S is Cin cepa te re i stpeste totes. +H eietecett - ertt: oe \ SEVENTH. MEETING BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE; HELD AT LIVERPOOL IN SEPTEMBER 1837. VOL. VI. LONDON: JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 1838. PRINTED BY RICHARD AND JOHN E. TAYLOR, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. CONTENTS. panes As Page Ossects and Rules of the Association ........ 6.0.45 seen cece v Smecrttand Connie ee oe es Vill Treasurer's Account .......... “are epee as nly eeee nents es xi Reports, Researches, and Desiderata............ 02.20 ee ceee xil Address of Professor Traill... 0.0.0.0. 0... cece ce cece ce cece ed XEV Communications to the General Evening Meetings ............ xlili REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Report on the Variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at different Points of the Earth’s Surface. By Major Epwarp 2 LE DIELS] Ly nO ts ee, SURO 3 ret ne op ga 1 Report on the various modes of Printing for the use of a Blind. By the Rev. Wriuram Taytor, F.R.S. 22.2.2 eee 87 Account of the discussions of Observations of the Tides which have been obtained by means of the grant of money which was placed at the disposal of the Author for that purpose at the last Meeting of the Association. By J. W. Lussocg, Esq., F.R.S. 103 On the difference between the Composition of Cast Iron produced by the Cold and the Hot Blast. By Tuomas Tuomson, M.D., F.R.S., L. & E., &c., Professor of Chemistry, Glasgow ...... 117 Notice of the Determination of the Constant of Nutation by the _ Greenwich Observations, made as commanded by the British Association. By the Rev. T. R. Rosinson, D.D........:... 127 Report of some Experiments on the Electricity of Metallic Veins, and the Temperature of Mines. By Roperr Were Fox .... 1383 iv CONTENTS. Page Provisional Report of the Committee of the Medical Section of the British Association, appointed to investigate the Composition of Secretions, and the Organs producing them.............. 139 Report from the Committee for inquiring into the Analysis of the Glands, &c., of the Human Body. By G. O. Rezs, M.D., F.G.S. 149 Second Report of the London Sub-Committee of the British Asso- ciation Medical Section, on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart 155 On the present state of our knowledge in regard to Dimorphous Bodies. By Professor Jounstron, F.R.S. .........-.-..-. 163 Special Report on the Statistics of the Four Collectorates of Duk- hun, under the British Government. By Colonel Syxzs, F.R.S. 217 On the relative Strength and other Mechanical Properties of Cast Iron obtained by Hot and Cold Blast. By Eaton Hopexinson 337 Report on the Strength and other Properties of Iron obtained from the Hot and Cold Blast. By Writtram Farrparrn.......... 377 Report of the Committee on Waves, appointed by the British As- sociation at Bristol in 1836, and consisting of Sir Joun Rosr- son, K.H., Secretary of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and Joun Scorr Russett, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. Edinb., (Reporter) 417 Note by Major Sasivez, being an Appendix to his Report on the Variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at different Points Gf the Battine Ontiese caput sede pd... 90t LUN ee 497 Report from Mr. Jamzs Yates, as one of the Committee for ma- king Experiments on the Growth of Plants under Glass, and without any free Communication with the outward Air, on the Plan ‘of Mr. N, 1: Ward; of London... .. 0... 4. . se -4 ae OBJECTS AND RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. OBJECTS. Tue Assoctration contemplates no interference with the ground occupied by other Institutions. Its objects are,—To give a stronger impulse anda more systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate Sci- ence in different parts of the British Empire, with one another, and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a more general atten- tion to the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvan- tages of a public kind, which impede its progress. RULES. MEMBERS. All Persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to become Members of the Association, upon subscri- bing an obligation to conform to its Rules. The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philo- sophical Societies publishing Transactions, in the British Em- pire, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Members of the Association. The Officers and Members of the Councils, or managing Committees, of Philosophical Institutions, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Members of the Association. All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Council or Managing Committee, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Members of the Association. Persons not, belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the General Committee or Council, to become Members of the Association, subject to the approval of a General Meeting. vi RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. SUBSCRIPTIONS. The amount of the Annual Subscription shall be One Pound, to be paid in advance upon admission ; and the amount of the composition in lieu thereof, Five Pounds. Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secre- taries. If the annual subscription of any Member shall have been in arrear for two years, and shall not be paid on proper notice, he shall cease to be a member ; but it shall be in the power of the Committee or Council to reinstate him, on payment of arrears. MEETINGS. The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee at the previous Meeting; and the Arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Officers of the Association. GENERAL COMMITTEE*. The General Committee shall sit during the time of the Meeting, or longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of all Members present, who have communicated any scientific Paper to a Philosophical Society, which Paper has been printed in its Transactions, or with its concurrence. Members of Philosophical Institutions, being Members of this Association, who may be sent as Deputies to any Meeting of the Association, shall be Members of the Committee for that Meeting, the number being limited to two from each Institution. SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. The General Committee shall appoint, at each Meeting, Committees, consisting severally of the Members most conver- sant with the several branches of Science, to advise together for the advancement thereof. The Committees shall report what subjects of investigation they would particularly recommend to be prosecuted during the ensuing year, and brought under consideration at the next Meeting. * The constitution of the General Committee was discussed at Liverpool, . and at the close of the meeting notice was given, that attention would be directed to the reconsideration of the laws of the constitution of the General Committee at the next meeting of the Association in Newcastle. RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. vil The Committees shall recommend Reports on the state and progress of particular Sciences, to be drawn up from time to time by competent persons, for the information of the Annual Meetings. COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS. The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Com- mittee, which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Committees, and report to the General Com- mittee the measures which they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of science. LOCAL COMMITTEES. Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Asso- ciation to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings. Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire. OFFICERS. A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, two or more Se- cretaries, and a Treasurer, shall be annually appointed by the General Committee. COUNCIL. In the intervals of the Meetings the affairs of the Association shall be managed by a Council, appointed by the General Com- mittee. The Council may also assemble for the dispatch of business during the week of the Meeting. PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS. _ The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve his right of property therein. ACCOUNTS. The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors appointed by the Meeting. viii SEVENTH REPORT—1837. OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1837-38. ee Trustees (permanent.)—Charles Babbage, Esq. R. I. Mur- chison, Esq. John Taylor, Esq. President.—The Ear] of Burlington. President elect.—His Grace the Duke of Northumberland. Vice-Presidents——The Bishop of Durham, F.R.S., F.S.A. The Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S., &c. Prideaux John Selby, Esq., F.R.S.E. Vice-Presidents elect.—The Right Rey. The Bishop of Nor- ~ wich. Rev. William Whewell. John Dalton, LL.D. Sir Philip Egerton, Bart., M.P. General Secretaries.—R. I. Murchison, Esq. Rev. Professor Peacock. Assistant General Secretary.—Professor Phillips, York. Secretaries for Newcastle-—J. Adamson, Esq. William Hutton, Esq. Professor Johnston. Treasurer.—John Taylor, Esq., 2, Duke Street, Adelphi. Treasurers to the Newcastle Meeting.—Rev. W. Turner. Charles Bigge, Esq. Council—Francis Baily, Esq., Treas. RS. Professor Christie, Woolwich. Professor Graham, London. J. EK. Gray, British Museum. G. B. Greenough, Esq., Regent's Park. Professor Henslow, Cambridge. Dr. Hodgkin. Rev. F. W. Hope. Robert Hutton, Esq., M.P. W.S. MacLeay, Esq. Professor Powell, Oxford. Dr. Roget. Colonel Sykes. Secretary to the Council—James Yates, Esq., 49, Upper Bedford Place, London. Local Treasurers.—Dr. Daubeny, Oxford. Professor Hens- low, Cambridge. Dr. Orpen, Dublin. Charles Forbes, Esgq., Edinburgh. William Gray, jun., Esq., York. George Ben- gough, Esq., Bristol. Samuel Turner, Esq., Liverpool. Rev. John James Tayler, Manchester. James Russell, Esq., Bir- mingham. William Hutton, Esq., Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Henry Woollcombe, Esq., Plymouth. OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. 1x OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES AT THE LIVERPOOL MEETING. SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE. President.—Sir D. Brewster. Vice-Presidents.—J. W. Lubbock, Esq. F. Baily, Esq. Rev. Professor Peacock. Secretaries.—Rev. Professor Powell. Professor Stevelly. W.S. Harris, Esq. SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY. President.—Dr. Faraday. Vice-Presidents.—Professor Daniell. Professor Graham. Dr. Apjohn. Secretaries.— Professor Johnston. Dr. Reynolds. — Pro- fessor Miller. SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. President.—Rev. Professor Sedgwick. (For Geography) G. B. Greenough, Esq. _ Vice-Presidents.—Leonard Horner, Esq. Lord Cole. H. T. De la Beche, Esq. Secretaries.—Captain Portlock. R. Hutton, Esq. (For Geography) Captain H. M. Denham, R. N. SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. President.—W. S. MacLeay, Esq. Vice-Presidents—Dr. Richardson. _ Professor Graham. Professor Lindley. Secretaries—C. C. Babington, Esq. W. Swainson, Esq. Rev. L. Jenyns. SECTION E.—MEDICAL SCIENCE. President.—Professor W. Clark, M.D. Vice-Presidents.—James Carson, M.D. Peter Mark Roget, M.D. Robert Bickersteth, Esq. Professor R. T. Evanson, M.D. Secretaries.—James Carson, Jun., M.D. J. R. W. Vose, M.D. James Long, Esq. x SEVENTH REPORT—1837. SECTION F,.—STATISTICS,. President.—Lord Sandon. Vice-Presidents.—Col. Sykes, Esq. G.R. Porter, Esq. James Heywood, Esq. Secretaries.—W. R. Greg, Esq. Dr. W.C. Taylor. W. Langton, Esq. SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE. President.—Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D. Vice-Presidents.—Dr. Lardner. Professor Wheatstone. Professor Willis. Secretaries—Thomas Webster, Esq. Charles Vignolles, Esq. CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. Professor Agassiz, Neufchatel. M. Arago, Secretary of the Institute, Paris. Professor Berzelius, Stockholm. Professor De la Rive, Geneva. Professor Dumas, Paris. Baron Alexan- der von Humboldt, Berlin. Professor Liebig, Giessen. Pro- fessor CErsted, Copenhagen. Jean Plana, Astronomer Royal, Turin. M. Quetelet, Brussels. 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The following Reports on the progress and desiderata of dif- ferent branches of science have been drawn up at the request of the Association, and printed in its Transactions. Vo.. I. On the progress of Astronomy during the pin century, by G. B. Airy, M.A., Astronomer Royal. On the state of our knowledge respecting Tides, by J. W. Lubbock, M.A., Vice-President of the Royal Society. On the recent progress and present state of Meteorology, by James D. Forbes, F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy, Edinburgh. On the present state of our knowledge of the Science of Ra- diant Heat, by the Rev. Baden Powell, M.A., F.R.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry, Oxford. On Thermo-electricity, by the Rev. James Cumming, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry, Cambridge. On the recent progress of Optics, by Sir David Brewster, K.C.Ga"LE..D. i B.S ee. On the recent progress and present state of Mineralogy, by the Rev. William Whewell, M.A., F.R.S. On the progress, actual state, and ulterior prospects of Geology, by the Rev. William Conybeare, M.A., F.R.S., V.P.G.S,} &c: Onthe recent progress and present state of Chemical Science, by J. F. W. Johnston, A.M., Professor of Chemistry, Durham. On the application of Philological and Physical researches to - the History of the Human Species, by J. C. Prichard, M.D., F.R.S., &c. Vou. I. On the advances which have recently been made in certain branches of Analysis, by the Rev. G. Peacock, M.A.,F.R.S., &c. Onthe present state of the Analytical Theory of Hydr ostatics” and Hydrodynamics, bythe Rev. John Challis, M.A.,F.R.S., &c. On the state of our knowledge of Hydraulics, considered as a branch of Engineering, by George Rennie, F.R.S., &c. (Parts I. and IT.) On the state of our knowledge respecting the Magnetism of the Earth, by S. H. Christie, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathe- matics, Woolwich. On the state of our knowledge of the Strength of Materials, by Peter Barlow, F.R.S. __ On the state of our knowledge se ai Mineral Veins, by John Taylor, F.R.S., Treasurer G.S., DESIDERATA, ETC. xiii On the state of the Physiology of the Nervous System, by William Charles Henry, M.D. On the recent progress of Physiological Botany, by John Lind- ley, F.R.S., Professor of Botany in the University of London. Vou. III. On the Geology of North America, by H. D. Rogers, F.G.S. Onthe philosophy of Contagion, by Wm. Henry, M.D.,F.R.S. -Onthestate of Physiological Knowledge, by the Rev. William Clark, M.D., F.G.S., Professor of Anatomy, Cambridge. On the state and progress of Zoology, by the Rev. Leonard Jenyns, M.A., F.L.S., &c. On the theories of Capillary Attraction, and of the Propaga- tion of Sound as affected by the development of Heat, by the Rey. John Challis, M.A., F.R.S., &c. On the state of the science of Physical Optics, by the Rev. H. Lloyd, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy, Dublin. Vou. IV. On the state of our knowledge respecting the application of Mathematical and Dynamical principles to Magnetism, Electri- city, Heat, &c., by the Rev. Wm. Whewell, M.A., F.R.S. é paelaneteen's researches in Magnetism, by Captain Sabine, On the state of Mathematical and Physical Science in Bel- gium, by M. Quetelet, Director of the Observatory, Brussels. Vot. V. On the present state of our knowledge with respect to Mine- ral and Thermal Waters, by Charles Daubeny, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.1.A., &c., Professor of Chemistry and of Botany, Oxford. On North American Zoology, by John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S., &c. _ ,. Supplementary report on the Mathematical Theory of Fluids, by the Rev. J. Challis, Plumian Professor of Astronomy in the University of Cambridge. Vou. VI. On the variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at dif- ferent points of the Earth’s Surface, by Major Edward Sabine, R.A., F.R.S. On the various modes of Printing for the use of the Blind, by the Rev. William Taylor, F.R.S. On the present state of our knowledge in regard to Dimor- phous Bodies, by Professor Johnston. On the Statistics of the Four Collectorates of Dukhun, under the British Government. Xiv SEVENTH REPORT— 1837. The following Reports of Researches undertaken at the re- quest of the Association have been published, viz. Vou. IV. On the comparative measurement of the Aberdeen Standard Scale, by Francis Baily, Treasurer R.S., &c. On Impact upon Beams, by Eaton Hodgkinson. Observations on the Direction and Intensity of the Terrestrial Magnetic Force in Ireland, by the Rev. H. Lloyd, Capt. Sabine, and Capt. J. C. Ross. On the Phenomena usually referred to the Radiation of Heat, by H. Hudson, M.D Experiments on Rain at different elevations, by Wm. Gray, jun. and Professor Phillips. Hourly observations of the Thermometer at Plymouth, by W. S. Harris. ‘ On the Infra-orbital Cavities in Deers and Antelopes, by A. Jacob, M.D. On the Effects of Acrid Poisons, by 'T. Hodgkin, M.D. On the Motions and Sounds of the Heart, by the Dublin Sub- Committee. On the Registration of Deaths, by the Edinburgh Sub-Com- mittee. Vou. V. Observations on the Direction and Intensity of the Terres- trial Magnetic Force in Scotland, by Major Edward Sabine, R.A., F.R.S., &c. Comparative view of the more remarkable Plants which cha- racterize the Neighbourhood of Dublin, the Neighbourhood of Edinburgh, and the South-west of Scotland, &c.; drawn up for the British Association, by J. T. Mackay, M.R.I.A., A.L.S., &c., assisted by Robert Graham, Esq., M.D., Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. Report of the London Sub-Committee of the Medical Section of the British Association on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart. Second Report of the Dublin Sub-Committee on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart. (See vol. iv. p. 243.) Report of the Dublin Committee on the Pathology of the Brain and Nervous System. Account of the recent Discussions of Observations of the Tides which have been obtained by means of the grant of Money which was placed at the disposal of the Author for that purpose at the last Meeting of the Association, by J. W, Lubbock, Esq. i et DESIDERATA, ETC. XV Observations for determining the refractive Indices for the ‘Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in various media, by the Rev. Baden Powell, M.A., F.R.S., Savilian Professor of Geome- try in the University of Oxford. Provisional Report on the Communication between the Arte- ries and Absorbents on the part, of the London Committee, by Dr. Hodgkin. Report of Experiments on Subterranean Temperature, under the direction of a Committee, consisting of Professor Forbes, Mr. W.S. Harris, Professor Powell, Lieut. Colonel Sykes, and Professor Phillips, (Reporter.) Inquiry into the Validity of a Method recently proposed by George B. Jerrard, Esq., for Transforming and Resolving Equations of Elevated Degrees: undertaken at the request of the Association by Professor Sir W. R. Hamilton. Vou. VI. Account of the discussions of Observations of the Tides which have been obtained by means of the grant of money which was placed at the disposal of the Author for that purpose at the last Meeting of the Association, by J. W. Lubbock, Esq., F.R.S. On the difference between the Composition of Cast Iron produced by the Cold and the Hot Blast, by Thomas Thomson, M.D.,F.R.S., L. & E., &c., Professor of Chemistry, Glasgow. On the Determination of the Constant of Nutation by the Greenwich Observations, made as commanded by the British Association, by the Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D. On some Experiments on the Electricity of Metallic Veins, and the Temperature of Mines, by Robert Were Fox. Provisional Report of the Committee of the Medical Section of the British Association, appointed to investigate the Com- position of Secretions, and the Organs producing them. Report from the Committee for inquiring into the Analysis of oF Glands, &c., of the Human Body, by G. O. Rees, M.D. .G.S. Second Report of the London Sub-Committee of the British _ Association Medical Section, on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart. Report from the Committee for making experiments on the Growth of Plants under Glass, and without any free communi- _ eation with the outward air, on the plan of Mr. N. I. Ward, _ of London. Report of the Committee on Waves, appointed by the British Association at Bristol in 1856, and consisting of Sir John Robi- XVi SEVENTH REPORT—1837. son, K.H., Secretary of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and John Scott Russell, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., Edin. (Reporter). On the relative strength and other Mechanical Properties of Cast Iron obtained by Hot and Cold Blast, by Eaton Hodgkinson. On the Strength and other Properties of Iron obtained from the Hot and Cold Blast, by W. Fairbairn. The following Reports and Continuations of Reports have been undertaken to be drawn up at the request of the Association. On the progress of Electro-chemistry and Electro-magnet- ism, so far as regards the experimental part of the subject, by P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S. On the Connexion of Electricity and Magnetism, by S. H. Christie, Sec. R.S. On the state of knowledge of the Phenomena of Sound, by Rev. Robert Willis, M.A., F.R.S., &c. On the state of our knowledge respecting the relative level of Land and Sea, and the waste and extension of the land on the east coast of England, by R. Stevenson, Engineer to the Northern Lighthouses, Edinburgh. On the Botany of North America, by Jacob Greene, M.D., and Professor Sir W. J. Hooker, M.D. On the Geographical Distribution of Insects, and particu- larly of the order Coleoptera, by J. Wilson, F.R.S.E. On circumstances in Vegetation influencing the Medicinal Virtues of Plants, by R. Christison, M.D. On Salts, by Professor Graham, F.R.S. On the progress of Medical Science in Germany, by Dr. Graves. On the Differential and Integral Calculus, by Rev. Professor Peacock, M.A., F.R.S., &c. On the Geology of North America, by H. D. Rogers, F.G.S., Professor of Geology, Philadelphia. On the Mineral Riches of Great Britain, by John Taylor, F.R.S., G.S. On Vision, by Professor C. Wheatstone, F.R.S. On the application of a General Principle in Dynamics to the Theory of the Moon, by Professor Sir W. Hamilton. On Isomeric Bodies, by Professor Liebig. On Organic Chemistry, by Professor Liebig. On Inorganic Chemistry, by Professor Johnston, F.R.S. On Fossil Reptiles, by Professor Owen, F.R.S. On the Salmonidz of Scotland, by Sir J. W. Jardine. On the Caprimulgide, by N. Gould, F.L.S. On theGenera of Fossil Insects, byRev.F.W.Hope,F.L.S.,&c. ms DESIDERATA, ETC. XVii Reporis requested, Researches recommended, and Desiderata noticed by the Commitiees of Science at the Liverpool Meeting *. ASTRONOMY. For the reduction of observations on Stars in the Histoire Céleste and the volumes of the Académie des Sciences for 1789 and 1790 (see vol.iv. p. xv.) 500/. was placed at the dis- posal of a Committee, consisting of Mr. Baily, Prof. Airy, and Rev. Dr. Robinson. For the extension of the Catalogue of the Astronomical So- ciety, so as to include all the stars in Bessel’s Fundamenta Astronomiz, as well as some other stars both in the north- ern and southern hemisphere, which have since been found to come within the original scope and intention of that Catalogue, or which from peculiar circumstances of position, magnitude, discordance, or proper motion, might advantageously be in- cluded therein (the whole of the stars to be reduced to the year 1850, and the constants of precession, aberration and nuta- tion to be computed for that epoch, with their secular varia- tions), the sum of 500/. was placed at the disposal of a Com- mittee, consisting of Mr. Baily, Prof. Airy, and Rev. Dr. Ro- binson. A Committee was appointed, consisting of Rev. Dr. Robin- son, Mr. Baily, and Dr. Traill, to apply to the proper authori- ties for the establishment of an astronomical observatory at Liverpool. A Committee was appointed, consisting of the President, the Earl of Burlington, Mr. Lubbock, the Astronomer Royal, Mr. Baily, Prof. Rigaud, Prof. Challis, Prof. Sir W. Hamilton, Prof. Peacock, and Rev. Dr. Robinson, for the purpose of re- presenting to Government the importance of reducing the Greenwich observations of the moon. TIDES. For completing the discussions of Tides of the port of Bris- tol, under the direction of Rev. Wm. Whewell, the sum of 751. was granted. A committee was appointed, consisting of Mr. Whewell, Mr. Lubbock, and Dr. Traill, to apply to the proper authorities for the establishment of tide observations at Liverpool. * In addition to or extension of those contained in vol. iv. and vol. vy. VOL. vI. 1837. xvii SEVENTH REPORT—1837. WAVES. For continuing the experimental investigations on Waves, 1007. was placed at the disposal of Sir J. Robison and Mr. Russell. METEOROLOGY. The Committee for Meteorology and Subterranean Tempe- rature received a further grant of 1002. For hourly observations of the Barometer and Wet-bulb Thermometer a grant of 50/. was placed at the disposal of Mr. W. S. Harris. For the construction of an Anemometer, on Mr. Osler’s plan, the sum of 40/. was placed at the disposal of Mr. W. S. Harris and Mr. Osler. For the repairs of an Anemometer, on Mr. Whewell’s plan, 102. was placed at the disposal of Mr. W. S. Harris. Application was directed to be made to the Dock Committee of Liverpool, requesting that body to direct Meteorological Observations to be made and recorded at the lighthouses and telegraphs under their direction, in conformity with any instruc- tions they may receive from the Meteorological Committee. OPTICS. - For the purpose of an inquiry into the action of Gases on the Solar Spectrum 100/. was placed at the disposal of Sir D. Brewster. : For the purpose of constructing a Telescopic Lens of Rock Salt, the grant of 80/., at the disposal of Sir D. Brewster, was renewed. Prof. Wheatstone was requested to present a Report on Vision to the next Meeting of the Association. Prof. Sir W. Hamilton was requested to consider and RE- porT on the question of the practicability of applying his gene- ral method of Dynamics to improve the Theory of the Moon. ——. —_— — CHEMISTRY. For experiments on substances present in minute quantities in Atmospheric Air the sum of 10/. was placed at the disposal of Mr. West. For a continuation of his Table of Chemical Constants the sum of 30/, was placed at the disposal of Prof. Johnston. ——— DESIDERATA, ETC. xix For the institution of a series of experiments on the great scale on the chemical and mechanical effects and changes pro- duced on Cast and Wrought Iron, by the continued action of Sea Water at various temperatures, and of foul River Water, whether fresh or salt, the sum of 20/. was placed at the disposal of Prof. Davy and Mr. R. Mallet. For the prosecution of experiments on the Action of Heat of 212° on Organic and Inorganic Bodies the sum of 10/. was placed at the disposal of Mr. R. Mallet. Prof. Liebig was requested to prepare a Report on the pre- sent state of our knowledge in regard to Isomeric Bodies. He was also requested to prepare a Report on the state of Organic Chemistry and Organic Analysis. Prof. Johnston was requested to prepare a Report on the state of Inorganic Chemistry and Inorganic Analysis. GEOLOGY. For the purpose of carrying on the inquiry into the per- manence of the Relative Level of Land and Sea, the sum of 2721., the remainder of the vote of last year (500), was placed at the disposal of a Committee, consisting of Rev. W. Whewell, Col. Colby, Mr. Greenough, and Mr. Griffith. - For the purpose of advancing our knowledge of Fossil Ich- thyology, by assisting the publication of M. Agassiz, the fur- ther sum of 1057. was placed at the disposal of a Committee, consisting of, Dr. Buckland, Prof. Sedgwick and Mr. Mur- chison. For the purpose of making excavations in the Peat Mosses of Ireland the grant of 50/., at the disposal of Col. Colby, was renewed. For the purpose of making experiments on the quantity of Mud in Rivers the grant of 20/7. was renewed, and placed at the disposal of a Committee, consisting of Mr. James Yates, Mr. De la Beche and Capt. Denham. It was stated to be desirable that a Report should be drawn up on the present state of our knowledge of the effects of Volta and Thermo-Electricity in the production of Crystals and the modification of Mineral Substances, and the Council of the As- sociation was requested to take steps for obtaining such a re- port. Prof. Owen was requested to draw up a Report on the pre- sent state of our knowledge of the Fossil Reptiles of Great Britain. b2 XX SEVENTH REPORT—1837. It was stated to be desirable that Engineers and Proprietors of Railways should be requested (where it is necessary to cover up sections) to preserve Notes and Drawings of such sections, and to collect the Organic Fossils, if any, and to transmit the same to the Geological Society of London, The attention of geological observers was directed to the different varieties of superficial Gravel and Detritus; their origin, whether fresh-water or marine ; their composition, whether of erratic or of local materials ; their position with respect to the present form of the surface and one another; their organic re- mains, and other peculiarities. NATURAL HISTORY. The following reports and monographs were requested in addition to such as are mentioned in vol. v. p. xv. On the species of Salmonide found in Scotland by Sir W. Jardine. On the Caprimulgide, by Mr. Gould. On the Genera of Fossil Insects belonging to Great Bri- tain and Ireland, by the Rev. W. F. Hope. For the purpose of collecting materials towards a Fauna of Ireland, a Committee was formed, consisting of Capt. Portlock, Mr. R. Ball, Mr. W. Thompson, Dr. Coulter, Mr. W. A. Eyton, and Mr. Vigors, who was requested to act as Secretary to the Committee. Mr. J. E. Gray and Mr. R. Ball were requested to investigate the mode by which Mollusca, Annelida, and other marine In- vertebrata excavate rocks. Capt. Ducane, R.N., was requested to continue his researches concerning the Crustacea of the waters of Southampton. - For the purpose of experiments on the Growth of Plants in Glass Vessels, on Mr. Ward’s plan, the further sum of 50/7. was placed at the disposal of a Committee, consisting of Mr. James Yates, Dr. Daubeny, Prof. Henslow, and Mr. R. Ball. For the purpose of experimenting on the best modes of Pre- serving Animal and Vegetable Substances the sum of 25/. was placed at the disposal of a Committee, consisting of Prof. Hen- slow, Mr. Jenyns, Dr. Clark, and Prof. Cumming. MEDICAL SCIENCE. The following Committees were re-appointed : For investigating the Anatomical Relations of the Absorbent and Venous Systems in different classes of Animals, with 504. at their disposal ; for inquiring into the Effects of Poisons on the Animal Economy, with 257. at their disposal ; for the Chemical i. ie a. Lae fe ie. DESIDERATA, ETC. Xxi Analysis of the Animal Secretions, with 25/. at their disposal *; for investigating the Pathology of the Brain and Nervous Sy- stem, with 25/. at their disposal; for investigating the Sounds of the Heart, the Committees of London and Dublin, with 25/7. at the disposal of each. A Committee was appointed, to consist of Dr. Carson and other Members of the Association resident in Liverpool and Manchester, for the purpose of making experiments on the Lower Animals labouring under Diseases of the Lungs, to de- termine the influence of local or general remedial means in the Cure of these Diseases, with 25/. at the disposal of the Com- mittee. A Committee was appointed, to consist of Dr. Williams and other Members of the Association, to investigate the Physiology of the Lungs.and Bronchi. STATISTICS. In furtherance of inquiries into the actual State of Schools in England, considered merely as to numerical analysis, the further sum of 150/. was placed at the disposal of a Committee consisting of Lord Sandon, Lieut.-Col. Sykes, and Mr. G. R. . Porter. In furtherance of inquiries into the Condition of the Work- ing Population, specified in the form of numerical tables, the sum of 100/. was placed at the disposal of a Committee, con- sisting of Lord Sandon, Lieut.-Col. Sykes, and Mr. G. R. Porter. : For the purpose of drawing up instructions for the Advance- ment of Statistical Science a Committee was appointed, consist- ing of Lord Sandon, Col. Sykes, Mr. Porter, Mr. W. Langton, Mr. W. R. Greg, and Mr. J. Heywood, with power to add to their number. MECHANICAL SCIENCE. For the prosecution of experiments on the Strength of Cast Iron, produced by the application of the Hot and the Cold Blast, and the extension of the same to Wrought Iron, the Committee, originally composed of Mr. E. Hodgkinson and Mr. W. Fairbairn, was enlarged by the addition of Prof. Willis, Mr. Donkin, and Mr. P. Clare, with 100/. at their disposal. For procuring, printing, and circulating periodical statements * Mr. Golding Bird was added to this Committee. XXii SEVENTH REPORT—1837. of the Duties of Steam Engines in Cornwall and elsewhere, the grant of 50/., at the disposal of Mr. J. Taylor, was renewed. For ascertaining the Amount of Duty actually performed by the consumption of one bushel of Coals in Steam-Engines em- ployed in pumping Water, not in the Cornish districts, a Com- mittee was appointed, consisting of Mr. Bryan Donkin, Mr. G. H. Palmer, Mr. James Simpson, Mr. John Taylor, and Mr. Thomas Webster, who was requested to act as Secretary, with 1007. at their disposal. The Committee was requested to report all the circumstances affecting the Amount of Duty in each case. For instituting a series of experiments to determine the mean Value of Railway Constants, a Committee was appointed, con- sisting of Mr. Hardman Earle, Dr. Lardner, Mr. Joseph Locke, Mr. G. Rennie, and Mr. John MacNeil, with 502. at their dis- osal. 0 For obtaining a series of observations on the average loco- motive Duty of a ton of coals per horse-power in Steam Ves- sels, a Committee was appointed, consisting of Mr. Fairbairn, Dr. Lardner, Mr. J. S. Russell, and Mr. J. Taylor, with 1002. at their disposal. The Committee was requested to report all the circumstances, nautical and mechanical, which may affect this Duty. Should the Committee above named find it expedient to ex- tend their researches to the other side of the Atlantic, the further sum of 50/. was placed at their disposal for such pur- pose. ARTS. A Committee was appointed to superintend the exhibition of Mechanical Inventions, Manufactured Articles, and Processes in the Arts at Newcastle ; viz. Sir D. Brewster, Mr. Babbage, Prof. Wheatstone, Prof. Willis, Prof. Powell, and Prof. John- ston, who was requested to act as Secretary. GENERAL REMARKS. In grants of money to the Committees for purposes of science, the Member first named is empowered to draw on the Trea- surer for such sums as may from time to time be required. The General Committee does not contemplate in these grants the payment of personal expenses to the Members. SYNOPSIS. XXill SYNOPSIS OF SUMS APPROPRIATED TO SCIENTIFIC OBJECTS. BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE LIVERPOOL MEETING. (Drawn up for comparison with vol. iv. p. xl. and vol. y. p. xx.) Reduction of Observations on Stars (vol. iv. p. xv. 5 vol, vi. p. xvii.) . £500 Continuation of Tide Discussions at Bristol W ol. v. p- Xx.; vol. vi. p. xvii.) . 7 Meteorological Instruments and Subterranean Tem- perature (vol. iv. p. xix.) . . 100 Comparative Level of Land and Sea (vol. iv. ‘p. XXVi. ; vol. v. p. xvii., part of the former grant saecaiilas 272 Lens of Rock Salt (vol. iv. p. xxii.) . . 80 Hourly Observations in Meteorology (vol. v. p- Xvi. ) 50 Investigations on the Form of Waves (vol. v. p. xvi.) 100 *Astronomical Society’s Catalogue (vol. vi. p. xvii.) . 500 *Action of Gases on Solar Spectrum (vol. vi. p. xvili. ) 100 *Osler’s Anemometer (vol. vi. p. xviii.) - - . 40 - *Repairs of an Anemometer (vol. vi. p. xviii.). . . 10 Composition of Atmospheric Air (vol. v. p. EVE.) 4. (220 Chemical Constants (vol. iv. p. xxiv.) . 30 *Effect of Water on Cast and Wrought Tron (vol. Vi. p. xix.) “Effect, of Heat of 212° on Organic and Inorganic Bodies (vol. vi. p. xix.) . 10 Mud in Rivers (vol. iv. p. xxvii.) . ie aa ae een Fossil Ichthyology (vol. iv. p.xxvil.) - - + + - 105 Peat Mosses in Ireland (vol. v. p. xviii.) . . . . 50 Growth of Plants under Glass (vol. v. p. xviii.) . 50 *Preservation of Animal and h eleag Substances (vol. vi. p. xx.) . a) hapa aVh eyrces Absorbents and Veins (vol. iv. 'p. XXXI. ) PAC SEI AAOO Sounds of the Heart (vol. iv. p. xxxi.) . . 50 and of Poisons on the Animal Economy (vo. iv. xi.) . Pathologs of Brain and Nervous System (vol. iv. P. KI.) 9-3 5 Chemical Analysis of Animal "Secretions (vol. v. pe. so ae Sr. *Disorders of the Lungs (vol. v vi. p- xxi.) Linh oe ihe aiaaes Carried forward £2357 ros) o Ou S10), oO, 99 'O- Geos S205 SO SSiooed Soros So io »6 XXiv SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Brought over. . . £2357 O- State of Schools in England (vol. v. p.xix.) . . . 150 0 *Condition of Working Population (vol. vi. p. xxi.). 100 0 Strength of Iron (vol. iv. p. xxxii.; vol. vi. p. ries 100 0 Duty of Cornish Engines (vol. iv. p. xxxii.) . 50 0 *Duty of oe ies. aa not in Cornwall (vol. vi. 4 SSK.) is Choe Bist *Railway rhe ee (vol. vi. p xxii.) ohpagheut the cree *Duty of Steam Engines in Vessels (vol. vi. p. xxii.). 100 0 *Conditional Grant to ditto (vol. vi. p. xxii.) . . . 50 O Total of Grants £3057 0 The Grants to which the asterisk (*) is prefixed relate to subjects for which no previous Grant has been made. The others are renewals or continuations of former Grants. ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR TRAILL, M.D. GENTLEMEN,—The duty of addressing the British Association, on this occasion,was originally confided to one admirably qualified to do jus- tice to the task; and few persons have more cause to lament the circum- stances which deprive us of the services of that gentleman than the indi- vidual who now addresses you. To those who know me only as connected with my present domicile, my position at this Meeting may appear un- warrantable or presumptuous. I can only plead, that though highly honoured by the office, it certainly was neither expected nor solicited by me; and that, unless twenty-eight years’ residence in this place, and the existence of numerous and valued local attachments, may be considered as conferring the privilege, I fear I can advance few claims to be received as one of the Secretaries for Liverpool. The objects and nature of the British Association for the Advance- ment of Science have been so eloquently handled by my predecessors, that to some members the subject may appear to be exhausted ; but, as the Association is necessarily a fluctuating body—as many have now joined it for the first time—and as there still seems to be con- siderable misapprehension in the public mind regarding its objects and utility, a few remarks on the purposes which it is intended to ac- complish may not be altogether misplaced. The British Association was undoubtedly suggested by the successful efforts of the philosophers of Germany, within the last few years. The _ obstacles to free intercourse between scientific men, in that part of _ Europe, had always been felt as a great bar to the advance of science. _ Under such a system, those who, in sequestered regions, had long | pursued laborious investigations, had often the mortification to discover _ that they were following paths trodden by others, or in which they had | been completely anticipated by more fortunate inquirers. To obviate _ such grave inconveniences, and to promote social intercourse among | men of science, scattered over wide regions, separated by physical and XXVl SEVENTH REPORT—1837. political obstacles, though connected by one common tongue, were the objects of that great Continental Association; and that these have been, to a considerable extent, realized by the annual assemblages of the illustrious sons of Germany, is generally admitted. In our more united and highly-favoured land, the facilities of inter- course between its most distant points, the less isolated position of our philosophers, unquestionably render the progress of science less de- pendent on such general associations of its cultivators than in Ger- many : yet it has never been doubted, that the personal intercourse of men engaged in similar pursuits is favourable to the progress of philo- sophical investigations, by the direct assistance derived from the ex- perience and suggestions of others, and by fostering that generous emulation in the search after truth which imparts a wholesome stimulus to mental exertion, while it tends to smooth the asperities occasionally engendered by controversy, even in the abstract sciences. Men ac- customed to meet and act together for one great end, naturally and insensibly imbibe the social spirit—scientific jealousy and personal rivalry are softened by mutual approximations; and individuals com- posing the Association, like members of the same family, learn to temper the pursuit of personal distinction by an honest exultation in whatever redounds to the honour and celebrity of the body to which they belong. These advantages the British Association shares in common with many other societies; but it possesses characteristics peculiarly its own. It can scarcely reckon a period of infancy ;—it sprung at once from the conception of its founders, like Pallas from the head of Jove, in the perfection of youthful vigour—-secure in the panoply of rectitude of purpose against open or secret hostility. It quickly numbered in its ranks the élite of the philosophy of the United Kingdom; and, strengthened by the accession of foreign associates of distinguished reputation, it has extended its views beyond its original horizon, and has attained a colossal magnitude that distinguishes it above every other scientific association in the British empire. This Institution ought not to be considered as the rival of any of the previously existing philosophical establishments which give lustre to these kingdoms. It, indeed, receives communications on every branch of scientific inquiry, but it professes to publish none of the numerous contributions which have given rise to the interesting and animated discussions in its different Sections: a short abstract of these papers is all that it attempts to promulgate; but the distinguishing features of its publications are those invaluable Reports on the pro- ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR TRAILL. XXVil gress of science which the Association has confided to some of its members, especially selected for that important duty. The advantages thus conferred on general science will be best ap- preciated by persons whose studies are directed to any of the subjects discussed in the Reports, and who have once felt the want of an ac- curate analysis of what had been recently added to our previous stock of knowledge; but it would be impossible to calculate in how many instances those abstracts of precise and useful information have saved the time, and abridged the labour, of the retired student, in tracks al- ready explored by other philosophers. Another peculiarity in the publications of the Association consists in the circulation of desiderata in different branches of science. The attention of their cultivators, thus drawn to the principal deficiencies in each, has already filled up various chasms in the paths of intellectual exertion, and stimulated to inquiries that cannot fail to lead to important results. It soon became apparent that the British Association must exercise a powerful influence on the general diffusion of science, and could undertake, or materially promote, investigations to which individual research and unaided exertion are utterly inadequate. Its annual _ migrations, and the comparative ease of admission into its ranks, have unquestionably increased the taste for scientific disquisition; and, although it would be absurd to suppose that all who seek for enrol- ment in the Association are destined to extend the boundaries of science, who can believe that familiarizing large masses of the com- munity with such investivations, and exhibiting how the highest branches of philosophy may be made available to the purposes of life, will fail to promote the avowed purpose of our meetings? Who will venture to deny, that the contemplation of the galaxy of illustrious men, mustered on occasions similar to the present, has often proved _ the first impulse to the secret aspirant after honourable distinction— has afforded the Promethean spark, that kindled the sacred flame in _ the breast of slumbering genius ? __ The Association has not failed to use its influence in stimulating _ our rulers to aid the progress of science. At its instigation, the British government has taken up the task of the reduction of the enormous mass of observations on the heavenly bodies, accumulated since 1750 at the Greenwich Observatory—which, though col- lected at a great expense to the nation, and by the exertion of con- _ summate skill in the observers—which, though pronounced by the highest authorities in Europe to be of the utmost moment to the | future progress of astronomy, —have been permitted to remain a rich, XXVIII SEVENTH REPORT—1837. but unexplored, mine of facts. The voice of our petition has been heard—the work has been auspiciously begun—and 500/. have been assigned by the Treasury for the commencement of this great national work. The subject of the Tides, so strangely neglected in this great mari- time country, from the period of the promulgation of the Newtonian Theory to our own times, has engaged the attention of the Association from its commencement. The advances which have recently been made on this subject, and which have greatly altered the aspect of that branch of science, had chiefly for their original basis the very valuable tide ob- servations made in this port, many years ago, by Mr. Hutchinson, a dock-master, embracing an interval of above thirty years. The ori- ginals are preserved in the Lyceum Library of Liverpool ; and, by the liberality of the proprietors, have been confided to the hands of Mr. Lubbock, under whose direction the discussion of them, ordered by the Association, has thrown a new light on the laws of Tidal phenomena. Since that time, the earnest representations of a distinguished Asso- ciate, whom this county claims as a native, have given rise to a most important set of observations on the tides. Mr. Whewell, by personal application to the chief of the coast-guard service, and solicitation to the Admiralty, has procured the completion of a continuous series of observations, at upwards of 500 stations, along the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland. They were continued for a fortnight in June 1834, and again in June 1835, when they were extended from the mouths of the Mississippi to the northern extremity of Europe. These observations have been discussed at the expense of the Admiralty ; but, as I shall presently mention, the Association has voted a large sum to be applied by Mr. Lubbock to the same object. These discussions have, within the last few years, led to very curious results ; for instance, to the fact of the rise of the mean level of the tides, in proportion to the fall of the barometer, and the existence of a diurnal tude—i. e. the difference between the morning and evening tides of the same day. This diurnal tide, it may be interesting for the inhabitants of Liverpool to know, was first marked in the tide tables constructed by a young ingenious townsman, Mr. Bywater, jun., who has, unfor- tunately for science, died since the last Meeting of the Association. The importance of the subject, and the success already obtained, have encouraged the Association to direct the discussion of the Tidal obser- vations recorded at the port of Bristol, and at the London Docks; and to supply the means of defraying the necessary expense. The influence of researches on tidal waters to navigation and to com- ‘ ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR TRAILL, XX1X merce are too obvious to require illustration: but perhaps it may not be unsuitable, in this place, to refer to the deductions of our eminent associate, Captain Denham, on the capability of the Mersey “ to com- mand a navigable avenue to the ocean, so long asits guardians preserve the high-water boundaries from artificial contraction.” It may also be stated, that in our Transactions, this gentleman has recorded his most important general inference (drawn from a connected series of observa- tions on the tides, which the liberality of the Dock Trustees of Liverpool enabled him to carry on)—that there is one invariable mean height, com- mon to neap and spring tides—rur Harr Trp—e Marx—a point from which engineers, geologists, and navigators will henceforward com- mence their calculations, and adjust their standards of comparison. The Association made application soon after the meeting at Edin- burgh for the resumption of the Trigonometrical Survey of Scotland ; a work imperiously demanded by the imperfect state of our best maps and charts of that part of the island, either for the purposes of geology or navigation. It is needless to give further proof, than that parts of se- veral of the large islands at the mouth of the Clyde are laid down se- veral miles out of their true position. The magnificent scale on which the survey of Ireland is now carrying on, emboldened various scientific societies of Scotland this year to memorialize the government on the subject. I am happy to add, that the applications have been successful, and the triangulation of Scotland will recommence early in 1838. The British Association may also boast, that at its instigation, our illustrious associate, Arago, moved the Bureau des Longitudes to soli- cit from the French government the publication of the series of obser- vations on the tides at Brest, and a reduction of the astronomical obser- vations made at the Ecole Militaire. The Brest observations have been printed, and a copy of the valuable documents put in the hands of one well able to appreciate them. At the Dublin meeting, a committee was appointed for representing to our own government two objects important to science ; which can only be accomplished in a satisfactory manner by the rulers of a power- ful nation, or by an union of governments in the cause of philosophy. The first related to the establishment of Magnetical and Meteorological Observatories, in different parts of the earth, furnished with proper in- struments, and in which the observations should be conducted on ac- _knowledged and uniform principles. The extent, and the variety of climate of the British possessions, indicate them as favourable points for such establishments, which have already been commenced in France and its dependencies, and may hereafter, by the co-operation of the XXX SEVENTH REPORT—1837. several governments of Europe, and of our Trans-Atlantic brethren, be extended over a large portion of the civilized world. The second suggestion was the importance of an Antarctic Expedition, for prose- cuting discoveries and observations in Geography, Hydrography, Na- tural History, and, above all, Magnetism, with a view to determine the positive southern magnetic pole or poles, and the direction and intensity of the magnetic force in antarctic regions. The East India Company was likewise to be requested to favour the same objects, especially at their establishment at Madras. The General Committee some time ago made application to the au- thorities, both in France and this country, respecting some mode of in- stituting a reciprocal protection to literary property. Might I venture here to allude to a recommendation which I hope the Association will not fail to leave in Liverpool, for the promotion of a scientific object of immense consequence to this port—the establishment of an Observatory in or near Liverpool? The adoption of such suggestions, while con- ferring an incalculable benefit on science, would rear a proud, impe- rishable, and bloodless monument to national greatness. These statements might be a sufficient answer to a question, some- times put in tones of captious sarcasm,— What has the Association di- rectly contributed to the progress of useful knowledge? Without again appealing to the very admirable reports on the progress of science published in our Transactions ; without again claiming merit for the suggestions and efforts already noticed,—I should fearlessly answer such cavillers, by an appeal to the value and number of the communi- cations, which have occupied the different Sections, at each annual meeting, and which contain the application of pure science to important questions in Physics, or of experimental investigation to numerous branches of knowledge. I would point to the valuable researches which have been undertaken and completed at the request of the Association, among which it may be permitted to indicate the fol- lowing memoirs :—-The comparison of the standards of Linear Measure, made by the late Mr. Troughton, for the town of Aberdeen, and the Astronomical Society of London, which were confided to Mr. Baily— a comparison of much consequence, as the standard yard, by the same artist, was lost in the fire which consumed both Houses of Parliament ; On the Investigation of the Impact upon Beams, when struck by bodies of different weight, hardness, and elasticity, by Mr. Hodgkinson; On the Direction and Intensity of the Magnetic Force in England, Ireland, and Scotland, by Professor Lloyd, Major Sabine, and Captain James Ross; On the influence of Height above the Sea on Magnetic Intensity, SF an pl RBS ily i tee i ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR TRAILL. xxi by Professor Forbes—from which it appears that the horizontal inten- sity diminishes = ,/,, of the whole, for every 3000 feet of vertical ascent ; On the quantity of Rain falling at different heights above the surface of the Ground, made at York, by Professor Phillips, and Mr. Gray ; On the determination of the mass of the planet Jupiter, by the Astronomer Royal; On the Horary Variations of the Barometer, Thermometer, Hygrometer, and Whewell’s Anemometer, by Mr. Snow Harris—part of which has already appeared, and of which the sequel will be laid before this annual Meeting; On the Duty performed by Cornish Steam En- gines, by Mr. Enys; On the Ratio of the Resistance of Fluids to the Velocity of Waves, by Mr. Russell and Mr. Robison—of which we ex- pect to receive an account on this occasion. We may also be permitted here to allude to some highly-interesting investigations, still in progress, under the auspices of the Association, such as—Observations on the Temperature of Springs and Deep Mines, by Instruments procured and verified by the Meteorological Council, which are already placed in various districts of Great Britain and Ire- land, and also in Peru, under the direction of our scientific associate, Mr. Pentland, from which results most interesting to Geology are an- ticipated ; On the Temperature of the strata at different depths near Edinburgh, by Professor Forbes, for ascertaining the rate of the trans- mission of Solar Heat downwards; A continuation of Mr. W. Vernon Har- court’s experiments on the effects of long-continued Heat on Rocks and other bodies ; Experimental Investigations into the Fabrication of Glass, by the same gentleman and Dr. Faraday; A Systematic Catalogue of all the Organized Fossils of the British Islands, by Professor Phillips ; An Experimental Determination of the Strength and other Mechanical Properties of Iron obtained by the Hot and Cold Blasts, undertaken by Messrs. Hodgkinson and Fairbairn; Analysis of Iron in the different stages of its manufacture, and an Extension of the Tables of Chemical Constants, by Professor Johnston; Statistical Returns of the State of Education in our great towns ; An Examination of the Statistical docu- ments preserved in the India House, by Professor Jones; besides the discussion of numerous very interesting contested points in Natural History and in Medicine. These are satisfactory evidences of the activity of the Association ; _ but it bas not scrupled also to afford pecuniary assistance, when such _ aid appeared requisite to ensure success. It is true, that the moderate sum, payable on admission into the Society, seems more suited to the _ finances of the majority of philosophers, than to the support of ex- XKxIl SEVENTH REPORT—1837. tensive enterprises; yet the numbers annually desirous of admission supply funds, adequate to important undertakings; and the power thus given to the General Committee is acknowledged to have been exercised with a sound discretion. Without descending to minute particulars, it may be well to state some of the appropriations for various scientific inquiries. The application to the French government already noticed, was ac- companied by a vote of the General Committee of the Association to appropriate 5001. for a duplicate reduction of the Astronomical Obser- vations, with a view to secure the utmost accuracy in these important computations. This offer proves the value attached by the Association to whatever can improve Astronomy, and the zeal which carries its scientific views even beyond the limits of the British Empire. This sum is still devoted to the reduction of Astronomical Observations. 701. have been devoted to the determination of a constant numerical expression for Lunar Notation, as deduced from the observations made with the Greenwich mural circle: 250/. have been appropriated for the Discussion of the Tides ; besides 150/. voted last year for the Dis- cussion of the Observations made on Tides at Bristol: 100/. were set apart for meteorological instruments, and experiments on subterranean temperature,—the last a problem of the highest interest to Geology, as involving the question whether or not there be a general source of ter- restrial heat, independent of solar influence: 500/. have been voted for ascertaining the permanence or fluctuation in the relative level of the land and of the ocean, on the coasts of the British Isles. This sub- ject affords matter for the highest speculations in Geology ; but it is doubly interesting to a maritime people, as affecting the permanence of our river navigation, and of our naval stations: 2101. were given to enable M. Agassiz to include the fossil fishes of our islands among his interesting Researches on Fossil Ichthyology, a publication which forms a new era in this department of Geology : 100/. have been assigned for Investigations on the Form of Waves, and the mode of their produc- tion: 150/. for the experiments on Vitrification, and the improvement of the manufacture of Glass: 80/. for experiments on Lenses of Rock Salt ; a subject of much interest to Optics: 50/. for determining the specific gravity of Gases: 60/. for an experimental inquiry into the strength of Iron: 50/. for ascertaining the Duty of Steam Engines: 50. for an inquiry into the Origin of Peat Mosses: 250]. for con- ducting various Physiological Rearches : 150/. have likewise been voted for investigating the Statistics of Education in our large towns. While ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR TRAILL. XXXIl on this subject, I must not omit to state that the Statistical Societies of London and Manchester trace their origin to this Association ; and that the laborious investigations of Colonel Sykes, on the Statistics of India, founded on materials chiefly collected by himself, and undertaken at the request of the Association, are now happily brought to a close, and will be presented to the Association. These appropriations are exclusive of several minor sums devoted to the encouragement of investigations into various branches of Physics, Chemistry, and Natural History ; making an aggregate of upwards of 26591. set apart from the funds of the Association, in the past year, for scientific objects—a larger sum than has been appropriated, in so short a period, by any other Society, to purposes purely scientific. While stating these facts, we ought not to conceal a circumstance, cre- ditable to the disinterested zeal for the cause of science elicited by these grants. Though the voteshave been liberal, this circumstance has never induced inconsiderate expenditure. In many instances, far less than the sums appropriated have been actually expended ; and in various in- stances, the individuals intrusted with the funds have refused to draw on the Association, when their own labour could save its finances. It has been usually considered a part of the duty of the Local Secre- tary, to give a short account of the Reports which are just published. ‘The first in the volume is the masterly report ‘On Mineral and Thermal Waters,’ by Dr. Daubeny. After glancing at the nature of atmospheric water, the author has pointed out the connexion of the foreign ingredients, detected in the atmosphere, with the production of meteoric stones, the formation of nitric acid under certain circumstances, and the presence of the organic principle found in air, even when col- lected on great elevations, to which the name of Pyrrhine has been given. He considers the existence of the elements of meteoric stones in the atmosphere as doubtful. The nitric acid may sometimes arise from the effects of electric explosion on its oxygen and nitrogen; at other times this union is seemingly produced by causes not yet ascer- tained. ‘The researches of the celebrated Ehrenberg have shown, that py:thine probably owes its origin to the ova of polygastric infusoria, raised by evaporation and by atmospheric currents induced by changes of temperature. In considering the ocean, the author directs particular attention to its gaseous contents; as confirming or invalidating the opi- nion of Arago, that oxygen predominates in all waters, even to con- siderable depths. This law is well known to hold good in the more superficial portions of the ocean, and seems intended to support the respiration of aquatic animals; but the preponderance of oxygen at VOL. Vie 1837. c XXXIV SEVENTH REPORT—1837. great depths cannot yet be considered as absolutely determined, on ac- count of the imperfection of the modes of obtaining unmixed water front such points. The water of springs is more especially the object of Dr. Daubeny’s Report. In considering the saline contents of mineral springs, he gives some ingenious speculations on the origin of these salts; especially of the carbonate of soda, of the sulphates, and of boracic acid. The common salt he derives from the same source as the saltness of the sea; and he considers rock-salt as a deposition from the waters of the ocean; a view confirmed by the presence in saline deposits of iodine and bromine—ele- ments first detected in marine productions. Dr. Daubeny regards the absence of these two bodies in the lowest and purest bed of the Cheshire rock-salt while they abound in the upper saliferous beds, as proofs that rock-salt was deposited from a saturated solution. The salts of io- dine and bromine, as well as the earthy muriates, from their greater solubility, would remain longer in solution ; and thus be mingled with the more hasty mechanical deposits from the waters. The brine springs of Droitwich, which are found to contain neither iodine nor bromine, he also considers as derived from a salt deposited from a sa- turated solution. The siliceous earth, so often detected in thermal springs, he con- ceives to be dissolved by alkaline matter, aided by a high temperature. Both alkali and silica may be afforded by felspathic rocks; and Dr. Daubeny conjectures, that silica may be more soluble in hot water at the moment of its separation from its combinations in the rock, or ere it has its aggregation increased, by assuming the crystalline texture. He states, that it may be interesting to try, whether hot water has a stronger action on such bodies as opal, in which the molecules do not seem to have a true crystalline arrangement, than on quartz. Since I came this time to Liverpool, I subjected a fragment of wood-opal for fourteen days to a temperature estimated about 280° Faht., in the boiler of a fixed steam-engine ; but it had neither lost nor gained the smallest weight in that time. The author combats the opinion of Anglada on the origin of the or- ganic matter termed Glairine, now found to be a very common ingre- dient of thermal springs. This substance Anglada supposes, with little probability, to be derived from the interior of the earth ; while the ob- servations of our author on this substance, as collected from above fifty springs, especially from the thermal sources of the Pyrenees, show, that Glairine is probably derived from the decomposition of organic bodies, such as conferve and infusory animaleules. ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR TRAILL. XXKV The author’s speculations on the source of the heat of thermal springs, partake of his views on the origin of volcanoes; namely, that it depends on the penetration of water, through fissures in the external erust of the globe, to the regions where he conceives the elements of earthy and alkaline bodies to exist: that the intense heat, generated during the oxidation of these elements, converts a portion of the water into steam ; which, under compression, obtains a high temperature, acts on various earthy bodies, and communicates its heat to subterranean waters which issue in thermal springs. This view he supports by nu- merous instances observed by geologists; especially by Professor Forbes in the Pyrenees, where thermal waters gush out in the vicinity of dis- ruptions, or upheavings of strata by ignigenous rocks. The author be- lieves that, unless in countries agitated by volcanic action, the tempe- rature of thermal springs is subject to little variation ; and that, where the contrary has been alleged, it may generally be ascribed to the im- perfection of the thermometers employed. The temperature of copious springs has generally been observed to vary little, and is about the mean temperature of the country where they occur. Thus the magnificent fountain at Vaucluse has the mean temperature of that part of France, and scarcely ever varies one degree of Reaumur. It is, however, worthy of remark, that I found the tem- perature of St. Winifred’s Well, the largest spring in Britain, by dif- ferent observations during twenty years, to experience variations of more than four degrees of Faht., always to have a temperature several degrees above the mean of Flintshire, and at all seasons superior to that of another very large spring, Fynnon asa, about five miles distant. The variations may perhaps arise from surface water, directly finding its way into the Holywell spring; but its constant superior tempera- ture may be accounted for, on Dr. Daubeny’s principle, from the dis- turbances in the strata produced by the numerous mineral veins in the adjacent Halkin Mountains. The second report is ‘On the Direction and Intensity of Teascheitid Magnetism in Scotland,’ by Major Sabine. The experiments were made at numerous stations, both by the sta- tical method of Professor Lloyd, in which the dip and intensity are as- certained by the same instrument, and by Hansteen’s method, of mea- suring intensity by the number of horizontal vibrations in a given time. It is interesting to know, that the intensities estimated by both methods nearly correspond ; and that we therefore may place confidence in either mode of observing, when allowance is made for changes in the force of magnetism in the needles employed. Major Sabine experienced, on c2 XXxVl SEVENTH REPORT—1837. several occasions, what has been remarked by other observers, that magnetical experiments are liable to be affected by the vicinity of Trap rocks, This was particularly noticed by him at Oban and Loch Scavig, so as to render his observations at the latter of no utility for his calcu- lations. Two of the most familiar examples of this quality of ignigenous rocks are afforded by the powerful effect of a column of the Giant’s Causeway, as mentioned by Professor Lloyd ; and by the strong polar- ity of the basaltic cap of Arthur’s Seat, near Edinburgh, which is ca- pable, in more positions than one, of causing complete inversion of poles of the pocket compass. These instances show how carefully the vi- cinity of considerable masses of Trap rocks should hereafter be avoided, in all delicate experiments on magnetic dip and intensity: for the errors they occasion may be more considerable than the effect of a ship’s local attraction on azimuths, and are far less easily compensated. Major Sabine has considered it best to give no other designation, on his chart, to the isodynamic lines in Scotland, than what expresses their relation to each other, until we have more fully investigated their rela- tion to magnetic intensity in England. The differences between the deductions, in regard to the Isodynamic lines in Scotland and in Ireland, are very considerable, and apparently too great to be due to any dif- ference in the lines themselves: but future observations will probably disclose the cause. In a former volume of our Transactions, appeared a valuable report on North American Geology: in that just announced is an excellent essay on the Zoology of that portion of the globe, by Dr. Richardson, the intrepid friend and companion of Sir John Franklin, in their ha- zardous exploratory expeditions to the shores of the Arctic Ocean. After some general remarks on the climate of North America, he pre- sents us with an extensive Table of Mean Temperatures, calculated for periods of six and three months throughout the year, for the hottest and the coldest months, and for the months with a mean temperature above 52° Faht., taken at forty-four different stations, and collected from his own and Franklin’s observations, combined with those of Humboldt, Ross, Parry, and Scoresby. The results are very important, and show, in a striking manner, the very erroneous deductions on the mean tem- perature of any place, if investigated by Mayer’s formula, especially in very low or very high latitudes. The geographical position of Mexico constitutes the point at which the Faune of the northern and southern regions meet; and hence it is the place in which the general laws regulating the distribution of animals can be most satisfactorily studied. There the Wolf of a northern cli- ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR TRAILL. XXXVI mate is seen with the Monkey of tropical regions; the Bunting and the Titmouse nestle near the Parrot and the Trogon; the Phalarope of the North seeks its food on the same beach as the Jacana and the Boatbill of Brazil. Dr. Richardson states, that though colonization has, in America, restricted the range and modified the migrations of wild animals, we have no evidence that a single species has been there lost within the records of history. The Quadrumana, or Monkeys, of America are peculiar to that continent. None of them have what may be called a perfect hand, with the thumb opposed to the fingers. Their thumbs are small, sometimes only rudimentary, or even wholly wanting. Not a single Ape—not one true Baboon is to be found among them; but many are furnished with prehensile tails, admirably adapted for ani- mals moving among thick forests, and almost as serviceable for grasp- ing as the proboscis of the Elephant. _ Almost all the Mammifera, considered as common to the New and Old Worlds, belong to the order of Carnivora; yet it is by no means improbable, that a minute examination of species now considered as the same, may detect specific differences among them. I would par- ticularly recommend attention to the skulls of animals. My late in- genious young friend, Robert Jameson, of Edinburgh, had acquired great tact in discriminating the Carnivora, in particular, by the form and position of the sutures uniting the bones of the face, which differ much in each species. It is believed by many naturalists, that the proportions of the skulls of Indian birds, in other respects similar to our own, as compared to their bodies, differ from those of Europe. Similar differences may occur in other parts of the skeletons of qua- drupeds, which have escaped the superficial examiner, yet sufficient to constitute specific characters. This would be particularly valuable in determining the species of weasels and amphibious Carnivora, which, at present, are very perplexing to the naturalist. All the existing Marsupial animals are confined to America, Au- stralia, and some other South Sea Islands: yet, at one period, animals of this order must have been very generally distributed over the earth, as their bones occur everywhere in a fossil state, and are formed in the oldest deposits of mammiferous remains. The number of Rodentia in North America is great, and all seem to be peculiar to the New World: of the Edentata, one only is found in North America. Two or three species occur in Africa and India; all the rest are South American. It is singular, that of the existing Pa- chydermata, two species only are considered as indigenous to Ame- XXXViil SEVENTH REPORT—1837. rica—the tapir and the peccary; and of these, the last only is found in North America. Yet no region can boast of more numerous, or more gigantic species of fossil animals of this order—as elephants and mastodons—and, what is remarkable, though the present race of horses is acknowledged to be not indigenous, fossil bones of the horse were found on the N.W. coast by Capt. Beechey mingled with those of ele- phants. Of the Ruminantia, two only seem to be common to the Old and New World—the reindeer and the elk—unless we admit that the argali of Siberia is the same-as the sheep of the Rocky Mountains. The Cetacea, as might be expected from their mode of life, may be considered as common to both worlds. The Rytina Borealis and Manatus Americanus are found in North America, but not in the seas of Europe. Temminck estimates that we have 930 well ascertained, and 140 doubtful species of Mammifera; of these 207 are in the New World, and 169 in North America. The birds of North America are most numerous, and have heen illustrated by the successive labours of Pennant, Wilson, the Prince of Musignano ; but, above all, in the Fauna Boreali-Americana of Richardson and Swainson, and the superb work of Audubon. The similarity between the birds of Europe and North America is marked by one third of the species being common to both Faune. These are chiefly to be found among the Grallatores and Natatores, two-thirds of which orders are common to both: of the order Rapaces several are common to both continents. The Insessores are very numerous, and a great number are peculiar to America. The Rasores, in all countries, are little disposed to migrate ; and almost all of this order found in America are peculiar to it, with the exception of some pigeons and a few Arctic grouse. The Reptilia of North America are exceedingly numerous. All, with the exception of some sea-turtle, are distinct from those of the Old World. Two genera equally fitted to live in water and in air, as possessing both gills and lungs, and represented by the Siren lacertina and Menopoma gigantea, which abound in North America, have only one analogous animal in the Old World, the Proteus anguinus of the lakes and caves of Carniola. Many species of the fishes of the American seas are found else- where ; but the only fresh-water fish, common to both worlds, appears to be the pike; yet it is singular, that it does not occur in the waters to the west of the Rocky Mountains, although there the two continents are more approximated. Some of the family of the Salmonide and Clupiade, which visit America, have much resemblance to those of Europe. ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR TRAILL. XXXLE This Report is an excellent specimen of the method of comparing the Faunz of distant regions, and presents a model of a philosophical - disquisition on the geographical distribution of animals. The Association has, at different times, received three able Reports from Professor Challis, of Cambridge, on the Mathematical Theory of Fluids. In the first he showed how the application of mathematical analysis to investigating the properties of an imaginary fluid, supposed incompressible, or so compressible that the density should always be proportional to the pressure it sustains, admits of comparison with facts observed in the equilibrium and motion of water, or in the exist-_ ing mechanical qualities of air. In the second, the author considered the modifications which these theories had, in later times, sustained by the introduction of certain molecular hypotheses on the constitution of matter, and how a comparison of the consequences of these hypothe- tical speculations with experimental results, served to establish the basis of the mathematical reasoning, and to make known properties and conditions of bodies not cognizable by our senses. The present Report treats of several very important points in the Mechanical Theory of the Atmosphere. Mr. Atkinson’s* attempt to ascertain the law of variation of temperature, at different heights in the atmosphere, would seem to require, for its establishment, a more ex- tensive series of observations over a greater portion of the earth’s sur- face than we now possess. The difference between the velocity of sound, as determined by ex- periment, and Newton’s deduction from Boyle’s and Mariotte’s law of elastic fluids, amounting to one-sixth of the whole, has given rise to many attempts to solve the problem, especially by Euler, Lagrange, and Laplace. The latter gave the true solution of the discrepancy— namely, that it arises from the evolution of heat, and its absorption, which accompany every sudden compression or expansion of air. The application of analysis, to afford a formula of correction, was first at- _ tempted by Biot and Laplace, and more lately by Ivory ; but when we compare the theoretic deduction with the best experiments on the propagation of sound by Moll and Van Beck, at Utrecht, by Golding- ham at Madras, and Parry and Foster in the Arctic regions, the slight _ diserepancies between experiment and calculation are more to be at- _ tributed to some imperfection in our formule than to error in experi- _ ments, which in their results agree so nearly, though made under very _ different circumstances. * Trans. Royal Astron. Soc., vol. ii. xl SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Under the head of Theories of Elastic Fluids, the author has intro- duced some valuable remarks upon the memoirs of Poisson, on the equilibrium and motion of elastic bodies, on the equilibrium of fluids, and the pressure of fiuids in motion; and also on Laplace’s theory of Capillary Attraction; for which I must refer to the Report. We have next two reports on the Comparative Botany of Scotland and Ireland, by Mr. Mackay and Professor Graham, of Edinburgh. The first indicates the more remarkable plants that characterize the neighbourhood of Dublin and Edinburgh. In the second, Mr. Mackay points out the effect of climate on the Flora of Ireland. Ireland, it is true, has fewer species of plants than Great Britain, and possesses fewer alpine plants than Scotland. Its position and moister climate, how- ever, put it in possession of many plants not found in Great Britain, but of species occurring in Spain and Portugal, among which may be noticed Erica Mediterranea, Erica Mackiana, Pinguicola grandiflora, Arbutus unedo, Menziesia polyfolia. The Reports from the London and Dublin sub-committees on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart, in this and the last volume, will interest the physiologist and the physician. Ever since the application of the stethoscope, by Laennec, to the investigation of pectoral diseases, the sounds of the heart have been anxiously explored—its normal sounds studied, and its abnormal bruits eagerly inquired into, as im- portant diagnostics of health and disease. The causes of those sounds have been matter of dispute ; the investigation was recommended by the Association; and a sum appropriated for the expense of experi- ments on the subject. The Reports are the results of the labours of two sub-committees,who agree on the principal points,viz., that the first sound is produced during the systole, or contraction of the ventricles : and that the second sound is produced by the sudden check which the action of the semilunar valves gives to the current of blood impelled against them, by the elasticity of the arteries. In the second Dublin Reports, the abnormal sounds are illustrated by some ingeniously-de- vised experiments: but both sub-committees admit, that the motions and sounds of the heart require further investigations. The Dublin Committee on the Pathology of the Brain and Nerves express their opinion, that to arrive at any accurate conclusions on so extensive and difficult a subject, a very large number of cases must be first submitted to examination, their symptoms during life accurately noted, and minute examinations instituted after death. One hundred and seventy-cight males and two hundred and ninety-four females, labouring under nervous affections, are in the Dublin House of In- a aa ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR TRAILL. xli dustry and Hospitals—of whom forty-one have already been accurately examined, for the object just aliuded to. The results of the Discussion of the Observations on the Tides, ob- tained by means of the grants of the Association, have been reported by Mr. Lubbock. _ Mr. Dessiou was employed to discuss the Tides observed at Liver- pool, so as to ascertain the diurnal inequalities in their height, and also to classify the errors of prediction for a year in Liverpool and at the London Docks. The result is, that Daussy’s deduction from the ob- servations at Brest is confirmed, viz. that the height of high water is diminished when the barometer is high, and increased when it is low. The varicus discussions of nineteen years of observations at the London Docks, amounting to 13,370, for the purpose of deducing the diurnal irregularities, and examining the effects of the moon’s transit immediately preceding high water, and those of the two previous days, lead to the conclusion, that Bernouilli’s theory of Equilibrium “ satis- fies the phenomena nearly, if not quite, within the limits of errors of the observations,” and that it leaves very little to be otherwise ac- counted for, A short statement is made by Professor Powell, of Oxford, on the Determination of Refractive Indices for the definite rays in the Solar Spectrum, from direct observation. The investigations recommended in the third Report of the Association have been commenced by Pro- fessor Powell, who continues his observations. Dr. Hodgkin reported from the London Physiological Commit- tee, that their investigations have not established the views of Lippi, respecting the communications of the absorbents with the veins; but they do not warrant a rejection of his observations, nor amount to any proof that the thoracic duct is the sole medium of communication be- tween the lacteals and the veins. Direct communications between absorbents and veins have been observed by the reporter: but he is disposed to consider these as deviations from the normal structure. A short Report on the best methods of ascertaining Subterranean Temperatures, and the proper form for Registers of such observations, is published by a Committee appointed for the purpose. The last Report in the volume is the very profound Examination, by Sir William Hamilton, of the Validity of Mr. Jerrard’s proposed me- thod of Transforming and Resolving the higher degrees of Equations, as contained in his ‘ Mathematical Researches.’ Mr. Jerrard’s method may be characterized as consisting in rendering the problem indeter- xii SEVENTH REPORT—1837. minate, and in employing this very property to decompose certain of the conditions into others, for the purpose of avoiding that elevation of degree, that would otherwise be the consequence of the elimination. The ingenuity of the principle, and the talent displayed in the re- searches, are freely admitted by Sir William, who contends that the process is valid, as a general and unexpected transformation of equa- tions of elevated degrees, though it fails as a method of resolving them; and who thus sums up the result of his investigations on the subject :—‘ This method of decomposition has, however, conducted, in the hands of Mr. Jerrard, to transformations of equations, which must be considered as discoveries in algebra ; and to the solution of an ex- ' tensive class of problems in the analysis of indeterminates, which had not before been resolved: the notation, also, of symmetric functions, which has been employed by that mathematician in his published re- searches on these subjects, is one of great beauty and power.” On the very valuable matter contained in the proceedings of the Sections time will not permit me to enter, and I must refer you to the volume just published. In conclusion, allow me, in the name of my respected colleagues and of our Liverpool associates, to offer a sincere and hearty weleome to the distinguished strangers whose presence confers additional interest to this meeting ; and secondly, to congratulate the town of Liverpool on the exertions it has made, worthily to receive an Association, which, aiming at the diffusion of a general taste for scientific investigations, and their application to the improvement of society, seems calculated to perform an important part in the future destinies of our country— which, as co-operating with all other scientific bodies, and the rival of none, but including in its lists representatives from each—-which, distin- guished by the freedom of its discussions, the liberality of its assistance, and the importance of its recommendations, has been happily charac- terized, by an eloquent secretary of a former year, as a Fourth Estate in the Realm, and may be aptly designated Her Masrsry’s Partta- MENT OF SCIENCE. it | COMMUNICATIONS. xii Communications to the General Evening Meetings. On Monday evening Professor Traill read his Address. On Wednesday evening Mr. W. Snow Harris delivered a Lecture, illustrated by experiments on a large scale, on the application of Lightning Conductors to Ships. : On Friday evening Reports were received from the Presi- dents of Sections of the communications which had been read during the week. On Saturday evening, besides the official business, the Pre- dent noticed the gift, by Dr. Manni, of Rome, of a Colossal Bust of Mzcenas, as a mark of respect for the objects of the British Association. This magnificent Bust was forwarded for presentation to Dr. Bryce, of Liverpool, who has given the following account of the circumstances which render this Bust interesting to the public :— “ Tt was long a cause of wonder and regret, that no gem, medal, or statue of a man so illustrious had ever been discovered. At length, the Duke of Orleans, Regent of France, early in the last century, by a happy conjecture, fixed on one of the gems in his collection, an ame- thyst of small size, marked with the name of the engraver, Dioscorides, as being the representation of the head of Mezcenas. Another gem, bearing the name of Solon, the engraver, evidently representing the same person, was afterwards found in the Farnesian Museum; and a third of the same, a sardonyx, also engraved by Solon, has since been discovered in the collection of the Prince Ludovisi. The features given in these gems agree so well with all that has been handed down in the Roman Classics concerning the personal appearance and habits of Mzcenas, that the suggestion of the Duke of Orleans has been adopted by all subsequent antiquaries. A few years after the recogni- tion of the head of Mzcenas on the gems of Dioscorides and Solon, both artists coeval with Augustus, an antique fresco painting was dis- ‘covered in the ruins of the palace of the Czsars on the Palatine Hill at Rome. This painting represents Augustus surrounded by his courtiers, conferring a crown on the Persian King Phraates, an event spoken of by Horace. In the front rank of the courtiers stands one, _ evidently the Prime Minister, in the act of speaking, whose features strongly resemble those on the gems of Mecenas above described. Next to him is Agrippa, who is readily recognized from medals, coins, and statues of him. Horace also is found in the group. A copy of _ this painting was bought by Dr. Mead, and brought to England by him; and an engraving of it may be seen in Turnbull’s Essay on Ancient Painting. “« This was the extent of antiquarian research and acquisition con- el xliv SEVENTH REPORT—1837. cerning Mzecenas during the last half century, when, in the spring of 1830, a Bust was found in an excavation made by Professor Manni, at Carsoli, the ancient Carsuli, about seventy miles from Rome, on the Flaminian Way. This place is situated in what is esteemed the most beautiful and romantic district of the Roman territory, being near the cascades of the Nera, at Terni, and midway between the towns of Terni, Todi, and Spoleto. “ The Bust was of colossal size, the same as that presented to the Association, of pure Parian marble, and perfect in every feature. On being cleared of its incrustation, the modelling of the work was seen to be of that masculine firmness which characterizes the style of the epoch of Augustus, excelling in what is called a broad manner—the execution that of a master—with the greatest severity and grandeur ; the emaciation by age of the individual represented being faithfully preserved. The striking resemblance of the Bust to the gems and picture of Mzcenas was at once recognized by the most eminent anti- quaries and learned men at Rome. “‘ It may be interesting to state, in further confirmation of the high value which has been set upon the Bust, in Italy, as also because the circumstance enhances the gift of Professor Manni, that it has been twice copied by Thorwaldsen. One copy was presented to the Grand Duke of Tuscany, and by him placed in the Hall of the Academy of Petrarch, at Arezzo, as being the presumed birth-place of Mzecenas ; the other to the King of Naples, who caused it to be deposited in the Borbonico Museum at Naples.” The following is an extract from the letter of Chevalier Manni, forwarded with the Bust to Dr. Bryce :— « The town of Liverpool shall possess a third copy in marble. You will exhibit it at the Meeting of the British Association, and express my very great regret, that I shall not be able to be present, as I was last year at Bristol. You will say, that the friendly civilities, received on that and on other occasions in your country, moved me to offer some tribute of my gratitude and of my respect; and to manifest these feelings, I am delighted to place in your hands this Bust of Mzcenas.” In conformity with the wish of Dr. Manni and a rule of the Association, which provides that gifts of this nature to Meetings of the Association shall be transferred to some sci- entific institution or public body at the place where the Meet- ing is held, the Bust of Mecenas will be placed in the Town- hall, in Liverpool. Sc ee on REPORTS. ON : THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Report on the Variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at different Points of the Earth's Surface. By Major Epwarp Sasine, R.A., F.R.S. [With Plates. ] Ir has been justly remarked by M. de Humboldt, “ that the phenomena of the earth’s magnetism, in its three forms of variation, dip, and intensity, have of late years been examined with great care, in the most different zones, by the united ef- forts of many travellers ; and that there is scarcely any branch of the physical knowledge of the earth in which, in so small a number of years; so much has been gained towards an ac- quaintance with its laws, though not perhaps with its causes.” (Ann. der Physik, vol. xv. p. 320.) Be it here remarked, that it is to the example and the writings of this illustrious philosopher that the accelerated pro- gress in this, as in so many other branches of physical science, is eminently due. His writings exhibit, in the most pleasing manner, the delightful, the never-failing interest which such pursuits afford, awaken thereby a taste for them in those who were previously unconscious of its existence, and stimulate its exercise in all. It is in this respect that M. de Humboldt has | been not only a great promoter of science, but a moral be- | nefactor to many; for it is the privilege of such pursuits that __ tedious hours are little known to the mind that engages in them, and the enjoyment which they yield is unimpaired by advancing ears*. : M. de Humboldt’s remark is particularly true in regard to the “Magnetic intensity. At the commencement of the present cen- * The surviving friends of the late Major Rennell have, in their recollection _ of that true philosopher, when engaged in his latter years in his important work on the currents of the Atlantic Ocean, a memorable example of this power of physical research, to preserve its interest vivid and unbroken amidst the infirmi- _ ties of declining years. VOL. vi. 1837. B 4 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. tury, the bare fact of there being any difference whatsoever in the intensity of the magnetic force in different parts of the earth was unattested by a single published observation. The maps attached to this memoir exhibit the progress which inves- tigation has made in the years that have since elapsed. They contain 753 distinct determinations, at 670 stations widely dis- tributed over the earth’s surface; leaving, it is true, much still to be desired ;—but in what has been accomplished, leading to conclusions so remarkable, in regard to the phenomena of magnetism, on the largest scale presented to us by nature, as to stimulate greatly to more extensive research. I have sought to embody in this report on the variations of the magnetic intensity, all the materials which have been ob- tained by the labours of observers of all nations, in all parts of the world ;—to present them in the form best fitted to add to our knowledge ;—and to call attention to the general conclu- sions, to which we are conducted by an attentive consideration of the facts of observation, when thus brought together in one view. A large portion of these determinations are here pub- lished for the first time. The observations of Capt. de Frey- cinet, Capt. King, Mr. Douglas, Capt. Fitz Roy, Capt. Ross, and Major Estcourt are wholly new, the original observations having been recently communicated to me by the respective observers, and calculated and arranged by me. Messrs. Hansteen and Due’s Siberian observations, and M. Erman’s in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, have been furnished to me by the liberality of those gentlemen, calculated as they appear here. Of the results previously published, the greater number are collected from different foreign works which have little cir- culation in this country; and some of these, as well as a part of my own observations published in this country several years ago, have required additional calculations, for the purpose of bringing them into the general comparison. I have divided the report into three sections ; the first, con- taining a condensed historical notice of each of the several series of observations, by which our knowledge of the magnetic in- tensity has been progressively advanced; the second, comprising the whole of the results, classed according to the values of the intensity, and arranged in a tabular form; and the third, con- taining asummary of the principal general conclusions in regard to the system of terrestrial magnetism, which are deducible from the facts thus collected. I have endeavoured to confine the historical notices in the first section within the narrowest limits compatible with the pri- mary object, that of including in each notice all the circum- f ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 3 stances required to be known in order to estimate rightly the value of the results. In the case of observations which are either wholly or partly new, these particulars are not to be found elsewhere; and in the case of those series, the published accounts of which are contained in foreign works rarely met with in this country, it has appeared desirable,—whilst giving every direction which may facilitate a reference to the original publication,—to make the account here given complete in all particulars essential to a just estimation of the value of the results, independently of such reference. The details neces- _ sary for this purpose may render this portion of the report i ap occasionally tedious to the general reader, who will be princi- pally interested by that section which contains the general con- clusions. Section I.—Historicat Notices. It is to France we owe the first rightly directed experimental inquiry on this subject. The instructions, drawn up by the members of the French Academy of Sciences for the expedition of La Perouse, contain a recommendation that the time of vibra- tion of a dipping needle should be observed at stations widely remote, as a test of the equality or difference of the magnetic intensity ; suggesting also with a sagacity anticipating the result, that such observations should particularly be made at those parts of the earth where the dip was greatest and where it was least. The experiments, whatever their results may have been, which in compliance with this recommendation were made in the ex- pedition of La Perouse, perished in its general catastrophe ; but the instructions survived, and bore fruit in the earliest re- corded observations of the variations of the magnetic intensity, which are those published by M. de Rossel in the second volume of the Voyage de Dentrecasteaux in search of La Perouse. Rossel, 1791—1794.—These observations, though made in the years above-mentioned, were not published until 1808. They were made with a needle vibrated in a dip circle of Le Noir, coming to rest disadvantageously soon for the purpose of experi- _ ments on the intensity. The needle continued in vibration little _ more than three minutes; consequently incidental errors would _ bear a very large proportion to the total time of vibration; a _ disadvantage which appears to have been in a great degree coun- _ teracted by the very great care bestowed on the observation. The needle was vibrated at Brest in 1791, before the voyage commenced ; and, successively, at Teneriffe; Van Diemen’s Land, B2 4 SEVENTH REPORT—1837- in May 1792; at Amboyna, in October of the same year; again at Van Diemen’s Land, in February 1793; and at Surabaya in Java, in 1794. With this last observation the published results terminate; there is no record of the vibrations having been re- peated on the return to France, for the purpose of testing the constancy of the magnetism of the needle, a step which subse- quent experience has shown to be most important. ‘The con- nexion of all the foreign stations with Europe is consequently imperfect; and the values of the intensity at those stations, re- latively to any standard value in Europe, could only be com- puted, subject to the uncertainty arising from the possibility of a change in the magnetic condition of the needle. The conclusion drawn by M. de Rossel, of the increase of the inten- sity in receding from the equatorial to the higher latitudes, was, however, fully borne out and substantiated, in regard to the southern hemisphere, by the observations at Van Diemen’s Land in 1792 and 1793, compared with the intermediate vibrations at Amboyna. These form a comparison complete in all respects, and to the certainty of which nothing is wanting. It is inde- pendent of any change the needle may have undergone before or afterwards ; the correspondence of the time of vibration at Van Diemen’s Land in May 1792 and February 1793, proving the needle to have been steady in that interval. ‘The increase in the intensity between Amboyna and Van Diemen’s Land was in the proportion of 1 to 1°67, a difference far too great to be attributed to any supposable errors or accidents of observation. It is this determination which unquestionably entitles Admiral de Rossel to the distinction which he has always enjoyed, of having been the first who ascertained that the magnetic inten- sity is different at different positions on the earth’s surface: al- though his observations were not published until after those of M. de Humboldt in 1798-1803, by which the same fact was more largely established. As M. de Rossel’s observations have not, I believe, been pub- lished in any English work, I have subjoined a table containing an abstract of all their essential particulars. ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 5 Station. Late. Lat.* Long.* Dip. Time of Vibration. rath SER 20 Sept., 1791) 4824 | 35534 | 7130N| 2-02 Teneriffe .........+2. 21 Oct, 1791 | 28 28 343 42 | 6225N.| 2:081 Van Diemen’s Land |11 May, 1792] 433828S.| 14657 | 7050S.| 1-869 Amboyna ......... --.| 9 Oct., 1792 | 3428.| 12808 | 20878.| 2-403 Van Diemen’s Land | 7 Feb., 1793 | 48348.) 14657 | 7222S.| 1-850 Surabaya ....eceeeee 9 May, 1794) 7148.) 11242 | 2520S.| 2-429 The times of vibration are in infinitely small ares, being reduced by M. de Rossel, by means of a table which accompanies the observations in the original publication. M. de Rossel’s observations at Van Diemen’s Land were made at a port on the S.E. part of the island. Capt. Fitz Roy has recently determined the value of the intensity at Hobart Town, about 40 miles north of M. de Rossel’s station, to be 1-817, in terms of a comparative scale in general use adopted in this Report, of which an explanation will be given in the sequel. Suffice it at present to say, that in the same scale the force at Paris = 1348, and at London 1°372. Capt. Fitz Roy’s observations will be found in their place in the course of this Report. If we take his value of the intensity at Hobart Town for the force at M. de Rossel’s station, we have 1:097 as the force at Amboyna. By means of Capt. Fitz Roy’s observation at Van Diemen’s Land, I have been thus enabled to connect M. de Rossel’s determination at Amboyna with Europe, and it is accordingly entered in the general table. Humboldt, 1798-1803.—These observations were made in the course of M. de Humboldt’s well-known journey to equi- noctial America. Various partial notices of them have appeared at different times and in different works, but a complete account, communicated by M. de Humboldt himself, may be found in the xvth volume of the Annalen der Physik, from which the results employed in this memoir are derived. The observations were made with a dipping needle of Le Noir, selected by M. Borda. It vibrated considerably longer before coming to rest than the needle employed by M. de Rossel, so as to allow the number of vibrations performed in ten minutes to be taken as the measure of the intensity at the different stations. The time of vibration at Paris was observed in October 1798. be- * All the longitudes in this Report are east of Greenwich, unless otherwise ‘expressed ; and all the latitudes are north unless they are designated otherwise. 6 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. fore M. de Humboldt’s departure ; but as the needle was left in Mexico, those observations could not be made on the return to Europe, by which its magnetic invariability might have been assured. ‘lhe circumstances are greatly to be regretted, what- ever they may have been, which deprived a suite of observa- tions so extensive, and on which so much care and labour had been bestowed, of a final confirmation, which can hardly be supplied in an equally satisfactory degree by any less direct _ evidence. Fortunately, indirect means are not altogether want- ing in this case, and we may infer from them that up to the beginning of 1800 M. de Humboldt’s needle had undergone no change; and that if subsequently to that date it lost magnet- ism, the alteration was not considerable. The observations in Paris were made in 1798. Between August 1799 and February 1800, M. de Humboldt made thirteen determinations of the intensity on the Spanish main, between the latitudes of 10° and 11°, and the longitudes of 292} and 2963. The mean of these is an intensity of 1:196. In 1822 the value of the intensity at Trinidad, in lat. 10° 39! and long. 2984, was determined, by observations made by myself (to be discussed hereafter), to be 1-204. The result of this comparison is extremely satisfac- tory; and being derived, on M. de Humboldt’s side, from obser- vations with one needle at several stations, and on mine from several needles at one station, a fair conclusion may be drawn, that in the beginning of 1800 his needle retained its magnet- ism unimpaired. In January, 1801, M. de Humboldt’s needle gave for the intensity at Havannah 1°359; mine, in 1822, 1-499. In this comparison the agreement is less perfect; there is a greater difference than is usual between the results of different observers at the same station ; and it is such as would be occa- sioned by a loss of magnetism in M.de Humboldt’s needle, but not to an amount that would impair in a material degree the value of his important series. Against any precise inference, however, to be drawn from these comparisons, there is, Ist, the difference of the dates_at which the respective intensities were determined ; 2nd, a small difference in longitude of the localities of the first comparison ; and 3rd, those circumstances of a local and instrumental nature which must affect every such comparison. In the account which M. de Humboldt has given of his ob- servations there is no mention made of corrections having been applied for the arcs of vibration or for the temperature of the needle; but in such an extensive series, corrections on these accounts are of minor importance. The number of Jand-stations at which the intensity was ob- a ee oe ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. ré served appears to have been 77, all of which are entered in the general table in this memoir. Besides the land-stations, there are 12 geographicai posi- tions, in which M. de Humboldt observed the vibrations of the needle on board ship. There are two great and obvious dis- advantages in such observations, compared with those on land, viz. the motion, and the iron, of the vessel. On the other side should be noticed, the space interposed between the instrument and the solid materials of the earth’s surface, many of which are known to exercise a very considerable disturbing influence on the needle. As opinions may, and I believe do, vary in re- gard to the degree of relative value to be allowed to observa- tions of intensity made at sea and on land, and as it is not a point on which, from personal experience, I fee] qualified to decide, I have placed the sea-observations in a separate table, and subjoin them here. Latitude. Longitude. Date. Intensity. ° 3s 62 | 34559 | 1799 | 1-315 37 26 | 345 49 | 1799 | 1-315 34 30 | 34526 | 1799 | 1-230 31 46 | 34517 | 1799 | 1-261 24 53 | 34123 | 1799 | 1-283 3028.) 279 54 | 1803 | 1-067 2129 | 33639 | 1799 126181 1956 19 54 | 33336 | 1799 | 1-251* 1415 | 31418 | 1799 1-285 | 1.050 13 02 | 30923 | 1799 | 1-230* 10 46 | 30127 | 1799 | 1-178" 11 01 | 297 30 | 1799 L261 } 1220 The results marked with an asterisk were observed on the passage across the Atlantic, between Teneriffe and Trinidad, a part of the ocean where no land exists, and where, consequently, the results obtained at sea furnish the only attainable evidence. On examination, they present differences among themselves considerably greater than is usual in land results ; but by com- bining them in pairs, as shown in the table, and using the mean latitude, longitude, and intensity of each pair, these partial dif- ferences greatly disappear. I have entered the mean latitude, eppinde. and intensity of these three pairs in the general table. Humboldt and Gay Lussac, 1805-1806.—These observations 8 . SEVENTH REPORT—1837. were made during a tour in France, Switzerland, Italy, and Germany, with a needle suspended by fibres of silk, vibrating in the plane of the horizon, and measuring the horizontal compo- nent of the magnetic intensity. The dip was observed at the same time with a dipping-needle of Lenoir (the same that had been used in the Voyage de Dentrecasteaux), supplying the means of computing the total intensity from its horizontal com- ponent. An account of these observations was published by M. Gay Lussac in the Ist volume of the Memoires de la Société d’ Arcueil, The values of the intensity were given in reference to the force at Paris, where the needle was vibrated at the close of the series, but not at its commencement. M. Gay Lussae infers that no change took place in the magnetism of the needle throughout the series, from its having had the same time of vi- bration at Milan on two occasions, viz. in going and in return- ing, at six months’ interval. As no dates are given, the stations at which the strict comparability of the force was thereby en- sured can only be conjectured. It is probable that no correc- tions were applied either for the arcs or for differences of tem- perature, as neither of these circumstances is noted in the record. The number of stations of known geographical po- sition is 19, 16 of which are inserted in the general table in this memoir. The other stations were in the crater, on the side, and at the foot of Vesuvius, where the results were considered by the observers to be affected, as no doubt they were, by the proximity of the lava. Sabine, 1818, 1819, 1820.—These observations were made in the first and second voyages of northern discovery to Baffin’s Bay and the Polar Sea. Aware of the magnetic importance of the regions to be explored, and anxious duly to improve such opportunities, I sought diligently to provide myself with instru- ments adequate to the occasion. Those furnished by Govern- ment were by no means so; but it fortunately happened that my brother-in-law Mr. Browne possessed and entrusted to me a dip circle and needle of very superior character, made by Nairne and Blunt, and similar in all respects to the one made under Mr. Cavendish’s directions, and described by him in the 66th vol. of the Phil. Trans. The needle vibrated about eight mi- nutes before coming to rest; and probably, from its age, had long acquired the state of steady magnetism which it was proved to possess during these voyages, its time of vibration being almost identical when observed in London in March, 1818, in March, 1819, and in December, 1820*. * The observations of March, 1819, and December, 1820, are recorded in ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 9 ~ The observations of the voyage of 1818 were published in the Phil. Trans. for 1819; those of the voyage of 1819-20, partly in the appendix to the narrative of that voyage, and partly in my work entitled Pendulum and other Experiments, published in 1825. In these publications the results were deduced without any corrections having been made for the arc of vibration or the temperature of the needle. On this oc- casion I have introduced both these corrections. That for the arc has been computed by means of the table published in the Voyage de Dentrecasteaux, which I find to reduce the vibrations in the different arcs so nearly to an equality as fully to justify its employment. The arcs themselves are stated in the printed record of the observations. ‘The temperatures on the different days of observation are taken from the record of the external thermometer in the Meteorological Journal, and the corrections » are computed by the usual formula for that purpose, in which the coefficient ‘0004 has been determined by experiments with the same needle in high and low temperatures. In the voyage of 1819-1820 I furnished myself, besides the dipping-needle, with three horizontal needles, and an apparatus for their vibration. ‘These would have been of great use had it been our good fortune to have returned to Europe by the way of the Pacific; but the method of deducing the total intensity by meansof horizontal needles almost ceases to be available in coun- __tries where the dip so nearly approaches 90°, and where small incidental errors in the determination of the dip will so greatly affect the conclusion as to the force. Accordingly, I have at no time brought the observations with the horizontal needles in this voyage in comparison with the results given by the dip- ping-needle. ‘There is, however, an incidental purpose of some value which they may serve, which did not occur to me when the record of the observations was printed, and which is worth noticing, as it may be useful on similar occasions, should there be such. The horizontal vibrations, though inappropriate in such circumstances to furnish the total intensities, give as cor- rect measures of the relative values of the horizontal component the Appendix of the second Polar Expedition. From the circumstance of the narrative and appendix of that voyage having been published at an interval of _ some months apart, the copy of the narrative which reached M. Hansteen was unaccompanied by the appendix, which it seems he has never seen. The abs- tract of the results, published in another work from whence he has taken them, refers to the full record of the observations in the appendix, and omits their dates, and Mr. Hansteen has consequently been at a loss to know whether the vibrations were observed both before and after the voyage of 1819—1820. By consulting the original account, he will see that this necessary care was not omitted, 10 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. of the force at any two stations, as the vibrations of the dipping- needle do of the total force. If, then, T is the time of hori- zontal vibration, and D the dip at a primary station, where the total force is taken as unity,—and if T’ and D! are the same quantities at another station, where I’ is the value of the total intensity derived by the vibrations of the dipping-needle,— cos D'! = T? .cos D i pa dip distinct from the ordinary method, and independent of the instrumental errors from which it is so difficult to clear the dipping-needle, especially one in which the poles are not re- versed in every observation. : Employing the observations at Melville Island, printed in the appendix to the account of that voyage, in this manner, we obtain the dip at Melville Island by the three horizontal needles as follows, viz. Needlebety:p0o% coc B8°4w Needle @ipa shies. A 88) 46 Needle Sivas hes | «88 48 The direct observation by the dipping-needle was 88° 43/°5. The following table exhibits the results of the observations of intensity in the two north polar voyages above noticed, cor- rected for temperature and arc, and expressed in terms of the general scale. ; and we thus get a determination of the Time of Vibration. Station Latitude. | Long. | Therm Gidea lta Intensity. ee London, 1818 ......... age ati 480 | 472-0 London, 1819 ....... me js 31 |359 52} 48 Fe 473°5 1:372 London, 1820 ......... 480 472°9 Shetland, 1818......... 60 09 |3858 48} 44 470 461°7 1-434 MONPECENcotessaniccstcee 68 22 |306 10} 34 440 432°1 1°643 Hare Island ............ 70 26 |305 08} 34 443 434°9 1:622 One sasscdecccessteenss 75 05 |299 37] 33 447°2 | 439-4 1-590 Ole Ce live cae stectocar sess 75 51 |296 54) 33 443°6 | 435°6 1-618 MCR settee sates 76 45 |284 00} 33 435°0 | 429-1 1°666 OM MCE ots conacevacess 76 08 |281 39} 33 436°0 | 430:0 1:659 Once sate tssc. ccf desk 70 35 {293 05) 33 436:0 | 429-7 1:661 On Ice, 1819.........00. 64 00 |298 10} 32 437°4 | 435°0 1:621 Possession Bay .......+. 73 31 |282 38] 40 439°5 |432°9 | 1-637 Regent’s Inlet ......... 72 45 |270 19} 32 439°0 |428:9 | 1-668 Byam Martin’s Island.| 75 10 |256 16] 32 442°5 |430°'7 | 1:653 Melville Island ......... 74 27 |248 18} 20 444°3 | 434°6 1:624 Winter Harbour ...... 74 47 |249 12) 43 446°2 |4382°6 | 1-638 Hansteen, 1819-1825.—In 1819 M. Hansteen, having com- x > z & ae ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 11 pleted and published his elaborate exposition of the theory of the earth’s magnetism, to which he had been conducted by the study of the phenomena of the variation and dip as far as they were then known, entered into the field of experimental re- search, in which he has since rendered such important practical services to his favourite science. His exceedingly portable ap- paratus for determining the intensity by horizontal needles is too well known to need description here; and his good fortune in possessing a needle of remarkably steady magnetism, supplied by Mr. Dollond, renders little more necessary to be said in re- gard to his determinations, than to refer to the publications in which they may be found, and to enter them in the general table. From 1819 to 1824 his observations were confined to Norway and the shores of the Baltic, and were published in the iiird vol. of the Ann. der Physik, the intensity stations being 37. In 1825 he extended them round the shores of the Gulf of Bothnia; and the determinations of that year, being 30 in number, were published, first, in the ixth vol. of the Ann. der Physik, and, secondly, with corrections, in the Astro. Nach., No. 146. Lirichsen, 1824; Keilhau and Boeck, 1825-1827; Erman, 1826.—I have classed these observations together, because they were all made, I believe, at the instance and with the ap- paratus of M. Hansteen, and were communicated to the public through him in the Astro. Nach., No. 146. Captain Erichsen’s consist of 3 stations on the shores of the Baltic, and in Ger- many; Messrs. Keilhau and Boeck’s of 9 stations in Germany ; and M. Erman’s of 2 stations in Germany. They were all connected with Paris through Christiania, and are entered in the general table. Sabine, 1822-1823.—These observations were made during two voyages, in which I was furnished by the British Govern- ment with a vessel for my conveyance to stations’ at remote latitudes from each other, for the purpose of determining the _ amount of the ellipticity of the earth by means of the pendu- lum. The first voyage was to the equatorial shores of the Afri- - - ean and American continents, and the second to the north of _ Europe, Greenland, and Spitzbergen. For these voyages I sup- _ plied myself with as many as six horizontal needles, in anti- _ cipation that some amongst them might prove unsteady in their _ magnetism. The observations with all the needles, and at all _the stations visited, were published in 1825, with the account of the pendulum experiments. One of the needles, No. 2, lost so much of its magnetism.in jg SEVENTH REPORT—1837. the first voyage that it was not used in the second. Another, No. 1, appears to have been subject to fluctuations in its magnetic condition, rather than to have undergone permanent or uniform gain or loss. M. Hansteen, who has discussed these observations at some length in the ixth volume of the Annalen der Physik, has rejected the results with these two needles whenever they differed considerably from those of the other four; but has retained and allowed weight in the general mean to such of their results as appeared to agree with the other needles. Nos. 3, 4, 5, and 6 showed .on their return to England small and comparatively unim- portant differences from their times of vibration previous to their departure. M. Hansteen has applied corrections on this account to the intervening observations, according to their dates. One of my stations having been Drontheim in Norway, which was visited by M. Hansteen himself for the same purpose in 1825, two years after I had been there, it became a station common to our respective series ; and he was thereby enabled to compute the values of the intensity at all the stations visited by me, relatively to the force at Drontheim, which he had already compared with Paris by observations at Drontheim and Christiania, and at Christiania and Paris. The values so computed and published by M. Hansteen in the volume of the Ann, der Physik referred to, are here subjoined, for the pur- pose of exhibiting them in comparison with my own deduc- tions. The latter are made from the observations with Nos. 3, 4, 5, and 6 alone, those of Nos. 1 and 2 being put wholly aside. The times of vibration of each needle at the different stations, as originally published in 1825, have received three corrections: one, when necessary, for change of magnetism, assigned on the principle of uniform gain or loss; a second, to diminish the observed times of vibration to the correspond- ing times in infinitely small arcs; and a third for reduction to a standard temperature of the needle, the coefficients for the formula having been determined experimentally for each needle. The values of the intensity in my deductions are given relatively to the force in Paris, by my own comparison of the force in London and in Paris, which will be noticed hereafter. There are, therefore, several particulars in which M. Han- steen’s mode of deduction and mine differ; but it is interesting to perceive how nearly the results agree. The values calculated by M. Hansteen are almost everywhere slightly in defect of those computed by me. ‘This arises from the force at Drontheim be- ing somewhat less by M. Hansteen’s observations than by mine; and as he has compared the intensity at all my stations with that. ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 18 at Paris through the observations at Drontheim, the original difference between us at Drontheim pervades the whole series. Place. Hansteen. | Sabine. Place, Hansteen. | Sabine. PIRATE eke. 0°894 |0°898 || Madeira ......... 1382 |1:373 Ascension ...... 0:900 |0:920 || Jamaica ......... 1-414 | 1:486 St. Thomas ...... 0-921 |0-931 || Drontheim ...... 1-430 | 1-442 Maranham ...... 1:006 |1:016 || Grand Cayman. | 1-480 | 1-454 Sierra Leone ... | 1:°048 | 1-053 || Havanna..... wee. | 1°493 | 1499 Gambia River... | 1:129 |1:141 || Hammerfest ... | 1-493 | 1-506 Port Praya ...... 1-184 |1:193 || Greenland ...... 1:512 | 1:5380 SEPIA. asec. 1183 | 1:204 || Spitzbergen...... 1531 | 1:562 Teneriffe ......... 1-300 |1°313 || New York ...... 1:794 | 18038 In the deductions contained in this table (both in M. Hans- teen’s and mine) the dips employed are those which M. Hans- teen has calculated from my published observations. The differ occasionally a minute or two from my calculated results, but in no instance does the difference amount to 3’. Liitke, 1826-1829.—These observations were made by Captain (since Admiral) Liitke, of the Russian Imperial Navy, in a voyage of circumnavigation in H.I.M. ship Siniavin. At the request of Capt. Liitke, M. Lenz, of the Imperial Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg, undertook to arrange them for publication, and they have since been published in the German language in the Memoirs of the Imp. Acad. of Sciences for 1835. I was indebted to the friendship of Capt. Liitke for an early knowledge of these observations, having received a copy of them in a letter from Norfolk Sound in July 1827; but the present hotice, as well as the results entered in the table, are taken from the published account. M. Lenz’s memoir is divided into two sections,—on the ob- servations of Dip,—and on those of Intensity. Our present purpose is with the latter section. -_ The observations of intensity were made with one dipping and five horizontal needles. The dipping-needle was 33 inches in length, with a steel axle, and was reserved exclusively for mea- _ suring the intensity by its vibrations, as there were two other _ dipping-needles for observations of the dip. The horizontal _ needles were of various shapes, cylindrical, rhomboidal, and elliptical, but all of the same length, i.e. two English inches. They were obtained in England when the Siniavin was on her outward passage. The apparatus in which they were to have Be ce en i? 14 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. been used was unfortunately broken in pieces in the carriage from London to Portsmouth by mail. It had been Capt. Liitke’s intention to have vibrated the needles at Portsmouth before his departure, and again at the same spot on his return from the Pacific; so that all the observations of his voyage with each needle might have been comparable with its rate at Portsmouth. The accident which prevented the execution of this purpose, and rendered the series of observations much less complete than it would otherwise have been, is much complained of both by Capt. Liitke and M. Lenz. In consequence of this accident, it was not until the arrival of the Siniavin at Kamtschatka that the needles could be vibrated at a station to which they were subsequently brought back ; and out of 52 stations, there are only 18 which were observed at during an interval in which anything is known by observation of the steadiness of the mag- netism of the needles. They were vibrated at three different dates at the harbour of St. Peter and St. Paul, viz.on Septem- ber 30, 1827, June 6, 1828,and October 9, 1828. Their changes of rate in the intervals were small, but not proportionate. Corrections are computed and applied at all the intermediate stations in the usual manner. M. Lenz has employed the rate of change of each needle, deduced from the first and second times of vibration at St. Peter and St. Paul, to furnish correc- tions for the stations observed at antecedently to Capt. Liitke’s first arrival at Kamtschatka; of these the land stations are Rio de Janeiro, Concepcion, Valparaiso, Sitka and Unalaska. For a single station (Manilla) observed at subsequently to the final departure from Kamtschatka, M. Lenz has used the rate of correction deduced from the second and third times of vibra- tion there. The times of vibration were derived on all occasions from the mean of 250 consecutive vibrations, commencing with an arc of 30° and ending usually about 10°. M. Lenz has not consi- dered it necessary to apply a correction for the ares. The value of the correction to a mean temperature was determined for each needle by observations made at St. Petersburg at the con- clusion of the voyage. For four of the five needles the correc- tion was as usual additive to the time for temperatures below the standard, and subtractive for those above it; but one needle, rhomboidal in shape, exhibited the anomaly of a de- crease of force in the colder temperatures, fully as great as the increase shown by any of the others. The observations appear to have been very carefully made,—were repeated four times,— and include a difference of temperature of 20° Reaumur. A similar anomaly has been noticed, if I remember rightly, by M. a ee ee Pe e Ago ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 15 Kupffer, as having occurred in his experience, and I have my- self met with an instance of the same kind. M. Lenz has em- . ployed no correction for this needle; and the vibrations of the vertical needle appear also to have been uncorrected for tem- perature. The harbour of St. Peter and St. Paul is the fundamental station of Capt. Liitke’s determinations. ‘The value of the in- tensity there, 1-447 to 1°348 at Paris, is stated by M. Lenz to be taken on the authority of M. Hansteen. Capt. Liitke used both his dip and intensity needles at sea in favourable weather, placing the instruments on a board sus- pended in gimbals above the companion. His sea observations appear to be viewed by M. Lenz as not entitled to equal weight with those at the land stations, but as valuable additions. Of. 51 intensity results, 16 are at land stations, and are entered in the general table; and I subjoin, as in the case of M. de Hum- boldt’s, a separate table of the 35 results obtained at sea. Lat. Long. Date. Intensity. Lat. Long. Date. Intensity. Souru. 1827. NorTH. 1827. / 29 10 | 313 35 |16 Jan. | (a) 0-924*|| 0 35 | 232 56 | 8 May | (2) 1.013 40 55 | 307 0 |25Jan. | (a)1-110 || 2 24 | 232 08 | 9 May | (0) 1-019* 49 18 | 302 48 |31 Jan. | (a) 1:268 || 13 13 | 227 0/19 May | (8) 1-112* 53 16 | 301 37| 3 Feb. | (6) 1:320*|| 23 26 | 218 02 | 25 May | (6) 1-212* 55 25 | 298 27| 8 Feb. | (b) 1:413 || 25 21 | 213 56 | 30 May | (2) 1:376* 4100 | 282 30 | 1 March] (6) 1:324 || 40 28 | 213 35] 1 June | (0) 1-456 29 38 | 278 26 |11 April | (c) 1°153*|| 44 54 | 214 50| 3 June | (d) 1:573* 21 51 | 268 05 |18 April | (c) 1°046*|| 48 44 | 216 37| 6 June | (d) 1-653 13 09 | 251 20 |27 April | (c) 1:014 |] 52 29 | 219 08.| 9 June | (b) 1-662* 9 38 | 243 25 |30 April | (c) 1°141*|| 45 27 | 159 02 | 23 Oct. | (b) 1-303 6 01 | 240 08 | 2 May | (4) 1:005*|| 39 07 | 159 03 | 26 Oct. | (4) 1-186 420 | 238 13 | 3 May | () 0-998 || 32 59 | 161 49| 1 Nov. | (d) 1-113* 229 | 236 26 | 4 May | (a) 1:000*|| 18 44 | 163 55 | 13 Nov. | (8) 0-989 202 | 236 04| 4 May | (»)0-996*|| 11 27 | 161 52 |18 Nov. | (5) 0-970 115 | 225 30] 5 May | (c)0-989*|| 417 | 162 54 |23 Dec. | (a) 1-001 110 | 234 31 | 6 May | (8) 0-995*|| 347 | 162 59 |23 Dec. | (a) 1-010 0 56 | 233 17 | 7 May | (c) 0:990*| 2 56 | 162 50 |24 Dec. | (a) 1-018 > on o _ or Co So bo -~T os -} = (a) 0 990 __ The results with an asterisk are so marked in M. Lenz’s memoir to signify observations made under less favourable circumstances than the others. The sixteen which are not so marked are entered in the general table. (a) designates results obtained by means of the horizontal needles; (6) those b > ia of the dipping-needle ; and (c) results which are a mean of both me- thods. King, 1826-1830.—These observations were made during 16 SEVENTH REPORT—-1837. a survey of the coast of South America from Rio de Janeiro to Valparaiso, carried on under the orders of the British Govern- ment by Capt. Philip Parker King of the Royal Navy. They were undertaken at the request of M. Hansteen, and with an apparatus for horizontal vibration with which Capt. King was furnished by him. A copy of the observations was transmitted from time to time, as they were made, to M. Hansteen, who em- ployed the results, computed provisionally, in his map of the intensity, published in the Annalen der Physik, vol. xxviii. The observations themselves have not yet been published, having been given by Capt. King to his successor in the survey, Capt. Fitz Roy, to be published when the latter should return to England. On his return, which took place late in 1836, Capt. Fitz Roy placed Capt. King’s magnetic observations in my hands (together with his own, of which a separate notice will be given in the sequel,) to calculate and arrange for publication in an account which he is now preparing for the press, of the ~ proceedings of Capt. King and himself during the survey. Meantime I have Capt. Fitz Roy’s permission to introduce Capt. King’s results into this memoir. The needle with which M. Hansteen supplied Capt. King sus- tained a very considerable loss of magnetism during the four years it was employed by that officer. Its time of vibration in- creased between March 22, 1826, and January 24, 1831, (on which days it was tried in the garden of the Royal Observatory at Greenwich,) from 734°5 seconds in 1826, to 775°8 seconds in 1831. A change of such magnitude in the magnetic intensity of the instrument employed to measure the variations of the terrestrial intensity, and which ought itself, therefore, to be in- variable, would, in ordinary circumstances, have prevented any satisfactory conclusion whatsoever being drawn from the obser- vations. Fortunately, from the nature of the duties in which Capt. King was engaged, he had occasion to return frequently to the same anchorages; and as he was extremely careful to re-examine the needle on every such return, we have the means of knowing by direct observation the amount of the loss it sustained in certain portions of the time of its employment. There are eleven stations at which the force was observed on the east and west coasts of South America, and two in ports of the Atlantic on the outward voyage. By the practice re- ferred to, of repeating observations at the same station at di- stant intervals, the South American stations are so linked toge- ther and connected, that by adopting a method similar to that used in determining chronometrical differences of longitude, we may compute and assign the intensity at each, in reference to ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 17 one selected, and regarded in the same light as a first meri- dian. In justice to these valuable observations, and in consi- deration of the great change undergone by the needle, it may be desirable briefly to describe the manner in which this has been done. At Rio de Janeiro, which was the first station observed at in South America, the needle was vibrated in August 1826, Sep- tember 1827, and December 1828; in the intervals between these dates are comprised the principal part of the observations on the east side of South America. There is no direct obser- vation at Rio subsequently to December 1828, but we are able to supply the time of vibration at a fourth date in the following manner. The intensity at Rio and at Monte Video having been correctly compared by a double comparison in 1827 and 1828, the needle was vibrated at Monte Video on the Ist of June, 1830, immediately before Capt. King’s departure for England, and we thus obtain by an easy calculation the time of vibration at Rio corresponding to the same date. The intervals between these four dates include the whole of the South American sta- tions ; and we have only to distribute in each interval the loss of magnetism which the observations show to have taken place from one date to the next, in the manner which may appear most suitable. There is no very obvious indication that, the, loss was other than gradual; and by considering it uniform in each separate interval, the results are found extremely ac- cordant at several other stations at which observations were re- peated at distant intervals. The subjoined tables will enable the reader to judge of this for himself. In the first table are shown the times of vibration at Rio, corresponding to the four dates: Ist, the observed times of horizontal vibration reduced to infinitely small arcs and to a temperature of 60°; and 2nd, the corresponding times as a dipping-needle. The value of the correction for temperature has been determined for this needle by observations which I have recently made with it for that purpose, the particulars of which will be given in the more detailed statement in Capt. Fitz Roy’s publication. In the three last columns are shown,—the number of days com- prised in each interval,—the increase in the time of vibration owing to loss of magnetism in the needle,—and the resulting daily correction on the supposition of the loss in each interval being uniform. _The second table contains the corrected times of horizontal vibration at each of the South American stations at the dates respectively inserted ;—the dips observed by Capt. King ;—the time of vibration as a dipping-needle at Rio at the same dates, VOL. VI. 1837. Cc 18 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. derived from the observations in the first table ;—and the result- ing intensity at the station relatively to Rio. The contents of the tables thus far are the results of Capt. King’s observations, unmixed with those of any other observer. We have now to express his results in terms of the general scale of compari- son, and this is done in the final column, by taking the value of the intensity at Rio at 0°884, which is the mean of four inde- pendent determinations by the following observers, viz. : 1817 and 1820 Freycinet . . . 0°890 1827... 6s. Litke seis 0°886 TE6B0 6 cs Erman .... 0:879 1836 oa a Fitz Roy ... 0°878 I have included in table II. Madeira and Port Praya, at which Capt. King observed in his outward passage. The dates of these fall between the observations at Greenwich in March, 1826, (corrected time = 734-0 and dip 69° 52',) and those at Rio in August, 1826. Having the intensity at Greenwich = 1°372 and at Rio = 0°884, we have the time of vibration as a dipping-needle at Rio at the respective dates as follows: March, 1826 ...... 536°2 August, 1826 ..... 537-0 It appears, therefore, that only a very slight change took _place in the magnetism of the needle during the outward voy- age, and we may take 536°6 as the time of vibration at Rio, corresponding to the dates of the observations at Madeira and Port Praya. I have assumed the dip and force at Greenwich to be the same as at London. The dip at Madeira was not ob- served by Capt. King, but has been supplied from my own ob- servations in 1822, which were made in the same locality, namely, the Consul’s garden in Funchal, where Capt. King’s needle was vibrated. I have deducted 12' from my determina- tion of the dip at Madeira for the probable change between 1822 and 1826. Taste I. Time of Vibration. Rio de Janeiro 3 ; 7 is Int 1, Loss. Per diem, wg Bg i Horizontal. As pe care rn brs Ss. s. Days. Ss. August 29, 1826...| 545°2 537°0 i 382 | 65 017 September 15, 1827 5518 543°5 } 462 | 92 020 December 21, 1828 561-1 552-7 i 507 | 27 005 June 1, 1830 ...... 5638 555-4 ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. TaBueE II. 19 Station, Date. Madeira............ 1826, May 31............ Port Praya ...... 1826, June 22 & 24...... St. Catherine...... 1827, Nov. 3 .......c000 Gorriti ...........,{1826, Oct. 29 & Nov. 6 Se ots vax backs 1829, Jan. 10 | Monte Video...... 1827, Dec. 18 Beare? anise. ca skseces 1828, Oct. 8 ... Time of hori- zontal vibra- tion. Observed dip. ..|576-37| 53 13°5 584-29) 59 43°8 598-97 eee ceceessccess ..| 555°59) 45 10-0 anne eer eccccees 1830, June 1 Sea-bear Bay ...|1829, March 20 St. Martin’s Covel1827, Jan. 15 & 22...... $d ceceseceeenes 1827, March 27 ......... Port Famine...... 1828, Jan. 28 .......0.065 $= derevcceseeeees 1828, May 8 ............ ia cesansorces 1828, June 18 & July 20 hence ce eceeeee 1830, April 26 ......... Chiloe ....... .....{1829, Sept. 1 & Dec. 15 Juan Fernandez .|1830, Feb. 19............ Talcuhuano ...... 1829, Dec. 28... BER Soteee 1830, May 12............ Valparaiso......... 1829, Aug. 4 ..........0. Es de swessvevecces 1830, Jan.11 & Feb. 1. 565-23) 49 52-6 551-83) 44 49-8 557:18 5516 Coe eeeeeraseces at Rio. Time asa dipping needle Intensity, Rio | Rio. =1°000. | =0°884. 1556 | 1:377 1330 |1:177 1:045 | 0-920 1:172 j 1 ot oe } 1:065 1538 | 1-361 1-691 i ie aR 1-498 1-712 1-683 FY 5 1-694 1-505 1-712 1-402 | 1321 1-425 | 1-262 1-413 A i hav 1-250 1-334 aa 13 at 1176 Sabine, 1827.—These observations were made for the pur- pose of determining the ratio of the intensity in Paris and London, in order to connect and unite in one system, the re- sults of the different observers who had made Paris and Lon- don respectively the base stations of their series. All values of the intensity hitherto determined are relative values ; that is to say, each observer has taken some one sta- tion as the fundamental one of his series, and has expressed the values of the intensity at all his other stations, compara- tively with the force at his fundamental station. Unless, there- fore, two such series have one station common to both, or un- less the force at their respective fundamental stations has been otherwise compared, they do not form parts of one system, and the results of the one series cannot be bro _ nexion with those of the other. ught into con- _ The continental observers in general have taken Paris, either _ mediately or immediately, as their fundamental station ; and the _ English observers have as generally taken London ; the present _ observations were designed, therefore, as a link to connect their _ Tespective series into one system. Cc 2 20 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Six horizontal needles were employed for this purpose, and a number of observations were made with them at different dates at both places; the details are published in the Phil. Trans. for 1827. From these it appears that, if the horizontal intensity in London be designated as unity, the several needles gave its value in Paris as follows, viz. : Needle IV. = 1-0732 Needle XI. = 1:0723 4 VIII. = 1:0675 Al oreo » =X. = 10726 of Bos 1 Onis Mean 1:0714. The observations were corrected for a small excess of tem- perature in the experiments at Paris over those in London, being, I believe, the first time in which a correction for dif- ference of temperature was introduced into any published re- sults of the variations of intensity at different stations. The places of observation were the magnetic cabinet of M. Arago at Paris, and the garden of the Horticultural Society at Chiswick, near London. In order to deduce the relative values of the total intensity from their observed horizontal components, we require the dip at the two stations as accurately as it can be inferred from nearly cotemporaneous observations. In August, 1828, the dip in the garden at Chiswick was observed by Mr. Douglas and myself, 69° 46°9. Phil. Trans., 1829. Ina paper of M. Han- steen’s, in the dnnalen der Physik, vol. xxi. p. 414, we find recorded the following observations at Paris, a part of which fall on either side of the London observation of August, 1828, Viz. : : PROS Arne WY) obs Se ETO 68 00 1826 Humboldt and Mathieu YP OGT gore 1827 Humboldt and Mathieu .. 67 58:0 Daa ragorts she Pee . 67 41:3 The months in which the observations were made are not named by M. Hansteen, but M. de Humboldt in a paper in the xvth vol. of the dann. der Physik mentions that those of 1825 and 1826 were made in August and September, and I have taken those of 1827 and 1828 as corresponding to the same months. Allowing then an annual decrease of dip of 28 (dun. der Physik, vol. xxi. p. 419) we obtain the dip in Paris in Au- _ gust, 1828, as follows: Sei Uo Fal YOY Ae ea ie 67 51°6 1826 Humboldt and Mathieu 67 50:9 1827 Humboldt and Mathieu 67 55:2 PSdO rapa eee ee es 67 46°9 67 51-15 I have therefore taken 67° 51':2 as the most satisfactory co- — tnt Rear s ay ta aeolian alata ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 21° temporaneous result that I can obtain for Paris, all the obser- vations being made in M. Arago’s magnetic cabinet. It appears therefore, that about the period in question, the dip in London exceeded that in Paris by 115'"7; preserving this difference in - the dips at the two stations when reduced to the period of the horizontal observations in 1827, and combining them with the observed horizontal intensities, we obtain 1°018 as the value of the total force in London to unity in Paris. Such being the case, if any other number than unity be taken for the measure of the force in Paris, the correspond- ing value in London will be the product of that number multi- plied by 1:018. By the observations of M. de Humboldt al- ready described, the intensity at Paris to that of a place in Peru, where the needle had no dip, was found to be as 1°3482 to 1000. As at that period it was supposed that an equal in- tensity, being the minimum on the surface of the globe, pre- vailed at all places where the needle had no dip, the station at which M. de Humboldt had observed in Peru appeared the proper unity of the system of intensities. Subsequent ex- perience, however, has shown that the intensity lines follow a very different course from the dip lines; and in retaining the expression of unity for the force observed by M. de Humboldt in Peru, we are necessitated to employ terms less than unity to express the force in many other of the inter-tropical parts of the globe, and even in one quarter beyond the tropic. The scale is therefore purely arbitrary; but it is in general. use, and will probably continue to be employed till experiments (perhaps those of M. Gauss) shall have determined an abso- lute value for the magnetic intensity at some one station; when all the relative intensities may be converted into the corre- sponding absolute intensities. Suchis the origin of the num- ber 1°3482 employed by observers generally as expressing the force at Paris. In assuming a constant expression for the force at any station on the globe for any considerable number of years, we are of course subject to error resulting from the secular change in the intensity ; of the amount of which we have as yet no definite knowledge. The force in London relatively to the above value of the force at Paris is 1:3482 x 1:018 = 1°372. In the spring of 1828 two of the needles used in this com- parison were interchanged between M. Hansteen and myself, for the purpose of determining in a similar manner the ratio of the horizontal intensity at London and Christiania. The observations are detailed in the Journal of the Royal Institu- 22 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. tion for 1830, p. 29. They gave the following results for the horizontal intensity at Christiania to unity in London: Needle IV Comparison in March . . 0°9124 ‘Comparison in May ... 0°9157 VIII Comparison in March .. 0°9157 ‘Comparison in May... 0°9160 33 Mean... 09147 We have seen that the observations in Paris and London gave |:0714 for the horizontal intensity at Paris, also to unity in London; consequently Christiania to Paris is as 09147 to 10714, or as 0°8537 to 1. _In the spring of 1828 M. Hansteen observed the dip at Christiania 72° 16'2; at Paris at the same time, or about four months before August 1828, we may con- sider it to have been 67° 525. The total intensity at Christi- ania derived from this comparison is therefore 1:425, The result of a direct comparison between Paris and Christiania made by M. Hansteen in 1825 is 1°419. All the values of the intensity inserted in this memoir were originally observed in reference to one of these three stations, Paris, Christiania, or London, mediately or immediately, They have been united by means of the comparisons above noticed, viz., those of Paris and London, and of Paris and Christiania ; and they now form one connected series. Keilhau, 1827.—These observations were made in a voyage to Finmarken and Spitzbergen, in which M. Keilhau was fur- nished with an horizontal apparatus of M. Hansteen’s, and a 5-inch dip circle and two needles made by Dollond. The observations were communicated to M. Hansteen, and the re- sults were published by him in the xivth vol. of the Annalen der Physik, from whence I have taken them. There may be remarked in these resuits greater differences of intensity between stations near to each other than are usually met with. From the geological character of the coun- tries, it is probable that a portion of these may be due to local circumstances; but it is also probable that a considerable por- tion of them may be attributed to the inadequacy of the dip- ping-needle with which M: Keilhau*was furnished, to give re- sults sufficiently exact for the computation of intensities, ina part of the globe where a small error in the dip will occasion a very considerable one in the deduced intensity. His two dipping-needles frequently gave results at the same station ~ differing from twenty to thirty minutes from each other. There are 20 stations determined by M. Keilhau in Norway, ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 23 Finmarken, and Spitzbergen, all which are inserted in the ge- neral table. Hansteen and Due, Erman, 1828-1830.—In 1819 M. Hans- teen published his celebrated work on the magnetism of the earth, in which he brought into one view a larger body of observations of the dip and variation than had been brought together by any previous philosopher ; and by subjecting them to a close examination, drew this remarkable inference in re- gard to the intensity; namely, that a centre, or pole as it might be termed, of magnetic intensity must exist in the north of Siberia, less powerful, but otherwise similar to the one in the north of America; and that the lines of equal intensity would be found to arrange themselves around the Siberian centre in the same way as around the centre of greater force in America. At the time M. Hansteen drew this inference not a single observation of the intensity had been made nearer to Siberia than Berlin on the one side and Mexico on the other. M. Hansteen’s work, much more read on the Continent than in England, produced a very general desire that an inference so remarkable, and so important if confirmed, should be sub- mitted to the test of experiment, This, however, exceeded in- dividual means to accomplish; it was one of those underta- kings in science for which national aid is required. To the honour of Norway, the funds for this undertaking were fur- nished by a unanimous vote of the Norwegian Storthing or Parliament. In 1828 M. Hansteen, accompanied by Lieut. Due, proceeded at his country’s expense, and with every faci- lity which could be afforded him by the Russian Government, on a journey expressly for magnetic observations through the Russian dominions in the north of Europe and Asia, They were provided with a dip circle and two needles of Gambey’s, and with M. Hansteen’s apparatus for horizontal vibrations. At St. Petersburg they were joined by M. Erman of Berlin, proceeding on a similar mission to the same countries, and similarly furnished with magnetic instruments. The three gentlemen travelled together to Siberia, MM. Hansteen and _ Due on the one part, and M. Erman on the other, making the same observations everywhere, but independently of each other. They wintered at Irkutsk ; and the following year MM. Hans- teen and Due returned to St. Petersburg by land route, and M. Erman proceeded by Ochozk to Kamtschatka, where he embarked for Europe. The maps attached to this memoir mark by the observations entered on them their various jour- neys, separately and together, in northern Asia. Suffice it 24 . SEVENTH REPORT—1837. here to say, that, they traversed the whole of the north of Europe and of Asia longitudinally, and descended the rivers Oby and Jenesei to the polar circle, with a view of determining the latitude and longitude of the Siberian pole or centre of magnetic intensity; and that its general phenomena were found to correspond in a very remarkable degree with M. Hansteen’s anticipations, its locality being removed but a few degrees (about 6°) to the eastward of the position he had pre- viously assigned to it. Soon after M. Hansteen’s return, he published a general map of the magnetic intensity, in the xxvilith vol. of the An- nalen der Physik. Y am not aware that he has as yet pub- lished any detailed statement of the results of his journey. The stations inserted in the table in this memoir are from a MS. co of his and Lieut. Due’s observations, which, with the liberality that has hitherto characterised the labours of those engaged in this interesting inquiry, and which I trust may long continue to do so, he sent me from Irkutsk in 1829, with permission to make “‘ every use of it that I might think proper, especially when it can encourage to new undertakings, and accordingly forward the science.” M. Hansteen’s determinations of intensity have a very great advantage in the perfect invariability of the needle he em- ployed. For sixteen years in which it was in constant use no sensible alteration took place in its magnetism. This is an ad- vantage which only those can duly appreciate who have been much engaged in making or in computing observations of this nature. The correction for temperature also, which he deter- mined experimentally in the usual manner, has received the fullest practical confirmation, by the exact agreement, when corrected by it, of observations at the same place in tempera- tures differing nearly 90° of Fahrenheit. M. Erman’s intensity observations are not yet published ; they are to form a part of the second volume of the scientific portion of his journey, the first volume of which was published at Berlin in 1835. He has, however, communicated their re- sults, provisionally computed, with corrections applied for tem- perature and arc, in the xviith vol. of the Annalen der Physik, from whence I have extracted them. The number of stations entered in the table are, 80 observed by MM. Hansteen and Due, and 98 by M. Erman.. These are all in the north of Europe and Asia, and 46 are common to M. Erman and MM. Hansteen and Due. There are besides four land determinations of M. Erman’s on his homeward voy- age, viz., Sitka, St. Francisco in California, Otaheite, and Rio ee eke ee ee ad er Hi Ly ; ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 25 de Janeiro. He made also a very extensive series of intensity observations on board ship in his passage from Kamtschatka to Europe. Of these he has not yet communicated the nume- rical results. He observed the vibrations of a dipping-needle placed on an apparatus contrived to guard against the ship’s motion, which is understood to have been very successful*. Kupffer, 1829.—These observations were made in a scien- tific journey to the Caucasus, undertaken by the order of the Emperor of Russia. M. Kupffer was furnished with two - horizontal needles, one of which he received from M. Hans- teen, and the other from myself through M. de Humboldt. He employed them, between May and August, 1829, at St. Petersburg, Moscow, Stavropol, two stations in the Caucasus, Taganrog, and Nicolaieff; and on his return to St. Petersburg, presented to the Imperial Academy of Sciences a report on the general results of his journey, in which the times of vibration of the needles are specified, together with the tem- peratures and the observed dips; but the conclusions, in regard to the relative intensity at the different stations, were deferred, until the corrections for temperature for the two needles could be experimentally investigated. I am indebted _to M. Kupffer for a printed copy of this report, and I have * Since this report passed from my hands into those of the Assistant-general Secretary, I have been favoured by M. Erman with a complete copy of his ob- servations, including those made at sea. On hearing from M. de Humboldt that I was engaged in drawing up this report, M. Erman, with great liberality and most obligingly, sent me a copy in manuscript of the whole of his results provisionally computed. I have thus been enabled to add five or six stations between Ochozk and the harbour of St. Peter and St. Paul with which I was previously unacquainted, and 167 observations made on his voyage from Kamt- schatka to Europe. I consider these last observations particularly valuable, in the evidence they afford, that determinations of the intensity can be made at sea with an accuracy but little inferior to those on land. With the exception of a few in the very early part of the voyage, which appear from some cause to give somewhat lower intensities than accord with M. Erman’s own observations at Sitka and St. Francisco, the results, both in the Pacific and Atlantic, when- ever they approach the land stations of other observers, present a most satisfac- tory accordance. The complete series of M. Erman’s magnetic determinations is the most ex- tensive contribution yet made to the experimental department of magnetical science ; nor can we rate its value too highly, since it furnishes us with conse- _ cutive determinations of dip, variation, and intensity, by the same highly qua- lified observer, and with the same excellent instruments, extending through all the meridians of the globe, and from the Arctic circle in Siberia to nearly 60° of south latitude, the whole of this distance being traversed in the course of two _ years, and the track completely marked by the frequency of the observations. 26 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. seen no later publication containing his own conclusions from his observations. The results entered in the table are con- sequently computed by myself from the report above no- ticed, and are uncorrected for temperature, which is of the less importance as the differences of temperature were not considerable. It is not stated in the report that the needles were re-examined at St. Petersburg at the close of the series; but as the two give results very nearly accordant, it is pro- bable they underwent little or no loss. At one of the sta- tions in the Caucasus no dip was observed ; consequently no total intensity can be computed. Some error has obviously taken place in regard to the observations at Moscow; the times of vibration of both needles as given in the report would correspond with a very much higher intensity there than at St. Petersburg, which we know from the concordant observations of MM. Erman and Hansteen is contrary to fact. M. Han- steen, who received the observations direct from M. Kupffer at St. Petersburg, has omitted the Moscow results in his notice of this series. I have therefore done the same, supposing that there is some satisfactory reason for the omission with which I am unacquainted. At Stavropol and Taganrog the dips employed in the reduction were observed with an inferior ‘in- strument, the principal dipping-needle having met with an acci- dent. Quetelet, 1829-1830.—In 1829 M. Quetelet, Director of the Royal Observatory at Brussels, made observations on the hori- zontal intensity at several stations in Germany and the Nether- lands, with an apparatus similar to M. Hansteen’s and two needles ; and in the following year in France, Switzerland, and Italy with the same apparatus and four needles. The obser- vations of 1829 are contained in a memoir printed in the 6th vol. of the Memoires de ? Academie Royale de Bruxelles; those of 1830 in the Annalen der Physik, vol. xxi. Unfortunately, the greater part of the observations of horizontal intensity are un- accompanied by observed dips, and the stations are compara- tively few at which M. Quetelet either observed the dip himself i or has selected dips observed by others, so as to be available for our present purpose. There are ten such stations entered in the general table. Having vibrated his needles in Paris in 1830, the values of the intensity are deduced by direct com- parison. He has corrected the observations for temperature, employing for their reduction the coefficient determined by M. Hansteen for his own needle. be ek SA EE caer a ae oe or ~% “? a, tJ ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 27 » Douglas, 1829-1834,—'These observations were made by. Mr. David Douglas during a journey to the N.W. coast of America, undertaken for botanical and geographical objects. The circumstances of his much-regretted death at Owhyhee in the spring of 1834, whilst waiting for a vessel to convey him home to England, are too well known to need repetition here. Having been supplied with instruments for a part of the scien- tific purposes of his journey by the Secretary of State for the Colonies, his papers on such subjects were sent by the British Consul at the Sandwich Islands to the Colonial Office, and on their arrival in England were placed in my hands to examine and report upon, The books containing the magnetical observations showed, by the completeness of the record, the attention and care bestowed on every circumstance which could conduce to accuracy. A full report on these, and on his other scientific papers, has been presented to Lord Glenelg, the present Se- cretary of State for the Colonies, but is yet unpublished. I have therefore permitted myself to enter into a more circum- stantial account of these observations in this place than I have done in regard to other observers, whose works can be imme- diately consulted. Mr. Douglas was furnished with a dip circle of 11} inches in diameter, made by Dollond, with a needle on Mayer's prin- ciple ; and for the intensity, with four of the same horizontal needles which I had used in 1822-1823, viz., Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6. The time of vibration of these needles was observed by Mr. Douglas in London, in 1828 and 1829, previously to his leaving England. In May, 1830, they were vibrated at Oahu, one of the Sandwich Islands; and between September, 1830, and February, 1831, at four stations in North America, where the dip was also observed, viz., Fort Vancouver, Cape Disap- pointment, Monterey, and St. Francisco; and at several other stations, where the dip was not observed. In February, 1831, he sent Nos. 3 and 4 to England, to have the permanency of their magnetism examined ; retaining Nos. 5 and 6 with him for further observations. Nos. 8 and 4, from accidental cir- cumstances, did not reach me till 1836 in Ireland, and bein examined in Limerick and Dublin (both which stations had _ been carefully compared with London), No. 3 was found to ~ have slightly gained, and No. 4 slightly lost magnetism, on a _ €omparison with their rates in 1828 and 1829. When not em- _ ployed in actual obseryation, these needles were kept together in the same case, with their opposite poles connected, as were Nos. 5 and 6 in another and a separate case. I have had ocea- sion to remark elsewhere, that, when needles differing consider- 28 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. ably in their rates of vibration are so kept together, it does not unfrequently happen that the weaker needle acquires magnetism, and the stronger loses it; and such appears to have been the case in this instance. It was not until 1829 that Nos. 3 and 4 were put together, having been previously paired in a similar manner with other needles, whose magnetic strength in both cases very nearly coincided with their own. It is pro- bable, therefore, that the one began to lose and the other to gain from that time forth ; and that the whole gain or loss took place in the earlier portion, rather than equably throughout the interval from 1829 to 1836. When needles are so kept together in pairs, the two should be employed on every occasion, and their combined result should be regarded as one determination. Mr. Douglas never employed them singly. If in such cases the gain of the one needle were exactly proportioned to the loss of the other, the results of the two needles taken separately would differ, but combined would furnish a mutual compensation. In the pre- sent case the gain and loss, though not identical, were so nearly equal, that by taking a mean between the London rates of each needle in 1829 and 1836, and combining at Lon- don and at the other stations the results of the two needles into one determination, we obtain the values of the intensity as they would have been given by a single needle whose magnetism had undergone little or no change. The intensities thus calculated by needles 3 and 4, for the Sandwich Islands and the stations in North America, are al- most identical with those computed from Nos. 5 and 6, taken jointly in the same manner, using the London rates which they had before they left England. These needles have been sought for in vain amongst Mr. Douglas’s effects sent to En- gland ; their steadiness, therefore, can only be judged of from a comparison of their results with those of Nos. 3 and 4. The special objects of Mr. Douglas’s mission leading him in excursions on foot into the interior of the country, in Cali- fornia, and on the rivers tributary to the Columbia, the use of the horizontal needles was the only service he could there ren- der to magnetism, as the dip circle was not sufficiently port- able to be taken with him. There are 18 stations at which he used the horizontal needles alone, between 34}° and 543° N. lat., and all nearly on the same meridian, viz., between 119° and 124° W. from Greenwich. The only absolute deduction in these cases is that of the horizontal intensity. In deducing the total force from its horizontal component, the dip employed ~ must necessarily be computed from the dips observed at other ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 29 stations. Determinations of intensity in that part of the globe : are as yet so rare, that such observations are too valuable to be omitted in this memoir ; I have accordingly entered them in the general table, as well as in a separate table here, and have an- nexed to the latter a brief notice of the manner in which they have been computed. The last observations recorded in Mr. Douglas’s books are those which he made on the dip at Byron’s Bay, and on the force, with needles 5 and 6, at Byron’s Bay and in the crater of the volcano Kiraueah, soon after his arrival at Owhyhee in 1834. I have searched in vain, amongst the few loose papers which were sent home, for the rough notes of observations of very great interest, of which he speaks in his private letters, but which are not entered in his books. I mean those of the dip, variation, and intensity at the summit of Mowna Kaah, nearly 14,000 feet above the sea, andat other elevations on the island exceeding 10,000 feet. He mentions, as a general inference’ from these observations, that he found little or no difference between the three phenomena observed at those heights and near the sea. Those in the crater of Kiraueah, about 4000 feet above the sea (which are the only ones preserved), indicate a decidedly less intensity (1059 to 1°098) than on the sea side at Byron’s Bay, a few miles distant: but Kiraueah is a recent _ yoleano, and no conclusion, as to the simple effect of elevation on the magnetic intensity, can of course be drawn. In the first subjoined table are inserted the intensities de- termined at the stations where both the dip and horizontal in- tensity were observed. The second table contains those sta- tions where the horizontal component only was observed, and the dips are supplied in the third table according to the expla- nation annexed to it. Tass I. Long. west SS Intensity. London=1°372. p Z ‘om. ae EPR GEOL Ua A EON E Greenwich | °Pserved. Nos.3 & 4.) Nos.5 & 6.) Mean. a | | Fort Vancouver... Nov., 1830... & 37 122 36 Cape Disap- Sept. Dec., sintment } “Hel BRO isco aa 25. 16) #8 56 Oint George ...]......ssssesseneee 46 11) 123 40 St. Francisco...... Feb., 1831 ...|37 48| 122 25 Monterey ......... Jan., 1831 ...}36 35) 122 0 | Owhyhee ......... Feb., 1834...) 19 43| 156 10 30 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Tas_e II. 3 4 Monterey = 1°000. Fort Vancouver = 1°000. & Place. Horiz. Int. Place. Horiz. Int. f eee 3 i Stuart’s Lake ...... 0-5616 Mouth of aia 0-9790 & Frazer’s Lake ...... 0-5719 lawullah ...... i Fort Alexandria ...| 0°6015 Rapids of the Co- | 1-0000 - = Thompson’s River 0:6415 lumbia ......... f =| Oakanagan ......6. 0:7165 South branch of 10163 ¥ San F. Solano ...... 0-9721 the Multnomah San José ....csessees 0:9859 Sandiam River......| 1:0463 La Soledad ......... 1-0056 ) San Antonio......... ed San Miguel ......... 1-010 London =1°000. San Obispo ......... date at Santa Barbara ...... 2 i | Santa Ynez ......+- SS ah presomca eptaladbatiy (po | La Purissima ...... Ab L>-1 7 imda | a i Nit, J y ‘ Taste III. * j Long. i A Place. Lat. Sean 5 Date. beget cone, Greenwich. Be =1'372, Stuart’s Lake ...sessee0e 54 27 | 124 20 |June, 1883) 76 69 || 1-745 Frazer’s Lake ........+++ 54 03 | 124 40 | June, 1833; 75 48 || 1-734 Fort Alexandria ......... 52 33 | 122 29 | May, 1833) 74 50 || 1-714 4 Thompson’s River ...... 50 41 | 120 11 | April, 1833) 73 43 || 1-701 4 “Oakanagan .......seeeeeee 48 05 | 119 27 | April, 1833) 71 45 || 1-701 River Wullawullah ...... 46 03 | 118 48 | July, 1830} 70 14 || 1-699 Rapids of the Columbia | 45 40 | 121 48 | Sept., 1830) 69 27 || 1-671 River Multnomah ...... 45 15 122 47 | Aug., 1830} 68 57 1°660 River Sandiam ............ 44 35 122 27 | Aug., 1830) 68 28 | 1-672 St. Francisco Solano ...| 838 17. | 122 24 | July, 1831} 68 24 | 1-614 San JOSE Veasiccsessasssvacs 37 32 122 00 | July, 1831) 62 52 1:607 La Soledad ......... ss. 36 24 121 24 | April, 1831] 62 04 | 1-596 San Antonio............06 36 01 | 121 18 | April, 1831} 61 46 || 1-584 San Miguel ............0+ 35 45 121 00 | April, 1831} 6140 | 1-580 ‘ San Obispo .......s.ss0e0. 35 16 120 40 | May, 1831) 61 17 1581 Santa Barbara ............ 34 25 119 40 | May, 1831} 60 48 | 1-587 Santa W677 ciccesceosesees 34 36 120 11 | May, 1831) 60 53 1:579 La Purissima ............ 34 40 | 120 27 | May, 18381} 60 53 || 1-571 Sandwich Islands. ahs silence vesiecssacersces 2118 | 158 0|May, 1830! 41 39 || 1-116 Crater of Kiraueah...... BO ivccceenses March, 1824; 38 00 || 1-059 The latitudes in this table, and the longitudes of the stations on the River Co- lumbia and its tributaries are from Mr. Douglas’s observations. The longitudes are chronometrical, from Fort Vancouver as a first meridian. The longitude of Fort Vancouver is computed from 1200 lunar distances observed by him. A few of these were computed on the spot, but all were fully recorded, and have heen calculated since his papers arrived in England. ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 31 Notice of the manner in which the results in the above table have been computed.—There are five stations in North Ame- _ rica at which Mr. Douglas observed the dip. ‘The number of _ separate observations is 21 distributed as follows: Cape Disappointment . . . 38 Pont George: FR Hore. Yancoirver 0s es SG Sie Bran@isto 3 po. SS Money Blk ee OT To compute from these the dip at the eighteen stations where _ it was not observed, we require the direction of the isoclinal lines, and the rate at which the dip increases in the perpendi- cular to them. The relative position of the five stations, being nearly on the same geographical meridian, is unfavourable for determining the direction of the lines; but, on the contrary, extremely fa- vourable for a deduction of the rate at which the dip increases in the perpendicular to them; and as the horizontal stations are all nearly under the same meridian also, the rate of increase is the element of calculation, which it is most important to ob- tain correctly. ‘ To compute, therefore, the rate of increase from the observa- tions themselves, we may take the direction of the lines from a general map, as a small uncertainty in this respect has little in- fluence on the result. In M. Hansteen’s map of the lines of dip in 1780 we find their direction in that part of the globe to be from N. 74° W. to S. 74° E.* If we express by r the rate of increase corresponding to a geographical mile, and make 8 = the dip at a central geographical position, say 45° N. lat., and 124° W. long., and 9,, 8,, 65, &c., the observed dip at the five stations, we shall have 8, = 8 + (a, cos 74° — b, sin 74°) r é 8, = 8 + (a, cos 74° — b, sin 74°) r, &e., _ the coefficient a being the difference of longitude between the ie central station and that at which the dip was observed, ex- __ * When I wrote the above I had not seen M. Erman’s more recent mag- | _‘ netic map from his own observations in 1828, 1829 and 1830, in which are de- _ lineated the dip lines of 60°, 65°, and 70°, which pass through the district in _ which Mr. Douglas’s observations were made. Their direction in the meridian | _ of 124° W. measured on M. Erman's map is, as nearly as the measurement can be made, from N. 743° W. to 8. 743° E. I add this note to explain the reason | __ why the direction in the text was not taken at once from the more modern and _ cotemporaneous map, and to express the satisfaction I feel in this confirmation | _ of the element I had ventured to introduce for the calculation of Mr. Douglas’s _ results,—the only element in the calculation which was not furnished by his ___ own observations. 32 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. pressed in geographical miles, and 0 the difference of latitude also in geographical miles. If we combine the five equations so formed for the five dip stations by the method of least squares, giving each equation a weight proportioned to the number of observations which it re- presents, we obtain by the usual process of summing and eli- mination § = 68° 42’; r = — 0013608, the latter being equivalent to 75°5 geographical miles to one degree of dip. With these we may compute the dip for each of the horizontal stations ; and having the values of the horizontal component we may deduce the total intensity. ‘The dips and intensities for the North American stations in Table 3 are thus computed. Mr. Douglas mentions that the dip he observed i in the crater of Kiraueah was 2! greater than at Byron’s Bay; I have there- fore entered it in Table 3 as 38°00’. The dip at Oahu is from Capt. de Freycinet’s observations at the adjacent island of Mowi, and must be regarded as uncertain for Oahu to some minutes ; but in so low a magnetic latitude an error of that amount would have very little influence on the calculation of the intensity. The horizontal intensity at Oahu was very well determined, the four needles being employed, a few months only after their vi- bration in London, Fitz Roy, 18351-1836.— We come next to a series which must rank amongst the most important contributions to magnetical science, and which we owe to Capt. Fitz Rey, R.N., and the of- ficers of H.M. ship Beagle, employed in the years above-men- tioned in the survey of the coasts of South America, and in a voyage of circumnavigation performed chiefly in the southern hemisphere, having for its primary object the determination of differences of longitude by a number of chronometers. Capt. Fitz Roy had the precaution to furnish himself with a dipping needle of Gambey, whose instruments of this kind, though not always without fault, are universally acknowledged ~ to be the best that are made, and superior to those of our own © artists inmodern times. For the intensity he received fromCapt. — King the horizontal needle with which that officer had been © supplied by M. Hansteen. This needle, which in Capt. King’s voyage had lost from time to time considerable portions of its — magnetism, appears to have very nearly attained a permanent — magnetic state when Capt. Fitz Roy received it. By observa- _ tions at Plymouth in 1831 and 1836, and at Port Praya in 1832 and 1836, its time of vibration is shown to have varied to a very ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY QF THE EARTH. 33 inconsiderable amount, admitting of safe and easy interpola- tion. Capt. Fitz Roy’s observations are not yet published. On his return to England he paid me the compliment of placing them in my hands to calculate and arrange for publication in the appendix of an account of his voyage, which he is preparing. Meanwhile he has permitted me to insert the intensity results in the general table of this memoir. They are corrected for tem- perature and for arc. They include 27 stations, of which 24 in the southern hemisphere, distributed throughout its longi- _ tudes, throw very considerable light on the system of the inten- sity inthose regions. This extensive series is, I trust, but the precursor of what British naval officers will accomplish for mag- netism in the southern hemisphere. Rudberg, 1832.—These observations were made with a dip- ping-needle and two horizontal needles of Gambey’s, at five stations on the continent of Europe, of which Paris was one. A full account of them is published in the xxviith vol. of the Annalen der Physik. They appear to have been made with great care, and the results are corrected for temperature. Lloyd and Sabine, 1835-1836.—These observations were made in compliance with a wish expressed by the British Asso- ciation that some of its members would undertake a survey of the dip and intensity in the British Islands. Accordingly the intensity was determined at 80 stations in Ireland by Mr. Lloyd and myself, in 1835, and by myself at 25 stations in Scotland, in 1836. 'The volumes of the Reports ofthe British Association for those years contain a full account of these observations, as well as of the mode in which the determinations at the several stations are all made to concur in assigning the intensity at one central position in each country as their general result. It appears unnecessary, therefore, to reprint them in this yolume, and it is only the intensities at the central position, thus calculated, which are entered in the general table. Ross, 1836.—These observations were made in a voyage to ‘ ‘Davis’s Straits, undertaken by Capt. James Ross, R.N., in _ the winter of 1836, to relieve the crews of several whalers _ which had been detained in the ice. Those of the intensity _ were made with two horizontal needles in an apparatus similar _ to M. Hansteen’s. The magnetism of one remained quite _ steady during the voyage; the other sustained a slight loss, which it is evident by inspection took place between Orkney VOL. vi. 1837, D 34 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. and Greenland, and has been allowed for accordingly ; Orkney being compared with the first London rate, Greenland and Labrador with the second. ‘The needles then give every- where very nearly identical results. The dip circle which Capt. Ross employed was of 4 inches diameter. The needle appears to have given very consistent results always at the same station; for example, of six obser- vations at Westbourn-green near London in 1856, the ex- tremes are 69° 28’ and 69° 85"6, the poles being changed in every observation; the mean of the six, however, as well as each of the separate results, is a few minutes higher than the dip at that spot is known to have been at that time. ‘Taking into account Capt. Ross’s experience in observations of this . kind, and that the observations were made on four different days, it is most probable that there was some instrumental cause for this needle giving constantly at this station a higher dip than the truth. Being ignorant, however, what that cause may have been, I have not ventured to apply a correction to the dips with this needle either there or elsewhere, but have em- ployed them just as they were observed at each of the stations. In countries where the dip is so great as in the vicinity of Davis’s Straits, the horizontal intensities may be very correctly determined, and yet from slight errors in the dip, the resulting total intensity may present anomalies unusual elsewhere. We have an instance of this in Capt. Ross’s observations in Green- land. There are two stations in Greenland, at no great distance apart, where the difference of the computed intensity is excess- ive; and the fact of there being some anomaly in the observed dips which would sufficiently explain the difference, is made quite obvious by the circumstance that the higher dip is at the southernmost station; whereas the dip should increase in going northward on this coast, and with this the horizontal vibrations are in accord. J have therefore omitted both the results in Greenland in the general table. As these observations have not been published elsewhere, I subjoin a table containing the principal particulars. Time of horiz. vibra, Di Ee - 1 di Station, Date. Lat. | Long. ee) dod cbnerredtite 178. De 2 itty ot S. a o 7 London...... Aug., 1835) 51 31/859 50) 439-07 | 441°46 |.........08 1:372 Stromness...| Feb., 1836/58 58 |356 80) 480-22 | 483-34 | 73 36 1-419 Greenlanad | June, 1836/ 66 57 |306 26) 648-57 | 645:30 | 82 51 1:798 June, 1836/68 59/3806 47| 667-29 | 665-94 | 82 25 1-590 Labrador ...| Aug., 1836/57 33/298 9} 616-11 | ......... 73 386 1-652 London...... ct, 1836/51 31/859 50) 442:19 | 441-64 | 69 32:1) 1372 The times of vibration are reduced toa standard temperature. oF ee oe ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 85 Estcourt, 1836.—These observations were made during the late survey of the navigation of the River Euphrates, conducted by Colonel Chesney. 'The magnetic observations were entrusted to Major Estcourt, who was furnished with a good dip circle by Robirison, and an apparatus similar to M. Hansteen’s, with eight horizontal needles: Numerous observations were made with these at Port William and Bussora, the manuscripts of which have been sent to me, by the President of the Board of Control, to arrange for publication in the official account of the proceedings of the expedition, preparing under the direction of Colonel Chesney. On the arrival in England of the needles, which only took place very recently, they were also placed in my hands, in order that the necessary comparative observations might be made with them. It had unfortunately happened that the manuscript containing the times of vibration of the needles observed by the officers of the expedition before its departure from England, were on board the Tigris steamer when she was lost in the Euphrates, and no record was preserved. But - on receiving the needles, I recognised two of the number as b | bE having belonged to Professor Lloyd, of Dublin, and as having been employed by Mr. Lloyd and myself in Ireland. I had consequently a memorandum of their rates before they were given to the officers of the expedition; and on vibrating them in Sussex, where I was staying when I received them, I per- ceived with great satisfaction that these two needles must have preserved their magnetism wholly or very nearly unaltered. ‘They were immediately sent to Professor Lloyd, who kindly vibrated them at the same spot in which they had been used in 1834, and found their magnetism almost identical with what it had been at that period. On trying the six other needles, I found that two gave similar values for the intensity at Port William and Bussora with those of Mr. Lloyd; whence I in- ferred that those also had undergone no change-in their mag- netism since the observations on the Euphrates. The deter- minations at Port William and Bussora inserted in the general table of this report are derived from these four needles. Their _ times of vibration have been reduced to a standard temperature, the coefficient inthe formula having been ascertained for each needle by experiments made since they have been placed in my hands. ‘The full details will be communicated in Colonel Ches- _hey’s official publication. Freycinet, 181'7-1821.—I am most happy in being able to -add to this collection the valuable observations of Capt. de Freycinet in the voyage of circumnavigation, performed in the oO mw 36 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Uranie in 1817-1821. Having heard that I was engaged in drawing up this report for the British Association, Capt. de Freycinet, unsolicited, did me the honour to propose to place his observations, hitherto unpublished, in my hands, to be communicated to the public through this channel. I should certainly fail if I attempted to express my sense of this act of great liberality ; happily it needs no comment; and I will only observe, that it adds another instance, but a very strong one, to those already noticed, of the good feeling that has pre- vailed amongst the persons by whom these inquiries have been carried forward. The world hears more than enough of the jealousies and enmities which too often disfigure the history and embitter the pursuits of science; it is right that the instances to the contrary should not always be passed in silence. The manuscript of the observations was accompanied by the following remarks from Capt. de Freycinet. ‘* J’ai mis une grande attention a ce qu'il ne se glissa pas de faute dans la copie; et telle qu’elle est je crois que vous pou- vez compter sur son exactitude. L’experience a prouvé que les aiguilles Nos. 7 et 8, dont je me suis servi, ont perdu un peu de leur magnétisme pendant le voyage ; il sera facile d’en tenir compte, comme aussi des légéres altérations qui auront eu pour cause les variations de température ; mais je ne me suis pas livré 4 ces considérations, pensant qu'il valait mieux que vous vous en occupassiez selon vos vues particuliéres.” The table in pages 38 and 89 contains the observations, printed from this manuscript without alteration of any kind. In compliance with the wish expressed by Capt. de Frey- cinet, I proceeded to calculate the results of these observations in the following manner. The consideration of No. 9 was put aside in the first instance for the reason assigned in the mar- ginal note to the observations at the Isle of France. The times of vibration at Paris before and after the voyage, con- firmed by the observations at Rio de Janeiro in 1817 and 1820, show that Nos. 7 and 8 both slightly lost magnetism, and No. 8 rather more than No. 7. It further appears that the extra loss of No. 8 over No. 7 was all sustained in the first fourteen months ; as at the Isle of France in June, 1818, they had arrived nearly at an equality in their time of vibration, which they pre- served for the whole remainder of the voyage, and exhibited on the return to Paris. In whatever way, therefore, we may proportion the equal loss sustained by both needles, the extra loss of No. 8 must be placed before the arrival at the Isle of France. When there are no circumstances in the observations eo SNP V 6 2 cnt >. ey ere, Re POPPE My ae gee © LN ee Mure 7 : by ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 37 J themselves indicating otherwise, the usual course is to distri- bute a loss equally through the interval in which it is known to have occurred. I have therefore pursued this course in regard to the loss sustained by No. 7; and in the case of No. 8 I have allowed a double proportion in each of the first fourteen months. The observations furnish two tests of the propriety of this distribution: the general agreement of the results of the two needles with each other at the different stations is one ; the other is the agreement of the force thus calculated at Rio in 1817 and 1821. In both the accordance is satisfactory. On computing the intensity at the Cape of Good Hope and the Isle of France by No. 9, using for that purpose its time of vibration at Paris in 1817, the results appeared to agree ex- tremely well with those of Nos.7and 8. It is hence inferred, that until the accident at the Isle of France, No. 9 had undergone no change of magnetism, and I have therefore brought into the account all the results obtained with it before that occurrence. As the effect of changes of temperature on these particular needles does not appear to have been ascertained experiment- ally, no corrections are applied on account of temperature ; but, as I have before remarked, such corrections are of minor importance in so extensive a series as the present. The table in page 40 exhibits the computed results, and appears to need no other explanation, except that the column entitled ‘Time of vibration as a dipping-needle at Paris” exhibits the times of vibration corrected for loss of magnetism. SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Sor | 6 eF3| 0 prulgz 9-20F | 6 €-FZ| HO IT |s3 6-994 8 883) OE 6 IFS B-89L 8 @96| HOG 8 |r ‘O'N atsuepsazzau | 4°994 8 LZ} "XO 8 |FE ayRTIY 3,1 -uoy ‘xnaSeio sduay =| OGLE L£ |"HN OF PLZ | FL GH FL | 08) “SOE [es oaX|"O BF BE SFIS LT Ge Ze |orUer ap ony 8-0SF 6 GES} “SO G (9G ayieuay, eve woetetornad| L0eh | 6 [ON ¢¢. 18] OF 99 ze] O88] So8 I 98 grr] O8 88 ST) Ne Ze 8@ PP HOD Ag : ISI Traneeenaon ats | GPOE cB 6} 3 1 (or FiBF a8 SUOTIEII[TI98O SANIT | ().FFOT y. £6 *S GG IpIaloy sere aeer san sanese | SPOL ke $6 |" Ze I jot ay) “Pe ‘PE fanaa ne ‘stave ‘seany sep 49 p10 | Fogg | G o9-F1| 8 6 Ialge *oessnvT j . 5 y che Pace ie Ae Rd eee eg oe og-FI| Her IL lez uoIsuoup ama etap| 9-OLOT 8 9F-8 GE OL |8Z ‘8 ON P1190 91UUIALAP | 9.G00L | 8 06-241]; “S89 F |p HAV Stes a bok ar | OE eS eeel| Xr 6 log sie ‘gistuo| GGIOL | £ 08-8 | IL IT [gz apedep agaresqo uosteulpag + | 9-610T ZL |"O'N O #&% GZ| 8Z 8B 89 | SELL} “SOS R |p TuAy 0 0 0 |'N ST 0¢ Sh Pt JuRAe ‘srieg u” ut /, ° ul / [o} ° 4 q LIgt “ ’ ° au / °o Ba a a Psy e= 8 3 | -aqtsuoqur.p N of SEZ : =e | uoyrasosqo,| - syreqepaaydutoo} msm BEE 22" | ccoemog | sommes | 22 | eeeworr | NE | Somster | PT | aor Re _& ot = “‘youseur 971su9}UT Rg -anbodg ‘anbrydes3003 uoyisog “apuojy np 38 Anonn auniQ jap asnhiog a2 yunpuad saz ‘anhygusnyy ppisuazuy p suoynasasyQ sap punsayy 39 ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. *20TA1aS ap sIOY 939 ¥ 42 ‘aaiaq[e 99AnoI} 4s89,s ‘sonbyjau -Seul xneassivyy spueid sou op oun,p said sai} ‘goue}aapeut ied ‘aasod 233 juede G§ ‘ON 990u0 “113dxa 99300 sgidy DPORm ADAMWKNWeNHDHHAMHODRR BRR BDHeeDH MO "aN TY 6 61) £ 06 Eg “ON 9E PLE | LZ LP Z9 “a'N 06 67 8 “ON LT 68 F “ON 6 66 I ‘ON 8€ €1 0 ‘ONY 888 ‘O'N 96 OF ZI ‘ON 1€ O€ 92 “H'NGL FE € Gé G6E IF &¢ OF GI LS 96 FI & Gf Sv GS FS sv 9 g¢ € Ly 0g &P GP FI q ‘Str S {IIT ‘SFE E IIL oy 0681 WLP IL | WSE OL |GS asaX GE TPIS NOP IL 2 moy “OSS (s “UP 8S |Ss SEL io TA 6181 196 IL |I¢ WOE OL |1é STEP (OE aaX W066 (|6I WELLS |6L asa8 ‘SOF LT |FZ S6L LT |t% SG IPI PS WOE IL [FE asal Scel (0¢ SOP T (96 ‘STL E (2 S666 |G OF TPIMiege = UIne “Gy IL |I€ WOES jE SBI SIST SOE ES 16 SEL &G |G ‘S€oL |ég yoy 0Z8L ‘O GS 9G O9 |S SI SE Ig ‘20 8h SFI} "S Fe Ig ee ‘O€ @ G6SI)'NZL &¢ 02 “H&S LE GF1| NIG Lz &I “aS S€ SZllSFET O “UGG SL Té1}"S ¢¢ 6 OL “HEL 6E OLT] S 1G SF &s “E968 GE |)"S9S6 0% “ach € OL |S El So ee ‘O & SE GP "S $6 So GZ (asied “ueLy oeg ) sauNo}e “1 I (foupig) Mosyaer 310 euloyery (qormpurg ) THO) OT (euse3y ) SOUUBIILIAY SOST (snod -Bq Sop sot] ) yeuey eT (Suvdnog) IOUT, II (apuryoH anN) suleur “sully sop a1eg (stnory 1104 ) aur ep ey] aouvsadsy suuog ap dep SUPA amar omeure ep Ont 40 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Time of vibration. Intensity. Station. g As a dipping-needle. 2 Horizontal.| “4 the ‘x th Paris = 1°000. Baa” station, Paris. . PATIG. satcaceneaseneaad 1019-75 6177 617-7 ||1:000 Pedechepssnacancee 1009-93 6117 611-7 ||1:000 + 1-000 | 1:348 Sbsatteiens odes a 525-05 318-0 318-0 |!1-000 Teneriffe .......0000+ 450°75 319-0 318-0 |}0°9942 1-340 Rio de Janeiro...... 775-9 763°1 620-0 ||0°6602 nytt 402-20 | 395-6 | 318-0 ||0-6465 937-0 | 7451 | 620-9 llo-6945 4779 | 3800 | 318-0 |\0-7005 9120 | 689-7 | 6228 ||0-8155 913-0 690°5 622-3 ||0°8139 } 0°813) 1-096 467°8 353°8 318-0 ||0°8082 800-4 60771 624-0 ||1:057 767:27 | 7546 616-7 ||0°6679 ; 0-658) 0-887 }o-eo7 0-945 Baie des Chiens- MAriNs ...se+eee } 1-054 1-421 Sn 802°5 608°6 624-2 ||1:052 We Pinon Fe os as yess 7285 667°7 624:2 ||0-8741] o, ; poet SEs 729-3 | 6689 |. 6245 ovis f° 8738/1177 Ile Rawak ......... 721-6 710-1 625-1 ||0°7750 cated 722-7 | 7ill | 6255 07736 (0774 1-044 749:15 | 7393 | 626-9 |0-7181 Iles Mariannes 799 | ya08 | eae losia ¢ 0718/0868 Te Mow? ...20: Pe 7928 | 685°3 | 627-9 |[0°8395 1 o.ciql 4. ends 793-0 | 685°5 | 6285 o-8io1 ¢°840 Liss Sydney ssssccssssscons 846-4 | 572-4 | 629°5 ||1-210 Ba | erai-| e308 (Lai ¢ 2210 | 1681 Sea | tare. Iheaco-lvor (ieee 7909 is 633-6 (o-eens ¢ 0°652| 0-892 10453 | 6363 | 6563 [1-000 $1000 | 1-348 Seen ee eeeeenees Tles Malouines Rio de Janeiro ONADNBDNIBDNBDNBDNONWND NS OCmnNo mn CHNOORDN Senate ne eeeseeseee It would have given me great satisfaction had I been enabled to have included in this publication the observations made in In- dia by Capt. Jules de Blosseyville,in whose untimely death within the Arctic circle, now, I fear, but too certain, science has sus- tained the loss of an officer who gave full promise, had he lived, of becoming one of the most accomplished navigators of the age. In the last letter which I received from him, dated at Toulon in 1830, he thus expresses himself in regard to his ob- servations of the intensity :—‘‘ Toulon ayant été, et pouvant de- venir encore le point de départ de plusieurs expeditions scien- ifiques, il sérait utile, je pense, d’y connoitre d’une maniére exacte la valeur de l’intensité magnétique, et je me chargerais laser ee ee et BE MEO we es ae a . S ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 4l volontiers pendant le petit sejour que je vais y faire, d’y ob- server les aiguilles. Ceci me conduit naturellement a vous parler des observations d’intensité que vous m’avez vues com- mencer a Paris, et que j’ai faites ensuite dans plusieurs lieux de l’Inde. Si elles avaient été plus satisfaisantes, je vous en aurais entretenu dés mon arrivée; mais malheureusement les aiguilles ont perdu pendant le voyage une partie notable de leur magnétisme, et M. Arago a été d’avis de ne point s’occuper de leurs résultats. C’est ainsi que toutes mes peines ont été per- dues, quoique j’eusse eu l’attention de rapporter toutes les ob- servations 4 Pondicherry, qui était le centre de nos operations, espérant par leur repetition dans le méme lieu, connoitre le de- croissement graduel du magnétisme de nos aiguilles. Si je re- commence quelque grand voyage, comme je l’espére, je me livrerai avec plaisir 4 /’étude de l’intensité, et je m’occuperai a Yayance, de faire faire par Gambey l'appareil de plus com- mode. Je voudrais connoitre vos idées sur ce sujet.” Experience has shown in many cases, and particularly in the observations of Capt. King, that it may be possible to ob- tain very valuable facts from a series of observations, in which the needles have undergene a considerable loss of magnetism in the course of a long voyage ; particularly in cases where at- tention has been paid to repetition at the same station, for the purpose of a frequent examination of the state of the needles ; and this was practised by Capt. de Blosseville, as well as by Capt. _ King. Aid may also be sometimes obtained from other ob- _ servers who may have observed the intensity at some of the _ stations: and the publication of a series of determinations de- _ pending upon Pondicherry would render it an object with persons who might hereafter be engaged in magnetic observa- | tions in India, to make Pondicherry one of their stations, and thus supply a link to connect M. de Blosseville’s observations with Europe. | In 1833 Mr. Forbes made a very numerous series of excel- _ lent determinations of horizontal] intensity in different parts of _ Europe. They were made chiefly with a view to the influence _ of height on the magnetic intensity, and are discussed in a highly interesting paper in the Edinburgh Transactions for _ 1836. The dip was observed with a three-inch circle, at a few _ stations only, and Mr. Forbes has nowhere himself deduced | the total intensities. If I am rightly informed, he has since | made another tour in the same countries, in which magnetic _ observations formed a part of his object. We may hope that _ by a series of dips, corresponding in extent and exactness to his horizontal determinations, he will add greatly to the fulness 42 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. and accuracy of our knowledge of the course of the magnetic lines in those parts of Europe. The investigation evidently cannot be in better hands. Meantime I have not thought pro- per to make deductions which he has not made for himself; and the more so, because the stations are very few at which there are both observations of dip and of horizontal intensity, and at some of these the total intensity has already been de- termined by other observers. The preceding notices include all the observations of the magnetic intensity with which I am acquainted, in which the instruments, by the steadiness of their magnetism, and their capability of yielding sufficiently precise results , proved eed of the time and pains bestowed in their employment. Section I].—Generat Taste or INTENSITIES. The intensities are arranged in this table according to their values, commencing with those of highest amount in the northern hemisphere, descending progressively to those of least amount, which have their “places in the intertropical regions, and again ascending to the highest values in the southern hemisphere. They are classed in zones, the first zone (§ 1) comprehending all the observed intensities in the northern hemisphere between 1°85 and 1°75; the second zone (§ 2), all between 1°75 and 1°65; the third (§ 5), all be- tween 1°65 and 1°55; and so on. In each zone the record in the table commences with the geographical meridian of Greenwich, and passes round the globe in an easterly direc- tion ; all the longitudes being counted east from Greenwich, and all latitudes nor th, unless where it is otherwise distinctly specified. The geographical position of the several zones is shown in the maps attached to this report by the insertion of the observed intensities themselves in their places in the map. For the more ready guidance and direction of the eye lines are drawn, marking as nearly as can be judged, the middle of each zone. These lines are consequently what are usually denominated isodynamic lines, or lines of equal magnetic intensity at the surface of the earth. ‘They correspond successively to the values of 1°8, 1°7, 1°6, &c., down to 0°8, which is the line of lowest value yet observed. There is, of course, great ine- quality in the evidence for their precise geographical position in different parts of the globe; sometimes, for the purpose of connection, they have been partially continued where obser- - Br gr ee ae Le ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 43 _ vations are wholly wanting; but in all cases the insertion of the authorities themselves in the map manifests the degree of exactness to which it is yet possible to trace the several _ portions of each line. Where the geographical positions are too near each other for convenient insertion in the map, two or more stations are. Ss collected into a group in the table, and the mean latitude, _ longitude, and intensity are placed at the foot of the page. Such groups are in all cases composed of the determinations of the same observer, and the mean determination inserted in the map is characterised by an additional figure, placed be- neath, expressive of the number of separate stations thus represented. In the case of stations visited by two or more observers, their separate determinations have been inserted in the map wherever space has permitted. As this could not always be done in the north of Europe and Asia, the mean of the . determinations of the two observers has been given, cha- racterised by the mark +, expressive of the double weight | _ to which such intensities are entitled. | The geographical positions may require correction in a few | instances, but pains have been taken to obtain them correctly . from the most recent authorities. Division I. Norruern HEMISPHERE. § 1. Intensities from 1:85 to 1°75. Lat. Long. Observer. Date.|| Intensity. ee 63 0 |120 O\Due....,......... {1829} 1-759 Oe 40 43 285 57\Sabine............ 4 1°803 Sts 65 55 | 87 33)/Hansteen........../|1829]| 1-667 ....| 60 02 | 90 33\Hansteen.......... 1829]| 1-660 ee 56 16 | 91 00\/Hansteen & Due.... {1828]) 1°654 me EOL OST 39. 58 27 | 92 11/Hansteen........../1829]| 1°668 sBV1AA: 56 01 | 92 57/Erman............/1829]) 1:652 Hgt-At' re » |Hansteen & Due.... |1829]) 1:663 55 43 | 96 53.Erman............ 1829]| 1-670 5 » |Hansteen & Due.. ..|1829]) 1-678 .s....{ 55 12 | 98 50)/Hansteen & Due.... |1828) 1°671 AS es RY 55 00 | 99 20\/Hansteen & Due ... |1828)| 1°672 A4 Station. oe Kurgan ... Salarinsk a ey ed BOATS lion. epee > ae Tarakanowa Potapowsk Kirensk eee ew wee reo stot Tena: Ss Parchinsk .. Wittinsk... os Kantinsk incr .0/@) a) ow @, © ohn eer er eer e eee eerereee ereee eres ee ed Erman Erman Erman Erman Erman Erman Erman Erman Erman Douglas Douglas Douglas Douglas 137 00 Date.|| Intensity, | 1-652 1°652 1-657 1-673 — 1-720 1-689 1664 1-711 1-704 — 1-693 © 1°714 1-708 1-741 1-731 1-712 17 1-747 | 1°725) ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 45 Station. Lat. Long. Observer. Date.|| Intensity. ‘Multnomah River] 45 15 237 13 Douglas...... 1830] 1°669 . |} Fort Vancouver..| 45 37 |237 24| Douglas.......... 1830) 1-688 ) Sandiam River ..| 44 35 (237 33) Douglas.......... 1830)) 1-683 Columbia Rapids 45 40 |238 12) Douglas.......... 1830)| 1°679 Thompson’s River... 239 49| Douglas.......... 1833|| 1°710 Oakanagan........ 240 33) Douglas.......... 1833|| 1-707 Wullawallah River . 241 12) Douglas.......... 1830) 1-707 Byam Martin’s Il. . B5Gr 1G) Sabine: aoeiesiscee 1819| 1-653 |Regent’s Inlet...... 270 19) Sabine. .......... 1819] 1-668 |Baffin’s Bay ...... 281 39| Sabine .......... 1818]| 1-659 | Baffin’s Bay ...... 284 00) Sabine .......... 1818] 1-666 Baffin’s Bay ...... 293 05| Sabine .......... 1818) 1-661 Waurador).;...... 298 09| Ross ............ 1836]| 1:682 § 3. Intensities from 1°65 to 1:55. = Fair | 79 40 | 11 40\ Sabine .......... [1823] 1-362 le - 76 35 | 14 00) Keilhau.......... 1827|| 1-558 | Katchegatisk ...... 65 09 | 65 02| Erman .......... 1828]| 1568 | oe 63 56 | 65 04) Erman .......... 1828] 1:580 Ray ie fe 63 18 | 65 06) Erman te 1828]] 1:584 BEE Ya i¥a\ ahiei'e 66 16 | 65 10) Erman ........../1828)| 1-608 > 3 CARES. 62 13 | 66 36) Erman ..........{1828]) 1:596 cr Ole 66 31 | 66 42) Erman ..........{1828|| 1:580 Be at 57 32 | 67 06) Erman ........../1828] 1°546 oe ” ” Hansteen & Due ..{1828|| 1°558 ....e-| 57 59 | 67 31] Erman ... .. (1828)) 1°544 Ristalesne ” » Hansteen & Due. .. {1828|| 1-:566 oa 61 20 | 68 05) Erman ..........{1828]) 1°585 et 58 12 | 68 16) Hansteen & Due ../1828] 1560 SA » » Erman y..3%......(1828)| 4-554 60 45 | 68 35) Erman ..,....... 1828)| 1:584 BMNEES So: aio > 59 00 | 68 46) Erman ........../1828]| 1°564 57 27 | 68 58) Erman ...... Ay 1829] 1-564 60 23 | 69 26| Erman ....... ~. »- (1828) 1°573 Bret 59 32 | 69 40) Erman ..........[/1828|| 1°574 BEBE ws aes 56 54 | 74 04; Erman ..........{1829]] 1:575 Reacirtels 55 38 | 77 05) Erman ,.........{1829]] 1:617 * Mean, 4 stations 4517 23735 1-680 46 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. q : "| Intensi ? Station. Lat. Long. Observer. Date. Muraschiwa ......| 55 50 | 76 00| Hansteen & Due ..|1828) 1°586 | Gotoputowa ......| 55 47 | 77 00| Hansteen & Due ..|1828| 1-577 Autoschina........| 55 40 | 78 00) Hansteen & Due ..|1828)| 1°585 — Le) See ee 55 40 | 78 10} Hansteen & Due ,./1828) 1-601 Maa RE. 58 50| 81 00/Due .........-.. 1828] 1-638 |} Tschulum ........ 55 06 | 81 14) Erman .......... 1829} 1°578 Kigiyviin SiR. eos 55 17 | 82 45) Hansteen & Due ..|1829) 1°611 ~ AT ie eee a » Erman .......... {1829} 1°599% Togursk .. ibe, wow -58 40 | 83:00! Due 06... 5... 1828} 1°644 — Barnaul ...... .--.| 53 20 | 83 56)Hansteen ........ 1829} 1-605 TOMBE 70s 5 sc 56 30 | 85.09] Erman ........ ../1829]| 1-618" sbtbescceve ” ” Hansteen & Due re 1829 1-620 — Pojelnik . Beets 56 18 | 87 10) Erman .:........ 1829) 1-627 — Kangatovo.. ESivorsteretor 63 27 | 87 16) Hansteen ........ 1829} 1:648 — VD 52 16 |104 20) Hansteen & Due ,,|1829) 1°642 — ae Al ai Pon eA ” ” Erman ..........(|1829]| 1-632 @ MAUS) ia 2.0ena 52 07 |104 51) Hansteen & Due. ..|1829) 1-649 ” Cera be scce ” ” Erman A eae 1828 1°634 : Chogotsk ........ 53 On LOb OUI Due <.2..0.. .... |1829]| 1645 © Tiumeruska ...... 54 09 |105 33) Erman .......... 1828] 1-648 — Selenginsk ........ 51 20 |106 15) Hansteen & Due .,,|1829] 1:°642 © Troisko Sawsk ....| 50 21 |106 28) Hansteen & Due ,,/|1829)| 1°642 — bias’ sha ” » |Erman .......... [1829] 1°628 7% Monachorowa ....| 50 58 |106 29) Hansteen & Due ,.|1829)| 1°624 | states ” iy) PB hs ee a eee 1829|| 1-638 | Aréentiska bie Siclafsvete 51 17 |106 56) Hansteen & Due ., |1829)) 1°650 i ” Ret wieletate’s ” ” Erman ee es ecae ota 1829 1-636 Ph Werchne Udinsk ..| 51 49 |107 47) Hansteen and Due, . |1829) 1625 © ” on ” ” Raman Oise 2 bras 1829) 1-626 — OGRORE 20 GE fice -| 59 21 (143 11] Erman .......... 1829|| 1°615 Sea of Ochozk ....| 58 46 |145 52) Erman ...... .. .. {1829} 1:677 Sea of Ochozk ....| 58 15 /152 01) Erman .......... 1829) 1-601 Sea of Ochozk ....|°58 13 |157 06) Erman .......... 1829) 1595 Tigil River........ 58 01 {158 15) Erman ....... ... [L829] 1°57 Masehura ........ 55 04 (158 55| Erman ...... .... 1829] 19551 St. Croix Bay...... 65 28 1181 28] Liitke............ 1828| 1-646 Undlaska o53...5. 53 54 1193 30} Liitke............ 1827|| 1°604 St. Franciseco...... 87 48 1235 45) Erman .......... 1829} 1°585 — ich wis’ F HA 1 Détielad:. 03, cennh 1831) 1*597 San Solano... ....| 38 17 |@35 36 Douglas.......... 1831} 1-610 +) Monterey ......| 36 35 [236 00) Douglas.......... 1831) 1°599 San’ JOs@i eo were 37 32 |236 00 Douglas Be Sere 5 ise 1831} 1605 La Soledad ....| 36 24 |236 36 Douglas PNR ae 1831) 1°590 o ’ ° * Mean, 4 stations 3712 23603 1-600 ) ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. Al : 7 Station Lat. Long. Observer. Date.|| Intensity. - iidegecie dladiimitaian wee vi pee Antonio....| 36 01 |236 42) Douglas.......... 1831) 1°584- n Miguel ....| 35 45 |237 16) Douglas... 1831] 1°583 t. Louis eee 35 16 |237 20) Douglas.......... 1831|| 1°583 oka 34 40 [237 33) Douglas.......... 1831], 1571 < Santa Ynez 34 36 |237 49) Douglas.......... 1831] 1:579 nta Barbara 34 25 |240 00} Douglas 1831) 1:604 ville Island 74 27 \248° 18) Sabine .......... 1819)| 1:624 inter Harbour ..| 74 47 |249 12| Sabine .......... 1820] 1-638 73 31 |282 38] Sabine .......... 1819||. 1:637 \ aR 75 51 |296 54) Sabine ..........|1818]) 1618 Tewie’s Straits ....| 64 00 |298 10) Sabine .......... 1819] 1:62] Baffin’s Bay ...... 75 05 |299 37| Sabine .......... 1818] 1:590 Hare Island .... 70 26 |305 08) Sabine .......... 1818] 1-622 | Davis’s Straits ....| 68 22 |806 10) Sabine .......... 1818] 1-643 1 oa § 4. Intensities from 1:55 to 1:48. . WOME, ees 61 05 | 8 09} Hansteen ........ 1821|| 1-454 LoL eee 62 57 | 11 18} Hansteen ........|1825)| 1°452 67 15 | 13 55] Keilhau.......... 1827)| 1451 bar er ey av 74 55 | 14 50) Keilhan . 1827|| 1-496 bergen, . Whale’sHead.. (| “7 29 | 17 00| Keilhau.......... 1827] 1°539 romsoe ...... 69 38 | 18 55) Keilhau... 1827|| 1515 is 69 54 | 20 45) Keilhau . 1827|| 1-467 | Talvig 2 ae 70 02 | 22 48) Keilhau.......... 1827|| 1-512 \* ] Havoe Sund . 70 57 | 23 19| Keilhau.......... 1827|| 1-476 | Migoe sci... 71 06 | 24 03] Keilhau.......... (1827|| 1°517 Mageroe ...... 71 01 | 26 01) Keilhau ..........{1827)| 1°500, amerfest . ..| 70 40 | 23 46) Sabine ..... 1823)| 1-506 . ; ry) a Metihan ) Sh bec .s. 1827|| 1°461 ‘ 66 16 | 23 47| Hansteen ........ 1825|| 1-464 ey seee....| 64 41 | 24 20) Hansteen ......-. 1825)]| 1:455 [Lebbesbye...... 70 37 | 26 45) Keilhau.......... 1827] 1:465 feMehavn,....... 71 06 | 27 58) Keilhau.......... 1827)| 1496 aleboton ...... 70 12 | 28 10) Keilhau .......-... 1827|| 1°491 ae ent 71 00 | 28 30) Keilhau .......... |1827|| | 1°487 ae 70 54 | 29 11\ Keilhau ..........|1827]| 1:460 Eide. ve | 00 TO (ROSSER eliftan i es 1827|| 1469 ie} ‘ o ‘ * Mean, 3 stations 85 41 237 06 1-583 | Mean, 8 stations 84 84 288 27 1°585 Mean, 6 stations 70 26 22 38 1:498 Mean, 6 stations 70 40 28 23 1:478 4s SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Station. Lat. Long. Observer. Wardhuus ........ 70 93 | 31 07\Keilhau . Miteschka ........| 56 13 | 49 54/Erman. ae ; ra RE ro ; a Hisinte he Dueae ct LUC ee eed Sr 56 41 | 50 30/Erman.....:...... Pte Th, A 5» |Hansteen & Due.... Roach . ere fh oe 57 08 | 51 52\/Erman.. =. os Feb sh. eee = $s Hansteen & Due... Sa teeter oS] 84 4) Pome s Banta we ee ESSE Chae Renee 99 »» |Hansteen & Due.... Dubrowa ........ 57 42 |. 54/S0iErman..2.40-.. 6.0. 3 eee bs » |Hansteen & Due.... Ouhenskee res). 57 00 | 56 00\Hansteen & Due.... Perm earch. 58 01 | 56 14\Hansteen & Due.... cae Re Sao ” ” Erman.. 08, Ue Reinaown, Se fh eal ai cee oO neg Hansteen ‘& Dac. t Veuee aie Tee as ao ia EAD Ce eee ate ee rere Hikawi MGS ed 8 56 53 | 57 26\Hansteen & Due.... S A i hols 5 SF | EPMAD ees. |. \s..ceelon es Kirgischansk ....| 56 50 | 59 06/Hansteen & Due... a Bend np ho wikureaan +; . 2 ae Meashwalees tte o 52 58 17 | 59 43 Hansteen & Due. sine POR ” » |Erman.. Aint eee N. Tagilsk . A AREY 57 55 | 59 54/Hansteen & Due.... Bogoslowsk ...... 59 49 | 59 55 Erman. . Lone Berne 221 ” ” Hansteen & Due. im Ekaterinenburg. 2 56 58 GO, 34 Erman. 2.28 .i.03. < ee ” ” Hansteen: & Dae. ake Werchoturie ...... 58 52 | 60 46/Erman............ of MERE See See ” » |Hansteen & Due.... Bjelieska.......... 56 50 | 61 56\/Erman............ * pCRee > > eRe ” » |Hansteen & Due.... SOBRE Wise hl. ac. 57 00 | 63 44/Erman............ OB. 4 > Ae » » |Hansteen & Due.... Tvanen Abad). | Og AO boned Brmnn.£) A osc. os CR Ey. aN ee » » |Hansteen & Due... Meshing Turinsk.... Hansteen & Due... CinloweiGe hi. <5: Hansteen & Due.... Semipalatinsk...... 50 24 | 80 21/Hansteen ........ Natschika ........ 53 06 |158 .15|Erman............ St. Peter and St.Paul] 53 00 |158 40/Erman............ Kosuirewsk ......| 55 52 |159 34/Erman............ Chartschinsk...... 56 31 {160 43/Erman....,....... Telowisa me aie aren 56 54 |160 55|Erman............ Kuruginski........ 58 34 {163 27|Liitke ............ 1828 AP Seay. eoees| 40 28 [213 25)Liitke 055. ow 20 oe ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. Station ' Lat. Long. Observer. n Island 19 14 |278 55Sabine......... fre ines 38 39 |332 47 Fitz ay ae Se Ce 1836 OS ae 74 32 |341 10 Sabine. . 1823, gee ars fe °° (Bekkervig Bes ith 60 01 | Bergen ........ ) Ullensvang ? Leierdal........ 61 10 ed ee ere eens Pe a ey You. Min. LS37. * Mean, 6 stations + Mean, 5 stations + Mean, 6 stations 4 20/Quetelet ......--.- ee PRUGDEED.. oui. s/s = 5 10)Hansteen........-- 1821 5 17|Hamsteen.........- 1821 6 38\Hansteen........-- 1821) 7 50\Hansteen........-- 1821, 8 14\Hansteen’......... |1821 8 37|Hansteen........-- 1821 8 37\Quetelet ....... ... (1829) 9 04|Humboldt& G. ee 1806 8 48)Hansteen........-- 1821 9 20\Hansteen.......... 1821 9 32\Hansteen.......... {1822 9 40)/Hansteen.......... 1820 9 54/Hansteen.........- 1822 9 20\Hansteen.........- 1824 9 55|Hansteen.........- 1824 9 55|Humboldt& G. Lussac Bat »» (Quetelet . .. {1829 y |*AUAaHETH .. ~ eee es oe ae 9 56\Hansteen.........- 1824 9 58|Hansteen........-- 1821 10 10|/Hansteen.......... 1825 10 13|Hansteen.......... {1823 10 31|/Hansteen.......... 1821 10 32\Hansteen.......... 1821 10 37|Hansteen.......... 1825 10 14|Hansteen.........- 1824 10 19|Hansteen.......... 1824 10 25\Sabine...... eae 1823 1825 » |iansteen..:......- 10 45)/Hansteen.......... 7 1-416 5913 927 ~~ «1-401 6011 1020 1°414 LE 49 Da Intensity. 1-450 1:457 - 15543 1°411 1422 1-426 1:419 1-406 1°414 1°358 1°357 1°416 1°405 1°373 1°414 1°398 1°385 1°381 1°348 1°365 1°349 1°367. 1°425 1°415 1°377 1°423 1°422 1:425 1384 1-365 1-442 1-430 1°419 50 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Station. | Lat. Long. Observer. Date. Intensity. | Elleden........ 59 19 | 10 40\Hansteen.......... 1822 1-384 | peer eas Es, 59 32 | 10 45|/Hansteen.......... 1822) 1-383 4 *< Skieberg ...... 59 14 | 11 11/Hansteen.......... 1822|| 1-:372 4 Fredericshall....| 59 01 | 11 30!/Hansteen and Due. . 1828] 1+387 Altorp ........| 58 53 | 12 14|Hansteen.......... 11822) 1°389 IRENE sens) fase 61 06 | 10 34\Hansteen........../1821]| 1-431 | Nebye SR RIT ES: 62 18 | 10 58/Hansteen.......... 1825]| 1-423 | + ; Biornestad...... 61 03 | 11 28\Hansteen.......... 1825|| 1-423 4 | Roraas ethers 62 34 | 11 35)Hansteen.......... 1825|| 1:440 | Crrandspg,.;...... 60 56 | 11 35\Hansteen:. ..;...... 1825| 1:440 Fredericshavn ..| 57 27 | 10 33/Hansteen.......... 1824) 1-384 ‘ pees .---| 57 42 | 10 58)Hansteen.......... 1819) 1°383 Quistrum ...... 58 27 | 11 45|Hansteen.......... 1819) 1407 Odensala ......| 57 26 | 12 03\Hansteen.......... 1822) 1°:367 | Wennersborg....| 58 22 | 12 17\Hansteen & Due.... |1828]| 1°381 | Saba s soaps e--.| 63 42 | 12 12/Hansteen..........|1825]| 1-423 @ BORE Ateneo 5 2. 55 27 | 11 54/Hansteen........../1820)) 1°384 | §J Fredericsberg ..| 55 56 | 12 18|Hansteen........../1820|| 1-403 Helsingberg ....| 56 03 | 12 43/Hansteen.......... 1820] 1-378 Copenhagen ....| 55 41 | 12 55/Hansteen.. ..|1820] 1-367 4 Leinsie: Wiaas. 2: 51 20 | 12 22\Keilhau & Boeck .. 1826] 1-359 | WED (a Sabet ccs a Queteletie. sae 4s 32 1829] 1-363 q Magnar i vasis.... 59 57 12 29 Hansteen. . . |1825]| 1-420 Berlin ..........| 52 31 | 13 22|Humboldt&G. ‘Lussae 1806] 1-370 eae rt ee . MPT “54 Tae i en 1828|| 1-367 eaesl. D2 . » |Quetelet ........../1829]| 1°367 | Dredien .. ...| 51 02 | 13 43/Quetelet ........../1829|/ 1-366 Ystad...... iG Eis. ce | OO CO ehe OOMITICHSelie: ye .... (1824) 1°374 Carlstad..,..:°. 59 23 | 13 26|Hansteen,......... 1825|| 1-378 |< Mariestad .... .. 58 40 | 13 50/Hansteen & Due... . 1828) 1-381 Lincoping ...... 58 26 | 15 38/Hansteen & Due.... 1828] 1-356 Casnieath “thee. 05): 51 46 | 15 57|Erichsen .......... 1824) 1-351 Oestersund...... 63 10 | 14 32)Hansteen....,..... 1825) 1:434 Grimnas........| 62 50 | 15 10)/Hansteen.......... 1825]) 1:427 RE Ce ae G2 29 | 16 @ [eansteen,....... 2. 1825|| 1:422 Sundswall...... 62 22 | 17 16\Hansteen.......... 1825], 1:415 | Hernosand...... 62 38 | 17 53\Hansteen.......... 1825|| 1°42] © * Mean, 5 stations 59 12 11 16 1-383 4 + Mean, 5 stations 61 35 11 16 1-431 i + Mean, 5 stations 57 58 11 31 1-384 § Mean, 4 stations 55 47 12 28 1:383 || Mean, 8 stations 58 50 14 18 1:372 4 4 Mean, 5 stations 62 42 16 10 1-424 ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 51 Lat. | Long. Observer. Date.|| Intensity. 59 15 | 17 50\Keilhau .......... 1827|| 1-444 59 20 | 18 04)Hansteen.......... 1825]| 1-392 ” » |Hansteen & Due....|1828)| 1°386 Se MMT ESATL 5 We cE» es avcress 1828] 1-386 iH 9 |Rudberg.......... 1832|| 1°382 54 21 | 18 38/Erichsen.......... 1824)| 1°374 63 49 | 20 12|Hansteen.......... 1825|| 1°413 54 43 | 20 30/Erman.......... .. |1826|) 1°365 62 17 | 21 22|)Hansteen,...... .... |1825]| 1:406 65 19 | 21 29|Hansteen...,.,....{/1825]} 1°448 63 04 | 21 42/Hansteen.....,.... |1825)| 1°448 61 29 | 21 46|Hansteen.......... 1825)| 1-400 60 27 | 22 18}Hansteen........., |1825|| 1389 63 38 | 22 51\Hansteen,......... 1825)| 1:414 65 50 | 24 15|Hansteen.......... 1825) 1+445 65 00 | 25 30|Hansteen, . ...|1825]} 1-440 59 56 | 30 18|Hansteen & Due... . |1828)| 1-410 59.15 OR 2aiErmiah i. dt. i es es 1828) 1:427 » » |Hansteen & Due... .|1828)} 1°417 58 31 | 31 19/Erman............ 1828), 1-412 » » |Hansteen & Due....|1828]| 1:412 57 55 | 33 10)/Erman.......... . . |1828]) 1-416 » » |Hansteen & Due....|1828] 1:416 57 35 | 34 40/Erman, . .. +. {1828}, 1417 ” » |Hansteen & Due. . . .|1828]| 1-395 56 52 | 35 57|/Erman,....,...... 1828] 1-398 » » |Hansteen & Due.... |1828)) 1:397 55 46 | 37 36|Erman.,...... ... 1828] 1-408 - 5, |Hansteen & Due. . . . [1828 _ 1401 55 41 | 38 35|Hansteen & Due... . |!828||° 1-399 ” ” E RAS (ude wl osc gfe 1828 1-411 55 59 | 39 59|Hansteen & Due.... |1828) 1-409 ” ” E Syeta: dadee Riscdts © 1828 1:463 55 35 | 41 12\Hansteen & Due.... |1828| 1436 » ee AMATO. Kd wih , {1828} 1-433 55 54 | 42 26|Hansteen & Bue. _ |1828)| 1-423 56 09 | 43 34\/Erman.. _... [1828] 1-434 » ” Hansteen. & Due. ...{1828]| 1:400 56 19 | 43 57|Erman,........... 1828)) 1:442 ” » |Hansteen & Due....|1828]| 1-408 56 06 | 45 48)/Erman...... we, Shanes 1828] 1:435 PY » |Hansteen & Due..../|1828)| 1°431 55 44 | 48 09/Erman............ 1828)} 1°450 ss » |Hansteen & Due... .|1828)| 1-428 E2 52 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. a Station. Lat. | Long. ” Observer. Date.|| Intensity. | Kasan.........-..| 55 48 | 49 O7/Erman............ 1828] 1-440 Rear fs cies BP c's - » |Hansteen & Due....|1828)) 1425 (lo i a ea 51 11 | 51 22)Hansteen.,........ 1829] 1°398 Kitnpen 35. .---|.49 05 | 52 00)Hansteen.......... 1829], 1°370 Orenburg ........|.51 45 | 55 06)/Hansteen.......... 1829] 1-432 ie Ee iat 54 45 | 56 00 Hansteen.......... 1829) 1-469 Ha yeme ois! a oF 23 09 277 38\Humboldt ........ 1801)| 1*351 DO iets. Be SUMRUANIG ots Pst ee 1822]| 1*492 — JSMIBIGD iid os os 17 56 |283 O6/Sabine............ 1822|| 1:436— Madeira yy io)... os 32 3S) 1343 sO4 Sabine wate creel 2 oe o's 1822|| 1°373 7 a Sl 9 Lear - ain | at abe c 1826), 1°377 Ireland. By 301) 53 95 |352 o5|Lloyd & Sabi 1835|| 1-410 stations ...... ea eey Bre ae aaa aes fewee he 56 27 355 35\Sabine............ 1836] 1-414 | Stromness ........ TPR YS Rie S10 2) 1836]| 1°419 MGKEA: waits. sac GO O9 lps ASipabine 24.53. 0 oc oc 1818]| 1°443 © Lamon Gcncr... >. 51 31 |359 50|Sabine............|1827]| 1-372 4 § 6. Intensities from 1°35 to 1:25, . | Valencia ...... 39 29 |359 36|Humboldt ........ 1798) 1-241 Cambrlg; +5. 40 55 | 0 46)Humboldt ......../1798) 1°305 m< Barcelona ...... 41 23} 2 12)Humboldt ........ 1798} 1-348 PABELONG So). +s 41 52 | 2 48\Humboldt ........ 1798} 1-209 LPerpignan......| 42 43 | 2 57|/Humboldt ........ 1798, 1:381 AGS Fade tou os ¥%s 48 52 | 2 21\/Humboldt ........ 1800} 1°348 — Montpellier ....| 43 36 3 53)Humboldt ........ 1798} 1°348 © +< Nismes ...... ../ 43 50 | 4 20!/Humboldt ......../1798| 1:294 | wen at eke 43 18 | 5 23\Humboldt ........ 1798) 1-294 Me VOnS pis a ass 45 46 | 4 52, Humboldt&G. Lussace 1805) 1-333 — t< St. Michel......| 45 23 Humboldt & G. Lussac 1805] 1°349 © \s Cenis ......| 45 14 | 6 55 Humboldt& G.Lussac1805)} 1:344 © Geneva ........ 4612} 6 07\Quetelet ...... ... (1830) 1-292 | 54 Gd. St. Bernard.. | 45 55 7 11\Quetelet .. 2.2.00... 1830} 1:294 — Lanslebourg ...... 45 18 |Humboldt& G.Lussac1805)) 1°323 — * Mean, 5 stations 41 16 1 do 1:296 + Mean, 3 stations 43 35 4 32 1312 t~ Mean, 3 stations 45 28 5. 53 1°342 ! § Mean, 2 stations 46 08 6 39 1-293 ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 53 Intensity. Lat. Long. Observer. Date.|| Intensity. Os 45 04) 7 42\Humboldt& G.Lussac|1805|| 1-336- St. Gothard 46 32 8 33/Humboldt&G. Lussac/1805]} 1-314 BRA) oa) 5 46 4] 8 32)/Humboldt& G. Lussac}1805]| 1-325 ie Re eo ok 45 48 | 9 06)/Humboldt&G.Lussac/1805|| 1-310 a 45 28 | 9 09/Humboldt& G. Lussac|1805|| 1-312 aa > Mu ouerelet ik 6525. 1830) 1-294 Bema ON 43 46 | 11 15)Humboldt&G.Lussac|1805|| 1:278 =) 5 Seal 48 08 | 11 34;/Erman............{1826/ 1:339 BAAR dss a a8 41) 54 | 12 26|/Humboldt& G. Lussac}1805]} 1-264 ee 49 58 | 12 52\Keilhau & Boeck ..|1826)) 1:334 Marieste......... 45 38 | 13 47\Keilhau & Boeck ../1826|) 1:317 Lohitsch ...... 45 55 | 14 13/Keilhau & Boeck ../1826/ 1:314 PA os a 40 50 | 14 14;/Humboldt& G. Lussac]1805)| 1°274 ke 50 05 | 14 27/Keilhau ..........{1826]| 1:332 2S ee 47 04 | 15 27\Keilhau& Boeck ....|1826)| 1:327 weseeese| 49 23 | 15 36)Keilhau& Boeck .. ..|1826|| 1-319 Mienna)......:... 48 13 | 16 23\Keilhau& Boeck ....|1826|| 1-325 Biaief........ 46 58 | 32 Ol\/Kupffer .......... 1829|| 1:275 2 tes 47 12 38 58 Kupffer ........../1829] 1°308 ae 45 03 | 42 01 Kupffer Wah wore toys 1829|| 1°327 ee of Malka 43 45 | 42 30 Kupffer aS SRE ee 1829|| 1°302 rachan ........ 46 20 | 48 00/Hansteen.......... 1830] 1-334 Bas. ....| 13 39 {311 50|/Humboldt ......../1799|| 1:256 US 20 41 |335 08)\Humboldt ......../1799|| 1:256 BUREN e535. 2 28 27 |343 45)Humboldt ......../1798)| 1:272 BRAG sk se ” » |Freycinet.......... 1817] 1:340 aMeOM ES ve e's 6 ” ” Sabine 26.02... ‘ 1822)| 1:313 AS Sees 43 29 |351 46/Humboldt ......,.{/1799|| 1-262 Ville el Pando . 41 58 |354 33)Humboldt ........ 1799|| 1:294 Medina del Campo} 41 24 |355 16/Humboldt ........ 1799] 1°:294 uadarama 40 39 |355 52;Humboldt ........ 1799) 1:294 la Franca 42 37 |855 59|Humboldt ........ 1799|| 1:294 BGs PRE ENS A) 25 1356 19|Humboldt . 1799}| -1-294 * Mean, 4 stations 46 00 8 38 1:321 + Mean, 2 stations 45 45 14 00 1315 t Mean, 3 stations 48 13 15 49 1:324 § Mean, 6 stations 41 45 354 58 1:290 54 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. § 7. Intensities from 1:25 to 1:15. Station. Long. Observer. Port William...... 87 00 | 38 00Estcourt .......... 1836 Bessbra Wiese ce. 0 20 | 47 36\Estcourt ...... o.- {1836 AniiSea hak. sacieh aA OF (PHO (OSlItitke 6 eens 1827 Carthagena........ 10 25 |285 31;Humboldt ........ 1801, Mompox ...... 9 14 285 34;Humboldt ........ 1801 Morales,....... 8 15 |286 0 |Humboldt ........ 1801, Nueva Valencia..| 10 10 |291 47/Humboldt ........ 1800. Hac. de Cura....| 10 16 |292 06;Humboldt ........ 1800 Wictoriae sf... 2 10 14 292 30,\Humboldt ........ 1800 + Hac. de Tui ....| 10 17 |292 34;Humboldt ........ 1800 1 Venta di Avila ..| 10 33 |292 53;Humboldt ........ 1800 La Guayra...... 10 36 292 54;Humboldt . 1800 Caracas........ 10 31 |292 56;Humboldt ........ 1800 { Silla de Curacas.. | 10 31 |292 59/Humboldt ........ 1800 fCumana........ 10 28 |295 51)Humboldt “ 1800 | Il Impossibile 10 26 \295 55|Humboldt ........ 1800 T< ‘ te “s; * ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 71 are in the longitude of 35° and 140°; in the curve of intensity, in those of 20° and 175°. The Siberian portion of the inten- sity curve bears consequently a larger proportion to the whole area of that curve, than the Siberian portion of the dip-curve does to its total area. From the general resemblance of the several lines of dip to each other, and of the several lines of intensity to each other,—the characteristics of each being - always marked, though gradually softening as they approach the middle regions of the globe,—the features of distinction which are thus strongly marked in the curves compared by M. Erman, must exist also in a greater or less degree in many. Here, then, is another striking and systematic difference in the two species of magnetic lines*. 2. The lines of intensity in the northern hemisphere system- atically indicate the existence of two centres of attraction of unequal force. The examination of the graphical representation of these lines in the maps will convey a clearer apprehension of this systematic indication than a lengthened verbal description. The higher the values of the intensity of each isodynamic line, —in other words, the nearer the lines approach the centres of attraction,—the more unequivocal is their testimony. The smaller areas included by the curves in the Siberian quarter mark the less extensive influence and inferior power of the Siberian centre. Looking next at the values of the intensities represented by the lines, we find in the neighbourhood of New York, a portion of a line of 1:8, to which there is no equiva- lent in Asia. The highest intensity there is 1°76, observed by Lieut Due at Viluisk, which M. Hansteen believes, and with great probability, derived from the configuration of the lines, to be the highest existing in that quarter. It is improbable, moreover, that the greatest intensity in the American quarter should be found so far south as New York; the configuration of the lines, as shown particularly in the north polar map, in- dicates the maximum to be nearer Hudson’s Bay}. * M. Erman remarks that the difference is of that character which would appear to indicate for the Asiatic centre a less depth beneath the surface than the American. + Since the above was written, the first number has reached London of the Observations Météorologiques et Magnétiques faites dans l’étendue de l' Empire de Russie, which have been confided to the editorship of M. Kupffer. In the introduction we have a formal recognition of the existence of the Siberian pole. “La Russie est aussi la terre classique du magnétisme terrestre. Il y aun pole magnétique dans le nord de la Siberie.” 72 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 3. The two centres of magnetic attraction in the northern hemisphere are not at opposite points ; in other words, the dif- ference of geographical longitude between them is not 180°, measured both ways. This is also best evidenced by inspection. Their distances apart are more nearly 200° measured across Greenland and Norway; and 160° across Behring’s Strait. 4. The magnetic intensity is unsymmetrically distributed in the meridians of the northern hemisphere. This is a consequence of the two centres being nearer to each other in the one direction than in the other. If we imagine the hemisphere to be divided into two equal sections, by a plane coinciding with the meridians of 100° and 280° (Plate V.), the American division, which we may call the western sec- tion, will contain both centres of attraction, and a higher mea- sure of intensity will be seen to be spread over its meridians than in the corresponding latitudes in the eastern section. Thus we find, that in 150 meridians, or in five-sixths of the eastern section, no intensity of so high a value as 17 has been found within the range of observation, and probably does not exist ; whilst in the western section there is not a single me- ridian in which a higher intensity than 1°7 is not found. Europe is situated nearly midway between the centres at their widest separation, and we find that throughout Europe (with possibly the exception of its S.W. extremity in Spain), the magnetic intensity is weaker in every latitude than in the same parallels elsewhere in any other part of the hemisphere. 5. The lines of intensity in the southern hemisphere havea general analogy with those in the northern hemisphere. The materials from whence conclusions may be drawn are fewer in the southern than in the northern hemisphere; but aided by our acquaintance with the magnetic system and dis- tribution in the latter, we are enabled to trace the general analogy of the two hemispheres, though the particular con- clusions in the case of the southern must necessarily be less determinate and exact than those we have hitherto discussed. We have already seen that the lines of dip and force depart from parallelism with each other even more in this hemisphere than in the northern. We may also perceive in the portions of the curves, which observations have as yet enabled us to trace, evidence of the same double flexure which in the other hemi- sphere we have seen to be characteristic of two centres of governing influence, The radii vectores carried from the south ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 73 geographical pole would have also two maxima and two minima. The New Holland curves inclose larger areas than the South American, indicating that the centre to which they more espe- cially belong is more powerful than the other. We have another indication of the same fact in the appearance in Van Diemen’s Land of an intensity exceeding 1°8, which in the other hemi- sphere we have seen to characterise distinctively the centre of primary influence. The coincidence in this respect in the two hemispheres is very striking ; not only is the highest intensity . yet observed in the one, (1°80 at New York,) matched by the nearly identical value of 1°82 at Hobart Town, but the geogra- phical latitudes of the two observations are also nearly identical, New York being in 40° 43' N. and Hobart Town in 42° 53'S. ; both being unexpectedly low latitudes in which to find such high intensities. With regard to the geographical positions of the centres in the southern hemisphere, the observations are yet too few and too distant from them to admit of their localities being assigned with any fair degree of approximation ; but by com- paring the observations in Southern Africa, and on the east coast of South America, with those of the corresponding paral- lels in the better known hemisphere, we are able to infer with considerable probability, that the southern centres are not only not in opposite points of the hemisphere,—that is to say, distant 180 degrees of longitude from each other, measured both ways,—but that they are nearer to each other in the one diree- tion, and more distant in the other, than is the case with the centres of the northern hemisphere. We have seen that in the meridians of Europe, where the northern centres are widest apart, the lower intensities extend. greatly northward, occupy- ing latitudes which in all other parts of the hemisphere possess a higher intensity. In the southern the same thing takes place, but in greater degree. ‘The line of unity, once thought to be the minimum intensity on the globe, is found on either side the Atlantic in south latitudes exceeding 30°; whence we may conclude that in the higher latitudes of the southern Atlantic, a much lower intensity prevails generally than the lowest inten- sities in the same latitudes in the northern hemisphere; eviden- cing that the space between the influential centres is wider in that quarter of the southern, than in the corresponding quarter of the northern hemisphere. The converse of this should be found in the Pacific section. As the southerly inflection of the lines of low intensity in the South Atlantic is the greatest, so should their southerly in- flexion in the opposite section of the hemisphere be the least, of the inflections which these lines undergo in either hemi- 74 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. sphere. The observations by which this inference might be confirmed are few, but none give a contrary indication. Every observation in the South Pacific section shows that a higher intensity prevails there than in equal latitudes in the North Pacific section; and, as far as the lines can yet be traced from the observations, the inflection in the South Pacific does ap- pear to be the least marked in character, and to extend over the fewest meridians. It is of course the lines of higher in- tensity which would afford the more decisive evidence, because their characteristics are more marked; but the authorities for these are few in the part of the space between New Zealand and South America, where they could most illustrate the point in question. In review, we conclude, therefore, that, as far as observa- tions have yet been made in the southern hemisphere, they accord with a system analogous to that in the northern, of two - centres, of unequal force, and at unequal distances apart. The observations further render it probable, that the distances be- tween the centres are still more unequal in the southern than in the northern hemisphere. Admitting the small difference of distribution from this cause, there does not appear reason to suppose that there is any general inequality in the magnetic charge of the two hemispheres ; on the contrary, there is every appearance that they have the same. 6. If the globe be divided into an eastern and a western hemisphere by a plane, coinciding with the meridians of 100° and 280°, the western hemisphere, or that comprising the Americas and the Pacific Ocean, has a much higher mag- netic intensity distributed generally over its surface, than the eastern hemisphere, containing Europe and Africa and the adjacent part of the Atlantic Ocean. This is a corollary from (4) and (5) rather than a distinct proposition. The four centres being in the western hemisphere a higher intensity will prevail generally in its meridians; and this is accordant with the whole body of observations distri- buted over the globe (Plate V). The equality of the magnetic charge in the northern and southern hemispheres and its inequality in the eastern and western, are important features of the magnetic system mani- fested by the observations of intensity. %. The distribution of the intensity in the intertropical re- gions is accordant with the conclusions already drawn, of two governing centres in each hemisphere. As the lines of higher intensity are those which have the ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 75 characteristics of the system most strongly marked, I have chiefly employed them, where observations would permit, in describing its general features. The characteristics soften gradually as the distance increases from the governing cen- tres; but even in the intertropical regions the distribution of the intensity and the arrangement of the lines contribute their testimony to the same system. I have nowhere attempted to assign the precise geographical positions of the centres ; and in regard to those of the southern hemisphere especially, have expressly stated, that the facts yet acquired would not enable this to be done within fair limits of approximation. Thus much, however, may be safely said in regard to them, that the primary in the southern, and the secondary in the northern, are at the present time not far from the same meridian; and that the primary in the northern, and the secondary in the southern, are similarly situated, except that their difference of longitude is somewhat greater. If we respectively connect the centres, which thus approximate in longitude, by lines on the globe crossing the equator, the lines will mark those localities within the tropics where the influence of the cen- tres should produce a higher intensity than elsewhere in the same latitudes. Thus we should have two maxima in the _ intertropical regions; and these should not be in opposite me- aera SA ake and ~ ridians, because the centres are unsymmetrical. Such is ac- tually the distribution of the intensity in these regions. The isodynamic lines which represent unity are the weakest which run unbroken round the globe, and appear twice in every me- ridian; these approach each other in the meridians of 110° and 260°, whilst, intermediately, they recede from each other, and inclose spaces occupied by a still weaker intensity; the largest of these spaces, corresponding to the widest interval between the centres, is of 210 degrees of longitude, and the smallest of 150 degrees. In the middle of the largest, as the point most distant from all the four centres, we should expect to find the weakest intensity existing anywhere at the surface of the globe; and accordingly at St. Helena, which is nearly in that situation, the intensity observed by Captain Fitz Roy, 0°84, is the lowest determination recorded in this report, and is the locality of the weakest intensity yet observed on the globe. Between St. Helena and the lines of unity on either side, we should have a line representing the value of 0°9, a part of which has been extremely well determined by concurrent ob- _ servations. This line, being comprehended by the lines of unity, is necessarily a closed one. Observations are yet want- ing to show whether the intensity descends as low as 0°8 in the 76 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. middle of the larger space, or as 0°9 in the smaller space, which has its locality in the Pacific*. We may also trace in the intertropical regions another con- sequence of the inequality of force of the primary and secondary centres. Where the lines of unity approach each other in the Pacific, the primary is to the north, the secondary to the south; the latitude in which the lines approach is consequently to the south of the equator. In the Indian Sea the primary is to the south, and the secondary to the north ; and here the latitude in which the lines of unity approach each other is to the north of the equator. Every geographical meridian has a point of minimum inten- sity ; if these points in different meridians were connected by a line, that line would separate the intensities of the northern from those of the southern magnetic hemisphere. It would be in some respects analogous to the line of no dip, but it would not be aline of equal intensity, as it would consist of intensities va- rying from unity to the lowest on the globe. Such a line traced on the map is found to differ very considerably in geographical position from the line of no dip. 8. The geographical position of the maximum of intensity in the North American quarter is not the same with that of the maximum of dip, or with that of the point of convergence of the variation lines. It will be necessary here to enter into rather more precise geographical positions than we have hitherto done. In regard to the maximum of dip we cannot err widely in taking the lati- tude and longitude where Capt. James Ross observed the dip of 89° 59! in 1831, viz. 70° N. and 263° E. That this is also very nearly the spot to which the variation lines converge may be shown abundantly by the observations made in the different polar voyages by sea and land}. It is marked by an asterisk * Since the above was written Mr. Erman’s sea observations have been re- ceived ; he crossed the space in the Atlantic included by the line of 0-9 some degrees to the west of St. Helena, and, midway between the north and south portions of that line, found the intensity diminished below 0°8. Captain Fitz Roy’s observation at St. Helena is consequently no longer the lowest observed on the globe; and it is probable that even a lower intensity than was observed by M. Erman would be found a few degrees to the south of St. Helena, and nearly in the meridian of that island. + M. Hansteen, who has brought together the observations of dip and va- riation made in the different polar voyages, finds that the variations observed to the north of the latitude in which the dip is 90° and in the vicinity of that dip, converge to a point alittle to the north of thatlatitude ; and conversely, that the variations observed to the south converge to a point south of that latitude; or, more exactly, that the curves of highest dip are ellipses, having theirgreater axes —— abe CS 5 pee’ we ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 7? in the North Polar map annexed to this report. If the reader will nowrefer tothat map (PlateIV.), he willsee that this position will by no means accord with that which the observations point out for the maximum of intensity. We are not, indeed, enabled to assign the position of the latter as nearly as in the case of the dip; but it must clearly be in a much lower latitude. The intensities observed in Baffin’s Bay and the Polar Sea have all a much lower value than at New York; and the general configuration of the lines of intensity would rather point to a maximum in the vicinity of the shores of Hudson’s Bay. ‘This remarkable feature of the system was first brought to notice in the account of my magnetic observations published in 1825*. Ina point of so much interest, it is natural to in- quire whether there is any indication of a similar separation at the principal pole of the opposite hemisphere. Observations as yet do not enable us to assign with sufficient approxima- tion the places of the maxima in that quarter; but we are in possession of a leading fact, which, by its complete analogy with the phenomena at New York, gives strong ground for believing that in the southern hemisphere also the places of the maxima of the two phznomena are distinct. Ihave already noticed the almost identity of the force at Hobart Town and NewYork, under nearly equal geographical latitudes; but there is yet another feature which completes the analogy, and bears directly on the point now treated of. At New York we have the highest intensity of the northern hemisphere, 1°80, with a dip of 73° 07’; at Hobart Town the highest intensity of the southern hemisphere, 1°82, with a’dip of 70° 35’. In both hemi- spheres the highest intensity united with a comparatively low dip. Nor in that quarter is Hobart Town a solitary instance of in a north-west and south-east direction, and that the variation lines converge not to the point of 90° but to points in this axis. Small differences of position, however, have no effect on the reasoning in the text. - * It has been viewed by M. Kupffer as having a direct and important bear- _ ing on the very interesting question of the physical nature of the magnetism of the earth. In the Ann. der Physik, vol. xv., after describing the course of the isogeothermal lines (or lines of equal temperature of the earth at 25 metres be- low its surface) between the meridians of 80° west aud 60° east of Paris, he has discussed the influence which the facts represented by those lines should have on the magnetic dip and force, in the case of the earth’s magnetism being superficial and induced. The differences of surface temperature affecting the intensity but not the dip would cause the isoclinal and isodynamic lines to se- parate where otherwise they might have been accordant; and would especially separate the places of the maxima, causing the maximum of intensity to be in the lower latitude. M. Kupffer considers the fact of their being thus separated _ as giving probability to the aforesaid view of the physical nature of the earth’s _ magnetism. 78 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. high intensity with comparatively low dip; at King George’s Sound and Sydney, in 34° and 35° south latitude, Captain Fitz Roy found intensities of 1°71 and 1°68 with dips of 64° 41’ and 62° 29’. Should such a separation exist at the secondary centres, it cannot be expected to be of so striking a character. I wish not to anticipate the more able discussion which we may ex- pect on this point from M. Hansteen, whose long and arduous journeys were undertaken expressly to determine with exact- ness all the phenomena of the Siberian pole. I will confine myself, therefore, to noticing his remark already referred to, that he believes the intensity observed at Viluisk to be the highest intensity existing in Siberia. Should this be so, the highest intensity in that quarter is certainly not in the same locality as the highest dip*. Our knowledge of the phenomena in the neighbourhood of the secondary centre in the southern hemisphere is not suffi- cient to throw any light on this question. With regard to the direction which the lines of higher intensity may be conceived to take around their maxima in the northern hemisphere, we should infer from the observations that the line representing 1°8 must be a closed curve around the North American maximum only; as must also be that of 1°9, supposing such to exist. The North American portion of the line of 1°7 appears also to be nearly, if not quite, a closed curve. Encompassed on the north, east, and south, by intensities of less value, the western is the only direction open for its connection with the Siberian portion of the same line. The situation of the two branches of the line of 1-7 in the west of America is marked by the ob- servations ;—the southernmost crossing the lower waters of the Columbia River,—and the northernmost between Sitka and Melville Island. Whether these branches join and form a closed curve, or whether they communicate with the Asiatic portion of the same line in some such courses as is represented by the dotted line in the polar map, observations do not yet enable us to decide. No intensity of so high a value as 1°7 has yet been observed between Sitka in 224°, and the meridian * It is much to be desired that the observations in Siberia should be still further completed by a series of determinations along the shores of the polar sea. If the view here taken be correct, these should exhibit higher dips and lower intensities than were observed at Viluisk. From the liberal support which the Russian government gives to the prosecution of magnetic inquiries we may expect that such observations will not be long wanting. ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 79 of 138° in Siberia; and it is possible that a navigator sailing from the Pacific through Behring’s Strait, and passing the Bay of St. Lawrence where Admiral. Liitke observed 1°65, might proceed to the northward having the spaces included by the closed curves of 1:7 on either side of him. The space inclosed by the curve of 1°8 possesses a very high degree of magnetic interest, and is well deserving of being traversed by observations as frequent and as accurate as those of MM. Hansteen and Erman in Siberia. The greater part of it is in the British dominion, and over a considerable portion at least convenient means of locomotion are to be found. The British Association had but to express the wish that a magnetic survey of the British Islands should be made, and it was at once responded to by some of its ownmembers. ‘The present volume contains the record of the completion of that under- taking ; and it may be permitted to one of the contributors to that work to express a hope, that the attention of the Associa- tion may now be given to the British possessions abroad. In the extensive territory under British dominion in India, not a single determination has yet, I believe, been made of the magnetic intensity, and but few of either of the other pheno- mena. From the well-known zeal of the officers of the Indian service, a recommendation in the proper quarter would speedily cover that large portion of the earth’s surface with accurate magnetic determinations. But the Canadian quarter is of pro- minent interest; a correct delineation of the lines of variation, dip, and intensity in the space included by the curve of 1°8, or _ in even a portion of that space, would have a high value in ox Rien angi ty smi ae - - ; - sya = if He >. by i s z theoretical respects. 'The accomplishment of this service is not altogether beyond the compass of individual means, and needs not, like a southern voyage, await the success of an ap- plication to Government. It requires only for its proper ex- ecution, that it should be the principal object of the person undertaking it, and that he should be provided with adequate instruments. Were the wishes of the Association expressed in regard to Canada, as they were in regard to the British Is- lands, I have little doubt that they would soon be complied with by members of their own body*. * The ground which Capt. Back traversed in his journey in search of Capt. Ross in 1833 and 1834 is of great interest as regards the magnetic intensity ; and had that officer been furnished with suitable instruments, and had it ac- corded with his other objects to have made observations in the manner of MM. eensteen and Erman at every halting-place, his results might have possessed great value. The vibrations of the dipping-needle, which he employed to measure the in- 80 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 9. The highest intensity already observed is more than twice as great as the lowest. The intensities observed at New York and Hobart Town, compared with that at St. Helena, are as 1°81 to 0°84, or as 2°16 to 1. St. Helena is not the lowest intensity; and the force at New York and Hobart Town cannot be viewed as abso- tensity, appear to have been subject to a considerable instrumental uncertainty ; and the needle lost magnetism during the absence from England to a large amount, but at what time the loss took place is not very obvious from the ob- if servations. Under these circumstances I have not felt that I could assign with y sufficient confidence the value of the intensity relatively to Europe at any of ! Capt. Back’s American stations. By grouping them, however, and comparing 4 the values of the intensity in different groups, relatively to each other only, and not relatively to Europe, we may considerably lessen the effect of the irregu- larities above mentioned, and obtain an indication, which, if we could view it as sufficiently clear from instrumental uncertainty, would possess much interest. For example, if we group neighbouring stations as in the subjoined table, and make the intensity at New York the unity of the comparison, we have as fol- ‘ lows: viz. r= Mean Station. Date| < Lat. | Long. |Time off 3 |——_—__~________ ||. Tntemm a T if . North West Vib, | & Lat. | Long. va Ther. 1833] 4, ae s. . uy = S. 3 | New York........++ Apr.| 40 42 7401 |1:2857|/69: | 4042] 7401] 1:2857 | 69 || 1-000 Fort Alexander ...|Jun.} 5037 96 21 | 1-2482| 70-5 a Cumberland House |July| 5358] 10222 | 1:2643/59-5 | 5320/10213| 1:2681 | 68 || 1-027 Isle 4 la Crosse ...... July} 5525] 10755 | 1-2969| 73:5 (a) Fort Chipewyan ...|July| 5842] 11119 | 1-3000) 95- j og Fort Resolution .../Aug.| 6110] 11345 |1-2387| 65-6 ¢ °956)11232) 12693 ) 80 | 1-035 Oct.| 6246] 10901 | 1-2750) 44- (0) i 1834 Fort Reliance «+4 (nray| is4:{ vssses [12844149 ( 6246{10901] 1-2792 | 40 || 0-9 Get.) Sake. |) Near 1-2781| 28- Musk Ox Rapid .../July| 6441] 10808 | 1-2873| 64- ‘ Rock Rapid ......... July} 6554} 9810 | 1-2800) 87- % Point Beaufort...... July| 67 41 95 02 | 1:2975| 72- 6651] 9819} 1-2838 | 70 || 1-002 Montreal Island ...|Aug.| 67 47 9518 | 1:2885] 74: (cm Point Ogle ......... Aug.| 6814] 9458 | 12656] 53- Fi Here we see that the groups (a) and (4), which have their mean position about 53° N. and 102° W., (258 east), and GO N., and 1123 W. (2473 east), have a higher intensity than the more northern group (c), which has its mean position about 67° N. and 98° W. (262 east). These groups (a) and (6) have alsoa higher intensity than that of Fort Reliance to the north, or New York to the south. New York, Fort Reliance, and the northern group (c), scarcely differ in the values of their respective intensities, This arrangement is quite conformable with the lines in the polar map. I have taken Capt. Back’s observations from Mr. Christie’s paper in the Phil. Trans. for 1836; the times of vibration at the stations in America being those contained in the table page 393, That table shows that the needle was vibrated at ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 81 lutely the highest. If we suppose the minimum to reach 0°74, (one of M. Erman’s sea observations is 0°743) and the every station with its face to the face of the instrument, and that at some of the - stations it was also vibrated in the reverse position. Where this has been done there often appears a considerable difference between the times of vibration at the same place in the two positions, which must be ascribed to instrumental defect. It does not appear to have been of the nature of a constant error in either position of the needle, as sometimes one position gives the highest inten- , Sityand sometimes theother. I have taken the twelfth column just as it stands, — that is, the times of vibration in the position which was everywhere observed, as there can be no question of the comparability of those with each other ; and T haye reduced the times of vibration to an uniform temperature by the coefli- cient which Mr. Christie found for that needle; but I have introduced no other corrections, either for loss of magnetism or on any other acconnt. I have grouped the results by taking the mean latitude, longitude, and intensity of the neigh- bouring stations, connected by brackets. If the intensities are taken from a mean of all the observations at each of the stations, including those in the reversed, as well as in the direct position of the needle, the inferences drawn above are somewhat strengthened, as is shown in the following table :— Station. Lat. Long. Time of |Ther.'| Intensity. North. East. Vib. New York ......-..] 40 42 | 285 59 | 1:2857 | 69 | 1-000 Group (a) .........| 53 20 | 257 47 | 1:2644 | 69 | 1-033 : Group (2) ......4 .| 59 56 | 247 28 12607 | 80 1:045 bo Fort Reliance..... | 62 46 | 250 59 | 1:2758 | 40 1002 Pm Group (c) .........| 66 51 | 261 41 | 1:2857 | 70 0°999 ‘* _ Mr. Christie, in combining the observations at different stations and in differ- ba ent positions of the needle, has followed a somewhat different course, and has "arrived at somewhat different conclusions. With more perfect instruments,— with observations alike complete at all the stations,—and repeated at New York as well as in London, to test the permanency of the needle’s magnetism,— _ there would not have been room for any difference of view. The only result absolutely deducible from the observations, and in which all persons must _ agree, is the comparability of the intensities at the different stations of the © northern group with each other, and with Fort Reliance ; as the observa- _ tions of May and October, 1834, show by their agreement that during _ that interval the needle underwent no change. The conclusion to be drawn from this portion of the observations, which are as strictly comparable as _ the imperfection of the instrument permits, is, that in the district which it comprises no consistent alteration takes place in the intensity. If any small alteration does take place, it would require a more delicate instrument than’ | Capt. Back was furnished with to determine it. It is in these countries that the statical method of Professor Lloyd would be _ of the greatest advantage. I have already had occasion to speak of the disad- vantage to which the method by horizontal vibrations is exposed in countries of very high dip, where every error in the dip is magnified to a high degree in __ its effect on the intensity deduced; and of the preference due in such cases to _ the vibrations of a dipping-needle. But it is well known that this latter method, _ though a trust-worthy, is far from being a delicate test of differences of mag- me VOL. VI. 18d7. G 82 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. maximum 1°85, the proportion would be 2°5 to 1. It seems probable that this is rather under than over the difference existing in the present distribution of the intensity. If the centres change their relative places, by having unequal mo- tions, both the absolute and the relative values of the max- imum and minimum must be variable. This report has already occupied so large a portion of the annual volume, that I feel the propriety of not permitting the inferences of an individual judgment to trespass further on its pages. Ihave endeavoured, to the best of my power, to place the facts themselves before the reader in such a manner, that, on the one hand, he may have no difficulty in tracing every observation to its original source,—and on the other, that by the assemblage of the results in one view, he may be enabled with the greater facility to draw his own conclusions. Having in a former report described M. Hansteen’s theory of the magnetism of the earth, and given the formule for the variation, dip, and intensity deduced from his hypothesis of two excentric axes of unequal force, it may be expected that I should conclude this report by comparing some of the observed inten- sities with the results computed by the formula. I may there- fore add a few words to show that the proper time for a detailed comparison of this kind has not yet arrived, because observa- tion is stillinarrear of theory. Until observation has supplied the materials which theory has required for the correct assign- ment of the elements of calculation, such a comparison could not be otherwise than imperfect. The geographical positions of the magnetic poles in the Magnetismus der Erde were derived from observations made between 1787 and 1800, which were insufficient to furnish them in more than a very general manner. Since that period also, changes, of the nature anticipated by M. Hansteen, appear to have taken place in the positions of the poles; which conse- quently require to be assigned afresh (as well as more cor- rectly), in order that the results computed by the formula may represent observations of a more recent date. ‘The materials proper for this purpose are observations in the vicinity of the netic intensity, even with a good instrument, on account of the shortness of the period during which the needle will continue to vibrate, and the consequent necessity of commencing with a large are of vibration. With an inferior instru- ment the limits of error are of course much wider still. In high magnetic la- titudes the statical method deserves a decided preference over the method of . horizontal vibrations, inasmuch as a moderate error of the dip will scarcely have an appreciable effect on the intensity ; and over that by verticul vibrations, inas- much asit admits of much greater exactness. he ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH, 83 magnetic poles themselves. In the northern hemisphere, these are far more ample and exact than at any former period, owing in great measure to the interest excited by the publication of M. Hansteen’s theory. But the corresponding observations in the southern hemisphere are yet wanting; and until these are supplied, we cannot advance beyond an anticipation, more or less confident, of the eventual accordance of the hypothesis, when the correct elements of calculation shall have been ob- tained ; and in this view, we may at least say thus much in re- gard to the general accordance of the hypothesis with the ob- servations of intensity, that if we omit the consideration of the higher latitudes, where the contemporaneous and correct posi- tions of the magnetic poles are most essential, the formula, even with the elements derived from the earlier and less perfect observations, both represents all the leading features of the system, and shows a fair approximation in individual cases. _ The method in which this science has progressively advanced is strikingly illustrative of a passage in Mr. Playfair’s writings, in which the distinct offices of theory and experiment, and the value of their co-operation in inductive investigation, are well described. ‘‘In physical inquiries the work of theory and ob- servation must go hand in hand, and ought to be carried on at the same time, more especially if the matter is very complicated, for then the clew of theory is necessary to direct the observer. Though a man may begin to observe without any hypothesis, he cannot continue long without seeing some general conclusion arise; and to the nascent theory it is his business to attend, because by seeking either to verify or to disprove it, he is led to new experiments and new observations. He is led also to the very experiments and observations that are of the greatest importance; namely, to those tmstancie crucis that naturally present themselves for the test of every hypothesis. By the correction of his first opinion a new approximation is made to the truth, and by the repetition of the same process certainty is finally obtained. Thus theory and observation mutually assist one another; and the spirit of system, against which there are so many and so just complaints, appears nevertheless as the animating principle of inductive investigation. The business of sound philosophy is, not to extinguish this spirit, _ but to restrain and direct its efforts. It is therefore hurtful to _ the progress of physical science to represent theory and obser- vation as standing opposed to one another.” The earlier observations of terrestrial magnetism were made _ without reference to theory. As facts accumulated general - conclusions arose. ‘Their elaborate examination conducted to G2 84 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. an hypothesis of four magnetic poles; and this, to the sugges- tion of new experiments to verify or disprove it. In the north- ern hemisphere the verification is complete, affording signal proof of the value of experiment directed by theory. A simi- lar verification in the southern hemisphere is yet wanting ; and the observations necessary for that purpose will also supply those elements of calculation whereby the hypothesis may be fitted for a detailed comparison with facts. ‘This will be the next “‘stepin the advancement of knowledge ;’—the next ‘‘ term of a series that must end whenever the real laws of nature are discovered” ;—but which, in its progression, fitly prepares the way for their discovery. i have already adverted to what the influence of the Associ- ation may effect, in causing the spaces yet vacant on the map, in the British possessions in India and Canada, to be filled. But beyond all comparison, the most important service of this kind, which this or any other country could render to this branch of science, would be by filling the void still existing in the southern hemisphere, and particularly in the vicinity of those parts of that hemisphere which are of principal magnetic in- terest. This can only be accomplished by a naval voyage; for which it is natural that other countries should look to England. That the nations that have made exertions in the same cause do look to England for it, cannot be better shown than by the following extract of a letter of M. Hansteen’s, which I take the liberty of introducing here, both for this purpose, and be- cause it expresses in so pleasing a manner, the praise that is so justly due to his own country, and which I am sure will be cordially responded to by all who cultivate science in this coun- try, and particularly by those who know the kindly feeling with which Englishmen are ever welcomed in Norway. ** C’est le Storthing (la Chambre des Députés) de la Nor- vége, qui a donné les frais 4 l’expédition en Sibérie. On a fait cela dans un tems ot on a refusé les dépenses pour un chateau de résidence pour sa Majesté a Christiania. Dans un tems, oi une telle économie a été nécessaire, il est trés honorable, qu'une Chambre, composée de toutes les classes du peuple, méme d’un grand nombre de paysans, a unanimement résolu de donner les frais pour une expédition purement scientifique, dont les résultats n’auront jamais aucune utilité économique pour la patrie, et dont on ne comprenait pas la haute valeure scientifique. Regardé les ressources trés-bornés de notre pays, c’est une générosité presque sans exemple. **Comme la petite Norvége a fourni toutes les observations entre les méridiens de Greenwich et de Ochozk, et entre les “ ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH, 85 paralléles de 40° et 75° de latitude boreale, il ne me semble pas une demande trop grande ou immodeste a |’Angleterre, si grande, si riche, si puissante, qui a nécessairement un plus grand intérét dans toutes les sciences combinées avec la navi- gation, de fournir toute la partie méridionale de la carte. Une telle entreprise doit réfléchir une splendeur ala nation, et payera a la fin les frais par des résultats aussi utiles pour les sciences que pour la navigation. I] ne faut plus dans notre tems laisser Yavancement des sciences au hasard. Par des observations fragmentaires et discontinués on a taché avec grande peine d@étudier les phénoménes magnétiques de la terre pendant deux ou trois siécles. Par deux ou trois expéditions litéraires, ar- rangées exprés pour ce but, on pourrait en peu d’années avoir une collection plus compléte, et d’une plus grande utilité pour la théorie.” The subject has in every way a claim on this country. The existence of four governing centres, and the system of the pha- nomena in correspondence therewith, was originally a British discovery. The sagacity of our countryman Halley was the first to penetrate through the complexity of the phenomena, and to discern what is now becoming generally recognised. En- gland was also the first country which sent an expedition ex- pressly for magnetic observation, namely, that of Halley in 1698 and 1699. Whilst approving and cordially co-operating in magnetic inquiries of other kinds which have their origin in other countries, it is right that we should feel a peculiar in- terest in that in which we have ourselves led the way, espe- cially when its object is subordinate to none. As the research would require to be prosecuted in the high latitudes, a familiarity with the navigation of such latitudes would be important in the person who should undertake this service; and a strong individual interest in the subject itself would be of course a most valuable qualification. I need scarcely say that the country possesses a naval officer in whom these qualifications unite in a remarkable degree with all others that are requisite ; and if fitting instruments make fitting times, none surely can be better than the present. Viewed in itself and in its various relations, the magnetism of the earth cannot be counted less than one of the most im- portant branches of the physical history of the planet we in- habit ; and we may feel quite assured, that the completion of our knowledge of its distribution on the surface of the earth, would be regarded by our cotemporaries and by posterity as a fitting enterprise of a maritime people ; and a worthy achieve- ment of a nation which has ever sought to rank foremost in every arduous and honourable undertaking. . gist Sti} Woe) 4 ‘ TESatt F + 4 gah gues as wav PY Sriaa Tete, * Hes, ye teat aed yr" Bearh a Age! hd! ney ee - Sars Report on the various modes of Printing for the use of the Blind. By the Rev, Wituiam Taytor, F.R.S. Ir must be a matter of great satisfaction and pleasure to every one, who is anxious to alleviate the misfortunes of his fellow- creatures, to find that the British Association has been pleased to take into consideration the various modes of printing in tan- gible characters for the use of the blind; a subject which has long occupied the attention of many individuals, and lately of some public societies, but which has not made much progress till within the last seven years. Now, however, under such powerful influence, it is likely to receive that attention and as- sistance which will probably bring it to the highest state of per- fection which it is capable of*. The object in view is twofold, 1st, to print such elementary books as may assist in the intellectual education of the blind, and afford them amusement and occupation during the many solitary hours which they must of necessity, especially in after life, be doomed to pass; and 2ndly, to put into their hands the word of God in such a tangible shape, that they may be able, of themselves, to “ read, mark, learn, and inwardly digest ”’ that holy book which is able to make them ‘ wise unto salvation.” When the blind are unemployed, they brood over their mis- fortunes and draw such comparisons between their condition and that of their seeing brethren, as tend to disturb their peace of mind, and often to make them discontented : what a blessing then will printing in tangible characters prove to that unfortu- ~ nate class of society, by opening to them new fields of delight, and placing within their reach treasures which otherwise they never could by their own exertions possess ! Lam sorry, however, it has not fallen to the lot of one better able to report upon this most interesting and important subject ; not that I want zeal in the cause, but on account of the difficulty of acquiring a full and accurate knowledge of what progress it has ‘made and is now making in various parts of the world. I have not spared to avail myself of such information as I could collect * The Edinburgh Society of Arts, &c. were the first, as a public body, to take up this subject in this country, and by their great and praiseworthy exertions they have not only collected much valuable information relating to printing for the use of the blind, but have ascertained the opinion of almost every per: son known to have turned his attention much to the subject, as may be seen by their excellent report published in June last. : 88 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. from the few sources which are within my reach*; but after all I shall stand in need of indulgence from those who may peruse these pages, as much valuable matter will unavoidably have escaped me, and some errors crept into the statement I have given. Origin of printing in characters in relief for the Blind. To enter into a complete history of the first rude attempts to form alphabets and to print raised characters for the use of the blind, would be uselessly to swell this report ; I shall, therefore, only briefly notice the earlier inventions, and hasten to the mo- dern improvements, which certainly have the largest claim upon our attention. So far back as the 16th century letters were cut in wood for the use of the blind; but instead of projecting as they now do, they were sunk or made hollow, on which account the fingers were unable to trace the forms of the letters unless they were of a very large size. In 1575 Rampazzetto published examples of letters carved in wood, iz relief ; but, as they were not separate, but like the stereo- typing of the present day, they were laid aside as inconvenient. In 1640 moveable characters were cast in lead at Paris by one Peter Moreau, but the expense, or difficulty of the undertaking, prevented his going on with it. Various other persons, at different times, have made characters and letters for the blind both in wood and metal, but not with much success till the year 1783, when punches were cut and matrices struck, in which characters were cast by Fournier, at the expense of M. Rouillé de |’ Etang, Treasurer of the Philan- thropic Society in Paris. These characters however, (from an erroneous notion that all objects or models for the use of the blind should be made of great dimensions), were considerably larger than was necessary or convenient; consequently a new set of punches was cut, and letters, nearly similar to those now in use in France, were cast in the foundry at Vaflard. Since that time many of the letters have been improved in their form, and the metal of which they were cast rendered more durable by altering the proportion of the ingredients it contained. Types for the blind differ from those in ordinary use, in that they are set up and read from left to right, whilst in those for printing with ink the reverse order is observed. Besides this the stem or body of the types used in France is made in the shape of a T, the letter being on the top or cross-piece which prevents * Chiefly am I indebted to the works of Dr. Guillie, Dr. Klein, Prof. Zeune, &c. ao Agit es err jee aor, REPORT ON THE MODES OF PRINTING FOR THE BLIND. 89 the type falling through the bars of the frame in which it is placed, while the shank or tail goes between them. But this kind of type is very heavy and clumsy, and the lines of printing cannot be brought very near to each other, which tends greatly to increase the bulk as well as the expense of the books. In 1784 the first European institution for the instruction of the blind was established at Paris by Valentine Haiiy; and although many attempts to produce raised characters or letters for their use had previously been made, yet printing for the blind may be said to have been unknown till 1785, when M. Haiiy submitted to the Royal Academy of Sciences a me- morial, in which he explained the “‘ means he proposed to em- ploy for the instruction of the blind.’’ A committee was ap- pointed to examine this plan, who allowed that M. Haty was _the inventor of printing books in relief for the blind, and strongly recommended his invention to the approbation of the Academy. Since that time some change and improvement have been made in a few of the letters; for instance, the e is a little less liable to be mistaken for the c oro; the u not so narrow and therefore not so like to the a; the k also is opened to be less like the h, &c. I would here state that the French use both capitals and ‘‘ lower case,’’ and the form of the letter ap- proaches that of the Latin or Italian. “In the Paris Institution,” says Dr. Guillie, “‘ the blind pupils set and distribute the types and print the books themselves, and some who are expert will arrange about a dozen lines of an 8vo page in a quarter of an hour.”” Whether or not they have now adopted the common or screw press for printing, I am not able to say, but formerly the types were set in a frame (as before _ mentioned), the paper well wetted, laid upon them, and over all _ three or four folds of thick flannel ; it was then passed through a large wooden rolling press* and the impression taken out on the other side. In this manner a variety of books have been printed, amongst which are spelling books, grammars, geography, por- tions of the Scripture, short pieces of poetry, with miscellaneous extracts, &c.t _* The rolling press was used because it was thought that a sufficient pressure could not be given with the common screw press. In the former case only one line at a time is pressed by the roller, and consequently the whole force is sus- tained by that line, but in the latter the pressure is distributed over the whole page at once, and therefore must be very great to work a 4to or folio. But I believe the perpendicular pressure is now used in France, and was introduced _ some years ago by M. Clousier, printer to the King. ft In Ziirich there is an excellent establishment for the education of _ the blind, in which they print books in raised letters, &c., and have already __ Several books, such as a grammar, Scripture phrases, &c., which are given to the pupils gratis on leaving the Institution. — 90 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. The paper used in printing in relief should be very good and strong, not liable to tear, tolerably thick and well-sized. If it be too thick the letter will not be sharp nor well-defined ; neither should the impression be too much elevated, or it will increasethe bulk of the book and be more liable to injury. About jy or 35 of an inchis generally found sufficiently high for small type im- pressions. Alphabets and first books for beginners should be a little higher. ‘‘ This kind of printing,” says Dr. Guillie, “cannot be done on both sides the paper, as in taking off the second page the first would be destroyed*”. In this state printing for the blind remained till Mr. Gall of Edinburgh, about the year 1831 or 1832, introduced what he calls a triangular, or rather angular, alphabet. ‘This is chiefly a modification of the com- mon alphabet, though some of the letters are entirely arbi- trary. For instance, the A is a triangle standing upon one of its angles; the B and D are triangles with two small ears or projections at the upper angle ; and the P and Qare also tri- angles, similar to the above, only they have the projections at the lower angle. The Ois a square standing upon one of its corners ; and the G is the same, only a little smaller, with a perpendicular tail to it about as long as one of the sides of the square. The C is an obtuse angle concave to the right hand. The E the same with an additional line bisecting the angle. The T is a perpendicular line with a very short one crossing it in the middle. The other letters partake in a great degree of the com- mon form, except that the R, S, and W are angular instead of curvedj. Mr. Gall conceives that curves are not so easily di- stinguishable by the touch as angles. “besitst die Anstalt einen Apparat, mit welchem eben so schnell, wie in gewéhnlichen Druckereien, Biicher in erhabener Schrift, fiir Blinde, lesbar gedruct werden. So besitzen wir z. B. ein Sprachbuch fiir Blinde, 60 Seiten stark; ferner eine systematische Sammlung von Bibelspriichen, unter dem Titel, Biblisches Sprachbuch fiir Blinde * * * * * solcher Biicher werden den austretenden Blinden jedesmal unengeltlich mitgegeben.”—Orell on the Ziirich Institution for the Blind, &c., 1835, page 438. * An attempt however has since been made (I have been told) at Philadelphia, to print upon both sides by engraving or punching the lettersupon pewter plates, and passing two of these plates, through a rolling press, with a very thick paper, almost reduced to astate of pulp, between them, but I believe the plan was too expensive to be employed generally. Mr. Gall of Edinburgh has also printed on both sides the paper by arranging the types so that the lines on one side the leaf just occupy the spaces between the lines on the other. A little room is gained by this method, but as it requires much nicety in laying the pa- per upon the type to print the second page, lest the first should be injured, some timne must be lost in taking off the impressions ; which, to me, renders the advantage of such a plan very doubtful. ; Mr. Gall has recently altered the form of some of his letters, and thereby greatly improved them. ee ee ees me Hy REPORT ON THE MODES OF PRINTING FOR THE BLIND. 91 About that time several schools or asylums for the blind were established in America. In Philadelphia the Gospel of Saint Mark was published in a raised type and printed on both sides the leaf as before mentioned ; the letters are something between the Italic and written characters. I am not aware that much more has been done there; but at Boston printing in raised characters for the blind has been carried to a great state of per- fection under the direction and superintendence of that able and zealous friend to the blind, Dr. S. G. Howe. The form of the letter differs a little from the “ lower case ” used in this country, but the impressions are exceedingly sharp and good. Many books have been published there, and at a very cheap rate, as will appear from the following extracts from Dr. Howe’s ex- cellent letter to the British and Foreign Bible Society. From the “ Monthly Extracts from the Correspondence of the British and Foreign Bible Society.” From the Rev. Dr. Howe, Director of the New England Insti- tution for the Education of the Blind. ‘“ Boston, U.S., Nov. 20, 1886. *T now forward you a box containing two complete copies of the New Testament of our Lord and Saviour in raised charac- ters, one bound in 4 vols. the other copy in 2 vols. For adults and persons who would use them carefully the copy in 2 vols. would be best; for children the one in 4 vols. “You ask, what would be the cost of a hundred or athousand copies of the New Testament? I answer that they may be _ printed and bound for 1/. 10s. But you will observe that the _ paper on which the copies I send you are printed is very tough _ and peculiar in its fabric ; it was made for the purpose, and is _ saturated with animal size, so that it will be very durable. If _ you depress one of the letters you will observe the paper will bi spring back again, which I fear will not be the case with the _kind of printing you sent tome. The cost of our Testament was . little over 2/. sterling, another edition might be had cheaper. I ~ Tejoice to learn that an interest is beginning to be felt on the ] subject of printing for the blind, for ijt has been the object near- est my heart for the last four years.”’ ___ After urging the desirableness of using the common letter, _ Dr. H. proceeds : a « I have known of several cases where blind persons had learned to read at home: we had one boy enter our institution who knew how to read and spell in our first books, though he ras but seven years old and was born blind. His mother, a small mer’s wife, had procured a book a year before and taught him. 92 SEVENTH REPORT—1837 : Again, there are many persons who lose their sight after having learned the common form of letters ; and they have little diffi- culty in recognising them by the touch, but would be discouraged by a new character*.”’ The Doctor, after stating some cases of bedridden persons, and persons of weak sight though not blind, reading the raised type with their fingers, goes on to say: ‘‘ We have about fifty in this institution who are of the age for instruction, and forty of them can read; twenty can read very fast, and will run through a chapter of the Testament in just the time it takes a seeing per- son to read twice the quantity,-observing all the stops. Some of our children at the age of six can read. «<* * * * * The elevation of the letters, the hardness and du- rability of the impression, the strength of the paper, the method of binding, all these are to be considered, experimented upon, and greatly improved. It is a wide and interesting field, and right glad am I that labourers have entered into it in England ; and I wish only that they may work with one common plan. I believe much more printing has been done for the blind in this Institution than in all England * * * having obtained the sanction of the American and Massachusetts Bible Societies, the Ame- rican Tract Society, &c. I have printed an abridgement of Mur- ray’s Grammar, a Spelling Book, a Hymn Book, The Dairy- man’s Daughter, Baxter’s Call, The Pilgrim’s Progress, Child’s First Book, second ditto, and last, not least, the entire New Testament ! “T have now in the press a Geography, and shall continue as long as I have health and the means to operate with. ** With regard to any funds to be applied by your Society, I would earnestly recommend, and in the name of the blind im- plore, that they may be upon works which have not yet been printed for them, or which they cannot obtain for a long time. Their hooks must be few and the same work should not be print- edin different places, but different books, so that exchanges may be made; for instance, if you could send us fifty copies of the Psalms or* * *,we could send you fifty of the Acts or the Evan- gelists * * *, We should like very much to print an edition of the Psalms of David, say five hundred copies, for the use of the blind of England and of this country : the expense would pro- bably be from 225/. to 250/. if done up in the best and most du- rable stylet. Perhaps it would be more extensively useful to print them on our medium type, that is a size between the large type * This is much against the use of arbitrary alphabets. + The Committee have voted 150/. and are to receive fifty or a hundred copies. REPORT ON THE MODES OF PRINTING FOR THE BLIND. 93 on the title page of the Testament and the small type of the same. “Tf the British and Foreign Bible Society would undertake ‘to appropriate funds for this purpose, and present to the blind of England and this country an edition of the Psalms, it would confer happiness and a blessing upon many. *°P.S. November 24. Our Geography is finished, and our press is now throwing off an edition of ‘ The Sixpenny Glass of Wine,’ printed at the expense of the American Sunday School Union. “1 hope your Society will allow us to send you the Psalms ; it would make one snug volume and be finished in four weeks.”’ In April 1832 the committee of the Society for the Encourage- ment of the useful Arts in Scotland, presented their report upon a method of printing for the blind invented by Mr. Hay of Edin- ° burgh, and in consequence of their recommendation the So- ciety, in the following year, offered their gold medal, value 20/., “for the best communication on a method of printing for the use of the blind.’’ The authors of the communications were re- quired to “‘ investigate what form and size of the letters or cha- racters, and what 2wmber of those should be adopted, with a view to constructing a general alphabet for the blind in Great Britain and Ireland; and secondly, the best and cheapest me- thods of printing such letters or characters in relief, so as to render them most easily and accurately distinguishable by the touch.” _ In consequence of this notice, communications with printed q and written specimens of alphabets, types, &c. were received by 3 the Society. | rs For Competition. From Mr. Alexander Hay of Edinburgh ; _Mr. J. P. Walker, Glasgow ; Miss M. Banks, Edinburgh ; Mr. _ Mungo Ponton, Edinburgh; Mr. John Henderson, Edinburgh; Mr. John Richardson, Edinburgh; Rev. Edw. Craig, Edin- burgh; Mr. James Gall, Edinburgh ; Dr. Edmund Fry, Lon- ~ don ; Mr. Richard Eaton, Coventry ; Mr. D. Macpherson, Edin- burgh; Mr. John Lothian, Edinburgh; Mr. Robert Milne, _ Edinburgh; Mr. John Johnstone, Glasgow; Mr. J. Jones, _ Bishop Wearmouth. : | Not for Competition. From Lady C. Erskine, Edinburgh, | two letters on the subject, but no alphabet; Mr. D. Vallance, | Lanarkshire, method of teaching the blind to read; Dr. R. K. ‘Greville, Edinburgh, alphabet; J. Simpson, Esq., advocate, | Edinburgh, alphabet. | A Committee was appointed by the Society to consider and | Teport upon these several communications.—Now as “ twelve of ¥ 94 . SEVENTH REPORT—1837. these proposed alphabets were composed entirely of arbitrary symbols, while three were merely modifications of the ordinary Roman and Italic characters, the first question that presented itself for their consideration” was whether some modification of the ordinary Roman or Italic alphabets in common use, or an entirely new arbitrary character, would be hest adapted for the use of the blind generally throughout the kingdom? This was a question of considerable difficulty, especially at that time, when so few experiments had been made upon the subject. The Committee however, in their Report of 1832, gave their opinion in favour of an arbitrary character. Since that time Mr. Gall published a little work, which seemed to show that his alphabet* was more legible by the touch and possessed greater advantages than any of the others. This increased the difficulty the Society had to contend with, and induced them to take the opinion of various persons experienced in the education of the blind. Con- sequently the whole of the communications were sent to various persons, and (among others) to me, in the spring of 1835. Most of these communications were exceedingly clever and interest- ing}. I read them with very close attention, and examined minutely the various specimens; and in July following returned them to Edinburgh, with a report stating what seemed to me the advantages and disadvantages of each. This report the Society soon after published, together with extracts from other reports, as well as from the communications and fac-similes of the various alphabets, and sent copies to the different insti- tutions, &c. Some years ago Mr. Lucas of Bristol contrived an alphabet chiefly from short-hand characters, and in his books uses nume- rous contractions or abbreviations, and thereby reduces the bulk of the book very much, but increases the difficulty of making out the words, &c.{ On the 12th of February 1836 a public meet- * Mr Gall's alphabet was composed of characters in some degree similar to the Roman, or that generally used in printing ; but he excluded all curves and circles, and formed his letters entirely of angles and straight lines, + Many of these communications show great ingenuity and deep research in their authors, and contain so much valuable matter relating to the general edu- cation of the blind, that a publication of the whole or greatest part of them would be productive of much good to those for whose benefit they were written. But as this would be rather expensive (many of the communications being very long) and asthe Edinburgh Society of Arts has already done so much on this subject, it is scarcely reasonable to expect that body to encounter so costly an undertaking, unless they could, from some other source, be assisted in the fur- therance of their praiseworthy exertions. { Mr. Lucas uses a new system of spelling, employing only as many letters as ave sufficient to give the sound of the word; thus, “ adu for adieu,” ‘ ni for nigh,” “ bote for bought,” &c. He also uses one letter for several words, as “n REPORT ON THE MODES OF PRINTING FOR THE BLIND. 95 ing was held in Bristol, when a Society was formed, and denomi- nated “ the Bristol Society for embossing and circulating the authorized Version of the Bible for the use of the Blind.” Patron, the Lord Bishop of that Diocese; President, Lieu- tenant-Gen. Orde. _ Amongst other things it was then and there resolved, .Ist. *¢ That the system of embossed characters invented by Mr. Lu- eas for teaching the blind to read, is recommended by its sim- plicity, and has been proved to be efficacious by several public examinations of his pupils.’’ 2nd. ‘* That a portion of the Holy Scriptures be printed on this system of embossed characters as soon as sufficient funds shall be collected to meet the expenses of publication.”’ 3rd. ‘* Thatas it is the object of this meeting to enable the blind to read the Holy Scriptures, the support of the Bible Society, the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, and other Religious Societies be solicited in behalf of this So- ciety.” ihen I attended the meeting of the British Association last year at Bristol, I had the pleasure of seeing Mr. Lucas, and witnessing two of his pupils, in the presence of several other gentlemen, read portions of the Scriptures printed in his cha- -racters. But the mere reading from a book well known to the pupil, in whatsoever character it might be printed, proves very little, for blind children will generally learn with great ease al- most any alphabet set before them; therefore it is necessary to compare the progress made with different alphabets, and to _ consider the swm of the advantages possessed by each before it _ can be determined which is the best*. _ At that meeting I had the honour of being introduced to Dr. _ Carpenter of that city, a gentleman who has evidently thought — much and long on this subject, and whose opinion and obser- " yations therefore cannot fail to be highly valuable. Dr. C. in his able letter to W. Fraser, Esq., Secretary to the Edinburgh _ Society of Arts, says, “I should, as Mr. Lucas does, employ _ for into, under, &c.” “x for example, exercise, &c.’”? (see Explanation of his _ system of printing for the blind.) _ The numerous inconveniences arising from such a plan (unless adopted by everybody, the seeing as well as the blind) are too obvious to need pointing out, and of too much consequence not to be strictly guarded against. Mr. cas has published the Gospel of St. John, and, notwithstanding all his nu- erous contractions and abbreviations, it is very little less than the same~ . pe inted by Mr. Alston in Dr. Fry’s type. __* Caution is necessary in making experiments on different alphabets. The ae may be interrupted in reading by holding his finger upon the word under it at that instant ; and if upon asking him to name it, it was found that he had i}. olin words, in a part of the sentence at which his finger had not yet ar- | 3 ed, this would show that he was reading from memory ! 96 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. the leading letters beginning words of frequent occurrence, for the words themselves, as wh. for which; gl. for glory; pl. for pleasure, &c.’’ This certainly would tend to lessen the bulk of the book, but I think would not facilitate the reading ; for if words, printed in full, can be made out by, the first two letters, the remaining ones need not be felt, but the finger passed on to the next word. Besides, as so many of our words begin with the same two or three letters, the length of the word, when printed in full, would, at once, without feeling every single letter, show, if a /ong word beginning with pl, that it was not plan, plea, play, or any other short word, &c. and if short, that it was not plausible, plurality, plenipotentiary, &c. It will therefore be highly dangerous to make much use, if any, of ab- breviations. Feeling convinced that the letters recommended by Dr. Fry were the only ones likelyto be generally adopted, I ventured, in the beginning of 1836, to procure a quantity of type, cast from his punches, by Messrs. Thoroughgood and Co., London, and commenced printing for the use of the children in the Yorkshire school for the blind, and the experiment was most satisfactory. About the same time I found that Mr. Alston (treasurer to the Asylum for the Blind at Glasgow), a gentleman whose zeal and exertions in behalf of the blind must rank him among the best friends of that portion of society, had begun to use types of the same kind, only of a size between the two which I used. Soon after many specimens were printed by Mr. Alston, and amongst others the Book of Ruth, the Epistle of St. James, and the four Gospels, &c. A few months agotheSociety of Arts in Scotland awarded their prize of a gold medal in favour of Dr. Fry’s alphabet, but re- commended thetype to be fretted or roughened on the top to give the letters a dotted appearance, and, as they think, to render them more easily legible by the touch ; but of this I shall speak hereafter. They also recommend printing upon both sides of the paper. A few years ago Mr. Gall published the Gospel of St. John in his angular alphabet at 21s., and now the whole New Testa- ment in Dr. Fry’salphabet is offered for about 32s. by Mr. Alston, and I believe for less by Mr. Gall in his angular type. Such is the state at present of printing in raised characters for the use of the blind, at least as far as regards “‘ letter-press.”’ Mathematics. In mathematics very little has been done for the blind in the way of hooks, but various methods have been contrived for teach- REPORT ON THE MODES OF PRINTING FOR THE BLIND. 97 ing common arithmetic and algebra, some of which are very simple and effective*. However, I shall not enter into a de- scription of them here, as they can scarcely be said to form a part of the subject of this report. Some embossed mathematical diagrams have been printed both in Germany and America, and I believe in France; and in theyear 18281 published the diagrams of the first book of Euclid in an embossed form ; but the expense of the copper plates, engraving, &c. deterred me from going on with the work. At Boston, U.S., figures explanatory of mechanics, astronomy, &c., and some very beautiful maps of large size, have been printed ; also some chro- nological tables, &c. Globes and maps have long been made at _ Paris, and I believe in Germany, by gluing threads upon the lines, or pasting a second map over them ; but this cannot pro- perly be called printingt. é Music. Music has been much cultivated by the blind in general, and several palpable modes have been invented to facilitate their acquiring a knowledge of it. The French contrived a very in- ' genious plan, which has been followed in other places. It is a board, with raised lines and pierced full of holes, in which are placed pegs of various shapes to represent the different notes. The same kind of board is now used in the Yorkshire school, but upon avery much smaller scale, having crooked pins for the notes instead of clumsy wooden pegs, and saw-cuts across the board in which to set bits of tin to represent the bars. For this im- provement we are chiefly indebted to a blind gentleman of York{. Iam informed that music has been printed from move- | able types in Germany, France and America, but I have seen _ only a small specimen from the last-mentioned country. In the _ * By help of one of the best of these my own private pupils (blind) have _ soon acquired a sufficient knowledge of the elements of algebra to enable them By 4 ae? quadratic equations with ease and readiness; and one has gone still further. The pleasure they generally derive from working problems of this kind is _ very great. _ Geometry also, when taught them in a way suited to their peculiar circum- _ stances, seldom fails to afford them great delight, but it must always be made 4 interesting to them or they soon despair of learning it. Fy __ 4 Since writing this I have received from Dr. Howe a copy of a book of _ plates, or “ Diagrams illustrating a compendium of Natural Philosophy for the use of the Blind. Printed at the New England Institution for the Education of _ the Blind, 1836.” _ The diagrams seem to be taken from blocks of wood engraved after the _ Manner of copper. The work is admirably got up, and is a very valuable ad- dition to the books for the blind. x _t W. D. Littledale, Esq. VOL. Vi. 1837. H “ 98 SEVENTH REPORT—1837, beginning of this year I published a selection of Psalm tunes, in an embossed form, printed from engraved pewter plates, using the common form of notes, cliffs, time, &c., which are thus ren- dered familiar to the blind, and enable them more easily to be- come teachers of music to those whosee. Thus I have given an abstract of what I have been able to collect on this subject ; but as I have not had an opportunity of visiting many of the institutions abroad, it is probable that much has been done, in the various branches here noticed, which has never yet come under my observation, and of which I am totally ignorant. A comparison between the advantages and disadvantages of the common Roman and arbitrary Alphabets. The great question ‘ whether it is better to employ the com- mon Roman letters or an arbitrary alphabet in printing for the blind,” has long engaged the attention of many who feel an in- terest in this subject, and numerous and ingenious arguments have been advanced on both sides. It has been contended that an arbitrary alphabet may be com- posed of such characters as to possess greater characteristic difference, he more legible hy the touch, and occupy less room, and therefore be altogether better for the blind than that in common use. This may be possible, but such an alphabet I have never seen. There are two things to be considered in forming a new alphabet before the shape of the letter or character be de- termined upon, viz. whether it is better to have the usual num- her of characters, or to use a few and to give to each a variety of positions to make up the difference. It has also been contended by those who advocate arbitrary characters, that giving a variety of positions to one character reduces the number of forms, and must therefore be less bur- densome to the memory. But as every new position does in effect become a new form, or something new to be remembered, the difference cannot be very great. Some persons hold that angular characters are more legible by the touch than such as are formed partly or altogether of curves; and the contrary has been held by others. The Edinburgh Society of Arts have recommended (as before stated) the fretted types, as being more easy to make out by the touch; but I tried four of the children in the York school with specimens of Mr. Gall’s characters both fretted and plain, and they all said they liked the plain best as they could read it with greater facility. The same was the result of Mr. Alston’s experi- ments at Glasgow, as communicated to me in a letter from him*. * Mr. Alston has lately greatly improved the paper on which he prints, and has also had some improvements made in a few of his letters. REPORT ON THE MODES OF PRINTING FOR THE BLIND. 99 Abbreviations and contractions have been strongly recom- mended ; but if there is too much left to the imagination of the reader, wrong impressions will be often formed, and false ideas acquired ; and if a blind person has first to encounter a difficulty, and afterwards to be left in doubt whether he is right or not, he will very soon be discouraged, and lose all interest in that which otherwise would afford him not only occupation and amusement, but also delight and permanent advantage. Those who advocate the use of the common alphabet contend that it has not been proved to be less legible by the touch, or to require more space than others of the same sized letters or type, but evidently possesses many advantages over an arbitrary one ; amongst others, “it associates”’ (as Mr. Craig, one of the compe- titors for the Edinburgh medal, says) “the blind in their literary pursuits more closely with other men, and secures to them from all quarters an aid which they might not otherwise readily attain.” With spelling and other elementary books printed in the com- mon character, they can attend with great benefit any school with other children, and with them learn their lessons, and from them obtain the aid for which one scholar is usually in- debted to another. Moreover they may be taught at home by their parents, long before they are old enough to be trusted amongst a number of frolicksome seeing companions. These and many other advantages are incompatible with an arbitrary alphabet. In favour of the alphabet in common use it may be stated, that it has been employed by the French, the Americans, Germans, &c., though varying a little in some particulars from ours. The books printed at Boston are without capitals, but the French use both capitals and small letters, so also do the Germans, but they employ the Italian characters. Klein (Direct- | or of the Institution for the Blind at Vienna, in his most excel- lent book Lehrbuch zum Unterrichte der Blinden, page 65) says, _ ** Die Form der lateinischen Buchstaben ist am leichtesten durchs _ Gefiihl zu lesen, daher wahle man diese Schrift zum Lesen und _ Schreiben fiir Blinde. Einige Buchstaben miissen auch in dieser _ Schrift noch mehr vereinfacht werden, sowie auch alle unwesent- __ liche, bloss zur Verzierung dienende Ziiga und Striche wegbleiben _mussen.*” Thus it seems from so many nations adopting an _ alphabet well known among them, that the general opinion is decidedly against an arbitrary character. Klein in his preface to the above book allows it to be possible * Translation. The form of the Latin or Italian letters is the easiest to read by the touch, on which account they are to be chosen in which to print and Write for the blind. But some of these letters, even, must be simplified and deprived of all useless ornaments, Sc. ¢ H2 100 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. that characters may be contrived more simple, and in some re- spects easier to read by the touch, yet he considersthe common alphabet the best; and in teaching the blind employs the usual mode of instructing seeing children as far as possible ; for as long as the blind must live and mix with those who see, it is most desirable to connect the two together both in their educa- tion and pursuits; for by so doing that unfortunate class will be spared many a painful reflection on their condition, and escape the bitterness of an unfavourable comparison with their more fortunate brethren*. Besides blind persons may with a pencil or tracing paper write letters to their friends, and their friends may write to them by means of a stile or other blunt point, placing the paper upon something soft so that the letters may be raised on the other side; but this advantage, gratifying in the highest degree to the blind when they are able to practise it, would be greatly diminished, if not altogether destroyed, by the use of an arbitrary alphabet ; for then no one could correspond with them who had not learnt their system. Furthermore, the blind often become scientific men or poets, and probably from the improved methods of conveying instruc- tions to them, this may in future more frequently happen. Hew delightful then to correspond with others or to record their own thoughts by means of an alphabet generally understood! Mr. Alston, in one of his communications to me, states the great de- light his pupils enjoyed (who had learnt the common alphabet) in going into the churchyards and reading the grave-stones, &c. Arbitrary alphabets are more liable to errors of the press than the common, and less likely to be detected on account of their not being so familiar to the printer, &c., so that the blind are thereby exposed to the danger of being misled, and of acquiring erroneous notions, which in many cases might be of serious consequence. Assuming the reasons in favour of using the common alpha- bet to be satisfactory, it would appear that the Roman Capitals, * “ Daher habe ich getrachtet, so weit es nur moglich war, die gewohnlichen Unterrichts- und Hiilfs-mittel wie man sie fiir sehende Kinder gebrauchet, auch fiir die Blinden beyzubehalten, um diesen desto leichter Lehrer zu verschaffen, die sich durch neue Lehrmittel, in welche sie sich selbst erst einstudieren miissen, vielleicht hitten abschrecken lassen. Dieses bestimmte meine Wahl fir die GewounuicuEN BucustaBen, obgleich nicht zu laugnen ist, dass die von Hrn Wolke und von andern vorgeschlagenen einfachen, der Telegrafen-Schrift ahnliche zeichen zur fiihlbaren Schriftleichter sind. So lang der Blinde mit und unter Sehenden lebt, muss man suchen, ihn in seinem eigenen Benehmen und in — der Behandlung, so viel es nur méglich ist, den Sehenden ndher zu bringen, um ihm manchem Anstoss und manche schmerzhafte Erinnerung an seinem Zustand zu ersparen.” — ee ee ee ee ee eee REPORT ON THE MODES OF PRINTING FOR THE BLIND. 101 as recommended by the late Dr. Fry, and now employed by Mr. Alston, offer the greatest advantages*. Being all of one height they form a regular line in the page, so that there is no danger of the finger of the blind reader straying into the line either above or below; an evil, which in many of the arbitrary alphabets would frequently occur, and which raises a very formidable objection tothemf. For if blind persons get puzzled or be led into error by reading, they will have no con- fidence in what they do, and will therefore never feel any pleasure or interest in reading, but take it up as a school boy does his task. This among other things renders it necessary to be very cautious, lest in attempting to reduce too much the bulk of the books for the blind it be carried so far as to frustrate the object, by making a book difficult to be read, and therefore useless to ninety- nine out of a hundred of those for whose benefit it was intended. It may not be amiss ta observe that when an alphabet or specimen of printing is submitted to the blind in any institu- tion for experiment, a few of the cleverest children, whose touch is delicate and acute, are selected to make the trial, and because these can easily make out what is submitted to them the experiment is thought to have been fairly made. Whereas the greatest proportion of blind persons will always be found amongst those who have to earn their living by manual labour, which blunts their touch and renders them incapable of reading a small-sized letter. Besides, as the literature for the blind can never be very ex- tensive, the grand aim should be to print chiefly such books as _ are most necessary ; for example, the New Testament, parts of _ the Old, Catechisms, Hymns, Moral Tales, Spelling Books, Easy _ Lessons, Fables, &c., andin atype sufficiently large to be easily _ read by the average, at least, of the blind. A “ large book” surely cannot bea “ greater evil’’ than one foo small to be read, and therefore useless. ‘The Gospels printed upon the plan of White’s Diatessaron would probably be a valuable addition to _ the books for the blind, as the substance of the four Evangelists _ would then be comprised in the smallest room possible. At present there is great excitement on this subject and much SA * As the small letter or “lower case” is in use among the seeing, it perhaps _ would be well to have a few books printed with that type for the blind; but if _ the letters are some to go above and some below the lines, as in the b, d, g, y, _ &e., the bulk of the book must necessarily be a little increased, as the lines Must not come so near each other that the tops in one line may interfere with ‘the tails of those in the line above. 4 ” + Besides, if capitals to begin proper names, &c. be used (which in my opinion Ly hm be of essential service,) the same form of letter willserve if made a little _ larger. Me ” 102 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. praiseworthy zeal in operation to further it; and,as opinions vary, many books are printed, in different alphabets or characters, for the use of the blind, each author contending that his plan must be the best. But this contention will soon cease, as some one system will be shown, by the preference of the blind themselves, to be decidedly superior, and all the others will be laid aside; for the blind will, when left to their own choice, use only that which they can read with the greatest facility and satisfaction. From what is here stated it seems that the alphabet best adapted for the use of the blind is not that which possesses superiority in some one particular, but that which is superior as a whole— that which offers the greatest swm of advantages. Now, pro- bably, this may not be the one which occupies the least space, for the bulk of the book is of much less importance than the ease with which its contents can be perused. Furthermore, as the object is GENERAL communication, the alphabet in common use must afford advantages which are incompatible with an arbitrary one ; for should a blind person become deaf, the only means of communicating with him would be by printing in raised letters, or by writing with the finger upon his head, back, &c.; and in such a case how limited would be his intercourse with others, if he had only learnt an arbitrary alphabet, compared with what it would have been had he been taught the one in common use! Tn the former case only very few could understand him, or be understood by him ; while in the latter almost every one could. communicate to him some intelligence of what was going on around him, and thereby contribute in no small degree to alle- viate the weight of his misfortune, and enliven the dreary gloom which must perpetually hang over his existence. - cities ae eee ee tll ee ee ee Account of the discussions of Observations of the Tides which have been obtained hy means of the grant of money which was placed at the disposal of the Author for that purpose at the last Meeting of the Association. By J. W. Lussock, Esq., F.BR.S. Ar the last meeting of the Association held at Bristol I had the honour to communicate the results which I had then obtained ; I now wish to explain the manner in which the last grant of money which was placed at my disposal by the Association has been employed. 1. I have engaged Mr. Jones to discuss 13,391 observations of the tides made in this place during nineteen years by Mr. Hutchinson, with reference to a previous transit, or that which precedes the time of high water by about 48 hours. These ob- servations are in the possession of the Lyceum at Liverpool, and they were granted with great kindness by the Committee of that Institution for the purpose of this inquiry. g. I have engaged Mr. Russell to extend the former discus- sion of the London Dock observations, by employing all the observations made from the 1st of September, 1801, to the 31st August, 1836, or 24,592 observations. Tables have been ‘formed in precisely the same manner as those already sub- mitted to the Section at the meeting at Bristol. In some in- stances* irregularities have, in consequence of the additional number of observations, been eliminated, but altogether the agreement with the averages of nineteen years only (13,370 observations) is much closer than I had anticipated. 3. I have also engaged Mr. Russell to examine carefully the _ establishment and average height of high water, in order to ascertain the fluctuations to which these quantities are subject. Mr. Russell and Mr. Jones have spared no pains in order to " render the final results as accurate as the nature of the subject would permit, and I consider myself particularly fortunate in having been able to procure their assistance in these most la- _ borious calculations +. Even minute discrepancies between the results afforded By _ the Liverpool and London observations become interesting and * See the calendar month ‘inequality in the interval for January, the moon’s r parallax inequality in the height for parallax 56’, &c. + The author placed before the Section the MS. books containing the de- tails of the work. 104 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. deserve elucidation, particularly that in the parallax inequality for the interval to which I shall now briefly advert. Whatever may be the law of the moon’s parallax inequality, we may certainly conclude that it is proportional to the difference of the parallax from 57! (or to 8P); hence all the averages em- ployed to afford the inequality for H.P. 56’, 57', 58', &c., may be combined according to a method which I explained, Phil. Trans., 1836, p. 225. Mr. Russell has in this manner combined all the results afforded by the 13,391 Liverpool observations, and also those afforded by the 24,592 London observations, so as to produce for each place the inequality in the interval and height for H. P. 54’. Hence the Liverpool quantities which are given in the following table may be considered as the average of more than 1000 observations, and the London quantities as the average of more than 2000 observations. TaBLE showing the moon’s parallax inequality in the interval and in the height for H.P. 54’, as deduced from theory and observation at London and Liverpool *. Interval. Height. Moon’s | -—— | —————— —_—— Re Observation. Observation. NCOLy «|i LE WL CON s le en Liverpool} London. Liverpool] London. hm m ft ft. ft. OO UR ccc ncere’ lies aaeeients = BD) | a clecacacs | nccsevess —0°95 0.30 | — 1:0 | — Or4 | ooo. aan. —1:16 | —1°28 |......... PUG Rateavese |\eesssans — AG | ccccccee | coccenees —1:09 130 | —30 | — 26 J......... —1:14 | —1-17 |..... ... COUN A isesce |lpeeacs ped av) A #8: | seeddeds > ilivdabsence —1:07 2°30 | — 5 | — Gel -| .....c5e. ey Nd fee ol Wi ee ab LO lteotoaccieet| ace coeaes eg! cesuesght|(cssccanes))|i——= 1:32 3 30 | — 7:4) = 7-0) | i... .s0e. —1:09 | —118 }......... ALO aecosmacedliovetkes st —— Gi) cece cdscall eeeteneas —1:35 4 30 | — 83 | — 7:7 | ..ceceree —1-10 | —1°21 |......... ee Ol rec ctasewerl| eataeiscs =— LOO coccescev | sessecece | — 1-67 5 30 | —4:0 | —4°6 |......... —1-15 | —1°44 }......... Gi Oat teak: gevwsaess tes Mall cad aoisiaell enenay ss —1-60 6 30.\-+ 4-0 | 1 4 |......20. aa i es ee Je Meckmatees|\csteessts Ml Case cedeesh| lanewceens —1:38 7 30 | +83 | 47:5 | sce VO |) LOOT eid ace Be OU lev nawanailensec sees LS iiieuuaemn eel liens sass —1-14 re Se me pea ray QEOO iltoeretcarss|hevnccsss SOY Wieneccaeed ieseaasnee —1:04 9 30) +53 | +.5°6 |......... —1-11 | —1:07 |......... e AS Oat Nts te OF | dcssirllveeaees —1-02 10 30 | +3:°0 | +24 |......... Be WW (Wt I pe ee Sen CON aaeeeeesel| cceaee eae — OT acieesucee lvepkacaens —0-93 11 30 | +10 | +11 |......... = 116) = 02a eee * T have given a table similar to this in the Companion to the British Al- manac for 1838; but the argument of that table is the moon’s transit B. REPORT ON THE TIDES. 105 In the above columns headed “ Observation” the irregulari- ties have been destroyed in the manner explained by me in the Bakerian Lecture, Phil. Trans., 1836, p.225. The quantities headed “London” have been reduced to transit A by means of certain tables also given in that paper, to which I shall again have occasion to allude. The London height inequality has been multiplied by 1°758. The quantities headed “‘Theory’’ were calculated by the Liverpool constants, log (4) = 9°56965, log (#) = 0°87130. The height is represented by the expression D + (E) {(A) cos (2 ~ — 24) + cos 24}, in which ¢ denotes the moon’s R.A. —sun’s R.A. wW de- notes the sidereal time — the moon’s R. A. I conceive that the best if not the only method of investi- gating alterations in the height of the land above the water in any given locality where the water is influenced by the tides, will be to examine carefully whether any alteration has taken place in the values of the constants D and (£) for that place, the height of high water being of course always reckoned from some fixed mark in the land. The nature of the discrepancies between the London and Li- verpool results is better exhibited in the following diagrams, where the quantities in the preceding tables have been laid down. The London interval curve, although agreeing in form with the Liverpool interval curve, differs from it throughout by several minutes. This difference seems to be very remarkable. The height curves agree closely, showing that the height inequality _ varies as the quantity EH, as I have supposed. Laplace says _ * Hiles (les marées] augmentent et diminuent avec le diamétre _ et le parallaxe lunaire, mais dans un plus grand rapport ;”’ but _ the diagram in the preceding page appears to confirm the truth _ of this passage only at neap tides. SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 106 Scale of 1 foot. 61 If OL 6 8 ZL ‘+ + * ywopuory + + * Joodiaary ree Kroayy, Scale of 10 minutes. —_—SS vr.@ 6) 2 uopuo'y - + + * joodsaavy se fr00qZ CLEMO 6 58 Slee aia G *[eAroquy a I 9 REPORT ON THE TIDES. 107 The inequalities due to the declination of both luminaries are so mixed up together that it is impossible to treat them in the same manner. The succeeding transits of the moon being denoted by the letters A, B, C, D, E, F; and F being the time of the moon’s transit which immediately precedes the time of high water at London, the discussion of the 24,592 London observations has been made with reference to transit B. I intended the transit Balso to be used by Mr. Jones in the discussion of the Liverpool observations, but when the work was much advanced I found that Mr. Jones had employed the transit A. However, the tables which I gave in a former paper (Bakerian Lecture, 1836) offer the means of easily transferring the argument from one transit to another. It appears from these tables that the interval be- tween successive transits may be considered constant with re- ference to the age of the moon or time of transit, and depending only upon the parallax and declination. Hence the following table is sufficient. TaB.e showing the interval between the moon’s transit and the next succeeding, with a given moon’s parallax and declina- tion. Moon’s Parallax. 54’ } 55’ | 56’ 15° | 18° By means of this table Mr. Russell transferred the quantities - furnished by the London calendar month inequality from transit _ B to transit A, so as to become immediately comparable with _ Mr. Jones’s Liverpool quantities. eee 108 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. TABLE showing a comparison between the calendar month in- equality in the interval as deduced from theory, and from ob- servations at London and Liverpool. Apparent time of moon’s transit A. = P 5B < Liverpool. § London. Liverpool. London.” Apparent time of moon’s transit A. noB o> Co _ & eseSoSoSoSoSoSo8o ANNAA SOR ROOD Nee OCS it) w iN) oy = mt Apparent time of moon’s transit A. Liverpool, B See ecccerlenecncees seeeveses| aseccces BINGO PR wWWH DR OOF oo _ o ww wo esos oS oS oS oSeoSoSc3 CO fee rer ry Be eessaslseccesecs eee eerentleeesescas Peoevevceleoscccces Seerecereliasececes| ™ REPORT ON THE TIDES. 109 TaABLE—continued. September. Apparent time o moon’s transit A, Liverpool. Liverpool, London, 5 OB + bo eee acces] eovccsee eeeeeecee sececcccclsasnccces| ~| +O |lconseccceiseescsses esveccece|| SU L | ~~ EE Jewcevcces seecwecccleoseseses| f © VY |leeveevese|seeccsses seecesseet UD | “LU [eosccseee eesecccesisosecccos| | PF |lecacnecesiesseceses eeeeseres ee evcsesclecseeecos| —~ UY |leosveeies|soscccces eocceesee|| OU | ——2°L lseccccces eeecscealscecesecs| TOU |lconcceses| socessee eocceesse|| OU | — LD [osvscccee seesesccelsescesecs! | PY |leoase seslsusececne eecesnses|| SOO | FLO [cecceccee rer Orr ry eoosests|| S-DWO | FOL lsevcccece Coe eecaslseeeesces coecoe ee]| SF £O | TaD lcoccecces eeeecccceicescesces| EV |lscncesevel|scescsces seeeesveclscccsseee a eeceeceeleesescces eS eeeeceselececesece eeeceesaslsesccsccs Cee eeseealsesccsees eeccesees @oeceeeeelsscscsces seeeences eee eeecerlesscnsvee ee cceeeee eeecesoes Ceceeeeceleesenesee Ceecerces seeeeeree 110 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. In the Philosophical Transactions, 1837, Part I., we have transferred the London quantities to transit A by merely shifting them to the left half an hour, which suffices approximately. Upon comparing in this manner the diurnal inequality at Liver- pool and London, I find that it is extremely different ; for if we examine the high water caused hy the same tide at Liverpool and London, we find that if @ and / denote two successive ‘heights of high water at Liverpool, and a’, b' successive heights at London, if a > b, then generally a! < 4’. I do not think that this circumstance was known previously, although Mr. Wiewell, in his examination of the Coast-guard observations, noticed an anomaly of which the origin is similar. : It is remarkable that while at Liverpool the diurnal inequality in the interval is almost inappreciable, at London it is well de- fined. The results seem to prove that semidiurnal inequalities in the height are proportional to the quantity #, as might be expected from theory. See Phil. Trans., 1836, p. 223. If X, ¥, Z denote the forces acting in the direction of the co- ordinate axes upon the fluid particle of which the rectangular coordinates are x, y, %, and if : ] i ¢ ! | ; ; . . ‘ | L _ de _ dy eis saath # OY aes dt’ _ du du y iu Fo Ca eae dae dig dv dv dy dv pee ee se dhind ibe ee CT Aaa Fe then the differential equation to the surface of the fluid is j (X —w)da+(Y—v) dy +(Z—w') dz=0. 4 See Traité de Mécanique, by M. Poisson, vol. ii. p. 669. | If Q isa certain function of 2,y,2, the coordinates of the fluid molecule, and of 2’, y', z', the coordinates of the centre of the distant luminary, dQ dQ dQ dQ dQ dQ =e ee peti af pet eee Saas! fp eo tS ato Oe eet dg l! tay oY tae ee — , ~,_¢Q@,,,, dQ, dQ,,, =Xde«+Y¥dy+t ada geet aie tae REPORT ON THE TIDES. 1 The equation to the fluid surface is therefore dQ da dQ dQ —q,/de'—wda Rae PRE AST quite wi dz=0. Bernoulli’s theory of the tides, or as it has been aptly termed by Mr. Whewell the equilibrium theory, rests upon the assump- tion that the equation to the fluid surface is dQ =0, or Q = constant, that is, it requires that the quantity a@ ts! dQ...) | ! dQ a iw! qait® +uldx+ doin! +udy+ dsl dz’+wdz. . (A) may be neglected. It seems desirable that some attempt should be made to investigate the nature of this quantity, in order to show @ priori that the quantity wde+tudy+w'dz may be disregarded. Having given the general equation to the surface of the fluid, to find when the distance from the centre of the earth is a maximum (or the time of high water) is not a diffi- cult geometrical problem. In Bernoulli’s theory, when the ex- pression for the height is differentiated, in order to solve this question in the usual way various quantities are treated as con- stants which are not so strictly ; and in order to obtain a rigorous solution, it would be necessary to substitute in the expression for the height before differentiation, expressions for the longitude, latitude, and distance of the luminary in terms of the time or mean longitude. The general equations of the motion of fluids referred to rec- tangular coordinates are given by M. Poisson, Zraité de Mé- canique, vol. ii. p. 669, and in other works. ee Se ee ae = da. dy dz . . . . . (B.) ¢ i g 1 eS ee ee sw (CQ) g dg EEN a 6 by cals ban dey Me! 112 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Let « = r cos ¢ cosp y=rcos¢ sing z=rsin 9. In the problem of the tides ¢ may represent geographical la- * — titude, and y the sidereal time at the place. dr d¢ dp ize OF en te silat Yee Po ae Sear ** ieee tee "Sah ~ dy = see The general equations of motion referred to polar coordinates are dp _df dr rd? dp? edr dr dé dé — 700s" 6p dp 40 dd, drde_ ag dy pda, doe ery Tas dt r* sin > cos > dé dp. tt ie oleh d Grated d 6 rg is r~ cos* > ; 27 COS” Pay diy ; —27 sin 4 cos o 5% SH, a5 : Ifponit + 6, dp ay dé apy ath Ee th 93 and if we neglect the quantities of the second order d¢dé d¢? ALAD ae &: dp dQ’ dr — 2 ns yea, yee dé edr dr az n-~r cos > 2 1 COBO a ! dé ee a rT — n° * sin $ cos > — 2nr°sin cos > +5 dé’ dr Ss SS peegsuie sora; Se = r cos’ > ae 2n 7 cos’ >a 5 d¢ — 2n?* sin ¢ cos ange and the equation to the surface will be dQ dr dé een ee 24 —9D 22 2 a , 1; ge ee od —2nr* cos* > ha “4a REPORT ON THE TIDES. 113 pan. odd ge hog state a rete se n? 7? sin $ cos > aur sin $ CoS 6-75 d¢ . fd 2, af! peae +45, — Moos a7 —2m7 cos oa — 2nr%sing cos So bdu=0, which is in accordance with Laplace’s equation, Méc. Cél., vol. i. p.98. The remaining equations are to be deduced from the _ invariability of the mass of the element dm. ioe te fac oe Cae The elementary parallelopiped rcosodrdddp is bounded by the sides MA = dr, MB=rd4, MC =>7r cos ¢$ dp, the coordinates of the point M being 7, 4, p#, — A — rt+dr, 9, pK, —_—_ — B — 7r¢+44, & C — 7, $,¢+ dp. By reasoning similar to that employed in the Zraité de Mé- canique, vol. ii. p. 671, the following equation may be obtained, which is equivalent to a transformation of equation (D) : dg d.er d.og dion 2err _. sing 9) _ dt’ dr ie d¢ ij dy A Se cos > ec or dr. dq, dp 2r' snd JQ _ = rr en date For incompressible fiuids, when the effect of changes of _ temperature is neglected, ge! = 0 separately, and dv’ dq dp! 2” sing dr'do ‘dp r_ cose which equation agrees with that given by Laplace, Méc. Cél., vol. i. p. 101. PH If r denote the temperature, Fourier has shown that (dr d.ur. d.vr -d.wr K far * da * dy ak <, =C1 and if e denote the temperature which corresponds to a given Cr \ dp? d.rr 1 (dey is) (E.) To costa d¢ « The general equations of the motion of fluids have not yet been successfully applied to problems even of less difficulty than *uat of the tides, which is complicated by the irregular shape of the channel in which the tide-wave travels, and by the resist- ance which it meets with in its passage. An improvement, how- ever, of theory as regards single observations, or for the purpose of prediction, is scarcely wanted, except as regards the fluc- tuations of the establishment, on account partly of the inevitable difficulty attendant upon observations of the time and height of high water, and partly on account of the derangement produced by causes which are at present far beyond the reach of analysis, such as winds and the varying atmospheric pressure. But when the averages of numerous observations are employed, it is evi- dent that in the instance which I have adduced p. 20, and per- — haps also in some others, the equilibrium theory appears at least to be insufficient, Its general agreement with the pheno- — mena, to which I have adyerted on former occasions, is extremely remarkable, and the merit of Bernoulli’s investigation does not seem to have been sufficiently appreciated. But whether or not Bernoulli’s theory may soon receive improvement, at all events the approximation is generally so close that I have thought it desirable constantly to compare the results afforded by the ob- servations with those deduced from his expressions. More-— over, the results given in the tables have been laid down in dia- grams, by which means their relation to each other and to theo is better perceived. The advantages of this method, of which ee ae REPORT ON THE TIDES. 115 remarkable instances might be adduced *, have long been felt, _ but there can be little doubt that its more general application _ to questions depending for their illustration upon extensive series of irregular numbers, particularly those of meteorology and sta- tistics (such as variations in prices, in the population, &c.), would _ greatly assist in developing relations at present obscure. It appears from our examination that the establishment and mean height of high water are liable to slight fluctuations, which baffle at present our attempts to obtain extreme accuracy in tide predictions. ‘This subject seems to deserve attention. I have now endeavoured briefly to advert to those parts of the subject which appear to require further elucidation, in the hope that they may attract the attention of those whose command of analysis may enable them to remove the difficulties which still remain to be surmounted, and I have mentioned some of the facts which appear to me to result from these laborious calcula- tions, which never could have been undertaken but for the interest which has been felt in the subject by some of the most distin- guished members of the Association, particularly by Mr.Whewell, and but for the pecuniary grants which have at different times been devoted to this object. I hope that when the results are earefully examined which have been published in the Philoso- phical Transactions, they will not: be found disproportionate in value to the great labour and expense which has been required ‘for their attainment. I have lately received, through the kindness of M. Arago, the printed Brest Tide Observations from January, 1807, up to the end of December, 1835. It now therefore remains to be consi- dered whether by pursuing further this inquiry in the same manner other important facts can be elicited from the Brest ob- servations. I was formerly extremely anxious to obtain access to these observations: first, because I understood that they weret in print ; secondly, because the tide there is single ; thirdly, on account of the classical interest which attaches to these obser- _ vations, from being the foundation of the remarks connected _ with this subject by Laplace in the Mécanique Céleste ; and _ fourthly, because the Brest observations extend throughout the _ Same period as those made at the London Docks, which we have : _ employed in our former discussion, Bakerian Lecture, 1836. - But I am not inclined to think that a discussion of the Brest _ Observations would now lead to results presenting any important As _ * E.g. Sir J. Herschel’s determination of the orbits of double stars. _ + We have felt great inconvenience in employing MS. observations; more- ee if the observations which we used were in print, greater facilities would exist for verifying our results. : 12 116 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. feature differing essentially from those which are afforded by the discussions which I have already completed of the London and Liverpool observations. But it would certainly be desirable to determine the semi-menstrual inequality in the height at Brest, that is, the constants D and E; this may be done from a year’s observations. I determined some time since the semi-menstrual inequality in the interval for that place. See Phil. Trans. As the Brest observations extend throughout the same time as those of the London Docks which we have employed, the same tides might be discussed, and thus the influence of local circumstances and the resistances which the tide meets with in its progress from Brest to London might be clearly ascertained. I confess, how- ever, I am not sanguine that any advantage would now be gained sufficient to compensate for the great labour and expense which the discussion would require. The explanation of the Signs used uv this Chart, is contained in pages 42 & 43. po pS 40 360 J.Gardner.sc. Regent Str. London CHART exhibiting the Observations of tlie Magnetic Intensity between fhe Latitudes of b60"N & Ga: The explanation of the Signs wend in ther art is mained tr pete 42 A a5d+ oL5d 150 +206 +253 +2152 +200 2 1080 °1G2 ——_——_—— vA, Segre Uy Cainer Regent Seen ] Bian £ im il He | Hath i ie iH i | Hn : | | ut if oe ! i i ahi MI ih | nH i/ MAP of the WORLD divided into Hemispheres by a pline coinciding with th Tug Wht he meridians of 100° & 280° E.. of Greenwich perhibitan Wechibiting th qual distribuls ? the MAGNETIC INTENSITY in the two He maspheres SE wo. Hemis WA —_— Sage 72 iH Ml ee ap Be igs i, LG isc 7 cis oe il i Ab Neri hi a | | iva | | | Hh UA 7 e4€ ; ae Fina Se the iil il $s ————s He = Fi ie a a Aa | aes - a | i, ; | muni. “MOP OT aay Feu ONY Vy} bey TO SPUT PVUIPPOST ¢ tt, nuvudpost “q 08 o£ og o¢ Or oF ve oT a ‘OSs Ore Ose Ot Ole 00s 06e OBE 0% (9 ieee Oe oe or a poagasnssachos=Gelecnc| =” is = Si oe Perey oF Poa ean =| ; ee fie og T9se05, worn 00L 09 7d GL OL 09 06 OF 08 0% Or 0 oe ~*~*«CRE (“$2417 J2uvUdpoOsS? pum ppUurjI0S2 ay fo ws27227,R4D. —— Lat Tsive yl pee ae ie SER gS eS a ee eee i. ae 2 ~ . ay ——G"n yo. eur ovurpulposp cana eG hea O:— 2ULT = 7 Ome. COMPOSITION OF CAST IRON. 117 On the difference between the Composition of Cast Iron pro-~ duced by the Cold and the Hot Blast. By Tuomas Tuomson, M.D., F.R.S., L.& E., &c., Professor of Chemistry, Glas- gow. Ar the meeting of the Association last year in Bristol, consider- able difference of opinion was entertained respecting; the ad- _ yantages said to be obtained by heating the air. before it is in- troduced into the furnaces in which iron is smelted, and it, was finally admitted by all parties that the only unexceptionable mode of determining the question would be to institute a set of experiments to determine the relative qualities of hot and cold blast iron, and to make a comparative set of analyses of each sort in order to determine whether any, and what, differences exist in their chemical composition... Messrs. Hodgkinson and Fairbairn, of Manchester, undertook to make a compara- tive set of experiments on each sort, and Mr, Fairbairn stated the result of their experiments in the mechanical section of the Association. A committee was appointed by the chemical sec- | tion to investigate the chemical composition of hot and cold blast iron. I had the honour of being named one of the mem- _ bers of that committee. I have accordingly made a certain -number of analyses, and my object in this paper is to state the _ results which I have obtained.. I do not know what has been _ done by the other members of the committee ; I was at too _ great a distance from all of them to enable us to operate to- gether; I therefore take it for granted that the object in view, when individuals living at such distances from each other were _ named together, was that each individual should make experi- _ ments on the.iron made in his neighbourhood; and that the section, by comparing together all the results, might have it in _ their power to come to a proper conclusion respecting this most portant subject. ) __ A great deal of cast iron, and a considerable quantity of bar _ iron is now made in the neighbourhood of Glasgow. Probably _ the amount last year was not far short of 200,000 tons. It is | well known that Glasgow is surrounded by one of the richest _¢oal-fields in Britain. The coal is not only abundant, but of excellent quality, and the iron ore fortunately exists in great abundance, stratified or in nodules in the coal measures. The Ore is always a carbonate of iron, never absolutely pure, and _ Varying considerably in this respect even when we examine dif- 118 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. ferent specimens from the same bed. I have analyzed above thirty specimens at different times, generally selected with some care, as the object in view was to determine the average good- ness of various beds of this ore, that the smelter might have it in his power to choose the best for his purpose. In general some notion may be formed of the goodness of the ore by taking its specific gravity ; the heaviest samples being the best. But this rule is not without exceptions ; the specific gravity of some of the best specimens being diminished by an admixture of coal. The specific gravity of pure crystallized carbonate of iron is 3°829. Now the heaviest iron stone which I have met with in the neighbourhood of Glasgow has a specific gravity of 3°3801. It contains 83°85 per cent. of carbonate of iron. The remaining 16°15 parts consist of carbonate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, silica, alumina, and coal. A bed of iron stone near Airdrie is known by the name of Mushet’s black band, because it was discovered by that gentleman, or at least its value was first pointed out by him. It contains 85°44 per cent. of carbonate of iron, which exceeds that from Crossbasket above stated, yet its specific gravity is only 3:0553. It may be worth while to state the composition of this black band, because it will show the foreign bodies always present, in greater or smaller quantity, in the clay iron stone of this district. Carbonate of iron... .. 85°44 Carbonate ‘of lime 20°. S80 2h. 9h) 594 Carbonate of magnesia. . . . . 3°71 Siliea hh" Soa ea ee RUE See Aliinainia

. ao Wee Pod oot ov) 2 1010 : When the Clyde iron works were originally established two furnaces produced only 14 tons of cast iron weekly. The pro- duce was gradually increased to 30, 40, or even 70 tons a week ; but after the introduction of the heated air the produce was as much as 130 tons a week. Indeed it was raised to almost 200 tons a week, but that was by the addition of another furnace. Various explanations have been given of the way in which the heated air acts to produce these advantages. If we attend to the facts which I have just stated the true explanation will I think easily suggest itself. When iron is smelted by the cold blast the coal requires to be coked, but when the hot blast is employed coking is unne- cessary. In the latter case one half the quantity of coals is suf- ficient that is required in the former. Is it not evident from this that the whole oxygen of the air of the hot blast combines ea i el id ig ee COMPOSITION OF CAST IRON. 121 with the fuel as soon as it enters into the furnace, and that the oxygen of the air of the cold blast is not all consumed immedi- ately, but makes its way upwards, and is gradually consumed in its ascent, producing a scattered heat which is of no use in smelting the iron, but merely serves to consume the fuel. When the hot blast is used the combustion is concentrated towards the bottom of the furnace ; with the cold blast it is much more dif- fused. Hence the reason of the saving of the coals in the former case, which constitutes the great advantage attending the new method. This greater concentration of the combustion must subject the iron to a greater heat than when the combustion is more scattered. This accounts for the smaller quantity of limestone necessary for separating the clay; for the higher the tempera- ture the smaller is the quantity of limestone necessary for the fusion of the clay. Hence also the greater rapidity of the pro- cess, and consequently the additional quantity of cast iron ob- tained from a furnace in a given time. I think then we may conclude, that when the hot blast is usedthe heat is more concentrated, and consequently higher than when the cold blast is employed. I shall now state the result of various analyses of cast iron, No. 1, smelted by means of cold, and also by means of hot air in the different iron works round Glasgow. These analyses were made in my laboratory, partly by myself and partly by Mr. John Tennent, upon whose accuracy and skill I could completely rely. All the iron works round Glasgow employ ut present nothing but heated air, except the Carron Company, who are in the habit of making cast iron, No. 1, both by the hot and cold blast. -I applied to the manager of the Carron works, and he very kindly supplied me with specimens of cast iron, No. 1, made by both processes. These specimens I carefully analyzed, and considered the comparison of the two specimens as very satisfactory, because the nature of the ore and the process was exactly the same in both cases, and because the Carron Com- pany have the reputation of making cast iron of the very best quality. I had specimens of cast iron, No. 1, from the Clyde Iron Works which I had obtained before the new process was known, and consequently when nothing but the cold blast was employed; and I had also specimens of cold blast iron from Muirkirk, and some which had been given me as Swedish cast iron. I shall now point out the differences which were observed between cast iron, No. 1, made by the cold and the hot blast. 1. The specific gravity of cast iron smelted by the cold blast is less than that of cast iron by the hot blast. 122 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. The following are the specific gravities of eight specimens of cold blast iron :— Ist. Muirkirk. ..). . « «6 (6 6°410 Phd. Dittoa os) 66) MSS Srd. Ditto.) a aS Ath itera oh a ee ee SU a CGE ai. el a fe 2 OOS 6th. From pyrites . . . . . . 6°9444 Vths: BromGarron> o)a5 2. i SPRSS 8th. Clyde Iron Works . . 7°0028 The specific gravity of the Muirkirk iron is s considerably less than of that smelted at Carron and the Clyde Iron Works ; the mean of the 8 specimens is 6:7034. It has been hitherto supposed that the difference hetween cast iron and malleable iron consists in the presence of carbon in the former, and its absence from the latter ; in other words, that cast iron is a carburet of iron. But inallthe specimens of cast iron which we analyzed we constantly found several other ingredients besides iron and carbon. Manganese is pretty generally pre- sent in minute quantity, though in one specimen it amounted to no less a quantity than 7 per cent. ; its average amount is 2 per cent. Si/icon is never wanting, though its amount is exceed- ingly variable, the average quantity is about 1} per cent. ; some specimens contained 3+ per cent. of it, while others contain less than a half per cent. Aluminum is very rarely altogether absent, though its amount is more variable than that of silicon. Its ave- rage amount is 2 per cent. ; sometimes it exceeds 43 per cent.,and sometimes it is not quite =,,5th part of the weight of the iron. Calcium and magnesium are sometimes gel but very rarely, and the quantity does not much exceed }th per cent. In a specimen of cast iron which I got from Mr. Neilson, and which he had smelted from pyrites, there was a trace of copper, showing that the pyrites employed was not quite free from copper; and in a specimen from the Clyde Iron Works there was a trace of sulphur. The following table exhibits the composition of six different specimens of cast iron, No. 1, ana- lyzed in my laboratory, either by myself or by Mr. John Tennent. Muirkirk. | Muirkirk.|Muirkirk,| Pyrites. | Carron. Clyde. Mean, Tron siscasses 90°98 | 90°29 | 91°38 89-442 | 94:010 | 90°824 | 917154 Copper ...... ——_— | —_ | — 0-288 | —— —— Manganese...| _—— 714 2°00 —— 0-626 2°458 2:037 Sulphur ...... — |= —__ | — _— —_— 0°045 Carbon ...... 7°40 1:706 | 4°88 3°600 3°086 2°458 3°855 DIHCR sescccces 0°46 0°830 | 1:10 3°220 1-006 0:450 1177 Aluminum . 0:48 0016 | —— 3°776 1032 4602 1651 Calcium ...... —— 0:018 | 0°20 _— —_— — — — 0°340 Magnesium —_— | —_— | — COMPOSITION OF CAST IRON. 123 The constant constituents of cold blast cast iron, No. 1, are iron, manganese, carbon, silicon, and aluminum., The occa- sional constituents are copper, sulphur, calcium, and magne- sium. ‘These occur so rarely, and in such minute quantity, that we may overlook them altogether. The constant constituents occur in the following mean atomic proportions :— Ber aes ION oS) Sarkis Lie = 77°00 i atom manganese. . . . ay ay 4-36 atoms carbon. . ... . = 3:27 B wee SiCONe ah aire .et/c-,) a == LFOO 14 aluminum - 1°40—84°42 If we unite the iron and manganese, and consider them as acting the part of basis, to which the carbon, silicon, and alun:i- num unite in definite proportions, we have 224 atoms iron and manganese; 63 atoms carbon, silicon, and ahupedeitin or 34 atoms iron and 1 manganese ; 1 atom carbon, silicon, and alumi- num. When we compare the different specimens analyzed, we observe a considerable difference in the constitution of each. In one specimen the iron and manganese were to the carbon, silicon, and aluminum, in the proportion of 2-41 atoms of the former to I of the latter ; in another specimen as 8°87 to 1. Now both of these specimens were from Muirkirk.. These dif- ferences doubtless depended partly on the ore, partly on the fuel, and partly on the heat employed. They account perfectly for the different properties of cast iron. But the mean of the whole gives cold blast cast iron, No. 1, com-— posed of 33 atoms iron, 1 atom carbon, silicon, and aluminum ; and the proportions of these three constituents are very nearly 4 atoms carbon, 1 atom silicon, and 1 atom aluminum; so that the cold blast cast iron of this country consists of 21 atoms iron, with a little manganese, 4 atoms carbon, | atom silicon, 1 atom aluminum. 2. I examined only one specimen of cast iron, No. 2. It was an old specimen, said to have come from Sweden, but I have no evidence of the correctness of this statement. Its specific gravity was 7°1633 higher than any specimens of cold blast 1 iron, No, 1. Its constituents were, AGH phir nhs a) baile fe fils y Gad Manganese 33. j% Us h%e 2s). «> 1 0°708 er ONh. ( <.rone ae fens me ae, A OOD Bslicom : ( -4Sistielibe osbhisll.. dso wi kiZ6Z Peianiinuin °°.) pee ae ote ok te Ose Sulphur... - - + 0:038—99°414 The presence of sulphur i in this specimen leads to the sus- 124 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. picion that it is not a Swedish specimen; for as the Swedish ore is magnetic iron, and the fuel charcoal, the presence of sulphur in the iron is very unlikely*. In this specimen the atoms of iron and manganese are to those of carbon, silicon, and aluminum in the proportion of 42 to 1, instead of 33 to 1, as in cast iron, No. 1. The atoms of carbon, silicon, and aluminum approach the proportions of 7, 2, and 1, so that in cast iron, No. 2, judging from one specimen, there is a greater proportion of carbon com- pared with the silicon and aluminum, than in cast iron, No. 1. Mr. Tennent analyzed a specimen of hot blast iron, No. 2, from Gartsherry. Its specific gravity was.6°9156, and its con- stituents, Atoms. Tron’-..* . . . ©. 90°542 > |. 25°86 hee Manganese . . . 2°764 0°78 Carbon '... = 3:094 4°05 Silicon . . . . 0°680 0°68 Aluminum . . . 2°894 2°31 Sulphur. . . . 0:023 0°011 99°997 So that it resembles cast iron, No. 1, in the proportion of its constituents.. The carbon is almost the same as in cold blast iron, No, 2, but the proportion of aluminum is four times as great, while the silicon is little more than half as much. The atomic ratios are, carbon 4°; silicon, 0°67 ; aluminum, 2°28. 3. Five specimens of hot blast cast iron, No. 1, were analyzed. Two of these were from Carron, and three from the Clyde Iron Works, where the hot blast originally began, and where, of course, it has been longest in use. The specific gravity of these specimens was found to be as follows :-— Ist. From Clyde Works. . . . 7:0028 9nd. From Carron. ... . .« . » g#O7aE Srd.. From‘ Carron’) '.099° 30.9550 $PO721 4th. From Clyde Works. . . . 7°1022 Mean . . 7:0623 It appears from this that the hot blast increases the specific gravity of cast iron by about ;jnd part. It approaches nearer the specific gravity of cast iron, No..2, smelted by cold air, than to that of No. 1. The following table exhibits the constituents of these 4 speci- mens. * I have been told by Mr. Mushet that the Swedes add sulphur to their iron, No. 2. IEA I ra eo desea ame COMPOSITION OF CAST IRON. 125 Clyde. Carron. | Carron. Clyde. Clyde. Tron -cecccccseeces 97:096 | 95°422 | 96°09 94:966 | 94:345 Manganese......... 0°332 | 0336 | 0-41 0160 | 3120 ATDON seeseeeeeees 2°460 2:400 2:48 1560 1°416 Silicon .sseesseeeee 0:280 1820 1:49 1322 0°520 Aluminum ......... 0°385 0°488 0°26 1374 0°599 Magnesium......+.. — —_— — 0°792 | —— ns | ce | | | 100°55 | 100-466 |100°73 | 100°174 | 100: The mean of these analyses gives us, Atoms. Dri)! ee we 9584 or 27-31 bes Manganese . . O°87lor 0°249 Carbon. .*.. © 2°099 or 2°79 Silicon. . . . 1°0860r 1°086 -1 Aluminum . . 0°422o0r 0°337 101°285 Or, in the proportion of 6% atoms of iron and manganese to 1 atom of carbon, silicon, and aluminum. In the cold blast cast iron, we have, Iron. Carbon, &c. InNo.l ... . . 3} atoms I atom. Bran Nos Bodh). yen ce oe AE i In hot blast . . . . 63 1— Thus it appears that when iron is smelted by the hot blast its specific gravity is increased, and it contains a greater proportion of iron, and a smaller proportion of carbon, silicon, and alumi- num than when smelted by the cold blast. The atoms of carbon, silicon, and aluminum are to each other nearly in the proportions of 12, 5,and2; so that the proportion of silicon compared with the carbon is nearly twice as great in the hot blast iron as in the cold blast. These are consequences that might have been anticipated from the theory of the process, as I have explained it in a preceding part of this paper. As to the qualities of the two kinds of iron I do not consider my experiments as calculated to enable us to draw any conse- quence of much importance. Hot blast iron is obviously purer than cold blastiron. It is said by several of the Glasgow steam _ engine makers whom I have consulted on the subject, that the _ iron by the hot blast is not so tough as that made by the cold _ blast ; and one very extensive house in Glasgow, in order to ob- _Viate this objection, is in the habit of adding a little Welsh iron to the hot blast iron before casting, and this I have been assured by the manager of the works obviates the defects. 126 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 4. An analysis of a specimen of cast steel, manufactu « in the neighbourhood of Glasgow, from the best Dannemors ..on, was made by Mr, Tennent, and perhaps it may be worth while to state the results obtained. v Its specific gravity was 7'8125, and its constituents, Atoms. PURE i Sec uaiy a) = "oaae tae Manganese . . ». « . 0°:190 RAtDOH.6itvl are, O8BS, <1; 99°866 Or it contains 56 atoms of iron united to 1 atom of carbon. He could not detect the least trace of either silicon or aluminum in this steel. Is it not probable that the reason why Danne- mora iron answers so well for making steel is that it contains no sensible portion of silicon and aluminum ; and that the pre- sence of a notable quantity of these substances in British iron is the reason why it is so ill fitted for being converted into good steel ? APPENDIX. A quantity of hot and cold blast iron was made in the same furnace at the Level Furnaces, Brierly Hill, Staffordshire, with the same proportions of ironstone and limestone, with the addi- tion of one-half more coal, necessary to compensate for the defi- ciency of power in the furnace when blown with cold air. These products were tried with the following results : 1. Two bars of cast iron {ths inch square were melted in a crucible from pig iron, No. 1, the first cold blast and the second hot blast ; both broke when exposed to a pressure of 2040 lbs. 2. Zths inch cable bolts were made from the hot blast iron No. 1. These cable bolts were exposed to the Liverpool proof, namely, a weight of 12 tons 5 ewt., without sustaining any al- teration; even a weight of 17 tons 18 ewt. produced no bad effect. Another chain without studs 3ths inch in diameter, made from the same hot blast iron, was proved to 22 tons, 7 ewt. 1 qr. 2 lbs., or to 12 tons, 11 ewt. 1 qr. 2 lbs. above the Liverpool proof, without sustaining any injury. These trials show that hot blast iron is at least as strong as cold blast iron. ae LOMO LOLA: DETERMINATION OF CONSTANT OF NUTATION. 127 ber. rae Notice of the Determination of the Constant of Nutation by the Greenwich Observations, made as commanded by the British Association. By the Rev. T. R. Rozinson, D.D. Ir is now a century since Bradley, by his brilliant discoveries of the aberration of light, and the nutation of the earth’s axis, became the founder of accurate astronomy. By them he not merely explained the seemingly anomalous movements which, though noticed by others before him, were first established by his observations on authoritative evidence, but he also demon- strated that a degree of precision, which the other astronomers of that time could scarcely conceive, was perfectly attainable. From the commencement of his career to the present day the impulse thus given has never failed, and each successive year has brought improvements to the construction of astronomical instruments, to the methods of observing, or, what is equally important, to the reductions by which these observations are made available to science. Yet it must be acknowledged that in respect of both aberra- tion and nutation nothing was added to the researches of Brad- ley till within a few years, when Struve, Brinkley, and Richard- son resumed the inquiry as to the first, and contracted within very narrow measures the limits of its uncertainty. The second, of these astronomers also investigated the constant of nutation, and his result is generally adopted by British astronomers. In Germany, however, the authority of M. Besselhas given currency to a different value of this important element, deduced by Von Lindenau, and though the two differ only + of a second, (7760.000 “66 AGG of the telescope used in observing,) such is the accu- ? ? racy now required that even this evanescent discordance is felt asa disgrace toastronomy. ‘This stigma I trust is now removed by the work which the powerful aid of the Association has en- abled me to perform, and of which it is my present object to give a brief notice to this section, the fuller details requiring a dif- ferent mode of publication. When an observer directs the telescope of his circle to a star, the distance from the pole or the zenith which he obtains is but crude ore, and much labour is required to obtain its precious contents. The refraction of the atmosphere prevents us from seeing it in its true place ; its effect must be computed and cor- rected ; the light by which we see it takes time to travel through 128 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. the telescope, which itself moves with the earth, and thus aber- rates from the true direction ; this too has been brought under our dominion. The stars themselves, though we call them fixed, are most of them in motion, each with its own proper movement, and with a period to which even geological cycles are probably but as moments. And the points of our own globe, to which we refer their positions, are anything but invariable; they are agitated with perpetual changes, some of great duration and extent, others minute in quantity and rapid in recurrence, all of which must be appreciated and known before we can record any history of the heavens at a given epoch. Of these disturbances of the earth’s axis the greater terms have long been known under the name of the precession of the Equinoxes, and our present knowledge of their laws and amount is satisfactory ; of the remaining three, appropriately called nutations, one completing, its course in a fortnight and never reaching ;',th of a second, is sufficiently determined by theory ; another, semi-annual in period, and } asecond at its maximum, is also given by theory, and, independently, by Brinkley’s ad- mirable observations. ; The third is of much greater magnitude, being about 9”, and running through its changes in the time of a complete revolu- tion of the moon’s nodes, something more than 18 years; and its exact determination is the object of this communication. It is obvious, that if a star’s distance from the pole be determined when the effect of this nutation increases it most, but without making any allowance for zts effect, and if 94 years after, when of course the distance is most diminished, it be again observed, the difference of the results will be twice the total effect of nu- tation on that star, and from this the entire or the constant of nutation is of course known. But if after a second lapse of 93 years, when all has returned to its primary condition, we have a third set of observations, the conclusion is made much more certain; for thus all doubt is removed that might come from any proper motion of the star if it returns to its original place; or if not, the difference detects that proper motion, and gives its amount. Therefore, to succeed in this inquiry, it is necessary to have observations extending through at least the whole period of the nodes, made with the same instrument, and, if it were possible, by the same observer, or at least according to the same system. In quantities so minute as those we are considering, in operations so delicate in themselves, and so easily vitiated by errors that can scarcely be suspected, all precautions are necessary ; and with the exception of the observations made at Greenwich, while the late Mr. Pond presided over that ob- ——— a ee eek)» mp, DETERMINATION OF CONSTANT OF NUTATION, 129 servatory, there are none existing which even approach the ful- filment of these conditions. ° Even in them there is much ob- jectionable, but many years must elapse before they can be surpassed. The Greenwich circle was for the first 12 years employed to measure distances from the pole ; afterwards from the zenith ; the zero of the former being given by comparing the observed and calculated places of known stars, the latter by combining direct and reflected observations. This in the present inquiry needed no change, but the other was inadmissible, and I re- stricted myself to the pole star alone. Of it 4000 observations were computed, by the aid of Bessel’s admirable tables, retaining his values of declination, nutation, and proper motion, but with mine of aberration and refraction. Of the results more than 2000 could be combined above and below the pole to give the zero of polar distance. The others served to keep watch in the interval between these conjugate observations, and show if any change took place in the instrument. After 1826, observations of Polaris were less numerous, but the index corrections given by it were then combined with reflected observations. The other stars were selected on this principle, that their altitudes should be such as to free them from the uncertainty of refraction ; and that those observations only should be employed in which at least 3 of the effect of nutation is exerted in polar di- stance. Of such there are but 15 to be found in the Greenwich collection with sufficient frequency, and even-of these three have not yet completed their cycles. Four of them are not found in Bessel’s tables, but are similarly reduced ; and in all correction has been made for that slight nutation of which I _ spoke as of a fortnight’s period. They afford about 8000 re- — sults, gut only 6000 have been available, 1000 from an accident _ which occurred to the instrument in 1820, and vitiated the work of almost two years, and the rest from occasional want of _ corresponding observations of Polaris. Each of these observations should be exactly represented by the calculated place of the star, were there no errors of observa- tion or of reduction, and the difference gives their effects, In the present case we consider only three things as doubtful ; the place of the star at some given epoch, as given by the catalogue employed, the star’s motion, and Lindenau’s nutation. The re- _ sidue thereforeis properly equated to these three quantities, and _ the equations are divided into three groups, corresponding to the ~ maxima and intervening minimum (or vice versd) of nutation. - The three resulting equations determine these three errors, two ~ of which are peculiar to each star, but the correction of nutation VOL. VI. 1837. K 130 . SEVENTH REPORT—1837. is common to all, and each set should give it the same value. This is not rigorously the case, and the difference proceeds partly from accidental errors in bisecting the star or reading the divisions, but still more from causes which are as yet unknown, and whose influence is but beginning to be noticed. Lastly, the corrections thus obtained must be combined into a general mean according to the most probable method, attending to their different weights. In some stars nutation appears with a larger coefficient, some have been more frequently observed, and both these circum- stances must be duly estimated in taking the mean. These are my results. To increase Lindenau’s nutation : 710 observations of y Draconis give + 0-28 776 —- a Lyre om 20° 54 705 — « Cygni — + 0°03 452 a Arcturus — + 0° 33 369 —_— 6 Urseminoris— + 0° 35 224 ——— 6 Tauri — + 0°35 284 —— Aldebaran — +0°31 2359 ——— a Arietis — +031 279 —_ a Corone — + 0° 61 287 ——_ Pollux — + 0°54 267 ——— Castor — + 0.52 190 2a a Persei — +0°77 To diminish it : 397 observations of » Urs give — 0-29 403 ——— Capella — —0°31 393 —— Polaris — —0° 01 The mean of all being, +. 0.1257 8° 977 Lindenau = 9-234 differing only 0-016 from the number selected by Mr. Baily for the admirable catalogue which has already been so useful to astronomy, and which I trust by the aid of the Association may soon be increased far beyond its present extent®. It remains to consider what errors may be supposed to affect this conclusion. Some may object that I have used with Mr. Baily the constant of aberration 20°36, instead of employing 20°50, which Mr. Richardson has so ably deduced from the * Since reading this notice to the Association I have received the Green- wich observations for 1836, which enables me to complete the cycle for # Cygni, and to determine the proper motions of Castor and Pollux more cor- rectly. These, and some other changes of less importance, have slightly changed my result, which is now considered by me to be 9°239, 9S ER INT PG INET GD AO i? pid ‘ntsc he ee EP tte os eee DETERMINATION OF CONSTANT OF NUTATION. 131 Greenwich observations themselves. I fully admit its weight, but must remark, Ist, that for the star common to our compu- tations, the maximum of aberration obtained differs too widely, in one case more than a second; secondly, that the mean of 20:5038 Richardson and De Lambre gives, __225, almost identical with 4 20°370 Brinkley and Struvé 20350; and, thirdly, that the use of Mr.R.’s 20°360 constant would scarcely have changed my-result. In the case of - y Draconis, the most important in my list, I performed the computation with this value, and the change it produced was only >,55 of a second. , As to the casual errors depending on the circumstances of observation, I find for this star, that the probable error of one observation = + 096, and therefore, by the theory of proba- bilities, it comes out an even het, that. as far as such errors are concerned the result given by it is not uncertain to 0°"04, and Lyre has nearly the same probable error. Therefore, the slight discordances in my results proceed from other, and, as yet, un- known causes. Similar and greater discrepancies occur in Mr. Richardgson’s investigations, but it is curious that in Brinkley’s researches on nutation, Capella, and « Cygni give results less than the mean; « Lyre, 6 Tauri, and Castor above it. It might seem that a more accurate conclusion is attainable by assuming the proper motion of the stars as known from comparison of Bradley’s observations with those of recent date. This supposition would give the constant 9°181, 0°05 less than that given above; but I think it inadmissible, for these motions may not be uniform, and there may be changes in the instru- ment, the refraction, the observer, nay, even in the direction of gravity, as affected by local circumstances, which are functions of the time. Something of this sort does actually appear here. It is well known that Pond latterly believed in the existence of a general southern motion of the stars ; and though Brinkley has shown most fully that this is imaginary, yet it is remarkable that the corrections of Bessel’s proper motions, which my work has given, are, except in one instance, all negative. I infer from this that the Greenwich circle is undergoing some progressive change of figure, which makes it show polar distances too great for about 30 degrees south of the zenith; but if this be the case it is not likely long to elude the sagacity of Mr. Airy. The declinations which I obtain from these Greenwich obser- vations differ considerably from those deduced by Pond himself, K 2 132 SEVENTH REPORT—1837, and given in the N, A. for 1834, but they agree closely with those of Bessel; they give the following corrections : Cor. N. A. Cor. Bessel. y Draconis. . . —097 . . —0°08 @ lyre ot ee. ee a Cyeni se. = OEE i ag Arcturus. eer et OB Oo er SE 6 Urse Minoris . —O6l . . +0:10 TAMr see ee a Le iT ae Aldebaran . . . —1°80 . . — 0°08 a “Arietis FeO 4) Ao 148 Oe 0 Og a Corone .. . —1'70 . . —0°06 Bolla se EEE oe Me Castor . .. . —9205 . . —013 a Persei. . . . —1°80 . . — 0°99 4 Ura sd OPER 9 49480 Capella sti) 1h 8) oo) ay Saree Polaris . . . . —OOl . . —0°04 Mean — 1:34 — 0°02 This seems to show that the difference between these cele- brated catalogues arises solely from the different methods of re- duction employed, and may excite a wish that the whole of Pond’s Greenwich catalogue should undergo a similar reyision. - EXPERIMENTS ON VEINS AND MINES. 133 Report of some Experiments on the Electricity of Metallic Veins, and the Temperature of Mines. By Ropert WERE Fox. In fulfilment of the commission with which I was last year in- trusted, it was my intention to have made some experiments on the electricity of metalliferous veins on a larger scale than I have yet done, and to have endeavoured to produce changes in the composition of bodies, by the long-continued action of electric forces, derived from this source. Other engagements have, however, interfered with the execution of these plans, and the only experiments of this nature which I have recently made have been confined to Coldberry and Skeers lead mines, situated near Middleton Teasdale, in the county of Durham. In the former, I obtained no decided results; and in the latter, the gal- vanometer indicated very feeble electrical action. There are seven E. and W. lead veins in this mine, contained in limestone, which are shifted from three to five fathoms to the right hand by a cross vein, having nearly a northern and southern direction. The cross vein contained more or less galena near some of the places of intersection ; and a connection was made, by means of copper wires, between portions of orein the cross vein, and others in one of the most productive of the east and west veins, when there appeared to be a feeble action from N. to W. (see ground plan, fig.1). The parts connected, a and 4, were about twenty fathoms distant from each other, and fifty fathoms under the ~ surface. } A small stream of water gushing Fig. 1. out of the vein was at 50° Fahr. N The ore in this mine was far from abundant, at least it did not occur in such large masses as are best a" calculated for experiments of this description ; and the wire was not sufficiently long to admit of obser- vations being made on the relative electric states of parallel veins. These experiments, together with others which I made some years ago in other lead mines near Mold W in Flintshire, tend to induce the belief that the electric action ismuch more feeble in lead veins when con- tained in limestone and sandstone s Cross Vein. Lead Vein. 134 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. than in copper veins included in the lower rocks, such as granite and “ sillas’’ or clay slate. And here it may be remarked that the sulphurets of copper are more electro-negative than galena, which circumstance may have had some influence on the results. I wished to have made experiments on the electricity of some of the coal-beds which have been traversed and charred by the great basaltic dyke in the county of Durham, but my time and engagements did not well admit of my doing so. It is well known, that when coal is reduced to the state of a cinder it be- comes a good conductor of voltaic electricity, although coal, in its natural state, does not possess this property, or even anthra- cite. A friend of mine having kindly sent me some specimens of the altered coal taken from Cockfield Fell Colliery, I found that most of them were incapable of conducting voltaic electri- city, which unexpected circumstance may, perhaps, be attri- buted to their having undergone a degree of vitrification,—pene- trated, possibly, by some siliceous matter, which their appearance indicated; and I am rather confirmed in this opinion from having since found that one of the pieces of native cinder from the same place is as good a conductor of electricity as coke, and it has a less vitrified appearance than the others. Here then we have the evidence of electricity in favour of the powerful ac- tion of the heated basalt on the contiguous coal deposits. I have, on various occasions, endeavoured to show that the high temperature observed in the lowest parts of deep mines is in a great degree independent of accidental or extraneous causes not existing in the earth itself, and, indeed, that it is more often diminished by them than the reverse. It occurred to me that this point might be decided by burying the bulbs of different thermometers at various depths below the deepest excavations of mines, and I am indebted to the agents of Levant Tin and © Copper mine, and of the Consolidated Copper mines, for having carried this plan into effect for me in their respective mines. The former mine is situated on the coast, in the parish of St. Just, and is worked in granite and “killas.”’ Its depth is about 230 fathoms from the surface, and 200 fathoms below the level of the sea. A thermometer four feet long, and inclosed in a brass tube, had its bulb sunk in a hole three feet beneath the ““ sump,” or bottom of the deepest shaft, whilst another shorter thermometer was placed very near it, with its bulb inserted in a hole only about an inch deep. The former, which may be distinguished as No. 1, indicated a temperature of 80°, and the latter (No. 2) of 78°°5, both of them having been previously com- pared with a standard thermometer, and the needful correction applied. This part of the mine is in granite. The thermome- ter was afterwards placed in like manner in “ killas,’’ at the EXPERIMENTS ON VEINS AND MINES. 135 western extremity of the deepest level or gallery, about 190 fathoms under the sea level, and four feet from the lode, when No. 1 showed a temperature of 78°, and No. 2, 72°°5 ; a stream of water which flowed into another part of this level to the east- ward of the shaft, and in granite, was at 78°°5, and the air in the level only 67°. The Consolidated Mines are situated in the parish of Gwen- nap, and nearly thirty miles to the eastward of Levant. The depth is 290 fathoms from the surface, and 237 below the level of the sea at half-tide; the rock is “killas.”’ There is a “‘ cross-cut,’ or gallery proceeding from the bottom of the deepest shaft (Pearce’s), marked P.S. in the section Fig. 2, at right angles to the lode, which it inter- sects at N., the lode underlying to- wards the north L.N. The thermo- meters No. 1 and 2 were placed at a, 24 fathoms from N.., the bulb of the former in a hole three feet deep, and that of the latter in another an inch deep, the holes having been filled round the thermometers with clay, &c. Under these circum- stances No. 1 indicated a tempera- ture of 85*°3, and No. 2 of 84°. The thermometers were then simi- larly arranged at 4, ten fathoms from N., and No. 1 gave 86°°3, and iy the other 85°. These experiments re r s were made before the cross-cut was completed as far as N. When, however, the lode was inter- sected atthat place, both thermometers were placed in the manner already described in the lode itself at c, when No. 1 indicated a temperature of 92°, and No. 2 of 88°. Here the thermo- meters were kept only two hours, but in all the other experi- ments in both mines they remained in their places more than twenty-four hours ; and when No. 1 was taken out of the deep holes, and allowed to stand awhile in the “ cross-cut,” the mer- cury always fell at leasta degree. Only two men were at work at a time in or near this part of the mine. The increase of temperature in the lode, may, I conceive, be attributed to the greater facility afforded by it for the ascent of currents of warni 136 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. water from more considerable depths, and the difference between a and / to their relative proximity to the lode. The tempera- ture of 85°°3 is at least 35° above the mean of the climate, and, therefore, it gives a ratio of increase equal to one degree in 49°6 feet, if calculated from the surface; and Levant Mine, which was 80° at the bottom, one degree in 46 feet, or they give one degree in 48 and 44 feet respectively, if estimated from ten fathoms under the surface. . The thermometers were likewise placed in holes, as before, in a superior level in the Consolidated Mines, 130 fathoms be- low the surface, when No. 1 indicated a temperature of 61°, and No. 2 of 61°°6. This difference in favour of the short ther- mometer was probably due to the influence of ascending currents of warm air and vapour on the surface of the rock; and such an explanation is not inconsistent with the opinion that the general temperature of the upper parts of the mine had undergone a dimi- nution of its criginal amount, in consequence of the excavations below having interfered with the ascent of warm water, and pro- moted the drainage from above of that which was comparatively cold. For these reasons, and from the results obtained at the deepest parts of mines of various depths, I consider that the temperature of 61° is much below what it would have been had there been no inferior excavations ; and I have evidence that in 1822, when the mine was only 150 fathoms deep, the water at the bottom of one shaft was at 76° and of another at 80°. It is clear, I think, from all the experiments which have been made on the temperature of mines, that causes which are more or less local, and exist in the earth itself, have a powerful influence in modifying its degree, and in producing those anomalous results which have always characterised observations on subterranean heat. When it is considered how much the crust of the earth abounds with fissures or faults, and that warm water has a con- stant tendency to ascend through cooler portions of that fluid, and thus to produce upward and downward currents in the fis- sures and veins, it would indeed be surprising if such discrepan- cies did not exist even in the same vicinity, to say nothing of the greater or less influence of water percolating from the surface. Upon the whole, I am strongly of the opinion that the effect of the simple conducting power of rocks on the temperature, at depths hitherto attained, is very much superseded by that of the transporting property of water to which I have alluded. Indeed, I have long taken this view of the subject, and it has appeared to me to account very satisfactorily for the fact of the more compact rocks, ,such as granite, having been often found at rather a lower temperature than “killas” at given depths, and EXPERIMENTS ON VEINS AND MINES. 137 both of them inferior in this respect to large porous lodes or veins*. ‘Thermal springs may likewise, I conceive, be referred to the same cause, and it is well known that they are generally connected with fissures or faults; moreover, I may here remark that this property of fluids must more or less influence the temperature of water in Artesian wells, so that thermometrical experiments made in them are often rather calculated to prove the existence of subterranean heat than to ascertain its ratio of increase in descending from the surface. Since the foregoing report was read at the geological section, I have obtained some results relative to the temperature of Tresavean Copper Mine from Captain Oats, who kindly made the experiments for me. The mine is worked almost wholly in granite, and is situated in the parish of Stythians, about three miles to the S.W. of the Consolidated Mines. The bulb of the thermometer No. 1 was buried 2 feet 10 inches, and that of No. 2 one ineh under the surface of the rock at the different stations, their stems having in all cases been surrounded by clay pressed into the holes. The following were the results : Depth in fathoms. Experiments made. from from Inair. Inthe rock. surface, sea level. No. 1. No. 2. , ° ° ° 26 . ... In pranite 15 fathoms N. of lode, and 40 fathoms 53:3 57: 598 AVON MAS, Aeasdecscacecs eco cnaincsveussles ebnahenie ec i 200. 170 ae lode, rock do., ‘‘ killas,” and three fathoms } 17:9 76+ 155 YOM SYANite ......sececeeoes seeeescecenseececceccesess 200 170 In do. 10 fathoms from do. ....cceccccceesceees dederease tet LUG, eon 250 196 ee eopienet in granite, and 60 sage from §3°2 82:5 82 2 262 208 Inlode,do.,in7 fathoms from do. , being the bottom 855 82:5 82: GLiMMEMNINC wpe beeteces ckeadaesescesnecinacvcndes _ The last result gives a ratio of increase of 1° in 48 feet, cal- culated from the surface. It will be seen that the elevation of the latter, in reference to the sea-level, varies considerably in different parts of the mine. * See Philosophical Magazine and Annals, 1831, vol. ix., p. 94. } ‘ “ ri . ‘ Ay Ay Nev ~ Pai Pps ‘ ~- > +, 7 - . We? . Sagbare cere ep eae } SJ iA Sana es REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 139 . Provisional Report of the Committee of the Medical Section of the British Association, appointed to investigute the Composition of Secretions, and the Organs producing them. Part I, Tue Committee appointed by the Medical Section of the British Association to investigate the chemical composition of glands and their respective secretions, have been prevented by different circumstances (amongst which have been the lamented death of one of their number, and the disturbed health of another) from rendering a complete report on the subject referred to them. They are desirous however of making such a statement of their progress as may invite the co-operation of animal chemists in the extensive and somewhat difficult field in which they find themselves engaged. The manifest object of the investigation proposed to your committee has been to obtain, through the medium of animal chemistry in its present improved state, some further insight into the mysterious and vital process of secretion. The terms in which this inquiry is proposed seem to give to it a particular direction, the reason for which may not be very obvious ; and as they were suggested by one of your committee, it may not be amiss to assign here the reasons which occasioned this | course to be pointed out: before proceeding to do so we will | offer one remark in opposition to a generally received opinion | respecting the process of secretion. It seems to be considered that in as much as this process is one in which vitality is con- cerned, it is removed from the province of chemistry ; from this Opinion we totally dissent, seeing that whatever changes are produced in the proportion and mode of combination of the Minents of which bodies are composed, must, when not merely mechanical, be essentially chemical, and that the introduction of an agent, though it be no less important than the influence of life, does not in any degree detract from its chemical character. We have merely to consider that the elements both act and are acted upon under peculiar circumstances, which offer some ana- logy to what is seen when chemical elements are exposed to the influence of caloric or electricity ; their inherent properties are not destroyed, but they are modified when they are placed under these influences ; and as the investigation of chemical changes, in which the two influences just mentioned are concerned, has tended greatly to improve our knowledge in respect to them, so 140 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. : we may reasonably hope that a similar result may be obtained from the investigation of the processes of nutrition and secretion — going forward in living bodies, by regarding them as strictly — chemical, even in those very modifications which vitality pro- 4 duces. When it is considered that during the activity of life the process of nutrition is constantly maintaining, even in the solid parts of animal bodies, molecular changes by which old ; materials are removed and new ones deposited, we must be led to presume @ priori, that as the rejected particles are taken away _ in a state of perfect solution, they must find their way into those _ fluids which proceed from the particular part. In ordinary | textures (by which we wish to be understood those which are © not called glandular) we fee] no hesitation in admitting that the — rejected particles are carried away in the lymph and venous blood ; but in glandular structures, and in parts which like them — yield a peculiar secretion as well as return lymph and venous blood to the system, we have a third course into which some of the rejected particles may be expected to find their way. — Now though it may be difficult or almost impossible to detect either in the venous blood or the lymph, any peculiarities which | the addition of the rejected particles may give to the venous — H) blood and lymph proceeding from particular parts, the case_ may be different when we investigate a particular secretion in — which it seems probable that these particles may exist in a larger proportion, having a less admixture of the whole or some of the constituents of the general circulating fluid. The mani- fest properties of some secretions seem to lead to a similar con-_ clusion & posteriori. The varieties which we find in pus ae duced in different parts of the body are among the most pal-— pable examples of this kind. Pus from the brain has a peculiar consistence and colour resembling greenish cream, even where — there has been no breaking down of the substance of the brain, — by which that material might be grossly blended with it. When pus is formed in the immediate neighbourhood of the alimentary canal, and especially of the lower part of it, it possesses so strongly — the iecl odour, that it had been confidently believed that faeces had been mixed with it, until the absolute impossibility of such an occurrence had been demonstrated. Pus formed in the im- mediate neighbourhood of the toes possesses the peculiar odour of those parts, and a similar remark sometimes applies to matter formed in the axille. The peculiar odour exhaled by different species of animals, and even by different individuals of the same species, dependent on differences of age and sex, appears to be another illustration of the principle which has been here suggested: for although | | : REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 141 such peculiar odour may in some instances be referred to a spe- cial local secretion, as in the instances of the civet cat and musk deer, it cannot have escaped the observation of those who have been in the habit of dissecting the bodies of recently killed ani- mals of different species, that these exhale not from one part only, but from every part internal as well as external, modified indeed by circumstances, a peculiar smell which is characteristic, and belongs both to the solids and fluids. - Another illustration of the influence of the character of parts upon the secretion which they produce may be seen about the mouth, where a slight excoriation or sore is apt to produce a considerable quantity of thin fluid secretion, which one can searcely fail to regard in conjunction with that secretion which is poured into the mouth from the internal surface of those parts. The copious secretion from a blistered surface, when the subcutaneous cellular membrane is cedematous, is perhaps a phenomenon of the same character. The chemical composition of secerning organs may influence that of their products independently of the particles which they may absolutely impart from their own structure. It may do so by a process similar to that which Thenard has pointed out as taking place when deutoxide of hydrogen comes in contact with fibrin ; a process which that great chemist several years Since pointed out as likely to throw light on the function of secretion. This idea has since been developed by Berzelius, who calls their action of contact the catalytic action, and argues that probably the contact of the blood with certain surfaces of the organs may produce some alteration in the arrangement of elements, and that the secretions may be thus catalytically formed from the blood. _ It is probably to the operation of this principle that we may ascribe some phenomena, which, in addition to the circumstances which have already been mentioned, render it desirable to ascer- tain with accuracy the composition of solid parts in conjunction with that of their secretions. In some healthy, and in not a few morbid actions, we see that a new product, whether fluid or solid, is verymuch influenced by the character of the surrounding parts. Thus in the condensed cellular membrane in the neighbour- hood of bone it sometimes happens that masses of bony matter are deposited, but are perfectly detached. The numerous in- stances which we see of ossification at the origins or insertions of muscles are probably referable to the same principle; although | it must be admitted that these examples are not unexceptionable, | Since in them we have a continuity of structure. As a further | illustration it may be noticed, that after the fracture of a bone, | | 142 _ SEVENTH REPORT—1837. the process by which the new bony matter necessary for union is produced, is often morbidly carried on in the matters which inflammation has deposited in the surrounding structures. The most striking illustrations are undoubtedly those which are pre- sented by the heterologue structures, probably because of their being much more readily produced accidentally than the ana- logue. Thus we see that the natural structures in the neigh- bourhood of malignant tumours are apt to degenerate into a substance in some respects resembling that of the original tu- mour. In the neighbourhood of those tumours which are of slow growth, and of cartilaginous hardness, we often find the surrounding structures, but more especially the cellular memn- brane, partaking of the same character of hardness, though ne- cessarily wanting the structural arrangement which characterizes the tumour itself. In the same way we find that those tumours which are composed of a soft and brain-like substance are sur- rounded by natural structures, which degeneration has converted into a nearly similar substance, or which have a similar matter deposited intersticially. Again, in those tumours which are remarkable for their black colour, and to which the name of melanosis has from this cireumstance been applied, the sur- rounding structures become more or less deeply tinged with a black or dark-coloured material. This disease also presents us with a good illustration of the principle in a mode precisely the converse of the preceding example. There is, perhaps, no organ so liable to be affected with melanosis as the eye; and it may not unreasonably be suspected that it is the natural and healthy production of black pigment, performed by the choroid coat of this organ, which is the chief cause of this predisposition. The anatomical structure of a secreting organ is one of the conditions in which it is essential to consider in an inquiry into the phenomena of secretion, although it cannot be imagined that it affects it by any merely mechanical separation. If it were possible, it would be desirable to ascertain, and to indicate by definite terms, the comparative degrees of vascularity, the pro- portion in which the ramifications of the three vascular systems are combined, and the rapidity of circulation. The comparative innervation of the part, although probably no less important, is perhaps still less exactly ascertained. To improve our knowledge on this point, it would be particularly desirable to ascertain not merely the number of nerves sent in proportion to the size of the organ, but also their origin, and the proportion in which they are derived from the ganglionic and cerebro-spinal systems ; the de- gree of sensibility which they impart to the organ, the degree of uniformity or variation of function which may be observed in — REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 148 the organ, and the conditions by which it may be influenced in this respect ; also whether the nutrition resulting from the com- bined action of the vascular and nervous systems is steady or sub- jected to periodical or other variations. _. Although we are at present very much in the dark upon most of these subjects, we may be convinced from various examples that the characters of a secretion are influenced by the texture of the organ which produces it. In those adventitious cysts which are liable to be formed in different parts of the body, but which are most frequent as well as most distinctly formed in the ova- ries and in their vicinity, we find, that whilst they are of a thin and delicate texture the secretion is thin and aqueous or serous, but that when they have become a little thickened their secretion is thick, viscid, and mucous oralbuminous. A similar transition, but in a less marked degree, may be-seen in the serous mem- branes natural to the body, and also in the mucous membranes. Where these are thin and delicate, us in the case of the con- junctiva, and in the extreme branches of the bronchial tubes, their secretion approaches very closely to that of the serous membranes, whilst the thicker membranes which line the vari- ous portions of the alimentary canal produce large quantities of mucus. When chronic inflammation has thickened these mem- branes the quantity and viscidity of the mucus produced is noto- riously increased. _ In investigating the causes which operate in the production of animal secretions there are doubtless several points to be considered beside the chemical composition and anatomical structure of the parts producing them, and the composition of the fluid from which they are derived. Even after the secretion has been poured forth from the living solid, it is certain that it undergoes important changes by which its character is in many respects altered. Although these changes are in part to be ascribed to the material remaining under the influence of the living structure by which it is surrounded, and which may act both by abstraction and addition, nevertheless there are some modifications more immediately depending on the inorganized secretion itself. Such changes seem to be more particularly within the undisputed limits of animal chemistry in its present State, and we may reasonably expect to find their parallels or analogues in the changes which take place in dead matter apart from the living body. While some of these changes are un- doubtedly brought about by the influence of air and moisture, _by which the addition or subtraction of elements may be effected, in other instances the change seems to be more particularly Bs 5 144 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. brought about by the alteratian in the arrangement of the pre- viously existing elements. Amongst the changes taking place under one or other of these conditions in inorganic or dead matter, and wholly removed from the influence of life, and to which some parallels may pro- bably be found in changes effected within the living body; the following examples may. be pointed out by way of illustration. None are more notorious and familiar than those which take place in wine and other fermented liquors when kept in well- closed bottles. In some of these instances it may be said that the change is only mechanical, and the result of very slow de- position ; yet there are unquestionably cases in which no depo- sition takes place; and the change, be it what it may, is un- doubtedly effected in the chemical combination of the ultimate elements. Between these extremes there are mixed cases, as when crystals are deposited and gases liberated to occupy the upper part of the containing vessel. Amongst the long-neg- lected bottles which may sometimes be seen in a chemist’s labo- ratory, we may occasionally observe the results of very slowly- effected changes in the combination of the enclosed elements | exhibited in remarkable precipitates and in alteration in colour. In the mineral kingdom, and more especially in rocks of voleanic origin, and possessing a cellular character, we may ob- serve the most remarkable transfer and chemical combination of elements in the products, often beautifully crystallized, by which the cavities become more or less filled, notwithstanding the firm and apparently impenetrable character which the rock may possess. Amber may be adduced as another example fur- nished by the mineral kingdom, for it is doubtless whilst apper- taining to this class that it has received the characteristics which distinguish it from the recent resins to which it is not only closely allied, but from which it is in all probability really de- rived. In this instance we have a material as impervious to water as the volcanic rocks before-mentioned. But the obvious change produced is in some respects different. Instead of a new substance, separated in distinct portions, the result of a transfer to sensible distances, we find an uniform change of substance throughout. There is perhaps no change in dead matter which is more interesting, from its relation to the sub- ject before us, than the conversion of all the soft parts of animals into the peculiar fatty substance called adipocere,: which takes place under exposure to certain circumstances, of which immer- sion in moisture appears to be the most important. It is wor- thy of note that this change seems to take place nearly alike in REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 145 different textures, such as skin, muscle, cellular membrane, and adipose substance ; yet as it can hardly be supposed that they are all equally prone to it, it seems probable that its having commenced in one tissue tends to determine its taking place in others in contact with it. As a connecting link between changes resembling those just adduced, and those which occur in living organized bodies, may be mentioned the well-known fact, that many fruits gathered long before their living connection with the root would have naturally ceased, notwithstanding undergo those changes which render them ripe, or in other words, bring them to a state of maturity. In the leaves of plants, a short time before they lose their connection with the branch, and also when they have been detached from it, a chemical change takes place, which produces the Xanthophylle or yellowcolouring principle on which the hues of autumn in great measure depend. Before we can apply the principle of these changes to the assistance of our investigation of the changes effected in living bodies, it is important that the laws which regulate them should be further elucidated. The labours of some of our continental chemical brethren have already considerably advanced the subject. Without swelling this pre- liminary report with an analysis of what they have done, it will be sufficient for our present purpose to adduce, without attempt- ing any chemical explanation, some of the apparently parallel phenomena to which we invite the attention of those who may be disposed to co-operate in this kind of research. As farina or starch may be converted into gum, and both farina and gum into sugar, and these into various acids, or into alcohol or ether, so it would appear that other principles may be changed ac~- cording to a particular course of succession, though some of the possible links may not be always essential.. The very possibi- lity of such successive changes renders it necessary to take into consideration another element, viz., time; and in our inquiry into the production of different secretions, we must, besides in- vestigating the anatomical and chemical composition of the secreting organ, and the qualities of the matter when first pro- duced, as compared with its ultimate state, not fail to take ¢éme into the consideration. The first rapidly produced. secretion from a mucous surface is: nearly serous. Newly and rapidly formed mucus is thin and aqueous. when compared with that which has been long detained upon the surface of the secreting membrane. When milk is too frequently drawn. from the lac- _ tiferous glands it is thin and watery compared with that which is allowed to be longer retained. The production of pus is another example, and one in which the changes may be followed. VOL. VI. 1837. L 146 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. by the eye through their whole course. When pus has been well removed from a suppurating surface its place is soon sup- plied by a thin and watery secretion. This afterwards becomes viscid, but without being visibly particled; it afterwards be- comes manifestly particled and turbid, and ultimately thick, opaque, and cream-like. There are perhaps no secretions which are more interesting than those in which a fatty or resinous matter is produced. They may be contrasted with the produc- tion of oily matter in living vegetables, and with the conversion into adipocere in dead animal matter. The most recently pro- duced secretion of a sebaceous follicle is nearly or quite aqueous, but it soon appears to be albuminous or caseous, and. does not appear to possess any oleaginous property. This it soon after acquires when it becomes the natural unguent to the skin. When the secretion fails to escape it accumulates, and a col- lection of grumous fatty matter is formed. In the early embryo the situation of the adipose substance is occupied by small grains of an opake whitish substance, which appears to be rather al- buminous or caseous than truly adipose. The production of cream in the lactiferous glands, when the milk is allowed to be well formed, appears to be another physiological instance. The next is of a pathological character. It is well known that in or near the ovaries it occasionally happens that encysted masses are found, containing fat, bone, teeth, and hair. Although the whole of these materials are not necessarily found in the same specimen, fatty matter appears to be invariably present. These extraordinary productions are generally referred to conception, and are indisputably closely allied to, if not identical with, it. Now in the natural ovum but a comparatively small portion of fatty matter exists, and certainly none in the situation in which the peculiar fatty matter which forms so large a portion of these encysted formations is met with. It would therefore appear that when growth as well as development has been suspended in these irregular efforts of the nisusformativus, there commences a conversion of the collected elements into a fatty substance by the introduction of anew chemical arrangement of the elements. Even this change is progressive, and it would appear that the fatty matter when formed is susceptible of further change ; for in some of these collections the fatty matter appears clean, nearly white and uniform; in others it approaches the character of cholesterine ; and in one instance we have met with it, having a bright yellow colour, and astrong, penetrating, empyreumatic or bituminous odour, bearing considerable resemblance to an unctuous yellow substance, found as a mineral production in Scotland some few years since, and placed in the possession of REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 147 Professor Jameson. Next to these changes taking place in the liying body, yet probably, except in the case of foetal fat, beyond the limits of organization, it may perhaps be allowable to place the pathological degeneration of some tissues into fat. The muscles of the limbs and the contractile fibrous coat of an en- larged and thickened bladder have been found converted into this substance. The most frequent, as well as the most re- markable of these fatty degenerations is the production of fat livers, which has attracted the special notice of some foreign pathologists. It is comparatively rare in this country, and but few very well marked instances have been met with amongst many hundred inspections performed during several years at Guy’s Hospital; yet what have appeared to be approaches to it have not been very rare. This degeneration essentially belongs to the acini, which are generally, if not invariably, enlarged in size, paler, and less supplied with blood than in the healthy state, and have nearly or wholly lost their power of secreting bile. In the advanced cases, the specific gravity of the liver be- comes less than that of water, and fatty matter forms by far the largest part of its composition, whilst in other cases in which this degeneration has taken place fat has only formed a small per centage. Now it is not very uncommon to find in cachetic patients, who have long been unable to take exercise, a consi- derably enlarged liver, dependent on the great hypertrophy of the acini, which, though wanting the essential characteristics of the fatty degeneration, are paler and more homogeneous than in the healthy liver, and have more or less lost the power of producing bile. It is perhaps not too wild a speculation to imagine, that in this impaired condition of the organ it may not be able to resist the tendency to those changes which inorganized ‘animal matter undergoes when placed in circumstances favour- able to their production. This leads us to another remark, ap- plicable to other cases, and which seems to reconcile the specu- lations which we have allowed ourselves to offer with facts which will doubtless be readily admitted. . The different tissues, while they retain their healthy condition unimpaired, resist these common tendencies more or less forci- bly, and apparently in each in a peculiar manner, and they are consequently enabled to maintain their own peculiar composition, notwithstanding the incessant molecular changes effected by nutrition ; and where they happen to be secreting organs, the same uniformity is preserved in their products. But when they are impaired by disease or accident this isolating faculty is in- jured or lost. Thus in the experiments of Majendie, Foedera, Segellas, Meyer, Tiedemann and Gmelin, and others, with refer- L2 148 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. ence to absorption, transudation, and’ imbibition, we meet with some results, obtained in the injuredbodies of animals employed in these inquiries, which are not perfectly similar to those pha- nomena which may be observed when the corresponding organs of perfectly healthy and vigorous animals are concerned ; fluids possessing various properties being seen to enter into the circu- lation, and to penetrate membranous and other textures in the experiments alluded to, whilst in the latter case they meet with impassable barriers. The diffusion of a diseased process, as in the instances of the degeneration of structures in the vicinity of malignant tumours, alluded to at page 10, does not appear to take place until these structures have been impaired by inflam- mation, when the new product to which this disturbance of function gives rise presents the character possessed by the ad- ventitious structure. This view of the case, if correct, tends to strengthen our opinion, that inflammation is not to be regarded, as some have supposed, as a condition of exalted vitality, but quite the reverse. It also directs us, in our inquiry after the chemical attributes of vitality, to fix upon the precise attractions which it is engaged in counteracting. Tuos. Hopexin, M.D., &c., &c. REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 149 Report from the Committee for inquiring into the Analysis of the Glands, §c., of the Human Body. By G. O. Rexs, M.D., F.G.S. Part II. THERE are but few analyses recorded of the glands of animals, or of those solid products of disease which it seems desirable to submit to the searching powers of chemistry. If we refer to the observations of Berzelius, and the various analyses of Fromm- herz and Gugert, performed on some of the glands from the human subject, we cannot but be struck with the great difficul- ties which must attend any attempt at quantitative examination by the method of analysis adopted by these chemists. It is my intention to propose a form for the analysis of the various solid parts of the human frame, and so to establish a settled method in proceeding, which shall enable us to make such comparative experiments as may assist in the detection of any aberration from the healthy condition of any single organ. A diseased condition of an animal part must consist either in the increased or decreased proportion or absence of some one of its constituent parts, or in the addition of some adventitious principle to its component elements. As both these conditions are frequently present (since the latter implies the existence of the first), it becomes of the greatest importance to be able to de- tect not only the existence of any new principle in the diseased part, but likewise the quantity of each constituent which is pre- sent in health, as by that means we are enabled to ascertain what normal constituents or portions of a constituent of the gland have been displaced to make room for the morbid matter which has been deposited. For this purpose we must have recourse to quantitative analysis, and I hope to be able to show that most of those difficulties are surmountable which appear to have de- terred many from prosecuting this line of investigation. I have been much encouraged to hope for a useful result from this in- quiry, by considering how many valuable indications of disease have been afforded us by the most simple uses of chemistry when applied to the urine: here we observe that ascertaining the proportion of water alone has given rise to much philoso- phical reasoning and valuable information, as regards the eco- nomy of the organismus; and asteady and indefatigable inquiry into the existence of albumen in the urine led Dr. Bright to a discovery, the importance of which is every day becoming more 150 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. obvious, and which has deservedly stamped him as one of the most ingenious observers in the medical profession. I think it is hardly too much to hope that, could we procure a sufficient number of experiments on the proportion of water only in various glands, or in a single gland in any one disease as compared with the healthy condition, we might be able to arrive at some valuable information in the history of such affec- tion. The great difficulty in the prosecution of this inquiry lies in the obstacles that are so frequently occurring to the performance of post-mortem examinations, and the time which is allowed to elapse before the inspection is made; these difficulties, however, are lessening every day, and at most public hospitals we have ample opportunities for research. The analysis of the blood and the secretion of glands has been a subject of interest and attention to the chemical world, and I have long wondered how it has happened that the methods of analysis applied to such matters have never been used to inves- tigate the chemical nature of the solid parts of animals. It is this which I would propose, viz. the adaptation of those rules of analysis used for the examination of the blood to the investi- gation of the chemical nature of the glands of the human body. When we look to the analyses of animal fluids, as performed by the best chemists, we perceive that the constituents of such matters (at least those which are purely animal) are considered as determined by their solubility or insolubility in certain men- strua ; the principal of these being water, alcohol, and ether. Thus we havea principle, considered as a distinct component of the blood, which is sometimes called osmazome; this is noted by quantity in healthy blood, and the result used for comparison ; but let us consider its right to the character of a distinct prin- ciple, and we shall at once be constrained to allow that such character is entirely the result of a single property, viz. its so- lubility or insolubility in certain menstrua, these being used to separate any one of the components of the fluid from the rest. That any of these component parts may be compounded in themselves is very easily credible and as easily proved ; thus the extractive matter of urine, frequently estimated as though it were a proximate element, is divisible, when subjected to further che- mical reactions, into three separate forms of extractive. I merely quote this instance to show how impossible it is (in most cases) to look upon animal analysis in any other light than as a means of performing comparative experiments. There is one very important step needed, however, before we can proceed to ex- amine the glands of the body on the same system that is used REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 151 for the blood and secretions; this consists in fixing some de- terminate character to the extractives we may separate by means of the various menstrua employed in the analysis, for we require experiments to show that alcohol will extract the same matters from any gland that it is capable of separating from the dried blood ; indeed it is not impossible that every gland may have a set of extractives peculiar to itself. For this inquiry I would especially beg attention and co-operation, as it is a subject so extensive as to require a multitude of experiments before we can expect any results applicable to pathology. It is toa chemical knowledge of the nature of the various ex- tractives that we must become indebted for ascertaining any of those divarications from health which it will be the ultimate ob- ject of the inquiry to detect: such a knowledge must be the result of careful examinations and comparisons of several healthy specimens of each organ; so that we may be able to decide upon the true nature of any of these animal extractives. A standard of comparison for the quantitative analysis of diseased organs will require several quantitative experiments on each organ in health before the normal average can be determined. I will now proceed to show the practicability of a method of analysis, which, if adopted, I do not doubt will develope some valuable results to the profession. I have before stated, that in the ana- lysis of the blood we use three principal fluids as separators of its constituents, viz. ether, alcohol, and water. It is on the dividing action of these fluids that I wish to proceed, and should propose that the analysis thus divide the substance submitted into four parts, viz. lst. That which is soluble in ether. 2nd. That which is soluble in water only. 3rd. That which is solu- ble in water and alcohol. 4th. That which is insoluble in all the three menstrua. This method, which is used for the blood, will be found very applicable to solid matters, which, as regards analysis, may be considered as partially dried serum. I do not wish it to be understood from this that we must expect to sepa- rate the same principles from each gland as we do from blood, by means of the same menstrua, but merely that the same pro- cess may be used ; for, as I have before stated, each gland may have extractives peculiar to itself; but having partially divided the constituents of the gland by means of the same menstrua that are used for the analysis of the serum, we are better able to examine their properties, and, moreover, have the valuable advantage of forming comparisons with the constituents of serum, some of which will undoubtedly be present in every or- ganized substance of the human frame. I will now notice in order the different divisions of our analysis, as formed by the 152 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. solubility or insolubility of animal constituents in ether, water, and alcohol. 1st. Those constituents of animal matter which are soluble in zther. Under this head we have the various fatty matters of the glands for consideration ; and, if this plan of analysis be extended to the products of disease in the various parts of the body, we shall find much matter of interest in the examination of this extract. The various modifications of fat, as occurring in dis- eased parts, and their secretions, have scarcely procured the attention they deserve from chemists. The peculiar nature of the fatty matters of the blood affords every facility for an easy passage into several varieties of that substance, and we find a series of very interesting changes in the secretions, excretions, morbid secretions, and growths of the human body. Thus cho- lesterine, which was once supposed to be the result of the secreting action of the liver, has been found in the fluid of hy- drocele, in ovarian tumours, &c. When the nature of the fatty matter of blood is known, it ceases to be a subject of surprise that cholesterine is so generally distributed, for the chemical reactions of the crystalline fat of the blood are almost identical with those procured from cholesterine, and probably but very slight means are needed for the reduction of one to the other. I may mention that cholesterine differs from the crystalline fatty matter of the blood in affording an ash having an alkaline reac- tion on test paper, whereas the crystalline fat yields an acid ash owing to the presence of phosphorus. In every other reac- tion, however, these substances are so much alike that it is almost impossible to distinguish them. I find that the alkaline ashes of cholesterine are in about the proportion of 2°5 per cent., containing an alkaline, carbonate,and muriate, traces of sulphate and phosphate, and also phosphate and carbonate of lime. The other forms of fatty matter met with in animal analysis are adipocere and common animal fat. I now come to the second division of our analysis, viz. : 2nd. Those constituents of animal matter which are soluble in water only. In the analysis of the blood, the extractive procured as soluble in. water only consists apparently of albumen in combination with soda. The extractive procured by similar treatment of any of the glands of the body will require examination, and constitute an important part of our inquiry, as it probably may be of different nature in each gland. This extractive, as pro- cured from blood, is precipitable by acetic acid, the precipitate consisting of albumen in a gelatinous form. REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 153 3rd. Those constituents of animal matter which are soluble in water and alcohol. The extractive procured from blood, as soluble in water and alcohol, is that to which the name of osmazome has been given by chemists; it is called extrait de viande by the French, as procured from the blood it is precipitable of a brown colour by infusion of galls; the precipitate thrown down by subacetate (or di-acetate) of lead is soluble in an excess of that reagent. These reactions are sufficient to guide us in making our compa- rative experiments. 4th. Lastly, we shall notice those constituents of animal matter which are insoluble in all the three menstrua employed in our analysis. This residuum, as procured fromthe serum of blood, consists of albumen, but is of different constitution in the various glands and solid parts of the body; thus the more firm portions of each gland are made up of the insoluble structure of blood vessels and absorbents, with more or less of the albuminous net work of the cellular tissue, making up the parenchyma. It will be necessary for us to set down these various parts under a single head, as we do not possess any means of separation; still, although we are thus prevented from ascertaining any deficiency or excess in any single one of these insoluble constituents of the gland, yet we shall very probably be able, by comparison of the three together with the similar combination in healthy specimens, to _ arrive at data which may be useful to us. Having now glanced at the probable contents of each extract- ive, I shall proceed to describe particularly each step in the prosecution of the analysis. Directions for the analysis of solid animal matters. A certain weight of the animal substance, sliced as minutely as convenient for manipulation, is to be carefully dried over a water-bath till it ceases to lose weight, the dry residuum being weighed ; the loss experienced is to be noticed in the analysis as “ water.” The dried animal matter is now to be digested, with three times its bulk of rectified ether, for four or five hours ina closed test tube, the mixture being shaken frequently. This ether being poured off, a second portion is to be added, and allowed to digest on the animal matter in a like manner. We thus procure an zthereal solution A, and a residuum B. A. The zthereal solution being allowed to evaporate todryness, the fatty matters deposited are to be dried over a water bath, Fats. and their weight ascertained. B. Water, at a temperature of 212°, and equalling six times the Insoluble albuminous matter and vascular tis- sue. Extractive soluble in alcohol and water. Extractive soluble in water only. 154 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. bulk of the solid matter, is to be digested on the residuum for half an hour ; this liquor being poured off, a second portion is to beadded and similarly digested; this mixture is now to be thrown ona filter, and washed with boiling distilled water, until the per- colating fluid ceases to afford a precipitation by a solution of nitrate of silver*. The first and second digested liquors, and the washings being added together, are now to be evaporated over a water bath till dry, and till no more weight can be lost by further use of the bath heat. We thus procure an aqueous extract C, and leave on the filter an insoluble residue D. The weight of extract C must be taken. D. The residue on the filter is now to be dried, its weight ascer- tained, and set down in the analysis as insoluble albuminous matter and vascular tissue. C. The aqueous extract is next to be acted upon by digestion for a quarter of an hour, with four times its bulk of alcohol, at a boiling heat. The solution so formed being poured off, a second portion of alcohol is to be similarly digested, the mixture then thrown on a filter, and the liquor allowed to percolate. The two portions of fluid being added together are next to be eva- porated to dryness over the water bath. We thus procure an alcoholic extract KE, and leave on the filter an extractive F, which is not soluble in alcohol. The former is to be dried and weighed, and estimated as “‘ extractive soluble in alcohol and water,” and the latter, similarly prepared, is to be estimated as “ extract- ive soluble in water only.’’ The added weights of these two extractives should equal that of the extract Cf. In conclusion, I must express my regret at having been pre- vented by a variety of circumstances from bringing forward ana- lyses of glands, either healthy or affected by some well-recog- nized degeneration. I have, I hope, made some amends by proposing a set form of examination, by the adoption of which, analyses, though executed by a variety of persons, may be made serviceable as comparative experiments in any single inquiry. The adoption of some such form is quite necessary before the objects of the Association can be answered ; for they have pro- posed a subject far too extensive to be developed, otherwise than by a multitude of experimenters, all working by the same rule of analysis. * No washings are to be commenced until all the liquor of digestion has first passed through the filter. N. B. The silver test can be used on a single drop of the filtering fluid. + These extractives, as also the insoluble albuminous tissue, must be incine- rated, the ashes examined, and noticed in the analysis. 7 REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 155 Second Report of the London Sub-Committee of the British Association Medical Section, on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart. Tue Committee appointed in London by the British Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science, to investigate the Motions and Sounds of the Heart, have the honor to lay before this meet- ing a short account of some investigations of the abnormal sounds of the heart and arteries in which they have been recent- ly occupied. Before describing these, the Committee would remark, that although their last inquiries have not been specially directed to that subject, yet they have had many opportunities of verify- ing the conclusions on the natural sounds as presented in their report of last year; and these conclusions not having been since shaken by any experiment or rational objection, it may be con- sidered as fairly established, that the first or systolic sound of the heart is essentially caused by the sudden and forcible tight- ening of the muscular fibres of the ventricles when they contract ; and that the second sound, which accompanies the diastole of the ventricles, depends solely on the reaction of the arterial columns of blood on the semilunar valves at the arterial orifices. It further appears that the first sound may be increased by an additional sound of impulsion against the walls of the chest, under certain circumstances of posture, of increased action of the heart, and of certain stages of the respiratory movements. It is also obvious that the character of the first sound may in some measure depend on the closure of the auriculo-ventricular valves, and on the quantity of blood ; inasmuch as these deter- mine the nature and time of the resistance against which the muscular fibres of the ventricles tighten. So, likewise, the vigour of the ventricular systole, the quantity of blood propelled by it, the sudden and complete character of the diastole, the fulness of the arterial trunks, as well as the perfect, mobile, and mem- branous condition of the semilunar valves,—will determine the character and loudness of the second sound. An experimental illustration of the effect of one of these conditions was observed by the Committee in the great diminution of the second sound by the free division of the carotid artery, which would greatly diminish the arterial tension. As additional illustrations of the production of a sound, like that of the heart, by muscular contraction, the Committee have noticed that which accompanies the action of the panniculus carnosus of the ass during life, and the quivering contraction ‘ 156 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. of various muscles immediately after death. The sound produced in the latter case, in nature and frequency, closely resembled the first sound of the heart of the foetus, or of small animals. In investigating the morbid sounds of the heart, the atten- tion of the Committee has been chiefly directed to the causes of those remarkable and various phenomena called murmurs, which are either added to, or supersede the natural sounds of the heart, and which were happily compared by ZLaennec to the familiar noises of blowing, filing, rasping, sawing, purring, cooing, &c. This inquiry consists of two parts: 1. What is the essential physical cause of the phenomena in question ? and 2. How does the apparatus of the circulation develope this cause in the various instances in which these phenomena are known to occur? To the first of these questions the experiments of the Committee supply what they trust will be deemed a satisfactory answer. The second is to be fully answered by extensive clinical and pathological observation, rather than by direct experiment ; and although a few physiological illustrations will be cited to this point, yet the Committee do not profess to do more than to open this inquiry to allthose who have the means of pursuing it. Experiments on the production of sound by the motion of water through tubes. A Caoutchouc tube, eighteen inches long, and three-eighths of an inch in diameter, was attached to the stop-cock of a reservoir in which there was water to the depth of eight or ten inches. When the water flowed unimpeded through this tube (all the air being first expelled,* and the lower end of the tube kept under water in a vessel below) no sound was heard ; but on press- ing any part of the tube so as to diminish its caliber, a blowing sound was heard, at and below the point of pressure, and this sound became louder and more whizzing as the pressure was increased. The loudest sounds were obtained at the lowest end of the tube, where they were sometimes quite musical ; and by increasing the pressure or the current at regular intervals, a periodic increase and raising of the sound were produced, closely resembling the murmur sometimes heard in the neck, to which the French have given the name of “ bruit de diable.” _ A pin being stuck transversely through the tube, a slight blow- ing was heard ; which was made louder on substituting for the pin a bit of split goose-quill. A stronger blowing was produced by a double thread across the diameter of the tube, especially when * As long as any air remains in the tube, aloud crepitation accompanies the current. REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 157 the thread was rather loose ; anda still louder and shriller sound ensued when a knot of string was fastened to the thread. The same tube being adapted to the stop-cock of a water-sup- ply pipe, through which the current could be left to pass with great force, it was found possible to imitate every variety of blowing, whizzing, and musical murmurs, by varying the pressure on, or impediment in, the tube, and by altering the force of the current. When the current was strong, the least impediment caused a murmur ; but with weaker currents, greater obstructions became necessary for the same effect. A partial obstruction, which with a weak current gave a blowing sound, produced, with a stronger current, one of a more whizzing character. Grating or rasping sounds were best obtained by the effect of a strong current on aknotted thread across the diameter of the tube. The musical or uniform sounds resulted from a moderately strong cur- rent through a considerable impediment : increasing the force of the current, or the degree of obstruction, rendered the sound whizzing and imperfect ; diminishing the current or the obstruc- tion, converted it into a simple blowing. When asound was of an appreciable pitch, its note was high in proportion to the force of the current and the amount of the obstruction ; a fine forcible stream producing the highest note. Sometimes, however, with a strong current, a loud trumpet note would be set up, which wasnotaltered in pitch, but only in force, by changing the strength of the current. This kind of note produced vibrations of the tube below the impediment, perceptible to sight and touch, and the length of this portion of the tube seemed to affect the cha- racter of the note. This phenomenon precisely represented the purring sound and tremor sometimes perceptible in the heart and arteries. Musical sounds of a more variable character, like the cooing of a dove, the humming of an insect, or the whistling of wind, were produced with a weak current passing through a tube much obstructed. The pressure of a column of water only two or three inches high, was sufficient to give acute whistling notes, which were sustained, although varying, even when the water that passed only fell in drops. Bending the tube to an angleproduced a murmur, butno sound resulted from any curve that did not infringe on the caliber of the tube. A circular constriction by a thread drawn round the tube caused a murmur, which was blowing or whizzing accord- ing to the force of the current. _ When the tube with a weak current was pressed on at two points, the murmur was heard at the point where the pressure was greatest; and by increasing the pressure at one point the pressure was stopped at the other. When the current was strong, 158 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. it was easy by a pretty equal pressure to cause a murmur at both points. With a stout Caoutchouc tube, two feet long and one inch in internal diameter, the same results were obtained, but in a more remarkable degree, in consequence of the increased size of the tube. When the current was strong and the pressure on the tube considerable, sounds were produced loud enough to be heard without applying the stethoscope or the ear ; and the vibrations of the tube below the obstruction were so strong that they threw the water in little jets from the outside of the tube. In making this experiment, the pressure of the water sudden- ly distended a portion of the tube into a globe about three inches in diameter, constituting a good imitation of a circumscribed true aneurism. As long as the force of the current was suffi- cient to keep the walls of the dilated portion tense, no sound was heard in them ; but when these walls became flaccid, the passing current caused a kind of fremitus in them. Pressure on the dilatation, or bending the tube so as to form an angle at this point, also sometimes occasioned a murmur. A globular India-rubber bottle, three inches in diameter, being — adapted to an aperture in the side of a tube half an inch in dia- meter, so as to form an elastic sac communicating with it, a current was directed through it and all the air expelled. The same was done witha tube three-eighths of an inch in diameter, and a bottle of an inch and a half. In some positions of the tube, the current in passing the lateral ‘sac caused a fremitus ; but in others, as when the tube was straight, there was no sound. A sudden increase of current, or the removal of external pressure from the sac, occasioned a whizzing by the entry of water into the sac. Independently of the current, sudden forcible pressure caused a whizzing with the expulsion of the fluid, anda similar — whizzing attended the rapid reflux into the sac, on the removal of the pressure. Some of these experiments were repeated with water, rendered somewhat viscid with size. The results differed only in requi- ring a stronger force of current to produce the same effect. Remarks and conclusions. From all these results, it is sufficiently plain that a certain re- sistance or impediment to a liquid current is the essential phy- sical cause of all murmurs produced by the motion of fluids in | tubes. That any condition of the walls of the tube beyond the impeding point is not, as it has been supposed, essential to the. production of these sounds, is proved by the fact that they may be produced by a partial obstruction at the terminal orifice of REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 159 the tube, or at the mouth of a gum elastic bottle, where there is no tube or wall beyond to cause them: usually, this is the situation where they can be most readily produced, because here the current has acquired its greatest momentum, and finds a free exit beyond the obstructing point. The more flaccid state of the portion of a tube beyond a partially obstructed point is a necessary effect of the scantier supply of water beyond the im- pediment. It is therefore a necessary concomitant of the ob- struction and its sound, but is not the cause of the sound. When, however, the sound occasioned by the obstruction is strong, its vibrations may be communicated to the whole contents and walls of the tube beyond, which will then vibrate i system with it, and be capable of modifying its note, just as the tube of a reed instrument affects the note which is exclusively generated in the reed. On the other hand, when the sound generated in the ob- struction is weak and varying, the condition of the tube or walls beyond it will not affect it. In short, the laws of the production of sound by liquids so nearly resemble those which regulate the same phenomenon in air, that illustrations for the one may be taken for the other. _ It may be proper to advert to an objection to this view, that a murmur is sometimes caused where there is no impediment to the course of a liquid, as when it passes suddenly from a small into a large tube, or into a sac. Now it is not true that in such a case there is no impediment, for the liquid in the large tube or sac, having less velocity, must in itself be an impediment. Besides this, the course of the smaller swift current becomes changed by spreading into the larger channel; and instead of running smoothly parallel to the tube, now strikes its walls at an angle, causing a series of impulses and resistances, which, if forcible and rapid enough, constitute the vibrations of sound. It may be remarked, however, that this modification of a moving current is not so constantly attended with the production of sound as the direct obstacle presented by a narrowing of or pro- jection into the caliber of the tube. A current issuing from a tube or orifice into a larger vessel or sac, is also capable of pro- ducing a sound by impinging against an opposite surface. Experiments on the production of murmurs in the living body. About two inches of the length of the common carotid artery of a young ass was laid bare. Different degrees of pressure, either by the stethoscope or by a probe passed under it, occa- sioned a variety of murmurs, blowing, sawing, filing, and musical cooing at each pulse. When the stethoscope was merely placed 160 ' SEVENTH REPORT—1837. in contact, without pressure, no murmur was heard; but when the heart acted strongly, a simple impulse and sound. The artery was scratched for a few seconds with the point of a scalpel; it gradually became sensibly smaller for the length of half an inch about that point. A strong solution of salt being applied, the contraction increased, but it was still of a gradual and tapering kind, and the stethoscope could detect no murmur in it; but very slight pressure on it caused a whizzing. The pulse at this contracted portion was felt to be much harder and sharper than above or below it. Fy A small incision being made into the artery, a jet of blood issued, and a whizzing, sometimes in pulses, sometimes conti- _ nuous like the bruit de diable, was heard beyond the orifice, but not at the portion of the artery nearest to the heart, the sound being, as usual, carried in the direction of the current. The in- cision being made larger, the blood spouted to the distance of more than six feet, and the animal died in ten minutes after this _ last incision ; the beats of the heart were frequent, short, and pretty loud, but without a second sound, and to the last with- out amurmur. They continued for nearly two minutes after the respiration and consciousness had ceased, becoming gradu- ally slower. The Committee repeated the observation that has often been made before, that a murmur can easily be produced by press- ure on the subclavian, carotid, or femoral artery of the hu- man subject. This murmur is generally of a grating or filing character, and is prolonged in proportion tothe degree of pressure. Whilst making the observations on the carotids, they found that a continuous murmur of very remarkable and variable cha- _ racters could be produced by pressure on the jugular veins, espe- cially in the angle formed by the sterno-mastoid muscle with the clavicle. The most common sound thus produced was like — the humming of a gnat or fly ; but occasionally it resembled the — whistling of the wind, the singing of a kettle, the cooing of a — dove, and sometimes it was perfectly what the French have called — the “bruit de diable.”’ Dr. Ogier Ward of Birmingham had pre-_ viously come to the conclusion that this sound is produced in the jugular veins, and the observations of the Committee con- — firm this inference: but they do not agree with this physician — in the opinion, which he adopts from MM. Andral and Bouil- — laud, that the presence of this sound denotes a chlorotic state _ of the system, for which steel is indicated, or that it is essentially © a morbid symptom at all. It may be produced in the healthiest subjects by moderate pressure applied to the lower part of the jugular veins, and is then found to be modified by various cir- a 2 ieee ’ RaC.5 aon diet eee ee eee eS » REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 161 cumstances which can only affect the venous current. Thus it may be arrested or diminished by pressure on the vein above, by the horizontal posture or hanging down the head, and by forced efforts to expire with the glottis closed. It may be restored in increased degree by suddenly desisting from any of these acts or circumstances. The occasional pulsatory or remittent cha- racter of this sound seems to depend on the momentary increase of pressure caused by each pulse of the neighbouring artery ; and when, as sometimes happens, these pulses are attended with a whizzing, this is in a measure incorporated with the venous sound, and increases the periodic swell. The size and down- ward current of the jugular veins peculiarly adapt them for the production of sound, but probably sounds may be pro- duced in most other large veins when circumstances accele- rate the current through them. The Committee have detected an obscure murmur in some of the large superficial veins of the arm and thigh. This murmur is not in pulses, and is to be distinguished from muscular sounds by its being confined to the situation of the veins, and its being immediately arrested by pressure on the vein. Occasionally a pretty Joud murmur or fremitus is to be heard on either side of the upper portion of the sternum, which, from its resemblance in character to the ve- nous sounds, may be supposed to have its seat in the large ve- nous trunks that lie underneath. Although it appears from these facts that the venous sounds _are not necessarily signs of disease, yet the circumstance proved __ bythe Committee, that water is thrown into sonorous vibrations | more readily than a fluid of a more glutinous character, renders it | probable that these and other sounds depending on the motion of _ liquids in the apparatus of the circulation may be more easily _ produced where the blood is thin and deficient in quantity ; and __ under these circumstances they may occur in the neck from the _ mere pressure of the muscles on the jugular veins. __ The Committee had planned several experiments for the _ further elucidation of the second part of the inquiry, By what changes, functional and structural, does the apparatus of the circulation develope the physical causes of the abnormal mur- murs and sounds in the various instances m which they are known to occur? This part of the inquiry, so important for the _ elucidation of several obscure points in pathology, diagnosis and . practice, the Committee propose to resume, if the Association _ should think proper to recommend them to continue their labours. ip Signed Cuartes J. B. Wituiams, M.D., F.R.S. ~~ | R. B. Topp, M.D., Professor of Physiology : and Pathology, King’s College, London. M ~ > VOL. VI. 1837. * et? s vA tee nme tee ate y TNR CORE CS lithe yay 1} beh Eh! vor iy lew ste “esy7 eile i» 4% TVD t ‘ vs 3 rT; » 4 Ame blag ‘3 ‘ by oy) re P cite, Sea wl ey ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 163 _ On the present state of our knowledge in regard to Dimor- phous Bodies. By Prof. Jounston. Tue subject of the following Report is one in regard to which our knowledge is yet in its infancy. It has arrived, however, at that state in which a detailed exposition and critical exami- nation of all the facts hitherto observed, is likely to lead to new inquiries, to call new observers into the field, and thus more rapidly to dissipate the obscurity with which it is invested, It will not be uninteresting also in after years to look back upon the facts actually established, the views entertained, and the speculations hazarded at the present time,—to mark how far the phenomena were rightly interpreted,—what glimmerings of truth were mingled with the early speculations,—at what rate this department of knowledge had subsequently advanced, and how far this advance had been promoted or retarded by the hypothetical views of its first cultivators *. Lp 1. When the forms and dimensions of crystallized bodies began to be accurately observed and recorded, it was soon re- cognized that these might be classed among the most distinct and specific characters which solid bodies possessed. Observa- tion seemed at first to show that each substance, simple and * How much the progress of science depends on the mode in which pheno- mena are interpreted by the first observers is strikingly illustrated in the case _ of certain experiments of Robert Boyle. He observed that when copper, lead, iron, and tin were heated to redness in the air, a portion of calx was formed, and there was a constant and decided increase of weight.—(Experiments to make Fire and Flame ponderable, London, 1673.) This experiment he re- ted with lead and tin in glass vessels hermetically sealed, and found still an increase of weight, but observed further, that when “ the sealed neck of the re- tort was broken off, the external air rushed in with a noise.’—(Additional ex- periments, No..V., and a discovery of the perviousness of glass to ponderable parts of flame, Exp. III.) From this he-reasoned correctly, that in calcination the metal lost nothing by drying up, as was generally supposed, or that if it did, “by this operation it gained more weight than it lost.” —(Coroll. II,) But this increase of weight he attributed to the fixation of heat, stating it as ‘“ plain _that igneous particles were trajected through the glass,” and that “ enough of them to be manifestly ponderable did permanently adhere.” Had he weighed his sealed retort before he broke it open, he must have concluded that the metal _had increased in weight at the expense of the inclosed air. He stood in fact on the very brink of the pneumatic chemistry of Priestley; he had in his hand the key to the great discovery of Lavoisier. How nearly were those hilosophers anticipated by a whole century, and the long interregnum of Philogiston prevented! On what small oversights do great events in the his- tory of science as of nations depend! M 2 164 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. compound, assumed, on crystallizing, a form peculiar to itself, and that this form constituted an unfailing specific character,— (Haiiy.) Crystals belonging to the regular system presented the only apparent exceptions. 2. After a time, however, the generality of this conclusion was further narrowed by the doctrine of isomorphism, which showed that form alone, even when not tessular, was insufficient in many cases to determine the chemical constitution of a body*. Still, in these new exceptions, the form indicated the nature and constitution of a substance within certain limits, that it was a member of this or that isomorphous group, elevating crystalline dimensions in such instances from the rank of a specific to that of a generic character. Even this place, however, they did not long retain undisturbed. 3. Founded on the principle that the molecules of crystalline bodies have themselves a regular crystalline form, the doctrine of isomorphism hitherto recognised, that for each substance, simple and compound, this form was one and invariable ; though not necessarily a specific that it was a constant character. 4, The earliest measurements of artificial crystals had been _ made on such as were formed in ordinary circumstances of tem- perature and by the most usual methods of manipulation, Occasionally, however, crystals formed at higher temperatures or under peculiar circumstances attracted attention; and in certain cases these new crystals were found to differ in form or dimensions from the ordinary form of the same substance, to — such an extent that they could not be derived from each other — by the ordinary laws of crystallization. Thus sulphur crystal- — lized from fusion differs in form from the natural crystals and — from those deposited from solutions of sulphurt. And as the — resources or results of analytical chemistry were multiplied so — as to place beyond doubt the chemical identity of different spe- cimens, the examples of such differences gradually increased in — number. Natural substances also were met with, crystallized — under circumstances not well understood and generally beyond — our imitation, which, though shown to agree in chemical con- stitution, yet differed wholly in form. Graphite and the dia- | mond, both forms of pure carbon ;—arragonite, and calc spar, both pure carbonate of lime, are groups of this kind. 5. To mark the singular character possessed by these bodies, they have been distinguished by the term dimorphous, and the — abstract property by that of dimorphism. * Mitscherlich, dn. de Chim. et de Phys., XIV. p. 172. + In bisulphuret of carbon, or in quadri (?) sulphuret of hydrogen, ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 165 6. It appears, therefore, that the crystalline form of a body is not only not a specific character, but that it is not even a constant character. It might also appear at first sight that this new result of observation would materially weaken the evi- dence in favour of isomorphism; that though two bodies (A and B) do assume the same form, or replace each other in cer- tain circumstances, yet since one of them (A) is capable of assuming two incompatible forms, they may not in all cir- cumstances either assume the same form or be capable of mutual replacement. 7. A further observation, however, though it does not obviate entirely, as we shall afterwards have occasion to remark, the neces- sity of attending to this argument, yet establishes a beautiful con- nection between dimorphous and isomorphous bodies, and points to some more general law, probably of molecular arrangement, by which both classes of phenomena are regulated and linked together. Certain groups of isomorphous bodies have been met with, each individual of which groups is dimorphous or capable of assuming two incompatible forms (A and B), yet in their second form (B), as in their first (A), they are stillisomorphous. Thus carbonate of lime and nitrate of potash are both dimorphous, and one of the forms of nitre is isomorphous with calc spar, the other with arragonite, which are the two forms of carbonate of lime. Such groups have been distinguished by the term ésodi- morphous. All the known groups of this kind will be inserted in a subsequent part of this report (16). 8. The principle of dimorphism thus recognised, is one of great interest in the present state of chemical physics. Con- ‘nected on the one hand with the crystalline doctrine of isomor- _ phism, and on the other, as we shall hereafter see, with the ‘chemical doctrine of isomerism, it may be regarded as standing be- tween the two, and as likely to throw light on the cause of both. 9. The case of dimorphism, which was earliest known to che- mists and mineralogists, is presented by carbonate of lime in the two incompatible forms of arragonite and calc spar. Stro- meyer attempted to account for the difference between these two minerals by showing that arragonite always contained car- bonate of strontian to the amount of from 4 to 4 per cent., and from 7 to 4 per cent. of water*; aud the presence of these sub- * Untersuchung tiber die Mischung der Mineralkérper und anderer damit verwandten Substanzen. Gottingen, 1821. In this work are ten analyses of arragonites, undertaken in confirmation of his previously published opinion, which had been controverted. Great credit was due to Stromeyer for his beautiful analyses, but there is now no reason to believe that either strontia or water are necessary constituents of arragonite. 166 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. stances was considered by many chemists to afford a plausible explanation of what was then regarded as a very singular ano- maly. A few years after the publication of this opinion, how- ever, Mitscherlich observed a similar difference between the form of sulphur crystallized from fusion, and that in which it occurs in the mineral kingdom* ; and as in this case it was easy to prove the absence of any foreign body, it became necessary to attribute the difference to some other cause than that advanced by Stromeyer, to explain the production of arragonite. The pro- secution of the inquiry soon put into the hands of Mitscherlich other examples, and since that period scarcely a year has passed without adding some new facts to our growing knowledge. 10. The following table contains a list of all the substances hitherto described as dimorphous, and it embodies nearly every thing we at present know in regard to the chemical and physical differences which the several forms of these substances present. See opposite table. 11. To this list might have been added anatase and rutile, were it not that some doubt still exists as to whether both of these minerals consist of titanic acid only. They crystallize in square prisms of different dimensions and having different cleavages. The bichromate of potash appears also to be dimorphous, cry- stallizing from fusion, in a form which it does not retain on coolingt. I have also obtained from a London manufacturer crystals of iodide of potassium in square prisms three-eighths of an inch (? in.) in length, which are frequently deposited along with the ordinary cubical crystals from the concentrated solution. On resolution and evaporation they give only cubes. They exhibit. traces of double refraction, which, however, the opacity of the crystals renders very indistinct. Mr. Brooke, to whom I have submitted them, is unable to pronounce decidedly as to their form, from the want of well-defined secondary faces. Like the capillary red oxide of copper from Cornwall, they may be only an aggregation of cubes. Dufrenoy{ states that cast iron has been observed in cubes and in rhomboids, but the statement is of too uncertain a kind to be deserving of much confidence §. Among the ordinary crystals of sulphate of pot- ash with two axes, Sir David Brewster states that he observed some six-sided prisms with only one axis of double refraction. — * Poggend. Annalen VII. p. 528, (1826.) + See Table LV. p. 26. t An. de Chim. et de Phys., LVI. p.198. ' § It was formerly considered that the sulphates of zinc and magnesia belonged to the group of dimorphous sulphates, but later observations of Mitscherlich have shown that the supposed second form contains only 6 atoms of water. i i i i Tanre I.—Exhibiting a list of all the known dimorphous bodies, and the observed differences in the physical properties of the two forms of each substance. 1837. Seventh Report of British pena = eventh Report of Britis! tion, to. 7 Symbol or Formula. Crystalline Form. Form occurs. ‘How obtained, or where. Density. Hardness. Relations to Light. Relations. 7 ‘Opake or transparent. (eine Tanaes yaipoweri| Wo ioataliys EE Solubility in 100 pls. of Water, Characteristic or Remarks, ‘Authorities. : |. Elementary Bodies peta j Salphur, 5 Rt. Rh. Pr. M on M 10159 Haid. Native and from solution of S in CS, ... 205001 Kr) 15 to 2:5 | i i 4 } Oblique Rh. Pr. of 90° 327. By fusing A .. 7] Same erystal fused 1-9889 ||? 2 Dose tasentie Gaal Seen rellow: Het 2:115 Br,||Non-conduct, 9 Carbon,. Reg. Octohedron. «...s Native in diamon 35 to 3:55 10:0 | Transparent .. Q Prot WEEE EME | fy »| Mittcherlich, Pog. tm. vii. p. S28. | P sevneeees Adamantine 2-487 Br.| Nou-conduct, ) i couldaredly howe ahamise tales taRATpaS al Tat ST oe EDL ae he ; the particles are minutely divided and separat fall (HS UbaerTS In ee EMRE omy ssssesssrsssens] DO. in graphite, occurs in ironfurnaces| 2°3285 Kr. 2/0891 H. |'1- to2- | Opakeortranslucent ...| Black by reflected...| Metallic ssssssss++-.+s Berdiival| Conductor a differences. ee ara eden rugcoon call Leo aeae oo SS i | |. Pr. . I fer blithe) Do. “ony ? 2 Do, Do. is Disulphuret of Copper, Cu or Cuy$ hey pase Tespettaledstieys th aie Coppers, Found xativs _ oF 25103: | Opake.. Les 2 0 According to Brooke the fibrous red oxide of Cornvall is only an aggregation of cubes Suckow, Pog. An., 1835, p. 528. BI} RAD EEOn . y ? - Do. 5 Sapte ce Sulphuret of Silver, ‘ Cube in Silver glance. Found native 5 . 4 3 0 ‘Ag or Ags § 7196 2 to.25 | Do. , iB ft — i } BS or Ag,S Rhombeid 5 Do. in AgS+CugS from Riidelstadt ? > Do. De " ie wipe Hoe Gvslah te 8% 3 Mn $ Rhomboid Nore in Earope HOU BES lds Steel grey F Th ‘| hid? p. 187; ander, Poy.dn,xL.p-313, : t eee 0. in Mexico 2 ? Do. jave inserted thisasdimorphous on the auth: l nds | pes FeS. Cubes. . saesnetan Do. in iron pyrites 4-6 to 5032 6 to 65 | Do. Bruss yellow .....-...| Metallic Del Rio, Silliman, xxx. p. 386. | : . ; 2 Rt. Rh. R, Mon M/ 106° 2 Do. in white do... 4678 Do, | Do. .| Pale whitish yellow Biniodide of Merc } Nl; " poled ae aaa re Someone eee solution of HgI, in KI 4 5°2009 Kr. ? ‘Transparent Red. . ai an B generally undergoes more rapid decomposition in the air than A, ee - PU dL Neat J. R seseereeese teen ? 2 i ins i ° ‘ = li arnccareniess nate a Ch P. eines B acai : j Do. Yellow 5 ¢ yellow sometimes retains its form at 60° F,, but a touch suflices to set the particles in motion.) Mitscherlich, Pog. du., xxviii. p. 116. HgCl, i 7 ? ‘These two fi i i i i : B i Octohed. with rect. base By sublimation ssessssssseees 54032 Kr.|| 2 | Do. ate 0 They, have nulreifou vt forza Cte Duets a cia | Arsenious acid, Reg. octohedrons Commonly .. Do. and occurs nativ Native 3698 RD) > Cryst. t nas op.3| itsenentines -| At 60° 5pts. 212° 50: : ; As,0, Ren, P: - a v ‘Tryst. transp., mass op. ? 0 Adamantine 60° 1-25 212° 11°50 Gui. 5 4 r, a ese ‘ t Rh. Proves os Rarely..... Occurred in a smelting furnace (Wahiler}| Glacial 3699 1. 3-729 Hr. ? Transparent like glass* 0 Splendent, glassy HBC ep 50 Gi) Solution of opake mass in ELC] eruita no light on cooling’ slowhy/ and cryutallsng issscsteirsse||Ht Rose; Pog. dm xxv p41. ee) BN sa 3 ead ; i a ,| At 0°96 212°97 Gui. | Solution of glassy mass gives out much light on crystalliaing; the crystals are octohedrons,/ ide of Antimon: 4 } Sh,0, vey en pais ce Generally et Native’ in\ vit antimon: 366 25 to 30 Translucent al 0 Adarantine G and in mass opake, The glassy acid is therefore either the form B or in a third state Wohler, An, de Chem., li. p. 201, | 111. Compounds of 3 Elements ae y oF ° 4 pe () 0 bined icant tetas scossssssssnsens} Wahler, Ibid. | “Carbonate of Lime, GeO. Rhomb. of 105° 4” M... Abundantly ........1+.| Native in eale spar... 2716 R. 2721 M, 3:0 | Do. 0 : e i ¢ i 1s Rt. Rh. Pr, of 116° 16 3] Leas commonly. Do. invarragonite.... 2949 R 3°5\to.4-0'| Do. ° .| No action at red heat, sp. heat = 0:2046 N,] 0 Form and action of heat. CaG thrown down from cold solutions is calc spar, from hot onite,| Rose, Pog. dn., xiii. p. 366, : : . Decrepitates at do,, ‘sp. heat = 0-2018 NV, 0 Do.cxhibits anomalous epoptical figures; on decropitation assumos the form nnd density of calc spar) Erman, Berlin ‘Trans’ 1832, p. 1. Carbonate of Magnesia, | Rhomb. of 106° 15" ..... Abundantly Native in bitter spar... 2384 Sito Hell | Semltransparent er 0 vio i I P y P hi 1 1832, p. 1. Mg0+C0, { é ; 1 pearly, Jeceveccareeesaeee 0 When the solution in C is evaporated to dryness the arragonitic crystals are obtained mixed with| | Rt Rh. Pri... Rarely... Evaporating a solution of MgC in C.. 2 2 Do 4 0 > { fs , |. Sarbanes stem, Fe0-+C0, Te ett Commonly « Nativein brown sar 36to3:829 | 35 to 45 | Opake Yellow-brown ......| Vitreous, pearly. 4 eA en Hie accra icles —-.. . Rh. Pr. 108° 26%, jo. in junckerite 3815 4 | Do. . i neat ; ; i | ese ares Rhomboid 104° 634°? Dest tutta cleite 5 u Phe inurae eer 0 The dimensions of the prisms of junckerite aro unfortunately left in doubt ..... sso] Dufrenoy, An. de Chim. et de Phys.) ———— b0+CO, Rt. Rh. Pr. of 117° 14’, Ku Do. in white lead spar 6-465 3:0 to 3'5 | Do, 0 4 i MEO MS HELS ‘ FUE Pe Goa IT Tesiie chee See re & mee a 0 The faces of the plumbocaleite are gencrally rounded. It occurs at Wanlockhead, Scotland... Johnston, Brewster's Jour., vi. p. 79- KO4NO, Kr: At 60°F. 14°3. 212°F, 100...| Crystals permanent. A drop of a sat, sol. gives on evap. prism eryst, and rhomb, tables of 102° 50’, | : Rhomboid of 106'36, Fm. By evaporation in small quantity 2 2 Do. 0 at ETA which change their form when rul pressed, or touched with a prismatic crystal ee Rk Inst. ye S | ORR. wa 3 eae : ; beeen eae fore soluble than A....« Frankenheim, Pag. dn., xl. p. 447. |. } PhO-+-Cr0, ook Say st v , 004 25 to 3 Remar legal red. Vesta 9 Brooke, Johnston, London ‘and Edin} J ? ? n . ae il. Mag, May 1838. , Rt. Rh. Pr. M on M/ 91° 10/ Bi By evaporation at common temperatures| 2 ? o| | COXOOU suseccesveseonenc|Suneenndexsuieyeesteneetees |i i i | NiO+S0,+7HO Square prim Exposing A to the sun's rays or crystal ; 5 De. asasasaosensuacssasess crsssnrersrsessene] At 60° 33 pts sevssssrseneeesses Mitscherlich. ll Seiectsterce's lizing from warm or acid solutions... - | Sees tes cecal] mots. |HREm Ee eres eon See : eal a : 8 Bisulphate of Potash, i ; Vase > ‘ ‘| 0 d, | 2 2 . : Rhombie octohed. (form of sulphur) Mf BYEXSDOMALONIS sectstee : 2 2 Do. 0 "| At 219° 200 pts srsscssessessss{f have inserted this substance on the authority quoted, No mention is there made of a difference in| Mitscherlich, Pog. dn., xxix. 198. | KO+S0,+HO+S0, 1 : i i Xraberiittelse, 1837, p. 12 b jeudant iv.7 | oa Ob. Rh. Pr. (form of Felspar) M. By fusing A A aa > ? Do. 0 R the quantity of waterin the fused salt, which Berg. Ars! heriittelse, , p-126, states to be the case| wisest ie \t Chim. Phys. iv. 72 } NaO0+P30;+4HO Rt. Rh. Pr. of Mon M’ 93° 54°. By spontaneous evaporation... ? 2 Do. 0 Largely ROILHTe Do. or NallaP-+2H LDo. of 78° 30 Rarer Do. ? 2 Do 0 a b & Sesaurecotenearisasi} DOi ? 2 b bereooreitrebovenctrncet pon eeepc Do. ai invasecttne Tone ereerrorenn Do. Ca. 8} AL rn | = < 5 5 | Ca,Si¢-* Le Reg. dodecahedron ssceesseeseersesesees » | COMMONLY vssereeeereeees! Found native s.-seeceesseee roe red 36 to 42 6°5 to 7’5 | Transp. &translucent | Yel.-brown, bl., gros- Vit, TESIMOUS sssssesselscrssseerrceererersas|terserserersennsss| Before blow-pipe melts quietly 0 Garnet after fusion is probably prismatic. Magnus found that grossulaire (sp. gr. —) and the 4 = = . penne m ay A f a slain ereenaliye! a ¥ greenish yel. vesuvian from Baikal (sp. gr. —) had both the same sp. gr. (—) after being melted| Magnus, Poggendorff, xxvi. p. 489. | GBersistOases on) an quare pi oo 0. 0. B to 34 5 10. ++ Do, p Swells up with evolution of bubbles, K.... 0 »+:| Kobell (Berz. Arsb. 1829, p. 201.) | . tt }co, aplie joo, Heise Rh. prism... ese Do. Do. 3646 J. 40 0 Vitreo-resinous Decrepitates rere 0 eee Brooke, Children. . s Right Rh. prism Gorm of arragonite) ..,| Do. Do. 37 J. Scratches A\ ak a Do. ‘ Do. much 0 ‘Thomsondescribes Miller, ohnston, Pail Mag. sare Sulp) ote “ Acute rhomboii . r F fe ‘ lative, brown, Brooke, Encyclop. Metropolitan. ulphato Tricarbonate of Lead...) PLS 3PHC REE }) Brooke srs reeesern] Found mative at Lea ills senssnnae 63 25 ret 0 ee ae NT eeAoES EOL a W., Wollaston; Fm., Frankenheim ; R., Rose. * It is not certain that the glassy arsenious acid lias the form assigned to it, but if not there must be three varieties or modifications of this compound. + Haidinger says an oblique rhombic prism, which, according to the subsequent measurement of Brooke, is incorrect. Bk., Brooke; Br., Brewster; H:, Haiiy; Gui, Guibourt; Hr., Herapath; K.,Kobell; Ku. Kupfer; Kr., Karsten; Le. Levy; M, Mitscherlich, N,, Neumann; R. D., Roger and Dumas; Sk., Suckow ; aS ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 167 If these were crystals of sulphate they would indicate a dimor- phism in this salt also— Edin. Phil. Jour., vol. i. Other substances likely to prove dimorphous are inserted in Table III., and it is not impossible that some of those forms now considered pseudo-morphic, may hereafter appear to be true cases of dimorphism. Several observations suggest themselves on a glance at this table. 12. The number of substances contained in it, and of which the dimorphism has been discovered in so short a time, renders it very doubtful whether the crystalline form assumed by any given substance is one only and invariable. 13. The several forms of the same substance possess different physical properties,—different colour, hardness, density, or relations to heat and light. This is true of every pair of di- morphous bodies in the table, yet in all of them the chemical relations remain unchanged. ‘The only trace of an exception, yet observed, is in the different solubilities of the two forms of arsenious acid and in the different behaviour of garnet and vesu- vian before the blow-pipe. These chemical differences, how- ever, are too obscure to demand much attention in this place ; were they distinct and well-defined, the compounds which ex- hibit them, should be removed from the class of simply dimor- phous to that of isomeric bodies *. It appears, therefore, that dimorphous bodies exhibit in their several forms physical differences only, the chemical relations remaining unchanged. To this remarkable characteristic of such bodies we shall have occasion to advert when we come to _ inquire into the cause of dimorphism and its connection with _ isomerism. 14. Inthe relation between the first and second forms of several In dimor- of the groups in the Table, a striking analogy presents itself, phous com In the carbonates of lime, of magnesia, of lead, and of iron, and in P97 ete. _ the nitrate of potash, the first form being a rhomboid of nearly ment is di- equal dimensions in all, the second form is aright rhombic prism ™orphous. similarly related in dimensions. In arsenious acid and oxide of antimony, the first form is the regular octohedron, the second a right rhombic prism. In each form these substances are iso- morphous, or they are isodimorphous. * Though alike in chemical constitution, the two forms of arsenious acid and garnet may be the result of isomerism. In minerals represented by so complicated a formula as garnet and vesuvian, it is impossible to say that the elements are not very differently arranged, that they are not, in fact, different substances. 168 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Il. 15. Of Isodimorphous Groups.—In my report on the ac- tual state of chemical science, published in 1832, p. 433*, I drew attention to the remarkable fact that two substances known to be dimorphous, the carbonates of lime and lead, cry- stallized each in two forms, the analogous pairs of which were also isomorphous. ‘To distinguish this new character I sug- gested the term isodimorphous, and I stated as probable that we should *‘ soon be able to embrace the whole of the isomor- phous groups to which calc spar, and arragonite severally belong in one large isodimorphous group.” This expectation has already been partly verifiedt, while other groups have been discovered connecting other systems of crystallization also, and holding out the promise of large accessions to this branch of knowledge as observations become more extended. 16. The following table comprises all the groups of these substances, and all the members belonging to these groups with which we are at present acquainted. * Report of the British Association, vol. i. + See especially the interesting paper of G. Rose, (Pog. An. xlii. p. 366), whose experiments are still in progress and promise new accessions to this list, as well as to our knowledge of the circumstances under which the several forms are produced. *Ajdax ou nr < paysrqnd sey Aouaang ‘areme we J se rey os “yoy 07 ‘ggg ‘d ‘sjeuUy siy Jo “JOA “WJATXXx ay} UT SYIeUIAT oWOS apeUt jropuasZog “sexoqur qeaid Jo avo urod sty UQ ‘aUO yoaIIOD ay} Sf saNTeA asayy Jo Yorym ("70g “d “shyg op 2a “uYD ap ‘upy) [NAIQNOp 41 Saavay AouayNG y “eal el te een a a ee ee ee ee a, roc, |seestreteseneeeeeleee Od [tttsttteeserteseeeseenee] aeeeeeee Og OH! + %02g9 + Oz, | "sour, yo ayetuarag “od AE OL 1G [aL UM Tay [teteteeteeeeeeeees [eee stad axenbg | OHL+%0S+OIN |*** exOIN Jo areyding “AT “qorptayosiTAL Of IL eee od seecersesenevereeesessss see od asen9 10g ng saddog jo (a 1q) ‘rapurg ‘as0y"D 2 "H seeenncereveveasesiese ploquioyy Se venerooreesereesres oe og g3y ***9ATIS jo yomnyding "III 8 ‘od gg 98T |" od eee od £60 fag serees KUOUITUY JO Apixo 5 “19TYOM Co eveeceveacsssveelsee od seeeeeeeuevereeesesesenel##* NOUOIO( Say L7@) sy sees DOW snoluasiy “[] 4 ‘unoyuoyuerg | “AT GS Sit |" od ‘myo9s gor yer’ Od “ON + 0% sseeesYSBjOg JO 9}BI}IN 5 “kouayyng at ehh! be ieee" et Zoo +00a vet uoay ° 0 sit i ‘uojsuyor | ‘Ny PI ZIT | od a#eo yor pes od 200 + Oda “eee peary ° “HOI ST 90T |}... z 3 3 "98017 * aoe od { eeeseeee od 020 + OsSIN elssuseyy ——-————— E ae : HW £65 401 xz, ny oT OTT pd “UY IY IA ¥ Sor seeces prloquioyuy “** QUILT JO oJeUOgIeD *T ° aS *sourl *solyzoyiny [e193ze[ ayy *W10,{ puodsg Wu “OUOT SALT *e(nuLlog Jo uorzeurout : ‘sdnoixy) snoydaouposy i cal adv 1, Relation among sy- stems of crystalliza- tion. Relation between form and density &e. * 170 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 17. Remarks on the Table of Isodimorphous Groups. —One of the most striking facts exhibited by this table is the existence of an intimate relation between certain forms not mutually de- rivable ;—between the several systems of crystallization. That these systems are zatural is proved both by geometrical consi- derations, and by the fact that the same substance crystallized in forms belonging to different systems possesses different phy- sical properties (13), yet the isodimorphous groups show that there is a relation, not accidental but constant between crystals of a given dimension in one system and crystals of a given di- mension in another system. ‘Thus in the first group the Rhomboid of 105° to 107° is related to the Rt. Rh. Prism of 116° to 118° Regular Octohedron —————_ Rt. Rh. Prism of 139° in the second. Do. é ——————. Rhomboid__ of 71°30 in the third. Square Prism —————_ Rt. Rh. Prism of 91°10 in the fourth. 18. The form of the crystal is dependent on the form and ar- rangement of the crystalline molecules; instead however of © necessarily agreeing in form with either of those observed in the crystal, the phenomena of dimorphism show that they probably differ from both, and by their union in the direction of one or other of two axes of attraction of nearly equal force build up one or other of the observed crystalline forms. If the connec- tion between the system of crystallization indicated by the table — be really of this kind; if forms constantly related in dimension, but belonging to different systems, may be formed by the collo-— cation of molecules of one constant form, it is not impossible that this relation may hereafter be expressed analytically ; that more general formulze may be obtained involving the properties of two or more systems, and by means of which the form and dimensions of the molecules may be deduced from those of the dimorphous crystals which are made up of them, and which we can measure. 19. While tracing the connection of the forms of dimorphous bodies we are naturally led to inquire if any relation be obser- vable between the form assumed and the physical properties — which accompany it. Our data are still too few and imperfect to enable us to give any satisfactory answer to this inquiry. In regard to density, the observations recorded in Table I. would indicate that the same substance— Sulphur in the form of a Rh. Octohed. is more dense than in that of an Ob. Rh. Prism. Carbon Reg. Octohed. Rhomboid. Bisulphuret of Iron ; and } Reg. Octohed. —_—— Rt. Rh. Prism. — Arsenious Acid Carbonate of Lime and Rt. Rh. Pr. —— Rhomboid. Baryto Calcite ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 171 or that in these forms the molecules are nearest to each other in the following order :— Reg. Octohedron and Cube. Rhombic Octohedron ?. Rt. Rhombic Prism. Oblique Rhombic Prism ?. Rhomboid. The hardness of the several forms seems to follow a similar order, the denser of two forms being also the harder. This is certainly the case with the diamond and the arragonitic forms of carbonate of lime and baryto calcite, but the observations we possess on this point are still too few in number, and made, in general, with too little attention to minute accuracy*, to justify us in founding any general conclusion upon them. 20. It will be observed that the several members of each group in the above table are represented by analogous formule with a substitution in each of one element only,—a metal. The first group, with one exception, is represented by the general formula RC or RO+CO,, and the fourth group by RS +7H Isomor- or RO+RO,+7HO in which not only the entire sum of the Phous i ct A 5 Toups, pro- negative and positive equivalents is equal, but the sum of those ably ak. a ineach member of the formulz is also equal. Thus in the first of morphous. these formulese RO+ CO, the negative are to the positive equiva- lents as 3 : 2, and in the two parts RO and CO, they areas 1:1 and 2:1. This is the case with all the neutral carbonates of Protoxides, whether isomorphous or not. In the second for- _ * M. Frankenheim has observed in regard to the hardness of crystallized bodies, native and artificial, that three orders of differences are to be observed : 1° On the same line in opposite directions. 2° On the same face in diferent lines. 3° On different faces of the same crystal. He finds that two directions or faces of the same crystallographic value have always the same hardness, and that isomorphous bodies very different in abso- lute have similar relative hardnesses. This is the case, for example, in regard to nitrate of soda and calv spar, the absolute hardnesses of which are so unlike. These orders of differences he found to be intimately connected with the natural joints of the crystals, so that the hardness is least. 1° Inrelation to different faces; on the faces of the joints themselves. 2° On each face in the line perpendicular to the intersection which the prin- cipal joint would give of that face. __ 3° On the same perpendicular, in a direction from the obtuse to the acute dihedral angle of the intersection.—Frankenheim Traité sur la cohesion des corps. Extract Biblioth. Univ., June 1886. By considerations drawn from the relations ‘of the pelar forces, supposed to reside in the crystallographic axes of crystallized bodies, M. Voltz has endea- voured to show that the hardness must vary on different faces and in different directions, and according to certain laws (/’Jnstitut., 9th August, 1834). : Like forms generally follow like formule. 172 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. mula RO+RO,+7HO the same ratio prevails among the several members in both the substances as yet known to belong to the isodimorphous group it represents. Now as we know that there are several carbonates isomorphous with the first form of the first group in our table, and several with the second, all of which are represented by the same for- mul, there is reason to believe that they also are dimorphous, and that our knowledge of them might be represented as fol- lows: | Rhomboid. Rt. Rh. Prism. Carbonate of Manganese ...| Found native....| Not known. ING sdoses estes Do. seof!, Db. Baryta...s.ss Not known...... Found native. ————— Strontia ...... Do, sacl 1G. and so with the rest of the isomorphous carbonates. In like manner we are justified in looking forward to the en- largement of the fourth group by the addition of the other iso- morphous neutral sulphates and seleniates of protoxides with seven atoms of water. It was supposed that the sulphates of zinc and magnesia had been met with in two forms, but later observations of Mitscherlich have shown that the second form contains only six atoms of water. 21. It is generally true, so far as observations have gone, that isomorphous substances are analogous in constitution ; the ratio of the positive and negative equivalents in the whole formule, and in their several members, being the same. The converse of this, however probable it may be, is by no means so generally — established. A knowledge of the principle of dimorphism how- ever, and especially of that of isodimorphism, enables us to un- derstand how bodies may be isomorphous and yet not present themselves to us in ordinary circumstances under the same forms. Thus the chromate and molybdate of lead are represented by formule, which are analogous in every respect, and contain — the common base oxide of lead, and yet they occur in nature in © different forms. If we suppose them to be dimorphous, then — the ordinary form of each may be considered as representing — the second or rarer form of the other, and including tungstate — of lead, which is isomorphous, with the molybdate, we have the following isodimorphous groups :— ; ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 173 Formula. Square Prism, Oblique Rh. Prism. Tungstate of Lead... PbCr | Common form ...| Not known. Molybdate ........+00. Pb Mo Do. aie BOTS Chromate .........06 Pb Cr | Not known... Common form. As an illustration of this point we might have taken the sulphate and chromate of lead, of which not only are the formulz every way analogous, but in which both the acid and the base are known to be isomorphous and capable of replacing each other, or we might have made one group of the sulphate, chromate, and molybdate, which all present themselves in different forms. I have however taken the case of the chromate and molybdate, because I think the probability of the two forms of these com- pounds being a real isodimorphism is very much strengthened by a specimen in the possession of my friend Mr. Brooke, of London, which he showed me as a molybdate of lead (a square prism the form of the molybdate) having the colour of the chromate. I am not without hopes of obtaining a fragment for the purpose of determining if it does not really contain chromic acid*. The case of substances represented by the general for- mule presenting themselves in more than two incompatible forms will be considered in a subsequent section of this reportf. 22, But all the members of isodimorphous groups, much less 54, gin of groups simply isomorphous, are not necessarily represented with unlike by formule every way analogous. Of this the fourth member formule. of the first group in our table, the nitrate of potash, presents a striking example. In the formula for this salt (KO+NO,) neither the ratio between the positive and negative elements in the entire compounds, nor in the acid it contains is the same _with that which exists in the carbonates (RO +CO,) which form _the other members of the group. ___ Among isomorphous bodies, known to assume only one form (monomorphous), it was early observed by Mitscherlich{ that potash (KO) might be replaced both in neutral and acid salts by ammonia with an atom of water (H;N+HO), without change of form, though neither the number of equivalents nor __ * Since this report went to press I have examined a fragment of this speci- men, and found it to be chromate, which has enabled me to insert this compound in Table I. among the other known cases of dimorphism. See Lond. and Edin. Phil. Mag. for May 1838. + See p. 197. t Berz. Arsberiittelse, 1833, p. 136. 174 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. the number of elements, nor the ratio between the positive and negative constituents was alike in the mutually replacing com- pounds. As, however, ammonia with an atom of water may be represented by (H,N +O) the oxide of ammonium ; this case was fairly considered as byno means decisive that isomorphous bodies are not necessarily analogous in constitution and represented by analogous formule. It may be, as many chemists have thought probable from other grounds, that potassium is itself a com- pound metal, and that potash, were its true constitution under- stood, may be analogous with ammonia. Other compounds, however, were discovered, agreeing in form, yet represented by formulz not reconcilable according to re- ceived views. Of these the earliest known were, that nitrate of soda and nitrate of potash, not then observed to be dimorphous, were severally isomorphous with cale spar and arragonite, and other examples have since been added chiefly by the researches of Mitscherlich. All the known groups of this kind are repre- sented in the following Table. TI call them monomorphous, to indicate that as groups with unlike formule they are not all known to assume more than one form. sod Mane 175 ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. Cee eeeeeeeaenssereecsens od od teeecneeseerecenavecveasey ys UAT *447 a OOo eee aeeerensenesanene ‘og teeeeceeeeeeeuseapecseeeery “UNTO Sees ee sereeesennes od “YOITAaYOSI steeereeeeeeens Natojog *quoyy “OSOY "H)|rreseresereceeeesescevacees ‘od “OL [reesttrstesesesteseeeeoees cra ua yay cecvaeeeetes Jen 907 J0 pi eee aera aera a es er "sree OE OT JO ‘ulfayuayuery [retest 98 o9OT JO “quioyy “(OI ayOSzI eee eon ae ee ES { “sarquoyiNy “SULIO.T UOUTUOD 4o®uw + org °os + O8N éSH + Sx siSIV + ISH sees one WH + Uy s 200 + O81 209 + ov0 "ON + Of 500 + O81 700 + 0v0 “ON + OtN “ON +034 O®N ON OH+NfH *2[NULIO,T vyAieg jo ayeuesuvuuag “+ (aypreuayy,) epog { joayeydingsnorpkyuy .9 ysejog jo "ydiustg pasng seesesteeeeesnreerees edsiag 5G (uonnyos wo.) ysei0g { jo ‘uajastg pue ‘djusig sereeeeee yd[ng IANVN oF Seeeeseerescens redg rag seeeeveseeeees guUOSCILY teeeeeeseUsvIOd JO AIVIN of syereeeeseseree edgy 19731 ROE CIR TES ite) ssteesseeeeeapog Jo JIUMIN seeseeeee yseqog JO IVINS tessseeerees 2 Bpog “YSBIOd seseeeeseeeeeerrgq@M JO WO}Z UL YIM BUOY QT *sdnoig "x[NUtIOy ayzjun Aq poyuoseidas ore yoryA Jo sroquiout ay,—sdnouy snoydsowouopy ‘IIT Fav, SEVENTH REPORT—1837,. 176 ae csc tris knouys Suowe aSpatmous OB you op s}stZoper Jo asouy yor “[erpaylway axe atseqeyD Jo s[eysAx9 dy} IVY) UOIJUSUE OF 34SNO T 1943080} ceomeyeqne ony as0u)3 pomnom aay I Score . 99% "dex see eeeeeeeenseeeencecces od 1g Twot Ig 0) one eeeeeneeeeneeeens ayIsIoz ‘Se “Md “UPA pue ‘puory ‘oyoorg — - seeeaneneneevoneeeeevooery surat "GO, ISVS ae lS ag seetanscesereeseserrrasyOng oOT *pazkyeur 394 yon [tet eh EL JO “od 1®o%2q “OM ‘08d teetereeeeeseeeees OTISTON sxahautoayg |'°"'"***"* OF o84 JO ‘og = |(tsea +1817 + 51Set0 + clSe8N) + LPN sreereee antreApUT 6 s¥O 99. A 'XEBUN [Yq "UIP puB’puoy Jevees eee Q 4G “og vst +asive + ¢s eM teeeeeneeneeneren gtspquyy e&N srajdny Jo yusUt _ -ainsvaut ay} 3dope Ajjeiaued eee MYT EC OG teeeenseerecens seeee sioyderorpeyshao uvutIay ay, Re de! el au Jo proquoyy a ®ols BIS 08 ‘ayooig pue sdypiyg Aq uaard SI SUOISUBUIp asayy JO 4ysay JY, oa & £aaq {IT oF6 | “ay UAT « HO +sisiv + 18 ‘ teeeereee(urutsaq) OIq[0S Ton AT tel te Pee" O) eee = ed "SLG *d Waxxx ‘jeuuy “Bog 19140 H8t + gisive + lS "9 Sao COKOFOUAAS ET, CULT * |] sees Leary 0 QOLT Sih ** TOM LP 066 Jo “Ad “UU IY a 70) Hoe + siSiv, + 318 al “ree qurojoutepy ByAIeg of “so OYNY *SULIO, MOUULOD ‘@NULIOT *sdnox _ ‘panurzuoo *]]] TILV, ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 177 The seventh group has been inserted on the authority of Kohler, whose paper may be consulted with advantage, and some doubt may be supposed still to hang over the isomorphism of silica and chabasie, though on this similarity of form I have elsewhere* founded an explanation of certain optical phenomena observed by sir David Brewster in some varieties of chabasie, as well as of certain differences in chemical constitution, which specimens from different localities have been found to present. 23. Attempts have not been wanting toreconcile some of thedis- Are these cordant formule exhibited by the above isomorphous -groups, formule re- but hitherto without much success. Thus Dr. Clarke has en- "UC" deavouredt to reconcile the formule for anhydrous sulphate of soda (NaO + SO,) and permanganate of baryta (BaO + Mn,0,), forming the sixth group in the above table by supposing 1° That the equivalent of sodium is double of that generally received or Na, soda being Na, and an equivalent of the anhy- drous sulphate of soda Na,O,+ 8,O¢. 2° That the acids combine directly with the metals and not with their oxides, and consequently that the rational formule for the two salts in question are respectively (representing Na, by Na) Na+S,0, and Ba+Mn,O, or Na+S and Ba+Mn in which state the formule correspond, and the isomorphism of the two salts becomes intelligible. _ The first of these hypotheses must be rejected, I believe for reasons which will find their natural place in a succeeding paragraph (26), the second is so completely opposed to all ex- ‘perimental evidence that chemists could hardly be expected to regard it with a favourable eye even though the first hypothesis to which it serves as a sequel were not deemed inadmissible. _ Great violence to received opinions must not be offered for the _explanationof a single apparent anomaly. Each groupin thetable would probably require one or more specific hypotheses to recon- cile the formule of the several substances which compose it, and _ these hypotheses, as appears in the following section, might often os conflicting, showing that we are still far from a glimpse of the truth. _ Why should it be thought necessary to reconcile the formule | of isomorphous bodies, except that, carried away by the beauty | of the doctrine of Mitscherlich, we have generalized too hastily ? | Ifthe same substance may crystallize in two or more different * Lond. and Edinb. Phil. Mag., vol. ix. p. 166. + Records of Science. VOL, VI. 1837. N 178 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. forms, why may not the converse hold? why may not different substances crystallize in one and the same form? We must allow instances to accumulate before we make any serious at- tempts at explanation. 24. It may be proper here to notice a paper by Persoz, in the Annales de Chimie et de Physique, No. 1x. p. 145, in which, to reconcile the discordant formule of certain substances he sup- poses to be isomorphous, he advances the hypothesis that bodies unite by equivalent volumes, and not by equivalent atoms ; and that compounds may be isomorphous which contain equal volumes, either simple or compound. Thus, though the re- ceived formule for the sulphates and carbonates RS& RC be different, they may be considered alike if we suppose the acids to be composed respectively of 2 vols. sulphurous acid + 1 vol. oxygen, and 2 vols. carbonic oxide + 1 vol. oxygen, and the neutral sulphates and carbonates may be isomorphous. So also may the nitrates and hyponitrites (RN & RN) be isomorphous since the acids are composed of, The nitric . . . of 4 vols. nitrous acid + 1 vol. oxygen hyponitric of 4 vols. nitric oxide + 1 vol. oxygen. This hypothesis exhibits an unfortunate waste of ingenuity, since it has been proposed to explain two supposed cases of ~ isomorphism, which have in reality no existence. On the au- — thority of Kobell, verified by Voltz, he states that the forms of sulphate of barytes (BaO+SO,) and arragonite (CaO+CO,) — are identical*, though the inclination of the lateral faces of the — Rt Rh Prism in the former is 101° 42’, in the latter, 116° 10’. They are, indeed, what Kobell calls homoiomorphous} ; but so are numerous other substances, the formule of which it would be idle to attempt to reconcile. Because also the nitrate of lead (an octohedron) crystallizes without change of form in a solution of hyponitrate (PbO+N,O3), he concludes that these two salts are isomorphous; and to explain this imaginary identity of form between a sulphate and a carbonate, a nitrate and a hyponitrate, the hypothesis above stated is had recourse to. In the same way he states, that it is impossible to mistake the analogy of form between common Borax (NaB +10H) * An. de Chim. et de Phys., LX. p. 119. : t See Schweigger’s Jahrbuch, vol. iv. p. 410, also Reports of the British — Association, vol. i. p. 429. y ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 179 and common soda (NaC + 10H)*, and the octohedral forms of the same salts with five atoms of water. Had he been aware of any of the real cases of monomorphous groups having discordant formule inserted in the list above given, or had he referred to them only, his reasoning, however hypothetical, would not have been so undeserving of a place in the excellent and elabo- rate memoir of which it forms a part. 25. The chemical constitution of the two metallic sulphurets Seen which compose the third of our ¢sodimorphous groups, suggests ° ee considerations nearly related to those which have just been de- tailed. If they are really unlike in constitution, and are repre- sented severally by RS and R,S, then they ought to be included in our list of bodies which are like in form but unlike in for- mula. It is proper to state, therefore, why they are represented as isodimorphous. In a former report; I have illustrated the application which has been made of the doctrine of isomorphism in determining which of several possible multiples of a given number should be considered as representing the true equivalent of substances in regard to which we have at present no other means of arri- ving at a satisfactory conclusion. That alumina, peroxide of iron, and oxide of chromium crystallize in the same form, and are capable of replacing each other, as in the alums, is con- sidered satisfactory evidence that their elementary constitution is analogous—that the ratio of the oxygen to the metal is the same in all, and that the general formuia R,O, represents the ‘composition of each. The whole doctrine of replacement, so beautifully applied to the elucidation of mineral compounds, de- pends on the same principle. No substances have ever yet heen observed to replace each other in atomic proportions, and without change of form, which are not also represented by the | same general formule. ‘The nearest approach to an exception “yet known is the fact established by Mosander, that peroxide of iron in the titanic irons may replace titaniate of the protoxide of iron (Fe,O, may replace FeO +'TiO,) ; but the exception is only ‘im appearance, for Fe,O, may be represented by FeO + FeO,, in which case the formule are still analogous. Ammonia with an atom of water and potash are the only substances in our list of monomorphous substances with unlike formule which have been observed to replace each other, and we have already stated * The form of borax is an obliq. Rh. Pr. PM 101° 30’! MM 86° 40’ } Brooke That of common soda ditto PM 108° 45' MM 76° 12’ : + Report of the British Association, vol. i. p. 422. N 2 180 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. the theoretical considerations by which the force of this objec- tion is for the present, at least, suspended. If, then, replacement in atomic proportions without change of form imply an absolute analogy of constitution, the sulphu- rets of copper and silver possess this analogy. In grey copper (fahlerz), represented by the general formula, RR + 2CutR, the Cu in the second member of the formula is often replaced by Ag (in the silver fahlerz) without change of form. If we sup- pose Ag and Cu to be capable of replacing each other, all the varieties of the grey copper may be represented by the same formula RAR + RAR. But if they replace each other, the forms of these sulphurets as they occur in nature uncombined should be identical. This has not hitherto been observed to be the case. The sulphuret of silver (Ag) is an octohedron, that of copper (Cu) is arhomboid. By fusion, however, that of cop- per is obtained in octohedrons, while that of silver is rhomboidal in the double sulphuret (Ag +Cu) from Rudelstadt*. There is every reason, therefore, for believing that these two compounds can replace each other, and that they are not only isomorphousf, but that they form an isodimorphous group, as represented in the table. It appears, then, in the present state of our knowledge, to follow that the two sulphurets in question are analogous in con- stitution, and must both be represented by the same formula, Ror R. It is an interesting coincidence with this result, that the atomic weight of silver deduced by Dulong and Petit from their researches into the specific heats of the metals, is only one half of that which is generally received. From this agreement, and because it involves fewer changes, it is probable that the compounds in question are both disulphurets and represented by the formula R. * Rose, Pog. An. xxviii. p.427. Sander, id. xl. p. 313. + If isomorphous, the formula for Polybasite Cu hy +4Ag9 = might be As As expressed by Re. For the analysis of Polybasite, formerly confounded with brittle sulphuret of silver (sprédglaserz), see Pog. An. xxviii. p. 156. ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 18] 26. But this conclusion involves several important modifica- tions in the received views regarding the atomic weights of other substances, elementary and compound. It was observed by Mitscherlich that the sulphate of silver (AgS) and anhydrous sulphate of soda (NaS) agree in form, from which it is inferred that oxide of silver and soda are iso- Equivalent morphous. But if so, they are analogous in constitution ; and ae if the equivalent of silver be halved, that of sodium must be halved also, their formule being respectively Ag,O and Na,O. Since, also, potash is isomorphous with soda, and may replace it, as in the alums, the rhomboidal nitrates, &c., this oxide also must be expressed by K,O. And, on the other hand, gold heing isomorphous with silver, the oxide of gold will be Au,O3, which agrees also with the results of Dulong and Petit, and with the electronegative properties sometimes exhibited by this compound. It is unnecessary in this place to dwell on these changes. They are indicated by the isodimorphism of the sulphurets of copper and silver inserted in the table, but they have not yet been incorporated with received knowledge by any of the lead- ing chemists of Europe. The establishment of a very few facts more will render any further hesitation unnecessary*. 27. The halving of the atom of potash supplies us with a mode Analogy be- of establishing an analogy between the formule for the earthy Saas = carbonates and that of the nitrate of potash. If potash be KO i> Carbon- and nitric acid, as it is represented by foreign chemists, N,O,, _ and Brae itrates. then nitre is K,0+N,0; or R’R, or, putting together the posi- tive elements R,O,, or 2R,O,. In the carbonates RR we have also by putting together the positive elements R,O,, or the for- mula for the nitrate of potash is analogous with that for the carbonates as a whole, though the expressions for neither of the immediate constituents of the two classes of compounds have any analogy. How far it may hereafter prove true that compounds, as such, may be isomorphous and analogous in constitution, while their several components disagree both in form and in constitu- tion, is at present almost wholly conjectural. I have advanced this mode of establishing an analogy between the nitrates and carbonates, partly with the view of drawing attention to the possible recognition of such a principle as our knowledge ad- vances, and partly of illustrating what I have already stated (22) as to the special hypothesis necessary in almost every case * See London and Edin. Phil. Mag., April 1838. Plesiomor- phous dif- ferences. Cause of. 182 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. for reconciling the formule of substances such as those inserted in Table III. That an extension of the general conditions ne- cessary to isomorphism must by-and-by take place, the num- ber of bodies we are already able to insert in this table is suffi- cient proof*. 28. It would be improper to dismiss the consideration of the tables of dimorphous and isodimorphous groups without advert- ing to the differences in the angular dimensions of the several substances comprised by these groups. It is true generally of isomorphous bodies, that the angular dimensions of their crystal- line forms do not exactly correspond, but only approach to each other often very closely, as in the chromate and sulphate of potasht, but sometimes differing nearly two degrees, as in same of the earthy carbonates. These differences have been much dwelt upon, especially by English crystallographers, to some of whom they have appeared sufficiently great and constant to warrant the rejection of the term iso and the substitution of plesio morphism in its stead{. The fact of bodies replacing each other is inconsistent with a mere approach in their forms, while the circumstance that no constant difference has been observed among the forms of the several members of the same isomorphous group with different acids or bases, shows, I think, satisfactorily, that these differences do not necessarily imply unlike forms in the crystalline molecules. If the silicates or sulphates of two oxides be almost identical in form, while their carbonates differ by more than a whole degree, the difference between the forms of the oxides not being constant in the ana- logous classes of compounds, may at least have their origin in a cause extrinsic to the forms of the substances altogether. 29. It is well known that Mitscherlich attributed these differ- ences to some peculiarity in the chemical affinities, specific to each substance or to the several substances entering into a com- pound. On this very probable opinion it is unnecessary to dwell. He has lately, however, thrown out a suggestion in re- gard to the nature of this specific modification of the affinities, or rather how it operates, an examination of which will be neither uninteresting nor out of place§. Supposing the molecules of bodies—their mutually replacing equivalents—to be equal in size, and to be placed at like dis- tances, the densities of these bodies should be as the weights of their equivalents. That the densities are not so related in na- * See London and Edin. Phil. Mag., May 1838. + Brooke, Annals of Philosophy, August, 1823, and January, 1824. t See Report on Chemistry, Reports of British Association, vol. i. p. 428. § Poggendort’s Annalen, vol. xli. p. 216. ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 183 ture will appear on comparing those of almost any pair or group of isomorphous bodies. ‘The molecules, therefore, of the analogous compounds, even of bodies which may replace each other, are often separated by unlike spaces. Now in two isomorphous substances exhibiting this differ- ence, the increased distance of the molecules in the less dense may either be equal in every direction, in which case, though the densities are not related as the equivalents, the crystalline form and dimensions of each would remain alike, or the in- crease of distance may be different in the direction of the several axes of the crystal, in which case the angular dimen- sions of the two substances in a state of crystallization would more or less vary. Heat is known to expand regularly crystallized bodies un-. equally in different directions, enlarging the acute angles and imparting a tendency towards the cube or other forms belonging to the regular system. The suggestion of Mitscherlich is, that chemical affinity acts in the same way as heat, drawing in or binding together the molecules more closely in one direction than another, so that if, at the temperature at which two isomor- phous compounds crystallize, the affinity between the elements in the one be only a small degree greater than in the other, a difference more or less great must result between the dimensions in the so-called plesiomorphous bodies, that is, the crystals must be plesiomorphous only. And this suggestion is the more probable inasmuch as it accounts for the fact that the plesiomorphous dif- ferences do not prevail equally among all the analogous com- pounds of the same acids or bases; the difference between the affinities of two bases, A and B, for an acid C, being probably unlike, not only in amount, but in sign*, to their difference for a second or third acid D or E. The close relation which exists between chemical affinity and heat would predispose us to receive with favour the hypothesis in question ; but we can so far test it by observation, since it implies that in any isomorphous group those substances whose crystalline dimensions most closely approximate should have their densities also most nearly in the ratio of their atomic weights ; and conversely, those which have the acute angles of their crystals the greatest, should also have their densities fur- thest below what this ratio would indicate. * In the difference (of the affinities?) of baryta and strontia for the sulphu- ric and carbonic acids, we have this disagreement both in quantity and in sign. In the Rt. Rh. Prisms of these substances we have the obtuse angle in Sulphate of baryta = 101°-42! Carbonate of baryta = 118°:30! ———_ strontia = 104™00! ——-_ strontia = 117°-32’. 184 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 30. In throwing out the suggestion Mitscherlich compares only the carbonates of lime and magnesia. I shall take a greater number of these carbonates in order to test it more closely*. Equivalent. Observed | Calculated | pig Angle of the Dif. specific grav. |specific grav. rhomboid. Cale spar o.seesssees 632-456 (2-721 | cesses | ceeees 105-4 Mit.| °..... Carb. of Magnesia...) 534:790 {2-884 2:30 =| 0584) 106°15 Mohs, 1-11 Tron......... 71565 = |3°829 3:097 |0°75 | 107-0 1:56 2 ; ; : 106-30 Phil. | 1-26 ZANCssccseses 779663 + |3°379 3354 | 0-025 107-40 Woll. | 2:36 Manganese | 722:337 |3:592 3:107 | 0°485) 106-51 Mohs.| 1-47 A general agreement with the hypothesis is observable in these substances. The densities are all greater than they should be, compared with that of calc spar, and the acute angles of their crystals less, but no ratio is observable between the differences of density and of angle indicated by the 5th and 7th columns. The observed densities are those given by Mohs, as taken from crystallized specimens, but there is no evidence that the speci- mens measured were in any case those of which the density was also taken, so that in the absence of more correct data our test cannot be rigidly applied. Different crystals of the same sub- stance have not only different densities but also different an- gular dimensions. Breithaupt states that the crystals of horn- blende vary as much sometimes as 5°, those of pyroxene as 2°, and no doubt the density would vary in proportion. The same observer found the density of a calc spar of 105°°8’ to be 2°741, and of another (tautokline) of 106°°10’ to be 2°968t, both of which cases are accordant with the notion that even in the same substance plesiomorphous differences may arise from condensation or expansion analogous to that produced by a di- minution or increase of temperature. All these examples show that our determinations of the angles and densities of crystal- lized bodies must be ranked among wncertain knowledge till accurate observations of both are made from one and the same specimen. Such results would enable us to try, it might be * Taking that of cale spar, in which the acute angle is greatest, as a stand- ard, the specific gravities of the other substances are compared with it and cal- culated from it. Sp. grav. of calc spar At. wt. of calc spar + Karsten found in two specimens of pure cale spar that the one with the less angle had a density of 26978, that with the greater of 2°7064. X at. wt. of A= sp. grav. of A. ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 185 would compel us to reject, the suggestion we are now consider- ing. 31. Before quitting this part of my subject I cannot refrain from laying before the reader a tabular comparison of the physical and chemical properties of some of the metallic oxides repre- sented by the general formula R,O;, though none of them is yet known to be dimorphous, as they present a beautiful example of the analogies which exist among isomorphous bodies, and as their densities exhibit a relation to their plesiomorphous differ- ences entirely the converse of that which Mitscherlich supposes | to exist among the earthy carbonates. Equivalent. Sule ot tbe Hardness.| Lustre. | Colour of Crystal. “Corun- | Ox. of dum. | chrom, of Corundum lj 321-167 | 86:6 Mohs. 9 | Vitreous | { Blue, vel.» me: aie 3°33 '|Peroxide ‘ 85°58 Mohs. ; ' k ; : eer iran... ¢ {489213 |{86-10 Phat, | 5°5t063| Metalic | Steel grey ......] 5:9 | 4-88 Oxide of ! ; - | Grereium |501°319 | 85°55 Rose ..... Be Thee | Blac ste a 6-09 The same difficulty presents itself here as in the former ex- ample from the uncertainty of the determinations, but in these substances it is clear either that heat does not expand them so as to make them approach the cube, or that the difference of the chemical affinities considered as the cause of plesiomor- phism does not act in the same way as heat does. Peroxide of iron and oxide of chromium are much less dense than they ought to be, compared with corundum, and yet the acute angle of their rhombs is less; or, comparing the first two substances in the table with oxide of chromium their specific gravity is greater than calculation gives it, while their acute angles are less. Can it be that heat in expanding these acute thomboids makes them diverge from, while obtuse rhomboids it brings nearer to, the cubical form ? III. 32. Of Analogous Chemical Groups, the members of which taken singly are Monomorphous, but which as Groups are Dimorphous.—In the remarks already made on the table of isodimorphous groups (21) I have adverted to the observation that like crystalline forms generally follow like chemical for- mule, and I have illustrated by one example in what way this observation leads us to infer and to look for dimorphism in sub- stances not hitherto observed in more than one form. Almost 186 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. every group of isomorphous bodies presents us with additional illustrations. Not only may we expect that entire groups shall prove to be dimorphous, of which we as yet Anow only one or two really to be so, as the carbonates of which those of lime and lead, and the sulphates of which that of nickel is the type ; but groups also not even recognised as yet to be isomorphous, though their chemical formule are analogous. Thus the tung- state of lime and that of lead occur in square prisms, that of iron and manganese (wolfram) in oblique rhombic prisms, but since all these compounds are represented by the same formula R Tu, the form which one assumes should not be impossible to the other. We know that lime and protoxide of lead are dimor- phous in their carbonates ; we may expect them to be so also in their tungstates, and since lime and the first oxides of iron and manganese are capable of mutually replacing each other, wolfram may be looked for in square prisms. It has indeed been frequently observed by mineralogists of this form. At Huel Maudlin, in Cornwall, at Schénfeld, and elsewhere in Saxony* it has occurred in square prisms, but these are univer- sally stated to be pseudomorphous, to be casts of previous cry- stals of tungstate of lime. I have never had an opportunity of examining any of these crystals, but as bearing on the very in- teresting question how far second forms at least may be inferred from chemical formule, the supposed pseudomorphism of the square prisms of wolfram is deserving of a close examination.{ But if dimorphous substances may be so numerous, why are they not so in ordinary circumstances, or why have they not been more frequently observed? Ten years more can scarcely pass without adding greatly to the number of known cases of dimorphism, and suggesting some probable reply to this and other similar questions. If the chemical affinities which two bodies are capable of displaying towards each other may lie dormant, even when the bodies are in juxta-position, till the proper hygrometric or thermometric conditions be attained, so may it be with the molecular attractions by which particles are * Allan’s Manual of Mineralogy, p. 219. + Since the above was written I have seen Cornish specimens of this mineral in the collection of Mr. Brooke. They are in octohedrons, some of them beauti- fully perfect; the greater part of them, however, more or less hollow, and cer- tainly presenting the appearance of after crystals. Still we are not to despair of finding crystals of wolfram belonging to the pyramidal system, and our search may perhaps be stimulated by the character of its twin crystals, which seem to indicate that though this mineral presents itself in the form of oblique prisms, it may in reality have rectangular axes.—See Arystallographie von Gustav Rose, p- 119, and Whewell’s Report on Mineralogy, p. 332. ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 187 drawn together and built up into regular forms. And as ele- mentary or compound bodies belonging to the same natural family, though possessing in common many properties, the same in kind, yet have them in different degrees, and exhibit them under different circumstances, so may we expect crystallizable substances, analogous in chemical constitution, and possessing like physical properties, toexhibit those properties, indegrees and under circumstances specific toeach. Under the same circum- stances there may be slight differences between the crystalline dimensions as there are between the chemical affinities of two bodies ; they may both be dimorphous, but under circumstances so widely different as hitherto to have escaped our observation, just as certain oxides of chlorine, iodine, and fluorine, which we believe to be possible, have hitherto baffled the attempts of the most refined manipulation. IV. 33. Of bodies assuming two or more series of unlike physical properties, hut of which the crystalline form belonging to each series has not yet been determined.—In addition to those sub- stances, the dimorphism of which is established by direct mea- surement, there is a considerable number, the dimorphism of which is rendered exceedingly probable by the fact of their oc- curring, in two or more states, physically different. If dimor- phism imply a difference in physical properties, as well as in form, we may at least be prepared to look for a difference of form when marked physical differences present themselves*. The following table contains all the substances generally known to exhibit such physical differences. * Dumas proposes to include all in one group under the name Poly- morphous. ‘ Mais pour embrasser tous les phénoménes du méme genre il faut dire Polymorphisme sans restreindre a deux le nombre de modifications qu’un corps peut présenter, et comprendre dans la méme catégorie toutes les sortes de changemens qui peuvent affecter les propriétés physiques.” Lecons sur la Philosophie Chimique, p. 303. I think it better, however, to distinguish be- tween what we know and what we only suspect; to call those substances in which two crystalline forms have been observed certainly dimorphous, those in which they have not been observed as probably so. The term polymorphous will become necessary as soon as it is established that the same substance does erystallize in three or more incompatible forms. 1°. 2°. 3°. 4°. 5°. 6°. 188 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. TABLE Exhibiting the characters of those substances which are known stalline forms in both states Formula. How obtained. Density. Hardness. Fracture. Sulphur A & s A by subliming, B by|1:99 to 2:05| 1°5 to 2°5 ...| Conchoidal a B ccasscseeres fusing Sulphur or granu- ‘ lar } GC) Rissaccenenees .-| By pouring Sulphur ? Soft and tena-|...-.scescescereee| 7 at 200C. into Cold cious Water .' Phosphorus P Distilling Acid Phos-| 1-77 Séctile cheers icant Berea Posi phate of Lime with ‘4 Charcoal ¥ ———_Bhrrseccecsereevere : 66°C. Sef iscrcdtostsogse os ir: Sustcvecanecena Fusing A at { 150F. and suddenly cool- ing Sulphuret off Sb. S; Found native, also by|4°5 0 4°7 |...scceccssececesleeeeees sCeaeeussts Antimony A heating B Do. (Ker- |..... Gonscosacce By suddenly cooling|4°15 Harderthan A| Conchoidal... mes) B...... A when fused, or by precipit. from Antimonial Solu- i tions Bisulphuret Hgs, By subliming B...... 8:098 2° CON2D eeonen DO. seseeveen of Mercury 3 (Cinnabar) A Do.(Ethiops]........+ee+ee08 «| Throwing down H}.......cseesses ? Granular...... Mineral) B from its solutions by HS, or cooling A suddenly Bichromate | KO+2CrO, | By fusing Chrome|2°6027 ? Kr.)....... geteseen Sol deateaien mms oc ee of Potash A Tron with Nitre... f B Do. Fusing A and allow- 2 ae |b seescoeccsees ; ing it to cool 4 Sulphate o KS+ Cus Fusing the two Salts|......sesceeceee ? ? : Potash and together Copper A Do. Formed when_ the] ..ccccsscscees ? ? fused mass cools to about 60°F., 15°5C. ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 189 IV. to exist in two states physically different, but of which the cry- have not been determined. Colour in mass, |Colourin powder.) Transparency. Characteristic or Remarks. Authorities. ‘| Yellow ......) Yellow ...... Transparent | See Table I. BOWN ......|-000ee cebu avers .| Opaque ...... After about 24 hours the sul- phur generally becomes : hard and brittle Pale Yellow...| Yellow ...... Transparent | It is only when very pure, and repeatedly distilled, that it becomes black by sudden cooling. On refu- sion it becomes yellow Black ......... ? Opaque ......!. ep esescebcoce ce “KCASEEE EA O-Eee cue Thenard An. de Chimie, Ixxi. p. 109. Dumas Traitéi. p. 247. Fuchs Annal. de Phar- Lead grey ...| Greyish black} Opaque ...... Thesecond state B. Fuchs has mac., xi. p. 282. distinguished by the term Amorphous, a term, as it appears to me, by no means applicable Do. ...| Reddish Thin lamine| brown transpar. ; deep hya- cinth red * Cochineal red} Scarlet red ;} Semitranspa- |.......... Bape eaecewasvts Secawaclssa’s Fuchs, Ibid. Carmine rent when heated Black .........| Black ......... Opaque ?...... Gmelin attributes the black} Gmelin’s Handbuch, i. colour to the presence of| p. 1290. sulphur Red............) Yellow ......| Transparent | The fused Bichromate on| Liebigand Poggendorf, cooling shoots out into} Wéorterbuch,i. p. 151. crystals, which again fall to pieces after the tempe- rature has sunk to 60°F. |} Yellow DOs onseer Do. _ while hot ‘Dark green...| Green..... ... Do. On cooling, the fused mass : crystallizes, contracts, and finally expands, swells up, = and falls to powder eS ‘Pale green ...| Do. ........ Do. Eads ertunetareeceeattmscts sace .-.| Herschel, Berz. Arsbe- rattelse, 1832, p. 142. 190 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. To this list glass has some claim to be added. Its physical properties when annealed, and when suddenly cooled, are known to be very different, and in the second of these states it is said by Guérard* to be possessed of double refraction. As itis doubt- ful, however, how far any specimens of glass used in the arts may be considered as definite chemical compounds, we cannot as yet draw any certain conclusions from their properties in different circumstances. Common charcoal and graphite are also sup- posed by some chemists to be modifications of carbon sufficiently distinct to awaken the suspicion that this substance may assume even a third crystalline form. 34. The appearances presented by the bichromate of potash when cooling from fusion, and by the double sulphate of potash and copper, are very interesting. In both cases the change com- mences, as in the yellow crystals of biniodide of mercury, at one edge of the mass, and gradually spreads over the whole. As in the biniodide, the changed is in all probability ahetoromorphous state, and the same will, I think, prove true of all the substances contained in the present table. They are necessarily placed apart in the present state of our knowledge till their forms in the changed condition shall have been determined. The chance, so to speak, of their proving dimorphous is much strengthened by the analogy in constitution between the bisul- phate of potash, which is known to assume two unlike forms, and thedouble sulphate in the table. The formula of the one KS + HS is the exact counterpart of that of the other KS + CuS, the copper in the latter replacing the hydrogen in the former. Led by this analogy, I have sought for the same phenomena in other compounds of the same class. Sulphate of potash fuses rea- dily at a bright red heat with the anhydrous sulphates of zine and of nickel, but on cooling the same change does not present it- self, at least under the same circumstances. Under conditions slightly varied we may expect all the compounds represented by the general formula RR+RR to occur in two states. physic- ally different. * Pog. Annal., xxxviii. p. 233. + The probability of the change in question being connected with dimorphism is strengthened by a recent observation of Mr. Talbot, (Lond. and Edin. Phil. Mag., Feb. 1838, p. 149) that a thin film of nitre, on solidifying from fusion, undergoes, when the temperature falls to a certain point, a change quite analo- gous to that exhibited by the bichromate and double sulphate in the table, and, as in those substances, diffusing itself from a point over the whole mass. In nitre the appearance is no doubt connected with the two forms it is known to assume. } ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 191 35. Differences of a less permanent and definite kind are ex- hibited by various substances, as by some of the metallic oxides at different temperatures, which obscurely point to a second state analogous to that we are now considering as belonging to them also. Thus the protoxide of lead PbO when cold is of a pale yellow, when hot of a bright red; the scales of litharge often retain this hue at common temperatures. It would be premature at once to explain this and similar ap- pearances by a supposed dimorphism ; they are deserving how- ever of a close attention, and though obscure at present, the study of them may lead us to new results. 36. Many compound, especially saline, substances, when ex- posed to the air or slightly heated, undergo a change analogous to that we are now considering, due, however, not to a mere change in the arrangement of the molecules, but to an alteration also in the chemical constitution. When a crystal of sulphate of zinc with seven atoms of water is heated under alcohol it as- sumes a new form, but it loses at the same time an atom of water ; the same is said also to be the case with sulphate of magnesia. The blue acetate of copper with six atoms of water if heated to 90° or 100° F. changes without apparent change of form into the green acetate with one atom of water. On ex- amination, however, the apparently unchanged crystal is found to consist of a congeries of minute crystal of an entirely differ- ent form*. The mellate of ammonia, according to Wohler, un- dergoes an equally striking change by simple exposure to the air. One of the most curious facts of this description is that observed by Herman in regard to the chloride of lithium. When this salt is allowed to deliquesce in the open air large four-sided prisms are formed. If one of these prisms be taken up in the fingers, and then laid on blotting paper, it becomes opaque at the point of contact, and the opacity gradually spreads over the | whole crystal. If now moved it falls into a powder, which again deliquesces in the air and crystallizes}. Changes of this kind connected with loss of water are no doubt very numerous. 37. An appearance observed by Biot, in reference to grape- sugar, appears worthy of a place in the present section. He States}, that the juice of the grape, before it has been crystal- lized, causes the plane of polarization of a polarized ray passed through it to deviate towards the left, while after crystallization its solution causes the same ray to deviate towards the right. _| By crystallization the chemical constitution is unaltered (?), * Wohler, Poggendorff, Annal., xxxvii. p. 166. + Pog. Annal., xv. p. 480. t Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs, i. p. 596. 192 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. and yet if the optical property is to be depended upon, the ar- rangement of the molecules in the natural juice must have dif- fered very materially from their arrangement in the artificial solution. Unfortunately we cannot depend on the purity of the natural juice, and therefore it would be premature to draw from this phenomenon any of those curious consequences in regard to the value of optical characters and the possibility of the dimorphous molecular arrangement of a solid body follow- ing it into its state of solution—which the absolute chemical purity of the sugar in the natural and artificial liquids would render justifiable. W. 38. Of crystallized bodies not known to assume more than one form, which yet exhibit unlike physical properties in dif- ferent portions of their mass.—There are certain mineral sub- stances, the crystalline form and chemical constitution of which are known and constant, which nevertheless in their action on light exhibit phenomena apparently inconsistent with the idea that the several parts have the form and composition of the whole. As these phenomena are closely related to those of dimorphism, and may possibly be identical with them, I shall here introduce a notice of the more remarkable cases in which they occur. The greater number of these observations have been made and published by Sir David Brewster. Apophyllite—In a paper published in the Edinburgh Phil. Trans., vol. ix. p. 317, Sir David has shown that the crystals of certain varieties of apophyllite consist of different portions acting differently on light: ‘* An individual crystal, with one axis, being symmetrically united with several individual crystals with two axes, so as to constitute a regular crystal.” Ina single fragment of a crystal of this substance Sir John Herschel also found three portions, each possessing distinct and pecu- liar properties.—Whewell’s Report on Mineralogy, p. 353. In the amethyst he has described an analogous structure. Analcime.—This mineral occurs usually in icositetrahedrons, made up of twenty-four individual pentahedrons. These penta- hedrons exhibit “‘ a species of double refraction, previously found in no other mineral.” They possess “ planes of no double refraction, having a definite and invariable position, and a portion may be extracted from each separate pentahedron which has no axis at all.’’* Chabasie——Some specimens of this well-known mineral, when examined by polarized light, appear to consist of success- * Edinburgh Philosophical Transactions, 1824. ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES: 193 ive layers deposited around arhomboidal nucleus, possessed of positive double refraction. This refraction, however, is seen “to diminish in succeeding layers from a positive state till it disappears altogether ; beyond this neutral line it becomes ne- gative, and again gradually increases towards the boundaries of the crystal.’ * Diamond, topaz.—A similar observation has also been made by Sir David in regard to the diamond, which he found to con- sist occasionally of a succession of layers possessing different refractive powers and different densities ; and in the 2nd vol. of the Cambridge Transactions he has described the Brazilian topaz as consisting of “a central lozenge, surrounded with a border of a different kind, sometimes with additional varia- tions.” Traces of double refraction have also been observed by the same distinguished philosopher in many substances, the cry- stals of which, hitherto observed, belong only to the regular system, Among these are potash-alum, rock-salt, fluor-spar, and diamond. In connexion with the doctrine of dimorphism, these observations are all of value, not so much fro» the posi- tive information they give, as from their showing us what to look for. 39. The conclusion we are at first sight inclined to draw from phznomena such as those above described, is, that such mine- rals, though to the eye homogeneous, are in reality made up of parts unlike in chemical constitution as they are in optical pro- perties ; and to this conclusion Sir David Brewster appears in- clined to give his assent. Mr. Whewell, in his report on Mineralogy}, thus expresses himself: “There would be some- thing utterly perplexing in this complexity in the structure of Objects apparently so simple, if we were to conceive such a kind of composition as formed of independent portions adhering to- gether; but we ought probably rather to conceive these rela- tions of parts as the result of a peculiar state of the equilibrium of the elastic ether which exists within the body, and on which its optical properties depend.” _ This explanation appears to apply very happily to optical differences exhibited by the several parts of a crystal as a whole, which disappear when it is broken into fragments, as is the case in the dodecahedral crystals of the sulphate of potash § ; * London and Edinburgh Phil. Mag., Sept. 1836, p. 166. + Report of Meeting of the British Association at Liverpool. t Reports of British Association, vol.i. p. 340. § Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, vol. i. p. 6. oO VOL. VI. 1837. 194 SEVENTH REPORT—1837, but it does not seem to account for the fact that portions of the pentahedrons of analcime may be extracted which possess no double refraction, or for the properties of the several parts of the crystals of chabasie and diamond above referred to. The state of the elastic ether in these separate portions must de- pend on a difference either in the nature or mutual disposition of the ponderable molecules around which it exists; otherwise the optical properties could be of little value as indices either of chemical constitution or of crystalline form. In other words, if the optical properties observed in these minerals reside in the crystalline molecules, and not in the mass, the properties of the different parts must depend on a difference either in the chemical properties or in the mechanical arrangement of the ultimate molecules of which they are made up. I think it very likely that in some instances the former cause operates, in other cases, the latter. The introduction of an isomorphous substance of unlike chemical and optical relations may produce such differences as are observed in chabasie* ; a different arrangement of the, molecules, without change of com- position ; a dimorphism—in fact—may produce the singular dif- ferences of the several portions of analcime. The double re- fraction observed occasionally in alum and other regular cry- stals, points, as it appears to me, to an advanced period of our knowledge, when these and many other substances crystallizing similarly will be proved to be dimorphous. VI. 40. Of epigene and pseudomorphous crystals.—In a former section I have adverted to the subject of pseudomorphous cry- stals, and to the possibility that some of the forms considered to be such may hereafter prove to be cases of dimorphismt. In connexion with the present subject, therefore, as well as in itself not void of interest, I shall here insert a list of the best known and most common cases of epigene, or changed crystals, and pseudomorphous crystals, or casts, which either occur in nature or can be formed artificially. * This principle I have illustrated in a short paper in the Lond. and Edinb. Phil. Mag. for Sept., 1836. , + This opinion, in so far as regards the last substance (Serpentine) in the above list, has been recently supported by Dr. Tamnau, of Berlin, (Pog. Ann., xlii. p. 462,) who assigns several weighty reasons for considering the supposed — false forms of this substance from Snarum, in Norway, to be the true form of the mineral itself. ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 195 List of Pseudomorphous Mineral Substances. Name, Form. Replacing. Localities and Authorities. RUUANEP, /adtckeccscaccke ubes and octohedrons| Fluor Spar ......+0ss.0e. Cornwall, Devonshire, Rochette, Erzgebirge. ssreeseeeees] Rhombs. and prisms «..| Calc Spar ...ssssee.e+---| Fontainbleau, Haytor. (Haytorite)............ Ob. ? rh. prism ...... «. Sphene, Datholite?...... Haytor, Devonshire. eee Cubo octohedrons ......| Galena ............+++++.| Rochette, (Dumont). Veeeesceeece Rt. rh. prisms ......... Sulphate of Baryta...... Do. , do. a basteccesies Ob. rh. prisms ......... Gypsum(lenticular) ...| Mont Martre. Oxide of Tin ......... PYISMS eees.e. Felspar and Quartz......| Cornwall. Oxide of Antimony | Rt. rh. prism ........ .--.| Sulphuret (Sb2 $3)......| Saxony, (Kobell). Peroxide of Iron Octohedrons .....,......|Magnetic Iron (Fe+Fe)| Do. do. (Martite) ana Hydrateddo.(Fe+H)| Cubes and do. .........| Iron Pyrites (Fe S,) ...| Do. do. Cin ies Rt. rh. prisms....e....00s Carbonate .....scccscsees Styria, Carinthia. Pyrolusite Mn ......| Rt. rh. prism sssseseeeeee Manganite (Mn+-H)...| Saxony. WPREBRUTO 22. cc senssnc ac, DO cca esa, tir shah 2 Carbonate of Lead...... Carbonate of Lead...| Do. scccccsccssccceceseee Sulphate of Lead ...... Galena (Blue Lead) Hexagonal prism ...... Chloro Phosphate ...... Cornwall, Brittany. Mixture of Carbonate] Reg. octohedrons ...... Galena ...... aesieeb eevee! Do. and Phosphate Copper Pyrites ...... IPYISTIS. Uidevessenencessvss Lenticular Carbonate | Cornwall. yh and Specular Iron Malachite, green Car-| Ob. rh. prism............| Blue Carbonate Chessy. bonate (Cu°C+H) 2CuC-+H) Malachite ............, Reg. octohed. and rh. Red Oxide of Copper...) Do. dodecahedrons Blue Carbonate...) Do. 3 aees Do. «| Do. BIN eles Sa svcneels & _ extracted from their Jummabundy settlements for that year. Customs.—The customs vary considerably in the different collectorates; those of Poona, being above 12 per cent. of its whole reyenue, may be looked upon as high, but their mag- nitude manifests a favourable commercial industry. Contrary _ to expectation, Dharwar, which has indications of internal _ comparative prosperity, has the lowest revenue from customs, with a greater population, a greater revenue, and falling lighter upon the people than in any of the other collectorates, and with more than ten times the number of manufacturers * to be found in Poona and Khandesh, nevertheless shows a commercial return 52 per cent. less than that of Poona, and even 254 per cent. below the exhausted province of Khandesh. It seems anomalous that the proportional per--centage of the customs on the whole revenue in Ahmednuggur and Khandesh should be * Thirteen thousand and forty-five weavers. 300 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. identical, the population of the former being 23°75 per cent. greater than that of the latter, while a parity seems to exist in the wants and export resources of the people of both. Expenses.—I have put into juxtaposition some of the items of expense in the collectorates, and their rate per cent. on the gross revenue; but the want of a systematic classification of charges under common heads throughout the collectorates, renders a rigid comparison, item for item, unattainable. The information is extracted from the Jummabundy returns of the collectors for 1827—28. A government form for this paper for common adoption would render the multitudinous details involved in it more available for comparison by inspection than in the present forms. The total expenses of two of the collect- orates only is given in the following tables. Few comments are necessary, as the charges and the rate per cent. they bear upon the gross revenue of each collectorate are seen at a glance. TABULAR VIEW OF THE EXPENSES. Expenses 1827—28. Denomination of expenses. Poona Nuggur Dharwar Khandesh Collectorate. Collectorate. Collectorate. Collectorate. Yup. oy qr. Sts: rup. qr. rs. rup. qr. rs. rup. qr. rs. RoxshWemniensan : 136,659 ... 12 | 149,761 2 26 | .. «. «. | 388,016 ... ... peaven Seele tease tans woe wee eee | 246,174 3 80) 157,202 2 ... socesseeceseces| OIsIIf GD SO | cae eee eee | cee cee eee | BdyIIO wee sae 61,005 3 00 |115,876 125 |... we wn err Contingent charges, including presents ese eve ove | 101,055 3 22 | 190,768 3 39 Shet Sundee or native MINA Se eadaeecenbance 34,4385 2 43 Se Comhee BP eee oct a | | | Pensions, Eenams ... ORIN Eis 466,493 3 89 | 33,522 2 94 Collector’s salary ... aes] peasaaa sonal OG000 - Gd | LisgAal come European Judicial...) ... «2. we. | 53,946 2 58 Native Judicial ...... aia in tet nae 229,366 2 73 cee i, eee eas], COOUD ler aamem § Total ..occcccnesesavees 288,098 ... 98 | 875,754 1 26 Remissions ....... seeee] 416,320 3 ... [415,005 1 25 None. To H. H. Seendeh Ben bak ose. axe oe sees ice . ae | 90,796 3 33} ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 301 TABULAR VIEW OF THE PROPORTION PER CENT. OF EXPENSES. Proportion per cent. of the expenses on the whole revenue in the several Collectorates. Denominations of expenses, Poona Nuggur Dharwar Khandesh Collectorate. | Collectorate. | Collectorate. | Collectorate. , per cent. | per cent. | percent. | per cent. Village, land and Sahyer expenses 6:86 7:36 wind 19-52 a | J | Native establishment for collections AAS asa 10°17 7:92 Mokassa 281 Ja a 2-28 EDU GATS: «.anvsssevcgucccesesogesscesces 3:06 5°70 Contingent charges ...... sss wel 4-96 7:87 17-08 ——$——— | q|]\ qc“ |_uem i .._ Shet Sundee, militia .............6. 1-73 Pensions, Eenams ....... sata baad ans sae 8-18 1:39 2-29 2-93 4-69 4-67 Ngai uses (|| 888 tan 11:27 bis 4-52 1446 | 4303 | 2412 | 5943 2089 | 20-40 | None | None. 35:35 | 63-43 2412 | 5913 — For the proper understanding, however, of some omissions in the above abstracts, short notices are called for. Under the items of “ village, land and Sahyer expenses,” _ *Shet Sundee,” “‘ Mokassa,”’ and “* Hukdars,”’ there are blanks inthe Dharwar collectorate, the whole land expenses amount- ing to 24°12 per cent.; it is to be presumed the charges under _ these heads have merged in the “ Native establishment for _collections.’”” Under Khandesh there is a blank for the Huk- _dars; the expense of these persons is no doubt included in _“yillage, land, and Sahyer expenses.”” Under Nuggur there are blanks under “ Mokassa” and “ Shet Sundee;” they must be included in the ‘‘ Land and village expenses.” Of the omissions in the Poona abstract it is unnecessary to speak, as they are _ intentional. : ' The charges, revenue, magisterial, and judicial, upon the re- venue of Ahmednuggur in 1827—28, amounted to 43°03 per 302 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. cent., and remissions were granted in that year to the amount of 20°40 per cent.; the total deduction from the revenue was 63°43 per cent. In Khandesh, without any remissions, the charges were nearly six-tenths of the whole revenue. In Poona I have only shown the charges which are strictly and permanently fixed upon the land in all the collectorates, which are not mutable, and therefore scarcely susceptible in justice of modification ; these amount to 14°46 per cent: they com- prise village expenses, militia, Mokassa, and Hukdars. In Dharwar, the collector’s establishment has been added to the above, and it brings the charges strictly bearing on the land to 24°12 per cent. on the revenue. A review of the above tables and abstracts suggests the fol- lowing observations. The collectorate of Dharwar, having the smallest area? (with the exception of Poona) of the collect- orates of Dukhun, has the greatest population, and produces the greatest revenue, which bears lightest by average upon the inhabitants individually.» Judging from the lowness of the customs, it has the weakest indications of commercial industry ; nevertheless, the manufacturers, particularly the weavers, ex- ceed those of the other collectorates in the ratio of 100 to 11, or 89 per cent. The shopkeepers and tradespeople are very numerous, and their individual taxes® rise to the average of those of Poona and Khandesh. Finally, the means of the people (remissions not being called for) must be more efficient than in the other collectorates, and a proportional ratio of imports and exports might have been looked for. Khandesh has the largest superficial extent,’ a population © 29 per cent. less than that of Poona, or granting an increase to its population 15°32 per cent. less, with a revenue never- theless equal to that of Poona, bearing in consequence with unusual pressure upon the people, its average being 5 rupees, 1 qr. 40 reas to each soul; involving the fact that the assess- ments in this collectorate are greater than in any of the others. Admitting, however, the estimated increase to the population previously noticed, (which certainly exceeds the truth,) the average individual payment will still exceed that in the other collectorates. It is possible this apparent pressure may be * 9122 square miles, including the cultivated area of the Talooks Cheekoree and Manowlee. b 838,757, including the estimated population of the Talooks of Cheekoree and Manowlee, 3 rupees, 1 qr. 6 reas per head. ¢ 10 rupees, 2 qr. 2 reas. d 12,527 square miles. © 371,404, but supposed this year to be 443,548 in government villages, f 4 rupees, 1 qr., 92 reas. ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 308 referred to the extent of its garden cultivation, which is much greater than that of Dharwar, and, as far as I can judge from observation, that of Poona and Ahmednuggur also. In Khan- desh in 1826, there were 82,697 beegahs* of garden-land, being 9°36 per cent. of the whole cultivated land, the garden- land in Dharwar not amounting to one-half per cent. In the Nuggur and Poona collectorates, in the towns of Kurmalleh, Kurjut, Angur, and Rawgaon, the proportion of garden to field-land in cultivation was 545 per cent. only. But, under all circumstances, the villages of Khandesh average” the least revenue in Dukhun ;. it stands third in the number of its cul-: tivators,° but second in the amount of the rent of its farms.9 The magnitude of this rent, it is inferred, originates in the comparative high rate of assessment per beegah, and not in the greater size of the farms. I have not the number of beegahs of land in cultivation in 1827-28 in Khandesh, but justify my inference from the following data :—In 1826 there were 37,311 cultivators, and 883,548 beegahs under cultivation, averaging 23°68 beegahs to each farm.® Last year, there were 44,608 cultivators, and supposing them to hold individually the ave- rage number of beegahs of 1826, the result will be as cult. beegahs. cult. beegahs. 37,311 : 88,348 : : 44,608 : 1,056,345 ; and as the land revenue of 1827-28 was 1,664,904 rupees, the rate per beegah is therefore 1 rupee, 2 qr. 30 reas, which exceeds® that of the other collectorates from 50 to 100 per cent. __. Inthe Sahyer branch of revenue the increased pressure is still _ visible upon the people; it exceeds the mean pressure of Dhar- _ war and Poona 10°35 decl. per cent., and that of Ahmednuggur _ in the extraordinary ratio of 63°91 per cent. The customs’ per centage on the whole revenue is identical with that of Ahmednuggur, although, in the present state of Khandesh, it could not have been looked for. _ Ahmednuggur stands second in superficial extent.2 The _ land revenue is only inferior in amount to that of Dharwar, _ although it has the least number of cultivators: in all the col- _ lectorates. The average rent of farms therefore is the greatest ; b r bs % _*, 62,023 acres. b 839 rupees, 3 qr., 7 reas. c 44,608. 4 37 rupees, 1 qr., 33 reas. _ © Beegahs 883,448, __ 23°68 f Rupees 1,664,904 mu. ar. rs. Cultivators 37,311. _ : Beegahs 1,056,345 1 2 30 per beegah, 8 Poona and Nuggur 3 qr. 58 reas per beegah, including garden-land. The whole of Dharwar 2 qr. 94 reas per beegah, including garden-land. h 9910 square miles. i 41,948 cultivators, 3804 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. and from averages struck in different villages in various parts of the Desh in this collectorate, I would refer it to the increased size of the farms rather than to enhanced assess- ments. In a table, which will be met with in treating of the condi- tion of the people, farms are made to average about 45 beegahs each; and the assessments, including extras, do not amount to a rupee per beegah.? In the hilly tracts the farms are neces- sarily much reduced in size, and an average for the whole col- lectorate would bring them down probably to 35 beegahs each ; 41,948 cultivators therefore would occupy 1,468,180 beegahs of land, which, divided into the land revenue, (1,815,837 ru- pees,)? give 1 rupee, 95 reas per beegah. I am rather disposed to rely upon the general average, than upon the average struck from the examination of the papers of a few towns in the most favourable parts of the country. The very low amount of the Sahyer, which is only 2°90 per cent, of the whole revenue, has been already adverted to. The taxable persons,° nevertheless, under this head, exceed - those of Khandesh. The customs bear a fair proportion to the whole revenue. The average revenue? per village may be subject to a slight modification, as in the number of British villages, amounting to 18784, furnished to me by the acting collector, which paid revenue last year, deserted villages are not distinguished, part of whose lands are under cultivation ; and the want of popula- tion returns disables me from ascertaining them. The revenue, viewed as a poll tax,° bears easier than in any other collectorate, excepting Dharwar. The means to insure an approximate accuracy in this calculation have been ey. explained. Poona has the smallest land revenue, and the smallest super- ficial extent.£ Previously to the addition of the four Talooks of Sholapoor, Mohol, Moodeebeehall, and Indee, agreeably to information furnished by the Survey Department, it com- prised an area of 4990 square miles only. Neither the extent nor population of these Talooks being known, it was necessary to estimate them; the process was conducted by analogy, which has been explained elsewhere; 2888 square miles b Rupees 1,815,837 — ™P. ar rs. Beraahs 1,468,180 — aaah 95 per beevah. ¢ 14,267. d 1082 rupees, 2 qr. 99 reas. € Revenue as a poll tax, 3 rupees, 3 qr. 77 reas. Area 7878 square miles. 2 2s, 8d. per acre. ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 305 resulted from the calculations, giving the Poona collectorate an area of 7878 square miles. Poona has the greatest number of _ cultivators? excepting Dharwar ; and this is to be attributed, not to the extended cultivation, but to the Mawul, or hilly tracts, occupying a great deal of the collectorate, where the farmers are _ multiplied and the individual agricultural operations of very li- _ mited extent. In the whole Turruff of Mhurkhoreh the farms average only 13 beegahs each; but in the eastern and south- eastern parts of the collectorate they have the same average as is given to Ahmednuggur. From the above facts the farms might be expected to average a very low rent, as is found to be the case. The following estimate justifies the inference that the land assessments are comparatively not very onerous. In the Desh, or Table Land, the farms average. . 45 beegahs. Tn the Mawuls, or hilly tracts. .......... 13 do. 2)58 Mean average of farms... . 29 beegahs. In 1827-28 there were 52,668 cultivators, which multiplied by 29, the average number of beegahs to each farmer, will give 1,527,372 beegahs of land under cultivation; and as the land revenue of 1827-28 amounted to 1,516,323 rupees, 37 reas; the assessments would only be at the rate of 3 qr. 97 reas per beegah,° including garden land and extras. There are still however some marked features which are not satisfactory: the _ villages average a greater revenue (excluding the city of Poona) _ than in the other collectorates, although the average village po- _ pulation is less for that part of the Poona collectorate, whence _ population returns have been received. _ The 574 villages of the sub-collectorate of Sholapoor average _ 1272 rupees, 1 qr. 12 reas each,‘ including customs. The magni- _ tude of the average of the remaining villages may be attributed to _ the great amount of the customs ;° but deducting a suitable pro- _ portion of the customs! for the inhabitants of the city of Poona, and the whole of the revenue of the city, Sahyer,» land,i and _Abkauree,* and mint!; villages (always excluding the four - talooks of Sholapoor) still average 1241 rupees, 1 qr. 76 reas © Rupees 1,516,323 * 52,668, » 94 acres. eet 1,527,872 4 Revenue of sub-collectorate of Sholapoor 730,289 rupees, 1 qr. 93 reas. =3 qr. 97 reas per beegah. _ © 215,361 rupees, 2 qr. 37% reas. f 61,756 rupees, 1 qr. 63 reas. ® 81,515 inhabitants, 4 56,202 rupees, 3 qr. 50 reas. + 27,981 rupees, 814 reas. k 12,000 rupees. 1 3301 rupees. | vou. vi. 1837, . x 306 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. each, which is higher than in any other collectorate ; and as the villages in this part of the collectorate average a fraction more than 226 inhabitants,? the taxes, assessments, and customs, after deducting the share for Poona, 151,241 rupees, fall upon the people with the unexampled pressure of nearly 53 rupees per head,¢ while the people in the city’ average only L rupee, 3 qr. 44 reas per head, including a proportional share of the customs, and the city, Sahyer, and land-tax, &c. For the whole collectorate of Poona, including the four talooks of Sholapoor, by a process previously explained, the assessments average 4 rupees, 1 qr. 78 reas per head, which closely approxi- mates to that of Khandesh. Poona has the greatest number of taxable persons® after Dharwar in the Sahyer branch of the revenue, and ranks second in the total amount of the sum raised, which falls with a less pressure individually than in Dharwar and Khandesh, but sreater than in Ahmednuggur. The manufacturers, as contri- butors to the Sahyer, are very limited in number. The proportion that the customs bear to the whole revenue is a very striking feature: they are derived principally from imports, a good part of which passes on to the eastward; much is consumed in the city of Poona, and the rest is dispersed into the districts. I have observed that imports from the coast have gradually cheapened in their retail price within the last three or four years, owing, no doubt, to the combined causes of increased importation and scarcity of money in Dukhun. The collectorate of Dharwar, whether viewed with respect to the quantity of land under cultivation; the size of its farms;' the amounts of its revenue; the lightness with which it falls upon the people, considered asa poll-tax;% the magnitude of its Sahyer; the comparative denseness of its population; its nu- merous towns? and tolerably well-peopled villages ; the facility offered for instruction in the number of its schools, and the mani- festations of manufacturing industry in its numerous weavers,' is unquestionably the finest British province in Dukhun. Dharwar Land Revenue.—The land revenue, in its pro- portion to the whole revenue, stands third in the Dukhun col- lectorates, being 80°336 per cent. ; but this apparently inferior station is to be attributed, not to the diminished quantity of 4 §94 villages with inhabitants, 202,252. b 1,110,470 rupees. © 5 rupees, 1 qr. 96 reas. 4 Inhabitants of Poona 81,315. Taxes and proportionate share of customs &e. 151,241 rupees. e 23,042, f 32-74 acres, or 43:65 beegahs. 8 3 rupees, 1 qr. 60 reas. h 119, i 13,345. ON 'THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 307 land under cultivation, which far exceeds that in the other collectorate, (i. e. 61°11 decls. per cent. of the whole lands, leaving only 38°89 decls. per cent. of waste,) but to the lowness of its land assessments, amounting only to 2 qr. 94 reas per beegah, including all extras falling on the land. The process by which this average assessment was struck is as follows. In 1827, agreeably to the population returns, the land in occupa- tion of a cultivator averaged 32°74 decls. acres, or 43°65 decls. beegahs ; in 1828, in the Jummabundy settlement, there were 60,701 cultivators, which, multiplied by 43°65 decls. gives 2,649,598. 65 decls. beegahs of land under cultivation. These divided into the land revenue, 1,945,323 rupees, 2 qr. 8 reas, give 294 reas per beegah, a low rate, which neither the exami- nation of village accounts, nor a similar process, will give in Poona, Ahmednuggur, nor Khandesh.” This light assess- ment, equal only to 1s.113d. per acre, is certainly advantageous _ in insuring the realization of the revenue; but when put into comparison with the rent of land in England, shows the unpro- ductive and limited character of Indian agricultural resources. The Sahyer branch of the revenue is highly favourable, amounting to nearly 14 per cent. of the whole, and, though so productive, falls as a tax lighter on individuals than in Khan- desh. The customs, being 2 per cent. lower than in Khandesh and Ahmednuggur, is at variance with the tolerably efficient character of the general resources of the Dharwar. From the examination of village papers I find that remissions were very rare under native governments, and the facility with which they are granted under the British government, and their magnitude, testify strongly to its paternal character. Great caution, however, is requisite in granting them, not less on ac- _ count of the government than on account of the cultivator him- self. If obtained with facility, and without rigid and sharp _ examinations, and some personal inconvenience to the applicant, _ (from the habitual indolence of the native character,) his ordinary _ industry, which always requires stimulating, would be paralyzed, _ applications multiplied, labour diminished, and the farmer would _ trust to the forbearance of government rather than to his own exertions. There is another reason for caution in the strong _ motives that the native agents have for urging remissions, with a view to intercept them in the transit of accounts through _ their hands. _ The collector cannot possibly personally ascertain the truth of . ee Pe ee Ce) is _# 2,808,064 acres in 1827. | __» Ahmednuggur 1 rupee, 95.reas; Nuggur and Poona, partial average, 3 qr. | 58reas; Khandesh 1 rupee, 2 qr. 80 reas per beegah, 4 x 2 308 SEVENTH REPORT—1837, one-hundredth part of the claims set up; he must leave this la- bour to his servants, and it can scarcely be believed they will not avail themselves of the opportunity to turn the discretion given to them to private profit; in fact, I know such to be the case. In an examination of the papers of the villages of Muhrkoreh, Poona collectorate, I found that many of the cultivators had paid instalments of their assessments (for 1827-28) previously to re- missions being granted, which exceeded the amount they were required to pay after the deduction of the remissions ; the poverty of some of the cultivators, consequently, must have been misrepresented. I ascertained also that part of the remissions of 1827-28 had been intercepted. Remissions are unavoidable in all calamitous visitations of Providence, which are not of confined or local operation, and which affect the re- turns of the earth ; but to insure the benefit of the remissions to the cultivator, they should be made in a definite per centage on his total assessment, and the amount should be proclaimed more than once, and by different persons, in the public place of every village. A few words in conclusion will suffice with respect to the great branches of the revenue. It is seen that 82°30 deels. per cent. of the whole is derived from the land: already the supply of agricultural produce exceeds the demand, and the farmer has a difficulty in finding a mart. In the present state of agriculture therefore, this branch of revenue is at its maximum, and will probably decline until supply and demand be adjusted. The prospects of improvement in the Sahyer branch are not more favourable than in the land revenue. The trades pay to the full extent of their means at present, and manufactures cannot increase when the European import- ers of cottons can afford to undersell the native manufacturers. Indeed I believe little more than coarse Sarhees* for women, and common tent cloth, are now manufactured in the British provinces in Dukhun. The improvements in customs should usually depend upon in- creased wealth and commercial industryin the people. Theextent of imports will only be commensurate with the means of pur- chase. If therefore the opinions I have advanced on the land revenue and Sahyer be well founded, with respect to the limited means of persons paying taxes under those heads, the customs will be influenced by causes affecting them. Any general improvement in the revenue would séem to require the creation of exportable articles in agriculture, horticulture, or manufactures; and to effect this desirable *. ® Dresses, 7 ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 309 object, the introduction of persons with capital, enterprize, ingenuity, commercial tact and industry, is necessary ; essen- tials, of which the country is at present destitute. The manner in which the revenue yielded by a village is partitioned, is well exemplified in Neembawee, Pergunnah, Kurdeh, Ahmednuggur collectorate. The village is in Jagheer to Bala Sahib Rastea, one of the great Jagheerdars. The shares in the village are called amuls*, and there are six of them; Rastia has three, Suchew? Punt one, and the Honour- able Company two. The whole shares are considered as an integer of 123 parts. Sun, 1236.—A.D. 1826. Rastia has the Jagheer®............. iS. ja oO Sur Deshmookee and Nuzzurt,. ............ 93 neue ormemaniiters) 5. jdt, Seg bl Pa 74 80 Suchew Punt has the Sahotra............. 23 23 The Honourable Company has the Mokassa . .. . . 15 and the Neem Chowthace, or half of the tribute BME GUILDER ciel a/b (atc ols oleae deere teens —— 20 Total 133 In addition, the fixed money rights on the village are— Rupees. Sur Pateel Dabaree of Tellegaon. ............ 5 Kundeh Kurdehkur Deshmook .............. 101 Amrut Row Joonurkur Deshpandeh ........... 101 Besides the Pateel and Koolkurnee, Chowgulla, Bullooteh, who have their fees. : It would seem very desirable to abolish the above absurd _ verbal distinctions, and to fix the rights of individuals as simple money dues, without reference to J agheer, Nuzzur, Kussur, &c. __ The revenue of Dukhun, contrasted as capitation tax, with that of England, France, and America, would appear to be as follows. In England, the gross revenue of 1828 was £50,700,000 ; poor-rates, parish rates, lighting, watching, * Amul, “rule,” “ sway.” » Suchew, “friend,” “minister ;” one of the eight ministers of the Rajah of Sattara, ' ¢ A fief, 4 Nazar, “ sight,” “look,” a present made on introduction to a person. © Kasr, “a fraction.” 310 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. | £12,000,000; contributions of congregations to their clergy, colleges, schools, &c. about £17,300,000 : total £80,000,000 4. The population being 20,000,000, the tax per head is £4, In France, the taxation, including provision for the clergy, schools, &c. is £40,000,000; the population 30,000,000; equal therefore to £1. 6s. per head. In America the population is between 10,000,000 and 11,000,000, and the taxation £5,000,000, or not quite 10s. per head. The revenue of Dukhun, viewed as a capitation tax, is 8s. per head. Assessments. Assessments and land measurements are so intimately con- nected, that it would not answer any good purpose to treat of them. in separate sections. With respect to the portions of land variously denominated for the purpose of assessment, I am clearly of opinion that the prevailing denominations amongst the Hindoos were not descriptive of superficial extent, and that the assessments were founded on the productive power of the land without reference to its quantity, and were uniform only for similar denominations of land in a village. The Moosulmans, no doubt, endeavoured to be more system- atic; they measured garden lands, and probably in some few vil- lages, the field lands, under the denominations of Kundhee, Mun, Tukeh, Piceh, Seer, &c. with a view to the general conversion of such terms into the uniform and appreciable term of Beegah; but the Hindoo terms not applying to quantity, the beegahs of different villages could only be equal when there existed an accidental identity in productive power in the unmeasured Mun or Kundhee, &c, of land in one village with the measured Mun, Kundhee, &c. intended as common types. This will © account for the varying extent of the beegah in field cultivation in Dukhun. How little successful the Moosulmans were in their attempt to supersede the old terms, is proved in the limited extent to which the assessments by beegahs obtained when we took possession of the country. It may be well doubted whe- ther we shall be more successful in our introduction of acres : the ramifications of ancient usages amongst a people are in general too deeply fixed to be eradicated by legislative enact- ments. A plant may be cut off by the surface, but there is always a latent disposition to reproduction from the untouched roots. Whatever may be our success, a revenue survey was imperatively called for under the indefinite Hindoo land deno- minations, to enable a collector to regulate his assessments with a shadow of equity. * Speech of Colonel Davies in the House of Commons, May 8, 1829. ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. ~ 311 _ With respect to the denominations under which land is as- sessed in the comparatively limited space of my inquiries, their variety and absurdity demonstrate a wanton bizarreness that could scarcely have been looked for in a people reputedly sim- ple and uniform in their opinions and economy, ‘The assess- ment on a beegah is definite as it depended on positive mea-~ surement, and I have remarked that it obtains at, and in the neighbourhood of the established seats of Moosulman author- ity, as at Ahmednuggur, Purunda, Sholapoor, Mohol, Bar- lonee, Wamoree, Tiacklee, &c. The Chahoor and Rookeh, as at Alkootee, Kheir, Wangee, Taimbournee, Kurkumb, Angur, Mahreh, Kurmalleh, Kurjut and Meerujgaon, being multiples of the beegah, are intelligible. ven the Doree or rope, used at Hungawarreh and Neembee, as it implies measurement and superficial extent, is admissible. The old Hindoo terms, Kundhee and Mun, at Ranjungaon, Jamgaon, Parnair, &c. &c. as they are founded on positive properties, furnish sufficiently precise ideas. But the Tukeh, with its constituents. of Suj- gunnees and Piceh, (copper coin,) at Dytna and Ankolner, the Seer of weight and its Nowtanks or 3 Seer, as at Koorul and Wangee, and the Pyhnee and its Annas® at Serrolee, Bruhmun- warreh and Muhr, are not reducible by any operation of the mind to an appreciable portion of land, whose produce shall admit of the government share on it being equitably assessed. The assessment by the hatchet, rude as it is, still involves the idea of as much copse-wood land as one hatchet can clear, and one man can sow and reap in the year. To add to the confusion, similar denominations of land are not made up of common and uniform constituents. The Tukkeh at Kothoul is raised from the Rookeh, each of which is supposed to contain 10 beegahs, or 73 acres. At Ankolner the Tukkeh is composed of Suj- - gunnees, Piceh and Rookeh ; the Rookeh being equal only to 23 _ beegahs, or 1$ acres. At Lakungaon there are 10 Tukkeh to one Pyhnee, and as the Pyhnee is said to contain 30 beegahs, _ the Tukkeh here contains only 3 beegahs instead of 480, as at _ Tellegaon; or 240, as at Ashtee. In respect to the Mun at Ranjungaon, it is rated at 10 beegahs ; at Jamgaon, belonging to Seendeh, it is not reducible . - into beegahs at all; at Parnair 64 beegahs only are equal to the Mun. The Pyhnee at Seerolee has the Chahoor of 120 _ beegahs as a typical standard, 4 Pyhnees being equal to one _ Chahoor, or 120 beegahs ; at Muhr the Pyhnee of 30 beegahs is considered as identical with the Kundhee of 20 Muns, reducing _ the Mun therefore to 13 beegahs. ® One-sixteenth of a rupee. 312 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Under such complex definitions and involved contradictions, my limits will not permit me to give further explanations, but which my lengthened tables afford. The principal assessment necessarily falls on the land, and it is raised on the various land denominations above noticed ; the land in the first instance being separated into the two great classes of Bhaghaeet, or garden-land; and Zerhaeet, or field- land. Both these terms are evidently of Moosulman intro- duction, Bhaghaeet being a word of Persian origin, meaning “wardens,” ‘orchards ;” and Zerhaeet, of Arabic derivation, meaning a “ sown field,”’ “ sown land.”’ There are marked traces of the Jand assessment having once been systematic in the Sostee or permanent rate, which was uniform and unchangeable for all lands of the same denomi- nation. This rate is found in most villages, it is distinctly stated in the accounts, and separated from subsequent and in- creased assessments, and its existence is a proof that assess- ments formerly were not on the superficial extent, but on the productive power of the soil; since, as lands were not all equally fertile, more of the unfertile land must have been held than of the fertile, to enable the cultivator to pay a fixed sum in quantity of grain for a piece of land under a common denomi- nation. The Sostee Dur, or permanent assessment, was the pride of the Meerasdar, but unhappily not his safeguard. The various governments which have passed away do not appear ever to have raised the permanent rate, but they rendered the advantages derivable under it abortive from gradually adding extra cesses ; their excuses in the first instance being unlooked-for contingencies. The cesses were originally mostly in kind, and temporary ; but the exigencies of government, or the facility with which they were raised, made them perennial, and their pressure upon the cultivator has been enhanced, par- ticularly under our government, by the cesses in kind being commuted into money payments. ‘The Moosulmans, on intro- ducing measurements, must necessarily have subverted the Sostee, or uniform rate, since the same rate could not have been equitable for beegahs of land of different qualities. We find, in consequence, that when the lands are classed in bee- gahs otherwise than as constituents of Hindoo land denomi- nations, that there the assessments are on the quality of the soil, and vary accordingly. Gardens being dependent on the local advantages of a suit- able supply of water and some depth of soil, usually met with in hollows or on the banks of rivers, it might be expected that considerable uniformity would prevail in the quality of garden- ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 313 Zl land, and that it would rarely be divided into classes ; such is usu- __ ally found to be the case. Most commonly all garden-land apper- _ taining to a village pays the same rate per beegah ; and where _ classification exists, it is founded, not on the quality of the _ land, but on the extent of the supply of water. ; The first great feature, in this respect, is whether the garden 4 is watered from small streams conducted from rivulets or rivers, or whether it is watered from wells; in the former case it is called Paatsthul,? and in the latter Mohtsthul.» Most Pahts failing in the dry months of March, April, and May, the former land is usually assessed at a lower rate than the latter, as at Tellegaon and Parnair; but where the Paht supply is perennial, as at Dytna, both descriptions of land pay the same _ rate. Dependent on these primary distinctions, are modifi- _ cations, affecting garden assessments: land with a perennial and sufficient supply of water, whether from pahts or wells, is called Wohol-Waho, or fully watered, and pays the highest rate; this rate, unless on rice land, and isolated spots, where fruits of considerable value are raised, such as grapes and golden plantains, &c., as at Joonur, within my observation, has never exceeded 6 rupees per beegah,° including sugar-cane land. The other classes of land are comprised in the Kord _ Waho or not fully watered. It is readily intelligible that a well _ may supply a sufficiency of water for great part of a garden _ within a reasonable distance of the well, but that the extremities _ may be inadequately watered, and this affords just grounds to de- mand a lighter tax for the extremities: two classes should result from such circumstances, i. e. fully watered and not fully watered, and such is generally the case where distinc- tions are made at all: but at Ahmednuggur there is an af- fectation of discrimination, which has determined that gar- _den-land receives its watering in the proportions of “ fully,”’ _“thirteen-twentieths,”’ “ three-fifths,” and “ one-half,” and such lands are respectively assessed at 5 rupees, 34 rupees, 3 _ rupees, and 23 rupees per beegah. The assessment on garden- land at present is unequal, and the whole requires revision. _ There is every motive to make garden-cultivation assessments light with a view to insure to each cultivator, if possible, his well and little plot of garden ground. Gardens produce all the year round; they are comparatively unaffected by the _ droughts which destroy field crops; and independently of the _ constantly saleable garden stuffs, fruits, and aromatic seeds, _ there is usually room for a beegah or more of bukshee or johr e ~® From Paat “a channel,” and Sthul “ a field.” > From Moht “a water-bucket,” and Sthul ‘a field.” © 16s, 8d. per acre. 314 SEVENTH REPORT—1837, wheats, which require watering, and a plot or two of sugar- cane. ‘To his garden the cultivator is indebted for many of the little enjoyments his situation is susceptible of. In some in- stances, in the Mahloongeh Turruff, Poona collectorate, I found cultivators paying their entire assessments, and reaping profit by their garden produce of chillies* alone, which were sent into the Konkun. Usually it has been deemed sufficient to arrange Zerhaeet or field-land into four elasses, as at Jehoor, namely, Awul (best), usually black land, Rehsee (modified black), Burrud (dashed with lime and some decomposing greenstone), and finally, Khurrud (stony, thin, and poor). The first, throughout the country, does net average more than 1 rupee the beegah, the second #, the third +2, and the last ,8, of a rupee per beegah ; but at other places there are other distinctions. In the Ma- wuls, or hilly tracts along the Ghauts, lands are classed as Bhat, Khatan, and Wurkus, the first being rice land, the second wheat and grain land, and the third being on the slopes of hills, producing the dry grains Sawa> and Wuree ;¢ there being a great deal of red soil also in these tracts, it is di- stinguished by the term Tambut or copper-coloured. The Awul, or best, where it occurs, is called Kalwut (black), and the rocky and stony Maal. These explanations are sufficient to show that where assess-. ments on the quality of the land have been introduced, uni- formity has not obtained in distinguishing the qualities; they show also that the people were satisfied to limit the qualities to four gradations; but at Ahmednuggur, the Shaikdar or in- spector of cultivation has had the microscopic ability of vision to mark twelve shades of difference in the field-land. The ac- counts are, in consequence, a mass of perplexity, and it is very probable the revenue is frittered away in distinctions which the cultivator never dreamt of, and never profits by. Field-landg, on which the cultivators sink wells, are not as- sessed as garden-lands. At Kanoor, Nuggur collectorate, I found lands so circumstanced had been free from any extra assessments from a period beyond the memory of man. The above notices are sufficient to show the anomalous cha- racter of the money assessments strictly on the land. Not only are they arbitrarily fixed on the productive power of the land, or on measurements, real or supposed ; but lands of the same deno- mination and quality are differently assessed in neighbouring villages without apparent cause. @ Capsicum annuum, and other species. > Panicum frumentaceum. © Panicum miliare. — ain aoe ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 315 The average of all the rates at many towns and villages in all parts of the country, derived from personal inspection of the village accounts, gives 3 rupees, 41 reas for a beegah of garden- land, or 8s, 33d. for an English statute acre. The average of \ field-land is 3 qr. 93% reas per beegah, or 2s. 73d. per Eng- lish acre. To determine an approximate average assessment per beegah in Khandesh, I may use elements, which although not just, may be expected to give results not very far from the truth; namely, the total number of beegahs of land under cultivation in the ep mation returns in 1826, and the land revenue in 1827-28: _ the former is 883,548 beegahs, and the revenue 1,664,904 ru- pees: the average rate per beegah is 1 rupee, 3 qr. 54 reas, a ~ much higher rate than exists in the other collectorates. These assessments comparatively with those of all Kuropean countries, of most Asiatic countries, and relatively to the va- luable nature of the garden produce, comprising, independently of the ordinary fruits and vegetables, grapes, oranges, sugar- cane, cotton, two kinds of fine wheat, and aromatic and pungent seeds,—the field produce also embracing all the bread grains, gram, and other pulses,—are unquestionably very low; and were there no extra cesses even in the present depreciated value of _ agricultural produce, could not only be borne by the cultivater, but he might flourish under them even with the burthen of 25 _ per cent. on his produce—fees paid to the Hukdars and Bul- lootehdars. These rates, however, are considerably enhanced by | extra cesses called Puttees, many of which were levied for con- ; tingencies and particular exigencies, or resulted from the con- 1] version of voluntary offerings in kind into compulsory money | payments. Et These cesses are no less than 62 in number in the three. col- lectorates of Poona, Ahmednuggur, and Khandesh, and the _ whole of them are for different objects; many of them result from local circumstances, and are therefore of a local bearing. The majority of these Puttees are not of uniform operation in _ the three collectorates, but one or more of them up to a score - may be found in every village. _ A few observations on the origin, character, and practical Bp rects of some of these Puttees may be necessary. Most of | them profess to bear directly on the land, such as those for ) grain, forage, and ropes to government, grain to Ramooses, - Hayildar, Gosawees, and Meeras tax, tax for sugar, &c.: other _ taxes which originally fell upon tradespeople, such as_ those ~ for skins, shoes, wool, blankets, and oil, are no longer derived from their legitimate sources, but fall upon the cultivator. > ~ 316 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Milch cattle, fowls, mango trees, and pumpkin beds respect- ively continue to supply the means to pay the taxes for Ghee, thickened sour milk, fowls, and fruits. Some of the Puttees involved personal labour, such as those for grass cut and fur- nished gratis to government, for firewood, for dinner plates composed of leaves sewn together, for monsoon great coats made of wicker work and leaves, and for sticks to pound rice with. The Rabta Mahr, spoken of under “ tenures,”’ is in lieu of personal services. Some of them in their name indicate their professedly temporary character, such as the Eksalee, or for one year, and yet they have been perpetuated. The Shadee or marriage cess at Angur, Pergunnah Mohol, and Ashtee Per- gunnah Oondurgaon, amounted to nearly 12 per cent. of the whole revenue of the towns, and could only have been for a passing event. The Wurgut at Wangee and Ashtee, which was raised by the village authorities for village expenses, is one of these unjustifiable taxes. At Ashtee, the scene of the battle of Ashtee and capture of the Sattarah princes, in 1818, the Wurgut was 1405 rupees, in a revenue of 6386 rupees, or 22 per cent.; of this sum government took 900 rupees, leaving 505 rupees to the villagers for their expenses. ‘This Puttee at the town of Kurjut, Pergunnah Kurreh Wullet, is 6 annas per rupee, or 373 per cent. on the land and Sahyer assessments, and Bur- goojur or tax on betel gardens. At Rawgaon, the Wurgut amounted to 144 annas per rupee on the land assessments and taxes, or more than 90 per cent. The Kaateh Mornawul, or pecuniary punishment, inflicted on a village for a Mamlehdar’s running thorns into his feet on perambulating its lands, should have had some limits in its duration. ‘The Puttees for sturdy Gosawees, Havildars, Ramooses, Naikwarees, should have ceased when there were no longer Gosawees to beg with arms in their hands, or Havildars, Naiks, and Ramooses to exercise respectively certain functions. The fractional apportioning the above taxes to the cultiva- tors, involving also the compound operation of providing reduced shares for the privileged classes, the fractional deductions, in a certain ratio in case of remissions, the fluctuating amount of the individual shares dependent on the fixed commutation cesses, being yearly divisible amongst a variable numberof cul- tivators, the mutable character of the Seerusteh Butta, which necessarily changes with the yearly varying total assessments of the village, and which Seerusteh Butta is not determinable until all other assessments be fixed, combine great evils, and, unless to the most practised, patient, and persevering investi- gator, present an inextricable mass of confusion. The evils ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 317 are, that a cultivator, be he lettered or not, cannot by possibi- lity know what he will have to pay the ensuing or even the present year, because fixed sums, payable by the village, are divisible amongst a varying number of cultivators. Even if fixed sums were divisible amongst a fixed number of cultiva- tors, the limited progress in arithmetic of the poor people would utterly disable them from determining their respective fractional shares; for instance, of 4 rupees for skins and shoes, 1 rupee for beit,* 43 for ghee, and 1,5, for leaf plates, &c. &c. In the whole course of my personal inquiries amongst this class for more than six years, I never met with one Koon- bee who could or would give me a detail of his assessments or their amount; the constant reply was, “The Koolkurnee knows.”’ -This very uncertainty of their means and liabilities makes men improvident and careless. The next evil is, that the Koolkurnee, in apportioning the fixed sums, and the Seerusteh Butta, the commutation money for grain, for ghee, sugar, pumpkins, &c, &c. is assured of impunity in defrauding the cultivators, from their want of habi- lity in their accounts, even if they were aware of the value and amount of the cesses and the number of persons they were to bear upon. It is almost waste of labour to give the cultivator a note from government of what he will have to pay, as in nine instances out of ten he cannot read it; his expounder is the Koolkurnee, or the Koolkurnee’s relations, and they read it agreeably to their own calculations. _ The above is an exposition of the assessments as they now _ bear on the land, which produces 82°30 per cent. of the whole revenue. The remaining portions of the revenue, which appear in village papers are usually classed under the term Sahyer, and are in fact taxes. The two principal heads of Sahyer are _ Mohturfa, properly “‘ Arhan,” or taxes on shops, houses, and professions ; and Bullooteh. Operation of Sahyer Taxes.—An idea of the operation of _ these taxes will be formed by the following details from _ Wangee, Pergunnah Wangee. _ Wanees, or sellers of grain and groceries, from 4 to _ 6 rupees a shop; oilman, for one oil-mill in aL iss Sal Cara So rae On 6 rupees. Beevers, per loom Seed ee. eo. 8 de, _ Other tradesmen pay proportional taxes. The threshold _ tax is called Oombraputtee, from Oombra, threshold: it is " generally a rupee per house. j y 4 : a _ At Tellegaon, Pergunnah Paubul, Poona collectorate, the * Beit, “a present,” 318 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. _ taxes on trades are fixed on a scale of annas relatively to the visible means and profits of the tradespeople. The anna is considered equivalent to 34 rupees. The trades are taxed from ath anna to 2 annas, or 7 rupees, which is the highest sum for one shop. The highest tax on one weaver is half an anna, or 12 rupee ; oilman, highest rate one anna, or 3} rupees ; the sdddler, dyer, and butcher, at half an anna each, or 1% rupee; fishermen, dealers in sweet potatoes, and makers of bridles, 1 rupee each ; the community of braziers, 10 rupees. All the Momeens who are Moosulmans and weavers of turbands taxed in the lump at 25 rupees ; shepherds at 14 rupees. These taxes are not raised on any systematic principles of application. Bullooteh Tax.—The Bullooteh is a tax levied on the per- sons called the Bara Bullooteh, or artizans and functionaries twelve in number, who are important personages in the village constitution. The taxes on the Bullooteh are generally deemed to be on the exercise of their profession; but this is a mistake, as the astrologer and Guruw, or sweeper of the village temple, pay Bullooteh tax, although not artizans; and I have known indivi- duals of a trade (in one instance a boy the survivor of a family) paying from 20 to 25 rupees per annum, which they could not possibly do from the gain of their handicrafts. The fact is, the Bara Bullooteeh have annual grain fees from the cultivators ; and government, in former times, deeming these fees more than commensurate with the value of the labours per- formed, took a part of them in money. The taxes on the Bul- lootehdar, are therefore indirectly derived from the land; some of these taxes fall very heavily. At Wangee three carpenters pay 36 rupees Bullooteh tax, Wurgut 9 rupees, and house tax 3 rupees for three houses. At Tellegaon, Turruff, Paubul, the Bullooteh taxes are yet higher: carpenter 50 rupees, shoe- makers 60 rupees, Guruw or sweeper of the temple 30 rupees, barber 24 rupees, washerman 8 rupees, Moolana, or Moosul- man priest, who also gets Bullooteh, 8 rupees; but the culti- vators are numerous, and the lands of Tellegaon under cultiva- tion extensive: The Bullootehdar on the whole therefore reaps a rich harvest, in spite of government participating in his fees, from the cultivators. It is unnecessary to multiply instances of the bearing of the Sahyer taxes. Taxes for the sale of spirituous liquors, and the amount of customs or transit duties, rarely appear in village papers, as those branches of the revenue are mostly farmed. My limits do not permit me to give a detailed statement of the manner in which village accounts are kept under a native ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 319 government. It would much assist to illustrate the internal ceconomy of a village and many local usages, but I have not space. I can only say that the whole accounts of a village are kept on a ribbon of paper, about five inches wide and some yards long, not rolled up but folded in lengths of twelve inches or more: one of these is required for each year. At Wangee it is called Gao Jarah, or village search ; at KurmullaJhartee Akaar, or figures or signs of search; at Barlonee it has the compound term of Lownee Putruck, (detail of cultivation,) and Zameen Jarha, _ (land search); at Rawgaon it is called Wussool Jarha, or search of collections: occasionally it is 4kaarbund, or roll of signs, items, figures: These varying names result from the _ union of two papers which are usually kept separate; namely the Zhul Jarha, or roll of lands by family estates; and the Lownee Putruck, or roll of cultivation and assessments. _ In closing the notice of assessments, a few words are neces- sary to explain the method of keeping village accounts. Atthe head of the paper called Gao Jarha is the name of the village, the Pergunnah and Soobeh it is in, the year and the name of the government it is under; this is followed by the Tunkha or Moghul money assignment upon the village, the Moosul- _ mans having fixed each village to pay a definite sum, leaving _ the whole details of assessment and distribution to the Pateel and villagers; then follows the total quantity of land belonging to the village: deductions are made for land in boundary _ disputes, for Kenams of all kinds, whether to the temples, to the village officers, to the Deshmook or Deshpandeh, or _ to individuals, the quantity to each being carefully marked ; all these being deducted, the remainder is distinguished into _ garden and field-land ; then follows a roll of the cultivators, with _anumber of columns to record the quantity of land held upon each tenure, and the amount payable for each; a column for the share of the extra assessments, previously noticed, inclu- _ ding the share of village expenses, which is always consider- able; also columns for totals of the different heads. Then follow rolls of the Bullooteh, shopkeepers, trades, and others subject to fixed taxes, with columns for the proportion of tax upon the particular trade; the Bullooteh, the house-tax, and share of extra assessments, which these people pay although they are not landholders. __ An abstract of the preceding details is now made, called the Ekunder Tereej. The contract for the transit duties, if not farmed, is added; and the Kumall, which means “total,” “all,” _“whole,’’ is put at the bottom. Then follow the deductions under _ the heads of money—EKenams, Hukdars, village, and other ex- _ penses, every item of which is detailed. Amongst the expenses 320 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. are village festivals, dinners to government officers, donations to brahmans, feeding pilgrims, interest on money borrowed, ex- penses of the Pateel and village officers when attending the go- vernor of the district, oil in the temples, the Moosulman saint’s tomb (if there be one) coming in for its share of donation or annual allowance, strange as it may appear, from Hindoo cul- tivators. I regret much that my limits do not permit me to detail the expenses, many of which are very curious, and illus- trate habits and customs, The expenses being deducted from the collections, a balance is struck, which, under native govern- ments, /eft the Tunkha, or government original assignment, together with any extra assessment, if levied, such as Sur Desh- mookee, Chouth, &c. &c. To show how large a proportion of the village collections did not go to government, in one village, whose accounts I translated, the Tunkha, or government share, was 5500 rupees; and the Kumall, or total collections, 8522 rupees; so that 3022 rupees, or more than 35 per cent. of the whole, went in village expenses, Hukdars, (Deshmooks and Deshpandehs,) and other claims. Wages. The amount of wages of agricultural labourers is of so much importance to the class constituting the major part of the community, and it assists the judgement so materially in estimating the condition of the people, that I shall offer all the details I was able to collect in the Dukhun bearing on the question. Farmers’ Artificers’ Work executed for Fees in Kind.— The trifling artificers’ and mechanics’ work required by the farmer being performed by the village artisans, in virtue of their offices and for fees in kind, it will not be necessary to enlarge on the remuneration for their labour: but to afford distinct ideas of its value, at the end of this paper I shall put into juxtaposition the rates paid by the Peshwah’s government and the British government to artificers, mechanics, and others. I made my inquiries on the subject of wages in towns and villages, the most distant from each other, to prevent the mistake of the adoption of local rates for those of general operation. Wages of Hushandmen and other Labourers at Nandoor.— At Nandoor, a British town in the Ahmednuggur collectorate, in March, 1827, I found that yearly husbandry servants got from 12 to 20 rupees* per annum and their food; a smart active man got about 15 rupees per annum and supplied him- self with clothes. ® From 24 to 40 shillings. oie ee ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 321 __ Day labourers, when paid in cash, get 14 anna per day, or 3 of two shillings, (about two pence farthing,) supplying them- selves with every thing: but day labourers are never paid in money unless when grain is very dear. é _ Quantity given. — The most usual plan in harvesting crops ods to give each labourer three sheaves of whatever grain he is cutting down ; and provided he ties up the sheaves and stacks them, he gets five sheaves a day. Value of Wages in Kind, converted into Money.—The grain in five sheaves, in ordinary seasons, amounts to about two seers. At the price of Bajree*, in March 1827, at Nandoor, namely 42 seers per rupee, the value of the labour was one penny and {;4,ths per day. Joareet, at 56 seers per rupee, was ;5;>ths of a penny per day, or rather more than three farthings, Wheat, at 18 seers per rupee, would have been two pence ;65,, or something less than two pence three farthings per day. Allowing the grain in five bundles to be double the quantity stated, which is rather possible than probable, the highest wages in harvesting _ wheat would not have been five pence halfpenny per diem. _ When men are employed in ploughing or harrowing, nine times out of ten, they are paid two seers of Bajree for their day’s _ work, from daylight to night, allowing one hour for dinner. _ At Kanoor.—At Kanoor, a town in Jagheer, Ahmednuggur collectorate, in March 1827, I found that the two Pateels had _ each a permanent domestic servant in his employ; one paid _ his man 15 rupees per annum and his food; the other gave 15 rupees per annum, food, and five articles of wearing _ apparel, the value of which was 33 rupees. _ Wages at Dywuree.—At Dywuree, Nuggur collectorate, _ in November 1826, the cultivators did not pay their day- labourers in money, but gave them five sheaves of grain for _ every hundred cut down; a very able man indeed might cut down two hundred sheaves in a day, which would give him four seers of grain, the value of which (Bajree) in November, 1826, was about ;%,ths of a rupee, or three pence English. | Wages at Dytna.—At Dytna, Nuggur collectorate, in Fe- _bruary 1827, I found a man getting 25 rupees per annum, his food and a blanket, his son being also in employ at six ‘Tupees a year, food and clothes; but this was looked upon as high, and the individuals getting such wages fortunate: the village belonged to a Gosawee ¢ who paid his people well. | Wages of Women Day Labourers. — At Chambergoondeh, a large town belonging to Seendeh, Nuggur collectorate, in of V4 * Properly, Sujgooreh, Panicum spicatum. ____ t Properly, Jondleh, Andropogon Sorghum. t Gosawee, a religieux, q 322 SEVENTH REPORT—1837- November 1827, women weeding in fields got ,th of a rupee per day, or one penny halfpenny, and worked from sunrise to sunset. Wages at Kurkumbh.—At Kurkumb, a Jagheer town in the Poona collectorate, in December 1827, I found a husbandry servant getting only twelve rupees per annum, and food twice a day: noclothes. A man watching a field of grain was amonthly servant at three rupees a month, without food or clothes. Highest Wages at Kurkumh.—From the authorities of the town I learned that the highest rate paid for the cleverest gardener’s assistant or ploughman was 25 rupees per annum and daily food, but without clothes. The monthly rates for agricultural servants were from 2% to 3 rupees, without food, or clothes, fee, or advantage. Pay of Seypoys at Angur.—At Angur, a British town in the Poona Collectorate, on the 9th of January, 1828, in looking over the village accounts, I found two village seypoys charged respectively three rupees and two rupees for a month’s pay. Wages of Women Labourers at Poona.—On the 21st July, 1827, I found a great number of women weeding in gardens in the neighbourhood of the city of Poona; they received each six pice in money, or ;§,ths of two shillings, (two pence one-third per day,) and worked from daylight until dark. This may be considered high wages, and its amount is to be attributed to the paucity of field labourers in a great city. Wages at Pait.—At Pait, a Jagheer town in Pergunnah Kheir, in the Poona collectorate, on the 16th February, 1829, in my evening excursion, I overtook twelve or fourteen men and women with bundles of wheat in the straw on their heads ; on inquiry I found they had been employed as labourers in pulling up a field of wheat at Pait. Their wages had been five sheaves for every hundred gathered ; two or three of the men only had got five sheaves each, the majority of them only four, and the women none more than three. Five sheaves they said would yield about four seers of wheat, and as wheat was selling in Pait at 28 seers per rupee, each man with five sheaves received for his labour nine pice, or 34d. English. These poor people belonged to the town of Owsuree, five miles distant from Pait; they had therefore a march of ten miles to make besides their day’s labour. Wages at Joonur.—At the city of Joonur, at the end of February 1829, I found a brahman cultivating the Hubbus Baugh (about 80 beegahs of land) ; he employed numerous la- bourers. While I was encamped near his garden, fields of wheat, and gram, and Booee Moong*, &c. were harvested. For the * Earth-nut, Arachis hypogea, pees prevent Sanit : ® os Denomination o, a Grains, pulses, 28 a3 ° 64 4 g an Sea a _ | artificers, servants, &c. be BES other articles, 3 oe 3 g se S65 a oe 5A SH 5e| 53 Qa =) P 5 S a i ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 323 wheat and gram and bread-grains the men got five sheaves per cent. In the field of Booee Moong there were between fifty and sixty women employed; and I learned that, in this particular product, from the labour and tediousness of digging it up, and the cheapness of the produce, the labourers were allowed one-fourth of the whole. In cutting down sugar-cane, gathering fruits or vegetables, and indeed where the produce was too valuable to give the labourer a share of it, the Brahman paid a man eight pice a day (little more than 2$d.) and a woman four, and they worked from daylight until dark, with an allow- ance of one hour for dinner. The above data are gathered from places widely separated in the Poona and Ahmednuggur collectorates ; and although in dif- ferent years, are remarkable in their uniformity ; they supply therefore just estimates for the general rates of wages, and it may be fairly stated that the highest money wages paid by the natives to any husbandry or domestic servant is four rupees per month, with which he finds his own food and clothes, and 23'5 rupees per month is the pay when the master supplies food and clothes; and the most favourable wages to a man day-labourer are eight pice per diem *, and to a woman five pice f. Artificers’ and servants’ wages, and price of Bread-grains under the Peshwa’s and British Governments. Rates of hire for a month of thirty days| Prices of grains, pulses, and other of artificers, servants, and labourers] articles, the ordinary consump- in Dukhun, under the British govern-| tion of artificers, servants, la- ment in 1828, and Peshwa’s govern-| bourers, &c. at Poona in Duk- ment in A.D. 1814. hun, under the Peshwa’s go- vernment, being a mean of five years from 1811 to 1815, and under the British in 1828. Monthly Pay. Seers per Rupee, | Rupees, Rupees. iSeers, rat 2 | __|Maistry, or head 25, 35, 40 15 . |Rice, Putnee ......| 16 . 9 Maistry, or head carpenter ...... Do. Ambemor ...| 13 94 Second orunder do.| 23 & 25 12 Do. Rajawul......| 14 12 Wheat, Buckshee | 18 1433 cnrpnte, net} 30, 85, & 45|15,20, 40|/D® Potee......| 20 = Joaree (Andro- oe xf worker ...... vee pogon S: newb 82 214 ng a tly * About 23d, About 14d, xy 2 Puturwut, stone- MASON... eeeee. Bhooee Hamalls... Muccadum, or chief of Hamalls } 15 The above table shows a marked enhancement in the wages of all classes of handicrafts and servants, although grain be- came from 20 to 50 per cent, cheaper under the British than 12 7,8,&9 |6,7,&8 10 824 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Table continued. Monthly Pay. Seers per Rupee. ag: ethan 2. 2 3 Bata, pulses, 38 23 artificers, servants, &c. BES Be other articles. Bo 5a za zs ee| Ee P =) Pe PS a fy C Rupees. Rupees, B Seers,| Seers. arpenter, com- = ; 3 ajree (Panicum ne worker ae asad Cea heat } 28) Listes Two Sawyers ...... 15 & 22 8 Dhall (Cytisus\| 16 11.86 Maistry, or head 25 & 30 20 COPA) fies cneate \ neo smith ......... Hoe Ghee (clarified 21] 1 Smith .......cse00) 15 & 222 | 12 | butter) ww. } morhs Head armourer .. 30 20 AYMourer ...seee0e 15 12 Fileman ........06 15 12 Hammerman .,.....|6, 8, & 132 = Maistry, or head leather worker ou a Leather raed 92 9 harness maker i Puckalee, or wa- } 15 9 TerMAan corccecee Bricklayer .........] 93, 12 10 } Head bricklayer, 25 & 35 | 15 & 20 MAISELY ..ceceeee Maistry, or head tailor, fine i 15 14 WOFKer ...eeceee WEAROT Geach og ceusiennes 93. 6 Man labourer ....... 5&7 5 Woman do..........| 33 to7 3 to 4 IBOY dO: sexasckensss 33 3 Muccadum, or chief of Duly | 15 & 20 8 bearers ..,...+0. Dooly bearers......| 7 to 9 6 Horse keepers...... 8 5 __|Served two horses junde/r Peshwa. Camel men.........| 7 to 9 5 Served two camels} DJo. Tattoo, or pack pony permonth, i 12 15 with driver ... Camel with driver. 30 30 ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. $25 under the Peshwa. In the wages of the numerous servants of European gentlemen the same advance has taken place. The superior cheapness in some grains has extended to more than 100 per cent. In the above notices the rupee has been considered equal to two shillings; the seer of weight equal to 1]b.15 oz. 8 drs. 183 ers. avoirdupois, or 2lbs. 4 oz. 6 grs. troy; and the seer of capacity to 2lbs. 6 oz. 3 drs. 24 grs. 92 dec. avoirdupois of Jerwail rice; its cubic contents, 72 in. 2 dec. of water at a temperature of 75° Fahrenheit, at a temperature of 60° there- fore being equal to 48 per cent. less than two imperial quarts, or very nearly one quart. Rigidly, the seer is 4:17 dec. per cent. larger than an imperial quart. Manufactures. Celebrated as was India for its costly and ingenious cotton fabrics, little more than the memory of them now remains. The machinery of England has enabled ler manufacturers to take the raw material out of the hands of the grower, and return it to the continent of India, worked up in various ways, with- out even affording an opportunity for the application of a prop or stay to the sinking industry of its once flourishing manufac- turing classes. As far as relates to Dukhun, its cotton and silk fabrics are confined to coarse dresses for women, tent- cloths, some silk handkerchiefs, and trifling pieces of silk for bosom cloths for women. From an examination of the cotton and silk goods for sale in the markets of Poona, in July 1829, it appeared that every product of the loom, without any excep- tion, with any claim to notice from texture, costliness of material, or ingenuity in the design or workmanship, was an import into the collectorates from native states not under the British government. Turband cloths, varying in length from 24 to 60 cubits, in breadth from three-quarters to 14 cubits, and in price from one rupee up to sixty rupees each, were from Peytun, Bheer, Narrainpait, Tahr Putruh, Wus- wunt, Nandergaon, and Shaghur, in the Nizam’s dominions ; Boorhanpoor and Jehanabad, in Seendeh’s (Scindiah’s) domi- nions, and Chundaree in Malwa, while those made in the city of Poona did not exceed three rupees each in value. The only valuable Doéruhs or loin cloths, in length from 20 to 22 cubits, breadth 2} to 23 cubits, and in price from'10 to 40 rupees, were from Muheshwur, in Malwa; the rest were from the Nizam’s, Holkar’s, and the Rajah of Berar’s (Nagpoor) ter- a ritories. Shahpoor and Belgaon, in the Dharwar collectorate, produced some loin cloths of the value of 25 rupees; those from 326 SEVENTH REPORT—1837, Poona did not exceed three rupees in value. The Dooputtehs or Shelehs, cloths for throwing over the shoulder and enfolding the body, in value from 10 to 200 rupees, were from Peytun, Jehana- bad, and Boorhanpoor ; those from Poona were of the value of five rupees only. Loogreh or Sarhehs*, varying in length from 13 to 20 cubits, in breadth from 1% to 23 cubits, and in price from 14 rupee to 80 rupees, had a wider field of production, even Poona producing these dresses, from one or two looms only I believe, of the value of 80 rupees. New Hooblee, and Shahpoor, in the Dharwar collectorate, produced some dresses of the value of 30 rupees. Cholkun or bosom cloths are manufactured at the above places : the highest value of one would appear to be 10 rupees, and the lowest about three- pence. The silk handkerchiefs were chiefly from the Car- natic. The price of the above articles is influenced partly by the colours, partly by the fineness of the fabric, but chiefly by the quantity of gold and silver thread worked up in them. Some cotton carpets are manufactured at Ahmednuggur, and in the Jail at Poona, but do not call for notice. Turbands are dyed of twenty-one colours, but I have not space to give the names; few or none of them are fast colours, with the exception of black and red. The only woollen manufacture in the collectorates is that of a black smooth blanket, (Aumlee) the colour being that of the wool. In general the blanket is coarse, but there is a very fine fabric from Bijapoor. The low state of manu- factures is otherwise attested by the fact that, in the Poona collectorate, in the population returns sent to me, the weavers only amounted to 0°35 per cent. of the people, or one weaver for every 280 souls; in Khandesh 0°57 per cent., or one to every 173 inhabitants; and in Dharwar 1°80 per cent., or one in 55 inhabitants, which is prodigiously above the other col- lectorates. I estimate the proportion in the Ahmednuggur collectorate to be the same as that in Poona. Transit Duties. The transit duties are farmed; the stations for collecting them are numerous ; the rates, although fixed, are unjust, as they are not levied on uniform principles with respect to defi- nite tracts of country. The Carrier is not only interrupted at irregular intervals by British stations, but the alienated towns, sO numerously interspersed in the British territories, * Women’s dresses, ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 327 endeavour to levy duties; moreover, he is perplexed by the money claims of hereditary district officers upon the duties, independently of the customs-farmer’s dues. How the con- flicting interests are arranged I do not know; but they are so various and troublesome, that the merchant is commonly driven to the expensive necessity of contracting with a class of people, called Hoondeekuree, who undertake for a fixed swm to pass all the merchandize through a country to its destination, paying all duties ; constant practice, adroitness, and bullying, enabling them to arrange with the collectors better than the merchant could. All transit duties should be abolished; their amount in the interior of a country materially affects consumption, and is therefore injurious to trade. Coins. The only coins in use in Dukhun are silver rupees, half ru- pees, and copper pice. The rupees are of many mints, and have a different value in relation to the copper coin, resulting from the age of the rupee, and the number of punches or marks it may have on it made by the Shroofs or money-changers in passing through their hands*; the same rupee, of the same standard, and same mint, has not the same value im copper in neigh- bouring districts; this value fluctuates at the pleasure of the money-changers. On what principles they regulate the rela- tive values I do not know. The multiplicity of coins of dif- ferent mints, and the gradations of coins of the same mint, are great evils. It is unnecessary to enumerate these coins, as _ they are in the Bombay Almanac. Weights and Measures. A very considerable diversity prevails in every district, and often in neighbouring villages, in the weights and measures in _ use, whether of weight, length, or capacity ; this diversity goes - so far, that the subdivisions are often found not to be in a _ determinate proportion to each other. All this confusion is _ referrible to the want of an ancient permanent standard ; to the abrasion or decay of the weights and measures tolerated by go- _ vernment, the knavery of the owners of the weights, and the apathy or connivance of the district authorities t. Everywhere * These marks occasion a depreciation of one or more per cent. ‘+ So great are the discrepancies, that they range from 41 per cent. below to q 100 per cent. above the Poona standard. 328 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. the apparatus of metrology is characterized by clumsiness in con- struction ; rough stones are commonly substituted for stamped metal weights, and joints of the hollow bamboo for authorized definite measures of capacity. The seer of weight was directed by the authorities at Poona and Ahmednuggur to be of eighty Ankoosee rupees, and such a weight may be in use where the district officers are located, but in very few other places. With respect to measures of capacity, not only has each village its own, but I might almost say that each shopkeeper has his own, for it is rare that the weights and measures of any two shopkeepers are identical; and when it does occur it must be referred to acci- dent. Even the stamping of weights and measures by govern- ment officers has not been effectual to insure uniformity ; for ina table that I drew up of the discrepancy between the weights and measures of some scores of places all over the country, very many of the weights and measures had the government stamp upon them. One feature of the measures of capacity is, that, with some exceptions, those of villages are always larger than those of towns and cities. The extent to which this fraud has been carried in military cantonments and large bazaars immediately under British control, is shown in the fact of the reduction of the Serroor cantonment seer, one-twentieth below the standard of Poona city, one-fourth below the standard of Ahmednuggur city, and two-elevenths below the measures of neighbouring districts. But in Bombay it is still more glaring, the origin of whoseweights and measures is unquestionably referrible to the Dukhun and Konkun ; and yet the Bombay measure of capacity is 41 per. cent. less than that of Poona, and about 33 per cent. less than that at Panwell in the Konkun, the nearest great mart to Bombay cn the continent. The diminution in the seer of weight in Bombay is even more striking. I found the standard seer of weight in the collector’s office in Bombay to weigh 4970 grains troy only, while the Panwell seer weighed 13,110 grains, and the Poona seer weighed 13,800 grains, troy. The Panwell seer therefore was 163 per cent. and the Poona seer 177 per cent. larger than the Bombay seer. The knowledge of these facts is of importance to the European and native mer- chant, as well as to the general consumer. The evil of a progressive diminution in the weights and mea- sures of Dukhun is arrested in the cities of Poona and Ahmed- nuggur and the neighbouring cantonments, by standards being kept in the collectors’ offices ; but as they are not founded on any scientific principles by which they could be restored if lost or lessened, their safe custody is of great moment. The seer ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 329 of weight is directed to be made of a certain number of pieces of the current silver coin, and can therefore be tested without difficulty ; but there is not any test, saving the solitary standard in the collector’s office, for the measure of capacity. It will be seen that I have given the weight of water of a certain tem- perature these measures contain, and this determination may be of use at a future period. Grain measures.—The largest measure of capacity in use is the Adholee, of two seers ; its name means “‘ the half,” it being the half of the Puheelee, of four seers, which is not in use. This measure is in the form of an hour-glass. I found the _ Poona city standard to contain 36,400 grains troy, of water, at a temperature of 75° Fahr., or 5 Ibs. 3 oz. 3 dr. 54 grs., or _ 144:4 cubic inches; and at a temperature of 60° Fahr. it con- _ tained 36,462 grains troy, being 48 per cent. less than an im- perial gallon, or very nearly two quarts ; rigidly, the seer is 4°17 per cent. larger than an imperial quart. It is curious that the _ first subdivision of the Adholee is not one-half but one-fourth, or half a seer, a seer measure being very rarely in use; then a : quarter of a seer, and finally, one-eighth.* In some places there are what are called male and female 4dholees, one being _ alittle larger than the other ; retail traders buy with the largest and sell by the smallest. The multiples are 2 4dholees 1 Puheelee or 4 seers, 12 Puheelees 1 Mun (Maund), and 20 Muns 1 Kundee (Candy); bat in some places there are 16 Puheelees to the Mun: and along the Ghats, and in the Konkun, there _ are only 3} seers to the Puheelee. Determined by the weight _ of the contents of the ddholee of well-dried Jerwail rice, the _ Kundee would be 20 cwt. 1 qr. 26 lbs. 10 oz. 12 drs. 16 grs. avoirdupois. _ It is necessary to mention that the flour of all grains is sold _ by weight and not by measure. Oil, spirits, and milk, are sold by different measures of ca- pacity. These are all professedly founded on the seer of _ weight; but their discrepancies may well render it doubtful. _ At one place I found the seer of oil measure to contain 26 ru- _ pees’ weight of water, at others, 66 rupees’, 80 rupees’, &c. The _ forms of these measures are various. The same observations _ apply to spirit measures. The seer of milk in one place con- | tained 88 rupees’ weight of water, in another 93, and elsewhere up to 109 rupees’ weight. _ Weights——The standard seer of weight in Poona weighs 80 _Ankoosee rupees or 13,800 grains troy, or 1 lb. 15 oz. 8 dwts. € MO eRe pki S00. —- FRM 02 ae 2 . * Sellers of sweetmeats have +!,th of a seer. 330 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 182 grs. avoirdupois ; but the most common seer in use in Duk- hun is one of 76 rupees; the divisions are ddh seer (half), Pao seer (quarter), 4dh pao or Nowtank (one-eighth), and Chettank (one-sixteenth). For the convenience of calculation, the seer is divided into 72 tanks or tollahs, and one-eighth, of course, is Nowtank or nine tanks, and one-sixteenth is Sarhee chartank or 43 tanks, which is corrupted into Chettank. The multiples are Panch seer (five seers), the mun of 40 seers equal to 78 lbs. 13 oz. 11 drs. 11 grs. avoirdupois, or 95lb. 10 oz. troy exactly; the Pullah of 3 muns, and the Kundee of 20 muns. But I have shown how far the weights really in use differed from the above, and in the tract lying between the Seena and Beema rivers, the weight called the Bureedee had not even the same constituents or multiples as the Poona weights. Goldsmiths’ weights.—The lowest goldsmiths’ weight is no- minally the mustard seed, but the lowest I met with was the Goonj, a seed of the Abrus precatorius, the mean weight of which was 1°91410 grains troy: 96 goonj make a tollah, which should therefore weigh 183°7536 grains troy; but as the tollah is the 72nd part of a seer of 13,800 grains, it should weigh 191,666 grains troy; the goldsmiths’ weights in use conse- quently are below the nominal standard. Eight goon or four waals* make one massah, and twelve massah one tollah. I put the goldsmiths’ weights to the same test in different parts of the country, I did those of capacity, and found that two weights of the same denomination in different shops were seldom uni- form. The scales used by goldsmiths are called Kantah, and are of metal; those used by dealers generally are called Tajwa or Tagree, and are made of leather or parchment. Itinerary and Long Measures.—Distances between places are estimated by the Kohs (coss), I cannot say measured, for I believe the actual determination of distances between places was as little attended to by the native governments, as the facilitating communications through the country by the construction of roads and bridges. I think the Kohs averages about two miles English, varying, however, from 13 to 2} miles. In Mahratta writings long measure is raised from the barleycorn; 8 Juw or barleycorns make a Boht or finger, 24 fingers a Haft or cubit, (18 inches), 4 cubits a Dunoosh (a bow) or fathom, measured by a man’s outspread arms, and 8000 cubits or 2000 fathoms a Kohs. The Kohs therefore would equal 24 English miles and 40 yards. In Sanscrit 2 Kohs make a Guwyotee, and 2 of the latter make a Yojun or 9 miles and 160 yards; but these terms * Waal is the seed of the Cesalpinia sappan. *” af oe '\ rt " : q \ ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 331 are unknown to the common people. In fact, however, the measure of length originates in the well-known Haht or cubit, determined by the mean length of five men’s arms, measured from the elbow-joint to the end of the middle finger: the Haht or cubit so determined, is a little more than 18 inches in length ; this is divided into 2 Weets or spans, into 6 Mooshtees or fists, and each fist into 4 Bohts or fingers, and the latter into 8 barleycorns each. Tailors and sellers of cloth use a Guy, which is divided into 16 Ghirra, each of 14 Tussoo, each. Tussoo of 2 Bohis, and as each Boh is equal to a fraction more than _ # of an inch, the Gu would be a little more than an English _ yard, _ Superficial Measure.—The only land measure of any exact _ and appreciable extent is the Beegah, which is of Moosul- - man derivation, but by some referred to the Sanscrit word Weegruhuh, although this word is not applied to land measure- ments ; and as all genuine Mahratta terms applied to the ca- _ pacity, extent, or capabilities of land, are not referrible to the _ beegah or its multiples, I must consider the Beegah of Moosul- man introduction. Like itinerary measures, it is raised from the Haft or cubit of a fraction more than 18 inches in length ; 5 Hahts and 5 Mooshtees (fists or palms) make 1 Kattee or stick, 20 square Kattees or sticks make 1 Paand, and 20 _Paands a Beegah; reduced to English measurements, the 5 _Hahts and 5 Mooshtees will be equal to 105 inches in length, and the square of this sum will be 11,025 inches in a square Katiee or stick, and 20 Kattees a Paand equal to 220,500 ‘inches, and 20 Paands a Beegah or 4,410,000 square inches ; _ and as the English statute acre contains 43,560 square feet, the | Beegah is to the acre as 703 is to 100, or as 211 to 300, being a | trifle more than seven-tenths of an acre. But as the Haht or | cubit is a fraction more than 18 inches, the Beegah may fairly _ be considered equal to three-fourths of an acre: but I very much | doubt whether any other than garden lands were actually mea- sured by the Moosulmans ; and in converting the Hindoo terms | Kundee, Mun, Doree, and fifty other denominations, into Bee- gahs, it was done by estimate; and this explanation will account for the variable size of the Beegah in different parts of the | country, which the British survey has discovered. The only multiples of the Beegah, to my knowledge, are the Rookeh of 6 Beegahs or 44 acres, and the Chahoor of 120 Beegahs or 90 acres: these terms are of Moosulman origin. Adverting to the past and present state of the knowledge of tive governments in politics, political economy and science, — ee ..hCl \ i 332 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. it would be idle to refer the origin of their weights and mea- sures to scientific principles, immutable standards, or even to any uniform, although arbitrary system. Their long measure is derived from the human arm, and their weights from a seed. In these derivations they have not been a whit more irrational than the good people of England, whose standard measure of length, the Ulna or Ell, is derived from the arm of one of their kings, (Henry the First), and their weights from grains of wheat. There is a great coincidence between the native weights and measures and those of antiquity. The first five subdivisions of the scripture measures of length are identical in their derivation, and nearly so in their length, with those of Dukhun ; namely, the finger, fist or palm, span, Haft or cubit, and fathom ; both also have the cvincidence of being destitute of a measure equivalent to a foot.. The foot was a constituent of the ancient Greek and Roman measures ; but in practice these nations used the finger, palm, and cubit; and the Pecus or great cubit of the Greeks was precisely of the length of the Dukhun cubit, namely, a fraction more than 18 inches. The ancient grain and liquid measures of England were raised from weight from a pound troy. For a very long period I had be- lieved the measures of capacity in Dukhun to be entirely arbi- trary ; but in the southern part of the country between the Seena and the Beema rivers, I met with ddholees with stamps on — them, directing that they should contain a certain weight of — grain ; for instance, at Punderpoor the Addholee was to contain as much Johr Guhoon (wheat), as would weigh 200 Ankoosee rupees, at Mohol 160 rupees’ weight of Joaree (Andropogon — Sorghum), at Taimbournee 131 rupees’ weight of Joaree, and at — Kothool, near to Ahmednuggur, 200 Ankoosee rupees’ weight — of Bajree (Panicum spicatum). 1 know not whether this slight — indication of systematic deduction of measures of capacity from those of weight is attributable to the Moosulmans or to the Hindoos. The places where they were met with, with one © exception, had until recently, been for ages under a Moosulman government (the Nizam’s), but it might have been practised be- — fore the arrival of the Moosulmans. It does not appear to have © occurred to the natives to use the weight of water, as the least — changeable standard by which to fix the capacity of a measure. — Army .—The army consists of some of the royal troops paid — by the India Company ; of European regiments of artillery and — infantry belonging to the Company, and of native regiments of cavalry, infantry, and pioneers, armed, clothed and disciplined in the same manner as the Kuropean troops. The army is ‘ ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 883 ated into divisions commanded by General Officers and diers-General, and the divisions are divided into brigades, hich are so stationed as to co-operate in the readiest and Me rand o . . : ost efficient manner in emergencies, for the protection of the co ntry and the maintenance of the civil power. stice.—Not having been able to get blank forms filled up e India~House with the necessary data respecting crimes _ punishments, I abstain from any notice of judicial matters. Bis ; W. H. SYKES, Lt.-Colonel, F.R.S., ~ Late Statistical Reporter to the Government of Bombay. 334 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. CONTENTS OF THE SPECIAL REPORT ON THE STATISTICS OF THE BRITISH COLLECTORATES OF DUKHUN, (DECCAN). Page INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS, « ccnccsovcvsoscccsscrsccccsssssscvencoecessunesmaina li, Extent and Physical Circumstances. Area, Elevation, Rivers, Roads, Bridges .....sesseeececasecseccsersesseesene 218 Geology. (GOES esocntboore dududedvcvwandsrecdecscavecuresses Seacececpevacssesavevessovedenenel MUEU Valleys, Terraces ......ssscscccesss Sustastessducccnnanaccacneacs evassnaneePuneuess 221 Escarpments, Columnar (ae SG Mae as Sete? S ocbscvehn tek oeee 222 Schistose structure, Basalt en boules, Dykes, Ferruginous clay ......... 223 Pulverulent limestone, Nodular limestone ...... ...+0++. Dessgekend Pe tit ode 225 Loose stones, Rocky heaps, Sheets of rock......... aeoeaene Seas osawaediee ae 220 Structure and mineral composition of rocks ........seeeeseee caaaeeta een aaee 227 Minerals, ores, Natural salts, no organic remains, Thermal springs, Extent of trap region, Laterite, Granite, Sedimentary rocks ........ 229 Climate. Barometer, Atmospheric tides, Temperature .......sssesseseseeees sevsseseeee 231 Monthly means, Diurnal range, Mean temperature, Moisture scsssvese 202 Rain, Winds, Hot winds, Whirlwinds ...........+ cokresscred ceseeenass eaters 236 Hail, Dews, Fogs, Salubrity of the climate ........... coscdtecetesCnecan EO Botany. Cultivated fruits .csessecscsccssoncseceesescesseseees Soros 288) Weald fits <1. c0eewesincninccondacswesnse dos deesntevscavavsestasietnoe onc Porc Ey eel) Agricultural products, Products of wet season harvest ....sssssscsesses Pe eel, Do. Dry or spring season harvest ........ss+s00+ Saresesanest ans ee Garden produce, Edible roots, grapes, &C.......0++seeeeees scecoswanas) wonde 242 Spontaneous oil, tanning, and medicinal ee European fruits, Flowering plants, AMA DEN trEUS ce. cnaessconnececenceesacsnoes ceeseadevaeeeyeteaat Zoology. Quadrumana, Cheiroptera, Plantigrada, oe srs éuswostvecse-ent cosespinno Gm Birds, Insessores .......sseseessees éctocacon ATE ee Oe Rasores, Grallatores, Natatores ......ssscsecsesesecseees Mr Ce 250 Ichthyology, Reptilia, Crustacea, Testacea, Entomology . désdoscdsavauleehy MO CONTENTS OF STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. Civil Divisions. * i Poona Collectorate, Pergunnahs, Towns, Hill-forts, &c. ..sccsscesscoseees Ahmednuggur Collectorate: Talooks, Pergunnahs, Towns, prvi &e. _ Khandesh Collectorate: Pergunnahs, Towns, &. .csscesssesssessceeees * Rivers, Boodh cave temples .....ssssseccsseeeeeeeee ids evarsauxen cde eeniinite Dharwar Collectorate: Talooks, Pergunnahs, Towns, "Rivers, Hill- g forts, &e. COTTE OER O eee TEE ROOT EEO EHR eH HOE OE EOOE SORE E SEE Deeeeeseesbeeeeebeesees Population. Proportion of the sexes, Constituents of ee Casts, Births, Deaths, and Marriages Sea ppebatenn coduucencn ccvgareser vues Soiiestasapanc scaee Proportion engaged in (ea to the square mile, to a house, in WAM eB AOWNS ii Jeicecdesccees sla lecseccccees Pe ea eseesersesesseseseeseseses Education. Proportion of schools in the different collectorates, &c. Irrigation. Different kinds of, Quantity of water supplied by the well-bucket ...... Agriculture, _ General observations, Agriculture of the wet season CYOp ssssssecseseaes _ Do. Dry season crop (Mawuls), Dry season crop (Desh, Mawuls), Wet season crop (Desh), pi ble Treading out, Farm yard, Win- NOWING .......406. Ane yt Tees avulvaueenechensapnas con osensecteederaeteass Preserving grain, Preparing grain for food, Pounding, Grinding, Sugar mill, Oil mill ......... sea@irnoaread tes Sdsinaplncandanececandncecs musgunesciey 4 Average size of farms, Proportion of os cattle, milch cattle, ploughs, &c. ....sss.seee0e Scaetncodtnskbsecoctharr i Seeesereeeeeeesvessssoseeese . Land and other Tenures. Estates hereditary and freehold ........c..,csseececsecseeeees spreebonosceeee Sus ~- Meeras tenure, Kowl Istawa, @yrond. ee involving alienation of lands, J agheer, Eenam, Surinjam, Dyomalla; Eesaphut ......... oacey -Deshmook and Desaee, Deshpandeh, Pateel, Koolkurnee............0ss008 \ Mahrs tenure, Bara Bullooteh, cae Choweulla, Havildar, Tulwar, BEPPDATINGOSCE..cecevecevereveveceveviacedavevesescccsessceacses itaetecaseecs oeese 0c Secels, Sheteh, Sharers in village revenues censure Bangsde Meeaieae telteeaies Revenue. _ Amount and account of, Per centage of branches of...... ROGnOLc Onc. CBOcKK. be as a capitation tax; Average village revenue; Shops, Excise, EISEATYS 5c. pine on ca dcRseaneatcsacuu ate: chidszodeeuateeraG cee uece vas ST Tabular view of expenses ‘and charges — revenue, Number of culti- -_ vators, Size of farms, XC. ..seeecsessseessenreresssecrseerenseess ddvcesscsesss Land revenue in the different collectorates Seeaaeruncechtadewceasantseertoy 535 Page 254 256 257 259 259 261 266 267 270 270 272 274 274 276 278 280 283 286 290 293 296 297 300 306 336 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Assessments. General observations, Various names applied to different Pear of land for assessMeNt .....secesceeeeeneeee (i cdeteesssacvenddadestee aes eases Chief assessment on land, Sostee or permanent "assessment, Varieties of assessment ......00e Rosuadeadedeuebayecvecatnese =e sseacaccdsecdvocseusente : Perbacek wr fll Abana 625! .43006ces aedsee-astdccsseesencece Seevucesseecaee eee Average per beegah garden and field, Extra cesses, names Of .,...2..0+ 7 Shop taxes, &., Evils of extra assessments dezessevvoussacnecvousdben sehemes Description of village ACCOUNLS ANG Papers « . This part, which was weaker than the ends, was intended to be torn asunder by a force acting perpendicularly through its centre. The ends of the castings had eyes made through them, with a part more prominent than the rest in the middle of the casting where the eye passed through. The intention of this was that bolts pass- ing through the eyes, and having shackles attached to them by which to tear the casting asunder, would rest upon this prominent part in the middle, and therefore upon a point passing in a direct line through the axis of the casting. Several of the castings were torn asunder upon the machine ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 339 for testing iron cables belonging to the Corporation of Liver- pool. Others were made in the same manner but of smaller transverse area; these were broken by means of Mr. Fair- bairn’s lever, which was adapted so as to be well suited for the purpose. The form of casting here used was chosen to obviate the theoretical objections made by Tredgold and others against the conclusions of former experimenters. 'The results are in the following table : Results of Experiments on the Tensile Force of Cast Iron. . Area of | Break. | Strength oP ‘i Patt section| ing | per square} Mean in lbs. per Description of Iron. _ in weight} inch of square inch. inches. | in }bs, | section. —_—_ | Carron Iron, No. 2, Hot Blast .....ssescseereee eee] 4°031 | 56000 ions | Tons. cwts. Do. do. GO. ccnnnaesns coeseasense 1°7236] 22395 | 12993 $|13505=6 03 Do. do. GO. sesseveersecseeeeeeee| 1°7037/ 23219 | 13629 » "| Carron Iron No. 2, Cold Blast ..ssscssssseceeess .| 1°7091] 28667 | 16772] |1gg93_7 9 Do. do. dO. sscseseceeecseseeeeee| 1°6331| 27099 | 16594 i. Carron Iron, No. 3, Hot Blast .......cseeseeseeeeee| 1°7023] 28667 | 16840 Be. Meer) do, x, | 0; scanesageassusosccons|: 1°6613) 31019 igor f|i755=7 18% | arron Iron, No. 3, Cold Blast ......csssseseseeseee| 1°6232) 22699 pi 14900=6 7 | Do. do. GO. seseeseseeeeeesevevee| 1°6677| 240483 | 14417 “Devon (Scotland) Iron, No. 3, Hot Blast ..,...|4°269 | 93520) 21907 |21907=9 153 ee ee | Buffery Iron, No, 1, Hot Blast..s.sssssesseseeseeee) 3°835 |51520| 13434 |13434=6 0 Do. do. Cold Blast ....ssesseseseseee|4°104 | 71680 | 17466 |17466=7 16 Coed-Talon (North Wales) Iron, No. 2, Hot Blast] 1°586 | 25818} 16279 16676=7 9 ;; Do. do, do. 1645 | 28086 | 17074 (Wiig Do. do. Cold Blast| 1-535 | 30102| 19610 Do. do. do. | 1568 | 28380 Lp de Ars es __ Compression, or the power to resist a crushing force.—In these experiments I shall confine myself to the resistance of short specimens; crushing, with few exceptions, only such as will break without bending. And if I should appear to pursue this and some other matters beyond the strict limits of the in- qu iry respecting the strength of hot and cold blast iron, I trust it will be excused, as my wish is to obtain some fixed principles where we have nothing but doubt and uncertainty. _ The tensile strength of cast iron is still a matter of dispute: the few direct experiments by Mr. Rennie and Captain Brown 4 Z2 340 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. give from 7 to 9 tons per inch, results not widely differing from those above ; they are noticed with some suspicion by Mr. Tredgold (Essay on Strength of Cast Iron, pages 91 and 92), who concludes from reasoning on the transverse strength of cast iron, according to the theory which he had adopted, that the direct tensile strength must be 20 tons or more. Mr. Barlow too, whose reasoning has better foundation than Tred- gold’s, concludes, whilst he gives these gentlemen’s results, that the strength must be upwards of 10 tons per square inch, (Treatise on the Strength of Timber and other Materials, art. 128), Iam not aware of any objection which can be brought against the tensile results given above, except some slight error which Mr. Barlow conceived (in his earlier work on the Strength of Timber, &c.) might arise from the use of testing machines, and that, in this case, would affect but four of the ex- periments; all the rest were made upon Mr. Fairbairn’s lever. I hope to explain the cause of this difference of opinion among our ablest inquirers at a future meeting. The resistance of materials to a crushing strain is equally a matter of doubt. Rondelet found (Traité de l Art de batir) that cubes of malleable iron, and prisms of various kinds of stone, were crushed with forces which were directly as the area, whilst from Mr. Rennie’s experiments, both upon cast iron and wood, it would appear that the resistance increases, particularly in the latter, in a much higher ratio than the area, (Mr. Barlow’s Treatise, Art. 112). 1 have endeavoured, by repeating with considerable variations the ingenious ex- periments of Mr. Rennie, to arrive at some definite conclu- sions. In order to effect this, it was thought best to crush the object between two flat surfaces, taking care that’ these were kept perfectly parallel, and that the ends of the prism to be crushed were turned parallel and at right angles to their axis, so that when the specimen was placed between the crushing surfaces its ends might be completely bedded upon them. For this purpose a hole 13 inch diameter was drilled through a block of cast iron about 5 or 6 inches square, and two steel bolts were made which just filled this hole, but passed easily through it; the shortest of these bolts was about 1} inch long, and the other about 5 inches; the ends of these bolts were © hardened, having previously been turned quite flat and per- pendicular to their axis, except one end of the larger bolt which was rounded. The specimen was crushed between the flat ends of these bolts, which were kept parallel by the block ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 341 of iron in which they were inserted. See fig. where A and B represent the bolts, with the prism C betweer them, and D E the block of iron. During the experiment the block and bolt B rested upon a flat surface of iron, and the rounded end of the bolt A was pressed upon by the lever. There was another hole drilled through the block at right angles to that previously described; this was done in order that the specimen might be examined during the experiment, and previous to it, to see that it was properly bedded. _ The accompanying sketch will show more clearly the mode of performing the experiment, in which the lever was always kept as nearly horizontal as possible. Other apparatus, not here shown, were used to lift up or lower the lever during the experiments. E _ The results are given in the following tables : SEVENTH REPORT—1837. pourroy yexayepinba Apreau aSpam wv ‘AuarapIp ayorq uwmnpoo yse] ay} UI sa[Suvjoat ayy, “aSUq S}T LO pus o]OYM oy} Sutavt{ ‘spua ayy Jo aUo WO yo Surpys o8pem v Aq aovjd uayey aavy 0} axnjovay ay) aataouoo Avur am “ytvator Aue ynoyjtm waals st JYSIOM Surysnid ayy aayM sasvo [je uy : ‘soSpa oy} punor paxoes9 pue paonpas (2) { poysnso (p) £saSpa ay} punos payors pur 4ey ynoqe o7 ssauyoryy ur pooper (9) ‘seSpa ay) punorpoyoeso puv pouaywy (7) ‘ pauayey ‘poyquinso you (») i nn 8G8IG OO8ET ‘Op. 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In that case, the prism, in cast iron at least, either does not bend before fracture, or bends very slightly, and therefore the fracture takes place by the two ends of the specimen forming cones or pyramids, which split the sides, and throw them out; or, as is more generally the case in cylinders, by a wedge sliding off, starting at one of the ends, and having the whole end for its base, as has been before mentioned; this wedge being at an angle dependent upon the nature of the material. In cast iron, this angle is, as will be seen further on, such that the height is somewhat less than 3 of the diameter; if the height of the specimen is less than the length of the wedge, the resistance is somewhat increased, and if the height be greater than from three to four times the diameter, the resist- ance, on account of the flexure of the specimen, will be de- creased. In estimating the strength of the iron from the above tables, I shall mostly confine myself to such specimens as vary from about the length of the wedge to twice its length, avoid- ing such results as are reduced by flexure. Taking then the results from the cylinders and prisms of different dimensions of base, giving the means, with the number of experiments from which they were taken, we have the following abstracts : FROM TABLE J.—HOT BLAST. Number | |Mean crush- Diameter of cylinder. _ | of expe- |Mean eg ing weight per General mean per square inch, riments, | 8 WSO: square inch. Ibs. Ibs. |} x 3 6426 | 130,909 4 | 14542 | 131665. | } 1214685 Ibs. = 54 tons 63 4 5 | 22,110 | 112,605 ene +e = 64 1 | 35,888 | 111,560 Prism, base ‘50 inch square. 3 | 25,104 | 100,416 f 100,106 ee do. base 1:00 x26 2 | 26,276 | 101,062 wes ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 345 FROM TABLE II.—COLD BLAST, | A A . Number | Mean crush- Diameter of cylinder in of expe. |Mean pmeb- ing weight per General mean per inch, parts of an inch. riments. |#98 Weight. | scuare inch. 25 tS = Eee Ibs. Ibs. p 6088 | 124,023 14,190 | 128,478 e 125,403 lbs. = 55 tons 193 7 | 24,290 | 123,708 2 2 3 cwt. + orfy Ble SS |e) 2 Equilateral triangle side “S66. 32,398 | 99,769 Squares, 3 inch the mis | side. 24,538 | 98, ‘ih Rectangles, base 1:00 i allsee lbs. = 44 tons 183 xX 243. 26,237 | 107,971 a Cylinders -45 inch di- | ameter and *75 high | (not in table). 2 | 15,369 96,634 | J The prisms, whose- bases were triangles, squares, rectan- gles, and the cylinders, last mentioned, were all cut out of the centre of a bar 1} inch square. It will be noticed that the cylinders in both the tables give much higher results per square inch than we have just found from the specimens cut out of the 14 inch bar. This the writer is inclined to attribute to no other cause but that they were mostly turned out of small cylinders cast for the purpose, which caused them to be harder than those from the middle of a larger mass. We will defer speaking of such comparative results as affect the general question of hot and cold blast iron, till all the evi- dence is obtained which the present paper will afford; drawing however, as we proceed, such other conclusions as seem to be made out from the experiments. Taking the mean crushing weight per square inch » as just ob- tained in the abstracts from the different cylinders in the Ist and énd tables, and retaining only the three first figures, we have From Ist table, diameter 43 253%, 32 Strength ) 131, 132, 118, 112. From 2nd _ do. aaiee ees og 124, 128, 124. The strengths per Square inch in each of these lines approach to an equality, particularly in the latter, where the areas of section vary as 1: 4; and the strength per inch is in _both cases represented by 124. In the former line the cylinders of 3 and 18 inch diameter give strengths varying as 131 to 112 per square inch. The areas here vary nearly as 1: 6°5, and the falling off in strength is about one-sixth. This ah diminution in the power of the larger cylinders to resist crushing, may be accounted for from those having been cut 346 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. out of a larger body of metal than the small ones; a matter which we have seen greatly reduces the strength. Admitting, then, that the strength per square inch in each of the preceding cases would have been the same if the iron had always been of equal hardness, we must conclude that ‘the resistance of short cylinders of cast iron to a crushing force is directly as the area.”* If we refer to the abstract from tables 1 and 2 for the mean strengths per square inch, as given by the equilateral triangle, the square, the rectangle, and the cylinder, we shall find them in the latter, 99,769, 98,152, 107,971, 96,364; in the former, 100,416, 101,062. The strength, 107,971 and 101,062, as given by the prisms whose base is a rectangle, is the greatest ;t and this may be accounted for from their superior breadth to that of the other specimens, and consequently, from their having in them more of the outside and harder part of the bar, out of which they were cut, than the others. In the other forms the difference of strength is but little; and therefore we may perhaps admit that “* difference of form of section has no influence upon the power of a short prism to bear a crushing force.” Mode of Fracture. (See Plate.) When a rigid body is broken by a‘ crushing force, which is prevented from acting after it has effected a rupture, it will be found not to be crumbledor reduced to a shapeless mass, but to be divided according to mathematical laws, and sometimes into very interesting forms of fracture. The accompanying plate will show how the fracture was effected in a variety of cases, and that these were all subject to one pervading law. The figures in the plate are of the same size as the specimens. Fig. 1 represents a cylinder before it was crushed; fig. 2 * Conceiving it desirable that this matter should be left without a doubt, and as Mr. Fairbairn had some very good teakwood which had been many years in store, 12 cylinders were turned whose diameters were ¥ inch, 1 inch, and 2 inches, 4 of each; the latter 8 out, of the same piece of wood; the height in each case was double the diameter: the strengths were as below. Cylinders 3 inch dia. Cylinders 1 inch dia. Cylinders 2 inches dia. 23385 10507 38909 2543 | Mean 9499 | Mean 89721 | Mean 2543 | 2439 10507 | 10171 41294 | 40304 23835 10171 . 41294 These quantities, taking the means, are nearly as 25,100 and 400, whichis the ratio of the areas, and therefore the strength is nearly as the area, though this varies as 4 and 16 to 1. + Rondelet (Zraité de ? Ari de bdtir, book 9, page 150) found that prisms of stone, whose base was a rectangle, as above, bore somewhat Jess than those with square bases of the same area. dG. 8 : 7 Report Brit. Assoc. — TLNI p 3 base. ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 347 represents a wedge broken off from the same cylinder, the point of the wedge being flattened by the crushing apparatus after the fracture. ‘There is a small crack in this wedge indi- cating a disposition to slide off in another direction, or rather to form a double wedge, nearly equilateral, having the diameter of the end of the cylinder for its base, and its height about half that of the former. The operation of this double wedge would be to split the cylinder and throw out its two sides. Figs. 3 and 4 represent another cylinder before and after crushing ; in fig. 4, a double wedge formed at each end threw out the opposite sides. Figs. 5 and 6 represent a cylinder before and after crushing ; in the latter, as in fig. 4, the ends of the figure have formed the bases of imperfectly formed cones, whose tendency has been to separate the sides. Fig. 7 is intended to represent one of these cones, the vertex of which is a sharp edge or point. Fig. 8 represents another cylinder of rather soft iron; the pressure was removed in the commencement of the fracture, and the circumference was found to be surrounded with parallel cracks both ways; the angle of these cracks with the base being that of the usual inclination of the wedge. Fig. 9 represents the appearance of a very short cylinder after fracture ; the vertex of the cone, formed upon the end not shown, has split the end here repre- sented, leaving a part in the middle unbroken; the opposite end is sound for a much greater central area than this, but its edges are a little broken. Fig. 10 represents a rectangle ;* and fig. 11 its appearance after fracture. One end of the specimen has been formed into a pyramid A, sharp pointed at D, which has split the opposite base and thrown off the end B, and the part C very nearly. The sides and angular piece at the end are lost. Fig. 12 represents a short rectangle before crushing ; figs. 13, 14, 15, the different appearances of specimens of the same size after fracture. In fig. 14 the fracture has been caused _ by a sliding off in the way of the diagonal; in fig. 15 the specimen slided off in the direction bc, as before, and was cracked through its whole length in the direction ad; in fig. 13, the top of the specimen formed the base of a wedge which had split the bottom, and the bottom itself had formed the base ofa wedge. Fig. 16 represents a rectangle of the same base as the preceding, but of double the height. Figs. 17, 18, 19, 20, represent its appearances as shewn by different specimens after fracture. Fig. 20, in which the parts are separated, shows a wedge AC D, which has for its base the bottom of * The prism is, in this and many other places, designated by the form of its 348 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. the prism; this wedge has, commencing at its vertex C, a sharp line C D, { inch long; and by the operation of its sides, the wedge has removed the parts E. and F, and separated the sides G and H, which before joined together at the top and formed part of the upper side of the prism. The part AB, adhering to the lower part of the wedge, and which had formed part of the side-of the prism, was nearly separated by the action of another wedge formed by the lower end of the part G, which formed a wedge not represented by the figure, but whose vertex formed a sharp line about ‘43 inch long in the direction IK. This wedge occupied the space between B and C D, and its tendency was to split off from the principal wedge the only remaining portion A B. Fig 21 represents a prism of the form of an equilateral triangle, and fig. 22 is its appearance after fracture. ‘The tendency is here, as before, for opposite wedges to be formed, which split off the angles and separate the sides. Figs. 23, 24, 25, give direct representations of the three sides. Angle of Wedge.—We have seen that when bodies are subjected to a crushing force, their fracture, if they do not break by bending, is caused by the operation of a cone or wedge, which seems, under various circumstances, to slide off at nearly aconstant angle. Ifa prismatic body, as for instance a short cylinder, be subjected to a crushing force, there seems no reason why fracture should take place one way more than another; there is usually too in soft irons a bulging out in every direction round the cylinder, which shows that it is equally strained all round: a matter which is otherwise exem- plified in fig. 8. If then the cylinder be longer than the wedge, or than the two cones which are always in operation at the ends during crushing, it is evident that the angle of the wedge and cones, which is the same, will depend upon the nature of the material, and the cones must be isosceles. Cylinders longer than the wedge usually slide off in one direction with- out showing the cones, but some examples in other forms have been obtained; as for instance, in the fracture of a rect- angular specimen whose base was 1°00x°26, and its height 50 inch (Table I.), the rupture took place by wedges, which appeared to be isosceles, being formed at the top and bottom of the ends of the specimen, and dividing the sides in the middle, (as in the fig. -) In cases however where the height of the specimen was not ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON, 349 equal to that of the two opposing or double wedges, then these cones and wedges could not be isosceles after fracture com- menced. It is shown by several of the figures (figs. 4, 6, bd, 13, 20, &c.) how fracture takes place, and that in such eases the wedges do not meet directly and crush their opponents, but have sharp points and slip past each other to effect the destruction of the piece of which they are formed. It is evi- dent therefore that the angles, which the sides of these wedges make with their base, cannot in this case be equal; this is shown by the rectangles one inch high, and it was found to exist in a higher degree in the fracture of those of half the height. In these the angle with the base was further reduced, through an almost necessary tendency of the specimen to divide itself in the diagonal; though the angle there was less, on account of the compression of the prism, than the natural angle in this material. The angle of the wedge as obtained from different specimens is as follows : Cylinders. . DO FAO 1 OTFl pfgo I , oe, No. 2, 54 fon 1, 10’, Mean 55° 11! Bae, es Nee os". iy 56°, 58°, 56°, Do. 57° 8! Coed-Talon, No. 2, 55°, 56°, 56°, 531°, 53°, 49° Do. 53° 40! Mean angles from cones 562°, 542°, 571° - Do. 56° 10! Mean from the whole, being 21 cylinders of various) - 5° gal lengths. ° : : : : - Nn ee Rectangular prisms 1 inch high, Carron Iron, No. 3, angles made by the sides of the double wedge, with the base. Cold Blast 54° 58 1 ae aot Blast By by ti h, 53° SMean 56° 43! 5410 60 Rectangular prisms } inch high, Carron Iron, 48°, 51°, 52°, 54°, 57°, 52°, - Mean 52° 40/ Mean angle from the above rectangular prisms . 54° 41! Prisms, Base +50 x °50 inch. Carron Iron, No.2. . . 53°, 54° » Mean 53° 30! 350 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. From the preceding examination of the angles obtained from specimens of different forms and lengths, it appears that amidst great anomalies, there is, taking the mean results, a considerable approach to equality, as is more particularly shown from the angles of the cylinders and rectangular prisms; and this approach would doubtless have been greater and the anomalies less if the specimens had always been longer than the wedge. The defect in the angle from this cause is evident in the shorter rectangular prisms, and has been alluded to before. We may assume therefore, without assignable error, that in the crushing of short cast iron prisms of various forms, longer than the wedge, the angle of fracture will be the same. This simple assumption, if admitted, would prove at once, not only in this material but in others, which break in the same manner, the proportionality of the crushing force in different forms to the area; since the area of fracture would always be equal to the direct transverse area multiplied by a constant quantity de- pendent upon the material. The preceding experiments on crushing have been confined to one sort of iron, the Carron No. 2, hot and cold blast. The results from other irons are given in the following table :— 51 3 - . ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRO? 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Ratio of Tensile to compressive forces in Cast Iron. Having obtained the forces per square inch necessary to tear asunder and to crush masses of cast iron of the kinds previously enumerated, we will seek for the ratio of these forces, taking the breaking weights from the preceding table and that on tension. Compressive force | Tensile force Description of metal. per square inch. | per sq. inch. Ratio. Devon Iron, No.3. Hot blast 145,435 21,907 6-638 : 1 Buffery Iron, No.1. Hot Blast. 86,397 13,434 6-431: 1 do. No.1, Cold Blast. 93,385 17,466 5°346: 1 Coed-Talon Iron, No.2. Hot Blast. 82,734 16,676 4-961 :1 do. » Cold Blast, 81,770 18,855 4-337 : 1 Carron Iron, No,2. Hot Blast. 108,540 13,505 8-037 : 1 do. » Cold Blast. 106,375 16,683 6376 :1 Carron Iron, No.3. Hot Blast. 133,440 17,755 7515: 1 do. ss Cold Blast. 115,442 14,200 8-129: 1 Before quitting the subject of compression, I may mention that, in experiments upon various bodies besides cast iron, a tendency to form cones or pyramids in the fracture was ob- servable, showing that the same laws were in operation in these as have been developed in the experiments upon cast iron. For instance, in the crushing of short cylinders of bone obtained from the thigh of an ox, fracture always took place by cones or wedges, In marble the same result was frequently obser- vable, though less obvious than in iron, through a disposition to split in the direction of the strata. On the power of timber of various kinds to resist a crushing force, I have, through the liberal views of Mr. Fairbairn, made a considerable number of experiments, with an apparatus si- milar to that employed in the crushing of cast iron, but much larger. In this material, though fibrous, fracture always took place by wedges sliding off, or by cones or wedges splitting the prism in the manner of cast iron, though at a much less angle with the horizon than in that metal. In the crushing of malleable iron likewise, short specimens always bulge out in the middle through the operation of the opposing cones or pyramids formed at their bases. As this principle is found to obtain in the crushing of short — bodies so widely different as bones, marble*, timber of all kinds, * Rondelet (Traité de l Art de bdtir) crushed stones of various kinds, and © has given the forms of pyramids obtained from crushing prisms with square bases. —_—_ ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 353 cast iron, malleable iron, we may therefore assume that it is in operation in the crushing of all rigid bodies, and consequently that, in any particular one, the resistance will be as the area of its section. I may perhaps mention that this subject ought to be studied in conjunction with optics and crystallization. The singular structure of the mineral called analcime, or cubizite, as shown by polarized light, and given by Sir David Brewster, Optics, chap. xxv., has so much the appearance of some of our frac- tures, as to lead one to conceive that it may have arisen from compression. Transverse strength.—It is to ascertain the resistance of materials to a transverse strain that the efforts of experiment- ers have chiefly been directed. One reason for this seems to be the great facility with which bodies can be broken this way comparatively with others, which require large weights or complex machinery, and often considerable attention to theo- retical requirements. In making the following experiments, it has been the au- thor’s aim, whilst he kept in view the inquiry respecting hot and cold blast iron, to make the results subservient to some other purposes, besides giving an extended view of the appli- cation of these irons. ‘ As the inquiry was a comparative one, and required that a _ number of experiments, and those similar to each other, should _ be made upon each iron from any particular place, several models were made, and castings, both of hot and cold blast _ iron, obtained from them; and as it seemed desirable to trust in these experiments as little as possible to theory, some bars, one inch square, were always obtained from the same model. From these, and from others, a satisfactory comparison of the relative strengths of the irons would have been obtained with- out the use of theory, could the castings have always been got _ of the exact size of the model; but as small deviations in this _ respect were unavoidable, theory was employed to effect the slight reduction in the results of each bar to what they would _ have been if the bars had been of the exact dimensions of the - models. __ All the bars used in these comparisons are uniform and of _ the same length, and the theoretical assumptions with regard _ tothe strength and deflection are of the simplest and most _ generally admitted kind. They are as below, the strength in _ rectangular bars is taken as the breadth multiplied by the _ square of the depth, and the ultimate deflection is supposed __ to be inversely as the depth. To these there has been added a VOL vi. 1837. QA 354 : SEVENTH REPORT—1837. » Ne another, namely, that the power of bearing an horizontal im- pact from a given weight is measured by the strength of the beam multiplied by its ultimate deflection. This last assump- tion supposes that all cast-iron bars of the same dimensions in our experiments are of the same weight, and that the de- flection of a beam up to the breaking weight would be as the pressure. Neither of these is true, they are only approxi- mations ; but the difference in the weights of cast-iron bars of equal size is very little, and taking them as the same, it may be inferred from my paper on Impact upon Beams (Fifth Re- port of the British Association), that the assumption above gives results near enough for practice. After the following tables, therefore, there will always be given a summary of the strengths and deflections, reduced to what they would have been supposing the bar to be of the exact size of the model; and attached to these there will be the other values mentioned above, representing the power of the beam to bear impact. The modulus of elasticity is set down that it may serve as a measure of the comparative stiffness of the irons. It is given in pounds per square inch. The ultimate deflection attached to each experiment was derived from the results last obtained, and as these results were usually more numerous than those set down, the deflec- tion cannot often be calculated from those which remain, but is nearer to the truth than those which might be obtained from the remaining ones. In all the future experiments, the bars were cast 5 feet long, and were supported on props 4 feet 6 inches asunder, except it is otherwise mentioned, which will only be found in two cases. 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F0S SO. | $8. | StF eZ. 268 020. | 19. | 98s 0S. | 08% 200. | OF. ira 6z- | gor ost. | 3It qtr =. es | 88) Fe as, Pee Ro Se a=] 5 10.1 “Op Jo Wypeatg 10.1 ‘req Jo yydoq *G yuautIad xy “oTPPIUL ayy wWoJF YOUT au aynu “Tut B J[eYy Ur ayo1g *sayour Ut uoldapeq “sq 00.1 ‘op Jo yypearg 00.1 “req Jo y3daq *[ quouttzedxay *JOpUNSR SdOUr 9 "ON ‘OI UAV JO YISusIVg osIOASUBIT, OY} UIeZIIDSe 03 opeUT sjuaMTIedxg jo s}[Nsexy ‘TIL 2T8VLL 367 ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. “urede “JepuNnse UO} uo qnd ugeq pey “sq, Zuroq qit 1109304 944 *89L. = uol} “696. = ol, “8g. = Uuol} *“Burpeoy Joye aynu_ |] SFP YS [OA oy Toye *gZ. = u0ly uo uorsua} Aq ayorg | ~oapop ayeunngty *.* || -sapgep ajeumIQ *.* || -sepap ayeungTA *." || ~rur e yey UT ayorg || oynutUE e F UL exorg |) ~d9pep oyeWNTD °° ax01q| 660% Lo. | S88. | #Z11Z ayOIq| Zee ayo1q|) FST gro. | 92%. | 89061 10. | 8t%..| 8608 gg. |, S8aI 6s. | 881 080. | OFZ. | S969T ayorq) ZSgtoT L0G. | ¥18% Zo. | Z8sl 1g. GEBT sto. | 202. | Zostt | ato. | 2ST. | €696 |] 800. | 40z. | 099% ZO. | 2h | OBTtT Gl0. | OF. OZIT 08. BrP ax01q| sh eto. | Zor. | tsZot | 110. | 861. | Zgg8 || 200. | GBI. | gare er. | 800T Ip. 8001 gl. 0GF €. 0r S8I. | OFOOT 10. | Zot. | o82Z |} 900. | 891. | Z0%s Ze. | 968 os.. | 968 10. | 04. | 268 89. | c6e Z00. | Oat. | $696 Zul. | 962 || #00. | TST. | SZ6I ze. | #82 Ig. $82 69. Ose G00. | 9. POE ¥00- | 960. | 0822 Il. | 8629 |} FOO. | cet. | #921 Zi. | tly lo. alg goo. | Os. 083 100. | 6s. 98s G00. | 060. | #924 SOI. | 8889 || €00- | SII. | O8ST 10. | 83. | ogg G00. | 3 | 09g ZOO. | Sh | 39% Gr. | 082 €80. | 8629 Zoo. | 260. | Zosg 260. |} gost 10. | 81. | 8 £00. | 0%. | FOS OF. | 26 6g. OG 040. | Zog¢ goo. | 680. | core || ENO. | OOT. | ZEST |] FOO. | OST. | GbE Zl. | 8tF G6z- | 891 6c. | sot 890. | 9s6r 80. | 986r + | 880. | ozIT GI. | ose €I. gee S61. ZI 61. GIT ey] ¢| jee] ¢]. [ee] 2} /E8} 2 BE) LB VER] 2 EE Oe ¥ ‘ oe - 5 oe ,, 5 oo" e = se 6 ES oo ‘ =a-4 Sis" s} im ra 2S a #S 15 28 2S 2S eS 25 9S e3 2% 7S o3 eS 38 8 73 39S ze eS Ps 5 BS] oF PS] oF ae} 5 Be] 5 Bel & | | SI- | PLL. | Beee eyorq | SBP | zl: | 69 | 8608 eqorq | ZOE || LIZ | GFT | StF etorq | 067 OOI- | £19: | £82 || OL | 689. | PL8G | OST. | SGI | B6E eyorq | oop |] OG | OFT | BFF ¥80- gg. 0S96 80- 9g. 0296 || OOT- 00-1 9€€ || OLT- 6&1 StF OST: 66-1 668 8S0- GEr- G0G6E || S80- bP: GOCE || 9FO- | OT9- VGG €80- | 896: 98€ Gol: 00-T | 9€& 280: Séé- PSL 9€0- GEE: PSLL || 900: | SZé- éIL 960: | £8% ¥GG 0g0- | éI9- VEG G0- &- 90€T 020- GES: 9081 €00- £6 800: | 8Lé- raat T10- 8é- 4 GIT Z10: L81- é801 FI0- gsi- e801 i = 98 S00- = cot 010- ee ° *soyout Ut “sq “sour UL “sq *sayoutl UT *8qT *soqour Ur ‘sq . “sayoutl UT “Sq PS | uonoapod | ur qysieqg |] “99S uowsoyacr| ur qysieq, || “°S uonsepeq |urqysieys || “2S | uonoagad |uraysiam || “IS | wovoaped| Ur INSTA | ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. “sql £09 “op Jo 3yS19\ “sq 19 “op Jo34S1aA4 |} 20 St ‘sat st “opsorqaena || -20 / -sqy ot “op Jo quseM, |] “Z0.¢ “sat gop Jo ISM 86-T “""""""** “op Jo YpeaIg 66.1 *""""""*op Jo YIpRatg $30.1 “"""""* ‘op Jo yypearg FIO.1 “""* ‘op Jo Ipeaig 006. Secchi ae ap Sear 86.1 “tt -18q Jo Yydaq 00.2 sree aeq Jo Yd. 010.1 “*""* xeq Jo yydeq S101 “ee seq. go mydaq ¥00-1 gq Jo WIGEC *¢ quauitaadxi “7 yuoultedxy S queunrodxq “GZ quomredxg *T quouiedxg Be _, Shi PICO itten aie = eet ch el eee i a Nae BFE a St 3 2 ES 372 SEVENTH REPORT—1837, General Abstract of transverse strengths. In the following abstract the transverse strengths of hot and cold blast irons to bear pressure and impact will be given, together with the ratio of these strengths. The comparison will be made between the results of bars from the same models, taking the reduced results, where such reduction has been made. Carron Iron No. 2. Strength of Irons. Power to bear impact. Ratio of strengths. Z| Ej . Ratio. Cola Blast Tron. | Hot Blast tron, [FBEstrenethofColal 8 | ee |The power ot Col presented as 1000. || S gt sented as 1000. a 492 469 1000 : 953-2 || 686 677-2| 1000 : 987-1 Q 509 456 1000 : 895-8 || 711| 6493} 1000: 913-2 = 429 465 1000 : 1083-9 || 493 | 532-0] 1000 : 1079-1 Bt 449 475 1000 : 1057-9 || 1481 | 1598-7 | 1000 : 1079-4 3 457 429 1000 : 9387 || 2601 | 2744-2 | 1000 : 1055-0 Fs 3750 3843 1000 : 1024-8 || 141) 154 1000 : 1092-2 @ 10957 : .1 || 8891 | 3087 1000: 9103 J 10362 { a 19 } 10058 1000: 970-1 eee ee | ee Nees —-——. 359 | 458-6 | 1000 : 1277-4 Mean| 1000: 989-1 —=——$ = — Mean 1000: 1005-1 = 266 280 1000 : 1052-6 28 1050 980 1000 : 933-3 Beh 315 17 p742 1000: 910-4 me 677| 728 1000 : 1075-0 5 Mean} 1000 : 992:8 General Mean} 1000 : 990-9 Devon No. 3 Iron. 448 504 1000 : 1125-0 || 353-9} 589-2 | 1000 : 1664-8 448 570 1000 : 1272:3 || 489-5/1761-7 | 1000 : 3598-9 890 1456 1000 : 1635-9 || 921-8/2747 | 1000 : 2980-0 1702°3/4935 1000 : 2899-0 3389 5183 1000 : 1529:3 ——_ 10133 15422 1000 : 1521-9 Mean 1000: 2785-6 | === —— eee Mean 1000 : 1416-9 Buffery No. 1 Iron. 491 464 1000 : 945-0 || 721-19) 721-5} 1000 : 1000-4 437 437 1000 : 1000:0 |/2341°6 [2163-2] 1000 : 923-8 462 409 1000 : 885-7 ————- 3057 2975 1000 : 9731 Mean 1000; 962-1) 3424 2903 1000: 850-1 —_—_—_ —_— Mean 1000: 930-7 é - . WP fp Ta w Se ie aS ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 373 Having now subjected the irons which are tried in this paper to a variety of strains, and given the results under their pro- per heads, a summary of the whole will be added, with remarks to show the general bearing upon the question of Hot and Cold Blast Iron. Recapitulation. Taking only the means from all the experiments in the present paper, and attaching to each value a number, in a parenthesis, indicative of the quantity of experiments from which it has been derived, we have as below :— Carron Iron No. 2. Rati : Cold Blast. | Hot Blast. | Cold Blast by 1000 Tensile strength in Ibs. per Square inch........s.ceceeeeeees } Aes (2) 13505 (3) | 1000: 809 Compressive strength in lbs. per inch from castings torn 106375 (8) | 108540(2) | 1000 : 1020] x ASUNGET »..seeeeeeeeeeneeee tenes = room prisms of cata 100631 (4) | 100738 (2) | 1000 : 1001 5 Do. from cylinders ..........s.08 125403 (13); 121685 (13); 1000: 970 J a Transverse strength from all the experiments ..........00 AEN (he eee CLD) soetseens (13) 1000 : 991 ‘| Power to resist impact .....ccscc0.| ceseecees (Diane saneoes (9) | 1000 : 1005 Transverse strength of barsone inch square in Ibs............. aT Ke) 463 (3) | 1000: 973 Ultimate deflection of do. in in.| 1:3138(3) | _—_-1387 (3) | 1000 : 1018 Modulusof elasticityinlbs. per square inch .........00. saneanes } 17270500 (2) |16085000 (2) | 1000: 931 Specific gravity ...... HS Peper 7066 7046 1000 : 997 Devon Iron No. 3. Ea ESE TMS a BEN EP Da ae Ne A Tensile strength ......... Sepneses|caerscens sesseeeee] 21907 (1) Compressive strength ......sssselecceecsscessceesen 145435 (4) Transverse ditto from the ex- Beats ne } hae Giikeeten: (5)| 1000 : 1417 Power to resist impact ..... see-es|eoecee neha (A) |esseeeeeeees (4) | 1000 : 2786 Transverse strength of bars One inch square ...........006 } HAS (2) 537 (2) | 1000 : 1199 Ultimate deflection ditto......... 79 (2) 1:09 (2) | 1000 : 1380 Modulus of elasticity ditto ...... 22907700 (2) |22473650 (2)| 1000: 981 Specific gravity ............ peat. 7295 (4) 7229 (2)| 1000: 991 a Buffery Iron No. 1. ie ar ae Gn he a Tensile strength ........ssessesees 17466 (1) 13434 (1) | 1000: 769 Compressive ditto..........sssssees 93366 (4) 86397 (4) | 1000: 925 Transverse itt ...ssseccssseecees|eecessveeees (D) faaees Hiektntes (5)} 1000: 931 Power to resist nay gyitich peeee sec duae (2): [uedabacencns (2) | 1000: 963 ‘Transverse strength of bars one inch Wbiiare sialbi salle ABB XS) 436 (3) / 1000: 942 Ultimate deflection ditto ......... 1:55 (3) 1:64 (3) |, 1000 : 1058 Modulus of elasticity ditto ...... 15381200 (2) |13730500 (2) | 1000: 893 Specific gravity .........cssssscasees 079 6998 1000 : 989 374 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Coed-Talon Iron, No. 2. | Cold Blast. Hot Blast. Cold Beet by 100s, Tensile strength .....sesceseseeee | 18855 (2)| 16676 (2)| 1000: 884 ...| 81770 (4)| 82739 (4)| 1000 : 1012 Compressive do . ve) 6955 (4) 6968 (3) | 1000 : 1002 Specific gravity Carron Iron No. 3. Tensile strength .......csseseerees 14200 (2)| 17755 (2) | 1000 : 1250 Compressive ditto..s.c:ceseeseesees 115442 (4)| 133440 (3)| 1000 : 1156 Specific gravity ....s.csessveeseesees 7135 (1) 7056 (1)| 1000: 989 Of the three columns of numbers in the table above, the first is the strength or other quality in the cold blast iron; the second is that in the hot blast; and the third is the ratio of these quantities. The results in this table contain nearly the whole information relative to the question of hot and cold blast iron that the pre- ceding research affords ; and before adverting to them it may be mentioned that it is usual for the makers of cast-iron to di- vide it, when taken from the furnace, into three classes, called Nos. 1, 2, 3, differing from each other in the appearance and qualities of the material. No. 1 contains the softest and richest irons, those which have the largest crystals; No. 3, the hardest and densest irons, those with the least crystals; and No. 2, irons intermediate between the former two descriptions. Beginning with the No.1 iron, of which we have a specimen from the Buffery Iron Works, a few miles from Birmingham, we find the cold blast iron somewhat surpassing the hot blast in all the following particulars—direct tensile strength, compress- ive strength, transverse strength, power to resist impact, mo- dulus of elasticity or stiffness, specific gravity ; whilst the only numerical advantage possessed by the hot blast iron is that it bends a little more than the cold blast before it breaks. In the irons of the quality No. 2 the case seems in some de- gree different ; in these the advantages of the rival kinds seem to be more nearly balanced. They are still, however, rather in favour of the cold blast. Referring to the No. 2 iron, from the Carron Works in Scotland, we find the tensile, compressive, and transverse © strengths, together with the modulus of elasticity and specific gravity, all higher in the cold blast iron than the hot blast, whilst the ultimate deflection and power of sustaining impact are ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 375 greater in the hot blast. The cold blast iron is the better, but the difference is very small. In the iron No. 2, from the Coed-Talon Works in North Wales, the tensile strength is greater in the cold blast than in the hot ; but the resistance to compression is higher in the latter than the former, and that is the case with the specific gravity. So far as my experiments have proceeded, the irons of No. 1 have been deteriorated by the hot blast ; those of No. 2 ap- pear also to have been slightly injured by it; whilst the irons of No. 3 seem to have benefited by its mollifying powers. The Carron iron No. 3, hot blast, resists both tension and compression with considerably more energy than that made with the cold blast; and the No. 3 hot blast iron from the Devon Works, in Scotland, is one of the strongest cast-irons I have seen, whilst that made with the cold blast is compara- tively weak, though its specific gravity is very high, and higher than in the hot. The extreme hardness of the cold blast De- von iron above prevented many experiments that would other- wise have been made upon it, no tools being hard enough to form the specimens. The difference of strength in the Devon irons is peculiarly striking. From the evidence here brought forward, it is rendered ex- ceedingly probable that the introduction of a heated blast into the manufacture of cast iron has injured the softer irons, whilst it has frequently mollified and improved those of a harder nature; and considering the small deterioration that the irons of the quality No. 2 have sustained, and the apparent henefit to those of No. 3, together with the great saving effected by the heated blast, there seems good reason for the process be- coming as general as it has done. Additional evidence will be obtained from the experiments in the next paper. : ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CASTIRON. 377 On the Strength and other Properties of Cast Iron obtained from the Hot and Cold Blast. By W. Fairsarrn, Esq. Tue collecting of material for ascertaining the comparative values of iron, made from the hot and cold blast, has been a work of no small labour and expense. The chief difficulties arose from the greater part of the works in this country having only one sort of iron: large quantities of both sorts were ob- tained ; but, excepting those irons experimented upon, none could be found for comparison, nor any on which we could de- pend for analogous results. Nearly the whole of the Scotch irons are now prepared by the hot blast; and, with few exceptions, we may consider those of this country and Wales produced under circumstances pre- cisely similar. The great saving effected in the process of smelting by heated air, is in itself a sufficient inducement for its extended application; and in those districts where the iron is not deteriorated, there cannot exist a doubt as to the advan- tages derivable from its introduction. In confirmation of this opi-. nion, it may be important to know, that one-half or three-fourths of the British ores are now reduced by heated air. In the Staf- _ fordshire and Shropshire districts it has become almost univer- sal; and in North and South Wales the old process is rapidly giving way to the more economical application of the hot blast. _ In Yorkshire it has been tried with indifferent success, first at the Low Moor Iron Works, near Bradford, and more recently at the Milton Works, near Sheffield. The proprietors of the for- mer establishment persevered for some time in the use of the hot blast, but after repeated trials and experiments (part of which are briefly detailed in this Report), they abandoned the _ process, as injurious to the material, and reconstructed the old apparatus for the cold blast. I believe at the present moment they use air at the tempera- ture of the atmosphere: it is forced from the blowing cylinder into a dry receiver, and from thence into the furnace. Whether the failure which took place at the Low Moor was owing to some peculiarity in the ores, or from the presence of sulphur in the fuel, I am unable to determine. It is however obvious, that a considerable deterioration of strength was the consequence ; and from that cause, and that alone, I am informed, the hot blast was discontinued. At the Milton Works, the heated air is still in use; and al- 378 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. though the iron produced is inferior in strength to that made at the neighbouring works, the Elsicar, where the cold blast is used, it is nevertheless much improved by the introduction of a small proportion of the Ulverstone ores, about 6 per cent., in combi- nation with those found in the district. Notwithstanding the unfavourable circumstances attending the application of the hot plast in the reduction of the York- shire ores, the same results were not obtained in its application to the Scotch iron. In those a deterioration takes place less frequently, as will be seen from the experiments. Taking a general mean of the experiments in both cases, the difference is not considerable ; and, with the exception of the Yorkshire irons, I should consider the results in no way unfa- vourable to the hot blast: as respects fluidity, appearance, &e,, I should rather deem them favourable than otherwise. Previous to commencing the experiments, it was considered desirable to collect as large an assortment of iron of both kinds as possible; and in order to avoid an improper selection, direct application was made to the iron masters in the first instance, and subsequently numerous samples were received through the medium of persons whose interests were in no way identified with this inquiry. In this way we kept clear of preconceived opinions, and col- lected a mass of material of almost every description, Out of nearly one hundred specimens, only six could be found answer- ing the description of hot and cold blast ; viz. the Carron, Devon, Buffery, Coed-Talon, and perhaps the Elsicar and Milton,* The difficulties thus enumerated, and the scarcity of the com- parative metals, have of necessity confined our investigations to the above-named irons: they are consequently more limited than we could wish; but, at the same time, of such a nature as, I trust, will lead to important results. As an account of the greater portion of the irons collected could not be introduced into these Reports, I was nevertheless induced to examine them minutely ; and having tested the whole by care- ful experiment, the results will be found in a distinct form in the sixth volume of the Manchester Memoirs, now in the press. * Since the above was written, it was deemed expedient to renew the appli- cation to the Carron Company for further supplies of their iron, in order to in- vestigate its nature with increased attention, in addition to the experiments of — last year. Mr. Hodgkinson expressed a wish to renew his experiments on the tensile forces of this iron, and also to repeat those with sections of the T form, which were found defective in former experiments. For this purpose a second application was made, through Mr. Murray of Glasgow, to the Company, who immediately furnished the necessary samples. Other sorts, the Muirkirk, the Coed-Talon No. 3, including the Carron No. 3 irons, have been obtained, and their results will be given in the present paper. alia tial a a ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 379 After the request of the Association, expressed to Mr. Hodg- kinson and myself, that an inquiry should be instituted into the comparative merits of iron made from hot and cold blast, nearly ten months elapsed before the necessary materials could be ob- tained. In fact, the experiments would have been of the most meagre description, for want of samples, but for the friendly co- operation and assistance of Mr. Murray, of the Monkland Iron Works. To that gentleman we are indebted for the whole of the Scotch irons, exclusive of other valuable information relative to the fuel and analysis of the ores; I have therefore great plea- sure in thus publicly expressing my acknowledgments. Before entering upon the experiments, I made application to the greater part of the works from whence iron was received, for information relative to the nature of the ores, fuel, flux, &c. ; also for such analyses as the proprietors might be enabled or disposed to furnish, including the temperature of the air used in the process of smelting. To these inquiries I received replies which, although of great importance in themselves, could not with propriety be intro- duced into this report.* During the progress of the investigation, it was found desi- rable for Mr. Hodgkinson and myself to divide our labours ; and in order to examine the different irons with the utmost care, the experiments were classed and apportioned in the man- ner described in Mr. Hodgkinson’s report. This division was attended with considerable benefit, as it ex- cited a closer investigation of the subject ; and the whole of the experiments being made at my works, gave a facility for com- parison that could not otherwise be obtained. * Mr. Murray, of the Monkland Iron Works, has, however, supplied me with the following particulars relative to the Scotch irons, viz. the Carron and Devon irons, which are derived, like most of the Scotch metals, from argillaceous carbonate of iron, and are found in the coal-basins of the country. Some of the poorer ores are found in balls imbedded in argillaceous schistus, and worked or turned out with the coal; but the principal is a seam of black hand, at a depth of 15 to 25 fathoms under the splint, or fifth seam of coal, of the Lanark- shire basin. This iron-stone varies from 9 to 15 inches in thickness, and con- tains from 35 to 40 per cent. of iron. Two-thirds of this ore is generally used to each charge, and one-third of the poorer balls and bands containing from 20 to 25 per cent.—Dr. Colquhoun analyzed the black band ore, whicn gave _ Carbonic acid....... bencadatghep eased sa WIUIING « odescaceucsqatecssocatavseapecUroa Protoxide Of i0N.....sceeeeseeeee 53°08 | Peroxide of iron.........scceecseeess 0-28 STEN Casali a cp we anv. wehavnoaersdea decay 8:38 | Calcareous or bituminous matter. 3:08 Magnesia...sccsccssssersecsseeseee 1°77 | Moisture and loss....cscsessesseeeee 1°41 Abaca ie daaksl ksawssaddsenegsahk 1:40 100-000 The specific gravity of this ore is 3°0553, colour close brown. The ore con- tains an intermixture of imbedded bivalve shells, 380 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. In describing the following experiments, I will first give the tables and results on the transverse or more usually investigated species of strain, where the experiment was made without loss of time, and which may be considered a continuation of the same class of experiments by Mr. Hodgkinson. We shall then proceed to experiments on the Coed-Talon bars, in relation to time or indefinite strain. Afterwards we shall exhibit others on the effects of temperature ; and finally close with a general sum- mary of results. Before presenting the experiments in their tabulated forms, it may be necessary to supply a brief description of each class, in order to show the methods adopted, and how the results were obtained.—For this purpose, a number of models were prepared, to be 1 inch and 14 inches square; and the metals, both hot and cold blast, were run into the form of those mo- dels. But as there is generally a slight deviation in the size of the casting from that of the model, the dimensions of the bars were accurately measured at the place of fracture, and the results reduced (when practicable) by calculation. to what they would have been if cast to the exact size of the model. This was done to ensure more accurate comparisons in the strength and other mechanical properties of the bars. The mode of re- duction is described in the preceding report. In addition to the methods herein adopted to determine the strength, tenacity, and value of the different irons made from hot and cold blast, I conceived it necessary to institute a series of microscopic observations ; to examine with great minuteness the appearance of the fracture, and by magnifying the crystals, to elucidate such visible indications of the fluidity, strength, and ductility of the irons, as would distinguish the qualities of the different numbers known in commerce by the name of No. 1, 2, and 3 iron. I also pursued in other respects a close and minute examina- tion of the different specimens of hot and cold blast iron, and by turning, filing, grinding, &c., endeavoured to discover their properties in relation to each other, and their adaptation to the arts. As the Carron No. 2 irons, hot and cold blast, were among the first we obtained, I have, in the description of the fractures attached to each table of experiments, made the Carron No. 2 cold blast iron the basis of comparison. It may therefore be proper to give here the following short description of it. This iron, when viewed with a microscope, presents a dull grey colour, finely granulated, with an appearance of greater porosity in the centre than round the extreme edges of the frac- ture. It is a free-working iron, easily cut with the turning tool, but indicates stiffness under the file. ExPERIMENT 1. Depth of bar, 1:042 readth of do. 1°021 Distance between supports, 4 ft. Gin. Weight of bar, 5 ft. long, 163 lbs. “Weight in Ibs. Deflection in inches. Defiection, Load removed. 1.*. Ultimate de- lection, = 1:394. Broke 13 inch |from the centre. ‘ | | Gin. between EXPERIMENT 2. Depth of bar, 1°061 Breadth of do. 1:018 Distance between supports, 4 ft. 6 in. Weight of bar, 5ft. long, 16 lbs. 2 oz. Weight in lbs. Deflection in inches. Deflection, Load removed. .. Ultimate deflec- tion, = 1-452. | Experiment Ist, bar 4 ft. {Experiment 2nd, bar 4 ft, | Gin. between supports..... | Experiment 8rd, bar 4 ft. | 6 in. between supports..... Experiment 4th, bar 2 ft. 3 in. between supports..... xperiment 5th, bar 2 ft. 3 in. between supports..... Broke at the cen- EXPERIMENT 3. Depth of bar, 1°04 Breadth of do. 1:02 Distance between supports, 4 ft. 6 in. Weight of bar, 5ft. long, 15 lbs. 9 oz. Z|) | ¢8 fe su4|.2o -= |.2%|/og | 28 | Seo ‘Oo Oo As e/a TS 28 | -072| ... 56 | 125) + 112 | -269]-011 168 | -420) -024 224 | -584 | -042 280 | -748 | 064 336 | -924) -085 392 |1:105 | -123 448 1-315 | -185 462 |broke .. Ultimate deflec- tion, = 1:364, Broke 34 an inch tre. Modulus of Specific | elasticity in gravity. | lbs. per square inch. 6:951 supports. .... } 6:916 14680000 } 6:916 13947000 } 7:038 14285000 Mean...| 6-955 14304000 from the centre. ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON, ExrrERIMENtT 4, Depth of bar, 1-076 Breadth of do. 1:04 Distance between supports, 2 ft. 3 in. Fs Ge a a ca . > 2 | 2838 » [s) o Vv Pea dea SP °o oO Q 3 B |A 4 112] -028 224 | -060 336 | -092 | + 448 | -125 | 006 560] +162 | -008 672 | -203 |-010 784 | -242 | -016 896 | -290 | -025 952 | 316 1008 |broke .". Ultimate deflec- tion, = ‘341, Broke 12 inch from the centre. .. Ultimate deflec- 381 Taste I.—North Wales Iron.—Coed-Talon No. 2 Pig-Iron, Cold Blast. EXpERIMENT 5. Depth of bar, 1-062 Breadth of do. 1:009 Distance between supports, 2 ft, Sin. a |S Pas als als = s Fol. 3) 3s] 36 oo |e | Beg ‘oO vo QA os BIA 4 112 | -030 224 |-064 | 4 336 |-096 | -005 448 |-134 | -007 560 | +172 |-010 672 |-215 |-014 784 |-258 | -020 896 | -308 | -028 952 |broke tion, = °332. Broke = an inch z from the centre. The microscopic appearance of this iron is a deeper grey colour than is exhibited in the Carron No. 2 cold blast; itis also more open than it is in the centre of the bar, with a diminution of the crystals as they approach the exterior skin. It is less ductile than the hot blast, and inferior to it in the power of resisting impact. : Results reduced to those of bars 1:00 inch square. ee Breaking} Ultimate z roduct 6 x si deflection g z sisting i a @). (d). pact. 404-2 | 1-453 587-3 403-1 | 1540 | 620-7 4188 1-419 594-2 408-7 | 1-470 | 600-7 ‘367 807-2 353 295°3 360 296°2 382 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Taste II. North Wales Iron.—Coed-Talon No. 2 Pig-Iron, Hot Blast. EXPERIMENT 1. EXPERIMENT 2. | EXPERIMENT 5. EXPERIMENT 4. Depth of bar, 1:071|| Depth of bar, 1-057] Depth of bar, 1°044|| Depth of bar, 1/065 Breadth of do.1‘000|| Breadth of do. 1:010|, Breadth of do. ‘994|| Breadth of do. 1'002 Distance between || Distance between | Distance between || Distance between supports, 4 ft. 6 in. supports, 4 ft. 6 in.|| supports, 2 ft. 5 in.|| supports, 2 ft. 5 in. Weight of bar 5 ft.!| Weight of bar, 5 ft. long, 153 lbs. long, 16 lbs. 2/8 (et ¢/8 /e3l sls |st. 8/8 bes eleales| 2leglesi e\sel2el a lggles ~ |ea/88l 2/38/88] 2 )esl\88] 8 Sei 88 a |og|/ar e |osg|as = |osgi|ax ae | oglu on | GB | Org on | Gs | Org ep | GS | Org || “on a8 Ong S1qQ |As Sig |FAsii Bla AS Sig |As 5 aie Pe fa = Hi & 4 28 | -065|... || 98! -071| ... |i 112 |-081 | ... || 112 |-080 56 | -130\-005 || 56 | -130!-005 || 924 |-070 | ... |! 224 |-066 126 | -325|-025 || 126 | -329|-030 || 336 |-109 | + || 336 |-103 |-005 182 | -508) +052 || 182 | -507| ‘056 || 448 | +152 | 007 || 448 | -144 | -007 238 | -700)-085 || 238 | -698/ +089 |) 560 | -200 | ‘012 || 560 |-188 | ‘011 294 | -910) +120 || 294 | -910) +124 || 672 |-251 | -020 350 | 1-149} -170 || 350 | 1-153) 184 || 784 |-307 | -030 || 784 | -290 | 028 406 | 1-420) -245 || 406 | 1-435) +265 || 840 | 343 896 | 355 | -045 434 | 1-570) -295 || 462 | 1-764| 370 || 896 |broke 952 | -390 448 | 1-654 469 |broke 950 |broke 462 |broke .*. Ultimate deflec-|| .», Ultimate deflec-|| .«. Ultimate deflec-|| .-. Ultimate deflec- tion = 1-738, tion = 1-808. tion = *375. tion = *407. Broke 3 of an inch|| Broke 4 an inch|| Broke at the cen-|) Broke 3 of an inch from the centre. || from the centre; | tre. from the centre, In this iron the crystallization is more perfect, when contrasted with the cold blast from the same ore; it presents larger granules than it, accompanied with more lus- tre over the whole surface of the fracture. It is a free, kindly-working iron; easily cut with the chisel, and files with a sense of adhesion to that instrument. Results reduced to those of bars 1:00 inch square. Modulus of ; 3 Product b Specific | elasticity in Breaking | Ultimate | X d, or i ight |deflection| power of gravity. | lbs. per weig ver square inch.|. (°)+ (d). reaeing Experiment Ist, bar 4 ft.]| 6970 2. F ; 6in. between supports cveee 6-956 } TATOO |: EG ge ig Experiment 2nd, bar 4 ft. aH : : : Goa between ctppertss. f| 6977 | 19835000 | 4156 | 1911 | 7942 Mean...| 6-968 | 14322500 | 409-2 1-882 Experiment 3rd, bar 2 ft. 835°5 392 8 in, between supports... f [|e Experiment 4th, bar 2 ft. 862°3 434 3 in. between supports... fen a ee Meatiies|ecscsssesssslersceseoseeeees| 848°9 “413 RR ET ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON, 383 Comparative results of Coed-Talon Iron No. 2. Distance between supports 4 ft. Gin. and 2 ft. 3 in. Strength of Cold Blast Iron. | Strength of Hot Blast Iron. Ratio of strengths. se Mean 402-8] Mean 5 408-7 4156 f 409-2 1000 : 1001 418°8 837-2) Mean 835-5) Mean 836°6 { 836-9 8623 [ 848:9 1000 : 1014 Mean ratio of strengths, 1000 : 1007 Results of products, and ratio to resist impact. Product of strength by ulti- mate deflection in Cold Blast Iron. Product of strength by ulti- mate deflection in Hot Blast Iron. Ratio of products, or of power to resist impact. 7496 | Mean bi: 7942 [ 7719 1000 : 1285 307-2) Mean 327-5] Mean ee 374-2 [ 3508 1000 ; 1184 295'3 [ 296-2 Mean ratio of powers to sustain impact, 1000 : 1234 Modulus of elasticity in ths. for a base of an inch square. Cold Blast Iron...... 14680000 DO. sc acccess duasuscssce es 13947000 Mean... 14313500 Hot Blast Iron...... 15810000 Mean... 14322500 ___ Note.—The modulus of elasticity was taken in this, as well as in other cases, from the 4 ft. Gin. bars, and from the deflection caused by 112 lbs. tate « 384 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Tas_e ITI. North Wales Iron.—Coed-Talon No. 3 Iron, Cold Blast. Experiment 1. Experiment 2. ExXpeERIMENT 5. ExrERIMENT 4, Depth of bar, -996\|Depth of bar, 1:035||Depth of bar, *996|Depth of bar, 1°035 Breadth of do. 1:005||Breadth of do. 1°017||Breadth of do. 1°015|| Breadth of do. 1°017 Distance between Distance between ||Distance between _ || Distance between supports, 4ft. 6in. || supports, 4ft. 6 in. || supports, 2 ft. 3in.||. supports, 2ft. Sin. h(i (gg CO i afm = a PE om) ge eae oot a | Seo her! ae Tes = zy/.88 2 \eelee] = [esl Ze] = esl zZ8 = | ge| Be ©) e2/Sai & lee|Sy & |ee/se] B | 2B) se File ARSE A POSE a 1A 5 ie ares 28 | -067| ... 28 | -060| ... 112} -030 | ... 112 | -031 56 |} 131} + 56 | -117| + 224/-068 | ... 224 | -060 112 | +257/-010 || 112 | -231/-012 || 336):102 | + 336 |:092 | + 168 | -400)-018 || 168 | :357|-023 || 448|-140 | + || 448} -122 |-005 224 | -542/-030 || 224 | -491/-036 || 560)°178 |-006 || 560/-156 | -007 280 | -695|-047 || 280 | -623/-050 || 672-217 |-008 || 672/-189 | 009 336 | +850) °064 || 336 | °762)-069 || 784/-256 |-012 || 784 | +221 | -011 392 | 1-022) -090 || 392 | -910|-089 || 896|-300 | -020 || 896 | -257 | -017 448 | 1-204|-121 |} 448 | 1-070} -112 || 1008 | -549 | -031 || 1008 | -300 | -022 504 | 1-400) 164 || 504 | 1-238) -148 || 1064 /°377 | ... || 1120| -340 | -031 532 | 1-520 560 | 1-425) -191 || 1120} -408 | -045 || 1176 |broke 560 |broke 1176 | -439 - || 1204 |broke .. Ultimate deflec-||Broke with thel|.. Ultimate deflec-|].:. Ultimate deflec- tion = 1°617. weight, 560 Ibs.,|| tion = °453. tion = °359. Broke at $ of an in.|| when putonagain.||Broke at the cen-|/Broke at the cen- from the centre. tre. tre. On comparing the Coed-Talon No. 2, cold blast, with the No. 3 cold blast iron, it will be found that the strength and also the power to resist impact is decidedly in favour of the last iron ; in the first instance the proportions are as 537°8 to 408°7, in the latter, 831°2 to 600°7, being a ratio of nearly 24 per cent. in favour of the No. 3 iron. The colour of this iron is a dull grey, with considerable uniformity in its crystal- line texture. It is a stiff iron, rather difficult to cut, and accompanied with a hard sensation under the file. Results reduced to those of hars 1:000 inch square. : Product wg, | Modulus of Breaking Ultimate | 5 ¥ ¢, or Specific | elasticity |"). deflection | | ower of gravity. | in lbs. per 6) in inches Last 9 square inch. : (d). impact. Experiment Ist, bar 4 ft. 6 bea ' F 7 _ in. between supports... 7124 17276800 | 561-7 1-610 904°3 Hapenment Sud, tar27) 6) 16927200 | 514-0 | 1-475 | 758-1 in. between supports Mean...) 7194 | 17102000 | 537-8 1542 | 831-2 Experiment 3rd, bar 2ft=.3])) | une thei . in. between supports ...f} “"" Srcig ave wae and gh Speen a ere 10790 | -3715 | 401-0 in. between supports ...f} “"" | * 1137°3 | °4113 470-2 IMERMocs|-- > cteces Ame ese nee ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. TABL E IV. 385 North Wales Iron.—Coed-Talon No.3 Iron, Hot Blast. EXxprrIMEnt 1. Experiment 2. EXPERIMENT 3. ExrerIMENt 4. Depth of bar, 1:002;|Depth of bar, 1°011|/Depth of bar, 1:015)|Depth of bar, 1°017 Breadth of do. 1:005,|Breadth of do. 1:002||Breadth of do. 1°015||Breadth of do. 1°005 Distance between ||Distanee between /||Distance between _||Distance between supports, 4 ft. 6 in. || supports, 4 ft. 6 in. || supports, 2ft. Sin. |! supports, 2ft. Sin. Frida Ro oreareannanesst Se ime is | ieee a ree ae ee | a Oe = S Balse|l «|e Siok aati oi soil ve ee! B.8 3 |. 20/s§ Sai SRO I i= = | Sol ss = lee.o | eS 2 /ssie2e2] 2)/ssleei sl esiaei| 2 i|seiee eo |e2(S5] 2 l/es/Sg| Sl les|(Sul & |aes/ sy Ela (AS Sia jAsi | [AS =F la jAs 4 H|| = 4q 4 28 | -078 28 | :071 112 | -037 112 | -035 56 150} -007 56 | °1438) + 224/-073 | ... 224 | -070 112 | +296) -012 || 112 | -290/-011 || 336}-109 ; + 336 | +108 168 | -458|-022 || 168 | -450)-026 || 448)-147 |-005 || 448/-146 | + 224 | -621)-038 || 224 | -611)-041 560 | -182 |-006 || 560}-183 | -007 280 | +793) -054 || 280 | -780)-060 || 672 |-221 |-008 || 672 | -220 |-009 836 | -978|-074 || 336 | -957/-080 || 784]|-260 |-O011 || 784] -261 | -011 392 | 1-170) -100 || 392 | 1:142]-103 || 896] -302 |-017 || 896} :°304 | -018 448 | 1-380) -134 || 448 | 1°340)-138 || 1008 | -349 |-022 || 952)-328 | ... 476 | 1-488 476 | 1-450 1064 | 378 1008 } -352 | -025 504 |broke 504 |broke 1092 |broke 1064 | -380 1120 |broke .. Ultimate deflec-||.. Ultimate deflec-||.-. Ultimate deflec- tion = 1°588. tion = 1°547. tion = °390. Broke $ of an inch||Broke 3 an in. from|/Broke $ of an inch from the centre. the centre. from the centre. .. Ultimate deflec- tion = °404. Broke 1 inch from the centre. The Coed-Talon No. 3, hot blast, is a much clearer iron, with larger crystals than the cold blast, No. 3. It presents a more varied appearance in its crystalline form, with the usual porosity in the centre of the fracture. The colour is more bril- liant than that of the last-mentioned iron. This is in many respects similar to the Carron No. 2, cold blast. It is reduced by the file and chisel with more ease than the iron last examined, Results reduced to those of bars 1°000 inch square. Product _p_ | Modulus of | Breaking | Ultimate | 8 x d, or Specific | elasticity weight deflection| power of gravity. | in lbs. per (6). (d). | resisting square inch. impact. Experiment Ist, bar 4 ft. 6 h t in. between supports vee em ae) oie a eee Experiment 2nd, bar 4 ft. 6 6967 p , F in. between supports 959 f UAGsa200) |) 402-4 peri pit Mean...| 6970 | 14707900 | 495-8 | 1577 | 782-2 E iment 3rd, bar 2 ft. 3 xperiment 3rd, F : 3 i Gal ciween sippatis’”, plete abs Hi 1044-0 | +3958 | 413:2 | Experiment 4th, bar 2 ft. 3 , : saRetwéen supports Saades! Ml Peta 10775 | -4108 442-7 Mea eal sere Bu ls Recanes 1060°7 | -4033 427-9 SS Suey sa enema el wom RO: ae SRD ee Seber bee elo | 3 bade EL VOL, vI. 1837. zo * 386 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Comparative results of Coed-Talon No.3. Distance between supports, 4 ft. 6 in. and 2 ft. 3 in. Strength of Cold Blast Iron.| Strength of Hot Biast Iron. Ratio of strengths. 561°7 an, 499-5 : 2140} 537'8 492.1 495°8 1000 : 922 1195°7 : 1044-0 4 jo7o0 f 11878 10775 f 10607 1000 : 932 Mean ratio of strengths...... 1000 : 927 Results of products and ratio to resist impact. Product of strength by ulti- | Product of strength by ulti- mate deflection in Cold Blast mate deflection in Hot Ratio of products, or of power to resist impact. Tron. Blast Iron. ee OORT 794-7 | 09, 7581 f S12 eg } 782-2 1000 : 941 589°5 1 arn. 413-2] jor, to10 $470 2 se }427 9 1000 : 910 Mean ratio of powers to sustain impact ...... 1000 : 925 Modulus of elasticity in lhs. for a hase of an inch square. Cold Blast Iron...... 17276800 PITGY caveccsciecdissess 16927200 Mean...... 17102000 Hot Blast Iron ...... 14732600 WaGHO sate nee ce encase = 14683200 Mean...... 14707900 If we carefully examine the different experiments in these and the preceding tables, it will appear obvious that the hot blast is in every instance the weaker iron, and whether it is viewed in the long or short specimens, the same marked difference in strength is apparent. It is also clear that the No. 3 hot blast is an iron of greater power than the second quality made by hot blast from the same ore. On contrasting the tables, it will be found that the No. 3 iron exceeds the No. 2 in its power to resist a transverse strain nearly one-fifth, and considerably more in its resisting power to sustain impact, this being in the ratio of 1000 to 766. I have pointed out the defect of the No. 2 iron, not so much for comparison be- tween the hot and cold blast, as from a desire to show the difference which in general exists between the two qualities. In preparing castings for the purpose of supporting great weights, it will be necessary to have reference to the No. 3 iron, as the best adapted for the purpose; it will be found safer than the richer sorts, and should therefore form a considerable part of the mixtures of these descriptions. The ratio of difference between the hot and cold blast Coed-Talon No. 3, and the Coed-Talon No. 2, is considerable. In the No. 2 we have the hot blast in the trans- . yerse strain a mere fraction stronger, and its power to sustain impact as 1000 to 1234. On the other hand, the No. 3 cold blast stands prominently forward in the ratio of 1000 to 927 for the transverse strength, and 1000 to 925 for the resistance to impact. I offer no opinion as to the cause of these discrepancies ; they are correctly given in the experiments, and I must leave the reader to draw his own conclusions, ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 387 Tas. V.—English Iron.—Elsicar No. 1 Pig Iron, Cold Blast. EXPERIMENT 1, EXPERIMENT 2, EXPERIMENT 3. | EXPERIMENT 4. Depth of bar, 1:033||Depth of bar, 1-042|\Depth of bar, 1:023)Depth of bar, 1:+016 Breadth of do. 1°025||Breadth of do. 1:030)|Breadth of do. 1-006 Breadth ofdo. °990 Distance between Distance between Distance between ‘Distance between supports, 4ft. 6in. || supports, 4ft. 6in, || supports 2ft. 3in. || supports 2ft, 3in, Weight of bar 5 ft.||Weight of bar 5 ft, 168 | -444| -048 |] 168 | -410 224 | -571| -044|) 448 | -182] -005 || 448] -141| -007 : 280 | -740| -063 || 560 | -170| -008 || 560} -181| -010 336 | -979!| -114|| 336 | -918| -090|| 672 | -215) -011)|) 672] -229) -018 392 |1°185 | -148 |} 892 1-112] -122 || 784 | -260| -017 || 784] -276| 022 448 |1-390| -190 || 448 |1°320} -161 || 896 | -310)| -025 |) 896} 330} -030 476 |broke 476 |broke 952 |broke 952 | +355 1008 |broke S to © long, 154 Ibs. long, 153 Ibs. : 3 3 3 é 3 Fs 3 2 | 8 -2 | 8 so sie al lh so FO ee ae eldelfe) 2 ldalfe) 2 eal el = lael ds S (Se fel 2 1sa| sel S eet\ se] 2 lss| se Slei/Sc| Beal Sz] Bl eel/ Sz Blea / Fs o o as o o qs o o Qs C) o qs Pies leh ele |e) & aol el eis. | 8 56 | +151 56 | 129] ... 112.| -030} ... 112] 032] ... 112 | -291| -030]| 112 | -260| -010|| 224 | -062| ... 224) 066) + 5 336 | 095) + 3836 | +101] -005 bo bo _ Oo 1 _ r= eer} Ne .*. Ultimate de-||/.°. Ultimate de-|}.*. Ultimate de-||’.°. Ultimate de- flection = 1:496.|| flection = 1°424. || flection = ‘334.}| flection = ‘381. Broke 1 inch from || Broke at the cen- || Broke 3 of an inch || Broke § of an inch the centre. tre. from the centre. || from the centre. It must be observed that the Elsicar is entirely cold blast iron, and is here compared with the Milton hot blast. Both irons are from the same ores, and are generally obtained under the same circumstances. In their relative properties there are, however, some slight discrepancies, arising from an admixture of 5 per cent. of Cumberland ironstone, introduced into the Milton iron during the process. The Elsicar is blown from coke, with cold blast, whilst the Milton is produced from 5 parts coal and 1 part coke, with hot blast. This iron has a vitrified and glutinous appearance over the entire section of the fracture ; there is great uniformity,—the crystals being nearly the same in the centre as those next the outer skin of the bar. It has a grey colour, intermixed with blue. Its working properties are of the first order, the action of filing being accompanied by a soft adhesive sound. Results reduced to those of bars 1:00 inch square. Product : tae Breaking Ultimate 6X d,or Specific in Ibs. per | Weight deflection | power of gravity. square Ne ee (6). in inches | resisting : ; (d@). impact. Experiment Ist, bar 4 ft. 7056 ; 6 in. between supports... 7-017 | 13410000 | 435-2 672°8 Experiment 2nd, bar 4 ft. J x, 5 6 in. between supports bin PAY) PAROROOO) 1A BGr6 se Mean... 7-030 | 13981000 | 430-4 652-2 oS see CE ee ee Experiment 3rd, bar 2 ft. s ie din, between supports nts Ih] seis A Seed BD Me fs ides 3092 xperiment 4th, bar 2 ft. ‘ 2 3in. between supports va rere ech ay Pate 9868 3817 | Sage || kecceees * 345°4 388 Tas. VI.—English Irons.—Milton, No. 1 Pig Iron, Hot Blast— SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Yorkshire. EXPERIMENT 1. Depth of bar, 1°064 Breadth of do. 1-064 Distance between supports, 4 ft. 6 in. Weight of bar 5 ft. EXPERIMENT 2, Depth of bar, 1058 Breadth of do. 1:020 Distance between supports, 4ft. Gin. Weight of bar 5ft. EXPERIMENT 3. Depth of bar, 1090 Breadth of do. 1°047 Distance between supports, 2ft, 3in, EXPERIMENT 4. Depth of bar, 1°067 Breadth of do. 1040 Distance between supports, 2ft. 3in. long, 161b. 9 oz. long, 161b. 8 oz. mo | gs .2 jae o ee ieee ls 2 a aw el) ae | See a eee Wee) cbt ic |) peal h aoeeinae cal gg|ss ‘o 2 o | 8 a S3i|se & ESlis 2 |/Sa/22] ¢ |SSlsel es | esl] s2] 2 |e eek > |22/Sc | @ |e l(Ss| & | 2E/Sc] ek Ss o o ag 3) x as @ 2 as 2 2 Aas ele |PSi eis [Ps e je |*si ele |78 42 | -103} + 42 | 103} + || 112 | -033 112 | -033 112 | -294]| -010 || 112 | -298| -006 || 224 | -066 224 | 070) + 182 | -499| -038 || 182 | 518] -033 || 336 | -103| -004|| 336 | -110)| -004 238 | -685 | :065 || 238 | -710| -056 || 448 | -143} -007 || 448 | -153| -006 294 | -892| -094 || 294 | -922| -090]| 560 | -186| -009|| 560 | -200) -009 350 |1-:126| -139 || 350 |1-160| -135 || 672 | -236| -015 || 672 | -250)| -016 406 |1-382 |broke|| 406 |1-480| -209 || 784 | -286| -024|| 784 | -306)| -025 420 \broke 896 | -350) -038 || 896 | -372| -041 952 |broke 924 |broke Broke 3 of an inch ||.". Ultimate deflec-||.". Ultimate deflec-||.". Ultimate deflec- from the centre. |} tion = 1-492. tion = ‘379. tion = °388. Broke 14 inch from||Broke at the cen-|\Broke } of an inch the centre. tre from the centre. The general appearance of this iron is the usual central porosity of crystallization, which no doubt takes place in consequence of a greater degree of rapidity in the cooling on the outside than within. In the larger descriptions of castings these marks are particularly observable, as the interior mass retains its fluidity for some time after the exterior has assumed the solid form: the phenomena of crystallization are there- fore completed under different influences, and hence arises the great and prominent difference which exists in the granulated surface of a large fracture. The working powers of the Milton iron are much akin to the Carron No. 2, cold blast: it possesses less lustre than the Elsicar, but has greater fluidity than appearances would indicate. Results reduced to those of hars 1:00 inch square. Product ‘ heesced Breaking | Ultimate | 3 ay a, a Specific in Ibs, pe c, weight deflection power of gravity. square inch. (0). in ian paris Experiment Ist, bar 4 ft. 7-016 6 in. between supports ... 6:977 | 11701000 | 387-1 1-471 495°8 Experiment 2nd, bar 4 ft. ' : ae ’ 6 in, between supports we 6-936 | 12248000 | 367 i igi 5809 Mean...| 6°976 | 11974500 | 352°5 1-525 538°3 Experiment 3rd, bar 2 ft. ; : ‘ 3 in. between supports oe } cognate arene psi 413 316-0 Experiment 4th, bar 2 ft. : : ne 3 in, between supports aa } "AAI? oer 730°4 414 323°0 MECRIE cecil) cuesw~a9 || weteeses ne 7728 ‘413 319-5 ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CASTIRON. 389 Comparative results of Elsicar Cold Blast Tron, No. 1, and Milton Hot Blast, No.1. Distance between supports 4 ft. 6 in. Elsicar. Strength of the Cold Blast Iron. | Strength of the Hot Blast Eron. Milton. Ratio of the Strengths. Mean. * - Mean. 435-2) yan, 3371] ono. oe } 430-4 367.9} 352°5 1000: 819 904-2 | oyx. 7653 | ro, wee } 945:2 reo ta728 1000: 818 Mean ratio of strengths ...... 1000 =: «818 The products, and ratio to resist impact. Product of strength by ultimate deflection in Cold Blast Iron. Product of strength by ultimate deflection in Hot Blast Iron. Ratio of products, or of power to resist impact. Mean. Mean. 672°3 | y 495-8 | - ao, i 6316 f 652-2 580-9 [2883 1000 : 825 309°2 ; 316-0 : F sary rade oasb \ 319-5 1000: 925 Mean ratio of powers to sustain impact ... .. 1000. =: «875 Modulus of elasticity in lhs. for a base of an inch square. Elsicar Iron (Cold Blast) 13410000 Ditto ditto 14552000 Mean 138981000 11701000 12248000 Mean 11974500 Milton Iron (Hot Blast) Ditto ditto The Elsicar and Milton being the only Yorkshire irons ob- tained answering to the description of hot and cold blast, it may be proper, in this part of my report, to state that I have been favoured with a series of experiments made at the Low Moor Works, near Bradford, by Mr. Dawson, one of the pro- prietors. In the year 1830 the hot blast was‘tried in the re- duction of the ores of the Bradford district. A number of bars, 1 inch square, were cast from iron produced in the cold blast furnace of 1829, and a similar number of bars were cast, of the same dimensions, and from the same model and furnace, with hot blast, in 1830. Each of the bars was broken with weights 390 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. placed on the centre, and supported on beams or bearers 3 feet asunder. The results are below : Mean breaking weight of the Cold Blast bars 947 lbs. Mean ditto ditto Hot Blast bars 787 ,, Difference in favour of Cold Blast 160 being as 94 to 78 in the ratio of 1000 to 831, or nearly the same in favour of the cold blast as exhibited in the preceding tables. It appears somewhat remarkable, that the same, or nearly the same, results should be obtained in my experiments of 1836, on the Elsicar and Milton irons, as were elicited in the experiments at the Low Moor in 1830. In both instances there is an obvi- ous defect in the strengths of the iron made by the hot blast ; and, judging from the difference in the deflections between the Elsicar and the Milton, I should consider the hot blast more tender than the Elsicar, and less worthy of trust than it when submitted to forcible strain under vibratory action; the power to sustain impact being in favour of the former as 1000 to 875. Before closing these observations, I would venture to mention the striking anomaly that exists between the Yorkshire ores and those of other districts when operated upon by the hot blast. From the experiments generally, such a marked difference does not exist in the strength of other irons as are herein portrayed in those of Yorkshire. Some peculiar and probably unknown affinity in the minerals may be brought into action by the heated air, otherwise, 1 confess, I cannot perceive any just reason for such a change. The mere heating of atmospheric air to 600° or 700° before it enters the furnace, should not, in my opinion, differ so considerably from the same air heated in the furnace. I hope the results of these experiments will induce Dr. Faraday, Dr. Thompson, or some other eminent chemist, to inquire fur- ther into this subject, and, by correct analysis, to ascertain the cause of differences which at the present moment appear any- thing but satisfactory. ae ae ee ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 391 Tas. VII.—Scotch Iron.—Carron No. 3 Pig Iron, Cold Blast. EXxprERIMENT 1. Depth of bar, 1-020 Breadth of do. 1°010 Distance between supports, 4 ft. 6 in, 2 3 a|eei\3s 2 |83| 8: @iee\e% = aS 28 | 068 56 | 129) + 112 | -253) :010 168 | -401! -020 224 | +552) -038 280 | :718!| -061 336 | -890)| -090 392 |1:079 | -120 448 |1-281/| -169 469 |broke .. Ultimate deflec- tion = 1°351. Broke 1 inch from the centre. EXPERIMENT 2. Depth of bar, *997 Breadth of do, 1°001 Distance between supports, 4 ft. 6 in. Fs .2 Pee Be eles | me a ee | os © | s218s ‘oD A &é A oC 5 4 28 | 071) + 56 | :140| -007 | 112 | -278) -013 168 | -430) -027 224 | 590) -046 280 | -755 | -069 336 | -946; -098 392 |1-142 | +136 420 |1:249 434 |broke .. Ultimate deflec- tion = 1°297. ExreRIMENt 3. EXPERIMENT 4. Broke 3 of an inch from the centre. Depth of bar, *995||Depth of bar, 1:024 Breadth of do. 1:005||Breadth of do. 1-000 Distance between Distance between supports, 4 ft. 6 in. || Supports, 2 ft. 3 in. i a) aley| a3 ‘3 AA ag 3 |Aaf lag 5 ; af F tel 28 | -070 112 | 032! ... 56 | 188) -007 || 224 | 067) + 112 | -270| -011)|| 336 | 100, + 168 | -422| -025 || 448 -137) -006 224 | -587| :046|| 560 | 177) -009 280 | :749| -067)| 672 | +215 | -014 336 | -928)| °095 || 784 | -258) -022 392 |1:122! -132|| 896 |broke! 420 |1:223 | . 448 broke | .. Ultimate deflec-||.°. Ultimate deflec- tion = 1°315. tion = *297, Broke 3 of an inch||Broke 1} of an inch from the centre. from the centre. EXPERIMENT 5. Depth of bar, 1:008 Breadth of do. Distance between "999 supports, 2 ft. 3 in, a |28/3% 6p o Ss on ad a a 5 4 112 | 033) ... 224 | 071) + 336 | ‘110; + 448 | -149| 007 560 | -189}| :010 672 | :233| :017 784 | 280} 023 896 | :337| :037 952 |broke .. Ultimate deflec- tion = *360. Broke % an inch from the centre. Carron No. 3, cold blast, indicates (when viewed with a magnifier) an exceedingly close texture, with a rich sparkling grey colour. than usual softness, and yields freely either to the chisel or file. For No. 3 iron, it possesses more I should consider it in no way inferior to most No. 2 irons in relation to its power of being worked. Results reduced to those of bars 1:00 inch square. Experiment in. between supports Experiment 2nd, bar 4 ft. 6 in. between supports Experiment 3rd, bar 4 ft. 6 in. between supports Experiment in. between supports Experiment in. between supports Modulus of Specific | elasticity gravity. | in lbs. per square inch, Ist, bar 4 ft.61) 7954 | 16259100 7135 | 15987300 ve | 16494500 Mean| 7094 | 16246966 4th, bar 2 ft. 3 bth, bar 2 ft. 8 eeecee eevee Breaking | Ultimate |Product b X weight | deflection | % °F power (0). (a). of resisting impact, 446:3 1:410 6293 436:2 1-293 564-0 450:2 1:307 5884 444-2 1:336 593-9 8545 , 3041 | 259-9 937:9 | +3629 3403 896-2 3335 300-1 392 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Tas Le VIII.—Scotch Iron.—Carron No. 3 Pig Iron, Hot Blast. ExpERIMeEnt 1. Depth of bar, *996 Breadth of do. 1°002 Distance between supports, 4 ft. 6 in. EXPERIMENT 2. Depth of bar, 1°006 Breadth of do. 1°015 Distance between supports, 4 ft. 6 in. EXPERIMENT 3. Depth of bar, ‘989 Breadth of do. 1-001 Distance between supports, 4 ft. 6 in. a 2 2 S#|o9 he ee ate 2 gBal23 al Fras 28 | -068 56.| 128) + 112 | -250| -006 168 | -378| :010 224 | -519| -020 280 | -662)| -036 336 | 809) :052 392 | -974| :077 448 |1-142| -106 476 |1-230 504 |broke .. Ultimate deflec- tion = 1°312. Broke +} of an inch from the centre. 2\)s¢| 2? qe |sa| ss + |8e/88 = |Zales Z as | 98 | -067 56 | -126| ... 112 | -241| -006 168 | 371} .O11 224 | -510| -020 280 | -647| -033 336 | -789| -049 392 | -941| -070 448 |1-104| -093 504 |1-276| -129 532 |1-377 553 |broke .. Ultimate deflec- tion = 1°440. Broke 3 of an inch from the centre. 2e|66E 2 |32\es ic AF A x - 4 28 | -069 56 | 1382) + 112 | +255} -005 168 | -391)} -013 224 | 532) -023 280 | -681) -037 336 | *8381} 055 392 |1-:000| -079 448 |1-174) -110 476 |1:270 504 |broke .. Ultimate deflec- tion = 1°356. Broke at the cen- tre. ExpzRIMENT 4. Depth of bar, 1°002 Breadth of do. 1-002 Distance between supports, 2 ft. 3in. Bo). plea a |s8|88 @ |S2(o 2 Ar Il|AS = A 112| -032 224| -061 336 | -097 448 | +128 560] 161) + 672 | -198)| -006 784 | :232| -010 896 | -273| -016 952| -293] ... 1008 | -318| -022 1064 | -340 1120 |broke .. Ultimate deflec- tion = °362. Broke 4 an inch from the centre. EXPERIMENT 5. Depth of bar, +993 Breadth of do. -998 Distance between supports, 2 ft. 3 in. a | 88/88 3 | B3|3¢ Teo aiietos, |g 3 |82|g8% = 4 112 | -034 224 | -069 336 | -100 448 | -137| + 560 | -172)| -006 672 | -208| -009 784 | -244) -013 896 | -290) -019 952 | -312 1008 |broke .. Ultimate deflec- tion = °332. ‘Broke } of an inch from the centre. Carron No. 3, hot blast, is a harder iron, with less lustre than its predecessor the cold blast ; it is also worked with greater difficulty, and produces a harsh, so- norous sound under the file. It is an iron well adapted for mixing, and of value in heavy castings when used in conjunction with some of the best Welsh irons. Results reduced to those of bars 1°00 inch square. specitc | ‘elasticity. | Breaking | Ultimate Produer 0768 Riemaripadarc ce @. @. | ean | Experiment Ist, bar 4 ft. 61) 7956 | 17813700 | 507-0 | 1:307 | 662-6 in. between supports ...... Fae Ie ee tate ot] 7056 | 17949900 | 5383 | 1448 | 7795 emp COR. 17855700 | 514-7 | 1-341 | 690-2 Mean| 7056 | 17873100 | 520-0 | 1-365 | 710-7 Pea ee ees ins | 0e7 | 4008 Ee haw ee Hea a eas 1024-0 | -3297 | 3376 Mean| ...... ae "10686 +3462 3707 | ce iain iil aie ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON, Comparative Results of Carron Iron No. 3 393 Distance between supports 4 ft. 6 in. and 2 ft. 3 in. Strength of Cold Blast Iron. 446:3° 436:2 > 444-2 450-2 854-5 1 goa. =a! } 896-2 Strength of Hot Blast Iron, Ratio of strengths. 507-0 5383 4520-0 1000 1170 514-7 11133 ; ; ioe ‘of 1068-6 1000 1192 Se ec are aes ea a a SE TR DSO OUND Mean ratio of strengths...... 1000 1181 Results of products and ratio to resist impact. Product of strength by ulti- mate deflection in Cold Blast Product of strength by ulti- mate deflection in Hot Blast Ratio of products, or of Teh ane power to resist impact, Se a NIE Soe del ON ON 629:3 662-6 564-0 + 593-9 779° +7107 1000 1196 588:4 690-2 259-9 ” 403-8 : 340.3 f 300"1 337.6 } 8707 1000: 1205 Mean ratio of power to sustain impact...... 1000 1201 394 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Tasie [X.—Scotch Iron.—Muirkirk No.1, Cold Blast. ExrERIMENT 1, Breadth do. Distance between supports 4 ft. 6 in. et Wigs zt | a |eelee | a Be oe | = 95 | 8H | 2 Jes | Bro | es Seals As Realiae ts. 28 | -076 56} °150) + 112 | :298) -013 | 168 | -471) -030 | 224 | -660/ -053 | 280 | *862) -085 336 |1:096 | +131 | 392 |1°339 | -186 448 |1-650 | -284 476 |broke .. Ultimate de- flection = 1°781. Broke at the centre. Depth of bar, 1:015 1:007 EXPERIMENT 2. ‘Depth of bar, 1:049) |Breadth do. 1-025 Distance between supports 4 ft. 6 in. é s ms fucose = | 2o/;/ SE ~ a 5) — 32 oe Fa of a. ow 2 A As =e A ) 28 | -067| ... 56 | *133| + 112 | -267|-010 168 | -42] | -027 224 | -589 | -049 280 | -767 | 077 3836 | -961 | +111 392 |1:177 |-159 448 |1-420 | -227 476 |1:554 483 |broke .. Ultimate de- flection = 1°583. Broke at the centre. EXpERIMENT 3: Breadth do. Distance between supports 2 ft. 5 in. A S el gee 2 |) Oem ists Poy eos o E}A [As 112 | -035 224 | -076 | 336 | +117 + 448 | -160 | -007 560 | +206 | :010 672 | -250 | -018 784 |-309 | -029 896 |°377 | 045 952 | +410 | 1008 |broke! .. Ultimate de- flection = °440. Broke 4 an inch EXPERIMENT 4. —— Depth of bar, 1°013)|Depth of bar, 1°042 1°003|| Breadth do. 1°025 Distance between supports 2 ft. 3 in. Deflection in inches. Deflection, Load removed, | Weight in lbs. | .. Ultimate de- flection = 412. Broke = of an inchfrom the cen- from the centre. tre. The Muirkirk No. 1 cold blast, isa remarkably fine soft iron, with large, open, - and brilliant crystals, of a blueish grey colour ; it presents great regularity in its cry- stalline structure, the crystals slightly diminishing in size as they recede from the cen- tre. In its working properties, as well as appearance, it is much akin to the Elsicar and Low Moor irons, and from its fluidity and strength may be safely used for every purpose of casting. Results reduced to those of bars 1:00 inch square. Product Specific Modulus of Breaking Ultimate bX d, or ravity. elasticity weight | deflection} power of 8 in lbs, (6). (@. resisting impact, ns i oat bar 4ft.6in- 1) 7959 | 14050600 | 4588 | 1-808 | 8295 Experiment 2nd bar Aft 61) ruzy_ | ra0seso0 | 4382 | 1860 | n08 Mean...| 71138 | 14003550 | 443:5 1-734 7701 Experiment 3rd, bar 2ft. 3) os eeceseeseeeee 9793 | -4457| 436-5 in. between supports ...... [70000 Experiment 4th, bar 2f. 3) od seeeseeens 8806 | +4293} 3780 in. between supports ...... f [0 Meatiscdlidccoseiulintewted etwowed 929-9 4375 | 407-2 ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 395 TasBuLE X.—Muirkirk No.1 Pig Iron, Hot Blast. ExrERIMent 1. Depth of bar, 1:015 Breadth do. 1:010 Distance between supports 4 ft. 6 in, Weight of bar 5 ft. long. Deflection in inches. Deflection, Load removed, : | Weight in lbs. ‘079 160 326 | « 507 |° 700 | « 909 | « 1:14] 1-428 |: 1571 broke .. Ultimate de- flection = 1°668. Broke 23 inches ExrERIMent 2. | Depth of bar, 1025 Breadth do. 1°035 Distance between supports 4ft. 6in. Weight of bar 5 ft. long. é |g .% a |ge|as 2 |s2/3868 Ba |}3e]er a ee pia |P8 28 | 069! ... 56 | 144) + 112 | -287)-011 168 | :445 | -021 224 | +610] -036 280 | :780| -059 336 | :978 | 090 392 |1:190 | -1385 420 |1:310 448 |broke .. Ultimate de- flection = 1°412. ‘Depth of bar, 1-020 ExpERIMENT 3. Breadth do. 1:020 Distance between supports 2ft. 3in. 3 a Pe ga /2°e 2 /22\38 oOo ~ # |e |3¢ = |A qi 112 043° a 224 | :090 | 005 336 | -138 | -008 448 | -185 | 010 560 | -231 | -015 672 | -289 | -022 784 | 357 | -039 812 |broke .. Ultimate de- | flection = ‘371. Broke $ an inch Broke 23 inches from the centre. EXPERIMENT 4. Depth of bar, 1-035 Breadth do. 1029 Distance between supports 2.ft. Zin. cf a e ja |fs 112 |-037 |... 224 |-073| + 336 | -112 | -005 448 | +152 | -008 560 |-190 |-O11 672 | -230 | -014 784 |-277 | -020 896 | -328 | -031 952 | +354 1008 |broke -o Ultimate de- flection = -378. Broke at the centre. from the centre. || from the centre. This iron is inferior to the Muirkirk No. 1 cold blast; it is what is technically called Kishie, or full of a great variety of rich crystals sparkling in the midst of a duller and more compact mass ; an appearance which is invariably present in irons of great fluidity and richness. In the turning and filing process it is superior to the Carron No. 2 cold blast, and equal in every other respect, except strength, to any of the former irons we have ex- perimented upon. Results reduced to those of bars 1:00 inch square. Modulus of | Breaking | Ultimat i apa 5 odulus 0: reaking® ‘imate | 5d, pens elasticity weight | deflection Hee a EE AVL in Ibs, (0). (d), resisting impact. Experiment Ist, bar 4 ft. 6 5 , in. between supports ...... 6948 Tea 00 2209 | POae M75 Experiment 2nd, bar 4 ft. 6 2. 4 t eros aia cele } 6959 | 18783100 | 4120 | 1447 | 5961 Mean...| 6953 | 18294400 |} 417-9 | 1:570 656°8 Experiment 3rd, bar 2 ft. 3 : A : Rather wont aint Hustonesit titer sekeas 765°2 3784 289-5 Experiment 4th, bar 2 ft. 3 : i ‘i in. between supports aeasee ae So sari —_ iy a Mean...| seveve aineies's 839°8 +3848 323-6 396 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Comparative Results of Muirkirk Iron No.1. Distance between supports 4 ft. 6 in. and 2 ft. 3 in. a i Strength ofthe Cold Blast Iron,| Strength of the Hot Blast Iron,| Ratio of the Strengths. 458-8 ) Mean 423°8 ) Mean 428-2 [ 443°5 412-0 f 417°9 1000 : 942 979°3 ; 765-2 ; ai 380.8 $9299 Gta } 839°8 1000: 912 Mean ratio of strength...... 1000 : 927 The products and ratio to resist impact. Product of streugth by ulti- mate deflection in Cold Blast Product of strength by ulti- mate deflection in Hot Blast Ratio of products, or of power to resist impact. Iron, Tron, ep \ 770-1 a } 656-8 1000: 852 4365 ; 289°5 ‘ \ 3780 ; 4072 357.8 $828 1000: 794 Mean ratio of power to sustain impact...... 1000 : 823 EEE eee eee ee Modulus of elasticity in ths. for a hase of an inch square. Cold Blast Iron...... 14,050,600 IDIGUOs teres saecettesa=s 13,956,500 Mean...... 14,003,550 Hot Blast Iron...... 12,805,700 [DattOwecddetsaseacesses 13,783,100 Mean...... 13,294,400 Effects of Time. In former experiments on the transverse strength of cast tron, it has been assumed that the elasticity remained perfect to the extent of rd at least of the breaking weight. This assumption, which has been attempted to be proved by Tredgold, has gained considerable credence ; but so far as I can perceive there ap- pears to be no ground for such an opinion. In the earlier ex- periments on the subject of hot and cold blast irons, it was ob- served by Mr. Hodgkinson that in some cases the elasticity was considerably injured with 4th or jth of the breaking weight. This fact was of such importance as to induce me to pay consi- derable attention to the set in the preceding tables,and also to note the defects of elasticity in those that follow, up to the time ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 397 of the weights becoming permanent upon the bars. From the methods thus adopted it will be seen that the value of the set has been given with the deflections at regular intervals of weights, from the commencement of the experiment to the time of fracture, andthe connection between the weights, deflections, and set, will therefore in all probability be better observed. The early period at which the elasticity became injured caused in addition to the above an extended series of experiments, to determine whether such injury to the elasticity would not (with the weight continued) ultimately break the bar. This became a debatable and very important question between Mr. Hodgkin- son and myself, the one contending for time, and the other for a permanent state of elasticity in the ratio of the loads and the forces respectively. The inquiry therefore was, to what extent can cast iron be loaded, or how much would it permanently bear without en- dangering its security? This was in reality a question of great interest, one which involved important considerations, such as the stability of bridges, warehouses, factories, and many other erections to which cast iron is applied, and which depends al- most entirely upon our knowledge of its ductility and strength. It assuredly must be of importance to know that a material of such value, and so extensively used in almost every branch of art, can be trusted, and that we may with safety depend upon its security throughout the endless variety of forms and strains to which it is subjected. Cast iron has hitherto been considered a brittle, and by many persons an insecure material; yet, notwithstanding the distrust and suspicion with which it was viewed, it still continues to increase in demand, and that toa great extent, in most countries where the arts are cultivated. Every inquiry therefore which tends to exhibit its peculiar properties as respects strength, ductility, &c., must be regarded as an additional step towards a greater degree of security in its application. Under these impressions the following experiments were instituted. Five bars of cold, and five of hot blast, Coed-Talon No. 2 iron, cast to be one inch square, were selected, and having loaded them with different weights, with their ends supported on props 4 feet 6 inches asunder, they were left in this position, to de- termine how long they would sustain the loads without breaking. It is now upwards of 15 months since the bars were charged, and if we are to judge from the hardihood displayed in their re- sistance to the load, there is every chance of a long and pro- tracted experiment. In fact, there is every probability of the experiments outliving the experimenter. 398 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. TasBLe XI. Table of deflections as exhibited with permanent weights of 280 lbs. suspeaded from the centre of bars of cold and hot blast Coed-Talon iron, cast to be one inch square, and left to determine the effect produced on each bar after given in- tervals of time. Distance between supports 4 ft. 6 in. | ExpERIMENT 1. Ss ExpERIMENT 2 —_— * au — Coldblastiron No.2 & & ||Hot blast iron No. 2) Depth of bar, 1°050) 3 > . |\Depth of bar, 1°050 Breadth de. 1°050) 5 § |'Breadth do. 1°010 ) 3 3 &é ar a . 4 i gldelezl 3 |88i & | eel ofl | Slezies| = |eel s (Seles = co.) 5 =] oS es 3's o& = o Ox Q = PH] Fa | ee & | BA) ES 5 ‘o | 38/55 | 2 | gs|ag a | 2 |€e|Az EF i6s8|7A]| 1897. ack tire BGO FAG see sili 'wevesenany, |laetns 56 | °153 | .... 112} -309 |) *020 3) cnisis. oe. Alpentscs 112 | -337| 022 IGE 499 WP ec dess csssnems [coum 168 | 548]..... 224°) +708 |°075 || .....006. | sence 224 | -784| -088 |The permanent weight, 280 |-916 |*108 || March9th | 49° || 280 |1-043| -182 || 2801bs. was fixed sta- 280 |-930 | ... || Do. 11th)...... || 280 |1-064|...... || tionary upon the cold 280 | -932 | ... Do. 17th) ...... 280 |1:067 |...... || blast bar at 6 o’clock | 280 | -930 | ... || April 15th) 47 |) 280 {1-078 |...... || p.m., March 8th 1837, | 280 |-932 | ... || May 3st; 62 || 280 |1-082)...... and an equal weight | 280 | 937 |... || Aug. 22nd) 70 | 280 /|1-086|...... || wasleftto remain up- ; 280 | -942 | ... || Nov. 18th) 45 || 280 |1-083]......|) on the hot blast bar | 280 | 941 | ... || Jan.8,1838) 38 || 280 |1-086)...... on the following day | 280 |-945 |... || March 12th| 51 | 280 |1-091| ...... at 10 a.m. ; 280 | 968 ane | June 23rd} 78 || 280 |1:107|...... From observations taken ee a SEPP A Fen EE ee a |e ee a eS ee RG Sy rai hy |: | the mean deflection for 15 months was found to be, for cold blast -936, increase 004, for hot blast, 1:079, increase *012. I Results in the preceding Table, showing the progressive and increased ratio of deflections from March \\th, 1837 to June 23rd, 1838. j Cold Blast Iron Hot Blast Iron Sdbze deflection in ’| Date of Obset- | Temp.| “deflection in | Ratio of increase ah as) vation, } inhties of deflections. 1-684 March 11th, 1837)|......... 1 ci a Wi an aae 1-824 June 23rd, 1838|| 78° 1107 | ORAL See |_——$ | --+—_—— Penns OEE See) Were. Pare | 033 | Increase hddivabs 043 1000 : 1303 ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 399 From the above it appears, that a progressive increase, in the deflections of the bars, has taken place, since the time they were charged, in the ratio of 1000, for the cold blast, to 1303, for the hot blast. The hot blast bar in these experiments being more deflected than the cold blast, indicates that the particles are more extended and compressed in the former iron, with the same weight, than in the latter. This excess of deflection may in some degree account for the rapidity of increase, which it will be observed is considerably greater in the hot than in the cold blast bar. The next experiment was from the same metal, cast as before into rectangular bars 1 inch square, and loaded with additional weights, amounting to 336 lbs. on each bar. TaBLeE XII. Table of deflections as exhibited with permanent weights of a | EXPERIMENT 1. | EXPERIMENT 2. 336 lbs. suspended from the centre of bars of cold and hot blast Coed-Talon iron, cast to be one inch square, and left to determine the effect produced on each bar after given inter- vals of time. Distance between the supports 4 ft. 6 in. oe | : Sa ; s i cold Blast Iron No. 2 3 # ||Cold Blast Iron No. 2 |Breadth of bar, 1020 @ S . ||Breadth of bar, 1°020 Depth do, —-1"030 E 3 & |[Depth do, —1-040 _ 2 ® 5 4 * os =} oh . Oo: 4 2/23 Ze 6 =| 2 Ba |e8 at S4/58 Fe 5 Bao) > AEisaise2 * he qa |oeeg/ee a g2/% § BS me - SAIS SE Bee \e2 Be is | eal ee a) BT 1 oO a &o res) | a D ® 3 = o as Ba | os o 238 =) S = o 2s /|A = E |}85| 8 |issz «182s. er ese | oe MME EH ase. || a cveas | abbece BG |)*1601.20... The weight, 336 Ibs., was left eeececees | aencee seeeee seeereces | coeses seeessese «=| sencee seeeeeses =| seceee March 6th Do. 9th Do. 11th Do. 17th April 15th May 3lst Aug. 22nd Noy. 18th 1838 Jan. 8th | 88 March 12th! 51 June 23rd | 78 seneee | eanses permanent on the cold blast bar on Friday, March 3rd, at six o’clock p.m. The same weight (336 lbs.) was fixed stationary upon the hot blast bar on Tues- day,March7th,at11o’clock,a.m. When the weights, 336 lbs. were placed on the cold blast bars, after the elasticity had been taken, the deflection in- creased from 1221 to 1°267. On the hot blast bar the de- flection increased with the re- storation of the weights from 1:374 to 1:397. The mean deflection under various temperatures is, for the cold blast 1-280, increase 009 ; for the hot blast 1-486, increase *024. 400 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Results in the preceding Table, showing the progressive and increased ratio of deflections from the 11th of March, 1837, to 23rd of June, 1838. ss Sie oc Sd 2 SS ES 1 tI | Hot Blast Iron ey Sena tea i. ™ | Date of her: Fae deflection in ” | Ratio of increase of inches. ee inches. deflections. 1:270 March] 1th,1827))......... 1-461 1-316 June 3rd, 1838)} 78° 1-538 “046 Increase, = |\seccesses 077 1000 : 1673 The ratio of increase is here much greater than what is indi- cated by the lesser weights—280 Ibs.—in Table, No. XI.- The progression towards fracture (providing we assume a progress- ive yielding in that direction) is advancing at a quicker rate in this case than with the lighter loads; consequently the resist- ing powers are becoming gradually weaker. We must however observe, that the temperature of the air in the room where the bars are placed was at 78° when the last observations were made, whereas the temperature was only 46° at the time the bars were first loaded. This difference in the temperature will give rather greater deflections, from the expansion produced on the bars in a medium of 78°. In confirmation of this opinion I would beg to refer to the observations of November 18th, when the atmo- sphere of the room was at 45°; the deflections had then decreased from 1:288 to 1*286 in the cold blast iron, and from 1°504 to 1°499 in the hot blast iron. | : : ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 401 TasLe XIII. Table of deflections as exhibited with permanent weights of 392 lbs. suspended from the centre of bars of Cold and Hot Blast Coed-Talon Iron, cast to be one inch square and left to determine the effect produced on each bar after given intervals of time. Distance between supports 4 feet 6 inches. EXPERIMENT 1. eg. ExprERIMENT 2. ae c ) eaeay Cold Blast Iron No.2 3 = | Hot Blast Iron No. 2 Depth of bar, 1°030 3 3 Depth of bar, 1°050 Breadth do. —-1°020 4 2 @ | Breadth do. 1°000 a 2S o. ; co) se of ; Behe, ee lray Ser aswel “eae bee . aS = 20 Q 4 ie ors oo | ae > | we = Re eae | Gates .o0 os 2S 5 a= os Se 5 | 28 |A& = o|g8 |AS = | oO J |/1857 & 1838. EL ro 4 : ——— oe | | | | | — = | 56 153 | 005 56 | -150 .n99 || Lhe weight, 392 Ibs., was fixed 112 | -334 |-022 112 | -333 | -023 : | stationary on the cold blast 168 | ‘541 oo 168 | ‘551 | ... bar on Friday, March 3rd, at 224 | -769 |-089 224 | :775 | :086|| 12 o'clock, and the same 280 |1°013 |... 280 |1:029 | ... weight was placed upon the 336 | 1-294 |-199 336 |1:311.| -188}) hot blast bar at 11 o’clock, 392 |1:616 |-292 392 | 1-635 | -272|| a.m., on the following day. 392 | 1-684 March 6th ple 392 |1:715 Barsesuiette fone i 1:69 : e deflection and defects o Ee eee ee { eflection had increased in a Pat ye rth 47° = thee the cold blast from 1°616 to 392 |1-725 May 3ist| 62° || 392 |1-775 EN tid ibe ie ha ga ie 1°661 in the hot blast. 392 | 1:737 Aug. 2nd 70° 392 | 1-783 Mean deflection throughout all 392 | 1-724 ae 18th} 45° || 392 | 1-773 the changes of temperature 1838. in 15 months— 392 | 1-722 Jan. 8th] 38° || 392 | 1-773 For the cold blast 1°742, in- 392 | 1-801 March 12th} 51° |} 392 | 1-784 crease 048; hot blast 1-777, 392 | 1-824 June 23rd} 78° || 392 | 1-803 Increase *014. 23rd, 1838 Cold Blast Iron, Hot Blast Iron, Results in the preceding Table, showing the progressive and in- creased ratio of deflections from March \\th, 1837, to June detcwion in| Def er | rap,| “detecion tn” | Raina irae of 1-684 March 6th 1837 ||......... PGMs cee is, ue a ee 1-824 June 23rd 1838 |} 78° WSS see keh ee 140 Increase. _||......... 088 1000 : 628 VOL. vi. 1837. 2D 402 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. On comparing the above with Table No. XII, preceding it, there will be found a greater proportionate deflection in both the cold and hot blast bars than is observable with the lighter weights of 336 lbs., and in both instances the deflection is greater in the hot than in the cold blast. The same is the case in ex- periment 2nd of the next Table, where the deflection indicated by 448 lbs. is less than what is exhibited on the hot blast with 336 lbs., being as 1°437 to 1°803. This may be accounted for by the bars which were newly cast containing, in all proba- bility, a greater proportion of carbon, and consequently having more ductility than those in Tables No. XII and No. XIV. The ratio of increase in the deflections is much higher in the cold blast iron than the hot; and notwithstanding the silent and apparently progressive approach towards rupture, there is every appearance of a long and tedious experiment. It cannot however be doubted that fracture will sooner take place in the cold than the hot blast, as the former is advancing to that point with greater rapidity, or in the ratio of 1000 to 628. We may therefore expect the bar from the cold blast iron to be the first to give way, and probably about the time when the deflection verges on two inches. a ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. of time. TABLE XIV. Table of deflections as exhibited with permanent weights of 448 lbs. suspended from the centre of bars of cold and hot blast Coed-Talon iron, cast to be one inch square, and left to determine the effect produced on each bar after given intervals Distance between supports 4 feet 6 inches. 403 ExrErIMENt 1. Cold Blast Iron No. 2. EXPERIMENT 2. ——a Cold Blast Iron No. 2, Depth ofbar 1-000 | Depth of bar 1:020 Breadth do. 1:010 Deflection, Load removed. Weight in lbs. Observed deflec- tion in inches. . 336)1-262 | 392/1:556 448/1-904 448}1-964 448/2-005 448/2-005 448/2-010} ... 448 2-014 broke aftér sustaining the load 37 days. The deflection in- creased from 1°904 ito 1°964 after the defects of elasticity were last taken. 404 Breadth do. 1:050 Deflection, Weight in lbs. Observed deflec- tion in inches. Load removed. pie Dm S: 578 |-039 754)... 336} -934 |-087 8392/1131] ... 448}1°361 |-192 448}1-410 448/1-413 448)1-413 448/1-413 448|1-422 448}1-424 448}1-438 448/1-431 448/1-430 448/1:439 448)1°457 Date of Observation. ‘Temperature. 1837. March 6 ves WO 49° 1] 17 15| 47° 31] 62° 22! 70° 18) 45° Jan. 8} 38° March 12) 51° June 23} 78° Cold Blast Iron, | sie Date of Obser- cs aa bse vation. | Temp. Experiment 5. 1-410 March 6th, 1837. 1-457 June 23rd, 1838.|| 70° 047 Increase oe 2D2 EXPERIMENTS. Hot Blast Iron No. 2. Depth ofbar 1:040 Breadth do. 1:010 tion in inches. Deflection, Load removed. Weight in lbs. Qhaeeved fefea: So. : Boe - oe 168} °579| . 224) -829 |-086 DSO owas. 336/1°419 |-208 3892 broke with this weight. Hot Blast Iron, deflection in inches. seen ene eeenerenee Remarks. The permanent weights, 448 \bs., were placed, in experiment J, upon the cold blast bar on Satur- day, the 4th March, at 4 o'clock p.m., 1837, and the same weights became stationary on the cold blast bar, in experiment 2, on the previous day, at 4 o'clock p.m. ‘In experiment 3, 392 lbs. broke the bar; several) other bars of hot blast were tried, but they suc- cessively broke on lay-| ing on the weights, 448 bs. ‘Mean deflection for 15 | months, ending 23rd | June, was for cold blast 1-431, increase 0°28. Results in the preceding Table, showing the progressive and in- creased ratio of deflections from March Gth, 1837, to June 23rd, 1838. Ratio of increase of deflections. seen e eee eeeneereee 404 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. The greater degree of weakness here exhibited in the hot blast iron than the cold renders our comparative experiments in this Table defective ; several bars were tried in succession, but they separately gave way, some on laying on the load, 448 lbs., and others after supporting it for a few seconds. In experiment Ist, Table XIV., it will be noticed that a bar from the cold blast iron, after being charged with the full load, 448 lbs., continued to support it for a period of 37 days; this was not however accomplished without signs of weakness, as will be seen from the progressive increase which took place in the deflections from the 6th to the 17th of March; and also from observed discrepancies sometime previous to its rupture. In making these statements it must be observed, that the bar in experiment 1st was thinner than any of the others, and had borne for thirty-seven days a weight greater than had broken bars of the same size in previous experiments upon the Coed- Talon iron, when the weights were laid on without loss of time. Abstract of comparative increase and ratio of deflections on the whole bars from March 6th, 1837, to June 23rd, 1838. Cold Blast Iron, | Hot Blast Iron, : A Ratio of increase of deflec-| increase of deflec- : tion in inches. | tion in inches. | Seflections. Increase of deflection, Table XI. 033 9043) be seeceeeenens Increase of deflection, Table XII. 046 077 witidhetamesnes Increase of deflection, Table XIII. 140 O88 it ieee ewes Increase of deflection, Table XIV. O47." SD Miteees Mr le erweeeaaeeens Mean... 066 “069 1000 :1045 The mean increase of deflections on the whole bars is there- fore ‘066 for the cold blast, and ‘069 for the hot blast, being in the ratio of 1000 to 1045. The interest which experiments of this kind may be expected to excite, and the nature as well as the value of the material on _which they are here made, will, it is hoped, prove an induce- ment for extended investigation on this subject. There cannot be a doubt that the phenomenon of cohesive force is strongly developed in the preceding tables; the minute crystalline particles of the bars are acted upon by loads, which, in the heavier weights, are almost sufficient to produce fracture : yet fracture is not (except in one instance) produced, and to what extent the power of resistance may yet be carried is left for time to determine. It nevertheless appears from the present state of the bars (which indicate a slow but progressive increase in the EEE eee ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 405 deflections) that we must at some period arrive at a point beyond their bearing powers ; or otherwise to that position which indi- cates a correct adjustment of the particles in equilibrium with ~ the load. Which of the two points we have in this instance at- tained is difficult to determine: sufficient data are however ad- duced to show that the weights are considerably beyond the elastic limit*, and that cast iron will support loads to a much greater extent than what has usually been considered safe, or beyond that point where a permanent set takes place. But in whatever way this may be determined, it is obvious the pre- ceding experiments give greater indications of strength than has generally been supposed cast iron would do; and should the bars continue to support the loads for a few years longer, there cannot exist a doubt as to the security of this metal under applications hitherto unknown; and the same may be said of other materials. In the 14th Table we shall find inch square bars loaded on the middle, within a few pounds of weights sufficient to break them ; we shall also find the bars considerably bent, and the resisting powers in full operation to sustain the load. Now the question to be determined by this experiment is, the nature of this resistance ; and to show in the first instance whether the re- sisting power of the extended particles below, and the powers of the condensed ones operating above, are sufficient at all times ad infinitum to support the load ; or whether those particles, in- stead of being united (as we suppose) with a permanent force, nicely balanced at all points of resistance, are not absolutely giving way; and by slow, though imperceptible degrees, be- coming hourly weaker, until the cohesive power is entirely de- stroyed and rupture takes place. It is not my intention in this place to offer any opinion upon. the cohesive properties of matter, but simply to inquire how far the bearing powers of cast iron can be depended upon. It is evident from these experiments that both sorts of hot and cold blast iron possess that power in a high degree ; and we need only refer to the experiments for examples to show the patient tenacity with which so heavy a load is supported. At first sight it would appear, that the heavier loaded bars were progressively giving way, as the deflections continue to increase since the loads were permanently fixed; this defect is however not more conspicuous in the bars supporting 448 lbs., than in those sup- * The elastic limit is that point where bodies under strain lose the power to restore themselves when the load is removed ; a property which is strongly ex- emplified in cast iron. It has been considered by many that materials cannot be loaded with safety beyond that point. 406 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. porting 392lbs.; the deflection is even greater in the latter, arising in all probability from a greater degree of ductility in * the bars. I hope shortly to induce my friend Mr. Hodgkinson, Profess- or Barlow, or some other able mathematician, to investigate this subject, and by close analysis to demonstrate those truths, so essential to the interests of all engaged in the use of the metals, but more particularly in reference to the security oi the public at large. Effects of Temperature. When the multiplicity of objects to which cast iron is ap- plied, and the innumerable situations in which it is placed, is considered, I may venture to state, that in every work of which cast iron forms the whole or a part of the structure, it is more or less liable to change. The rapidity with which it imbibes, and the facility with which it parts with caloric, is in itself a sufficient consideration for the labour I have bestowed upon these inquiries. The present investigation would have been less satisfactory had the experiments on the effects of temperature been omitted ; and I trust, the annexed Tables, which exhibit hot and cold blast iron under various gradations of heat, will not be without their uses in the future application of this material. Rondelet, in his ‘* Traite de Bdtir,’”’ has given and collected results from experiments, made by himself and others, on the expansion of bodies under the effects of heat; but I am not aware of any that have been made to ascertain the transverse strength of metallic substances under the various changes of temperature. Itis well known that the effects of heat upon iron have not escaped the notice of philosophers; but I believe no writers on this subject have conducted their experiments in any way analogous to those now under consideration. The celerity with which heat passes through the metals, and the frequent recurrence of iron being the medium of communi- cation between fluids and this powerful agent, it is not surpri- sing that the changes of temperature thus induced should cause such visible indications of deterioration in the material. Gas retorts, and all those vessels exposed to the alternate changes of the heating and cooling process, are considerably injured by the expansion and contraction of the parts; and no doubt the destruction of the metals is much accelerated when they are worked up to a high and excessive temperature. Probably steam-boilers are not so much injured as those above-men- tioned, as the temperature is kept moderately low by the water i i ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 407 they contain, which seldom exceeds 212°. The same causes are, nevertheless, in operation, and must continue to be so under the varied influences of caloric action. Had time permitted, it was my intention to have pursued the experiments on temperature under a much greater degree of form and change than is here exhibited. For example, it might have been desirable not only to load the bars until they were broken, but also to charge them with different weights, and, by alternate heating and cooling, to have ascertained how far the bars so charged were affected by the change. Such an extension of the experiments might have led to the development of some new feature in the actions thus produced, and that more parti- cularly by the introduction, abstraction, re-introduction, &c. of the different increments of heat. As it is, the bars were all broken at the temperatures indicated in the tables. TaBLE XV. Coed-Talon, Cold Blast. To determine the relative strengths of Coed-Talon Hot and Cold Blast Iron, to resist a transverse strain under different degrees of temperature. No. 2 Iron. No. 2 Iron. No. 2 Iron. No. 2 Iron. No. 2 Iron, Experiment 1. Experiment 2. Experiment 3. Experiment 4. Experiment 5. Depth of bar, 1:068|Depth of bar, 1:020) Depth of bar, 1:008||Depth ofbar, 1°006)|Depth of bar, 1:038 Breadth of do. 1°024||Breadih of do. 1:005|| Breadth of do. +996 ||Breadth of do. 1°021|/Breadth of do. 1°023 {Distance between ||Distance between || Distance between ||Disiance between ||Distance between supports 2 ft. 3 in. || supports 2 ft. Sin. || supports 2ft. Sin. |) supports 2 ft. Sin. supports 2ft. Sin. Pee se Sea a) sere ey el a) eS sl eae dis V2/83| 8 lal S/8e] 2] a) 2) 8s] 2) alleles! slaleles)] 2] ¢ Vees a |e) Slee] & | el See] | ee se] & | el e|es| & | & NEI AIRE PA REA FRR TEA Pe eA Pam 112) 034) ... 126°) 112) -041 28°!/112)-040 | + |32°)|112) -035 32°}}112) 034 114° _ |224) -071)-007 | ... || 224] -090|-009 | ... || 224] 076 |-007 |... ||224) 074 we. [224] 072 a _ {336} -101)-010) ... || 336) -1382)-011 | ... ||336)-117 |-010].., 1336) "114 | 4 |... 1836] "104 |-005] ... {448} +149) ... |... || 448]-187) ... |... 448] -156 +013]... |l448! -151 |-007 |... |/448]-144 |-008 |113° {560} 189-017 | ... || 560) -242|-027 | ... || 560} -197 |-018] ... 1560) -204 |-012 | ... 560) -182 |-013] ... 672) -224)-031 | ... || 672) 310) ... |... ||672|-244 |-024 | ... |]672) -252 |-021]... 672/224 |-019) ... 784) 271/030 784} -382|-053 | ... ||784| -296 |-035 | ... ||784) 311 |-033 | ... [1784] -274 |-028 |112° 896) 341 896| -461)-082 | ... || 896] 352 |-049 | ... 1896) *374 |-051 |... ||896|(824) broke 9Ajbroke| .., 938)broke! ,,, .*. Ultimate deflec- tion = °385.—This bar was broken in .. Ultimate deflec- tion = ‘487. — This bar the « 1952|(-380)|broke] ... This bar was broken when buried in snow. was broken in 4 r open air. Di ac 980|(-420)}broke| ... This bar was broken when buried in Broken in water. The microscopic appearance of this iron will be found at No, I. Table, on the transverse strain, 408 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Results reduced to those of bars 1:00 inch square, and 2 feet 3 inches between the supports. Experiment Ist, No. 2 iron Experiment 2nd, No Experiment 3rd, No. Experiment 4th, No. Experiment 5th, No. No. 2 Iron. Experiment 1. Depth of bar, 1:056 | Breadth of do. 1:004 Distance between supports 2 ft. 5 in. | Weight in lbs. Deflection in inches. Permanent set. 112/030} .. 224|-069} + 336}'108 |-008 | .. 448}-150] ... 560}-199 |-018 O72)25 1]. .6 lao 784/314 |039 | ... 896\broke| ,.. - .. Ultimate deflec-| tion =*366.—This: bar was broken Temp. Fahr. . {16° .. || 2241-075 | 336|-120 ... |448}-166 ... |560}-220 during intense frost. » Ds chee je sence o 5 | Specific | Modulus | Breaking | Ultimate pd = | gravit of weight | deflection : o | 8 y ae 5 power of = elasticity.| (0). (42). | resisting fs impact. -+|26°} 6955 {12994400} 851 ‘All 349°8 sVASCs) iendons 12603700) 897 “4967 | 445-6 6955 12799050) 874 4538 | 397-7 -| 82°] 6-955 13506700) 940-7 | °383 360°3 aebBOalle- ducers 15148200) 958-5 422 4045 |... | 6955 |14827450} 949°6 | -402 382-4 TABLE XVI. 14168000 812-9 Coed-Talon, Hot Blast. No. 2 Iron. Experiment 2. Depth of bar, 1:030 Breadth of do. 1:010 Distance between supports 2 ft. 3 in. Weight in lbs. Deflection in inches. Permanent set. | Temp. Fahr. 112)-035 . = : OS [e) ai ‘008 |... 020}... 672|-292| ... | oo» 784)-351 |'045 |... 882jbroke| .., |.. .. Ultimate deflec- tion= 402. Broken in the open air. } No. 2 Iron. Experiment 2. Depth of bar, 1°033 No. 2 Iron. Experiment 4. Depth of bar, 1020) 336 273-1 No. 2 Iron. Experiment 5. Depth of bar, 1:006 Breadth of do. 1:012 || Breadth of do. 1:010!' Breadth of do. 1:009| — Distance between Distance between ||Distance between supports 2 ft.3in. || supports 2 ft.3in. || supports 2 ft. 3 in. ais o| si} 2]. r} : || 2] 8 ole Bag] 21a Shee bie el al eee £/8¢/ 8/5) 5/.88) 8 /a| 8] 8] 8/6 2/88) s+ 2) 83) 2] el Si es) | ¢ ‘oo le&| § |] Ss] elas | § |] €] les! s/s vo Lv a oD o Qo >} Oo a ov a oO 5s |A 7a ee | A PFE oe |= A a, |e 112) -036 | + |82°)|112) 036 32°!/112| -037 | ... |85° 224/-075 | 006)... ||224| 074 | + |... ||224)-077 | + |... 336|°114 |:010} ... |/836) 114 |-005 | ..- |/336}-123 |-007 |... 448-155 |-016) ... |/448) -154 |-009 448/170 }|-013) ... 560) -203 | -022) ... ||560) -202 |-014 560) +223 |-022) .. 672} -246 | :031) ... ||672) +252 |-024 | ... ||672| 277 |031| ... 784} -304 | -041) ... ||784) 312 |-039 |... 1784) 348 |-051 |84° 896) -363 | -054)... |/896) 381 |-060 | --- |/896)(-419) broke 1008 |(-422) broke} ... | 952 |(-415)}brokel ... | This bar was broken || This bar wasbroken when buried in when buried in Broken in water. snow. snow. ON STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 409 Results reduced to those of bars 1:00 inch square, and 2 fi. 6 in. between the supports. Experiment Ist, No. Experiment 2nd, No. Experiment 3rd, No. Experiment 4th, No. Experiment 5th, No. seeeee lot eeeee ences Temperature: eee] cee Specific gravity. Modulus | Breaking of weight in elasticity.| lbs. (6). 14267500} 823-10 13723500 14283200 14003350 933-4 906-0 14500000 15538300) 800-29 14902900) 811-69 919°7 877°5 ; Product Ultimate | 6 x d, or deflection) power of (d). | resisting impact. 3865 309°3 “4140 340'8 4002 325:°0 436 4669 423 383-2 “429 395:0 421 | 369-4 The infusion of heat into a metallic substance may render it more ductile, and probably less rigid in its nature; and I ap- prehend it will be found weaker, and less secure under the This is observable to a considerable effects of heavy strain. extent in the experiments ranging from 26° up to 190° of tem- perature. The cold blast at 26° and 190°, is in strength as 874: 743, d an The hot blast at 21° and 190°, is in strength as 811: 731; being a diminution in strength as 100: 85 for the cold blast, and 100: 90 for the hot blast, or 15 per cent. loss of strength in the cold blast, and 10 per cent. in the hot blast. 410 SEVENTH REPORT—183/. Tasie XVII.—Coed-Talon Cold Blast. To determine the relative strengths of Coed-Talon hot and cold blast iron to resist the transverse strain under different degrees of temperature. No. 2 Iron. No. 3 Iron. Experiment 6. Experiment 7, ——— — Depth of bar, 1°030 || Depth of bar, -995 Breadth do. 1-030 Breadth do. 1°005 Distance between supports 2 ft. 3in. Distance between supports 2ft. 3 in. Weight gla |Z legal) Wit [rem 2/38! @ | s4|————— 2182] 2 | £2|| 900broke | 212° Silas! 8 | ad > 1A 5 |a5 ry ies 5 a | Broke in boiling eh ——|| water. 112 |:034 2 224 |-069] ... os No. 3 Iron, 336 |:106 ers Experiment 8. 448 |"144| -009 |193° —— 560 |"185| -O11 Depth of bar, *995 672 |-231| -016 191 Breadth do. 1/000 784 |°281| -021 , Distance between 812-293 |broke| ... || ‘ePorte 24: Sin. Weight in lbs. Temp. Broke in boiling water. Broke in hot water. No. 3 Iron. Experiment 9. Depth of bar, 1-015 Breadth do. 1:021 Distance between supports 2 ft. 3 in. Weight in Ibs. | Te™mp- 956 broke | 600° Broke in melted lead. No. 3 Iron. Experiment 10. —s> Depth of bar, -987 Breadth do. +997 Distance between supports 2 ft. 3in. Weight in Ibs. | Te™P- 934 broke | 212° |/1124 broke | 600° Broke in melted lead. No. 2 Iron. No, 2 Iron, Experiment 11.||Experiment 12, Depth ... 1:004 Depth .., 1°026 Breadth 1-°005|\/Breadth 1-030 Distance be- Distance be- tween supports|| tween supports 2ft. Zin. 2ft. Zin. Weight in Ibs, || Weight in Ibs. 672 broke|| 784, broke. it, after the||This bar was a weight hadj|ideep orange been on half ajjcolour in the’ minute. The|\dark. There defiection’ was||was no time to considerable. |jmeasure the The weight)deflection. was laid on at once. This bar was percepti- bly red by day- light. Coed-Talon No. 3 cold blast iron exhibits greater density in the arrangement of its crystalline texture than the No. 2. Colour a whitish grey, interspersed with a num- ber of minute luminous crystals. Results reduced to those of bars 1:00 inch square, and 2 feet 4 inches between supports. Breaking | Ultimate Product Xd Temperature | Modulus of Seas G f Fahrenheit. elasticity. is ote eee Experiment 6............] 193° — 191° | 14398600 | 743-1 301 Experiment 7....0.s0008+ 212° besevanGet 905-0 Experiment 8......se.00 212 Descassaaaae 944-0 Mean...... Deno taadscucncrd 924-5 Experiment 9.........++ GOOK momniisconecaeoce $09-0 Experiment 10 ......... 600 SR PHA 1157-0 1033: Mean...... Redbydaylight} .........+.. a? x28 y = the square of the velocity multiplied by wave, whence, A 2223 = pe oie ge tae aula 2 1 2 =f —admnartlie * 2 os in mn 2° n+2 ant+24 C, But since mn ug Sak Ll 1 Sfary ras id ———- ON WAVES. 425 Bee ae sil 2 n+2 1lTn+l1 1 andv =a 5 tie) Ify=me sea eae ae iy = me Aaa a/ © 2, &e. Hence in the rectangular channel the velocity being that of gravity due to half the depth. In the sloping or triangular channel the velocity is that due to one-third of the greatest depth. In a parabolic channel the velocity is that due to three-eighths or three-tenths of the greatest depth according as the channel is convex or concave. From the identity of this formula with that for the centre of gravity, it appears that the velocity of the great primary wave of translation of a fluid is that due to gravity acting through a height equal to the depth of the centre of gravity of the trans- verse section of the channel below the surface of the fluid. 7. The height of a wave may be indefinitely increased by pro- pagation into a channel which becomes narrower in the form of a wedge, the increased height being nearly in the inverse ratio of the square root of the breadth. 8. If waves be propagated in a channel whose depth diminishes uniformly, the waves will break when their height above the sur- face of the level fluid becomes equal to the depth at the bottom below the surface. | 9. The great waves of translation are reflected from surfaces at right angles to the direction of their motion without suffering any change but that of direction. 10. The great primary waves of translation cross each other without change of any kind in the same manner as the small oscillations produced on the surface of a pool by a falling stone. 11. The WAVEs OF THE SEA are not of the first order—they belong to the second or oscillatory order of waves—they are partial displacements at the surface which do not extend to con- siderable depths, and are therefore totally different in character from the great waves of translation, in which the motion of dis- placement of the particles is uniform to the greatest depth. The displacement of the particles of the fluid in the waves of the ‘seais greatest at the surface and diminishes rapidly. There 426 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. are generally on the surface of the sea several coexistent classes of oscillations of varying direction and magnitude, which by their union give the surface an appearance of irregularity which does not exist in nature. 12. When waves of the sea approach a shore or come into shallow water, they become waves of translation, and obeying the laws already mentioned, always break when the depth of the water is not greater than their height above the level. 13. Waves at the surface of the sea do not move with the velocity due to the whole depth of the fluid: may they not move with the velocity due to that part which they do agitate, or to some given part of it ? 14. A circumstance frequently observed when the waves break on the shore, has been satisfactorily accounted for by the ex- amination of the constitution of the waves of the sea. It has been frequently observed that a certain wave is the largest of a series, and that these large waves occur periodically at equal intervals, so that sometimes every 3rd wave, every 7th, or every 9th wave is the largest. Now as there are almost always several coexistent series of waves, and as one of these is a long gentle “ under swell,’ propagated to the shore from the deep sea in the distance, while the others are short and more super- ficial waves generated by a temporary breeze of reflections from a neighbouring shore ; so it will follow that when the smaller waves are 1, or 1, or 4th, or in any other given ratio to the length of longer ones, those waves in which the ridges of the two series are coincident, will be the periodical large waves ; and if there be three systems of coexistent waves, or any greater number, their coincidences will give periodical large re- curring waves, having maxima and minima of various orders. 15. The Tip—E Wave appears to be the only wave of the ocean which belongs to the first order, and appears to be iden- tical with the great primary wave of translation ; its velocity diminishes and increases with the depth of the fluid, and ap- pears to approximate closely to the velocity due to half the depth of the fluid in the rectangular channel, and to a certain mean depth which is that of the centre of gravity of the section of the channel. It is, however, difficult to determine the limits within which the tide wave retains its unity ; where portions of the same channei differ much in depth at points remote from each other, the tide waves appear to separate. 16. The tide appears to be a compound wave, one elementary wave bringing the first part of flood tide, another the high water, and so on; these move with different velocities accord- ing to the depth. On approaching shallow shores the anterior ON WAVES. 427 tide waves move more slowly in the shallow water, while the posterior waves moving more rapidly, diminish the distance between successive waves. The tide wave becomes thus dis- located, its anterior surface rising more rapidly, and its pos- terior surface descending more slowly than in deep water. 17. A tidal bore is formed when the water is so shallow at low water that the first waves of flood tide move with a velocity _ so much less than that due to the succeeding part of the tidal wave, as to be overtaken by the subsequent waves, or wherever the tide rises so rapidly, and the water on the shore or in the river is so shallow that the height of the first wave of the tide is greater than the depth of the fluid at that place. Hence in deep water vessels are safe from the waves of rivers which in- jure those on the shore. 18. The identity of the tide wave, and of the great wave of translation, show the nature of certain variations in the esta- blishment of ports situated on tidal rivers. Any change in the depth of the rivers produces a corresponding change on the interval between the moon’s transit and the high water imme- diately succeeding. It appears from the observations in this report, that the mean time of high water has been rendered 37 minutes earlier than formerly by deepening a portion of about 12 miles in the channel of a tidal river, so that a tide wave which formerly travelled at the rate of 10 miles an hour, now travels at the rate of nearly 15 miles an hour. 19. It also appears that a large wave or a wave of high water of spring tides travels faster than a wave of high water of neap tides, showing that there is a variation on the establish- ment, or on the interval between the moon’s transit and the succeeding high water, due to the depth of the fluid at high water, and which should, of course, enter as an element into the calculation of tide tables for an inland port derived from those of a port on the sea shore. The variation of the interval will vary with the square root of mean depth of the channel at high water. These results give us principles, 1st, for the construction of canals ; 2nd, for the navigation of canals ; 3rd, for the improve- ment of tidal rivers ; 4th, for the navigation of tidal rivers ; 5th, for the improvement of tide tables.—See the Transactions of the Sections at the end of the volume. 428 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. First Series of Observations. Experiments on Waves in Artificial Reservoirs.—As this portion of the experiments was made in continuation of a series of experiments in which Mr. Russell had been previously en- gaged, and of which he from time to time announced the results to the British Association at Dublin and at Bristol, and as these notices were omitted in the last volume of the Report, but pro- mised by the Secretary to be included in the present one, it will be proper to state what had been brought to light in those ex- periments on waves previous to the appointment of this Com- mittee. At the Dublin meeting of the Association Mr. Russell stated that he had been induced to make a series of experiments on waves in certain circumstances, from having found that the re- sistance of fluids to the motion of floating bodies was very much affected by the phenomena of the waves generated in the fluid by the motion of these bodies; and that many of the imper- fections of that part of hydrodynamical science which treats of the resistance of fluids, would be removed by an acquaintance with the laws of the motion of waves. One of the great in~ stances of deficiency in our theoretical knowledge, when ap- plied to practical uses, occurred in the question of the force re- quired to give motion to a vessel in a confined channel, a canal, or a small river; in these cases a vessel at certain points of her progress encountered extreme resistance, and at other, still higher velocities, experienced diminutions of resistance equally extraordinary and anomalous. These facts had set at defiance all previous theory ; but it was found that a knowledge of the laws of the generation and propagation of waves in a fluid was all that was required to solve these difficulties and to remove these anomalies. For this purpose he had undertaken a series of experiments on waves carried on during the years 1834 and 1835. The WAVE which had been thus found to form so important an element in the resistance of fluids, was found to be a phe- nomenon of a very different nature from those waves which had previously occupied the attention of the physical investigator. This phenomenon presents itself as a Sotirary ProGreEssivE ELevation of the surface of a quiescent fluid, neither preceded nor followed by any secondary or successive phenomena, to- tally distinct from the oscillatory waves, and from such waves as the ripple on the surface of a lake agitated by the wind, and the concentric circular oscillations of a calm sheet of water into which a stone has been dropped, and from the waves which are ON WAVES. 429 presented on the surface of an agitated sea. This wave presents simply the phenomenon of an elevation of fluid transferred from place to place of the fluid, finding the fluid perfectly at rest, and leaving it in an equally perfect state of equilibrium. Many philosophers have examined the theory of waves, but they all appear to have considered only the oscillatory, success- ive, and gregarious waves. Newron considered them as re- presented by the oscillations of a column of fluid in a bent tube, and assigned to them laws analogous to those of the pendu- lum; GRANESAUDE followed the theory of Newton; D’ALEmM- BERT adopted Newton’s theory, and pursued this investigation considerably further ; and LaGRancE improved it by removing some former limitations inconsistent with the phenomena ; LapuaceE formed a new theory, in which the oscillatory waves are supposed to be formed by immersing a solid of a given form in the fluid and suddenly withdrawing it; GEeRsTNER gives a very beautiful theory of waves, in which the observed phenomena of oscillatory waves of the larger class are very accurately re- presented; Poisson, Caucny, and Fourier have discussed the mathematico-physical question of very minute oscillatory waves with so much success, as to represent some of the phe- nomena with considerable accuracy; and the results of these theoretical views have been examined very carefully in the ex- periments of BREMoNTIER, FLAUGERGUES, Bipong, and the Wesers. But in none of these inquiries has the phenomenon of the solitary wave attracted any attention; and, indeed, so far from having been satisfactorily examined, its very existence does not appear ever to have been distinctly recognised. This solitary progressive elevation appears to be the wave of the first order, and has been called by Mr. Russell the Great Primary Wave of the fluid. And its phenomena are of that invariable and decided character, which claim for it such a di- stinction. The great primary wave was first observed by Mr. Russell in 1834. By the impulse of a vessel drawn by horses a consider- able portion of fluid was raised above the level of the rest of the fluid in a channel of limited breadth and depth. The elevation thus formed was observed to assume a peculiar and regular shape extending across the whole breadth of the channel, and to propagate itself along the surface of the quies- cent fluid with a velocity of nearly eight miles an hour; which velocity and form appeared to continue unchanged, although followed for about the distance of a mile. The following experiments were made for the purpose of determining whether the velocity of this wave were not affected 430 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. by the initial velocity given to the fluid at its generation by the moving body. The velocity of genesis, or of the vessel by whose displacement the elevation of fluid was produced, is given in miles per hour, and the time occupied by the wave in describing 700 feet is given in seconds. Space described by ty terval of time. Velocity of genesis. the wave. (1.) 5 miles an hour 700 feet 62° seconds (2) 8 700 — 1 (B's: 1oRee 700 =) qT ee (4;) ee 700 — 62.0 uk (5. \\G ho hese 700 — 622 = (6.) 4 700 — 615 — From this it is manifest that the velocity of the propagation of the wave does not vary with the velocity of its genesis. To determine whether the height of the wave produced any variation in its velocity, the following experiments were made: ee oe Space described. Interval. (7.) 6°0 inches 700 feet 61°50 seconds CRS ee BO Sees hts PTI ee (9.) 35 — joo — 62°50 — (10.) 20 — 700109? -G8:50'th sen It appears from these examples that, in a given reservoir of fluid, the higher wave moves more rapidly than the lower; and it was afterwards found that the increase of height was equiva- lent in its effect on the velocity to an equal addition to the depth of fluid in the reservoir. To determine whether the depth of the fluid affected the ve- locity of the wave, the following experiments were made in the same channel filled to different depths : Depth of fluid. Space described. Velocity of wave. (11.) 5°6 feet 486: feet 9°594 miles an hour (12.) 3:4 — 150° — 7'086 The former of these observations is exclusive of the height of the wave, and adding six inches to the depth of the fluid in this case, the height of the wave being already added to the depth in (12.), we find that the velocities are nearly proportional to the square roots of the depths, and are nearly equal to the velo- cities that would be acquired by a heavy body in falling through heights ¢qual to half the depth of the fluid. In the last case the channel was rectangular, and conse- ON WAVES. 431 quently the depth of the fluid was uniform across the whole depth of the channel ; it was next of importance to ascertain what law held in those cases where the depth diminished towards the edges of the channel. For this purpose two channels were selected having the greatest depths in their middle and diminish- ing towards the sides. The following are the results : Greatest depth in the middle of Space described. Velocity of wave. the channel. (13.) 5°5 feet 1000 feet 7°84 miles an hour (4) At 820 — _— 609 In these instances the diminished depth at the sides has diminished the velocity of the wave below that due to the greatest depth in a ratio in the first example nearly of 9°5 to Ag} and in the second of 7: to 6°. See Experiments (11) and (12). The following three experiments are instructive as having been made on channels in which the maximum depth was nearly the same in all; but in (15) the depth remained con- stant to the side which was vertical. In (16) the sides had a slope of nearly 20°, and in (17) a slope of nearly 40°, so as to diminish the depth towards the sides. Maximum depth. Eh Space described. Velocity. (15.) 5°6 feet Rectangular 486 feet 9°59 miles (16.) 5°5 — Slope of 20° 2038 — 8:83 — (17.) 5°5 — Slope of 40° 1000 — 7:84 — From these it is manifest that the depth of the channel, while it modifies the depth of the fluid, affects the velocity of the wave. It was not found that the breadth of the channel pro- duced any similar effect. The results obtained from the experiments of 1834 and 1835 were considered by the Association of sufficient novelty and importance to point out the propriety and advantage of institu- ting a fuller and more minute series of experiments concerning the nature of the wave, in which all its phenomena and laws should be determined with as much precision as possible. The subjects of inquiry which immediately presented them- selves were the following : 1. To determine whether different methods of generating the wave influence its subsequent phenomena. 2. To determine with accuracy the velocity of the wave in given circumstances. 3. To ascertain the form or forms of the wave. 432 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 4. To determine the manner in which the depth and breadth of the channel affect the velocity and form of the wave. 5. To determine the influence of form in the channel on the form and velocity of the wave. 6. To ascertain the nature of the mechanism by which the wave is propagated from one place to another; or to answer the question, What is the wave? 7. To ascertain the difference between the primary wave and waves of other descriptions. 8. To determine the effects of solid bodies or obstacles on the motion of waves, and the effect of waves on one another, and conversely—the effect of waves on solid bodies, either at rest or moving through them, immersed in them, or floating upo their surface. 9. To determine the effects of waves on one another. For the purpose of obtaining some of these results with the requisite precision, there was provided the following EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS, Experimental reservoir.—A_ rectangular reservoir, formed with much precision, was provided for the purpose of contain- ing the fluid to be made the subject of experiment. Its sides were supported by strong brackets, and the whole was raised on a strong frame to a height convenient for experiment ; the whole length of the reservoir was 20 feet precisely, an addi- tional length of 7°3 inches having been reserved to form a gene- rating chamber in connexion with the reservoir. The dimen- sions of the reservoir are, Length of experimental reservoir . . . 20 feet Breadth of experimental reservoir . . . 1 foot. The bottom of the reservoir was placed with care in the hori- zontal plane, so that it could be filled and emptied conveniently. The reservoir is represented in Plate I., fig. 1. A is the trans- verse section, B and D are longitudinal sections of the levels of the reservoir. Method of determining the velocity—A channel of great length may appear at first sight more suitable to the determi- nation of velocity than the comparatively short one here em- ployed, whose whole length was traversed by some of the waves in less than five seconds; and it would have been preferable for that purpose had not the method of reflection been employed, by which all the advantages of that method when employed in the repeating circle and other instruments are obtained for the diminution of errors of observation, and by which also the pro- ON WAVES. 433 bability in favour of accuracy in the result is elevated to the region of certainty. It was found that when a smooth plane sur- face, of sufficient rigidity, was immoveably fixed at the end of the channel, at right angles to the direction of the wave’s trans- mission, the wave was thereby reflected without sensible change in its form, magnitude, or velocity. Two such reflecting sur- faces being placed at opposite ends of the reservoir, it was found that the wave might be reflected from one end to the other over successive spaces of 20 feet, and thus brought repeatedly to the same points of observation. In this way the same wave was observed during so many as 60 successive transits after 60 suc- cessive reflections, having thus passed over a course equal in length to 1200 feet, and occupying an interval of 320 seconds, giving the power of observing it 60.times in its transit past a given point. It was thus brought under the eye of three ob- servers at three different parts of the reservoir during a single transit. The whole internal surface of the reservoir was accu- rately divided into feet, inches, and minuter divisions. Means of observing the transit.—To observe the instant of the transit of a wave past a given point is a matter of some difficulty, especially when the wave is long and flat. A wave one-tenth of an inch high and three feet long is scarcely sen- sible to the eye until its vertex has passed ; its commencement and end are perfectly insensible, and its summit so flat that it is impossible directly to observe its place with precision. To obviate these difficulties, the following apparatus was provided. A plane mirror, M, (Fig. 2. Plate 1.) was raised on a frame to a height of four feet above the surface of the water. On this mirror the image, I, of a bright flame was thrown, and the mir- ror was adjusted so as to reflect this image upon the surface of the water (at W). A second mirror (m) was placed over this second image, so as to intercept the rays reflected from the sur- face of the water, and to return them finally through an eye- piece to the observer. The path of the ray was preserved during the whole of its extent in a plane at right angles to the direction of the motion of the wave. Parallax in observation was avoided by a micrometer wire in the eye-piece, which was kept in coincidence with an opaque line passed through the image at M and so reflected in m, and with a line of division, D, seen directly without reflection past the edge of the mirror m. The observer was thus enabled to compare the place of the centre of the reflected image by coincidence with fixed lines. When perfectly at rest the coincidence was perfect. When the centre of the wave was at W"", figs. 2 and 3, the rays of light also reflected from a plane surface, perfectly horizontal, presented the VOL. VI. 1837. QF 434 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. same coincidence ; but when the anterior part of the wave W®, figs. 2and 3, was that on which the rays fell, the image was carried in the direction of the motion; and, on the other hand, when the posterior surface of the wave reflected the image, it was transferred to the other side, as in the point W™. When, therefore, the transit of a wave took place, the following phe- nomena presented themselves to the observer. The image con- tinued at rest, as seen in fig. 3, until the approach of the wave ; from the instant at which the transit began until the instant of the passage of the crest of the wave, the image appeared on the anterior side of the wire, as in fig. 4; but during the remainder of the transit, the image was found on the posterior side of the wire, as in fig. 5; and therefore the instant of the transit of the crest of the wave across the line was also the instant of the passage of the image from one side to the other across the wire: now, as the whole time of the transit did not amount to a second, this instant was given with the required precision, and although the elevation of the surface was not in many cases perceptible to the eye, the transit of the image was perfectly satisfactory. For obtaining the dimensions of the wave with precision, various expedients were resorted to ; there were provided glass tubes (gauges or indices) communicating with the channel at different depths ; they are represented in fig. 6. The centre of each tube opens into the side of the reservoir at successive inches of its height, and after continuing horizontally for a cer- tain space, is turned up vertically, and rises above the level of the water; the tubes thus become filled, and the water in each tube being tinged with colouring matter becomes distinctly visible, so that the variations of height are read with ease and precision on the graduated scale behind the tubes to hundredths of an inch. For a very elegant method of ascertaining the length of the wave with precision, Mr. Russell is indebted to Professor StEVELLY of Belfast, who suggested that fine points, similar to those used in the standard cistern barometers, should be applied to the surface of the water, so as to show by the instant of their submersion in the fluid, or emergence from it, the origin and end of the wave. This method was found to possess much precision ; the phenomena of capillary attraction mark the instants of contact and separation with vividness, by the reflection of rays of light from the concave surface of the fluid raised around the point, and their disappearance on sepa- ration. The contact of this point with its image in the water was also a phenomenon marking the place of the surface of the fluid with minute accuracy. When the two points, placed at the beginning and end of the wave, showed the phenomena of ON WAVES. 435 immersion and emergence at the same instant, their distance was equal to the length of the wave. It was, however, neces- _sary to have some means of bringing both points under the eye at the same instant, in order to determine with accuracy the coincidence of contact in both cases; the arrangements are given in fig. 7. P and P are points in contact with the surface of the fluid at the extremities of a wave; rays of light from them are reflected by the mirrors p and p to the eye at O, and are thus observed simultaneously. By these means, the points being removed further apart, or brought nearer, until the con- tact became simultaneous, and the distance of the points equal to the length of the waves, the height of the wave was de- termined by the glass indices in fig. 6. Apparatus for generating the Waves.—Generating reservoir A. fig. 8, consisted of a continuation of the experimental reser- voir A, B, D, of fig. 1, which was separated from it or con- nected with it by means of a sluice; so that by filling the generating reservoir with water to a higher level than the ex- perimental reservoir while the sluice was closed, on raising it the water descended, producing a wave, of which the volume was known. The area of the horizontal section of the generating reservoir is 76°27 square inches, its length being 6°33 inches in the direction of the motion of the wave, and 12°05 inches its breadth at right angles to this ; the detached generating cham- ber B, fig. 9, was a rectangular parallelopipedon, open at top and bottom, and so accurately fitted to the bottom of the reservoir as, when resting on it, to be capable of containing water to any height, but on raising it from the bottom by which it had been thus temporarily closed, the fluid descended, producing a wave of given volume. The area of the horizontal section of the chamber is 68°32 inches, being 6°1 inches long and 11°2 inches wide. A solid parallelopipedon, C. fig. 10, was used to generate waves, by protruding it to a given depth in the fluid; the area of its horizontal section being 88°32 inches, and its dimensions 24:0, 12°05, and 7°33 inches. Another detached generating chamber, D., was 2°98 inches, being 11°92 inches broad and 24° inches deep, being an area of 35°52 square inches in its ho- rizontal section. In those cases where volume of the wave was not of importance, the wave was produced by the impulse of a flat surface pressed horizontally on the fluid. Analysis of Experiments.—The original experiments are themselves given at the end of this paper, for the purpose of enabling any one who may be disposed to make use of them for any future purpose, either of framing or testing a theory, to 2P2 436 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. make use of them much in the same way as if he had himself made the experiments. The wave having been generated was first observed in the glass index, fig. 6, placed near to the gene- rating reservoir; then it passed under the transit station where its transit was observed, and the time registered either by one or two observers, and then its height was cleared in another glass index near the other reservoir; the wave having under- gone the first reflection was returned, and the same observations were repeated during a number of successive reflections. See Experiments page 465—491. The collection of tables at the end of this report gives the history of a series of waves in which these phenomena are care- fully recorded. Explanation of Tables.—F¥or the sake of ready reference, there is given at the beginning of each table (see Wave 1.) the approximate depth of the fluid, and the date of experiment, thus : 2d Aug. 1837. Wave I. Depth, 4 inches. The next line contains the mode of generation, written thus : Created by reservoir A. Volume of added fluid = 153-5 inches. The reservoir A, fig. 1, Plate I., the detached chamber B, fig. 9, the solid parallelopipedon C, fig. 10, and chamber D, have already been described, and are successively referred to in the manner now stated; and in Wave IX. for example, the means of gene- ration was the flat sluice in fig. 8, held in the hand, passed down to the bottom of the fluid, and moved horizontally so as to displace the fluid from the reservoir A. The method of observing is next given, as for example in Wave I. Transits observed directly at index, and without reflection— when the unassisted eye of the observer detected by in- spection the transit of the ridge of the wave passing the place of the indices at y. fig. 6; but in other cases the eye was ar- rested by the refiected image in the transit apparatus already described, figs. 2,3, 4, and 5, as for example in Wave V., where we have Transits observed by the reflected image at the central station. The next line gives the depth of the fluid in the channel, pre- vious to the commencement of the experiment, first of all as co ON WAVES. 437 directly observed in the glass indices, figure 6, on the scale of which the deviation from approximate depth, already given at the head, (Depth, 4 inches,) is read off with the appropriate sign + or —; and the mean depth of the fluid having been al- ready compared by direct experiment with the scale of the index, and a correction for error of scale applied, the true result is given at the end as the mean depth of the fluid when at rest, freed from instrumental error, thus : y = — 0°05 Statical level observed at { 5 — _ 0-01 \ corrected statical depth=3-942 inches. In the table of the observations, column A gives the number of feet passed over by the wave, reckoning from the instant at which the first observation of time in codwmn B was made on either or both of the chronometers a and 8. In column C are given the readings of the index y at that end of the reservoir where the wave was generated, and from which the observations are begun, and of the index 6 placed towards the other end of the reservoir. In colwmn D the observations of column C have been freed from the error of the index scale, so as to represent the true height of the ridge of the wave above the statical level of the fluid; and in column E the true height of the wave has been added to the statical depth of the fluid, so as to give the whole depth reckoned from the ridge of the wave to the bottom of the reservoir. The observations were made in the following manner. The wave having been generated, was generally allowed to traverse the whole length of the reservoir, and return to y before com- mencing the observations of time and space; this was done for the purpose of allowing the wave to assume its determinate form, which it did not generally acquire until it had remained for some time unaffected by external impulse; and this delay also allowed the secondary oscillations of the fluid to disappear. On the return of the wave to y its height was carefully ob- served ; after passing y its transit past the central station was assumed as the zero for time, its height was observed at 6, and once more on its return to y, so that. the interval between the observations was an interval due to 20 feet or 40 feet, accord- ing as the observations were made on successive or alternate transits ; the successive transits being used when the velocity was small, and the alternate ones when the velocity was such as not to afford sufficient intervals for observing and noting with composure. The intervals between the transits were obtained with con- siderable precision, as may be gathered from the following 438 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. observations made by independent observers.—See Wave XLV. Chrono- | Chrono- | Difference |} Chrono- | Chrono- | Difference meter a. | meter #8. | of interval. || meter a. | meter B. | of interval. 0-0 0-0 0-0 89-00 89-5 9-75 9:5 — 0:25 99-50 100-0 19-50 19:0 — 0:25 110-00 110°5 28-50 29-0 0:00 120-50 121-0 38°50 39-0 0:00 =| «181-00 1315 48°50 49:0 0-00 || + 141:50 142-0 58°50 59-0 000 «|| 151:50 152-5 68°50 69-0 0-00 16250 | 1630 79:00 795 0:00 173°00 1735 One of the first objects of inquiry was, to determine whether there existed any important difference in the phenomena of waves generated by different methods and by bodies of different forms, or to ascertain whether a wave being given in height and depth, the phenomena were the same and independent of the source from which it had been originally derived. To give the value of the comparison, we shall collate the history of four waves generated by four different methods, and very nearly of the same magnitude and in the same depth of fluid. WAVE XIX. WAVE XV. WAVE VIII, WAVE VII. Generated by pro- || Generated from Generated by Generated from trusion of solid C, chamber B. simple impulsion. reservoir A. Depth = 3°95 in. || Depth = 3'87 in. Depth = 4°15 in, Depth = 4°07 in. Sec. In. Sec, In, Sec. Tn, Sec. In. 10'5 | 5-40 a5 vse vee as eos <7 10°5 | 5:22 eee 5°30 te 5:10 bee ‘ 10-5 | 515 || 100] 532 || 11:0 | 5:02 zl see 10:5 | 5°02 |} 10°5 | 5:20] 11:0 | 4-95 vee ose 10:5 | 4:83 ]} 11:0} 503 || 11:5 | 4°85 oe 120 | 4:76 || 11:0 | 4:96 | 11-5 | 4°75 12:0 | 4:67 || 11:5 | 468 |) 11:0 | 4:69 aah - 11:5 | 458 || 11-0 | 460 |) 11:5 | 461 ele 4-62 11:5 | 455 || 12:0] 4°55 | 120 | 4:55 ace 4:58 11:5 | 4:50 |} 120} 4:43 | 11:0] 4:48 || 11-5 | 452 11-5 | 4:42 || 11:0] 4:36 | 12:5] 4-43 || 115 | 4-46 ——]] 11°5 | 4:40 || 11:5 | 440 11°13) 4:82 || 11-11} 4°84 |} 11-5 | 4:37 || 115 | 4°35 12:5 | 4:36 || 12:0 | 4:27 12:0 | 4°33 || 12:0 | 426 12:0 | 4:29 || 12:0 | 4-26 | 11:60) 4:66 11°70) 4°41 These columns contain the intervals of description of success- ive spaces of 40 feet cach, with the mean depth reckoned from ON WAVES. 439 the top of the wave, ascertained from the mean of three observa- tions in each distance of 40 feet. 'The waves were generated by four different methods, the depth of the fluid and the height of the wave are different in each; so that on comparing them to- gether, we have to take into consideration the variations of the conditions. Now between the mean interval of the successive transits in XIX. and XV., the difference is only two-hundredth parts of a second, and between the mean height of the wave in the former case, and in the latter, there is a corresponding dif- ference with the same sign, amounting to two-hundredth parts of an inch—between VIII. and VII. the same coincidence ex- ists. The same harmony runs through that whole series of observations from Wave I. to Wave XXVI., and appears to warrant the conclusion, that between waves of this order, gene= rated in very different methods, no sensible difference in the law of propagation can be distinguished. In the remaining series of observations, the protrusion of solid C was the method gene- rally adopted for generating the waves, as it was found conve- nient and precise. Various other methods, such as suspending the fluid by atmospheric pressure and the immergence of bodies of different forms, were tried, without sensible difference on the result. Waves were then generated in different depths of the fluid, and having different heights, for the purpose of determining the velocity due to them with all the precision which the method was capable of affording. The three columns of figures which follow, are a short table of results, and in a fourth column are given a few theoretical numbers, representing the height due to half the depth of the fluid, reckoning from the ridge of the wave. The first of these columns gives the total depth reckoned from the top of the wave, the second column is the height of the wave Hie above the quiescent fluid, and the third the observed ve- ocity. 440 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. , | Height ofthe | Velocity ob- | Velocity due to ihe iy aa wave, served, half the depth. 1-00 ie ee 1°636 1:05 0:05 1-64 cee 1:30 015 1°84 ee 2:00 as ce 2:314 2:19 0:29 2-30 Sia 3°00 td dod 2:834 3:10 0:16 2:87 “by 3°23 015 2:99 A 4:00 rds a 3273 4:00 0°19 3°33 8 4:08 013 3°24 4°20 013 3°33 4°31 0:24 3°40 mae 5:00 ao: bie 3701 5°20 0:10 3°73 ae 5°25 0715 3°72 aes 6:00 ab 360 4-008 6°40 0°15 4:04 ao 6:47 0:27 4:14 6°74 0°54 4:32 sie 7:00 a os 4:333 7:33 0:29 4:39 Sec 7:44 0-40 4:44 mae 8 00 | side eee 4-628 Tuble of Experiments in Rectangular Channel. Reference to Total depth Time occupied Velocity of onions, |‘orthewaves | waves | spacein next | deatnbea. | "ine maget column, Inches. Inches. Seconds. Feet. XXIX. ... 1:05 05 36:5 60:0 1:64 XXVII.... 1:10 1:10 23:5 40:0 1:70 XXVIII... 1:20 20 22-7 40:0 1:76 XXXIII. . 1:30 15 22-0 40:0 1°81 XXXV.... 1:62 “32 29-0 60:0 2°06 XXXVI... 219 29 34:7 80:0 2°30 D4 Saree 3°09 15 97:5 80:0 2-90 RE shan 311 “7 14:0 40:0 2°85 b.< FH] Rear nee 3:16 322 21:0 60:0 2-71 NS Hecke: 3°20 26 22°0 80:0 2-72 >< bt paras 3°23 29 27-0 80:0 2:96 SOXVA. 3°23 15 69°5 200:0 2:99 DOM MI... «.. 3°32 "24 27:0 80:0 2:96 XXXV Ul I. 3°35 35 27:0 80-0 2:96 Sle ass: 3°38 “44 19:5 60:0 3:07 XIET SP cosine 3°41 5947 20°0 60-0 3°00 SOV eusemeen 3°40 “32 27°0 80:0 2:96 XXVI. ... 3°50 *44 26:0 80:0 3:08 — *.” Reference to original observations. XXXVIL. XXXIX. . cesses eeceee ln Shee esces Total depth ON WAVES. from the ridge BGEny ee the of the wave. Inches. 3°50 3°60 3°61 3°69 3°81 3°81 3°84 3:90 3:97 4:00 4:08 4:12 415 4-20 4:25 4:31 4°40 4:45 4°49 451 4-61 4°75 5°20 5°21 5:25 5°39 5:40 5°50 5°61 5°80 5°82 5.82 6:15 6-15 6:26 6°40 6:40 6:47 6°54 6:56 6°65 6:69 6:74 6°75 6:86 6:90 7:20 7:42 Time occupied in describing space in next column, Seconds. 13:0 26:5 18°5 25:0 18°5 18:5 12:0 24:5 36:0 74:0 24:2 250 36-0 47-7 46°75 23°5 35°5 34:75 42°5 22°5 23:0 32°0 31-5 43 0 21-2 32:0 21:0 39°5 20:0 30:5 20°5 19-0 19:0 29'5 28:7 49-5 29:0 39°5 39:0 29:0 18°5 18°5 48:5 38:0 375 37:0 45°5 Space described. Feet. 60:0 40:0 80:0 60:0 80:0 60:0 60:0 40:0 80:0 120:0 240:0 80:0 80:0 120:0 160:0 160:0 800 1200 44] Velocity of wave in feet per sec. 3:15 3°07 3 02 3 24 3°20 3°24 3°24 3:33 3°22 3°33 3°24 3°30 3°20 3°33 3:35 3°40 3°40 442 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. ee Reference to | Total depth ggeignt ofthe | im devoribmg | | Soace, | gavein fect observations. of the wave. wave. space innext | described. per sec. column. Inches. Inches. Seconds. Feet. EN cack 7°33 *29 730 320-0 4:39 Ve = cscs . 7:44 “40 36:0 160:0 4:44 DAS ceesas 7:68 “64 28:0 1200 4°37 LIII. ...... 770 66 27:0 120°0 4:43 XLVIII.... 7:74 1°54 26°5 120°0 4:44 LWety<. es 7:75 oF (| 35°5 160:0 LEMS oc sce 7:79 ‘75 27:0 120:0 4:43 LANs Siew sels 7°82 78 26°5 1200 4:53 VA tescace 7°84 80 27-0 120°9 4°43 LAW th aes cay 7:37 "83 26°5 120°0 4:53 1G aes ARR 8:00 78 26°5 120-0 4°53 Observations on the influence of the form of the channel on the propagation of the wave extend from Wave LVI. to Wave CXLIX., at the end of the report. The triangular channel H was of the form given in Plate III., fig. 2, its depth having varied by the quantity of water poured in, its vertex undermost, one side vertical and the other inclined to the horizon at an angle whose radius is to its tan- gent as 3 to 2. In all these experiments the wave was ob- served to be low and flat on the deep side of the channel, while it remained high and cusped on the shallow side; it was also long on the deep side, and diminished in length uniformly with the diminution in depth. The following table contains an ana- lysis of the experiments in the channel H. The first column refers to the individual wave made the subject of experiment, so that it may be referred to in its place at the end of the re- port. The second column contains the total depth reckoned from the top of the wave on the deep side. The third column gives the height of the wave. The fourth column contains the number of seconds employed in describing the number of feet given in the fifth column ; and the last column is the resulting velocity. It should be recollected, before proceeding to compare these observations with any formula, that the attraction of the sides at the bottom of the channel in the acute angle of the channel must be considered as having fixed a portion of the fluid which was not affected by the motion of the wave, and which should therefore be subtracted from the effective depth. ee ON WAVES. 4438 Analysis of Observations of Waves in the Triangular Channel Hi., Plate IIT., fig. 2. Reference to Total depth Time occupied Velocity of ote, |ParMeaaee| aves | space in next | desenbed. | “Sr Inches, Ly em Seconds. Feet, “7 LVM. ... 4°15 ‘] 365 80° 219 a ee ' : = } 4-23 22 33-0 80 2:42 PR}... ; au, } 4°32 31 31-0 755 2-43 Tibies..., LVIII. ot 4:38 37 47-0 1155 2-46 7 aaa LVI... 4-71 70 13°5 355 2-62 Eee Ly ewe 80 29°5 755 | @57 LXIX. ... 4-86 85 14:0 35:5 2-53 in ee 5:29 18 31:0 80-0 9-58 LEV isc. 5-44 33 45°5 1200 2-63 LXIll. ... 555 44 58-0 160-0 275 DMils...: 559 “48 30-0 80-0 2-66 Wey... 599 +88 120 355 2-95 LXIIl. .. : ae \ 6-01 90 24:5 710 2-89 TXVi.: 6-18 14 28-0 80-0 2-85 LXVII. eeu } 6-26 21 55S 160-0 2:88 xvi... 638 34 140 40-0 2-85 ee 6-44 1:33 12-0 B55 2-95 LXVIL 6-52 “48 26-5 80-0 3°02 LXVI. een } 6-78 74 35-0 111-0 317 BEN... 7-10 60 26'5 80-0 3-02 LXXV. st! 7-12 08 | 395 120-0 303 LXXIl... ; . ; LXXI,, } 7-15 11 78:5 240-0 3-05 LXXIIL . ae \ 7-16 12 525 1600 3-04 est... 7-21 17 26°5 80-0 3:02 LXXIIl... 7:36 32 26:5 80-0 3-02 LXXV. «.. 7-51 ‘47 25-0 80-0 3-20 LXXIV.... | 7-53 “47 24-0 80-0 333 _ The triangular channel K was of the form given in Plate III., fig. 3, the breadth at the surface of the water being 12 inches, the depth 4 inches to 0. It.was observed that during the whole of the experiments the wave was long and low on the deep side ; short and pointed, and considerably higher and con- tinually breaking, on the shallow side, so as to leave behind a long train of secondary waves. pa ae ef Ad4 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. The trapezoidal channel L was formed by the addition of a rectangular portion, 1 inch deep, to channel K. See Plate III. fig. 4. The trapezoidal channel M was formed by the addition of a rectangular portion, 1 inch deep, to channel L. Analysis of Observations of Waves in the Channels K, L, M. K Referenceto | Toteldewh | rreignt of te | inaescrining | ._\Soace, | 1} olgumne observations. of the wave. wave. space in next | described. per sec. column, NG Inches. Inches, i. Feet. oy cal LIK: 4-14 “10 19:5 40-0 2-05 LXXVIIL. 4-2) 17 175 40-0 2:28 LXXVI.... ; } ; : f CRXVI 4:42 37 40°75 102-2 2-50 LXXVIII. k ‘ : : ; eK 4:46 41 31-7 82-2 2-60 LX XVIII. 5:31 1:27 5-0 146 2-92 L LXXXV.. 5-24 +24 125 40-0 3-20 LXXXIL - 5:42 “42 135 40:0 3:00 ESR. 5 7 LXXXIV. 553 | 53 42:0 120-0 2:90 LEXKV:.. LXXXIV. 568 68 135 411 3-04 LXXXIIL 5°70 70 12°7 41] 3:23 LOTR: 577 77 20:0 611 3:05 LEKKI: L . 4: CXXXIV. } 6-41 1-41 85 29 2 3-43 Xs Kil. 6:47 1:47 45 146 3:24 LXXXIIL. 6-67 1-67 4-0 146 3°65 EXXXKV.: 6:92 1-92 4-0 146 3-65 M RO. “Assz edad : ‘ . : came zu 6-41 40 13-0 40-0 3-08 Wise, 5 - , ear Re 6:87 86 114 40-0 350 KOE: t : , , SCE Ay 7-43 1-42 9:25 35-7 3:86 The wedge-formed channel was of uniform depth, twelve inches wide at the broad end, and tapering to an edge at the ON WAVES. 445 other; the wave on entering the channel at A was observed ; its height was again taken at B, when it had advanced half the length of the channel, and had been diminished one half in breadth ; and at C, after having passed along three-fourths of the length of the. channel, the height was again observed. The wave was observed breaking invariably at the height of about 3°6 inches above the level of the fluid; and the distance from D, the end of the channel, when it broke, is given with the sign minus prefixed. On entering the channel the wave was low, but gradually increased as it reached the narrower parts of the channel, becoming acuminated ; and at last having gained the cusped cycloidal form, broke at the crest, and passed into the centre angle of the wedge, when it rose suddenly over the sides of the channel in a sharp vertical jet d’eau. A table of these experiments is given at the end, comprehending Waves XCIV.—CVI. The sloping channel, Plate II. fig. 6, was formed to imitate a sloping sea beach ; its slope rose 1 in 51. The wave entered the deep end at a given height, then gradually became more acu- minated, formed a cycloidal cusp, and broke. Its height on entering, its height when breaking, and the place at which it broke were observed and are given in the observations at the end from Wave CVII. to CX XXII. The numbers in the last column are the depths corresponding to the place of breaking observed in the preceding column, and this table shows that the depth at breaking corresponds with remarkable accuracy to the height of the wave. _ A considerable number of observations were made upon the translation of the particles of the fluid during the transit of a wave, but the results are not of a numerical character, being all comprehended in the general expression that the translation of the particles takes place wholly in the direction of the motion of the wave; that it is of equal extent from the surface to the bottom of the channel, that it is permanent, that the particles which were in the same vertical plane previous to translation are still so after translation. This is not the case in other species of waves ; the particles oscillate in opposite directions with an alternating motion. Experiments were also made on waves formed by the removal of a solid body from a quiescent fluid ; these are called negative waves, but the investigation of them has not yet been completed. Second Series of Observations. On the Waves of the Sea.—Are the waves on the surface of the sea, when it is agitated by the wind, of the same nature with the waves which have already been examined by experiment ? 446 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Does their velocity depend on the depth of the fluid? Is their form cycloidal? What is the cause of their breaking on the shore? And what law is observed in their breaking? Why do waves in any circumstances break ? What is a breaker? These are some of the questions which the Committee have examined, and their results are of importance to theory and to navigation. The Committee obtained for the purpose of their observations on the waves of the sea the use of one of the yachts of the Royal Northern Yacht Squadron, which was kindly granted by her proprietor, James Bogle, Jun., Esq., at the request of the secre- tary. The Mermaid was an excellent sea vessel, but the weather was unfortunate ; she was alternately,becalmed and bestormed ; one day driven into harbour for refuge and the next day pre- vented by calms from leaving harbour. Out of eight days oc- cupied in this way not more than one was favourable to obser- vation. By subsequently crossing the Irish Channel in steam- vessels one or two observations of a sufficiently accurate nature were obtained. From these observations it appears to be established that the velocity of the waves at the surface of the deep water is not a direct function of the depth. In a depth of 50 to 60 fathoms the velocity was 13°5 miles an hour. In a depth of 53 fathoms the velocity observed was 20 miles an hour. In a depth of 60 to 70 fathoms the velocity was 17 miles an hour. In a depth of 34 to 40 fathoms the velocity was 17% miles an hour. In a depth of 51 fathoms the waves produced by a steam vessel passing at the distance of about a mile, moved at the rate of only 4°3 feet in a second. It thus appears that the waves produced by the wind on the surface of the deep sea do not follow the same law with the great wave of the fluid. In other words they are not primary but secondary waves, or waves of some inferior order. They do not move with the velocity due to half the depth of the fluid in which they are generated. The following are the most important and accurate observa- vations made on this subject. Observations.—The observations were made by bringing the vessel nearly to rest in a direction at right angles to the ridge of the wave. The cork fenders of the vessel were then attached at equal distances to the log-line, and spaces of 200 feet were marked off upon it. The time was taken by a common chrono- meter; the observations made were upon the transits of the top of the wave under the floating buoys attached to the log-line. 1. 4th Oct. 1836, lat. 55° 38’ N., long, 4° 49’ W. Oif the Cambray Islands, 60 to 70 fathoms. Space 200 feet, time 7 sec, to 9sec. = 25 feet per sec. = 17 miles an hour. ON WAVES. 447 2. 4th Oct., 1836, lat. 55° 32’ N,, long 4° 52’ W. Off the Isle of Arran, 50 to 60 fathoms. Space 200 feet, time 10sec. = 20: feet per sec. = 13°5 miles an hour. 3. 5th Oct. 1836, lat. 55° 29’ N., long. 4° 54! W. Of Pladda Lights, 20 to 16 fathoms. Space 200 feet, time 11 sec. to 12 sec. = 17°3 feet per sec. = 114 miles per hour. 4. 12th Oct. 1836, lat. 54° 5' N., long. 5° 31! W. Off Ardglass Light, in 34 to 40 fathoms. Time. 9°3 sec. 10:0 Space = 345 feet< 9:3 = 35 feet — 9 = 174 miles. 86 10:0 5. 12th Oct. 1836, lat. 54° 1’ N., long. 5° 37! W. in 53 fathoms. 9-3 sec. Space = 345 feet { 8-6 = 39 feet — 9 = 20 miles per hour. 8°6 G6. 12th Oct. 1836, lat, 53° 58! N., long. 5° 39! W. in 46 to 44 fathoms. Space = 345 feet, time = 9°3 sec. = 37 feet —9 = 19 miles, The observations (4-6) were made against a very strong breeze and very high waves, about 8 or 9 feet high, and the vessel was going in the opposite direction at about the rate of six miles an hour. 7. In 51 fathoms water the City of Glasgow steam packet passed; her waves were about 20 inches high, about 12 feet apart, and passed over a space = 150 feet in 35 sec. = 4°3 feet per sec. It became of importance to determine whether the waves of the sea produce an agitation which extends to the deep parts of the water. It was found that even in moderate depths they do not. Thus in a depth of 12 feet—short quick waves, 9 inches high and 4 or 5 feet long, do not sensibly affect the water at the bot- tom, while waves thirty or forty feet long, oscillating at inter- vals of 6 or 8 seconds, produce a sensible effect, although much less than at a point nearer the surface. The circumstances of these partial oscillations opens up a field of future research. The observations made on this subject were obtained by plunging a glass tube to a considerable depth, so that the column of water contained in it should only be affected by the forces acting upon the particles of the fluid at the depth of its orifice below the surface. In this way it was ascertained that neither in velocity of the wave-surface, nor in the motion of transference of the particles, do the waves of the sea resemble the great primary wave of translation of the previous experiments. It is difficult to ascertain with precision the form of the waves of the sea; they appear to belong to the family of the cycloid, 448 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. The summit of the wave is round and flat so long as its height bears only a small ratio to its length in the direction of its motion ; but as the height increases the summit of the wave be- comes more and more acuminated, and the limit to which the height of a wave approaches, but which it never appears to ex- ceed, is nearly a third part of its length. If the wave belong to the cycloidal family, and if its length being constant the height vary with the generating radius, the rolling circle continuing the same, we shall have a series of lines accurately representing the form of the waves. See Plate II. fig. 1. Now it is manifest that when the describing radius of the wave becomes greater than the radius of the rolling circle, the curve ceases to have a form of possible equilibrium, and that portion which falls down from the top.of the wave constitutes the white crest which we observe on the summits of the largest waves, when they are said to break. There is generally much confusion in the appearance of an agitated sea. The waves do not appear regular in their forms, their intervals, or their velocities. Sometimes a wave seems to stand still or even to retrograde, and frequently after the eye has traced a wave for a considerable time it suddenly disappears altogether. Close attention will however discover some method in this irregularity. The surface of the sea is seldom covered with only one series of successive waves. Every breeze that ruffles the surface of the sea generates a series of waves that move in the direction of the motion of the wind. These waves do not subside with the breeze which raised them, but continue their oscillations until the adhesion of the water or the resistance of the shore has dif- fused the elevated fluid uniformly over the surface. In the mean time a second breeze springs up in another direction, and new waves rise to its pressure and follow its direction ; they mingle with those of the former wind without becoming mixed with them. Two distinct series of waves are now coexistent, and give rise to more complex phenomena. A third gale arises, and a new class of waves intersect and overlap the two former, while the long low swell—the residue and telegraph of some distant storm—rolls across the whole, and to the untutored eye leaves nothing to be looked on but a chaos of tumultuous, troubled waters. The seeming chaos is however to be analyzed by pa- tient attention: by ascending the mast of the ship, or standing on an elevated rock on the shore, much of this apparent confu- sion may be dispelled; and by attention to the phenomena of coexistent oscillations every thing may be understood. When a breeze has been blowing for some time in one di- rection, and the wind has shifted round into the opposite one and blown with nearly equal force, the two sets of waves may a ae ON WAVES. 449 be distinctly seen moving in opposite directions ; if they be of nearly equal dimensions a very singular appearance results. When the crests coincide, the ordinates of the compound wave surface become the same ordinates of the elementary waves, and their difference when the crest of the one is in the cavity of the other ; so that the sea is alternately in the forms represented in ec and d, fig. 2, Plate II. When these two systems of waves are compounded with a third system arising from some other breeze, or by a third sy- stem resulting from the reflection of a bold coast, the third series combines with the two former in the manner represented in fig. 3, with an appearance of still less regularity, and so on for any number of parallel systems. It is manifest that if these parallel systems be compounded with transverse systems, making any angle with the first, we shall have a compound system of surfaces of double curvature so complex in its structure as to represent the phenomena of the most troubled sea. On all occasions where the sea was ob-- served, there were found two or more such systems of coexistent waves. The phenomena of the waves at the surface of the sea appear to coincide very well with the hypothesis, that when a wave agitates the fluid only to a small depth it may be considered as formed in a shallow canal of that depth ; for it may be observed _ that a short wave of a given height is always more pointed than a longer wave of the same height, and also that whenever a wave reaches the limit of the cycloidal form it breaks. Whenever the height of a wave exceeds the limit of the cy- cloidal form due to its depth, the wave, after having become cusped or pointed, passes into the nodated form of unstable equilibrium and is broken. See figs. 4 and 5. Whenever a wave of a higher order coincides with the ridge of one of an inferior order, its curvature at the crest will be a maximum, and it may break, although it would not have broken on any other part of the wave. See figs. 4and 5, Pl. II. From this cause a large wave frequently exhibits the appearance of a breaking wave, although its own figure has not approached the limits of equilibrium ; but in that case it is not the large wave which is breaking, but the smaller one on its summit, whose curvature is then increased by the amount of the curvature of the greater wave at the crest. Waves break on the shore when they reach the point where the depth of the fluid becomes nearly equal to the height of the wave above the fluid. When at a distance from the shore they may be observed long and low, see fig. 6; as they approach the VOL. VI. 1837. 2G 450 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. shallow part of the shore they gradually assume the greater curva- ture due to the increased ratio of height to depth ; the form at last becomes cusped and perfectly cycloidal, the equilibrium of the summit ceases, and the particles of water on the extreme ridge of the wave, abandoned to the force of gravity, and aggregated in spherical drops by this cohesion, present to the eye the white foam- ing crest by which breakers are distinguished. Waves of great height are thus broken on the beach at a greater distance from the shore than such as are smaller. The depth of water may be judged of by the form and height of the waves. See fig. 7, Plate II. Where a wave of a given height can exist, suppose a wave of five feet, the water must have a depth below the surface of at least five feet, and wherever in a calm day waves are broken, the depth of the water is equal to their height above its surface. It must be observed that the existence of a strong wind will often destroy the equilibrium of the ridge of a wave, independent of depth or of the equilibrium of its proper form. When the curvature of the ridge of the wave becomes considerable, and it approaches the cusped form, the direct incidence of the wind upon the surface of the ridge will derange the equili- brium of the thin and slender column presented by the top of it before it reaches the limits of undisturbed equilibrium. Hence the phenomenon well known to sailors, that a very strong wind will blow the sea down, in other words, that it will blow off the ridges of the highest waves, and keep them from attaining the height they afterwards reach wien the gale has subsided. The highest seas are thus generated by the continuance of a strong gale in one direction rather than by the sudden and short im- pulse of a hurricane ; for in the former case the wind only breaks the summits of the smaller waves as they rise to the top of the larger ones, so as to add the mass of the smaller to the crest of the larger waves, without injuring the equilibrium of the latter ; these continual additions increase the magnitude of these great waves, while the force of the gale is not sufficiently great to de- range their equilibrium. The waves in these circumstances go on increasing in magnitude. The phenomena of waves breaking on the shore were observed principally on a very fine smooth beach of sand, having a slope towards the sea of 1* in 50°; so perfectly plane and level was it at the time when the observations were made, that a single wave a mile in breadth might be observed advancing to the shore, so perfectly parallel to the edge of the water that the whole wave rose, became cusped, and broke at the same instant ; a line of graduated rods was fixed in the water at different depths from See ee ae Se ON WAVES. 451 6 inches to 6 feet in length, and it was observed that every wave broke exactly when its height above the antecedent hollow was equal to the depth of the water. At another time when the di- rection of the waves was oblique to the edge of the water, the breaking crest moved along from one end of the shore towards the other, uniformly and gradually as the wave advanced to the point of breaking depth, resembling the few de joie of a file of soldiers. When a wave that has been breaking on ashallow part of the water comes suddenly into deeper water, the form ceases to be crested, see Plate II.; and the wave subsides into the figure due to the depth. The phenomena of waves breaking on the shore were accu- rately obtained in the experiments No. 107—132, page 492. Plate II. figs. 6 and 7. Third Series of Observations. On the Tide Wave of the River Dee in Cheshire.-—The ob- ject of this series of observations was the comparison of the tidal wave moving in a given channel with the great primary wave of translation previously examined by Mr. Russell. To this object the river Dee is peculiarly suitable. Plate VI. fig. 1. gives a plan of that river at low water. The upper por- tion of the channel of the river is artificial. The waters of the river were turned into a new course about the middle of the last century. Of this course about 54 miles forms a_ perfectly straight canal, along which a large and rapid tidal wave is trans- ferred with great velocity. The two points A and B on the plan were selected as stations of observation. The distance be- tween A and B was carefully measured ; transverse sections of the river were made, and soundings were taken throughout the whole length of the channel. The distance between Aand B . . . . =5:275 miles. The mean depth of the channel at low water = 3:0 feet. The bed of the river has a slope nearly . =3°8 feet. The opposite sides of the river are parallel embankments about 500 feet apart at high water mark, but nearly half that breadth is occupied by groins, as shown in the sections of the river, figs. 2,3, and 4, Plate VII., and the intervals between them are filled up with high banks of sand. The tides selected to be observed were those which differed most in magnitude, and which were least affected by disturbing influences. They were made when the weather was settled, when there was no sensible wind, and when the river was as nearly as possible in its natural state. One entire tide wave was obtained on the 7th of September, and two others on the 9th 262 452 SEVENTH REPORT— 1837. and 13th of that month. In the latter two cases the river was a few inches fuller than in the former, as will appear by inspecting the table of observations which follows. From these observations it may be useful to make the follow- ing extracts. First wave of flood tide, 7th Sept. reached Station Avativesi ais wo oso. ado) Beh Station) k Hectic 6 80) MSS oe Se ee Time of describing 5°275 miles. . i) ice oe First wave of flood tide, 9 oes reached _ Station A-at.,. . ; . «hid Saati Station-Biat 64? .ce iced oe eee Time of describing 5*275 miles. . . o! ah ORES First wave of flood tide, 13th CEE reached Station Aat . . . vic of a wen ns Station Gat 2) yh) 1S) 2 Ye ae Time of describing 5°275 miles. . . f° Oe The wave of high water of io st reached Station Aat .. . - oo TSS Station’ B athoyoy. ase. Ais ci Re Time of describing 5°275 miles. . . oO ai The wave of high water of 9th SH ipy reached Station Aat . . . Sy ap . & Ol See Stations ati) Jesh ste) Ps os Ln oe ae Time of describing 5°275 miles . . . 107 19% The wave of high water of 13th Sept. reached Station A. afi. ;c1) «as ,<, 02 7 ee RSisthom Pas eths, 60 atl Vee Sa OS, Sele - Time of describing 5°275 miles. . . . . . . O 18°5 The following table contains the corresponding velocities of the waves. WAVE. | Velocity ia tem ot Wave | Height of Wave | woan Depth. {du ap locity. I 52 0-ft.8-in O-ft.6-in. 3°ft.7-Oin. | 2°Oft. II 7:0 15) 6 O° 7: 4: 10°5 3°5 Ill 7:0 2 8 ye | 5° 0°5 3°5 1V 10°5 a) 2:1 Gr4- 10° 9:0 7:0 Vv 16:2 13° 5:7 10° 6 15: 11°8 16-0 VI 171 15° 8 13° 0 17- 4:0 17:0 ON WAVES. 453 In order to make these observations the foundation of any conclusions, it will be necessary to observe that it is scarcely possible to determine whether the wave which brings flood tide to the lower station be the same with that which afterwards brings flood tide to the higher station; on the other hand it seems more likely that the wave which passed the lower station was diffused over the intermediate space in the channel, and was overtaken by a subsequent part of the tide, which had not reached the lower station till a considerable time after the first wave had passed it. This is not a conjecture, but has frequently been observed in similar cases where the first wave being be- come diffused in the channel ceased to pass onwards and was overtaken by a subsequent wave. The result obtained in the case of waves I., II., and III. of flood tide is consistent with this view, and shows that in these cases the progress of flood tide is slower than the velocity due by gravity to the wave of the fluid. It is also consistent with the experiments of the previous part of this paper, that a breaking wave or bore, as this was, has a slower velocity than one which does not break. Waves IV., V., and VI., the waves of high water, have almost exactly the velocities of great waves of translation of the fluid. It will be seen at once by examining the transverse sections of the river, that wave IV. must suffer great retardation from the ‘circumstance that its progress is continually intercepted by the groins to which it is almost exactly equal in height, while waves V. and VI. rise above them and accordingly approximate more closely to the velocity due to the depth. The form of these waves and their antecedent bores are given in Plate VI. figs. 1 and 2. and the observations from which they are deduced are given in the following table. 454 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Tide Wave of the 7th Sept., River Dee, 1836. Station A, Jarvis Obs., Chron. No. 4 stand.'|Station B, Jones Obs., Chronom. No. 2, cor. H. W. 9" 21™ = 9ft. 2-lin. = + 0-75". H. W.9%50™75 = 6ft. din. Flood. Ebb. Flood. Ebb. hss in: ||) £6.) 410. 1 an A en tc him: |. -fteims: |he om Jette 9 2019 21 1920/19 21 19 50/\6 4: 950|6 4 15/9 17 Not |observed. 45|6 37 55 | 6 37 LO MEG te 7 40|6 30 110 0|6 25 Be ges lay / 3516 20 5 | 6 2-0 0/9 1:5 30/16 07 10 | 6 05 3855/9 1:5 | 25) 5 11s 15 | 5 11:0 50/9 0-5 20|\5 87 20 |5 97 45 | 8 10:5 15|5 63 25 \5 80 AD a Rs ee. 10,|.5 3:7 30.) 5.697 35 | 8 65 5| 5 0-7 35 | 5 5:0 30|8 4 0 | 4 10-0 40 | 5 3:0 25\8 1: 8855/4 7:0 45 1.5) 0 A°S 20 | 7 10°5 50|4 4: 50 | 4 11-7 Toho eae 45 | 4 0:7 55 | 4 10°5 10|7 4 40|3 10 {11 0) 4 9:0 517 1 3513 65 5 | 4°75 0|6 83 30|3 35 10 | 4 60 755|6 65 25|3 03 15|4 4 50|6 50 20 | 2 92 20|4 3 45 | 5 115 15|2 65 25|\4 1:5 40|5 85 10|2 33 30 | 4 0 35 | 5 6:0 5|2 oO 35.| 3 10°5 30|5 1:0 | 0/1 9 40|3 9% 25 | 4 9 1-7 55) 1 6 45|3 75 20|4 4 50|1 2 50|3 6 15|4 0 | 4510 83 55.|3 4:7 LO: |. 7 40\0 7 (12 0/3 30 5|3 1: | 3510 5: 513 31 0/2 8 | 30/0 4 10|3 05 655|2 1: Woe ea rar, 15 | 2 11-2 50|1 9 20| 0 3:5 20 | 2 10°5 45/1 1: 15/0 3 25 | 2 93 40 | 0 11° 10|0 27 30 | 2 80 35|0 & / 5 | 0 25 35 |2 7:0 30|0 6 0|0 20 40 | 2 60 25 | 0 6 55 45 | 2 5:0 | 20|0 2 50 50 | 2 42 \ ON WAVES, 455 Tide Wave of the 9th Sept., River Dee, 1836. Station A, Jarvis Obs., Chron. No. 4 stand. | Station B, Jones Obs., Chron. No. 2 cor. H. W. 105 35™ = 13 ft. 5°75 in. = — 0°5™, H. W. 105 54°75 = 10 ft. 6in, Flood, Ebb. Flood. Ebb. Teeemoseye f6..09In | oh me |) fe ine | hem. |! fe. ane] he ms “| Fe in. 10 35 | 13 5:7/10 35 | 13 5°7/10 55 | 10 6- |10 55 |10 6: 30), 13 5°5 40 | 13 5:7 50} 10 5:5/11 0/10 5:5 25 | 13 4:5 45 |}13 5: 45 |10 4: 5 10 5: 20 | 13 3. SO Vis 9S: 40/10 25 10 |10 3:5 L5 PWS fF 1- 55 113 (1:5 35 | 10 0-5 15 110 2:0 10} 12 11/11 0} 12 11° 30 9 10: 20 110 0O- Dp Tt? 685 5 | 12 9: 25 9 75 25 |}9 9:5 0} 12 65 10 | 12 7:5 20 9 5: 30/19 7:0 9 55 | 12 4:0 15 | 12° 5:0 15 8 11°? 35 | 9 35 50} 12 0°5 20 | 12 25 10 8 9°5 40|19 1:0 45 | 11 10-0 25 |;12 0O- 5 @ Sy5* 45 |} 8 9:5 40} 11 7:5 30/11 9 0 8 1:5 50 | 8 7:0 35 | 11 4 35 | 11 6 9 55 7 85 5518 3:5 30} 11 1°5 40} 11 3 50 7 3 112 0:18 0:0 25 | 10 11: 45} 11 0- 45 6 10°5 5|7 9:0 20/10 7:5 50 | 10 9: 40 6 6: 10|7 6:5 15 | 10 4: 55 | 10 5 35 6 1: T5177) oo 10 9 11° 112 0; 10 2 30 5 as 20|7 2:0 5 9 6: 5 9 11: 25 5." S* 2516 11: 0 9 1: 10 9 & 20 4 10: 30/6 8 8 55 8 8 15 9 4 15 4 45 35 |6 6: 50 Sie: 20 9 1: 10 3 10°5 40/6 3 45 7 & 95 8 10: 5 3.C«*SSs 45|6 1: 40 70 1°5 30 8 7:5 0 2 10: 50 | 5 10- 35 6 7:5 35 8 4: 8 55 24S: 5D | 5p 85 30 6 0: 40 So) ds 50 5s LT 0 ot a0 25 aie De 45 7 11: 45 0 10: 5|5 4 20 4 9: 50 i: 40 0 4: TO ah 15 4 0 55 TP tKae 35 0 4: 15 | 4 11:5 10 3 2 13 0 2 30 0 4: 20 |4 92 5 DiEt4 5 6 ll: 25 |4 7 0 0 10: 10 6 6:7 3014 5°5 15 6 5: 35 |4 3 20 6 25 40 | 4 1:5. 25 5 11:5 45 | 3 11:5 30 5 9°0 .50 | 3 10° 35 5. 5:2 55/3 8 The observations under the words flood and ebb are uncorrected for the error of the chronometer : the correction is given at the head of each column. The time and magnitude of high water are correctly given at the head of each column. The time and magnitude of the same tides as given in the almanack for Liverpool are Sept. 7, 8h 57™ 10ft. 10in, Sept. 9,10 26 13 7 Sept.13, 0 387 18 0 456 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Tide Wave of the 13th Sept., River Dee, 1836. Station A, Jarvis Obs., Chron. No. 4 stand.|| Station B, Jones Obs., Chron. No. 2 cor. H. W. 124 35™ = 15 ft. Sin. = —15. H. W.12"53-"5 = 13 ft. 0-in, (22.2 bel he aR SIN Flood. Ebb. Flood. Ebb. _ ena h. m.| ft. in. | h. m.} ft in. h m ft. in. | h. m ft. in 12.35/15 8 (12 35 | 15 8 |12 55/13 0: Ile 55 13 0 30/15 7:5 40|15 7. 50 | 12 11-7} 1 0} 12 11-7 25115 65 45|}15 6 45 | 12 10-7 5 | 12 95 20|15 5: 50/15 5. 40 | 12 10-0 10 | 12 655 15 |15 4 55/15 4 35 | 12 8-0 15/12 37 LOLS AS Dl 1B «ge 30/12 50] 20] 12 07 | 15 455 5115 0 25) 12 0 25 | 11 10 0/15 o- 10 | 14 9 20/}11 7 30} 11 7 1155 |14 9 15 | 14 55 15 pad oe 35 [11 4 50] 14 55! 20/14 a7 10} 10 7:5 40}11 1 45|14 2 25 1 13.41- 5 | 9 1155 45 | 30 10°5 40 | 13 10: 30113 9 0; 9 40; 50/10 7-0 35/13 6 35} 13 5 111 55 | 8 90 55/10 3-0 30113 2: 40/13 2 50/| 8 1:0;/2 0/10 0o- 25 |12 9 45 | 12 10- any, 7 70 Bi 9B 20/12 5 50] 12 7- 40} 7 35 10| 9 4 15}12 3 551/12 3 35| 6 9 15|/ 9 0- 10/11 7 |2 0/12 © 30/ 5115} 20] 8 9 5 | 10 10°5 5] 11 755 25! 5 4:0) 2957 8° 6 0/10 4 10] 11 4 20! 4 80! 30] 8 3 1055 | 9 6 15/11 oO 15/ 311:0] 35] 7 116 50 | 8 10- 20] 10 65 10} 3 00 40| 7 8 45] 8 Oo 25/10 3 5| 2 30 45| 7 5: 40.) 73. 30| 10 o- Oh Towe 50| 7 3 35 | 6 5:5 35| 9 6 111055] 0 2 55 | 7. 0 30} 5 9% 40] 9 1°55 3.0] 6 9 25} 4 10 45] 811° Su we ashe 2 3 11: 50| 8 6 10} 6 3 15} 210 55| 8 2 15H Ge DA 10} 0 3 0/ 710° | 20| 5 9 5 Bal. 7 GA5} 25 5° 7s 0 10); 7 2 | 30; 5 4 15 | 6 10-7! 35 | 5 0 20:1 Gy Fg. 40| 4 9 25| 6 37) 45| 4 6 30} 6 05) 50| 4 3-7 = Ne eC ley 55| 4 7° | 40] 5 5-5) 60 | 3 105 It was observed that the flood tide of the 13th was attended in passing the lower station, A, with a very considerable breaking bore or surge on the sides. Both of the tide gauges were placed in deep water at some distance removed from the banks of the river. ON WAVES. 457 Fourth Series of Observations. On the Tide Wave of the River and Frith of Clyde in Scotlund.—The observations on the river Dee having been necessarily very limited in number, and in the means as well as objects of inquiry, suggested the nature and indicated the ne- cessity of a more extensive series of observations of the tide wave in its progress along some limited channel whose dimen- sions might be determined with the requisite precision. The river and frith of Clyde on the west coast of Scotland were at once suggested to the Committee, as in every way suitable to the objects of their inquiry. That river is, like the Dee, con- tained in a channel, which is a work of art rather than of nature, having been rendered one of the finest rivers in Britain by the perseverance, enterprise, and wealth of the citizens of the important manufacturing and commercial city, whose mer- chandise it transports from all quarters of the world. Your Committee made application, with the assistance of Sir Thomas Brisbane, the President of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and one of the former presidents of the British Association, to the board of Commissioners or Trustees of the navigation of the Clyde, and were fortunate in obtaining their cordial and ‘ef- fectual co-operation in conducting all the observations and ob- taining all the information they required. The willing assistance of Mr. Logan the engineer of the river, was given in conducting the observations; at his request simultaneous observations were made at several other ports in the vicinity ; Captain Denham, R.N., of Liverpool, was good enough to order similar obser- vations at that port; Professor Nicol kindly placed the instru- ments in the college observatory at their disposal, for regulating the time-keepers of the observers, and nothing was omitted that could give the observations value and general interest. Moreover, it was fortunate that the board of Trustees had just obtained very accurate surveys of the river with transverse sec- tions, at distances of each quarter of a mile; and they further ordered that the stations of observation should be connected by a system of levelling. -These were all placed at the disposal of the Committee by the Trustees and their engineer, who were of opinion that observations of that nature were of equal value to the practical navigation and improvement of their river, as to the theoretical speculations of the British Association. Throughout the greater part of 18 miles, the distance be- tween Glasgow and Port-Glasgow, the river Clyde is little more than an inland tidal canal, excavated and embanked by artificial means; it then expands into a frith of considerable breadth, 458 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. extending about 25 miles down to the outer Cumbray Island, where it terminates. The whole of this space was embraced by the observations. : Plate VIL. contains a plan of the river Clyde; the stations at which tide gauges were erected and observers placed are marked in the plan. Nine different stations were occupied; the first of these was at the harbour at Glasgow, immediately below which, the river is for about 5 miles of nearly uniform width and depth, and in this division were three stations, No. I., IL, and III. Thenext division of the river is wide, irregular, and of variable depth, comprehending stations III., 1V., and V. The third division of the river is deep and broad from station V. to station VII. The river then opens out into a wide and deep frith, and at a distance of about 5 miles further down, on op- posite sides of the frith, were placed stations VIII. and X. Station IX. was at the light-house on the outer Cumbray Island, which stands at the mouth of the frith. A great variety of channel was thus included in the observations. The observations were made with a tide-gauge, constructed for the purpose of preventing the oscillations of the waves of the surface; a glass tube traversed the scale; the tube open abdve terminated below in a stop-cock, by which the aperture was regulated, and which communicated with along narrow pipe descending into deep water; the indications of this gauge were free from inconvenient oscillation, even in a rough sea, to which it was exposed. The scale of the gauge was so constructed as to be read with ease at a considerable distance. This gauge is recommended as one that can be used with ease and perfect accuracy by a telescope from a great distance, and which might therefore afford the means of making observations in situations where otherwise it would be impracticable. The indications of the gauge were written down every five minutes during the entire progress of one tide wave each day, and of two successive tide waves on the evening of each Friday. The following table contains the observations of heights, all referred to the same level, as accurately determined by Mr. Kyle for the first seven stations, and as interpolated for eight and nine. 459 ON WAVES. 1B puvosiy *sayoUul g Jovriqns ‘asned oy} ‘ tee ooo oo vas ay Oe a oe “ WM UI LAVUGWOAO ‘XI NOILVIS oe 09 £ 88 £IGIL £ 10-01 8 ‘Sa roe =5- in "TTR puvssryy ‘selOUT g JOBANGNS ‘edNVy oy3 oe I ¢-OT I L6 I ‘OL if 0-6 I ee eee tee eee see “IN “M MOT uo Wy Sta FT out puy oL— "LHOIT GF 6 ISL 6 I96 6 OL OL/Ge IL/¢6 OL] ve TM U8 LHOOTO ‘TITIA NOILVLS 16 6/08 £ }0-¢ Z£ |&L 8 ee EBS OTHE x + w/e pur asiy 297 SOT BNGns ‘ooned £9 if 8-6 I LOL I SLI I eee GOL 0 eee eee eee wee “IN “A MOT at uo YBa FF otp puy oy — ‘MOD PE 11/89 6 LP 6 JIL OL/9-0T OLI6-9 IT/8-0 IL/*6 OL] 88 IL] “ |‘W'M Us L-SV19 LYOd ‘IIA NOILVIS 00OL6 | 41 8 6 £ IST 6 OF 6 IGS OL] “” Bg a | TR puvasiy ‘sayuy £ ppe OOLT | O24 T |@8 1 |@0 £ 06 T 00 T << } TAM AtOT 4 ‘adney oy} uo 4yS1eF] ay} puy OF 08 1] 48 6 |9¢ 6 |08 OL/OL IL/¢8 IL\e¢ If} °° ce AM Ut L—aTTIAONUVS ‘IA NOILLVLS EI 9/00 £ L119 (09 Z£ /¢0 8 |0-11 6 oe ee y sv /T[@q puvasiy 7a 9-Z Weqns ‘odney &é& | E8 S$ 88 6 IFO & [Eh € IGIL @ ie Sg + JAM MOT ay} Uo 4YsIOFY 943 puyY OT, — GP GI) &8 6 8 6 [9 OLS ILj/@OL [1l¢e9 IT] °° a “ 1M WH L‘AVE ONITMOM “A NOLLVLS = GIL ¢ €9 9 $0 9 |8¢ £ =. ie a sp ve /Te7 puvesiy "729, _G-G JVAIGNS ‘oSneL) aad LIL € 6b € |L8 & |60 F rs ie =i =" | AA MOTT 4 ON} U0 IYSIOFY oy) Puy OL —'Y Ald ~* 0-01 6 |$-01 6 |@2 OL/O9 If} °° nen ie Re “ | WM WI LETTIHSVY “AI NOILLV.LS 69 9/06 9 8 9 06 9 |oF £88 £/0L LDF £ | SOL LZ | Tet puvasny | “P97 T0-§ 281qGns 6 9 /TL € €9 € |LILe |e F ILL F ILOL Se |-6 € 192 € "| "TAT AM MoT 4 ‘e8ney ays uo YysieFy om puyo.— CL 81) 16 6 OTL 6 IL-8 OL/9-2 11/66 ILj]G I1j41 If} 19 TL] * | ‘WA WH L‘MNVd AAATO III NOILVILS 09 9 “ler 9 12019 109 Z lool 2 I88 £19 £1811 2/6 Z |g puecosnyy peed 10-¢ 29B.IGNs ‘aonVy ey) Lt 9 “168 € OL F Lh F 66 F ITE [248 €¢|66 8 |6 ©] 'M OTS UO ZySI0Fy OY puy OLT—AVND LOL GI} GOL 6 |Z1 OLJSG1T OL/L01 11 |@0 SLI0-8 I1/ee 1] 66 IL} 9 IW UWI LS.GUOdMVUO “Il NOILVLS <. 69 ¢ 88 9 GL 9 GF £69 L168 £ oe ¥% se ey puv asryy ‘JOT PHE PeUQGNS | x." 6 F GOOLE |L8 F OL F 89 F IO F 7 ?% | WE AL MOT 4 foSnUy ays uo IySIOF oy} puy OF, — GO S| &6 6 [8-3 OL|GIL OL GIT I1/@T Zt/@6 1% I1/Ss00 11] “| WM Wa LA VIRINOOUD “I NOILVIS “Ul HE | UL SIT | UL 9 |) UL RT | Or 9g} OE a] OL 9] Ul a} UL 7a er Maton A | baat’ |Sauag"| Satay’ | “Suoug' [sreopon| Shaop. | “porg’| Sauop’ | oftoo | INIM JO NOILOGUIG ¥ HLONTULS ‘TAgye | 6oIdy | ‘so tAdy | 16 1dw | 9g nady | *s¢ tady | ‘re nady | *3g 1ady | ‘iz tady |'0g 1dV “Lest ‘Av pue yudy Suiinp apAqD Jo yy pur aoary ay} Ul Sapry, 94) JO JYSIOFT oy} uO suotyeAsosqg oy} JO ATAV], » ee ee Lea; SEVENTH REPORT 460 GIL F\OL 90-01 9 “" 16-00 Z|Z01L 119-9 1 “146 LILILT LI¢b 8 08 91G-€ C09 QI¢-F Z OF GBS 8/06 ZIL8 I 00 6)/L5 8/08 gi@L 6 “ 8-L ¢/L0 9G 9 “" 1600 €18-¢ €/8-8 ¢€ “10:9 6/99 6/66 OL Ul 3H )UL wyur 3qlur aq iS. |, 'S _|'s 4a ‘a ‘Ss a1UIH | epuay | ‘atjuen |} ‘ajueg ‘eT Avyy | ot AVI TT AvP] ‘OL Ae o9 £ 8 8 162 6)191 6106 6 |Z 8 ye: 40 1 |@IL0 09 0108 0/0110 | “LF T og Ll 8 oS 6 168 6196 6 | OL OL) ZO OL c= 41 § |G0L 8 OL OL} 98 6 | S016 |¢e 6 | Le 8 Go 1 jG £09 0168 0/00 1/¢9 L |ae z Gv 6 |LZIL 6 (09 OL] 42 OL| GOL OL] O-OT OL] Z6 OT ay “18 OL] 0-1 OL) ZF O11 09 6 106 8 a “(84 0/8010 |6010 |@2 1 ler @ we (96 OL] SIL OL] LE IL] el ] et Tr “Ss oa ‘T OL] 90 OL) 02 O01) 28 6/128 8 Ts ah OL0 |G T/O0€ T\|OL T log @ rik if ‘IL OL) 0-3 IL) 0G IL) %8 If} %e 1 pres “ 1h 8189 8108 818F giao z “ (86 6/80 €|¢6 €/81 @€ 1a F "i 3% &6 11)99 I1| $01 11} 9:9 If] ¢@g8 II 2: “ 89 £/4¢6 £106 £/e8 £12119 x 4 19 € |9ILE | TE FI] LITe | Lo ¢ oo “60 If] @¢ If} 10 @L] @Z 11] @1t It ae - $¢ 2/88 £/08 £/0£ 2/126 9 Ne “ 4h €180 6168 F138 Fl GF g Bs “GE 1/98 1] 3h S11 %6 IL] 21 31 PL 9 OT £6 £108 £1GL £ | RE £109 9 88 € GOLES OL € | 41 F/0O01F | Ge Fi 4g ¢ GP OLGIL OLlS-F Tl] 26 11] &¢ Zr] LOL 11] £6 ZI ho en CG) ec i) a a) MG al a a ‘aN ‘a “M 3°H | CM BO “M'N ‘a “M “yaeuig |feyerapoyy| ‘ayjuey | ‘aze1apoyy ‘Suo0ys ‘atuey *3u011g ‘GAR | “SAU | ‘gheW | *G Sey *p AV *g AR *G Ae *[leq pue asiy ‘Ur g JOBIIQGNS fasnvD ay) UO ‘WM MOT 4 1YSIaFT O— Puy OJ —J HOTT ‘WA 4 LAVUAWOAD ‘XI NOLLVAIS 1187 pur osiyy ‘UT 9 308.NGNs ‘aSneg oy) uo ‘WA MoT 4 34S1077 ay) puy OL —-] OTT NM 43] LHOOTO ‘IIIA NOLLVIS ‘ 227 0-1 By pure ast ' tl a a baie yoBnqns ‘asneg ay} uo TSO FT "NM UStEy emt Puy OL—MODSWI9 Wem usyy | PUY OL—"AVAD s.auoa : eae TIA =NOILV.LS Il@A pur asixy “sayouy f ppe ‘asnesy ‘WM MOT 4 243 UO 4FIaFy ayy puy of — WM IH L‘ATAOWUVO'IA NOILVLS ‘Ted puvasry [ “saaq 9.7 qov.aqns ‘asney ayy ‘WM MOT») Uo 34SI8FF oy puy OF —x yg "WM Ut L-ONITMOd “A NOILVIS ‘Wed puvesny [ 3204 ¢.¢ eqns ‘eBney ayy uo ‘WAM MOT) 1USIOH ay puy OL —Y TT ‘WM WH LADTIHSV “AI NOILVIS Wed Puvasry (34 10-¢ weygns VBney ayy uo WM MOT IWSIEF oy) puy °L— ANVA W'MUIA LACATIO ‘lIIT NOILVILS P "1227 [0-2 Joey orl ter les ‘a8ney ay} uo yyS10z] oy “MVYUO ‘II NOILVIS Utd Puvasiy f yaaq FF. weNqns @Sney ayy ‘WM 40] 4 U0 IYFH ay) puy oF —"M VT ‘WM U3IH L-dINOOUd ‘I NOLLV.LS —_——___. GNIM JO NOILOGUIG F HLONAULS ae EE ee | Sel ES Suh Sei eo an | *PpanutzU0d suOTwAIasqG Jo a1aV, ON WAVES. 461 From these observations it appears that the summit of the tide wave increases in height as it ascends the river. From station VII. to station VI. this increase amounts to about 2 inches ; at station V. it amounts to 5°2 inches; at III. it has become 6°1 inches ; and at Glasgow 10:1 inches is the difference between the level of the wave of high water above that at Port Glasgow, 18°5 miles below. This difference varies slightly with the state of the tides, and with the condition of the current of fresh water in the river. At low water the surface of the river is higher at Glasgow than at Port Glasgow by 33 inches ; at station III. this difference is 27 inches, at IV. about 25 inches, and at V. about 12 inches. Difference of level at H. W. Difference of level at L. W. Station I. 10°1 inches. 33 inches. Station II. 9°1 inches. 31 inches. Station III. 7-0 inches. 27 inches. Station IV. 6°1 inches. 25 inches. Station V. 5°2 inches. 12 inches. Station VI. 2-2 inches. 5 inches. Station VII. 0:0 inches. O inches. The comparison of these numbers with the channel of the rivers in Plate VIII. will be interesting, as showing the influence of the form of the channel upon the height of the tide wave and the current of the river. Plate V. is a diagram showing the height of the tide wave as it reached the successive stations in various states of the wind. The waves are transposed so as to have a common origin, at station VIII. The effect of westerly winds in in- creasing the height of the wave, and of easterly winds in de- pressing it, is manifest. The wave of the 24th of April is curious in this respect, that whereas the wind had been west- erly, and changed, during the progress of the high water, to the east, so the wave which previously was higher, afterwards becomes lower than those adjacent to it; it therefore intersects them. The wind was in no case equivalent to what is con- ‘sidered a gale or storm. Plate IV. represents the form of the tide wave as it passed the successive stations on the River and Frith of Clyde. A series of stars marks the centre of the wave, and has been placed there for the purpose of showing the dislocation of the wave, or the transposition of its higher parts forward, or the retardation of its lower parts by the shallowness of the water through which it has advanced. There is a remarkable re- version of this process in the wave of the Cumbray, Station IX., 462 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. which is probably produced by the circumstance that it is the result of two waves (one behind the other). The corresponding wave at Liverpool is also given; it is also a compound of two waves, which coincide nearly in time. From a laborious discussion of these observations, it appears that the wave of high water travels From IX. to VIII. in 6 min. 14 miles. 80 mil ene From VIII. to VII. in 9 min. 6 wat TARCEED GE From VII.to VI. in 6 min. 3°75 miles. 20 mil 1 Brom - -V1.,f0) esa in 18 min. 4°25 miles. fe pn at ere From V.to IV. in 19 min. 2:5 miles. 8-1 mil Be From IV.to ITI. in 18 min. 2°5 miles, f a so al From. sLLI. to. 2 “UE: in 15 min. 2°75 miles. 15 mil hour From II. to Ll in 7 min. 2°78 alee peg These results show that in the deep water being between 40 and 60 fathoms, or between 240 and 360 feet deep, the wave travels at the enormous rate of 30 miles an hour; that on reaching water from 20 to 30 feet deep, the velocity is di- minished to 20 miles an hour; and from V. to II. where the river is wide, shelving, and shallow, the velocity of the tide wave is retarded to 8 miles an hour; while on ascending fur- ther up; where the banks nearly upright, and the contracted width give an increase of mean depth, the velocity has a cor- responding increase to 15 miles an hour. By examining the plans it will be apparent that we shall not err greatly if we assume the average depth of the river, from I. to III., at 15 feet. From ITI. to V. the river is wide and shallow, spreading over extensive banks, where there are not 2 feet of water, for which we may be allowed to take a third part of the greatest as a mean depth, or about 5 feet. In the di- vision from V. to VII., both depth and breadth increase very rapidly to about 35 and 37 ; taking 25 feet as the mean depth, we have Velocities of the Tide- Mean depth. Velocity due wave as observed. to depth. 80 miles an hour. 240—360 feet. G6O0—80 miles. 20 miles an hour. 25 feet. 19-3 miles. 8:1 miles an hour. 5 feet. 8-6 miles. 15 miles an hour. 15 feet. 14-9 miles. The following are the results of the observations in regard to the time of high water :— At Cloch Light,—High Water is 9 Min. earlier than at Port Glasgow. Lazaretto-Point ..........-.06. A do. do. Cumbray Light-house ......... 15 do. do. Portteatuick yh pcped-tencdve pear {| do. do, a aes ON WAVES. 463 At Cloch Light,—High Water is 51 Min. earlier than at Port Glasgow. Liverpool ......... sea enenaneed se 51 do. do. Whitehaven ...... sadessséndeedssO2 do. do. Newry --rcecscseeeee Sey Baer 85 do. do. Donaghadee ...........s000008 127 do. do. Port-Rush ..........sse0ee0 5h. 35 do. do. At Garmoyle Light,—H. W. is 6 Min. later than at Port Glasgow. GWU GE ee cade eee ocacedavbe as o> 24 do. do. Rashilee i. 5.0.2.ocsessecenesnes 43 do. do. Clyde iBank} ic..,..5.sesnactd- oe 61 do. do. Crawford’s Quay .....+..sece0e 76 do. do. Broomielaw .........sseessseeees 83 do. do. Being 1 hour 23 minutes between Port Glasgow and the Broomielaw. It is difficult to determine whether the wind produced a de- cided effect on the velocity of these tides. By adiscussion which was attempted, it appear.d that on all the days in which the easterly wind prevailed, compared with all the days on which the westerly wind prevailed, there was a difference of one mi- nute more and of one minute less than the mean; the tide being accelerated by the coincident wind and retarded by the opposing one. The continuation of this series of inquiries will be given in the next Report. Description of the Tables containing the original Observa- tions of the Waves in Artificial Channels made tn 1837. Each of the first ninety-three tables contains the history of a single wave, including the condition of the fluid previous to generation—the method of generation—the volume of the wave at the commencement of its path—the height of the wave at every transit—the interval between its transits—the space described, and the time occupied in describing it. The methods of ob- serving and the observers’ names are given, for the sake of authen- ticity, except in the first four experiments, which are not suff-: ciently perfect to form by themselves the grounds of any im- portant conclusions. The approximate depth of the fluid is given at the head of each table in the first line for convenience of reference. The corrected or true depth of the fluid at the commencement of the observations is given immediately above the columns of observations, where it is given as “ corrected statical depth =”, The “ observed stutical level” is the indication of the height of the fluid on the scale of the glass indices or gauges represented in Plate I., taken from an arbitrary line and affected by an index 464 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. error, from which the “ corrected statical level’”’ is derived by a correction obtained from observation. The modes of generating the fluid were very numerous, but as the resulting phenomena of the waves were found to be inde- pendent of the mode of generation, a sufficient number only are given to establish the means of comparison. These extend from Wave I. to Wave XXV. Those waves “created by reservoir A” were formed by filling that portion of the channel at the end of the experimental channel of Plate I. with a given volume of water, which was added to the water in the channel by the sudden removal of the sluice S, and so formed the wave. The waves ‘‘ generated by impulsion” of sluice were formed by placing the sluice at the back of reservoir A, and suddenly bring- ing it to the front of the reservoir, so as to communicate a hori- zontal impetus to the fluid forming the wave. The waves “generated by detached chamber B”’ were formed by placing the rectangular vessel B, Plate I., at the end of the reservoir and filling it with water to a given volume: by raising the sides of this vessel from the bottom of the reservoir, the column of water was allowed to descend by gravity and generate the wave. Column A contains the number of feet described by the wave from the commencement of the observations. Column B contains the interval of time given by two observers and two chronometers, « and 6: these intervals of time corre- spond to the spaces in column A. Column C contains the observations of height of the wave made in two sets of glass indices—index y near the end B of the experimental channel, and index 8 near the end D, Plate I. Column D contains the heights of the waves at y and 4, freed from error of scale. Column E contains the sum of the corrected height of the wave and of the corrected depth of the fluid, taken from a mean of the observations. ON WAVES. 465 2nd Aug,, 1837. WAVET. Depth 4 inches, Created by Reservoir A. Volume of added fluid = 152:5 inches. Transits observed directly at Index y, without reflection, Statical level observed at y 2 7 ~ Ooi Corrected statical depth = 3942 inches. A B Cc D | E/| A B Cc D E feet. | a sec.|@ sec.|y in.|din.|yin.|3’in.| in, || feet. |a sec. |@ sec. |y in. |} in.}y/in.|¥’in.| in. wee | eee | eee | 0°50/0°60) 0°55/0°61) ... |] 280°) 81-5] ... | 0-20/0-17] 0-2510-18] 4:17 0- | 0:0) ... | 0-50/0-50} 0°55/0-51) 4-50]| 320°) 84-0) ... | 0-15)0°17] 0-20/0-18) 4-15 40° | 12-0] ... | 0-47/0-43) 0-52/0-44) 4-46}, 360° | 105-0) ... | 0°10/0-15] 0-15|0-16) 4-12 80- | 23:6] ... | 0-37|0-40| 0-42)/0-41) 4-40)| 400-| 117-0) ... | 0°17/0-13] 0-22/0-14) 4-12 120- | 35-0| ... | 0°30/0°31| 0:35|0°32) 4:34|) 440: | 129°0) ... | 0°10/0-13] 0-15/0-14) 4-11 160- | 47:0) ... | 0:30/0-27/ 0-35/0-28) 4-28}| 480: | 141-0) ... | 0-10/0-10} 0-15/0-11| 4-09 200° | 58:5] ... | 0-27/0-23) 0-32)0-24) 4-25), 520-| 153°5) ... | 0-10.0-09) 0-15|0-10) 4-07 240- | 70:5) ... | 0- 20,0: 20) 0°25/0°21) 4:20]) 560-| 165-5} ... | 0-07) ... 0-12] ... | 4-06 2nd Aug., 1837. WAVETII. Depth 4 inches. Created by Reservoir A. Volume of added fluid = 152-5 inches. Transits observed directly at Index y, without reflection. Statical level observed at (t= es ain nie 12} Corrected statical depth =3-812 inches. A B Cc D E| A B - 2 EES Se Pee feet. | « sec.|@ sec.|y in.|3 in.|y’in.|3’in.| in. |) see | cee | eee | 0°50|0°60) 0-70/0-72) ... |! 00- 0:0} ... | 0°50/0:51) 0-70/0-63) 4-50 40: | 11:5] ... | 0°47/0-42| 0:67/0-54| 4-48 80- | 23:0} ... | 0°37/0:35| 0:57/0-47| 4-40): < 120: | 35-0] ... | 0-30/0-27| 0-50|0-39| 4-32 160- | 45:0) ... ‘| 0-27/0:20) 0-47|0-32) 4-26 200: | 580] ... | 0°17/0-14) 0-37/0-29) 4-18), D E 0-07|0-03) 0-27|0-15) 4-06 0-00} -00| 0-20/0-12) 4-01 0-00/—-02! 0-20/0-10) 3-98 —05|-"07] 0°15)0-03) 3-96 2nd Aug., 1837. WAVE III. Depth 4 inches. Created by Reservoir A. Volume of added fluid = 137:3 inches. Transits observed directly at Index Ys without reflection. Statical level observed at x it ey Be 07 7} Corrected statical depth = 3-872 inches. A B Cc D E || A B C D E feet. | « sec.|@ sec. y in./2 in.|y’in./o’in.| in. || feet. | sec.|6 sec.|y in.|3 in.|y’in.|3’in.| in, meaty kas «-. | 0:47/0-52) 0-60/0-59] ... || 200: |60-0 0-17/0°17| 0-30/0-24| 4-16 0- | 0:0 | 0:0 | 0-40/0-47) 0-53)0-54| 4-45]| 240: (71-25 ... | 0-10/0-15] 0-23)/0-22) 4-12 40° |12-0 | ... | 037|0-39) 0:50/0-46) 4-40)| 280-|83-5 | ... | 0-10/0°11} 0-23/0-18) 4-10 80- |23-75] ... | 0:30/0-31) 0-43)/0-38) 4-33)/| 320: |96:0 | ... | 0-:07|0-10} 0-2010-17| 4-08 120- |35:5 | ... | 0:22)0-22| 0-35|0-29| 4-26|| 360-|107-5| ... | 0-05/0-09| 0-18)0-16| 4-05 160: [47:75] ... | 0-20/0-19) 0-33|0-26} 4-18] 400-|119:5}| ... | 0°02/0-07] 0°15/0-14] 4-02! VOL. vI. 1837. 2H 466 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 2nd Aug., 1837. WAVE IV. Depth 4 inches. Created by Reservoir A. Volume of fluid added = 152°5 inches. Transits observed directly at Index y, without reflection. Statical level observed at x Lena 0-00 } Corrected statical depth = 3-95. D E|| A B Cc D E Jin.|y/in.|¥in,| in, || feet. | a sec. |Bsec. y in,|3 in.|97/ in, |4in.| in. 0°62) 0-60\0-62| ... || 400. |120-0 | ... | 0-20.0-19) 0°15/0-19) 4-15 0:58) 0:60/0-58) 4-56|| 440. |132:5 | ... |0°150-15) 0-10/0-15) 4-13 0-49) 0:55/0-49| 4-53|| 480. |145-0| ... | 0°150-14) 0-10/0-14) 4-10 0:41) 0-50/0-41) 4°46)! 520. }157-5 | ... | 0-15,.0-13) 0-10)0-13) 4-09 0°37) 0-42/0°37| 4:39)| 560° |170-0| ... | 0-150-13) 0-10)0-13) 4-09 0:30) 0:35/0-30) 4-33|| 800-|182-5 | ... | 0°15.0-13| 0-10)0-13) 4-09 0-26} 0:35|0-26) 4-28)| 840.|195-0| ... | 0-12.0-11| 0-070-11] 4-08 0-21) 0°32/0:21) 4:26), 880. |206-5| ... | 0°12.0-10) 0-07,0-10) 4-07 0°20| 0-25/0-20) 4-21)|1020- |219:0) ... | 0-12.0-10) 0-07,0-10) 4-07 0:20] 0-26|0-20) 4-18)/1060: |231-5 | ... | 0°10.0-10) 0-06,0-10) 4-06 0°19} 0-20/0-19) 4-17/|1100- |244-0| ... 0-10/0-10 0:05/0-10 4-05 3rd Aug., 1837. WAVE V. Depth 4 inches. Generated from Reservoir A. Volume of fluid added = 152-5 inches. Transits observed by the reflected image at the Central Station. Observers « Glover, ® Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. a= —010 } Corrected statical depth — 3°922. Statical level observed at B= — 0-00 A B Cc D Ej) A B Cc D E feet. | « sec.|@ sec.| y in.|3 in.|7/in.|d’in.| in. || feet. | @ sec.|6 sec. yin, in. 7 in.|d’in.| in. 0-47|0:50) 0:57/0°50) ... || 160° | 47-5] ... | 0°22:0-24/0-32 |0-24) 4-23) . A 0°47|0-50) 0-57|0-50} 4-46|| 200- | 59-5] ... | 0:20,0-22/0-30 |0-22| 4-21 OP iee Ora eet 0-42 0-48 0520-48] 4-43] 240° | 71-5] ... | 0°17.0-20/0-27 |0-20] 4-18 40: | 115]... | 0-42'0-41) 0°52/0-41) 4-42) 280- | 83:5]... | 0°12'0-17)0-22 0-17 415 80: | 23:5} ... | 0°35,0°30) 0-45)/0°30) 4-38] 320- | 95-0] ... | 0-10] ... |0-20)| ...] 4°12 120: | 36:0] ... 027/027 0537 | 0-27 | 4°50 S609! | eee ees sae aoe cok etme eee 3rd Aug., 1837. WAVE VI. Depth 4 inches, Generated from Reservoir A. Velume of fluid added = 228-7 ? inches. Transits observed by the reflected image at the Central Station. Observers « Glover, 6 Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. pent: 0-09 ¢ Corrected statical depth = 4-013. oe) aye Cc D> | Bape B Cc D E feet. | a sec.|6 sec.|yin.|d in. |y’in./2’in.| jn. |} feet. asec.|B sec./yin.|3 in. |7in.|3’ in.| in. . |0°60/0-... | O-G1] +.» |... || 160° | 46-5 47-0/0°30/0-47? 0-31] 0°26) 4-29 vee | eee | eee |0°57)0-... | 0°58) --» | 4:56, 200° | 58-0?) 58-0'0-25/0-382| 0:26] 0-21) 4-26 0: | 0: | O+ |0:52)0-602| 0:53/¥°51) 4-52 | 240- | 70-0 | 70-0,0-25/0-352) 0-26] 0-14) 4-24 40: | 11-0} 11-0/0-45)/0-502/ 0-46|0'41! 4-46)] 280° | 81-5 | 82-0/0-20/0-302) 0-21| 0-11) 4-21 80: | 23:0} 238-0/0-37|0-472| 0:38]0°37| 4-37|/320- | ... | 95-0) ... |0°232]... re 120: | 35-0] 35-0/0-32|0-38?) 0:33]0°29 432, SOOT Wt el a leer [nen | UROr mas Statical level observed at ‘Those marked thus ? were noticed at the time of observation as imperfectly observed. | {80° | 22-0} 22-0) 1-30}1-30} 1-15 ON WAVES. 467 3rd Aug., 1837. WAVE VII. Depth 4 inches. Generated from Reservoir A. Volume of fluid added = 152-5 inches, Transits observed by the reflected image at the Central Station. Observers a Glover, 6 Patrick, y Hamil, } Donaldson—Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at B =. ig joes } Corrected statical depth = 4-07. A B C D E Vin.| in. || feet. z sec./B sec. y in. in. |y/in,|3’in.| in. feet. | sec.|@ sec.|y ae y in. ace | eee | «ee | 0°620°72| 0°53'0-59| ... || 240° | 69:5 70:0) 0-30/0'30 0-21\0-17| 4-26 see | eee | «-.*|0°600°70 051/057 4-62|| 280- | 81-0] 82-0) 0-30/0:30| 0-21/0-17| 4-26 O° | O | O° | 0-57/0:62) 0°48 (0-49 4-58|| 320° | 93:0| 93-0) 0-27/0-29| 0-18|0-16] 4-23 40: | 11-0 /12-0 0:50,0-57 0°41/0-44 4-52) 360- |104-5 |105-0) 0:25/0-27 0:16)0-14) 4-21 80° | 22°5 |27-5?| 0-40)0 54) 0-31/0-41| 4-46|| 400- |116-5 |116-5| 0-25/0-25| 0-16|0-12] 4-20 0-40) 0°31|0-27/ 4-40|| 440- |129-0 |129-0} 0-22/0-23| 0-13/0-10} 4-18 0°38} 0-28/0:26} 4-35)]| 480: |140-0| ... | 0-22/0-23} 0-13/0-10| 4-18 0-33] 0:26|0-20} 4-27|| 520° |152-0 oda frend) Vaud? Maser trea 120: | 34:5 |35:0 | 0-40 160° | 46:0 |47-0 | 0-37 200: | 58-0 58-0 | 0:35 3rd Aug., 1837. WAVE VIII. Depth 4 inches. Generated by impulsion of Sluice. Volume of fluid added = 305: inches, Transits observed by reflection at the Central Station. Observers « Glover, 6 Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at { B Ez a Hes } Corrected statical depth = 4°15 inches. A B c D |E | A B | c D |E feet in, || feet. in.|) in.|9/in.|3/in.| in. . | a sec./@ sec.|y in.|3 ia.|7/in.|3’in. @ sec.|6 sec.| y AE Dh As -- | 1-10)1-20/ 0-95/1-00) ... || 320- | 91-0] 90-0] 0-47/0-45| 0-32|0-25] 4-48 0- | O- | 0: | 1-07|1-13) 0-92/9-03) 5-10)| 360- |102-5 |103-0) 0-42/0-42] 0-27/0-22] 4-43 40: | 11-0} 11-0} 1-00)1-01) 0-85)0-81) 5-02) 400- |114-0 |114-5] 0-4010-40| 0-2510-20| 4-40 80- | 22-0} 22-0) 0-90/0-90) 0-75|0-70) 4-95]| 440- |125-5 |125-0) 0-3710-39| 0-22!0-19] 4:37 120: | 33:5 | 33-5) 0-80,0-80) 0-65/0-60| 4-85|| 480- |138-0 1137-5) 0-37/0-34| 0-22/0-14| 4-36 160- | 44:5 | 45-0) 0-70,0-71) 0:55/0-51) 4-75)] 520° |150-0 |150-0| 0-32/0:30) 0-17/0-10) 4-33 200: | 56-5 | 56-0) 0-70.0-60) 0-55/0-40) 4-69|| 560- |162-0 |162-0| 0-30/0-30| 0-15|0-10) 4-29 240: | 67:5 | 67-5) 0-60/0-58| 0-45/0-38| 4-61|| 600: |174-0 |174-0] 0-30/0-27] 0-15/0-07| 4-28 280° | 79:0| 79-5} 0:52\0-49| 0-37|0-29) 4-55]! 640+ |186-0 |185-0| 0-3010-26 915 10-06 4:27 3rd Aug., 1837. WAVE IX, Depth 4 inches, Generated by impulsion of Sluice. Transits observed by the reflected image at the Central Station. Observers « Glover, @ Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at { B a 2 a i Corrected statical depth = 4°15. feet. | « sec.|G sec.|y in.|) in.|9/in.|3’in.| in. || feet. | «sec. 8 sec.|y in.|3 in.|y’in.|¥in.| in. eee [see | eee | 2°00)1-90) 1-85)1-69] .... || 120. | 33-5 | 33-5] 1-20/0-90| 1-05/0-69) 5-15 0-| O- O- | 1-50)1-50) 1-35/1-29| 5-67|| 160- |... |... | 1-00/0-92] 0-85/0-71 4:97 40: | 11-0} 11-0) 1-40/1-35} 1-25/1-14 5°46)| 200: | 56:0] 56-0) 1-00|0-77| 0-85{0-56] 4-91 0} 1-15 /1-09 5-38) 240° | 67:5 | 67-5] 0-90|0-69| 0-75/0-48] 4-81 2H? ’ 468 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 3rd Aug., 1837. WAVE X. Depth 4 inches. Generated by impulsion of Sluice. Very imperfectly observed. Transits observed by the reflected image at the Central Station. Observers « Glover, @ Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at { B z r es } Corrected statical depth = 4°15. A B Cc D E A B Cc D E feet. | « sec.|8 sec.|y in.|3 in. yin. '¥in. in. || feet. | « sec. sec.|y in.’3 in, oin.|s’in.| in. ws inlmic «++ | 2°00)1-90) 1°85)1-69) ... || 120° | 33-5 | 33-5] 1-20 0-90) 1-05)0-69) 5-15 0: 0- 0- 1-50}1-50| 1-35/1-29) 5-67||160- |... |... | 1:00,0-92| 0-85|0-71] 4-9 40: | 11-0} 11-0} 1-40/1-35} 1-25/1-14] 5-46]| 200- | 56-0] 56-0 1000-77 0°85}0-56| 4:91 80- | 22-0} 22-0) 1-30/1-30) 1-15)1-09| 5-38]| 240- | 67-5 | 67°5 0:90,0°69 0-75\0-48} 4°81 4th Aug., 1837. WAVE XI. Depth 4 inches. Generated by detached Chamber B. Nimmo ops. Volume = 225-4 inches. Transits observed by the reflected image at the Central Station. Observers « Glover, & Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. ‘Statical level observed at B vi i Hee i Corrected statical depth = 3-90. —————— | |S EF ——_ |E | | J feet. | « sec. B sec.|y in.|3 in.|y/in.|¥in.| in. || feet. | « sec.|@ sec. y in? in. yin,¥in. in. 0- | 0-0 | 0-0) 0-32)0-20) 0-54/0-23) 4-28] 80- | ... | 24-0) 0-20,0-14| 0:42:0-17| 4-20 40: 12-6} 0:22|0-19 0440-22 4-23)|120- | ... | 35:5 0-19 0-11 0-41\0-14] 4-17 Ath Aug,, 1837, WAVE XII.* Depth 4 inches. Generated by detached Chamber B. Nimmo ops. Volume = 3416 inches. Transits observed by the reflected image at the Central Station. Observers « Glover, & Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at tig FF re aaa } Corrected statical depth = 3°95. BS AB MS AG. | D0 TSR ra} ty a8 fo aah ae in. 3’in.| in, |) feet. | « sec.|B sec.|y in.|3 in. yin ¥in. in. 0-| O- | O- | 0-90 051-06) ... || 240° |... | 54:5) 0-47/0-56) 0-62.0-57) 4-50 40° | ... 11:5 | 0°87 *02|1-06) 4:99} 280- |... | 64:5) 0:40)0-43) 0-55 0-44) 4-45 80- |... }21-0 | 0°80/0-95| 0-95)0-96 4-90) 320- | ... | 73-5) 0-22 0:37 0°37/0°38 4:32 120: | ... [29:5 | 0-70)0-80) 0-85)0-81) 4-78 | 360° | ... | 83-0) 0:200°32) 0-35 0-33) 4-29 160° | ... |37:0 0°65 0-70) 0-80/0-71 4-71) 400 |... | 92-0) 0-17 0-29) 0-32,0°30 4:26 200° | ... {43°5 0°55/0°97 0°76/0-58) 4°59|| 440° |... 102°5) 0-15) “a5 0:30) «| 4:25 4th Aug., 1537. WAVE XIII. Depth 4 inches. Generated by detached Chamber B. Nimmo ops. Volume = 278-9 inches. Transits observed by the reflected image at the Central Station. Observers « Glover, 6 Patrick, y Hamil, 3} Donaldson—Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at feet. | « sec.|@ sec.|y in. afi te oad f Corrected statical depth = 3°90. feet. | « sec.|@ sec.|y in.|d in.|y/ in.|3‘in.| in, || feet. | « sec.|6 sec-ly in.|3 in.|9/in.|3’in,.| in. 0: | 0:0) 0:0/0-60?) ... |0-822| ...} ... || 200° | 58-0| 57:5] 0-27/0-33) 0-4910-37| 4:33 40: | 115) 11-5/0°62 |0-65|0-84 |0-69) 4-66)| 240- | ... | 65-0) 0-19\0-25| 0-41'0-29] 4-25 80: | 23-0 | 23-0)0-57 |0-57\0-79 |0-61| 4-63)| 280° | ... | 80:5 0-1010-22 0:32 0-26| 4°19 120- | 35:0| 34-5/0-50 |0-43/0-72 [0-47 4:50) 320° | ... | 93-0) ... 0°20) ... i 4-14 | ee oo eee eee aes see 160 | 46:0| 46-00-35 |0-40|0-57 |0-44| 4-40!| 360: \ * Some singular error in time runs through this line of indication. 7S VS 469 Depth 4 inches: ON WAVES. 4th Aug., 1837. WAVE XIV. Generated by detached Chamber B. Nimmo op. Volume = 480:4 inches. Transits observed by the reflected image at the Central Station. Observers « Glover, 6 Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. 05 Corrected statical depth = 3°89. Statical level observed at B=—0 A B Cc D | E|| A B Cc Ds feet. | « sec.|@ sec.|y in.|3 in.|,/in.|3’in.| in. || feet. | @ sec.|@ sec.|y in.|d in.|y’in.|d’in.| in. 0- O- | O | 1-15}1-30} 1-37} 1°35] 5-25|| 160- | 43-0} 43-5] 0-80)0-93) 1-02/0-98) 4-89 40: | 11-0} 10-5} 1-25)1-25] 1-47/1-30} 5-21|| 200: | 55-0| 55-0) 0-70/0-65| 0-92|0-70| 4-70 60: | 21-0} 21-5) 1-17|1-05] 1-29]1-10) 5-09}| 240° | 66-5 | 66-0} 0-50/0-63) 0°72|0-68) 4-59 120- | 32-0) 32-0) 0-97/0-95| 1-19)1-00) 4:99] 280: | 78:5 | 78-5] 0-55] ...| 0°77] .. 4th Aug., 1837. WAVE Xv.* Depth 4 inches. Generated by detached Chamber B. Nimmo op. Volume of fluidadded = 532°8 inches. Transits observed by the reflected image at the Central Station. Observers « Glover, @ Patrick, y Hamil, } Donaldson—Transit, Russell. Sanat s } Corrected statical depth = 3°87. Statical level observed at B= — 0-07 A B Cc E}| A B Cc D E feet. | zsec.|@ sec.|y in.|) in.|y/in.|)’in.| in, || feet. | « sec.|@ sec.|y in.|) in.|y/in.|’in.| in. 0: | 0:0 |} 0-0} 1-20]1-33) 1-45}1-40} 5-30|| 280- | 76:0| 77-0) ... |0°61) ... |0-68) 4-55 40: | 10-0 | 10-0} 1-30/1-29} 1-55|1-36] 5-32|| 320- | 88-5 | 89-0} 0-30/0-49) 0-55|0-56) 4-43 80° | 21-0 | 20-5) 1-15)1-20| 1-40}1-27| 5-20] 360- |100-9 |100-0| 0-22)0-44) 0:47/0-51| 4-36 | 120- | 31-5 | 31-5| 1-10/1-00) 1-35}1-07| 5-03)| 400- 111-5] 0-22/0-42) 0°47|0-49] 4:35 160- | 42:5 | 42-5) 0-90/0-96| 1-15/1.04) 4-96] 440- 124-0} 0-19|0-40} 0:44/0-47| 4-32 200: | 54-0 | 54-0) 0-75)0-65} 1-00|0-72) 4-68|| 480- 136-0} 0-15}0°32) 0-40/0-39| 4-27 240° | 65-5 | 65-0) 0°62/0°61| 0-77 0-68] 4-60|| 520- 150-0} 0-10/0-25) 0:35 /0-32) 4-20 * Very successfully observed up to 100. 4th Aug., 1837. WAVE XVI. Depth 4 inches. Generated by detached Chamber B. Nimmo op. Volume of fluid added=982°3 inches. Transits observed by the reflected image at the Central Station. Observers « Glover, 6 Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. Ge Oe } Corrected depth = 3°74 inches. Statical level observed at B= — 0-20 ———$ |$ —<—$ | — | || | | feet. | sec-|6 sec.| y in.|3 in.|9/in.|¥in.| in. || feet. | « sec.|B sec-\y in.|d in./7/in./o’in.| in. 0: | 0-0 | 0-0|2:10*|1-4 | 2-47|1-60) 5-77|| 160- | 42-5 | 43-0] 0-70/0-85) 1:07|0-95) 4:75 | 40+ {10-0 | 10°5/2:3 {1-3 | 2°69)/1-50) 5-83]| 200° | 53-5 80- [20-5 | 21-0] ... |1-2 | ... [1-40] ... || 240° | 65-0 120- {31-0 | 31-5}1-0 |1-25| 1:37/1-45} 5-05|| 280- | 77-0 65°5 * This wave reached its maximum height and broke between y and 3. 470 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 4th Aug., 1837. WAVE XVII. Depth 4 inches. Generated by detached Chamber B. Nimmo op. Volume of fluidadded=785:68 inches. Transits observed by the reflected image at the Central Station. Observers « Glover, 6 Patrick, y Hamil, } Donaldson—Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at 15 is y 42 } Corrected statical depth = 3-78 inches, feet. | sec.|@ sec.| y in.) in.|y/in.|2’in,| in. || feet. | « sec.|@ sec.|y in.|d in.|7/in.|3’in.| in. 0: | 0-0} 0:0/1-S0*) ... | 2°17] ...}.... || 200° | 55:0) 55-5) 0-°80\0-61) 1-02|0-83) 4-71 40: | 10-5 | 10:5 |2-00 |1-20) 2:37)|1-40) 5-66) 240- | 66-5 | 66-0) 0-67\0:57| 0-89)/0-79) 4-62 80: | 21-5 | 21-5 |1-10 |1-10) 1-47/|1-10) 5-06|| 280- | 78:5 | 77:5| 0°52/0-52| 0-74)0-74) 4:52 120: | 32:5 | 32-0 |0-87 |1-02| 1-24|1-22| 5-01) 320° | ... | ... | 0-50) ... | 0°72) ... |4°50 160: | 44:0 | 44-0 [0°80 [0°65] 1:17|0-85| 4°80)| B60- |... |... | wee | ee | vee | cee | cee, 4th Aug., 1837. WAVE XVIII. Depth 4 inches. Generated by detached Chamber B. Nimmoop. Volume of fluid added= 1127-2 inches, Transits observed by the reflected image at the Central Station. Observers « Glover, 8 Patrick, y Hamil, } Donaldson—Transit, Russell. Statical level obs. at commencement B= — 0:35 } Corrected statical depth =-3°60inches. =] 7yin.|d’in.| in, || feet. | « sec.|@ sec.|y in.|3 in.|7/in.|¥in.| in. O- | 0:0) 0:0/8:5* |1-6 | 3-5 |1-95) ... || 160° | 38-5 | 45-0] 1-20)0-40) 1-70/0-75). ... 40- | 11-0) 11-0) ... JEL |... }:45) ... |} 200° | 55:0) 56:0) 1-10)/0-50} 1-60/0-85) ... BOs 20H QMS ise OOD ce (ESO tees, AAO! hos Sende Seats | wae bt oath ow oll | Bae.| Bea 120° | 31:5} 33°0)1:40 |0-70 1:90)1-05) Sy NVASOT lo ent skis Natur || Soll oma been eed feet. | sec.|@ sec-| y in.|3 i * This wave reached its maximum height and broke between y and 3. 5th Aug., 1837. WAVE XIx.* Depth 4 inches. Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. Volume = 276:3 inches. Transits observed by reflection as formerly in the positive wave. Transits observed directly, and at successive transits in the negative wave. Observers @ Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at x cn ip ave } Corrected statical depth = 3-95 inches. — _ —— | —_ | | I | feet: | « sec.|6 sec.|yin.] 3 in.|9/in.|’in,| in. || feet. | « sec.| sec.|y in.|3 in.|>/in.|3in.| in. O-0/1-5 |1+4? | 1-60}1-42) ... || 280° | ... | 76-5] 0-60/0-80} 0-70|0-75| 4-67 40: | ... | 10°5)1°30)1-45 | 1-40|1-40] 5-40|| 320 |... | 88-0} 0:55/0°67| 0-65|0-62] 4:58 80° |... | 21-0)1-20/1-30] 1-30|1-25] 5-22/| 360° |... | 99-5] 0-50/0-65] 0-60|0-60| 4-55 120° |... | 31-5/1-10/1-25 | 1-20/1-20) 5-15|| 400- |... |111-0} 0-45/0-61] 0-55|0:56) 4-50 160° | ... | 42-0/0-95)1-15 | 1-05}1-10| 5:02/| 440: |... |122-5] 0-37|0-52| 0-47|0-47| 4-42 200° | ... | 52:5/0°70/1-01 | 0-80|0-96] 4-83]| 480: |... |136-5] 0:35/0-49]| 0-45|0-44| 4-40 240: | ... | 64°5/0-60/0-97 | 0-70/0-92| 4-76|| 520- | See |note*] ... calico facie pate * This wave was unusually perfect in its form, and was observed with much precision and care; there was no secondary wave. ‘ ON WAVES. 471 5th Aug., 1837. WAVE XxX. Negative. Depth 4 inches. Generated by removing solid parallelopipedon C. Volume = 276:3 inches. Observed directly and timed at gauges y and 3. Observers @ Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Bh ga a Russell. Statical level observed at Per: al Ei a 21 ait Corrected statical depth = 4°10 inches. feet. asec.|B sec. yin. | din. | 4/in. | Yin, | in, || feet. |zsec.| Bsec.| yin. | din. | 9/in. | d’in. | in. 0: | 0-0) 0:0 | —0-80) ... | —0-85 v.. || 95-7}... | B25]... |—O-20) ... |—0-41) 3-77 14-62) ...|} 60) ... |—O3] ... —0-51] 3-42|| 115-7]... we. |—0-20) «2. |—0-25) 2. | 3°77 35°77 | ...| ... | —030] ... | 035] ... | 3°67|| 135-7] ... |—45°5) ... |—0-20) ... |—0-41/ 3-77 55-7 | .-.|19:5 | ... |—O-20) ... |—O-41) 3°72!) 155-7) ... |... Sed poor Meas eat billates 75°7 | 26-5) ... | —0-20) ... | —0-25) ... |3°77/| 175-7) ... | 59-0 5th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXI. Depth 4 inches. Generated by protrusion of solid C. Volume = 276°3 inches. Observed directly and timed at gauges y and 3. Transits observed directly and at successive transits in the negative wave. Observers 6 Patrick, y Hamil, } Donaldson—Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at {3 es h oat Corrected depth = 4:06 inches, A B Cc D E| A B Cc D E feet. | sec.|@ sec.|y in.|d in.!9/in. l¥in.| in. || feet. | @ sec. Bsec.|y in.|d in.|y’in.|0’in,) in. O- | 0-0 | 0-0) 1-50)1-42) 1-45|1-29] ... || 200+ | ... | 58-0) 0-70/1-03) 0°65/0-90) 4-83 40- | ... | 10:0) 1°30)1-40) 1-25/1-27) 5-37] 240- |... | 64-5] 0-70/0-96] 0°65/0-83) 4°82 80° | ... | 20:5) 1:20)1-29) 1-20)1-16) 5-27/| 280- | ... | 76-0) 0°70/0-85) 0-65)0- 0 4°78 120° |... | 30-1) 1-10/1-20} 1-05)1-07| 5-17|| 320- | ... | 80-0) ... | ...] .. ech 160° | ... | 42-1) 0:90)1-05) 0-85/0-92) 5:08]| 360: | ... pad LS Roe | fie || 5th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXII. Negative. Depth 4 inches, Generated by removing solid parallelopipedon'C. Volume = 276°3 inches. Observed directly and timed at gauges y and 3. Observers £ Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at { 3 T iF ne | Corrected depth = 4°10 inches. B Cc D E A B C D E . | #sec.|B sec.| yin. | din. | y’ in. | 0 in. | in. || feet. |asec.|Bsec.| yin.} din. | in. | 9’ in, | in. 0-0 | O-0)/— 1-0) ... |—1-05) 2... |... |] 95-7] 2 | ee |e [= OL | oe. | 086) 3°75 . | 55)... |—O8B |... |—O-51) 3:32], 115-7]... |... |— 08)... |— 085) 2.) 13°75 s» | 13°5}— 03)... |—O-85] ... | 3°67|| 185-7)... |... |... |— 0-07)... |— 0:28) 3-79) osl... looa5) | azallazs7) bot 10s} | e-ge) 472 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Sth Aug., 1837. WAVE XXIII. Depth 4 inches. Generated by Chamber D, from a height of 19 inches. Volume=683°7 inches. Transits observed by reflection as formerly in the positive wave. * Transits observed directly, and at successive transits in the negative wave. Observers 8 Patrick, y Hamil, 3} Donaldson—Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at { ¥ s O10 Corrected depth = 3°85 inches. A B Cc D E A B Cc D E feet. a sec.|6 sec. |y in.|3 in. yin. in. in. |! feet. asec. \sec.|y in,| 3 in. |9/in,|¥ in.| in. 0: | 0-0 0-0 1:30|1-30 1°55/1-40] 5°32|| 200° | ... |55°5| 0750-75 | 1-00) 0°85) 4°77 40°] ... | 115 1101-25 1-25/1-35| 5-15]| 240° | ... | 66°5| 0-60/0-70 ?| 0-85] 0-80) 4-67 80: |... | 21-5 | 0-90/1-33] 1-15'1-43] 5-14]| 280° | ... | 790) 0-50\0-54 | 0-75) 0-64) 4-55 120° | ... | 32:5 0-90'1:23 1°15 1:33] 5-09]| 820° | ... | 91-0) 0-50/0-45 | 0-75) 0-55) 4-50) 169° | ... | 43-5 0:80/0:92 1-05 1-02 4°88|| 360: | ... sé! | ewe, seatsleemenpaces * This wave broke down immediately into two waves of nearly equal height. ! 5th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXIV. Depth 4 inches. Generated by Chamber D, from a height of 19 inches. Height= 20 inches. Vo- lume = 719-3 inches. Transits observed by reflection as formerly in the positive wave. Transits observed directly, and at successive transits in the negative wave. Observers 8 Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at {3 ee caer } Corrected depth = 3-85 inches. — 0:10 ee Sen eee tae ee ease gastos ee eee eee A B | Cc D E || A B Cc D E feet,|~sec.| 2 sec. line 3 in. |y/in.| 3’ in. | in. || feet. asec, \Bsec. y in.| 3 in, |7/in.| in,| in, O-| ... | O-O [1-30] ... | 1-55)... |... |] 200] ... | 56-5) 0°70)0:502) 1-95) 0-602) ... 40:| ... | 11-5 |1-00/1-20 | 1-25] 1-30 | 5-12/| 240] ... | 68-5] 0°50) 0-452) 0°75/0°55?) ... 80:| ... | 22-0 10-90 1:15 | 1:15} 1:25 |5-05]| 280} ... | ... |0°45) ... | 0-70 120-| ... | 33-0 |0-76|0°802) 1-95] 0-902] ... || 320) ... |92-0)0°30) ... | 055 160-| ... | 44:5 |0°70|0°652| 1-95] 0°75 2) ... || 360] ... |... | eee | cee | aoe 5th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXV. Depth 3 inches, Generated protrusion of svlid parallelopipedon C. Volume = 208-3 inches, Transits observed by reflection at the Central Station. Observers 6 Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at { 5 = et 0-30} Corrected statical depth = 3:08 inches, A B Cc D E A B Cc feet.|a sec.| 8 sec.| y in din.|7/in.|¥ in,| in. || feet. |@ sec.|6 sec.|y in.)d in. |7/ Osi)... 0-0 | 1:50,1-30) 1-45] 1-10} 4:35) 200: |... | 61-5 | 0°57/0-70) 0:52) 0-60) 3-64 40°| .... | 11:5} 1°10,1-15) 1-05) 0-95] 4-08] 240° |... | 75-0 | 0-47\0-60) 0-42) 0:50) 3-54 80:| ... | 23:5 | 0-90 1-13} 0-85} 0-93) 3-97] 280° |... | 89-0 |-0:40)0-53} 0:35) 0-43) 3°49 120°} ... | 36°0}0°85| ... | 0°80) ... | 3-88]/320° | ... |... | 037) ... |032) ... [3:38 160:| .:. | 48:5 | 0°70)0-70) 0-65) 0-50) 3-65] 360° |... {116-0 0:29) ... | 0°24) ... | 3°32 [ov Dd et a ae eee ee Eee ; ee Sa eee. a PRS ON WAVES. 473 5th Aug,, 1837. WAVE XXVI. Depth 8 inches. Generated protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. Volume = 208°3 inches. Transits observed by reflection at the Central Station. Observers @ Patrick, 7 Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at | ¥ = e ne 020 f Corrected statical depth = 3:08 inches. A B Cc D E | A B C D E ——— feet.|a sec.| 8 sec.|y in.) in. |7/in.|3’ in.| in. ||feet.|a sec.| 6 sec.|y in.| 3 in.|4/in.|0’ in.| in. 0°) ... 0:0 | 1-00} 1-12) 0-95) 0-92) 4-02/'360-| ... {116-0 | 0-30) 0-39} 0-25} 0-19) 3-29 40-| .... | 12-0| 0-90] 1-04] 0-85! 0-84] 3-92]|400-| ... {129-5 | 0-20| 0-39] 0-15] 0-19] 3-25 80°} ... | 24-5 | 0-80} 0-95 0-75) 0°75] 3°83)|440-| ... {144-0 | 0:20) 0-35] 0-15} 0-15) 3-23 120-| ... | 37:0 | 0°75) 0-70) 0-70, 0:50) 3-68}}480-| ... |157-5 | 0-17} 0:32) 0-12) 0-12) 3-20 160.| ... | 49:5 | 0°60) 0-62 0°55) 0-42] 3°56|520-| ... {171-0 | 0-15) 0:30} 0-10) 0-20) 3-23 200-| ... | 62-5 | 0:50) 0°60/ 0-45, 0:40) 3:50/560-| ... {185-0 | 0-15) 0-30} 0-10} 0-20) 3-23 240°} ... | 75:5 | 0:40] 0°55] 0°35 0:35| 3-43)'600-| ... |199-0 | 0°12) 0-30) 0-07) 0-20) 3-22 280-) ... | 89:0 | 0°37/ 0-47/ 0°32, 0-27| 3:37||640- | ... (212-02) 0-12) 0-30} 0-07] 0-20) 3-21 320°} ... |102-5 | 0°30) 0-40 0:25, 0:20 3°30//680°| ... aaeii|! foweill, amen |itewal dhe al cana 7th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXVII. Depth 1 inch. Generated by solid C. projected to bottom. Volume added = 88:3 inches. Transits observed successively without omission at Central Station. Observers a Russell, 6 Patrick, 7 Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at { 5 ca Hie a } True statical depth = 1:00 inches. feet.|a sec.| 6 sec.|y in.|9 in.|7/in.|¥ in,| in. || feet.|a sec.| @ sec. |v in.| 3 in.|7/in.|%’ in.| in. 0-| 00] 0-0/ 0-30} ... | 0-30) ... | 1-30] 60: |34:0) 34:5) ... | 0-05) ... | 0-05) 1-05 20-|11:0| 10-5] ... | 0-13} ... | 0-13) 1-13!) 80-|45°0| ... | 0°05) ... | 0°05) ... | 1:05 40- | 21-0 | 22-0] 0-10} ... | 0-10} ... |1°10)}100°| ... | 57-0} ... | 0°03) ... | 0-03) 1-03 7th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXVIII. Depth 1 inch. Generated by solid C. projected to bottom. Volume added = 88°3 inches, Transits observed successively without omission at Central Station. Observers, « Russell, 6 Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at zy %, 6 epee 000 } True statical depth = 1-00 inches, A B C D E}j| A B C D E feet.|z sec.| G sec.|y in|} in.|9/in.|¥ in.| in. || feet.|e sec.| ® sec.}y in.| d in.|7/in.|¥ in.| in. 0-| 0:0) 0:0) 0-29) ... [0-29] ... | 1:29]| 60-| 34-0) 34-5] ... | 0-03) ... | 0-03] 1-03) 20°\10:5) 2. | ... | OL)... |O-11] 1:11]) 80-| 46:0} 47-0) 0-02) ... | 0-02) ... | 1:02 40: | 22-5 | 23°0|0-19| ... |0°19) ... | 1°19)}100-] ... | ... |... | 0-02! ... | 0-02) 1-02 474 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 7th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXiIxX. Depth 1 inch. Generated by solid C. projected to bottom. Volume added = 88°3 inches. Transits observed successively without omission at Central State. Observers, z Russell, 8 Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at { 5 on pir ; True statical depth = 1-00 inches. feet.|« sec.|B sec.|y in,| 3 in.|9/in.|¥ in.| in. || feet.| sec.| 6 sec.}y in| 3 in.|9/in.|¥ in| in. 0:| 0:0} 0:0) 0-30) ... | 0-30} ... | 1-3 || 80° | 46-5 | 46:0/ 0-09) ... | 0-09) ... | 1:09 20:| 10-7 | 11:0} ... |0°12) ... | 0-12) 1-12/|100- | 58-0) 58-0] ... | 0-04) ... | 0-04) 1-04 40: | 22-5 | 22-5/ 0-10) ... | 0-10) ... | 1-10)/120- | 70-5 | 70:5 | 0-02) ... | 0-02) ... | 1:02 60: | 34-5 | 34-0] ... | 0-05} ... | 0-05) 1-:05)|140-| ... | ... | ... | 0°02) ... | 0-02) 1-02 7th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXX. Negative. Depth 1 inch. Generated by subtraction of solid C. Transits observed successively without omission at Central Station. Observed and timed at y and 3. Depth 1-0 inch. Statical level observed at { y = erste t True statical depth = 1-00 inch. A B Cc D E| A B Cc D E feet. jz sec. B sec.) yin.| din. | 9/ in. | ¥ in, | in. || feet.|a sec.|B sec.| yin.) din. |7/in.| ¥ in. | in. 0- 0:0; 0:0)—0-1 ... |—O1L | ... | 0-9 || 56-7|39:5| 39-5] ... |—0-04] ... |—0-04| 0-96 14-62} 9°5| 9:5} ... |—0-05) ... |—0°05) 0-95)| 75-7 ape oe ats wee as 35:7 | 24:5 |24-5|—0-02} ... |—0-02) ... | 0°98)) 95-7 7th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXXI. Depth 1 inch, Generated by solid C. projected to bottom. Volume added = 88°3 inches. Transits observed successively without omission at Central State. Observers, « Russell, 8 Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson—Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at{ xy ra aed \ true statical depth = 1-00 inches. feet.|a sec.| 6 sec.|y in.| 3 in.|/9/in.|% in,} in, |} feet.|« sec.| 6 sec.|y in.| 3 in.|7/in.|% in.) in. 0-| 0-0} 0:0] 0°35) ... |0°35] ... | 1-35) GO}... |... |... 10°05) ... | 0°05) 1-05 20°} 11:0) 11-0] ... | 0°15) ... | 0-15] 1-15}) 80- PP) sc ond | 8 40: | 22-5 | 22-5 | 0-09) ... | 0-09) ... | 1-09)/100- \z ON WAVES. 475 7th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXXII. Negative. Depth ] inch. Generated by subtraction of solid C. Transits observed successively without omission at Central Station. Observed and timed at y and 3. Depth 1:0 inch. Statical level observed at ¥ = aa } True statical depth = 1-00 inches. ee ef et. | @ sec. | sec.) yin, | din. | >’ in.| ¥ in.| in. || feet.|@ sec, |@sec.| yin. | din. | 9/in.| 0’ in. | in. 0-0 | 0-0 |—0-10) ... |—0-10| ... | 0-90] 55-7) 37-5 | ... —0:06) ... |—0-06) 0-94 62; 90+) ... | ... |—0-07| ... |—0-07| 0-93]| 75-7) 52-0 | ... —0-02| ... |—0-02} ... | 0-98 —0:07) ... |—0-07) ... | 0°93||95°7| 65-0 | ... | ... |—0°04) ... |—0-04/ 0-96 7th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXXIII. Depth 1 inch, Generated by Chamber B. Volume of added fluid = 68-32 inches. Statical level observed at { %= pie } Correct depth = 1-15 inches. feet.|a sec.\2 sec.|y in.| 3 in.|9/in.|0’ in.| in. |] feet.|a sec.|@ sec.|y in.| 3 in./7/in,|3’ in,| in. 0°} 0:0) 0:0/ 0-70} ... | 0°55] ... | 1°70)) 60° | 32-0 | 32-0) ... | 0-25) ... | O-1 | 1:25 20-/ 10-0) 10-0) ... |0°35) ... |O-2 |1B5]] 80°} 2. | 2c. | cee | cee | cee | wee | aoe 40: | 21-0 | 21-0 | 0-30) ... | 0-15] ... | 1-B0)/100°| ... | ... |... | 0°22) ... | 0:07) 1:22 7th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXXIV. Depth 1 inch. Generated by detached Chamber B. Volume of added fluid = 1024°8 inches. Statical level observed at x a 0-19 Corrected depth = 1:19 inches. A B Cc D E| A B C D E feet.|a sec. Ip sec.|y in. 3 in.|9/in.|2’ in.| in. || feet./@ sec./@ sec.|y in.| 3 in.|7/in.|0 in| in. 0:| 0-0} 0-0} 1-70} ... | 1-51] ... | 2°70) 80: | 35:5 | 37-0) 0-40) ... | 0-21) ... | 1-40 20-| 7:0| 7:5 | ... | 1:05) ... |0-86| 2:05/|100- | 46-0 | 47-5 | ... | 0-30) ... | 0-11) 1-30 40- | 16-5 | 18-0 | 0-70) ... | 0-51) ... | 1:70)|120-| 57-0 | 58-5 | 0-32) ... | 0-13 1:32 SMG AGG | ce. fies. |e | ice j140- se | sae | one [0-25]... | 0-06) 1-25 7th Aug., 1737. WAVE XXXV. Depth 1 inch. Generated by detached Chamber B. Volume of fluid added = 666°1 inches, Statical level observed at | 62-5 |65-0?) 0-12) ... | 0-27) ... | 2-17 60: | 21:0 | 22°5| ... | ... cee | eee 180° | 71-0 [72°5 x 80- | 29'5 | 30-0] 0-30! ... | 0-45] ... | 2-35|l200- | 80-5 |80°0 | 0-09) |. 100: | 37-0 shige the 220° Sag hte 7th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXXVII. Depth 3 inches. Generated by sluice from Reservoir A. Volume of fluid added = 152°5 inches. Observers, time, « Russell, y Patrick, 3 Grant. Statical level observed at % a 0-00} Depth = 3-0 inches. ee ee ee ee ee ee ee eee feet.|a sec.|6 sec.|y in.| 3 in.|y'in.|3’ in.) in. |} feet.|« sec.|@ sec.|y in.} 3 in. yin. in,| in. 0-| 0-0 | 0-0} ... | 1:0] ... | 1:0 | 4-0 ||140- | 43-0 0:70) ... | 0°65) ... | 3°65 90° \16:O) eral D1]... |.1-05) 22 |4505(160- | 49:0 |... |... | sean] lL nnn incanes 40-120 | ... | ... | 0-9 | ... |0°9 | 3-90)180°| 56-0} ... | 0°60) ... | 0°55] ... | 3°55 GO 1138-0. |)... | 0-97)... | 0-92) 227] 3°92 200-62-0 Fh ice. Wl cee | eeu ttenerlneee 80> [24-25]... | nce | cee | cee | coe | 00s []220°| 69-0] ... | 0-57] ... | 0°52) .... | 3-52 100: |30°0 |... | 0°87} ... | 0°82) ... | 3°82//240°| 75-0] ... | 22. | cee | cee | cee | cee PAOD chr eecail ne geod ewe tane plyemee ytecet | Lea mwas 0-47) ... | 0°42) ... | 3-42 7th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXXVIII. Depth 3 inches. Generated by sluice from Reservoir A. Volume of fluid added = 152°5 inches. Observers, time, « Russell, » Patrick, 3 Grant. Statical level observed at x =F 0-00} Depth 3-00 inches. 0-| 0-0 | ... | 1-00} ... | 0°95} ... | 3°95)/160- 50-0?) ... | 20. | ee | wee | cee | cee 20-| 6-25) ... | ... | 0°80) ... | 0-80) 3-80))180- 56-5 | ... | ... | 035) ... | 035) 3-35 40: |12°5 | ... | 0-85] ... | 0°80) ... | 3-80)/200: |63°5 | ... | 12. | ne | woe | coe | ane 60-|18°5 | ... | ... | 0°70} ... | 0°70) 8-70)|220° |70°0 | ... | ... | 0:30) ... | ... | 3°30 80 |25-0 | ... | 0°55] ... | 0°50) ... | 3°50//240° |76-5 a) oP ay RON hace 100: 31-25) ... | ... |0°55) ... | 0°55) 3:55)/260°| ... 120: |37°5 | ... | 0-45] ... | 0-40} ... | 3-40)/280° u ON WAVES. 7th Aug., 1837. WAVE XXXIX. Depth 3 inches, Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. Volume = 264:9 inches, Statical level observed at x x 0-03 Depth = 2°94 inches. 477 aA| B oles ee Pe c pd |£ feet.'e sec.|6 sec.|y in.| 3 in.|7/in.|% in.) in. || feet.|« sec.|g sec.| y in.| 3 in.|7/in.|¥ in.| in. see | eee | --- | 1°40) 0-90) 1-40] 0-93) 4-00)| 80-| 24-5) ... 10-87 | ... | 0°87] ... | 3-81 O-| 0-0) 0-0) 1-1 | ... | 1:10) ... | 4-04/)100-| 31-5] ... |... | 0°70) ... | 0°73) 3°67 20°; 6:0) ... | ... |0°9 | ... | 0°93] 3°87)|120- | 37-5] ... 10-675] ... |0°67| ... |3°61 40° 12-0) ... | 0-92) ... | 0-92) ... | 3-86)140-| 44:5) ... |... | 0:55] ... | 0-58) 3-52 60- | 18:2| ... | ... | 0°85) ... | 0°88) 3-B82160°| ... | ow. ] ou. | dy 4st 7th Aug., 1837. WAVE XL. Depth 3 inches. Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. Volume = 264-9 inches. Statical level observed at % = a } Corrected depth = 2-94 inches. feet.|a sec.|B sec.) y in.| 3 in.|7/in.|¥ in, in. || feet.| « sec.|Bsec.| y in| din. in| in,| in. wee | cee | eee (LL | 1:0 | 1-1 | 1-03) 3-97) 200-| 63-0 | ... 10-375) ... | 0°37) ... 18-31 0-| 0-0) 0:0 |1:0 | ... | 1:0 | ... |3-94)/220-) 70-25) ... |... |0:30) ... | 0-30/3-27 20-| 6:0| ... | ... |0:9 | ... | 0°93) 3-87| 240-| 76-50) ... 0°30 | ... | 0-30] ... 13-24 40-|12-0| ... |0-975) ... |0:97| ... | 3-91) 260-| 83-50) ... |... 10°25) ... | 0-28/3-22 60:| 18:5] ... | ... | 0°80) ... | 0°83) 3-77/,280-| 91-00] ... 0°20 | ... | 0-20) ... 13-14 80-| 24:5} ... [0°80 | ... | 0-80) ... |3:74)/300-| 98:5 | ... | ... |0-23] ... | 0-26/3-20 100-| 31:0) ... |... | 0-68) ... | 0°71) 3°65/320- |105-52| ... 10°17 | ... | 0-17} ... \3-11 120-|37-0| ... |0-675) ... | 0°67) ... |3-61/340: |112-02| ... | ... |0-18) ... | 0-21/8-15 140: | 43:5] ... |... | 0:50) ... | 0:53} 3-47/'360° 119-5 | ... 10-12 | ... | 0-12] ... |3-07 160-|50-0| ... |0°475) ... | 0°47) ... | 3-41 880° wee | cee | coe [O15] ... | 0°18/3-12 180°|57-0| ... | ... | 0:35) ... | 0°38) 3:33 400: sunijicaes Ct ibe oniiieee 7th Aug., 1837. WAVE XLI. Depth 3 inches, Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. Volume = 132-4 inches. Statical level observed at 1% a 0-08 Corrected depth = 2-94 inches. A B Cc D E| A B Cc D - |0°8 |0°5 | 0-80} 0:55) 3:49)/220-| 78-0] ... | ... | 0-23] ... | 0-28 : “O-| 0-0| 0-0 [0-7 | ...|0-70] ... |3-64|240-| 85-0]... [0-20] ... |o-20) ... | 20:| 65| ... | ... 0°55] ... | 0-60] 3:54/260-| 91-7] <2. |... 0-20] ... 10-95, 40:|12-5| ... 0-625) ...|0-62) ... |3:56/280-| ... 0:20| ... | 0-20 60-|19:5| ... | =... |0°47] ... | 0-52) 3-46)300- |106- |... | ... | 0°17] ... | 0-22 4 80-|25°7| ... 0°50 | ...| 0:50) ... |3:44/320-|113- | ... | 0-15) ... | 0-15) ... 100-| 33:5] ... | ... [0-40] ... | 0-45) 3°39/340- |121- | ... | ... | 0-15) ... | 0-20 120-|39-5| ... |0°40 | ...| 0°40) ... | 3:34)/360- |127- |... | 0-12) ... | 0-12] ... 140-| ... | ... |... (0°33) ... | 0:38) 3°32/380- |134- | ... | ... | 013 0-18 feet.|a sec.|G sec.) y in.|d in.|7/in.|3’ in, in. || feet. « sec.|6 sec.|y in.] 3 in.|7/in.|’ in., t "7 : a5 b 160-|51-0| ... (0°32 | ...| 0:32! ... | 3-26||400- 140-5) ... |0°10) ... | 0-10) ... ~~ -4180°}57:5 |) ... |... (0°25) ... | 0°30) 3-24)'420- |147-5 oe oe ; 00 | 64:5] ... (0-27 | ...| 0:27) ... | 321/440] ... E in. 3°22 3°14 3°19 3714 3°16 3°09 3-14 3:06 3°12 3°04 a a a a 478 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 7th Aug., 1837. WAVE XLII. Depth 3 inches. Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. Volume = 264-9 inches. 0-00 0-03 Statical level observed at { % a } Depth = 2-94 inches. A B Cc in. aa : 0-47| 0-40) 0-47] 0-45} 3-40 0: : 0-40) 0-33) 0-40 0°38) 3-33 40: | 12-0 90 0-30) 0-25) 0-30] 0:30) 3°24 80: | 25-0 0-20] 0-23) 0-20) 0:28) 3°18 120: | 38-0 aoe | [ives | Moceall tremstt rewe 8th Aug., 1837. WAVE XLIII. Depth 5 inches. Generating solid C. projected. Volume = 445] inches. Observers, « Russell, @ Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson, Gen. Nimmo. Statical level observed at commencement { ~ zoe } Depth = 5-045 inches. + 0:10 A B Cc D E|| A B Cc D E feet.|« sec.|6 sec.|y in | 3 in.|7/in.|3’ in.| in. || feet.|a sec.|6 sec.|y in.| 3 in.|7/in.|¥ in.) in. O2150:0)), 0:05 3-40) 1°20) 1-45) TLO'G Sah ee | se. fee. pee lPecet |eace aiterenl tees 40- | 10-0 | 10-5 | 1-26] 1-25) 1-25) 1-15) 6-25/)440-| 90-0} 89-5 0-70 0-63} 0-75) 0-53} 5-69 80- | 19-5 | 19-5 | 1-15] ... | 1-20} ... | 6-15))480- |100-2) 99-5] 0-60) 0-55) 0-65) 0-45! 5-60 120: | 29-0 | 28-5 | 1-02] 1-05) 1-07; 0-95) 6-06)|520-| ... 109-0 0-50) 0:55} 0°55| 0°45) 5-55 160: | 89-0 | 38-5 | 0-87] 1-01) 0°92, 0-96) 5-99)|560- | ... |119-0} 0-50) 0-47) 0-55) 0°37| 5-51 200- | 49°5 | 49-5 |... | 0°85) 0°90 0°75| 5°87||600-| ... |130-0) 0-45) 0-40) 0-50) 0-30) 5-45 240: | 59-0 | 58-5 | 0-80} 0°85) 0°85 0°75) 5°85)/640- |... |141-0 0-40) 0-39} 0-45) 0-29) 5-42 60: | 69°5 | 68-5 | 0°77| 0°69| 0°82 0-59) 5-75 '|680- . |151-0| 0°35) 0-34) 0-40) 0-24) 5:37 00: | 79°5 | 79-0 | 0°72) 0-66) 0-77 0:55) 5-71 |720- 162-0 0:30) 0°33) 0°35) 0-23) 5°34 8th Aug., 1837. WAVE XLIV. Negative depth, 5 inches. Generating solid withdrawn. Volume subtracted = 445-1 inches. Observers, « Russell, 6 Patrick, 7» Hamil, 3 Donaldson, Gen. Nimmo. Statical level observed at | ¥ a ois} Corrected depth = 5:10 inches. a| B Cc D E || a B Cc D feet. | « sec.|a sec.| y in.| 3 in.| 9/ in. | # in. | in. ||feet.| «sec.|@ sec.| y in. } din. | o/ in. | ¥ in. 0- 0-0} 0-0 |—O-9) .... |—0-92) ... | 4:18)| 55-7) 16°35) 16:5) ... |—O35) ... 14:62) 4:0| 45] ... |—O-4) ... |—0:55] 4:55|| 75-7) 24-0 | 24:0)—0°30) ... |—0-35) 1... |4- 35°70) 10°5 jLO-5 —O0-4| 2... |—0°45 —0-20 —0°35/4°75 4°65) 95:7| 29:0) 29°5 - ON WAVES. 479 8th Aug., 1837. WAVE XLV. Depth 5 inches, Generating solid C projected. Volume added = 445-1 inches. Observers, « Russell, 6 Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson, Gen, Nimmo. Statical level observed at | 3 an it O10; Corrected depth = 5:10 inches. A B Cc D E A B Cc D E feet.| « sec. | B sec. |y in.) din. |9/in.|d’in.| in. || feet. | a sec.|@ sec.|y in.|) in,|/in.|¥ in.| in. 0} 0:0 | 0-0 | 1-40)1-45 | 1-38)1-30/6-44 || 840-| 162-5/163-0) 0-35/0-34| 0-33/0-19|5-36 40:| 9-75) 9-50] 1:39]1-40 | 1-37/1-25|6-41 |) 880-| 173-0)173-5| 0-32,0-30| 0:30/0-15|5-32 80+} 19-5 | 19-0 | 1:30)1°37 | 1-28/1-22)6°35 || 920- 184-0} 0°29/0:30) 0-27/0-15/5:31 120°} 28:5 | 29-0 | 1-29/1-20 | 1:27/1-05/6-26 || 960-| ... |195-0) 0:260-29) 0-24/0-14/5-29 160: 38:5 | 39-0 | 1-15]1-13 | 1-13)1-00|6°16 || 1000-| ... |205-5) 0:25)0-27| 0-23|0-12/5-27 200°} 48-5 | 49:0 | 1-02)1:05 | 1-00\0-90/6:05 || 1040-) .... {216-5} 0-22;0-27| 0-20)0-12|5-26 240:| 58:5 | 59:0. | 0:85)0°85?, 0-83/0-70/5-86 || 1080:| ... |227-5| 0-22,0-26) 0-20/0-11/5-25 280-| 68-5 | 69-0 | 0-80)/0°83 | 0-:78)/0:68/5°83 || 1120-) _.... |237-5| 0-21/0-25) 0-19/0-10)5-24. 320+} 79.0 | 79:5 | 0°:72\0-77 | 0:70\0-°62)5-76 || 1160:) ... |248:5] 0-20,0-23) 0-18/0-08|5-23 360} 89-0 | 89-5 | 0°70/0-63 | 0-68/0-48/5-68 || 1200+)... |259:5| 0-19,0-21) 0-17/0-06|5-22 400-| 99-5 |100-0. |.0:60/0-62 | 0-58/0-47|5-63 || 1240+] ... |270-0) 0-17\0-20) 0-15|0-05|5-20 440+ 110-0 {110-5 | 0-52)0:51 | 0-50/0-36/5-52 || 1280:| ... |281-0) 0-16,0-20| 0-14/0-05|5:19 480-| 120-5 /121-0 | 0-50\0-49 | 0:48/0:34/5-51 || 1320-|_ ... |291-5/ 0-15,0-20) 0-13)0-05|5-19 520-| 131-0 /131°5 | 0°47|0-41 | 0-45/0-30|5:47 || 1360+] ... |302-5) 0°14/0-20} 0-12/0-05/5-18 560:| 141-5 {142-0 | 0:42/0°39 | 0-40/0-25/5-42 || 1400]... | wo. | cee | wee | coe | eee | wee 600°) 151:5 |152°5 | 0:37/0°37 | 0:35/0-20)5-37 || 1440- ace 8th Aug., 1837. WAVE XLVI. Depth 5 inches. Generating solid C projected. Volume added = 445-1 inches. ‘Observers, « Russell, 6 Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson, Gen. Nimmo. Statical level observed at | a a “f ee } Corrected depth = 5°10 inches. A B Cc D E A B C D E feet. | asec. Iisexs, y in. 34 in.|7/in.|¥in.| in. || feet. | z sec.|6 sec.|y in.|d in.|7/in. ‘Yin. in. 0: | 0-0 . 1:60 1-85 1:58)1-70|6-74 DOOr | ied Wilh. 0:9311-10 0-90 0-95] 6-02 40- | 9-25) 10-0) 1-60 1-73] 1-58)/1-58|6-68 || 320-| ... | 78-0] 0-90/0-95] 0-88 0-80) 5-94 80- | 18-30 19. 0} 1:57,1-71| 1-55/1-56)/6-66 || 360-| ... | 88-5] 0-89|0-87| 0-87 0-72] 5-89 120: | 28:0?) 28-5) 1-30 1-45} 1-28]1-30)6-39 || 400-| ... | 98-5] 0-85/0-73| 0-83 0-58) 5-80 160° | ... | 38-0) 1-29 1-43) 1-27/1-28/6:38 || 440-| ... |108-5) 0-67|0-72] 0-65 0-57] 5-71 200: | ... | 48-0) 1:25,1-21) 1-23/1-06]6-25 |) 480-| ... |119-0) 0-67\0-62! 0-65 0-42] 5-63 240° |... | 575) 1 15)1- 15} 1°13/1-00}6°17 || 520°) ... |... | we | oe 8th Aug., 1837. WAVE XLVII. Depth 5 inches, Generating solid C. projected. Volume added = 445-1 inches. . Observers, « Russell, 6 Patrick, sie Hamil, } Donaldson, Gen. Nimmo. Statical level observed at{ = 5 ng 5 5} Corrected depth = 5-10 inches. sepa Ce Re MO ey Ne in Sh ed pill A. B C D E|| A B C D E k OOO Oe OOO OOO aN dS OU I | | | feet. |a see. lg sec.|y in.|d in.|9/in.|¥’in.| in. || feet. |« sec.| 6 sec. |y in.|d in.|,/in.|¥ in.) in ae 0-| 0-0 | 0-0] 1-90]2-05] 1-88]1-90] ... || 240: 56°25) 56-25) 1-20/1-25} 1-18]1-10 |; 40°} 9:0 | 9-0) 1-80/2-03] 1-78/1-88} ... || 280-] ... | 67-0 | 1-15]1-21] 1-13]1-06 ; 80-| 18-5 | 19-0} 1-70/1-85) 1-68]1-70) ... || 8320-| ... | 76-5 | 1-00/1-05] 0-98/0-73 | 120-| 27-75, 28-0) 1-70)1-80} 1-68)1-65) ... || 360°) ... | 86-5 | 0-90/0-85] 0-88]0-73 160-|39-0 | ... see] eee |] 400°] ... | 96-5 | 0-80/1-01] 0-78)0-63 200: | 46-75) 47-0 1-45 1:45 1-43 1°30) ... || 440°} ... /107-0 | 0-72 0°-70)0°55 oS pert tt 480 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 8th Aug., 1837. WAVE XLVIII. Depth 6 inches. Generated by protrusion of solid C. Volume added = 547:5 inches. Observers, a Russell, @ Patrick, y Hamil, } Donaldson, Gen. Nimmo. Statical level observed at { ¥ ai) i as \ Corrected depth = 6-20 inches. feet. | a sec.|6 sec.|y in.|3 in. yin. |¥in. in. || feet. | sec. |@ sec.|y in.|3 in,|9/in.|3/in.| in. t] see | oe | 2°50} ... | 2°35) ... | 8°55]] 280° w+ | 1:00) ... | 0°85) ... |7°0. 40:| 0-0| 0:0 | 1-80} ...] 1-65) ... | 7-85]] 320°) 63-5)... | 0-90) ... | 0°75) ... |6-°95 80-| 9:0] ... | 1:70) ...] 1:55} ... | 7:75|| 360-| 73-0) ... | 0°85) ... | 0°70} ... [6-90 120-| 17:5 | ... | 1:70} ... | 1:55) ... | 7°75]] 400°} 82-5) ... | 0°80) ... | 0°65) ... 16-85 160°| 26:5] ... | 1:55] ...] 1-40) ... | 7-60|] 440-| 91-5) ... | 0°70) ... | 0-55) ... |6°75 200°| 35°5| ... | 1:45] ...] 1-30} ... | 7-50|] 480-| 101-0)... | 0°70) ... | 0:55) ... |6°75 240:| 45°0| ... | 1:27) ...} 1°12) ... 732| 520:| 110-0)... | 0°67| ...| 0:52) ... |6-72 8th Aug., 1837. WAVE XLIX. Depth 6 inches. Generated by protrusion of solid C. Volume added = 547-5 inches. Observers, @ Russell, @ Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson, Gen. Nimmo. Statical level observed at | 3 a + ae } Corrected depth = 6-20 inches. A fe Bp [ MO [MERE Os MN Cer Se feet. |asec.|Asec.|y in.|3 in.|7/in.|3/in,| in, || feet. | asec. 'B sec.|y in.|3 in.|y/in.|¥in,| in. 0- e |... | 1:55]... | 1:40) ... 17-60 |) 500-] 112-5) ... | 0:57) ... | 0-42) ... 16-62 40°} O-] ... | 1:50} .../ 1°35} ... |7-55 || 540°] 122-0) ... | 0:57] ... | 0-42) ... |6-62 80: | 9-0) ... | 1:37] ...| 1:22] ... |7-42|| 580°] 131-5) ... | 0:50} ... | O35] ... |6-55 120: | 18-0] ... | 1-20} ...| 1°05] ... |7-25 || 620°) 141-0) ... | 0-50) ...| 0°35) ... [6-55 160° | 27-0] ... | 1:17} ... | 1:02] ... |7-22 |) 640°] 151-5) ... | 0-50) ...| O35) ... |6:55 200: | 36:5] ... | 1°17] ... | 1:02) ... |7-22 || 680°] 161-5) ... | 0-47) ... | 0°82) ... |6-52 240: | 45-0) ... | 1°15] ...| 1:00) ... |7°20 || 720°] 171-0) ... | 0°47) ... | 0°32) ... |6:52 280° | 55-0} ... | 1°07] ...| 0°92} ... |7°12 || 760°] 181-0) ... | 0°45) ... | 0°30) ... 6-50 320: | 64:5] ... | 0°97] ... | 0°82) ... |7°02 || 800°} 190°5] ... | 0°42) ... | 0:27) ... 16-47 360° | 74:0) ... | 0°87] ... | 0°72) ... |6°92 || 840°} 200-0) ... | 0°42) ... | 0°27) ... |6°47 400° | 83-5) ... | 0°72) ... | 0°53) ... |6°73 || 880°} 210-0) ... | 0°40} ... | 0°25) ... [6°45 440° | 93-0) ... | 0°67] ...| 0°52) ... 16°72 || 920°} 220-0) ... | ... | |. |e 480: | 102-5) ... | 0°60) ...| 0°45) ... |6°65 || 960: | 230-0 8th Aug., 1837. WAVE L. Depth 6 inches. Generated by protrusion of solid C. Volume added = 353:2 inches. Observers, « Russell, @ Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson, Gen. Nimmo. Statical level observed at | z a 1s oof Corrected depth = 6:25 inches, pe Gea hy Heel fo 8 © | DP |e feet. asec.|B sec.|y in.|3 in.|y/in./¥in. in. || feet. | sec.|@ sec.|y in.|d in.|7/in,|3‘in,| in. O- | ... |... | 1:40) ... | 1-20) ... 17-45 || 480° | 95-5) ... | 0°57) ... | 0°37] ... (6°62 40°} ... | ... | 1:10) ... | 0-90) ... 17-15 || 520° | 105-5)... | 0-50) ... | 0-30) ... |6°55 80- | 0-0] ... | 1:07| ... | 0°87} ... |7-12 || 560° | 115-0) ... | 0-50) ... | 0°30) ... 1655 120-| 9:5] ... | 0-97) ...| 0:77) ... |7-02 || 600- | 124:5) ... | 0:50) ... | 0°30) ... |6°55 160: | 18:5] ... | 0°87] ... | 0°67] ... |6°92 || 640° | 1345) ... | 0°47) ...| 0-27) ... [6-52 | 200: | 285} ... | 0°82) ... | 0-62) ... |6°87 || 680° | 144-5] ... | 0:40) ... | 0-20) ... |6-45 240: | 37°5| ... | 0°82) ... | 0-62} ... 16°87 || 720° | 154:5) ... | 0°40} ... | 0-20)... |6-45 280: | 47-5} ... | 0°80) ... | 0°60) ... |6-85 || 760° | 164-0)... | 0°37] ... | 0°10) ... |6-35 320° | 565] ... | 0-72) ...| 0-52) ... |6:77 || 800° | 174-0)... | 0°87] ... | 0-10) ... 1635 360- | 66:5] ... | 0:70) ... | 0:50) ... |6:75 || 840° | 184-0)... | 0°35) ... | 0-15) ... |640 400: | 76°5| ... | 0°67) ... | 0°47) ... 16°72 || 880° | 194-0)... | 0-35) ... | 0-15] ... }6-40 440: || 86:0] «.. |'0°60)... O40)... 1685 || 920° |... |) ce. | cee fo ene | eve, | outlines ON WAVES. 481 8th Aug., 1837. WAVE LI. Depth, 7 inches. Generated by protrusion of solid C. Volume added = 309-12 inches. Observers, @ Russell, 6 Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson, Gen. Nimmo. Statical level observed at 5 oe + 008 f Corrected depth = 7-04 inches. A B Cc D E A B C D E yin.|¥in.| in. || feet. |a sec.|@ sec.}y in.|3in,|7/in. in. in. see | eee [O99 | ...| 0-92) ... 7°96 || 320° | 53:5} ... | 0°65] ... | 0-67] ... [7-71 40° | ... | ... [09 | ... | 0-92) ... |7-96 |] 360-| 63-0] ... | 0-62) ...| 0-64! ... 17-68 80: | 0-0/ ... |0°87| ... | 0-89) ... '7-93 |] 400°} 72:5] ... | 0-62| ...| 0-64] ... 7-68 120-| 9:0] ... |0-80) ... | 0-82) ... |7-86 |] 440°] 81:5] ... | 0-60) ... | 0-62) ... |7-66 160: | 185] ... | 0-80} ... | 0-82] ... |7-86 || 480°} ... | ... | 0-60! ... | 0-62! ... 17-66 200: | 27:5 | ... |0°77| ... | 0-79] ... |7-82 || 520°] ... | ... | 0-50) ... | 0-52) ... 17-56 ean isOrO)) 2.) O:70 |) 02 | O79! ..01Z°82 || BO0"| oes” | ce | ade | vac] eco | eee] cee 280° | 45-0] ... | 0°70) ... 0-72) --. (7°76 || 600- feet. |« sec. |G sec.|y in. I> i in. 0- $$ tt 8th Aug., 1837. WAVE LII. Depth, 7 inches. Generated by protrusion of solid C. Volume added = 309-12 inches. “Observers, a Russell, 6 rata y Hamil, 3 Donaldson, Gen. Nimmo. Statical level observed at 5 Bid i. 0-08 Corrected depth = 7:04 inches. feet, | asec. |@ sec.|y in.|d in.|7/in.|y/in,| in. || feet. |« sec. Bsec.|y in.|3 in.|4/in.|in.| in. S|) gaa -- | 10 | ... | 1:02) ... [8-06 || 200- | 35-25) ... | 0-85] ... | 0-87] ... |7-91 40: | 0- 0: | 0:97) ... | 0-99} ... |8°03 || 240- | 44:5 | ... 10-75] ...| 0:77] ... 17-81 80-| 85} ... | 0:95) ... | 0-97) ... |8-01 || 280: | 53-0 | ... 10-67] ... | 0-69] ... 17-71 120° | 17:5] ... | 0:95) ... | 0-97) ... |8-01 || 320°] 62-5 | ... | 0-70} ... | 0-72) ... 17-76 160: | 26:5) ... | 0:90) ... | 0°92) ... |7-96 || 360.| 71:5 |... | 0-60) ... | 0-62] ... 17°66 et 8th Aug., 1837. WAVE LIII. Depth, 7 inches. Generated by protrusion of solid C. Volume added = 309-12 inches. Observers, « Russell, @ Patrick, y» Hamil, 3 Donaldson, Gen. Nimmo. Statical level observed at { OF = + 0-08 } Corrected depth = 7-04 inches, ia od | | J feet. | a sec.|@ sec.|y in.|3 in,|7/in.|S/in.| in. || feet. | «sec. |Gsec. y in.|3 in.}7/in.|2in.| jn, 0 | 0-0) 0-0 | 0-87) ... | 0-89) ...|7-93 || 400-| 39-5 | ... | 0-62] ... 10-64) ... 17-68 40° | 9-0 0°77) ...| 0-79} ... |7-83 || 440°] 49-02] ... | 0-52) ... | 0-54) ... 17-58 80- | 18-0) ... | 0-72) ...|0-74) ... 17-78 || 480-| 58:5 | ... 10-47] ... | 0-49] ... 17-53 120: | 27-0| ... | 0°72) ...|0-74) ... |7°78 || 520-| 68-0 | ... | 0-40] ... | 0-42) ... 17-46 160- | 36:0] ... | 0°72) ...|0-74] ... 17-78 || 560°| 77:0 | ... | 0-40] ...| 0°42] ... 17-46 see | ese | coe | cee | wee] vee | eee | eee || 600°] 86-0 | ... | 0:37] ... | 0°39) ... 17-43 280: |*12-0| ... | 0-67) ...| 0-69) ...|7°73 || 640-| 95°0 | ... |0-37| ...|0-39! ... 7°43 320° | 21-0/ ... | 0-65) ...|0-67| ... |7-71|| 680-|104:0 | ... | 0-30] ... | 0-32] ... 17-36 360: | 30-0) ... | 0-62) ... | 0-64 +++ 768 720: |113'5 | ... | 0°30) ...| 0°32] .. 17-36 VOL. vi. 1837. 21 482 8th Aug., 1837. A B ae ae E|| A B Cc Boar feet. |asec. |G sec.|y in. pin y inlein. fin lyin. in{/in.| in. feet. | «sec. 6 sec.'y in. 3 in.'7/in.|din.| in. 0: 0-90 0°92) ... |7-96 || 320: 54-0 | 0-60) ... | 0°62) ... |7-66 AUN ces 0°87) ... | 0°89) ... |7-93 || 360-| 63-0 0°57| ... | 0°59] ... |7-63 80: | 0-0 0:77| ...| 0:79) ... |7°88 || 400°| 72-0 0-55| ... | 0°57], ... 17°61 120° | 9:0 0:67) ... | 0°69) ... 7°73 || 440: | 81:0 | 0:50) .. | 0°52) ...|7:56 160° | 18-0 0:67) ... | 0°69) ... 17°73 || 480-| 90:0 0-47| ... | 0°49] ... |7:53 200: | 27-0 0-70) ... | 0°72) ... |7°76 || 520-|100-0 0°47) ... | 0°49) ... 17:53 240- | 36:0 0°62) ... | 0°64) ... |7°68 || 560: |109-0 0:50) -.: | 0:31) 2..)|4700 280: | 45-0 0°60) ... | 0°62) ... |7°66 || 600- L19°0 aa +02 Odd resold aad * Very irregularly observed. 8th Aug., 1837. WAVE LV. Depth, 7 inches. Generated by protrusion of solid C. Volume added = 309°1 inches. Observers, « Russell, 6 Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson, Gen. Nimmo. Statical level observed at] = a 2 0-08 Corrected depth = 7°04 inches, A B c D A | B Cc De feet. asec. |B seC.|y in.d in.|7/in.|din.| in. || feet. le ned. @ sec.|y in.) in.|9/in.|¥in,| in. 0- 0:90} ... | 0-92 7:96 || 720° 142-5 0°37} ... | 0°39) ... |7-43 BQ icles 0:90} ... | 0-92 7:96 || 760:| 152-0 0:37) ... | 0°39) ... |7-43 80: | 0-0 0:87) ... | 0°89 7:93 800 161-0 0°32] ...| 0°34) ... 17-38 120: | 85 . | 0°82} ... | O84 7:88 840; 1700 0°50) ... | 0°32) ... 17°36 160° | 17-5 0:80) ... | 0°S2) ... |7°86 880: 179°0 0-30) ... | 0-32) ...17°36 200: | 26-5 0-75 0°77) ...|7°81 | 920° 188°0 0-30) ... | 0°32) ... 17°36 240: | 35-5 0-72 0:74) ... 17°78 960° 197°5| ... | 0-27) ... | 0-29) ... 17°33 280: | 44:0 0-70 0-72| ... 17°76 || 1000-| 206-5]... | 0-27) ... | 0-29) ... 17°33 320: | 53-0 0:67 0:69) ... 7°73 1040 216-0) ... | 0-27) ... | 0-29) ... 17:33 360: | 62:0 0-60 0°62) ... |7°66 || 1080- 225-0 0-22) ... | 0-24) ... 17°28 400: | 71:0 0:57 0:59) ... |7°53 || 1120- 254-0 0-20} ... | 0°22) ... 17-26 440: | 80-0 0-52 0-54] ... |7°58 | 1160- 243°0 0-20) ... | 0°22) ... |7-26 480: | 89:0 0:50 0°52)... \7°56 | 1200- Xs astely octet te 520- 0:50 0°52) ... |7°56 1240" bee 560: 1106-5 0:47 0:49) ... |7°53 || 1280- 600° |115+5 0-47 0°49) ... |7°53 || 1820- 640- |125-0 0-42 0-44) ... 7°48 || 1360- 680- |134-0 0-40 0-42) ... |7°46 || 1400- SEVENTH REPORT—1837. WAVE LIV.* Generated by protrusion of solid C. Volume added = 309:1 inches. Observers, « Russell, @ Patrick, y Hamil, 3 Donaldson, Gen. Nimmo. Statical level observed at oe stare +008 f Corrected depth = 7:04 inches. Depth, 7 inches, ON WAVES. 483 9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LVI. Triangular channel (H). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C. Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. Time, @ Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at { ¥ i j.002 t Corrected depth = 4:012 inches. A B c Di le] a B Cc nll Ee feet. asec. | sec.|y in,|3in.|y/in, Yin. in, |) feet. a sec.|6 sec.|y in.|3 in. o/in. Yin. in. 0:0] 0°30) ... | 0-40) ...| ... 75-5)... 403 0:00) ... | 0°10) ... 35:5] ... | 14:5/0-10) ... 0-20)... |e. | L155 49:5] 0-02| ... |0-08| ... 9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LVII. Triangular channel (H). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C. Times observed directly at Station y, double transits, Time, @ Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at ¥ ol we 0-02 f Depth = 4-012 inches. feet. |« sec. /@ sec.|y in.|} in. yin Yin, in, || feet. |« sec.|6 sec.|y in.) in. |7in.|d’in.| in, " | 2 | 0:0) 0°30) ... | 0:40) ...] ... |] 75:5)... | 34:5} 0°07} ... 10-17]... 355} ... | 14:5) 0-20) .../0°30) ...) ... |] 115-5]... | 49:5) 0-00} ...] 0-10) .. 9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LVIII, Triangular channel (H). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C. Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. Time, 6 Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. _ Statical level observed at . fa We 0-02 Corrected depth = 4-012 inches. D E feet. | z sec.|8 sec.|y in.|din. 7 in. |¥in, in. || feet. a sec.|B sec.|y in.|d in.|7/in,|Sin.| in, QO | ... | 0:00) 0-80} ... | 0-90) ... [4°91 |] 115°5 46:5] 0:07| ...| 0-17] ... |4:18 35°5| ... {13:5 | 0-40} ... | 0-50) ... (4°51 || 155°5 64:5} 0°02) ... | 0°12] ... |4-13 75:5} ... {80:0 | 0-17] ... | 0-27] ... [4-28 || 195-5 As dices al secre eee i | | ” 9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LIX. Triangular channel (H). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C. Times observed directly at Station y, double transits, Time, @ Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at x a Fe -09 f Corrected depth = 4-012 inches. feet. |« sec. | sec.|y in.|d in. »/in|¥in. in. || feet. |~ sec.|@ sec.|y in.|d in.|/7/in.|d’in.| in. a 0-0] Y-10) ... | 1:20) ...|5°21 || 75:5] ... | 29-0) 0-17] ... | 0-27] ... |4-28 355 | ... | 14:0) 0°40) ... | 0-50) ... ]4-51]] 115-5) ... | 46:5] 0-07] ... | 0-17] ... [4:18 ye, 484 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LX. Triangular channel (H). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C. Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. Time, @ Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at {¥ a a i a } Corrected depth = 4°012 inches, A B C D E A B Cc D E feet. | a sec.|6 sec.|y in.|3 in.|7/in.|3/in.| in. || feet. |« sec. |G sec.|y in.) in.|7/in.|3'in.| in. C1 eee O- | 1-05) ... | 1-15) ...|5°36 || 75-5) ... | 30°0/0:10) ... | 0-20) ... 4-21 35°5 13-5] 0°35] ... | 0-45] ... |4°46 || 115°5| ... | 47°5] ... moti ne ot aes 9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXI. Triangular channel (H). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C. Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. Time, £ Patrick. Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at or rE 2a oe f Corrected depth = 4-012 inches. feet. | « sec.|@ sec.|y in.|3 in.|9/in.|d’in.| in. |] feet. | @sec.|@ sec.|y in.|3 in.|7/in.|d'in.| in. (Teed eB 0-0) 1:10) ... | 1:20) ... 5°21 || 75-5) ... | 29:5) 0-10) ... | 0-20} ... |4:21 35°5| ... | 13-5} 0-30) ... | 1-40) ... [5-41 || 115-5) ... | 47-0]0-00] ...| 0°10) ... 4-11 9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXII. Triangular channel (H). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C. Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. Time, 6 Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at | ¥= a7 o o-15 f Corrected depth = 5:11 inches. A B Cc D E|| A B Cc D E =e asec. | sec.\y in.|d in.|7/in.|din.| in. |] feet. |« sec.|@ sec.|y in.|3in.|/>/in.|3’in,| in. : 0:0} 1:10) ... | 1:98) ... ‘l7-09 155°5] ... | 56-0) 0-22) ...| 0-20) ... |5-31 35°5 .-. | 12-0) 0-70) ... | 0-68} ... [5°79 |] 195-5)... | 71-0/ 0-20) ... | 0-18) ... |5-29 75°5| ... | 26-0) 0-50) ... | 0-48] ... [5°59 |] 235-5)... | 87:0) 0°17 eee | O15)... [5°26 115-5] ... | 41:0) 0-30) ... | 0-28) ... |5°39 || 275-5 eel] Game uegeattl eters 9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXIII. Triangular channel (H). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. Time, 6 Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at { 5 iF i O15 f Corrected depth = 5-11 inches. feet. | « sec. |B sec./y in.|d in.|7/in.|¥in.| in. || feet. |asec.|8 sec.|y in.|din.!9/in.|in.| in. 0-0} ... 0:0] 1-10} ... | 1°08) ... (6°19 || 115-5)... | 41:5) 0-30) ... | 0-28) ... |5°39 35°5| ... | 12:5} 0°70) ... | 0-68) ... |5°79 |) 155-5}... | 56-0) 0-22} ... | 0-20) ... [5-31 75°5| ... | 265) 0°45) ... | 0°43) ... 15:54 |] 195°5] ... |... | O-17] ... | O15) ... [5-26 i ON WAVES. 485 9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXIV. Triangular channel (H). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C. Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. Time, 6 Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. Statical level observed ed at { Y= a “f pe Corrected depth = 5:11 inches. feet. z sec, |B sec.|y in.|) in.|y/in.|3in. in. |} feet. asec.|B sec.|y in.|3 in.|/in.|d’in.| in. 0-0) ... 0:0) 1-10) ... | 1:08) ... }6°19 |} 115-5} ... | 40:5) 0-30) ... | 0-28] ... 15°39 35°35) ... | 12:0) 0°70) ... | 0°68} ... |5°79 || 155-5]... | 55-5] 0-20} ... | 0-18} ... |5-29 75°5| ... | 26:0) 0:40) ... | 0°38) ... 5°49 || 195-5}... | 71-0) . eet Meaet| [bees 9th Aug., 1837.. WAVE LXV. Triangular channel (H). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C. Times observed directly at Station 7, double transits. Time, @ Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at ke ie i a Hf } Corrected depth = 5:11 inches. A B C D E A B Cc D E feet. |«sec. |B sec.|y in.| in.|7/in./d’in.| in. || feet. asec. |B sec.|y in|) in.|9/in.|/in.| in. O- | 1-20) .., | 1-18) ... |6°29 || 115°5| ... -| 40-5] 0-27) ... | 0-25) ... |5-36 35°5| ... | 12:0) 0°60) ... | 0°58) ... |5°69 || 155-5}... | 55-5} 0-20) ... | 0-18) ... |5-29 75°5| ... | 26:0) 0°35] ... | 0°33) ... |5°44 || 195-5} ... | 71-0) ... aeemtaacnll tie 9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXVI. Triangular channel (H). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C. Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. Time, 8 Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at} ¥ z at O08 } Corrected depth = 6-04 inches. A B C feet. |a sec. |B sec. y in| in.'y/in, Yin. in. || feet. |« sec.|6 sec. y in. a in. “y in.|d’in.| in. (1 eee 0: |0-80| ... |0-80] ... [6-84] 155-5]... | 51-5/0-201 ... | 0-20 oe (6°24 35°5| ... | 11-0) 0-65) ... | 0°65) ... 16-69 |] 195-5} ... | 65-0) 0-12) ... | 0-12] ... 16-16 75°5| ... | 23°5| 0°37) ... | 0°37] ... |6-41 || 285°5} ... | 79:5} 0°10) ... | 0°10] ... 16-14 115-5)... | 37:5] 0°32) ... | 0°32) ... [6°36 || 275-5 - a Pellets eds iP) ee D E A B C D E 9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXVII. Triangular channel (H). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C. Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. Time, @ Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at {= im 4 aa Corrected depth = 6-04 inches. feet. |«sec.|6 sec.|y in.|din.|9/in.|d/in.| in. || feet. | sec.|@ sec.|y in.|} in.|9/in.|in,| in. 0-0} ... 0-0) 0-85} ... | 0-85] ... |6°89 || 115:5| ... | 38-0) 0-32) ... | 0:32) ... 16:36 35°5| ... | 11:5) 0-67] ... | 0-67) ... |6-71 || 155-5} ... | 52:0) 0-19] ... | 0-19] ... |6-23 755) ... | 24:5} 0-47) ...| 0-47) ... 16°51 |} 195-5)... | 66:0) 0-15) ... | 0-15) ... 16-19 486 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXVIII. Triangular channel (fH). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C. Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. Time, @ Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at { a a ac 005 Corrected depth = 6:04 inches. Cc D E feet. | z sec.|6 sec.|y in.|d in. o/in. Yin, in. || feet. |# see B sec.'y in./ in.}7/in./¥in.| in. i ie 0-0} 1-10] ... | 1-10} ... 7-14 |] 11555! 37°5| 0-27] ... | 0-27) ... |631 35°5 | ... | 11:0) 0°77) ... | 0°77] ... 6°81 || 155-5 ope . | 0-20) ... |6°24 75°5| ...° | 24-0 0-37] ... | 0°37]... (6-41 || 195-5 65-0 017 O17]... (6-21 9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXIX. Triangular channel (H). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. Time, @ Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at | Y= heh t= } Statical depth = 7-04 inches. + 0:05 A B Cc D E A B G D E feet. | sec. |G sec.|y in. 3 in. 7’in.|in.| in. |) feet. este. a sec.|y in.|) in,|9/in.|sin.| in. Die eas O):D iret ateen anes? | ice 75:5) oe - | )25°0) O25) 2.21] O27) aneenae do-5| ... | 12°0 0-40 egal a. ‘ |7-46 || i rss oT rece al isdeal eee tl eee eee 9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXX. Triangular channel (H). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C. Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. Time, @ Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at { = ra + 002 | Corrected depth = 7-04 inches. A B c Diife | A | B c D |£E feet. | # sec. | sec.|y in. Sin. y in. ¥in,| in. || feet. | «sec. |6 sec. y in.|3 in,|y/in./in.| in. 0-0)... OO eeu eeu! ewe | call oxy | LODtD) =e... | D0'O] O20) ac. | Uta meceuae aes SbeED (ince die gl RLESO | Basatal ioe atth Sess | oe 195:5| ... | 63:5] 0-07) ... | 0°09) ... |7-13 75°5| ... | 245/0-50) ... 0°52) ... (7-56 | 235-5]... | 76-0/ 0-05] ... | 0-07] ... [7-10 115°5| ... | 37-0 0-30 «.. | 0°32! ... 17°36 || 275°5} ... | 90-0) 0-02) ... | 0-04) ... {7-08 9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXI. Triangular channel (H). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon, C. Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. Time, @ Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at z ra ff 0-05 f Corrected depth = 7:04 inches. A B Cc D E A B C D E feet. | «sec. |B sec.|y in.|d in.|9/in.|’in.| in. || fect. | « sec. |B sec.\y in. Sin, 9/in.|3/in.} in. O07 cemjn OO | trent Ress ces] (endl vere: ||| Laco)| com nll SO) Neal eens (UNG eet tigeeee 35°57]... (14-52) 1-2?) ... |1-22?) ... 18-26 |] 195-5) .... | 65-5) 0-10} ...| O12) ... 17-16 75°5 |... 265 105 |... 0°52 | ... |7-56 || 235:5] ... | 78:5) 0°07) ...| 0-09) ... 17-13 1155 890 | 02 | ... 1022 | ... [7-26 (275°5| ... | 91:0) 0°05) ... 0:07) ... /7-11 . 3 ; ON WAVES. 487 9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXII. Triangular Channel (H). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. Time, £ Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at Ee iz + rae } Corrected depth = 7:04 inches. feet. | « sec. Ip sec.|y in.|d in.|7in.|3’ in.) in. |} feet. | « sec.|@sec.|y in.|3 in,|7in.|d’in,| in. ais ce 0-0] ... |... | see | cee | eee |] 15595]... | 50:5] 0-10) ... | 0°12) ... | 7-16 355) ... | 115)... | we] wee | wee | eee |] 195-5)... | 62:5) 0°07] ... | 0°09] ... | 7-13 79'S | ... | 22:5) 0°25) ...| 0-27] ... | 7-31!) 2385-5)... | 765) 0-05) ... | 0°07] ...| 7-11 1155 | ... | 37-0/0-17| ...} 0-19) ... 7-23] 275-5)... | on | one | one | eee | 9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXIII. Triangular Channel (H). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. Time, f Patrick, Index, y Hamil, Transit, Russell. Statical level observed at {¥ cE fi 0-05 f Corrected depth = 7:04 inches. feet. | « sec.|@ sec.|y in.|d in.|y/in.|d/in.| in. || feet. | « sec.|@ sec.|y in.|3 in,}y’in.|/0’in.} in. tect 1) OO | eee |uecetl nas!) |Paeny|ivaac [MODS wos! 17005) O17)’ 2c. O19) ny | gee 35°D| ... | 12:5] 0°60) ... | 0-62) ... | 7-66) 195-5] ... | 64-0] 0-10} ... | 0°12) ... | 7-16 75:5]... | 24:0) 0:45) ... | 0-47] ... | 7-51|] 235-5)... | 76-5) 0-05] ... | 0-07] ... | 7-11 115-5} ... | 37:5} 0-27) ... | 0-29) ... | 7-33]| 275-5 eae [Creel SS | eweltl aaa 9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXIV. Triangular Channel (A). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. Time, # Patrick, Index, y Hamil, ag Russell. Statical level observed at 1% 5s 2 + ae 05 st Corrected depth = 704 inches. > A B | c pd |E| a B c D |£ feet; | « sec.| sec.|y in.|} in.|7’in.|3’in.| in. || feet. | @ sec.|@ sec.|y in.|d in. y/in|3’in. in. 0:0)... 0:0 coe wee | vee || 155°5] 2... | 48°0) 0-17) ... | O19) ... | 7-28 35°5| ... | 11-5] 0-65] ...|0-62| ... |7-66|]195-3| ... | 61-5] 0-10] ...] 0-12] ... | 7-16 75°5| ... | 23-0) 0-50) ... | 0-52] ... | 7:56]| 235-5] ... | 74:5) 0-02) ...| 0°04) ... | 7-08 1155] ... | 35:5] 0°30) ... | 0-32) ... | 7-36] 275-5) ... | 87-5) 0-00) ... | 0°02) ... | 7:06 488 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 9th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXV. Triangular Channel (H). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. Times observed directly at Station y, double transits. Time, @ Patrick, Index, y Hamil, rari Russell. Statical level observed at 15 oF 4 05 05 f Corrected depth = 7:04 inches. feet. | « sec. Is sec.|y in./d in.|7in.|d’in.| in. || feet. | « sec.|6 sec.|y in.|d in.|9/in.|d/in,| in. OOP aes 0-0 aes cooi| seer || LO0°D!, 5.5 | 49°01 O15) 23.) OM... eee BOD)|, won LAD 0-60) ... | 0-62) ... 7°66||195°5) ... | 62°0) 0°07) ... | 0°09] ... | 7°13 755] ... | 24:0) 0-45] ...| 0°47) ... | 7-51] 2385-5)... | 75-5] 0°05) ... | 0°07) ... | 7-11 115-5] ... | 36:5} 0-30) ... | 0-32) ... | 7°36|| 275-5) ... | 88:5) 0-00) ... | 0-00} ... | 7-04 Remark,—In this series of experiments it was observed that the wave was long and low on the deep side, and comparatively sharp and short on the shallow side, so that the outline of the wave was formed of convergent lines. The wave did not always break on the shallow side, but broke on that side much earlier than on the other side. 11th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXVIL. Triangular Channel (K). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. Times observed directly at Stations y and 3, single transits. Time, a Russell, Index, y Hamil, Index, 3 Donaldson. Statical level observed at {es 7 af O10 Corrected depth = 4:04 inches. A B 10 feet. | a sec.|6 sec.|y in.|) in.!9/in.|8/in.| in. || feet. | « sec.|@ sec./y in.|3 in.|9/in.|3’in.| in. 0-0 | OO} ... | 1:0] ... | 0°95] ... | 4°99]| 55-7) 21-5) ... | ... (0°30) ... 10°20) 4-24 1462) 5-0) ... | ... | O-7| ... 0°60) 4-64|| 75-7 | 29°5| ... | 0:20] ... | 0°15) ... | 4:19 35:7 | 13-0) ... | OG} ... | 0°55] ... | 4:39)| 95-7 oa s1a'fivsete-|{usee (eet ene ieen llth Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXVII. Triangular Channel (K). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. Times observed directly at Stations y and 3, single transits. Time, a Russell, Index, y Hamil, Index, 3 Donaldson. Statical level observed at | 3 = 5 O10f Corrected depth = 4-04 inches. feet. | « sec.| sec.|y in, |) in.|y’in. ly¥in.| in. || feet. | « sec. B sec,|y in.]3 in.}9/in.|2’in.| in. 00) 0-0 | ... | Us}... | Ue]... | we. |] 55°7 | 21-5] ... |... [O'S0} ... [0+ 2)4-24 14-6] 5-25| ... |... [0-65] ... (0°55| 4-591] 75-7 A PEAS easier liters 35:7 |13-0 | ... | 0-43} ... | 0-38} ... 4-42) 95-7 ON WAVES. 489 Alth Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXVIII. Triangular Channel (K). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. Times observed directly at Stations y and 3, single transits. Time, a Russell, Index, y Hamil, Index, 3} Donaldson. Statical level observed at | 3 a i O10} Corrected depth = 4-04 inches, A B C D Ej) A B Cc D E feet. | « sec.'B sec.|y in.|3 in.|9/in.'¥ in. in. || feet. | x sec.|@ sec,|y in.|d in.|9/in.|3’in.| in. 00) 0-0) ... | 2°0 } ...} 1:95) ... | 5°99) 55-7) 20-5] ... | ... 10°32] ... 10-22) 4-26 14-6) 5-0] ... | ... [0°70] ... |0°60]4:64|| 75°7 | 29-5) ... | 0-25) ... | 0-20) ... | 4-24 35°7| 12:5] ... | 0°50) ... 0-45| «+» | 4°49]| 95-7} 38°0] ... | ... 0°20) ... 10°10) 4-14 llth Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXIX. Triangular Channel (K). . Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. Times observed directly at Stations y and 3, single transits. Time, « Russell, Index, y Hamil, Index, 3 Donaldson. Statical level observed at{ Ba a O10} Corrected depth = 4:04 inches. A B Cc oe Le a Sg Ee ee aE — EEE See aa eee es feet. | « sec.|6 sec.|y in.|d in.'/in./d'in.| in. |} feet. | « sec.|@ sec.|y in.|d in.|9/in |’in.| in. 0-0} 0-0) .., | 2:20) ...| 2°15) ... | 6-19) 75°7| 29-5] ... | 0-20) ... | 0-15] ... | 4-19 14-6] 5:0] ... | ... |0°70) ... 0-60} 4-64)) 95-7 | 37-7] ... | ... [0°19] ... 10°09] 4-13 35°7| 13:0) ... | 0-45) ...| 0-40) ... | 4-44/115-7 | 49:0] ... | 0-10} ... | 0-05) ... | 4-09 55°7| 21-2) ... | ... |0°32) ... [0-22 4°26/185°7 obsess abl wremssalf es Remarks.—The times at y and 3 were differently observed; and should be separated. The wave was long and low on the deep side, and tapered to a point on the other side. It broke during the whole period of observation continually on the shallow edge, leaving a portion behind, from which subordinate waves were formed. llth Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXx. Trapezoidal Channel (L). Statical level observed at{ ie be 0-00} Corrected depth = 5:00 inches, Wave observed Wave observed by sight. in glass index. 25 inches high. | 1‘5 inches high. OF reas! ere a OMe cae 2! Sez (Ss Resa on 7!) lal L2H a OS , Observations of this kind having been repeated, it was found that high waves, exceeding about half the mean depth, were indicated higher on the side by direct sight than in the index, up to about the limit when the excess became nearly one half of the whole height. 490 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. llth Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXXI. Trapezoida) Channel (L). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. Times observed directly at Stations y and 4, single transits. Time, « Russell, Index, y Hamil, Index, 3 Donaldson. Statical level observed at ¥ & ae aed \ Corrected depth = 5:00 inches. A B C D Ej) A B Cc D E a ES eee feet. asec! sec.|y in.|d in.|9/in.|/in.| in. || feet. a sec.|B sec.|y in.|3 in.|y/in.|in.| in. Cee vaze 0:0} 2°0 | ... | 2°05) ... | 7:05] 55-7) ... | 17-5] ... |0°50} ... 10°50] 5-50) WAG cas 4:5] ... 10°80) ... |0°80) 5°80)) 75°7| ... | 25-0) 0-25) ... | 0°30) ... | 5°30 35°7| ... | 110) 0°70) ... | 0°75) ... | 5°75)| 95-7 ere (Pei (ie est (eld begets A" llth Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXXII. Trapezoidal Channel (L). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. Times observed directly at Stations y and 9, single transits. Time, « Russell, Index, y Hamil, Index, 3 Donaldson. Statical level observed at { ov 7 ¢ o10} Corrected depth = 5:00 inches. A B C D E || A B Cc D E feet. | « sec. y sec.|y in|} in. yin. |¥ in, in. || feet. | @ sec.|6 sec.|y in.) ia. y'in.¥ in. in. O- | ... | 0°0/2-0 | ... | 2°05) ... | 7:05)| 55°7| ... |17°75) ... 106 | ... (0-6 | 5°60) 14:6 4:5] ... | 0-9) ... | 0-9) 5°90)) 75°7| ... [24:5 10°35] .../ 0°40) ... | 5-40) 35°7 11-0} 0°75) ... | 0°80) .. - | 5-80 95-7)... 31°25)... [025 wee |0°25) 5-25 11th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXXIII. Trapezcidal Channel (L). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. Times observed directly at Stations y and 3, single transits. Time, « Russell, Index, y Hamil, Index, > Donaldson. Statical level observed at {ee = a . lot Corrected depth = 5-00 inches. A B Cc D E A B Cc D E feet. | a sec.|6 sec.|y in.|3 in.|7/in.|d’in.| in. || feet. a sec.|— sec,|y in./3 in.|7/in,|d’in.| in. 00) «... 0-0] 2-5] ...| 2:55) ... | 7°55]) 55:7] ... (16°75) ... |0°55) ... (0°55) 5°55 LEG!" <.. 4-0) 0.5) OF8)) .c. |0°80/'5°80]] 75:7 | ©.. 124°O) ot coe aiawan Nee 35:7| ... | 10:5) 0-7) ...| 0°75! ... |5°75]| 95:7] ... [305 | ... jo 1lth Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXXIV. Trapezoidal Channel (L). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. Times observed directly at Stations y and 3, single transits. Time, « Russell, Index, y Hamil, Index, 3 Donaldson. Statical level observed at{ 3 . i o10f Corrected depth = 5:00 inches. A B e D | EA B Cc | E feet. | « sec.|@ sec.|y in.|3 in.|9/ in. ¥in.| in, || feet. | « sec./2 sec. y in. > in, y in. Yin. in. 0-0) ... 0:0) 2-0 . | 2-05) . «| 7:05]| 55°7 |... | 175 0°55) ... (055, 5°55 146i 4:0 0-80 Ps . |0-80| 5-80) 75-7]... | 245 030! ... |0-35) .. se 35°7| ... 10:5) 065)... 070. (5 70) 957) a. | ow ele we ON WAVES. 49] 11th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXXV. Trapezoidal Channel (L). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. Times observed directly at Stations + and 9, single transits. Time, « Russell, Index, y Hamil, Index, 3 Donaldson. Statical level observed at 3 x if O10; Corrected depth = 5-00 inches. eee | Coe. Dee pa a fol BP eet wp) | E feet. | a sec./@ sec,|4 in.|d in.|9/in,|0’in.| in. || feet. | @ sec.|@ sec.|y in.|d in.|7/in.|’in.| in. 0-0) ... 0-0) 2°50} ... | 2°55] ... | 7°55]/ 75-7) ... | 24-5) 0°30) ... | 0-35) ... | 5°35 146] ... 4-0} ... |0°80) ... |0°80) 5°80) 95-7] ... | 29-5) ... [0-22] ... |0-22) 5-22 35-7} ... | 10:5/0°70) ... | 0°75) ... | 5°75]/115-7 |... | 37-0) 0-10) ...) O15] 2. | 5°15 o0F| 2. | 17-0) ... |O-52) 6. (0°52) S5°5QN1S5-7 | nf vee | wee | cee cee | cee | eee llth Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXXVI. Trapezoidal Channel (L). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. Times observed directly at Stations y and 3, single transits. Time, « Russell, Index, 7 Hamil, Index, 3 Donaldson. Statical level observed at { 5 fs a O10 ¢ Corrected depth = 5-00 inches, feet. | a sec.|@ sec.|y in.|d in.|/7/in.|0’in.| in, || feet. | @ sec.|@ sec.|y in.|3 in. yin. in. in. 00) ... 0:0) 2-+) .../ 2°) ... | 7°00) 55:7]... | 17-0) ... [0-47] ... 10°47] 5-47 14-6] ... 4-0] ... [0:90] ... |0°90) 5:90) 75:7) ... | 25:5) 0. | ..] cee | eee | ee BOF |... | LOS) 0. | coe] one | ee | eee |] 957] oo. | B75] ... (0-25) ... 10°25) 5-25 11th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXXVII. Trapezoidal Channel (L). Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. Times observed directly at Stations y and 3, single transits. Time, a Russell, Index, y Hamil, Index, } Donaldson. Statical levei observed at{ 3 at hae } Corrected depth = 5:00 inches. A B Cc D E|| A B Cc D E feet. | « sec.|6 sec.|y in.|d in./>/in.|¥’ in.) in. || feet. | « sec,|B sec.|y in.|) in.|7/in,|in.| in. 0-0 0-0}... | wee] cee | cee] eee |] 557] «2. | 17-0]... [0°52) ... (0-52) 5-52 14-6)... 4-5] ... 0°85] ... [0°85] 5°85] 75°7| ... | 26-0) ... |...) 2. | | ee B57 | 2. | 110)... | wee] cee] cee | ee |] 957]... | 88-0)... 10-25] ... 10-25) 5-25 11th Aug,, 1837. WAVE LXXXVIII. Trapezoidal Channel (L). 4 | Generated by protrusion of solid parallelopipedon C. Times observed directly at Stations y and 9, single transits. Time, « Russell, Index, y Hamil, Index, } Donaldson. Statical level observed at{ 3 Taga } Corrected depth = 5-00 inches. = +010 A B Cc D | El a B | c Dee feet. | @ sec.| sec.|y in.|3 in.|/7/in.|3in.| in. || feet. | a sec,|a we in.|d in.|y/in.|8/ in.| in, OO}... | OO | wee | wee | one f vee | aoe |] SH-7] 0. | 17-0)... (0°52)... 10°52)... WEG)... | 4:25) ... 10°35) ... O85) va 757 |... ||) 260). Bee HOTS) ca | wefan | os | oe |] OF] 5. | BPS]. 0-25| ... 10-25] ... LS 492 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 1th Aug., 1837. WAVE LXXXIX*. Trapezoidal Channel (L). (1.) Height of the wave. { Or pe epee ic 4 | ye | odo (2.) Height of the wave. { On the geen sacs 0 | re | odo (B.) Height of the wave. { 07 the Seen ci as | to | (4.) Height of the wave. { 9" he Geen eae as | 0 | oso * In the whole of this series the wave broke on the shallow side immediately, and continued to do so, being dissipated very soon. llth Aug., 1837. WAVE XC. Trapezoidal Channel (M). Generated by addition of solid parallelopipedon C. Times observed directly at y and 3, single transits. Time, « Russell, Index, y Hamil, Index, 3 Donaldson. Statical level observed at{ oy is pau t Corrected depth = 6:01 inches. ee ey tee a TOA te os, Ok 1. ee Ba oR ah le ha: is c | D |e 001 ... | OO | 15| ...| 1:57] ... 17-58] 75-7]... | 20-5]... | et ace | coe] one 14-6| ... | 4:0. es 115-7}... | 32:5] 0-25 -+ [O12 .. [613 35-7| ... | 90 135-7 mie eye rE llth Aug., 1837. WAVE XCI. Trapezoidal Channel (M). Generated by addition of solid parallelopipedon C. ‘Times observed directly at y and 3, single transits. Time, « Russell, Index, y Hamil, Index, 3 Donaldson. Statical level observed at { x ie " ne } Corrected depth = 6°01 inches. feet. |x sec. |B sec. y in.|3 in.|9/in.|Y in. in. || feet. | «sec. 6 sec.|y in. 3 in.|9/in.|’in,| in. 0-0) ... | 0:0 PS ete) geal crete er ay 21-0) ... | 0-5] ... (0°45) 6:55 14°6| ... | 40] ... | 15} ... | 1:45) 7-46115-7 33°5| 0-2) ... | 0°27) ...| 6-40 35°7| ... | 9:5 | 0-7] ...| 0-77) ... |6-78]135-7 re Pa Be SD i llth Aug., 1837. WAVE XCII. Trapezoidal Channel (M). Generated by addition of solid parallelopipedon C. Times observed directly at y and 3, single transits. Time, « Russell, Index, y Hamil, 3 Index, Donaldson. Statical level observed at{ ¥ 3 = aes } Corrected depth = 6-01 inches. A B Cc D |E|] A B c ie SS SS SE SS SS SS eee feet. | a sec.|6 sec.|y in.|3 in.|7/in, 2 in.| in. || feet. | « sec.|B sec.\y in.3 in./9/ in. in.| in. 00) -.....}. 0-0 wos |] 70°7 |. ose | ZOD. 1) O10 oe (OBa | G4aG 14°6| ... | 4:0]... | 1:5]... |1-45] 7-46]115-7| ... | 325] 03) ... 0-25] ... | 6-26 35-7| ... | 95 | 1-25) ... | 1°33)... | 7°33] 185-7 PD FA 2 YS = ON WAVES. 493 llth Aug., 1837. WAVE XCIII. Trapezoidal Channel (M). Generated by addition of solid parallelopipedon C. Times observed directly at y and 3, single transits. Time, a Russell, Index, y Hamil, Index, 3} Donaldson. Statical level observed at 3 S a wen \ Corrected depth = 601 inches. i aE SO ee eee A B Cc D E|| A B Cc D E feet. | a sec.|@ sec.|y in.|3 in.|>/in.|2’in.| in, || feet. | # sec.|@ sec.|y in.|d in.|4/in.|¥ in.) in. 0-0) ... | OO | ... |... | wee | wee | eee |] 757] 2. | 20°5) 1-25) ... | 1:32) ... | 7:33 PEG ieee | 40 |... | ee] Beef eee | vee ETS Pes Record! lucety (eect lia Eero 35:7] ... | 9°0 | 1:5] ...| 1:57) ... | 7:58)/185-7 12th Aug., 1837. WAVE XCIV—CIII. Cuneiform Channel (N). Heights observed at A= 0°, B = 8°5 feet, C = 12°75 feet, and D = 17 feet. Breadth of Channel at A = 12 in., B = 6in., C = 3° in., D = 0 breadth. Statical level observed at { ¥ x a, i? } Corrected depth = 3:78 inches. Wave. | Height A.| Height B.| Height C.| Breaking Point. | Time.| Velocity. inches. ‘inches. inches, feet. sec, feet. XCIV. 1:5 2-5 3°5 D. — 38 4-0 4:25 XCV. 2:0 2-4 33 D. — 0:0 4-0 4:25 XCVI. 2-0 2°4 3°6 D. — 2:0 4-0 4:25 XCVII. 1:25 20 2-5 D. — 00 4:0 4:25 XCVIII. wae 2°45 31 D. — 0-4 4:0 4-25 XCIX. 15 2°35 3°25 D. — ea 4:0 4:25 3 f 2 D. — 2 : Cc. 2:0 2°55 33 Ht. = 3°6 in 40 4:25 CI. 1:0 13 POM WHE ae ae! CII. 0°25 0-3 Oe WAI: re seces 5:0 3-4 CIII. awe 0-5 OGarat ll > i kkese aa mas 12th Aug., 1837. WAVE CIV—CVI. ~~ Cuneiform Channel (N). Heights observed at A = 0-, B= 8-5 feet, C = 12°75 feet, and D = 17 feet. Breadth of Channel at A = 12in., B = 6 in., C = 3: in., D = 0: breadth. x z 4. 0-075 t Corrected depth = 2:01 inches, Statical level observed at Height A.| Height B.| Height C.| Breaking Point. | Time.| Velocity. i | | | | | [————————___. inches. inches. inches, sec. feet. CIV. 0-25 Soe 05 2 inches high. 65 2-61 CV. 0:20 oe8 0°35 2 inches high. 65 2-61 CVI. 0:50 “a3 1:0 2 inches high. 6:25 2:64 494 ' SEVENTH REPORT—1837 14th Aug., 1837. WAVE CVII—CXXKXILI,, Sloping Channel (QO). Channel 17 feet long, 4 in, deep at 0, and 0: in, at 17 feet. Wace: Height | Height at} Distance {Depth of Water at at 0°. Breaking. | from end. | Breaking Point. inches. inches. feet. CVII. 0-9 iL 6°6 15 CVIII. os 2:1 9-4 2-24 CIX, 1-1 1-4 76 17 CX. aoe 2-5 11-0 25 CXI. wee 1:95 86 1-92 CXII. 0-5 0:8 5:0 11 CXIIT. 15 2-3 11:0 2-5 CXIV. 13 1:9 8:3 1-9 CXYV. 1:8? 2-2 9-4 2-2 CXVI. 1:25 1-9 8-3 1:9 CXVII. omy 2:9 15:0 34 CXVIII. 25 27 12-2 27 CXIX. if 0°83 30 07 CXX. 11 1-4 6:3 14 CXXI. 0-2 03 2-1 0-4 CXXII. 10 1-2 55 1-2 CXXIII. 0:5 05 4-0 0-9 CXXIV. 0-8 0:8 43 11 CXXV. 0-2 0-3 2-5 0-5 CXXVI. 0-5 07 4:0 0-9 CXXVII. 1-2 17 75 17 CXXVIII. 2:0 27 11:3 2°6 CXXIX. 2:2 2-7 11-0 2-5 CXXX. 2-0 2-4 103 24 CXXXI. 15 2-0 9:0 21 CXXXII. se 25 11:0 25 14th Aug., 1837. WAVE CXXXIIT—CXLIX. Sloping Channel (0), Channel 17 feet long, 4 in. deep at 0°, and 0: in. at 17 feet. Time from| Whole Time} py, 00 of Depth of Water at eh Niet age ree Breaking. | Breaking Point. ‘ sec. sec, i CXXXIII. 2-0 55 9:3 2-2 CXXXIV. 2-0 55 10-0 23 CXXXV, 2-0 5:5 10:0 23 CXXXVI. 35 6:0 6:5 “4 CXXXVII. 4:0 6:0 5:0 14 CXXXVIII, 5:0 7-0 39 0-9 CXXXIX. 6-0 7:0 30 07 CXL. 4:0 65 5:0 11 CXLI. 5:0 6:5 4:0 0-9 CXLII. 5:0 7:0 4:3 1:0 CXLIII. 65 75 15 0-2 CXLIV. 2:0 5:0 97 2:2 CXLV. 2:0 55 11:0 25 CXLVI. 05 5:5 16:0 37 CXLVII. 0-0 o-5* 17:0 4:0 CXLVIII. 0-0 5ot 16:0 3:7 CXLIX. 0-0 5:5} 15.0 | 34 * This large wave was an inch high at D, and was reflected. + This large wave was an inch high at D, became doubled by reflection, and re- turned to 0 in 6-5 seconds. { This large wave was 0°75 inch high at D, was reflected, and returned to O in 7-0 seconds. Ce a ON WAVES. 495 Description of Plates accompanying the Report on Waves. Plate I. contains the apparatus of the experiments on waves. Fig. 1, A is a transverse section of the experimental channel, the sides of which were made smooth and as nearly plane surfaces as possible ; the whole internal surface being divided into feet, inches, tenth parts of an inch, &c., for convenient observation. B and D are the two ends of the same channel, and are elevated, so as to reflect the waves from vertical sur- faces. C is the generating reservoir referred to in the ex- periments as “‘Generating Reservoir A.” Fig. 2 shows the apparatus for observing transits of the wave by reflexion. I is the luminous object from which the rays falling on the plane mirror M are thrown down on the surface of the fluid at W, and thence reflected on the small mirror m, to the eye of the observer. W', W®, and W®, show a single wave in successive positions, and figs. 3, 4, and 5, show the places of the image corresponding to those positions. Fig. 8 shows the generation of the wave from “‘ Reservoir A,” by removing the sluice S. Fig. 9, B represents the generating chamber, resting on the bottom of the experimental channel, and containing the fluid which generates the wave when the sides of the chamber are raised from the bottom. Fig. 10 represents the solid paral- lelopipedon C ; and that part of it towards D represents the form and magnitude of the chamber and the solid D. Plate IJ. gives the forms of the waves of the sea referred to in pages 445—451 of the Report. Fig. 1, the cycloidal forms. Fig. 2, a and b, elementary waves, moving in opposite directions; cand d, the result of this combination at successive instants of time. Figs. 3 and 5 are forms observed to re- sult from the combination of three or four co-existent classes of waves moving in different directions. Figs. 4, 5, 6 and 7 show the manner in which waves break, either from the coin- cidence of a wave of a higher or with the crest of a lower wave, so as to give the form of unstable equilibrium, or from the ex- cess of the height of the wave above the depth of the fluid. Plate III. exhibits the relation of the velocity of the waves to the depth, as taken from the experiments in the rectangular channel, fig. 1, and in the channels, fig. 2, H, fig. 3, K, and fig. 4, L. ‘The horizontal abscisse are depths of the fluid, and the vertical ordinates the corresponding velocities. Plate IV. represents the form of a tide-wave as it passed 496 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. the successive stations referred to in the observations on the Clyde. The corresponding tide-wave of Liverpool Docks is given in the same plate. The stars in each wave mark its © centre of length, and serve to show the increasing dislocation of the tide-wave during its ascent along the river. Plate V. shows the line described by the summit of the tide-wave during its transit along the Frith of Clyde and the manner in which it was affected by the wind. ‘The wave of the 3rd of May was nearly calm; and that of the 24th of April is remarkable as having been described partly during a west- erly wind and partly during an easterly wind, and so falling partly above and partly below the 3rd of May, while none of the others present instances of intersection. Plate VI. gives the form of the tide-wave of the river Dee. Plate VII. contains the channel of the river Dee, with sec- tions. Plate VIII. is the channel of the river Clyde, with sec- tions. Lvens deft Coe ere 4 TLVTL wy ue poder LZrzars se FSS pg = a. 7 1 ated” | } ete momen! WY a W LLETL SONUM, Wo quodny ae : . r . > ea, meg ebbter ary < Lap ve. Seas Be cits, ~~ annd brew ony trench mipetae cme en ty (peep ee iG lasek Bieta, eee) tii Cig myer ceis UT Tani 6 oe bt earn mesic ~~ ey 2ateenerR Sete Report on Wi Fig, 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. SS ee SES = Hes a BES = 2% =e aes = = 4 + : ta feel ; + t sia Lee eS | xd oft +H 2 at 1 a siete Ht tt H athe + “THR fae eee tt oH HEE [ ut atte WV PLATE U1 raare se LEP OT OIL W GECS. alg a a t PLATE IV. ' Reporton Wav LINE OF HOURS x XI XU I Il Til IV Vv VI Vil VIEL IX X XI XIL [ II 15 Feet is R Liverpool Docks ia. 5 Station V |) Station I } 5 5 Station III 3 Station VII Station VII, Station IX IX . ) XII I Ul If Vi Vv VI Vil VII Xx x xI LINE OF HOURS pear Station VIL SS eet XU XO 1 10 9 8 rail Wee i = Sr = ‘inl mar EL sin sas conn T = ea ors eee eee Hi = 0 a IE I os a wing Myson sg aanp saan apy oy) so mucus ag hy poquiosap YRI = 1 Ly e. Cee S % ‘ Nee S 4 Dag We My SS ~ USS % y pee ea ee gas SS QS 8 REGS aby Pees Eea5 Ss Sas S.a8 Ssh SS SSS S82 Bes Ais RsR Sees Tae Fess Tesh s “8 gE N@ES “SE BEF USES = = 8 SON RAS 358 ssh spy, Maapsng Grin SOAUY OPT. OY) JO PLULUNS BYfp hy PIPLLISOPY YU] — ; | True Level Station VII. eo. S27 >" Sor ve Reporton Waves. U hice f7.- ane Station VII, Station VII Poesy ee Station V1 Station V. Station 1 Station IT Station J g He £ rom 2 Centle Breeze akreht from the —— ys hig Pagliasap Ys} True Level Station M1 5 wiz nS (3 a 1 oy > KS g (So FI = fi in 4 a(S i3 3 | Ke) x (e 6 a thou I. Sta Lizars ie Lyons deft rot ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 497 Note by Major Sazine; being an Appendix to his Report on the Variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at dif- ferent Points of the Earth's Surface. _ Since the report on the Variation of the Magnetic Intensity _ of the Earth, which forms the first article in this volume, was _ printed, I have become acquainted with a highly valuable _ series of observations. of the magnetic intensity made by M. _ George Fuss, of the Imperial Academy of Sciences at St. Pe- _ tersburg, in 1830, 1831, and 1832, in Eastern Siberia and _ China. I exceedingly regret that these most interesting de- _ terminations do not occupy their proper place in the general table of my report. I must hope, however, that being included in the same volume, they may still, to its readers, contribute their due share of experimental testimony to the system of _ terrestrial magnetism. . __ M. Fuss’s observations were made in two journeys ; one from - Irkutzk to Pekin, in the latter part of 1830, including a return by a slightly different route the following year; the second : ey was in 1832 from Irkutzk to the eastern parts of _ Siberia, as far as the longitude of 122° E. of Greenwich. The intensities were observed by two horizontal needles, each of _ which sustained a small, but uniform loss of magnetism during the period of its employment. Corrections were very care- fully investigated, and have been applied on this account, as well as for changes of temperature. The details, both of the _ observations and the corrections, are published in the Memoirs _ of the Imperial Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg, Ser. vi. vol. iii. The resulting intensities are there expressed in terms _ of the arbitrary scale in which Paris = 13482, being connected. _ therewith by means of M. Hansteen’s determinations in 1829 at Irkutzk and Kiatka, where M. Fuss also observed. _ I have included in the annexed Table the variation and dip _ observed by M. Fuss at all his intensity stations. The dip _was taken by an instrument of Gambey’s, until an accident _ befel it at Nertschinsk, when the subsequent observations _ were made with an inferior instrument. The geographical _. positions are those given by M. Fuss. __ The ground, traversed by M. Fuss enabled him to observe _ the culminating points of the isodynamic lines of 1°5 and 1°6. _ These he states to be between the longitudes of 107° and VOL. vi. 1837. 2k 498 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. 112° E. of Greenwich; and this, it will be seen, accords ex- tremely well with the chart in this volume. In comparing the values of the intensity observed at particular stations with the chart, the intensities shown by the chart appear to be slightly in excess in the vicinity of Pekin, and in defect in the neighbourhood of the Amour River, at the eastern extremity of M. Fuss’s journey; at Pekin, in latitude 39° 54! and longi- tude 116° 26’, about 0°015 in excess; and at Uststretensk, in latitude 52° 20! and longitude 121° 50!, and its neighbouring station Schegdatschinskoi, about 0°01 in defect. Long. E. Intensity. Station. Lat. N. from |Variation.} Dip. Paris Greenwich. = 1°348. Irkutzk .......... 52 17 | 104 17 |7 25E. (68 15N.| 1-647 Listwinischnoi ....| 51 54 | 104 31 Re 67 58 1-640 Stepnoi Se Se 52 10 | 106 21/11 8E./|68 10 1:663 Kolessowaja ...... 52 7 | 106 33 a (OB 1-666 Baingol’ |. 492k; 48 52 | 105 24 asi, 65 14 1630 Chanzal 2 s/fheierl; 48 13 | 106 27/)1 GE. |64 29 1-612 Urga Lae ae egeeoon) LOO: 42 ys 64 3 1-583 Nalaicha.......... 47 47 | 107 18 42 (63539 1-591 Giltegentai........ 46 54! 108 46 4. (a 68. Le 1-594 Schibétu.......... 46 29 | 109 38| ., (62 34 1-609 POET 5 oo. 6 «0in 3ie 46 16 | 110 10 62 38 1-565 Chologur SP aancnees 46 00 | 110 34/0 49W. 61 54 1-580 Durbanderetu ....| 45 48 | 111 14 61 46 1:584 Diet’. bench. Cees | Sa. wou wae) SBI “7Ww.61 22 || 1-559 Charatuin Sudshi ..| 44 50 | 112 6 , 61 3 1-579 Batehay 2.2.4.2... 44 21 | 112 55/0 59W.\60 18 1-553 Kulechuduck ...... 43 29 | 113 52 -. (59 14 1-538 Scharabudurguna ..| 43 13 | 114 6/0 46W.J59 3 1-538 Zackildack...... Ue 48,) 114 17 oe 158 25 1-513 Zsamein-ussu...... 41 46 | 114 38 .. jad 24 1-505 Chalgan .. weceee.| 40 49 | 114 58 11 13W.I56 17 1°459 PPOEIO ES owcige savers 56 39 54 | 116 26 |1 48W.i54 49 1-453 Zagan Balgassu .. 41 17 | 114 44 .. {56 41 1:473 Pelee pal, oo | 14 a4 Gy plex: 1-465 SUGshI ar... lt 42 28 | 113 51 JES AS MG 1-495 WEI oss s sok 43 3 | 112 30 .. {58 49 1-508 Zsamein Chuduck . 43 37 | 111 51 .. |59 22 1-509 Kutull. . 43 58 | 111 38 ¥) 60 13 1-520 Gasdhiget 44 23 | 111 19 wa i60 117 1516 ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 499 Long. E. Intensity. Station. Lat. N. from | Variation.| Dip. Paris Greenwich. = 1°348. | Sendshi .......... 44 45 | 110 26 |0 30W.\60 42N.| 1-530 _ | Kukuderissu ......| 45 8 | 109 42 -. (61 12 1-542 Seisyn .......... 45 34/109 16] .. {61 44 1-543 BepMoroitu..........| 45 50 | 108 53 | .. ‘61 49 1*545 _ |Chapchaktu ......| 46 2 | 108 35 CPG ares 1-538 fo Bain Chara........ 46 31 | 107 56 « Jogi sd 1-582 _|Chapschatu...... 47 20| 107 6 -. (63 21 1581 Urga ............] 47 55 | 106 42 |1 16E.(64 5 1°583 | Troizkosawsk...... 50 21 | 106 45 |0 1E. |66 24 1-642 mp Possolsk ....;... ov 52 yd | 106 18 seey HOB 1-653 | Werchneudinsk .....| 51 50 | 107 46 |0 24E. 68 6 1:657 Pmourbinsk ...... 0. 62 5/]111 3 wo Og 1B 1-665 Pogromnoi........ 52 30 | 111 3 18W./68 8 1-640 0 'Tschitanskoi ...... 52 11113 27 11 13W.'67 42 1-668 Nertschinsk-town ..| 51 56 | 116 31 |2 53W./67 11 1°635 _ | Nertschinsk-mine ..| 51 19 | 119 37 |4 6W./66 33 1:617 Bt Zuruchaitu........ 50 23 | 119 3/3 11W./66 13 1°626 ; i 3 44W.166 54 1°655 BeUriupina: ........ 52 47 | 120 4/4 4W./67 53 1-667 _ | Schegdatschinskoi..| 53 15 | 121 21 | .. (68 11 1-658 | Uststretensk ...... 53 20 | 121 51 21W./68 11 1:656 54W.|68 22 1-660 | Stretensk ........ 52 15 | 117 40 , 1-649 'Abagaitujewskoi ..| 49 35 | 117 50 54W.|64 48 1-583 Tschindant........ 50 34 | 115 32 14W.|66 32 1650 _ | Akschinska.,...... 50 15 | 118 25 .. |66 40 1671 =) Altanskoi ........ 49 28 | 111 30 48W.165 20 1-619 | 1:630 Q7E. |66 56 1°643 we oO WOW KS or 2 lor) a oo ao = S a wm = _ S TR Cam ° Gy nS © tS) nr —_ So @ or Or ooo —_ 2 [=P] or oo _ par _ The extension of magnetical observations to countries so _ remote, and, in the case of China especially, presenting pecu- liar difficulties, gives the Imperial Academy of St. Peter sburg _ an additional claim on the respect and gratitude of all who are interested in the advance of the science of terrestrial magnetism. 500 SEVENTH REPORT—1837.. ERRATA. Page 32, line 4, omit giving each equation a weight proportioned to the number of observations which it represents. 8, for 8 = 68° 42’; r = — 0:013608, read 3 = 68° $3/; r = — 0°01405, equivalent to 71 geographical miles for one degree of dip. General Table. ” Page 44. Frazer’s Lake Intensity for 1-724, read 1-734. » Stuart’s Lake ” for 1°786, read 1°745. » Fort Alexandria » for 1710, read 1°714. Page 45. Multnomah River 7 for 1:669, read 1-660. » Sandiam River - for 1°683, read 1°672. » Columbia Rapids ts for 1°679, read 1°671. rt Thompson’s River < for 1°710, read 1°701. » Oakanagan » for 1°707, read 1°701. » Wullawullah River és for 1°707, read 1-699. Page 46. St. Francisco Longitude for 235 45, read 237 35. + San Solano A for 235 36, read 237 36. » Monterey 4 for 236 00, read 238 00. es San José 3, for 236 00, read 238 00. iy La Soledad as for 236 36, read 238 36. Page 47. San Antonio * for 236 42, read 238 42. 3 San Miguel 3 for 237 16, read 239 00. 4 St. Louis Obispo e3 for 237 20, read 239 20. 3 La Purissima Sy for 237 33, read 239 33. if Santa Ynez is for 237 49, read 239 49. 7 Santa Barbara Sy for 240 00, read 240 20. And in the column of Intensities : St. Francisco, Solano, for 1°610, read 1-614. San José for 1-605, read 1°607. San Miguel for 1°583, read 1°580. San Obispo for 1°583, read 1°580. Santa Barbara for 1604, read 1°587. 5 GROWTH OF PLANTS IN CLOSED GLASS VESSELS. 501 Report from Mr. James YATEs, as one of the Committee for making experiments on the Growth of Plants under Glass, and without any free communication with the outward air, on the plan of Mr. N. I Ward, of London. Reports on the subject of the Growth of Plantsin closed Glass Vessels. Havine corresponded with the other members of the Committee, and ascertained that they agreed with me in wishing for the preparation of an experiment on a considerable scale, which might be exhibited at the meeting of the British Association in Liverpool, I gave instructions for the erection of a greenhouse in the yard of the Mechanics’ Institute, in Mount Street. The committee of that establishment granted for the purpose the use of a convenient spot of ground 9 feet by 18 in dimensions, and with a southern aspect. It was stocked with foreign plants of all kinds to the amount of about 80 species, and placed under the care of Mr. Murray, the foreman of the Botanic Garden at Liverpool. His list of the plants, and his observations upon their state and progress, accompany this report. The general ~ result of the experiment is, that the plants have flourished per- fectly well, being in a vigorous and healthy state without any extraordinary growth. Many of them have flowered, and some _ of them, especially two species of Canna and some ferns, have _ ripened seed. The greenhouse has no flue, and no provision for any artificial heat. It was judged best to construct it without a flue, both as the least expensive plan, and for the purpose of trying by a fair experiment to what extent plants may on this plan be kept alive even during the severity of winter, which would certainly die if fresh air were more freely admitted. It is also to be observed that nothing has been done to pre- vent the water from escaping through the porous rock (a yel- low sandstone) on which the greenhouse is erected, and hence it has been necessary to give the plants occasionally a fresh sup- ply of water. : Since I was appointed one of this Committee I have also grown plants under glass in London, where no plant can be made to flourish without such a protection. Nearly a year ago I planted Lycopodium denticulatum in a chemical preparation-glass with aground stopper. During that time the bottle has never been opened. The Lycopodium continues perfectly healthy, and has grown very much, alihough for want of space the form of the plant is distorted. Seeds, which happened to be in the soil, VOL. VI. 1837 2 is) aa SEVENTH REPORT—1837, have germinated, and Marchantia has grown of itself within the lass. I also obtained a hollow glass globe of 18 inches diameter, and with an aperture sufficient to admit my hand for planting the specimens. A variety of ferns and lycopodiums were then set in the soil, which was properly moistened with water. This having been done, the aperture was covered with sheet India- rubber, its attachment to the glass being made perfectly air-tight. No change of air could take place except by percolation through the India-rubber, which was every day forced either outwards as the air within the glass was heated and expanded, or inwards in the reverse circumstances. These ferns grew probably as well as they would have done in a greenhouse or hothouse. They were all foreign, and some of them requiring a great heat. Several have ripened seed. Mr. Ward's Report. In order to render the account of my experiments on the growth of plants without open exposure to air intelligible to those who may not have seen the published statements, I will briefly mention the way in which these experiments originated. At- tached to botany from my early youth, I had endeavoured to ° grow many plants, and particularly ferns and mosses, in and about my house, but being surrounded by numerous manufactories and enveloped in their smoke, all my endeavours proved sooner or later unavailing, owing to the necessity which I imagined to exist for exposing my plants more or less freely to the air. A simple incident at length opened my eyes, and I was led to reflect a little more deeply upon the subject. About eight or nine years ago I placed in a wide-mouthed bottle, covered with a lid, the chrysalis of a sphinx, buried in some loose mould. A week before the insect assumed its perfect form, I observed on the surface of the mould a seedling grass and fern. I saw that they required no water, as the mould continued always equally moist, from the condensation of the water on the in- ternal surface of the glass, and it remainedto be proved how far that change of air, which must of necessity result from every change of temperature, would be sufficient for the pur- poses of vegetable life. At all events I had gained two points, a continually humid atmosphere, free from mechanical impurities. I placed the bottle outside one of my windows, and finding that the plants grew well, I procured some hymenophyllum from Tunbridge Wells, planted it in a similar bottle, and had the pleasure to find that it likewise grew as well as in its native GROWTH OF PLANTS IN CLOSED GLASS VESSELS. 503 _ situation. I then, through the kindness and liberality of Messrs. Loddiges, who well deserve the title of ‘Hortulanorum principes,’ commenced a series of experiments upon plants of all structures, and belonging to a great variety of natural families, which has continued uninterruptedly to the present time. __ Before I proceed to state the results of these experiments, it __ may be as well to say a word or two respecting the cases in which they were carried on. These cases are of all sizes and shapes, from sinall wide-mouthed bottles to a range of houses about 25 _ feet in length and 10 feet in height. These houses are filled _ with rock work for the purpose of accommodating the various _ descriptions of plants I had to deal with. Some of these cases are quite closed at the bottom, and when once watered, require no further watering for a long period, while others have several Openings, and the plants are watered occasionally, once in three or four weeks, or months, as they may require. I believe that this latter plan is the best, as there is then no danger from ex- cess of wet, and should worms or slugs make their appearance, they can readily be destroyed by the free use of lime water. The _ glazed roofs and sides of these cases are made as tight as putty _ and paint can effect, and the doors fit closely. In no instance B. have I ever endeavoured to seal the cases hermetically ; it would, _ I conceive, be almost impossible to do it, and if done, would _ prevent that continued changeof air, from its alternate expansion _ and contraction, upon which in my opinion the success of the _ plan mainly depends. I have already explained myself fully _ upon this point in my letter to Sir W. Hooker, and should not _ have thought it necessary to have alluded to it again had I not seen that Professor Henslow, in his Descriptive and Physiolo- _ gical Botany, a work of the highest authority, entertains this mistaken notion. With respect to the management of the plants in the cases, I have always endeavoured to imitate their natural _ conditions as nearly as possible, being fully sensible of the value _ and truth of that remark, “ that we can command Nature only _ by obeying her laws.’ It would be impossible in the necessarily _ short limits of this report to enter into any lengthened details, and I shall therefore give as concisely as possible the results. 1. That the change of air produced by alternate expansion and contraction is regulated by the heat, and is therefore exactly _ proportioned to the increased wants of the plants arising from their greater excitement. Vascular require a greater change of _air than cellular plants, and this is effected by surrounding them _ with a larger volume. 2. It is of great importance that light be freely admitted to _ all parts of the growing plant, assisting it in the development 2L2 . 504 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. of its flowers, and enabling it to bear cold, &c. Hence the im- portance of protecting plants without obscuring the light. 3. Owing to the perfectly quiet condition of the air in these cases, plants will bear variations of temperature which under ordinary circumstances would prove fatal tothem. Thus I have found that many palms, ferns, and numerous Cape and Australian plants bear the cold of our climate with impunity, while others, when exposed to heat, become surrounded by a protecting atmosphere of their own creation, as, for instance, the Zrichomanes brevisetum, which has been growing for the last three years in a case in my drawing room, fully exposed to the south, and in which the thermometer frequently rises to 100°. A more striking illustration of this may be adduced in a case of plants brought by Captain Mallard, from New Holland. The plants were inclosed in February, thermometer being 94° in the shade. In rounding Cape Horn two months subsequently the thermometer fell to 20°; a month after this it rose again to 100° in the harbour at Rio ; in crossing the line the thermometer attained 120°, and fell to 40° on their arrival in the British Channel in November, eight months after they were inclosed. These plants were taken out in the most healthy condition. 4. These cases enabling us to surround our plants for an inde- finite period, with an atmosphere of any required humidity, we are enabled to grow in any situation, even on our study tables, a great number of plants, the growth of which has hitherto been in great measure confined to their native woods and wilds. To notice one instance; I had been struck with the published ac- counts of the very rapid growth of some fungi, and particularly of Phallus foetidus, which was suid to attain its height of four inches in as many hours. I procured three or four specimens in an undeveloped state and placed them in a small case. All but one grew during my temporary absence from home. I was de- termined however not to lose sight of the last, and observing one evening that there was a small rent in the volva, indicating its approaching development, I watched it all night, and at eight in the morning the orifice of the pileus began to push through the jelly-like matter with which it was surrounded. In the course of 25 minutes it grew three inches, and attained its full elevation of four inches in one hour and a half. It can hardly be conceived that in this case there was any actual in- | crease of matter, but merely an elongation of the erectile tissue of the plant. I think it is quite needless to point out the various important applications of the above facts to the growth of plants in towns, their conveyance and growth on ship-board, or the numerous GROWTH OF PLANTS IN CLOSED GLASS VESSELS. 505 I ysiological inquiries which may now be made with much - greater facility and certainty than heretofore; but I wish to _ direct the attention of the members of the British Association to the development of animal life upon the same principles. I am quite certain that a great number of animals would live and _ thrive under this treatment, and I can see no reason why, at the same time that our stoves are ornamented with Rafflesias, they ‘ pay not be illuminated with Fulgoras and Candelarias. Letter from Messrs. Loddiges to Mr. Ward. Dear Sir, Hastings, 8th Sept., 1837. Ve have much pleasure in stating, that among the many cases of plants which we have received during the last three or four a. wherever your instructions have been strictly attended to, e success has invariably been complete ; the failures which ] have occurred have been where neglect had manifestly taken place, either by keeping them in the dark, or in some cases by breaking the glass. We remain, dear Sir, Very sincerely yours, C. Loppices & Sons. in the Growth of Plants confined in Glass Vessels. By Dr. x DavuBeEny, of Oxford. To James Yates, Esq., Secretary to the Council of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Dear Sir, Oxford, July Ist, 1837. As it will not be in my power to attend the meeting at Liver- Bol: Tam Cesipes of Con ena to you the results of a Serowth of cy aoa confined in glass vessels, as a proof at least _ that I have not altogether neglected the researches recommended _ by the Association to the attention of the Committee of which we are joint members, although the preparations for a journey _ into a distant land have very much curtailed my opportunities _ of prosecuting them. ’ - During the last week in April I introduced a considerable qumber of living plants into glass globes, having only a single _ aperture through which air could circulate, and that one covered _ over by asound piece of bladder closely attached to the edges of the glass, so as to preclude the possibility of any air entering the vessel except through the membrane itself. 506 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. The following were the plants introduced into these vessels : In glass 1 were Sedum rupestre and telephium, Veronica repens, Gentiana acaulis, Erigeron hellidifolius, Lobelia fulgens, Saxifraga virginiana and irrigua. In glass 2 were Primula vulgaris, Anemone nemorosa, Pulmonaria angustifolia, Alchemilla vulgaris, Valeriana dioica, Veronica repens, Lobelia fulgens. In glass 3 were Primula veris and auricula, Erigeron helli- difolius, Dianthus armeria, Sempervivum montanum, and Lobelia fulgens. Now these plants were allowed to remain till May 5th, a period of almost 10 days, undisturbed, at the end of which time they appeared healthy and had grown considerably ; some even had flowered since their introduction. The air contained in each jar was then examined during the day, a portion of it having been drawn off into an exhausted tube through a stop-cock connected with the jar. In this manner it was ascertained that the air in jar 1 con- tained 4 per cent. of oxygen more than the proportion present in atmospheric air; in jar 2, 13} per cent. more; in jar 3, 2 per cent. more. At night, on the contrary, this excess of oxygen had disap- peared, the air examined three hours after sunset corresponding in every case as nearly as possible with that present in the at- mosphere. The following day (May 6th) the results were not equally fa- vourable, yet even then in jar 1 there was an excess of 2 per cent. of oxygen ; in jar 2 an excess of 1 per cent.; in jar 3 of 2 per cent., and this excess was plainly attributable to the action of light, for it in a great measure disappeared when the jars were left in the dark for a few hours, No. 1 under this treatment being found to contain just the quantity present in the atmo- sphere, and No. 2 only 0°75 more. It would seem then that for a certain period plants have the power of thriving and adding to the amount of oxygen, even under the circumstances detailed; but that there is a limit to this power appeared on a re-examination of the air three weeks afterwards (viz., on May 25th), when it was found that jar 1 contained only 1 per cent. more oxygen than that in the atmo- sphere instead of 4, as on the 5th instant, and that jars 2 and 3 even contained a portion less. Examined again on June 20th, No. 1 was found to contain 21 per cent. less of oxygen than that in atmospheric air; No. 2, 33 less; No, 3, 4 per cent. less. We seem therefore GROWTH OF PLANTS IN CLOSED GLASS VESSELS. 507 to have reached the lowest degree of aerial circulation under _ which plants will continue to live and thrive, although even this _ slow transmission of air was sufficient to their vitality, render- ing it only less vigorous and healthy. _ To ascertain then what the degree of circulation through the substance of the membrane in these instances might have been, I removed from one of the jars the plants and vegetable mould _ it had contained, and substituted for them about an equal amount _ of drysand. I then passed through the vessel a current of oxy- _ gen until the volume of air within contained no less than 77 per - eent. of that gas. The air was then examined again at 4 p.m., after an interval of three hours from the period of the first ex- periment, and found to have lost 4 per cent. of oxygen. The _ jar was then put aside till eight o’clock the next morning, when _ it was found to contain only 63 per cent. of oxygen, having di- _ minished in 16 hours 10 per cent. After having been exposed all day to air and light, and examined at eight the same even- ing, the oxygen was found to amount to.only 46 per cent., having _ diminished in 12 hours 18 per cent. During the next night it had diminished in 12 hours only 64 per cent., the amount of oxy- gen existing in it the next morning being 383 per cent. During _ the next day it had lost 7 per cent., containing at eight in the evening 31} per cent. The next night the diminution was only _ 24 per cent., and on the succeeding day 3 percent. The fol- _ lowing night the diminution was 14 per cent., the amount of _ oxygen being 24} per cent. only. During the day a further diminution of 3} per cent. took place, the air inclosed within the jar being found to contain exactly the quantity of oxygen _ present in atmospheric air. The following is a tabular view of the results :— June 23rd 1 p.m. amount of oxygen 77° excess 56° a eee 3° 4 p.m. 52 24th 8 a.m. —_—_ 63° —— 42: 8 p.m. ——_- 455 —— 24: 25th 8 a.m. —_— 38°5 —— 17:5 8 p.m. —_—__ 31°55 —— 10°5 26th § a.m. —_——_—_— 29:0 —— 80 8 p.m. —______- 26°0 — 5:0 27th 8 a.m. ——__<— 2445 —— 3°5 8 p.m. a 21°0 0:0 Thus five days were required to enable the whole excess of oxy- _ gen to pass through the substance of the membrane, the dia- -Ineter of which was 3 inches, whilst the capacity of the vessel, when the sand had been introduced, was nearly one gallon, so _ that about three quarts of oxygen and one of nitrogen may be 508 - SEVENTH REPORT—1837. calculated as having been present in the jar at the commence- ment of the experiment, of which about 43 pints were discharged through the membrane in the course of the five days during which the observations were continued. The transmission took place more rapidly during the day because of the exposure of the jar to the sun and wind, which by the expansion caused within the vessel, and by the more rapid succession of aerial currents brought into contact with the external surface of the membrane, doubtless caused in a greater degree the transmission of the redundant oxygen. ‘The average quantity that escaped per diem did not much exceed 11 per cent., or did not quite amount to one pint in the 24 hours, but of course the transmission was more rapid at first, and dimi- nished gradually in quantity as the evaporation of the air within the jar approached more nearly to that of the atmosphere sur- rounding it. Believe me, dear Sir, yours faithfully, Cuas. DAUBENY, Professor of Chemistry and Botany, Oxford. END OF THE REPORTS. a NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS OF COMMUNICATIONS BRITISH ASSOCIATION ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, AT THE LIVERPOOL MEETING, SEPTEMBER 1837. ADVERTISEMENT. Tue Enrrors of the following Notices consider themselves responsible only for the fidelity with which the views of the Authors are ab- stracted. CONTENTS. _ NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS OF MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS, Bt MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. Page Professor Sir W. R. Hamiton’s Exposition of the Argument of Abel, é : respecting Equations of the Fifth Degrec....ssesccecsscssssceveeereaterseees 1 Professor Sir W. R. Hamiron on New Applications of the Calculus of Peerteipale belationsns sresa<-cecswasectsecnsohresvacssecscedeetenssseeoeectacr secs taal Professor Sit W. R. Hamrtton’s Exposition of Mr. Turner's Theorem respecting the Series of Odd Numbers and the Cubes and other Powers of the Natural Numbers. ........seeee0e saneesibacascessenpacsyraepeces soccveccoese _ Mr. Cuanzes Buacxsurn on some new Properties ‘of Geometric Series . 2 _ The Rev. Dr. Rosson on the Parallax of « Lyre...... Wheaton eae seed danas 3 © The Rev. W. WHEweEct on Tides. .......0. sccsccpeccsssccsenceses Seuss seagate 4 Mr. Davipv Macxim on the Tides of Dundee and Glasgow. shee taunkss-aeereeatn _M. De La Rive on an Optical Phenomenon observed at Mont Blane.... 10 Sir D. Brewsrer on the Cause of the Optical Phenomena which take place in the Crystalline Lens during the Absorption of Distilled Water. 11 _ Sir D. Brrwsrer on a new Property of Light. .,.... daugesnts saseqesesexoeuial 2 Sir D. Brewsren’s Notice of a new Structure in the Diamond. ........ eee ele 4 Professor Cuntstin’s Account of a singular ee Phenomenon, some- times seen at Sunset. ..sseceeereee ceeseeece socsvere 15 “Professor Powett on Von Wrede's “Explanation of the Absorption of Light, by the Undulatory Theory. ........sscseceereees teecteveccccceacscccecss 16 Professor Powrxt on the Dispersion of Light. Neaeaduganasgzey stavdscudevacats cine’ & _ Professor Powntt on Experiments relative to the Influence of Surfaces MERLE EDT IAUTO Ft 'o7 00 cu da-sn 8s cnnevsdh acs catudconcs sedi eeasgancnessespashetsnssaeaiee 20 _ The Rev. Professor Luoyp’s Account of the Magnetical Observatory now in the course of erection at Dublin. -...cccccscscecesescsccessreecceerseseses 20 _ Professor Henrx’s Notice of Electrical Researches. Nssanvantay Ca gsonerescesegs 22 _ The Rev. J. W. M‘Gautezy on a convenient and efficient form of Electro- magnetie Apparatus for the production of Electricity of high singel 24 _ M. De La Rive on the Interference of Electro-magnetic Currents. ...... 27 _ Mr. W. Errricx on the two Electricities, and on Professor Wheatstone’s s Determination of the Velocity of Electrie Light. ............ Rantgaeieuaaee 28 _ Mr. 8. Hunrsr Cunisrie on the occurrence of Aurora Borealis in England during Summer; with a recommendation that the phenomenon should, at all seasons, be more carefully observed than hitherto. .......c...sere008 28 METEOROLOGY, &e. q Mr. J. W. Lussocx on M, Poisson’s Theory of the Constitution of the BEML OSPHEE, J...+. .2s02..-ceressossneverssouseseogsgzate scyessansy inne sbaursesagaseoneee - On the Principle of Mr. hee: s TEEN ES as 32 r. SourHwoop’s Account of his Observations with Mr. Whewell’ 3 "Anes _ mometer. eevenecceceoeearrerescepovee Reet sarees s eer ener reNOPePeee Prac onseoeeeraceges 30 iv CONTENTS. Page Mr. Fortetr Oster’s Account of a new Registering Anemometer and Rain-Gauge, now at work at the Philosophical Institution at Birming- ham, with Diagrams giving a condensed View of the Observations re- corded during the first eight months of the year 1837. ....scscesereseeeress Mr. Birt’s Suggestions as to the probable Causes of the Aérial Currents of the Temperate Zones. .....ssssescesserseeenseceees to eeeesecncecrsssccescosaces Mr. W. J. Henwoop on the higher Temperature which prevails in 1 the Slate than in the Granite of Cornwall. ....ssssssssecsssseccassenceencececeees Statement of the Proceedings of the Meteorological Committee, consisting of Prof, Forses, Mr. W. < Harris, Prof. PowEtt, Lieut.-Col. Sykes, and Prof. Pures, during the past year. ........4. eostesacecaensnes aceeeeee Mr. James Cunninenam on a Method of constructing Magnets.......++.++ Colonel C. Gotp on the possibility of effecting Telegraphic or Signal Communications during Foggy Weather, and by Night in all Seasons. Lieutenant Morrison on an Instrument for Measuring the Electricity of the Atmosphere. ....... Spidtop at nas’ ana sdebts «sing dceceemaaaee wneons senna neue utes CHEMISTRY. Professor Lizerc on the Products of the Decomposition of Uric Acid. Extracts from a Letter received by Dr. Datron from Professor Hare. Mr, T. Tuomson on the Specific Heats of Nitric Acid and Alcohol....... Professor Minter on the Unequal Expansion of Minerals in different di- rections by Heat. ...... Devok du danaduaeensper -cesteBach acai e “Ree SCE ad aacHaseE Peres 87 Captain Porriocx on an Apparent Analogy between the New Red Sand- Btone of Breland and Treland) coves s:.2.ccssestcaccocenervocccstsecccscnaccossces 88 _ Mr. R. Grirrirn on the leading features of the Geology of Ireland, and _ more particularly the situation and extent of the great Carboniferous or Mountain Limestone district, which occupies nearly two-thirds of the ‘ (SLR Made spell Saeed ami asa 6 shen NaN ac ae ata Mahl la Sila 7 88 ‘Mr. Murcutson on the Fishes of the Ludlow Rocks, or Upper Beds of the Bee Silurian Systern | .............scssseeennsese sasadiae'cis ¢aiv e's gaptanscamsoss ade ub _ Mr. W. Hopxtns on the Refrigeration of the Earth spcvasemael 91 Rey. W. D. Crarxe on the Phzenomena exhibited by the Plastic Clay For- mation in the vicinity of Poole, Dorsetshire ....ssecocssesssessceessesevenss 9S vi CONTENTS. Page Rey. D. Witxrams on some Fossil Wood and Plants recently discovered by him low down in the Grauwacke of Devon, being one of the re- sults of an attempt to determine the relative age and order of the Culms field and its Floriferous Shales and Sandstones ..... Ubdadasdseseceveseeaecsss Mr. Harpman Puttuies on the Bituminous Coal-field of Pennsylvania eee ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. Rev. W. Hove off) Filaria (ycisdsscesscwcsssstesessentecns sesaevsoede 97 Captain Ducanz, R.N., on the Metamorphism of a Species of Crustacean, allied to, PaleemOn canis aeusvekel javsa4seds Neasssaasnedshose0n aaebesbatecnencet 98 Mr. T. Axtis on the Selerotic Bones forming the Orbit of the Eye in dif- nome Birds and Reptiles.........++ aipaaSatos0hdsnensloes(dnysssonsneranahlaete 98 . Trainy’s Notice of Argas Persicus, a species of Bug, found in hier in Persia, and reported to be poisOMOus......ceceresscecseereeees 98 Professor Owen on the Production of Cataract by a Worm. Communi- cated by the Rev. F. W. Hore ..... abeasessbacen eadab@ussuhe S60 tenubal Beat 8 Dr. Davip Wittiams on T.imax Variegatus in the Human Intestines...... 98 Sir Tuomas Puituirs on a Simple Method of destroying Insects which attack Books and MSS. Communicated by the Rev. F. W. Horr,..... 99 Mr. James Smirn’s Notice of Undescribed Shells ............ Sebuvcreonts vases 100 Mr. J. BE. Gray on Victoria Regina .saceaveceseseeoeetss edecacosses eoveestsveas 100 Dr. Linptey on the Structure and Affinities of Orobanchacez .,.......... 101 Mr. G. Garvner on the Internal Structure of the Palm Tribe. Commu- nicated by BE. Bowman, BoLS.. sciccccctecccsconscsscscdsssoveses ecesceseseoass 102 Mr. R. Matuer on the power possessed by Aged Trees to reproduce ‘them- selves from the Trunk ......... Taide -secdedessdateseabhuet deleoevccatecchudasp erect 102 Mr. Bicxerstetu on the Milk of Galactodendron Uilile osivv: cence 102 Mr. E. Fores on New and Rare Forms of British Plants and Animals... 102 Mr. Niven on Vegetable Physiology .........+ suasscneswusescnecapens ove sedeer¥es 102 Mr. Cuartes C. Basinaton on a Notice, with the Result, of a Botanical Expedition to Guernsey and Jersey, in the months of J uly and August, WSBT Soa8ds.ccetecscaceswituvedaneeeaccstsopccddecss Poctecebesl¥e sins seen cesREamane 1038 Rev. J. B. Reape’s Inquiry into the Origin of the Solid Materials found in the Ashes of Plants, their structure and office during the period of life, and the effect of their subsequent addition to the cr ust of the earth Rey. J. B. Reavr on the Chemical Composition of Vegetable Membrane ANA Fibre sessrsescesecssececdeccsececsccssetecenecsossencevsvaveenes cvocbeshat¥ecase MEDICAL SCIENCE. Mr. G. Catvert Hotzanp on the Influence of the Boi tale Organs on the Circulation of Blood syili thé Chest ccriswssancaccenstyoesess000e can ersawonve Mr. G. C. Hotianp on the cause of Death from : a Blow on ube Stomach, with remarks on the means best calculated to restore animation sus- PEHUED by Shah ALCON, ...sccs.ctascscensecnensetuodscapssaens anccessuseterabitn Mr. Wittram Harris Mappen’s Iv xperiments 0 on the Connexion between the Nerves, ONG MUSCLES wectnd wanes nosnecs ap sakes sent emoaasnss skis ne siRaeRee Sas Sir James Murray on Disordered Conditions of the Human Body caused by the presence of Urinary Salts, although not amounting to Gravel or DEONGLssnccapnasscstsath anoee ce bob satesns Sone tvvekssacses S45 SAUTEED Oddie co ceneabus eRe DriVACKINTOsH: OM OWOIETA «cs. .inccaccunncas-sneianaecuneuns- { ml eg dal RO ye es ou eos . 2m +ay™—? 2 aioe } Xfm OD MBs pamym (en) ym (nnd p 4 { gm (>—1) 4. rm (p—2), ee. hae ae rmymnn(o-2 4 ymn(p—1) b &e. &e. &e. &e. Other theorems will probably appear in some other scientific publi- cation. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 3 On the Parallax of a Lyre. By the Rev. Dr. Rozinson. _ The observations of the late Dr. Brinkley, he observed, with an eight-feet circle, indicated a parallax of about 1’ for a Lyre; but __ Mr. Pond, with the Greenwich mural, appeared,to obtain contradict- ory results. His observations seemed so satisfactory, that the Royal Society considered the question as completely decided, and rewarded him with their medal. It is true that the Society afterwards seemed to retract this opinion, by awarding the same honour to Brinkley _ himself; but the impression remained on the public mind. Dr, Ro- ‘binson should not have noticed this, but that he observed, in some late addresses, that this opinion was sanctioned by the illustrious names of Airy and Peacock. In reducing the Greenwich observations for _ the nutation, he had many of a Lyre, and, selecting those which were _ near the maxima and minima of parallax, he obtained the following -yalues of the constant of parallax :— _ Parallaxes of a Lyre resulting from Mr. Pond's Observations. Parallax. No. of Observations, Summer ...... PBUS5 os. 6. —O°07 .......- Winter ...... MSUT eet 6770) Fa ee 33 Winter ...... 1819°0 ..... UN=wY Ta const rasena iO Summer ...... 1819°5 ...... aS teosse stheee (Oe Winter ...... TB20'O" ss 5s = er Reet 18 Winter ...... 1822°0 ...... —3°BD cecccccevecs 16 Winter ...... 1827-0 ...... Sm AE tc ecateiece 21 r Summer ...... WS D cnpaces 1 ly A Pa 70 Winter ...... 1828°0 ...... —O18 ............ 30 Summer ...... ie eee 4 a (ED Tei te wes Oe Winter ...... TSAO: westee MOS. oss phy aches 26 Summer ...... Sires teas +0°99 ......-..08. 22 Winter ...... T8300) 3.225. is aan ee 9 Summer ....., OG ep eee +0°90 2... .c cee eee 22 Winter ...... {SSO HOMO] cde ceseneses 23 Summer ...... gol eercs +1°30 ... 29 Combining and expressing by d?z the error of nutation, and by dm the error of prop. motion. 4 1812 ; 1818 > ... par=—1'28—0'8 d’n+0°3dm,. ...... 78 obs. 1822 tee =—O°95 .....000- aU Ao) SANS 55 | oe re =—O0AZ ......... —02 91 1828 reat (60.2 0) Bannan me U2 PRE ee 82 1829 eames ES | ae et —O0'3 ......00. 70 BAG). agers cde, SOO les aps ses oa LG castes sax 31 ila haa = +0°68 +0°05d’2—0°3 ......44 52 ‘in which it is supposed that d’x=—0°31; dm.=+0:07, assuming _ Bessel’s proper motion to be true. These results obviously may give any parallax, and, therefore, as far B2 4 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. as they go, the question must be considered as perfectly open,—or, rather, they indicate that the Dublin circle has, to the present time, given consistent results, which have not been disproved. Dr. Robinson pointed out the necessity, in such inquiries, of guard- ing against the errors proceeding from changes of temperature, which may occasion a diurnal change, capable, in some cases, of masking the parallax, supposing it given by the instrument. He stated that he had examined the index correction of his own circle by observing the Pole star and 6 Urse minoris at both culminations on the same days ; and that, though the German astronomers were always attentive to detect such changes, it was not, as far as he knew, generally practised in Britain. On Tides. By the Rev. W. WuHEwELL, F..R.S., Se. Mr. Whewell observed that his own researches agreed with those of Mr. Lubbock, both in giving a very close and remarkable coincidence of the laws of observation and theory on most points, and also in dis- closing some curious discrepancies of some of the features of the observed tides from the theoretical*. In particular, he stated that he had satisfied himself, as Mr. Lubbock had done, but by independent investigations, founded on quite different facts, that the diurnal in- equality was very different at different points of the same coast ; and that at places not very distant from each other, he had found cases where this inequality was absolutely inverted, making ¢hat the lower of two successive tides, which, at a period of their progress a little anterior, had been the higher. He stated that this circumstance, having attracted his attention, he had, in a postscript to his seventh series of Tide Researches, printed in the Philosophical Transactions, offered a certain hypothesis as a mode of accounting for it—namely, that the tides might be conceived as transmitted by ¢ransverse undula- tions; and, he added, that subsequent researches, about to be pub- lished in his eighth series, had shown him that he must entirely re- tract this hypothesis. He added also, that he was able to say the same of another hypothesis, at first sight very plausible—namely, that — the diurnal tide travels at a different rate from the common semi- diurnal tide. He stated, that having taken sixty of the best-con- ditioned places on the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland, for the purpose of tracing the progress of this diurnal inequality, he had had the requisite calculations made by calculators (Mr. Dessiou and Mr. Ross) placed at his disposal by the Admiralty. He had separated the diurnal wave from the semi-diurnal tide, by examining the compara- tive influence of the diurnal inequality upon high and upon low waters. He had pursued this diurnal wave first along the west coast of Ireland, round the north of Scotland, and down the east coast of Scotland and England; and he had found that the diurnal wave never gained or lost much in its rate of progress compared with the semi- diurnal. This was generally two or three hours behind, sometimes * See p. 103. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 5 # - more than five, sometimes less than two, but with no progressive dif- _ ference. He had next followed another diurnal wave up the Channel, and had found the same general approximation from the Land’s End and Brest to the Isle of Wight; but in the Southampton waters, and so on to Portsmouth, the diurnal wave was thrown out of its course so _ much as to affect the tides in a reverse order to that which took place _ in the previous part of its course ; so that if two successive tides, A, B, _ progressed from Bridport to Southampton, a was higher than 8 at the _ first place, and 8 higher than a at the second. He referred also to the double tides (four in twenty-four hours) which occur in the Solent Sea, and invited the attention of persons residing in the neighbourhood of _ those coasts to the investigation of this subject, since such persons can best determine over what extent of coast this double tide prevails— how, at the extremities of its range, the double tide grows out of the single—at what intervals the two tides occur—which is the greater, and how these relatious vary at different places,—and whether these _ changes can be connected in a definite manner with the tidal currents. He added that, in some places, instead of four or two tides in the _ twenty-four hours, there appears to be only one, especially on the - coasts of Australia. He observed, that he conceived he had already evidence to show that these supposed single day tides were, in fact, _ only extreme cases of great diurnal inequality ; and he stated that the _ Admiralty, in pursuance of suggestions made by him, through Captain Beaufort, the hydrographer, had directed observations to be made at se- _ veral points on the coasts of Australia, which he hoped would enable him to decide this question, and to draw from them the laws of such cases. On the Tides of Dundee and Glasgow. By Davip Mackie, Lec- turer on Natural Philosophy, Glasgow Mechanics’ Institute. _ The author of this paper having been solicited about three years . ago to furnish tide-tables for Dundee and Glasgow, was led to compare . the results of his calculations with the actual times of high water at these ports. From the great discrepancies frequently observable, the data made use of necessarily became extremely dubious. With the - view of obtaining correct data, and of co-operating, as far as in his _ power, with the eminent individuals who have recently given a new _ impulse to such inquiries, he was fortunate in inducing Lieutenant Smart, harbour-master, Dundee, to undertake a series of observations on the tides at that port, while at Glasgow he undertook a similar _ series of observations himself. The observations of Lieutenant Smart _ were continued from January Ist till September 3rd, 1837. They in- _ clude the time and height of the tide morning and evening, the state of the barometer and thermometer, and the character and direction _ of the wind. At Dundee, the interval of time at which the tide follows the meridian passage of the moon, on the days of full and _ change, is subject to considerable variation, sometimes being only 2 hours, and at other times 3 hours; but by taking the average of all the intervals which occurred between the time of high water and the moon’s northing or southing, from new till full, during the 6 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. period over which the observations extend, it was found to amount to 2 hours 48 minutes, being 33 minutes greater than the time of high water at full and change, as given for Dundee in the Nautical Al- manac. The “vulgar establishment” of that port is therefore 2 hours 48 minutes. As at London, Bristol, Liverpool, and other places where good observations have been made, so at Dundee, the interval of time between the meridian passage of the moon and the occurrence of high water is greatest about new and full moon, and decreases till about the seventh and eighth days after these periods. This inequality in the intervals alluded to has been appropriately termed, by Mr. Whewell, the “semi-menstrual, or half-monthly in- equality ;’ and if we draw a line, and erect upon it fifteen equidistant ordinates or perpendiculars, to represent, by their comparative lengths, the fifteen different intervals which occur between the time of high water and the moon’s northing and southing, from full to change, the line joining the extremities of the ordinates generally forms a pretty regular curve. According to Mr. Lubbock and Mr. Whewell, if we perform such an operation with the intervals between the time of high water and the moon’s meridian passage at London, from full to change, we obtain the curve represented by the boldest line in the following diagram. x bY cdl se Jeet ae As em! cay 9 H SK AS = TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 7 Bett Been taking, singly, any of the fifteen intervals which occurred at Dundee, and laying them down .as ordinates, the line joining their _ extremities was not found to form a perfectly regular curve. The _ tides being influenced by the particular direction and velocity of the - wind, are sometimes retarded and sometimes accelerated, so that or- % dinates representing the intervals must occasionally be longer and _ shorter than they would be in the absence of such a source of dis- 3g turbance. The author, however, found, to his great satisfaction, that i upon taking the averages of all the intervals corresponding to the _ same ‘parallaxes and declinations, a perfectly regular curve resulted, _ very similar in form to that for London, only running much higher. _ This semi-menstrual curve for Dundee is represented by the fainter line crossing the diagram. In the following table, the fifteen intervals _ for London occupy the second column, and those for Dundee the third ~ column. Tide after Tide after Moon’s Age. | Moon’s Transit | Moon’s Transit | Difference. at London. at Dundee. Days. h m h m h m 1 y ean ay g 42 O 45 2g 1 45 2 26 O 41 3 1 32 2 6 O 34 4 1 19 1 50 O 31 5 I 6 1 45 O 39 6 O 54 1 35 O 41 7 0 46 1 35 O 49 8 O 43 1 40 O 57 9 0 45 1 49 1 4: 10 ] 1 2 15 1 14 11 LEAT 2 40 Ts es 12 1 57 Z 52 O 55 13 He 8 2 55 O 47 14 2 10 QQ 49 O 39 15 Q 4 2 40 O 36 From the fourth column of this table it appears that the intervals of time between the meridian passage of the moon and the time of high water at Dundee exceed the corresponding intervals at London, from 31 minutes to 1 hour 14 minutes. The “corrected establishment ” _ for any place, according to Mr. Whewell, is the mean of the intervals _ which occur between the meridian passage and the times of high _ water. At Dundee, therefore, the corrected establishment is 2 hours 15 minutes, which, it is rather singular, happens exactly to agree with _ the time given in the Nautical Almanac for high water at full and _ change. As to the existence of a diurnal inequality, either in the _ time or height of the tides at Dundee, he did not consider the obser- 8 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. vations sufficiently numerous to warrant him to draw any general in- ference, but simply remarked, that in January there were twenty-six of the evening tides higher than those of the morning, in February nineteen, in March twenty-four, in April twenty-four, and in May nineteen. In June the morning tides began to take precedence in point of height, there being in that month eighteen morning tides higher than those of the evening, in July twenty-one, and in August twenty-four. So far as the observations went, there did not appear to be any connection between the height of the tides and the pressure of the atmosphere, as indicated by the barometer. The observations on the tides at Glasgow were continued by Mr. Mackie for five months, though these months were not continuous. From these observations he deduces the “vulgar establishment” at that place to be 1 hour 43 minutes, and the “ corrected establishment” 1 hour 9 minutes. With regard to the intervals between the meridian passage of the moon and the time of high water, although they are greatest about new and full moon, and decrease till about the seventh and eighth days after these periods, they are subject to very great irregu- larities ; to such an extent is this case, that he had not been able to extract from the five months’ observations a regular curve for the semi-menstrual inequality. In the former diagram the light dotted line represents the genuine curve obtained from the five months’ observations: it is probable that, when fully determined, it will run a little below that for London for the four or five first intervals after new moon, gradually, however, approaching, till it coincides nearly for the sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth intervals, when it will again gradually diverge and terminate somewhat below that for London. The river Clyde has undergone very great alterations in its channel, even within the last fifty years; and as it is of the utmost importance to have a record of the influence produced on the progress of the tide, by alterations in the breadth, depth, and form of the channel of a river, the following brief detail of the modifications in the channel of the Clyde, and the effects which have ensued, may serve as a precedent in directing, so far, those who are entrusted with the improvement of the navigation in other rivers. About the commencement of the sixteenth century the river was entirely in a state of nature. Its banks were in general flat and low. The channel abounded with shoals and fords, at some of which the tide, at high water, was not above 3 feet, and at low water about 14 feet. The lowness of the banks permitted the tide to spread over a great extent of surface, forming pools and islands, among which the most experienced skippers could not always distinguish the real channel. In this state the cele- brated engineer Smeaton found the river, when solicited by the magistracy to report upon the best method of improving it, in 1755. At this period the breadth varied greatly from Glasgow to Bowling Bay, a distance of about ten miles. The breadth at Glasgow, imme- diately below the Broomielaw, was about 500 feet; and although, fur- ther down, it was in some places less, it upon the whole increased, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 9 y “til at Bowling Bay the breadth was at least one half mile. The river is now contracted by a sloping ruble embankment on each side, and _ decreases from 163 feet wide at the Broomielaw, to 530 at Bowling. _ Great alterations have also been made upon the depths. The contrac- _ tion of the channel has been one means of accelerating the current, and thereby scouring and deepening the river; but, in addition to this - natural agent, numerous dredging machines, worked by steam, have _ been employed; and, within the last eighty years, the general depth has been increased from 4 to 16 feet. In Mr. Smeaton’s Report, al- _ ready alluded to, the utmost contemplated by his improvements was _ to enable a vessel of 100 tons burthen to get up to the Broomielaw, _ and that partly by the use of locks. In 1806 it was thought worthy of - recording in Mr. Telford’s report, that Captain Wilkie, of the Har- _ mony of Liverpool, sailed up to Glasgow, the vessel being 120 tons _ burthen, and drawing 8 feet 6 inches water; and it is mentioned, in Dr. Clelland’s Annals of Glasgow, that in the same year a heavy- | loaded schooner, 150 tons burthen, came direct from Liverpool, and discharged her cargo at the Broomielaw. At present, very large steam- boats and vessels, of 300 tons burthen, may freely venture up the river at high water. Alterations which have produced such important effects in facilita- ting the navigation of the Clyde must also have tended materially to. _ give free access to the tidal wave, render its progress more rapid, and _ enable it to ascend further up the channel. It is, however, deeply _ to be regretted, that on account of no register of the tides having _ been kept at Glasgow, or at any other place on the river, it is impos- _ sible to discover what have been the precise effects of such important alterations. From 1755 till 1834, the practical knowledge and genius _ of Smeaton, Golbourne, Watt, Telford, Rennie, and others, have been _ ealled into exercise, in devising schemes for improving the navigation of the river; but on examining their reports, amounting to seventeen in number, although they sounded the river repeatedly at high and low water, and state the day, it will be found that the time of high water, at two different places on the river, is only once mentioned; this is in Mr. Golbourne’s Report, dated November 30th 1768, where it is stated that the tide at new and full moon occurred eighteen miles _ below Glasgow, or at Port Glasgow at noon, and at the Broom- ielaw at two, making the tide two hours later at Glasgow than at Port Glasgow. Assuming this as the difference which existed at that period between the times of high water at these two places, the author _ can pretty confidently assert, that in calm weather the difference now is generally only about 1 hour 16 minutes; but it increases from this amount, upwards, to nearly 2 hours, according to circumstances. Previous to the improvements in the channel neap tides were hardl _ perceptible at Glasgow bridge, and they are now sensible about three _ miles further up the river. These statements are derived from nu- _ merous observations made by the author and several of his scientific _ friends. The chief object in view was to obtain correct data for tide 10 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. calculation ; but it is hoped that the results will enable the eminent individuals who take the lead in such inquiries, to connect Glasgow and Dundee with the other ports around Britain, at which good obser- vations have been made. It is a singular circumstance, that the time of high water at Port Glasgow and Greenock generally precedes the meridian passage of the moon instead of following it. This was evident from observations made before the meeting of the Association ; but since that period the author has been furnished with observations made at Greenock with great care, under the superintendence of Mr. James Thomson, civil engineer ; and in the former diagram the zig-zag line on the left represents the intervals between the meridian passage of the moon and high water, from new moon September 29th, till full moon October 13th, 1837. When the curve is on the right of the vertical line a B, the times of high water are after the moon’s southing ; but when on the left, they precede the moon’s southing, and to an extent sometimes of nearly 2 hours. On an Optical Phenomenon observed at Mont Blane. By M. De ta Rive. When the sun has set at Geneva, it is observed that Mont Blanc remains illuminated by its direct rays for a much longer time than the surrounding mountains. This phenomenon is owing to the great height of Mont Blane. But, after it has ceased to be illuminated, the summit of Mont Blanc sometimes reappears at the end of ten or fifteen minutes, less intensely enlightened than at first, but nevertheless in a manner very decided, and often very brilliant. This phenomenon takes place especially when the atmosphere is very pure—highly charged with aqueous vapour in an invisible state—and consequently very transparent. The author has satisfied himself (by the exact ob- servation of the time which elapses between the two successive illumi- nations of the mountain, combined with the calculation of the sun’s progress) that the phenomenon is due to the rays of the sun which traverse the atmosphere at a distance from the earth less than the height of Mont Blanc, but greater than half that height, and which arrive at rarer regions of the atmosphere, under an incidence so great that they are reflected instead of refracted. This interior reflection is facilitated by the humidity of that part of the atmosphere which the rays traverse until they reach the point of incidence. The reflected rays falling on the snowy summit of Mont Blanc, produce this second illumination ; and the humidity (by augmenting the transparency of the air) renders the illumination more brilliant. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. Al On the cause of the Optical Phenomena which take place in the Crystalline Lens during the absorption of Distilled Water. By Sir D. Brewster, K.H., &e. Sir David Brewster commenced by drawing the attention of the Section to a representation of the eye of the sheep found among the MSS. of Sir Isaac Newton, in the possession of Lord Portsmouth. The several parts of the drawing under consideration were most care- fully laid down on one scale, and the exact measurements given, re- specting the cornea in particular. It appeared that it was a portion of an ellipsoid, somewhat longer, but not so deep as the ball of the eye, the cornea being a portion of its most convex part at the major axis. Sir David then went on to introduce the subject of the present communi- cation, by briefly running through the leading points to which he had adverted at the last meeting of the Association, regarding a series of experiments on the crystalline lenses of quadrupeds. From these it appeared that the capsule of the lens absorbs water with great avidity ; and during this process exhibits (when exposed to the analysis of polarized light) remarkable changes both in the nature and in the number of the positive and negative doubly refracting structures of which it is composed. These singular, and, in the case of the lens of the horse, very beautiful phenomena, Sir David stated that he was not able to explain when he first made the communication ; but he had _ Since returned to the subject, and had succeeded in discovering the cause _ Of the various phenomena which he had observed. While the capsule _ of the lens is absorbing distilled water, the bulk of the lens is gradually increasing, and consequently the capsule, which he found to be highly elastic, became more and more stretched in the direction of the radii of its circular margin. This extension produces, as may be shown by di- rect experiment, a negative doubly refracting structure, like the central portion of a positive system of polarized rings, with a rectangular black cross. The tint of this membrane rises to a white of the first order; and, as the membrane is double, the two tints will produce, when - combined, a purple of the first order, which will be the maximum tint _ developed by the extended capsule just before it bursts. Now it is _ obvious that the optical figure thus given by the capsule alone will, when combined with the fixed optical figure of the lens itself, produce all the variable phenomena previously observed. If the fixed optical figure consist of two structures, both positive, then one part of the capsule will produce, in the neutral black ring, a negative doubly re- fracting luminous ring, which separates the two positive luminous _ rings; while the outer and inner portions of the capsule will act in op- position to the positive structures of the lens, and tend to diminish or obliterate the tints produced at these parts. The result of this com- bination of actions will be the production of a certain optical figure, in which a negative series of luminous sectors is placed between two positive series of luminous sectors. In the process by which these _ changes are produced, a new series of luminous sectors, having ne- _ gative double refraction, has been made to appear in the centre of the 12 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. neutral black ring. The inner portion of this black ring has been made to advance inwards, and diminish the size as well as the in- tensity of the inner or central series of sectors, while the outer portion of the same black ring has encroached in a similar manner upon the outer series of positive sectors, and reduced it both in its size and in the intensity of its illumination. If the original optical figure of the lens consist of one positive structure, or of three structures, the middle one of which is zegative, and the two others positive, the changes which they undergo by the absorption of water, and the consequent exten- sion of the membranous capsule are explicable in the same manner ; and not only the character but the numerical value of all the tints which are successively generated can be calculated with the greatest accuracy by assuming a value of the tint produced by each surface of the capsule. In order to remove all ambiguity on the subject, Sir David Brewster extended the capsule of the lens of a sheep over a plate of glass, and by a slight force he readily produced a white of the first order, and of the same numerical value as that which is necessary to produce the phenomena in question. In order to obtain a direct experimental confirmation of these views we have only to take a cir- cular plate of glass which produces, either by rapid cooling, or by the transit of heat, a series of luminous sectors of the same value as that which is produced by the capsule; and, by combining it with the optical figure of the lens, we shall represent all the pheenomena exhibited by the lens, when its capsule is expanded by the absorption of water. From the property of the capsule of the lens by which it absorbs water, it is obvious that in certain states of eye it may become so dis- tended with that fluid that it may at length burst, thus giving rise to the disease which has been termed soft cataract; in this case the ob- vious remedy is to puncture the outer coating of the eye, and thus permit the vicious fluid to escape, and afford a chance to the vessels of resuming their healthy functions. On the other hand, when the defect of the more watery secretions of the eye cuts off the supply, which it would seem that the capsule is intended to furnish to the lens, an op- posite course may be requisite, and a supply of water may be injected into the eye; this has actually been done, although when Sir David mentioned the matter in the Medical Section at the last meeting of the Association, Dr. Macartney stated very strongly his doubts of the pos- sibility of such an operation. Thus, it is probable that optical science may have led to an examination of the nature of the membranes of this valuable organ, and most probably that examination will issue in the proper treatment of a most distressing disease, in each of the di- stinct forms which it is found to assume. —_— On a new Property of Light. By Six D. Brewster. The author observed, that his attention had been lately drawn to a very curious, and new property of light. While examining the solar TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. TS i spectrum formed in the focus of an achromatic telescope, after the anner of Fraunhofer, he placed a thin plate of glass before his eye, in such a manner as to intercept and retard one half of the pencil, which was entering his eye, by placing it before one half of the pupil. He was then surprised to find, that when the edge of the retarding : glass plate was turned towards the red end of the spectrum, intensely black lines made their appearance, as might be expected, at such re- lar intervals, as to represent the most exact micrometrical arrange- nent of wires; but upon turning the plate of glass half round, (still keeping its plane perpendicular to the axis of the eye,) so as to pre- sent the edge, past which the rays entered the eye, to the violet end of the spectrum, every one of those dark bands entirely disappeared. In the intermediate positions of that edge they appeared more or less ‘distinct, according as the edge was more presented to the red, or to _ the violet, end of the spectrum. A glass plate, one-thirtieth of an inch thick, gave these lines; but the thinner the glass, the more in- tense was the blackness, and the more distinct the lines. They were _ formed in any part of the spectrum; but they were best seen when _ the rays were intercepted which lay between the two fixed lines a and D of Fraunhofer. An examination of these lines afforded the very _ best means of determining the dispersive powers of substances; for _ their distance from one another increases or diminishes, exactly as the 4 entire length of the spectrum is increased or diminished ; and the number of them in the same part of two spectra of different lengths i is _ always the same. _ Notice of a new Structure in the Diamond. By Sir D. Brewster. __ Sir David said, that having communicated to the Geological Society an account of certain peculiarities in the structure of the diamond, ; Rrchich confirm the theory of its vegetable origin, he was desirous of _ submitting to the consideration of this section a new structure, which _ he had recently detected in that gem, and which indirectly supported _ the same views. In consequence of the diamond having been used as the fittest substance for forming single microscopes of high power and _ small spherical aberration, the attention of opticians has been drawn _ to the imperfections of its structure. Mr. Pritchard, who first suc- _ ceeded in executing lenses of diamond, put into the hands of Sir David _ for examination, a plano-convex lens, about the 30th of an inch in _ diameter, which he had found unfit for the purposes of a microscope, in consequence of its giving double or triple images of minute objects. _ As Sir David had previously shown that almost all diamonds possessed - an imperfect doubly refracting structure, as if they had been aggregated _ by irregular forces, or compressed or kneaded together like a piece of soft gum or an indurated jelly, he had no doubt that the multiple images _ were owing to this structure, as there appeared, on an ordinary ex- - amination of the lens, to be no other cause to which it could be 14 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. reasonably ascribed. This was also Mr. Pritchard’s opinion, and the existence of such images prevented opticians from rashly cutting up diamonds which might turn out useless for optical purposes. As lenses of sapphire and ruby, which Sir David had long had occasion to use in very delicate microscopical observations, produced no duplica- tion of the image, although the rays passed in directions in which the double refraction was much greater than in any specimen of diamond which he had examined, it occurred to him that the double images might arise from some other cause. He therefore proceeded to ex- amine the light transmitted through the diamond, by combining it with a concave lens of the same focal length, in order to make the rays pass in parallel directions through its substance. This experiment indicated no peculiarity of structure at all capable of producing a separation of the images, and he was therefore led to examine the plane surface of the lens, by reflecting from it a narrow line of light admitted into a dark room, and examining the surface with a half-inch lens. While turning round the plane surface of the diamond, he was surprised to observe the whole of its surface covered with parallel lines or veins, some of which reflected the light more powerfully than others, so as to have the appearance of a striped riband, somewhat resembling the rude sketch here given, which shows that the plane surface of the diamond, in a space of less than one-thirtieth of an inch, contaius many hundred veins or strata of dif- ferent reflective and refractive powers, as if they had been subjected to variable pressures, or de- posited under the influence of forces of aggrega- tion of variable intensity. If, Sir David observed, the planes of these different strata had been per- pendicular to the axis of the diamond lens, their difference of refractive power would produce no sensible effect injurious to the perfection of the image; but if these strata are parallel to that axis, as they are in the lens under consideration, each stratum must have a different focus, and consequently produce a series of partially overlapping images. The results of this experiment in restoring the diamond to its value as an optical material, in so far as it enables us to cut it in a proper direction, and select proper specimens, and its connexion with some delicate researches of Professors Airy and Maccullagh on the super- ficial action of diamond upon polarized light, possess considerable in- terest; but the fact of a mineral body consisting of layers of different refractive powers, and consequently different degrees of hardness and specific gravity, is remarkable. There were several minerals, such as Apophyllite, Chabasie, and others, in which Sir David had found differ- ent degrees of extraordinary refraction in different parts of the crystal ; but this variation of property depends upon a secondary law of struc- ture; and he believed that there was no crystal, either natural or artificial, in which the properties of ordinary refraction, hardness, and specific gravity, varied throughout its mass. This peculiarity of strue- ture, therefore, might be regarded as an indication of a peculiarity of TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 15 rigin; and as there are various strong arguments in favour of the jon that the diamond is a vegetable substance, the new structure ch he had described might be considered as an additional argument a fayour of that opinion. He had, in a former paper, placed it beyond a doubt, that the diamond must have been in a soft state, like amber or gum, and capable of having its structure modified by the expansive force of air, or gaseous bodies imprisoned in its cavities ; and therefore the fact of its being sometimes composed of strata of different degrees of induration and refractive power, was more likely to have been pro- duced by pressures varying during the formation of the crystal, than by any change in the intensity of the forces of aggregation of its molecules. Such a change might have been supposed probable in the diamond had it been previously found in any other crystal. He had already referred to the action which diamond exerts superficially upon light. ‘Professors Airy and Maccullagh have found that this action is of a yery peculiar kind, having some analogy with that of metallic surfaces ; but it was obvious, from the preceding facts, that a surface of various ‘ refractive powers must disturb, in a very considerable degree, the phznomena produced by its superficial action. In studying, indeed, this class of phenomena, it would be necessary not only to obtain a ‘surface of uniform structure, but to make the experiments before that ‘surface had experienced any change from the action of the atmo- ‘sphere. In surfaces of glass such changes often take place in a few days; and the thin films of oxide which are thus created are so thin that they can only be rendered visible by examining the light re- _ flected from the surface, when it is placed in contact with an oi] or liquid of the same refractive power. Account of a singular optical Phenomenon, sometimes seen at sunset. By Proressor Curistie, Seeretary of the Royal Society. _ Mr. Christie drew the attention of the section to an optical phzno- ‘menon which he had observed at sunset, when looking from the Down below the Needles Lighthouse, in the isle of Wight, across the Solent, towards the Hampshire coast, and which he had described in a letter to Professor Forbes, referred to in the published Reports of the Associa- tion. He stated, that he had observed the same phenomenon on sub- sequent occasions. The appearance was that of a very distinct vertical ray of yellow light, having the sun for its base, of the same diameter throughout, gradually diminishing in brilliancy, but very distinctly to _be traced to the height of more than 30°. This appearance continued for half-an-hour after the sun had set. On two other occasions he had observed what he considered to be the same phenomenon. In one _ ease he happened to be on Westminster Bridge, and on the other on a hill about a mile to the north of the town of Bedford. On both these occasions the sun was considerably above the horizon, perhaps 6° or 7°, the strata of cloud in its vicinity were much denser than on the former ones, and the phenomenon did not present the same marked 16 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. character. In these cases, instead of a brilliant ray rising 30° or 40°, the luminous appearance was rather that which would present itself, if a series of images of the sun were superposed, in the line of its vertical diameter, and extending over not more than 4° or 5°; the edges were ill-defined. In his letter to Professor Forbes, Mr. Christie had sug- gested, whether the phenomenon could be due to a series of reflec- tions of the sun’s image by strata of thin cloud ; but he now suggested, whether such a phenomenon would not be presented by successive reflections on the undulating surface of a stratum of liquid air, such as M. Poisson, in his new Theory of the constitution of the Atmosphere, has supposed to exist. On Von Wrede’s Explanation of the Absorption* of Light, by the undu- latory Theory. By Proressor Powe... Von Wrede supposes the particles of a transparent medium to be placed regularly, at equal distances, () so that the ather being dif- fused among them, the series of waves constituting a ray of light, can be propagated directly through the substance ; yet a portion of each wave will encounter some of the particles, and be reflected backwards, and then forwards again, and at length emerge along with the di- rectly transmitted ray, and interfere with it, the conditions of which will depend on the amount of retardation, or differences of the phases; which, if amounting to odd multiples of the half wave- length (A), will give points of darkness; and if to even multiples, points of brightness. These may be confounded in compound light, but will appear when the rays are separated by the prism, and give dark bands in the spectrum. He then investigates a formula for the intensity of a system of waves compounded under the conditions supposed. This is deduced from the ordinary formula for the velocity of the wave, and is ulti- mately brought into a form including certain terms dependent on the medium, and constant for the same medium, together with the factor 2b cos 27 eC which is so involved that the intensity is a maximum when the cosine 26. : cee. becomes = + 1, or when 2 = is ameven multiple of a semi-cireum- ference, and a minimum when the cosine =—1, or when 27 2, an odd multiple of a semi-circumference. Hence if the medium be such that 2d = * for any primary ray, that ray will be at a minimum, or will appear absorbed. If 26 be less than * See “ An Attempt to explain the Absorption of Light according to the Undulatory Theory; by Baron Fabian yon Wrede,” in Taylor’s Foreign Scientific Memoirs, vol. i. p. 477. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 1 § *: he least value of - that is, its value for the violet ray, there will be no sorption ; if greater, some one ray or more will be at minima. Let suppose the medium such that 26 =m, for any ray. Then, in ing from one end of the spectrum to the other, the changes of ensity and maxima and minima which may occur, will depend on e number of changes which the cosine will go through in passing rom its value in the violet ray to that in the red; or, supposing X, i, in v the wave lengths for these rays, from cos 2 7 m to cos 2 7m jy f r _ through all the intermediate values. The intensity will have as many ‘Maxima and minima as the cosine has values = + 1, and=—1. And _ this number may be increased as much as we please, by supposing (7), _ or, what is the same thing, (4) taken sufficiently great. _ The formula was, in the first instance, deduced for the simpler sup- position of a single medium. It is then shown, that if we suppose a compound of several media which have separately different values of _ 6, the resulting formula will still preserve the same condition of de- _ pending on the changes of the cosine, and each medium will retain its _ own set of maxima and minima. The investigation is conducted in the first instance on the supposition _ of the internal successive reflexions taking place only between two par- _ ticles, or sets of particles, or reflecting surfaces. The author next pro- eeds to the case where more such are taken into account, and de- _ duces a formula more complex, but which results in such a form that the maxima and minima are seen to depend on exactly the same condi- _ tions as in the simpler case. In certain cases of the absorption of gases, &c. appearances of a regular and systematical character are pre- _ sented, and Von Wrede shows that at least a general explanation of all these is afforded by the principles here developed; that is, merely by assigning particular values to 6, and supposing those values different in _ the different simple media of which the compounds are made up. _ He also points out one method by which a rough approximation _ eyen to a numerical comparison may be effected: it applies very satis- factorily (as far as it goes) to the case of the iodic gas spectrum. Besides this, the author describes an experiment in which the effect ‘of one or two internal reflexions is imitated by means of plates of ‘mica, and dark bands in consequence produced in the spectrum. _ The principles adopted by Von Wrede appear to be quite conform- able to what may most reasonably be supposed to take place in the passage of a ray through a transparent body. But so little have the phenomena been reduced to any laws, that we are not yet in a condi- tion to make any satisfactory comparison of observation and theory. The grand object of inquiry must be to obtain, if possible, some nu- erical laws, expressing the disposition and arrangement of the bands ‘the spectrum; and in cases where they are apparently destitute of symmetry, to examine carefully whether any hypothesis of several _ sets superposed will reduce the apparent confusion to order. _ VOL. vi. 1837. c 18 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Meanwhile, as to the theory, that part of it which refers to the mode of aggregation of the particles of bodies, is necessarily, as yet, hypothetical; and we may therefore still consider as worthy of atten- tion any other principles which may be suggested. The point on which it is probable any theory must essentially turn is that of a retardation of some part of the light within the medium, and its emerging along with the direct ray in a state of interference. A ray which enters a medium perpendicularly, though not refracted as to direction, is yet retarded in proportion to the refractive index for that ray and that medium. Another ray coinciding with it, and having a refractive index slightly different, will be wnequally retarded ; and however small the difference may be, yet in a considerable thick- ness it may amount to a discordance between the two rays when they emerge; and if their wave lengths differ only by a very small quan- tity, they may so interfere as to produce a sensible destruction. If two media are compounded together which have the same re- fractive index for one ray, and different indices for a ray whose wave length differs very little from the first, that which retards it most will prevail, and the two rays may interfere and produce darkness from this cause. But the recent theoretical researches of Professor Lloyd, communi- cated to the Royal Irish Academy, seem to promise an explanation of the absorption, and with views somewhat different, connected with his profound investigations on the propagation of light, and dependent on the mathematical form which the expressions assume under certain conditions. This was also, to a certain extent, a consequence from some of the analytical investigations of Mr. Tovey on the dispersion. On the Dispersion of Light. By Prorressor PoweEtt. The object of this communication is to state the progress of the inquiry into the subject of dispersion since the last meeting of the Association. On that occasion the author laid before the physical section the results of his observations for determining the refractive indices of the standard rays for twenty-eight media. These have been since published, with some preliminary remarks, as one of the series of Memoirs of the Oxford Ashmolean Society. They are to be con- sidered only as first approximations, and it would be very desirable to have many of them carefully repeated, as well as to extend the inquiry to other bodies. The author regrets that he has been unable, from particular circumstances, to carry on these researches during the past summer, but intends to take the first opportunity of resuming them. In particular, he was kindly favoured by Mr. Brooke with a specimen of'some erystals of chromate of lead for examination, and accordingly put them into the hands of Mr. Dollond, who warmly entered into his views, and after many vain endeavours to give them a prismatic form, has at length succeeded in forming a very minute prism which is under trial. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 19 Pit is only by such cooperation of those engaged in different depart- _ ments of science that inquiries like the present can be successfully _ carried on, and the author is anxious to obtain specimens of any trans- _ parent media which are capable of prismatic examination, and espe- _ cially such as are of high dispersive power. __ Meanwhile he has been engaged in the comparison of observation _ and theory; especially among the more highly dispersive of those _ media which he has examined. He has performed the calculations by _ the method of Sir W. R. Hamilton, and has found that for those media whose dispersion is not very great, the coincidences are sufficiently close; but on proceeding to the more highly dispersive bodies, espe- cially oil of cassia, tle discrepancies increase ; and, moreover, preserve a certain regularity of character which shows that they are not mere errors of observation. This would seem to warrant the expectation, that a further development of the formula might still give successful _ results. These investigations have been communicated to the Royal _ Society, and have now appeared in the Transactions. _ Since the period of this communication, however, the able and _ profound Memoir of Mr. Kelland appeared in the Cambridge Trans- actions. ‘This gentleman’s theory is, in some measure, a simplification of Cauchy’s; the resulting fermula for the dispersion, though sub- _ stantially the same, is developed in a different form, and readily capable of being applied to numerical computation. In some correspondence _ with Mr. Kelland, that gentleman favoured the author with a compu- tation for the case of oil of cassia, in which the greatest discrepancies existed. By this method those discrepancies have been made entirely to disappear; and thus the most ewtreme case at present known is brought under the dominion of the formula of dispersion. It is also to be observed that Mr. Kelland’s series is not rapidly converging ; the neglected terms therefore may, if taken into account, give a still more accurate result. These results will appear in the Philosophical Trans- actions. It will now, therefore, become of yet more extreme interest to find some means of obtaining data for the more highly dispersive sub- _ stances, such as chromate of lead, realgar, sulphur, &c. With regard to the theoretical computation, it must be owned, after all, that it is not altogether satisfactory in its nature, as it assumes three - indices from observation, and thence determines the others, which is in fact a process of interpolation, and does not explain the character, _ of the dispersion as referring to those three indices. Whether the _ theory can be improved in this respect becomes an important topic of _ inquiry. _ But the whole subject has now been most ably examined by Bifeasor Lloyd, whose papers have been communicated to the Royal sh Academy, and include several highly curious and important _ theoretical conclusions relating to the whole subject of the propaga» tion of light in uncrystallized media. ys) Cy 20 SEVENTH REPORT—1837, On Experiments relative to the influence of Surfaces on Radiation. By Proressor PowELt. The object of this communication was to call the attention of the Section to the researches of Professor Bache, of Pennsylvania, which seem not to have been so fully appreciated in this country as they deserve ; that gentleman, at the outset of his inquiries, refers to a paper of Professor Powell, in which the difficulties unavoidably attend- ing any comparison of radiating effects of surfaces are pointed out, from the impossibility of determining precisely in how many other respects, besides those of colour and polish of surface, the coatings applied may not differ. In contending for the necessity of equalizing the coatings compared in other respects, before we can estimate the effects really due to the surface, he must of course be understood to speak under the qualification acutely referred to by Professor Bache dependent on the fact first noticed by Leslie, that radiation takes place not only from the surface, but from a certain minute though sensible depth, which differs in different substances. Taking this into account, the general meaning as well as importance of the caution will be manifest. In the sequel Mr. Bache gives some very exact experimental proofs of the truth of the law just noticed, and shows, by successively adding fresh coats of the pigment, the precise limit beyond which such addition ceases to increase the radiating power; which, in fact, there comes to a maximum, and with greater thicknesses de- creases. When this point had been carefully ascertained in each pigment, their effects were observed with great accuracy, and compared with a standard surface under similar circumstances. The observa- tions include a considerable range of substances, differing both in colour and other properties. The results exhibit mo correspondence of the greatness of effect with the colour. 'The source of heat was hot water. The author allows fully the distinction between properties of heat of this kind, and that connected with light; in the latter case it is evident that colour is an essential element. A wide field is yet open for tracing on what the effect does depend ; and, again, since Melloni has pointed out the existence of many kinds of heating rays, to trace their several relations to surfaces. An Account of the Magnetical Observatory now in course of erection at Dublin. By Rev. Proressor Lioyp. In bringing this subject under the notice of the Section in its pre- sent stage, Mr. Lloyd said that he trusted little apology was required. The establishment of permanent magnetical stations had been urged by the powerful recommendation of the British Association; and he was sure that that body would view with interest the progress of an under- taking, which was sanctioned by its own authority. The magnetical observatory now in progress at Dublin is situated in an open space in the gardens of Trinity College, sufficiently re- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 21 _ mote from all disturbing influences. The building is, forty feet in length by thirty in depth. It is constructed of the dark-coloured _argillaceous limestone, which abounds in the valley of Dublin, and _ which has been ascertained to be perfectly devoid of any influence on _ the needle. This is faced with Portland stone ; and within, the walls are to be studded, to protect from cold and damp. No iron whatever will be used throughout the building. With reference to the materials, _ Professor Lloyd mentioned, that in the course of the arrangements - now making for the erection of a Magnetical Observatory at ”Green- _ wich, Mr. Airy had rejected bricks in the construction of the building, _ finding that they were in all cases magnetic, and sometimes even polar. Mr. Lloyd has since confirmed this observation, by the examination of specimens of bricks from various localities ; and though there appeared _ to be great diversity in the amount of their action on the needle, he _ met with none entirely free from such influence. - The building consists of one principal room, anc two smaller rooms, one of which serves as a vestibule. The principal room is thirty-six _ feet in length by sixteen in breadth, and has projections in its longer sides, which increase the breadth of the central part to twenty feet. _ This room will contain four principal instruments, suitably supported on stone pillars ; viz. a transit instrument, a theodolite, a variation in- strument, and a dip apparatus. The transit instrument (four feet in _ focal length,) will be stationed close to the southern window of the room. In this position it will serve for the determination of the time ; _ and a small trap-door in the roof will enable the observer to adjust _ it to the meridian. The theodolite will be situated towards the other _ end of the room, and its centre will be on the meridian line of the _ transit. The limb of the theodolite is twelve inches in diameter, and _ is read off by three verniers to ten seconds. Its telescope has a focal length of eighteen inches, and is furnished with a micrometer for the _ purpose of observing the diurnal variation. The variation instrument will be placed in the magnetic meridian, _ with respect to the theodolite, the distance between these instruments _ being about five feet. The needle is a rectangular bar, twelve inches _ long, suspended by parallel silk fibres, and inclosed in a box to protect it from the agitation of the air. The magnetic bar is furnished with an achromatic lens at one end, and a cross of wires at the other, after _ the principle of the collimator. This will be observed with the tele- _ scope of the theodolite, in the usual manner ; and the deviation of the line of collimation of the collimator from the magnetic axis will be certained by reversal. The direction of the magnetic meridian being _ thus found, that of the true meridian will be given by the transit. It a only necessary to turn over the transit telescope, and, using it also a collimator, to make a similar reading of its central wire, by the w “scope of the theodolite. The angle read off on the limb of the q theodolite i is obviously the supplement of the variation. This use of 1e transit has been suggested by Dr. Robinson; and it is anticipated that much advantage will result from the circumstance, that the two eeereuritics of the arc are observed by precisely the same instrumental ‘ 22 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. means. With this apparatus it is intended to make observations of the absolute variation twice each day, as is done in the observatory of Professor Gauss, of Gottingen,—the course of the diwrnal variation, and the hours of maxima and minima, having been ascertained by a series of preliminary observations with the same instrument. > —— AAAS LAA WANES Hard, red, siliceous slate-rock of Trentishoe. Linton slates and limestones. b.Arenaceous slate, andconglomerate bed of limestone pebbles. “) Foreland and Dunkerry sandstones, thick bedded, coarse grained, and confluent. “| Doddington and Over-Stowey limestones. ____.—.---) Foreland and Dunkerry sandstones. POOKIE Cannington Park limestone. Respecting this Section, and the distribution of the remains of _ plants in the several parts of it, the author enters into detail, and _ presents arguments in favour of his opinion, that the culmiferous series of Devon cannot be ‘separated from the subjacent rocks of the Grau- _wacke series, either by mineral characters, relation of strata, or organic reliquiz. His final conclusion, after a rapid comparison of the - Devon series of rocks and fossils with those of other districts, is thus _ expressed :—“ These several considerations, added to the strong colla- teral and positive testimony of the wood and plants from the Sherwell _ sandstones, throw such accumulated weight in the scale of the hypo- - thesis, that the culm and fossil flora of Devon belong at least to the upper Grauwacke (below the old red sandstone and mountain lime- stone), that he apprehends that geologists cannot hesitate to accept _ them provisionally as such, till far stronger facts and evidences than _ they are at present possessed of shall justify admitting them as a true ‘contemporaneous equivalent for the carboniferous limestone proper, _ and its upper great coal field.” 96 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. On the Bituminous Coal Field of Pennsylvania. By HARDMAN PHILLIPS. This coal field is situated on the western slope of the Alleghany mountains. It commences in Tioga county and thence extends in a south-westerly direction to, and even beyond, the Ohio river, embracing a space of about 200 miles in length, and 30 in breadth. The coal is usually found above the level of the waters, running through every secondary hill in two, three, or four strata, according to the height of the hill, the veins being usually 4ft. 2in., 6ft., or 9ft. thick. There is great variety in the quality of the coal, that found near the centre of the field being decidedly the best. The lowest vein in that district is of very superior quality, much resembling the Newcastle coal, but still more friable, and contains more bitumen. Its specific gravity is 1-279. An analysis of this coal made by Walter R. Johnson, Professor of Geology, Mineralogy and Chemistry in the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia, afforded 224 per cent. of volatile matter. Other veins are harder and heavier. The coal of this field is used in Pittsburg and Cewhe county for rolling iron, but not for smelting ores. On that subject, Professor Johnson, in a letter which Mr. H. Phillips has received from him since he has been in England, says,— «“ The manufacturers along the Little Imiata are looking with much interest to the completion of their railroad, so that they may receive the coal for their various works, smelting furnaces as well as forges, some of which (the Union works for example) are now hauling char- coal 10 and 12 miles, accompanied with great expense and vexation. They are determined to try coke as soon as it can be obtained. In that part of Huntingdon county, where charcoal is becoming so scarce, there is the greatest abundance I have any where encountered of rich iron ore (the brown hydrate). In some places I saw them raising it in open quarries, blasting it with gunpowder, from beds varying from 5 to 30 feet in thickness, of nearly pure ore ; and though all which I visited were not so rich as that to which I have just referred, yet I no where in this part of Huntingdon county heard any intimation of a lack of that material.” The mode of digging the coal is very simple. As the lowest stra- tum lies above the surface of the valley, it is only necessary to open the vein, run level drifts into the hills and take the coal out on tempo- rary railways. The general dip is very slight, only about one inch in a yard; but at the north-eastern extremity in Tioga county, and gene- rally near the summit of the Alleghany mountains, the measures sud- - denly crop out an angle of about 30° from a horizontal line. The coal is accompanied by the usual deposits of fire clay and grey lime- stone in nodules, the former in veins of 18 inches, and the latter 6 inches in thickness. In addition to the papers read, Dr. Jeffreys submitted to the Section a collection of bones and teeth, including those of rats, cats, sheep, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 97 dogs, horses or cows, bears, hyzenas, rhinoceros, and also the tooth of a tiger, found in a bed of diluvium which fills a cave of the carbon- iferous limestone at the Cefre Rocks in Denbighshire, in the estate of Mr. Lloyd of Cefre, about three miles from St. Asaph. __ Mr. Gilbertson placed on the table many very interesting, and pro- bably new fossils from the mountain limestone, and Mr. Dawson a collection of fossils from New South Wales. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. Mr. Gould exhibited drawings of new Birds from Australia and other parts of the world. He proceeded to make some remarks on the family Trogonide. This family, he stated, might be regarded as strictly tropical, and by far the greater number of species inhabited South America ; none of those inhabiting Asia and Africa having any specific relation to those of America. It is a remarkably isolated group, no _ direct affinity with other forms having been discovered. In organiza- tion and economy they are perhaps nearest the Caprimulgide. They _ inhabit the most retired and gloomy forests, remaining secluded during the day, and appearing at night ; evening and morning being the only _ time in which they take their prey. They usually feed on insects, capturing them during flight, but sometimes they feed on berries. _ They incubate in the holes of trees, and, like the majority of Fissiros- _ tral birds, produce white eggs. The tribe present among themselves _ but little difference of structure. There are, however, well-marked divisions according to their geographical range. Mr. Swainson divides _ them into five minor groups, 7rogon, Harpactes, Apaloderma, Tem- _ nurus, and Calurus. The species of bird that Mr. Gould presented be- _ fore the Section belonged to the latter group, and he proposed to call it Calurus Peruvianus. This sub-genus comprises the most beautiful _ birds of the whole family, and perhaps in the creation ; it contains five _ species, only one of which until lately had been characterized. The present species, although it has not the lengthened upper tail-feathers _ of the C. resplendens, (which was exhibited), yet its relations to that species were sufficiently obvious. For this species he had been in- _ debted to the researches of the indefatigable and scientific French tra- _ veller, M. D’Orbigny, who had recently returned from Peru. On Filaria. By the Rev. W. Hore. _ In this communication more than forty genera of insects were mentioned in which these parasitic worms had been found, and tables '_ were exhibited containing the names of all the authenticated species, and authorities given for all the recorded instances, as well as could be ascertained. VOL. Vi. 1837. H 98 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. On the Metamorphism of a Species of Crustacean, allied to Palamon. By Captain Ducanr, R.N. The remarks and observations of Captain Ducane tended to confirm Mr. V. Thompson’s discovery, published some years since, of the ex- istence of metamorphosis in this class of animals. (Captain Ducane was tequested by the Committee to continue and extend his observa- tions.) On the Sclerotie Bones forming the Orbit of the Eye in different Birds and Reptiles. By 'T. Auuis. This paper, which requires illustrations by drawings, will be printed entire in the Transactions of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society, in whose Museum Mr. Allis’s collection is preserved. Notice of Argas Persicus, a species of Bug, found in Mianneh, in Per- sia, and reported to be poisonous. By Dr. TRAILL. On the Production of Cataract by a Worm. By Professor OwEN» Communicated by the Rev. F. W. Horr. On Limax Variegatus in the Human Intestines. By Dr. Davin WILLIAMS. The author gave a statement of a young woman who had voided a large slug, after having suffered great pain. The slug, which was ex- hibited, appeared to be Limazx variegatus. It was dead when voided, but quite unaltered. Dr. Billingham gave a corrected description of Trichocephalus dispar, noticed the discrepancy of opinion between English and continental observers as to the frequency of its occurrence in the intestines of man, and recorded the result of his own examination of twenty-eight indivi- duals who died during the last twelve months, in St. Vincent’s Hospital, Dublin ; eleven of whom were males, and seventeen females, of various ages, from 8 years to ’70. The worms were found in the large intes- tines of twenty-five of these subjects, in a greater or less number, from 2or3to119. The three individuals whose intestines contained no worms were females, and had been taking certain metallic medicines, which may be supposed to be capable of destroying intestinal worms. Nothing felt by the individuals during life indicated the presence of worms in the intestines. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 99 A Simple Method of destroying Insects which attach Books and MSS. By Sir Tuomas Putures, Bart. Communicated by the Rev. F. W. Hope. “ My library being much infested with insects, particularly Anobia, I have for some time turned my attention to the modes of destroying them, in the course of which I observed that the larva of these beetles does not seek the paper for food, nor the leather, but the paste. To prevent their attacks, therefore, in future bound books, the paste used should be mixed up with a solution of corrosive sublimate, or, indeed, with any other poisonous ingredient. But to catch the perfect insects themselves I adopt the following plan: Anobium striatum commonly deposits its ova in beech wood, and is more partial, apparently, to that than any other wood. I have beech planks cut, and smear them " over, in summer, with pure fresh paste (z.e. not containing anything poisonous) ; I then place them in different parts of the library, where they are not likely to be disturbed; the beetles flying about the room in summer time readily discover these pieces of wood, and soon deposit their eggs in them. In winter (chiefly) the larva is produced, and about January, February, and March, I discover what pieces of wood contain any larvee, by the saw-dust lying under the planks, or where it is thrown up in hillocks on the top of them, All the wood which is attacked is then burnt for fire-wood; by this simple method I have nearly extirpated Anobia from my library. I am of opinion that a single specimen in a book of an impregnated female will soon destroy any volume should it remain undisturbed. There are also two other kinds of beetle in my library; one is a small brown beetle, and is pro- _bably a Tomicus, or some closely allied species. The second species was imported from Darmstadt, or Frankfort on the Maine. It is six times larger than the former, of a black colour, with white spots or stripes, and belongs to one of the modern genera of Curculionide. It appears to be partial to books bound in oak boards; it is not abundant, but very destructive.” ) Mr. Sandbach exhibited specimens of a new Prionites from Mexico, which he proposed to call P. superciliosus, from its having a broad blue band above the eye. He also exhibited a new species of Titmouse, supposed to be from Mexico, and which he proposed naming Parus _ melanotus. Mr. J. E. Gray exhibited and described some rare and interesting Mammalia, which he had noticed in the Museum of the Royal Institu- tion of Liverpool. They consisted of a young specimen of Thylacinus eynocephalus, old and young individuals of the Antilope Philantomba of Smith, specimens of Phoca Leonina, 12 feet long, of Felis gracilis, and _ of Felis Javensis. To these were added aspecimen from Demerara allied to the Otter, which Mr. Gray considered as forming an entirely H2 100 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. new genus, of a very remarkable form, serving to connect the already established genera of Lwtra and Anhydra, which he called Pteronura Sambachii. Mr. J. E. Gray exhibited some new land shells observed by him in the Collection of the Royal Institution of Liverpool. One was stated to be a new genus, intermediate between Helix and Anostoma. ‘The others were new species, which he proposed to designate by the names of Achatina turrita, Carocolla filomarginata (from India), and Palu- dina Yatesii, this last being the largest and one of the most beautiful of the genus. Mr. Gray also exhibited a specimen of Unio Roisii, Mitch., which had been recently discovered by Mr. Wm. Gilbertson, near Boughton, in Craven. ' Specimens of wood, from the New Pier of Southampton, penetrated by Limnoria terebrans, were exhibited by Mr. W. S. MacLeay, F.R.S. The pier was constructed only four years ago, and was reported to be already in a state of decay. A specimen of Goliathus giganteus, and the jaws of a large shark, (3 feet in length), caught by Captain Nash, were exhibited by Mr. F. Taylor. Some rare Coleopterous insects, from the collection of Mr. Melli, of Liverpool, were described by the Rev. F. W. Hope and Mr. MacLeay. Notice of Undescribed Shells. By James Situ, of Jordanhiil, F.RS. Mr. Smith produced two new shells which he had dredged in Roth- say Bay, and had been named Fusus Boothi and Fusus umbilicatus. He also produced 14 species of shells found amongst recent shells at a higher level than the present high water, and which are not known as existing in a recent state. On Victoria Regina. By J. E. Gray. Mr. J. E. Gray exhibited the drawing of Victoria Regina, Schomb., sent by Mr. Robert Schomburgk from Demerara to the Botanical So- ciety of London, and read his account of the discovery and the de- scription of this interesting plant. The same plant was also noticed in a communication by Dr. Lindley. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 101 On he Structure and Affinities of Orobanchacee. By Dr. Linviey. Professor Lindley made some remarks “ On the structure and affini- ties of Orobanchacee.” He stated that this order had been usually placed near Scrophulariacee, and in his “ Natural System” he had in- cluded it in the Scrophulal alliance. In their didynamous stamens, superior ovary, and monopetalous flowers, they resembled Scrophulari- aceeé. Schultz had placed this order near Gentianacee, on account of their fruit and placentation resembling those of this order. Other botanists had placed Orobanchacee near Monotropacee, on account of their membranaceous foliage and parasitical habits. There was one important point, in which they differed from Scrophulariacee, which was the position of their carpels, with respect to the axis of inflores- cence. In Orobanchacee, the carpels were right and left, or perpen- dicular to the axis, whilst in Scrophulariacee they were fore and aft, _ or parallel to the axis. This pointed out another affinity-with Genti- anacee, which had its carpels in the same position. With regard to its affinity to Monotropa, there was a point which had been much over- _ looked by botanists, the presence and absence, or large and small quantities, of aloumen in the seed of plants; he had found this a very constant character, and one of the best for indicating the affinities of plants. Both Monotropacee and Orobanchacee were distinguished for a minute embryo, lying in a large quantity of albumen. Monotro- pacee was a polypetalous order, but its structure generally compelled botanists to place it amongst monopetalous plants, near Pyrolacee and Ericacee. He remarked by the way, that the division of plants, ac- cording to the presence or absence, cohesion or non-cohesion, of the petals, was very artificial, and hoped that it would soon be abandoned. He thought that the affinities of Orobanchacee were stronger with Monotropacee, Pyrolacea, and Gentianacee, than with any other orders. The Professor then made some remarks “ On the Placentation of Orobanche,” which he said had made him doubt the correctness of the present theory of the situation of the placenta. It was generally supposed that the seat of the placenta in the carpellary leaf was its margin, so that it would be necessarily placed alternating with the dorsal suture of the carpel. Exceptions, however, frequently occur, as in Parnasia, Papaver, &c.; and the placenta is spread over the whole surface of the carpellary leaf, or on various parts of it. In the carpels of Orobanche there are evidently two placentz, but having no commu- cation with the margin of the carpellary leaf. He therefore inferred, that any part of the surface of the carpellary leaf might become oval- ized. He was borne out in this opinion by the fact, that leaves which occasionally produce buds, produce them from all parts of their sur- face, as seen in Ornithogalum, &c.; the production of buds on leaves and ovules in carpels being analogous processes. 102 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. On the Internal Structure of the Palm Tribe. By G. GARDNER. Communicated by E. Bowman, F.L.S. Mr. Gardner had examined the species called Coquiero by the Bra- zilians. He said that the fibre of woody matter descended from the leaves at an angle of 18 degrees, towards the centre, and then out- wards in a more oblique angle towards the bark, near which it rami- fies and descends parallel to the bark. In this plant the chord of the are formed by their fibres is 2} feet. The author thinks that Mohl’s views on the structure of the palm tribe are correct. On the Power possessed by Aged Trees to reproduce themselves from the Trunk. By R. Maurer. The author exhibited a number of drawings of aged trees to illustrate his paper, and mentioned that the natural inarching of trees was caused by the decay of the central part of the trunk, and the formation of new wood and bark was to enclose the detached part. He said that after this had taken place, a but was formed on the inner surface, from which a stem ascended and roots descended, so as to form a new tree in the centre of the old one. On the Milk of Galactodendron Utile. By Mr. Bickersteru. On New and Rare Forms of British Plants and Animals. By E. Fores. Two new Mollusca (one allied to Doris pinatifida, the other to Montagua of Fleming), from the shores of the Isle of Man ; aspecimen of Asterias rubens, to show its distinctness from Asterias speciosus ot Link, and specimens of supposed new species of Polygala and Euphrasia from the Isle of Man, were presented and ‘explained by Mr. Forbes. On Vegetable Physiology. By Mr. Niven. The author stated that he had made a series of experiments upon elm-trees (Wlmus campestris) of about 42 years old, by the removal of the bark, cambium or alburnum, and that, from the results, he was disposed to maintain that two distinct principles exist in the bark of plants, viz. one descending and forming roots, and the other ascending and forming branches. This he illustrated by showing a branch of elm ringed through the bark and cambium, and having roots descend- ing from the upper edge of the ring, and branches ascending from the lower one. a TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 103 A Notice, with the Results, of a Botanical Expedition to Guernsey and Jersey, in the months of July and August, 1837. By Cuar.es C. Basineton, I.A., F.L.S., §e. This paper gives a short account of the Flora of those islands, and also of the island of Herm. The author finds 725 species of flowering plants and Ferns to be natives of them, and adds to the recorded spe- cies the following 6, viz. Hypericum linearifolium, Neottia estivalis, Sinapis incana, and Mercurialis ambigua, in Jersey, and Arthrolobium ebracteatum and Atriplex rosea, in Guernsey. An Inquiry into the Origin of the Solid Materials found in the Ashes of Plants, their structure and office during the period of life, and the effect of their subsequent addition to the crust of the earth. By the fev. J. B. Reape, M.A., ERS. A recent microscopic examination of the ashes of plants having led the author to the conclusion “ that the earthy saline and metallic in- _ gredients which they contain are indebted exclusively to the operation of vegetable life, both for their origin and their arrangement ;” he shows the contrast of this view with that adopted by many physiologists, who rank as accidental ingredients in the substance of plants, all that cannot be referred to hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, or azote. Assuming, as a basis of argument, that “the presence of organiza- tion is direct evidence of the agency of life,” and that every organized - portion of a plant is “ a proper product of the power of vegetation,” —the author proves, by a detail of experiments, that siliceous skeletons of plants, exhibiting most distinct and beautiful organization, remain in their ashes after exposure to the intense heat of a blowpipe flame; that in the white ashes of common coal may be recognized cellular tissue, spiral fibre, and annular ducts with transverse bars. The vege- table origin of coal is not only thus proved, but by a comparison of the ashes of coal with those of recent plants, some further insight may be gained into the nature of the plants from which beds of coal of differ- ent quality have been produced. The siliceous organizations which are respectively yielded by the Blyth, Newcastle, and Barnsley coal appear to be different. “ Silica is not the only material which forms the frame-work of plants. Lime and potash also occur as their skeletons ; the ashes of the calyx and pollen of the mallow, consist of organized lime ; and the ashes of the petals of the rose, as well as the pollen of the geranium, consist of organized potash.” The author gives the details of his experiments, by which he endeavoured to prove the small cups which lie in the sili- ceous vessels of graminez, to be of metallic nature, and ventures to conclude, generally, that “ earthy saline and metallic ingredients enter as organizable products into the structure of plants.” As much of what is above stated in regard to plants may, with suit» able modifications, be applied to animals, as certain infusorial animalcule 104 SEVENTH REPORT—1 837. secrete siliceous or calcareous coverings, the author finding these pro- ducts to be capable of resisting the most intense heat, speculates on the importance of the facts he has established in explaining the forma- tion of the most characteristic rocks in the crust of the earth, and gives his reasons for believing that even in granite, as well as in flint (accord- ing to Ehrenberg), organization can be traced. A series of more than thirty microscopical illustrations accompanied the paper. On the Chemical Composition of Vegetable Membrane and Fibre. By the Rev. J. B. Reavez, W.A., F.RS. Specimens of Hrica Machaiana of Babington were exhibited by Mr. John Ball. MEDICAL SCIENCE. On the Influence of the Respiratory Organs on the Circulation of Blood in the Chest. By G. Catvert Hoiianp, M.D. There is little agreement, Dr. Holland observed, in the opinions of physiologists respecting the influence of respiration on the circulatory system. Some regard it as exceedingly limited, and the least efficient of the causes co-operating in the return of venous blood ; others con- tend that it is not only the principal but sole agent in the production of this effect. The author, from experiments on himself, stated that this influence is not great in the ordinary or unexcited conditions of the animal system, but peculiarly marked when the function of inspiration or expiration is unusually active or disturbed. Strong mental emo- tions, whether exciting or depressing, greatly disturb the respiratory functions, and, as a necessary consequence, the circulatory system. The author, in the continuation of his paper, examines respiration in its two acts, of inspiration and expiration, under various conditions ; and endeavours to prove that the phenomena of syncope and palpita- tion of the heart, referred by physiologists to the direct influence of the brain, arise from modification of the respiratory organs. On the Cause of Death from a Blow on the Stomach, with Remarks on the means best calculated to restore animation suspended by such ac- cident. By G. C. Hotranp, M.D. The occurrence of death from a blow on the stomach has not in mo- dern times received any full or satisfactory consideration. The cause of this phenomenon is usually referred to a shock communicated to TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 105 the nervous system, by which the action of the heart is arrested. The primary impression is considered by some to be made upon the semi- lunar ganglion, but the evidence adduced, Dr. Holland thinks, is wholly inconclusive. In the absence of satisfactory proof there is great reason _ to institute a more rigid and cautious examination ; and for this purpose _ the author first attempts to determine the sources of nervous energy to which the heart is indebted, as well as the various degrees of depend- - ence on each. After applying these data to the various forms in which the notion of the influence of the blow on the semilunar ganglion is developed by different writers, the author proposes his own views on _ the subject. “ In entering upon the inquiry, the first step was to determine the important organs peculiarly liable, from their situation and functions, to be deranged by a blow on the stomach. These were the aorta and the vena cava ascendens, which, from their situation, and the ample space they occupy immediately where the spine becomes prominent _ after quitting the chest, solicit a careful examination. The pit of the stomach is unquestionably the situation where these large and important vessels are alone liable to severe functional derangement from a blow: above this point they are securely protected by the parietes of the chest, and below it by the mass of the abdominal viscera. A know- _ ledge of the mode in which one of these vessels is liable to be influ- enced, will explain the cause of death. A blow in this situation has _ necessarily a tendency, whether it strike the artery or vein, to urge the circulating fluid towards the heart. Nature, by means of the semilu- nar valves, has prevented the frequent occurrence of such an accident, but the violence of the blow is quite sufficient to overcome the obstacle or barrier to the retrograde motion of the blood. The fatal result, is perhaps to be referred to the sudden propulsion of arterial blood into _ the left ventricle, and not to the greater force with which the venous blood may possibly be returned to its destination. Death would not _ be likely to occur from the latter circumstance, as the blood would _ be transmitted in its ordinary direction. The arterial blood, on the contrary, is driven in a retrograde course with considerable violence into the left ventricle.” The correctness of this explanation of the cause of death is discussed at length by the author, and compared with phenomena accompanying a blow in the region of the carotid artery. The plan of treatment, he observes, is obviously pointed out, viz. “ to rouse the action of the heart, and this is perhaps best accomplished by artificial inflation, which by _ improving the qualities of the blood, gives it the power of stimulating the cavities of the left side of the heart. Galvanism, or electricity also, applied to the region of this organ, is well calculated to excite its con- tractions, and if only fully called into play, the obstacles previously existing would probably be removed, and the heart might gradually but slowly resume its important functions. Friction with stimulating embrocations along the spine and over the whole of the anterior part of the chest must not be neglected if recovery appear doubtful. The application of warmth to the feet, or their immersion in hot water, may 106 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. be useful in diminishing congestion, and thereby may co-operate pow- erfully with other remedies. Internal stimulants may be employed with advantage on the revival of the vital powers ; and when these are somewhat invigorated, general or local bleeding may be an invaluable adjunct.” Experiments on the Connexion between the Nerves and Muscles. By Wiriiam Harris Mappen, M.D. The author wishing to contribute to the satisfactory settlement of the questions relating to the connexion of nerves and muscles, first pro- poses to show, in opposition to several preceding writers, that narcotics do not in all cases produce any appreciable effect upon the contractile organs; that sedatives applied to nerves exclusively are absolutely inert; and that muscles exhibit distinct signs of irritability long after the nerves have lost their power of exciting them. ‘The experiments which are adduced in proof of these points were made upon frogs, which were killed by injecting tincture of opium into the stomach and intestines, by introducing essential oil of bitter almonds into the mouth, or by destroying the brain and spinal cord. The experiments were made upon the heart, voluntary museles generally,and amputated legs,— whose nerves, properly dissected, were immersed in a solution of opium, or for comparison in pure water. Galvanic stimuli were applied to the muscles or to the nerves alone; and, as a result of the whole investiga- tion, the author observes, “ When we see that narcotics have by no means generally a destructive influence over irritability ; when we see that, applied to nervous trunks alone, they produce no change upon the muscular fibre ; when we observe that nerves cease to have any power of exciting contractions long before the muscles themselves have lost their irritability (as all the experiments most distinctly show) ; when we remember that the number and size of the nerves distributed to any organ bear no proportion whatever to its irritability ; that many muscles are utterly insensible to any irritation of their nerves; and that a muscle whose nerve has been divided can recover its exhausted irritability in as short a time and as perfectly as one whose nerves have been uninjured ;—we shall, I conceive, feel the want of far more ex- tended and conclusive evidence, before we can assent to the doctrine which believes muscular contractility to be in all cases dependent upon nervous influence.” Of Disordered Conditions of the Human Body caused by the presence of Urinary Salts, although not amounting to Gravel or Stone. By Sir James Murray, M.D. The object of this paper was to show that “ the same acid, alkaline, or neutral products, which in some instances constitute sand or cal- culi, do in others prevail to excess in the constitution, in a liquid or diffused state; and that they thus give rise to a series of nervous and TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 107 _ other diseases of irritation, caused by acrimony and elementary de- _ rangement set up by the presence of urinary or other untoward im- _ pregnations in the blood and lymph.” In proof of this proposition it is stated, that certain minute crystals __ lately observed in various tissues of the human body, have probably _ resulted from the deposition of urinary salts, when their elements have been evolved in excess at some previous period, and that in some cases these crystalline particles have irritated the nerves of sensation and mo- tion. Crystals were found by the author in the tissues investing the principal nerves of the testes, in a case of neuralgia; by Professors Harrison and Apjohn in the membranes of the alimentary canal; and _ since, by other observers, in the heart, brain, stomach, and other organs and tissues. The author adds the case of crystals found in a thumb afflicted by tic-douloureux. The crystals examined by Dr. Apjohn were composed of earthy phosphates, but those found in Sir J. Murray’s dissections afford traces of uric or lethic salts. In cases of impetigines, tinea capitis, lepra, &c., the scales were found to contain urinary salts, and the ichor of ill-conditioned ulcers contained several saline quali- ties of the urine. The author attributes these and other phenomena to the reabsorption of urine from the bladder into the circulation; the lymph thus becoming saturated with foreign ingredients, it will be easy to account for the generation of crystalline scales in the tissues. The author considers the opinions expressed by physiologists as to _ the origin of the saline ingredients found in the solids and fluids ; no- _ tices the explanation which his researches appear to afford concerning violent local pains unaccompanied by inflammation or heat; particular- izes some of the excretions which, when in excess, cause acrimony of the fluids, irritability of the solids, and perverted combinations of various elementary atoms in the animal economy; and suggests the employ- ment of acid or alkaline remedies by the stomach or by baths, accord- ing to the indications observed in each case. (See, for a preliminary paper, the Dublin Medical Journal, 7th July, 1836). _ Sir James Murray exhibited apparatus for varying the atmospheric pressure on the whole or a part of the body. (See Reports of the _ Association, vol. iv. p. 96.) On Cholera. By Dr. MacktntTosu. The facts which Dr. Mackintosh stated regarding the condition of the organs of the body under the influence of cholera, were supported _ by a great number of preparations and drawings, the fruit of 300 dis- _ sections in cases of cholera in the first year of its appearance in a ma- _lignant form. On Morbid Preparations relating to Dysmenorrhea. By Dr. MACKINTOSH. 108 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. On Diseased Lungs from Sand respired. By Dr. Joux MAcKinTOSH. In this communication, the injurious effects arising from the deposi- tion of particles of stone in the lungs were illustrated by the case of a mason employed in the Cragheith Quarry. oe On the Contagiousness of Cholera. By J. G. Simpson. On some Crania found in the Ancient Mounds in North America. By Dr. Warren, of Boston, U.S. From an examination of the crania found in some of the numerous earthworks forming lines, pyramids, and platforms, which are scattered over the country, from the lakes of Canada to the Gulf of Mexico, Dr. Warren infers that this whole region was once occupied by a race of men differing from the North American Indians as well as from any known people of the old world, but apparently ¢dentical with the an- cient Peruvians, and having much resemblance to the Hindoos. Ornaments and utensils have been discovered in the mounds which bear a great resemblance to articles of the same description seen in Hindostan. On these facts the author founds his opinion that the an- cient Peruvian people were the remains of a great race of men dis- possessed of their original seats by the North American Indians ; and notices as a probable hypothesis, that America was peopled from more than one point of Asia, the ancient Americans having passed from the southern parts of Asia, but the existing Indian races from the north of that continent. A Critical Analysis of the different Methods that have been adopted for determining the Functions of the Brain. By Dr. Evanson. In this communication the author endeavoured to place before the Section a correct general view of the progress hitherto made toward a solution of the question, ‘‘ What are the functions of the brain ?” Dis- section of the brain, he observed, has failed to give us a knowledge of its functions ; the removal of parts of the brain in living animals has ~ led to remarkable but not perfectly consistent results ; the study of the brain in a diseased state had revealed but few and determinate relations between its parts and affections of definite portions of the body; nor has the comparison of the central mass of man with that of animals, in respect of absolute magnitude, proportion to the body, to the spinal marrow, or the bones of the face, (Camper’s facial angle, ) furnished any perfectly general law, by which the degree of intelligence manifested by the animal may be connected with a particular property of the entire brain. Dr. Evanson then explained the method of induction adopted TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 109 by Dr. Gall; who, viewing the brain as a complex organ, and contem- plating it both in health and. disease, proposed to discover the use or function of each part of the brain, by comparing the relative develop- _ ment of these parts in the same brain, and in the brains of different _ persons, with the intellectual and moral powers and animal propensities _ manifested in the individuals. 4 An Experimental Investigation into the Gilosso-pharyngeal, Pneumo- gastric, and Spinal Accessory Nerve. By Dr. Joun REtv. i This communication, which was but a short epitome of some length. _ ened observations which Dr. R. had drawn up on this subject, embraced _ the principal results which he had deduced from an extensive series of _ experiments, performed by himself, upon those complicated and im- _ portant nerves generally included under the eighth pair. _ _ Glosso-pharyngeal.—The experiments on this nerve were all per- _ formed on dogs, and were twenty-seven in number. Seventeen of these were for the purpose of ascertaining if it were to be considered a - nerve both of sensation and motion, and what are the effects of its sec- _ tion upon the associated movements of deglutition and on the sense of taste. The other ten were performed on animals immediately after _ they had been deprived of sensation, with the view of satisfying him- - self more thoroughly how far it is to be considered a motor nerve. The most remarkable effect witnessed in these experiments was an ex- _ tensive convulsive movement of the muscles of the throat and lower part of the face, on irritating this nerve in the living animal, provided _ the irritation was applied to the trunk of the nerve before it had given _ off its pharyngeal branches, or to one of the pharyngeal branches sepa- _ rately. These movements were equally well marked when the nerve was cut across at its exit from the cranium and its cranial end irritated, as when the trunk of the nerve and all its branches were entire. The _ conclusions drawn from a review of the whole experiments were these: | —That this is a nerve of common sensation. That mechanical or chemical irritation of this nerve before it has given off its pharyngeal branches, or of any of these branches individually, is followed by ex- tensive muscular movements of the throat and lower part of the face. _ That the muscular movements thus excited, depend not upon any in- 4 - fluence extending downwards, along the branches of this nerve to the _ muscles moved, but upon a reflex action transmitted through the central _ organs of the nervous system. That these pharyngeal branches of the ; glosso-pharyngeal nerve possess endowments connected with the pecu- _ liar sensations of the mucous membrane upon which they are distri- buted, though we cannot pretend to speak positively in what these consist. That this cannot be the sole nerve upon which all these sen- _ sations depend, since the perfect division of the trunk on both sides, if _ eare be taken to exclude the pharyngeal branch of the par vagum, Pehich lies in close contact with it, does not interfere with the perfect _ performance of the function of deglutition. That mechanical or chemi- 110 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. cal irritation of the nerve immediately after an animal has been killed, is not followed by any muscular movements, provided that care be taken to insulate it from the pharyngeal branch of the par vagum ; and here, again, an important difference between the movements excited by irritation of the glosso-pharyngeal and those of the motor nerve is ob- served; for, while movements produced by the irritation of a motor nerve, such as the pharyngeal branch of the par vagum, continue for some time after the functions of the central organs of the nervous sy- stem have ceased, those from irritation of the glosso-pharyngeal are arrested as soon as all decided marks of sensation disappear. That the sense of taste is sufficiently acute after the perfect section of the nerve on both sides, to enable the animal readily to recognize bitter sub- stances. That it may probable participate with other nerves in the performance of the function of the sense of taste, but it certainly is not the special nerve of that sense. That the sense of thirst does not de- pend entirely upon this nerve. Pneumogastrie or Par Vagum Nerve-—From the results of thirty experiments upon the par vagum, he is convinced that severe indica- tions of suffering are induced by pinching, cutting, or even stretching this nerve, in almost all those animals operated on. In several experi- ments, in which the trunk of the par vagum was compressed by the forceps for a few moments, it was observed that in some of these cases powerful respiratory movements were thus produced, and were followed by struggles, yet no tendency to cough, and no act of deglutition which could be fairly attributed to this cause. Pharyngeal Branches of Par Vagum.—From seventeen experiments performed on dogs, either when alive or immediately after being de- prived of sensation, he concludes that these are the motor nerves of the constructors of the pharynx, the stylo-pharyngeus, and palatine muscles ; and that the sensitive filaments of these nerves must be com- paratively few, if, under ordinary circumstances, they exist at all. Section of the pharyngeal branch of the par vagum on both sides, was followed by very considerable difficulty of deglutition, in which the food appears to be forced through the passage bag of the pharynx by the powerful movements of the tongue, and of the muscles which moye the hyoid bone and larynx. Laryngeal Branch of the Par Vagum.—On irritating the superior laryngeal nerve by galyanism, or by pinching it with the forceps, when the glottis was exposed to view, no movement of the muscles which di- late or contract the aperture of the glottis is observed. Upon looking at the interior part of the larynx, upon which the external laryngeal branch of this nerve is chiefly distributed, vigorous contractions of the cricothyroid muscle, by which the cricoid cartilage is approximated to the thyroid, were always seen. On irritating the inferior laryngeal, obvious movements of the muscles which dilate and enlarge the aper- ture of the glottis followed. In some cases these moyements were very vigorous, and it was observed that these did not produce an enlarge- ment of the glottis, but, on the other hand, the arytenoid cartilages were approximated, so as in some cases to shut completely the aperture gE I eT Tr me TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 111 of the glottis. It was also distinctly observed, that the only outward moyements of the arytenoid cartilages were merely produced by their return to their former position after they had been carried inwards. From these experiments it was concluded, that all the muscles which move the arytenoid cartilages receive their motor filaments from the inferior laryngeal or recurrent nerves; and as the force of the muscles which shut the glottis preponderates over that of those which dilate it, so the arytenoid cartilages are carried inwards when all the fila- ments of one or both of these nerves are irritated. These experiments also show us, that one only of the intrinsic mus- cles of the larynx receives its motor filaments from the superior laryn- geal, viz. the cricothyroid muscle, and that, consequently, the only change which the nerve can produce on the larynx as a motor nerve, is that of approximating the ericoid cartilage to the thyroid ; in other _ words, of shortening the larynx. We shall see how far this view is supported by the subsequent experiments upon the living animal. The superior laryngeal nerve was cut on both sides in two dogs and one rabbit, and these animals readily swallowed both solids and fluids, without exciting cough or the least difficulty of breathing. The lungs of these animals were carefully examined after death, and none of the - food taken could be detected in the air-tubes. In several animals the superior laryngeals were first cut, and the inferior laryngeals imme- diately afterwards ; and it was ascertained that the previous division of the superior laryngeal did not prevent the difficult breathing, and symptoms of suffocation, which not unfrequently follow the division of the inferior laryngeal nerves, especially in young animals. To procure still more positive assurance of the effect of section of the different laryngeal nerves upon the movements of the glottis, these four nerves were exposed in a full-grown cat, and the larynx was then dissected out, and brought forward, without disturbing the nerves. After watching for a little the vigorous movements of the muscles of _ the glottis, seen during the struggles, crying, and increased respiratory movements of the animal, the inferior laryngeals were then cut across, _ and instantly all the movements of the muscles of the glottis ceased, and the arytenoid cartilages assumed the position in which they are found after death. The superior laryngeals were then cut, without ef- _ fecting the slightest enlargement, or any other change, upon the glottis. As the arytenoid cartilages were now mechanically carried slightly in- 1 wards during the rushing of the air through the diminished aperture of _ the glottis in inspiration, by which this aperture was still farther con- tracted, its edges were kept apart with the forceps until an opening _ was made into the trachea to prevent the immediate suffocation of the animal. The glottis was brought into view upon another cat, as in the pre- ceding experiment, and the motions of the muscles of the glottis were again watched for a short time. The superior laryngeals were then cut, without diminishing in the least any of the movements of the ary- tenoid cartilages. The sides of the glottis were approximated, as in erying, so as to form but a narrow fissure ; and in struggling the aper- 112 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. ture became completely closed, in the same manner as when the su- perior laryngeal nerves were uninjured. It must be at once obvious, that these experiments are completely subversive of the statement that the inferior laryngeal supplies those muscles only which open the glottis, while the superior laryngeal nerves furnish the motor filaments to those muscles which shut the glottis; they also illustrate, in a very satisfac- tory manner, the cause of the dyspncea in some cases where the inferior laryngeal nerves are cut or compressed. Dr. Reid has also satisfied himself, that when any irritation is ap- plied to the mucous membrane of the larynx in the natural state, that this does not excite the contraction of these muscles by acting directly upon them through the mucous membrane, but that this contraction takes place by a reflex action, in the performance of which the supe- rior laryngeal nerve is the sensitive, and the inferior laryngeal is the motor nerve. He has. also satisfied himself that the muscular contrac- tions of the cesophagus are not called into action by the ingesta acting directly as an excitant upon the muscular fibre through the mucous membrane, but by a reflex action, part of the cesophageal filaments acting as sensitive, and others as motor nerves. Spinal Accessory—In seven dogs this nerve was cut on one side, without affecting the ordinary voluntary movements of that side of the neck. In several animals a weak dose of prussic acid was given after the nerve had been cut on one side. In several cases this was followed by prolonged, forcible, and regular respiratory movements, after the animal had been deprived of all consciousness and voluntary motion. In three of these cases distinct movements of contraction and relaxa- tion were observed in the exposed sterno-mastoid muscles, synchronous with the other muscles of respiration. The contractions were perhaps weaker on the side on which the spinal accessory had been cut. Observations on the Structure of the Sacrum in Man and some of the Lower Animals. By Hucu Caruirzt, M_B.T.C.D. Mr. Carlile exhibited to the Section several anatomical prepara- tions of the human sacrum in different states of growth, in which the separate formation of the lateral parts, consisting both of ribs and of transverse processes, was distinctly shown. The analogous structures in certain of the Saurian and Chelonian reptiles were exhibited by means of preparations and drawings ; andthe errors of descriptive ana- tomists on these subjects were pointed out. Mr. Carlile showed that some of the Saurian reptiles afford the best examples of distinct and well-developed sacral ribs, although this peculiarity in their structure has wholly escaped the observation of previous anatomists. In these animals the sacral ribs are two in number on each side; the anterior being articulated to the bodies of the last dorsal and the first sacral vertebrae, and connected to their inter-vertebral substance—the poste- rior to the last sacral and first caudal vertebree. In the human sub- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 113 _ ject the sacral ribs are four on each side; and they remain in a separate and distinguishable state until the age of from three till seven years, after which period they are all, except in rare instances, consoli- dated, along with the bodies and transverse processes of the corre- sponding sacral vertebrz, into a single mass. The os ilium in the foetal state, and for some years after birth in the human subject, is connected to only éwo of the sacral ribs, a fact which is consistent with the imperfect development at this period of the lower extremities, and with the disposition at an early age to walk on all fours; and which affords an additional example to those already known, of the resemblance which prevails between the temporary forms of certain parts of the human body, and the permanent dispositions of correspond- ing parts in animals of the lower classes. In many of the quadru- mana of quadrupeds and reptiles, two is the number of sacral ribs constantly in opposition with the os ilium. In the human subject, ata more advanced period of life, the os ilium at each side is connected by a cartilaginous intermedium to the extremities of three sacral ribs: in one __ instance, in the skeleton of a negro, Mr. Carlile observed it conjoined to four. This communication was terminated by-some observations on the skeleton in some of the Chelonian reptiles. Mr. Carlile considers that in the Yestudo Greca there are two sacral bones, one for the anterior, and one for the posterior extremities; while in the Testudo Mydas, whose anterior extremities are moved with much freedom, and ~ through considerable extent of space, the anterior sacrum is wanting, and the scapula is connected to the rest of the skeleton, much in the same manner as in birds and some quadrupeds. Mr. Carlile exhibited two examples of remarkable malformations of the cerebellum in the human subject. In one the size of the cerebel- lum was not more than one sixth of the usual magnitude, and pos- sessed internally an extremely deficient structure. The person, a female, was idiotic ; the genital organs were very fully developed ; and there was evidence that sexual intercourse had taken place. The second example was one in a male adult in whom more than the half of the cerebellum was wanting, the left hemisphere and the vermiform processes being deficient by a congenital malformation. The person was deaf and dumb, but possessed moderate intellectual capacities. His muscular system was well developed, and he enjoyed the complete use of his limbs and other muscular organs. The organs of generation were also well formed. VOL. vi. 1837. i 114 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Practical Observations on the Causes and Treatment of the Curvature of the Spine, with an Etching and Description of an Apparatus for the Use of Persons afflicted by the Disease. By S. Hare, Surgeon, Leeds. Confining his remarks on the origin of curvature of the spine to one of three causes which he assigns, viz. impropriety of dress, want of free exercise, as being chiefly instrumental in producing lateral cur- vature, which is of most general occurrence; the author demonstrated the manner in which the right shoulder is elevated, and the left shoulder depressed in females of the higher and middle classes, by the injurious tightening of the stays. For correcting curvature of the spine the author employs an inclined board, 6 feet 6 inches long, furnished with pullies at each end, over which weighted cords pass, so as to pull in opposite direc- tions, a head strap, and two shoulder straps, two ankle straps, and an (occasional) iliac strap. There is an apparatus for compression on the sternum appended to the inclined plane. The author particularly notices that the weights used must on no account be such as to incon- venience the patient, unless the medical adviser have some particular reason for so increasing them. On the Order of Succession of the Motions of the Heart. By O'Bryan Bettincuam, M.D. of Dublin. If we lay bare the pericardium in a frog (there being no necessity to open it) without causing the loss of much blood, the following se- ries of motions will be observed. The contraction of the auricles ; then the dilatation of the ventricle ; and if we place our finger on it at the instant we feel the impulse ; immediately and quickly following the dilatation comes the contraction of the ventricle, without any impulse ; then follows the interval of repose during which the auricular contrac- tion again commences. The time occupied by the diastole of the ventricle is longer than that _ of its systole, and the interval of repose is about equal to the systole, The apex of the heart did not strike the finger either during the dia- stole or systole of the ventricle, but the anterior surface of the ventri- cle during its diastole communicated an impulse to the finger. In some instances, indeed, when the pericardium was partially opened, and the animal struggled much, the apex of the heart was carried for- ward during the second motion, or its systole; but when the animal remained quiet, nothing of the kind occurred, the ventricle in its sy- stole contracting from the angles (which its base makes with the au- ricles) toward its centre, and becoming smaller. The author compares these results with the motions of the heart of man, as given by Dr. Hope, from which they differ, both as regards the order of succession and the duration of the motions. ee ee TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 115 A Descriptive and Statistical Report of the Epidemic Influenza, as it oceurred at Bolton-le-Moors, in the Months of January, February, and March, 1837. By Dr. Buack. In this Report the author gives, first, a résumé of the general symptoms, with a notice of those more peculiar pathognomical charac- ters which distinguished some of the more intense cases; and secondly, and principally, directs attention to that view of the epidemic which relates to meteorology, medico-vital statistics, and mortality. The following extract is from the second portion of this elaborate paper :— To the medical philosopher the extent and intensity with which this late epidemic bore upon the population of the country, along with the ratio of mortality which marked its progress, as well as the meteorologie state of the weather which preceded and accompanied its march over the kingdom, are subjects of great and historical interest, espe- cially when they are compared with the nature and progress of former epidemics of a similar character. For the purpose of elucidating these important and relative matters, as far as the disease appeared and prevailed at Bolton, I have obtained a correct register of the weather in its principal meteorologic conditions, for the months of January, February, and March, during which period the epidemic appeared, prevailed, and finally decayed in that town and its vicinity. To this register, for which I am indebted to Mr. H. Watson, an intel- ligent chemist of Bolton, [ have added a column exhibiting a nosometric scale of the epidemic’s rise, maximum intensity, and decay in the place. This column has been constructed from the several lists of fresh cases of the influenza that were daily entered and kept by three of the principal practitioners of the town and myself; which separate entries for each day, being added together, gave a ratio corresponding to 100 as the maximum intensity on the 3rd of February. To this table I have also subjoined a register of 420 burials at the parish church, Bolton, at which place about nine-tenths of all dying in the borough are interred. I have therein, moreover, stated the several ages, in quinquennial periods, at which the individuals died after the fifth year, with the several amounts and ratios during the late epidemic season, as well as the averages during the same months of the five previous years. (Vide the Tables.) From the Meteorological Register it is seen that, during the first two weeks of January, the temperature was very irregular, varying in the mean of morning, noon, and night, from 47° 3 to 27° 3, while the barometer was gradually falling from 30°27 to 29°17, and snow, hail, rain, and fine weather in turns prevailed. The epidemic during this period had scarcely made its appearance, and except it had more manifestly done so, the few cases of suffocative catarrh and atonic bronchitis that occurred would have been attributed to an endemic or sporadic origin. With the 14th day of the month commenced a week of fair weather, with a steadier and milder temperature; but after a very sudden rise, there took place ; declining state of the mercurial I 116 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. column, which reached its lowest depression of 28°88 on the evening of the 21st, while the dew point nearly approximated the mean tem- perature. Contemporarily with this lowest state of the atmospheric pressure on the 21st commenced the full and rapid invasion of the epidemic, similar to some mighty morbific wave that was sweeping over the country—sudden in its attack, but more lingering in its de- parture. As the disease increased the temperature fell, for seven days, with continued rain or snow till the end of the month, but the barometer on the whole gradually rose until it attained 30°10 on the morning of the 4th of February. On the day previous to this the disease had reached its maximum intensity, having, in the course of a fortnight, laid the whole population, with very trifling exceptions, under its morbiferous influence, which extended from the merest malaise, or slight catarrh, to the most deadly impression on the functions and organs of life. After this culminating point of the epidemic, it gradually lessened in the number of its cases, though not in the severity of many individual instances. About the 9th of February a slight resumption of intensity appears on the scale, and this was occasioned by the disease becoming a little more rife in the country after it began to subside in the town; but the whole cases of fresh attack were reduced to a very small comparative number on the 21st, when the epidemic may be said to have passed over the place, after having left, and yet then leay- ing, many a fatal footstep behind. Cases assuming not all the well- marked traits of the early epidemic, but the more varied, obscure, and modified characters of rheumatism, neuralgia, febricula with head- ache, and bowel attacks with lumbar pains, continued to appear during the remainder of the month and the first part of March, but all these cases may be fairly charged to that constitutional taint or diathesis which the epidemic had produced. In addition to what the register denotes of the weather during the three months mentioned as being inclement, cold, and unsettled, with several falls of snow; it may be noticed, the invasion of the epidemic was preceded and attended by easterly and southerly winds, while the atmosphere was much loaded with moisture. This high point of saturation may be frequently observed to have taken place during the prevalence of the epidemic, for the dew point will be seen for several days to be as high, if not higher, than the mean temperature for the day. This anomaly in part arises from the dew point being only taken once in the day at noon, while the temperature was not only taken at that hour, which at all times would be higher than the dew point, but this higher tempera- ture would be brought down in the scale by the lower averages of morning and night. From Dr. Heberden’s Analysis of the Bills of Mortality in London, as published in the Medical Gazette, 8th April, 1837, it appears that the epidemic commenced about the 10th of January, had attained its height of mortality on the 24th, and ceased after six to seven weeks from its appearance. Dr. Clendinning, in his Report of the Maryle- bone Infirmary, makes the epidemic to appear on the Ist of January, to be at its maximum prevalence about the 20th, and to have ceased TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 117 . in five or six weeks. The apparent difference of these two reports from the same place arises from the one recording the deaths in con- sequence of the disease, and the other stating the number of ad- missions into the infirmary—thus showing that the date of the greatest number of deaths will consequently follow, at a more or less distance of time, the date of the highest prevalence of the disease as to general seizure. In adverting to the more interesting register of the burials during the prevalence of the epidemic, it is seen how much the mortality of the place was increased, in comparison with the average mortality during the same months of the five previous years. ‘The increase on the whole three months is equal to 45 per cent.; and for the month of February alone it amounted to 160 per cent. Of the 420 deaths, 205 were males and 215 females, while the sexual proportion of our annual deaths is as 109 males to 100 females. Nearly the half, 208, of the whole 420 deaths were under twenty years of age, while the half of the annual deaths during the five previous years were under three years and ten months. The augmentation of this mortality must entirely be attributed to the influenza, and I even think a good deal more is owing to the epidemic, as very few serious diseases took place and were fatal but what the prevailing epidemic was connected with ; and it was often the sole destroyer of patients lingering under chronic ailments or diseases, necessarily, yet otherwise not so speedily fatal. The mortality during this period bore more upon the aged and infirm than upon the young and infants, who generally form the great amount of our deaths, and decide, according to the rise and fall of their mortality, the annually ranging rate of our total deaths to the population. Under one year 21:9 per cent. of the whole 420 died during the epidemic, while the average this age for the same months of the five previous years was 26°6 per cent. The same diminished proportion is observed during the second year of life. These ratios in favour of early life, during the prevalence of the epidemic, continue until we reach the thirtieth year, after which, it is seen, that the ratio for adult life augments very much, contrary to what is observed in the average course of our mortality. For instance, between the years 45-49, the ratio of deaths to the whole during the epidemic was 6°2 per cent., _ while, at the corresponding ages in the five previous years, it was only 2:7 per cent. Nearly the same disparity obtains at the quinquennial period of sixty-five to sixty-nine ; and through all the advanced years of life, mortality is seen to have borne with double and treble force, - compared with the ordinary rate at those periods during the former years. The few reports which I have seen from other parts of the united kingdom coincide in this high rate of mortality affecting the advanced years of life during the prevalence of the epidemic, and the comparative immunity which those of younger years enjoyed, at least, from its fatal consequences. From a Report, by Dr. Clendinning, on the admissions at the Marylebone Infirmary during the six weeks that the epidemic prevailed, it appears, that though the admissions were seventy from 118 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. birth upwards to ten years of age, and which included twenty-one cases — of influenza, the deaths were only 57 per cent. ; between ten and twenty the admissions were seventy-three, including thirty-five cases of influ- enza, and the deaths were only about 7 per cent.; between the ages of twenty and thirty the deaths to the whole admissions were 13 per cent.; between thirty and forty the proportion was 25 per cent.; between forty and fifty it was 31°5 per cent.; between fifty and sixty it was 36 per cent. ; and between sixty and seventy the ratio was still 31 per cent. ; the whole admissions being in the above period 465, more than half of which were influenza cases ; and the deaths were 98, or 22 per cent. From a report made by Dr. Graves, in a late number of the Medical Gazette, of the numbers interred at Prospect Cemetery, Glasnevin, during the months of December, 1835, and January, February and March, 1836, compared with the same months in 1836 and 1837, it appears that the burials were augmented from 1501 to 2248, or 33°2 per cent. of an increase during the influenza. From the limited observations and register which I have had the in- dulgence of laying before the Section, it is seen what an extensive and destructive pestilence has swept over the kingdom, which has about doubled the ordinary rate of mortality, where it in any characteristic force prevailed, and thus anticipated for some months the forthcoming victims of death, while it threw a subsequent pause over the regular march of disease and mortality. This retardation has been very generally observed in the low rate of disease and mortality which occurred during the four months succeeding the epidemic. If a collection of reports, contemporaneous and similar to the one I have submitted, could have been obtained from the several districts and towns throughout the kingdom, the date of the rise, progress, and cul- mination of the epidemic might have been traced and ascertained in its march throughout the country, and most probably some meteorological conditions would have been found so general and constant as might have led to some fair deductions of the co-efficients of its appearance and intensity, or of its utter irrespectiveness to all such physical con- ditions ; but in default of such strict elementary documents, we are left to speculate about many causes in the earth and atmosphere, as productive of the epidemic, according as a theoretical ingenuity from limited observation may indulge in, but which may be far from the legitimate and satisfactory deductions of medical philosophy. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 119 A MereoroLocicat Recister for January, February, and March, 1837, with a Nosometrical View of the Epidemic Influenza during the same months, as observed at Bolton-le-Moors. Mean of #. eh ean Morning, Noon, cal Scale 1837. Noon:} pyano.| Fal of the ai and Night. sted oe aS Weather. penis point. Maxm. In- Therm. | Barom. tensity=100. ° ° ° ] 30°3 | 80°27) 30 |... lee eeee eee Fair all day ........000 paca abe 2 | 323 | 8012) BL fe... Jeeseenee Very foggy ssccessesssseeeees ‘1 3 40° | 8002] 38 |.........|eeereceee A little rain a.m. and p.m. ... Pe 4 | 383 | 8002) 39 |.....ccesleeseseee HAIr } saiace stan ausgnenonsts sen Beh] BO. | 2962) BD y|ccscscevalverseaces MIBIP | oe cacsstes cere tenGnee ceatee Bf 6 SD | AAO [aD lanctsbagelabececvss Rain all day, some hail p.m. 5 Rain and a little hail a.m. 7 | 38:3 | 29°37] 38 |... ee oe \ 8 | 38-7 | 29°82) 35. |......seelereeneees Rain at night...........s.s000 ed 9 | 47:3 | 29°68 | 46 |.......eeleeceneee A little rain a.m, .........005 1: 10 | 37:3 | 29°62} 38 |...... spuleeeeeres EVAL ane ccc eatee atasan ures tooo Sut 11 2G | 29°89) BF plessssccvsleveoesces BGT MieecusesstSo< caves ante cesar 15 12 | 34:3 | 29-47] 28 |...) ee ee ae 13 40-7 | 29:17] 38 | in 16 | in16 | Rain in the morning......... 2 14 | 83:7 | 29°94} 32 | days, | days, | Fair ......sscsecseseeveeseeeees 2-3 15 34> | 80°15 | 30 [0-15 in|2-44in.] Bair ........cccsecsseceesseeees 3-4 16 | 38:7 | 30:05| 37 Very foggy, P.M. sesesresseee 4-6 17 | 40- | 29:98] 388 Lier te sende one bce le sb ps an dro aye 91 18 | 38- | 29°82} 35 sinter awtnesandcs stan sacb 5 “a 14- 19 | 37:7 | 29°64} 35 PRIMM eee rae ns ences ons 18- 20 | 35- | 29:46) 32 ATTA seeepeeineseseescssccecc se 25- 21 | 37- | 29:25) 33 .| Rain at night..... «| 380° 22 | 44- | 28:94) 43 Rain all day ..... 40: 23 | 45:3 | 29°02} 43 Rain all day ...........s2000s 42- 24 | 41-7 | 29:30) 41 IS PUAUAGNENE <5 Se wchangocestonsces 50- 25 | 41: | 29-45) 40 Rain all day .........seses0e0 56° 26 | 39:3 | 29:53} 37 AI anderecepescsaprbones ct vee 71: 27 =| 37: | 29°68) 36 ; rare at night beet ae 75° ‘ now at night, and a little ‘ ee) Se) 2973 "83 A.M, and P.M, cesseseeeees } fa 29 | 32> | 29-57) 30 | in15 | in 15 | Snow all day ................45 90: 30 | 36° | 29-48) 34 | days, | days, | SNOW A.M. ...ssssesseeeeseeeees 92- 3] 41-7 | 29°61] 40 |0:09in.|1:10in,) Rain p.m. ....cccceecseeceeeeee 93° > 7S o | Total. | Total. Max. | 49° |30°31 | ... |0:24in.|3°54in. Min. | 25- /|28°88 | ... Mean | 37°5 | 29-638) 35 120 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. FEBRUARY. Mean of fe Morning, Noon, and Night. | X°°"*| Evapo. | Fall of Nosometri- cal Scale of the Feb. ration. | Rain. Weather. em Maxm. In- Therm. | Barom. tensity=100. ° ° ° 1 ALB) BO*GON OAD eee esl wcceoee Rain at night....sscsseessevees DBAS ZOO MAM ea eee aes Fair all day .......ceseseoree B | 41:3 | 8003} 40 |ecreceee |eeseeceee Rain all day .....sseseeeeeeeee A -} Als | 80:07) 40 Jeccceccee| ce secees Fair all day ......cesseesecess 5 | 37-7 | 30:01] 36 |... Rainy A.M. and P.M. ....++++ 6 41: | 29°98} 37 Fair all day ........-cccccseens 7 | 41 | 29-88) 39 Fair all day ......secssseseees 8 | 43° | 29:80] AL |...cceeee|receseee Rain A.M. and P.M. ....e0ee- Ql AFe EO BB A eee ool ee ccecd Some rain at night.......+..+ 10 | 49° | 29°34) 50 |...cccees|ceeeeeee Rain all day, stormy P.M. ... ll ASD QB 21 OO he caecact| ods cacave Rain and very stormy all sey 12 | 39:3 | 29-02] 37 | in14 | in14 | Rain morning and night .. 13 44: | 28°82) 44 | days, | days, (SIN WAGs... caceneueeeeecer= ee 14 | 41- | 29°21] 40 |0:27in./2-15 in.) Fair all day ..........++.0000- 15 | 43:3 | 29°62] 41 AIURINIV PUNT, oc socaascesaneansted 16 52° | 29:65} 5O |.c.cscscel. scene. Fair all day, stormy at night 17 443 | 29°90} 44 Fair all day .......eseeseseere 18 ge | BO-4d) 4a 1 Rain P.M., rain and hail at NIGht ..sceeeeescreesaecees 19 | 38:3 | 28-95] 38 |....clecsseeen Ren end ee ay, boisterous P.M. . 20 ABN | QOLG i AP Beare ccesl-nccncosc Rain at night..........2sesse08 21 AUB} DOD aA WG SES. Dee less cs sens Rain at night and P.M. ..... 22 7 er tar bik halal aca cabad Reseertg Rain A.M.,rainand snow P.M. 4 i Rain, hail and snow; very 23 | 39 | 29:02] 43 |.eees-leesceeee { pre nats i 5 DAA? B92) BOGE AOS ere a ss|oascaacee Fair all day, but boisterous | 25 353 | 29:95] 35 |.......cleescsecee Fair all day : 26 | 33-7 | 29-90] 30 i : 27 | 39:3 | 29-74| 40 { 28 | 38 | 29:95 : 5 ; Max. | 56° | 30:10] .°. [0-81 in.|4-40in. Min 30- 28-60 29°57 EE ——— TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 121 MARCH. Mean of m poy Morning, Noon, sien! ee 7 si le Lh a a lie al Weather. Epidemic point. Maxm. In- Therm.} Barom. tensity=100. io} B4- | 80-19] 82 |e ees Fair alt day 7Atehectoat 3-4 37-7 | 380710] 32 |..... 202] weceeeee Alittlerainr.m.andatnight| 3-5 40-9) S008) 40 he cndseslecesencee Slight rain a.m. and P.M. ... 4-6 Siete Gott AG). cc sctnec|nnsasere = Fairjall day. ~sss-0-nascotseened 4 Rhee Ong | cho! | anopdvaclecacearas Slight rain a.m. and P.M. ... 3°5 BIS | 29-77 | BT |..cecceeslenecerens Fair all day ......seseeeeeeees 3 AO- | 29°85 |" 37 |. .oscsccslecsessese Ditto ty |W eweencnetees teens 2°3 : : Fair all day, but strong 6 42°) | 29:83) BB ci. eccs. [eons Seana yall ane quddiciglie: 2-2 ZOE JR BR nine PRA Slight rain p.m. and at night 2: ANF 129-00} AO |... in. afenceceoe. Rain ¥.m, and stormy ...... 1-2 36> | 28°85 | Bd |.........Jecseeeee Snow and rain P.M. ......... wae 3673 | 29°23} BS |.........leceeeeres Rain and snow at night .. eee 86°3 | 29°85 | 38 | in 15 | in 15 | Snow a.m, ....cceececceceseeees 1- 37° | 80°17| 32 | days, | days, | Fair all day ....s.cssceseesees a 37° | 29:99} 33 |0°38in_ 0-20 in. Ditto.) 1 .caseconasbae ass 1-2 AOS | 29°92) 36 |.......0.|eceeeeees MELO: 7) Perse ce svectes «ce aS 41-7 | 30°08) 38 |...... so |saeeetest Ditto "|? taarcnctessiecced DIET BOOZ |) BUN acd conlelte onan Slight sleet at night ......... 37'S | 29°85 | BB |...ceceee rueeh ee A little snow a.M. .........68- aon 35° | 29°78] BS |.....csec[eeceeeees Snow all day ...............0+ 13 37-3 | 29°55 | 32 |ccsessceleeseeeeee ak See 2s } ; HOMTS tet acescstcewdeeses 32:7 | 29°50) 32 |.........Jeeseeeees Ditto p.m. and at night...) 1+ O27 | 29°47 | BAS lees ecvasa|wastheoee Ditto the whole 24 hours... “ BA | 2954) 35 |..cecreselecrereees Much snow in the morning se BG- | 29-46] 35 |......ccsleceeerees Slightrain andsnowatnight| 0°8 BA: | 2952) BA |..c......lecceneene Slight snow and hail p.m. ... 05 32-3 | 29°66] 30 |......00.[e0ee seccs| Ditto all day) )\.:..cccsbds-s-0 oo Be | 99-47) 34... spo) ant aque sae SOW P.Me sessease concee 37:7 | 29°36) 36 | in16 | in16 | Snow a.m., hail at night ... 01 36:7 | 29°57| 36 | days, | days, | Fair ted aapaderaqeuaranaes oe i é ok a ions A little snow early in the 367 | 29°64) 34 (0-25 in.|1-21 in. morning Koei Stloeses } S ¢ > | Lotal. | Total. 51+ | 30:20) ... |0°63in./1-4] in. 26° | 28:90] ... 37°3 |296°97 | 35-5 122 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. RecisTER of 420 BuriAxs at the Parish Church, Bolton, in January, February, and March, 1837, with the average amount of Burials during the same months of the five previous years, and the ratio per cent. buried at the several ages, to the total deaths in the two periods. Average Ratio per cont atthe | gee aa eee ae ce 1837. Total several ages du 7” to the total Age. Burials for | tothetotal | months in Burials in the Burials for the five the same pe | onthe. - ne 2 previous quent of net eet months. years, the 5 former years. Under 1 year} 21; 50 | 21 92 21-9 76°6 26-06 1 Le a gi A2 10: 39°8 13-08 2 10 8| 2 20 4:8 18-2 6:03 3 1 8| 2 ll 2°6 8-6 3° 4 3 1} 3 7 ef 9°4 3°24 5— 9 3 3} 4 10 2-4 18: 6°27 10 — 14 5 8| 4 17 4: wt 2-43 15 — 19 4 4/1 9 2:1 6°8 2°36 20 — 24 2 5| 6 13 3 10:2 3°54 25 — 29 2 6) 2 10 2-4 9°4 3°26 30 — 34 7110 od 18 4:3 6°8 2°36 35 — 39 1 5] 5 il 26 7 2°43 40 — 44 6 GS 16 4: 63 2°36 45 — 49 el ee Ue Pe! 26 6:2 7°83 2-07 50 — 54 7 9| 3 19 45 6 2: 55 — 59 1 9] 3 13 3: 78 2-07 60 — 64 2 Ue 19 4:5 11-4 4- 65 — 69 TO} 11 | 6 27 6A 86 3 70 — 74 2 8| 9 19 4:5 11-4 4 75 — 79 5 3} 2 10 2-4 48 1:66 80 — 84 3 4| 2 9 2: 4: 1:04 85 — 89 sas |. ove “5s xs 24 0:83 90 — 94 = 0-6 0-02 95 Fifi tio 1 0:24 0-2 0:07 100 =o 1h oa RE 1 0:24 ene “ae Totaly 2.20.0 115 | 205 |100 420 Total average forthespre- } 111:2| 79 |97°8 ane ay 28'S vious years. J. BLACK, M.D. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 123 Some Remarks on the Motion of the Blood in the Head, and on the Uses of the Ventricles and Convolutions of the Brain. By Dr. CARSON. This paper relates to three points; Ist, the circulation of the blood through the head; 2nd, to the evolution and regulation of the heat of the head. On the first point little was added to what had been already published by the author. The 2nd head also only contains an exten- sion of that power of generating and reducing heat, possessed by every part of the body to the encephalon. This subject, the third point, on which the originality of the commu- nication chiefly consisted, explained the contrivances which nature had used to retain all parts of the brain itself, and of its connection within the head in their natural position, both with respect to the parts of one hemisphere of the brain in relation to each other, and to the cranium. As it was contended to be fully proved that the substance of the brain is liable to decrease and enlargement, like every muscular or soft part of the body, in cases of great emaciation or obesity ; and as the brain must always occupy the same space, that is, it must always fill the cranium ; it was necessary, in these changes of dimensions, to have con- trivances for allowing the brain to occupy this space without laceration or undue stretching of the substances and appendages of the brain to their appropriate parts of the skull. These contrivances consisted of two kinds—the ventricles placed in the interior of the brain, and the con- volutions on its exterior superficies. The internal ventricles or cham- bers were receptacles irregularly formed, all connected with each other and with the spinal canal. By these receptacles containing more or less of water, according to the extent of actual brain, the existing quan- tity of brain was allowed to assume the condition that was fitted to re- tain its relations. In this office the ventricles were greatly aided by the convolutions of the brain. Had the surface of the brain been smooth and continuous, the superficial parts of the brain would in a ease, let it be supposed, of great emaciation, be unduly stretched. This stretching would be unequal, being required to be greater the farther any part of the surface of the brain was distant from the middle. In consequence of this, parts of the brain of a person in full health, and of the same person in a state of emaciation, would be op- posed to different parts of the skull. Protuberances of the brain in one case received into depressions of the skull, would, in the other, be opposed to protuberances of the skull, and the nerves and blood-ves- sels would, in the different cases, have a changed direction, and one altogether incompatible with their functions. To prevent these effects, nature has nicked the external surface of the brain. The convolutions formed by this nicking, in cases of emaciation, have wider interstices between them, and become themselves narrower as the furrows are mlarged, while the ridges are smaller. These enlargements of the furrows cooperate with the ventricles, in cases of greater emaciation, in securing to the changed amount of brain its natural position. The size of the furrows is formed or filled by an increased vascularity and 124 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. cellularity in the vessels of the pia mater and arachnoid coat. Protu- — berances of the brain received into depressions of the skull and the ~ nerves and blood-vessels find their road to their place of exit out of — the skull unchanged. This appears to be one of the most important and indispensable uses of the ventricles and convolutions of the brain. Abstract of Cases of Laceration of the Rectus Abdominis Muscle, &c. By Sir Davin J. H. Dickson, MD. FLRAS LE. FLAS. Physician of the Royal Hospital, Plymouth. William Cooper, zt, 37, Royal Marine, was admitted into Plymouth Hospital as a case of pneumonia, or of aggravated influenza, then pre- valent, on the 14th January, and after being considered convalescent, was attacked with excessive diarrhoea, and died on the 26th January, 1837. There was no external indication, nor had any suspicion been previously entertained, of his having sustained any injury: but on open- ing the abdomen, the unusual thickness of its walls attracted atten- tion; and on raising the fascial and tendinous coverings, the left rectus abdominis was found to be torn across, midway between the pelvis and umbilicus, leaving a cavity between the retracted ends of the softened muscle, containing about four ounces of a bloody serous fluid. The superficial cellular tissue was infilated with a gelatinous-looking mat- ter, and the peritoneum beneath had an ecchymosed appearance. A corresponding portion of the right rectus abdominis was also so much softened, as almost to resemble clotted blood. Neither the thoracie nor abdominal viscera exhibited any traces of disease. A man, who had been a shipmate with the patient, stated he had heard of his ha- ving met with some accident, though he did not remember of what nature: but neither at the barracks, nor from the surgeon of the ship to which he had belonged in the Mediterranean, who was written to on the subject, could any information be obtained. The latter merely stated, that the man in question had not been in the sick-list for any accident during the time he had been in the vessel. In another case, the existence of abdominal injury was equally un- suspected. John Brown, seaman, et. 27, was admitted in a moribund state, from pulmonary apoplexy, and died within twenty-four hours af- — terwards. Besides pleural adhesions, the lungs, on dissection, were found much diseased; the left lung especially was tuberculated and — hepatised, with some calcareous deposits; while the lower lobe con- tained a very large coagulum of effused blood, from which the fibrine had separated. On opening the abdomen, the knife sunk into a cavity on the left side, containing extravasated blood ; and the greater part of the rectus abdominis muscle was discovered to be lacerated, and which ~ was supposed to have been caused by over-exertion in furling sails ; but from the absence of the vessel, no further particulars of the case could be obtained. The writer likewise adyerts to other instances, including two or three Se TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 125 _ subjects who had been hanged, in whom several of the extensor mus- _ eles had been torn across, leaving an interspace containing extravasated _ blood; especially one stout, muscular man, in whom the right triceps, extensor cubiti, and both vasti interni, were completely ruptured; while, in tetanus, cholera, &c., the muscular fibres have been found _ completely or partially lacerated. And from these and various other _ instances on record, he is led to infer that such injuries are of more _ frequent occurrence than is generally imagined. Sir David Dickson also notices a case of transposition of the czecum, which was found in the left instead of the right inguinal region ; the _ colon ascending and descending on the same side; and a more recent _ dissection, where, instead of the ninth nerve on the right side giving _ off a descending branch, the eighth nerve supplied a compensating branch, having a similar termination and communications as the de- _ scendens noni on the left side, the origin and distribution of which were normal. The paper concludes with the history and post mortem appearances _ of three unusually interesting cases of dropsy. In one of them, a com- bination of ascites and hydrothorax, the patient was saved from im- ‘pending dissolution, and his life prolonged twenty-five days, by the abs- _ traction of thirteen pints of fluid from the left cavity of the pleura. _ In another, the patient lived upwards of six months, during which the _ operation of paracentesis abdominis was performed fourteen times. _ P.S. The officer who recovered after having been twelve times tapped in 1833, (as noticed in the Medical and Chirurgical Journal for January, 1834,) continues in perfect health. _ Abstract of a Paper read before the Medical Section of the British As- sociation at Liverpool, on the Physical and Chemical Characters of Expectoration in different Diseases of the Lungs, with some Prelimi- nary Remarks on the Albuminous Principles existing in the Blood. By R.H. Brert, F.L.S., MRC. S., &e. _. The object of the present paper is an attempt to show that the phy- sical and more especially the chemical characters of expectorated mat- ter in different pectoral diseases may assist in diagnosis. The prelimi- _ nary remarks are on albuminous principles existing in the blood. The serum of blood is looked upon as containing in aqueous solution two if - not three modifications of albumen. The globular part, on the other _ hand, is regarded as made up of solid albumen or fibrine and colour- _ ing matter. The albumen in the serum appears to be, 1st, in an un- - combined state; 2ndly, in combination with an alkaline base; and ' $rdly, in a state capable of undergoing spontaneous coagulation. The _ results obtained from a physical examination of sputa in different dis- eases of the lungs leads to the conclusion, that although, at certain _ stages in different pulmonary affections, the physical character of the _ sputa varies, still that in consequence of the complication produced by 126 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. the occasional passage of one form of lung affection into another on the coexistence of disease in different and distinct parts of the pulmonary structure, the expectoration met with in one form of uncomplicated lung disease, may be found in any other mixed with that peculiar to the part of the pulmonary tissue principally and originally diseased. The appearance of globular bodies in sputa, under the microscope, cannot be regarded as decidedly characteristic of any one form of ex- pectoration, belonging to all and even to healthy saliva, but differing in regard to the extent of globularity in certain affections. From the che- mical examination of sputa, it is deduced that they differ from each other, in the proportion of soluble albumen capable of coagulation by heat which they contain, as also in the amount of fixed or non-volatile saline matters. That form of expectoration met with in pituitous catarrh does not contain any free albumen capable of coagulation by heat, and, for equal weight, less saline matter than any other form of sputum; the solid matter also amounts to a very little more than that met with in ordinary saliva, and sometimes even less, and although, for equal weight it contains less solid and saline matter than any other form of sputum, yet for equal weight of dried extract, it contains more than other forms of expectorated matter. The sputa in chronic bron- chitis differ from the last noticed principally in containing a small quantity of free albumen, which heat coagulates, in the larger quan- tity of solid matter contained in it, being double that found in the sputum of pituitous catarrh, in the quantity of saline matter being less in proportion to the solid contents, although, for equal weights of the two forms of expectoration, the difference is not considerable. In acute bronchitis the albuminous matter found in the expectoration pro- bably arises from the presence of a muco-purulent secretion poured out by the inflamed bronchial membrane. Sputum, precisely like the chronic bronchitic variety, occurs also in the different but more espe- cially in the early or middle stages of phthisis, with or without an ad- mixture of softened tuberculous matter; in no disease, however, is free albumen, capable of coagulation by heat, met with in such abun- dance as in the latter stages of phthisis: the absence of such consider- able albuminous impregnation cannot however be taken as clear evi- dence of the non-existence of phthisical disease, for the latter may exist and the expectoration still be of precisely the same character as that met with in chronic or even acute bronchitis ; when on the other handa large quantity of coagulable albumen is present, the existence of phthisis may be strongly suspected, a small quantity of the albuminous prin- ciple only being common to phthisis as well as simple bronchial affee- tions unassociated with tuberculous disease. Genuine pneumonic ex- pectoration always contains coagulable albumen, which appears to be derived from the blood to which this form of sputum owes its peculiar colour. The quantity of solid matter is considerably greater than in any of the preceding forms of expectoration, amounting to more than double that met with in the chronic bronchitic variety. The ex- tremely tenacious character of genuine pneumonic sputum is probably depending upon the existence of a very tough form of mucus resulting TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 127 _ from a very active inflammatory condition of the smaller bronchial _ tubes. In phthisis the expectoration varies much according to the stage _ of the disease, and it is only, for the most part, in the latter stages, that it is generally found to differ in a marked manner both as to its phy- _ sical appearance and chemical habitudes from all other forms of sputa. _In the earlier stages of the disease it may be precisely the same as that met with in pituitous catarrh, or other decided bronchitic affections ; in the latter stages, however, it will almost always be found at some time or other, to contain large quantities of coagulable albumen, as well as the same principle in the solid form ; so that in some instances it scarcely differs in appearance from ordinary pus, of which in fact it _ mainly consists. The origin of the puriform matterin phthisis is probably _ from different sources; 1st, from the perfect softening down or fluidi- fication of tubercular deposit ; 2ndly, a secretion from the bronchial _ membrane ; and 8rdly, from the secreting lining membrane of tuber- _ cular cavities. One thousand grains of phthisical expectoration of a _ well-marked purulent character, being so diffluent that it might be poured guttatim from one vessel to another, possessing a distinct greenish tinge, were analyzed with the following results :— ER ME roche ash eceee iocen been tease eed canene kage ORT SOO Albuminous matter with a little mucus ........... 17°387 Animal matter soluble in alcohol, consisting of fatty 6177 matter, and a little extractive ............00. Reta oleae Animal extract soluble in water ..........ccseseee seen 5°840 Salines, consisting of alkaline chlorides, sulphates, and phosphates, earthy phosphatic salts, and oxide 1813 of iron. The base of the alkaline salts was chiefly soda, a little potass was nevertheless present ...... BE in tebe s cheese sires wUaiece Ws ss Rare nero ree vas sie o ys dod 1-483 1000:000 _—__—_— The above exhibits a striking similarity between the puriform variety of phthisical expectoration and actual pus. In both is an abundance of coagulable albumen, in both solid albumen, in both are extractive matters, both contain fatty matter, the same or nearly the same alkaline and earthy salts; and lastly, in both fluids a no- table quantity of oxide of iron is found. Phthisical sputa, late in the disease especially, contain a considerable quantity of fatty matter so- _ luble in alcohol and ether, and requiring a higher temperature for its _ fusion than ordinary fatty matters; other forms of expectoration, par- ticularly that of the chronic bronchitic kind, contain the same sub- stance, but never in such quantity as in genuine phthisical sputa. That crude tubercular deposit is capable of being converted by the process of softening or fluidification into pus, is rendered highly pro- _ bable from the chemical nature of hard tubercles as well as that of the _ same deposit in the most complete state of softening. From a compa- 128 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. rative chemical examination of crude tubercle and ordinary fibrine, as well as from the action of re-agents on softened tubercular matter, the following is deduced :—Ist, that crude tubercles, as met with in inci- pient phthisis, do not differ chemically from fibrine or solid albumen ; 2dly, that softened tuberculous matter differs not in its chemical ha- bitudes from ordinary purulent matter. Observations on the Disease called Cocosm by the Africans, or the ARABIAN Leprosy; the ArApaTTa of the Caribes of Guiana; the RavesycGE of Northern Europe; all of which appear to be identical ; and on the Method found most effectual in the Treatment of this Dis- ease. By Joun Hancock, M.D. The author having long since paid much attention to the leprosy observed in Guiana and the West India islands, among blacks, whites, and aborigines, was surprised to find, by the description given in the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, vol. xviii., that the radesyge of Scandinavia exhibited exactly the same train of symptoms. He therefore arrived at the conclusion, that these diseases, supposed by the learned writer in the Edinburgh Journal to be distinct, were really identical; and after detailing the characters of the cocobe, or Ara- bian leprosy, he states the result of his own observation to be totally opposed to the notion of the cocobz being in the smallest degree con- tagious, unless, possibly, under predisposition, and other concurring causes, and in the ulcerative stage. Unfortunately, in the colonies the disease is considered to be incu- rable. If attended to early, however, the symptoms may be easily ar- rested by the use of saline lenitives, with antimonial anodyne diapho- retics, vapour-baths and frictions, bleeding, spare and abstemious diet, and the several means for promoting lymphatic absorption, and all the secretions. The difficulty of the medical treatment in more advanced stages of the disease, is augmented by the aversion entertained for it, and the consequent want of accommodation and assistance. The author describes the result of his practice in some cases where cures were effected ; notices the value of opium, in combination with mercury and antimony, bleeding, saline purgatives, and regulated diet. Among other remedies, he found the Coonu-paru useful ; and describes bathing as of great and paramount advantage, especially the alternate use of warm vapour and cold effusion. “ The aborigines of Guiana, on noticing the first appearance of the disorder, in general resort to fomentations, tepid and vapour baths; and form a drink of the bark of a tree (Mouca), together with thé root of a vine termed Paramaroora,a species of Cissus, and.the bark of the Waiacano (Guiacum). This infusion stands to ferment with a portion of honey, and is taken several times a-day: it produces a copious flow of urine and perspiration, and evacuates the bowels withal. They make use also of the bark of the tree Tamootu (a nondeseript), both TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 129 internally and in fomentations. During this course, they enjoin a _ strictly abstemious diet, and prohibit the use of animal food in a great _ measure, especially the use of the manati, the capebaru, the arapaia, and several kinds of fish, which are considered as gross food.” Section G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE. : A Railway Balance Lock, designed for the purpose of Raising or Lowering a Train of Carriages by Horizontal Motion. By GrorcE ReminerTon, Jun. Mr. Remington proposes that the trains should be run on to a stage ' of wood or iron, and that the stage should be raised or lowered by wheels and axles upon tram-plates or rails, laid in a series of inclined planes made in the walls on either side of the stage; the weight of the stage and train is to be partially counterbalanced by a system of weights, and the requisite power is to be supplied by a stationary Bb engine. _ The construction and method of working was explained by reference to aplan and section ; and the author thinks that the introduction of _ this system, both as regards cheapness and despatch, will tend in a great - measure to promote the science of railways, which has been so ably introduced, and would extend the system to those places which have been considered almost inaccessible. The Treffos Pump.. By Joun Wii11aMs, of Bangor. Mr. Williams proposes to keep up a continuous supply of water, _ whatever may be the relative position of the well and of the pump, by means of an air-tight vessel or chamber, which he calls a “ Treffos ;” and which is to be filled in the first instance with water through an “aperture in the top, the aperture being completely closed before the pump is setin motion. As the piston ascends in the working barrel the water will flow in from the additional vessel; and thus that which _is attained imperfectly by use of two or more cylinders acting in succession, may be accomplished in the common house-pump. On the Expansive Action of Steam in some of the Cornish Pumping dq Engines. By W. J. HEnwoop, F.G.S. _ Mr. Henwood gave an account of experiments which he had in- stituted on the expansion of steam in the cylinders of some reciprocating engines in the Cornish mines. ‘The curved lines described by an ‘indicator were exhibited, and shown to vary, as the pressures and ~ VOL, vi. 1837. K p< 130 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. quantities of steam in the boilers, the sizes of the valves, and the loads of the engines; at least in the early part of the working stroke. The termination of the return-stroke well exhibited the benefit of eapansive working. The duty per bushel of coal consumed was shown to be from 73 to 86 millions of pounds, lifted one foot high by the consumption of each bushel of coal; and from 870 to 1085 tons lifted one foot high for one farthing of expense. ‘Tabular statements of the various elements employed, and diagrams illustrative of the conditions of the engines examined, were also exhibited. The communication of Mr. Henwood gave rise to a lengthened discussion on the duty of the Cornish engines; and Mr. Henwood explained his reasons for thinking that 125 or 120 millions was too high for an average duty. The trial which gave 125 millions was of too short a duration, not more than 24 hours; and no reliance can be placed on short trials, since there may be a considerable reservoir of heat worked out; also the engine may be in a much better condition than can usually be maintained. Mr. Henwood considered that the best duty was obtained from engines having 10 feet stroke in the cy- linder and 7 feet in the working barrel, and making from about 5 to 7 strokes in the minute ; also that the single-acting do more duty than than the double-acting engines. On the Mechanism of Waves, in relation to the Improvement of Steam Navigation. ByJoun Scott Russert, P.RS.E. Mr. Russell had at previous meetings of the British Association given an account of his investigations in the resistance of fluids to the motion of vessels, and ascertained the law of interference of the wave in modifying the nature and amount of that resistance. Since the last meeting of the Association, he had extended his ob- servations to a variety of the applications of the principles formerly developed, to certain objects of practical importance, and, amongst others, to the improvement of the navigation of such rivers as the Thames and the Clyde, where steam navigation is extensively carried on. In these rivers it was found that steam navigation was conducted under very great disadvantages, when compared with the open sea, Mr. Russell had investigated the causes of these impediments, and he had found that in shallow water one great impediment to high velocities was the generation of the great wave of translation of the displaced fluid: the effect of this great anterior wave was to alter the position and increase the anterior displacement and resistance of the fluid. The next great impediment to steam navigation consisted in the formation of lateral currents on the side of the vessel, which, having the same direction with the motion of the paddles, had the effect of diminishing the relative difference of the velocity of the paddles and of the fluid, and thus diminish the propelling power of the paddles. The third evil resulting from the use of steam in shallow rivers arose from the stern- wave or posterior surge, by which great injury was done to the banks TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 131 of the rivers, and to the smaller vessels navigating the same water. Now it had been fully proved in the course of Mr. Russell’s observation. that there was only one mode of materially diminishing all of these evils; that one mode consisted not in widening the rivers as was generally supposed, nor in giving gradual and gentle slopes to the sides of the channel, but in deepening the river and rendering its sides as nearly vertical as possible. By this means it had been found that the impediments arising from the formation of the channel were diminished to a very great amount. . The next species of wave generated by a steam vessel is the wave of unequal displacement. This wave was found to arise solely from the form of the vessel. It was this wave which was seen diverging on both _ sides of the vessel, from the prow towards the stern, and might be seen, arranged in two straight lines, extending to a great distance behind it. This wave might be greatly diminished and almost entirely removed, by giving to the lines of displacement a particular form which Mr. Russell described. a On Improvementsin Tidal Rivers. By Joun Scort Russet, F.R.S.EL. __ Mr. Russell renewed the subject of the generation and motion of waves, as connected with the improvements which were to be made in the navigation of tidal rivers. He directed his remarks especially to the tide wave, and to the practical methods which his remarks had led him to, of forming the channel so as to accelerate the tide in its course up the river, but to retard the water as much as possible on its return. The tidal wave up a river appears to follow laws very similar to the _ wave of great displacement, of which he had spoken on a previous occasion ; hence its progress was to be accelerated by deepening the _ channel and making its section rectangular. It appeared also, as the _ result of his investigations, that the wave might be made to move with rapidity in a curve by deepening the channel on the outside of the curve. This deepening the outside of the channel would have the effect of retarding the water flowing back, and thus the tidal water would _ be preserved for a much longer time than in a straight channel. Mr. Russell then proceeded to apply the theoretical principles to the explanation of the formation of bores in rivers. A New Safety Lamp. By W. LeiTuHeep. A New Telegraph. By Dr. Cuanny, Newcastle. — Telegraphic Communication on Railroads. By Barnarp L, Watson. K@2 132 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. On the Resistance to Railway Trains. By Dr. LARDNER*. The object of this communication was to direct attention to the principles which ought to be preserved in determining railway con- stants, and especially to the importance of taking into the account the moment of inertion of the wheels, which had been generally omitted. Dr. Lardner detailed generally the various resistances to which the motion of a train is subject; and, having stated his objection to the use of the dyanometer, proceeded to explain the method which he would fecommend. The principle is as follows: “Let an engine be loaded with as heavy a train as it is capable of drawing at a very slow and uniform speed, having its steam-valve fully open, and no steam blowing off at the safety-valve. Let care also be taken that the diameter of the steam-pipe, from the boiler to the cylinder, shall bear a considerable ratio to the diameters of the cylinders. Under such circumstances we may, without sensible error, consider the pressure of steam in the boiler and the cylinders to be the same; and if no steam blow off from the safety-valve, the indication of the lever will be a true measure of the pressure of the steam upon the pistons of the cylinders. This pressure is transmitted to the cranks, the mean leverage of which being known, the amount of force transmitted to the point where the driving wheels rest upon the rails is a matter of casy calculation. This will evidently constitute the gross amount of the tractive force exerted by the engine; and this foree may be con- sidered as expended in moving the train and the engine, and will be the tractive force sought.”+ The important details of this communication will be found in the Railway Magazine as already referred to. A Flexible Suspension Bridge. By W. J. Curtis. - The peculiar feature of this bridge is the absence of a main chain ; each point is sustained by four forces, viz. two bars carried over each pier. Onan Instrument for ascertaining the Focal Length of Spectacles. By Joun Isaac Hawkins. Mr. Hawkins mentioned some facts respecting the differences in the distances betwixt the eyes of different individuals, and the focal distance of the right and left eye. In one extreme case this differ- ence was more than 30 inches, the focal distance of one eye being 36, and of the other only 3 inches. * For an account of this communication and the calculations, see Railway Maga- zine, November, 1837, t Ibid. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 133 On the Construction of Sea Walls and Embankments. By Joun Scotr Russert, F.RSE. Mr. Russell, from his various researches on the formation of waves, and the methods of increasing or diminishing their velocity, had come to the conclusion that the best form of sea walls and embankments for breaking the waves gradually is a parabolic curve, with the convexity upwards. On the Duty of the Cornish Engines. By Mr. Joun Taytor, F.RS., §¢. Mr. John Taylor gave some explanation respecting the methods of ascertaining the duty of Cornish engines. He confirmed the state- ment that one engine had performed 125 millions; but as this experi- ment only lasted 26 hours, he agreed with Mr. Henwood in consider- ing that much importance was not to be attached to this trial. He considered the method adopted as a perfectly fair one for ascertaining the comparative duties of engines; but it was never asserted that the quantity of water was actually delivered at the adit. The quantity of coals consumed was also another very good test of the duty done, and an examination into the account-books of the different mines con- firmed the reports of the duty done. On Preventing the Dangers from Collision, and from Fire in Vessels. By Mr. WinLiams. The method now proposed consists in dividing the vessel into several compartments, by division bulk-heads, built up completely through the vessel, similar to the plan which has been adopted in the iron steamers. Thus, should any aperture be made by collision, the water would not extend through the whole vessel, as in the case of the Apollo, but would be confined to the compartment in which the injury takes place. In case of fire, the compartments in which the fire existed might be filled with water without any danger to the rest of the vessel; these bulk-heads would also prevent the existence of any strong current of air throughout the vessel. Experiments on the Equilibrium of the Arch. By Professor Mosetry, King’s College, London. The results of experiments on the equilibrium of the arch, laid by Professor Moseley before the Section, confirm the theoretical conclu- sions at which he had already arrived, in papers read before the Cam- bridge Philosophical Society. In flat arches, the breadth of whose voussoirs are the same, the thrust is found to be as the square of the span, and altogether independent of the depths of the voussoirs. In circular arches, the ratio of the depth of whose voussoirs to their radii 134 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. is the same, the thrust is as the square of the radius for the same angle of the semi-arch. The paper was accompanied by diagrams illustrating the manner of experimenting on the arch, and with tables showing the agreements betwixt the theoretical and the practical con- clusions. In connection with his researches on the theory of the arch, the au- thor has instituted experiments to determine the greatest number of voussoirs which could be made to stand in the form of a circular arch. On the Quality of Iron for Railways. By D. Musuer. Respecting the qualities most essential for railway iron, Mr. Mushet premises the following remarks :— 1. That a crystalline arrangement of the fracture of bar iron is incompatible with great strength and fibre, and that it is essential to railway iron that it should be hard and fibrous. 2. The more frequently iron is heated or melted in the course of its completion as bar iron, the greater is its tendency to crystallize and become brittle whea cold. This is in some measure prevented by repeated rollings ; but fibre acquired in this way is, to a certain extent, artificial ; for where native fibre is absent, heating and cooling will re- store the crystalline arrangement and weaken the tenacity of the iron when cold. 3. Excessive decarbonization, commonly called refining, which tends to deprive the iron of its last portion of carbon, produces a quality of malleable iron, soft, and easily abraded by rubbing or friction; and therefore, in point of durability, not well calculated for rail iron. 4. Conversely, iron manufactured so as to retain the last and con- sequently the most intimately united portions of carbon, or to have this substance communicated to it in minute portions in working, is better caleulated, provided the fibre is not injured, for rail-making on two accounts, because it will wear less by rubbing, and be subject to less waste from oxidation. 5. Bar or malleable iron has a tendency to crystallize in the cooling, in proportion to the size of the manufactured mass; a circumstance deserving the greatest consideration on the part of the engineer in de- termining the form or shape of his rails. 6. Continued vibration, such as is produced by the motion of an engine or waggon travelling on a railway, causes iron to crystallize and to a certain degree become brittle. Hence the importance of making rails from iron full of fibre, so as to postpone the tendency to crystallization to as remote a time as possible. 7. Unless abridged or destroyed, by the repeated heatings and fusions to which iron is subjected in its various manipulations, the quantity and strength of fibre developed will mainly depend upon the degree or proportion of carbonaceous matter originally contained in the pig iron from which it has been manufactured. 8. It is essential in rail-making to have a quality of iron that will TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 135 stand, without dropping or opening at the rolls, a degree of heat ca- pable of compactly and adhesively welding the piles together, so as to prevent exfoliation or a separation of the parts when subjected to railroad traffic. The qualities most essential for railway iron being fibre and hardness, the attention of the author has been especially directed to the manner of iron having all these qualities in the highest possible degree. Mr. Mushet considers that the greatest possible quantity of fibre, with a superior degree of hardness and durability, may be produced by avoiding the process and waste of the refinery. The pig iron is to be at once introduced into the puddling furnace, where being subjected to a temperature just sufficient for fusion, some finely-ground rich iron ore is thrown upon it and worked by the puddler into the iron. The usual process of the hammer and the rolls is then gone through. Several specimens of iron made at different works were exhibited. On the Teeth of Wheels. By Rozpert Witxis, M. A., Jacksonian Professor in the University of Cambridge. Two wheels set out by the common plan, with epicycloidal teeth at the same pitch, will work perfectly well; but a third wheel of different diameter, with teeth at the same pitch, will not work with either of them. To obviate this circumstance, Professor Willis proposes that the teeth should be described on the following principle: If two pitch lines be taken, and a tracing circle of any diameter, and an external epicy- cloid be traced on the driver, and an internal epicycloid on the driven wheel, the teeth will move each other truly. Professor Willis exhibited also a form of tooth peculiarly applicable to cranes, or wherever the work is only one way and great strength is required. On the Construction of Vessels with Safety Keels. By Mr. Lane, of her Majesty's Dock Yard, Woolwich. On a New Perspective Drawing Board for Mechanical Drawings. By Mr. Krncs ey. On Canals and Railways in America. By Professor Henry, Prince Town College. Professor Henry gave a most interesting account of the internal communication in the United States, and presented to the Section a map, showing the canals and railways complete or in progress. It appears that 2000 miles of canal and 1800 miles of railway are com- pleted, and that near 3000 miles of railway were in progress; for par- ticular accounts of which he referred to the American Almanac. 136 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. On Mechanical Sculpture, with Specimens. By Joun Isaac HAWKINS. On a New Method of obtaining an Artificial Horizon at Sea. By W. Errricx. On the Application of Steam to Long Voyages. By Dr. LARDNER. On the Ventilation of Tunnels. By Witt1am West, of Leeds. The writer has found, by experiments repeated under various cir- cumstances in the tunnel on the Leeds and Selby Railway, that even when the external atmosphere is as near to perfect stillness as is common in this climate, an atmospheric current passes through the tunnel with sufficient rapidity to prevent the loss from hot air or gain from cold of more than a very few degrees; and this takes place almost entirely at the entrance, while without rapid transmission it would of course soon reach the mean temperature of the spot. Sometimes, however, the thermometer shows that the air which enters at the windward end passes up the nearest shaft, leaving the remainder of the tunnel worse ventilated than if no shaft existed. As the results of his experiments, he submits :— 1. That the legislature and the public need apprehend no danger from the stagnation of air in railway tunnels, while they have abundant protection in the enormous cost against any company increasing without occasion either their number or their length. 2. That it is at least doubtful whether open shafts do not rather impede than promote effectual ventilation from end to end. STATISTICS. A Brief Memoir of the Growth, Progress, and Extent of the Trade be- tween the United Kingdom and the United States of America, from the beginning of the Eighteenth Century to the present time. By G. R. Porrer, Vice-President of the Statistical Society of London. This memoir, after reciting the date of the first settlement of each of the British colonies now included in the confederation forming “The United States of America,” contains notices, from the writings of Sir Josiah Child and others, indicating the nature and extent of the commercial intercourse maintained by them with the parent country in the years which immediately followed the dates of their settlement. Tables are given in an appendix to the memoir, wherein the further TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 137 progress of that intercourse is more minutely traced, first to the period of the independence of the United States and afterwards to the year 1836. It appears from these data, that so long as the British American provinces continued under the operation of our colonial system, and while their trading was consequently limited to this country, the in- crease of their imports and exports bore an inedequate proportion to the increased number of the colonists. In 1749, when the population of the provinces was 1,046,000, the value of their imports and exports was £2,117,845. In 1774, when the struggle for independence was begun, the population was estimated at 2,803,625 ; and if the trade had increased in an equal degree, the amount of imports and exports should have been £5,676,523, instead of the actual amount £3,964,288 : thus showing a virtual falling off of 30 per cent. In 1790, when the first census of the United States was taken, the population was 3,929,328, and the amount of trade with England £4,622,851. In 1835, the po- pulation was estimated at 14,784,589, and the trade with England amounted to £25,671,602. Comparing this increase of population and trade respectively with the number and amount ascertained at different intermediate periods, the following results are presented. Increase per cent. in 1835 of Chat ae Le Population. Trade. Compared Wnt. 19D) ss.26 50k adeweecnmnate IDC eas. vais 455 ” USOO Me a.iah Wa atiacewere’s ontoet WO wk acetate l TT ” RO eee eis, cob mnunns asd OANiane cue'e smn eness 146 9 LBZ ben tee cetacean cceh ORO vec tes seccesee! ZOD » LASO tees cbe bia ME. seeds SF The growth of the American cotton trade is traced from its begin- ning in 1787 to the year 1836, in which we received from the United States 218,615,692lbs. of raw cotton, valued at ten millions sterling. Other tables are given, showing the tonnage of shipping employed in the foreign trade of the United States, distinguishing American and Bri- tish vessels from those under all other flags. These tables are followed by an historical sketch of the progress of the British trade with Ame- rica, and of the causes and cousequenees of the interruptions to which it was exposed through the issue of Napoleon’s Milan and Berlin de- crees, and the retaliatory steps to which those measures led. The me- moir closes with a statement of the proportions which the trade be- tween England and the American republic bore to the whole foreign trade of each country respectively in each year, from 1821 to 1835. In the appendix are tables, drawn from our official returns, showing the actual value of British manufactures shipped to the United States in each year, from 1805 to 1836; the quantities of the chief articles of American produce imported, and the quantities and value of the chief articles of British manufacture exported to the United States in each year, from 1827 to 1836 ; together with parallel statements compiled | from returns made to Congress by the American executive govern- ment. 138 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. On the Wages of Labourers in Manufacturing Districts. By Mr. Suaney. On the State of Education in the Borough of Bolton in 1837. By Mr. Asuwortn. The return made to government in 1833 on the state of education has been found very defective. In Bolton there have been no means of testing its correctness; but, if accurate, there has been a very re- markable increase in the number of scholars, being 25 per cent. more of day scholars and 40 per cent. more of Sunday scholars. There are now 2] Sunday schools, with 9867 scholars, or 193 per cent. of the population, of whom about 2000 may be estimated as being in attendance both at daily schools and Sunday schools, leaving the number of 7867, or 15% per cent. of the population, receiving instruc- tion at Sunday schools only. There are 66 day and evening schools, containing 3227 scholars, or §° per cent. ; Total number of scholars 11,094, or about 22+ per cent. of the pre- sent population, estimated at about 50,000. Children equal in number to 20 per cent. of the population are not in attendance at any school whatever. In the Sunday schools were found— 2014 scholars in 4 schools connected with the Church Establish- ment. 1085 scholars in 1 Roman Catholic school. 6768 scholars in 16 schools belonging to various classes of Dis- senters. In Bolton there are 5 charity schools, with 692 scholars, including the two infant schools. There is also a grammar school, whose scholars have been entered at 120, being the number reported to government, the master having declined to give the agent any information orf the subject. The income was stated to the committee to be £450. Of superior schools for the children of persons in good circum- stances there appear to be 17, with 721 scholars. Of common boys’ schools there are 15, with 851 scholars. Of common girls’ schools........ 5, 209 Of Dame schools)... «e660 65 6 eu 23, 634 —944 being boys and 750 girls, all the boys’ schools containing some girls, and vice versa. Remarks on the Report of the State of Education in Liverpool, pre- sented to the British Association in 1836. By Mr. Merritt. The author dissenting from the numerical results stated in the re~ port alluded to (of which an abstract is given in the preceding volume, p- 133.), assigned his reasons for this difference of opinion. Mr. Tate also presented remarks on the same subject. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 139 | On the State of Crime in the Borough of Liverpool. By Mr. Wavmstey. The author presented returns relating to Liverpool, containing the number of persons brought before the magistrates, and the number committed ; the number of felons apprehended, and the number com- mitted; and the ages of the juvenile felons. In the year 1835, 13,506 were taken into custody, 2138 of whom were committed. In 1836, 16,830 were taken into custody, of whom 3343 were committed. Up to the 13th of September, 1837 (eight months), the number taken into custody was 12,709, of whom 2849 were committed. From July 1835 to July 1836, the number of juvenile thieves apprehended under eighteen years of age, was 924, of whom 378 were committed. From July 1836 to 13th of September 1837, the number of juvenile thieves ap- prehended was 2339, of whom 1096 were committed. There were in custody, during the same period, upwards of 1500 well-known adult thieves. _— Abstract of the Report made by the Regents of the University of the State of New York. By Dr. W. C. Tayror. —— On Improvements in Agriculture. By G. W. Haut. On Spade Husbandry. By Dr. Yevuowy. —$—_—= On the Localities of the Plague in Constantinople. By Mr. Urquuarr. The author stated, as the result of three years’ observations, that the plague, if it did not originate in localities close to cemetries, was greatly aggravated by the proximity of burial grounds, especially when the towns and villages stood on a lower level than the neighbouring ceme- tries. Several statements corroborative of this view of the injurious effects of effluvia from the shallow Turkish graves, were advanced by other members of the section. On the Reclaiming of the Bog of Critt, in the County of Galway. By Mr. Bermincuam. On the Condition of the Poor of Bristol—an Inquiry now carrying on by the Statistical Society of Bristol. By C. B. Fripp. The inquiry, though much advanced, being still in progress, it ap- pears proper to defer an abstract of the results obtained till the whole is completed. 140 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. On the Educational Statistics of the Parish of Sidlesham, in Kent. By the Rev. F. Dz Soyvres. Communicated by C. B. Fripp. Dame schools, 1, 15 Sunday do, 2, 123 40 Sunday scholars also attend day-schools. — 931 Adult Population. Agricultural class. Able to read ......males...... 55 married ; 28 unmarried. females .... 83 Q7 Not able to read ..males......42 married; 22 unmarried. females .... 30 1 Miscellaneous class. Able to read ...... males......38 married; 16 unmarried. females .... 40 9 Not able to read....males...... 6 married; 3 unmarried. females.... 6 An Inquiry into the Origin, Procedure, and Results of the Strike of the Operative Cotton-Spinners of Preston, from October 1836 to Febru- ary 1837. By Mr. Asuwonrtn, of Bolton. In October 1836, there were in Preston and its vicinity, 42 cotton- mills, giving employment to 8500 hands, and requiring about 1200 horse power to work them. The capital invested in the buildings, TNACHINCEY pCO. WAS ADOUL cas scat amaemceete s Me) a aloe ee £550,000 ‘The -workine capital, BB0Ue. oo. eset ite oo ne te 250,000 ee Total. . £800,000 In consequence of a struggle between the operatives and the ma- sters, concerning the rate of wages, which the masters proposed to ad- vance 10 per cent., the operatives ceased working on the 5th of No- vember, when 660 spinners, 1320 piecers (children employed by the spinners), 6100 card-room hands, reelers, and power-loom weavers, 420 overlookers, packers, engineers, &c., making in all 8500 persons, were without employment. Weekly payments were made to them from the funds of the “ Trades’ Union” previously established, but the distress became great, and in December, notwithstanding the grant of £100 from the corporation, “ universal and intense.” The mills were re-opened by the masters, to such as chose to work, on the 9th of January, and the scale of prices was fixed as previously offered by the masters, viz. an advance of 10 percent. By degrees, almost all the work-people resumed their employments, and on the 5th of Fe- bruary the mills were in full operation. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 141 The following estimate was made of the direct pecuniary loss to all classes of operatives in consequence of the turn-out. Wages of 660 spinners for 13 weeks ...... 22s. 6d. = £9,652 Gt'1320 precars). See sues .. 58.6d.= 4,719 of 6520 card-room hands, &e. ...... 9s. = 38,142 8500 Estimated loss sustained by hand-loom weavers in consequence of the turn-out ........... 2-006. 9,500 Estimated loss sustained by clerks, waggoners, carters, mechanics, dressers, sizers, &C. .....- 8,000 otal: 25% 70,013 From which must be deducted Estimated amount of wages earned between 9th of January and 5th of February .............. 5,013 Estimated value of relief given by masters...... 1,040 Other private charity and parochial relief ...... 2,500 Allowance to spinners and piecers from the funds SRS TING A catah tie pes wae al ea anti 26 5. Dae 4,290 12,803 Leaving a nett pecuniary loss to the whole body of Preston operatives of .......000.. eee ee 57,210 Loss to the masters (three months’ interest on IEEE MAN) cn ct Sad ee etna onc auaie abeays a femal & 45,000 Ties to shopkeepers: .. i ¢ 0005 gen eih ne eee wins 4,986 Total loss to the town and trade of Preston ...... £107,196 od Report of a Committee of the Manchester Statistical Society, on the condition of the Working Classes in an extensive Manufacturing District, in 1834, 1835, and 1836. This inquiry embraced, Manchester, with a population of about 200,000 MAlLOTs), Seles seth co ee cea tee ea eee edet- 05,000 BUYS 5 cies) Hk RRM GR ov ert eeeuat 220,000 INGHEODI 230.05 oes coda eed aaa savebeabssdeceves ete 225000 Daly MELAS AL iva ave ve asbucecessencat ckyy200 Droeabinfield, jv get aeisen sont 8,600 822,800 _ The information was obtained by agents employed to visit every dwelling, and was by them recorded in the manner exemplified in the annexed form. The information thus collected was classified in aseries of tables, _ which were accompanied by an explanatory report, 142 SEVENTH REPORT— 1837. The whole has since been published for the Manchester Statistical Society, by Messrs. James Ridgway and Son. 2 ff et| House or Cellar. Number of Rooms in the House or Cellar. ches : Aa Number of Families in the House or Cellar. A = a it Name. : Male. irs ne fount | Number of Adults. ool ee : Z es? Male. ; ss | vada Number of Children. — tt . : Church of England. —= =| ee Religious Profession of the | Drees seme. _| "Head of each Family + isepeel English. aleniee asa Trish. 5 Ra Snoteh Country of the Head of aaa WwW ack each Family. Pia: | Foreigners. 2 a: fs Occupation or Trade of the Head of each Family. Bei | wee eeeee Occupation or Trade of any other Members of the Family. sent eeeeee sroquadieg sax eel enecereeee Number of Adults in the Family earning Wages. I dq le i i: : Number of Children in the Family earning Wages. FP eine Male. Number of Children attend- Ske? a gies Female. ing a Day School. agi re Male. Number of Children attend- bol fe Female. ing a Sunday School. Number of Sleeping Rooms for the Family. | Number of Beds for the Family. Sufficient supply of Water. I I ye = 2 Total weekly Payment for Schooling of Children. = o Ey Are there any Books in the House? Ss S s Dwelling comfortable. ¥ ES 3 Dwelling well furnished. Pa & Sao Weekly Rent. SS Seer Number of Rooms for the Family. -_ i) sanz "saX{T sok “aATyeu| * How long has the Family been resident in the Town? “svat ¢]* sivak F ne is a rel o ee oo a o p. oo to oo ne oO a ao <4 oO p = Zn = oO an trreeeeeeqgQT9g aDUaILIO | Name of Street. ON ‘on | ON Does the Head of the family belong to any Benefit Society. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 143° Account of the Inhabited Courts and Cellars in Liverpool, Sc. Whilst conducting the inquiry into the state of Education in Liver- pool, in 1835-6, the agent of the Manchester Statistical Society took an account of the number of inhabited courts, and of the cellars occu- pied as dwellings in that borough, of which the following is the summary :— Courts. Cellars. Parish of Liverpool .........scscscssssssceesessee L964 6506 Portions of four other townships, included within the limits of the borough ...... vides 9 OT 987 Total in the borough of Liverpool ... 2271 ... 7493* Estimated population of the borough ............. 230,000. No courts were counted, in which two or more families did not re- side, and above one-third of the whole number contained six or more families. Few of the courts had more than one outlet. No cellars were included in the above number in which the occupants did not sleep, as well as live by day; nor was any account taken of those occupied as gin-shops. ‘The great proportion of the inhabited cellars were dark, damp, confined, ill-ventilated, and dirty. From the evidence afforded by this inquiry, it appears that, taking an average of five to each cellar, there must be about 15 per cent. of the entire population of Liverpool occupying cellar residences ; but alowing 4°17 to each cellar, (the average in Manchester and Salford,) there would be 31,000 persons inhabiting cellars in Liverpool, out of a total population of 230,000 ; or, taking the working population at two- thirds of the whole, about 20 per cent. of that portion of the community. In York no inhabited cellars were found. : The proportion of the working population residing in cellars was found to be, In the borough of Manchester ............ 112 per cent. In the borough of Salford .................. 8 a Ba Dury ics .cscaertens Pe aaemecnes sees en. 4 oer 5 Peeevsliton \.. sudeatshevdGataes ea cdnaan vescne..) Le a PO aCAbY OPIN E. 4. ccsapas Maen aby she van éoxsee'de 14 “ 1 Tas D7 S77) UR 12 99 * This report having caused much surprise, an examination was immediately insti- tuted ; and, on the following day, Mr. Adam Hodgson presented to the Section the following return, made by the inspectors to Mr. M. J. Whitty, head constable :—. North Division .......sssssscvees 4,004 Inhabited Cellars. South ditto wuddedectecccsese 3,858 ditto. Patatiers«ss 7,862 The excess of 369 cellars, in Mr. Hodgson’s return, is accounted for by the extén- sion of building since the date of the first inquiry. In Toxteth, a very rapidly increa- sing district of the borough, a cellar dwelling is attached to almost every new house in the streets inhabited by the working classes, 144 SEVENTH REPORT—1837. Inquiry into the State of Education in the City of York. Py the Man- chester Statistical Society. This inquiry was carried on in 1836 under the direction of Mr. W. R. Greg, Mr. W. Langton, and Mr. H. Romilly, and the report showed the followed results :— The number found in attendance at the different schools in the city was 5591, of whom 2228 or 7:96 per cent. of the population attended day and evening schools only. 2521 or 9 per cent. of the population attended both day and Sun- —_ ——- day schools. 4749 or 16°96 per cent. of the population. 842 or 3:01 per cent. of the population attended Sunday schools — Ss --—— only. 5591 or 19°97 per cent. of the population. The population of the city is taken at 28,000 in this calculation, which shows that nearly one-fifth of the population is in attendance at schools. It is assumed that the number of children in the city between the ages of 5 and 15 years is about 7000, and the general summary shows that only about 4700 of the children between 5 and 15 can have been in attendance at school at the date of the inquiry ; thus above 33 out of every 100 must be absent from school. This approaches very closely to the result shown in the examination of Manchester and Salford. In the manufacturing districts, however, above half of the total number of scholars were found to attend only a Sunday school; while in York the proportion attending Sunday schools only is 15 per cent. Several errors appear to have occurred in the returns made to the Government in 1833, so that it could not be exactly ascertained what: increase or otherwise had taken place since that time. An account of the state of education in York was collected in 1826 by a Committee of the Society of Friends, a copy of which accom- panies this report ; but as its principle of classification is different, it shows no result which allows of a close comparison with the present report. The tables annexed to the report classified in figures are the most important features of the state of education in the city of York. Some of these are annexed. —S ls —— — = ey TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 145 In the following tables York is compared with other towns examined _ by the Manchester Statistical Society. SUPPLEMENTARY TABLE.—I.: ESTIMATED POPULATION. 200,000. 55,000. 20,000. 230,000. 28,000. PEK CENTAGE OF THE POPU- | Manchester, | Salford. | Bury. | Liverpool. | York. LATION WHO cee | ee ee Ee eee Attend Dame Schools ......... 2°36 2:81 | 4-20 2°28 2-66 Common Day ......... 3:40 3:30 | 4:04 2°65 1:96 Superior Private ...... 1-47 1:60 87 1:77 2-56 RANI even avons cate scnness 32 “68 | 1:42 ‘96 | 1:48 Evening .......sseeseceees 73 “96 75 “24 “15 Endowed and Charity 1:78 255 | 1:84 4:91 8:15 Total who atttend Day Schools 10:06 11:90 | 13-12 12-81 | 16-96 Beeteqnnsvecsevees Sunday ... only 11:59 11°53 | 15-51 1:62 301 —_——— |———_—_|______ Total who attend any Schools 21:65 23°43 | 28-63 14-43 19-97 SUPPLEMENTARY TABLE.—II. PER CENTAGE OF THE TOTAL | Manchester. | Salford. | Bury. | Liverpool. | York. NO. OF SCHOLARS WHO So EE EO | El ee ee Attend Dame Schools ......... 10-90 11-97 | 14:67) 15:79 | 13:33 Common Day ......... 15°68 14-08 | 14:]1 18:37 9-82 Superior Private ...... 6:77 6°85 | 3:03 12:30 12-80 WTAE acscasscewccsustve at 1:50 2°89 | 4:96 6°64 7-44 Evening ........ssesseceee 3:37 4:08 | 264) 1°65 75 Endowed and Charity 8:24 10:89 | 643] 34:04 | 40:80 Total who attend Day Schools 46-46 50°76 | 45°84 88-79 84-94 Ditto......... Sunday ... only 53°54 49-24 | 54:16) 11-21 15-06 Grand Total......... 100- 100- 100° -} 100: 100- VOL. vi. 1837. 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Ssh ie. tS ana! Seah t is jf AY, 'g? : “> : te LIFE MEMBERS. HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS THE DUKE OF SUSSEX, PRESIDENT OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. A Abbatt, Richard, F.R.S., Epping, Essex. Abbott, Joseph, 16, Gloucester Street, Dublin. Abell, Joshua, 27, Eustace St., Dublin. Abercrombie, John, M.D., F.R.S.E.,Edin- burgh. ; Ablet, Joseph, Ruthin, North Wales. Abraham, J. H., F.L.S., Sheffield. Acland, Sir T.D., Bart., Killerton, Devon. Adair, John, 11, Mountjoy Sq., Dublin. Adam, Walter, M.D., Edinburgh. Adamson, J., F.L.S., F.S.A., M.R.S.L., Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Adare, Lord Viscount, B.A., Dublin. Adeane, H, J., Babraham, Cambridge- shire. Ainsworth, Peter, M.P., Bolton. Airy, G. B., Astron. Royal, Greenwich. Alderson, James, M.D., Hull. Alexander, Edward N., F.S.A., Sec. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Halifax. Alexander, Robert, F.R.S., Court, Temple. Allen, William, 50, Henry St., Dublin, Allis, Thomas, York. Allman, W., Prof. of Botany, Dublin. Alston, John, Glasgow. Amery, John. F.S.A., Stourbridge. Andrews, Thomas, M.D., Belfast. Anthony, Charles, Clifton. Apjohn, James, M.D., Prof. of Chemistry, Royal Coll. Surg., Dublin. Armstrong, George, India Buildings, Li- verpool. Arnott, G. A. Walker, Kinross-shire. Arnott, Neill, M.D., 38, Bedford Sq. Arrow, John James, Edinburgh. Ash, Rev. E. J., M.A., Tutor of Christ’s _ Coll., Cambridge. Ashhurst, Rev. T. H., D.C.L., All-Souls’ College, Oxford. Ashton, Thomas, Hyde, Cheshire. Ashton, Thomas, Jun., Hyde, Cheshire. Ashworth, Edmund, Manchester. Ashworth, Henry, Manchester. Aspland, Rev. Robert, Hackney. Aspland, Rev. R. Brooke, M.A., Bristol. Atkinson, James, York. Auldjo, John, F.G.S., London, 5, Essex B. Babbage, Charles, F.R.S. L. and E., Lucasian Prof. of Mathematics, Cam= bridge, 1, Dorset St., London. Babbage, B. H., London. Babington, C. C., M.A., St, John’s Coll., Cambridge. Bache, Rev. Samuel, Edgbaston, Bir- mingham. Backhouse, Thos. Jas., Sunderland. Bagot, Thomas N., County of Galway. Bailey, Samuel, Sheffield. Bald, John, Dublin. Baldwin, Rev. J., M.A., Christ’s College, Cambridge. Ball, John, 85, Stephen’s Green South, Dublin. Ball, Richard, Taunton. Ball, Robert, M.R.I.A., Mountjoy Sq. North, Dublin. Barclay, Charles, F,A.S., F.G.S., Bury Hill, Dorking. Barker, Francis, M.D., Prof. Chem., T.C., Dublin. Barker, Richard, M.D., M.R.D,S., 1238, Great Britain Street, Dublin. : Barlow, Edward, Bristol. Barlow, Francis, Lower Gardiner Street, Dublin. Barlow, Major, 5, Gr. George St., Dublin. Barlow, Peter, 5, Gr. George St., Dublin. Barnes, Rev. Joseph W., M.A., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Baron, John, M.D., F.R.S., Gloucester. Barton, John, 44, Mary Street, Dublin. Bateman, James, F.L.S., Knypersly Hall, near Congleton, Bateson, James Glynn, 36, Anne Street, Liverpool. Bayldon, John, York. Bayley, Rev. J., M.A., Eton, Beale, Samuel, Birmingham. Beale, Capt., Toronto, Upper Canada. Beamish, Richard, Sans Souci, Cork. Bean, R. H., Blackwell Hill, near Bristol. Beaufoy, Henry, F.R.S., South Lambeth. Belcombe, H.S., M.D., York. Belgrave, Rev. T,, M.A.,North Kilworth, Leicestershire, Bell, Jacob, 338, Oxford Street, A2 4 LIFE MEMBERS. Bell, Thomas, F.R.S., F.L.S., Prof. of Zoology, King’s College, London, 17, New Broad Street. Bell, Thomas, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Bell, William, Edinburgh. Bellingham, Sir Alan, Castle Bellingham. Bengough, Geo., Cotham Lodge, Clifton. Benson, Robert, Jun., Liverpool. Bergin, Thomas F., 5, Westland Row, Dublin. Bickersteth, Rob., Rodney St., Liverpool. Bingham, Rev. Wm., B.A., St. Mary’s Hall, Oxford. Birks, J. R., Trinity College, Cambridge. Birmingham, Thos., Kilmanna, Kilconnel. Black, James, M.D., Bolton. Blackburn, Bewicke, Clapham Common. Blackburn, Charles, B.A., 40, Ken- sington Square. Blackburne, Rev. John, Attercliffe, Shef- field. Blackburne, Rt. Hon. Francis, Dublin. Blackmore, John, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Blackwall, John, F.L.S., Crumpsall Hall, Manchester. Blackwell, Thos. E., Hungerford, Berks. Blake, Malachi, M.D., Taunton. Blake, William, Crewkerne. Bland, Rev. Miles, D.D., F.R.S., F.A.5., Ramsgate. Blanshard, William, York. Blick, Rev. C., B.D., Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge. Bliss, Rev. Philip, D.C.L., Registrar of the University of Oxford. Blood, W. Bindon, F.R.S.E., &c., Edin- burgh. Blore, Edward, F.S.A., 62, Welbeck St. Blundell, R.H., Liverpool. Blunt, Henry, Shrewsbury. Boase, C. W., M.G.S.C., Dundee. Boddington, Benj., Badger Hall, Shiffnall, Salop. Bodley, Thomas, Brighton. Bolton, R. L., Gambier Terr., Liverpool. Bond, H.I.H., M.D., Cambridge. Bond, Walter M., Armagh. Boothman, Thomas, Manchester. Rotfield, Beriah, Norton Hall, Daventry. Botfield, Thos., F.R. and G.S., Hopton Court, near Bewdley. Boult, E.S., Chatham Street, Liverpool. Bourne, J.D., Rodney Street, Liverpool. Bowman, J. E., Elm Place, New Stret- ford Road, Manchester. Bowstead, Rev. James, M.A., Fellow of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. Boyle, Alex., M.R.D.S., 35, College Green, Dublia Brabant, R. H., M.D., Devizes. Bradshaw, Rev. John, Lambey Parson- age, Lisburne. Brady, D. F., 58, Old Dominick Street, Dublin. : Braham, John, Bristol. Brancker, Rev. Thomas, Fellow of Wad- ham College, Oxford. Brandreth, I. M., Preston. Bridstock, W. P., F.G.S., Stoke Hill, Guildford. Briggs, Col. John, M.R.I.A., London. Bright, Rich., Ham Green, near Bristol. Brisbane, Sir Thomas M., K.C.B., M.A., Cam., F.R.S.L. & E., Makerstown, Kelso. Brocklebank, Thomas, Mount Pleasant, Liverpool. Brooke, Charles, Gower Street. Brooke, H. J., F.R.S., F.G.S., Stockwell Place. Brown, G. B., Halifax. Brown, Robert, D.C.L., F.R.S.L. & E., V.P.L.S., M.R.LA., &., 17, Dean St., Soho. Brown, Alex., Richmond Hill, Liverpool. Brown, John, F.G.S., Colchester. Brown, Wm., Richmond Hill, Liverpool. Bruce, Halliday, M.R.D.S., 37, Dame Street, Dublin. Brunel, I. K., F.R.S., 18, Duke Street, Westminster. Bryce, James, M.A., F.G.S., Belfast. Bryce, Rev. R. J., LL.D., Principal of the Academy, Belfast. Buchanan, D.C., Everton, Liverpool. Buckland, Rev. William, D.D.,V.P.G.S., F.R.S., Canon of Christ Church, Prof, of Geology, Oxford. Buddle, John, Wallsend, Newcastle. Bulman, John, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Bunch, Rev. R. J., M.A., Fellow of Em- manuel College, Cambridge. Burchell, W. J., F.L.S., Fulham. Burgoyne, Col., M.R.I.A., Board of Works, Dublin. Burke, Francis, 5, Upper Rutland St., Dublin. Burlington, Earl of, F.R.S., Chancellor of the University of London, 10, Belgrave Square. Burn, William, F.R.S., Edinburgh. Bushell, C., Bedford Street, Liverpool. Buxton, Edward North, Upton, Byng, W. B., Staines. C. Cadell, Robert, Edinburgh. Cairns, Nathan, Liverpool. a te EE a LIFE MEMBERS. 5 Caldwell, Robert, 9, Bachelor’s Walk, - Dublin. Campbell, Sir H. H. P., Bart., March- * mont House, Greenlaw, Berwick. Campbell, Jas., Edinburgh. Canterbury, His Grace the Archbishop of, Lambeth Palace. Cape, Rev. Jos., M.A., Fellow of Clare Hall, Cambridge. Carlisle, Thomas, Penpark, Westbury. Carmichael, Andrew, M.R.I.A., 24, Pa- lace Row, Dublin. Carmichael, H., 18, Hume St., Dublin. Carmichael, Richard, M.R.I.A., Dublin. Carne, Joseph, F.R.S., F.G.S., Penzance, Cornwall. Carpenter, Rev. Lant, LL.D., Bristol. Carpmall, Wm., Lincoln’s Inn, London. Cartmell, Dr. William, Carlisle. Cartmell, James, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. Cartwright, Rev. R. B., Shirehampton. Cash, George, M.R.I.A., 34, Rutland Square West, Dublin. Castle, Robert, Elm Cottage, Redland, Bristol. Cattle, Robert, York. Cayley, Sir George, Bart., M.P., Bromp- ton, near Malton. Cayley, Digby, Brompton, near Malton. Cayley, E.S., M.P., Wydale, Malton. Challis, Rev. Prof. James, M.A., Ob- servatory, Cambridge. Chalmers, Rev. Thomas, D.D., Professor of Divinity in the Univ. of Edinburgh. Chance, L. R., New Inn Hall, Bir- mingham. Chantrey, Sir Fr., D.C.L., R.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Pimlico. Cheshire, John, Hartford, Cheshire. Chevallier, Rev. T., B.D., New Town, Cambridge. Christie, S. H., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics, Woolwich. Christison, Rob., M.D., F.R.S.E., Prof. of Materia Medica, Edinburgh. Clare, Peter, Manchester. Clark, G.'T., 18, Duke St., Westminster. Clark, Sir James, M.D., F.R.S., George St., Hanover Square, London. Clark, Francis, Birmingham. Clark, Courtney R., Ringsend. Clark, Thomas, 123, Baggot St., Dublin. Clarke, William, M.D., F.G.S., Prof. of Anatomy, Cambridge. Clarke, George, Crumpsall Lodge, Man- chester. Clarkson, Rev. J., B.A., Cambridge. Clayton, Gen. Browne, K.C., D.C.L., Adlington Hall, Cheshire. Clendining, Alex., Westport, Ireland. Clerke, Rev. C. C., B.D., Archdeacon of Oxford. Clonbrock, Lord, Cionbrock, Palmerston. Cloncurry, Lord, M.R.D.S., Maritimo. Clough, Rev. A.B., B.D., Jesus College, Oxford. Clow, John, 23, Mt. Pleasant, Liverpool. Coathupe, C. T., Wraxall, Somerset. Colby, Colonel T. F., Tower. Collins, Robert, M.D., M.R.D.S., 2, Mer- rion Square North, Dublin. Collins, Stephen, Merrion Sq., Dublin. Collins, J. V., M.R.D.S., 10, Denzill Street, Dublin. Colthurst, John, Clifton. Colvile, Sir C. H., Duffield Park, Derby. Combe, George, Edinburgh. Compton, The Earl, Castle Ashby, North- amptonshire. Connell, Arthur, F.R.S.E., Edinburgh. Connell, Archibald, Edinburgh. Conway, C., Pont-y-newydd Works, Mon- mouthshire. Conybeare, Rev. W. D., M.A., F.R.S., V.P.G.S., Visitor of Bristol College, Axminster, Devon. Cooke, Rev. G. L., B.D., Sedleian Prof., Oxford, Pres. Nat. Hist. Soc. Warwick, Cubington. Cooke, Rev. T. L., M.A., Magdalen Coll., Oxford. Cooke, Capt. Adolphus, Cookborough, Ireland. Cooke, James K., M.A., 71, Blessington Street, Dublin. Cooke, J. B., Exchange Buildings, Li- verpool. Cooke, Howard, M.D., 71, Blessington Street, Dublin. Cooper, Jos., Queen’s Coll., Cambridge. Cooper, Paul, Weston-super-Mare. Cory, Rev. Robert, B.D., Fellow of Em- manuel College, Cambridge. Cotter, John, Cork. Cotton, Wm., Walwood House, Leyton- stone. Cotton, W. C. Jun., M.A., Christ Church, Oxford. Coulter, Thomas, M.D., M.R.I.A., 28, Trin. College, Dublin. Courtney, Rich., 117, Baggot St., Dublin. Courtney, Henry, 27, Upper Mount St., Dublin. Craig, J. F., Gibson, Edinburgh. Crampton, Hon. Judge, 1, Merrion Sq., Dublin. Crampton, John, M.D., M.R.LA., 39, Kildare Street, Dublin. Crane, George, Londox. 6 LIFE MEMBERS. Craven, Robert, Hull. Cresswell, Cresswell, M.P., London. Creyke, Rev. Stephen, M.A., York. Croft, Rev. John, M.A., Fellow of Christ’s College, Cambridge. Croker, C. P., M.D., M.R.I.A., Merrion Square, Dublin. i Crompton, Jos., Edgbaston, Birmingham. Crook, W. H., LL.D., 40, Gloucester Place, New Road, London. Crook, G. W., Town Hall, Liverpool. Crook, J. 'T., Wolstonholme Square, Li- verpool. - Croome, Rev. John, Bourton-on-the- Water. Crosthwaite, Leland, M.R.D.S., 63, Fleet Street, Dublin. Cubitt, Wm., M.R.I.A., 6, Great George Street, Westminster. Cully, Robert, Bank of Ireland, Dublin. Curtis, J. W., Alton, Hants. Cusack, James Wm., M.D., M.R.1L.A., 8, Kildare Street, Dublin. D. D’Aguilar, Colonel George, Royal Ho- spital, Dublin. Dalby, Rev. Wm., Vicarage, Warminster. Dalmahoy, James, H.E.I.C.S. Dalmeny, Lord, Dalmeny Park. Dalton, Edw., LL.D., F.S.A., Dunkirk House, near Minchinhampton. Dalton, Rev. J. E., M.A., Fellow of Queen’s College, Cambridge. Daniel, Henry, M.D., Clifton. Daniell, F., Prof. of Chemistry, King’s College, London. Daubeny, C. G. B., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Prof. of Chemistry and of Bo- tany in the University of Oxford. Davenport, E.D., Calverley, Cheshire. Davies, J. Birt, M.D., Birmingham. Davies, James, Maryiand St., Liverpool. Davis, Charles, M.D., M.R.I.A., St. Anne Street, Dublin. Davy, Edmund, Prof. Chem., R.D.S., M.R.I.A., Dublin. Dawes, Matthew, Bolton le Moors. Dawes, Rev. W. R., F.R.A.S., Ormskirk, Liverpool. Dawson, Robert, Llangollen, Wales. Dawson, Christopher, Yorkshire. Dawson, James, Mt. Pleasant, Liverpool. Dawson, Henry, Bedford St., Liverpool. Dawson, John, Halifax. Deck, Isaiah, Chemist, Cambridge. De la Beche, H. T., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S., London. Denison, Lieutenant, R. E., Chatham. Derbishire, S. D., Manchester. Derby, The Earl of, F.R.S,, F.LS., F.G.S., Knowsley Hall, Lancashire. De Tabley, Lord, Tabley House, Cheshire. Dickenson, John, 67, Stephen’s Green, Dublin. Dilke, C. Wentworth, 9, Lower Grosve- nor Place, London. Dircks, H., 7, Boundary St., Liverpool. Dixon, W.J., Abercromby Sq., Liverpool. Dobbin, Leonard, Jun., 23, Gardiner’s Place, Dublin. Dollond, George, F.R.S., St. Paul's Church Yard, London. D'Olier, Isaac, M.R.I.A., Bank of Ire- land, Dublin. D’Olier, I, M., LL.D., M.R.LA., 18, Baggot St., Dublin. Donkin, Thomas, York. Douglas, James, Cavers, Roxburghshire. Douglas, John, Gyrn, Holywell, N. W. Dowdall, Hamilton, Belmont, Dublin. Downall, Rev. John, Budworth, Notts. Drake, Rev. James, Kirkthorpe, Wake- field. Drennan, William, Belfast. Drinkwater, J. E., Barrister, Temple. Drummond, Lieut. Thomas, F.R.A.S5., Dublin Castle. Drummond, R. Home, Blair Drummond. Duck, Nehemiah, Ridgeway House, near Bristol. Dugard, Thomas, M.D., Shrewsbury. Duncan, J. F., 37, Marlborough Street, Dublin. Duncan, W. H., M.D., Liverpool. Duncan, J., Farnham House, Finglass. Dundas, Major-Gen. Rob., Arlington St. Dunnington, Rev. J., B.A., Thickett Hall, York, Durnford, Rev. R., Middleton, Lanca- shire. Dury, Rev. Theodore, Keighley, York. Dwyer, Rev. Thomas, M.A., West Derby Street, Liverpool. E. Earle, Charles, Woolton, near Liverpool. Earle, William, Jun., Abercromby §q., Liverpool. Earnshaw, Samuel, College, Cambridge. Ebden, Rev. J. C., M.A., Ipswich. Edgar, P.M., Bristol. Eden, Rev. John, B.D., Bristol. Eden, Thos., 96, Mt, Pleasant, Liverpool. Eden, James, 96, Mt. Pleasant, Liverpool. Edwards, Jas., Downing Coll., Cambridge. Edwards, John, Halifax. B.A., St. John’s ; Edwards, Joshua, Bedford St., Liverpool. LIFE MEMBERS. 7 ‘Egerton, Lord Fr., Bridgwater House. Egerton, Sir Philip de Malpas Grey, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S., Oulton Park, Cheshire. Ellacombe, Rev. H.T., Bitton, near Bristol. Ellice, Alexander, B.A., Caius College, Cambridge. Ellens, G.C. Ellis, Rev. Robert, M.A., York. Ellis, T. F., M.A., 15, Bedford Place. Ellis, Rich., 12, Fitzwilliam St., Dublin. Ellis, George, 11, Fitzgibbon St., Dublin. Ejlis, Thos., M.D., 5, South Frederick Street, Dublin. Ellman, W. B., Oxford. Eltoft, William, Manchester. Empson, Wm., M.A., Prof. of Law at the E. I. College, Hailebury, Temple. English, Henry, Broad Street. Enys, John, Enys, Cornwall. Esteourt, T. G. B., M.P., D.C.L., F.S.A., Estcourt,nearTetbury, Gloucestershire. Estcourt, W.J., Baliol College, Oxford. Ettrick, Wm., High Barnes, Sunderland. Eustace, John, M.D., 21, Middle Glou- cester Street, Dublin. Evanson, R.T., M.D., M.R.1A., 86, Dawson Street, Dublin. Everest, Dr., St. Anne Street, Liverpool. Ewart, William, Eaton Place, London. Eyre, Rev. C. W., M.A., Carlton, Notts. Eyton, Chas., Hendred House, Abingdon. F. Fairbairne, William, Manchester. Fannin, Robert, M.R.D.S., 10, Harring- ton Street, Dublin. Fannin, John, M.A., 41, Grafton Street, Dublin, Faraday, Michael, D.C.L., F.R.S., Prof. of Chemistry in the Royal Institution, Faweett, H. E., M.A., New Temple Buildings. Fawcett, Wm., Argyle Street, Liverpool. Fearon, J. P., F.G.S., Inner Temple. Fell, S. B., Ulverston. Fellows, Charles, 30, Russell Square. Ferguson, Robert, F.R.S.E., Raith, Fife. Ferrall, J. M., M.R.LA., 38, Rutland Square, Dublin. Ferrier, James, M.R.D.S., Willow Park, Booters-town, Co. Dublin. Ferrier, A. I., William Street, Dublin. Field, E. W., 41, Bedford Row, London. Field, J. W., Heaton Hall, Bradford. Fielden, William, M.P., Todmorden, Lancashire. Fielding, George, Hull. Fielding, G. H., Hull. Finch, Charles, Jun., Cambridge. Finch, J., Sir Thomas’s Buildings, Liver- pool. Finch, John, Jun., Sir Thomas’s Build- ings, Liverpool. Finlay, James, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Firth, Thos., Northwich, Cheshire. Fish, W. C., Goswell Road, London. Fisher, Rev. J. H., M.A., F.G.S., Kirby Lonsdale. Fisher, Rev. J. M., 20, Gt. George Street, Liverpool. Fitzwilliam, Earl, D.C.L., F.R.S., Presi- dent of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society, Milton. Fitzwilliam, Hon. G. W., Milton. Fleetwood, P. H., M.P., Rossall, Lanca- shire. Fleming, Christopher, M.D., 9, Moles- worth Street, Dublin. Fletcher, E., Rodney Street, Liverpool. Fletcher, William, LL.D., 26, Merrion Square, Dublin. Fletcher, Samuel, Manchester. Flood, C. J., Lower Mount St., Dublin. Flood, Valentine, M.D., M.R.I.A., 19, Blessington Street, Dublin. Flower, Rev. Wm., Jun., M.A., York. Forbes, Charles, Greenhill, Edinburgh. Forbes, George, F.R.S., Edinburgh. Forbes, Edward, Isle of Man. Forbes, J.D., F.R.S.L. & E., F.G.S., Professor of Nat. Phil. in the Univer- sity of Edinburgh. Forbes, John, M.D., F.R.S., Chichester. Forbes, Sir John S., Bart., Edinburgh. Formby, Richard, M.D., Sandon Terrace, Liverpool. Forshall, Rev. Josiah, M.A., F.R.S., &e.,_ British Museum. Forster, Robert, Dungannon. Forster, Wm., Ballymore, Ireland. Foster, H. 8., Brooklands, Cambridge Foster, R., Brooklands, Cambridge. Foster, John, B.A., Clapham. Foulger, William, Norwich. Foulger, Rev. W., Leiston, Suffolk, - Fowler, R., 19, Merrion Square, Dublin Fox, G. T., F.L.S., Durhara. Fox, Thomas, Canton. Francis, W., Sekford Street, London. Franks, Robert, M.R.D.S., 152, Leeson Street, Dublin. Fraser, J., 17, Lower Dorset St.,Dublin. Freckelton, George, M.D., Oxford Street, Liverpool. Freer, G. C., Tiverton, near Bath, Fripp, G. D., Bristol. 8 LIFE MEMBERS. Fripp, C. B., Bristol. Frodsham, W. J., 4, Change Alley, Corn- hill. Fry, Francis, Bristol. Fry, Richard, Bristol. Fry, Robert, Bristol. Furlong, Rev. Thos., 146, Leeson Street, Dublin. G Gadsden, A. W., Hull. Gair, S. S.,5,GambierTerrace, Liverpool. Galloway, S. H., Laibach, Austria. Galton, S. T., Leamington. Garnons, Rev. W. L. P., F.L.S., Sidney College, Cambridge. Gibb, Duncan, Strand Street, Liverpool. Gibbins, William, Falmouth. Gibson, Edward, Hull. Gilbert, Rev. Ashurst T., D.D., Princi- pal of Brazen-nose College, Oxford. Gilbert, Davies, D.C.L., Oxon. V.P.R.S., F.L.S., &c., Eastbourne, Sussex. Gilbertson, William, Preston. Gilby, Rev. W. R., Beverley. Gilderdale, J., M.A., Egerton Lodge, Huddersfield. Giles, Rev. William, Patricroft, near Manchester. Gill, Thomas, Plymouth. Gillies, John, M.D., Edinburgh. Glover, Thomas, Manchester. Godby, Aug.,General Post Office, Dublin. Goff, Wm., Ross Trevor, Ireland. Goldie, George, M.D., Shrewsbury, Goldsmid, F. H., 3, New Sq., Lincoln’s Inn. Gordon, James, Bristol. .- Gotch, Thomas H., Kettering. Gould, J., 20, Broad St., Golden Square, London. Gourlie, Wm, Jun., Garnet Hill, Glas- ow. Pie Capt. P., R.N., London. Gradon, Col. George, R.E., Portsmouth. Graham, Rev. J., D.D., Master of Christ’s College, Cambridge. Graham, R., M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Botany in the Univ. of Edinburgh. Graham, Prof. Thos., F.R.S.E., University College, London. Grantham, Rev. Geo., B.D., Magdalen College, Oxford. Granville, A. B., M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 16, Grafton Street, London. Grasswell, A. N., Herne Hill. Graves, Charles, A.B., Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. Gray, Jon,, V. P. Yorks. Phil. Soc., York. Gray, Wm., Jun., Sec. Yorks. Phil. Soc., York. Gray, J. E., F.R.S., British Museum. Gray, Rev. Walker, M.A., Henbury, Bristol. Green, Joseph H., F.R.S., F.G.S., Prof. of Anatomy to the Royal Academy, uincoln’s Inn Fields. Greenaway, Edw., 9, River Terrace, Is- lington. Greenock, Major-gen. Lord, Edinburgh. Gregg, T. H., 2, Upper Fitzroy Street, Fitzroy Square, London. Gresham, Rev. John, LL.D., Waterford. Gresham, T. M., Sackville St., Dublin. Greswell, Rev. Richard, M.A., F.R.S., Worcester College, Oxford. Greville, R. K., M.D., F.R.S.E., Edin- burgh. Griffin, S. F., Cheltenham. Griffin, Thomas, Cheltenham. Griffith, Rev. C. T., D.D., Warminster. Griffith, Joseph P., Great Elm, Somerset. Griffith, R. J., F.G.S., Fitzwilliam Pl., Dublin. Griffith, G. R., Fitzwilliam Pl., Dublin. Griffiths, John, B.A., Fellow of Wadham College, Oxford. Grooby, Rev. Jas., B.A., F.R.S., Swin- don, Wilts. Guest, J. J.. M.P., Dowling, Glamorgan. Guinness, R. R., Stillorgan, Dublin. Gwynne, Colonel A. G., F.R.S.E., Abe- rayron, Cardiganshire. H. Hackett, Michael, Book Lawn, Palmerston. Haggitt, Rev. G., Bury St. Edmunds. Hailstone, Samuel, F.G.S., Bradford. Halford, Sir Henry, Bart., D.C.L., F.R.S., President of Royal Coll. of Physicians, 16, Curzon Street, London. Hall, Rev. T. B., Coggeshall, Essex. Hallam, Henry, M.A., F.R.S., V.P.S.A., 67, Wimpole Street. Halliday, A. H., M.A., Belfast. Halswell, Edm., M.A., M.R.I.A., Gore Lodge, Brompton. Hamilton, Sir W. R., B.A., M.R.LA., Astronomer Royal of Ireland. Hamilton, W. R., F.R.S., 66, South Audley Street. Harcourt, Rev. C. G. Vernon, M.A., Rothbury, Northumberland. Harcourt, Rev. Wm. Vernon, F.R.S., F.G.S., Bishopthorpe, York. Harcourt, Egerton Vernon, Bishopthorpe. Harcourt, Geo., M.P., Nuneham, Oxford, Hare, Samuel, Leeds. LIFE MEMBERS. 9 Harford, J. S., Bristol. Harley, John, Pontypool. Harris, Hon. Charles, All-Souls College, Oxford. Harrison, Robert, M.D., M.R.I.A., 1, Hume Street, Dublin. Hartley, J. B., Bootle, near Liverpool. Hartley, Jesse, Trentham St., Liverpool. Hartnell, M.A., B.A., BirchesHouse,near Stroud. Hartnell, Aaron, Sec. Bristol Lit. and Phil. Soc., 8, Grenville Pl., Clifton. Hartstonge, Major R. W.,15, Molesworth Street, Dublin. Harvey, Enoch, Cheapside, Liverpool. Harvey, T. K., Cork. Hasted, Rev. H., M.A., F.R.S., Bury St. Edmunds. Hatfield, Wm., M.A., Newton Kyme, ‘Tadcaster. Haughton, James, M.R.D.S., 34, Eccles Street, Dublin. Haughton, Wm., 28, City Quay, Dublin. Hawkins, J.H.,M.P., F.R.S., Athenzum, Westminster Hawkins, J. J., Pancras Vale, Hamp- stead Road. Hawkins, Thomas, Sharpham Park, near Giastonbury. Hay, Sir J., Bart., F.R.S.E., Edinburgh. Hayward, W. W., Cambridge. Heath, J., 11, Albemarle Street, West- "minster. Henn, Richard, 22, Merrion Sq., Dublin. Hervey, Wm., M.D., F.R.S., Manchester. Henslow, Rev. J. S., M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., Prof. of Botany, Cambridge. Henwood, W. J., F.G.S., Penzance. Herschel, Sir J. F. W., M.A., F.R.S., ' F.G.S. Hey, John, Curator Lit. and Phil. Soc., Leeds. Hey, Richard, York. Heywood, Benj., Claremont, Manchester. Heywood, Robert, Bolton. Heywood, James, Acresfield, Manchester. Heyworth, L., Bootle, near Liverpool. Heyworth, Laur.,Jun., Bootle, Liverpool. Hibbert, Samuel, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Edinburgh. Hildyard, James, B.A., Fellow of Christ’s College, Cambridge. Hill, Edw., B.A., Christ Church, Oxford, Hill, Rowland, 2, Burton Crescent. Hill, T. W., Bruce Castle, Tottenham. Hincks, Rev. Wm., F.L.S., York. Hindley, H. J., Nile St., Liverpool. Hindmarsh, L., Alnwick. Hoare, J. Gurney, Hampstead. Hodgkinson, Eaton, Member Phil. Soc., Manchester. Hodgson, Adam, Everton, Liverpool. Hodgson, J. F., Heskin Hall, Lancashire. Hodgson, Joseph, F.R.S., Birmingham. Holden, Moses, Preston. Holditch, Rev. H., Cambridge. Hollingsworth, Rev. N. J., Boldon, Durham. : Holme, Edward, M.D., Manchester. Holmes, Rev. W. R., Broughton, Skipton Holt, Edward, Falkner St., Liverpool. Holt, Henry, Notton, near Wakefield. Hone, Joseph, M.R.D.S., 47, Harcourt Street, Dublin. , Hone, Nathaniel, M.R.D.S., 53, Har- court Street, Dublin. Hope, T. C., M.D., F.R.S., V.P.R.S.E., Prof. of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. Hope, John, Dean of Faculty, Edinburgh. Hope, Wm., Hope Street, Liverpool. Hopkinson, Wm., Stamford. Hopkins, Wm., M.A., St. Peter’s Coll., Cambridge. Hornby, Hugh, Sandown, Liverpool. Horner, Leonard, F.R.S., L.&E. London. Horsfall, Charles, Everton, Liverpool. Horsfall, John, Wakefield. Hotham, Rev. C., M.A., Trinity College, Oxford. Hovell, Thomas, Cambridge. Hovenden, V. F., Sion Hill, Clifton. Houghton, Wm., Moss St., Liverpool. Houghton, Jas., Rodney St., Liverpool. Houghton, W., Salisbury St., Liverpool. Houston, J.,M.D.,31, York St., Dublin. Howell, John, M.D., F.R.S.E., Dep. In- spector Gen., Clifton. Huddart, Rev. T. P., 14, Mountjoy Sq, East, Dublin. : Hudson, James, at Mr. Beaufoy’s, South Lambeth. Hudson, Henry, M.D., M.R.I.A., 24, Stephen’s Green North, Dublin. Hudson, Mr., Oxford. Hughes, John, Grove, Stillorgan, Dublin. Hume, Arthur, Dawson Street, Dublin. Humphreys, James, Claremont, Dublin. Hunt, R. G., Fleet Street, Liverpool. Hunter, Adam, M.D., Edinburgh. Hunter, W. Percival, Albany, London. Hussey, Rev. Rob., M.A., Christ Church, Oxford. : Hutchison, Graham, Glasgow. Hutchison, James, Leith. Hutton, Edward, M.D., M.R.I.A., 33, Summer Hill, Dublin. Hutton, Robert, M.P., F.G.S., Putney. 10 LIFE MEMBERS. Hutton, Thomas, M.R.D.S., 14, Sum- mer Hill, Dublin. Hutton, Henry, Barrister, Mountjoy Sq. East, Dublin. Hutton, H., 18, Gardiner’s Pl., Dublin. Hutton, Daniel, 6, Lower Dominick Street, Dublin. Hutton, Wm., F.G.S., Newcastle-upon- Tyne. Hyett, W.H., Painswick, Gloucestershire. I, Ibbetson, L. L. Boscawen, Ventnor, Isle of Wight. Ilsley, William, Bristol. Inglis, Sir R. H., Bart., M.P., D.C.L., F.R.S., 7, Bedford Square. Inglis, John, Redhall, Bristol. Ireland, R. S., M.D., 121, Stephen’s Green, Dublin. Irvin, Rev. Alexander, M.A., Cullens- wood, Dublin. J. Jackson, Charles, Bristol. Jackson, G. V. M. A., Ennipol Cross, Molina, Co, Sligo. Jackson, Prof. Thos., LL.D., St. Andrews. Jacob, Arthur, M.D., 23, Ely Pl., Dublin. Jacob, John, M.D., Maryborough, Queen’s County. James, Sir John K., Bart., Kingstown, Dublin. James, James, CalthorpeSt., Birmingham. Jardine, Sir William, Jardine Hall, Lockerbie, Dumfriesshire. Jarrett, Rev. Professor, Cambridge. Jebb, Rev. John, 41, Rutland Sq., Dublin. Jeffreys, Rev. H., B.D., Fellow of 5t. John’s College, Cambridge. Jemmett, Matthew, 54, Marlborough Street, Dublin. Jenkyns, Rev. H., M.A., Oriel College, Oxford. Jenkyns, Rev. Leonard, M.A., F.L.S., Swaffham Bulbeck, Cambridgeshire. Jerrard, Rev. Dr., Fellow of Caius Coll., Cambridge, Principal of Bristol Coll. Jerrard, Jos. H., LL.D., 59, Albany St., Regent’s Park. Jesse, John, Manchester. Job, Samuel, 3, Chatham Pl., Liverpool. Johnson, P.N., F.G.S.,79, HattonGarden, London. Johnson, John, Parr Cottage, Lancashire. Johnstone, J. F. W., M.A., Prof. of Che- mistry in the University of Durham. Johnstone, Sir J. V. B., Bart.,M.P., M.A., F.R.S.E., Pres.Scarborough Phil, Soc., Hackness, Scarborough. Jollie, Walter, Edinburgh. Jones, C. H., Castle Street, Liverpool. Jones, E. T., Clifton. Jones, Rob.,22,Pembroke St., Liverpool. Jones, Josiah, Castle Street, Liverpool. Joy, Rt. Hon. Henry, Lord Chief Baron, Dublin. Joy, W. B., 2, Mountjoy Square South, Dublin. Joy, H. H., 17, Mountjoy Square East, Dublin. Joy,J. H., 2, Mountjoy Sq.South, Dublin. Jubb, Abraham, Halifax. Jukes, J. B., Wolverhampton. K. Kane, R. I.,M.D., M.R.I.A., 23, Lower Gloster Street, Dublin. Kelly, J. C., Dublin. Kenedy, Rev. J., D.D., Ardtrea. Kennedy, John, Manchester. Kenny, Matthias, M.D., Castle Pollard, Treland. Kenrick, Rey. George, Hampstead. Kenrick, Rev. John, M.A., York. Kenrick, Samuel, West Bromwich, near Birmingham. Kent, J. C., Levant Lodge,’ near Upton. Key, C. H., 104, Prince’s St., Edinburgh. Kidd, John, M.D., F.R.S., Regius Prof. of Medicine in the University of Oxford. King, Joseph, Jun., Everton, Liverpool. King, W. P., Bristol. Kingston, A. J., Mosstown, Longford. Kinnear, J. G., Edinburgh. Kirkpatrick, Rev. W.B., 132, Capel St., Dublin. Knight, R. G., F.G.S., 46, Tavistock Sq. London. > Knight, Henry, Birmingham. Knowles, G, B,, F.L.S., Birmingham. Knowles, L. P., Liverpool. Knox, Rey. H.B., Monks Eleigh, Suffolk. Knox, G. J., 10, Nassau Street, Dublin. Knox, Rev. ‘I’. P., Toomavara, Killaloe. Kurtz, Andrew, Upper Stanhope Street, Liverpool. L. Lace, Ambrose, Much Woolton. Lacy, H.C., Kenyon House, Manchester. Laird, John, Birkenhead, Cheshire. Lamb, David, 34, Rodney St., Liverpool. Langley, George, Boxford, Suffolk. Langton, William, Manchester. LIFE MEMBERS. 11 Lansdowne, Marquis of, F.R.S., D.C.L., Bowood, Wilts. Lanyon, Charles, Naas. Laprimaudaye, Rev, Chas.,M. A.,Leyton. Larcom, Lieut. R. E., Phoenix Park, Dublin. Lardner, Rev. Dionysius, L.L.D., F.R.S., London. Lassell, William, Jun., Norton Street, Liverpool. Latouche, D. C., M.R.I.A.,- Castle St., Dublin. Lauder, SirT. Dick, F.R.S.E., Edinburgh. Law, Rev. William, M.A., Boxford, Suffolk. Lawrence, William, F.R.S., 18, White- hall Place, Westminster. Lawson, William, Liverpool. Leach, H. T., Barley Hall, Bradford. Leadbetter, John, Glasgow. Leatham, William, Wakefield. Leeson, H. B., Greenwich. Legh, G. Cornwall., High Legh, Cheshire. Legh, Rev. H. C., High Legh, Cheshire, Leigh, John Shaw, Liverpool. Leigh, P.T., 12, Lower Gardiner Street, Dublin. Leinster, His Grace the Duke of, Carton House, Maynooth, Ireland. Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., M.P., M.A., F.RB.S., F.G.S., Carclew, Cornwall. Lendrick, Charles, M.D., 38, Hatch Street, Dublin. Lentaigne, Joshua, 12, Great Denmark Street, Dublin. : Lentaigne, John, M.D., 12, Great Den- mark Street, Dublin. Lewis, T. D., Theatre Royal, Liverpool. Leyland, John, 11, Queen Anne Street, Liverpool, Liddell, Andrew, Glasgow. Lightfoot, J. J., Old Burlington Street. Lightfoot, W.B., Grove Street, Liverpool. Lindley, John, LL.D., F.R.S., Prof. of Botany, University College, London. Lindsay, H. L., Civil Engineer, Armagh. Lingwood, Robert, Highlands, Sussex. Lister, J. J., F.R.S., 5, Tokenhouse Yard, London. Lister, J., Gt. Mersey Street, Liverpool. Littledale, Harold, Liscard, Cheshire. Litton, D., 18, Lower Mount St., Dublin. Litton, S., M.D., V.P.R.1.A., Dublin. Lloyd, Rev., Humphrey, F.T.C.D., Pro- fessor of Nat. and Exper. Philosophy, Trin. Coll., Dublin. Lloyd, Rev. C., M.A., Whittington, Oswestry. Lloyd, Owen, Boyle. Lloyd, W. H., F.L.S., 1, Park Square West, Regent’s Park. Lock, Sir Joseph, Oxford. Lock, Edward, Oxford. Locke, Joseph, Grand Junction Railway, Liverpool. Locke, W. O., M.D., Swaffham. Lockey, Rev.Fran.,Swanswick, nearBath. Lloyd, R. A., Whittington. Loder, J. S., Bristol. Lodge, Rev. John, M.A., Fellow of Mag- dalen College, Cambridge. Logan, W. E., Swansea. London, The Lord Bishop of. Longfield, Mountford, F.T.C., Regius Professor of Law, Dublin. Lowe, Geo., F.G.S., Civil Engineer, 39, Finsbury Cireus, London. Lowndes, M.D., St, Anne St., Liverpool. Lowndes, W., M.D., Egremont, Cheshire. Loyd, Samuel Jones, London. Lubbock, J. W., M.A., V.P.R.S., Vice Chancellor of the University of London, 29, Eaton Place. Lucas, Edward, Castle Hayne. Lucas, William, Dublin. Lutwidge, Charles, M.A., Hull. Lutwidge, R.W.S.,M.A., 21, Old Square, Lincoln’s Inn. Lyell, Charles, Jun., M.A. F.RS., F.L.S., F.G.S., Hart Street, London. M. Macartney, Jas., M.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., Professor of Anatomy, Dublin, Macbride, J. D., D.C.L., Principal of Magdalen College, Oxford. Macdonnel, Rev. Dr., F.T.C., Dublin. Macdonnell, H.H.G., F.T.C., Dublin. Macgregor, J., Woolton Hill, Liverpool. MacInnes, Col. J., Edinburgh. Macintosh, Charles, Glasgow. Mackenzie, Sir F. A., Bart., Gairloch, Union Club House. Mackie, Rev. J. W., M.A., Christ Church, Oxford. Maclagan, D., M.D., F.R.S.E., Edinb, Magan, F., 20, Usher’s Island, Dublin. Maguise, Bernard, Belmont, Co. West- meath. Mallet, Robert, M.R.I.A., 94, Capel St., Dublin. Malley, A. I., 62, Upper Mount St., Dublin. Marriott, John, Allerton, Liverpool. Marsh, Henry, M.D., M.R.J.A., 24, Molesworth Street, Dublin. Marshall, John, Headingley, Leeds. Marshall, J., Jun., Headingley, Leeds. 12 LIFE MEMBERS. Marshall, J.G., M.A.,Headingley, Leeds. Martin, F., Cambridge. Martin, S., 3, Chesterfield St., Liverpool. Martineau, Rev. James, Liverpool. Mason, Thomas, York. Massey, Lord, Castle Connor, Ireland. Mather, J., 92, Mt. Pleasant, Liverpool. Mather, Daniel, 92, Mount Pleasant, Liverpool. Matthews, W. P., Dublin Castle. Maund, Benjamin, F.L.S., Bromsgrove, Worcestershire. Maynard, Henry, M.D., London. Maynard, Thomas, Bold St., Liverpool. Mayne, Rev. Charles, M.R.1.A.,2, Upper Merrion Street, Dublin. McAdam, James, Corr. Sec. Nat. Hist. Soc., Belfast. McCullach, James, F.T.C., Dublin. McCulloch, G., Cullenswood, Dublin. McKay, John, Dublin Castle. McKenny, John, M.R.D.S., 15, Beres- ford Place, Dublin. McMaster, Maxwell, 97, Grafton Street, Dublin. Mellor, J., 24, Shaw Street, Liverpool. Melville, Lord Viscount, Melville Castle. Merz, Philip, Birmingham. Miller, Patrick, M.D., Exeter. Miller, Rev. W. H., M.A., F.G.S., Pro- fessor of Mineralogy, Cambridge. Milne, Sir David, K.C.B., F.R.S.E., Edinburgh. Milne; David, M.A., F.R.S.E., Edin- burgh. Milne, Captain, R.N., F.R.S.E., Edin- burgh. Milne, R. M., M.P., Bawtry, Yorks. Milton, Lord Viscount, Milton. Milward, Captain Andrew, R.N., 1.U.S. Club, London. Moilliet, J. L., Hampstead Hall, Stafford. Molyneux, James, 91, Duke Street, Liverpool. Molyneux, Lieut., I.U.S. Club, London. Money, Rev. K.E., M.A., Much-March Parsonage, Ledbury. Moore, W.D., 9, St. Anne Street, Dublin. Moore, John, 12, Broad Weir, Bristol. Moore, Alex., M.D., Preston. Morant, Rev. Jas., Wakefield. More, I.S., Adv., F.R.S.E., Edinburgh. Morgan, J. M., Ham Common. Morgan, William,D.C.L., 26, Old Square, Lincoln’s Inn. Moriarty, Merion, M.D., Dowry Parade, Clifton. Morpeth, Lord Viscount, Castle Howard. Morris, S., M.R.D.S., Fortvein, Clontarf. Moseley, Sir. Oswald, Bart., Rollestone Hall, Stafford. ; Moss, John, Otterspool, near Liverpool. Mulgrave, His Excellency Earl, Dublin. Murchison, R. I., F.R.S., F.G.S., 2, Upper Eccleston St., Belgrave Square. Murphy, Rev. Robert, M.A., Fellow of Caius College, Cambridge. Murray, John, Albemarle Street. Murray, John, Sunderland. Musgrave, John, Tourin Cappoquin, Ireland. Musgrave, Rev. Thos., M.A., Professor of Arabic, Cambridge. Muspratt, James, 9, Pembroke Place, Liverpool. Muston, George, Bristol. Myers., Rev, F., Clare Hall, Cambridge. N. Nairne, James, F.R.S.E., Edinburgh. Napper, J.L., Lougherea, Co. Meath. Neilson, Robt., Woolton Hill, Liverpool. Neilson, J. R., Glasgow. Nevin, Ninian, Botan. Garden, Glasnevin. Newby, Richard, Bookseller, Cambridge. Newman, W.L., York. Nicholl, Iltyd, Usk, Monmouth. Nicholson, John, M.D., Balrath, Co. Meath. Norris, Charles, Halifax. Norris, William, Halifax. Northampton, Marquis of, F.G.S., Castle Ashby. Northumberland, His Grace the Duke of, K.G., M.A., F.R.S., Alnwick. Northen, R., Sec. Lit. and Phil.Soc., Hull. Norwich, The Lord Bishop of. Noverre, R., M.D., Trin. Coll., Dublin. O. O’Beirne, James, M.D., 23, North Cum- berland Street, Dublin. O’Brien, Sir Lucius, Bart., Dromoland, Newmarket on Fergus. O’Brien, Edward, M.A., University Club, London. O'Callaghan, George, Tulla, Co. Clare. O’Grady, M., M.D., T.C.D., Lamancha. Oliphant, William, Jun., Edinburgh. O’Reardon, John, M.D., 33, York Street, Dublin. O'Reilly, Lieut.-Col., Kelso. Orpen, Thomas Herbert, M.D., 13, South Frederick Street, Dublin. Orpen, J. H., M.A., 13, South Frederick Street, Dublin. Orpen, Charles, M.D., 11, North Great George Street, Dublin. LIFE MEMBERS, 13 Osborne, Jeremiah, Bristol. Overend, Wilson, Sheffield. Owen, Jeremiah, Plymouth. Owen, R., College of Surgeons, London. P. Palmer, Wm., Harcourt Street, Dublin. Palmer, William, M.A., 5, Essex Court, Temple. Parker, C. S., Liverpool. Parker, Rev W., M.A., Saham, Norfolk. Partridge, R., Lancaster Place, London. Pasley, Col. C. W., C,B., R.E., F.R.S., Chatham. Paxton, James, Surgeon, Oxford. Paxton, Jos., Chatsworth, Derbyshire. Peacock, Rev. Geo., M.A.,F.R.S.,F.G.S., Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Pearsall, T.J., Lit. and Phil. Soc., Hull. Pearson, Charles, Greenwich. Pearson, Rev. Thomas, M.A., Fellow of - Queen’s College, Cambridge. Pearson, Rev. William, LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.R.As.S., South Kilworth, Lei- cestershire. Peel, Sir Robert, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., F.R.S., Whitehall Gardens. Peel, George, Higher Ardwick Lodge, Manchester. Peile, Williamson, 14, Luke Street, Dub- lin, Pemberton, Rev. R.M., Stratton, Salop. Pendarves, E.W.W., M.P., M.A., F.R.S., - F.G.S., 36, Eaton Place. Pennefather, Edward, 5, Fitzwilliam Square, Dublin. Pering, Rev. J., Kildwick, Craven, Yorks. Perkins, Rev. B. R., B.C.L., Wootton- under-edge. Perry, Rev. Charles, M.A., Fellow of _ Trinity College, Cambridge. Perry, James, Obelisk Park, Black Rock. Pettiward, Rev. D., M.A., F.G.S., Stow- market. Phillips, C., M.D., Manchester. Phillips, M.,M.P., Park, near Manchester. Phillips, John, F.R.S., F.G.S., Prof. Geol. King’s College, London. Phillips, Richard, F.R.S., Camberwell. Phillips, Rev. Samuel, Woolton Priory, Liverpool. Philpot, Rev. H., M.A., Fellow of Catha- rine Hall, Cambridge. Pigott, J. H. Smith, Brockley Hall. Pike, Ebenezer, Cork. Pim, James, Jun., Monkstown, Dublin, Pim, George, 15, Usher’s Island, Dublin, Pim, W.H., Monkstown, Dublin. Plumptre, R. B., A.M., Forthampton, Tewkesbuty. Pollock, A., 16, Capel Street, Dublin. Porter, Rev. Chas., B.D., Stamford. Porter, H. J., Castle Tanderagee, County Armagh. Porter, Rev. T. H., D.D., Trinity College, Dublin. Portlock, Captain, R.E., M.R.I.A., Ord- nance Survey Office, Dublin. Potter, H. G., Newcastle. Potter, S. T., County Leitrim. Potter, Rich., Jun., Smedley Hall, near Manchester. Potter, William, Everton, Liverpool. Powell, Rev. Baden, F.R.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry, Oxford. Powell, Rev. Dr., Clitheroe. Pratt, Rev. J. H., B.A., Caius College, Cambridge. Pratt, S. P., F.L.S., F.G.S., Bath. Prelions, Thomas, 12, Upper North Cumberland Street, Dublin. Preston, Cooper, Flaxby Hall, Yorkshire. Prestwich, Jos., Jun., 20, Mark Lane. Prevost, J.L., Consul-General of Switzer- land, 3, Suffolk Place, Pall Mall. Price, Thomas, Furnace Lodge, Disley, Cheshire. Price, J. T., Neath Abbey. Prince, J.C., Brownlow Street, Liverpool. Pring, Capt. Daniel, R.N. Pritchard, I. C., M.D., F.R.S., Bristol. Punnett, Rev. J., Cornwall, of Clare Hall, Cambridge. Putland, George, Lower Mount Street, Dublin. R. Radford, J. G., 11, Catherine Street, Liverpool. Radford, W., Trinity College, Dublin. Radice, Evasio, LL.D., Trinity College, Dublin. r Raffles, Rev. Thomas, LL.D., Edge Hill, Liverpool. Rake, Joseph, Bristol. Rance, Henry, Cambridge. Rathbone, T. W., Allerton Priory, Li- verpool, Rathbone, William, Liverpool. Rawson, Christopher, F.G.S., Pres. Lit, and Phil. Soc., Halifax. Rawson, T. 8., Highpark Road, Liver- 1 poo. . Read, W. H.R., B.A., F.L.S., Lincoln’s Inn. Reades, Rev. Joseph B., M.A., Halifax, Redwood, Isaac, 15, Crawford Street. 14 LIFE MEMBERS. Reid, W., Lead Merchant, Glasgow. Rennie, Sir J., F.R.S., 15, Whitehall Pl. Rennie, G., F.R.S., 21, Whitehall Place. Reynolds, W., M.D., Liverpool. ete Wm., 38, Water Street, Liver- pool. Rice, Right Hon. T. Spring, M.P., M.A., Manstield Street. Rice, S.E. Spring, Mansfield Street. Richardson, J., M.D., F.R.S., Chatham. Rickman, Thomas, F.S.A., Birmingham. Rigg, Robert, Walworth Road. Rigaud, S. P., M.A., V.P.R.S., Savilian Professor of Astronomy, Oxford. Roberts, Richard, Manchester. Robertson, John, Manchester. Robinson, John, Athlone. Robinson, Rev. T. R., D.D., Professor of Astronomy, Armagh. Robinson, John, Sec. R.S.E., Edinburgh. Rochfort, J. §., Sackville Street, Dublin. Roe, G. N., Donnybrooke. Roe, H., 2, Fitzwilliam Square, Dublin. Rogers, Rev. J., M.A., Canon of Exeter. Roget, P. M., M.D., Sec. R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., 39, Bernard Street, Russell Sq. Rosebery, The Earl of, Dalmeny Park. Rotch, Benjamin, Furnival’s Inn. Rothman, R. W., F.R.A.S. F.G.S., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Rothwell, Peter, Bolton. Roughton, Wm., Jun., Kettering. Russell, Rev. T., Enfield. Russell, James, Birmingham. Rutter, John, M.D., 19, St Anne Street, Liverpool. Rutton, Wm., North Allerton. Ryland, Arthur, Cherry St., Birmingham. Ss Sabine, Major, R.E., F.R.S,, Limerick. Sadleir, Rev. Dr., Senior Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. Salisbury, Sir John, Huskisson St., Liver- pool. Salmon, W. W., Devizes, Sanders, J. N., Clifton. Sanders, Wm., Bristol. Satterthwait, Michael,M.D., Manchester, Scholfield, Edwd., M.D., Doncaster. Scoresby, Rev. Wm., F.R.S.L. and E., Exeter. Scott, James, Q. C., Merrion Sq. South, Dublin. Searle, Wm., Cambridge, Sedgwick, Rev, Adam, M.A., F.R.S., ¥F.G.S., Woodwardian Professor of Geology, Cambridge, Selby, P. J., F.R.S.E., Twizell House, Northumberland. Semple, Robert, Wavertree, Liverpool. Serle, Rev. Philip, B.D., Oddington, Oxfordshire. Sharp, Rev. John, B.A., Wakefield. Sharp, Rev. Samuel, M.A., Wakefield. Sharp, Rev. William, B.A., Wakefield. Shepherd, Rev. William, LL.D., Gate- acre, Liverpool. Sheppard, W. H., Newland Vicarage, near Monmouth. Sheppard, Henry, Bristol. Sherrard, D. H., 72, Blessington Street, Dublin. Shore, Offley, Sheffield. Short, Rev. Augustus, Church, Oxford. Sigmond, George, 24, Dover Street. Sillar, Z., M.D., Sion House, Liverpool. Sims, John, M.D., Cavendish Square. Simms, Wm., F.R.A.S., 136, Fleet St. Simpson, Thos., 4, Mount Vernon, Liver- M.A., Christ pool. Sidney, M.I.F., Cowpen, Newcastle. Singer, Rev. Dr., F.'1.C., Dublin. Sirr, Rev. J. D., Lower Castle Yard, Dublin. Sisson, Wm., 17, Parliament Street. Skelmersdale, Lord, Lathom House, Lancashire, Sligo, George, Seacliffe, Haddington. Sligo, John, Carneagle, Scotland. Smales, R. H., Kingston Bottom. Smethurst, Rey. R., Stand, near Man- ‘chester. Smith, Rev. G. S., Trinity Coll., Dublin. Smith, James, Glasgow. . Smith, James, Deanston Works, Scotland. Smith, J. Pye, D.D., Homerton. Smith, James, 9, St. James’s Road, Liverpool. Smith, Rev. B., F.S.A.,Coton Hall, Salop. Smith, Samuel, 2, New Square, Lincoln's Inn. Smith, Thomas, South Hill Grove, Liverpool. Soden, John, 18, Down Street, Piccadilly. Soden, J. Smith, Bath. Somerset, His Grace the Duke of, Presi- dent of the Royal Institution, Park Lane, London. Sopwhite, Thos., Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Spineto, Marchese, Cambridge. Spottiswoode, Col. Staniforth, Rev. Thos., Bolton, Stanley, Sir T.S., Bart., Hooton, Cheshire. Stanley, A. P., Alderley, Cheshire, Stanway, J. Holt, Manchester. LIFE MEMBERS. Stapleton, M. H., B. M., 1, Mountjoy Place, Dublin. Staveley, T. R., Ripon. Stevenson, Robert, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Edinburgh. Steventon, Hugh, Egremont, Cheshire. Steventon, Edward, M.A., Fellow of Corp. Chris. Coll., Cambridge. Stewart, Thomas, Liverpool. Stowe, William, Buckingham. Strachey, Richd., Ashwick Grove, Bristol. Straton, Major-Gen., Sir Jos., K.C.H., C.B., F.R.S. L. & E., U. Service Club. Strickland, Eustachius, York. Strickland, Chas., Lough Glynn, Ireland. Strickland, J.E., French Park, Roscommon. Strickland, W., French Park, Roscommon. Strong, Rev. William, Stanground, near Peterborough. Stroud, Rev. Jos., M.A., Wadham Col- lege, Oxford. Strutt, William, Temple. Stuart, Robert, Manchester. Stutchbury, Samuel, Curator, Institution, Bristol. Sullivan, Jas., M.B., 51, Lower Gardiner Street, Dublin. Sutcliffe, William, Bath. Sutherland, A. R., M.D., F.R.S., 1, Par- liament Street. Sutherland, A. J., London. Sutton, J. B., Carlisle. Sweetman, Walter, M.R.D.S., 4, Mount- joy Square, Dublin. Synge, John, Glanmore, Ashford, Co. Wicklow. Te Talbot, Hon. F., Laycock Abbey, Wilts. Taprell, William, Inner Temple. Tayler, Rev. J. J., B.A., Manchester. Taylor, Frederick, Everton Terrace, Liverpool. Taylor, John, F.R.S., Treas. Geol. Soc., 12, Bedford Row. Taylor, John, Jun., F.G.S., Coed dt, near Mold, Flintshire. Taylor, Richard, F.G.S., Truro. Taylor, Richard, Assist. Sec. Linn. Soc., F.G.S., Red Lion Court, Fleet St. Taylor,J.E., Broughton, near Manchester. Taylor, Jas., Todmorden Hall, Halifax. Taylor, Captain, London. Taylor, Rev. William, F.R.S., York. Taylor, W. C., LL.D., 131, Grove St., « Camden Town. Tennant, Charles, Glasgow. Tennent, R. J., Pres. Lit. Soc., Belfast. Thickness, Ralph, Jun., Wigan. 15 Thodey, Winwood, 4, Poultry, London. Thom, Rev. David, Falkner Street, Liverpool. Thom, John, Glasgow. Thomas, Samuel, Bristol. Thomas, Edward, Bristol. Thomas, George, Bristol. Thomason, Sir Edward, Birmingham. Thompson, E. P., Manchester. Thompson, D. P., M.R.I.A., Burnham House, Dingle, Co. Kerry. Thompson, George, Salop. Thompson, George, Gildart Street, Liver- ool. ait enters G., Chemist, Church Street, Liverpool. Thompson, Leonard, Hutton Park, York- shire. ; Thompson, A. T., M.D., F.L.S., F.G.S., Professor of Materia Medica in Uni- versity Coll., London. Thomson, George, Banker, Oxford. Thomson, James, F.R.S., Clitheroe. Thomson, J. G., Edinburgh. Thomson, Corden, Sheffield. Thomson, Thomas, 127, George Street, Edinburgh. Thornely, Thomas, M.P., Liverpool. Thornton, Samuel, Camp Hill, Birming- ham. y Thorpe, Rev. Archdeacon, M.A., F.G.S., Bristol. Tierney, Edward, M.R.D.S., 15, Lower Fitzwilliam St., Dublin. Tinné, J. A., Briarly Aigburth, Liverpool. Tite, W., Hon. Sec. London Institution, 25, Upper Bedford Place. Tobin, Sir John, Liverpool. Tobin, Rev. John, Cheshire. Todd, Rev. J. H., F.T.C.D., M.R.1.A., Dublin. Todhunter, J., 3, College Green, Dublin. Torrie, T. Jameson, F.G.S., Edinburgh. Towgood, Edward, St. Neots, Hunts. Townend, Thomas, Manchester, Townsend, George, Newbury. Townsend, K. E., Springfield, Norwood. Tregelles, Nathaniel, Neath Abbey, Gla- morgan. Trench, F. A., St. Catherine’s Park, Dublin. Trevelyan, W.C., M.A., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., F.G.S., Wallington, Northumberland. Tuckett, Francis, Frenchay, near Bristol, Tuckett, Henry, 20, Finsbury Circus, Tuckett, Frederick, Bristol. Turnbull, Rev. F. S., F.R.S., Caius Col- lege, Cambridge, Turner, Chas., Aigburth, Liverpool. 16 LIFE MEMBERS. Turner, Thos., M.D., Curzon Street, May Fair. Turner, Sam., F.R.S., F.G.S., Liverpool. Turner, William, Halifax. Tweedy, William Mansel, Truro. Tyrconnell, Earl of, F.R.S., F.G.S., Kip- lin Catterick, Yorks, Tyrrell, John, Exeter. U. Upton, J. S., F.G.S., Trinity College, Cambridge. Vance, Robert, Belfast. Veitch, A. J., M.D., Galway. Verney, Sir Harry, Lower Clayton, Bucks. Vernon, Rt. Hon. Lord, 25, Wilton Cres- cent. Veysie, Rev. Daniel, B.D., Christ Church, Oxford. Vigors, N. A., M.P., 16, Chester Terrace, Regent’s Park. Visgar, Harman, Bristol. Voelker, Professor Chas., St. Domingo Street, Liverpool. W. Walker, James, Pres. of Institution Civ. Engineers, Great George Street, West- minster. Walker, Edward, Chester. Walker, William, F.R.S.E., Edinburgh. Walker, Rev. Robert, M.A., F.R.S., Wadham College, Oxford. Walker, Francis, F.L.S.,F.G.S., 49, Bed- ford Square. Walker, Jos. N., F.L.S., President of the Liverpool Royal Institution, Allerton Hall. Wall, Rev. C.W., D.D.,S.F.T.C., Dublin. Wall, Rev. R. H,, A.M., 6, Hume Street, Dublin. Wallace, J. R., Isle of Man. Wallinger, Rev. William, Hastings. Walmesly, Joshua, Church St., Liverpool. Walmesley, Joshua, Jun, Mount Pleasant, Liverpool. Walsh, John, Prussian Consul, Dublin. Wansey, William, 16, Riches Court, Lime Street. Ward, Rey. Richard, 24, Cadogan Place, London. Wardell, William, Chester. Waring, S., Stoke Bishop, near Bristol. Warren, R. B., Q.C., 55, Leeson Street, Dublin. Warwick, W. A., Cambridge. Wasse, Jonah, M.D., Mount Hall, Boroughbridge, Waterhouse, John, Halifax. Watford, A., Engineer, Cambridge. Watkins, James R., Bolton. Watson, H. H., Bolton. Waud, Rev. S. W., Fellow of Magdalen College, Cambridge. Weaver, Thomas, 9, Panton Square, Haymarket, Webb, Rev. T. W., M.A., Tretyre, near Ross, Herefordshire. Webb, Rev. John, Tretyre. " Webster, Thomas, Cannon Row. Webster, B. D.,Penns, near Birmingham. Weld, Isaac, Sec. R.D.S., M.R.I.A., Dublin. Wellstood, John, Finch St., Liverpool. West, William, Sec. Lit. and Philos. Soc., Leeds. West, William, M.D., M.R.I.A., 5, Great Denmark Street, Dublin. Westhead, John, Manchester. Wetherd, Rev. Thomas, Leeds. Wharton, W. L.; M.A., Dryburn, Dur- ham. Whatton, Rev. Robert, F.R.S., Man- chester. Whewell, Rev, William, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Trinity College, Cambridge. Whitehouse, William, Exchange Build- ings, Liverpool. Wigram, Rev. Jos. C., 5, Cork Street, Wilderspin, Samuel, Cheltenham. Willan, William, 6, Old Bridge Street, Dublin. Williams, C. J. B., M.D., 46, Half-Moon Street, Piccadilly. Williams, C. W., Dublin Steam Packet Office, Liverpool. Williams, Richard, Dame St., Dublin, Williams, Robert, Bridehead, Dorset, Williams, Robert, Jun., 36, Grosvenor Square. z Williams, Rev. David, F.R.S., Bleadon near Cross, Somerset, Williams, William, Birchin Lane, ‘Williams, John, Jun., Berncoose, Corn wall, Williamson, William, Lincoln’s Inn. Williamson, W. C., Manchester. Willimott, John, F.G,S., 45, Great Marl- borough Street. Willis, Rev. Robert, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Caius College, Cambridge. Wills, William, Birmingham. Wilson, James, F.R.S.E., Edinburgh, Wilson, John, Sen., Clyde Iron Works, Glasgow. Wilson, Thos., Banks, near Barnsley, Wilson, Alex., Bryanstone Square, ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 17 Wilson, Rev. Dublin. Wilson, W. J., Manchester. Winsor, F. A., M.R.I.A., Adelphi. Winterbottom, Rev. J. E., M.A., F.L.S., F.G:S., East Woodhay, Hants. Wood, Rev. Samuel, London. Wood, Peter, M.D., Manchester. Wood, G. W., F.LS., F.G.Si, Singleton Lodge, near Manchester. ; Wood, “William, 16, Castle St., Liverpool. Wood, John, Leadon: Woods, Edward, Manchester. Woods, Samuel, Jun., India Buildings, Liverpool. Woolgar, J. W., F.R.A.S., Lewes. Woolley, William, Hull. Worthington, William, Brockhurst Hall, Northwich. Worthington, Archibald, Whitchurch, Salop. Wrottesley, John, Blackheath. Dr. James, M.R.1.A., | 10, John St., | Ne Yarrell, William, Ryder St., St. James’s. Yate, Rev. Charles, M.A., Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge. Yates, James, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., 49, Upper Bedford Place, Russell Square: Yates, Jos. Brooke, F.S.A., Pres. Lit. and Philos. Soc. Liverpool, West Din- gle, near Liverpool. Yates, R. Vaughan, Toxteth Park, Liver- ool. Yeuies George, 2, Grafton St., Dublin. - Yelverton, W., Kirkdale, near Liverpool. York, His Grace the Archbishop of. Yorke, Col., 12, Duke St., Grosvenor Sq. Young, James, Chemist, London. Young,. Rev. John, D.D., F.R.AS., Warwick House, Cheltenham. Young, John, Taunton. Younge, Robert, M.D., Sheffield. Younge, Robert, F.L.S., Sheffield. ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. —— Abbott, C. H., Long Ashton. Abbott, Henry, Long Ashton, Somerset. Abraham, Abraham, Edge Hill, Liverpool. Ackers, Joseph, Vauxhall Road, Liverpool. Acland, Robert, Boulston. Acraman, Alfred, Jun., Bristol. Acraman, D. W., Clifton. Acraman, W. E., Bristol. Acton, Rev. Henry, Exeter. Adair, Henry, 11, Mountjoy Sq. South, ‘Dublin. Adair, John, 11, ' South, Dublin. Adams, Robert, 11, Gt. Denmark Street, Dublin. Adams, S. B., Clifton. Adams, G. H., Belfast. Adamson, John, Solicitor, Newcastle. Addams, Robert, 20, Pembroke Square, ' Kensington. Adcock, Robert, London, Adcock, Henry, London. Addington, H. J., Langford Court, So- merset. Mountjoy Square Addington, John, Ashley Court. Addison, Rev. J. A., Wallasey, Cheshire. Addison, T. B., Preston. Aiken, P. F., Bristol. Aikin, James, 1, Alfred St., Liverpool. Ainslie, Rev. J ohn, Kast Lothian. Akenhead, David, Newcastle. Alcock, Benjamin, M.D., Frederic St., Dublin. Alder, Joshua, Newcastle. Aldridge, J. F., Bristol. Alexander, W. W., Bristol. Alexander, R. C., Corsham, Wilts. Alford, Henry, ‘Taunton. Alleard, William, Liverpool. Allen, Andrew, Bristol. Allen, J. Penn, North Cerney, Glosters. Allen, T. D., North Cerney, Glostershire. Allen, L. Baugh, Dulwich Common. Allen, W., 32, Hardwicke Street, Dublin. Allies, Jabez, Catherine Villa, near Wor- cester. Alloway, R. T., Hotwells, Bristol. Allwood, Rev. Robert, Clifton Park. 18 ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. Amer, John, Preston. Ames, G. H., Stoke Bishop, near Bristol. Anderson, Rev. D., B.A., South Hunter St., Liverpool. Anderson, T. D., South Hunter St., Li- verpool. Anderson, J. M., Bedford Street South, Liverpool. Anderson, Joseph, M.D., 5, Oxford St., Liverpool. Anderson, James, F.R.S.E., Edinburgh. Anderson, David, of Exeter Coll. Oxon., Edinburgh. pales Henry, Woolton, near Liver- pool. Andrade, Joachim, 68, Duke St., Liver- pool. Andrew, H. P., Bodrean, Truro. Aunsted, D. T., Jesus College, Cambridge. Appleton, Rev.Richard, A.M.,22, Spring- field, Liverpool. Archbold, James, Newcastle. Archer, Francis, Renshaw Street, Liver- pool. Ariel, Miles, Bristel. Armstrong, G. A., Dublin. Armstrong, W. J.,Rathcoale, Co. Dublin. Armstrong, William, Bristol. Arnaud, Elias, Abercromby Square, Liverpool. Ash, Richard, Bristol. Ash, R. H., Middle Temple. Ash, J. H., Bristol. Ashburner, George, London. Ashton, H., Woolton Wood, Liverpool. Ashton, C. E., Woolton Hall, Liverpool. Ashton, H. P., Gildart St., Liverpool. Ashton, Jos. Yates, South John Street, Liverpool. Ashton, Michael, 2, Gildart St., Liver- pool. Ashworth, Thomas, Poynton, Stockport. Ashworth, Samuel, Oxford. Aspinall, Rev. James, Abercromby Sq., Liverpool. Aspland, A. S., Temple. Aston, Lieut. Henry, of Bombay Army, Torquay. Atcherly, John, 3, Gt. George’s Place, Liverpool. Auchinleck, William, 39, Dominick St., Dublin. Avison, Thomas, Jun., Catherine Street, Liverpool. Austen, Robert A. C., Stratford House, Guildford. B. Backhouse, Edward, Jun., Sunderland. Backhouse, William, Newcastle. Backhouse, T. I., Sunderland. Bacon, Robert, McCausland, 12, Fitz- gibbon Street, Dublin. Badham, J. B., Bristol. Baen, Martin, Bristol. Bailey, Lieut. Joseph, R.N., Bristol. Bailie, Rev. Dr. Kennedy, ArdtreaHouse, Tyrone. Baily, Fran.,Treas.R.S., F.G.S., London. Baily, James, Brighton. Baines, Thomas, Hope St., Liverpool. Baird, David, M.D., 97, Duke Street, Liverpool. Baker, Thomas, Bristol. Baker, George, Northampton. Baker, T, B. L., Hardwick Court, Glou- cester. Balearras, The Earl of, Haigh Hall, Wigan. Bald, William, F.R.S.E., Board of Works, Dublin. Ball, Rev. John, Manchester. Ball, John, Seacombe, Cheshire. Ball, Nicholas, 85, Stephen’s Green So., Dublin. ; Balleny, William, 50, Oxford Street, Liverpool. Bangley, George, 24, St. John’s Wood Road. Banner, J. M.,24, Rodney St., Liverpool. Banning, T. H., 27, CanningSt., Liverpool. Barber, Thos., Exchange Alley North, Liverpool. Barber, Charles, 18, Moira St., Liverpool. Barclay, Thomas, Castlebar. Barclay, T. B., Wavertree Lodge, Liver- ool. Harton, Beonstandl Hampton Hall, Ireland. Bardsley, S. A., M.D., Manchester. Bardsley, J. L., Manchester. Barham, Dr. T. F., Exeter. Barham, Francis, London. Barker, Rev. Frederick, B.A., Edge Hill, Liverpool, Barker, James, 24, North Cumberland Street, Dublin. Barker, Rey. T. F., Everton, Liverpool. Barker, James, Bakewell, Derbyshire. Barker, Rev. Henry, Clifton. Barnard, W. H., South Shields. Barratt, John, Conistone, near Kendall. Barrow, Samuel, Bath. Barton, Stephen, Bristol. Batchelor, W. M., Abbeville, County Dublin. Bates, John, Clifton. Bath and Wells, The Lord Bishop of, Palace, Wells. oe ee ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 19 Bathurst, Earl, Cirencester. Batty, C., Liverpool. Baumgartner, A., Manchester. Bayly, John, Abbott's Leigh, Bristol. Bayly, T. K., Abbott’s Leigh, Bristol. Bayne, Rev. Thomas, Warrington. Baynton, William, Bristol. Bealey, Richard, Radcliffe. Beardman, Joseph, Chesterfield. Beasley, Thos., Fitzwilliam Sq., Dublin. Beatty, T. E., M.D.,M.R.1.A., 16, Moles- worth Street, Dublin. Beaufort, His Grace the Duke of, Bad- minton. Beddoes, Lieut. C. H., R.N., Clifton. Bedford, R. G., Clifton. Beilby, William, M.D., Edinburgh. Bell, David, Blessington Street, Dublin. Bell, T. B., Edinburgh. Bell, J. W., Q.C., 1, Gardiner Street, Dublin. Bell, Peter, M.D., Wolverhampton. Bell, John, Royal Barracks, Dublin. Bell, Matthew, M.P., Wolsington, New- castle. Bellamy, Wm., Rodney Street, Liverpool. Bellingham, Rev. J..G., B.A. Beney, Perceval, Bedford Row. Bennett, Richard, Bristol. Bennett, C. F., Clifton. Bennett, Henry, Bristol. Bennett, G., St. John’s, Newfoundland. Benson, Rob.,Jun., Lodge Lane, Liverpool. Benson, W. W., Lieut. 57th. Regiment. Benwell, Rev. William, Stanton Drew. Berend, S. S., Bold Street, Liverpool. Bernard, C. E., M.D., Clifton. Berkeley, F. H.,St. John’s Priory,Chester. Bernard, F. J., Bristol. Bernard, R. M., Bristol. Bernard, R. W., M.D., Cheltenham. Bernard, W. H., Whitburn, Durham. Bernard, W. R., M.A., Clifton. Berry, Rev. William, Settle, York. Bessonet, James, 28, Leeson St., Dublin. Bettune, William, Boston. Bevan, John, Great George Square, Liver- ool, Foran, John, Cowbridge, Glamorgan. Bevan, Samuel, Neath. Bevan, William, 8, Leeson St., Dublin. Bevan, Rev. William, Frazer Street, Liverpool. Bevan, Robert, M.D., Monmouth. Biggs, Arthur, Bristol. Bickford, J, S., Hayle, Cornwall. Biddle, John, Leamington. Biddle, James, 16, Mount Pleasant, Liverpool, Bigg, L. O., Bristol. Bigge, Chas. J., Dunston Hill, Durham. Bigge, C. W., Linden, Newcastle. Biggs, R. H., Bristol. Biggs, William, Leicester. Biggs, John, Leicester. Billett, James, Taunton. Bincks, C., Edinburgh. Birch, Sir T. B., Bart., Prescot. Bird, Golding, Guy’s Hospital. Bird, William, Dingle Mount, Liverpool. Birkbeck, William, Settle, Yorks. Birrell, Rev. C. M., Roscommon Street, _ Liverpool. Bishop, C. K., Tiverton. Black, James, M.D., Bolton. Black, William, 65, Cornhill. Blackaller, Rev. H., Clapville, America... Blackburn, E. B., Alnwick Castle. Blackburn, James, Alnwick Castle. Blackburn, J. J., M.P., Warrington. —- Blackburn, T., Camden St., Liverpool. Blackett, Christopher, M.P., Wyham Oak- wood, Newcastle. Blackhall, Rev. Samuel, North Cadbury. Blain, William, Mount Vernon, Liver- pool. Blair, Harrison, Mill Hill House, Bolton. Blake, John, 104, Bold Street, Liverpool, Blake, J. H., Lisduff, Co. Galway. Blake, Jas., Jun., Great George Square, Liverpool. Blake, William, Crewkerne. Bliss, Thomas, Jun., Trin. Coll., Dublin. Blisset, Charles, Clifton. Blood, W. Bindon, Edinburgh. Blower, Benjamin, Surgeon, Northern Hospital, Liverpool. Blundell, William, Crosby Hall, Liver- pool. Blundell, Richard, Hooton, Cheshire. Boisragon, Theodore, Cheltenham. Bold, N. D., Duke St., Liverpool. Bold, Rev. Thomas, Duke Street, Liver- ool. Bold, Thomas, Water Street, Liverpool. Boley, Richard, Ashley Hill, near Bristol. Bolton, Ogden, Great George’s Street, Liverpool. Bompas, G. G., M.D., Fishponds, near Bristol. Bompas, G. J., Jun., Fishponds, Bristol. Bompas, C. C., 11, Park Road, Regent’s Park. Booker, Richard, British Guiana. Booker, Josias, Allerton, Liverpool. Booth, Abraham, Hackney. Booth, Charles, Bedford Street North, Liverpool. B2 20 ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. Booth, John, M.D., F.G.S., Brush House, Sheffield. Booth, Henry, Abercromby Square, Liver- ool. Boothby, J. B., Everton, Liverpool. Boswall, Capt., R.N., Edinburgh. Boswell, William, 115, Stephen’s Green, Dublin. Bouch, Thomas, Everton, Liverpool. Bovill, William, London. Bourne, Rt. Hon. William Sturges, Brook Street. Bourne, Timothy, Liverpool. Bower, Anthony,85, Islington, Liverpool. Bowes, John, M.P., Streatham Castle, Durham. Bowler, Capt., Liverpool. Bowman, J. E., F.L.S., Gresham, near Wrexham. Bowman, Thos., Berkeley Square, Bristol. Bowring, John, LL.D., 1, Queen Square, Westminster. Bowstead, Rev. T. S., Maryland Street, Liverpool. Boyd, G. W., Winson, near Liverpool. Bradshaw, R. S., Belfast. Bragg, J. K., Clifton. Brandling, John, Newcastle. Brandling, R. W., Low Newcastle. Brandon, J. J., Clifton. Brandreth, J.. M.D., Rodney Street, Liverpool. Brandreth, James, Tavistock Place. Branker, Henry, Wadham Coll., Oxford. Branker, W. H., Rodney St., Liverpool. Branson, Thomas, Sheffield. Branwhite, Nathaniel, Bristol. Branwhite, Nathaniel, Jun., Bristol. Bray, Charles, Coventry. Brentano, L. La Roche, 5, Bedford Street, Liverpool. Brereton, Joseph, Liverpool. Bretherton, Edward, South Hunter St., Liverpool. Brett, R. H., F.L.S., London. Brewster, Sir David, M.A. Cambridge, D.C.L. Oxon., LL.D., K.H., F.R.S., L. and E., St. Andrews. Brice, Rev. H. C., Bristol. Bridges, H. L., Clifton Hill. Bright, Robert, Abbott’s Leigh, Bristol. Bright, Richard, Juv., M.D., Abbott's Leigh, Bristol. Bright, Richard, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 11, Saville Row. Bright, Samuel, Liverpool. Broadbent, William, Latchford, Warrington. Gosforth, near Brockett, John Trotter, Newcastle. Brodie, Robert, Clifton. Brodigan, Thomas, Drogheda. Bromby, Rev. J. E., Bristol. Bromby, C. H., St. John’s Coll., Cam- bridge. Brookes, Rev. Jonathan, M.A., Everton, Liverpool. Brooks, John, 28, Great George Street, Liverpool. Brooks, J. H., Brazennose Coll., Oxford. Brougham, Lord, Brougham Hall. Broughton, S. D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 12, Great Marlborough Street. Brown, Ebenezer, A.M., Bedford Street, Liverpool. Brown, George, Clifton. Brown, George, Liverpool. Brown, Samuel, Bristol. Brown, Rev. Geo., M.A., Edge Hill, Liverpool. Brown, W.-A., North John Street, Liver- ool, Bins James, Douglas, Isle of Man. Brown, James, India Buildings, Liver- pool. Brown, Thomas, Barbadoes. Brown, Dr., Sunderland. Brown, J: B., Bedford Place, London. Brown, Rev. Thos., Inneskip. Brown, G. A., Manchester. Browne, William, Richmond Hill, Clifton. Browne, Robert, Liverpool. Browne, James, Bristol. Browne, John, Bridgewater. Bruce, O. Tyndall, Falkland, Fifeshire. Bruce, Rev. J. C., Newcastle. Bruce, Robert, Frenchay, near Bristol. Bruce, Robert, Jun., Frenchay. Bruce, William, Middle Temple. Brunel, M. I., V.P.R.S., 18, Duke St., Westminster. Bryan, R. B., M.R.D.S., 20, Eccles St., Dublin. Bryan, James, Netherfield Road North, Liverpool. Bryant, Samuel, Bristol. Bryce, Charles, M.D., Mount Pleasant, Liverpool. Buchanan, John, 2, Harrington Street, Liverpool. Buchanan, Daniel, Everton, Liverpool. Buckingham, C. J., New York. Budd, J. P., South Hill Road, Liverpool. Budd, John, Liverpool. Buddicombe, Rev. R. P., M.A., F.A.S., Everton, Liverpool. Buddicombe, W. B., Liverpool. Buddle, John, Newcastle. ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 21 Bull, H. W., London. Bulley, Thomas, 17, Falkner St., Liver- ool. Benbaiy, Richardson, 19, Mountjoy Sq., Dublin. Bunt, T. G., Bristol. Bunting, Jabez, D.D., London. - Burgess, Alfred, Leicester. Burgess, Daniel, Clifton. Burgess, Daniel, Jun., Clifton Vale. Burnett, George, Jun., Newcastle. Burrell, William, Newcastle. Burroughs, J. A., Bristol. Burroughs, W. G., Clifton. Burton, H.S., Carrigaholt, County Clare. org John, Monkstown Avenue, Dub- in. Bush, James, Beach Bitton, near Bristol. Bush, Thomas, Beach Bitton. Bush, James, Baldwin Street, Bristol. Bush, Henry, Clifton. Bush, George, Durdham Down, Bristol. Bush, William, Bristol. anil W. P., Exchange Alley, Liver- pool. alae F. A., Exchange Alley, Liver- pool. Bushell, W. D., Kingshill Villa, Cotham. Butler, Charles, M.D., 53, Lower Sack- ville Street, Dublin. Butterworth, J. H., Bristol. Byles, J. B., London. Byng, Rev. John, Merton Coli., Oxford. C. Henbury Court, Cales, Henry, Cheltenham. Callcott, Captain G.B., Lower Crescent, Clifton. Caly, Edward, Isle of Man. Campbell, Rev. Augustus, Duke Street, Liverpool. Campbell, Rev. Jas., D.D., Dublin. Campbell, John, India Buildings, Liver- ool. Campbell, Colin, Toxteth Park, Liverpool. Campbell, Rev. Colin, M.A., Newport, Salop. Campbell, R. C., Glasgow. Campbell, John, LL.D., Fishill, Ire- land. Capron, A., Park Row, Bristol. Carey, Rev. Robert, Clonmel. Cargill, William, Newcastle. Carlisle, H. H.,Bushfield Avenue, Dublin. Carlisle, Richard, Enfield. Carmichael, Thomas, 10, Upper Temple Street, Dublin. Carne, C. F., 9, Bold Street, Liverpool. Carpenter, R. L., College, York. ; Carpenter, Rev. Benjamin, Nottingham. Carpenter, W. B., Edinburgh. Carpenter, Ph. P., Jun., Bristol. Carr, R. L., St. Anne St., Liverpool. Carr, I. T. J., 10, Old Church Yard, Liverpool. Carr, Rey. William, B.D., Gomersal, near Leeds. . Carr, William, Gomersal. Carrick, A., M.D. Carrow, I. M., Temple, Londox. Carson, J. W., M.D., F.R.S., Mount Pleasant, Liverpool. Carson, James, Jun., M.D., Liverpool. Carson, P. M., Mount Pleasant, Liver- pool. Carson, Joseph, Trinity College, Dublin. Carter, Rev. Augustus, Theakstone, York- shire. Case, B. C. T., Malmesbury. Case, W. A., Garston, Liverpool. Case, R. E., Clifton. Case, J. Ashton, Aigburth, Liverpool. Casin, Henry, Bristol. Casson, Wm., Greenland St., Liverpool. Castle, H. M., Bristol. Castle, Michael, Grove House, Clifton. Castle, W. H., Stoke’s Croft, Bristol. Cattell,T. W., 16, Seymour Street, Liver- pool. Catto, Robert, Aberdeen. Cay, R. B., Sunderland. Chadwick, Edwin, Somerset House. .. Chaigneau, Peter, Upper Fitzwilliam St., Dublin. Chambers, James, Dublin. Champion, Guy, Dublin. Chancellor, George, Dublin. Chanter, John, Earl Street. Chapman, Capt. J. G., R.A., Clifton. Chappell, Commander, R.N., Dublin Steam Packet Office, Liverpool. Charles, S., Bristol College. Charlesworth, Edward, British Museum. Charters, Capt. Samuel, R.N., Bath. Chawner, Dr. Darwin, Newark. Chatfield, Henry, Devonport. Cheeseborough, John, 48, St. Anne St., Liverpool. Cheetham, David, Preston. Chibborn, Edward, Cullenswood, Dublin. Chilcott, John, Bristol. Chilcott, Thomas, Clifton. Cholmeley, M., Oxford. Clauny, Rev. R., F.R.S.E., Sunderland. Clanny, Dr., Sunderland. Clapham, Col., Over Court. 22 ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. Clark, Alonzo, M.A., New York. Clark, Bracy, F.L.S., 7, Taunton Place, Regent’s Park. Clarke, W. H., London. Clarke, James, Q. C., Recorder of Liver- pool. Clarke, Bramhall, Old Hall Street, Li- verpool, Clarke, J. L., Woolton, Liverpool. Clarke, Joshua, Bristol. Clarke, Rev. W. B., Stanley Green, near Poole. Clarke, Rev. Edward, M.A., Essex. Clarke, N. D., Manchester. Clarke, E. S., Palmerston. Clarke, Sir Arthur, M.D., 44, New Great George Street, Dublin. Claxton, Christopher, Clifton. Clay, Robert, Bold Street, Liverpool. Clay, Rev. John, B.D., Adlington Hall, Cheshire. Clayton, John, Newcastle. Cleave, W. O., Clifton. Clegram, W. B., Gloucester. Clendining, Dr. John, 16, Wimpole St. Clerk, Henry, Bristol. Clerk, Thomas, M.D., Aberdeen. Clerk, Rev. D. M., Yatton, near Bristol. Clerke, Major Shadwell, K.H., F.R.S., Atheneum. Clive, Rev. William, Welsh Pool Clutterbuck, James, Cheltenham. Coates, William, Clifton. Coates, William, Jun., 5, Richmond Ter- race, Clifton. Coathupe, Oliver, Redland, near Bristol. Cobden, Richard, Manchester. Cock, Edward, Guy’s Hospital. Cock, James, Liverpool. Cocker, John, Salford. Cocks, W. 8., Upper Newington, Liver- ool. Cocks, J. Somers, Legh, Worcester. Cocks, Rev. H. Somers, Legh. Coffin, William, Llandaff. Coglan, Thomas, Exchange Street East, Liverpool. Colbeck,. Thomas, Southampton Row. Cole, Lord Viscount, M.P., Florence Court. Cole, Walter K., Bristol College. Coles, Rev. Thos., Bourton on the Water. Colles; Maurice, M.D., 18, Merrion 5q., Dublin. Collings, D. H., Queen’s Coll., Oxford. Collins, James, M.D., 11, Norton Street, Liverpool. Collinson, Rev. John, A.M., Gateshead. Colville, Lieut. R., 97th. Regt., Stockport. Comer, George, Exchange Buildings, Liverpool. Comrie, A., London. Condie, John, Willsonton Iron Works, North Britain. Condie, A., North Britain. Congreave, C., Sheffield. Connebee, Richard, Dorking. Conolly, John, M.D., Warwick. Conolly, William, M.D., Castleton House, near Cheltenham. Conybeare, John, Sully Rectory. Cook, J., 4, King’s Bench Walk, Temple. Cooke, Rev. Dr. George, Tortworth. Cooke, J. A., Clifton. Cooke, George, West Derby, Liverpool. Cooke, Isaac, Clifton. Cooke, Samuel, Christ Church, Oxford. Cookson, Joseph, Clifton. Cookson, Isaac, Meldon, Newcastle. Cooper, John, Bristol. Cooper, J. S., M.R.1.A., Upper Merrion Street, Dublin. Cooper, James, St. Anne Street, Liverpool. Cooper, Paul, Isle of Man. Copeland, Dr., Enniskillen. Copeland, G. F., Cheltenham. Copeland, James, M.D., 1, Bulstrode St. Copinger, John, M.D., Cork. Corbett, William, 22, Lower Baggot St., Dublin. Corrie, John, Pres. Birmingham Philos. Institut., Woodville,near Birmingham. Corrie, J. R., M.D., Birmingham. Corrie, Thomas, Bedford St., Liverpool. Corrie, V. B., London. Corser, Rev. Wm., Stand, near Bury. Coryndon, R. W., Plymouth. Cosby, Major Wm., M.R.D.5., 1, Belve- dere Place, Dublin. Costello, Marcus, Dublin. Cotes, Thomas, 59, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, Cotesworth, Charles, Brunswick Street, Liverpool. Cottam, G. C., Engineer, Winsley Street, London. Cottam, S. E., Manchester. Coulston, T. L., Clifton Wood. Coultherd, Wm., Neweastle-upon-Tyne, Cowall, J. W., Gloucester. Cowan, Charles, M.D., Bath. Cowan, William, LL.D., Lodge Lane, Liverpool. Cowan, Capt. T., R.N., Edinburgh. Cowie, C. G., Liverpool. Cowling, John, Temple. Cowling, John, Maryland St., Liverpool. Cox, Robert, 28, St. Anne St., Liverpool. Cox, James, 10, Oxford St., Liverpool. ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 23 Craig, Edward, M.A., Staines. Craigh, Hugh, Percy Street, Liverpool. Crane, George, Swansea. Crawford, T. R., Charles Street, Berkeley Square. Crawley, Rev. Wm.,Brynywyn Rectory, Monmouth. Creig, W. L., Red Castle, Castle Douglas. Creighton, Captain, London. Crewdson, Wilson, Manchester. Crichton, Sir Alexander, Kent. Cripps, Frederick, 39, Mount Pleasant, Liverpool. Crisp,T. §., Baptists’ Coll., Stoke’s Croft, Bristol. Croft, Rev. R., Edmund St., Liverpool. Croft, J. R., Straw Street, Liverpool. Crompton, C., Barrister, 52, Doughty St. Crompton, Edward, Eton House, Liver- pool. Crompton, Henry, Eton House, Liverpool. Crompton, Albert, Eton House, Liverpool. Crompton, Woodhouse, Liverpool. Crooke, Nicholas, Christ Church, Oxford. Croome, William, Cirencester. Cropper, John, Everton, Liverpool. Cropper, John, Jun., Dingle, Liverpool. Cropper, Edward, Dingle, Liverpool. Crosfield, Wm., Mason Street, Liverpool. Crosfield, John, Temple Court, Liverpool. Crosfield, Simon, Bedford St., Liverpool. Cross, B. J., Kingsdown, Bristol. Cross, William, Clifton. Cross, Thomas, Bristol. Cross, T. B., Chorley, Lancashire. Crosse, J. A., Broomfield, near Taunton. Crossfield, Joseph, Warrington. Crouch, E. A., Penzance. Cruickshanks, Alexander, Boulogne. Crum, Walter, Glasgow. Crump, John, Woodside, Cheshire. Culdwell, J.S., Linley Wood,Staffordshire. Cull, Richard, London. Cumberland, G., Bristol. Cumming, Rev. Professor, F.R.S.,F.G.S., Cambridge. Cumming, George, M.D., Denbigh. Cunningham, James, Clifton. Cunningham, James, Jun., Clifton. Cunningham, John, Wood St., Liverpool. Cunningham, George, Oak Vale, near Liverpool. Cunningham, William, Castle Pollard. Currie, Donald, 20, Regent Street. Currie, William, Q.C., 37, Summer Hill, Dublin. Currie, W. W., Ellerslie, Liverpool. Curry, P. F., Knotty Ash, near Liverpool. Curtis, B. W., Bristol. Curtis, W., Alton, Hants. ; Curtis, John, F.L.S., 11, Robert Street, Hampstead Road. Cuthbert, S. T., Clifton. D. Dakin, Thomas, London. Dale, J. C., Granville’s Wootten, Dorset. Dale, T. A., Hanover Street, Liverpool. Dale, E. H., Bristol. Dale, Henry, North Shields. Dale, Rev. P. S., Holland’s Green, War- tington. Dalgleish, Robert, Wigan. Dalton, John, D.C.L. Oxon., F.R.S., &c., Manchester. Dalton, J. S., Mount Vernon, Liverpool. Danger, William, Durdham Down Lodge, Bristol. Daniel, Edward, Jun., St. Somerset. Daniel, Thomas, Henbury, near Bristol. Daniel, Thomas, Jun., Sneed Park, near Bristol. Darley, William, 34, Lower Baggot St., Dublin. Darthez, S. T., Clapham Park. Daubeny, J. W., Cote, near Bristol. Davey, Gen.W., Tracey Park, near Bath. Davey, Richard, Redruth, Cornwall. Davies, Thomas, Montpelier, Bristol. Davies, Theodore, Nailsea, near Bristol. Davies, David, M.D., Bristol. Davies, W. W., Coate Bank, Westbury. Davies, John, M.D., 31, Lennox Street, Dublin. Davies, Rev. Robert, M.A., Brownlow Street, Liverpool. Davies, Rev. Richard, B.A., Brownlow Street, Liverpool. i Davies, Walter, Liscard, Cheshire. Davies, Edward, Wrexham. Davies, John, Abergeley, Denbigh. Davies, James, Lyceum Place, Liverpool. Davis, Francis, Waterford. Davis, Joseph, Westbury-upon-Tyne. Davy, Rev. Dr., Master of Caius College, Cambridge. Dawell, John, Bristol. Dawell, Stephen, Abbott's Leigh, Hunts. Dawson, Charles, Llangollen, Dawson, John, Rodney Street, Liverpool. Dawson, Robert, Sandwell Cottage, Bir- mingham. Dawson, Joseph, 20, Stafford Street, Liverpool. Dawson, Edw., Aldcliffe Hall, Liverpool. Day, Alfred, Bristol. George’s, 24 ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. Day, Joseph H., Bristol. Day, John, Peckham. Day, J. D., Brazennose College, Oxford. Day, J., Llangollen. Deane, Sir Thomas, Cork. Deane, Alexander, Cork. De Beauvoir, Sir John E., Bart., Albe- marle Street. De Butts, Rev. G., A.M., Crickhowel, Glamorganshire. Denham, Capt. H. M., R.N., Toxteth Park, Liverpool. Denny, Henry, Leeds. De Ridder, L. E., 5, Victoria Place, near Bristol. De Soyres, Rev. F., Siddlesham, Sussex. Dick, Dr. Paris, Bristol. Dicker, J. R., Woodside, Cheshire. Dickinson, Jos., M.B., Trinity College, Dublin. Dickson, Rey.T. B., Whittle, near Preston. Dillon, Edward, 39, York Street, Dublin. Dillwin, L. W., Spelty Hall, Swansea. Dix,John,Jun,,Somerset Terrace, Bristol. Dixon, James, Birkenhead, Cheshire. Dixon, James, Oxford. Dixon, William, Parish Office, Liverpool. Dixon, William, Jun., Abercromby Square, Liverpool. Dixon, J. D., Everton, Liverpool. Dobbs, A. A., Birkenhead, Cheshire. Dobson, T. O., 5, Myrtle St., Liverpool. Dockray, Benjamin, Lancaster. Dockray, David, Jun., 24, Cook Street, Liverpool. Don, David, F.L.S., Professor of Botany, King’s College, London. Donato, F. K., Bristol. Donovan, A. F., 14, Anson St., Liverpool. Doran, Thomas, Bristol. Doveton, Rev. J. F., Clifton. Douglas, H. G., France. Douglas, J. J., 4, Garden Court, Temple. Douglass, Rey. William, Prebendary of ’ Durham. Dow, Robert, M.D., Waterford. Dowell, Rev. Henry, M.A., Axminster. Drake, John, Bedminster. Dublin, His Grace the Archbishop of. Du Buisson, Thomas, Wandsworth. Duckworth, Robinson, 2, Canning Street, Liverpool. Dudgeon, Liverpool. Dudgeon, John, Edinburgh. Duffy, John, 5, Upper Fitzwilliam Street, Dublin. Duke, Valentine, M.D., Dublin. Dumbell, G. W., Isle of Man. Robert, Mount Pleasant, Dunalley, Lord, Kilbay, Nenagh. Dunbar, David, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Duncan, Philip B., M.A., Keeper of Ash- molean Mus., Fell. of New Coll.Oxford. Duncan, W. H., M.D., 18, Rodney Street, Liverpool. Duncan, Dr., Glasgow. Duncan, G. I., 21, Rodney St., Liverpool. Duncan, J. C., Everton Road, Liverpool. Duncan, Jas., 13, Percy Street, Liverpool. Duncan, J. R., Dumfries. Duncan, Robert, Dumfries. Dungannon, Lord, M.P., Wickham Park, Northampton. Dunlevie, C. T., Brunswick St., Liverpool. Dunn, William, Hedgfield. Dunsford, William, Park Place, Clifton. Duppa, T. D., Salop. Durbin, F. J., Trinity Coll., Cambridge. Durby, Abraham, Colebrook Dale. E. Earle, William, Woolton Hall, Liverpool. Earle, Hardman, Exchange Buildings, Liverpool. Eaton, Rev. George, Norwich. : Eaton, Rey. George, The Pole, near Warrington. Eaton, Joseph, Bristol. Eastwicke, W. H., Heynsham. Eckersall, John, Bath. Edgar, John Foy, Bristol. Edgworth, Francis, Bristol. Edington, William, 18, Leinster Street, Dublin. Edwards, Thomas, Bristol. Edwards, G. O,, Redland, near Bristol. Edwards, 8. C., Long Ashton, Somerset. Edwards, Richard, Roby Hall, Liverpool. Edwards, John, M.D., 23, Bold Street, Liverpool. Edwards, J. P., Falkland St., Liverpool. Egerton, Rev. William, Cheshire. Egerton, W. G., Oulton Park, Cheshire, Egerton, Rev. William, Hodnet, Salop. Eginton, Harvey, Worcester. Eglington, Sam., 88, Islington, Liverpool. Eglington, J. T., 88, Islington, Liverpool. Elgin, Edward, York. Elliott, William, M.D., Carlisle. ’ Ellis, Francis, Bristol. Ellis, Capt. G. M., Ballyshannon. Ellis, Carteret J. W., 47, Albion Street, Hyde Park. Ellison, King, Mount Pleasant, Liverpool. Elton, Ar. H., Bristcl. Elton, C. A., Bristol. Elverson, James, Bushby, Leicestershire. ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 25 Elwin, Rev.F., Grosvenor Cottage, Clifton. Elwin, F. H., London. Emery, George, Banwell, Somerset. Errington, J. E., Hartford. Errington, William, Hartford. Estlin, J. B., Bristol. Etches, J. C., Price Street, Liverpool. Evans, Eyre, 48, Renshaw St., Liverpool. Evans, John, London. Evans, Richard, Swansea. Evans, Rev.Wm., Park Wood, Tavistock. Ewart, J. C., Mosely Hall, Liverpool. Exall, William, Reading. Exley, Thomas, M.A., Bristol. Eyes, Edward, Everton, Liverpool. Eyes, Edward, Jun., Liverpool. Eyton, T. C. Eyton, Wellington, Salop. Eyton, John, Holywell. Eyton, Edward, Flintshire. F, Fabian, Lieut., R.N., London. Fairbrother, Alexander, M.D., Clifton. Falkner, E. D.,F airfield House, Liverpool. Fannin, Thomas, Dublin. Targus, John, Bristol. Farquharson, Lieut.-Col., Bolton. Farran, Joseph, 44, York Street, Dublin. Farre, F. S., F.L.S., London. Faulder, John, Bristol. Fearne, Charles, Wakefield. Fearon, H. B., 105, Bond Street. Fearon, Rev. J., Bootle, Liverpool. Fedden, O., Bedminster. Felkin, William, Nottingham. Fell, J. A., Woodside, Cheshire. Fellows, Charles, 30, Russell Square. Fenwick, Addison, Newcastle. Fenwick, John, Newcastle. Ferguson, James, M.D., 62, St. Anne Street, Liverpool. Ferguson, J., Carlisle. Ferguson, Hugh, M.D., M.R.I.A., Sack- - ville Street, Dublin. Fergusson, Thomas, Birkenhead,Cheshire. Fernehough, W. F., 16, Chatham Street, Liverpool. Ferris, Richard, Clifton. Field, Arthur, Liverpool. Field, Henry, M.D., Blackrock, Ireland. Field, John, Seacombe, Cheshire. Field, Joshua, Lambeth. Fielden, John, M.P.,odmorden, Lancas. Fielden, Joshua, Todmorden, Lancashire. Fielden, Rev. Robt., Bebbington, Cheshire. Fife, G., M.D., Newcastle. Fife, John, Newcastle. _ Fife, William, Newcastle. Filgate, W. H., Castle Bellingham. - Finlay, John, LL.D., 31, North Cumber- land Street, Dublin. Firke, Robert, Clifton. Fisher, Rev. Charles, Badgworth, near Cross, Somerset. Fisher, Rey. Thomas, 32, Edmund Street, Liverpool. Fisher, Thomas, Liverpool. Fisher, John, Bristol. Fisher, W. B., M.B., Downing College, Cambridge. Fitzherbert, E. H., Temple. Fitzhugh, W.H.,Goree Piazzas, Liverpool. Fitzpatrick, Thomas, M.D., 12, Park Street, Dublin. Fleming, John, Bootle, Liverpool. Fletcher, John, Toxteth Park, Liverpool. Fletcher, J. D., Toxteth Park, Liverpool. Fletcher,R.A.,Park Hill Road, Liverpool. Fletcher, Thomas, Gateacre, Liverpool. Fletcher, Robert, Exchange, Bristol. Fletcher, Angus, Athenzum. Flood, P. T., M.R.D.S., Lower Mount Street, Dublin. Folingsby, T. G., Belfast. Foote, Simon, Essex Bridge, Dublin. Forbes, John, LL.D., Aberdeen. Forbes, Rev. John, Glasgow. Ford, Major H., Conway. Ford, William, Liverpool. Ford, H. R., Hareholme, near Rochdale. Forrest, Richard, Heathfield Terrace, Turnham Green. Forrester, George, Vauxhall Foundry, Liverpool. : Forshaw, Richard, Colquitt St., Liverpool. Forster, Francis, 6, Rodney St., Liverpool. Forster, Edward, Woodford, Essex. Forster, William, Jun., Liverpool. Forster, J. N., Biggleswade, Beds. Forsythe, Thomas, Edge Hill, Liverpool. Forsythe, Thomas, 31, St. Anne Street, Liverpool. Foster, Geo., Pendle Hill, near Clitheroe. Foster, Rev. F. D., Doddington. Foster, William, 13, Merrion Square East, Dublin. Fowler, Rev. John, Bristol. Fowler, Richard, M.D., F.R.S., Salisbury. Fowler, John, Bristol. Fox, G. F., Brislington, near Bristol. Fox, H. H., Bristol. Fox, G. C., Grove Hill, Falmouth. Fox, Edwin, Brislington. Fox, F. K., Brislington. Fox, C. P. Brislington. Fox, Robert Were, Falmouth. Fox, R. B., Falmouth. 26 Fox, Alfred, Falmouth. Fox, Charles, Perran Arworthal, Truro. Fox, Rev. S. W., 96, Stephen’s Green, Dublin. Francis, G. G., Royal Liverpool. Francis, Francis, London. Francis, William, Whitehall, near Truro. Francis, John, Swansea. Franklin, B.W., 24,Canning St., Liverpool. Franklyn, G. W., Clifton. Franklyn, John, Clifton. Franklyn, J. N., Clifton. Fraser, G. G., Bold Place, Liverpool. Fraser, William, Demerara. Fraser, William, Edinburgh. Freeman, J. C., Clifton. French, Arthur, 9, Merrion Square, Dublin. . French, Charles, Club House, Kildare Street, Dublin. Jnstitution, Frend, William, M.A., F.R.S., 31, Upper” Bedford Place, Russell Square. Frere, Jt. E., 13th Light Infantry, Bitton. Freser, J. W., Manchester. i Fripp, William, Bristol. Fripp, E. B., Westbury, near Bristol. Fripp, James, Bristol. Frith, J. G., London. Frodsham, George, 4, Change Alley. Fry, Joseph, Bristol. Fry, William, India Buildings, Liverpool. Fry, Thomas, Exchange Alley North, Liverpool. Fryer, J. H., Whitley House. Fryer, Thomas, Bristol. Fryer, William, London Road, Liverpool. Fuge, John, Plymouth. Furnival, Rey. James, St. Helen’s, near Liverpool. G. Gage, Rev. Robt., N.T.L., Vady, Ireland. Gage, M. A., 17, Slater Street, Liverpool. Gale, R. L., 42, Seymour St., Liverpool. Gamble, J. C.,St. Helen’s, near Liverpool. Gamboa, A., Bristol. Gardon, George, Truman St., Liverpool. Garrard, T., Bristol. Garston, E. H., 18, Catherine Street, Liverpool. Garston, Henry, 18, Catherine Street, Liverpool. Gaskell, Jas., Smithdown Lane, Liverpool. Gawne, Robert, Bristol. Gennest, Charles, Isle of Man. Geoghegan, Thomas, M.D., 52, York Street, Dublin. ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. George, Christopher, Abbott's Leigh, Bristol. George, C. F., Abbott's Leigh. Gettings, William, London. Gibbons, Wm., M.D., Richmond, Surrey. Gibbons, Benj., Corbyne Hall, Staffords. Gibbs, George, Belmont, Somersetshire. Gibbs, G. H., 11, Bedford Square. Gibbs, H. H., 11, Bedford Square. Gibbs, James, Bristol. Gibson, John, Newcastle. Gibson, Solomon, 22, Gildart’s Street, Liverpool. Gibson, Rev.N.W., Ardwick, Manchester. Gibson, Rev. Geo., Park Place, Liverpool. Gilbert, John Davies, Eastbourne. Gilbert, Richard, Tranmere, Cheshire. Gilbert, Rev. Joseph, Nottingham. Giles, Rev. Hen.,3, Mill Street, Liverpool. Gilfillan, Jas., Rodney Street, Liverpool. Gillon, Andrew,ClarenceStreet, Liverpool. Gillow, Rev. Robert, 50, Warren Street, Liverpool. Gilly, Dr., College, Durham. Gladstone, David, Canning Street, Liverpool. Gladstone, William, Liverpool. Gladstone, T.S.,ChathamS treet, Liverpool. Gladstone, Murray, Great George Street, Westminster. Glasco, John, Springfield, Liverpool. Glasebrook, T. K., Everton, Liverpool. Godwin, J. H., Highbury College. Goldney, A., West Lydford. Goldney, Samuel, Hotwells, Bristol. Goldsmid, M.A.,PortmanSquare, London. Goldsmid, I. L., St. John's Lodge, Regent's Park. Goodenough, Very Rev. Edward, D.D., Dean of Wells. Goodall, Ebenezer, 19, Molesworth Street, Dublin. Goodeve, J. W., Clifton. Goodfellow, R., Demerara. Goodlett, George, Leith. Goodwin, Rev. F. G., A.M., Wigwell, Derbyshire. Goodwin, Capt., Derbyshire. Goore, W. H., Aigburth, Liverpool. Gordon, Alexander, 22, Fludyer Street, London. Gordon, Harry, Great George Street, Liverpool. Gordon, A. F., Edinburgh. Gordon, James, Jun., Kincardine. Gore, Co]. George, ‘Tours, France. Gore, R. T., Bath. ; Gotch, F. W., Kettering. Wigwell Grange, ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 27 Gouthwaite, John, 102, Richmond Row, Liverpool. Graham, Robert, Edinburgh. Grainger, Richard, Newcastle. Granger, F. R., Bristol. Grant, Geo., Rodney Street, Liverpool. Grant, R. E., M.D., Professor of Zoology in University College, London. ~ Grantham, Richard, Limerick. Grantham, John, Everton, .Liverpool. Grantham, Richard, F.G.S., Streatley, Berkshire. Grapel, Wm., Church Street, Liverpool. Gravatt, William, 7, De la Haye Street, Westminster. Graves, R. I., M.D., M.R.I.A., 9, Har- court Street, Dublin. Graves, J. T., M.A., 20, Southampton Buildings, Chancery Lane. Graves, Rev. R. H., D.D., Glebe, Mitchelstown. Gray, James, Manchester. Gray, J. E., 36, Great George Street, Westminster. Green, F. W., Dean’s Marsh, Bristol. Green, Henry, Turbot Town, Ireland. Green, George, M.D., 14, Harcourt Street, Dublin. Green, Rev. H., Knutsford, Cheshire. Green, J. A., LL.B., 107, Lower Gar- diner Street, Dublin. Green, George, Aigburth, Liverpool. Green, Thomas, Bristol. Greenall, Edward, Gambier Terrace, Liverpool. Greene, John, M.R.D.S., 4, Lower Or- mond Quay, Dublin. Greene, R.W., 49, Stephen’s Green East, Dublin. Greenhaw, T. M., Newcastle. Greenless, Matthew, Glasgow. Greenough, G. B., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Regent’s Park. Greenslade, Amos, Bristol. Greenwell, William, North Shields. -Greeves, Augustus F. A., Nottingham. Greg, R. H., Manchester. Greg, W. R., Manchester. Greg, Samuel, Manchester. Gregg, R. H., Norcliffe, Cheshire. Greig, Charles, Bristol. Gretton, Rev. R. H., Rector of Nantwich. Grier, J. R., Clifton. Griffin, J. J., Chemist, Glasgow. Griffin, Edw., Beckwith Street, Liverpool. Griffin, Nathaniel, Portsmouth. Griffin, S. J., Cheltenham. Griffin, Thomas, Cheltenham. Griffith, W. V., 13, Clare Street, Dublin. Griffiths, S. F., Cheltenham. Griffiths, Samuel, Kingswood School. Griffiths, R. S., Carrglwyd, Anglesea. Griffiths, Thomas, M.D., Westbury. Grimaldi, Joseph, 3, Great Oxford Street, Liverpool. Grinfield, Rev. Thomas, Clifton. Grosvenor, Gen., Hare Park, Cambridge- shire. Groves, Chas., Canning Street, Liverpool. Grubble. Rev. J. H., 8, Bedford Place, Kensington. Grundy, Joshua, Oates, near Leicester. Guillebaud, Rev. Peter, Clifton. Guillebaud, Henry, Clifton. Guillemard, John, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8., 27, Gower Street. Guinness, Arthur, Beaumont, Dublin. Guinness, Rev. Wm., Beaumont, Dublin. Guppy, T. R., Bristol. Guppy, Samuel, London. Gutch, J. W. G., Swansea. Gutch, J. M., Bristol. Guyton, Jos., Irwell Street, Liverpool. H. Hackett, Dr. William, Newry. Hadow, G. I., Clifton. Hadow, George, Jun., BalliolColl., Oxford. Haigh, Thomas, Liverpool. Hailey, Edward, Bristol. Haire, Robert, Q.C., 19, Summer Hill, Dublin. Haire, James, 19, Summer Hill, Dublin. © Hall, John, 12, Hope Street, Liverpool. Hall, John, 35, Hope Street, Liverpool.” Hall, John Wesley, Ashley Down, near Bristol. Hall, Elias, Derbyshire. Hall, George Webb, Sneed Park, near Bristol. Hall, J.R., Stockbridge Terrace, London. Hall, J. T., Mountjoy Square, Dublin. Hall, B., M.P., 36, Hertford Street, May Fair. Hall, James, St. James's Barton, Bristol. Hall, R. B., Alderley, Gloucestershire. Halliday, J. C., Seacombe, Cheshire. Halpin, George, Jun., 10, Middle Mount- joy Street, Dublin. Halse, Edward, Clifton. Halsall, Edward, Bristol. Halton, Rev. Thomas, M.A., Islington, Liverpool. Ham, Thomas, Ballina. Ham, John, Bristol. Hamer, John, Preston. Hamilton,C. W., 37, Dominick St., Dublin. 28 ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. Hamilton, James, Commercial Bank of England, Liverpool. Hamilton, G. A., Hampton Hall, Bal- briggan. Hamilton, C. J., Liverpool. Hamilton, Rev. H. P., M.A., F.R.S. L. & E., F.G.S., Wath, Ripon. Hamilton, Gilbert, Soho, Birmingham. Hamilton, Wm. Tighe, Co. Meath. Hamilton, Alexander, Perth. Hamilton, Arthur, LL.D., Cumberland Street, Dublin. Hamilton, Dacre, New Leach, Monaghan. Hancock, John, M.D., Commercial Road. Handley, Hen., Culverthorpe, Lincoln- shire. Hannay, Alex., M.D., Great George Street, Liverpool. Hanson, Thomas, Woodside, Cheshire. Hanson, Thomas, Jun., Smithwick, Birmingham. Haram, Benj.,11,Chapel Street, Liverpool. Harbard, H. G., South Dispensary, Liverpool. Harden, Rev. Edward, Norwood. Harden, J. W., Hope Street, Liverpool. Hardman, Edward, 4, Upper Mount Street, Dublin. Hardwick, James, Bristol. Hardwicke, William, Surgeon, London. Hare, John, Springfield. Hare, C. B., Bristol. Hare, Charles, Bristol. Hare, W. C.,, Bristol. Harford, J. S., Bristol. Harford, Somers, Tirhowy, Abergavenny. Harford, W. H., Bailey Wood, Somerset. Hargreave, James, Leeds. Hargreaves, John, Settle, Yorkshire. Hargreaves, Wm., Oakhill, Blackburn. Harland, W. C., M.P., 4, Albemarle St. Harley, Edward, Bristol. Harley, Edward, Jun., Bristol. Harling, William, Chester. Harness, T. B., Tavistock. Harnett, John, 42, Mt. Pleasant, Liverpool. Harnett, Michael, 42, Mount Pleasant, Liverpool. Harper, Abiezer, Kingsdown, near Bristol. Harris, Thos., Crete Hill, near Bristol. Harris, William, Bristol. Harris, Edward, Meath. Harris, Joseph, Chapel Ville, Liverpool. Harris, G. F., Harrow on the Hill. Harris, Wm. Snow, F.R.S., Plymouth. Harrison, John, Bristol. Harrison, John, Nottingham. Harrison, T. E., Whitburn. Harrison, Wm., Fulwell Grange, Durham, 12, South Hart, A.S., F.T.C.D., Trin. Coll., Dublin. Harte, W. L., Newcastle. Hartop, Henry, Hoyland Hall, Barnsley. Harvey, Thomas, Blackburn ‘Terrace, Liverpool. Harvey, James, Jun., Liverpool. Harvey, R. E., Islington, Liverpool. Harvey, Alexander, Glasgow. Harvey, John, Ripon. Harwood, William, Jun., Bristol. Harwood, Edw., Barton Hill, near Bristol. Harwood, Reynold, Edinburgh. Hassal, Rev. J., ‘'oxteth Park, Liverpool. Hasseli, Charles, Bristol. Hassell, William, Bristol. Hastings, William, Huddersfield. Hawkes, William, Birmingham. Hawkshaw, John, Manchester. Hawtrey, Rev. M. 1. G., M.A., Liverpool. Hay, J. P., Norwich. _ Hayes, Rey. H., Bath. Hayes, John, Edinburgh. Haynes, Rev. Thomas, Bristol. Hayward, J. C., Quedgelley House, Gloucestershire. Headham,J.E.,M.D.,Mayorof Newcastle. Healey, Elkanah, Liverpool. Healey, S. R., Edge Hill, Liverpool. Heath, Edward, King Street, Liverpool. Heath, Rev. Thomas, Chester. Heaton, Charles, Endon, Staffordshire. Heaven, C. G., Bristol. Hebson, Douglas, Liverpool. Hedley, Dr., Mayor of Morpeth. Hegan, Jos., Rodney Street, Liverpool. Heigham, Capt., 4th Dragoon Guards. Heiniken, Rev. N. S., Sidmouth. Hele, Matthew, London. Hellicar, John, Bristol. Hellicar, Joseph, Hotwells, Bristol. Hellicar, Valentine, Bristol. Henderson, Samuel, 9, Exchange Build- ings, Liverpool. Henderson, William, Bristol. Hendlam, T. E., M.D., Newcastle. Hennell, C. C., London. Hensman, Rev. John, Clifton Grove. Herapath, William, Mansion House, Old Park, Bristol. Herapath, W. B., Old Park, Bristol. Herapath, John, Kensington. Herbert, Thomas, Nottingham. Hess, 8. Y., Lord Street, Liverpool. Hetherington, George, M.D., 9, Castle Street, Dublin. Hetling, William, Clifton. Hetling, Geo., 19, College Green, Bristol. Hewitson, W. C., Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Hewitson, Henry, Seaton Burn. ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 29 Hewitt, Wm., Heath Cottage, Westerleigh. Hewitt, T. H., Clifton Hill. Heywood, Francis, Edge Lane Hall, Liverpool. Heywood, J. P., Brunswick St., Liverpool. Hibblewhite, Thos., Slater St., Liverpool. Higgins, Robert, Wavertree, Liverpool. Higgins, Vincent, Upper Parliament Street, Liverpool. Higgins, John, Salford. Higginson, Alfred, South Dispensary, Liverpool. Hill, Charles, Hotwells, Bristol. Hill, Charles, Distillery, Bristol. Hill, Jeremiah, Bristol. Hillhouse, Martin, Clifton. Hillhouse, George, Combe, Gloucestersh. Hilton, Major, Allerton Hall. Hilton, James, Edge Hill, Liverpool. Hilton, Sir John, Conway. Hincks, Rev. T. D., LL.D., Belfast. Hincks, Thomas, York. Hincks, Thomas, Elm House, Liverpool. Hind, J. H., Salthouse Dock, Liverpool. Hinde, J. H., M.P., Neweastle, Hinton, G. P., Kingsdown, near Bristol. Hitching, Rev. W. J., London. Hobhouse, Rt. Hon. Henry, Hadspen House, Somerset. Hobhouse, B. T., Temple. Hodge, Rowland, Dep. Master of Trinity House, Newcastle. Hodges, Rev. Dr. Edward, Bristol. Hodgkin, Thomas, M.D., 20, Finsbury Cireus. Hodgkinson, Francis, LL.D., V.P. Trin. Coll., Dublin. Hodgson, Rey. J. S., Rufford. Hodgson, Rev. J., Rector of Hortburne. Hodgson, Richard, M.P. Hodgson, David, Everton, Liverpool. Hodgson, I. , Thurnley, Leicestershire. Hodson, William, Middleton, Co. West- . Meath. Hodson, H., Cambridge. Hogan, Rev. James, Tintern Abbey. Hogan, William, 15, Fitzwilliam Street, Dublin. Holgate, J., Chatham Place, Liverpool. Hoiland, C., Goree Piazzas, Liverpool. Holland, P. H., Manchester. Holland, Peter, Knutsford, Cheshire, Holland, G. C., M.D., Sheffield. Holland, Edward, Worcestershire. Holme, A. H., Seel Street, Liverpool. Holmes, H., Everton Brow, Liverpool. Holmes, John, Chatham St., Liverpool, Holmes, Robert, Dublin. near | Holt, George, West Derby, Liverpool. Homfray, C. G., Oriel College, Oxford. Hooker, Sir William, LL.D., Prof. Bot., Glasgow. Hope, Rev. Thomas, Clifton. Hope, Rev. F. W., M.A., 39, Upper Sey- mour Street. Hope, Samuel, Liverpool. Hopkinson, W. L., M.D., Stamford. Hore, Edwin, 3, Salisbury St., Liverpool. Hornblower, Jethro, Bristol. Hornby, Joseph, Everton, Liverpool. Hornby, Rev. T., Canning St., Liverpool. Horsfall, C. H., Toxteth Park, Liverpool. Horsfall, T, B., Everton, Liverpool. Horsfall, J. G., Bradford. Houghton, John, Rodney St., Liverpool. Houston, Robert, Greenock. Howell, John, Park Row, Clifton. Howick, Viscount, M.P., Whitehall Place. Hudson, Rev. E., Glenville, Co. Cork Hughes, Rev. Morris, St. Anne’s, near Bangor. Hughes, Henry, King’s Town, Dublin. Hughes, D.S., Kingstown, Dublin. Hughes, J. G., Middle Temple. Hughes, H. N., 2, India Buildings, Li- verpool. Hull, Rev. A. H., Donaghadee. . Hull, Col. Wm., M.R.A.S., 31, Norfolk Street, London. Hull, W. D., Ross Trevor, Ireland. Humble, Henry, University, Durham. Humpage, Edward, Bristol. Humphreys, J. C., Birkenhead, Cheshire. Humphries, D. J., Cheltenham. Hunt, Harry, Birmingham. Hunt, T., Chemist, Kingstown, Dublin. Hunter, Rev. Jos., F.S.A., 30, Torrington Square. Hunter, Robert, 46, Burton Crescent. Hurle, John, Bristol. Hurle, W. I., Newcastle. Hurst, M. C., Nottingham. Hut, K. C., Winksworth, Derbyshire. Husenbeth, F. C., Bristol. Hutching, Rev. A., London. Hutchings, E., Keynsham, near Bristol. Hutchinson, Frederick, 7th Regiment Fusileers. Hutchinson, James, Paris. Hutchinson, Captain C., North Hall, Wigan. Hutton, Rev. Jos., M.A., Fairfield, Glas- nevin. Huxtable, Edgar, Bristol. paste W. H., Painswick, Gloucester- shire. 30 . I, lliff, Rev. T., Royal Institution, Liver- pool. Ingham, Robert, Westoe, South Shields. Ingle, Rev. Charles, York. Inglis, James, M.D., Ripon. Irlam, Thomas, Old Hall St., Liverpool. Irvine, Rev. A., St. Margaret’s, Leicester. Irving, John, Jun., Bristol. Irving, James, Fleet Street, Liverpool. Irving, George, Bristol. Isaacson, Joseph, Curator, Zoological Gardens, Liverpool. Ivatt, James, Bristol. J. Jackson, J., Hatton Garden, Liverpool. Jackson, C., Eastland House, Notts. Jackson, Rev. W., Leigh, near Man- chester. Jackson, Samuel, Clifton. Jackson, Rev. I. E., Farleigh Castle, near Bath. Jackson, C, R., Barton Lodge, Liverpool. Jacobs, Joseph, Bristol. Jacques, W. S., Clifton. James, E., Hatton Garden, Liverpool. James, H. G., Bristol. James, Rev. Thomas, Oxford. James, Lieut., R. E., Ordnance Survey Office, Dublin. James, William, Bristol. James, Evan, Swansea. Jarman, Francis, Bristol. Jee, Matthew, Edge-Hill, Liverpool. Jeffcott, I. Arthur, Isle of Man, Jeffrey, Joseph, Abbey Fore Gate, Shrewsbury. Jeffrey, Rev. James, Greenock. Jeffreys, Thomas, M.D., 19, George Sq., Liverpool. Jeffreys, J. G., Swansea. Jelly, Rev. Henry, Bath. Jenkins, William, Bristol. Jenkinson, Captain, Bristol. Jenkyn, Rey. John, Yeovil. Jerdan, William, M.R.S.L., Grove House, Brompton. Jerrard, Joseph, Kingsdown, Bristol. Jerrard, George, Bristol. Jerrard, J., Clifton. Jerrard, F, W. H., Bristol, Jerrard, B. G., Bristol. Jevons, T., Park Hill Road, Liverpool. Jevons, William, Jun., Park Hill Road, Liverpool. Jevons, William, Alfred St., Liverpool. ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. Johnson, Captain E. J., 14, Cambridge Terrace, Hyde Park. Johnson, R., Chapel Walk, Liverpool. Johnson, David, M.D., Edinburgh. Johnson, Charles, M.D., 18, Molesworth Street, Dublin. Johnson, Thomas, Chester. Johnson, R., Soho Street, Liverpool. Johnson, Richard, Jun., Park Hill Road, Liverpool. Johnson, James, Great Mersey Street, Liverpool. Johnson, John, Kirkdale, Liverpool. Johnson, J., Hatton Garden, Liverpool. Johnson, George, Chester. Johnson, James, M.D., Suffolk Street, London. Johnson, Edward, Chester. Johnson, William, M.A., Cambridge. Johnson, Rev. B. Jones, Rev. Francis, Middleton. Jones, Edward, Kingsdown, Bristol. Jones, R. P., Charfield, Glostershire. Jones, George, Bristol. Jones, W. C. Bristol. Jones, A., Bristol. Jones, Thomas, Bristol. Jones, Edward, Nine Tree Hili, Bristol. Jones, Edward, M.D., Waterford. Jones, Edward, Waterford. Jones, I. R., Brazennose College, Oxford. Jones, B. H., India Board, London. Jones, C. H., Cambridge. Jones, Rev. D., Bedford St., Liverpool. Jones, B. H., Lark Hill, Liverpool. Jones, E., Mount Pleasant, Liverpool. Jones, E., Walton Breck, Liverpool. Jones, Wm., Walton Breck, Liverpool. Jones, W. M., 10, Alfred St., Liverpool. Jones, John, Everton, Liverpool Jones, R., Everton Crescent, Liverpool. Jones, J. O., Castle Street, Liverpool. Jones, Hugh, Bank, Brunswick Street, Liverpool. Jones, H. H., Mary Anne St., Liverpool. Jones, E., Brecon. Jones, R. Wynne, Beaumaris. Jones, Rey. Robert, D.D., Bedfont. Jones, Professor F. R., King’s College, London. Jordan, H. B. Bristol. Jordan, Joseph, Manchester. Joy, Frederick, Belfast. K. Kay, I. P., Norwich. Kay, I. L., Park Road, Liverpool. Kay, Wiliam, Park Road, Liverpool. ~~ ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 31 Kearle, Thomas, Harpingdon, Herts. Kearsley, S., 16, Percy Street, Liverpool. Keet, Edwin, Kensington. Kelly, T. L., Board of Education, Marl- borough Street, Dublin. Kelly, J. C. Athlone. Kelsa, J. B., Engineer, Glasgow. Kemmies, H. K., 12, Merrion Square, Dublin. Kempe, F., Bispham Lodge, Lancashire. Kennedy, G. A.,M.D.; 49, Summer Hill, Dublin. Kennedy, P. G., M.D., Edinburgh. Kenny, J. W., Dublin. Kenrick, Samuel, West Bromwich, Bir- mingham. Kent, William, Bath. Kershaw, Thomas, Ormskirk, Liverpool. Killaloe, The Lord Bishop of, Dublin. King, Richard, London. King, The Right Hon. Lord, 10, St. James’s Square. King, John, Clifton. King, J. W., 74, Dame Street, Dublin. King, R. P., Bristol. King, Alfred, Norton Street, Liverpool. King, J., 5, Roscommon St., Liverpool. King, Robert, Liverpool. Kingdon, J. H., Barrister, Exeter. Kingsburg, Thomas, Bath. Kingsley, Jeffries, Nenagh. Kingsley, R. Tipperary. Kington, Thomas, Clifton. Kirkpatrick, J. S., Dale Street, Liverpool. Kirr, M., 79, Duke Street, Liverpool. Knapp, A. J., Bristol. Knifton, T. T., Uphill Lodge, Somerset. Knight, A. I., M.D., Sheffield. (Life.) Knight, Col., Ireland. Knight, J. P.,4, Suffolk Place, Haymarket. Knight, Patrick, Stewart’s Town, Armagh. Knight, William, Chelmsford. Knight, William, M.A., Bristol. Knight, William, Jun., Bristol. Knipe, J. A., Worcester. Knott, Samuel, M.D., Newcastle. Knowles, Andrew, Bolton. Knox, Rev. R., Killaloe, Co. Limerick. Knox, C. G., 22, Lincoln’s Inn Fields. Konig, Arnold, Manchester. Kyan, J. H., Cheltenham. Kynnersley, T. C. S., Uttoxeter. Kyrke, James, Glascoed, near Wrexham. L. Lacey, Rev. Charles, Tring, Herts. Lacon, Samuel, Falkner St,, Liverpool. Lainé, Le Chevalier, French Consul, 60, Oxford Street, Liverpool. Lake, Frederick, Taunton. Lamb, Joshua, Newcastle. Lambert, Rev. R. W., Churchill, Som- erset. Lampert, C. L. P., Liverpool. Lampert, William, Liverpool. Lane, A. C., Clifton. Lane, Richard, Manchester. Lang, James, London. Lang, W., Hospital, Guinea St., Bristol. Lang, Thomas, Ashfield Lodge, near Bristol. Lang, Samuel, Bristol. Lang, O., Royal Dock Yard, Woolwich. Langley, F. H., Everton, Liverpool. Langton, Col. William Gore, Newton Park, Somerset. Langton, Henry Gore, Clifton. Langton, H. C., 62, Dale St., Liverpool. Langton, J. B., Liverpool. Langton, Joseph, Great George Square, Liverpool. Lankester, Edwin, Doncaster. Lashbury, F. P., 21, Wellington Place, Bristol. Lassell, William, Bold Street, Liverpool. Latham, John, Wavertree, Liverpool. Laton, Henry, Bristol. Laughton, J. B., B.A., Edge Hill, Liver- pool. Laurence, Rey. C.W., Bold Place, Liver- pool. Laurence, Charles, Wavertree Hall, Liverpool. Laurence, G. H., Bedford St., Liverpool. Laurence, George, London. Laurie, Sir Peter, 7, Park Sq., London. Laurie, Peter, Temple. Law, George, 5,Montague Place, Bedford Square. Lawrence, John, Leicester. Lawson, Henry, London. Lawson, Wiiliam, Everton, Liverpool. Lax, Joseph, Clifton. Lax, Robert, Bristol. Lax, William, Ormskirk, near Liverpool. Leach, John, B.A., Windsor, near Liverpool. Leadbetter, John, Gloucester. Lean, Joel, Bristol. Lean, Thomas, Marazion, Cornwall. Lean, James, Clifton Hill. Lear, John, Jun., Liverpool. Leathom, Thos., Hanover Street, Liver- pool. Lee, Rev. S., Banwell, near Cross, Somer- setshire, 32 ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. Lee, T. G., Birmingham. Lee, Nathaniel, Ilfracombe. Lees, T., 23, Berkeley Street, Liverpool. Lees, S. D., M.D., Ashton-under-Lyne. Lees, Henry, Ashton-under-Lyne. Leferne, Jules, Abercromby Terrace, Li- verpool. _ Leicester, Rey. Robert, Much Woolton, Liverpool. Leifchild, John, Bushy Park, Dublin. Leigh, J. G., Eton College. Leigh, J. H., Warrington. Leigh, T. G., Birmingham. , Leigh, Rey. T. G., Abercromby Square, Liverpool. Lemon, J. J., Bristol. Lemon, Frederick, Infirmary, Bristol. Le Normand, Gustave, Abercromby Ter- race, Liverpool. Leonard, Rev. Thomas, Dublin. Lethbridge, A.G.,Sandhill Park, Taunton. Leveson, Lord, M.P. Lewin, J.,22, Queen Anne St., Liverpool. Lewis, Rey. J., Ashton Vicarage. Lewis, Rey. T. T.,Aymestry, Leominster. Liddell, Hon. H., Percy’s Cross, Fulham. Liddell, Hon. Thos., Ravensworth Castle. Liddiard, Rey. W., Dunshaghlin, Co., Meath. Liddle, Sir Charles, Egremont, Cheshire. Lightbody, John, Birchfield, Liverpool. Lightbody, Robert, Birchfield. Lingard, Rev. John, D.D., Hornby, Lancashire. Lister, E., Jun., Everton, Liverpool. Little, John, Edinburgh. Littledale, E., 99, Bold Street, Liverpool. Litton Edward, Q. C., 37, North Great George Street, Dublin. Livett, James, Ashley Place, Bristol. Livingstone, Terence, Bigburg, Devon. Llewellyn, G., Baglan Hall, Glamorgan. Llewellyn, D..J., Swansea. Llewellyn, John, Clifton. Llewellyn, Peter, Kingsdown, Bristol. Llewellyn, Richard, Westbury. Lloyd, B. C., 8, Leinster Street, Dublin. Lloyd, 'l’., 79, Falkner Street, Liverpool. Lloyd, George, M.D., Leamington. Lloyd, Samuel, London. Lloyd, Thomas, M.D., Ludlow. Loch, George, Southill road, Liverpool. Lockhart, William, Everton, Liverpool. Logan, H. F. C., 36, Hardwick Street, Dublin. Logan, C, Blackfield House, Liverpool. Logan, Simon, West St., Walworth. Lomas, John, Birmingham, Lomax, Robert, Harwood, Lomi, Mark, Sion House, Clifton. Long, James, Infirmary, Brownlow Hill, Liverpool. Long, William, Hartshall, Saxmundham. Lonsdale, William, F.G.S., Somerset House. Lonsdale, James, Berner’s Street. Looney, Francis, Manchester. Lord, Lieut. William, R.N., 79, Duke Street, Liverpool. Losh, James, Newcastle. . Low, J. M., St. John’s Coll., Cambridge. Lowe, Robert, E.1.C. Service, London. Lubé, D. G., 24, Kensington Crescent. Lucas, William, The Mills, Sheffield. Lucena, J, L., Garden Court, Temple. (Life.) Ludlow, J. T., Bristol. Ludlow, Serjeant, Down House, Bristol. Lunell, George, Bristol. Lunell, W. P. Bristol. Lunell, J. G., Ashley, near Bristol. Lunn, William, Montreal, Edinburgh. Luscombe, Thomas, Comm, Gen., Kil- lerton House, Dublin. Lyle, Acheson, 17, Gardiner’s Place, Dublin. Lynch, George, Clifton. Lynch, Gerard, 18, James St., Liverpool. Lynch, John, 18, James Street, Liverpool. Lyne,Cornelius, 15, Hume Street, Dublin. M. Macalester, Col., Axminster. Macalester, Rev. J., St. Domingo House, Liverpool. MacAlister, Rev. Jos., Newcastle. Macauiey, James, Middle Temple. Machin, George. Macdonald, George, St. James’s Barton, Bristol. Macdougall, A. H., F.R.A.S., 46, Parlia- ment Street. Macintire, Dr., 14, Slater St., Liverpool. Macintire, L. H., 32, King Street, Liverpool. Mackay, R. W., Lincoln’s Inn. Mackay, J. T., M.R.I.A., Cottage Ter- race, Dublin. Mackenzie, Dr., 22, Great George Street, Liverpool. Mackie, David, Lect. Glasgow. Mackie, Robert, Slater Street, Liverpool. Mackintosh, John, M.D., Edinburgh. Maclaine, Lieut.-Col. Hector, Kyneton, Thornbury. Maclaine, W. A., Kyneton, Thornbury. Nat. Philos. ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 33 Macleay, W. S.,F.L.S., 11, Park Place, Regent’s Park. Macma, W., Bromsgrove, Worcestershire. Macrorie, David, M.D., Duke Street, Liverpool. McAdam, James, Belfast. McBayne, L., Clifton Down. McBayne, William, Clifton Down. McBride, J. W., 21, Islington, Liverpool. McCall, Chas., 34, Nelson St., Liverpool. McCann, J. i 38, Stephen’s Green, Dublin. McCaul, John, LL. D., Trinity College, Dublin. McCauley, Henry, Huddersfield. McCausland, Rev. J. C., Armagh. McClean, T. R., Belfast. McCrea, Charles, M.D., Clondalkin. McCullach, John, 13, College, Dublin. McCulloch, Samuel, 99, Duke Street, Liverpool. McDiarmid, J., Dumfries. McDouall, P. M., Ramsbottom, near Bary. McGauley, Rev. J. W., 79, Marlborough Street, Dublin. McGill, Thomas, 91, Liverpool. McGregor, W. F., Everton, Liverpool. McHutchen, J ohn, Isle of Man. McKay, J. i, M.R.L. A., 5, Cottage Ter- race, Dublin. McLauchlan, Henry, F.G.S., Map Office, Tower. MeNeil, Rev. Hugh, Roscommon Street, Liverpool. McNeill, R., Exchange Alley, Liverpool. Madge, Rev. Thos., 12, Doughty Street. Magrath, Rev. F., Queen’s County. Mainwaring, Townsend, Wrexham. Malcolm, George, 61, Upper Parliament Street, Liverpool. Mallard, William, Bristol. Manifold, Wm.,, Elliott Street, Liverpool. Manley, Charles, 9, John Street, Adelphi. Mann, Joseph, Mary Ann St., Liverpool. Mann, John, 173, Aldersgate Street. Mardon, Benjamin, M.A., Grove, Kentish Town. Margerison, Edmund, Burnley. Mariescheau, Armand, French Consul, Dublin. Marks, D. W., Professor of Hebrew, Mount Pleasant, Liverpool. Marples, David, Lord Street, Liverpool. Marreco, A. J. F., North Shields. Marriott, Peter, Bath. ‘Marsden, Ellis, Everton, Liverpool. Marsh, S. H. J., Cotham Cottage, Bristol. Mount Pleasant, Marsh, M. N., Inner Temple. Marshall, Buchanan, Clayton Square, Liverpool. Marshman, J.R.,Fig Tree Court, Temple. Martin, R. Montgomery, 86, Piccadilly. Martin, James, Bristol. Martin, Studley, 3, Chesterfield Street, Liverpool. Martin, G., St. John’sCollege, Cambridge. Martin, Anthony, Birmingham, Marton, J. A., Edge Hill, Liverpool. Mascarenhas, A. B. de, Feriyeaese Consul, Bristol. Mash, James, Infirmary, Northampton. Mason, George, Dent. Mason, Rev. John, Tuxford. Mather, J. P., M.A., Everton, Liverpool. Mating, Edward, Sunderland. Matthew, Rev. John, Chelvey, Bourton. Matthew, M., Brierly Hall, Staffordshire. Maurice, Michael, Reading. Maw, H.L., Tetley Crowle, Lincolnshire. Maxwell, Francis, 24, Pembroke Place, Liverpool. Mayer, Joseph, Lord Street, Liverpool. Maynard, J. A., M.A., King’s Bench Walk, Temple. Maynard, R., Poultry. Maynard, Alleyne, Bavbadoos Mayne, E. C., French Street, Dublin. Maze, Peter, Rownham Lodge, Bristol. Mealy, Rev. R. R. P., M.A., Bangor. Mease, Rev. J., Rathmullin. Meason, M. L., 8, Bold Street, Liverpool. Melvill, W illiam, Great George Street, Liverpool. Menlove, Thomas, Bristol. Menzies, Rev. William, Greenock. Merac, Theophilus, College Green, Bristol. Merritt, John, Edge Hill, Liverpool. Merz, Philip, Manchester, (Life). Meynell, Thomas, Jun., F.L.S. ae Yarm, Yorkshire. Middleton, John, Clifton. Miles, P. L., M.P., Leigh Court, Bristol. Miles, W., King’sWeston, Gloucestershire. Mill, Baron B., Bath. Miller, John, Jun., 100, Mount Pleasant, Liverpool. Miller, Wm., 8, Percy Street, Liverpool. Miller, T. B.; Hillside, Totterdown. Miller, John, Nursery Villa, Durdham Down. Miller, John, Jun., Exchange Street West, Liverpool. Mills, John, Bristol. Mills, Rev. J. P., Abbott’s Leigh, near Bristol. near c $4 Milne, Joshua, High Crompton, near Manchester. Milne, Thomas, Halifax. - Milner, Joseph, Huddersfield. Milner, W. P., Bengal Army, Liverpool. Minshull, J. L., St. Anne St., Liverpool. Mitchell, D. W., Oxford. Mitchell, W. A., Newcastle. Mitchelson, A. H., Edinburgh. Mocatta, E., Jun., 28, Chester Terrace, Regent's Park. Mogg, J.R.,Cholwell House, near Bristol. Mogg, Michael, Bristol. Molesworth, J. E. N., Canterbury. Moline, James, Godalming. Molland, P. J., Manchester. Mollans, John, M.D., 32, Upper Glou- cester Street, Dublin. Molloy, Jas. Scot, Dublin. Monck, Sir Charles, Bart., Belsay Castle, Newcastle. Monck, A., Belsay Castle. Monday, John, Kingsdown, Bristol. Monday, J. R., Olveston, near Bristol. Monk, Rev. J. B., M.A., St. Anne Street, Liverpool. Montgomery, W. F., M.D., M.R.1.A., 18, Molesworth Street, Dublin. Moon, Edward, Tithebarn St., Liverpool. Moon, James, Walton Rectory, near Liverpool. Moore, John, 51, Park Lane, Liverpool. Moore, Nehemiah, Bristol. Moore, Alfred, St. Anne Street, Liverpool. Moore, Thomas, Slopperton Cottage, Devizes. Moore,T. L., Slopperton Cottage, Devizes. Moore, John, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, Moore, Henry, 17, Huskisson Street, Liverpool. Moore, John, Bolton. Moorton, Samuel, Birmingham. Morden, Professor, London. Morgan, W. F., Bristol. Morgan, R. G., 10, Oxford St., Liverpool. Morgan, Rev. J., Kirkby Laythorpe, Lin- colnshire. Morley, Henry, Camberwell. Morrah, James, 62, Sloane Street. Morris, Edward, Worcester. Morris, Lieut.-Col. George, Gardiner’s Place, Dublin. Morrison, Lieut. R. J., Cheltenham. Mortimer, William, Clifton. Moseley, Rev. Henry, Prof. of Nat. and Exper. Philos. King’s Coll. London, - Wandsworth. Mould, R. A., 4, Anson St., Liverpool. Mounsey, G, G., Mayor of Carlisle. } ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. Moxham, John, Kingsdown, Bristol. Mozley, Lewin, 62, Mount Pleasant, Liverpool. Mozley, Charles, 62, Mount Pleasant, Liverpool. Mozley, E. J., Lord Street, Liverpool. Mozley, M. L., Great George Street, Liverpool. Muir, T. A., Director Philos. Soc., Glas- gow. Muller, William, Bristol. Mullineux, J. W., Gloucester Place, Liverpool. ‘ Mullineux, James, Great George Street, Liverpool. Munro, Rev. Alex., Manchester. Murch, Rev. Jerome, Bath. Murch, Rev. W. H., Stepney College. Mure, John, Edinburgh. Mure, William, Edinburgh. Muroe, William, Druid’s ‘Stoke, near Bristol. Murphy, Dr. P. J., 2, Upper Parliament Street, Liverpool. Murphy, Rev. Francis, Liverpool. Wj Murray, Sir James, M.D., 2, Merrion Square South, Dublin. Murray, Rev. Dr., 9, Mountjoy Square South, Dublin. Murray, J., F.S.A., Hull. Musket, David, Coleford. Muspratt, John, Jun., 9, Pembroke Place, Liverpool. Park Place, N. Nalty, John, M.D., Clare Street, Dublin. Nanny, George, Demerara. Nash, Llewellyn, Stafford St., Liverpool. Nash, J. E., Bristol. Naylor, Benjamin, Altringham. Neave, R. D., Epsom. Needham, Samuel, 9, Exchange Build- ings, Liverpool. Needham, William, Varley Hill, near Pontypool. Neild, William, Manchester. Neill, Hugh, 1, Oxford Street, Liverpool. Neill, Patrick, LL.D., F.R.S.E., Edin- burgh. Neville, Parker, 14, York Street, Dublin. Nevin, Rev. John, Great Newton Street, Liverpool. New, G. R., Newport, Monmouth. New, F. T., Shepton Mallet. Newman, J. W., 6, Clarence Place, Bristol. Newman, Henry, North Dispensary, Liverpool. ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 35 Newman, C. W., Jun., Edge Lane, Li- verpool. Newton, Rev. J. H., York. Nicholl, Iltyd, Jun., Exeter Coll., Oxford. Nicholl, Whitlock, Adamsdown, near Cardiff. Nicholl, F. V., Adamsdown, near Cardiff. Nicholl, R. E. W., Adamsdown. Nicholson, Samuel, Ballymena. Nicholson, Robert, Manchester. Nicholson, John, Lyme Regis. Nicol, Dr., 4, Redney Street, Liverpool. Nielson, J. B., Liverpool. Nielson, David, 40, Rodney St., Liverpool. Nightingale, Breton, Ashton Street, Liverpool. Nightingale, Thos., Infirmary, Liverpool. Nixon, R. L., 4, Grenville St., Dublin. Noad, H. M., Shawford, near Bath. Noble, C., Salford. Noble, A., Salford. Norman, George, Bath. Norton, Capt. John, London. Nottingham, John, Upper Parliament Street, Liverpool. Nowell, John, Farnley Wood, near Huddersfield. ; ; Nugent, Lord, 6, Chandos Street, Caven- dish Square. Nugent, Edward, Exeter Coll., Oxford. O. O’Brien, Donat, M.R.D.S., Chester. O’Brien, John,-M.D., Mountjoy Square East, Dublin. Odgers, W. J., Plymouth. O'Donnell, John, M.D., Rodney Street, Liverpool. O’Farrell, Rev. Patrick, Bristol. Ogilvie, G. S., Calne. Ogilvy, Thomas, Wallasey, Cheshire. O'Kelly, M. J., 147, James St., Dublin. Okely, W. J., Bristol. O'Neil, Rev. A., Carrickfergus. O’Neil, Rev. J. T., Nenagh. Ord, Wm., M.P., Whitfield, Hull. Orred, Geo., Exchange Alley, Liverpool. Orred, John, Exchange Alley, Liverpool. Ortt, Edmund, Park Chapel, Liverpool. Osborne, Edw., Berwick Lodge, Henbury. Osborne, Robert, Bristol. Osler, Thomas, Clifton. Osler, A. F., Birmingham, (Life). Ossulston, Lord, M.P. Grosvenor Square. O'Sullivan, Rev. Samuel, Phoenix Park, Dublin. Oswald, H. R., Douglas, Isle of Man. Ottley, Sir Richard, Heavitree. Ottley, Drury, Exeter. Ouchterlony, J.; Madras. Ould, Rev. Fielding, Rathmore Glebe. Outram, B. F., M.D.,F.R.S., F.G.S., 1, Hanover Square, (Life). Owens, J. R., Jesus College, Oxford. Owens, Rev. W. H., St. Asaph. Oxmantown, Lord, Brier Castle, Ireland. DP; Page, Capt. Robert, Charlton, Somersets, Paget, John, Temple. Paget, John, Leicester. ; Pakenham, Daniel, State Apothecary, 58, Henry Street, Dublin. Paley, G. B., B.D., Freckenham, Suffolk. Palmer, Frederick, Bristol. Palmer, H. R., 2, Great George Street, Westminster. A Palmer, A. H., Bristol. Palmer, A. H., Jun., Bristol. Palmer, H. A., Clifton. / Palmer, J. W., Hanham. Panter, J. R., Bristol. Pariente, J. J., London. Parker, Rev. Edwin, Berkshire. Parker, Wm., Seymour Street, Liverpool. Parker, Joseph, Penzance. Parker, R. T., M.P., Curedon, Chorley. Parker, Patrick, Aigburth, Liverpool. Parker, Rev. E. J., Waltham, St. Law- rence. Parkinson, W. H., M.D., 32, Marlbo- rough Street, Dublin. Parnell, R., Devonshire. Parke, John, Edge Hill, Liverpool. Park, Rev. John, M.A., 19, Norton Street, Liverpool. Parsons, George, Aigburth, Liverpool. Parton, Joseph, Edge Hill, Liverpool. Partridge, W. J., Hockham Hall, Norfolk. Patchett, John. Patterson, A. T., Soho Street, Liverpool. Patterson, Henry, M.D., 32, Blessington Street, Dublin. Pattinson, H.L., Newcastle. Pattison, F., Master of Trinity House, Newéastle. Payne, Charles, Clifton. Peace, William, Wigan. Pearsall, R. L., Willsbridge House, near Bristol. Pearson, J. W., Gateacre, Liverpool. Pease, Joseph, M.P., 3, Queen Square, London. Penkivil, W. T., Bristol. Pennington, Frederick, Hindley, near Wigan, c2 86 ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. Perceval, Stanley, Allerton, Liverpool. Perceval, Stanley, Jun., Allerton. Perrott, Francis, Brunswick Street, Liverpool. Perrott, Samuel, Cork. Perry, James, Newton, Lancashire. Peters, Daniel, Bristol. Petrie, Dr. J., 7, Upper Parliament St., Liverpool. Phelp, James, Bristol. Phelps, Rev. William, Meare, near Glas- tonbury. Phillips, Sir Richard, London. Phillips, J. B., All Souls’ Coll., Oxford. Phillips, T. J., London. Phillips, William, M.D., Scarborough. Phillips, Rey. Robert, Stoke Newington Green. Phillips, J. L., Melksham, Wilts. Phillips, George, Conlongan Castle. Phillips, Rev. Robert, Bettuos Abergeth, North Wales. Phillips, Shakspeare, Barton Hall, Man- chester. Phillips, J. M., Everton, Liverpool. Philp, F. R., M.B., Liverpool. Phippen, Robert, Bedminster. Phipps, Robert, LL.D., F.T.C., Dublin. Pickin, W. J.,Whitemore Allerton, Notts. Picton, J. A., Warren Street, Liverpool. Pigot, M., Staffordshire. Pilgrim, C. H., 17, York Terrace, Re- gent’s Park, (Life). Pilgrim, Foster, Barbadoes. Pilling, John, Great Oxford Street, Liver- ool, Pilling, Wm., Richmond Row, Liverpool. Pinkus, Henry, London. Pinney, William, Somerton. Pinney, Charles, Clifton. Pitcairn, John, M.D., Edinburgh. Pittard, Thomas, Edinburgh. Player, John, Oakwood, Neath. Plenderleath, Col., Clifton. Plummer, M. Plunkett, Randall, Portland St., Dublin. Pocock, George, Bristol. Pollexfen, John, M.D., Orkney. Pollock, James, Mayor of Gateshead. Pollock, Joseph, 9, Camden Street, Cam- den Town. Poole, Matthew, M.D., Waterford. Poole, Thos., Stowey, near Bridgewater. Pooley, Henry, 83, Dale St., Liverpool. Pooley, Frederick, 1, Exchange Build- ings, Liverpool. Porch, T. P., M.A., The Abbey, near Glastonbury. Porter, Thomas, Everton, Liverpool. Porter, G. R., Board of Trade. Porter, W. G., Peterborough. Porter, John, 22, Lincoln’s Inn Fields. Porter, W. O., M.D., Bristol. Potter, W. H., London. Potts, Frederick, Chester. Potts, Henry, Chester. Powell, Edward, Edge Hill, Liverpool. Powell, Thomas, Bristol. Powell, Samuel, Jun., Knaresborough. Powell, William, Temple Gate, Bristol. Pownall, W. L., St. John’s College, Cambridge. Pownall, William, Jun., Wavertree, Li- verpool. Pratt, Rev. John, Birkenhead, Cheshire. Prendergast, J. P., 78, Stephen’s Green, Dublin. Preston, Richard Rushton, Great George Street, Westminster. Preston, E. R., Mt. Pleasant, Liverpool. Preston, R. W., West Derby, Liverpool. Prevost, Geo., Water Street, Liverpool. Price, H. H., 4, Parliament Street. Price, J. R., Westfield, Mountrath, Queen’s County. Price, John, A.M., Bristol College. Price, H. C., Westbury. Prichard, Edward, Clifton. Prichard, Richard, Oxford. Prichard, Edward, Ross. Priestley, John, Toxteth Park, Liverpool. Pringle, J. W., Athenzeum. Pritchard, Andrew, 263, Strand. Pritchard, J. B., Catherine St., Liverpool. Prittie, Henry, Corville, Co. Tipperary. Proctor, Thomas, Birmingham. Prosser, Samuel, Blackheath. Protheroe, M. D., Clifton. Protheroe, Philip, Richmond Hill, Clifton. Protheroe, Edward, Jun., Newnham, Gloucestershire. Provis, John, Chippenham. Prout, William, M.D., F.R.S., 41, Sack- ville Street, London. Prout, J.S., Cotham Cottage, near Bristol. Prowse, James, St. James’s Barton, Bristol. Prudhoe, Lord. E Purdon, Robert, Plympton, Devon. Purdon, Simon, Devonport. - Purdon, Rev. W. J., M.A., Aigburth, Liverpool. Purdy, Richard, Lower Ormond Quay, Dublin. Q. Quail, John, M.D., London. ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 37 Queckett, J. T., Langport, Somerset. Quinn, Richard, Liverpool. Quirk, George, Isle of Man. Quirk, J. R., Isle of Man. Quirk, R., Isle of Man. R. Radcliffe, John, West Derby, Liverpool. Radcliffe, Richard, Town Hall, Liverpool. Radcliffe, Richard, Jun., West Derby, Liverpool. Radcliffe, Right Hon. John, LL.D., M.R*1.A., Hume Street, Dublin. Raddon, William, Bristol. Radford, Thomas, Christian Street, Li- verpool. Rae, Ebenezer, Liverpool. Raftles, T. S., B.A., Edge Hill, Liverpool. Raikes, Henry, B.A., Chester. Raikes, Rev. Chancellor, Chester. Rainy, George, Demerara. Ralph, Rev. Hugh, LL.D., Hope Street, Liverpool. Ramsay, P., M.D., Chatham Street, Li- verpool. Randall, John. : Randolph, Rev. J. H., Bildeston, Suffolk. Rankin, Thomas, Bristol. Rankin, Robert, Clifton. Rankin, Robert, Jun., Chief Justice of Sierra Leone. Rankin, Rev. Charles, Brislington, near Bristol. Rathbone, R. R., Woodcroft, Liverpool. Rathbone, William, Jun., Liverpool. Ravenhill, W. H., Bristol. Rawdon, Christopher, Elm House, Liver- pool. Rawlins, C. E., Jun., Brook Cottage, Sutton, Cheshire. Rawlinson, E. A., Chadlington, Oxon. Rawson, William, Higher Ardwicke, Manchester. Rawson, John, Halifax. Rawson, Samuel, Dulwich Hill. Reade, Dr. Joseph, Cork. Read, Thomas, Castle Street, Liverpool. Redwood, Theophilus, Neath. Redwood, J., Birmingham. Reed, Thomas, Oxford. Rees, Thomas, 18, Shaw Street, Liver- pool. Rees, G. O., Holland Place, Clapham Road. Reeve, Andrews, Wadham Coll., Oxford. Reeves, J. F., Taunton. Reid, Alexander, Edinburgh. Reid, Alexander, Hartford, Cheshire. Reid, Henry, 5, Mountjoy Square North, Dublin. Reid, Rev. J. S., D.D., Carrickfergus. ‘Reid, John, M.D., Edinburgh. Reid, Robert, M.D., M.R.LA., 16, Bel- vedere Place, Dublin. Remmington, Rev. ‘Thomas, M.A., Trin. Coll., Cambridge. Rennie, M. B., 6, Whitehall Place. Renny, H. L., M.D., Royal Hospital, Dublin. Renshaw, Geo., Nottingham Park, Notts. Renton, Henry, Bradford. Reynold, John, Liverpool. Reynolds, J. G., Bristol. Reynolds, T. F., London. Rham, Rev. W. L., Winkfield, Berkshire. Rhodes, Thomas, 55, Russell Street, Liverpool. Ricardo, Sampson, 4, Eccleston Street, Liverpool. Ricardo, Frederick, 4, Eccleston Street, Liverpool. Ricardo, M., Brighton. Richards, E. L., F.G.S., Bolls Chambers, Chancery Lane. Richards, Rev. Henry, Bristol. Richardson, Thomas, Montpelier Hill, Dublin. Rick, W. E. J., Sunderland. Rickards, Richard, Clifton. Rickett, Richard, Bristol. Rickett, Henry, Brislington, Bristol. Riddell, Sir J. M., Bart., Strontian, Scot- land. Riddell, Thomas, Strontian. Riddle, Isaac, Bristol. Riddle, T. H., Bristol. Riddle, W. L. Bristol. Ridgway, John, Staffordshire Potteries. Ridgway, Joseph, 8, India Buildings, Li- verpool. Ridgway, J., India Buildings, Liverpool. Ridley, Sir M., Bart, Neweastle. Ridout, Geo., Newland, Gloucestershire. Ridyard, William, Gateacre, Liverpool. Rigg, Henry, Lancashire. Rigg, J. F., Wood Broughton, near Miln- thorpe. Riley, Henry, M.D., Bristol. Ripley, William, Abercromby Square, Li- verpool. Rippon, C., M.P., Stanhope Castle, Durham. Ritson, James, 41, Rodney St., Liver- pool. “ Robberds, Rev. J. G., Manchester. Roberts, Arthur, Bath. : Roberts, Owen, M.D., St. Asaph. - 38 Roberts, Edward, Bettuos North Wales. Roberts, ‘Thomas, ‘Tranmere, Cheshire. Robertson, William, M.D.,2, New Square, Lincoln’s Inn. Robertson, Archibald, M.D., Great George Street, Liverpool. Robinson, Jas., Brunswick St., Liverpool. Robinson, James, Stafford St., Liverpool. Robinson, Thomas, Settle, Yorkshire. Robinson, Rev. Wm., Dinham Reetory. Robley, Henry, Clifton. Rodick, Thomas, Gateacre, Liverpool. Rodman, S. W., New Bedford. Roe, Major Thomas, Newbury. Rofe, John, Birmingham, Rogers, John, Clifton. Abergeth, Rogers, George, 15, LowerCollege Green, | Bristol. Rogers, Geo., 13, College Green, Bristol. Rogers, William, Hampstead Heath. Rogerson, G., M.D., Suffolk Street, Li- verpool. Rooker, James, Bideford. Rootsey, Samuel, Upper Easton House, Bristol. Roper, H. J., Bristol. Roscoe, W. S., Upper Parliament Street, Liverpool. Rose, Rev. H. J.,B.D., Principal of King’s College, London, Roskell, Robert, Church Street, Liverpool. Roskell, Nicholas, Gambier Terrace, Li- verpool. Roskell, John, Church Street, Liverpool. Ross, Rev. Alexander, Castle Street, Li- verpool. Ross, Captain Sir John, R.N., Castle Stranraer. Ross, Captain, J. C., F.R.S., London. Rowan, Rev. A. B., M.R,1.A., Dublin. Rowe, W. Carpenter, Temple. : Roxby, J. W., South Shields. Royle, J. F., M.D., 62, Berners Street. Rudd, John, Jamaica. Rudhall, Henry, Bristol. Russell, J. S., 22, Coates’s Crescent, Edinburgh. Russell, James, Jun., Birmingham, Russell, J. R., Edinburgh. Ryley, Jas., Jun., Bedford St., Liverpool, 8. St. Albin, William, Chester. St. David’s, the Lord Bishop of, Deanery, Durham. St. Leger, Noblet, Carvick-on-Shannon. St.Pant, Sir Horace, Bart., Ewart, Wooler, Northumberland, ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. Salmond, Edw., Exeter College, Oxford. Salt, C. F., Chatham Street, Liverpool. Salter, Rev. John, Iron Acton, Glouces- tershire. Salusbury, J. S. P., Huskisson Street, Li- verpool. Sambrook, J. R., Temple. Sampson, Benjamin, Tullimore, Truro. Sampson, Edward, Bristol. Sampson, Edward, Jun., Bristol. Samuel, William, Landillo, Carmarthen. Samuel, Edward, Canning St., Liverpool. Sanbach, H. R., Aigburth, Liverpool. - Sanbach, Samuel, Aigburth, Liverpool. Sanbach, Samuel, Jun., Trinity College, Cambridge. Sanbach, G. R., Brazennose College, Ox- ford. Sanders, Rev. John, M.A., Everton, Li- verpool. Sanders, G. E., Clifton. Sanders, Thomas, Bristol. | Sanders, T. R., Jun., Bristol. Sanders, Joseph, Edge Hill, Liverpool. Sanderson, G. S., Everton, Liverpool. Sandford, G, A., M.P., Ninehead Court, Somerset. Sandford, G. A., Jun., Ninehead Court. Sandland, J. D., Salford. Sandon, Lord, M.P.,41, Lower Grosvenor - Street. Sands, Thomas, Everton, Liverpool. Sandwith, Colonel William, Oriental Club, London. Sangster, W. B., Leeds Street, Liverpool. Sanwick. J. W., Holms Vale, Bury. Sargent, R. S., M.D., Upper Sherrard St., Dublin. Sargent, Rev. J. P., 47, North Great George Street, Dublin. Sass, Hen., 6, Charlotte St., Bloomsbury. Saul, W. D., F.G.S., Aldersgate Street. Saunders, Rey. A. B., M.A., Charter House. Savage, Francis, Jun., Bristol. Savage, J. C., Bristol. Savery, Charles, Bristol. Saxton, Sir Charles, Abingdon. Scanlan, Maurice, Rogerson’s Dublin. Schimmelpennick, L., Bristol. Scobell, Captain, R.N,, High Littleton, near Old Down. Scott, R. W., M.D., 5, Great George St., Liverpool. Scott, John, Wesleyan Minister, Bristol. ° Scott, J. J., St. James’s Walk, Liverpool. Scott, William, Bristol. Scott, John, Sunderland. Quay, ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 39 Regier; John, M.D., Prof. R.D.S., Dub- . lin. Seutt, Thomas White, Glinde, near Lewes. Sealey, Edward, Bridgewater. Sealey, H. N., Clifton. Sealey, George, Clifton. Searle, J. C., Bristol. Sedgwick, Rev. James, Freshwater, Isle of Wight. Sedgwick, Rev. John, Dent. Selby, George, Alnwick. Selden, David, 27, Pembroke Place, Li- verpool, Senewith, Col. William, London. Shand, Alexander, Everton, Liverpool. Shand, W. S., Everton. Shand, Wm., Old Church Yard, Liver- pool, Sharp, Sir C., Sunderland. Shaw, J., Wingfield, London. _ Shaw, J. C., Dublin Steam Packet Office, Liverpool, Shaw, J. R., Arrow Hall, Cheshire. Shaw, R.N., Springfield, Liverpool, Shenkwin, Charles, Bristol. Shepherd, J. G., Wadham Coll., Oxford. Sheppard, William, B,A., Oriel College, Oxford. Sherring, R. B., Bristol. Shew, Charles, Bristol. Shipley, Joseph, Bedford Street, Liverpool. Shute, Robert, North John St., Liverpool, Shuttleworth, John, Manchester. Shuttleworth, Thomas, Manchester, Silke, Edward, Kingsdown, Bristol. Silvertop, Col. Charles, F.G.S., 55, Lower Grosvenor Street. Simon, J. P., M.D., Exeter. Simpson, James, Edinburgh. Simpson, J. N., M.D., Edinburgh. Sims, James, Chasewater, near Truro. Sinclair, Capt. John, R.N., Edinburgh, Sinelair, Archibald, Edinburgh. ’ Sinclair, John, Red Castle, Castle Douglas. Singleton, John, Quinville Abbey, Co. Clare. Singleton, Rev. Archdeacon, Elden Castle. Slaney, R. A., M.P., Walford Manor, Salop. Slattery, Thomas, 26, Brunswick Street, Liverpool. Sleigh, Rev. Thomas, Newcastle-under- ne. Smith, Richard, 38, Park Street, Bristol. Smith, J. G., Ashley Down, Bristol. Smith, Orton, 2, Berkeley Crescent, Bristol. Smith, Partridge, 10, Charlotte Street, Bristol. Smith, Brook, Stoke Bishop, near Bristol. Smith, John, M.A., Warwick Street, Li- verpool. Smith, George, Toxteth Park, Liverpool. Smith, Rev. John, M.A.,18, Great George Street, Liverpool. Smith, Chas., Canning Street, Liverpool. Smith, J. H., 32, Rodney St., Liverpool. Smith, Rey. J. F., Ince Blundell, Liver pool. Smith, J. D., Romford, Essex. Smith, H. L. Southam, Warwicks. Smith, Robert, Margam, Glamorgans. Smith, Captain George, R.N., London. Smith, W. H., Birmingham. Smith, Joseph, Manchester. Smith, Augustus, Ashlyn Hall, Berk- hampstead. Smith, J. T., Lincoln’s Inn. Smith, William, Everton, Liverpool. Smith, J. L., Vice Principal of Brazen- nose College, Oxford. Smith, R. W., Trinity College, Dublin. Smith, John, Upper Warwick St., Liver- * pool. Sniith, Charles, M.A., St. John’s College, Cambridge. Smith, Wm., LL.D., Newborough Cottage, Scarborough. Smith, Aquila, M.D., M.R.L.A., 120, Lower Baggot Street, Dublin. © Smith, John, Glasgow, Smithurst, John, Moreton Hampstead. Smyth, G.L., 16, Bridge St., Westminster. Smyth, Rev. Mitchell, Garvagh, Ireland. Sneyd, Thomas, Belmont, Staffordshire. Solly, Reynolds, 48, Albemarle Street. Somerton, W. H., 35, Broad St., Bristol. Sorley, J.,77, Great George St., Liverpool. Southam, Samuel, Trinity Street, Bristol. Southwood, T. A., Devonport. Southworth, Ebenezer, Bolton. Sparkes, Robert, M.D.,.M.R.LA., 25, Suffolk Street, Dublin, Spence, Henry, London. Spence, R. H., Hull. Spence, W. B., London. Spence, John, Q.C., London. Spence, William, F.R.S. Spencer, J. H. F., Cheltenham. - Spender, J. C., Bath. Spoor, R., Mayor of Sunderland. ; Squires, W. W., M.D., Everton, Liver- pool, i Squires, Rich., Walton Lodge, Liverpool. Staite, Opie, Bellevue, Bristol. Staite, W. E., Highbury Place, Bristol. Stamp, Rev. J. S., Chester. Standish, Chas., M.P., Grosvenor Street. 40 ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. Stanger, William, M.D., Wisbeach. Staniforth, Saml., Stamp Office, Liverpool. Stanley, T. W., 19, Trin. Coll., Dublin. Stanley, Henry, Leamington. Stanley, Sir Edward, M.R.D.S., Rose Vale, Raheny. Stanton, John, Bristol. Staples, E. J., Bristol. Starkey, J. J. 28, Water St., Liverpool. Statley, Benjamin, Chester. Steaton, Joseph, London. Steele, Thomas, Lough O’Connell. Steele, E., St. James’s Mount, Liverpool. Steele, Henry, New Gas and Coke Com- pany, Liverpool. Stephens, Edward, Bristol. Stephens, Henry, Bristol. Stephens, John, Bristol. Stephens, Thomas, Tynemouth. Stephens, Rev. M. F. T., Thornbury, Gloucestershire. Stephenson, Rev. J. A., Lympsham Rec- tory, Somerset, Stephenson, J. H., Lympsham Rectory. Stephenson, G., Leicestershire. Stephenson, W. B., Bristol. Stevelly, Professor John, Belfast. Stevelly, Rev. Rob., 5, Charlemont Mall, Dublin. Stevens, E. B., Chemist, London. Stevens, Thomas, North Shields. Stevenson, William, Clifton. Stevenson, Wm., Birkenhead, Cheshire. Stewart, Robert, Skibbor Wen, near Usk. Stewart, John, Lawson Street, Liverpool. Stewart, William, Edinburgh. Stiff, B. J., Bristol. Stiff, William, Bristol. Stock, Wm. Spry, Norwood Villa, Bristol. Stock, Thomas, Bristol. Stock, Samuel, Jun., Manchester. Stock, J. S., Barrister, London. Stoker, Abraham, Dublin Castle. Stokes, Rev. Geo., Grove St., Liverpool. Stokoe, William, Newcastle. Stone, John, Summer Hill House, near Bristol. Stoney, T. B., Portland, Jreland. Stonham, David, Bedford St., Liverpool. Stonhouse, John, Glasgow. Stott, William, Kearsley. Strachey, Sir Henry, Bart., Sutton Court, Somerset. Stralley, Rev. Edward, 30, Seymour St., Liverpool. Stratford, W. S., Notting Hill. Street, Henry, Clifton. Strickland, H. E., Jun., Cracombe House, Worcestershire. ; Strickland, H. E., M.A., F.G.S., Cra- combe House. Strong, Dr., Hereford. Strong, William, Bristol. Stubbs, Henry, Upper Duke Street, Li- verpool. 3 Stuckey, Vincent, Langport. Sturge, Young, Bristol. Summers, Nathaniel, Bristol. Summers, Samuel, Bristol. Surrage, James, M.D., Wincanton. Sutherland, John, M.D., Liverpool. Sutton, H. G., Moss Street, Liverpool. Swainson, William, F.L.S., St. Albans. Swainson, Anthony, St. Anne Street, Liverpool. Swainson, C. A., St. Anne St., Liverpool. Swann, W. B., Merrixton House, Pem- broke. Swanwick, James, Jun., Bury. Swayne, J. C., Bristol. Sweetman, William, 16, Middle Gardiner Street, Dublin. Swete, Rey. John. D.D., Bristol. Swinburne, Francis, Gateshead. Swinburne, R. W., South Shields. Swinburne, W. A., South Shields. Swire, Samuel, Ashton-under-Lyne. Sykes, Lieut.-Col. W. H., F.L.S., F.G.S., 47, Albion Street, Hyde Park. Symes, Richard, Yatton, Somerset. Symonds, J. A., Bristol. Symons, Arth., Board of Trade, London. Synge, A. H., Glanmore, Co. Wicklow. Synge, Francis, Glanmore. Synnott, Rev. Mark, Seel St., Liverpool. T. Tagart, Rev. Edward, 38, Porchester Terrace, Bayswater. Taite, C. M., Amen Court, St. Paul’s. Talbot, Hon. James, Evercreech, near Shepton Mallet. Talbot, W. H., Wrightington Hall, Eastwood. Tanner, John, Dublin. Tanner, William, Calne. Tate, William, Renshaw Street, Liverpool. Tattershall, Rev. Thos., A.M., Shaw St., Liverpool. Tattershall, E. B., Solicitor, London. Taunton, R. C., Ashley, Hants. Taunton, Wm.,Stoke Bishop, near Bristol. Tawney, R., Willoughby, Warwickshire. Tayleur, C., Edinburgh. Tayleur, W. E., Edinburgh. Taylor, Charles, High Street, Dublin. Taylor, Rey. G., Manchester. ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 41 Taylor, Rev. James, Clifton. Taylor, John, Seddon Street, Liverpool. Taylor, John, Preston. Taylor, Stephen, Duckinfield, near Ash- ton-under-Lyne. Taylor, Robert, Broomlands, Dumfriessh. Taylor, Wm., Moss Cottage, Preston. Taylor, J. A., Worcester College, Oxford. Taylor, G, E., Bristol. Taylor, Sir Brook, London. Taylor, Peter, Manchester. Taylor, R. H., Bristol. Tebay, Thomas, Winstanley Park, Wigan. Tennant, John, Liverpooi. Tennant, Wm., Castle Bytham, Lincoln. Tennent, John, Glasgow. Teschemacher, E. F., Camberwell. Thadstone, T. S., Chatham St., Liverpool. ‘Thom, Rev. J. H., 13, Nile St., Liverpool. Thomas, B. C., Malmesbury. Thomas, C. E., Pembroke College, Cam- bridge. Thomas, David, Kingsdown, Bristol. Thomas, Morgan, R.A., Island Bridge, Dublin. Thompson, Alderman Wm., M.P., 12, Whitehall Place. Thompson, B., Director of Carlise Rail- way. Thompson, Thomas, Sunderland. Thompson, David, Dublin. Thompson, G. H., Falkner St., Liverpool. Thompson, S. H, Abercromby Square, * Liverpool. Thompson, R. D., M.D., 20, Gower St. Thompson, W. K., 2, Paul St., Liverpool. Thompson, William, 'V.P. Nat. Hist. So- ciety, Belfast. Thompson, Rev. T., 19, Daulby Street, Liverpool. Thompson, Andrew, Bristol. Thompson, Rev. W., Cheadle, Cheshire. Thompson, J., Kirk House, near Carlisle. Thompson, J ohn, Edinburgh. Thompson, Thomas, M.R.D.S., 49, Har- court Street, Dublin. Thompson, Theophilus, 15, Keppel Street. Thomson, Robert, M.D., Rathmines, Dublin. Thomson, Thomas, M.D., Prof. Chem., Glasgow. Thomson, James, Glasgow. Thomson, Charles, Manchester. Thomson, Thomas, 100, St. Vincent St., Glasgow. ean Thomas, Clitheroe. Thorburn, R. M., Edinburgh. Thornborrow, Michael, Mount Vernon, Liverpool. Thornley, J. D., Bineenes Place, Liver- ool, Thornley, Wn., J un., Blackburn Place, Liverpool. Thornley, Samuel, Clarence St., Liverpool. Thornton, J. P., London. Thorpe, Rev. Charles, D.D., Archdeacon of Durham. Thorpe, Rev. Charles, Warden of Univer- sity, Durham. Thwaites,G. H. K., King’s Down, Bristol. Timmon, John, M.D., Drogheda. Tipping, John, Low Hill, Liverpool. ‘Todd, R. wet M.D., King’s Coll., London. Tollett, G. W., Bitley, Staffordshire. Tomkins, Dr. “Charles, Devizes. Tomlinson, Joseph, Toxteth Park, Lived! ool. ee John, Castle Street, Liverpool. Topp, Richard, Cork. Tothill, William, Redland, Bristol. Tothill, William, Jun., Redland. Touchett, John, Manchester. Townley, Charles, Water St., Liverpool. Townsend, W. H., Bristol. Townsend, Rev. J. C., M.A., Milton, Oxfordshire. Townshend, Mr., College, Durham. Tracey, Rey. E.H., Toddington, Glouces- tershire. Tracey, Rev. C. H., 35, Doon Street, Bristol, Traiks, H. F., 4, Park Terrace, Regent’s _ Park. Traill, T. S., M.D., Professor, Edinburgh. Traill, T. S., Jun., Edinburgh. Travers, Robert, M.B., Rathmines, Dublin, Tribe, E. S., 29, Soho Square. Trimmer, Joshua, Carnarvon. Trotman, Thomas, M.D., Bristol. Trotman,S. L., Park HillRoad, Liverpool. Trowbridge, Lieut., 7th Fusileers. Tucker, Robert, Bristol. Tucker, Francis, Torqueer, Dumfries. Tucker, I. M., Clifton. Tuckett, Alfred, Moorend, near Bristol. Tuckett, P. D., Frenchay, Bristol. Tudor, John, Bath. Tudor, Richard, Bushfield, Clontarf, Co. Dublin. Tudor, William, Bath. Tufnell, E. C., London. Tuke, James, York. Turnbull, George, Cardiff. Turner, R. B., Hanover St., Liverpool. Turner, J. A. , Manchester. Turner, S. A., Aigburth, Liverpool. Turner, Rey William, Sec. Lit. and Philos. Soc., Newcastle. 42 Turner, William, M.D., Melrose. Turner, Thomas, Lincoln’s Inn. Twells, Rey. John, Perlethorpe, Ollerton, Notts. Twycross, Edward, 69, Dame St., Dublin. Tyers, I. T., The Grove, Wrington. Tyrer, James, Bootle, near Liverpool. U. Ullathorne, Rev. S., D.D., Renshaw St., Liverpool. Ullathorne, William, Sydney, Australia. Underwood, Frederick, Bristol. Upton, James, Sedgburgh, Yorkshire. Urquhart, David, London, Whe Vachell, C, R., Cardiff. Vandeleur, Lieut.-Gen. Sir John, 7, Mer- rion Square, Dublin. Van Oven, Joshua, 10, Great George St., Liverpool. Van Zeller, John, Abercromby Square, Liverpool. Vaughan, Hugh, Crete Hill, Bristol. Vaughan, E. P., M.A., Wraxall, near Bristol. Vaughan, James, Middle Temple. Vavasour, Mervyn, Melbourne Hall, Pocklington, Yorks. Venables, T. A., Colquitt St., Liverpool. Vice, William, Truro. Vignoles, Rev. Dr. Charles, M.R.I.A., Dublin Castle. Vignoles, C, B.,5, Westland Row, Dublin. Vigors, Ferdinand, Regent's Park. Vildosola, A. E., Lower Redland, Bristol. Vining, John, Richmond Hill, Clifton. Vint, James, Sunderland. Vose, I. A., M.D., 19, Hope St., Liver- pool. ; Vose, James, Jun., M.D., 19, Hope St., Liverpool. Vye, Nathaniel, Ilfracombe, (Life). Vyvyan, Sir R. R., Bart., 'Trelowarren, Cornwall, W. Wade, I'rederick, Liverpool. Wade, Joseph, Clifton. Wainwright, T. W., Everton. Wainwright, William, Abercromby Sq., Liverpool. Wait, Samuel, Bristol. Walcott, W. H. L., Southampton, Waldo, Edward, Bristol. Walker, George, Lewes, ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. Walker, Rev. A., Wexford. Walker, C. L., Bristol. Walker, Rev. Richard, Sheffield. Walker, John, Kirkcudbright. Wallace, Robert, M.D., Lodge, Surrey. Wallace, I. E., Trin. Coll. Cambridge, Carshalton Lodge. Wallis, George, Bristol. Wallscourt, Lord, Ardtrea, Ireland. Walmesley, Hugh, Liverpool. Waln, Robert, Oldham St., Liverpool. Waln, William, Hope Street, Liverpool. Walsh, Rev. H. G., M.A., Claybrook, Leicester. Walton, T. 'T., King’s Parade, Bristol. Ward, Richard, Burfield House, West- bury. Ward, R. B., Burfield House, Westbury. Ward, D. H., Bristol. Ware, John, Clifton. Waring, H. F., Lyme Regis. Warner, Charles, Everton, Liverpool. Warr, Richard, Bristol. Wasborough, C., Kingsdown, Bristol. Wason, James, 46, Cornwallis St., Liver- pool. Wason, James, Jun., Fort, Bristol. Waterfield, Rev. William, Wrexham. Waterhouse, Daniei, Aigburth, Liverpool. Waterhouse, Alfred, Aigburth, Liverpool. Waterhouse, Octavius, Liverpool. Waterhouse, Roger, Edge Hill, Liverpool. Waterhouse, Henry, Manchester, Watling, Rev. C. H., Cirencester, Watson, Col. Sir H., Spottiswoode Park, Watson, John, Glasgow. Watson, Barnard L., 26, Hope St. South, Liverpool. Watson, Andrew, King St., Liverpool, Watson, Jos., Newcastle. Watt, Charles, London. Watt, George, Sen., Glasgow. Watts, H. B,, Isle of Man. Way, Rev. H. H.; Henbury, Bristol. Wayte, Samuel 5., Bristol. Wayte, William, Highlands, near Calne. Wellbeloved, Rey. Charles, ¥.P. Yorks. Philos. Society, York. Wellington, James, Bristol. Wellington, J. H., Bristol. Wentworth, D. S. E., M.D., Brownlow Street, Liverpool. Wentworth, Joseph, Cambridge. West, Arthur, Bath. West, William, Observatory, Clifton. Westcot, Jasper, Bristol. Weihiatby, Percival, Toxteth Park, Liver- pool. Carshalton ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS, . 43 Wheatstone,C., Professor, King’s College, London, 20, Conduit Street. Whettham, Col., Abbott’s Leigh, near Bristol. White, Andrew, M.P. White, Francis, V.P, College of Surgeons, 42, Dawson St., Dublin. White, James, Ballitore. Whitehead, Walter, Derby House, Che- shire. Whiteside, Rev. J, W., Ripon. Whithers, Richard, Everton, Liverpool. Whitley, Rev. Charles, Durham. Whitley, John, Shaw St,, Liverpool. Whitmore, William, Dudmaston, Salop. Whittuck, C. J., Bristol. Whittuck, 8. H., Heathend House, near Wotton-under-edge. Whitty, Harry, Dublin. Whitwell, Stedman, Highgate, Whitworth, J., Manchester. Whyte, Thomas, Edinburgh. Wilcock, Rev. P., Great Horner Street, Liverpool. Wild, John, Bristol. Wildes, Rev. George, Liverpool. Wilkie, Sir David, R.A., D.C.L., Ken- sington. Wilkins, Major William, Oriental Club, London. Wilkinson, Rev. Thomas, Edmund Street, Liverpool. Wilkinson, W. A., Camberwell. Wilkinson, Edmund, 87, Upper Islington, Liverpool. Willan, E., Jun., Bold St., Liverpool. Willans, W., 6, Bridge Street, Dublin. Willcock, Dr., South Hill Road, Liver- ool, Willeock, Jacob, South Hill Road, Liver- ool. Williams. J. W., Co. Durham. Williams, Rev. James, Anglesea. Williams, John, Holywell, Flint. Williams, Samuel, Dublin. Williams, Elijah, Bristol. Williams, R. P., Clifton. Williams, Rev. Thos., Heytesbury, Wilts. Williamson, Sir H., Bart., Whitburn, Durham. Williamson, Joshua, Dublin. | Williamson, Richard, D.D., Dean’s Yard, Westminster. Willis, J. S., Liverpool. Willis, Richard, Halstead, near Prescot. Willis, Henry, Bristol. Willoughby, E., Birkenhead, Cheshire: Wills, Anthony, 17, Upper Gardiner St., Dublin, Wills, Frederick, Bristol. Wills, John, Bristol. Wills, W. D., Bristol. Wilmot, Samuel, 120, Stephen’s Green, Dublin, Wilmot, John, Birmingham. Wilson, Rev. Professor H. H., Oxford. Wilson, John, 7, Bold Street, Liverpool. Wilson, J. C., Myrtle Street, Liverpool. Wilson, J. G., Bristol. Wilson, Rev. J, A., Childwall, near Li- verpool. Wilson, John, Jun., Clyde Iron Works, Glasgow. Wilson, Rev. R. C., Vicarage, Preston. Wilson, Rey. Richard, Wigan. Wilson, Thomas, Gateshead. Wilson, George, Manchester. Wilson, William, Nottingham. Wingfield, Charles, Oxford. Wingate, Alexander, Glasgow. Winstanley, William, M.D., Woolton Lodge, Liverpool. Winstanley, William, Lodge, Liverpool. Winstanley, Thos., Church St., Liverpool. Winstanley, 8. §., Great George Street, Liverpool. Winter, Henry, Bristol. Wintle, Thomas, Bristol. * Winwood, John, Clifton Down. Wise, Robert, Manchester. Witham, H. T. M., Lartington, Barnard Castle. Witham, Rev. Thomas, Stella, Durham. Withington, R., Bristol. Withy, John, Bristol. Wood, James, Bristol. Wood, R. W., Edge Hill, Liverpool. Wood, R. N., Macclesfield. Wood, J. R., Penketh, near Warrington. Woodcock, Henry, Wigan. Woodhead, G., Mottram, near Manchester. Woodhouse, T. J., Leicester. Woods, William, Chairman of Durham Junction Railway. Woodward, Rev. F. B.,11, Kildare Street, Dublin. Woollcombe, Henry, President of the Ply- mouth Institution, Plymouth. Woollett, J. S., 69, Duke St., Liverpool. Woolwright, John, Bold St., Liverpool. Worrall, George, Frenchay, near Bristol. Worsley, Philip, Hampstead. Worsley, Samuel, F.G.S., Bristol. Worswick, Thomas, Great Oxford Street, Liverpool. f Worthington, Charles, Rodney Street, Liverpool, Jun., Woolton 44 CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 7 Worthington, John, Liverpool. Worthington, James, Manchester. Wortley, Hon. J. S., Wortley Hall, Shef- field. Wotherspoon, Matthew, India Buildings, Liverpool. Wreford, Rev. J. R., Birmingham. Wreford, R. W., Bristol. Wreford, W.E., Kingsdown, near Bristol. Wright, John, Derby. Wright, John, Jun., Liverpool. Wright, George. Wright, R. F., Hinton Blewitt, Somerset. Wright, Roger, 50, Bedford Street, Li- verpool. Wright, Thomas, Cheltenham. Wrigley, J. H., Liverpool. Wybergh, John, Everton, Liverpool. Wybergh, J., Jun., Everton, Liverpool. Wyse, Thomas, M.P., Waterford. Ys Yaniewiez, W. F., Bold Street, Liverpool, Yard, Charles, 97th Regt., Stockport. Yates, John Ashton, M.P., F.G.S., 33, Bryanstone Square. Yelloly, John, M.D., F.R.S., Woodton Hall, Norfolk. Yelloly, S, T., Woodton Hall, Norfolk. Yeo, Dr., Wadebridge, Cornwall. Yescombe, Morris, Truro. Youens, Rev. Dr., 50, Warren Street, Liverpool. Young, C. B., Everton, Young, G. R., Halifax, Nova Scotia. Young, Thomas, 46, Nelson Square. Young, Adam, Camberwell. Young, James, Brewery, Spitalfields. Young, Robert, Clifton. Young, Rev. Edward, Clifton. Yule, Captain, U. S. Club, London. CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.