S Ophiuchi 1933 this was found to be 4,000°, a low value which may be explained by selective scattering of the star’s light in space. Nova Herculis, however, appears to have hada colour temperature of about 10,000°, which is what might be expected from the type of its spectrum. (3) Intensity-distribution measures for absorption lines and emission bands in the spectrum.—A great deal may be learnt from study of such contours. We may note here that the shape of the several bright bands, due to hydrogen, conforms with the ejection hypothesis ; in fact, it is possible, on certain assumptions, to derive from them the velocity distribution of the hydrogen -atoms. Also, measures of the intensity of undisplaced absorption lines, due to ionised calcium atoms scattered in interstellar space, provide a very useful indication of the distance of the star. This method, when applied to R S Ophiuchi, gave a distance of over 3,000 light-years, whilst for Nova Herculis we find 1,200 light-years for the distance, so that the star at “maximum was 30,000 times as bright as the sun. Dr. A. B. Wyse and Mr. R. H. Stoy.—Recent nova observations made at the Lick Observatory, California (11.40). (1) The scope of the Lick observations and their relation to a proposed general co-operative scheme for the observation of nove. __ (2) A summary of the more conspicuous changes in the spectrum of Nova Herculis since the beginning of April 1935, the time of its rapid diminution in brightness, with special attention to the behaviour of the forbidden emissions, the permitted oxygen and nitrogen emissions, and to the continuous spectra. (3) On some recent observations in the spectra of the gaseous nebule of ‘some emissions, previously observed in the later stages of certain nove. N : 358 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A, A*. Mr. S. F. MarKHam.—The meteorological basis of civilisation (12.0). Recent factory experiments on both sides of the Atlantic have proved conclusively that there are certain conditions of temperature, humidity and air movement under which workers are at their most efficient and most energetic. On the other hand, recent investigations into the ‘ poor white’ problem show that even the best racial stocks quickly lose in energy and efficiency, and even in moral fibre, when subjected continuously to tem- peratures and humidities well above the ideal. Human efficiency and energy therefore have a distinct climatological basis, and the history of civilisation follows extraordinarily closely man’s control of indoor tempera- tures and humidities. Investigations are to a certain extent handicapped by the absence of reliable statistics for radiation and air movement, and by the absence of any instrument which accurately records bodily sensations of comfort or discomfort. Taking, however, meteorological information from all parts of the world, the paper shows that the civilised portions of the world to-day all enjoy certain conditions of climate and climate control, and that in the past great civilisations have only arisen where there has been an approximation to these conditions. Dr. E. C. BULLARD.—Gravity determinations in East Africa (12.30). A series of gravity measurements has been made in E. Africa by a method which enables a large number of results to be obtained in a short time. The observed value of gravity over the plateau is found to be less than that calculated from the assumption that the surface features are simply resting on the crust. The natural interpretation of this is that the plateau is iso- statically compensated, that is, that it is underlain by light matter which projects downwards into the denser substratum and supports the typo- graphy in the same way as an iceberg is supported by its roots. Over the Rift Valleys a further deficiency of gravity is found ; they are, therefore, underlain by more light matter than is required for isostatic equilibrium, and if gravity and hydrostatic forces were given free play their floors would rise. ‘This means that they must be held under by the plateau on each side, which can only occur if there is sideways pressure. ‘The Rift floor cannot have ‘ fallen in,’ for if released it would rise, not fall. The gravity results, therefore, give what seems a conclusive decision between the ‘ tension’ theory of Gregory and the ‘ compression ’ theory of Wayland. DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS (A*). Monday, September 9. Prof. W. H. McCrea.—An attempt to examine the relation between physical postulates and mathematical axioms in general mechanical theories (10.0). The general problem of the use of geometry in physics. The physical basis for the use of Riemannian geometry in general relativity, and its generalisations in Weyl’s geometry and in projective relativity. The construction of a geometry from physical postulates as carried out by A. A. Robb. Procedure from postulates concerning the relations of matter rather than space time as carried out by E. A. Milne. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A*. 353 The ultimate physical aim, and the relation between physical results obtained by the various methods. Illustrations from a comparison of the results of general relativity and classical theory. Dr. P. Dienes.—On spaces with quadratic connection (10.30). The experimental verifications of relativity theory refer to quantities of the second order, whereas the underlying geometrical structures, Riemann geometry, metric spaces, are all derived from spaces with linear connection. In the Pascal-Vitali theory local (osculating) spaces of higher order have been systematically studied, but the local spaces are still dove-tailed by a linear connection. In this paper, by the example of quadratic connection, I show that such a theory can be completed into a homogeneous construction involving new geometrical tensors. Another advantage of our method is that it applies equally well to continuous and to discontinuous distributions. A vector v*, a= 1, 2,..., m, issued from the point OG Fe date) joa + de) viewed from P(x1, . . . x”) appears as the vector (1) v(Q || P) = vt+ V§(P)v’dxe + 40% 4(P)v’dxdx4 at P, where I'?. and I, are two sets of arbitrary functions called linear and be bed yi quadratic connection parameters, respectively. If we substitute (1) at P to v* at QO, we also say that we transport v? to P by ‘ parallel’ transport. In a change of ree Tj4 are transformed by the formula Ill hb Peet 38x04 a xb 8x? a 82x? “ee 8x2 Sx° Sxt Sah T b6 Sxb' Sx’ Sx0" bd 3x0 Sxe" a 8x §2ye a 9x? 8xe ey = 8x Sx" Sx% bed Sb" Sixt’ Sx’ For covariant vectors, and then for tensors of any type and rank, transport and parallelism can similarly be defined by two fresh sets ‘T%, and ‘I%,;. The necessary and sufficient condition that transport and contraction be interchangeable is that (3) ie tas cee gu at tne baday lublon Lyauan case _ These definitions lead to the corresponding extensions of the idea of tensor derivatives. The fundamental fact of the theory is that in a change of variables sry «@) Steenitg Lee Ty is transformed as a tensor of the type indicated by the position of the suffixes. Since I},, = V3.2, the alternating (skew-symmetric) part of S%, in c, d is the Riemann-Christoffel tensor. Its symmetric part appears in the theory of metric spaces defined by the condition (5) G,,(Q || P) = G,,(P) for every x* and dx*. In fact, the necessary and sufficient condition for (5) is (6) S\(ab)(cd) = 0. Another geometrical significance of the symmetric part S} (cd) IS given by the formula (7) v4 (P || Q || P) = 0% + Sh dxcdxt. 354 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A*. Thus if we transport v* from P to Q and back to P, we do not obtain o unless Sig) = 0. Therefore this symmetric part expresses a kind of tension between neighbouring points. Dr. E. T. Davies.—Riemannian geometries of higher order (11.15). The ordinary theory of a Riemannian space, as studied by the methods of Ricci, depends largely on the fact that it can always be considered immersed in a Euclidean space Ey of higher dimensionality. A vector is then said to be a vector of V,, if it issues from one of the points of V, and lies in the tangent Euclidean space to V, at that point. The transport by parallelism (of: Levi Civita) of a vector of V,, to a near point can then be carried out by a translation in Ey followed by orthogonal projection on the tangent plane to VY, at the new point. ‘These notions, of vectors of V, and parallelism between them, form the basis of the classical Riemannian Geometry. The recent developments, arising chiefly out of the works of Bornfriani, Pascal and Vitali, are concerned with the study of vectors issuing from points of V,,, and lying in the r** osculating space at these points. Parallelism between such vectors can be defined by an easy generalisation of that of Levi Civita for the ordinary case, and a covariant derivation has been introduced with properties analogous to that used by Ricci. By using the notation introduced by Vitali, which depends upon the simple artifice of writing a single letter to denote a whole group of indices, the formal part of the work is hardly more complicated than in the classical Ricci theory. It has very recently been proved that much of the ordinary theory of the immersion of one space in another can be extended without essential modifications to this case. Dr. A. G. WaLKER.—The plan of geometry in relativistic cosmology (11.45). The object of this paper is to construct the most general kinematical model based upon two principles: the cosmological principlé and the principle of symmetry. No particular geometry is prescribed, nor is it assumed that the fundamental observers are in uniform relative motion. It is found that there is a quadratic differential form which is invariant under transformations from one to any other observer, and it is natural to consider the Riemannian space defined by this differential form. ‘The structure is now very similar to the kinematical structure of general relativity, and in particular, the light paths, defined as ‘ first arrivals,’ are found to correspond to null geodesics. ‘There is, however, one important difference : the path of a free particle is not necessarily an ordinary geodesic. There are three types of models, corresponding to space of positive, zero or negative curvature. The models in the third class are identical with those constructed by Prof. E. A. Milne. Dr. G. J. Wuitrow.—Linear systems of equivalent observers (12.15). In his paper On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies (1905), Einstein deduced the Lorentz formule by appealing to the homogeneity of space and time and the indefinable concept of the rigid body. Owing to the difficulties which are encountered in the applications of these concepts, proofs of the Lorentz formule have been sought by many writers on the basis of time observations alone. Most of these have invoked the wave theory of light, but this is not actually necessary. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A*. 355 In Relativity, Gravitation and World-Structure, E. A. Milne has shown how equivalent particle observers may correlate the space and time co-ordinates, which they assign to events, on the sole basis of their awareness of a temporal sequence. He obtains general transformation formule, which include the Lorentz formule as a special case. The analysis is developed in terms of two functions correlating the epochs and distances assigned to each other by two equivalent observers. An auxiliary function p is introduced to facilitate the analysis. It is here shown that the entire analysis may be developed in an extremely simple fashion by starting with this auxiliary function, which, for physical reasons, is called the signal function. The operators corresponding to the signal functions correlating the respective members of a linear system of equivalent observers commute with one another. They are, therefore, shown to be expressible in the canonical form Ya)-! where ) is an operator defining the system and «& is a number defining a particular pair of the system. An alternative form is Qf[Q-(x) + A] where Q is an operator and 4 a constant. These canonical forms may be employed with advantage in considering a wide class of functional equations. It is shown that it is formally possible for each member to regraduate his clock so that they all appear to be in uniform motion relative to each other. Consequently uniform motion may be described without intro- ducing any indefinable concepts. The problem of correlating the time scales of two observers who describe themselves as relatively stationary is examined in terms of signal functions, It is shown rigorously that the classical concept of simultaneity has a meaning for such observers and only for such observers. Signal functions may also be used to construct a one-dimensional universe of discrete particles satisfying the cosmological principle. Dr. H. S. Ruse.—The fifteen co-ordinates of a linear congruence (12.45). If the skew-symmetric matrices pas, gas represent two linear complexes in [3], then the co-ordinates of the linear congruence common to them are defined, after Pasch and Weitzenbéck, to be Kascp = pas Qcp — Qa Pen- They may also be interpreted as the co-ordinates of a flat threefold space in [5]. In terms of them, and by use of the notation of spinor analysis, it is possible to express the geometrical properties of linear congruences simply and concisely ; so, for example, it is easy to obtain a formula for certain quadratic complexes generated by such congruences. ‘The whole theory is treated from the geometrical standpoint, but is not without algebraical interest since the results are not all immediately deducible from the corresponding formule for [5]. Tuesday, September 10. Dr. E. H. Linroot.—Schneider’s proof of Gelfond’s theorem : if w 1s an algebraic number + 0 or 1, © an irrational algebraic number, then w® is transcendental (10.0). Particular cases : 2V?, e", e"V2, e™'/2, are transcendental. The logarithm of an algebraic number to base 10 is either rational or transcendental. Gelfond’s theorem gives the complete solution to one of Hilbert’s listed problems, Gétt. Nachr. 1900, p. 253. The proof to be expanded is due to T. Schneider, Crelle 172 (1934), 65-69 ; it depends on a direct 356 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A*. discussion of the properties of certain specially constructed linear forms of the general type L(x) = P(x) + P,(x)o* alm ye Ay athe P(x) eo ® 2), where the P;(x) are polynomials, and involves only the rudiments of algebraic number theory. Dr. Hans HEILBRONN.—On Vinogradov’s solution of Waring’s problem (11.15). Waring conjectured in the eighteenth century that every positive integer can be represented as a sum of a bounded number of k* powers (viz. 4 squares, 9 cubes, etc.). ‘This was proved by Hilbert in 1909, but his method of proof cannot be utilised further in this problem. The problem was attacked again by Hardy and Littlewood with the most powerful weapons of modern analysis. They showed the existence of a number G(k) = O(2"R), such that every large integer can be represented as sum of at most G (kh) positive k*® powers. They also gave an asymptotic formula for the number of representations. ‘The most difficult point of their analysis is the application of Weyl’s method of diophantine approximations. Last year, Vinogradov improved their results to G(k) = O(R? log? k) by avoiding diophantine approximations altogether, and quite recently proved even G(k) = O(2 log R), a result which comes very near the truth as it can be easily seen that G(ki)Z Rk+1. Dr. Eric PHILLips.—On the sequence defined by a quadratic recurrence formula (11.45). 1. We investigate the behaviour, as 7 > o, of the sequence { un} defined by the recurrence formula Un4 y= aUu,? + bu, +c. Without loss of generality this can be written Unt, — Uy, = (u,, a” ot) (tt, = B). Putting « —8 = 2k —1, and writing u, for u, —B —k-+1 we can rewrite this again as ee 5 th, — (a Bt, te Thejbehaviour of the sequence depends on the initial value u, and on the value of k. ‘The results are as follows :— A. k complex, u, diverges to «©. If k is real we need only consider k >, since if k < 4 the réles of k and 1 — & are interchanged. B. u,\< —k or > k, u, diverges to , while if u = +k, u, =k for alln >1 and ifu,=+(1 —k),u, =1 —kforalln>1; C. —k 2, u, diverges to © except when n, lies in a certain set of measure zero. This set contains two distinct enumerable sets of values of u, for which the sequence is ultimately stationary and equal to k in the first case and 1 — k& in the second. It also contains a distinct set corresponding to every prime number p for which the sequence is ultimately periodic with period p. The first four of these headings were worked out by Mr. Chaundy. The last one, E, is obtained by investigating the roots of the equations wal —RSASR, as an equation in u,, and ‘ Un + p => Un as an equation 1n Uy. 2. With a view to finding expression for u,, as a function of n, we transform the difference equation u(x + " — u(x) = { u(x) — ki { u(x) +k — r} ; log by putting « = fae a thereupon becomes (x) Fay) — fly) = f(y). This has a formal solution Cx je @ «| Coe eae an where c is an SSieand constant and the coefficients cy are given by reduction formule :— u(x) =k-+ qyf(y), where g = 2k> 1. The equation ~+ Cntr =n + C26n 2 tn a aicte Cae = nm I dee Se I era i ae =%) It is easily seen ge cn+x is a polynomial ing. We show that S, the degree of the polynomial c,, is given by S,, = 4n(n +3) — m(n +1) + (n — 2) + 2), where m and s are such that n=2m7+5, —1 ky. The amide rule, which applies to many «-hydroxy- and «-methoxy- aliphatic acid amides, depends on the induced dissymmetry of the CO group and the configuration of the second carbon atom determines the rotation. Failure to follow the rule cannot be explained in terms similar to those used in the case of (II). In 4 : 6-dimethyl mannonamide the sign of the induced term is opposite to that which would be expected. ‘The result is attributable to the vicinal effect of the cis hydroxy groups which are responsible also for the failure of «- and 8-mannose to follow the iso-rotation rules. Dr. S. R. Carter.—The determination of molecular weights of carbohydrate derivatives by osmotic pressure measurements (11.45). This investigation (with B. R. Record) deals mainly with the methylated and acetylated derivatives of carbohydrates of molecular weight between 1,500 and 50,000 in solutions of organic solvents. -According to the theory of van’t Hoff a 1 per cent. solution of a substance of molecular weight 20,000 should produce an osmotic pressure of ca. 10 cm. water pressure. The liquid may be a colloid dispersion rather than a molecular dispersion, but we have assumed that the osmotic pressure P = RTn/N where n = number of particles in unit volume and N = Avogadro’s Constant. ‘The solutions were usually made up in chloroform and the semipermeable membrane was a disc of ‘ Viscacelle’ adjusted for porosity by immersion in alcohol-water mixtures. 'The osmometer consisted of two glass bells, accurately ground and clamped together, the membrane being enclosed between the ground joints. One bell contained the solution (5 c.c.) and Was connected to an air chamber and a water or mercury manometer, whilst the other bell contained pure solvent. The pressure was adjusted by trial until no movement of the solvent occurred as judged by the position of the Meniscus in a capillary connected with the solvent bell. ‘The thermostat was kept at 20°:00° + o0-’o1° C. The concentration of the solution was determined by weighing the evaporated residue from 1 c.c. on the -micro-balance. The observed pressure P is related to the concentration by the equation P = cRT + kc”. The values of P/c are graphed against ¢ and extrapolated to zero concentration, when the last term vanishes and P =cRT. The molecular weights so determined agree with the values obtained by the chemical methods, Mr. E. G. Cox.—Crystallographic evidence on the form of the pyranose ring (12.5). Owing to the complexity of the problem, no complete structure deter- Mination by X-ray methods has so far been carried out in the case of ‘crystalline carbohydrates. Much preliminary work has been done during the past few years, sufficient in fact to establish certain results not directly accessible by purely chemical methods. The most important of these is N2 360 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. concerned with the shape of the pyranose ring; apart from its intrinsic interest this has considerable bearing on the linking of monose residues in polysaccharides. It is generally supposed that the pyranose ring possesses a ‘ strainless ’ puckered form ; this involves the unwarrantable assumption that the ‘ strainless ’ angle between the valencies of an asymmetric carbon atom is 1093° and ignores the different radius and valency angle of the oxygen atom. Since a hexo-pyranose of given configuration can possess no less than eight ‘strainless’ forms (excluding mirror image forms), direct experimental evidence is clearly desirable. ‘The X-ray results which have been obtained from about seventy crystalline carbohydrates will be dis- cussed. It appears that the five carbon atoms in the pyranose ring are co- planar or nearly so, the oxygen atom being displaced out of the plane. Various implications of this result will be discussed—e.g. such a ring-form requires the hydroxyl attached to the first carbon atom to be situated differently from the other hydroxyls with respect to the ring; this is in agreement with other evidence. The crystallographic results are found to confirm the configurations assigned to the « and 8 forms of various sugars. AFTERNOON. Visit to Printing Works of Messrs. Richard Clay & Sons, Ltd., Chaucer Lane, Bungay, and to Bungay Castle (2.0). Friday, September 6. Discussion on Surface phenomena, with special reference to substances which occur in nature (10.0). ; Prof. H. FREUNDLICH.—Displacement of chemical equilibrium at surfaces. Chemical equilibrium may be displaced by adsorption on surfaces. This is shown very directly by using indicators. The most convincing experi- ments are where the colour of an indicator changes, when a surface is produced by emulsifying one liquid in another, and where the original colour of the aqueous solution reappears, when the two phases separate again (Deutsch). If the second liquid is organic, the displacement is always in such a direction that the electrolytic dissociation of the indicator is decreased, compared with its state in the aqueous phase. The reverse takes place if an indicator, for instance a carbinol base, is dissolved in the organic liquid : on shaking with water, the change of colour may indicate the formation of more strongly dissociated substances. A similar displacement of equilibrium has been observed at surfaces between liquids and gases or solids (quartz, cellulose). Indicators may change their colour in presence of surfaces of colloidal particles. With colloidal electrolytes the following ‘sign rule’ holds: colloidal cations only influence the equilibrium of indicators where the colour change is due to a reaction between anions, and vice versa (G. S. Hartley). ‘The same rule applies to the influence of proteins on the colour of indicators (Thiel and Schulz). A displacement of equilibrium has also been found on charcoal with organic substances of low molecular weight, not indicators. The substances which are stable in adsorption layers may be very different from those stable in the bulk of a liquid. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. 361 Prof. E. WaLpscumipT-LeE1Tz.—Some aspects of enzyme action (10.30). It has been shown for the first time that, in the case of protein-splitting enzymes, there are specific chemical groups both in substrate and enzyme, through which the specific reactions between enzyme and substrate take place. The various enzymes can be differentiated according to their different modes of reaction with both polypeptides and true proteins. Several examples are given. The activation of enzymes, and its mechanism, are of particular interest. It may be explained either by the development of a specific active group, through the activator, or by a surface action, e.g. supplying the enzymatically active group with a suitable colloidal bearer. It is suggested that enzyme action in general is a surface reaction between definite chemical groups. Dr. N. K. Apam, F.R.S.—Unimolecular films of fatty substances on water (11.10). Langmuir showed that insoluble substances such as long chain acids, alcohols, fats, sterols, which have one or two water-attracting groups in the molecule, form films only one molecule thick on a water surface, with the molecules oriented so that the water-soluble groups are next the water. These films are found in states corresponding to the solid, liquid, and gaseous states of matter in three dimensions, the state of the films being determined mainly by the amount of lateral adhesion between the molecules. Different films show different degrees of tilt of the molecules ; if there is only one water-attracting group, situated at the end of the molecules, they usually stand vertically; two widely separated water-attracting groups usually cause the molecules to lie flat ; in the interesting ‘ expanded’ state of the films the molecules probably have their hydrocarbon chains in violent whip-like agitation, yet the films are coherent. These films often give valuable information as to the size, shape, and constitution of the molecules. Dr. A. H. Hucues—Chemical reactions in unimolecular films (11.35). Whilst the familiar investigation of unimolecular films by the Langmuir- Adam trough has given much detailed knowledge of the physical properties of this state of matter, the more recently developed technique of ‘ surface potentials ’ has provided a means of measuring a chemical reaction occurring in the unimolecular film. The surface potential of a film is related to the dipole moment of the constituent molecules ; thus chemical change taking place therein is reflected in a change in the observed surface potential. Some simple types of chemical change have been examined in this manner : (1) Ionisation of a fatty acid, such as myristic or palmitic. (2) Oxidation of unsaturated molecules (oleic acid and its isomers and various sterols oxidised by acid KMnQ,). (3) Hydrolysis of lactones. (4) Complex formation, e.g. the reaction of concentrated HCl and a film of an alcohol or an acid to form an oxonium compound, and the effect of heavy metal ions in the solutions. In certain cases, notably the oxidation of oleic acid and the hydrolysis of y-stearolactone, the reaction velocity is affected markedly by the orienta- tion of the molecules. By suitable compression the molecules in the film can be so arranged that the reactive group is not accessible to the reagent in the underlying solution. ‘This accessibility factor has been studied in 362 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. the case of the oleic acid oxidation. With the hydrolysis of y-stearolactone the absolute reaction velocity has been studied and shown to be amenable to treatment by the kinetic theory of solutions. Dr. J. H. Scoutman.—Surface reactions in biology (12.0). The method of surface potentials has been applied to measure the polar properties of complex biological molecules and to follow the course of a reaction which these substances may undergo with compounds injected into the underlying solution. This has been applied especially to those reactions which are believed to occur at interfaces in physiological systems, such as enzyme, immunity, and hemolytic reactions. Under the first category comes the study of protein films (which includes denaturation), lipoids such as psychosin, cholesterol and fats and complex compounds as chloro- phyll, hemoglobin, vitamins and hormones. Under the second category : (1) Enzymes.—This consists in injecting specific proteolytic ferments into the solution underlying protein films or in the case of snake venom under lecithin films. This includes the similarity of the surface activity of lipo-protein complexes to that of ferments. (2) Mixed films and complex formation between large molecules.—Inter- action between long-chain alcohols and acid depending on pH of the under- lying solution. The combination of surface pressure and surface potentials as a means of measuring complex formation. (3) Phenomenon of penetration——Injection of soluble substances under monolayers to form insoluble mixed films, such as the action of psychosin, cetyl sulphates and dyes. (4) Application of the study of complexes in mixed films to such problems as immunity reactions and hzmolysis. Prof. E. C. C. Baty. Dr. E. SEMMENS. AFTERNOON. Visit to Messrs. W. Gaymer & Son, Ltd., Cider Factory, Attleborough (2.7). Monday, September 9. Discussion on Chemotherapy of malaria (10.0). Lt.-Col. S. P. James, F.R.S.—Jntroduction (10.0). The British Empire, with its vast malarious territories in the tropics, is more concerned with the provision of effective anti-malarial drugs than is any other nation in the world. Until recently the alkaloids of cinchona bark were the one and only effective remedy available. These natural products, however, are not effective for certain therapeutic purposes, particularly for true causal prophy- laxis, the prevention of relapses and the prevention of spread. The aim of chemotherapy is to find preparations which will be effective for those purposes. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. 363 Two remarkable synthetic anti-malarials, namely plasmochin and atebrin, have been discovered and prepared on a large scale in Germany and their merits and defects for the particular purposes mentioned are now being assessed in the laboratory and in the field. A statement illustrated by lantern slides and microscopic preparations is given of the results obtained. Their discovery has given a great stimulus to chemotherapeutic work. An outline is given of methods and plans which are being tried or have been suggested for extending anti-malarial chemotherapy researchin England, where as yet it has been entirely neglected by the chemical industry and has received almost no financial assistance from Government or other sources. Prof. Dr. W. ScHULEMANN.—Methods of chemotherapeutic research as exemplified by anti-malarial drugs (10.30). For centuries the physician has had only natural products, e.g. quinine, to support him in his struggle against malarial infection. Concurrent with the increasing elucidation of the chemical constitution of quinine, a very large group of compounds was prepared and tested for effects on malaria, but with practically no results. The first success was at last attained with plasmoquine (prepared in 1924), followed by atebrin (in 1930). Repeated discussions have taken place on where the secret of success in experimental therapeutic work is to be found. There is the view that success is to be reached only by intuitive work, and the other that only systematic work can attain its object. A combination of both holds out the greatest prospect of success. The discovery of atebrin was due solely to co-operation between chemists and biologists. Difficulties presenting themselves are: (1) compounds acting on malarial parasites attack different points in the development cycle of the parasites ; (2) the action of compounds depends on the type of parasite and of the host. If the biologist limits himself to a single test object the meshes of the sieve through which he must pass the substance to be tested soon become too fine. Experiments are divided into ‘ controlled ’ and ‘ uncontrolled,’ and the relative merits of these are discussed with reference to the workers in each field. . The argument that, while quinine favours development of immunity, synthetic compounds prevent the development of or inhibit this immunity, is refuted. Among important problems remaining to be solved are true causal pro- phylaxis and the prolongation of the incubation period in benign tertian malaria. ‘These and other problems can be solved only by further pharmacological investigations. Prof. R. Ropinson, F.R.S.—Synthesis of potential anti-malarials and the relation between constitution and anti-malarial action (10.55). The methods employed for the synthesis of potential anti-malarials by the author and his colleagues are described, and some of the results discussed from the point of view of the relation between constitution and anti-malarial action. Attention is directed to the pressing need for further investigations and some suggestions are advanced as to the organisation of the research on the chemical side. 364 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. Prof. D. Keriin, F.R.S., Dr. P. Tate and Dr. M. Vincent.— Chemotherapy of bird malaria and its importance in relation to the therapeutics of human malaria (11.20). Since it was shown that quinine and some other quinoline compounds act in a similar way on human and bird malaria, the latter has been used as a valuable means of testing the anti-malarial action of new synthetic com- pounds. Synthetic quinoline compounds prepared by Prof. R. Robinson and co-workers have been tested on bird malaria in Cambridge. ‘Twenty- four of the eighty compounds tested have definite anti-malarial action. Routine tests on birds are made on asexual stages of the parasite trans- mitted by direct blood-inoculation, but by utilising mosquito infections it is possible to determine the action of a compound on gametocytes and on sporozoites ; and such tests of some of Prof. Robinson’s compounds will be considered in detail. Work on anti-malarial properties of drugs reveals interesting facts about immunity in bird malaria as their action varies according to the relation between the times of inoculation with malaria and of administration of the drugs. The results of work on bird malaria are not always applicable to human malaria, but so far every synthetic compound of value in human malaria has been discovered by means of preliminary tests on bird malaria. Dr. T. A. Henry.—Anti-malarial drugs of natural origin (11.40). (a) The investigation of natural drugs having a local reputation as reme- dies for malaria, e.g. the Alstonias of Australia, India, West Africa and the Pacific Islands, from which Messrs. Goodson and Sharp have isolated a group of alkaloids which are of scientific interest, but are devoid of anti- malarial activity. (6) The determination of the relative activities of the various cinchona alkaloids, a matter of practical importance in view of the introduction of crude mixtures of cinchona alkaloids as a means of mass-treatment of indigent malarial populations. For this purpose the eight principal cinchona alkaloids have been prepared in a pure state and tested in bird malaria. The results show that they can be arranged in the following descending order of activity : (1) Hydroquinine, (2) Quinine, (3) Hydroquinidine, (4) Cinchonidine and Quinidine, (5) Cinchonine, Hydrocinchonine and Hydro- cinchonidine. (c) The effects of modification in the molecular structure of cinchona alkaloids on anti-malarial action. In general it may be stated that any change, which diminishes the basic character of such an alkaloid as quinine, reduces its anti-malarial activity, though it may result in the development of pharmacological activity of another kind. Col. Sir RickaRD CHRISTOPHERS, F.R.S—Chemotherapeutic effect as a combination through a basic side chain : absorption of acid and base by red cells (12.0). A usual conception of chemotherapeutic effect is molecular fit. The chemical nature of such fit is often not very clear, but the necessity of a basic side chain for linkage to protein is sometimes referred to. All anti- malarial drugs natural and synthetic have such side chains. With a view to studying such combination, observations have been made upon absorption ore SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. 365 by red cells of some simple acids and bases, using critical hemolysis of a given quantity of red cell substance and electrometric determination of the pH as guides tothe reaction. It was found that lysis of the cell was brought about through formation of a critical amount of ‘ protein salt,’ which amount was the same for all acids. With this is associated a fraction due to ‘ hydro- lysis ’ of the salt, which is greater the weaker the acid. This necessitates a larger dose in the case of some acids than others. This ‘ hemolytic dose ’ can be calculated with considerable approach to experimental findings. ‘Hemolysis ’ is associated with a critical relation of isoelectric to ionised protein and a characteristic pH. Other critical events, e.g. lethality, if caused by ionisation, can be studied in a similar way. Observations on quinine and malaria parasite substance on these lines have been made. AFTERNOON. Visit to the Carrow Works of Messrs. J. & J. Colman, Ltd. (with whom are associated Messrs. Keen, Robinson & Co., Ltd.), manufacturers of condiments, cereals, starch, blue, etc. (2.0). Tuesday, September 10. Discussion on The chemistry of grass crops (10.0). Prof. A. C. CH1BNALL.—The proteins of grasses. Introductory: The conventional methods used by agricultural chemists to evaluate the nitrogenous constituents of forage crops. The preparation and general character of grass proteins—complete amino- acid composition of cocksfoot protein—the essential amino-acids for animal nutrition and the amount present in a comprehensive series of grasses and other green forage crops—chemical composition of the non-protein nitrogen of forage crops. Criticism of the protein factor (N X 6-25) as applied by agricultural chemists to forage crops—relative merits of ‘ crude’ and ‘true’ protein values. . Mr. H. J. Pace and Dr. S. J. Watson.—The chemical composition of grassland herbage and its relation to fodder conservation and nutritive value (10.30). The influence of various factors on the composition of grassland herbage ; manurial and climatic factors ; stage of growth ; botanical composition. The above are considered in relation to the organic and mineral con- stituents of the herbage with particular reference to protein and non- protein nitrogen, calcium and phosphorus, and carotinoid pigments. The influence of methods of fodder conservation on chemical composi- tion of the product; artificial drying and ensilage; protein and carbo- hydrate breakdown, and carotene content. The relation of chemical composition of fresh and conserved grassland herbage to its nutritive value. Prof. A. I. ViRTANEN.—The chemistry of grass crops (11.0). The question of the uptake of nutrients by plants is discussed, particular attention being paid to nitrogenous nutrients and to the ability of plants to utilise organic nitrogenous compounds. In the nitrogen metabolism of 366 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B, C. the leguminous plants the following questions will be dealt with : (a) uptake of nitrogenous nutrients from the nodules, (6) excretion of amino-acids from the nodules, and (c) nitrogen-fertilising of non-leguminous crops in associated growth with legumes. The composition of protein undergoes considerable changes during different stages of plant growth, and the vitamin content of plants reaches a maximum before or at the start of blooming. These facts should be con- sidered in cutting forage crops. In the carbohydrate metabolism of plants attention is paid to the easy interconvertibility of different sugars. The inversion of cane sugar takes place chiefly in the stems and leaf-ribs, which possess a high invertase activity. The nature of the sugar compound utilised by the root nodule bacteria of leguminous plants in the fixation of nitrogen is still unsettled. With regard to growth hormones, water and ether extracts from yeast, indolyl acetic acid and ascorbic acid stimulate the growth of plants in sterile water cultures. One of the chief problems of practical agriculture, the preservation of immature forage crops at a stage when their nutrient content is highest, was solved by the A.I.V. process, which is discussed. Dr. H. W. Buston.—Cell-wall constituents of grasses (11.45). Carbohydrate constituents of the cell-wall of grasses; pectin, hemi- celluloses, lignin, etc. Fractionation of hemicelluloses ; constituent sugars and sugar acids. Origin and development of hemicelluloses in the plant. Comparison of grasses with other plant tissues. Significance of cell-wall materials in animal fodder. Dr. R. E. SLADE. SECTION C.—GEOLOGY. Thursday, September 5. Prof. P. G. H. Boswe tt, O.B.E., F.R.S., and Dr. J. D. SoLomon.—The geology of the neighbourhood of Norwich (10.0). Joint Discussion with Section H (Anthropology) on The geological relations of early man in East Anglia (Section C room) (11.0). Prof. P. G. H. Boswett, O.B.E., F.R.S. The recent discoveries of implements of Early Man in East Anglia have, in addition to their archeological interest, an important stratigraphical significance. But the geologist cannot give effective assistance to the solution of the problem of prehistoric chronology unless there is agreement among archzologists on the question as to what is human and what is natural flaking, and as to the industries to which some of the implements belong. In particular, the older records of implements referred to as ‘ Mousterian’ need to be made more precise. Among the discoveries which have important bearings on East Anglian stratigraphy and the correla- tion of human industries, the following are selected for discussion : (a) Mr. Reid Moir has recently divided the sub-Crag implements into five types. Publication of his results is awaited, but it is already evident that considerable SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 367 significance appears to be attached to the predominance of certain groups at certain localities. (b) Many implements have been found by Messrs. Moir, Sainty and Solomon in stone-beds associated with the Norwich Crag, Weybourn Crag and Cromer Forest-bed ; are these implements to be regarded as pre-Chellian or Chellian ? (c) Dr. Solomon’s recent investi- gation of East Anglian sands and gravels and his redefinition of the Westleton Stage at the beginning of the Pleistocene has led to illuminating and important generalisations. The Westleton Beds mark a marine phase contemporaneous with the deposition of the boulder clays known as the Norwich Brickearth and Cromer Till (1st glaciation), containing Scandinavian erratics. ‘The Westleton Beds, thus redefined, include many of the deposits of sand and gravel formerly classed as Mid-Glacial. Someof the Mid-Glacial sands and gravels contain what appear to be rough flake-implements ; also worked pebbles such as the Darmsdenian. To what culture should these Mid-Glacial flints and Darmsden pebble-tools be referred? (d) More in- formation is needed about the so-called Mousterian types from the Great Chalky Boulder Clay (2nd glaciation), from the superincumbent brickearths (2nd interglacial), and from the Chalky Drift. Clactonian flakes have been found by Mr. Sainty in association with Acheulian hand-axes at the Carrow Works, Norwich, in deposits younger than the Great Chalky Boulder Clay ; also at High Lodge, an advanced Clactonian industry occurs in gravels referred by Dr. Solomon to his Little Eastern glaciation (the 3rd glaciation of East Anglia—that of the Upper Chalky Drift). (e) The Aurignacian sites occur in deposits which appear to overlie the Upper Chalky Drift, but they are usually at localities where direct stratigraphical evidence is not available. Has the superposition of any glacial horizon on such implement-bearing deposits been clearly demonstrated ? (f) If there is general agreement that the implements found by Mr. Reid Moir in the Hunstanton Brown Boulder Clay (4th glaciation) are referable to the Middle Aurignacian industry, a correlation of that boulder clay with the cold phase of the Magdalenian is most probable. (g) The few Solutrian flakes found in East Anglia have been obtained from superficial deposits of which the stratigraphical position has not been determined. Finally, a plea is made for uniformity of spelling (Chellian, Acheulian, etc.), now that these terms and industries have a stratigraphical value. Mr. D. BapDEN PowELL. The Quaternary deposits near Cromer present many problems, and it was hoped that an attempt to apply palzontological correlation might help to solve these. Near Yarmouth a well-defined marine horizon yields about 25 per cent. Pliocene shells, since extinct ; about 10 per cent. now found in Scandinavia and the Arctic ; and about 7 per cent. of warm character. The remainder are of existing British types. ‘The term ‘ Mid-Glacial Sands,’ hitherto used for these deposits, is confusing, and some such term as ‘ Yarmouth Beds ’ should be adopted. The fauna of the March Beds, also marine, occurring in the eastern part of the Fens, is of much younger type, containing only one extinct Pliocene form, also Nassa reticulata, unknown in eastern England from any earlier horizon than the March and Kelsey Hill beds. There are no species of Mediterranean type and a correspondingly higher percentage of Scandinavian species. The stratigraphical position of these marine beds in relation to the boulder _ clays will be discussed, also the significance of the palzontological differences 368 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. between the two faunas. It is suggested that the Yarmouth Beds correlate with the only comparable horizon known in the Cromer district—marine sands occurring near West Runton. ‘These sands have been reported to lie between the Contorted Drift Boulder Clay and the gravels belonging to the ‘Upper Chalky’ glaciation. This correlation, however, leaves no room for the equivalent of the Chalky-Jurassic Boulder Clays in the Cromer sections. Mr. H. E. Forrest. The several glaciations of Norfolk, the directions from which the ice came in each case, and their effect upon the habitability of particular areas by Palzolithic man. Mr. J. E. SAINTY. In view of the difficulties which the problem of distinguishing between the different glacial gravels has presented to the geologist, Dr. Solomon’s claim to differentiate between these deposits on purely geological grounds will receive a warm welcome. The implement evidence, so far as it is available, accords well with Solomon’s conclusions. 5 The complex mixture of pre-Crag industries is being studied by Mr. Reid Moir, but the more uniform conditions of staining in the Norfolk Stone Bed appear less helpful than those of Suffolk, and classification depends rather on considerations of technique ; it appears on the whole, that the Stone Bed is of rather later date than the Suffolk Bone Bed. The rich Chellian fauna of the Cromer Forest Beds is unfortunately accompanied by only scanty artefact remains, the most important specimens being those obtained from the overlying Till. The association of hand-axes with elephant suggest that Pleistocene and Early (?) Chellian are preferable to Pliocene and Pre-Chellian. The ‘ cold interglacial ’ intervening between the Till and Norwich Brick Earth and the Chalky Boulder Clay has in Norfolk produced no decisive evidence of human occupation. Developed Acheulian-Clactonian industries appear above the Chalky Boulder Clay, whilst ‘ Levallois’ influence is clearly present ; the recent find of a magnificent Combe Capelle specimen in the topmost gravel of Mousehold Heath accords with this. ‘ Little Eastern’ deposits have produced numerous specimens from the Cromer-Holt ridge, Syderstone and Massingham. Upper Paleolithic material found 7m situ is scanty indeed, though some of the surface finds would, on grounds of technique, appear to be Aurignacian, whilst the very rich Mesolithic industries show definite Aurignacian influence. Dr. J. D. SoLomMon. The greatest difficulty confronting the archeologist in East Anglia is the doubtful position of the Chellian industry. The isolated specimen found by Mr. Sainty in the Cromer Till is the only unabraded example of this industry known in East Anglia, and appears to indicate an age not very different from that of the Forest Bed. On the other hand, the Stone Bed industry from the base of the Crag and Forest Bed is not markedly of Chellian type, but seems rather to indicate crude attempts to produce points and edges in the simplest possible way, using flint nodules as a starting point. There is a great hiatus between this industry and the next which is found definitely in situ, namely a fairly advanced Acheulian ; this hiatus appears to be due to the fact that there are no deposits belonging to the SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 369 North Sea-Great Eastern Interglacial, which was a period of elevation and erosion. The approximate contemporaneity of the Clactonian and Acheulian in the Breckland area may be considered as established by the finding of both cultures in an unabraded state in the same gravels. Mr. S. HazzLeDINE WARREN. The opinion is expressed that these disputed items in prehistory are not human industries at all, and, if this be so, then the constructive problem of their correlation does not arise. Prehistory has been carried away by the glamour of its superstructure and has never devoted proper attention to its foundation: that is, to the reliable identification of the flint industry. It is not possible to discuss the evidences in detail, but it is claimed that comparison with the true facts of natural flaking shows that the whole of the supposed Crag and allied industries are the products of natural agencies. The association of the striation, bruising, and the supposed human flaking that is characteristic of the stone-bed is referred to a common cause —namely to the grounding of floating ice upon the floor of the shallow Crag sea. Dr. W. B. WricuHT. Friday, September 6. PRESIDENTIAL ApprRESss by Prof. G. HicKLiNc on Some geological aspects of recent research on coal (10.0). (See p. 47.) SECTIONAL Discussion with speakers from Section B (Chemistry), on The development of rank in coal and its geological implications (11.0). Prof. W. G. Fearnsipes, F.R.S. The idea of rank in coal as a measure of the stage of its alteration has grown up gradually with the recognition that peat, lignite, bituminous coals and anthracite are members of a continuous series of products derived from vegetable debris by loss of volatile matter. No geologist believes that this alteration has taken place either wholly under surface conditions or at temperatures comparable with those required in the manu- facture of coke. Intermediate and progressively rising temperatures were involved. Hilt’s law, ‘in a single vertical section the deeper seams are of higher rank than the upper,’ limited by application only to similar kinds of vegetable debris, is found true for British coalfields. A rise of one degree Centigrade per 100 ft. of depth is the present ruling geothermic gradient in Midland coalfields ; and the question is put whether such gradient continued through the maximum measured thickness, 10,000 feet, of English Coal Measures, can account for observed variations of rank. It is stated that there is general correspondence between the pattern of variation of thickness—isohypses—of the upper zones of Coal Measures as they were deposited, and the distribution of coals of coking quality in the Midlands, more particularly in Yorkshire. It is suggested that burial under 5,000 ft. of Red Measures in Warwickshire brought about the con- version of vegetable debris there into low rank bituminous coals. Rank of coals in the concealed coalfield in Yorkshire and Nottinghamshire shows 370 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. no relation to the thickness of Permian and Triassic strata lying uncon- formably above them. Thermal, dynamic, and pneumatolytic metamorphic changes, as recog- nised by those who work on crystalline rocks and mountain building, are manifestations of variations of stress and temperature conditions through a wider and higher range than those responsible for advance of rank in English coals. It is possible that as water was expressed from consolidating sedi- ments, loosely combined water and carbon dioxide may have been removed from organic constituents of vegetable debris, but chemical changes have not been noted in the mineral constituents of associated rocks. Prof. W. A. Bong, F.R.S. Recent researches in my laboratories at the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, besides proving the benzenoid structure of the main coal substance, have shown that such structure, which originated in lignin (but not in cellulose), has been progressively developed throughout the series lignin-+peat—brown coal-+lignite>bituminous coal—anthracite, and thus supports the continuity of the series. Also they have shown that the constituents mainly responsible for the coking propensities of bituminous coals have probably originated in, and been developed from, the phenolic constituents of brown coals. Our researches have disclosed no essential or material difference between the chemical constitutions of the ‘bright’ and ‘ dull ’ components, i.e. the ‘ vitrain ’ and ‘ durain,’ of bituminous coals ; and however apt or convenient such names may be from the morphological standpoint, it is doubtful whether they have any particular chemical significance. The chemical nature and constitution of coal are questions quite apart from any morphological nomenclature yet suggested, and can be solved only by the persistent application of the experimental methods of organic chemistry ; they may ultimately prove to be but little related to the petrology of coal. Probably ‘ pressure ’ has been a more potent factor than ‘ temperature ’” in the maturing of the original coal substance after the ‘ peat-bog stage.’ It is hoped to put this matter to an experimental test shortly, as means and apparatus are now available for studying organic reactions under pressures between 10,000 and 20,000 atmospheres. Mr. F. V. TIDESWELL and Prof. R. V. WHEELER. The ‘rank’ of a coal is a conception expressing the general level of a group of its properties and in its broadest sense is a measure of the extent of chemical alteration of the coal-forming ingredients from their original composition. This progressive chemical alteration (i.e. change of rank) is a property of the ulmins which form the bulk of all coals, and the changing properties of coals of different ranks can be attributed almost entirely to this progressive change in the ulmin ingredient. Rank can therefore be assessed by measuring properties peculiar to the coal ulmins, for example, oxidisability, or decomposition temperature, although the chemical changes responsible for the alteration in rank of the ulmins are as yet not fully known. The decomposition temperatures of coal ulmins from secondary or more recent deposits in New Zealand agree well with those of our British Palzo- zoic coals of corresponding composition, confirming the similarity of the processes involved in alteration of rank despite wide differences in geo- graphical position and geological period. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 371 Dr. J. G. Kine. Whatever success may attend microscopic investigations employing the latest advances in photographic technique, it must be realised that they give information only on the physical structure of coal, whereas it is the chemical constitution of the several ingredients which finally determines the nature of the coal. The lack of methods for the complete separation of these various constituents is, however, a formidable obstacle. Constancy of elementary composition of any constituent is not a criterion of constant constitution. Professor Hickling has discussed the significance of the variation of rank across a coalfield, and defines ‘ rank’ as the degree of alteration which has occurred in the original plant débris during its transformation into coal. There is no direct measure of rank ; but in general the youngest (brown) coals are the richest in oxygen, and there is a steady diminution in oxygen as the coal ‘ matures.’ The oxygen content of coal can be varied, as, for instance, by weathering. Thus the plotting of volatile matter, etc., does not provide a complete means of tracing variations in rank across a coalfield. A ‘molecular’ weight would be valuable in measuring rank; but until colloid chemists provide the necessary methods, it would be better to avoid using the term. Mr. L. SLaTer. There is an important relationship between the rank of coal and its micro- scopic characteristics. In the Coal Research Laboratory at Sheffield thin sections have been made of a Leicester coal of 79:5 per cent. carbon content, many Yorkshire coals with a range of 81 to 88 per cent., Kent coals of 86:7 to 91°4 per cent., and South Wales coals of 87 to 93:5 per cent. There is a steady decrease in translucency as rank increases and it becomes increasingly difficult to differentiate between the types of plant constituents of which the coal was originally composed. In the lowest rank members of the series practically every microscopic constituent can be rendered translucent with comparative ease, and the brilliant yellow of the spores isin sharp contrast with the pale red of the ‘ vitrinite.” With increasing rank the translucency of the whole diminishes and the colour contrasts become less marked : when a rank of about 91°5 per cent. of carbon is reached the spores have practically the same colour as the ‘ vitrinite’ and are distin- guishable only by their outline against an opaque background. Thin sections of coals of higher rank than this are of little value as organised structure is practically invisible, and etching must be resorted to. Rank then determines the degree to which etching must be carried out in order to reveal structure clearly. Thus a coal of 94 per cent. carbon must be subjected to a given etching fluid for three times as long as a coal of 91 per cent. The diminution in volume undergone by a coal in increasing in rank from '79°5 to 93°5 in carbon is remarkably slight, probably less than 10 per cent. Dr. R. LEssINnc. The study of the development of rank in coal is the chemist’s domain, in which close co-operation with the palzo-botanist and geologist is essential. The principal reactions involved in raising the rank of coal are the elimination of water and CO,, and later the loss of other volatiles under the influence of the particular geological environment obtaining. The speaker has shown 372 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. the importance of the presence of inorganic substances either adventitious or contained in the original plants and added to, or subtracted from, their débris during coalification. ‘These substances exert a subtle and profound effect in directing the course and degree of the carbonisation of decaying vegetable matter, the effects being purely chemical or catalytic. Mackenzie Taylor has shown the importance of the pH of the roof material lying above a potential coal seam, and it is important whether this material is calcareous or siliceous. The speaker holds the opinion that durain is derived from raw material differing in kind and particle size from that which formed vitrain and clarain. In durain the abundant ash is predominantly of the nature of clay ; in vitrain and clarain ash amounts to 1 or 2 per cent. only; it represents original plant ash, and is of an alkaline nature. Fusain has absorbed the bulk of its mineral contents after complete degradation, and its original plant ash is liable to have been leached out. The high calcium content of fusain is due to secondary imbibition. Anthracite should have a con- centration of inorganic constituents, yet its ash content is low, possibly as a consequence of leaching by water perhaps saturated with COg, in the final stages of rank raising. Dr. BERNARD SMITH. From analyses of coals published by H. G. Edmunds in 1933 (Summ. Prog. for 1932, Mem. Geol. Surv.), it appears that Hilt’s law is applicable to the Kent Coalfield. In this case the decrease in volatiles with increase in depth is a general rule, although an occasional seam may give a higher value than one immediately above it. As in South Wales, when the vertical distances between the seams under consideration is less than 100 yds., appreciable differences in volatile contents are small. ‘Taking, however, seven localities in the Kent field, in which the average differences in depth between the highest and lowest seams is about 400 yds., we find that the average decrease in volatiles throughout this range is 8 per cent., giving an average rate of 2 per cent. per 100 yds. This compares well with Prof. Hickling’s figure for decrease in volatiles in South Wales in the coals of lower rank. Mr. C. A. SEYLER. Prof. Hickling in his address had done good service by directing attention to recent progress in the petrological classification of the sedimentary rocks known as coal. In particular the speaker welcomed Prof. Hickling’s support of Dr. Stopes in the attempt to distinguish the rock-types from the micro- petrological units or macerals and to establish a systematic nomenclature. All coal petrologists recognise that the simple terms ‘ bright ’ and ‘ dull’ coal are inadequate. Another service of Prof. Hickling was to emphasise the fact that the effect of the nature of the plant material was reflected in coal mainly by the amount of hydrogen. In 1900 the speaker had classified coals into species and showed that these species could be grouped into genera according to the hydrogen. Modern microscopic research had shown that these genera were not merely logical categories, but consisted of individuals genetically related. By restricting the comparison to coals of the orthohydrous genus which were chiefly derived from lignified tissue the problem of ‘ rank ’ was greatly simplified. The conception of ‘ rank’ was primarily a geological one and we had no exact knowledge of the factors which produced the change. Until these were known and correlated with chemical composition no SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 373 chemical criterion could be a measure of ‘ rank,’ but at most an index. Chemists were not agreed as to the index of ‘ rank.’ The amount of oxygen, carbon, volatile matter, the calorific value and recently the reactivity had been proposed. All these are simply related to each other when the hydrogen is constant. Since the hydrogen of the orthohydrous coals varies only between narrow limits (5 to 6 per cent.), any of the proposed indices will give the same order of rank approximately but not exactly. It appeared that the geologist and chemist were each waiting for the other to produce a true measure of rank. In the speaker’s opinion it must come from the geo-physicist. The choice of a chemical index was more or less arbitrary and must remain so until we have a quantitative knowledge of the factors which produce metamorphism. Dr. A. RAISTRICK. In my work on the microspores of coal it has been necessary to subject a very wide range of coals to drastic chemical treatment, and I have had the opportunity of noting the very close correspondence of the responsiveness of acoal and itsrank. A recent investigation of the Busty seam of Durham has involved the chemical treatment of samples of that seam from over fifty localities fairly evenly distributed over the whole coalfield and varying in volatile content from 27 per cent. to 39 per cent. The treatment of all samples was standardised, both quantitatively and for time-temperature, and consisted briefly in oxidation of the coal with Schulz’s solution, followed by extraction with caustic potash. The types and proportions of types of microspores obtained proved similar in all samples, and enabled direct correlations to be made, but the quantity of spore material varied very markedly with the rank of the coal. ‘The coals of less than 30 per cent. volatiles have yielded less than one-tenth the amount of spore material given by coals above 35 per cent. volatiles. While the extracts from high rank coals need from four to six times as much washing as those from low ranks, there is much to suggest that fewer spores are present in the high rank coals, as prolonged or modified treatment has in no case enabled a greater yield of spores to be obtained. This work suggests that there are two factors connected with rank: (a) a very different response to chemical treatment, and (6) possibly a much smaller proportion of spore material in coals of high rank. Mr. C. E. MarsHa.t. Among the features of structure which can be compared in different coals perhaps the most obvious is the widely varied condition of preservation of the plant tissues. An examination of such tissues from coals of various ages and ranks, therefore, should reveal whether or not there is any diversity in their mode of preservation which could be correlated with the rank of the coals. As a result of such an examination applied to coals of different tanks (ranging from peat to semi-anthracite) and of various ages (from Carboniferous to Glacial) it has been found that the types of preservation of the cell structures in coals of bituminous and higher ranks are entirely similar to those of the earlier stages. In other words, the same types of cell preservations are common to coals of all ranks and ages. Consequently it seems certain that the structure of the coal is determined in the very early stages of its formation, that geological influences cannot have much effect upon the petrography of the coal seam, and that rank is not appreciably influenced by the degree of degradation achieved in the coal swamp. 374 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. Saturday, September 7. Excursions to (a) North Norfolk Coast (9.30). (6) Sudbourne and Orford (9.30). Sunday, September 8. Excursion to Ipswich, Bramford, Hoxne (10.0). Monday, September 9. Jomst Symposium AND Discussion with Section E (Geography) on Denudation chronology (Section C room) (10.0). Dr. S. W. Woo.pripce.—The principles of denudation chronology, with special reference to south-east and south-west England. The study of erosion surfaces is a young and undeveloped branch of geology, and one that has many purely geographical aspects. Little notice was taken of such features until early in the present century, but since that time many largely isolated and unrelated observations have been made in this country. In both Continental Europe and America the subject has enjoyed a more favourable position. In this discussion a review of the facts and of the methods of inquiry and interpretation will be attempted. The major erosion surfaces entering into the constitution of the British landscape are of two kinds: (a) uplifted peneplains (or peneplanes) formed under subaerial conditions and never covered save by regolith or thin continental deposits ; and (b) stripped planes of unconformity, secondhand peneplains, trimmed by marine abrasion, in most cases. Less extensive surfaces—old valley floors—can also be recognised, and to these also American usage extends the term peneplain, but some alternative term seems desirable. Whether subaerial or marine, erosion surfaces must be expected to show appreciable gradients, quite apart from later warping, if any. Correlation on a basis of essential flatness along directions measured at right angles to present or former coastlines, leads only to absurd and impossible conclusions, in most cases. In all the major regions of Britain which have yet been studied, there are the remains of a gigantic physiographic stairway of erosion levels—a succes- sion of uplifted and dissected base-levels—which contains the elements of a scheme of denudation chronology, running parallel with the later stages of stratigraphical history. Interpretation is hindered, however, by the difficulty of distinguishing between Tertiary and older exhumed surfaces. In these circumstances it is essential that interpretation should begin in south-east England, where surfaces can be dated with reference to deposits of known age. With this principle in mind a summary will be given of the denudation chronology of south-east England, where sub-Eocene, Miocene, sub-Pliocene and various Pleistocene surfaces can be traced, and the form of the sub- Cretaceous surface can also be approximately ascertained. By means of the evidence of river-profiles the later stages of the chronology can be confirmed. The conclusions drawn from the study of these surfaces in south-east England will be briefly applied to the problems of south-west England. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 375 Prof. A. G. Ocitvie.—The mapping of erosion surfaces. Geologists and geographers are interested in denudation surfaces, though their respective view-points differ. For geographers it is essential that the character, extent and distribution of each surface be determined with reasonable accuracy. Investigation of surfaces in the field should therefore always be supplemented by construction of projected profiles by Barrel’s method as developed by D. W. Johnson, and, wherever possible, by erection of the rigid profiles properly spaced in plan. The time has come for serious attempts to map the remnants of separate erosion surfaces in Britain ; for this the reliable O.S. contours are an asset. Special difficulties occur due to the slight separation of surfaces where relief is low and also, as in parts of Scotland, where excessive dissection leaves only small rem- nants. Nevertheless the aim of all workers should be to produce regional maps of uniform type which may afterwards be correlated. AA Commission of the International Geographical Union has suggested a system of mapping and it has already made the correlation necessary to the production of a tentative map of erosion surfaces covering considerable areas of the European continent on the scale 1 : 500,000. A brief report was given of work, with D. L. Linton, aiming at the recognition and the mapping of surfaces in southern Scotland. Prof. H. H. Swrnnerton.—The denudation of the East Midlands. The loftiest surface in this area is situated on the southern extremity of the Pennines at a level of about 1,000 ft. This was for a long time regarded as a pre-Triassic surface which had been buried under the whole of the Mesozoic series. It has been shown that the members of this series, when traced westwards, tend to become thinner, and may never have reached the Pennines, whose surface may therefore have been always exposed. The existence of such superposed streams as the Dove and the Derwent, however, implies the former presence of at least a thin covering possibly of late Cretaceous rocks. Since that was removed this surface has been lowered continuously by denudation, a fact which raises the question, ‘ What, after all, are we trying to date?’ In the adjoining lowlands, on the south and east, there are several erosion levels. The highest of these is at about 650 ft. and is preserved as a fringe around the Pennines and in isolated fragments, such as that of Charnwood. The curves of equilibrium in the upper reaches of those valleys which incise the 1,000 ft. surface conform to this 650 ft. surface. Much of the lowland area is occupied by a very broad shallow valley feature produced in pre-glacial times by the Trent drainage system. The floor of this rises from 300 ft. near Nottingham to 450 ft. south of Ashbourne and in Need- wood Forest. The floor of this valley was dissected in mid-glacial times by the Trent and its tributaries, with the production of those flat-bottomed trench-like valleys which are so characteristic of the area. Mr. A. Austin MILLeErR.—Erosion surfaces in South Wales and South Ireland. The clearly marked erosion surfaces presented by the coastal plateaux of South Wales, from the mouth of the Wye westwards to St. David’s Head, occur at a variety of levels. ‘The most frequently occurring altitudes are 200, 400 and 600 ft., but it is suggested that these plateaux constitute the dissected relicts of a once continuous plane of marine erosion and that the apparent breaks are due to cliffing of the emerged shore plane during the Progressive retreat of the sea. ‘The platform terminates in a degraded 376 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. cliff line at 800 ft. against the Prescelly Hills, but farther east, in Carmarthen- shire, it is difficult to separate this surface from one rising gradually from goo ft. to the mid-Wales platform at 1,500 to 2,000 ft. The 600-ft. platform will be discussed in some detail and the drainage system, developed on the emerged surface, analysed to show at least two erosion cycles graded to progressively lower base-levels. A somewhat similar sequence of events is apparent in South Ireland ; but here the alternation of rock types of markedly differing resistance has brought about an ‘ Appalachian ’ drainage pattern. ‘The erosion surface is preserved on most of the interfluve ridges of more resistant rock, and an attempt will be made to reconstruct the original form and extent of the surface. Mr. J. Hanson-Lowe.—Morphological data of the Channel Islands and their bearing on the Eustatic Theory. The Channel Islands lie well to the south of the southernmost limit of Pleistocene glaciation and are free from volcanic and violent seismic action. Moreover, these Hercynian stumps consist of rocks sufficiently highly resistant to fluvial erosion to warrant the preservation of polycyclic fluvial forms. Furthermore, the three main islands are excellently mapped with small contour intervals and on large scales. These facts suggest that the islands might well throw light on the vexed question of ancient higher sea-levels ; and it is of moment that the three main islands are sufficiently distant one from the other to permit of com- parisons being made between them, each island having been examined individually along morphological lines. The paper deals with the results obtained mainly from the reconstruction of ancient thalwegs, aided by other data afforded by the Clinographic Curve, etc. Léon (Brittany) is not far distant, and the excellent maps available enabled Baulig to deduce certain characteristic levels in this region ; the results of the Channel Island investigation are related in the paper to those obtained in Léon. The accordant data obtained from the maps have been carefully checked by personal observation in the field, particularly in Jersey and Guernsey. Dr. H. C. Versey.—The Tertiary geological history of E. Yorkshire. The occurrence and characters of detached masses of sand on the Yorkshire Wolds are described. The peneplane upon which they rest is correlated with the peneplanes of Cleveland. Excursions to (2) Somerleyton, Kessingland, Covehithe (2.0). (6) Corton, Scratby and the Broads (2.30). (Both excursions repeated on Tuesday.) Tuesday, September 10. Prof. Baron G. DE GEER.—Natural annals so far deciphered for 15,000 years (10.0). Our oldest written records, known from cuneiform inscriptions on clay slabs, do not go much farther back than 4,000 years. Nature has prepared more reliable annals for a longer time, deciphered, so far, for the past 15,000 years. These annals are preserved in slabs of clay which, by their SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 377 variation in thickness, represent a self-registration of years and of the annual radiation from the sun. This registration is specially discernible where marked seasonal variations during the final stage of the Ice Age every summer gave rise to an accentuated flood of melt-water, depositing an annual varve of clay. Such varves are now found on the bottom of late Quaternary inland seas or ice-dammed lakes with brackish or fresh water. Here, the more heavy, cold and muddy melt-water currents follow the bottom, registering every seasonal variation in the transporting power of the water by a cyclic lamination. At open coasts with more heavy salt water the clay was carried out along the surface, and no varve cycles were formed. By means of mapping, measurements, photos and lantern slides it is possible to illustrate this process of sedimentation. By comparing long series of annual varves a definite connection has been found, and this was so reliable that certain overlooked varves could be noted, and afterwards found to exist in their right place and number. As such correspondence was observed between the northern and southern hemispheres as well as under the equator, this proved that all the Quaternary glaciations were synchronous and not alternate, as supposed on several astronomic assump- tions. The widespread and rapid annual variations exhibited by the clay varves indicate, as a cause, the annually varying amount of heat from the sun. The normal variations may depend on a varying amount of meteoric matter in space, more or less obscuring the radiation from the sun. Biennial variations conclusively established, but independent of each other, may indicate some biennial arrangement of the obscuring dust, as in the case of the cometoids. Varve connections have been published for all the Fenno-Scandinavian countries, Scotland, Iceland, United States, Canada, the Alps and the Himalayas, British East Africa near the Equator, and, in the southern hemisphere, Patagonia. 'Teleconnections have been determined, but not yet published, in the southern hemisphere (New Zealand) and in the northern hemisphere (Newfoundland and some parts of Russia and Siberia). Dr. W. J. ARKELL.—A reinterpretation of the Purbeck and Ridgeway faults in Dorset (10.30). The interpretation of the Purbeck and Ridgeway Faults as thrust faults from north to south, accepted for the last 40 years, is untenable. The only thrusting has been on a trivial scale from south to north, as shown at Durdle Cove and Swyre Head. The Purbeck Fault at Ballard Point can be best explained as a normal fault downthrowing north. It does not _ teach the sea between White Nothe and Bat’s Head, near Lulworth, as marked on the Survey map, where only a synclinal bend in the chalk can _ be found, accompanied by crushing in the axial plane. The Ridgeway Fault is accompanied by a belt of shattering and upward drag in the chalk to the north of it, and downward drag and contortions with small reversed faults are shown to exist in the Purbeck Beds adjoining iton the south. Hence it is inferred that the Ridgeway Fault is a reversed fault upthrown on the south side. At its western extremity it almost coincides with the Abbotsbury Fault, a normal fault of intra-Cretaceous age downthrowing south about 700 ft. The two faults are believed to tun approximately parallel for five miles and to scissor across east of Upwey. The inliers of Oxford Clay and Lower Oolites at Ridgeway and Bincombe are explained as a wedge of rock that has remained on the upthrow side of both faults and been bared locally by erosion. The famous ‘ dyke’ of 378 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. Oxford Clay at Ridgeway cutting is a slice severed from the downthrow face of the Ridgeway Fault at the point where the intra-Cretaceous and Tertiary faults nearly coincide. The throws of the faults at Ridgeway and Bincombe need not be nearly so great as has been supposed. Mr. N. E. Opett—The structure of the Franz fosef region of north-east Greenland (11.0). Recent work by British and Danish expeditions has shown the existence of Caledonian, Hercynian, and Tertiary orogenies in North-East Greenland. During the Boyd Expedition of 1933, evidence was found in the western part of the Caledonian belt, north of Petermann Peak, of (a) stratigraphical continuity of succession from the lower grade, Petermann Series (Wordie), into the higher grade types of the Central Metamorphic Complex (Parkinson and Whittard) ; (6) the Metamorphic Complex, having mainly acquired its condition dynamically during, and in part prior to, Caledonian orogeny, and not thermally on account of wholesale granite intrusion or syntexis (Backlund) ; (c) the local granites occurring as sheet-intrusions and not batholiths (Whittard et al.), and being involved in the Caledonian folding ; (d) overfolding and not merely tilting of the Petermann Series ; (e) highly probable equivalence of the Petermann Series and the Eleonore Bay Formation (Koch), or Franz Josef Beds (Wordie). In western Ymer Island and the neighbourhood block-movements, and some minor local thrustings, appear in part to be post-Caledonian, and probably Hercynian, in age. The Giesecke Mountains are an inclined Tertiary block composed mainly of Upper Palzozoic and Mesozoic strata, while their northern end is supposedly of Kainozoic rocks. ‘They are extensively intruded by basalts of the latter age, and some acid irruptives of similar, or possibly Hercynian age. Discussion on Geology in schools (11.30). Prof. A. E. TRUEMAN. From time to time the suitability of geology as a science subject for schools has been advocated, notably by Prof. W. W. Watts, whose Presidential Address to Section C, in 1903, dealt comprehensively with the functions of geology in education. Those geologist who have opposed its introduction into schools have done so chiefly because they feel that a student should acquire some knowledge of other sciences before com- mencing geology, and because they prefer that geological teaching should be commenced at the University : so far as the latter reason is concerned it certainly does not affect the case of those who will not proceed to University work in Science. It seems particularly desirable that such students should gain some acquaintance with geology, which is likely to afford a more lasting interest to many than corresponding periods spent in chemistry and physics. Recently, the tendency to carry school courses to a further stage, associated with the development of the Higher School Certificate, has created new opportunities for the teaching of science in schools, but it has led to an early specialisation which is greatly to be regretted ; the limited choice of science subjects in schools, especially in the smaller ones, has given rise to a particularly difficult problem. The introduction of geology at this stage would be of great value. Many educationists are profoundly disturbed by the tendencies in science SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 379 teaching, which is thought to be increasingly dogmatic and specialised. Many experienced teachers hold that a genuinely scientific outlook can be acquired in chemistry and physics during the post-graduate years only ; some biologists hold that the same is true for their subjects. Geology is almost unique in that the beginner can feel the excitement of making new discoveries, and it may perhaps be claimed that as a medium for the develop- ment of a scientific outlook, few subjects are more suitable than geology. Partly as a result of dissatisfaction with the present position of school science, there is a tendency for the establishment of courses in General Science up to the First School Certificate stage; the present intention appears to be to include in such courses some physics, chemistry and biology. Geology should also have a place in this scheme, and it is hoped that efforts will be made to secure its inclusion. The position of geology in schools must also be considered in relation to the growth of geography. In some instances much geology is included in geography syllabuses, and provided that the subject is taught adequately, it may not matter greatly if its name is never mentioned. It is, however, unfortunate that the rise of geography has not led to a greater recognition of the value of geological training. Prof. P. G. H. Boswett, O.B.E., F.R.S. In my address to Section C at York in 1932, I emphasised the value of geology as a cultural subject in schools, and expressed the opinion that the breadth of view it unconsciously engenders, the perspective it gives, the enthusiasm it inspires and the training in field-observation it affords, are all arguments for its inclusion in the curriculum of every student. I even quoted the words of the then Prime Minister, Mr. Ramsay MacDonald, to the effect that ‘ if any one of the sciences were selected as the key to all the other sciences—as that which in its subject-matter and history, the history of its evolution, enforces the true scientific method—geology might be selected as that science.’ But I also expressed the opinion that it might be undesirable further to overload an already heavy school curriculum by adding geology as a full subject in a regular course of study. If, however, our science could be introduced more widely into schools as part of a general course in elementary science—a revival and extension of Huxley’s physiography—it could with advantage be supplemented by field-excursions and related to the activities c school societies and museums. And I know that it is very popular with oys. Latterly, the Imperial College has contributed to this end by introducing _ into a new scheme for the award of Entrance Scholarships a general science paper of which sections are devoted to Chemistry, Physics, Botany, Zoology and Geology. The object of the new scheme is to attract to a scientific career candidates who have had a good general education but who have not begun to specialise in science. Papers are set in English, History, Foreign Languages, Mathematics and General. Science.. While it is still oy to judge, the results to date appear to indicate that the experiment. is justified. _ Dr. A. KincsLey WELLS. There is no doubt that were geology to occupy in schools the position that it should by virtue of its scientific interest, its high cultural value and its fundamental importance to mankind, the University lecturer would have no cause to complain of the size of his classes, and there would be no 380 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. cause for anxiety concerning the future of geological departments in the Universities. By comparison, geography occupies an important place in the curricula of most modern schools, and is flourishing in most universities. It should be recognised that it is almost impossible to turn out a good geographer unless he has an adequate geological foundation upon which to build. The speaker urges the need for regarding geology as a ‘ pre- requisite ’ for all students reading for a degree in geography. Within his experience very few, who have once taken up the study of geology, drop it subsequently ; they prefer to offer it as their second subject. Here another serious difficulty arises: those responsible for training many of these students as teachers do not regard this as a good combination of subjects. Much good might be done by urging upon those responsible for making appointments in the teaching profession, that the first essential is that the candidate should be a good teacher, a master of teaching technique. Given this, any University student with a good degree shows by his academic qualification his ability to imbibe information, and should be regarded as reasonably qualified to teach any of the subjects, usually four in number, taken in the Intermediate examination. If this were admitted the charge that geology is not a good teaching subject would not arise, the number of geologically-minded teachers would steadily increase, and the problem might well solve itself. Miss M. E. ToMuinson. For several years the speaker has had charge of the Geography in a large mixed school in Birmingham and has had experience of the great interest which pupils have taken in Geology, both in field excursions and in talks organised by the school Scientific Society, and also in the Geology which is, of necessity, introduced into Geography lessons. Great enthusiasm has been aroused, and it has always been a matter of regret that lack of time in and out of school has limited these activities. Judging from this interest the speaker is convinced that the study of Geology should be available for school pupils, particularly those who do not proceed to a university, since it creates an interest in phenomena out of doors, which may well develop into a lasting life interest. It may not lead to important geological results, but will undoubtedly contribute to the happiness of the individual by helping him to a satisfying means of enjoying his leisure, now too often spent indoors with cinema and jazz. Co-operation in the teaching of Geology and Geography is essential in each school to show the pupils the relationship between the two subjects and to prevent overlap. Mr. A. N. THoMas. To meet possible objections to the teaching of Geology in schools on the grounds of impracticability, the speaker recounted his own experiences as a pupil in a large secondary school in South Wales, where Geology is taught to the Higher School Certificate standard with remarkable success. ‘The school is situated in one of the ‘ natural laboratories ’ referred to by Prof. Trueman, where curiosity in geological phenomena is naturally aroused. The interest of the pupils has been fostered by the formation of a Geological and Geographical Society which organises excursions, promotes discussions and solicits lectures. These activities have stimulated the interest of many people in the district outside the general sphere of school influence. A representative collection of British rocks and fossils is being formed, having as a nucleus the personal collection of the Geology master, supplemented SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 381 by purchased specimens and by contributions collected by past and present students. Among those who have qualified in Geology from this school some have proceeded to the University, others to Training Colleges, mining schools, while others have entered business life. The examination results have been excellent: for example, this year 13 pupils obtained their Higher Certificate; of these, 7 took Geology, 5 passing with distinction and 2 with credit. There is some prejudice, however, against the teaching of Geology, and it is hoped that one of the results of this discussion will be to remove this and give Geology a fair chance of surviving on its own merits. Prof. A. H. Cox, Prof. A. E. Gittican, Prof. W. W. Watts, F.R.S., and others. AFTERNOON, Excursion to Corton, Scratby and the Broads (2.15). Wednesday, September 11. Mr. J. H. TayLtor.—The use of heavy minerals in correlating igneous rocks (10.0). The communication gives a summary of the results achieved in an examination of the validity of the correlation of intrusive igneous rocks by means of their accessory minerals as elaborated in a series of papers by Dr. A. W. Groves, who dealt in particular with the Armorican intrusives of South-West England, the Channel Islands and the Cotentin. American interest in the subject is evidenced by the appointment of a committee of the National Research Council to deal with the subject, but as yet the opinion _ of the members seems to be divided. The author has thoroughly tested the hypothesis by examining the Tertiary granites of northern Ireland and elsewhere, applying quantitative methods involving counting all the heavy non-magnetic accessories and the several types of zircon and apatite. In the large composite intrusion of the Mourne Mountains the following results have been reached : (a) Rocks of the four members of the complex are individually distinctive as regards their major constituents and texture ; but cases are recorded in which rocks of the same petrographic type yield dissimilar accessory suites, while rocks dissimilar in type and belonging to different members of the complex yield similar accessory suites. (6) Samples from different parts of any one member of the complex vary considerably in regard to the mineral species present, their varietal characters and relative proportions. (c) The vertical distribution of zircon and fluorite has been carefully examined and it is evident that the depth of erosion has an appreciable effect upon the proportions and varieties of these minerals. Finally, by comparison of the granites of the Mourne Mountains with others, both Tertiary and older, it is concluded that the Tertiary granites cannot be separated by their accessory minerals alone from those of other ages. Dr. A. T. J. Dottar.—The geology of Ailsa Craig (10.30). Ailsa Craig, at the south end of the Firth of Clyde, is a heterogeneous mass of riebeckite microgranite (the ailsyte of Prof. N. F. Heddle), cut by a swarm of basic dykes. Special interest attaches to the sedimentary 382 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. xenoliths, drusy facies and columnar joints in the ailsyte ; to the distribution and petrography of the dolerite and basalt sheets, and to a raised beach at fifteen feet above present mean high-water mark. The Craig has the form of a blunt sugar-loaf, rising to a height of 1,114 ft. above the sea at a point nine and a half miles due west of Girvan, Ayrshire. In plan it is sub-rectangular, with its greatest length (over three-quarters of a mile) north-south, and its greatest breadth (over half a mile) east-west. On the south and west are vertical, columnar cliffs, while on the north- east and east are more stable joint-controlled slopes ; from the east coast a cusp-shaped spit of shingle projects for nearly three hundred yards, and storm beaches encircle the isle. , The ailsyte occurs in coarse and fine varieties, known, locally, as the common rock and the red and blue hones respectively. The coarse rock, which includes drusy types, has been used in the past for road metal and monu- ments ; the fine varieties are still sold for curling stones. A few small but well-preserved sedimentary xenoliths have been found by the author in both varieties. The basic dykes, which number about twenty, are sub-vertical sheets of coarse and medium dolerite or basalt, as much as thirty-nine feet thick, with a dominant north-south trend but a local zigzag course round groups of ailsyte columns. Weathering in these rocks has given rise to parallel ‘steps’ and clais (Gaelic for a ‘ trench’) structures on the slopes of the Craig, and to caves of flask-like profile at present sea-level as well as at the height of the fifteen-foot raised beach. The latter is marked by pebble deposits bearing erratics, and an impersistent coastal notch. Dr. S. W. Wootpriwce.—The glaciation of the London basin and the' evolution of the Tertiary escarpment in Hertfordshire (11.0). This communication directs attention to certain problems connected with the belt of drift deposits containing Triassic debris and extending from Goring Gap to Hertford, along the northern margin of the London Basin. Dr. R. L. Sherlock contends that the pre-Glacial Thames followed this course. Other workers have examined parts of the belt and reached partial conclusions. A thorough re-examination of the evidence has been under- taken to see whether Dr. Sherlock’s hypothesis can be substantiated or amplified, and what alternative possibilities should be considered. The morphological features of the region considered alone point to con- clusions difficult to reconcile with those derived from the drift deposits. In western Herts, two wind-gaps in the Tertiary escarpment appear to indicate drainage across the line of the Vale of St. Albans at a relatively late date in the evolution of the region. ‘The eastern end of the escarpment is unbreached by wind gaps and any cross drainage must have antedated the present cycle of erosion. This line of argument, however, leads to a complete dilemma when the drift deposits of the Vale are considered. At least two sets of glacial or fluvioglacial deposits occur separated by 100 ft. or more in level. The lower series represents ice advancing from the east after the abandonment of the wind-gaps. The upper series, largely fluvio- glacial, is apparently of westerly provenance, but the relation of the drift to the wind gaps is very difficult to interpret—and the reading of the physio- graphy of the whole region must turn on this point. The problems at issue were discussed in the field during the Centenary Meeting in London, and this paper offers a further contribution to an unsolved problem. ' REPORTS OF RESEARCH COMMITTEES (11.30). ——— oe eet Se TS SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 383 SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY. Thursday, September 5. PRESIDENTIAL ApprEss by Prof. F. BaLrour-BROwNE, on The species problem (10.0). (See p. 63). Mr. F. Leney.—The zoological collections of the Norwich Museum (11.0). Prof. C. M. Yoncr.—Mode of life and symbiosis in the Tridacnide (11.20). The family Tridacnide is composed of the two genera Tridacna and Hippopus. ‘The former includes a variety of species some of which, in- cluding the Giant Clam, TJ. derasa, the largest of all bivalves, are un- attached in adult life, resting, hinge undermost, on the surface of reefs. Other species of T7idacna bore into rock, but in a different manner from any other bivalve ; in these the byssus is retained throughout life. Hippopus hippopus lives unattached on the surface of reefs. The mantle edges are greatly enlarged, especially in all species of Tridacna. In this are immense numbers of zooxanthellz of about thesame size as those occurring in corals but differing from these in important details. ‘They invariably occur enclosed in blood cells within blood sinuses. ‘The mantle edges are curled back over the edge of the shell, affording the maximum of light for the alge within. The so-called ‘ eyes’ in the mantle increase the effective light-receptive surface. The digestive diverticula are much reduced in number, and around those that remain are immense numbers of blood cells containing zooxanthellz in all stages of digestion. The Tridacnidz have been profoundly modified owing to their as- sociation with zooxanthelle, which they literally ‘ farm ’ in the mantle edges and later consume. ‘The twisting of the mantle in relation to the body mass, which has given rise to extensive controversy in the past, is the direct result of this association. Mr. H. Ramace.—The spectrographic analysis of animal tissues (12.0). Considerable use has been made of spectrographic analysis in the past ten years for the detection and estimation of the mineral constituents of tissues. Much new knowledge has been gained, and a new field of work _ has been opened up. Arc and spark spectra provide very sensitive tests for most of the elements, but the oxy-coal gas flame method is sufficiently _ sensitive for the detection of almost all the metals usually found in tissues and it gives, in less time and in one operation, more accurate quantitative results. By its means the specific composition of tissues and organs has been determined, and changes in composition during life have been followed in ways hitherto scarcely possible by the laborious processes of chemical analysis which only were available. Dr. G. S. Carter and Mr. J. A. H. Manper.—The flight of the flying- fish, Exoceetus (12.30). _ A description of the flight is given, and its function as an escape reaction in which the fish makes use of refraction at the surface of the water to _ €scape a pursuer below the surface is discussed. re) 384 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. At the beginning of the flight the fins vibrate passively as a result of the movements of the tail, which at this time is being actively vibrated below the surface of the water. During the remainder of the flight no evidence can be obtained of any flapping of the fins by the fish. That no such flapping occurs is confirmed by the results of dissections of the fin muscles. These dissections show that no muscles are present which could result in flapping movements by their contraction. It must be concluded that the flight is a glide, and that after the preliminary stage, when the tail is vibrated below the surface of the water, the fish obtains no energy from the contraction of its muscles. From measurements of cinematograph photographs of the fish in flight, taken by Mr. E. N. Willmer during a voyage across the Atlantic, it has been calculated that the normal flying speed of the fish is never greater than 25-30 miles an hour. This is too low a speed to enable a fish of the size and weight of Exocetus to glide in still air for the distances and times which are often observed. It is suggested that disturbance of the air above the uneven surface of the water may be the source from which the fish is able to obtain energy for a longer glide than would be possible in still air. AFTERNOON. Prof. F. A. E. Crew.—Colour inheritance in the Budgerigar (2.15). Attention is drawn to the value of the budgerigar as a material for the experimental study of evolution. All the existing colour varieties have arisen out of one wild type within the memory of living man, and it is known that the wild type form itself has not been crossed with any other species. A mutant gene (b) is responsible for the blue plumage colouration ; (y) for the yellow ; (D) in the simplex state turns light green into dark green, and in the duplex state into olive ; sky-blue into cobalt and mauve ; yellow into dark yellow and yellow-olive. Greywing (gr) is an allele of yellow which lightens all pigmentation, especially that of the wing undulations. Cinnamon (cn) is a sex-linked recessive replacing the black by brown. It is not yet known whether the buttercup colour (yellow without the green suffusion) is another allele of yellow or is due to modifiers. White is the homozygous blue-yellow compound. Fallow, lutino and albino are new characters, the genetics of which is not yet known. The budgerigar is of interest also because autosomal colour mosaics are common. A series of some two dozen of these ‘ halfsiders ’ is discussed and explained by an appeal to the chromosome elimination hypothesis. Prof. W. GarstaNc.—The marine biological station at Bermuda (2.45). Dr. H. B. Cotr.—The nature and function of disruptive colouration in animals (3.15). Concealment by means of adaptive colouration is an important factor in the lives of different animals. The problem of concealing colouration must be approached as a field study : the significance of colour and pattern can only be appreciated in reference to the habits of animals in nature, and to the habits of potential enemies and prey. The function of concealing colouration is deception—the rendering of an animal unrecognisable. Theoretically the concealment of an exposed object depends for its success upon the creation of certain optical illusions, underlying which there are three fundamental principles: (1) the resemblance in colour between an SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 385 object and its background ; (2) the obliteration of light and shade by counter lighting and shading ; and (3) the breaking up of form by means of a super- imposed disruptive pattern. These principles are those actually found to operate widely in nature. Disruptive patterns are considered in relation to the habits, posture and habitat of the animals exhibiting them ; a special aspect of disruptive colouration, described as coincident disruptive colouration, has for its essential feature the extension of the pattern across separate but adjacent parts of the body. ‘This greatly strengthens the disruptive effect by uniting parts morphologically separate, by concealing otherwise conspicuous organs, and by replacing the real form by a superimposed apparent configuration. The effect may further be intensified by actual modification of form and by diffusion of outline. The above principles have important applications in relation to camouflage in modern warfare. Dr. R. H. THouLess.—Protective colouration as a problem in the psychology of perception (3.45). The Gestalt theory of perception makes possible a psychological state- ment of the principles of the concealing colouration of animals in terms of the organisational properties of a perceptual field. ‘The perceptual field is organised in such a way that parts of it are more or less segregated as separate configurations (Gestalten) seen as figures against a background. The tendency of such separate parts of the perceptual field to appear as mental units may be strong or weak. Strong (or insistent) configuration is determined by such factors as the possession of a definite, continuous and smooth boundary, difference in brightness (tone value) from the background, movement of the configuration as a whole relative to the background, etc. Cryptic colouration makes the configuration proper to the animal adopting it (the body configuration) as weak as possible. Disruptive colouration makes an alternative configuration much stronger than the body configuration. Flash colours may be a special device for dealing with the insistency of a configuration moving relative to the background. An attempt will be made to illustrate some of the relevant properties of visual configurations by epidiascope projection. Friday, September 6. Dr. J. A. Kircuinc.—The osmotic function of contractile vacuoles (10.0). Contractile vacuoles occur in all fresh-water Protozoa, and in some marine ones. In Peritricha the rate of output of fluid is increased by a decrease, and decreased by an increase in the osmotic pressure of the external medium. A contractile vacuole probably prevents excessive swelling of the body by ejecting water as fast as this comes in through the body surface by osmosis, and is probably more important for this purpose in fresh-water forms. How- ever, when marine Peritricha are transferred to dilute sea-water the contractile vacuole, by its increased output, probably controls the body volume. Suppression of vacuolar activity with cyanide leads to an immediate increase in the body volume ; and removal of the cyanide results in a rapid recovery of the contractile vacuole followed by a shrinkage of the body. Vacuolar action must involve the separation of water from salts, and therefore the expenditure of energy, which is probably obtained directly by an oxidative process. ‘The inhibitory effect of cyanide is immediate, as in the case of the selective process of the kidney tubules, and not delayed as in the case 386 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. of muscular contraction and other mechanisms where the immediate process is an anzrobic one. Mr. L. C. BeapLe.—Osmotic regulation in some brackish water inverte- brates (10.30). Experiments with several brackish water animals (Gunda ulve, Nereis diversicolor, Nereis virens and Arenicola marina) have shown that the weight changes undergone on transference from normal to dilute sea-water are essentially similar in all these forms. A rapid rise in weight due to uptake of water is checked at a maximum considerably lower than would be expected if osmotic equilibrium were established. There follows a fall to an equilibrium value above the original weight. The general activity may fall during this process, but is ultimately regained. A typical marine invertebrate such as Nereis cultrifera, when subjected to these conditions, will take up water continuously until osmotic equilibrium is reached. The nature of the water control in the above brackish water forms is under investigation. Experiments indicate (1) that different species and in- dividuals of the same species at different seasons differ in their powers of control ; (2) that the water enters the body through the skin; (3) that the rate of entrance and consequently the power of control is influenced by temperature and by the calcium content of the sea-water ; (4) that the water content of the body is not primarily controlled by the excretory organs, but that the animal is able to regulate the rate of inflow through the skin. Symposium on The herring problem (11.0) :— Mr. E. Forp.—The nature, exteyt and significance of vertebral vari- ation in the herring with reference to the ‘ race’ problem (11.0). Dr. W. C. Hopcson.—Recent additions to the knowledge of the herrings of the southern North Sea (11.30). Since it became possible to forecast the general characteristics of the main fishery of the southern North Sea, attention has been directed to the study of factors which have an influence on the swimming of the herrings. Besides phytoplankton concentrations, it appears that wind, either before or during the fishery, has a considerable effect on the catches of the drifters, and a detailed study of the variation in the amount of fish landed in relation to the direction of the wind is at present being carried out. Further, lunar influence on the catches of herrings, especially in the southern part of the North Sea, is considerable, and the characteristics of the fishery vary according to the date of the October full moon. It is also evident that there is a connection between the relative strength of year-classes and the temperature of the water in January in the Channel, which is the main spawning ground of the herrings of the southern area. Prof. A. C. Harpy.—The herring in relation to the plankton (12.0). Earlier work on the planktonic food of the herring is reviewed and reference made to the work of Pearcey, Savage and Hardy on the influence of phytoplankton on the herring. Recent work carried out with Dr. G. T. D. Henderson, Mr. C. E. Lucas and Mr. J. H. Fraser from the Uni- versity College of Hull is described. ‘The distribution of the herring in relation to that of the plankton is studied by experiments with an instrument, SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 387 the plankton indicator, used on herring drifters during 1930-1934. Positive correlations between the number of herring caught and their food Calanus and negative correlations with phytoplankton have been demonstrated. Other correlations are suggested. The instrument is now used com- mercially. The progress made with a wide survey of the plankton by means of continuous plankton recorders towed by steamships crossing the North Sea is briefly described, and a general review made of the distribution of the herring fisheries in relation to the plankton. The continuous re- corder survey is being conducted in close association with the Fisheries Department of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, who are making a more detailed study of the plankton in relation to the herring in certain areas of the North Sea. Mr. R. S. Wimpeenny.—The plankton communities of the North Sea and their relation to the herring fishery. (A résumé of work done by Lowestoft Planktologists) (12.30). It has already been shown that the phytoplankton forms at times such dense patches that the movements and shoaling of the herring are inter- fered with. In this contribution the development and movements of these patches are considered for the past twelve years, but with especial reference to 1933 and 1934. 1933 produced the most luxuriant and dense growth of Rhizosolenia styliformis yet observed and also an unusually high salinity in the area of its occurrence. This was difficult to account for, and the possibility of its having been caused by the photosynthetic activity of the diatom itself is discussed. In both 1933 and 1934 there was a tendency for the autumn herring shoals (as revealed by the charted catches) to mass against the edge of a diatom patch. A similar orientation was observed when some of the zooplankton organisms caught by the Hensen net were charted. Zoo- plankton are not absent even in dense phytoplankton patches, but in these areas the community consists of a greater proportion of young forms. It is possible that the phytoplankton patches may be nursery grounds and there may be a physiological gradient for the zooplankton between the edge and centre of a patch. Similarly herring that shoal prior to spawning may be taking up a position in relation to the phytoplankton patch that has a connection with the physiology of reproduction. AFTERNOON. CENTENARY OF THE LANDING OF DARWIN ON THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS, AND OF THE BIRTH OF THE HYPOTHESIS OF THE ‘ ORIGIN OF SPECIES.’ Prof. Sir E. B. Poutton, F.R.S.—Introduction (2.15). Prof. J. H. AsHwortu, F.R.S.—Charles Darwin in Edinburgh, October 1825 to April 1827 (2.45). Information obtained chiefly from a notebook of observations made by Darwin and from the minute book of the Plinian Society of the University of Edinburgh, a biological society of which Darwin was a member from November 28, 1826, until he left Edinburgh in April 1827. 388 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. Prof. G. D. Hate Carpenter.—Charles Darwin and entomology (3.10). Galapagos insects. Similar habits of ant-lions in Australia and Europe suggest unity of creation in 1836: by 1845 view-point changed. Colour- ation of insects formerly ascribed to need for concealment : bright colours resembled flowers. Unpleasant odours repelled enemies: no one correlated this with conspicuousness and peculiar habits. Bates in 1862 described resemblances of butterflies to others, not nearly related, conspicuous and avoided by enemies, as ‘ Mimetic Analogies’ produced by Natural Selection. Reason for conspicuousness explained in 1867 by Wallace for brightly coloured caterpillars on appeal by Darwin. Natural selection explains (1) association of conspicuous colouration with habits displaying it, toughness, and repugnant qualities ; (2) acquisition of conspicuousness by a form lacking the other qualities ; (3) why mimicry deceives the artist and not the anatomist, and (4) production of mimetic effect by different means. Coincidence, affinity, or similarity of environment cannot explain niceties of geographical distribution of model and mimic. Observations and experiments on insectivorous vertebrates show pre- ferential feeding according to demands of theory. Darwin stressed insects as exemplifying sexual selection, but elaborate scent-producing apparatus in males, acrobatic performances, and pre- sentation of gifts to females provide little evidence of preferential choice by female of one particular male. Modification of whole groups of insects and flowers for mutual benefit strong argument for natural selection. Prof. E. W. MacBripg, F.R.S.—Darwin and the problem of the population of the Galapagos Islands (3.30). Darwin’s reputation as a naturalist and a great observer seated be secure if it rested on his description of the Galapagos Islands alone. In a masterly chapter in The Voyage of the Beagle he makes these islands live before our eyes. We see their arid burnt surfaces of lava studded with innumerable cones ; the great tortoises and the hard beaten paths which they pursue in their search for water; the two peculiar lizards obviously nearly related and unlike the Iguanas, but one clearly adapted for life in water and the other for life on land; we recognise the curious fact that the main islands, so closely similar in their physical features, are inhabited by species of birds and insects closely allied but nevertheless differing in the different islands. In The Voyage of the Beagle he speculates on the mystery of exe remote islands having been centres of so much creative activity, but in The Origin of Species he puts forward as an explanation ‘ Natural Selection.’ At another meeting of this section I have maintained that this explanation really resolves itself into falling back on ‘ chance’ as a cause, and such a course I regard as unscientific. But the only alternative course is to suggest reaction to the environment as the cause of specific characters, and it might be asked how environment differs in such similar islands. Darwin suggests the existence of different proportions of enemies, but this is in the highest degree unlikely. A precisely similar phenomenon was described by Kammerer in his description of the varieties of lizards in- habiting the rocky islets of the Adriatic. He shows that in one islet the male has a rosy flush on the breast in the breeding season, and in another during the whole of the year, and yet there are no natural enemies as far as Kammerer could discover. One islet is more washed by spray than the other, that is all the difference that could be discovered between them. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 389 An animal is not a piece of clockwork, but as Macdougal has pointed out, a centre of active striving. It rises up to meet the environment, and its effort alters its growth in every character. Mr. H. W. Parkxer.—The herpetological fauna of the Galapagos Archi- pelago (3.50). A century ago it was the reptiles which gave ‘ the most striking character to the zoology of these islands.’ It was not the multiplicity of species, but the enormous numbers of individuals and the fact that ‘ the different islands . . . are inhabited by a different set of beings’ (Darwin, Fournal of Researches) which most impressed Darwin, and the combination of these two features, the one implying competition and the other change, first suggested the idea of cause and effect—selection and the origin of species. This fauna has, in the last hundred years, been decimated ; many of the larger species have been completely exterminated, and others have been so reduced in numbers that to-day not a dozen specimens exist on islands which formerly supported thousands. These larger forms, Giant- Tortoises and Iguanid Lizards, have a commercial value, and their des- truction is due to direct human action. But the smaller lizards and snakes which are of no economic importance have also been seriously affected by the commensal animals accidentally or deliberately introduced by man. The future of this fauna, so full of historical interest and possibilities for research, is bleak indeed ; irreparable damage has already been done and only immediate and drastic action can hope to save any fragment of it for posterity. Dr. P. R. Lowe.—The finches of the Galapagos Islands in relation to Darwin’s conception of species (4.10). No attempt is made to give a general description of the birds of the Galapagos. The very peculiar and interesting condition which exists in connection with one group, viz. the Geospizids, or finches. They are the dominant group, and the diversity presented by their colouration, colour- pattern and external structure far surpasses anything found elsewhere in the world either on islands or the mainland masses. When Darwin came to work out his collection of birds from the Galapagos he was struck with the diversity existing among the finches from the various islands and thought that each island had its own peculiar variant. These finches are therefore historical in that they inspired Darwin with his ideas on the subject of the effects of environment, natural selection, etc., in the origin of species. But a very different condition exists. ‘There are some twenty islands in the Galapagos group, on all of which these finches are found, and on the different forms of which no less than sixty-seven specific, or subspecific, names have been bestowed by systematists. The most conservative admit forty, and their distribution is very remarkable, for some of the islands, as for example, James, Charles, and Indefatigable, have as many as ten or eleven different forms comprised within their limits; while the little Wenman, seventy-eight miles from the nearest point of Albemarle, has six (referred by systematists to three genera). Duncan Island, again, with an area of only ten square miles, has no less than ten different forms (com- prised in five genera) herded together. Compared with other insular groups such a condition of things is phe- nomenal. It seems clear too, from descriptions published of the various 390 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. islands, that the environmental conditions existing cannot be regarded as satisfactory factors which have caused this extraordinary diversity. To what then can it be ascribed ? (1) Is it due to hybridisation ? (2) Were the segregates of a cross between ancestral forms distributed over a large insulated area which was subsequently broken up by subsidences or upthrusts leading to the present disposition of the islands ? (3) Is it due to the fact that the natural tendency to vary resident in all organisms has been uncontrolled by any selective action ? No attempt is made to answer these and other questions. The Galapagos problem can only be solved by establishing a biological station on the spot where experiments in genetics can be conducted. Monday, September 9. Discussion on ‘ The species problem’ based on the Presidential Address (10.0). Prof. E. W. MacBripg, F.R.S. Even if he could not agree with everything the President said, the speaker recognised that the President had the true zoological point of view. For the species problem was the zoological problem ; as Lankester said at the meeting of the Association in York in 1906, there was this in common between the Church and zoological science, that both had set their hearts not on the present but on the distant future. The course of evolution was the problem which distinguished zoology from its allied sciences of com- parative physiology and histology. Prof. MacBride agreed with the President that the theory of natural selection did not account for the evolu- tion of all species. In his opinion it accounted for the evolution of no species. It was simply a dishonest truism and signified merely that ‘ the survivors survived.’ It covertly assumed that small heritable variations in all directions were constantly occurring ‘ by chance’ and the chance corre- spondence of one of these ‘ random variations ’ with the needs of the environ- ment determined the survival of the individual. This, so far as modern research went, was simply not true. He thought that the President was right in stressing the unbroken passage from biological races to sub-species and eventually species. But the President should not be distressed by the fact that we could not see within our lifetime the inheritance of environmentally produced differences of structure. The ‘ engraining ’ of environmental effects was a very slow process. Woltereck examining lakes in South Bavaria found no peculiar species of Daphnid Crustacea in them, but only peculiar sub-species. These lakes were morainic lakes left behind by the recession of the great Alpine glacier of the Ice Age, and could not be less than 10,000 years old. The President was also worried because he could not see the utility of certain ‘ characters.’ Let him remind the President that characters were abstraction. What lived and survived was not the character but the animal. A character was a peculiarity of growth, and the growth of the animal in all its parts was a response to the demands of the environment. Certain zoologists finding colour variations in parts of gastropod shells which were covered by the mantle and therefore invisible, must be due to chance. One of our brilliant younger naturalists had shown that in one gastropod at least these colour varieties were correlated with different kinds of food. e —_—_— —— -s SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 391 Lastly, many naturalists had emphasised the difficulty of seeing how one structure presumably derived from another could have been evolved, except by chance mutations. He would remind them where, as in lineage series, the actual course of evolution was known, the functional nature of the slow gradual changes was evident. Let what we know not be shaken by what we do not know. Dr. R. GuRNEY. The distribution of fresh-water Entomostraca shows, in many cases, precise association of species with particular environments which can only be accounted for by almost unlimited means of dispersal and selective destruction. The trivial structural differences between pairs of species cannot have survival value, but must be accompanied by physiological differences which cannot be estimated. Evidence can be given of structural changes directly caused by change of environment, but these changes are so small that the direct influence of environment cannot be one of the main factors in evolution. Prof. H. L. Hawkins. Palzontology shows the history of the relation between organisms and environment. Most fossil evidence that is reasonably consecutive is found in marine organisms; and even there no genetic relationships can be proved. Given a constant environment, the tendency of the struggle for existence is to prevent the origin of species ; but the histories of the Micrasters and Gryphzas show that progressive change proceeds in defiance of this tendency. Such evolutional changes affect characters that are only incidentally con- nected with physiological efficiency, although they may prove fatal when carried too far. Such cases imply the existence of a directional momentum of change that is wholly intrinsic. Changing environment may cause migration or extinction ; but it cannot be proved to produce direct adaptive change. The correlation between organisms and their environments is most easily explained by the influence of habitat on structure; but in many cases this leaves the ‘ choice’ of environment as a problem. Any effect caused by environment is limited by the potentials of the organism, and is subordinate to the course of intrinsic change. Dr. W. K. Spencer, F.R.S. The species clusters are those arranged around evolving lines of starfish found in the chalk of Western Europe. Here there was fairly uniform physical conditions existing over a wide area for a very considerable time. Evolution was gradual and in definite directions. The changes involved are increase in diameter, in depth of body, and in modifications of shape and of ornament of marginalia. ‘These modifications are parallel in several independent lines. ‘The ornament characters could have had little func- tional importance. They are definitely related to the age of the lines and may be indices of physiological changes in the race. Branches from lines, giving new genera and species, seem to owe their new character in part because of acceleration in their racial history giving earlier maturity and premature senility. There is no evidence of suppression of lines by competition. Lines which have become rare and then disappear are those which have had a Oo2 392 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. long history behind them. The lines which are most productive in new species seem to be comparative newcomers which burst into activity under conditions which may have been exceptionally favourable. It is also note- worthy that the species appear to be most abundant when they, as judged by the above prolific characters, seem to be at the height of their vigour. Dr. C. C. Hurst. Genetic experiments lead to the conclusion that four prime factors are concerned in the origin of species: (1) Mutations of genes. (2) Trans- mutations of chromosomes. (3) Sex. (4) Natural Selection. It is now definitely established that the living molecules known as genes, which are linked together in the chromosomes in the nucleus of every growing cell, are the organisers and determiners of all structural and functional characters and the transmitters of these from one generation to another. Random changes in the genes and chromosomes, brought about by high- frequency radiations and irregular divisions, are the source of almost all heritable variations and the gene and chromosome complex constitutes the mechanism of heredity, variation, individuality and evolution. The importance of sex cannot be overestimated as a means of segregation, recombination and distribution of new characters. So long as these are not lethal to the species they will persist under natural selection, giving a great range of variation. Natural selection is not a primary cause of evolution, but it is the final arbiter and determiner of the survival of species in nature. Man, by the exercise of his intellect, can replace natural selection by human selection, not only with plant and animal species, but also with his own species. Dr. W. M. WHEELER and Dr. N. A. WeBer.—Unusual prevalence of sex-mosaics (Gynandromorphs) in a colony of a Trinidad Ant (12.0). During the spring of 1935 Dr. Weber found nesting in the trunk of a large saman tree in Trinidad, B.W.lI., a large colony of Cephalotes atratus L. containing more than 2,600 sex-mosaics, or 27:9 per cent. of the population. All these anomalies exhibit combinations of worker (sterile female) and male characters. In most of the individuals the sexual mosaic pattern is confined to the head, and the thorax, legs and abdomen are of the normal worker type, but several also exhibit admixture of male abdominal characters. The occurrence of so many sex-mosaics in a single colony and as the offspring of a single mother is remarkable, because very few ants exhibit such striking structural differences as Cephalotes between the normal male and worker, and because since 1854 less than 75 gynandro- morphs have been observed among the hundreds of thousands of ants that have been studied by myrmecologists. Nor is the proportion of sex- mosaics to normal individuals greater among other insects in nature. Under artificial conditions the proportion, especially in hybrid cultures, is greater, but still very far from comprising a fourth of the population. The queen mother of the Cephalotes colony is perfectly normal, with large ovary containing many eggs in all stages of growth. In sections none of these eggs shows any indication of binuclearity or of having arisen by fusion of two oocytes. This case, therefore, fails to support the hypotheses of the origin of gynandromorphism advanced by Dénhoff, Wheeler, Doncaster and von Lengerken. The colony lived under con- ditions which seem to preclude the effects of hybridism, parasitism, low temperatures, X-rays, ultra-violet rays or mechanical shock, which, | SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 393 according to several authors, are capable of producing sex-mosaics in insects. The study of the large number and great variety of the Cephalotes mosaics has not as yet proceeded far enough to enable us to estimate their bearing on the hypotheses of Boveri, Morgan, Goldschmidt and Whiting. Dr. D. M. Wrincu.—The structure of chromosomes (12.30). A molecular structure for the chromosome is proposed as a working hypothesis. This structure is designed to interpret the findings of the cytologists as to the capacity of the chromosome to swell, to contract, to grow and to divide ; and to explain in molecular terms the postulates of genetics and the nature of the gene. AFTERNOON. Lt.-Col. R. B. Seymour SEWELL, F.R.S., C.I-E.—Semi-popular lecture on The fohn Murray Expedition to the Arabian Sea (2.0). (1) The origin of the expedition. (2) An account of the ship, H.E.M.S. Mabahiss. (3) The scientific staff. (4) The itinerary. (5) The character of the coasts in (a) The Red Sea. (6) The S.E. coast of Arabia. (c) Muscat and the Gulf of Oman. (d) Zanzibar. (e) The Seychelles. (f) The Maldives. (6) The bottom topography and the different characters of the North- east and South-west basins. (7) The main trend of the deep circulation. (8) The distribution of the fauna, with special reference to certain areas in which there seems to be but little or no animal life. Exhibition of Prof. J. S. Huxey’s film ‘ The private life of the gannets’ (by kind permission of London Films Production Ltd.) (3.0). Excursion to the Marine Biological Station at Lowestoft, by kind invitation of Dr. E. S. RusseLt, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (3-30). Exhibition of the following films, by courtesy of British Gaumont Instructional Films (9.0) : Ameeba ; earthworm; worms; the life of the frog; the life history of the blow-fly ; the early development of the sea-urchin ; the life history of the tortoise-shell butterfly. Tuesday, September 10. Symposium on Animal migration (10.0) :— Prof. J. Rrrcu1e.—The migrations of terrestrial and aerial mammals. Wanderings of limited extent, restricted to short periods, are a common expression of the rhythm of mammalian life, and some specialised mam- 394 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. malian structures are accommodations to this habit. Whether these move- ments be reversible or irreversible, their objectives suggest some of the factors which have determined the great seasonal and reversible movements properly called migrations. In their limited way the seasonal migrations may be likened to the migrations of birds, for some are only local affairs, while others cover a wide range ; but birds pass without record, while many mammals create regular migration tracks or roads which they follow year after year. ‘The migrations of bats, which ought to form the closest parallel with bird movements, do not appear to be essentially different from those of other mammals. In a different category from migration proper must be placed those occasional eruptions of such as the lemming in Scandinavia, the brown rat of Asia, or the grey squirrel and marten of North America, which are one-way pressure movements due to abnormal increase of numbers. Dr. N. A. MackintosH.—The migration of whales (10.25). It is generally assumed that the whalebone whales of the southern hemi- sphere spend the summer on the feeding grounds of the Antarctic, and migrate in winter into warmer waters where breeding takes place. Evidence of these migrations is partly derived from direct observations on the move- ments of the Humpback off the African coasts, and partly from indirect sources such as fluctuations in the abundance of Blue and Fin whales in cold and temperate waters, variations in the fatness of whales, and the existence of certain scars contracted in warmer regions but distinguishable on whales found in the Antarctic. Direct evidence is also forthcoming from the Discovery Committee’s marking experiments. It is difficult to distinguish between the long seasonal migrations and the various movements connected with changing ice conditions and _ local wanderings in search of food. Whales travel long distances, for instance, on the retreat of the pack ice in summer. The means by which whales orientate themselves during migration is not known. They are evidently sensitive to small changes of temperature, but this seems inadequate to guide them on a long migration. Dr. A. LaNDsBorouGH THOMSON, C.B.—The migration of birds (10.40). Annual migrations are common among birds, from wanderings in which the breeding place is the only fixed point to extensive journeys between widely separated seasonal habitats : there are also some less regular move- ments. In its more highly developed form, bird-migration shows a com- bination of complexity and regularity : inter alia, some remarkable examples of migration in purely tropical species are now known. Much evidence is available to show that migration is not performed merely under the compulsion of external forces, but commonly anticipates—and often apparently exceeds—the requirements arising from seasonal change in the environment. The inevitable assumption that migration is the expression of an instinct raises questions of causation. Migration must serve useful ends, and recent investigations have helped towards a closer definition of these. Its origin and development necessarily remain matters of speculation. The nature of the recurring stimuli which annually evoke the behaviour has, however, been the subject of interesting experimental work in the last few years. The final problem is that of orientation, including the manner in which the path to be followed is determined. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 395 Dr. E. S. Russet, O.B.E.—The migration of fishes (11.5). Dr. C. B. Witt1ams.—The migration of insects (11.30). Mr. G. A. STEVEN.—The growth and migrations of the Thornback Ray (12.0). During recent years ray-marking experiments have been carried out in the English Channel—in the vicinity of Plymouth—particularly on the Thornback Ray (R. clavata). Returns of marked fish have shown that, during the whole period of growth, from hatching to adolescence, the Thornback Rays, in the area investigated, are entirely non-migratory. So remarkably sedentary are these fishes during their immature years that in numerous instances the same fish has been captured again and again on exactly the same spot of ground in the open sea after intervals varying from two weeks up to almost two years. One fish, for example, has been captured and recaptured in the same place no fewer than six times at varying intervals over a period of fifteen months. Such repeat captures of the same fish at intervals over an extended period are unique in the history of fish-marking experiments and afford a valuable check on growth-rate data obtained in the ordinary way from the larger number of fish which are marked, liberated, and recaptured once only. From the data so far obtained, growth in R. clavata appears to be relatively slow, averaging about 5 cm. per annum increase in width of disc during the period of immaturity. Miss L. E. CHEesMAN.—The zoo0-geographical evidence of the former extension of land masses in the Western Pacific (12.30). The Austro-Oriental sub-region can be separated zoo-geographically into two divisions : a northern containing the Celebes and adjacent islands, and a southern (herein called Papuasia) which consists of New Guinea, definite areas in North Queensland, Aru and Key Islands, and islands east of New Guinea, including the Solomons and part of the New Hebrides Archipelago. Geological evidence of the land movements. Evidence deduced from the insect fauna. Deductions based on the Hymenoptera Parasitica. Distribution of Aculeate Hymenoptera influenced by man’s activities. Genera and species confined to Papuasia compared with those belonging to the entire sub-region. AFTERNOON. Mr. F. S. J. Hottick.—The flight of insects (2.15). If a dipterous fly, such as Muscina stabulans Fallén, is suitably held stationary relative to the ground, it will perform regular wing movements, and it is considered that an investigation of what occurs is of value in elucidating the process of normal free flight. The wing of a fly is capable of a certain degree of bending, and this, combined with the nature of the articulation, results in its attitude changing during each complete beat. It is possible to reconstruct the successive attitudes that make up the complete beat by studying the paths traced out, while the wing is vibrating, by the beams of light reflected from small mirrors attached to different parts of the wing surface. The velocity and direction of flow of air produced may be analysed by recording photographically the paths travelled by small particles carried along in the air-flow. 396 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. A consideration of these data shows something of the manner in which the insect is maintained in the air and propelled forwards ; first, by virtue of the effect due to the independent action of each wing, and secondly, due to that produced by mutual action of the two wings while at the top of their beat. Mr. J. M. Reynotps.—The nature of aptery in the Apterygota (2.45). A discussion of the secondary or primary nature of wings in Insecta, beginning with a review of proposed solutions of the problem. Lankester’s comparison with the Ratites is a mere analogy. Silc’s theory, based on the thoracic flaps of Lepisma, is not sufficiently supported by evidence. The fossil ‘insects’ from the Rhynie Chert are probably true Collembola, but there is no evidence as to whether or not they possessed wings. 'Tothill’s idea of balancing primitive and specialised features found in the Apterygota is unsatisfactory, because it excludes the possibility that the nature of the aptery in all three orders may not be the same. A detailed review of the characters of Machilis (‘ typical ’ of Thysanura) leaves little doubt that they are more primitive than the Pterygota in all respects, presumably including their aptery. The same is probably true of the Protura, but not of the more specialised Collembola. ‘These, however, may ultimately be shown to be primitively apterous by the dis- covery of an intact thorax of Devonian forms. The conclusions reached are supported on general principles by the relatively late appearance of wings in Pterygote development, suggesting that their evolutionary acquisition is relatively recent. Mr. E. A. Parkin.—Recent work on the food relations of the Lyctus powder-post beetles (3.15). é Morphological and histological examination of larve shows that there are no accessory glands appended to the gut, and that micro-organisms, present in a pair of mycetomes in the body cavity, can play no direct réle in digestion. Chemical analysis of the food and frass, determination of the enzymes present in the larval gut, the effect upon larval development of extracting wood with various solvents, and the results of some preliminary experiments upon feeding larve on powdered substrates such as wood of various species and wood flour mixed with different carbohydrates, etc., all show that Lyctus larve feed upon the cell contents and not upon the cell wall constituents of wood. Starch and a water-soluble factor, probably sugars, have been shown to be necessary for normal larval growth. Ovipositing beetles are able to detect wood suitable for larval development by chemo- tacticmeans. Wood rendered free from starch and sugars would be immune to Lyctus damage, and several methods to achieve this are now being investigated. Demonstrations on view during the meeting :— A series of living budgerigars in illustration of Prof. F. A. E. Crew’s paper to the Section. A series of specimens and slides illustrating ‘The pattern of the medulla oblongata in the Teleostean Fishes,’ by Dr. H. Muir Evans. A collection of fresh-water Polyzoa by Mr. H. E. Hurre.. A collection of Mycetozoa by Mr. H. J. Howarp. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E. 397 SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY. Thursday, September 5. PRESIDENTIAL Appress by Prof. F. DEBENHAM, on Some aspects of the Polar Regions (10.0). (See p. 79.) Mr. R. H. Morrram.—The site and present lay-out of Norwich (11.15). (1) The site of Norwich probably represents the best landing place on the shores of the East Norfolk estuary during racial migrations. Here the river Wensum passes between the sharpest contours of its course, and receives its main tributary, the Yare, which gives its name to the combined stream. (2) The first settlers. Negligible Roman influence. ‘ Gerguntius.’ Saxon Conisford, now King Street, Thorpe and Trowse. First docu- mentary evidence, mention of Norwyk in Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. (3) The open hundred of Norwich in Domesday and its Danish named trackways. What the Normans altered, Castle, Cathedral and Mancroft Ward. (4) Building of bridges and use of streams by cloth and leather workers affects internal development, but main roads retained. (5) Thirteenth century fortification further fixes main thoroughfares. Exempt jurisdictions and effect of Black Death and Reformation. (6) Altered physical conditions revealed by Kett’s Rebellion in 1549. Effect of eighteenth century Industrial Era. Nineteenth century changes due to making of Cattle Market (1780), Railway (1844) and Trams (1900). (7) The twentieth century and the return to the road. The establishment of an air port (1933) and regular air services (1935). Miss ELLEN M. Hoie.—The industries of Norwich (11.45). Norwich, once the third city of the realm, presents a curiously attractive mixture of ancient cathedral city and modern industrial town. Until the beginning of the nineteenth century her citizens wove home- spuns from local wool, while Flemish immigrants had taught them to make silk and satin materials. Revolutions and wars in the early nineteenth century ruined the weaving industry and spread poverty throughout the city. This misery was stemmed by the growth of a second staple industry, the making of shoes. The present industries of Norwich are determined by the fact that, whereas it has neither mineral wealth nor coal, Norfolk is a rich agricultural and pastoral county. There are two main types of industries, those which obtain their raw materials from farmers, and those which, importing their raw materials, manufacture wooden and steel buildings and implements for farmers. In both groups are firms which have increased their output far beyond local requirements and have gained international repute. Norfolk, formerly cut off by Fen and Breck from other populated areas, had to develop its own industrial centre. Geographical factors indicated Norwich as that centre. Bridge town, river port, focus for roads and rail- _ ways, it offers to industry transport facilities and convenient factory sites. 398 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—E. Mr. W. J. TayLor.—Norwich of the future (12.15). Area of Scheme No. 1 : . 6,096 acres, approx. Area of proposed Scheme No. 2 in built-up area : ‘ » 627 ee A Proposals for future development of built-up portion of city to preserve as far as possible the historic, archeological and architectural buildings, and to open up vistas of such buildings. Detailed plans prepared by agreement for the preservation and future development of the Cathedral Close, clearance of buildings surrounding the old city wall, gates and towers. Proposed new roads reduced to a minimum, but at least two inner circular roads required—gradient difficulties on south-east side of city. Reference also to flood prevention, provision of car parks and to ultimate treatment of civic centre. Road and traffic problem difficulties illustrated by a similarity of Norwich to a hand and wrist—the wrist being the one main outlet to the coast, the thumb and fingers the main roads north, south and west. The co-ordination of business, residential, industrial and shopping centres, illustrated by a user map, also a map indicating streets of architec- tural interest. ‘'The City of Parks,’ to preserve its reputation. Preservation of amenities, shop limits, heights of garden fences, preserva- tion of trees, incongruous roofs, and building materials, redevelopment of slum areas. AFTERNOON. Norwich Old and New. A walk round the City. Conducted by Messrs. R. H. Mottram, J. E. G. Mosby, W. J. Taylor and Miss E. M. Hole (2.15). Friday, September 6. Dr. VauGHAN CornisH.—The cliff scenery of England and the preservation of its amenities (10.0). The coast scenery of England is partly urban, partly rural, and of the latter the cliff lands are the most important section. ‘Their outlook on the sea is comparable in its natural majesty to the Alpine heights which are the culmination of Continental scenery. It is important that Local Authorities, under the powers conferred by the Town and Country Planning Act, should (1) secure a permanent right of way along all cliff fronts not yet comprised in private gardens ; (2) pro- cure as a public open space a strip of at least 100 yds. broad reckoning from the cliff edge. The setting of the building line at this distance is not by itself an adequate provision, the garden fence should not be allowed a nearer approach. The preservation of our cliff scenery for the public should not, however, be saddled entirely on the Local Authorities, for it happens that many of the parts which are of most importance to the nation as a whole are situated in localities where rateable value is relatively small and where scenic preserva- tion is of much less financial benefit to the residents than in the neighbour- hood of the large watering places. Certain stretches of coast should, therefore, come under the proposed scheme for National Parks, reservations SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—E. 399 of wild scenery, of which the cost is to be defrayed wholly or in part from the national exchequer. In relation to national reservations of cliff lands Cornwall has a pre-eminent claim, not only on account of the rugged grandeur of the rocks but of its blue oceanic waters and mild oceanic climate. The peninsula of the Land’s End, with its granite rampart, is the most important part, but there are other stretches of the Cornish coast which should be included, notably the cliffs of dark blue slate from Tintagel to Boscastle and parts of the Lizard peninsula. In this connection it is important to free the mind from the idea that each nationally administered portion of cliff land is to be reckoned as an individual National Park ; rather should we conceive all the portions of cliff land placed under the National Park Authority as constituting together a reservation equivalent to one of the proposed inland National Parks, as that of the Lake District or the Welsh National Park of Snowdonia. Mr. J. E. G. Mosspy.—Some aspects of land utilisation in Norfolk (10.45). Organisation of the survey in Norfolk, number of volunteers taking part, and methods employed in carrying out the work from 1931 to 1935. Ways and means used by the editors to produce the five 1-inch maps relating to this area, viz. Cromer, Norwich, Swaffham, Fakenham and Thetford. ‘These maps cover the greater part of Norfolk and some adjoining parts of Suffolk. The conclusions of the paper are based on (1) the patterns suggested by the 1-inch sheets ; (2) a personal knowledge of the area, and (3) a study of such factors as physical features, soils, economic conditions, land owner- ship, etc. Conclusions —1. On the good loams of north-east Norfolk arable farming still continues despite changes in the prices of farm produce, government policy and change of ownership. 2. The introduction of sugar beet has enabled a large number of farmers to keep their lands in cultivation. 3. Change of ownership is often accompanied by a change in the utilisa- tion of the land, especially in the boulder-clay areas. 4. On the sandy lands and Breck soils the amount of land going out of cultivation is assuming alarming proportions. Such land is reverting to stony wastes, and it is in these districts that the activities of the Forestry Commission are most pronounced. 5. In the marginal areas between the chalk uplands and the rich loams the presence or absence of suitable roads sometimes decides the land utilisation policy of the farmer. The paper includes illustrations from Great Hockham and the neighbour- ing parishes. Mr. N. V. Scarre.—The agricultural geography of Essex (11.30). From a study of the correlations between soil, land utilisation and settle- ment in Essex it will be obvious that a zoning of agricultural patterns, relative to the conurbation of the south-west, has evolved. Soil differences add considerable complexity to the cultural landscape in each zone. Within twelve miles of London is a very densely settled region, on the fringes of which has developed a very intensive form of market gardening. Beyond this, and concentric with it, is a zone, five miles in width, with much sparser settlement where dairy farming is the chief occupation. From this zone as far as thirty miles from London extends an area of recent residential 400 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E. settlement where marked concentrations of people are found along the main roads. It isa hilly dairy farming and market gardening region. The remainder of Essex is divided more obviously on a soil basis into : (i) A north-western boulder clay plateau where a declining popula- tion still carries on cereal cultivation ; (ii) An eastern estuarine lowland which is a grass-covered London clay region where population is also decreasing ; and (iii) An area of increasing population extending along the main roads from Chelmsford to Ipswich, Harwich and Clacton, which is essentially a region of fruit, truck and mixed farming developed on a variety of light or medium soils. Mr. E. C. Witiatts.—The land use regions of the London Basin (12.15). This paper gives a summary of the land utilisation in the centre of the London Basin, the area covered by the four 1-inch sheets surrounding London. An analysis of the major categories is shown in the form of abstracts from the land utilisation maps. It has been found possible to distinguish the following ‘ rural’ land use regions: Chilterns, Thames Valley, Cookham Loam Plateau, Burnham Wooded Plateau, Colne Valley, Vale of St. Albans, South Herts Hay Belt, Middlesex Clay Plain, Lea Valley, Epping Forest, Essex Mixed Farming Area, Brentwood Forest and Hay Belt, Romford Market-gardening Plain, Bulphan Clay Plain, Thames Market-gardening Plain, Windsor Forest and Grass Belt, Bagshot Heath and Pine Forest Plateau, Blackwater Valley, North Surrey Clay Plain, Hayes-Chiselhurst Heath-Wood Belt, Kent Market-gardening Plain, Thames Marshes, North Downs, Rough: Scarp Belt, Fertile Chalk Slope. The urban growth is treated as a feature which is superimposed on these natural regions : it is a growth which has almost completely masked certain areas. The character of each region is separately considered and is illustrated by specimens of the 6-inch Land Utilisation Field Sheets. AFTERNOON. Prof. E. G. R. TayLor.—‘ England’s blame if not her shame’ ; or the seventeenth-century pamphleteer on country, town and nation planning (2.0). The creation of a green belt about London, the location of industries on selected rural sites, the preservation and creation of urban amenities, re-afforestation, the reclamation of waste lands, national waterways, a planned agriculture, the husbanding and balanced utilisation of the nation’s heritage in the shape of natural resources: all these were urged 250 years ago. What would the geography of England be to-day had planning achieved the victory over laissez-faire ? Mr. E. W. GiLBert.—The human geography of Menorca (2.45). Menorca, the second largest of the Balearic Islands, is 263 square miles in extent, and contained about 41,500 inhabitants according to the census of 1930. ‘The island can be divided into two regions. The northern region contains low hills of which Toro (1,150 ft.) is the highest. The southern region is a limestone plateau and is deeply dissected by ravines. In spite SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E. 401 of the fact that Menorca is only twenty-five miles distant from Mallorca, the character of its climate is very different. ‘The smaller size of Menorca gives it a more maritime climate than its larger neighbour, and the absence of any protecting range of mountains leaves it more exposed to the winds. The cold dry north wind called Tramontana, which blows with great frequency in the winter half-year, limits the agricultural activities of the inhabitants. Life is much harder in Menorca than in Mallorca, and the density of popula- tion is considerably lower. Menorca was occupied by the British for three distinct periods in the eighteenth century. During the seventy years of the occupation roads were built and many other reforms were introduced, especially by Sir Richard Kane, who was Governor between 1712 and 1736. The seat of the capital was moved by the British in 1722 from Ciudadela to Mahon, which became an important naval base. Mahén soon surpassed Ciudadela in size and now contains about twice as many inhabitants as the old capital. The long period of foreign rule left behind some permanent marks. English sash windows and over a hundred English words, some in corrupt forms, are still in use. Prof. E. P. Steppinc.—The encroaching Sahara: increasing aridity in West Africa (3.30). During a tour made last year through parts of several British and French Colonies in West Africa it became possible to carry out some investigations into the increasing aridity of parts of the country and to study the influence which the southward encroachment of the Sahara exerted upon this problem. It is possible to attribute the present position to several well- known factors : (a) The method of agriculture practised throughout the Colonies by the population is ‘ shifting cultivation.’ A piece of forest is felled, the material burnt, when dry enough, and the seed of one or more crops sown on the area. The site is occupied for two to three years ; the cultivator then moves to another piece of forest. Forest thus utilised gradually becomes degraded : this accounts for the large areas of ‘ bush ’ or so-called savannah throughout the country. (6) To this agricultural practice must be added the habit of annually firing the forests so common in all the Colonies, and (c) The growing pressure of the large herds of cattle, sheep and goats which are pastured on the lands in the more northern areas. With the increase of the population and the herds under the settled administration now in force these practices are resulting in a growing desiccation of the soil and decreasing water supplies in parts of the country. (d) The question of the encroaching Sahara is discussed and it is shown that the great desert sands have advanced southwards 300 kilometres during the last three centuries. Saturday, September 7. Excursion to Norfolk Broads. Conducted by members of Norfolk Geographical Association (9.25). Sunday, September 8. Excursion to Scolt Head Island. Conducted by Mr. J. A. Steers (9.20). 402 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E. Monday, September 9. JoINT SYMPOSIUM AND DiscussI0N with Section C (Geology), on Denudation chronology (Section C Room, 10.0). (See under Section C, p. 374.) AFTERNOON. Excursion to site of Hockham Mere, Breckland and Peddlar’s Way. Conducted by Mr. J. E. G. Mosby (2.0). Tuesday, September 10. Capt. A. W. Heap.—Aeronautical maps (10.0). 1. Introductory. Maps were originally produced for the use of soldiers, later the general public began to use them and to demand special types of maps for special purposes. ‘The airman now requires special maps for his use. 2. The Problem. (a) Scale. Deciding factors : Speed of flight. Map-carrying capacity of the aeroplane. Amount of detail of use to the airman. These factors conflict with one another. The present trend of opinion favours a scale of 1/500,000 for general navigational purposes. (b) Projection. ; Requirements are: Accurate bearings. True shape of topography. ‘True scale. These ideals are not attainable on any one map. Choice of projection must depend on the shape and latitude of the country mapped and on neighbouring countries. (c) Detail. In all cases hill features and heights are of importance and usually water. Relative importance of other detail must vary with the country being mapped and with the purpose and scale of the map. 3. Conclusion. The ideal method of designing any aeronautical map is to survey the ground from the air. This is usually impracticable. Aeronautical maps are still very much in their infancy ; the preceding remarks therefore show the present trend of thought and do not pretend to be a statement of final conclusions. Specimen aeronautical maps passed round during the discussion. Lieut. M. O. CoLiins.—The revision of large scale Ordnance Survey maps (10.45). The large scale revision surveys are of peculiar interest to this country, as it is the only one where such surveys have been in existence for upwards of fifty years. "The system of carrying out these surveys is in itself a develop- ment of the methods employed in the original work. ‘The history of the various revisions is of interest, showing as it does both the present position and the possibilities of the future. The future possibilities may be con- SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E. 403 sidered under two heads: the technical question, which has of recent years been affected by the introduction of and advances in air survey technique. The second question is that of general policy, which has been accentuated by the rapid development of the country, together with much legislation dependent to a large extent on an adequate survey. Revisions may be of two types, either cyclic or continuous. The former has been in practice in the past. No survey can ever be up to date owing to the time required for publication and issue of the actual work to the public. Continuous revision will, however, ensure an up-to-date field document which can be reproduced and published according to the particular needs of the area concerned. Dr. Hitpa Ormspy.—The definition of Mitteleuropa and its relation to the conception of Deutschland in the teaching of modern German geographers (11.30). The political idea of a Central Europe, constituting a geographical and cultural unity and having Germany as its heart and core, has, from the first, received the support of eminent German geographers, whose elaborate, albeit varying definitions, supported by geographical arguments are of con- siderable interest. Since the break-up of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the re-alignment of the boundaries of Germany, a remodelling of the formula has been necessary, and the modified conception of Central Europe receives a fresh significance in association with a newer conception: that of a‘ Deutschland’ which is limited only by the extent of continuous German influences, whether expressed in racial characteristics, in language, in cul- tural habit or in economic method, or in any combination of these expres- sions. The ‘ cultural landscape’ as a basis for geographical study fits in aptly in the development of this conception, though the classical method of building from the structural and geomorphological basis is also adopted where it can be usefully applied. "The German student of geography to-day is taught to visualise not the German State, whose boundaries may be only ephemeral, but the larger conception of an area coinciding closely with that of Central Europe, itself usually envisaged as a conscious entity, with interests and cares apart from those of peninsular and continental Europe, and he is shown ‘ Deutschtum,’ extending in a wider radius beyond the areas of continuous German influences, embracing, as outliers of Deutschland, all settlements of German origin or affinities which have become at one time or another established in foreign lands. Mr. D. 'T. WitLiams.—Linguistic divides in Wales (12.15). The maps show that the Welsh language remains the medium of ordinary conversation over two-thirds of Wales. Bilingualism is general, but in the remote western parts and in the highland parishes monoglot Welsh prevails amongst the older people and the younger generation below school age. Monoglot English areas are found in the eastern marcher shires and on the coastal plain of both South and North Wales. The present linguistic distribution is partly the result of historical evolution, especially of the Norman and English conquest period, producing anglicised areas in South Wales and the Eastern Marches. In North Wales, the castle towns of the Edwardian period did not result in anglicisation to any marked degree. There has been in recent centuries a movement of Welsh-speaking farmers from the hills into the lowlands, but this does not necessarily mean a language change in those areas. During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries extensive linguistic zonal changes occurred, resulting from the migration 404 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E. of population into the mining and industrialareas. Bilingualism has advanced rapidly with the introduction of universal education, the need of specialised scientific knowledge in the industrial areas, contacts with external culture, the growth of modern transport and the economic demands of organised industry. The problem to-day is whether Welsh culture can be expressed satisfactorily through the medium of the English language without the loss of its essential characteristics. AFTERNOON. Baroness EBBA HULT DE GEER.—Biochronology (2.0). Biochronology is defined as time measuring from evidence afforded by any rhythmically stratified organic matter. Annual deposition whether in clay or wood, i.e. varve deposition, appears to derive its mechanism ultimately from the sun and should be a durable register both of time and solar effect. De Geer’s measurements of the melt-water clay varves give a chronology which covers a period of 15,000 years, but the record is more complete for the glacial than the post-glacial period, and the latter is perhaps more important in human studies. By his record of the clay varves of the Angerman Valley in North Sweden, Lidén fixed the length of the post- glacial period at about 8,700 years, and Prof. L. von Post’s study of the pollen record of peat bogs and of the evolution of our forests affords a rich and valuable content in the chronological frame. Prof. Douglass by his studies of the rings of the sequoia tree has established a time-scale of 3,200 years, and it is now possible to date historic dwellings such as those of the pueblos in Arizona by studying the rings of the yellow pine used in their construction, tying them on to rings of recent pines from the same region, and also comparing them with those of the sequoia. Far-distance comparisons with the sequoia record sent over by Douglass for the purpose are now being carried on at the Geo-chronologic Institute in Stockholm under the name Biochronology. Lidén’s graphs of clay varves match those of the sequoia rings. The striking coincidence of the curves leads us to accept the date of A.D. 1017 for the formation of the most recent clay varves and to reduce the length of the post-glacial period to 8,640 years. Graphs of the rings of logs used in an old bulwark or water-fort in Lake Tingstade, Gotland, have been found also to match those of the sequoia in the fourth, fifth and sixth centuries A.D., and by using Douglass’s time-scale it is estimated that the logs of the main fort were cut in the year A.D. 450, and those of the palisades at various times from A.D. 450 to A.D. 585. There is a coincidence which cannot be ignored. Some object to the application to conditions in Sweden of a time-scale worked out on American data, especially when the scale is based on the examination of trees whose growth depends on so many factors which are all liable to differ locally. De Geer has shown that whatever seasonable or monthly variations may occur, there is a general close correspondence of the graphs of annual mean temperature in widely separated regions. The points of similarity and difference match those of the clay varves and tree rings of the same localities. We may therefore regard clay varves and tree rings as a kind of materialised climatic annual mean, and the sun as the ultimate source of climate. Variations in isolation from year to year are regarded as due to variations, often biennial, in the meteoritic dust occurring between the planets within our solar system. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E. 405 Wednesday, September 11. Dr. R. E. Dicxinson.—The development and distribution of the medieval urban grid plan (9.30). In the Middle Ages the urban grid plan developed simultaneously and independently in two principal areas, South France and Germany. It emerged gradually and reached perfected form in the middle of the thirteenth century. Its development is reflected in a morphological sequence of plans. 1. Radio-concentric plans, built round a nucleus. 2. Route plans (main route axis of plan). (a) Rib and ladder patterns (N.B. South Germany). (6) Parallel street patterns. (c) Spindle and meridian patterns (N.B. spindle pattern and long market place of Silesia). 3. Grid plans. (a) Carrefour patterns—spontaneous growth on two co-ordinates. (6) Block grouping without architectonic unity. (c) Block patterns based on right-angle co-ordinates. (d) Unified block patterns grouped around central market block. SouTH FRANCE. The rectangular lot found in ‘ sauvetats ’ of eleventh and twelfth centuries (1 and 2a). Foundation of ‘ bastides ’ as means of defence and political allegiance (1150-1350). Region extends to Pyrenees, Dordogne R., and Central Massif. Mixed plans, but dominance of rectangular block com- position. All types, 2c rare. GERMANY. The grid developed with evolution of market place (main street, widened street, adjacent long rectangular market, central market square of ‘ Zentral- anlage’). Regular patterns (Neustiadte) established adjacent to irregular town patterns (Altstadte) in West Germany. Expansion beyond Elbe-Saale (1150-1400) where regular plans (Kolonialstadte) dominate. Spread east of 3d with German commercial settlement, e.g. Breslau, Cracow, Lemberg, Posen. Mr. T. W. Freeman.—The early settlement of Glamorgan (10.15). The study of early settlement in Glamorgan reveals the significance of the space relations and the physical environment of the time. The region was reached by people of varied cultures from Palzolithic times, but not intensively occupied. Sporadic infiltrations of people from the English Lowland and from the sea routes occurred and, though the colonisation was both late and scanty, favoured areas received many immigrants during the Bronze Age. The chief regional division is between the Highland (the ‘ Blaenau Morganwg’) and the areas of ‘lowland,’ which include the ‘ Bro’ of Glamorgan, the Gower peninsula, stretches of unstable sand-dunes in Merthyr mawr Warren and Kenfig Burrows, and the coastal fringe of marshes guarded by sand-dunes between the Kenfig and Tawe rivers. The earliest traces of settlement occur in Gower ; other coastal areas, such as Merthyr mawr Warren, were occupied from Neolithic times and with the entry of the Dolmen builders and the Beaker peoples favoured 406 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E, F. areas in the Bro and Gower were settled. The Blaenau was penetrated from early Bronze Age times and the later penetration, to which sections of existing. trackways, with earthworks, presumably date, may be assigned to the period of vegetational changes in sub-Atlantic time (first millennium B.c.). The higher, bleaker parts of the moorland were used only for seasonal migrations, or else, with the forested valleys, avoided. Miss ALice B. LENNIE.—Agriculture in Mesopotamia in ancient and modern times (11.0). Ancient records give much information that throws light on the antiquity of many modern practices, and suggests that the climate has varied little. Modern barrages, and pumps run by oil-engines are innovations, but the summer level of some canals is still raised by temporary earth dams, and old methods of watering the fields still persist. Date Gardens—’Iraq with some 30 million palms is still the foremost country for dates, and the archaic methods of culture are almost unchanged, e.g. propagation by offshoots, artificial pollination which requires one male palm to fifty or sixty females. The walled gardens, intersected by canals, occupied the more valuable sites near the cities and bordering the rivers or main canals. Fruit trees were planted between the palms. Fig, vine, pomegranate, citron and mulberry were, and are, the commonest. Orange groves at Baghdad to-day require the palms for shade and protection from hot winds. Under all were fodder crops like lucerne, vast quantities of garlic and onions, and beds of other vegetables of which Babylonia had a notable variety. Gherkins were abundant, also flowers and aromatic plants. Arable Farms.—The fenced fields, of a few acres, were cultivated by ox- plough and irrigated. ‘To-day wild pigs often devastate the ripening rice, and locusts are still a plague. In early spring before the grain was shot, the rank growth was cut and domestic animals pastured on it for a time. At harvest (end of April to mid-May) the ears were reaped by sickle, then the straw cut and stubble burnt. Fields were often rented for a third of the crop, or for fixed rents paid in kind, but not necessarily from the produce of the field. In the Neo-Babylonian Empire fixed money rents were in vogue. Barley, much the most important cereal, formed a standard of value. Emmer was used for bread for feast-days ; wheat, at twice the price of barley, used only by the rich. Other winter crops were pulses and flax. Sesame was the chief summer crop, with durra. 'Tree-cotton was introduced under the Persians, rice under the Seleucids. The recent success with seed- cotton has been ruined by the fall in price. SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. Thursday, September 5. Mr. Coin CiarK.—The world’s food supply (10.0). We are celebrating this year the centenary of Malthus. Nevertheless itis our duty to state in no uncertain terms that under present circumstances Malthus is wrong. The pressure of population on food supply has been replaced by the pressure of a glut of foodstuffs on a stationary population. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—F. 407 Malthusian views have become not only stale but pernicious. Nearly everyone has got it firmly fixed in his head (a) that the population ought to be reduced, (b) that each country ought to grow more food. The first is a matter of taste, but the second opinion is demonstrably wrong. It is one of the items of the fashionable economic-nationalist point of view, and has resulted in far more labour than is necessary being spent on producing the world’s food supply. Except in certain specialities, European agriculture cannot at present, without artificial aid, compete against American or Australasian agriculture. It is a sign of agricultural progress that labour should be released from agriculture, as indeed has been the case in the advanced agricultural countries, and not that more labour should be taken on. An excuse, but not a justification, for the artificial aid given to agriculture in many countries, is the world-wide inequality of the ratio of exchange between agriculture and industry, i.e. the relative dearness of manufactured goods and the relative cheapness of agricultural produce. This also has serious indirect effects, the most serious being that peasant producers over many parts of the world cannot yet afford the implements and fertilisers even to bring their agriculture up to a nineteenth century level of efficiency and have to use an agricultural technique which has been obsolete in England for centuries. Mr. J. C. GiLBerTt.—Some monetary problems of international trade (11.0). A comparison of domestic and international trade. The theory of inter- national trade as part of the theory of equilibrium. The advantage of this approach rather than that of comparative cost theory. International trade distinguished from domestic trade by the special monetary problems arising from separate monetary systems. The monetary mechanism under gold standard arrangements in the cases of international trade variations and changes in one-sided international payments. The relationship between changes in the terms of trade and changes in relative price levels. A consideration of the difference between international income adjustments and those which take place between different parts of the same country. The monetary mechanism under independent paper currency arrangements. A discussion of appropriate monetary policy in the light of the theory of neutral money and the preceding analysis of variations in international economic relations. Monetary policies under gold standard and independent paper currency arrangements considered. Mr. R. A. Hopcson.—Occupational changes and population movement in S.E. England (12.0). Friday, September 6. PRESIDENTIAL ApprEss by Prof. J. G. SMITH on Economic nationalism and foreign trade (10.0). (See p. 89.) Prof. L. M. Fraser—Present-day economic problems in Germany (12.0). Monday, September 9. PRESENTATION OF REPORT OF RESEARCH COMMITTEE AND DIscussION.— Chronology of the World Crisis (10.0). 408 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—F. Miss L. S. SuTHERLAND.—The use of business records in the study of history (12.0). The use of business records in the study of history is comparable to the use of archzological records for the same purpose. In a concrete, finite way they show ‘ how the wheels go round.’ The wheels are, moreover, those of economic processes in which the many varieties of economic determinism now common have given us an especial interest. In a discussion of business records one is bound to refer some time to the term ‘ business history.’ ‘This may be defined as the historical study of the unit of production and exchange of wealth; with the corollary that its sources are chiefly to be found in business archives, the working records of these units. The importance of business records in the study of history is that they may make it possible for us to see the actual workings of these units, know- ledge valuable for its own sake and also in helping us to comprehend wider movements. The difficulties in the way of using them are partly those of interpretation, but much more their own deficiency and inaccessibility, due to their purely utilitarian nature and the comparative impermanence of business units whose activities they record. Much valuable work can be done in preserving and classifying such records for the use of the historian. Tuesday, September 10. Jornt Discuss1on with Section I (Physiology) on Economic aspects of diet (Section F room) (10.0). Prof, E. P. CaTHcart, C.B.E., F.R.S. Provision of an adequately balanced diet in proper amount is essential for health and nutrition. Neither health nor proper nutrition can, however, be attained by such provision alone. States of health and nutrition are dependent on other important factors besides food. Admittedly when it comes to the finance aspect the provision of such an adequate diet demands, in the case of those with small incomes, the expenditure of a high proportion of the income. Percentage of total income spent on food rises with falling income. Even in the case of those with reasonably adequate incomes the proportion spent on food is fairly high. ‘Two outstanding factors—there are more—intervene to-day, factors which may, however, not operate together, to make the provision of the necessary diet more difficult of attainment. Admittedly the provision of accommodation is admirable in itself and of direct assistance in many ways towards improved health and nutrition, yet such provision may be made, in part at least, at the expense of the income previously available for the purchase of food. Thus great majority of new housing placed at periphery of the large cities, i.e. inhabi- tants of necessity further from work places, hence increased transportation charges. Also rentals are in many instances higher. Frequently, too, more costly provision of fuel (electricity or gas) for cooking and heating. Provision of adequate balanced diet does not necessarily mean provision of costly diet. Probably the main economic difficulty, the second of the two outstanding factors, is lack of education on part of those who need it most. Ignorance of most economical methods of spending and cooking. It is simply futile to draw up dietary tables with costs for general use, as prices, not only i in different parts of the country but also in different sections of the same city, may vary as much as 150 per cent. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—-F. 409 Prof. K. Nevitt—e Moss.—The energy output and input of the coal miner (10.30). The coal miner can be relied upon, if wages are adequate, to consume food of sufficient calorie value to enable him to expend the necessary energy during work and non-working hours. When wages are very low one of two things happen: either the miner has to do with less food and in con- sequence reduce his work-output, or he maintains his work-output and dietary standard at the expense of his family. In 1923 I published a paper showing that the average daily calorie value of the food actually consumed by 60 colliers was just over 4,700. ‘Two years later the Medical Research Council issued a report entitled ‘ The Nutrition of Miners and their Families,’ in which is stated, ‘ We shall therefore assume that the daily net energy requirement of a coal miner certainly does not exceed and probably falls a good deal short of 3,500 Calories.’ This figure was arrived at on the assumption that the average work-output of the coal miner is 10,000 kilo- gram-metres per hour, which is equivalent to walking on the level at the rate of just under 2 miles per hour. Actual determinations prove that the energy-output is 34 times greater than that assumed by those responsible for this report. Thus it is seen how seriously the experts misjudged a collier’s energy output and how gravely wrong, in consequence, was their estimate of his food requirements. Sir JOHN Orr (11.0). Prof. P. SaRGANT FLORENCE.—The actual cost of food requirements to working-class families (11.30). I. Economic and psychological factors increasing the cost of any given food values for working-class families. (1) Ignorance of the housewife what to purchase and how to cook it. Knowledge versus custom, prejudice and advertisements. (2) Poverty. Inability to purchase except hand to mouth in small quantities and often ‘ on tick.’ The wife’s housekeeping allowance often much below the husband’s earnings. Families not always models of thrift. (3) Poor judgment and household management. Mental wear and tear of straitened circumstances and large households. Lack of houseroom, storage and refrigeration. II. Relation of cost of food to working-class incomes. A survey of recent social surveys. The family budget. Various sources of income, and contributions of various members of the family. Necessary expenditure on housing, clothing, fuel and household requirements. Pro- portion of families in destitution, with incomes below the bare minimum cost of living. Is destitution diminishing? The effect of low wages, unemployment and large families. Correlation of poverty with death-rates. III. Calculation of changes in the cost of food from time to time. The official index number of the Ministry of Labour. Items included : methods of weighing and averaging of prices ; comparison with base period ; recent trends ; outlook for the future. GENERAL DISCUSSION (12.0). 410 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—F. Wednesday, September 11. Dr. A. PLUMMER.—British air transport (10.0). (a) Early experiments and pioneer air services. The formation of Imperial Airways, Ltd., in 1924. Its policy and progress. The principal other British air lines. (b) The essentials of successful air transport. Types of freight most likely to be attracted. Speed and carrying capacity. Organisation. Costs. Fixed and variable costs compared. (c) State sub- sidies in aid of air transport. Questions of size and form. ‘The present degree of dependence upon State subsidies. British and European air lines compared. (d) Air Mails, Imperial and Foreign. Charges and speeds. Proposals for greater speed on Empire air mail routes. The chief obstacles. (e) Measurement of the progress of British commercial aviation. Com- parison with European air lines. Is safety increasing? (f) The future. Development of a national system of air transport for Britain. Britain’s réle in the development of international air transport. Mr. P. A. Forrester.—Economic causes of the localisation of industry in Norwich (11.0). The problem presents itself that Norwich, although situated quite away from the industrial areas of Great Britain, yet has a population of 129,000 and important industries. The existence of these cannot be explained, to any great extent, by their dependence on local supplies of raw material or fuel. Other areas seem equally well situated as regards these things. This suggests that other factors are of more importance in determining the localisation of the Norwich boot and shoe, engineering, textile, mustard and starch industries. In its theoretical aspect the subject of localisation is in its infancy, but, in practice, certain specific factors may be seen at work in determining the situation of an industry. ‘The significance of these in regard to Norwich may be considered, and attention, in turn, be directed to the historical factor, to the influence of raw materials, of markets and transport, of supplies of labour and capital, and of the organisation of industry in the City. Further, Norwich may be compared with areas of similar industrial _ development. A study along these lines leads to the conclusion that, in Norwich, less substantial factors have been of more importance than the theory of localisa- tion would lead us to expect. In particular, it would seem that the existence of a plentiful supply of skilled labour, and the effects of along manufacturing and commercial tradition, are, to a large extent, the key to the position of Norwich. And it would also seem that the condition of the continued existence of her industries is their skilled organisation on specialist lines. Finally, Norwich, in a small way, shows the extreme difficulty of attempting to generalise on the problem of localisation. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—F*. 411 DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL CO-OPERATION (F*). Thursday, September 5. AFTERNOON. Discussion on The Universities and business (2.45). Dr. J. A. Bow1e.—The case for more intimate co-operation. This paper assumes that the case for university education for business has been accepted, and proceeds to discuss the types of organised contacts that might be established. ‘This raises the question of the occupational oppor- tunities in business for university men, and the merits of general, as con- trasted with specialised, training. ‘The question is discussed as to the relative importance of scholastic tests and personal traits in the light of the qualifications necessary for successful business careers. The great variety of careers is emphasised and the necessity for ‘ job analyses.’ Questions relating to curricula are raised with reference to the place of Economics and kindred subjects. In view of the purpose of business education, the problem of teaching methods is discussed, the working relations that should exist between the school and the world of business, and the qualifications that are desirable in the teaching staff. The paper concludes with a consideration of the methods at present in use for selecting, training, and promoting managerial staff, and some recommendations are made for regularising procedure. Prof. P. SARGANT FLORENCE. Industrial-educational films (5.0). Friday, September 6. AFTERNOON. Discussion on Probable future trends of scientific management in Great Britain (2.45). Mr. HARGREAVES PARKINSON.—Industrial management and _ the investor. Modern investment machinery—capital market, Stock Exchange, issuing houses, financial press, etc.—presupposes complete differentiation of function between investor and management. In practice, ‘ sleeping partnership ’ conception undesirable and unworkable. Réle of industrial management in investment sphere. Where should its boundaries be drawn? Réle of investors in management. Every public company a ‘ constitutional oligarchy.’ Directors, as fountain-head of management, removable by majority vote of shareholders. How are latter’s ‘ constitutional’ powers exercisable ? How far are results satisfactory in practice? Defects of present position. Consequences, from viewpoint of management and investors respectively, of modern trend towards (a) large industrial units, and (6) widely diffused shareholdings. Suggested reforms, as regards 412 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—F*. (a) disclosure of essential facts of management to shareholders ; (b) organisa- tion and extension of responsible opinion among investors, as ultimate ‘ democratic ’ check on management. Conclusions. Dr. E. S. Pearson.—The r6le of probability theory in the control of quality in production. The term ‘statistics’ is understood in many senses. An essential characteristic of the particular aspect of the subject discussed in this paper is the use of probability theory as a guide to practical action. In the last few years it has been increasingly realised that an approach long ago followed in the theory of errors in astronomy and more recently in problems of human heredity, biology and agricultural experimentation can be usefully employed in connection with the control of quality of industrial products. . The introduction of these ideas into a new field of application is neces- sarily a gradual process, partly because the trained statistician must adjust himself to new conditions and new problems, partly because the engineer is at first baffled by terminology and conceptions with which he is unfamiliar. In this paper a situation arising in the manufacture of electric lamps is used to suggest why it may be of value to relate the ordinary conceptions of confidence and risk with more precise numerical measures of probability. The bearing of these ideas on the choice of sampling clauses in specifica- tions is discussed, and finally it is pointed out how, by means of statistical controls applied to the results of routine testing by the manufacturer, a considerable extension of the efficiency of specification should be possible. Mrs. EtrHe, M. Woop, C.B.E.—Domestic management of to-morrow. Until recently the approach to problems of management and labour in the domestic field has been largely sentimental. Now the methods of study are beginning to resemble those applied to other industrial problems—that is, scientific methods are being introduced. The only logical way is to regard the parts of the house primarily intended for work as workshops ; to observe flow of work, frequency of operation, etc., in connection with the placing of equipment; and such matters as the health and convenience of the worker by means of time and motion studies, study of posture, surface heights, etc., as in other factories and work places. These matters are of more than academic interest in view of their influence on the health of the women concerned who are the mothers of the future generations. Various bodies are now directly concerned with the elimination of waste and fatigue in domestic work, but the need for education not only of women workers but of public bodies, equipment manufacturers, builders, etc., is emphatic. The attitude of employers of domestic labour is a relic of the feudal system, but the improvements of conditions, wages, and even of status are discernible. The efficient performance of domestic duties constitutes highly skilled work involving budgeting, planning, skilled craftsmanship, costing, etc. AFTERNOON. Industrial management films (5.15). Office management: illustrating reorganisation of the Post Office Savings Department. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS —F*. 413 Monday, September 9. AFTERNOON. Discussion on Problems of amalgamation and decentralisation (2.45). Mr. L. Urwick, O.B.E.—Executive decentralisation with functional co-ordination. Organisation may be regarded technically or politically. Necessity for a technical approach. The nature of responsibility : its relation to (a) power, and (6) authority. Practical reasons for decentralisation: (a) the time factor; (6b) the space factor; (c) psychological factors. Distinction between executive and policy-making (administrative) responsibility. Growth of functional specialisation: its inevitability. Need for co- ordination of functional methods. Reconciliation of these two tendencies the central problem in modern business organisation. Failure to recognise the nature of the difficulty : failure of combinations for this reason. Tenta- tive attempts to meet the situation. Committees, standard practices, staff and line, etc., etc. Where a new duty arises the only ultimate solution is to define that duty and to assign it to individuals, properly selected and suitably trained. Inevitable that business organisation will evolve towards a true system of ‘ staff’ positions and relationships as distinct from either ‘line’ or ‘ functional’ positions. Organised ‘ staff’ training an essential corollary of this development. Mr. T. G. Rosz.—Some cases from the experience of a management consultant : Decentralisation in Small Undertakings. (a) Head-office in London—Works in provinces——Necessity frequently arises for head of business to work from London whilst manufacturing is carried out in provinces to instructions received from head office. London is primary centre of sales activities; place of manufacture usually unim- portant, except in certain cases where raw material supplies decide location. Management difficulties arising from this form of divided operation. (6) Financial control from London—management and manufacturing activities carried on in provinces.—Difficulties here arise from those con- trolling finance being out of touch with current working conditions. Loss of local good-will and esprit de corps. __(c) Decentralisation of management in group of rationalised small firms.— Difficulty of retaining individual good-will of member firms and at the same time loyalty to wider policy of combine. Methods of retaining management _ control from headquarters of combine. Dr. K. G. FENELON. Commercial management films: illustrating training in retail selling. Commentary by Mr. CLiFForD J. Harrison (5.0). Wednesday, September 11. Discussion on The place of the individual business in a planned economy (10.0). Mr, A. P. Younc, O.B.E.—Industrial freedom within a system of planned economy. This paper deals with the broad human problem of building an ordered and balanced economy within an ordered self-governing society, without 414 SECTIONAL 'TRANSACTIONS.—F*. obscuring individual liberty or retarding the dynamic impulse to progress of individual initiative. It examines closely the following aspects of the problem :— (1) The labours and sacrifices of generations of scientific thinkers and workers have given the human race, with amazing swiftness, a new age of MACHINES, full of immense potentiality as the productivity of man soars upwards. We are now in process of adjusting ourselves economically and spiritually to the new world of untold material plenty which lies ahead. Unless we solve the problem aright, man will become enslaved to the machine, and civilisation will crumple. (2) The era of ‘ laissez-faire’ is swiftly closing. Free and ruthless competition was the guiding principle of this phase of industrial evolution. Many still feel that industrial liberty is inseparable from competitive in- dustry. A new mentality and a new spirit must be projected on to this intangible thing called individual liberty and freedom. The issue between democracy and dictatorship is raising its head high. The basic principle of service, ‘ We are all members one of another,’ must receive widespread recognition if we are to find world salvation. (3) The planned economy of the future must be erected on the foundation ‘Plan to Serve.’ Management must operate through an enlightened system of planned budgetary control. ‘There must be planned co-ordination of production and distribution, and our monetary policy must be adapted to serve the needs of the planned industrial policy. ‘The objective of the industrial policy must be to improve its service function—service to all those within industry ; service to the owners of capital ; and service to the community. (4) The human factor—that intangible and supreme factor in any econo- mic system—cannot be planned. The final test of any such system must be the degree to which it permits human personality to unfold its divine destiny. 'The planned economy of the future, to be successful, must be founded on the principle of planned co-operation. Its self-governing mechanism must afford every human unit the chance to contribute, to the working of the system, the maximum service which can be drawn from his distinctive personality and ability. The ‘ Industrial Highway Code’ of the future must be dedicated to the divine law of love. Mr. O. W. Roskitt.—Freedom and planning: some problems of industrial structure. (a) The post-war growth in large scale industrial enterprises. ‘The anticipated and achieved benefits of rationalisation and amalgamation. Central purchase and central sales. The movement towards administra- tive decentralisation. Staff and their recruitment in relation to increasing size of units. (6) Trade Associations : their functions, objects, and limita- tions. Co-operative sales development and research organisations. Price fixing and price cutting. Standardised costing systems. Independent chairmen. Compulsion of minority by majority. (c) Redundancy problem and relation of capacity to output. Inoperativeness of the check of bank- ruptcy with growth in size of units owing to social implications. Relation of financial strength to technical efficiency. Effect on amalgamations. Family investment trusts. (d) Marketing at home and abroad. Different types of retail outlets. The growth of the chain store and its effect in reducing retail prices. Opposition from small shopkeepers and the pos- sibility of grouping the latter either under the zgis of a wholesale house or in financially linked chains of independently managed shops with central SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—F*, G. 415 purchasing services. Growth of the manufacturer’s desire to be in touch with his export markets and of direct selling overseas. Consequent divorce of export from import trade and need for closer co-ordination. The functions and objects of overseas marketing corporations. (e) The location of industry and factors governing it. Problems of regional development in relation to depressed areas. (f) Dividends, prices and wages: the trend towards uniform return on industrial capital. Co-partnership and labour policy. Effect of unemployment insurance on flexibility of costs. Equities and risk; the stimulation of new enterprise. (g) Co-ordination of com- peting services : road and rail: gas and electricity. Throughout the Meeting an Exhibition, in Dept. F* meeting room, of * Scientific Aids to Management’ (charts, diagrams, apparatus models, documentation). SECTION G.—ENGINEERING. Thursday, September 5. PRESIDENTIAL Appress by Mr. J. S. WILSon on Stability of structures (10.0). (See p. 113.) Prof. R. V. SourHWELL, F.R.S—A new method of solving redundant structures (11.0). Prof. B. P. Hatcu and Dr. J. C. Docnerty.—Stresses in overstrained materials (Research Committee Report) (12.0). AFTERNOON. Visit to Carrow Works (Messrs. J. & J. Colman, Ltd.) (2.15). Friday, September 6. Major R. G. CLarx.—Problems in fen drainage (10.0). Captain A. G. D. West.—The present position of television (11.0). Monday, September 9. Prof. E. W. Marcnant and Mr. B. J. O’Kane.—Dielectric properties of insulating materials at very high frequencies (10.0). Jornt Discussion with Section A (Mathematical and Physical Sciences) on Lubrication (Section A room) (10.0). See under Section A, p. 348. Mr. J. L. Mitter.—Surges in transmission lines and transformers (11.0). It is pointed out that on the higher voltage transmission systems over- voltages arising from switching operations and arcing grounds are unim- portant and that the only dangerous ones are produced by lightning, and P 416 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G. further that only direct lightning strokes closing on the line conductors, tower or ground wires need be considered, induced surges only assuming importance on low voltage lines. The dependence of the occurrence of a flashover across an insulator string from a stricken tower or ground wire to the line conductors on the stroke current and the tower foot resistance is then discussed, and from the equations included it is shown how flashovers may be prevented by the use of low values of the earth resistances or by the use of counterpoises. As yet the actual value of the rate of rise of lightning voltage at a stricken point is not known, but it is reasoned that particularly on medium voltage lines many flashovers may be initiated by breakdown across an insulator string before the return of the reflected wave from the tower foot by reason of a rapid rate of increase of lightning voltage of the order of several thousand kilovolts per micro-second. The influence of direct strokes and flashovers on line behaviour both from the point of view of power frequency follow up current and the propagation of travelling waves is then considered. ‘The effects of the latter, together with those of direct strokes to shielded and unshielded sub- stations, is discussed in relation to internal stresses in transformer windings, and it is pointed out that the most severe are axial stresses due to rapid voltage collapse or rise, oscillograms and voltage distribution curves being given which support this view-point. Some remarks are then made on non- resonating transformers and also the impracticability due to the different characteristics of air and solid insulation of satisfactorily employing rod gaps for insulation co-ordinating purposes. Finally, some aspects of the operation of various wave front flattening devices are dealt with, these including the consideration of short cables, where it is shown that a flashover at a junction of the line and cable gives rise to H.F. oscillations. Dr. L. G. A. Srms.—sSpecification of magnetic qualities with particular reference to incremental magnetisation. The need for agreement (12.0). The established magnetic testing specifications of Britain, France, Germany and America are first examined and discussed. It is noted that they are all directed towards the testing of iron which is to operate either under steady-state conditions, as in D.C. work, or under alternating magnetisation, as in A.C. work. The case of magnetisation by combined A.C. and D.C., which has nowadays considerable commercial importance, is not included. The paper shows that this case offers difficulties. In particular, correlation of A.C. and ballistic test methods of measuring incremental permeability is not generally possible owing to unsymmetrical waveform distortion introduced by even harmonics. Certain aspects of this problem are demonstrated and suggestions for a common method of testing are put forward. But the views of other experimenters are sought. An agreement is already very desirable in the interests of present research work, the value of which should be enhanced by established methods of measurement. The view-point adopted throughout the paper is that the simple ballistic method of measuring permeability is only justified if the results are a guide to the behaviour of the: iron when excited by A.C. It is further assumed that the alternating flux conditions, which are typical of most practical applications of the iron, should be those specified for the measurement of iron losses. Although the paper is chiefly concerned with the effect of waveform upon SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G. 417 measurements, a reference is also made to the ‘ time-decrease of perme- ability,’ studied by Webb and Ford at the National Physical Laboratory, which will probably affect any specification relating to incremental measure- ments at low induction densities. AFTERNOON. Visit to the works of Messrs. Boulton and Paul, Ltd., Aircraft Engineers (3.0). Tuesday, September 10. Jomnrt Discussion with Section J (Psychology) on The applications of science to the control of road traffic (Section G room) (10.0). Mr. A. T. V. Roprnson, C.B.E.—Jntroduction. Road traffic control ; a common topic of uninformed dogmatism. The need for scientific investigation. ‘The problem is far wider than the mere prevention of accidents: what must be considered is how to move with a minimum of delay, discomfort and damage a vast aggregation of utterly heterogeneous units of passengers and goods. Accident figures emphasise the importance of the personal equation. Of 7,000 fatal accidents in 1934 only 2 per cent. were attributable solely or mainly to defects of the road, and 2 per cent. to defects of the vehicle. The remaining 96 per cent. must be attributed to the personal factor. The need of co-operation between the road engineer, the vehicle engineer, and the psychologist. Various practical measures affecting the problem : A. The Road.—(i) The site and dimensions of the road and of its junctions with other roads : its gradients, lateral and longitudinal. (ii) The construc- tion of the road : materials, carpeting, colouration. (iii) The equipment of the road : traffic signals (effective only if obeyed), street lighting. B. The Vehicle—Improved stability, higher degree of mechanical reliability, simplified gears, power-assisted brakes, silent seconds and direction indicators all tend to facilitate the free movement of traffic on the roads. C. The Driver —Extension of the list of physical and mental defects constituting a bar on the grant of a licence, and introduction of driving tests. Of 77,000 candidates during the past six months nearly 12 per cent. rejected. Psycho-physical tests. Accident proneness. The limitations of the applications of science. Mr. H. ALKer Tripp, C.B.E., J.P. The majority of road accidents are the direct result of human failure, and the degree of danger is in direct ratio to the speed of moving objects. _ The speed of motor traffic has been loosed on towns and villages without the preparation essential to render it innocuous. An example of proper control should be sought from the railways, where suitably prepared tracks led to increase of speed. On the roads, increased speeds led to the need for proper tracks. The inversion is the root of the whole trouble: to rectify it is the central problem. The objects of the administrator in dealing with the traffic problem are : (a) to separate the opposing streams of traffic ; (6) to control traffic move- ments at cross roads and junctions ; (c) to control the speed of vehicles in 418 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G. crowded areas; (d) to segregate pedestrians from vehicular traffic. Mechanical safeguards are superior to restrictive legislation. Automatic traffic signals are of great value, but they should be more widely installed and the systems better co-ordinated. A progressive system would solve many difficulties. Fenced tracks for road traffic should be provided. Inthe towns, planning schemes should allow adequate and uniform road and pavement space and convenient reservoir space for standing vehicles. Among the problems facing the inventor are dazzle by motor lamps, brake mechanisms, road surfaces which will look white instead of black at night, but will not be too glaring in sunshine, and non-skid surfaces cheaply and easily renewable. The facts have now been put before the scientist, and most useful results can be produced if the scientist will apply his ingenuity not to invention only but to discovery of the particular directions in which invention is required. Mr. Kinc.—Tyre factors in vehicle control. Statistical Evidence —From an analysis of published figures with regard to road accidents, the conclusion is drawn that tyre behaviour is a minor factor. This is confirmed by accident figures from the records of the Dunlop test fleet. (Over a given period a total of nearly three million car miles was run with no fatal accidents and only five other accidents involving personal injury.) Factors affecting Vehicle Safety.-—These are divided under five main headings, three of which are purely ‘ personal factors.’ ‘ Controllability ’ and freedom from failure of the vehicle or its component parts are, however, important considerations involving tyres. Tyre Reactions affecting ‘ Controllability. —These are considered under three headings : braking, acceleration and cornering. Braking —Considerable attention is devoted to methods of measure- ment of tyre efficiency in braking. ‘The method finally adopted by the Dunlop Technical Department involves the use of an accelerometer carried on the vehicle, and results obtained in this way are quoted comparing the behaviour of new and smooth tyres on various types of road surface (dry and wet). It is found that factors of major importance governing the behaviour of a vehicle when brakes are applied are speed and ‘ balance’ of brakes. - Acceleration The forces involved are much smaller than in braking. Wheel-spin, resulting in side-slip, is the only thing likely to cause any difficulty. Cornering.—Theoretical considerations are discussed and results of actual tests are quoted comparing the effects of new and worn tyres on the cornering ability of a car. In general, cornering tests place different tyres in the same order of merit as braking tests, but the differences between tyres are much smaller in the former case. General Consideration of Tyre Design and Use.—The necessary qualities of the ‘ ideal tyre ’ are outlined, and it is emphasised that a high level of tyre efficiency is wasted unless brakes are efficient. The various effects of pattern, inflation pressure and state of wear are referred to, and it is pointed out that the most undesirable feature of worn tyres is the difference in their behaviour on smooth wet and dry surfaces. In the case of new tyres this difference is very much smaller. Tyre Safety —Finally, reference is made to the safety of a smooth tyre SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—G. 419 from the point of view of structural failure, and some erroneous views regarding the function of the tread in this respect are corrected. Practical Demonstration —Several of the points referred to in the paper were illustrated by skidding tests carried out on two cars. These were designed to show : (a) The difference between new and worn tyres in their effect on braking a car on a wet surface (brakes correctly adjusted). (b) The difference between stopping distances on two different types of wet road surface (on worn tyres). (c) The effect of a small variation in speed on cornering ability. (d) The effect of badly adjusted brakes on the behaviour of a car in an emergency stop. Dr. C. S. Myers, C.B.E., F.R.S—The psychological approach to the problems of road accidents. The psychologist’s approach to the problems of road accidents is broader than that of most other experts—statisticians and engineers, for example— who are concerned with the same problems, since he must study all the factors which react upon road users and may therefore have some influence on accidents. He is not content, for example, with mechanical perfection in car controls ; but he would institute an enquiry into which forms and positions of controls best satisfy the human requirements of the driver. A similar study is required of traffic signals and of road lighting systems. The psychologist holds that there is need for a thorough investigation of the combined total effect of traffic regulations, for he realises that there is a danger of their becoming so numerous that an excessive strain is imposed on a driver’s attention—a strain that may easily enhance his liability to accident. A further line of enquiry is into the values of incentives and deterrents in promoting good road behaviour. The industrial psychologist’s experi- ence with these problems in other spheres will be valuable to him here. The technique which he has evolved for market researches, and especially for those researches which relate to the use of advertisements, would be particularly useful in exploring methods of propaganda for road safety. In studying accidents, the psychologist will take into account the remote as well as the direct causes—the effects of predisposing previous strain, fatigue, worry and irritation. He must further be in a position to recognise the mental and physical abilities and the qualities required for a safe driver, to assess them, and to discover whether a driver possesses them in adequate measure for him with fair safety to follow his unquestionably dangerous occupation or amusement. Experiments on tests which will enable him to do this have been conducted by the Industrial Health Research Board, which has sought for a means of detecting the ‘ accident-prone,’ whether engaged in industrial occupations or in driving. A battery of tests has been prepared by the National Institute of Industrial Psychology specifically for motor-drivers, and results obtained with them show that while they cannot, of course, pretend that a driver who passes them satisfactorily will never be prone to reckless conduct, yet they can claim to select those drivers who possess the necessary abilities to extricate themselves from a dangerous situation when it confronts them. The use of similar tests in the Paris omnibus service reduced the number of accidents to these vehicles by 66 per cent. during the period 1929-33, although the number of omnibuses increased by 77 per cent., and their speed limit by 44.5 per cent. During 420 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—G. the same period the number of accidents to all motor vehicles in Paris increased by 5 per cent. It may be argued that the use of these tests may result occasionally in the exclusion of good drivers, and thus in some individual hardship. But surely it is better to do this than to admit those whose unsuitability will result in injury or killing their fellow-citizens. Even if this be not con- ceded, the tests might usefully be given to those whose conduct has resulted in threatened or actual accidents, especially as the tests reveal, from time to time, deficiencies in drivers which can be remedied by special training. Finally, the psychologist insists on the importance of systematic training for all road users. Mr. E. FarmMer.—Accident proneness among motor drivers. Statistical methods are available for determining from the recorded accidents of a group of individuals exposed to similar risks to what extent their accidents are mainly due to specially prone individuals. It has been found from all the accident records so far examined by this method that the accidents of any group of individuals are mainly due to a very small number of specially prone persons. If these few specially prone persons are elimi- nated, the subsequent accident rate of the group is considerably reduced. It has also been shown of these specially accident prone individuals : (1) That they sustain an undue number of accidents in different periods of exposure. (2) That they sustain an undue number of accidents of different kinds, both blameless and blameworthy. (3) That they sustain an undue number of both minor and major accidents. : This means that accident proneness is a relatively stable individual quality that will manifest itself whenever the opportunity is given. Accident prone individuals can be detected by (1) psychological or other tests, (2) by examining their previous accident records. The former method is not yet sufficiently reliable for general use. The second method is reliable if means can be found for making it effective. The motor accidents recorded by the insurance companies could be examined to see how far it is possible from previous records to prognosticate an individual’s accident proneness. ‘This has already been done for a few thousand drivers and positive results obtained. Before any definite con- clusion can be drawn it is necessary to examine the validity of the hypothesis over a wider field, embracing every possible class of driver. Government co-operation would be necessary to do this. It is suggested that before licences were renewed a certificate from the applicant’s insurers should be produced giving his accident record for the previous period. If this plan were put into operation for a few years it would be possible to see what practical measures could be taken to lessen the number of accident prone drivers. AFTERNOON. Demonstration of skidding (2.0). Wednesday, September 11. COMMITTEE REPORTS AND DISCUSSIONS (10.0). Wing-Commander T. R. Cave BRowNE Cave, C.B.E.—WNotse (10.0). SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G, H. 421 Mr. J. S. Witson.—Earth pressures (10.30). Sir J B. Henperson.—Electrical terms (11.15). Capt. W. N. McCiean.—Inland water survey. SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. Thursday, September 5. Mr. J. Rem Moir.—The antiquity of man in East Anglia (10.0). The earliest artifacts of East Anglia are found in the Bone Bed of Pliocene age, beneath the Red Crag, and can be divided, possibly, into five groups of different ages. Each earlier than the Crag, the most ancient examples of the succeeding Paleolithic epoch are found in the Cromer Forest Bed. Lower Acheulian implements are rare in East Anglia, and the exact geo- logical horizon to which they should be referred remains uncertain. Possibly it may be placed in the Middle Glacial deposits : such as occur between the Norwich Brickearth, and the Kimmeridgic Chalky Boulder Clay, at Corton, near Lowestoft. The Upper Acheulian and Early Mousterian horizons in East Anglia are well known, and are found between the Kimmeridgic and the Upper Chalky Boulder Clays, the late Mousterian and Aurignacian cultures occur between the latter Boulder Clay and the Brown Boulder Clay of Norfolk. ‘The Solutrian and Magdalenian phases in East Anglia seem to be associated with post-glacial times. Neolithic implements are found either upon the surface, or in the deeper deposits of the Fenland. Joint Discussion with Section C (Geology) on The geological relations of early man in East Anglia (Section C room) (11.0). See under Section C, p. 366. AFTERNOON. Prof. D. ArKk1inson.— Saxon site at Caistor, near Norwich (2.0). Miss D. A. E. Garrop—The Mousterian people of Palestine ; their culture (3.0). In the caves of the Wady Mughara, Mount Carmel, skeletal remains of a number of individuals were found associated with flint implements of Levalloisian type, and with animal bones pointing to warm, moist climatic conditions—in contrast with the temperate woodland fauna of the overlying Mousterian levels inthe same site. It is suggested that the Carmel skeletons date from the end of the Riss-Wurm interglacial, and are therefore approxi- mately of the same age as those of Ehringsdorf and Taubach, and older than the Neandertal remains of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, Spy, Gibraltar, etc. Mr. THEeoporRE D. McCown and Sir Arruur KeitTH, F.R.S.—The Mousterian people of Palestine : their anatomy (3.30). The human remains from the Wady Mughara caves near Atlit, Palestine, comprise three relatively complete skeletons and the more fragmentary 422 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—H. remnants of six other individuals from the Mugharet es-Skhil, a complete skeleton from et-Tabun and a nearly perfect isolated mandible as well as the very fragmentary remains (teeth, carpal bones, a radius) of several other human beings from the same cave. ‘This provides, we believe, the most abundant and complete representation of a population yet discovered In a cemetery of such antiquity. The present report is intended as a pre- liminary statement introducing both the interesting character of the remains themselves and the no less important problems raised by them. The study of this material is a joint enterprise of the Royal College of Surgeons of England and the American School of Prehistoric Research. The anatomy of these fossils reveals a series of characters which, both in combination and singly, leave no doubt that we have to do with a variant form of Neanderthal man, but a type which in certain respects exhibits features that are comparable to those of the more primitive races of modern man. We have also the opportunity of examining changes due to age, differences attributable to sex and the ever-present variability inherent in any human group from the same locality and period. These considerations are to be emphasised at the present time because they bear directly on the racial affiliations of Mount Carmel Man. At the same time they serve as a means of presenting a brief survey of the nature of the specimens now being studied. Dr. C. P. Martin.—Irish skulls (4.15). Recent discoveries have shown that the racial history of Ireland was very similar to that of Great Britain, at least up to the time of the Roman invasion of the latter country. The Bronze Age round-headed people, which were thought not to have entered Ireland except as stragglers, are now known to have invaded the country in considerable numbers. The earlier Neolithic inhabitants appear to fall into two groups. The first, found in the kitchen middens, belonged to a race similar to Huxley’s river-bed type. The second, found in the chambered cairns, belong to the Iberian type. The former had long, narrow and high skulls with apparently broad faces and noses ; the latter had broader and lower skulls and the face and nose were narrow. The Iberians, however, often had good sub-nasal fossz and in this were more primitive than the river-bed type. Many skulls with very broad bases are found among the present inhabi- tants of the Western Isles. Skulls with similar broad bases are also found among the remains from the Crannogs and the Norsemen. All these people were constant sowers and this perhaps develops the neck muscles and leads to a broadening of the skull base. Friday, September 6. Discussion on Mr. F. Reid Moir’s theories concerning the patination of eoliths (10.0). Mr. A. T. Marston.—Evxhibition of a human occipital bone from Pleistocene deposits at Swanscombe, Kent (10.45). Dr. GRAHAME CLARK.—A bone find from the North Sea bed (11.0). SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—H. 423 Mr. A. LEsLIE ARMSTRONG.—Evolution of flint mining at Grime’s Graves, Norfolk (12.0). Aided by a grant from the trustees of the Percy Sladen Memorial Trust, a scheme of systematic research was instituted at Grime’s Graves in 1921, and has been carried on progressively since that date. Trenching and trial excavations have defined the area within which flint mining was carried on and also revealed the circumstances which caused the mining to be confined within these limits. The flint mines have been fully excavated and a further mine shaft is now in progress. These excavations demonstrate a gradual evolution both in mining methods, in the tools used, and in the form of the mine shafts. ‘Three well-defined phases are recognisable, viz. : (1) Primitive phase -——Shafts, devoid of galleries, in which picks made from the long bones of animals are used exclusively. (2) Intermediate phase —Shafts in the form of open workings, but devoid of galleries, in which deer antler picks first appear. In the earlier examples bone picks predominate. In those of the later phase deer antler picks exceed the bone picks in number. (3) Late phase—Deep shafts with mined galleries; celts with pointed butts. Deer antler picks. The probable period of commencement and cessation of mining is discussed and evidence advanced of occupation in Bronze-Iron Age times, prior to which all mining had ceased. AFTERNOON. Excursion to Caistor Camp, Woodhenge, Armingham, Whitlingham (2.30)... Saturday, September 7. Excursion to Grime’s Graves, Brandon, Thetford (9.30). Sunday, September 8. AFTERNOON. Excursion to Monastic Buildings of Norfolk and North Norfolk Coast Sections (2.0). Monday, September 9. PRESIDENTIAL AppREss by Sir A. SmirH Woopwarp, F.R.S., on Recent progress in the study of early man (10.0). (See p. 129.) Mr. O. Davirs and Mr. E. E. Evans.—Horned cairns in Ulster (11.0). This paper deals with some results of a series of excavations conducted under the auspices of the Belfast Municipal Museum, the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society and the Queen’s University of Belfast, during the last four years. They have revealed a vigorous horned-cairn P 2 424 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—H. culture of the megalithic period in Northern Ireland. Some forty megaliths of this type have now been recognised in the six counties and five have been excavated : they show many variations in detail of construction, but most of them consist of long cairns containing segmented chambers (normally three in number) opening on to a semicircular facade of standing stones which embrace a paved forecourt. Some cairns are built on a prepared floor of clean soil or clay. Burials are after cremation or inhumation (ap- parently partial). Finds include leaf-shaped arrowheads, hollow-scrapers, chipped flint axes, polished axes, stone and bone beads, and a polished javelin-head. The pottery is nearly all round-bottomed (with the exception of some Early Iron Age intrusions) and has strong affinities with the Scottish horned-cairn pottery. Although it possesses certain Windmill Hill features, the use of cord and whipped-cord ornament is not uncommon and some high-shouldered pots find their nearest parallels in the Isle of Man. On the other hand some features can only be matched farther afield, either in the Baltic area or in Brittany. One of the most interesting discoveries is a proto-food-vessel from Ballyalton, County Down. Mr, J. Foster Forses.—Megalithic circles and monolithic monuments of north-east Scotland (11.45). It is the purpose of this paper to endeavour to extract, from known data out of the remote past, evidence that will go far to solve the mystery not only of the megalithic circles, but to show that the incised monolithic symbols were carried out by the same people and that they formed an integral part in the megalithic construction. It is vain to search for evidence of the origin of these stones amongst races and peoples coming in from other countries and settling in Scotland, where no trace of megalithic’ circle formation has been known to exist in their own lands. In this category one can well exclude those who migrated from Northern and Central Europe and penetrated as far as the eastern and north-eastern seaboards of Scotland. Although it has long been known that the Pheenicians penetrated as far as these islands and traded with the inhabitants, there is no evidence to show the existence of the megalithic circles in the country of their origin. On reputable authority it has been stated that the race of people more correctly known as the Caledonians (and afterwards given the name of the ‘ Picts ’) originated from Spain and the Basque country ; that, at one time, numbers of their race migrated from Spain and formed colonies on the shores of Brittany, Cornwall, South Wales and Cumberland. Others proceeded to Ireland, from which country they were ejected, taking with them a number of their Irish women-folk as wives and finally landing in Scotland. These people constituted the earliest race of settlers at a period known as the New Stone Age, which followed that of the Second Ice Age. Dr. Marcaret Murray.—Dating of folk-lore (12.30). Much work has already been done on the geographical distribution of folk-lore, especially of folk-tales. The ethnographical side of the subject has also received some attention, but the dating of folk-customs and beliefs has been neglected. Some of these customs and beliefs can be dated to a definite time, others are more vaguely dated to the Middle Ages or to post-Christian and pre-Christian, and a few can only be referred back to the Bronze Age and the Paleolithic Age. The chronological method applied to the study of folk-lore still requires a great amount of careful and scientific research. ee EE <= SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 425 AFTERNOON. Mr. C. S. Orwin.— The origin of lynchets (2.0). The name ‘ lynchet’ is applied to the banks and terraces which occur plentifully in some parts of England, and occasionally in most parts of the country. It has been accepted for a long time that they are the results of early ploughing—in fact, that they represent ordinary ridge-and-furrow work controlled by the exigencies of operating on gradients. There is no question that some of the banks which are called ‘ lynchets ’ have resulted from the way in which land has been laid out for ploughing across a slope. The suggestion in this paper, however, is that this explana- tion is not applicable to the terrace lynchets, the formation of which has been attributed by archeologists for the past hundred years to the use of the plough to turn furrows across the hillsides on which they occur in the downward direction only, thus cutting out the soil on the higher side of the ploughing and piling it up on the lower side, to produce the well-known terraces. The author of this paper seeks to upset this explanation by reference to farming practice and to the limitations which the sites, the soil and the per- formance of primitive implements would exert. He suggests that although some terrace lynchets have obviously been ploughed in modern times, and that here and there a few may be under cultivation to-day, they were made in the first place neither by ploughing nor for ploughing. Mr. R. U. Sayce.—Principles of folk-lore (2.45). Mr. K. Jackson.—What was the language of Roman Britain ? (3.30). It was believed at one time that one consequence of Romanisation in Roman Britain was that the native British speech was entirely abandoned and Latin adopted in its place. The theory has recently been revived. It was modified by Haverfield, who concluded on the evidence of the graffiti that British survived only among the lower classes in the country districts. But this evidence can be interpreted differently ; and it can be shown from the Latin words borrowed into British, from place-names, and from other sources, that though Latin was certainly the speech of the administrative and upper classes in Roman Britain, the mass of the people spoke British. The Anglo-Saxon invaders camc into contact with a population whose language was British, not Latin, in the ‘ Lowland Area’ of Britain as well as in the ‘ Highland Area.’ Rey. Canon J. A. MacCuLtocu.—The household brownie as an ancestral spirit (4.15). Belief in the brownie, kobold, or household fairy or spirit, was widespread in Europe and has analogies elsewhere. It can be traced back to early medieval times, but is‘probably much older. The brownie attached himself to a household, giving willing service in his own way, and bringing prosperity when treated with respect. He was touchy, however, and departed if insulted or for other reasons. Some of the folk-lore of the brownie is shared with other beings. The brownie is more closely allied to spirits of the dead than fairies in general. Especially is he connected with the hearth, as were many ancestral guardian spirits. This ancestral connection is most clearly seen in Russian 426 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. belief regarding the Domovoy, at once a brownie and an ancestral spirit, and in similar beings in Eastern Europe. This belief is connected again with the household snake, real or imaginary, embodiment of an ancestral spirit. Belief in such a household spirit was aided by burial in the dwelling, probably a survival from the Stone Age. Though connected with the ancestral spirit, the personality of the brownie is one round which imagination and mythopeic fancy have played freely, showing man’s desire to give corporeality to the phantoms projected on the stage of his existence. Tuesday, September 10. Miss B. BLackwoop.—Physical types of the N.W. Solomon Islands (10.0). This paper is based on material collected by the writer in three villages on the north coast of Bougainville and two small islands off the west coast of Buka, the most north-westerly of the Solomon Islands. The principal physical measurements and observations on series of both sexes are analysed and discussed with reference to the available comparative data. The main points of interest are illustrated by lantern slides, including examples of racial crossing. Dr. M. A. MacConatt and Dr. F. L. RaLpus.—Development of pigmen- tation in a Nordic group (10.30). The population of Sheffield has been shown to deserve the status of a Nordic group (MacConaill, Clegg and Ralphs, Proc. 1st Int. Congr. Anthrop. and Ethnol., London, 1934). ‘The percentage of eyes falling into different classes in a total of 2,600 male children from 5 to 20 years old was observed and the same kind of analyses was carried out for hair colour in the same individuals. Eyes were classified as dark blue, light blue, gray, hazel, light brown, dark brown, black. Hair was classified as light blond, dark blond, red, light brown, dark brown, black. A statistical consideration of the tables strongly suggests that all forms of pigmentation in the adult are derived from an infantile combination of light blond hair with dark blue eyes. From the thirteenth year onwards this combination is stabilised as a constant fraction (seventeen per thousand) of the population. ‘These facts are briefly discussed in connection with the idea of the evolution of the full Nordic type by a process of neoteny. Prof. A. M. BLackman.—The value of Egyptology in the modern world (11.0). Owing, among other factors, to the extreme conservatism of the Egyptian peasants the importance of Egypt for anthropology can hardly be exaggerated. Egypt offers the philologist an unique opportunity for linguistic studies, and must occupy a prominent position in any history of astronomy, mathematics, or medicine. That country can also supply the economist and historian with much interesting material. Modern architects and sculptors might study with considerable profit the works of their ancient predecessors in the lower Nile Valley. European literature and religious thought are much indebted to ancient Egyptian writers and sages. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 427 Mr. TREvVoR THomas.—Approach to primitive art (11.45). If art is conceived as manipulation of material in such ways as to express varieties of experience and vision, appreciation of expression as embodied in primitive art is likely to prove difficult for sophisticated people. Approach to the primitive will be conditioned by previously determined concepts, but resultant evaluations will not be without worth as criticism. Dis- advantages of a limited field of perception are well exemplified in ethno- graphical studies which, regarding primitive works as artefacts rather than art, are concerned with them mostly as adjuncts to religious, social and tribal organisation. Human geographical and environmental view-points provide interesting but limited angles of interpretation through correlated factors of climate, vegetation and habitat. Tending to stand in opposition to these two schools of intellectual approach, the emotionally conditioned advance guard of modern art recognises, in the plastic tensions of native work, abstract expressions of universal awareness similar to its own. The dangers and extravagance of such approaches can be balanced by more tangible standards of criticism indicated in the study and analysis of primitive art in relation to technique and materials employed. This ap- proach, whilst logically linked with the methods previously indicated, deals directly with the specimens, thus avoiding some of the weaknesses implicit in the introduction of external factors. Mr. J. E. Sainty. —Whitlingham (12.30). Whitlingham lies two miles east of Norwich, on the right bank of the Yare-Wensum. ‘The derelict chalk pit shows a section of chalk, stone bed, shelly crag and glacial beds, and produced the ‘ Norwich Test Specimen ’ rostro-carinate and the huge worked flake (6 lb. 6 oz.), both in the British Museum, as well as the boldly flaked hand-axe in Norwich Castle Museum. On the sewage farm shallow diggings for gravel disclosed hand-axes, and subsequent excavations produced 550 artefacts, ranging from derived sub-Crag and Chellian specimens, rolled and striated, to evolved Acheulian hand-axes in mint condition. ‘These occurred in a terrace gravel 4o ft. above present river level. Clactonian flakes were common, whilst a small number of finely worked racloirs and flakes with faceted butts and heavily resolved flaking were obtained. The overlying stony clay supplied a few gray or white hand-axes of late type anda fine scraper similar to High Lodge specimens. An orange stained rostro-carinate showed the survival to late Acheulian times of this form. No late Paleolithic material has been recognised, but the presence of Cissbury artefacts confirms Arderon’s account of the finding in ancient workings in the chalk of red deer antler picks (now in Norwich Castle Museum) and of a human skeleton. In the adjoining garden at Crown Point was found a hoard of five superbly flaked axes showing no sign of usage. AFTERNOON. Mr. M. C. Burxitt.—Technique as a criterion of culture (2.0). Prehistoric implements have been classified hitherto according to a system of typology, certain arbitrary characteristics being selected as representative of different types of tool. These tool-types are themselves sub-divisible. Thus a collection of implements can be separated into tool families, each family being in turn subdivided and re-subdivided. Always the type 428 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. of tool is the criterion. Recently studies of the processes of making the tools have been undertaken, and a new basis for the classification of industries introduced. Not all tools—even when belonging to the same tool family— were manufactured in the same manner. ‘Thus it is possible to apply more definite criteria for classification purposes than the somewhat arbitrary type characteristics alone. Typology will still be essential, of course. Broadly speaking, industries can be classed as ‘ core,’ ‘ flake,’ or “ blade-and- burin.’ In each category various methods of making the tools occur. In early Palzolithic times two distinct sets of industries belonging to two different sets of cultures, i.e. to two distinct civilisations, exist—the one Asiatic, the other African. The Asiatic group includes the Cromerian, Clactonian, Levalloisian and Mousterian cultures; the African the great coup-de-poing culture. In Aurignacian times a distribution map of the fluting technique shows that this is of Asiatic not African origin and is associated with bone tools and home art. As certain other elements in our western European Aurignacian were introduced from Africa the dual origin of this culture is thus demonstrated. Miss E. Dora Eartuy.—Kisi tribe of Liberia (2.45). The Kisi tribe of Liberia inhabits villages dotted about the north-western corner of Liberia, and adjacent territory in French Guinea and the Sierra Leone Protectorate. The paramount Chief of the Liberian section belongs to the Kandakai family. His kingdom is divided into three districts, Wam, Rankolle, and Tengia. The clan chiefs under the paramount chief have each a number of subject sub-clans. Each sub-clan chief rules a number of villages called ‘towns.’ The language belongs to the West Atlantic group, and is apparently semi- Bantu in character. Arabic seems to have had some influence on the structure. : The physical type of the ruling class is tall. "The prevailing type is short of stature, almost pygmy. The Kisi acknowledge a totemic origin. The tribal totems are the baboon (called grandfather), crocodile, alligator and kola nut. Clan totems are numerous. A certain river and secret mountain are worshipped, with impressive rites. Marriages are exogamous and often arranged when the bride is an infant. The bride-wealth is paid in iron-bar currency, called kilindi. Burial places are marked by a mound of stones. The ‘ towns’ may be said to be built round the family vault. Rt. Hon. Lord RacLtan.—Was early man a scientist ? (3.30). The belief that ‘ among primitive races similar needs and materials are apt to produce objects of similar appearance ’ is ill-founded. ‘There is no evidence that needs lead to artefacts at all; the prevalence of skeuomorphs shows that material is a factor of minor importance, and e.g. wooden weapons differ widely in type. Current theories about early man are based on a belief in the inventive- ness of the savage which is derived, not from fact, but from myth and from assumptions such as that ability to use implies ability to invent, and that local sequence implies local evolution. Inventions such as bows and boats are probably beyond the reach of primitives, and of the calendar beyond the reach of illiterates, for whom it SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 429 has no practical use. All inventions the history of which is known are the products of wealth and leisure. What is needed in anthropology is a clearer distinction between fact and theory. Dr. M. A. MacConaitt and Dr. F. L. Ratpus.—The post-natal develop- ment of the brain in a Nordic group (4.15). The population of Sheffield has been shown to deserve the status of a Nordic group (MacConaill, Clegg and Ralphs, Proc. 1st Int. Congr. Anthrop. and Ethnol., London, 1934). From measurements made upon 2,600 male children from five to twenty years of age the growth of the cranial capacity has been estimated over the period indicated. It is assumed that the Lee Pearson mean formula for cranial capacity in relation to length, breadth and auricular height, conjointly, holds good over the period considered. During this time the final fifth of adult cranial capacity is attained at a rate which steadily increases. The ratio of brain growth to that of other parts shows a definite return to the infantile proportion during the period of adolescence. It is concluded that the ‘ corporeal concomitant’ (of Keith) is supplemented by an increment connected with the onset of sexual maturity. Wednesday, September 11. Mile. Simone Corsirau.—Archeological surprises (10.0). Dr. Gorpon Warp.—The Roman colonia in Britain (10.45). The study of Roman veteran colonies in Britain has scarcely yet advanced beyond the recording of the names of those few towns which are known to have had the civil status appropriate to colonies. It is possible to make further progress by seeking for the remains of that peculiar rectangular road system which characterised the true colony. This road system is not to be sought for in the towns but in the open country in the neighbour- hood of Roman cities. It demarcated the holdings of veteran soldiers, and is still easy to identify near Brancaster in Norfolk and both north and south of Lincoln. Gillingham in Kent affords a further example, but only these three have as yet been studied at all closely. There are certain road plans which resemble those of the colonies but are of different origin, and there are certain particulars in which the three colonies studied appear to depart from the classical model, for example, the individual small holdings appear to have been oblong rectangles and not squares. It is possible to suggest some rules for the identification of colonies, but this paper is not intended to be more than an introduction to a fascinating study likely to advance our knowledge of Roman and later Britain in ways as yet hardly suspected. 430 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—I. SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY. Thursday, September 5. Jomnt Discussion with Section J (Psychology) on Hearing and aids to hearing (Section I room) (11.0). Dr. P. M. T. Kerripce.—The hearing of children in London schools for the deaf. About 0-1 per cent. of the school population of London are deaf enough to require special educational provision. ‘The deaf children vary from those with minor defects in hearing who only need to be taught lip-reading, to those who have been so severely deaf from birth that they did not acquire speech in the ordinary manner. The hearing of 456 children, of ages 6-17, in 13 schools, was tested with a pure tone audiometer. ‘Twenty per cent. were retested after an interval of several months, as a guide to the reliability of the results. The audiograms have been classified and compared with the clinical history. Cases deaf from birth had most commonly maximum hearing loss for high tones, or patchy hearing. Cases of deafness following infection of the ears had high tone maximum loss, or middle tone maximum loss, with about equal frequency. Meningitis usually left patchy hearing of small amount, or none at all. Deafness due to congenital syphilis was associated with audiograms similar to those of cases deaf from birth, but the age of onset was later. Speech defects have been considered in relation to the age of onset of the deafness, the intelligence of the child, and the amount and nature of the deafness. Sixty-four per cent. were deaf before the age of 2, and in these cases there was a definite correlation between the amount of residual hearing and their proficiency in speech. Dr. A. F. RAWDON-SMITH (11.20). The effect of loud pure-tone stimuli upon the acuity of hearing is discussed. An apparatus for producing such stimuli, and for testing the auditory threshold before and after their application is briefly described. It is shown that the absolute threshold of the ear rises as a result of pure tone stimulation, and that this result is not confined to the ear stimulated. A smaller, though often considerable, acuity loss is found in the other ear. This fact is thought to indicate that the losses are of cortical mediation, a supposition confirmed by the discovery that the losses may, on occasions, be restored by the application of certain unexpected stimuli. This pheno- menon, it is thought, places the effect in the category of inhibition, the unexpected stimulus producing disinhibition. These latter terms are used in somewhat the same sense as that employed by Pavlov, when discussing the inhibition of conditioned reflexes. The fact that a slightly greater acuity loss is found in the stimulated than in the unstimulated ear indicates that, in the latter, an additional peripheral acuity loss may be found. Such a loss has been found in the ear of the cat, using Davis and Saul’s method of recording the electrical activity of the auditory mid-brain. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—I. 431 Dr. A.W. G. Ewine and Dr. T.S. LirrLer.—The response of partially deaf patients to amplified speech at controlled intensities (11.30). In the investigation described speech was transmitted to a group of partially deaf and normal subjects through a specially designed high quality amplifier system set up in a sound-proof room. ‘The intensity level at which speech could be made most intelligible to each subject was determined by adjustment of an attenuator network. It was found possible to obtain approximately 100 per cent. intelligibility for both vowels and consonants with some of the partially deaf patients. In certain instances speech proved to be most intelligible at high levels of intensity involving very considerable amplification. With the partially deaf subjects there was found to be no apparent decrease in acuity after use of the apparatus for sometime. Although the peak intensity in the speech sounds approached the intensity that would normally produce fatigue in the case of a maintained pure tone, the duration of the peak intensities in speech sounds is small. The auditory acuity of each subject was measured under experimental conditions with pure tone stimuli produced by a beat-tone oscillator (a) in free air, (b) with a bone conduction receiver, and (c) when listening through the amplifier system. Mr. L. E. Heata.—Amplifiers in schools for the deaf (11.50). Amplification for children with residual hearing must be studied from three angles. ‘The teacher’s aspect involves psychology and specialised teaching ; the physiological aspect involves the extent and type of hearing defect ; the mechanical side endeavours to satisfy the requirements of the other two. The children may be classified as follows : (1) Those hearing all amplified speech, and understanding, or capable of being taught to understand it. (2) Those hearing only some part of it, and capable of deriving some benefit. (3) Those who will derive no benefit. Group (1) covers approximately 30 per cent. of the children. Groups (2) and (3) cannot be estimated without more research, and trials, with con- sideration of teaching methods, psychology of the child, and many other factors influencing the use of residual hearing. ‘The benefit derived may only be an improvement in the tone of voice, accent, rhythm or intonation of speech, which do not necessitate full hearing of speech. An ideal instrument would allow for complete control of amplification in standard units, and a known alteration of amplification above or below a known frequency. This would allow rapid adjustment of controls by reference to audiograms, and while avoiding harmful use of excessive amplification, ensure the best approach to normal conditions for each child. Miss E. L. S. Ross.—The psychological effects of aids to hearing (12.5). Main characteristics of the mental make-up of the deaf and the semi-deaf child, as compared with the hearing. Comparison with the blind and the partially sighted. Psychological effect of the special methods of education commonly employed. Report of a preliminary investigation into the psychological effect of the regular use of an amplifier with a group of senior children attending a school 432 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—I. for the deaf. Various types and degrees of deafness were included in the group. Some theoretical considerations especially with regard to the education of deaf children. GENERAL DISCUSSION (12.20). AFTERNOON. Excursion to the Cider Works of Messrs. Wm. Gaymer & Son, Attle- borough (2.7). Friday, September 6. Mr. 'T. W. Apams and Dr. E. P. Poutton.—Some further applications of a new study of heat production in man (11.10). At the Aberdeen Meeting we showed that the output of CO, was the measure of the amount of combustion in the body, while the oxygen intake was a resultant of combustion and conversion. There was no time to bring the further conclusions of our study before the Section, but these appear in the Report for 1934. Some results of Benedict and Milner throw an interesting light on the metabolism of muscular work, which is a perplexing problem, because the respiratory quotient is above unity when the work is extreme. Since Krogh and Lindhard’s experiment (1919) it has been generally accepted that with muscular work on a carbohydrate diet the CO, is greater and the O, less than on a fat diet, which might mean that more carbohydrate was being oxidised, and they argued that with fat more heat was produced ; but in the similar experiments of Benedict and Milner (1903-4), who used a respiratory calorimeter, the measured heat was the same on the two diets. When the three hourly results are analysed it is necessary to assume that there is some kind of partial reduction of carbohydrate towards fat of a temporary nature. The results for the whole period suggest either that more carbohy- drate was oxidised on the carbohydrate diet or, as we prefer to think, that carbohydrate and fat were oxidised in a fixed proportion, and carbohydrate was also converted into fat. Dr. F. W. Eprmpce-Green, C.B.E.—The colour of the positive after-image of a colour (11.30). In certain conditions the colour of the positive after-image of any colour or white is purple. It is best to use only one eye, and to have both eyes covered with a black cushion before performing the experiment. The object should then be viewed for the shortest possible time and the black cushion be replaced over the eye. If tried with a spectrum the whole of the after-image becomes purple. if ona piece of white cardboard eighteen inches square a series of small squares of red and blue cardboard, each about three-quarters of an inch square, be pasted to cover a surface of about nine inches square, be placed in sunlight and viewed as previously mentioned at a distance of three feet a brilliant positive after-image, red, blue and white, will be seen for a fraction of a second; then all changes to purple, which becomes brighter and then disappears from without inwards in about eight to twelve seconds without becoming negative; the last thing to be seen oy SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—I. 433 is a whirlpool movement in the centre of the field of vision. With spectral colours projected on a screen in a dark room, the positive after-image of all becomes purple and disappears without changing to negative when viewed for the shortest possible time. When the eye is moved the after-image spreads out, a portion of the retina not previously stimulated being affected. These facts prove conclusively that the photo-chemical stimulus in vision is liquid and movable in the retina. Monday, September 9. PRESIDENTIAL Appress by Prof. P. 'T. HERRING on The pituitary body and the diencephalon (10.0). (See p. 143.) Dr. J. Beatt1eE.— The relation of the pituitary to the hypothalamus (11.0). The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland is connected to the hypo- thalamus by nervous and chemical links. Nerve fibres from the pre-optic area of the hypothalamus make their way into the pituitary stalk and end in the posterior and intermediate lobes. The existing evidence favours the secretory nature of the fibres. No fibres are known which pass into the anterior lobe from the hypothalamus. Chemical links between the posterior lobe and the hypothalamus have been denied, but the weight of evidence for posterior lobe hormones is in favour of the presence of at least some hor- mones in the intact animal. The cells from which these hormones are elaborated and the method of their transference to their places of action are not yet proved. The various theories are discussed. The relation of the pituitary and the hypothalamus to problems of water, fat, and carbo- hydrate metabolism throw much light on the neurohormonal control of the autonomic nervous system and on the place of the hypothalamus in the animal economy. Dr. A. S. Parkes, F.R.S.—Relation of the pituitary to reproduction (11.20). Dr. J. M. Peterson.—The relationship of the pituitary gland to carbohydrate metabolism (11.40). Observations by Houssay, Cushing and others have clearly demonstrated that the symptoms of diabetes may be controlled by the agency of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. Implantation of this lobe, or injection of an extract from it, has a diabetogenic effect, while excision of the gland alleviates the symptoms of diabetes. The diabetogenic substance has been shown to act without the mediation of the pancreatic islets, thyroid, or the adrenal medulla; evidence with regard to the possible mediation of the adrenal cortex is as yet scanty. The postulate that it acts on nerve centres, which control carbohydrate metabolism through the autonomic nervous system, is interesting in view of the recent observations with regard to the relationship of the hypothalamus and the pons to the blood sugar level. The evidence for such a mechanism is, however, inconclusive. It is claimed that the diabetogenic extract is divisible into ketogenic and blood-sugar-raising fractions, and has not been identified with any other known physiological agent extractable from the pituitary gland. The rise in blood lactic acid which follows intravenous injection of the pressor substance of the posterior lobe is attributable to a diminution in transference of oxygen from blood to tissues (Geiling and others). 434 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—I, J. Dr. F. R. Winton.—Relation of the pituitary to the kidney (12.0). Dr. GEOFFREY JEFFERSON—Pituitary dystrophics (12.20). GENERAL DISCUSSION (12.40). Tuesday, September 10. Jornrt Discussion with Section F (Economic Science and Statistics) on The economic aspects of diet (Section F room) (10.0). See under Section F, p. 408. SECTION J.—PSYCHOLOGY. Thursday, September 5. Dr. W. Brown.—Character and personality (10.0). In English usage the term ‘ character’ refers to an organisation of the affective and emotional aspects of the mind, leading up to the development of more or less tenacity of purpose and strength of will. ‘ Personality,’ on the other hand, has three different connotations, viz. (1) the sum-total of the powers of the individual, both inherited and acquired (German scientists use the word ‘ Charakter ’ in this sense) ; (2) the more dramatic aspects of individuality, especially the power of the individual to stimulate and influence the imagination of other individuals in art, science and public affairs; the psychology of leadership and the general problem of the psychology of personal influence fall to be considered under this heading ; (3) the philosophical or metaphysical view of the individual as having the power to live in, or partake of, a super-individual and (to some extent) super-temporal world of values (the good, the beautiful and the true), and to be capable of spiritual development in this sense. Methods of psychotherapy (analysis and suggestion) help the development of character, and of personality in both its dramatic and its philosophical aspects. Prof. C. W. VALENTINE.—The origins of laughter in young children and suggestions towards a genetic theory of laughter (10.45). I. Theories of laughter usually suffer through over-simplification, and through inadequate attention to a genetic point of view. ‘The theories of Hobbes, Herbert, Spencer, Darwin, Bergson, Freud, McDougall. Laughter may have general causes. II. (a) Laughter first as an expression of pleasure (at one month), associ- ated with satisfaction of hunger. (6) Laughter in third month in response to laughter of another—indicating the fundamental social aspect of laughter. (c) Laughter at tickling. (d) Laughter at simple shock or surprise (age 0.4). (e) Mere repetition as a cause of laughter (0.6). (f) Laughter at the incongruous or unusual (0.6). (g) Laughter of joy or excitement at new accomplishment (about one year). (h) Laughter at mild discomfiture of another only noted after all others had occurred. III. Parallels of these early forms of laughter as they appear in adults. Laughter as a social means of approach. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—]J. 435 IV. The significance of the order of development. V. Suggestions towards a theory of laughter. Laughter an original expression of pleasure—with physiological and social value—at the earliest and later stages. Such laughter continues in adulthood, but laughter also becomes particularly attached to a situation in which energy is suddenly set free, as in the sudden linking of divergent apperceptive masses (by the pun). ‘This is exemplified also in various types of laughter observed in infancy; for example, laughter at the unusual, the incongruous, in mild surprise. Such setting free of energy is analogous to that when mental elements isolated by repression (complexes) are linked up with other ele- ments. Laughter in response to laughter may be a special case of suggestion needing no separate explanation ; but the great suggestibility of laughter points to a special value as a means of social blending. Laughter at dis- comfort of another often due to incongruity, strengthened sometimes by release of repressions. But McDougall’s theory seems the more funda- mental one for such types of laughter. Joint Discussion with Section I (Physiology) on Hearing and aids to hearing (Section I room) (11.0). See under Section I, p. 430. Dr. M. M. Lewis.—The conceptual speech of infants : individual and social factors (11.30). Observations show that the growth of a child’s conceptual use of words depends much more upon his own activity and his social environment than has hitherto been suggested. ‘The main factors are: (1) The child’s growth of discrimination among the situations which he encounters results in the wider or narrower use of a word according to the objective, affective or functional features of these situations. (2) The instrumental function of language: the child uses words de- claratively (in the effort to draw attention to things) or manipulatively (in trying to cause others to satisfy his needs). (3) Social selection : a constant interplay of activity between the child and those about him acts selectively upon his varied uses of a word. As a result of the operation of these factors, the application of a word undergoes changes, until its meaning begins to conform to adult usage. Thus actual observation of children bears out recent views of the nature of concepts and of the growth of conceptual thinking, derived from pathology (Head), ethnology (Malinowski), and the analysis of cognition (Spearman). Concepts are found to be determined by the activity of individuals attempt- ing to satisfy their needs in communal intercourse. Prof. T. H. Pear.—Mental imagery and style in writing (12.15). The mental ‘ apparatus’ used in remembering may affect not only a person’s general attitude towards life, but his way of expressing this attitude in writing, speaking, music, drama, and the arts. The distinction between ‘thing-thinkers’’ and ‘ word-thinkers.’ Galton’s researches into mental imagery now appear to have been directed towards the persons least likely to possess it. ‘The use of visual imagery by modern writers. The view that the image’s function is the utilisation of the past in the solution of diffi- culties set by the present. This might be called ‘ thinking-out,’ and is characteristic of scientific thinking. Does it, however, include ‘ thinking-of,’ and apply to the thinking of artists, poets, and musicians ? 436 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J. The view that words are social, and are therefore distinguished from sensorial images. Can asimple meaning be attached to the ‘ social function ’ of words, especially spoken words ? How can the non-verbaliser be persuaded to think? The uses of ‘ pic- torial statistics,’ the cinema, the radio-talk and discussion. If visualisers are needed to evoke images in film and radio, can the verbalising literary critic appraise their attempts? What will be the worth of his criticism, if he adheres tightly to the present criteria of style in writing ? AFTERNOON. Dr. C. J. C. Eart.—Affective-instinctive factors in the imbecile child (2.0). The affective-instinctive deviations found in low grade children are at least of as great importance as the inferiority in the intellectual sphere. The affective-instinctive deviations may be found both at the temperamento and characterological levels. They may consist of an emotional sub- normality or an emotional abnormality. In the former heading we may find (a) an absolute quantitative emotional lack, or (6) an immaturity or infanti- lism. ‘The abnormalities take the form of psychoses or of psychoneuroses or behaviour disorder. The psychoses in these children are apparently endogenous and are played out principally at the psychomotor level. The psychoneuroses are indefinite and of a very simple order. Behaviour disorder, rarely serious, is a very common finding. The clinical and pedagogic importance of the various syndromes built upon these emotional deviations is discussed. Mr. R. J. BartLert.—Lowenfeld’s mosaics with psychotic patients (2.45). ‘Two or more designs each were obtained from convalescent men and women, and also from men far removed from normality. Comparison was made with designs from a group of University students and tentative norms given by Dr. Lowenfeld. Computation of number of colours, shapes, varieties and pieces used, revealed a marked tendency for psychotics to use fewer shapes and pieces than normals, but little difference in the numerical use of colours. When designs were graded into seven grades the lowest two grades were occupied exclusively by psychotics, while median grades were : Normal 3, Psychotic women 4, Psychotic men 5. Correlation between gradings of the two designs from each person was 0:65 (P.E. 0:06). Judged by one with considerable experience of designs from children and normal adults, much of the work of the psychotic men was similar to that of intelligent boys in the middle school, showing arrest of emotional development, while comment was made on the slight use of the smallest triangle, the absence of floral designs and the frequency of representational designs. Diagnostic and prognostic guesses made by this worker, on the basis of the designs only, show an interesting measure of agreement with the physicians’ reports on the cases. Mr. WHATELY CARINGTON.—Word-association tests of trance personalities (3.30). Word-association tests have been repeatedly applied to the personalities of mediumistic trance, to the ‘mediums’ in their normal state, and to ordinary people. ‘The reaction time, the reproduction test and, to a less SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J. 437 extent, the psychogalvanic reflex, have been used as indicators. Some 30,000 observations have been collected. Statistical analysis of the data shows that the method is competent to give a set of measurements characteristic of the personality studied, and that significant differences are observable in many cases between the normal medium and the trance personalities. It was at first believed that the dis- covery of such differences would support the claims to autonomy made by the personalities themselves, but control experiments on a normal person in two different ‘ poses ’ have shown that this is not the case. In two typical instances studied, the kind of personality usually styled a ‘control’ has been found to be related to the normal personality in an inverse fashion (described as ‘ countersimilarity ’) such that there is a nega- tive correlation between the two sets of reaction times. 'This leads to the conclusion that such ‘ controls ’ are secondary personalities of the medium probably developed round a nucleus of repressed material, or perhaps representing a mood antithetic to the normal. This is not true of ‘ communicators ’ proper, which accordingly represent a different type of personality. Certain considerations regarding the association between reaction time and reproduction seem to indicate the influence of two components in these cases, which is not easily explicable in terms of existing theory. Friday, September 6. PRESIDENTIAL AppreEss by Dr. LL. WyNN Jones on Personality and Age (10.0). (See p. 157.) Prof. E. Rusin.—A problem of pictorial art arising from the psychological nature of vision (11.0). (1) It is a well-known fact that, in connection with different visual attitudes, one and the same outer object can condition visual perceptions which differ in a quite elementary way. Instances of this are demonstrated. (2) The left-to-right reading habit involves a special left-to-right visual attitude. This attitude can be shown to have a marked influence on the composition of pictures. Only in so far as the Japanese, with their vertical reading habit, acquire our left-to-right visual attitude or we acquire their vertical attitude do they understand our and we understand their paintings. (3) There are some experimental data which make it seem probable that the technique which the painter uses in making his pictures conditions some very special visual attitudes with elementary influences in his visual perceptions. ‘Therefore, there can be quite a difference between that which the painter, on account of his special visual attitudes, sees in—and wishes to be seen in—his pictures and that which the public sees in them. Prof. B. EDGELL.—Consideration of the immediate and delayed recall of four tasks differing in structure (12.0). The aim of these experiments was to see how the formal characteristics of a short task influenced its recall. The material used in two of the tasks consisted of five such clues as might be used in a crossword puzzle together with the solutions. In one case all the solutions involved a play upon words, in the other the solutions were all names of fish. In a third task the clues were given, but the solutions, all five-letter words, were indicated by the initial letter only. The material for the fourth task was a short passage 438 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J. of prose wherein a biological hypothesis was made clear by a simple chemical analogy. Two minutes were allowed for the study of each task and an immediate recall was asked for two minutes after the study of the last task. After a week’s interval a further recall was made. The possible score for each task was ten, a mark for each correct clue or solution and for each essential point in the prose passage. AFTERNOON. Mr. C. A. CLaremMonT.— The psychology of proof (2.0). How do we apprehend the causal relation? Is it (1) by habit; (2) by some kind of innate pre-disposition of the mind to arrange and regard its content in that manner, or (3) is it by a process of direct perception not at all resoluble into terms of sensation, memory and so forth ? Recent work (Kohler, McDougal, Montessori, etc.) leads one to suppose that the latter view is correct. ‘The same work indicates that the power which operates is limited ; that is to say, it is possible to ‘ perceive direct ’ certain forms of causal relation, but not others ; and this limitation varies in scope not only from individual to individual but from species to species. Examples are given to show the limitation in man’s case, together with the need for an extended notion of causality to include static causal relations and also abstract relations of necessity. ‘The latter may or may not involve movement (which introduces a time factor) without altering the funda- mental fact that they are causal 77 se. If we can accept this direct perception and its limitation, it gives the key to the psychology of proof ; since proof is only necessary for those causal relations which we cannot see direct, and proof can be shown to consist in all cases of a reduction of such causal relation to an assembly of those which we can see direct. ‘The logical syllogism is itself a direct perception of this kind. Because the human mind has a range sufficiently great to include not only a variety of causal relations, but also the syllogism, it is possible for man to creep outside the limited circle of his own ‘ direct perceptions,’ in a way that no animal could do. Thereafter he can proceed indefinitely but he must go one step at a time. Dr. M. CoLiins.—A comparison of tests of colour-blindness (2.45). Candidates for entrance into the printing industry in Edinburgh are given, as part of their psychological examination, tests of colour discrimina- tion. Any boy suspected of being colour-blind is given extra tests to con- firm or otherwise the diagnosis. It was thought it would be of interest to compare a number of tests of colour-blindness, by giving them not only to colour-blind individuals, but also to individuals with normal colour vision. Accordingly, all boys, coming up for vocational testing during the past year, were given a series of colour-blind tests. ‘The same group of tests was also given to a number of colour-blinds. ‘This has resulted in the tests being given to 121 boys with ‘ normal ’ colour vision and to twenty boys who are red-green colour-blind. An estimate of the validity of each test is therefore possible from the practical point of view. Dr. F. W. EpripGe-GreEEN, C.B.E—The principles of a test for colour- blindness (3.30). (1) It should be able to detect colour-blind persons. (2) It should show quite clearly who is, or who is not, dangerous when SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J. 439 coloured signals are used by sea or land and the test is used to ascertain whether the examinee can distinguish the colours of the lights used. When a test is used for any other purpose, as, for instance, ability to match colours, it should show the extent of this ability. (3) The test should be of such a character that the examinee cannot be coached to pass it. Mr. C. B. Nickatts.—A liminal method of determining colour sensitivity suitable for group testing (4.0). An attempt to grade people, both colour-blinds and colour-normals, with regard to colour sensitivity. The subject is shown a number of cards containing circular patches of colour of varying hue and saturation. Some of the patches are above and some below the limen for that colour. The score obtained indicates the colour sensitivity. The tests have been applied to school children in groups and the results indicate that a fairly fine grading is obtained and that the tests are reliable. A demonstration of the application of the tests accompanies the paper. Monday, September 9. Jornt Discussion with Section L (Educational Science) on The place of psychology in the training and work of teachers (Section L room) (10.0). See under Section L, p. 461. AFTERNOON. Miss M. D. Vernon.—The perception of distance (2.0). It is important in determining the factors subserving the perception of depth and distance to distinguish the various modes of experience connected with spatial perception, viz.: direct and immediate experience of distance, similar experience of depth or relief, immediate quantitative estimation of distance, secondary ideational inference and judgment of depth or distance. It is probable that the mode of experience differs according to the type of perceptual and ideational data supplied by the experimental situation. If a conflict is set up experimentally between the various types of data, there may result: (1) a direct and immediate response to a single set of important sensory data, e.g. the convergence sensations, or (2) a deliberate inferential judgment based upon other less obvious data, or (3) if the conflict is severe, a complete breakdown and inability to judge distance. Even if much of the important data is eliminated, provided that the remaining data are mutually consistent, the observer will in general be able to make some type of inferential judgment, and may with practice develop an adequate mode of immediate reaction. Thus it is the structural relationship which is important, rather than the actual nature and extent of these data. Mr. L. S. HearNsHaw.—Some recent advances in selection tests (2.45). The selection of personnel on a scientific basis depends on research into human abilities and the determination of group factors, and also a scientific analysis of jobs to determine what factors enter into their performance. Research of this nature has been undertaken, but not on an extensive scale. Meanwhile the work of selection must proceed on an empirical basis. The experience of the psychologist, however, enters in making the job analyses, devising tests, and in validating the tests. ‘This procedure may not add much to our knowledge of human abilities, but often provides a 440 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J. series of tests of undoubted value in selection. This may be illustrated by examples of tests recently devised on this basis for a number of occupations, e.g. chemical process workers, machine operators, glass inspectors. Infor- mation on the technique of making job analyses and on the type of tests that prove of value is accumulating. Prof. T. NorTtH WHITEHEAD.—An observation of an American industrial group (3.30). This paper describes an analysis by some members of the Harvard School of Business Administration of an experiment initiated and conducted by the Western Electric Company at their Hawthorne Works, Chicago, Illinois. A small group of experienced assemblers engaged in repetitive work were minutely investigated for five years whilst pursuing their ordinary occupa- tion. ‘Their minute to minute outputs were automatically recorded and many other records were obtained, both numerical and qualitative. This industrial group simultaneously performed two distinct functions. (1) A technological, or economic function. (2) A sccial function, by which the group secured and maintained co- hesion, both within itself and in its external relations. The success of the former function was bound up with that of the latter. Marked variations in working rate were recorded ; but these were insensi- tive to changes in physical circumstance, temperature, relative humidity, hours of work, etc. ; they were mainly due to changes in social circumstance, both intra- and inter-group, chiefly the former. : Statistical methods are elaborated showing that in this instance inter- personal cohesion manifested itself in imitative, as distinct from merely related, behaviour; and that antagonisms resulted in unlike behaviour (negative correlation). Social disruption, as distinct from mere antagon- isms, resulted in independent (uncorrelated) behaviour. Mr. J. R. Jennincs.—The methods of industrial psychology applied to agriculture (4.15). Tuesday, September 10. Joust Discussion with Section G (Engineering) on The applications of science to the control of road traffic (Section G room) (10.0). See under Section G, p. 417. Dr. R. H. TuHouLess.—The distinction between test unreliability and fluc- tuations of mental functions (10.0). The results of a mental test applied twice to the same group of subjects do not generally give complete correlation. ‘This failure in complete correlation may be due to either or both of two causes: (a) the test may be unreliable, i.e. when applied successively as a measuring instrument for the same unvarying quantity, it may not give self-consistent results; (b) the function which is measured by the test in any one subject may vary quanti- tatively from day to day. It is important to distinguish between these two cases. ‘Test unreliability is no doubt always present, but it is of importance to know whether fluctuation of the function measured is also present and to be able to estimate its amount. If two tests (X and Y) of the function in question are applied simultaneously on two successive occasions, function SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J. 441 fluctuation is indicated by rx,y,, and rx,y, being greater than ry,y, and rx,y,; if no function fluctuation is present, these will all be equal. Alterna- tively, r(x, — x,) (Y,— Y,) Will be positive if function fluctuation is present, zero if itis absent. ‘This we may call the double test re-test criterion. Other methods of solving the problem are available for somewhat different kinds of test data. Mr. E. J. G. Braprorp.—The reliability of test measurements (10.45). The reliability of a test measurement is frequently estimated by comparing the results obtained from several applications of that test. Variation in the results may be due to experimental conditions (environmental), to different samples of the population tested, to different speeds at which the subjects of the experiment adapt themselves to the tests, to the different methods by which this adaptation is brought about. ‘The term reliability can be used in connection with each of these sources of variability. One test form or application may be reliable in one sense and a second test form or application in another sense; the correlation between them gives no indication as to the sense in which each is reliable. Considerable attention has been devoted to the first two sources of variability, and the deviations of the ‘ reliability coefficient ’ from unity have been ascribed to these sources ; whereas the remaining two sources of variation have probably more psychological significance. Differential cumulative adaptability (learning) and differential methods of adaptation (vicarious functioning) need to be considered in connection with the reliability of test results. Reliability is not entirely a statistical problem. Dr. W. STEPHENSON.—Some applications of the inverted factor technique (11.30). Dr. 5. J. F. Poitporr.—Problems in the field of output and oscillation (12.15). (a) Ambiguities in description: When there is fluctuation with a sound of minimal intensity (it being now heard, now lost) we tend either to say it is coming ‘ in and out’ of awareness, or that auditory ability is ‘ rising and falling.’ It is usual only to use the in-and-out conception when describing fluctua- tions with reversible perspective, one meaning being said to come in, as the other goes out. It is as customary to say that ability rises and falls when computation or a like task is being performed, although there is in- and-out switching in the sense that individual units of work come success- ively to the focus, or that we switch from one way of ‘ doing’ the task to another and back again. (6) Levels of rivalry : Whatever its nature, a task is performed in compe- tition with others ready to supplant it. Within it there is rivalry between its various aspects. Within any one aspect there is conflict between the ways in which it may be cognised. (c) Switching and Spearman factors, fatigue, etc.: Speed of switching in g-tests and p-tests means high ability and low inertia respectively. In reversible perspective it is normally held to indicate tiredness. In computa- tion and like tasks it is a necessary condition of high output. These various notions need harmonising. Incidentally, the narrower the field in which switching may take place, or the more intense the rivalry, the greater the degree of fatigue, and vice versa. 442 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J. AFTERNOON. Mr. W. J. DEARNALEY.—Character-formation (2.0). Dr. P. E. VeRNoN.— The matching method of studying personality (2.45). An example of matching is to show to a group of judges six photographs of unknown individuals and six brief descriptions of their personalities, numbered in a different order. ‘The judges try to fit or match the photo- graphs with the personality sketches. ‘The proportion of successful match- ings, it is found, can be expressed as a modified contingency coefficient ; the formule for the coefficient and its probable error have been established by empirical statistical experiments. ‘The psychological advantage of this method is that the features may be compared with the individual personality considered as a whole ; whereas the usual correlation methods of approach have to deal with separate traits (or sets of traits) which are abstracted from a group of personalities. Matching may be applied also to the voice, hand- writing, manner and gestures, emotional expression, artistic style, etc., and it is found that these ‘ modes of expression’ definitely reveal more about personality than when they are studied by correlation methods. A person’s ability to judge personality through matching is found to vary with his intelligence, artistic and social qualities, age, sex and practice. Dr. R. B. CatteLL.—The measurement of interests (3.30). Interest measurement has practical importance in vocational guidance, but its greatest significance is in connection with research into character development ; for a study of the alterations in sentiment attachments is an essential part of characterology. } Some experiments are described on the growth and decline of various interests in children between the ages of seven and fifteen years. Discussion of methods of measurement, e.g. (1) by extent to which individuals talk or write about subjects ; (2) by observing the selective action of retentive memory on facts presented; (3) by surveying the individual’s fields of stored knowledge ; (4) by noting the selections made by involuntary attention among presented stimuli. The value and practicability of other criteria and experimental methods. Experimental comparison of various methods of interest measurement. Some results in clinical work with a standardised interest test. Profiles of individuals in different occupations, of relatives, of friends. The effect of intelligence. Definition of interest. Interest and the unconscious. Is there any value in a conception of ‘ interest ’ which ignores qualitative differences ? Dr. G. SerH.—Some psychological characteristics of contemporary English poetry (4.15). There are two principal lines of approach to the psychological problems of the work of art. The one, which may be called broadly the clinico- historical approach, is concerned primarily with the work as an expression of the individual artist, and with its place in his development. ‘The other is concerned rather with the psychological problems that are apparent in the handling of a particular medium, with the nature of the esthetic effects which it makes possible, and with the extent and manner of their utilisation by the artist. In this paper the second line of approach is followed, in a study of some of the psychological aspects of the handling of the medium of language in contemporary English verse. ‘The problems involved may be subsumed under the rubrics of communication and meaning. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 443 SECTION K.—BOTANY. Thursday, September 5. Prof. E. J. Satissury, F.R.S.—The East Anglian flora (10.0). The East Anglian flora is a peculiarly rich one. The Continental Com- ponent is the most fully represented, with 78 per cent. of the total species of this category present in Britain. All the steppe species of the British flora are found in East Anglia, and over go per cent. of those more definitely restricted to continental climatic conditions on the European mainland. It is therefore apparently paradoxical to find that the other Component best represented is the ‘ Oceanic Component,’ with 59 per cent. of the British species of this category. Forty-eight per cent. of the ‘ Southern Component,’ 13 per cent. of the ‘ Northern Component,’ and about a quarter of the British endemics, are also present. The apparent heterogeneity of the flora of East Anglia can be related to a striking diversity in the edaphic-climatic complex and by comparative study it can be shown that the migration factor is unlikely to have played any significant part in determining the richness of the flora of this region as compared with others. ‘The flora of East Anglia is a striking testimony to the importance of ecological conditions in determining the distribution of species. Under favourable environmental conditions, historical factors would appear to affect abundance far more than frequency. Miss E. R. SauNDERS.— Some floristic problems and their solution (11.0). It is generally acknowledged that the regular alternation of successive floral whorls is the outcome of an inherent rhythm. Such rhythm is undoubtedly common to all flowering plants, yet in many species it appears to break down. ‘The explanation hitherto offered of such breakdowns is either that an intervening whorl, originally present, has disappeared, or that one of two successive superposed whorls is not of the order of a true whorl, but is an appendage of the other. Neither explanation is satisfactory. The former is unsupported by evidence, the latter is not even a plausible fiction. A study of the vascular ground-plan shows that both assumptions are gratuitous. Except in one particular set of conditions an alternating rhythm is maintained throughout the flower, but this alternation is primarily between successive whorls of vascular units and may or may not hold between successive whorls of floral members. If the midrib bundles are initiated independently for each whorl the whorls of members alternate as well as the whorls of midribs. But if the midribs of two superposed whorls are derived from a common source, i.e. are organised from the same vascular unit, then two such whorls behave as a single whorl in the scheme of alterna- tion. It follows that the solution of problems of whorl arrangement is to be found in the vascular scheme. Prof. D. THopay.—The apical growth of the strands of mistletoe in the cortex of the host (11.40). Re-examination of the cortical strands of Viscum album, by some regarded as modified roots, suggests that a deeper study of their development and behaviour is necessary before homologies can usefully be discussed. ‘The apex is fringed by hyphal cells with thick gelatinous walls, but the actual 444. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. growing point of small embryonic cells is superficial. The tip of the strand, in growing longitudinally, presses radially inwards till it reaches the host cambium. ‘There its radial growth pari passu with the cambium establishes a sinker, which is therefore not comparable with a lateral root. The corresponding strands of Arceuthobium pusillum begin as filaments and grow in thickness by longitudinal division of the cells; the xylem is endarch. In Loranthus the parasite spreads as an amorphous mass of tissue. A Viscum from Mauritius shows a very irregular system. None of these justify homologising with ordinary categories of plant members. Having classified them as organs sui generis, progress is possible in two related directions. ‘These endophytic systems of the Loranthacez offer an opportunity for the study of tissue correlations—the behaviour of equipotent cells in different micro-environments. Secondly, a wide comparative study of them may yield clues to the evolutionary process in the group, which has evidently involved in a very special way changes in the behaviour of the developing organism. Dr. F. W. JANE.—The seeds and seedlings of Utricularia vulgaris L. (12.10). Capsules of Utricularia vulgaris L. were collected in Norfolk in August 1932. Germination of the seeds did not start until May 1933: those from one capsule germinated over a period of eleven to twelve months. On germination, some six primary leaves emerge, to be followed rapidly by about as many more; while it is not possible always to separate these two apparent whorls, they are usually distinct. Associated with the primary leaves there is usually a primary bladder, a shoot and a small ‘adventitious shoot.’ The ‘adventitious shoot’ does not develop farther. The primary leaves are nearly always subulate and unbranched. The cauline leaves of the seedling generally consist of two lateral leafy segments, more or less branched, and a median bladder. The vascular strand to the leaf divides, shortly after leaving that of the axis, into three, one branch going to the bladder, the other two to the leafy segments of the leaf. ‘There is, as a rule, a single leaf at each node, but sometimes there are two. ‘The cauline leaves are subject to considerable variations, but these are nearly always due to reduction of parts of the trifurcate leaf of the seedling, which is above described, or to the replacement of the median bladder by a leafy segment. Most of the seedlings perennated as minute turions, which formed in November. Some seedlings were grown satisfactorily on moist soil and formed winter buds in autumn, but the opening of such turions in the following spring was erratic, this being due, it is suggested, to the unusual environment. Prof. J. SMALL.—Quantitative evolution (12.30). Quantitative evolution. Yule’s mathematical theory of evolution is confirmed in detail but modified by the old-age death of species. The apparent ages of groups, plotted against time in years, follow an exponential curve with the formula Dp.k + nd = T.2". For Composite, grasses, and angiosperms in general, k = 0:6, d = 0:9, T = 1:09375 m.y. From the properties of this BAT curve the following items are deduced : Species of angiosperms double in number each two million years and die when they have existed for 12 m.y., of senescent sterility, with chance playing no essential part in their decease. Ordinary genera become senescent after six doubling periods and die at 26 m.y., but primordial genera have a longer SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 445 lifetime. Backward extinction is traced at a level 16-6 per cent. for each 2m.y. and the number of existing species of angiosperms showing senescence should be between 2,500 and 250. The BAT curve is based upon observed points for Composite, but it applies to Reid’s Pliocene extinctions, Lyell’s shell curve, to species-number in angiosperms back to Jurassic and to grasses back to Cretaceous. The principles apply also to conifers and oligochete worms, but the data for birds indicate modifications of the mathematical forms, which may be due to competition between related species. AFTERNOON. Excursion to Rockland and Wheatfen Broads (2.0). Friday, September 6. _ JOINT Session with Department K* (Forestry). Mr, T. R. PEace.—Duich elm disease in Britain (10.0). The Dutch Elm disease, which is caused by the fungus Ceratostomella ulmi, is most serious in the south-east of England, and decreases in severity towards the north and west, and is not known to exist in north England and in Scotland. Ina few limited areas it has done severe damage, but over the bulk of its range, though common, it has as yet killed few trees. Prophecy of the future of the disease is complicated by the very varied rate of progress of the attack in different trees, and by the recovery, temporary or permanent, of many. In view of these recoveries and of the difficulties of eradication, a policy of laissez faire in this country is probably justified. This disease, which is probably largely disseminated by bark beetles, forms a very good example of the connection between fungi and insects. In Scotland, and more rarely in England, other dieback diseases are causing considerable damage to mature elms. The symptoms are in most cases somewhat different from those of Dutch Elm disease, and the causes are as yet obscure. Dr. W. J. Dowson.—The watermark disease of the cricket bat willow (10.30). Approximately 25,000 willows, ten to twenty years old, in Essex, are useless for bat making, and are acting as sources of infection of the disease which is _ steadilyincreasing. In1922-24 W.R. Day investigated this disease and con- _ cluded that the causal agent was a bacterium which he named Bact. Salicis. His description of the organism was not complete nor were his successful inoculations numerous enough to leave no doubt that his bacterium was the true cause. In 1930-32 Miss Lindeijer investigated a similar disease of willows, other than S. cerulea, in Holland, and also showed that a bacterium was involved but differed in certain characters from Day’s organism. She named it Pseudomonas Saliciperda and stated that the two diseases were identical. She further concluded that infection was spread by the weevil Cryptorrhynchus Lapathi. This insect is rare in Essex and has never been found in association with the disease. During the last three years the position in this country has been reinvesti- gated, the chief result so far being a confirmation of Day’s work. He undoubtedly isolated the real bacterial pathogen of the watermark disease, although his description needs amendment. 446 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. Mr. E. WYLLIE FentoN.—The need for a permanent organisation for under- taking periodic botanical surveys of Great Britain (11.0). The type of Botanical Survey suggested is similar to that of Smith and Rankin and Smith and Moss in England, and the brothers Smith in Scotland. Such surveys have both academic value as well as great practical value, indicating the suitability or otherwise of certain areas for particular types of husbandry or afforestation. "They would also reveal how human activities were affecting vegetation. Periodic re-surveys are necessary to keep pace with changing conditions, and to indicate whether certain activities are harmful or otherwise. Periodic re-surveys in the past would have been of great value to-day. The real ideal is a Scientific Survey including all sciences. With such a survey the maps would be both complete and valuable. The Geological Survey took time to establish, but its value to-day is unquestioned. So it would prove if a Botanical Survey were established. ‘The question of aerial photographs should not be forgotten, but perhaps co-operation in certain quarters would overcome the difficulty. To commence with, it would probably be best for botanists to be attached to the Geological Survey, and to develop gradually from this small staff, The ideal of a Scientific Survey should not be unduly delayed or forgotten. Prof. S. E. Witson.—The fate of reserve materials in the felled tree (11.30). Forest trees are usually felled in the season (winter) when the sapwood contains abundant reserve food-materials. ‘These, as starch, sugar, fats, etc., occur within the protoplasts of the living storage cells which constitute the ’ medullary rays, and wood-parenchyma if present. The fate of the reserve materials is now shown to depend on the treatment of the timber after felling. If the log is kept whole, and the bark retained to prevent rapid drying, the storage cells continue alive until all reserves are exhausted ; whereas if the timber is converted quickly and the cells killed by desiccation or kiln-heat the reserve materials remain intact and cannot thereafter be removed by any known treatment. Timber containing reserve materials is shown to be a ready prey to wood- tunnelling beetles and sap-staining fungi. In particular, Lyctus powder- post beetle larve feed on the starch occurring in oak, ash, elm, walnut, etc., so that removal of the starch by the ‘ log-seasoning ’ process serves to im- munise the timber against Lyctus infestation. ‘The experimental evidence for this is described, and samples of immunised common hardwoods, of commercial size, are demonstrated. A gravimetric method of determining the total amount of respirable cell-contents in experimental samples is discussed, and the further bearings of the occurrence of reserve materials in technological research are outlined. Suggestions are put forward for the co-operation of forest botanists with timber technologists in extending our knowledge of these important reserve materials, with a view to the better utilisation of our native timber trees. Dr. K. M. SmitH.—Some aspects of the plant virus problem (12.15). The last decade has seen the beginning of intensive study of plant virus diseases and a large body of knowledge has been compiled. Among the interesting facts discovered may be mentioned new knowledge concerning the relationship of plant viruses with insects, the alteration in flower colours due to virus infection, the existence of closely similar virus strains, the ee, SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 447 immunity conferred upon a plant by one strain against other strains or related viruses and the possibility of using this immunity as a means of virus differentiation. Improved methods of ultrafiltration have rendered it possible to measure the actual particle-size of viruses. Many problems, however, still await solution ; the origin and method of spread of certain viruses are unknown and the actual nature of these disease agents is still a matter for speculation. AFTERNOON. Dr. A. S. Horne.— The resistance of the apple fruit to fungal invasion (2.0). An account is given of further application of the statistical method of studying the course of invasion and its bearing on the nature of disease resistance (see Proc. Roy. Soc., B., 102 (1928) ). For invasion to take place the fungus concerned must overcome (1) the external resistance, and (2) the internal resistance. Many fungi are able to penetrate the skin via lenticels or stomata. The internal resistance is mainly conditioned by chemical composition of the fruit. In general, high acid content tends to check invasion: on the other hand, high nitrogen content favours fungal advance. Chemical differences between fruit from individual trees, fruit from different stocks, or fruit from trees receiving varied manurial treatment are reflected in rate of fungal invasion. Statistical treatment of data of radial advance has in many instances given results of considerable significance. Radial advance is found to be very highly correlated with rate of growth, based on microscopical measurement, of fungal hyphz in living sections of apple. Mr. P. W. Brian.—lInvestigations on the germination of mould spores (2.30). In this study the spores of Penicillium expansum Link. and Fusarium lateritium var. fructigenum (Fr.) Wr., were used. Desiccation of dry spores of these moulds has little deleterious effect ; in the case of Fusarium desiccation of previously wetted spores results in considerable loss of viability. If the desiccation is only slight the latent period of germination is lengthened. Fusarium spores, like many others, will germinate in water alone. A nutrient causes prolongation of the latent period and increase of the rate of subsequent germination. For the complete germination of a sample of Penicillium spores suitable - sources of nitrogen and carbon, together with a phosphate, are essential. Such a simple nutrient will not suffice for continued growth. In the case of Penicillium spores there is found to be two distinct stages previous to the actual extrusion of the germ tube—a change in the refrac- tivity of the spore wall, and swelling of the spore. The occurrence and extent of these stages is related to the concentration and composition of the nutrient, and to temperature. Under certain conditions germination takes place without their occurrence. Dr. C. E. Fotster.—The white tip disease of leeks (3.0). The White Tip disease of leeks occurs in Scotland and has been found near Bristol, causing a serious deterioration of the crop, followed by a rapid wilting and rot in the market. ‘The main characteristic is the whitening of the leaf tips followed by rotting at or near the leaf bases. Q 448 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. Phytophthora Porri has been found to be the cause. The main source of this disease is the contaminated soil ; the ploughing in of diseased leeks is thus deleterious. The fungus enters by the leaf and proceeds down the stem. Onions and Allium fistulosum are immune. ‘The resistance of certain parts of the host plant is associated with the method of entry of the fungus. Susceptibility varies with the age of the plant, resistance being highest at the seedling stage. ‘This disease may be compared with certain diseases of the onion where resistance is associated with the presence of a special chemical in certain tissues. Control of this disease is not practicable by means of spraying. Selection for resistance and crossing for immunity is promising. ‘Trials of interspecific crossings using Allium species are in hand, to see if immunity can be transferred to the commercial leek. Mr. A. R. Witson.—The relation of Botrytis to the ‘ chocolate spot’ disease of beans (Vicia Faba) (3.20). “ Chocolate spot ’ disease of Vicia Faba is characterised by the appearance of chocolate brown lesions on the shoots. The disease has been attributed by various authors to different causes. These are summarised as follows : Paine and Lacey (1923), Bacillus Lathyri; Riker and Riker (1932), unnamed bacteria ; Magee (1933), exudate of Aphis rumicis; Ikata (1933), Botrytis Fabe \kata. Research carried on during 1931-35 at Cambridge has shown that ‘ chocolate spot’ lesions may be due to various causes, chief among which is infection by Botrytis spp. The original inoculum comes from rotting debris on the ground and later from leaves which have been killed by the first attack. ‘There are two definite types of infection, ‘ unlimited ’ resulting in extensive blackening and death of the shoots and ‘ limited ’ resulting in true ‘ chocolate spot.’ ‘This latter type does not often seriously damage the plants unless environmental conditions remain favourable to the growth of the fungus. Other factors, however, determine to a large extent the severity of the outbreak, such as soil deficiency in lime, potash, etc., poor drainage and frost. Poor growth resulting from one or more of these causes predisposes the crop to severe attack should suitable environ- mental conditions arise. Mr. C. G. Dosss.—The life history of Dicranophora fulva (3.50). This member of the Mucorales possesses sporangioles containing large reniform spores, as well as sporangia of the Mucor type. Studies of the sporangial stage confirm the presence of a columella in the sporangiole, a distinction from Thamnidium which has been denied by Vuillemin, and further show that the sporangioles grade into the large sporangia by inter- mediate forms. ‘he columella, which is spherical, not conical as pre- viously reported, sometimes branches and may give rise to the two short points from which the genus is named. The range in spore size (5-50 L) is extraordinarily wide, and occasionally a sporangium may liberate its contents as a single spore. The remarkably heterogamic sexual stage has been further elucidated. The lobed female hypha, about 60 uw in diameter, which may form a branch system up to 1 mm. long, forms zygospores wherever it comes in contact with a male hypha. Passage of contents from the male to the female gametangium has been observed. ‘The fungus is remarkably sensitive to light, very short illumination being sufficient to inhibit the development of the sex organs, and to induce the formation of sporangia, which are not produced in the dark. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 449 Miss C. H. Lanc.—A _yeast-like fungus in the pollen and pollen-tubes of Camellia japonica (4.15). Pollen from a single variety of Camellia japonica obtained from Chelsea Physic Garden was germinated in sterile water. The protoplasm of the tube shows active streaming and is found to contain small bodies having the shape of dumb-bells or rods. These bodies may be clearly observed both in the grain itself and in the pollen tube. On two occasions a budding stage was observed in the pollen tubes. A number of varieties of Camellia japonica from various sources all show these bodies in the pollen grains and tubes. They are also distinguishable when the pollen is grown on agar media. When the pollen grains and tubes are ruptured, these bodies grow and then divide by fission into two. ‘The next stage observed in the development is the budding of the products of fission in the manner of a typical yeast. In pure water cultures of Camellia pollen and on agar, mycelia appear - which show typical budding. ‘The evidence seems clear that one of these forms is derived from the endophyte. It is intended to continue the investigation when further material is available. Saturday, September 7. Joint Excursion with Department K* (Forestry) to Breckland (10.0). Sunday, September 8. Excursion to Wroxham and Barton Broad (10.10). Monday, September 9. Mr. R. Bourne.—Aerial surveys (10.0). In the past, the majority of soil and vegetation studies have been based on localised observations. The significance of mapping over considerable areas has not been fully realised. Human actions have generally had a great influence on the phenomena to be observed and, without a record of past évents, observers have been frequently at fault in their attempts at a correla- tion of vegetation with local factors. ‘The independent mapping of site and vegetation over large areas enables comparisons to be made between different treatments on similar sites and the same treatment on distinct sites. In consequence, conclusions can often be safely drawn which would have been impossible had the investigations been localised. ‘The problem is to map large areas in any detail, and it is in this connection that aerial photography is primarily of value. Aerial photographs provide the most perfect form of map yet devised for recording detailed observations on the ground. If pieced together into mosaics, in order to furnish an air view of relatively large areas, they facilitate the delimitation of regions, the differences in landscape being presented in a manner impossible on any other form of map. These facts have been demonstrated by many workers in various parts of the world and the sole reason why air survey is not yet more generally employed is its initial cost. ‘The cost varies with circumstances, particularly the prevalent weather conditions, the scale of photography and the size of the area to be photographed. Hitherto, photography on scales smaller than 450 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. I :20,000 has rarely been possible or attempted, but the production of wide angle lens and multi-lens cameras on a commercial rather than on an experi- mental basis is imminent, and it may be predicted that small-scale photo- graphy will shortly be possible in many circumstances at a cost not exceeding one halfpenny per acre. Dr. G, F. Asprey.—The effect of washing on the subsequent absorption and exosmosis of electrolytes by potato tissue (11.0). When discs of potato tuber tissue are washed in running tap-water for periods varying from 24 to 120 hours it is found that their subsequent exosmosis into distilled water varies inversely as the length of the washing period. ‘The subsequent absorption of ions from ammonium chloride solutions by similarly treated tissue, on the other hand, varies directly as the duration of the previous washing. It would seem then that high absorption of ions by the tissue is associated with low outward diffusion of electrolytes. ‘This conclusion is contrary to expectations based on ionic interchange, nevertheless it is confirmed by experiments in which are ascertained both exosmosis into, and absorption of ions from, ammonium chloride solutions by differentially washed tissue. The bearing of these results on our knowledge of the process of salt intake is considered. PRESIDENTIAL AppreEss by Mr. F. T. Brooxs, F.R.S., on Some aspects of plant pathology (12.0). (See p. 169.) AFTERNOON. Joint Discussion with Department K* (Forest and Section M ry (Agriculture) on The utilisation of light land, with special reference to Breckland (Section K room) (2.0). Dr. A. S. Watt.—The climate, soil, and vegetation of Breckland. Breckland is a well-defined physiographic unit, whose vegetational features are determined by a dry soil in a dry climate. The significant climatic factors are thrown into relief by a comparison of the meteorological data from places with an oceanic and sub-continental climate respectively. This brings out the combination of the relatively high summer temperature with a summer rainfall which is absolutely low. Other important factors _are the high number of hours of sunshine and the shortness of the frost-free period. There is a wide variety of soil type from calcareous shallow soils through deeper soils deficient in calcium carbonate to very acid heavily podsolised soils. Wind erosion has played and still plays an important part ; some soils are maintained in an immature state ; podsols have been truncated to different levels, whilst the soil which has been removed forms a blanket of varying thickness over much of the area. Thus the soils vary much in chemical, less so in physical properties, for (with some exceptions of small extent) all are highly permeable with a small water retaining capacity. The flora, under this combination of dry soil and dry climate, is essen- tially drought resistant or drought escaping. But while dry conditions stamp the vegetation as a whole, vegetational variation closely follows physical and chemical variation in the soil. The chief vegetational types are mentioned and their relationships outlined. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 451 Mr. W. L. TayLor.—New forests in East Anglia (2.40). The Forestry Act, 1919. "The commencement, in 1920, of the afforesta- tion scheme propounded by the ‘ Acland Committee,’ of the War-time Ministry of Reconstruction, providing for the planting of 1,770,000 acres with conifers within eighty years, with additional broadleaved plantings. Afforestation in East Anglia; suitability of extensive areas; progress of land acquisition in the Norfolk and Suffolk light sandy districts ; total area in possession of Forestry Commissioners now 57,818 acres mostly situated in Breckland. The Forest of Thetford Chase the largest of the new forests ; area 35,411 acres, of which 25,577 acres already planted. ‘The local geology and soils, botany, climate and meteorology, natural history and previous utilisation. Species planted and argument for the choice made, particularly with regard to climatic conditions. ‘The forest nurseries, plant production and seed collection. Planting for amenity. Planting methods and costs, types of plants used and the employment already created by the work in hand. Risks and dangers ; the fire hazard, rabbits, deer, insects and fungi. The establishment of Forest Workers’ Holdings as a means of practical land settlement. The estimated yield of timber from the new plantations ; the ultimate local gain in new industries and employment and the influence of afforestation on the neighbourhood. Dr. L. DupLEy Stampe.—The present use of Breckland (3.5). This paper summarises some of the main results of the survey of existing land use in Breckland carried out in 1933-34 by the Land Utilisation Survey of Britain. The survey in this area was directed by J. E. G. Mosby, the hon. organiser for Norfolk, and land use was recorded on the six-inch Ordnance maps. The classification scheme is that used over the whole country : into F (forest and woodland, distinguishing twelve types and indi- cating young plantations separately) ; H (heathland, moorland and rough pasture) ; A (arable or crop land, including rotation pasture) ; M (meadow and permanent pasture); G (gardens, with subsections for orchards, nurseries, etc.), and W (waste land or land agriculturally unproductive). The field survey has now been edited and the results published in sheets on the scale of one inch to one mile. The limits of ‘ Breckland ’ are dis- cussed with reference to these maps and reasons given for distinguishing between Breckland proper and Breck Fen. Within the limits of Breckland so defined the areas at present under the chief utilisations have been cal- culated and are discussed and comparisons made with previous periods during the past century, of which some records exist. By eliminating areas under woodland and recently planted, attention is focused on those parts of Breckland for which the most suitable use has still to be determined. GENERAL DISCUSSION (3.45). Mr. W. E. Hitey.—The economics of woodland cultivation and the marketing of woodland products (4.15). Where bad forestry occurs in the plantations on British estates it is more often due to inability to market woodland products than to ignorance of silviculture. This applies particularly to thinnings, and every forester knows that in those parts of his woodlands where he can obtain profitable sales for small poles, thinnings will be made punctually, whereas in other parts they are liable to be neglected. The clearing of scrub is another operation which will be carried out so far as markets for firewood, pea and bean sticks, hurdles, etc., are available. 452 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—K. The successful marketing of many species of timber, poles, stakes, pea and bean stakes, firewood, Christmas trees, and estate manufactures, such as gates and hurdles, demands very special knowledge and application, and, in order to save foresters from giving an undue amount of time and study to it, co-operation between estates is essential. Such co-operation is now being arranged by branches of the Home Grown Timber Marketing Association, which is devising several different schemes of marketing. The methods adopted by two of these branches are instructive and illustrate the difficulties which are being experienced. ‘The Association is also attempting to secure more standardisation in methods of measuring and selling timber. Improvements in methods of marketing and in the utilisation of timber and other woodland products should also result from the work of the new National Home Grown Timber Council which has been set up by the Forestry Commission in conjunction with the various interests concerned and is undertaking investigations with these objects in view. SeMI-PopuLar Lecture by Mr. A. C. Forses on Tree planting since the Roman occupation (5.0). Tuesday, September 10. Dr. H. Gopwin.—The conditions of formation of British peats. The topogenous peats of the British coasts and of the Fenland basin (10.0). An examination of micro and macro fossils of these peats suggests that they are all of the niedermoor or Zwischenmoor type. Pollen analyses of the submerged peat beds of the British coasts and of moor-log from the North Sea show that this peat formation is not referable to any single period. Peats of all the periods from pre-Boreal to sub-Atlantic appear to be present. The peat beds and even some of the so-called forest beds overlie salt-marsh deposits and there is evidence of vegetational succession from salt-marsh through brackish water phragmitetum to fen-woodland on peat. These peat beds appear to be closely connected in origin with the marine transgression. The conditions of formation of fenland peats are in many respects similar, being closely determined by relative movement of land and sea. Periods of marine transgression led to marine conditions, and stability or retro- gression led to vegetational succession towards fen-carr and fen woodland, often slightly acidic in character. There is no trace of hock-moor. Prof. H. OsvALD.—Some notes on peat land vegetation and peat soils in the British Isles (10.30). In 1925 I classified the European moss! types as follows?: (a) ‘ raised mosses ’ with trees ; (b) naked (treeless) ‘ raised mosses ’ ; (c) ‘ flat mosses ’ ; (d) ‘ concave mosses’ ; and (e) ‘ cover mosses’; type (a) being the most continental and type (e) the most oceanic. Types (d) and (e) are poorly represented on the continent of Europe but very frequent in those parts of the British Isles which have the most humid climate. On the other hand, type (a) is absent from this country, and type (0) is represented only by its 1 The term ‘ moss’ is here used for the type of plant community forming wet or moist acid peat, and dominated either by Sphagnum, or by Eviophorum or Scirpus c@spitosus. ‘Moss’ is the regular place name applied to such wet peat vegeta- tion in the north of Britain. 2 The terms are translated here. es SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 453 western facies, at low altitudes (‘ valley moors’). The peat of these British- raised mosses seems to be built up mainly by Sphagnum magellanicum, which is also the most important peat former in the west of Sweden. The pure, undecomposed SS. fuscum peat, characteristic of the raised mosses in great parts of Europe, does not seem to occur in the British Isles. ‘Types (d) and (e) are the characteristic mosses of Great Britain ; in these, Sphagna grow less vigorously than in the other types, the most important species being S. magellanicum, S. rubellum and S. plumulosum. On the other hand, Scirpus cespitosus and Eriophorum vaginatum are rather prominent peat formers. Consequently the peat in these mosses may be characterised as Scirpus cespitosus-Sphagnum peat, Eriophorum vaginatum-Sphagnum peat, or, especially in the Pennines, pure Eriophorum vaginatum peat, all of them being fairly well decomposed. On the mosses in the British Isles wind erosion plays a rather important réle, forming a complex of hummocks and depressions. On the hummocks, Rhacomitrium is often abundant, forming a Scirpus-Rhacomitrium or a pure Rhacomitrium peat. An interesting feature of the vegetation of these British peat areas is the relatively high frequency of many plants, which do not grow on the typical raised mosses of the continent, for example, Polygala vulgaris, Potentilla erecta, Narthecium ossifragum and Molinia cerulea. Dr. A. RatstricK.—Conditions of peat formation in the Pennines (11.0). The peats of the Pennine area can be grouped under four distinct types : (a) Fell top peats, on the flatter summits above 1,500 ft. O.D.; (6) Valley head peats, in sheltered hollows about 1,000 to 1,600 ft.O.D.; (c) Channel peats, in areas of anomalous drainage, mainly glacial overflow channels at all levels ; (d) Pond and lake peats, in the glacial lake sites, mainly in the valley bottoms. The longest record of conditions is preserved in the deposits of the glacial lake flats. These start with a great depth of laminated clays and silts, followed by fine sands with peaty material or pollen, and then by coarse sands or boulder gravels. Above this may be two true peat beds, separated by gravels, and covered finally by river terraces. Peat formation in the lakes and the valley heads commenced in the upper Boreal period, the base of the Atlantic being marked by the boulder gravels in the lakes, and by occasional erosion levels in the peats. ‘The increase of run-off led to the breaching of the lake morainic dams, and resulted in a marked change of physical conditions over the whole area. Peat accumulation continued through the Atlantic period, the peats spreading to the fell top areas, and marked by at least two ‘ forest’ layers, of birch twigs, and stools of birch, oak, and (rare) pine trees. The hill top peats may be from 15 to 20 ft. thick, but almost everywhere have now an eroded upper surface. The upper part of both fell top and valley head peats is of sub-Boreal type, but shows marked increase in sphagnum and cotton grass, and decrease in the quantity of tree pollen present. A sub-Boreal peat is present in some of the lake sites. Peat formation slowed down or stopped during the sub-Boreal and sub-Atlantic on all the higher sites. ‘The channel peats are all soft and wet, and very difficult to investigate; they are largely sphagnum peats, but their growth has been continuous in many cases to the present. Archzological remains are associated with many of the lake sites and with some of the hill-top peats, and these confirm the dating suggested by the tree pollen. 454 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. Dr. I. M. Ropertson.—The peat mosses of Scotland (11.15). Discussion.—Prof. Dr. L. von Post, Prof. A. G. Tanstey, F.R.S., Dr. Frazer, Mr. MITCHELL. Dr. F. K. Sparrow.—lInteresting aquatic fungi from Cambridge (12.20). During 1932-33 an investigation of the aquatic fungous flora in the vicinity of Cambridge was undertaken. Representatives of all the aquatic orders of the Phycomycetes were collected and significant data on their morphology, biology and taxonomy noted. Forty members of the Chytridiales, including three new genera, six new species and many forms hitherto unreported from England, were found. As representative of the Blastocladiales, six species of Blastocladia, including one new to science, were collected, while five members of the Monoble- pharidales, one of the Leptomitales, five of the Saprolegniales and a new species of Myzocytium, a genus of the Ancylistales, were found. Four genera of the Pythiales were collected. The paucity of species of filamentous Phycomycetes was not due to the lack of these elements in the flora, but rather to the investigator’s greater interest in the rarer and lesser-known uniciliate forms. AFTERNOON. EXHIBITS. Wednesday, September 11: Mr. T. G. Tutin.—Eel grass (10.0). Eel grass, Zostera marina L.., is one of the few marine flowering plants found in temperate seas. It has a creeping rhizome, long linear leaves, and erect flowering stems, bearing several inflorescences, each enclosed in a leaf-like spathe. The flowers are unisexual and devoid of perianth, the female consisting of a single ovary, and the male of a single stamen which produces thread-like pollen. Zostera occurs on the coasts of Europe and North America in considerable abundance, and is of economic importance, so that the sudden appearance of disease in the Atlantic, about 1930, was speedily noticed. A number of different organisms were suggested as the cause of the disease, and two at least seem to be serious parasites, but the underlying cause is almost certainly the rare occurrence of good crops of seedlings over most of the plant’s range.