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REPORT

SIXTEENTH MEETING

FOR THE

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE;

HELD AT SOUTHAMPTON IN SEPTEMBER 1846.

LONDON:

JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
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CONTENTS.

Ossects and Rules of the Association .........sccccsccscesceeceeteeseeers
Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement ............ss000
Table of Council from commencement .........00+seeeeeeeeceeseeereseees
Treasurer’s Account

Officers and Council vee

Officers of Sectional Commmittees............scccesecceeeseneeesecceseeecrenes
Corresponding Members... alerts

Report of Council to the eaGul (neti! ARP:
Proceedings of the General Committee at Sinateiarinta tesla kia tae wlan
Recommendations for Additional Reports and Researches in Science
Synopsis of Money Grants . She eats a hens
Arrangement of the Generil Fiventid Meetings Senet tae ee annem ee eee
Address of the President................0..sceseassscescesenscesescceeesconces

REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE.
Report on Recent Researches in Hydrodynamics. ely G. G. STOKEs,
M.A., Fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge... pales eye

Sixth Report of a Committee, consisting of H. E. Sie hie, Esq.,
- Prof. Dauseny, Prof. Henstow and Prof. Linpiery, appointed to
continue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds ............+ccs0000

On the Colouring Matters of Madder. By Dr. SCHUNCK......... 000.0000

On the en Action of Medicines. asl eer: F.R.C.S.,

a. on the neat We By Mr. Rosert Hunt .. SH se 5

Notices on the Influence of Light on the Growth of Plants. oe Mr.

anRRMUOED binomin o oe kd bo Me lS a ROR ee

33

iv CONTENTS.
ge
On the Recent Progress of Analysis (Theory of the ae of m
Transcendentals). By R.L. Exris, M.A. ...ceecseees aveseonpm, soe
On Comparative Analytical Researches on Sea Water. By Prof.
PORCHHAMMER |. 10. csv cvsevusin sacvusonapmiecdhaueewicstites stocrcaetetnabaeen
On the Calculation of the Gaussian Constants for 1829. By A.ErmMan 92
On the Progress, present Amount, and probable future Condition of the
Tron Manufacture in Great Britain. By G. R. Porter, F.R.S. ...... 99

Third Report on Atmospheric Waves. By Witt1Am Rapciirr Birt 119

90

Report on the Archetype and a> andes of the Vertebrate Skeleton.
By Prof. OWEN, F.R.S. ....sssseeeee as oep abo ciapseeneenlse lo
On Anemometry. By Joun Putrirs, F.R.S., F.G.S. . 340

Report on the Crystalline Slags. By JoHn Percy, M.D. w.sccssseceeeee 351

a '

Ps

= OBJECTS AND RULES

OF

| THE ASSOCIATION.

———

OBJECTS.

Tue Assoctation contemplates no interference with the ground occupied by
other Institutions. Its objects are,—To give a stronger impulse and a more
systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the intercourse of those
who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire, with one an-
other, and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a more general attention to
the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind
which impede its progress.

RULES.

ADMISSION OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES.

All Persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to be-
come Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to con-
form to its Rules.

The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical So-
cieties publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled, in
like manner, to become Members of the Association.

The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees, of
Philosophical Institutions, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem-
bers of the Association.

All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Council
or Managing Committee, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem-
bers of the Association.

Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the General
Committee or Council, to become Life Members of the Association, Annual
Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the approval of a General
Meeting.

COMPOSITIONS, SUBSCRIPTIONS, AND PRIVILEGES.

Lire Memsers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They
shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be pub-
lished after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the offices
of the Association.

Awnuat Susscrizurs shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,
and in each following year the sum of One Pound. They shall receive
gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this Subscription in any particu-
lar year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and all
future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association gratis:

re,
“te

vl RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.

but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any sub-

sequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the sum of.

One Pound. ‘They are eligible to all the Offices of the Association.

Associates for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.

The Association consists of the following classes :—

1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.

2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on ad-
mission Ten Pounds as a composition.

3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to the
payment of One Pound annually, [may resume their Membership after inter-
mission of Annual Payment. ]

4, Annual Members admitted or to be admitted in any year since 1839,
subject to the payment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in
each following year, [may resume their membership after intermission of
Annual Payment. }

5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.

6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.

And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’) price,
according to the following specification, viz. :—

1. Gratis.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, and Two Pounds as a Book Subscrip-
tion.

New Life Members who shall have paid Ten Pounds as a composition,
Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Subscription.

2. At reduced or Members’ Prices.—O}d Life Members who have paid
Five Pounds as a composition for Annual Payments, but no Book
Subscription.

Annual Members, who, having paid on admission Two Pounds, have
intermitted their Annual Subscription in any subsequent year.

Associates for the year, [Privilege confined to the volume for that
year only. ]

Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.

MEETINGS.

The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The place
of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee at the pre-
vious Meeting; and the Arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Offi-
cers of the Association.

GENERAL COMMITTEE.

The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons :—

1. Presidents and Officers for the present and preceding years, with au-
thors of Reports in the Transactions of the Association.

2. Members who have communicated any Paper to a Philosophical Society,
which has been printed in its Transactions, and which relates to such subjects
as are taken into consideration at the Sectional Meetings of the Association.

3. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, altogether not exceed-
ing three in number, from any Philosophical Society publishing Transactions.

a

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. vil

4, Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, nut exceeding three,
from Philosophical Institutions established in the place of Meeting, or in any
place where the Association has formerly met.

5. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and who
are specially nominated in writing for the meeting of the year by the Presi-
dent and General Secretaries.

6. The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the Sections are ex
officio members of the General Committee for the time being.

SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. .

The General Committee shall appoint, at each Meeting, Committees, con-
sisting severally of the Members most conversant with the several branches
of Science, to advise together for the advancement thereof.

The Committees shall report what subjects of investigation they would
particularly recommend to be prosecuted during the ensuing year, and
brought under consideration at the next Meeting.

The Committees shall recommend Reports on the state and progress of
particular Sciences, to be drawn up from time to time by competent persons,
for the information of the Annual Meetings.

COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS.

The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee, which
shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Committees,
and report to the General Committee the measures which they would advise
to be adopted for the advancement of Science.

All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects, shall be submitted to the Com-
mittee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the General
Committee, unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recommen-
dations.

LOCAL COMMITTEES.

Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to
assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.
Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those

Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.

OFFICERS,

A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries, and a
Treasurer, shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.

COUNCIL.

In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be
managed by a Council appuinted by the General Committee. The Council
may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the
Meeting.

PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS.
_ The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve
his right of property therein.
ACCOUNTS.
The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors

appointed by the Meeting. :
2

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x MEMBERS OF COUNCIL.

II. Table showing the Names of Members of the British Association who
have served on the Council in former years.

Acland, Sir Thomas D., Bart., M.P., F.R.S.

Adamson, J., F.L.S.

Adare. Viscount, M.P., F.R.S.

Airy, G.B.,D.C.L., F.R.S., Astronomer Royal.

Ainslie, Rey. Gilbert, D.D., Master of Pem-
broke Hall, Cambridge.

Ansted, Professor D. T., M.A., F.R.S.

Arnott, Neil, M.D., F.R.S.

Ashburton, Lord, D.C.L.

Babbage, Charles, F.R.S.

Babington, C. C., F.L.S.

Baily, Francis, F.R.S.

Barker, George, F.R.S.

Bengough, George.

Bentham, George, F.L.S.

Bigge, Charles.

Blakiston, Peyton, M.D., F.R.S.

Brewster, Sir David, K.H., LL.D., F.R.S.

Breadalbane, The Marquis of, F.R.S.

Brisbane, Lieut.-General SirThomas M., Bart.,
K.C.B., G.C.H., D.C.L., F.R.S. «

Brown, Robert, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Brunel, Sir M. I., F.R.S.

Buckland, Very Rey. William, D.D., Dean of
Westminster, F.R.S.

Burlington, The Earl of, M.A., F.R.S., Chan-

" cellor of the University of London.

Carson, Rev. Joseph.

Cathcart, The Earl, K.C.B., F.R.S.E.

Chalmers, Rev. T., D.D., Professor of Di-
vinity, Edinburgh.

Christie, Professor S. H., M.A., Sec.R.S.

Clare, Peter, F.R.A.S.

Clark, Rev. Professor, M.D., F.R.S. (Cam-
bridge).

Clark, Henry, M.D.

Clark, G. T.

Clift, William, F.R.S.

Colquhoun, J. C., M.P.

Conybeare, Very Rev. W. D., Dean of Llandaff,
M.A., F.R.S.

Corrie, John, F.R.S.

Currie, William Wallace.

Dalton, John, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Daniell, Professor J. F., F.R.S.

Dartmouth, The Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Daubeny, Professor Charles G.B., M.D.,
F.R.S.

De la Beche, Sir Henry T., F.R.S., Director-
General of the Geological Survey of the
United Kingdom.

Drinkwater, J. E.

Durham, The Bishop of, F.R.S.

Egerton, Sir Philip de M. Grey, Bart., F.R.S.

Eliot, Lord, M.P.

Ellesmere, The Earl of, F.G.S.

Faraday, Professor, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Fitzwilliam, The Earl, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Fleming, H., M.D.

Forbes, Charles.

Forbes, Professor Edward, F.R.S.

Forbes, Professor J. D., F.R.S.

Fox, Robert Were, F.R.S.

Gilbert, Davies, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Graham, Rev. John, D.D., Master of Christ’s
College, Cambridge.

Graham, Professor Thomas, M.A., F.R.S.

Gray, John E., F.R.S.

Gray, Jonathan.

Gray, William, jun., F.G.S.

Green, Professor Joseph Henry, F.R.S.

Greenough, G. B., F.R.S.

Hallam, Henry, M.A., F.R.S.

Hamilton, W. J., M.P., Sec.G.8.

Hamilton, Sir William R., Astronomer Royal
of Ireland, M.R.L.A.

Harcourt, Rev. William Vernon, M.A., F.R.S.

Hardwicke, The Earl of.

Harford, J. S., D.C.L., F.R.S.

Harris, W. Snow, F.R.S.

Hatfeild, William, F.G.S.

Henslow, Rev. Professor, M.A., F.L.S.

Henry, W.C., M.D., F.R.S.

Herbert, Hon. and Very Rev. William, Dean
of Manchester, LL.D., F.L.S.

Herschel, Sir John F. W., Bart.,D.C.L.,F.R.S.

Heywood, Sir Benjamin, Bart., F.R.S.

Heywood, James, F.R.S.

Hodgkin, Thomas, M.D.

Hodgkinson, Eaton, F.R.S.

Hodgson, Joseph, F.R.S.

Hooker, Sir William J., LL.D., F.R.S.

Hope, Rev. F. W., M.A., F.R.S.

Hopkins, William, M.A., F.R.S.

Horner, Leonard, F.R.S., F.G.S.

Hovenden, V. F,, M.A.

Hutton, Robert, F.G.S.

Hutton, William, F.G.S.

Jameson, Professor R., F.R.S.

Jenyns, Rev. Leonard, F.L.S.

Jerrard, H. B.

Johnston, Professor J. F. W., M.A., F.R.S.

Keleher, William.

Lardner, Rev. Dr.

Lee, R., M.D., F.R.S.

Lansdowne, The Marquis of, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Lefevre, Right Hon. Charles Shaw, Speaker
of the House of Commons.

Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., M.P., F.R.S.

Liddell, Andrew.

Lindley, Professor, Ph.D., F.R.S.

Listowel, The Ear! of.

Lloyd, Rev. Bartholomew, D.D., Provost of
Trinity College, Dublin.

Lloyd, Rev. Professor, D.D., F.R.S.

Lubbock, Sir John W., Bart., M.A., F.R.S. :

Luby, Rev. Thomas. P

Lyell, Charles, jun., M.A., F.R.S.

MacCullagh, Professor, D.C.L., M.R.LA.

Macfarlane, The Very Rev. Principal.

MacLeay, William Sharp, F.L.S.

MacNeill, Professor Sir John, F.R.S.

Meynell, Thomas, Jun., F.L.S.

Miller, Professor W. H., M.A., F.R.S.

sl peat

MEMBERS OF COUNCIL. X1

Moilliet, J. L.

Moody, T. C., Esq.

Moody, T. F.

Morley, The Earl of.

Morpeth, Viscount, F.G.S.

Moseley, Rev. Henry, M.A., F.R.S.

Mount Edgecumbe, The Earl of.

Murchison, Sir Roderick I., G.C.S., F.R.S.-

Neill, Patrick, M.D., F.R.S.E.

Nicol, Rev. J. P., LL.D.

Northampton, The Marquis of, President of
the Royal Society.

Seen The Duke of, K.G., M.A.,

RS.

Norwich, The Bishop of, President of the
Linnean Society, F.R.S.

Ormerod, G. W., F.G.S.

Orpen, Thomas Herbert, M.D.

~ Owen, Professor Richard, M.D., F.R.S.

Oxford, The Bishop of, F.R.S., F.G.S.

Osler, Follett, F.R.S.

Palmerston, Viscount, G.C.B., M.P.

Peacock, Very Rev. George, D.D., Dean of
Ely, V.P.R.S.

Pendarves, E., F.R.S.

Phillips, Professor John, F.R.S.

Powell, Rev. Professor, M.A., F.R.S.

Prichard, J. C., M.D., F.R.S.

Ramsay, Professor W., M.A.

Rennie, George, V.P.&Treas.R.S.

Rennie, Sir John, F.R.S., President of the
Institute of Civil Engineers.

Richardson, Sir John, M.D., F.R.S.

Ritchie, Rey. Professor, LL.D., F.R.S.

Robinson, Rev. J., D.D.

Robinson, Rev. T. R., D.D.

Robison, Sir John, Sec.R.S.Edin.

Roche, James.

Roget, Peter Mark, M.D., Sec.R.S.

Ross, Capt. Sir James C., R.N., F.R.S.

Rosse, The Earl of, F.R.S.

Royle, Professor John F., M.D., F.R.S.

Russell, James.

Sabine, Lieut.-Colonel Edward, R.A., For.
Sec.R.S.

Sanders, William, F.G.S.

Sandon, Lord.

Scoresby, Rev. W., D.D., F.R.S.

Sedgwick, Rev. Professor, M.A., F.R.S.

Selby, Prideaux John, F.R.S.E.

Smith, Lt.-Colonel C. Hamilton, F.R.S.

Staunton, Sir George T., Bart., M.P., D.C.L.,
F.R.S.

Stevelly, Professor John, LL.D.

Strang, John.

Strickland, H. E., F.G.S.

Sykes, Lieut.-Colonel W. H., F.R.S,

Talbot, W. H. Fox, M.A., F.R.S.

Tayler, Rev. J. J.

Taylor, John, F.R.S.

Taylor, Richard, jun., F.G.S.

Thompson, William, F.L.S.

Traill, J. S., M.D.

Turner, Edward, M.D., F.R.S.

Turner, Samuel, F.R.S., F.G.S.

Turner, Rev. W.

Vigors, N. A., D.C.L., F.L.S.

Walker, James, F.R.S.

Walker, J. N., F.G.S.

Warburton, Henry, M.A., M.P., F.R.S.

Washington, Captain, R.N.

West, William, F.R.S.

Wheatstone, Professor, F.R.S.

Whewell, Rev. William, D.D., Master of
Trinity College, Cambridge.

Williams, Professor Charles J.B., M.D.,F.R.S.

Willis, Rev. Professor, M.A., F.R.S.

Winchester, The Marquis of.

Woollcombe, Henry, F.S.A.

Wortley, The Hon. John Stuart, B.A., M.P.,
F.R.S.

Yarrell, William, F.i.S.
Yarborough, The Ear! of, D.C.L.
Yates, James, M.A., F.R.S.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE

THE GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT from 19th of June

RECEIPTS. d
y ER pe ratio oS 6
To Life Compositions received at the Cambridge Meeting and since 185 0 0
To Annual Subscriptions......... wes DLO ss o<'0< Ditto...... Ditto..... ‘ 161 00
To Associates’ Tickets .......+.... Ditto scces. Ditte...... Ditocsscze 407 0 0
POMARMIES PICKCtS. cscoveseesasveess Ditto......Ditto...... Ditto swe. 172 0 0
To Book Compositions ............ Ditto......Ditto...... Ditto,.-: + 64 0 0
To Dividends on Stock ...,........ Ditto...... Ditto...... Ditto...... 225 14 6
To Sale of £1000 in the 3 per cent. Consols....... Snedceetaes eaive 956 5 0
To Cash from Cambridge Local Fund Committee ......... roche Tata
To Ditto portion of Grant returned.......... shiva cess Sas cdenbaveueeres Cat | hie
To received from the Sale of Publications :—
ORgESE VOINME rovisccctnnsesccusens poswauaneiie Btcaeseee 2 aS
OF-2nd, VOIUME 7 <.cccsc.ceasssseceues adatespavceeees eocats >, haere
of 8rd volume ......... sanievaseadedadest ue abatcsee sents 5 3 (OO
WE ST VOINUIE cl cae cotaceesceres coe eke ee Dae caceee + Ne aa 3
of oth volume! 8s.:...ccrnt eee pi adglen ee eas tests 218 5
OL Geb VOIMBIE -< co -sece sacs susresckeeseeeee nese stecsuentee y al lees” |
MEE PER VOLUME rene Seseeccces te ccben 2 Sncdaatesnntger sence Se 1b 6
OR tu VON "... Sicores eto cecaeus eulae ed ease PEGE 1S
of 9th volume (<4 .0.--.0000 aaa ddakeive Senseee deacpnage te fae a |
OFM Oth WOME) s, «ida sucncvnsononnqanedasedes bormtine: MP AILGTS
OF A Dth WONMGA, ores. teacexceccmovdurbins wendenscedscace ook! 1tis AE
Of 12th volume »......c...c0sccre sah Taare me papeecaedge ata thee OTe,
OL UAE OLDIE: Sasvocctavancnarsimiscean ce Pee 93 17 10
Of Ash WOMME 5.<528.0 cas) co casedeetee waseyanteectorene 10 4 0
of Lithograph Signatures...........6+. eS: sessscamags QU) 8
— 173 12 0
Balance carried on.......+...0e0es co PTD SNR
£2549 0 2
To Balance due to the General Treasurer ....0..c.sceee0e ae EN 237 16 10
To Ditto due from Local Treasurers -......... Pee ie
To Ditto in the Bankers’ hands ............ ecccerves 04 14g LIDS 9
—_ C125 “S41

The General Treasurer in Account

To Balance of Grant brought on from last Account

T. H. SHADWELL CLERKE, :
D. T. ANSTED, } auditors

= ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

1845 (at Cambridge) to the 10th of September 1846 (at Southampton).

PAYMENTS,
a £ Ss. d. et Sa ad!
7 By Balance in advance on the General Account brought on... 360 10 5
iF By Sundry Disbursements by Treasurer and Local Treasurers,
including the Expenses of the Meeting at Cambridge,
r Advertising, Sundry Printing, &.............04 mavhwcedat 203 11 5
) By Printing, &c. of the 14th Report (138th vol.) ....... eee es las wah 4
if By Salaries to Assistant General Secretary, Accountant, &c.
+ 18 months to Midsummer 1846..........sccccesseseseeeoeee ied 525 0 0
rd By Paid to the order of Committees on Account of Grants
for Scientific purposes, viz. for—
4 British Association Catalogue of Stars .......2...+4. «1844 211 15 0
: Fossil Fishes of the London Clay ..........++.sseeee Spe AAs 100 0. 0
. Computation of the Gaussian Constants for ............ 1839 50 0 0
sm. Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory ...... 146 16 7
t Experiments on the Strength of Materials ...........0 eee SOON IO, 2 0
Researches in AsphyXia..........sseeeee Rieoksdaee cui saccale 616 2
Examination of Fossil Shells ...s.scecsesseeessesvecseeereececees 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ............00008 Phcniet asehaidla Ke uetgotel 1844 215 10
. Ditto...,..ditto......+ Pe eaane 4 hasaiteaens sind isere vena 1845 712 38
Marine Zoology of Cornwall ....... Wepddisnsmseens Selaetuae eae 10 0 0
Ditto......Ditto......Britain ......... paeuitsicer ost Reseceaesuer es 10 0 0
Mu Exotic Anoplura..... gee IUcbRdtacicg tae bie Sduensdde pede 1844 25 0 0
Expenses attending Anemometers,....scccseerseseseesseee aap 11 7 6
Anemometers’ Hepairs ..ccssceseceueeess araescanuccen “COMER SE 255 2 3 6
Researches on Atmospheric Waves ......- educSedevee sheaves 3.3 =3
Captive Balloons.......... Stee ovigniephnina'd china Sia cv oe veeeee L844 § 19 8
Varieties of the Human Race.....sceccssceeseee Sade ..- 1844 7 6 3
Statistics of Sickness and Mortality at Morkvowvetseicaveceves 12 0 0
ad 685 16 0
£2549 0 2
By Balance in advance brought down as per contra ......4.. £125 3 1
| with the Government G'rant.
By Amount Paid on Account of the Printing of Lalande and
Lacaille’s Catalogues.....sssscssserescoesceseoes Seles: wvrda's <p 553 0 5
Balance in Treasurer’s hands.s.csssesees 81 1 7

£634 2 0

X1V OFFICERS AND COUNCIL.

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1846-47.

Trustees (permanent).—Sir Roderick Impey Murchison, G.C.S‘S., F.R.S.
John Taylor, Esq., F.R.S. The Very Reverend George Peacock, D.D.,
Dean of Ely, F.R.S.

President.—Sir Roderick Impey Murchison, G.C.S*S., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.—The Marquis of Winchester. The Earl of Yarborough,
D.C.L. Viscount Palmerston, G.C.B., M.P. Lord Ashburton, D.C.L. The
Bishop of Oxford, F.R.S., F.G.S._ The Right Hon. the Speaker, Charles
Shaw Lefevre, M.P.,F.G.S. Sir George T. Staunton, Bart., M.P., D.C.L.,
F.R.S. Professor Owen, M.D., F.R.S. Rev. Professor Powell, F.R.S.

President Elect.—Sir Robert Harry Inglis, Bart., D.C.L., F.R.S., M.P.
for the University of Oxford.

Vice- Presidents Elect.—The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. The Lord Bishop of
Oxford, F.R.S. The Vice-Chancellor of the University of Oxford.
Thomas G, Bucknall Estcourt, Esq., D.C.L., M.P. for the University of Ox-
ford. The Very Rev. The Dean of Westminster, D.D., F.R.S., Professor of
Geology and Mineralogy, Oxford. Charles G. B. Daubeny, M.D., F.R.S.,
Professor of Chemistry and Botany, Oxford. The Rev. Baden Powell, M.A.,
F.R.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry, Oxford.

General Secretary.—Lieut.-Col. Sabine, For. Sec. R.S., Woolwich.
Assistant General Secretary.—John Phillips, Esq., F.R.S., York.

General Treaswrer.—John Taylor, Esq., F.R.S., 2 Duke Street, Adelphi,
London.

Secretaries for the Oxford Meeting in 1847.—Rev. Robert Walker, M.A.,
F.R.S., Reader in Experimental Philosophy, Oxford. Henry Wentworth
Acland, Esq., B.M., F.R.S., Lee’s Reader in Anatomy, Oxford.

Treasure* to the Oxford Meeting in 1847.—Rev. Edward Hill, M.A.,
F.G.S., Christ Church, Oxford.

Council.—Professor Ansted. Sir H. T. De la Beche. Major Shadwell
Clerke. Professor E. Forbes. Dr. Fitton. Professor'T. Graham. W. R.
Grove, Esq. ~ W. J. Hamilton, Esq. Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart.
James Heywood, Esq. William Hopkins, Esq. Leonard Horner, Esq.
Robert Hutton, Esq. Capt. Ibbotson. Dr. Latham. Sir Charles Lemon,
Bart. The Marquis of Northampton. G.R. Porter, Esq. Sir John Ri-
chardson, M.D. Rev. Dr. Robinson. Dr. Roget. Captain Sir James
Ross, R.N. Prof. J. Forbes Royle, M.D. H.E. Strickland, Esq. Lieut.-
Col. Sykes. T. Tooke, Esq. William ‘Thompson, Esq. Professor Wheat-
stone. C.J. B. Williams, M.D. Professor Willis.

Local Treasurers.—W. Gray, jun., Esq., York. Rev. E. Hill, Oxford.
C. C. Babington, Esq., Cambridge. J. H. Orpen, LL.D., Dublin. Charles
Forbes, Esq., Edinburgh. Professor Ramsay, Glasgow. William Sanders,
Esq., Bristol. Samuel Turner, Esq., Liverpool. G. W. Ormerod, Esq.,
Manchester. James Russell, Esq., Birmingham. William Hutton, Esq.,
Newcastle-on-Tyne,_ ———________ , Plymouth. James Roche,
Esq., Cork. J. Sadleir Moody, Esq., Southampton.

Auditors.—Professor Ansted. Professor Willis. Major Shadwell Clerke.

OFFICERS OF SECTICNAL COMMITTEES. XV

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES AT THE
SOUTHAMPTON MEETING.

SECTION A.—-MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
President.—Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart., F.R.S., &c.
. Vice-Presidents.—Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. L. & E. Professor Wheat-
stone, F.R.S. Col. Colby, R.E., F.R.S. & M.R.LA. The Master of Tri-
nity College, Cambridge.
_ Secretaries.—Dr. Stevelly. G. G. Stokes, Esq. John Drew, Esq.

SECTION B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCE, INCLUDING ITS APPLICATION TO
AGRICULTURE AND THE ARTS.
President. —Michael Faraday, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Professor W. R. Grove, F.R.S. Dr. Andrews, F.R.S.
- Professor Johnston, F.R.S. Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S.
Secretaries.—Dr. Miller, F.R.S. Robert Hunt, Esq. Wm. Randall, Esq.
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
President.—Leonard Horner, F.R.S., Pres. of Geological Society.
Vice-Presidents.—The Very Rev. Dr. Buckland, Dean of Westminster.
_ Sir Henry De la Beche, F.R.S., Director-General of the Geological Survey of
_ the United Kingdom. William Henry Fitton, M.D., F.R.S. William Hop-
kins, F.R.S. (For Geography) G. B. Greenough, F.R.S.
Secretaries—Robert A. Austen, F.G.S. Professor Oldham, M.R.1.A.,
_ F.G.S. J.H.Norton,M.D. (For Geography) Charles T. Beke, Ph.D.

a see
>

- SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.
President.—Sir John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Charles Darwin, M.A., F.R.S. Dr. Robert Brown,

F.R.S., V.P.L.S. Professor E. Forbes, F.R.S. H.E.Strickland, M.A., F.G.S.
Secretaries.—Dr. Lankester, F.R.S., F.L.S. T. V. Wollaston, B.A.,
F.C.P.S, H. Wooldridge, Esq.

SECTION E,—PHYSIOLOGY.

President.—Professor Owen, F.R.S.

~ _ Vice-Presidents.—Sir James Clark, F.R.S. Dr. Roget. Dr. J. Forbes.

_ Dr. Fowler.

__ Seereiaries.—Dr. Sargent. Dr. Laycock. C. P. Keele, Esq.

‘ SECTION F.—STATISTICS. 4

President.—G. R. Porter, F.R.S. :

| _ Vice-Presidents.—Sir Charles Lemon, Bart., F.R.S. Col. Sykes, F.R.S.

_ James Heywood, F.L.S. Edward Nightingale, Esq.

___ Seeretaries—W. Cooke Taylor, LL.D. Joseph Fletcher, Esq. F.G. P.

_ Neison, Esq. Rev. T. L. Shapcott.

a SECTION G.—MECHANICS.

President.—Rev. Professor Willis, F.R.S.

| Vice-Presidents.—Rev. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. George Rennie, F.R.S.

J. Scott Russell, F.R.S. W. Snow Harris, F.R.S.

_ Secretaries. —Charles Manby, Sec. Inst. C.E. William Betts, jun.

bs SUBSECTION OF ETHNOLOGY.

_ President.—Dr. Prichard.

- Vice-Presidents.—Admiral Sir Charles Malcolm, P.Eth.Soc. Dr. R. G.
Latham. Dr. Hodgkin.

= Secretary.—Dr. King.

Xvi REPORT—1846.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Professor Agassiz, Neufchatel. M.Arago, Paris. Dr. A. D. Bache, Phi-

ladelphia. Professor Berzelius, Stockholm. Professor H. von Boguslawski,
Breslau. Monsieur Boutigny d’Evreux, Paris. Professor Braschmann, Mos-
cow. M. Dela Rive,Geneva. Professor Dove, Berlin. Professor Dumas,
Paris. Professor Ehrenberg, Berlin. Dr. Eisenlohr, Carlsruhe. Professor
Encke, Berlin. Dr. A. Erman, Berlin. Professor Forchhammer, Copen-
hagen. Professor Henry, Princeton, United States. Professor Kreil, Prague.
M. Kupffer, St. Petersburg. Dr. Langberg, Christiania. Baron de Selys
Longchamps, Liége. M. Frisiani, Milan. Baron Alexander von Humboldt,
Berlin. M. Jacobi, St. Petersburg. Professor Jacobi, Kénigsberg. Dr. La-
mont, Munich. Baron von Liebig, Giessen. Professor Link, Berlin. Profes-
sor Matteucci, Pisa.. Professor Middendorff, St. Petersburg. Dr. Cirsted,
Copenhagen. Chevalier Plana, Turin. M. Quetelet, Brussels. Professor
C. Ritter, Berlin. Professor H. Rose, Berlin, Professor Schumacher,
Altona. Baron Senftenberg, Bohemia. Dr. Svanberg, Stockholm. Baron
Sartorius von Waltershausen, Gotha. Professor Wartmann, Lausanne.

Revort or THE ProcEEDINGS oF THE CouNcIL IN 1845-46, PRESENTED TO THE

GenERAL ComMiItTTecEe at SourHAMPTON, WEDNESDAY, SEPT. 9, 1846.

Report of the Council to the General Committee.

1. The Council have the very satisfactory duty to perform, of reporting to
the General Committee that the resolutions of the Magnetical and Meteoro-
logical Conference, adopted by the General Committee at Cambridge, on
the 25th of June 1845, were submitted to the Right Hon. Sir Robert Peel,
Bart., by the President Sir John Herschel, Bart., accompanied by a commu-
nication from the Marquis of Northampton, President of the Royal Society,
conveying the concurrence of that body in the recommendations contained
therein; that they received a very favourable consideration from Her Ma-
jesty’s Government, and that the recommendations connected with the British

observatories, both at home and in the Colonies, are in progress of being °

carried out. « The resolutions relating to the East indian observatories and
surveys have met with an equally favourable reception from the Hon. Court
of Directors er the East India Company, and the recommendations which they
contained have been approved and sanctioned. In accordance with the re-
solutions passed at Cambridge, therefore, the magnetic observatory at Green-
wich is permanently continued upon the most extensive and efficient scale.
The magnetical and meteorological observations are constituted a permanent
branch of the duties of the astronomical observatories at the Cape of Good
Hope, Bombay and Madras, and arrangements are in progress for making
them also a permanent branch of the observations to be made at the Obser-
vatory at Paramatta. The detachment of the Royal Artillery, by whom the
duties at the Cape of Good Hope have been hitherto performed, has been
relieved by a permanent increase in the civil strength of the Astronomical Ob-
servatory at that station, and in like manner the officers of the Royal Navy,
who now form the establishment of the observatory at Van Diemen Island,
will be relieved as soon as the civil establishment at Paramatta is completed.
The Ordnance Observatories at Toronto and St. Helena are continued until
the close of 1848.

With reference to the recommendations relating to magnetic surveys, a

* REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. Xvii

has received the sanction of the Hon. Court of Directors of the East India

Company, and is now in progress. Also in the present summer, Lieut. Moore,

_of the Royal Navy, proceeded under the direction of the Lords of the Ad-

_ miralty to Hudson’s Bay, in one of the vessels belonging to the Hudson’s Bay

_ Company, for the purpose of connecting the observations of the Canadian

Survey with those which the Expedition under Sir John Franklin is making

_ in the seas to the north of the American Continent.

__ In accordance with the recommendation concerning the co-operation of
_ foreign magnetical and meteorological observatories, communications were

4 » made, on the application of the President, by the Earl of Aberdeen, Her Ma-
_ jesty’s principal Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, to the governments of
_ Russia, Austria, Prussia, Belgium, Sweden and Spain, from all of whom very
favourable replies have been received.

_ 2. The resolution passed by the General Committee, to the effect ‘ that

it is highly desirable to encourage, by specific pecuniary reward, the im-

_ provement of self-recording magnetical and meteorological apparatus, and

that the Presidents of the Royal Society and of the British Association be
requested to solicit the favourable consideration of Her Majesty’s Govern-
ment to this subject,” has been brought under the notice of Government,
and arrangements have been made to carry the recommendation into effect.

_ Whilst en this subject the Council has also much pleasure in noticing that
the President and Council of the Royal Society have granted £50 from the
Wollaston Donation Fund to assist in the construction of apparatus devised
by Mr. Ronalds for the self-registry of magnetical and meteorological instru-
ments; which apparatus is in progress of completion at the Observatory of
the British Association at Kew. The Council are persuaded that the Gene-
ral Committee will view with satisfaction this co-operation of the Royal So-
ciety and British Association for objects common to both, and for which the
Observatory at Kew furnishes a very convenient locality.

3. The General Committee at Cambridge having passed a resolution,

“That it be referred to the Council to take into consideration, before the
next Meeting of the Association, the expediency of discontinuing the Kew
Berryatory, ’"—the Council appointed a Committee, consisting of the Presi-
_ dent (Sir John Herschel), the Dean of Ely, the Astronomer Royal, Professors
RGicaham and Wheatstone, and Lieut.-Colonel Sabine, to collect information

Bon the scientific purposes which the Kew Observatory has served, and on its

general usefulness to science and to the Association; from whom they re-

ceived the following report :—

__ * Kew Observatory, May 7, 1846. Present,—Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,

the Astronomer Royal, Professors Graham and Wheatstone, and Lieut.-

_ Colonel Sabine. .

* After an attentive examination of the present state of the establishment,
‘and of other matters connected therewith, the following resolutions were
“unanimously adopted, viz.—

“ That it be recommended to the General Committee that the establish-.
ment at Kew, the occupancy of which has been granted by Her Majesty
to the British Association, be maintained in its present state of effi-
ciency :—

“1. Because it affords, at a very inconsiderable expense, a local
habitation to the Association; and a convenient depository for
its books, manuscripts and apparatus.

**2. Because it has afforded to Members of the Association the means

’ magnetic survey of the Indian Seas by Lieut. Elliot, of the Madras Engineers,
i

XVI REPORT—1846.

of prosecuting many physical inquiries which otherwise would
not have been entered upon.

“© 3, Because the establishment has already become a point of interest
to scientific foreigners, several of whom have visited it.

“4, Because the grant of the occupancy of the building by Her Ma-
jesty, at the earnest request of the British Association, is an in-
stance of Her Majesty’s interest in, and approval of, the objects
of the Association,

“5, Because, if the Association at the present time relinquish the
establishment, it will probably never again be available for the
purposes of science.

“6. Because it appears, both from the publications of the British As-
sociation and from the records in progress at the establishment,
that a great amount of electrical and meteorological observation
has been and continues to be made, and that a systematic inquiry
into the intricate subject of atmospheric electricity has been car-
ried out by Mr. Ronalds, which has been productive of very ma-
terial improvements in that subject, and has in effect furnished
the model of the processes conducted at the Royal Observatory ;
and because these inquiries are still in progress under local cir-
cumstances extremely favourable.

“7, Because other inquiries into the working of self-registering ap-
paratus, both meteorological and magnetical, are in actual pro-
gress at the establishment, and that there is a distinct prospect
of the facilities it affords being speedily much more largely pro-
fited by.

“*8. Because the access to the Observatory from London to Members
of the Association will shortly be greatly improved by railroads,
and because the local facilities and conveniences of the esta«
blishment have been very greatly enhanced by alterations in its
relations to the Commissioners of Woods and Forests.

“J. F. W. Herscuet, Chairman.”

In presenting this Report to the General Committee, the Council requests
that it may be understood to convey also the opinion of the Council.

4. The Council has received a letter from the honorary Secretary of the
Literary and Philosophical Institution at Cheltenham, expressing, on the part
of the Members of that Institution, deep regret that “ circumstances have
arisen which render uncertain their being able to give the British Association
that welcome and generous reception which it would be their desire to do,
and which they last year felt that they would have done had the Association
been so circumstanced as to have accepted the invitation for the summer of
1846.”

5. The Council has been informed by a letter from W. H. Grove, Esq.,
F.R.S., that a deputation has been appointed by the Mayor and Corporation
of Swansea, the principal inhabitants, magistracy and country gentlemen of
the neighbourhood, and by the Members of the Royal Institution of South
Wales, to attend the Meeting at Southampton, for the purpose of inviting
the British Association to hold their annual Meeting at Swansea at as early
a period as may suit their convenience.

Southampton, September 9, 1846,

>

a

RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. xix

REcoMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE
Soutnamrton Merrrine In SEPTEMBER 1846.

Involving Applications to Government and Public Institutions.

That Her Majesty's Government be requested to direct the publication of
the Meteorological Observations made by the Officers of the Irish Trigono-
metrical Survey at Mountjoy and the Pigeon House since the year 1834.

That application be made to Her Majesty's Government, to direct that
during the progress of the Ordnance Trigonometrical Surveys in the North
of Scotland, the so-called parallel roads of Glen Roy and the adjoining coun-
try be accurately surveyed, with the view of determining whether they are
truly parallel and horizontal, the intervening distances, and their elevations
above the present Sea-level.

Recommendations for Reports and Researches not involving Grants of Money.

That Mr. Hopkins be requested to furnish, at the next Meeting of the As-
sociation, a Report on the Theory of such movements and displacements of
the Earth’s Crust, as may be connected with Earthquakes.

- That Mr. Mallet be requested to furnish, at the same time, a Report of
the Static and Dynamic Facts which have been observed to be the results of
Earthquakes, or connected with them.

_ That Mr. Ellis be requested to continue his Report on the recent Progress
of Analysis.

That Professor Edward Forbes be requested to prepare a Report on the
State of our knowledge of the Acalephe.

That Mr. J. Scott Russell be requested to prepare a Report on the pre-
sent condition of the Science of Naval Construction, including Steam Navi-

ation.
¥ That Mr. Robert Mallet be requested to continue his inquiry into the
Corrosion of Iron Rails in and out of use.
That Mr. Robert Hunt be requested to continue his investigations with
the Actinograph, and that Mr. Ronalds be associated with him (the instru-
_ ment to be placed at Kew).
i That Mr. Robert Hunt be requested to continue his investigations on the
i Influence of Light on the Growth of Plants.
é That a Committee, consisting of The Master of Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, and Capt. Sir James C. Ross, R.N., be requested to draw up a Plan
for a Naval Expedition for the purpose of completing our knowledge of the
_ progress of the Tides.
That the Master of Trinity. College, Cambridge be requested to draw up
brief Instructions for Tide-observations by Voyagers and Surveyors, with a
_ view to a speedy determination of the course of the Tide-wave.
i That Professor Forchhammer’s paper on Sea-Currents be printed entire
among the Reports of the Association.
That Professor Owen’s paper on the Homologies of the Cranial Vertebre
be printed entire among the Reports of the Association.

ee

xx REPORT—1846.

Recommendations of Special Researches in Science, involving Grants of
Money.

KEW OBSERVATORY.

That the sum of £150 be placed at the disposal of the Council for the
purpose of maintaining the establishment in Kew Observatory.

MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE,

That £50 be placed at the disposal of Professor Erman for continuing and
completing the computation of the Gaussian Constants for 1839, and that he
be requested to superintend the same.

That Mr. Birt be requested to endeavour to procure a repetition of the
Barometric Observations made during the month of November in former
years ; and that the sum of £10 be placed at his disposal for the purpose.

That a provisional grant of £70 be placed at the disposal of the Committee
for the publication of the Catalogues of Lalande and Lacaille, to enable them
to complete the publication and distribution of those Catalogues.

That a grant of £10 be made for a new Anemometer of the Rev. Dr. Ro-
binson’s improved construction, for the use of the Observatory at Kew; and
that Dr. Robinson be requested to superintend its construction.

CHEMICAL SCIENCE.

That Dr. Percy and Professor Miller be requested to continue the exa-
mination of Crystalline Slags, and the quantity of impurities which perfect
Crystals may contain; and that £20 be placed at their disposal for the
purpose. ,

That Dr. Schunck be requested to continue his investigations on Colour-

‘ing Matters, and that the sum of £10 be placed at his disposal for the
purpose. '
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.

That Mr. H. E. Strickland, Dr. Daubeny, Professor Lindley and Professor
Henslow, be requested to continue their experiments on the Vitality of Seeds,
and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Capt. Portlock, R.E., be requested to continue his investigations into
the Marine Zoology of Corfu by means of the dredge, and that the sum of
£10 be placed at his disposal for the purpose.

That a Committee, consisting of Sir Charles Lemon and Mr. Couch, be
requested to aid Mr. Peach in his Researches into the Marine Zoology of
Cornwall, and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.

That a Committee, consisting of Prof. E. Forbes, Mr. Goodsir, Mr. Pat-
terson, Mr. Thompson, Mr. Ball, Mr. J. Smith, Mr. Couch, Dr. Allman,
Mr. M‘Andrew, Mr. Alder, and the Rev. F. W. Hope, be requested to con-
tinue their investigations into the Marine Zoclogy of Britain by means of the
dredge, and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Sir Philip Egerton, Professor Owen, and Professor E. Forbes, be a
Committee for aiding Mr. Price in his Researches into the Habits of Marine
Animals, and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Mr. Newport be requested to draw up a Report on the Scorpionidze
and Tracheary Arachnide, and that the sum of £10 be placed at the dis-
posal of Mr. Spence and Mr. Wollaston for the purpose.

That Professor Owen and Mr. R. Taylor be a Committee to superintend
the publication of Tabular Forms in reference to the Report of periodical pha-

SYNOPSIS. XXi

nomena of Animals and Vegetables, and that £10 be placed at their disposal
for the purpose.
MEDICAL SCIENCE.

That a Committee, consisting of Dr. J. Blake and Professor Sharpey, be
requested to continue their Researches into the Action of Medicines, and
that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That the second and third parts of Dr. Carpenter’s Report on the Micro-
scopic structure of Shells, be illustrated by lithographic plates, not exceed
ing twenty.

Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Objects by the
General Committee at the Southampton Meeting, September 1845,
with the Name of the Member, who alone or as the First of a Com-
mittee, is entitled to draw for the Money.

; Kew Observatory. fai.
For maintaining the establishment in Kew Observatory under
the direction of the Council 2... 6c escevceasereeeee 150 0 O

Mathematical and Physical Science.
Erman, A.—For Computation of the Gaussian Constants for

earl vets cits sees Raves chivislipiaiadebey aia «fe: etesia’ avn is eca'le:.0) 6% sivvevanslic late 50 O 0
Birt, W.—Researches on Atmospheric Wess 1) a inet pabaneks 10 0 0
Roszinson, Rev. Dr.—Construction of a New Anemometer, eee Ome Onn 0)
(Commirrer).—Completion of Catalogue of Stars .......... 70 0 0

Chemical Science.
Percy, Dr.—On Crystalline Slags, &c.........es,eeseveees 20 0
ScHuncx, Dr.—On Colouring Matters ..........ee0eeese0+ 10 0
. Zoology and Botany.

Srricktanp, H. E.—Vitality of Seeds.......... oid SCR TUDO 0
Portiock, Capt.— Marine Zoology of Corfu ........2..4+. 10 0 0
Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart.—Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 0
Forzzs, Prof. E.—Marine Zoology of Britain...... Wilks wale) On@rnQ
Ecerrton, Sir Philip, Bart.—Habits of Marine nid els area cae OOO yD
Spence, William.—On Scorpionidee and Arachnide ...,.... 10 0 O
Owen, Prof.—Tabular Forms for Registering Periodical Phe-

MIGUMCTIAN’ *,/c's's \ejeie «yew ate DMR a «sis ia cle Wa sis vite oe LOS OO

Physiology.

Brake, Dr.—Physiological Action of Medicines..........+. 20 0 0
Total of Grants .......-+.£410 0 0

Dr. Carrenrer’s Report on the Microscopic Structure of Shells, &c., to
be illustrated by Plates, not exceeding Twenty in number.

XXii

REPORT—1846

General Statement of Sums which have been paid on Account of Grants for

Scientific Purposes.

1834,
£ os. d.
Tide Discussions .... 20 9 O
1835.
Tide Discussions .... 62 0 O
BritishFossilIchthyology 105 0 0
SLC a0 es
1836.
Tide Discussions .... 163 0 0
BritishFossilichthyology 105 0
Thermometric Observa-
MONS tcaeses 00 LOlMO
Experiments on long-
continued Heat .... 17 1 O
Rain Gauges ........ 913 0
Refraction Experiments 15 0 0
Lunar Nutation ...... 60 0 0O
Thermometers ...... 15 6 0
£434 14 0
1837.
Tide Discussions...... 284 1 0
Chemical Constants .. 24 15 6
Lunar Nutation ...... (0). Oe. 0
Observations on Waves. 100 12 0
ides at Bristol ...... 150 0 0
Meteorology and Subter-
ranean Temperature. 89 5 0
VitrificationExperiments 150 0 0
Heart Experiments.... 8 4 6
Barometric Observations 20 0 0
Barometers! sin. ..ee ss 1118 6
£918 14 6
1838.
Tide Discussions...... 29 0 0O
British Fossil Fishes .. 100 0 0
Meteorological Observa-
tions and Anemometer
(construction) ..... .TO0"'D 9
Cast Iron (strength of). 60 0 0
Animal and Vegetable
Substances (preserva-
OTS ess PPP Se lal I il 3
Carried forward £308 1 10

sea. Fis
Brought forward 308 1 10
Railway Constants .... 41 12 10
Bristol’ Tides”. fy ic vee ed OO
Growth of Plants .... 75 0 0
Mud in Rivers ...... 3.0 6006
Education Committee... 50 0 0
Heart Experiments.... 5 3 O
Land and Sea Level .. 267 8 7
Subterranean Tempera-

CUTER te t's coer eters 8 6
Steam-vessels ........ 100 0
Meteorological Commit-

TEEN cies c cis w cae aieve een en Geen
Thermometers ...... 16 4 0

£956 1120.52
1839.
Fossil Ichthyology .... 110 0 0
Meteorological Observa-

tions at Plymouth ... 63 10 O
Mechanism of Waves... 144 2 0
Bristol Tides s...c 0%. (85/98 16
Meteorology and Subter-

ranean Temperature. 21 11 0
VitrificationExperiments 9 4 7
Cast Iron Experiments. 100 0 0
Railway Constants.... 28 7 2
Land and Sea Level .. 274 1 4
Steam-Vessels’ Engines. 100 0 0
Stars in Histoire Céleste 381 18 6
Stars in Lacaille...... 11 0 O
StarsinR.A.S.Catalocue 6 16 6
Animal Secretions .... 1010 0
Steam-engines in Corn-

Wralliae hcctes Ca ccc emOREEU) “ao
Atmospheric Air...... 16 1 0
Cast and Wrought Iron, 40 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies 5S 0 O
Gases on Solar Spec-

{YU soe 6 bas we Oe
Hourly Meteorological

Observations, Inver-

ness and Kingussie.. 49 7 8
Fossil Reptiles.-...... 118 2 9
Mining Statistics...... 50 0 O

£iI59S2 LL.,.0

:
,

GENERAL STATEMENT.

£ os. d,
' 1840.
Bristol Tides ........ 100 0 O
Subterranean Tempera-

MUAEO Valais 6.0 sarclure cine ho S56
Heart Experiments.... 1819 0
Lungs Experiments. .. 8 13 0
Tide Discussions...,.. 50 0 0
Land and Sea Level .. 611 1
Stars (Histoire Céleste) 242 10 0
Stars (Lacaille) ...... 415 0
Stars (Catalogue) .... 264 0 0
Atmospheric Air...... 1515 0
Water on Iron........ 10 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies 7 0 0

Meteorological Observa-

EYPYEDSID) Wel whe cio ld oictcoar ete 52 17 6
Foreign Scientific Me-
MEPILES) Sa, 0. eke oe ON bre 112

Working Population .. 100
School Statistics ...... 5
Forms of Vessels .... 184
Chemical and Electrical

mal

°
Noon
eooo

Phznomena........ 40 0 0
Meteorological Observa-
tions at Plymouth .. 80 0 0
Magnetical Observations 185 13 9
£1546 16 4
1841.
Observations on Waves. 30 0 0
Meteorologyand Subter-
ranean Temperature. 8 8 0O
Actinometers .......- 10?) 0ucd
Earthquake Shocks .. 17 7 0
Acrid Poisons...... ot, (Gente 0
Veins and Absorbents.. 5 0 0
Mudin Rivers.s...... 5 0 O
Marine Zoology ...... 15 12 8
Skeleton Maps ...... 20 0 0
Mountain Barometers... € 18 6
Stars (Histoire Céleste). 185 0 0
Stars (Lacaille) ...... PONE O
Stars (Nomenclature of) 1719 6
Stars (Catalogue of) .. 40 0 0
Water on Iron..... Dee. JO REO
Meteorological Otiectva-
tions at Inverness .. 20 0 0
Meteorological Observa-
tions (reduction of).. 25 0 0
Carried forward £559 10 8

Gore ae

Brought forward 539 10 8

Fossil Reptiles sosees 50 0 0

Foreign Memoirs .... 62 0 0

Railway Sections .... 38 1 6

Forms of Vessels .... 193 12 0
Meteorological Observa-

tions at Plymouth .. 55 0 0
MagneticalObservations 6118 8
Fishes of the Old Red

Sandstone ........ 100 0 0O
Tides at Leith........ 50 0 O
Anemometer at Edin-

Ge OC Ee ODE 69 110
Tabulating Observations 9 6 3
Races of Men........ 5 0 0
Radiate Animals...... 2 0 0

£1235 10 11
1842,
Dynamometric Instru-

MCNtS Bars, sins ve: oye ie 113 11 2
Anoplura Britannie .. 5212 0
Tides at Bristol ...... 59 8 O
Gases on Light ...... 30 14 7
Chronometers ........ 26 17 6
Marine Zoology ...... 1 5 O
British Fossil Mammalia 100 0 0O
Statistics of Education.. 20 0 0
Marine Steam-vessels’

BNGIHES 6 2 <a sjeeeiuid 28 0 O
Stars (Histoire Céleste) 59 0 0
Stars (British Associa-

tion Catalogue of) .. 110 0 0
Railway Sections..... - 161 10 O
British Belemnites.... 50 0 O
Fossil Reptiles (publica-

tion of Report).... 210 0 0
Forms of Vessels...... 180 0 O
Galvanic Experiments on

Rocksiivceeney ce 5 8 6
Meteorological Experi

ments at Plymouth... 68 0 0
Constant Indicator sie

Dynamometric Instru-

MENS) Ve eee eee: OIC oe
Force of Wind...... Je LOO O
LightonGrowthofSeeds 8 0 0
Vital Statistics. ...... 50 0 O
Vegetative Power of

Seeds ....+ ea ais: 8 111

Carried forward £1442 8 8

e2

XXiV

£ s. ad.
Brought forward 1442 8 8
Questions on Human
ECCO tbs cise eee Ea. 0
£1449 17 8
1843.
Revision of the Nomen-
clature of Stars 2 0 0
Reduction of Stars, Bri-
tish Association Cata-
logue ..ssseseeeee Bb” 10°°0
Anomalous Tides, Frith
PROT HORE stetelsietslcierele 120 0 O
Hourly Meteorological
Observations at Kin-
gussie and Inverness 77 12 8
Meteorological Observa-
tions at ‘Plymouth ai ae.
Whewell’s Meteorolo-
gical Anemometer at
Plymouth .....-.. 10/00
Meteorological Observa-
tions, Osler’s Anemo-
meter at Plymouth... 20 0 0
Reduction of Meteorolo-
gical Observations .. 30 0 0
Meteorological Instru-
ments and Gratuities 39 6 O
Construction of Anemo-
meter at Inverness... 5612 2
Magnetic Co-operation. 10 8 10
Meteorological Recorder
for Kew Observatory 50 0 0
Action of GasesonLight 1516 1
Establishment at Kew
Observatory, Wages,
Repairs, Furniture,and
Sundries .......--. 183 4 7
Experiments by Captive
RI GDNIS| ac waren ce a0 Sit Se '0
Oxidation of the Rails
of Railways....+ee- 20 0 0
Publication of Report on
Fossil Reptiles .... 40 0 0
Coloured Drawings of
Railway Sections.... 147.18 3
Registration of Earth-
quake Shocks..... sige: Dr. '0
Report on Musitick
Nomenclature...... 10 0 0O
Carried ae £977 6 «7

GENERAL STATEMENT,

£

Ss.

d.

Brought forward 977 6 7

Uncovering Lower Red
Sandstone near Man-

CHGStEM: | cisicveyeretors chooses ES
Vegetative Power of
Seeds s0 diese Bbhete w. 8°98
Marine Testacea (Habits
Beer . «wilh Anema
Marine Zoology wtisd Oa 10:0" 0
Marine Zoology .....- 21411
Preparation of Report
on British Fossil Mam-
mialial f(s es eae - 100 0 0
Physiological operations
of Medicinal Agents 20 0 0
Vital Statistics... <6. S650. 8
Additional Experiments
ontheFormsofVessels 70 0 O
Additional Experiments
onthe Formsof Vessels 100 0 0O
Reduction of Observa-
tions on the Forms of
Wessel «aiwinis eerdeines 100 0 O
Morin’s Instrument and
Constant Indicator... 69 14 10
Experiments on the
Strength of Materials 60 0 0
£1565 10 2
1844.
Meteorological Observa-
tions at Kingussie and
Inverness ..... : VaeriOier O
CompletingObservations
at Plymouth ...... $5) ON TE
Magnetic and Meteoro-
logicalCo-operation.. 25 8 4
Publication of the Bri-
tish Association Cata-
logue of Stars...... vo. 0", 0
Observations on ‘Tides
on the East Coast of
Scotland ..... occ have: OOE GS eG
Revision of the Naiieue
clatureof Stars..1842 2 9 6
Maintaining the Esta-
blishment in Kew Ob-
SEYVALOTY..sccseres TLE RS
Instruments for Kew Ob-
servalOry...e- ee 56 7 8
Carried AEE, £384 2 4

‘a i
’ i"
is
na
ca
Ny
I

i ig

£ s. d.
Brought forward 384 2 4
Influence of light on
ABEIES <5 'e5! sin lon fcare ATID 0) 0
Subterraneous Tempera-
ture in Ireland...... 5 0 0
Coloured Drawings of
Railway Sections.... 15 17 6
Investigation of Fossil
Fishes of the Lower
Tertiary Strata 100 0 0
Registering the Shocks
of Earthquakes, 1842 23 11 10
Researches into the
Structure of Fossil
NEL ae ae eee ae 20 0 0
Radiata and Mollusca of
the Aicean and Red
PIES Ayah e ciinie wilalecs 1842 100 0 0
Geographical distribu-
tions of Marine Zo-
MOBY siidde ss 1842 010 0
Marine Zoology of De-
von and Cornwall .. 10 0 0
Marine ZoologyofCorfu 10 0 0
Experiments on the Vi-
tality of Seeds...... oh MN
Experiments on the Vi-
tality of Seeds..1842 8 7 38
Researches on Exotic
PeNOPlUrA sss oa 6 04''0
Experiments on the
Strength of Materials 100 0 0
Completing Experiments
onthe Forms of Ships 100 0 0
Inquiries into Asphyxia 10 0 0
Investigations on the in-
ternal Constitution of
UBER ese ckai's) a's, each 50...0),.0
Constant Indicator ‘and
Morin’s Instrument,
MRE ho iatoiaict s wi(sece . 10.3.6
£981 12 8
1844.
Publication of the British
Association Catalogue
ESCATS |) Sale dials eae 3851 14 6
Meteorological Observa~
tions at Inverness .. 30 18 11
Magnetic and Meteoro-
~ logical Co-operation 16 16 8

Carried forward £399 10 1

GENERAL STATEMENT.

XXV
£ s d.
Brought forward 399 10 I
Meteorological Instru-
ments at Edinburgh 18 11 9
Reduction of Anemome-
trical Observations at
Plymouth....... Se ey eoe On: 0
Electrical Experiments
at Kew Observatory 43 17 8
Maintaining the Esta-
blishment in Kew Ob-
ServatOry ...++-eees 149 15 0
For Kreil’s Barometro-
graph .eceeeeeeees 20,0. 0
Gases from Iron Fur-
MAGES, okies Gicskss ee 50 0 O
Experiments on the Ac-
tinograph.....+-.++ tits la ae
Microscopic Structure of
Shells... TRA Ea SSR iO
Exotic Anoplura..1843 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds..1843 2 0 7
Vitality of Seeds. .1844 TOGO
Marine Zoology of Corn-
Vet Ue gee eo BEA Perey he 10 0 O
Physiological Action of
Medicines .....+.-- 20 0 0
Statistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York .. 20 0 0
Registration of Farth-
quake Shocks ..1843 15 14 8
£831 9 9
———————
1846.
British Association Ca-
talogue of Stars, 1844 211 Tae0
Fossil Fishes of the Lon-
don Clay .....-++.5 100 0 0
Computation of the Gaus-
‘sianConstantsfor1839 50 0 0
Maintaining the Esta-
blishment at Kew Ob-
servatory .--++-e- 146 16 7
Experiments on the
Strength of Materials 60 0 0
Researches in Asphyxia 616 2
Examination of Fossil
Seles suas sine sh atone 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds..1844 2 15 10
Vitality of Seeds..1845 712 38
Marine Zoology of Corn-
Wall's s aminpaiads hee eubNY AOA vhs a
Carried forward £605 15 10

XXV1 REPORT—1846.

ee. ae £

. fa.
Brought forward 605 15 10 Brought forward 654 6 10
Marine Zoology of Bri- Researches on Atmo-

TAD felalatous'seia wetewiete. LOMO O spheric Waves...... 3° 8° 8
Exotic Anoplura..1844 25 0 0 | Captive Balloons..1844 819 8
Expenses attending Ane- Varieties of the Human

mometers.,...+2.-- Il 7 6 Race 4... .telazee F's
Anemometers’ Repairs. 2 3 6 | Statistics of Sickness and

Carried forward 654 6 10 Mortality at York .._ 12 0 0
£685 16 0

Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee.

Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money for scientific pur-
poses have been entrusted, are required to present to each following meeting
of the Association a Report of the progress which has been made ; with a
statement of the sums which have been expended, and the balance which
remains disposable on each grant.

Grants of pecuniary aid for scientific purposes from the funds of the Asso-
ciation expire at the ensuing meeting, unless it shall appear by a Report that
the Recommendations have been acted on, or a continuation of them be ordered
by the Genera] Committee.

In each Committee, the Member first named is the person entitled to call
on the Treasurer, John Taylor, Esq., 2 Duke Street, Adelphi, London, for
such portion of the sum granted as may from time to time be required.

In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contemplate
the payment of personal expenses to the Members,

In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua
tion of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named shall be
deemed to include, as a part of the amount, the specified balance which may
remain unpaid on the former grant for the same object.

On Thursday evening, September 10th, at 8 p.m., in the Victoria Rooms,
Southampton, the late President, Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart., F.R.S.,
resigned his office to Sir Roderick Impey Murchison, G.C.S“.S., F.R.S., who
took the Chair at the General Meeting, and delivered an Address, for which
see p. XXvVil.

On Friday evening, September 11th, in the same room, Professor Owen,
F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on the Fossil Mammalia of the British Islands.

On Monday evening, in the same room, Charles Lyell, Esq., F.R.S., de-
livered a Discourse on the Valley and Delta of the Mississippi, and other
points in the Geology of the United States, from observations made in the
years 1845-46.

On Tuesday evening, in the same room, W. R. Grove, Esq. explained
the properties of the Explosive Substance recently discovered by Dr. Schon-
bein; and communicated some recent researches of his own, on the Decom-
position of Water into its constituent Gases by Heat.

On Wednesday evening, at 8 p.m., in the same room, the Concluding
General Meeting of the Association was held, when the Proceedings of the
General Committee, and the grants of money for scientific purposes, were
explained to the Members.

The Meeting was adjourned to Oxford, on the 24th of June, 1847.

ADDRESS

BY

SIR RODERICK IMPEY MURCHISON, G.C.Sz.S., F.R.S., V.P.G.S.
&e. &e.

GeEnTLEMEN,—After fifteen years of migration to various important cities
and towns in the United Kingdom, you are for the first time assembled in the
South-Eastern districts of England, at the solicitation of the authorities and
inhabitants of Southampton. Easily accessible on all sides to the cultivators
of science, this beautiful and flourishing sea-port is situated in a tract so
adorned by nature, and so full of objects for scientific contemplation, that,
supported as we are by new friends in England, and by old friends from

‘distant parts of Europe, we shall indeed be wanting to ourselves, if our

proceedings on this occasion should not support the high character which
the British Association has hitherto maintained.

For my own part, though deeply conscious of my inferiority to my eminent
predecessor in the higher branches of science, I still venture to hope, that
the devotion I have manifested to this Association from its origin to the pre-
sent day, may be viewed by you as a guarantee for the zealous execution of
my duties. Permit me then, Gentlemen, to offer you my warmest acknow-
ledgements for having placed me in this enviable position; and to assure
you, that I value the approbation which it implies as the highest honour
which could have been bestowed on me—an honour the more esteemed from
its being conferred in a county endeared to me by family connexions, and in
which I rejoice to have made my first essay as a geologist.

The origin, progress and objects of this our “ Parliament of Science ” have
been so thoroughly explained on former occasions by your successive Pre-
sidents, particularly in reference to that portion of our body which cultivates
the mathematical, chemical and mechanical sciences, that after briefly allu-
ding to some of the chief results of bygone years, with a view of impressing

~ upon our new members the general advances we have made, I shall in this

address dwell more particularly on the recent progress and present state of
natural history, the department of knowledge with which my own pursuits
have been most connected, whilst I shall also incidentally advert to some of
the proceedings which are likely to occupy our attention during this Meeting.
No sooner, Gentlemen, had this Association fully established its character
as a legitimate representative of the science of the United Kingdom, and by
its published Reports, the researches which it instituted, and the other sub-
stantial services which it rendered to science, had secured public respect,
than it proceeded towards the fulfilment of the last of the great objects which
a Brewster and a Harcourt contemplated at its foundation, by inviting the,
attention of the Government to important national points of scientific inter-
est. At the fourth Meeting held in Edinburgh, the Association memorialized
the Government to increase the forces of the Ordnance Geographical Survey
of Britain, and to extend speedily to Scotland the benefits which had been
already applied by that admirable establishment to the South of England,
Wales and Ireland. From that time to the present it has not scrupled to call

XXVIi1 REPORT—1846.

the notice of the Ministers of the day to every great scientific measure which
seemed, after due consideration, likely to promote the interests or raise the
character of the British nation. Guided in the choice of these applications
by a committee selected from among its members, it has sedulously avoided
the presentation of any request which did not rest on a rational basis, and
our rulers, far from resisting such appeals, have uniformly and cordially
acquiesced in them. Thus it was when, after paying large sums from our
own funds for the reduction of masses of astronomical observations, we
represented to the Government the necessity of enabling the Astronomer
Royal to perform the same work on the observations of his predecessors
which had accumulated in the archives of Greenwich, our appeal was an-
swered by arrangements for completing so important a public object at the
public expense. Thus it was, when contemplating the vast accession to pure
science as well as to useful maritime knowledge, to be gained by the ex-
ploration of the South Polar regions, that we gave the first impulse to the
project of the great Antarctic expedition, which, supported by the influence
of the Royal Society and its noble President, obtained the full assent of the
Government, and led to results which, through the merits of Sir James
Ross and his companions, have shed a bright lustre on our country, by
copious additions to geography and natural history, and by affording nu-
merous data for the development of the laws that regulate the magnetism of
the earth.

The mention of terrestrial magnetism brings with it a crowd of recol-
lections honourable to the British Association, from the perspicuous manner
in which every portion of fresh knowledge on this important subject has
been stored up in our volumes, with a view to generalization, by Colonel
Sabine and others; whilst a wide field for its diffusion and combination has
been secured by the congress held at our last meeting, at which some of the
most distinguished foreign and British magneticians were assembled under
the presidency of Sir John Herschel.

It is indeed most satisfactory for us to know, that not only did all the
recommendations of the Association on this subject which were presented
to our Government meet with a most favourable reception, but that in
consequence of the representations made by Her Majesty’s Secretary of,
State for Foreign Affairs to the public authorities of other countries which
had previously taken part in the system of cooperative observation, the
Governments of Russia, Austria, Prussia and Belgium have notified their
intention of continuing their respective magnetical and meteorological ob-
servations for another term of three years.

‘In passing by other instances in which public liberality has been directed
to channels of knowledge which required opening out, I must not omit to
notice the grant obtained from our gracious Sovereign, of the Royal Obser-
vatory at Kew, which, previously dismantled of its astronomical instruments,
has, under the suggestions of Professor Wheatstone, been converted by us
into a station for observations purely physical, and especially for those de-
tails of atmospheric phenomena which are so minute and numerous, and
require such unremitting attention, that they imperiously call for separate
establishments. In realizing this principle, we can now refer British and
foreign philosophers to our own observatory at Kew, where I have the au-
thority of most adequate judges for saying they will find that a great amount
of electrical and meteorological observation has been made, and a system-
atic inquiry into the intricate subject of atmospheric electricity carried
out by Mr. Ronalds, to which no higher praise can be given, than that it
has, in fact, furnished the model of the processes conducted at the Royal

ADDRESS. XXix

_ Observatory of Greenwich. This establishment is besides so useful through
the facilities which it offers for researches into the working of self-register-
ing instruments which are there constructed, that I earnestly hope it may
be sustained as heretofore by annual grants from our funds, particularly
as it is accomplishing considerable results at very small cost.
. Our volume for the last year contains several communications on physical
_ subjects from eminent foreign cultivators of science, whom we have the
_ pleasure of reckoning amongst our corresponding members, and whose com-
- munications, according to the usage of the Association, have been printed
entire amongst the reports. In a discussion of the peculiarities by which the
great comet of 1843 was distinguished, Dr. Von Boguslawski of Breslau has
_ taken the occasion to announce the probability, resting on calculations which
_ will be published in Schumacher’s ‘ Astronomische Nachrichten,’ of the iden-
tity of this comet with several of a similar remarkable character recorded in his-
__ tory, commencing with the one described by Aristotle, which appeared in the
_ year 371 before our era: should his calculations be considered to establish
this fact, Dr. Von Boguslawski proposes that the comet should hereafter be
distinguished by the name of “ Aristotle’s Comet.” This communication
contains also some highly ingenious and important considerations relating to
the physical causes of the pheenomena of the tails of comets.

Dr. Paul Erman of Berlin, father of the adventurous geographical explorer
and mugnetician who was one of the active members of the magnetic con-
gress at Cambridge, has communicated through his son some interesting ex-

-periments on the electro-dynamic effects of the friction of conducting sub-
stances, and has pointed out the differences between these and normal
thermo-electric effects. Baron von Senftenberg (who is an admirable ex-
ample of how much may be done by a liberal zeal for science combined
with an independent fortune) has published an account of the success with
which self-registering meteorological instruments have been established at his
observatory at Senftenberg, as well as at the national observatory at Prague.

OF our own members, Mr. Birt has contributed a second report on Atmo-
spheric Waves, in continuation of the investigation which originated in the
discussion by Sir John Herschel, of the meteorological observations which,
at his suggestion, were made in various parts of the globe, at the periods of
_ the equinoxes and solstices, commencing with the year 1834.
i In a communication to the Meeting of the Association at York, Colonel
_ Sabine traced with great clearness (from the hourly observations at Toronto)
_ the effect of the single diurnal and single annual progressions of tempera-
_ ture, in producing on the mixed vapourous and gaseous elements of the atmo-
sphere, the well-known progressions of daily and yearly barometrical pressure.
To the conclusions whieh he then presented, and which apply, perhaps gene-
rally, to situations not greatly elevated in the interior of large tracts of land,
the same author has added, in the last volume, a valuable explanation of
the more complicated phenomena which happen at points where land and
sea breezes, flowing with regularity, modify periodically and locally the con-
stitution and pressure of the atmosphere. Taking for his data the two-hourly
observations executed at the observatory of Bombay by Dr. Buist, Colonel
_ Sabine has succeeded in demonstrating for this locality a double daily pro-
_ gression of gaseous pressure, in accordance with the flow and re-flow of the
- air from surfaces of land and water which are unequally affected by heat.
And thus the diurnal variation of the daily pressure at a point within the
tropics, and on the margin of the sea, is explained by the same reasoning
_ which was suggested by facts observed in the interior of the vast continent
_ of North America.

KX REPORT—1846.

Among the many useful national objects which have been promoted by
the physical researches of the British Association, there is one which calls
for marked notice at this time, in the proposal of Mr. Robert Stephenson to
carry an iron tube or suspended tunnel over the Menai Straits to sustain
the great railway to Holyhead. This bold proposal could never have been
realized, if that great engineer had not been acquainted with the progress
recently made in the knowledge of the strength of materials, and specially of
iron ; such knowledge being chiefly due to investigaticns in which the Asso-
ciation has taken and is still taking a conspicuous share, by the devotion of
its friends and the employment of its influence—investigations which have,
as you know, been prosecuted with great zeal and success by its valued mem-
bers Mr. Hodgkinson and Mr. Fairbairn. I may further state, that in the
recent improvements in railways the aid of scientific investigations having
been called for by the civil engineer, to assist him in determining with accu-
racy the power to be provided for attaining the high velocities of fifty and
sixty miles an hour; it was found and admitted by the most eminent en-
gineers, that the very best data for this purpose, and indeed the only experi-
ments of any practical value, were those which had been provided for some
years ago by a Committee of the British Association, as published in our
Transactions. Let such results as these be our answer when we are asked,
what have been the useful objects attained by the British Association!

However imperfect my knowledge of experimental philosophy may be, I
must now notice that the last volume of our Reports contains two contribu-
tions to it, in which subjects of the deepest theoretical and practical interest.
have been elucidated, at the request of the Association, by the labours of
our foreign coadjutors.

That some substance of a peculiar kind everywhere exists, or is formed in
the atmosphere by electrical agency, both natural and artificial, had long been
suspected, especially from the persistency of the odour developed by such
agency, and its transference by contact to other matter. Professor Schon-
bein, to whom I shall hereafter advert as the author of an important practical
discovery, is, however, the first philosopher who undertook to investigate the
nature of that substance; and though the investigation is not yet complete,
he has been enabled to report no inconsiderable progress in this difficult and
refined subject of research.

A request from the Association to Professor Bunsen of Marburg, and our
countryman Dr. Lyon Playfair, coupled with a contribution of small amount
towards the expenses involved in the undertaking, has produced a report on
the conditions and products of iron-furnaces which is of considerable value in
a commercial view to one of the most important of our manufactures, and
possesses at the same time a very high interest to chemical science in some
of the views which it developes. On the one hand it exhibits an entirely
new theory of the reduction, by cyanogen gas as the chief agent, of iron
from the ore; on the other it shows, that in addition to a vast saving of fuel,
about 2 ewt. of sal-ammoniac may daily be collected at the single establish-
ment of Alfreton, where the experiments were made; thus leading us to
infer that in the iron-furnaces of Britain there may be cbtained from vapour
which now passes away, an enormous quantity of this valuable substance,
which would materially lessen the dependence of our agriculturists on foreign
guano. It is, indeed, most gratifying to observe, that in pursuing this inquiry
into the gaseous contents of a blazing furnace of great height, our associates
traced out, foot by foot, the most recondite chemical processes, and described
the fiery products with the same accuracy as if their researches had been made
on the table of a laboratory. Weighed however only in the scales of absolute

a
a ADDRESS, XXXL

and immediate utility, the remarkable results of these skilful and elaborate

experiments give them a character of national importance, and justly entitle

_ the authors and the body which has aided them to the public thanks.

_ After this glance at the subjects of purely physical science treated of in

_ the last volume of our Transactions, let us now consider the domains of
natural history ; and as one of the cultivators of a science which has derived

its main support and most of its new and enlarged views from naturalists,

let me express the obligation which geologists are under to this Association,
for having aided so effectively in bringing forth the zoological researches
of Owen, Agassiz, and Edward Forbes. These three distinguished men
have themselves announced, that in default of our countenance and assist-
ance, they would not have undertaken, and never could have completed,
some of their most important inquiries. Agassiz, for example, had not
otherwise the means of comparing the ichthyolites of the British Isles with
those of the continent of Europe. Without this impulse, Owen would
not have applied his profound knowledge of comparative anatomy to British
fossil saurians ; and Edward Forbes might never have been the explorer of _
the depths of the Zgean, nor have revealed many hitherto unknown laws
of submarine life, if his wishes and suggestions had not met with the warm
support of our body, and been supported by its strongest recommendations
to the Naval authorities.

: Such allusions to naturalists, whose works have afforded the firmest sup-
ports to geology, might lead me to dilate at length on the recent progress of
this science; but as the subject has been copiously treated at successive
anniversaries of the Geological Society of London, and has had its recent
advances so clearly enunciated by the actual President of that body who now
presides over our Geological Section *, I shall restrain my “ esprit de corps”
whilst I briefly advert to some of the prominent advances which geologists
have made. When our associate Conybeare reported to us at our second
meeting, on the actual state and ulterior prospects of what he well termed the
“archeology of the globe,” he dwelt with justice on the numerous researches

in different countries which had clearly established the history of a descent
as it were into the bowels of the earth—which led us, in a word, downwards
through those newer deposits that connect high antiquity with our own

_ period, into those strata which support our great British coal-fields. Beyond
this however the perspective was dark and doubtful—

“Res alta terra et caligine mersas.”

_ Now, however, we have dispersed this gloom, and by researches first
carried out to a distinct classification in the British Isles, and thence ex-
_ tended to Russia and America, geologists have shown that the records of
succession, as indicated by the entombment of fossil animals, are as une-
quivocally developed in these very ancient or palzozoic strata as in any of
the overlying or more recently formed deposits. After toiling many years in
this department of the science, in conjunction with Sedgwick, Lonsdale, De
_ Verneuil, Keyserling, and others of my fellow-labourers, I have arrived at
_ the conclusion, that we have reached the very genesis of animal life upon
_ the globe, and that no separate and clearly definable “ vestigia retrorsum ”
will be found beneath that protozoic or Lower Silurian group, in the great
inferior mass of which scarcely a vertebrated animal has yet been detected,
amid the profusion of the lower orders of marine animals entombed in it.
But however this may be, it is certain that in the last few years all Central

* Mr. Leonard Horner.

XXXIi REPORT—1846.

and Eastern Europe, including Turkey*, and even parts of Siberia have been
brought into accordance with typical strata. France has been accurately
classified and illustrated by the splendid map of Elie de Beaumont and Du-
frenoy; and whilst, by the labours of Deshayes and others, its tertiary fossils
have been copiously described, the organic remains of its secondary strata are
now undergoing a complete aualysis in the beautiful work of M. Alcide d’Or-
bigny. Belgium, whose mineral structure and geological outlines have been
delineated by D’Omalius d’Halloy and Dumont, has produced very perfect
monographs of its palzozoic and tertiary fossils; the first in the work of
M. de Koningk, the second in the recently published monograph of M. Nyst.
Germany, led on by Von Buch, has shown that she can now as materially
strengthen tlie zoological and botanical groundworks of the science, as in the
days of Werner she was eminent in laying those mineralogical foundations
which have been brought so near to perfection by the labours of several living
men. So numerous in fact have been the recent German contributions, that
I cannot permit myself to specify the names of individuals in a country which
boasts so many excellent geologists. As distinctly connected, however, with
the objects of this Meeting, I must be permitted to state that the ingenious
botanist Goppert, whose works, in combiuation with those of Adolphe Brong-
niart in France, have shed so much light on fossil plants, has just sent to me,
for communication to our Geological Section, the results of his latest inqui-
ries into the formation of the coal of Silesia—results which will be the more
interesting to Dr. Buckland and the geologists of England, who have most
attended to this subject, because they are founded on data equally new and
original. Italy has also, to a great extent, been presented to us in its
general geological facies, through the labours of Sismonda, Marmora, Pareto,
Pasini, Catullo and others; whilst our kinsmen of the far West, with the
true enterprise of the Saxon race, have so laid open the structure of their
wide-spreading States, that our countryman Lyell has informed us, that the
instructive map which accompanies his work upon North America is simply
the grouping together of data prepared by native State geologists, which he
has paralleled with our well-known British types.

If then the astronomer has, to a vast extent, expounded the mechanism of
the heavens; if lately, through his large, new telescope, our associate the
Earl of Rosse has assigned a fixity and order to bodies which were pre-
viously viewed as mere nebule floating in space, and has also inferred that the
surface-cavities in our nearest neighbour of the planetary system are analo-
gous to the volcanic apertures and depressions of the earth ; the geologist,
contributing data of another order to the storehouse of natural knowledge,
has determined, by tangible proofs, the very manner in which our planet has
been successively enveloped in divers cerements, each teeming with peculiar
forms of distinct life, and has marked the revolutions which have interfered
with these successive creations, from the earliest dawn of living things to the
limits of the historic era. In short, the fundamental steps gained in geology
since the early days of the British Association, are so remarkable and so
numerous, that the time has now come fora second report upon the progress
of this science, which may I trust be prepared for an approaching Meeting.

Intimately connected with these broad views of the progress of geology is
the appearance of the first volume of a national work by Sir Henry De la
Beche and his associates in the Geological Survey of Great Britain. Fol-
lowing, as it does, upon the issue of numerous detailed coloured maps and

* See the geological map of Turkey by Boué, and that of Russia and the Ural Mountains
by my coadjutors and myself.

] ADDRESS. XXXIll

“4

Fg

sections, which for beauty of execution and exactness of detail are unrivalled,
I would specially direct your attention to this new volume, as affording the

clearest evidence that geology is now strictly brought within the pale of the

7
y
%

_ fixed sciences. In it are found graphic descriptions of the strata in the South-
West of England and South Wales, whose breadth and length are accurately

_ measured, whose mineral changes are chemically analysed, and whose im-
_ bedded remains are compared and determined by competent palzontologists.

"

_ The very statistics of the science are thus laid open, theory is made rigorously

to depend on facts, and the processes and produce of foreign mines are com-

_ pared with those of Britain.

4

When we know how intimately the Director-General of this Survey and
his associates have been connected with the meetings of the British Associa-
tion, and how they have freely discussed with us many parts of their re-

_ searches—when we recollect that the geologist of Yorkshire, our invaluable

2

Assistant General Secretary, around whom all our arrangements since our

_ origin have turned, and to whom so much of our success is due, occupies

his fitting place among these worthies—that Edward Forbes, who passed as
it were from this Association to the A®gean, is the paleontologist of this
Survey ; and again when we reflect, that if this Association had not repaired
to Glasgow, and there discovered the merits of the delineation of the Isle of
Arran by Mr. Ramsay, that young geologist would never have become a
valuable contributor to the volume under consideration—it is obvious from
these statements alone, that the annual visits of our body to different parts
of the Empire, by bringing together kindred spirits, and by testing the natural
capacity of individuals, do most effectually advance science and benefit the
British community.

Whilst considering these labours of the Government geologists, I shall now
specially speak of those of Professor E. Forbes, because he here makes him-
self doubly welcome, by bringing to us as it were upon the spot the living
specimens of submarine creatures, which through the praiseworthy en-
thusiasm of Mr. M¢Andrew, one of our members, who fitted out a yacht
for natural-history researches, have been dredged up this summer by these
naturalists from the southern coast, between the Land’s End and South-
ampton: Asa favourite yachting port like Southampton may, it is hoped,
afford imitators, I point out with pleasure the liberal example of Mr. M¢An-
drew, who although not professing to describe the specimens he collects, has
now, as on former occasions, placed them in the hands of the members best
_ qualified to do them justice, and is thus a substantial promoter of science.

The memoir, then, of Edward Forbes in the Government Geological Sur-
vey to which I now allude, is, in truth, an extension of his views re-

_ specting the causes of the present distribution of plants and animals in the

British Isles, made known at the last meeting of the British Association. As
this author has not only shown the application of these ideas to the re-

searches of the British Geological Survey, but also to the distribution of
_ animals and plants over the whole earth, it is evident that these views, in
_ great part original, will introduce a new class of inquiries into natural history,

which will link it on more closely than ever to geology and geography. In
short, this paper may be viewed as the first attempt to explain the causes
of the zoological and botanical features of any region anciently in connexion.
Among the new points which it contains, I will now only mention, that it
_very ingeniously (and I trust satisfactorily) explains the origin of the pecu-
liar features of the botany of Britain—the theory of the origin of Alpine
Floras distributed far apart—the peculiarity of the zoology of Ireland as
- compared with that of England—the presence of the same species of marine

XXXiv REPORT—1846.

animals on the coasts of America and Europe—the specialities of the marine
zoology of the British seas called for by this Association—the past and pre-
sent distribution of the great Mediterranean Flora ;—and lastly, it applies
the knowledge we possess of the distribution of plants to the elucidation of
the history of the superficial detritus, termed by geologists the ‘* Northern
Drift.”

Amid the numerous subjects for reflection which the perusal of this me-
moir occasions, I must now restrict myself to two brief comments. First,
to express my belief that even Humboldt himself, who has written so much
and so admirably on Alpine floras, will admit that our associate’s explanation
of the origin of identity removes a great stumbling-block from the path of
botanical geographers. Secondly, having myself for some years endeavoured
to show, that the Alpine glacialists had erroneously applied their views, as
founded on terrestrial phenomena, to large regions of Northern Europe,
which must have been under the sea during the distribution of erratic blocks,
gravel and boulders, I cannot but consider it a strong confirmation of that
opinion, when I find so sound a naturalist as Edward Forbes sustaining the
same view by perfectly independent inferences concerning the migration of
plants to isolated centres, and by a studious examination and comparison of
all the sea shells associated with these transported materials. And if I mis-
take not, my friend Mr. Lyell will find in both the above points, strong evi-
dences in support of his ingenious climatal theories.

Recent as the blocks and boulders to which I have alluded may seem
to be, they were however accumulated under a glacial sea, whose bottom
was first raised to produce that connexion between the continent and
Britain, by which the land animals migrated from their parent East to our
western climes; a connexion that was afterwards broken through by the se-
paration of our islands, and by the isolation in each of them of those terres-
trial races which had been propagated to it. This latter inference was also,
indeed, thoroughly sustained by the researches of Professor Owen, commu-
nicated to this Association; first, in the generalization by which his report
on the Extinct Mammals of Australia is terminated, and still more in de-
tailed reference to our islands in his recently published work ‘On the Ex-
tinct Fossil British Mammalia, —a work which he has stated in his dedication
originated at the call of the British Association. Professor Owen, who fills a
Vice-President’s chair, adds, indeed, greatly to the strength of our present
Meeting, by also acting as the President of one of our Sections, which having
in its origin been exclusively occupied in the study of Medicine, is now more
peculiarly devoted to the cultivation of Physiology. Under such a leader I
have a right to anticipate, that this remodelled Section will exhibit evidences
of fresh vigour, and will clearly define the vast progress that has been made
in general and comparative anatomy since the days of Hunter and of Cuvier,
for so large a part of which we are indebted to our eminent associate. I
may; indeed, confidently announce, from what I know of the communica-
tions about to be made to us by Professor Owen on anatomical homologies,
that our Members will be highly gratified in seeing our next volume en-
hanced with subjects from his pen, which hitherto have almost exclusively
occupied the attention of continental anatomists.

Assembled in a county which has the good fortune to have been illus-
trated by the attractive history of the naturalist of Selborne, I am confident
that our Fourth Section, to whose labours I would next advert, will yield a
rich harvest, the more so as it is headed by that great zoologist who has en-
riched the adjacent Museum of the Naval Hospital at Haslar with so many
animals from various parts of the world, and has so arranged them as to render

: ADDRESS. XXXV

_ them objects well-worthy of your notice. The report of Sir John Richardson
ay in the last volume, on the Fishes of China, Japan and New Zealand, when
_ coupled with his account in former volumes of the Fauna of North America,
_ may be regarded as having completely remodelled our knowledge of the
_ geographical distribution of fishes; first by affording the data, and next by
explaining the causes through which a community of ichthyological characters
_ is in some regions widely spread, and in others restricted to limited areas.
_ We now know, that just as the lofty mountain is the barrier which separates
_ different animals and plants, as well as peculiar varieties of man, so the deepest
seas are limits which peremptorily check the wide diffusion of certain genera
and species of fishes; whilst the interspersion of numerous islands, and still
more the continuance of lands throughout an ocean, ensures the distribution
of similar forms over many degrees of latitude and longitude.

The general study, indeed, both of zoology and botany has been sin-
gularly advanced by the labours of the Section of Natural History. I cannot
have acted for many years as your General Secretary without observing,
that by the spirit in which this Section has of late years been conducted,
British naturalists have annually become more philosophical, and have given
to their inquiries a more physiological character, and have more and more
studied the higher questions of structure, laws and distribution. This
cheering result has mainly arisen from the personal intimacy brought about
among various individuals, who, living at great distances from each other,
were previously never congregated; and from the mutual encouragement
imparted by their interchange of views and their comparisons of specimens.
Many active British naturalists have in fact risen up since these Meetings
commenced, and many (in addition to the examples already mentioned) have
pursued their science directly under the encouragement we have given them.
The combination of the enthusiastic and philosophic spirit thus engendered
among the naturalists, has given popularity to their department of science,
and this Section, assuming an importance to which during our earliest Meet-
ings it could show comparatively slender claims, has vigorously revived the
study of natural history, and among other proofs of it, has given rise to that
useful publishing body the Ray Society, which holds its anniversary du-
ring our sittings. Any analysis of the numerous original and valuable re-
ports and memoirs on botanical and zoological subjects which have occupied
_ our volumes is forbidden by the limits of this address, but I cannot omit to
_ advert to the extensive success of Mr. H. Strickland’s report on Zoological

Nomenclature, which has been adopted and circulated by the naturalists of

France, Germany, Sweden and America, and also by those of Italy headed

by the Prince of Canino. In each of these countries the code drawn up by
_ the Association has been warmly welcomed, and through it we may look
; forward to the signal advantage being gained, of the adoption of an uniform
_ zoological nomenclature all over the globe. ;

Whilst investigations into the geographical distribution of animals and plants
have occupied a large share of the attention of our Browns and our Darwins,
it is pleasing to see that some members, chiefly connected with physical
_ researches, are now bringing these data of natural history to bear upon
climatology and physical geography. A committee of our naturalists, to
whom the subject was referred, has published in our last volume a good
‘series of instructions for the observation of the periodical phenomena of
animals and plants, prepared by our foreign associate M. Quetelet, the
Astronomer Royal of Belgium. Naturalists have long been collecting ob-
servations on the effects produced by the annual return of the seasons, but
their various natural-history calendars being local, required comparison and

>
e-

XXXvi REPORT—1846.

concentration, as originally suggested by Linnzeus. This has now for the
first time been executed by the Belgian Astronomer, who following out a
plan suggested by himself at our Plymouth Meeting, has brought together
the contributions and suggestions of the naturalists of his own country.
When M. Quetelet remarks, “that the phases of the smallest insect are
bound up with the phases of the plant that nourishes it; that plant itself
being in its gradual development the product, in some sort, of all anterior
modifications of the soil and atmosphere,” he compels the admission, that
the study which should embrace all periodical phenomena, both diurnal and
annual, would of itself form a science as extended as instructive.

Referring you to M. Quetelet’s report for an explanation of the dependence
of the vegetable and animal kingdoms on the meteorology and physics of
the globe, and hoping that the simultaneous observations he inculcates will
be followed up in Britain, I am happy to announce, that the outline of a
memoir on physical geography was some months ago put into my hands
by Mr. Cooley, which in a great degree coinciding with the system of
M. Quetelet, has ultimately a different object. M. Quetelet chiefly aims
at investigating the dependence of organized bodies on inorganized matter,
by observing the periodical phenomena of the former. Mr. Cooley seeks to
obtain an acquaintance with the same phzenomena for the sake of learning
and registering comparative climate as an element of scientific agriculture.
Speaking to you in a county which is so mainly dependent on the produce
of the soil, I cannot have a more favourable opportunity for inculeating the
value of the suggestions of this British geographer. The complete esta-
blishment of all the data of physical geography throughout the British
Islands ; i.e. the registration of the mean and extremes of the temperature of
the air and of the earth; the amount of conduction, radiation, moisture and
magnetism ; the succession of various phases of vegetation, &e. (with their
several local corrections for elevation and aspect), must certainly advance the
cause of science, and promote the material interests of our country.

A minute knowledge of all the circumstances of climate cannot but be of
importance to those whose industry only succeeds through the co-operation of
nature, and it may therefore be inferred, how a report like that with which
I trust Mr. Cooley will favour us, if completed by the addition of tables,
must prove to be a useful public document. Imbibing the ardour of that
author, I might almost hope that such researches in physical geography may
enable us to define, in the language of the poet,

“Et quid quaque ferat regio, et quid queeque recuset.”

At all events, they will tend to raise physical geography in Britain towards
the level it has attained in Prussia under the egis of Humboldt and Ritter,
and through the beautiful maps of Berghaus.

Though our countryman, Mr. Keith Johnston, is reproducing, in attrac-
tive forms, the comparative maps of the last-mentioned Prussian author, much
indeed still remains to be done in Britain, to encourage the study of physical
geography and to place it on a basis worthy of this great exploring and colo-
nizing nation ; and as one of the elementary aids to the training of the youth-
ful mind to acquire some perception of the science, 1 commend the spirited
project of M. Guerin of Paris, to establish in London a georama of vast size,
the objects and details of which he intends to explain during this week to the
geographers present.

Reverting to ceconomical views and the improvement of lands, I would
remind our agricultural members, that as their great practical Society was
founded on the model of the British Association, we hope they will always

ADDRESS. XXXVll

oe
sem

eome to our Sections for the solution of any questions relating to their pur-
_ suits to which can be given a purely scientific answer. If they ask for the-
_ explanation of the dependence of vegetation upon subsoil or soil, our geo-
logists and botanists are ready to reply to them. Is it a query on the com-
parison of the relative value of instruments destined to ceconomize labour,
the mechanicians now present are capable of answering it. And if, above all,
_ they wish us to solve their doubts respecting the qualities of soils and the re-
sults of their mixtures, or the effects of various manures upon them, our che-
mists are at hand. One department of our Institution is, in fact, styled the
Section of Chemistry and Mineralogy, with their applications to Agriculture
and the’ Arts, and is officered‘in part by the very men, Johnston, Daubeny and
Playfair, to whom the agriculturists have, in nearly all cases, appealed. The
first-mentioned of these was one of our earliest friends and founders; the
second had the merit of standing by the British Association at its first meet-
_ ing, and there inviting us to repair to that great University where he is so
much respected, and where he is now steadily determining, by elaborate
experiments, the dependence of many species of plants on soil, air and
stimulus; whilst the third has already been alluded to as one of our best
actual contributors.

If in reviewing our previous labours I have endeavoured to gain your at-
tention by some incidental allusions to our present proceedings, I have yet to
assure you, that the memoirs communicated to our Secretaries are sufficiently
numerous to occupy our Sections during the ensuing week with all the vigour
which has marked our opening day. Among the topics to which our as-
sembling’ at Southampton gives peculiar interest, I may still say that if
geologists should find’ much to interest them in the Isle of Wight, the same
island contains a field for'a very curious joint discussion’ between them and
the mathematicians, with which I became acquainted in a previous visit to
this place. It is a discovery by Colonel Colby, the Director of the Trigo-
nometrical Survey, of the existence of a notable attraction of the plumb-line

to the south, at the trigonometrical station called Dunnose, on Shanklin
Down. The details of this singular phenomenon, which has been verified
by observations with the best’ zenith sectors, will be laid before the Sections.
In the meantime, we may well wonder, that on the summit of a chalk hill of
low altitude which is bounded on the south by the sea (near whose level the
deviation is scarcely perceptible), there should exist an attraction of more
than half the intensity of that’ which was registered’ by Maskelyne, when he
_ suspended a plummet at the side of the lofty Scottish mountain of Schehal-
lion! If those of our geologists, who like Mr. Hopkins of Cambridge have
_ entered bolily into the field of geological’ dynamics; cannot explain this’ re-
_ tnarkable fact, by connecting it with the ridge of dislocated strata that runs
_ through the island as a back-bone from west to east, may we venture to
refer’ it to dense plutonic masses, of rock ranging beneath the surface, parallel
_ to'the line of displacement of the deposits?
_ Another local subject—one indeed of positive practical interest—that
y stands before'us for discussion, is, whether, by persevering in deepening the
_ large shaft’ which they have sunk so deep into the chalk near this tqwn, the’
inhabitants’ of Southampton may expect to be eventually repaid, like those’
of Paris, by a full’ supply of subterranean water, which’ shall rise to the’
surface of the'low plateau on which the work has been undertaken? On’
No occasion, I must observe, could this'town be furnished with a greater’
number of willing counsellors, whose opinions will, it is hoped,. be ade-
quately valued by the local authorities. The question whether this work
Ought to be proceeded with’ or not, will however, I wees be most

a:

+1846.

XXXViil REPORT—1846.

effectively answered by those geologists who are best acquainted with the
sections in the interior of this county, and with the levels at which the upper —
greensand and subcretaceous strata there crop out and receive the waters,
which thence flow southwards beneath the whole body of chalk of the hills
in the south of Hampshire.

Again, as we are now assembled in the neighbourhood of our great
naval arsenal—as some of its functionaries, including the Admiral on the
station, have honoured us with their support, and as, further, I am now
speaking in a town whose magnificent new docks may compete with any
for bold and successful engineering, I must say a few words on our naval
architecture, the more so as we have here a Mechanical Section, presided
over by the eminent mechanician Proféssor Willis, assisted by the great ||
dynamical mathematician Dr. Robinson, and that sound engineer George |
Rennie. Duly impressed with the vast national importance of this subject,
and at the same time of its necessary dependence on mathematical principles, |
the British Association endeavoured in its earliest days to rouse attention to
the state of ship-building in England, and to the history of its progress in:
France and other countries, through a memoir by the late Mr. G. Harvey.
It was then contended, that notwithstanding the extreme perfection to which
the internal mechanism of vessels had been brought, their external forms
or lines, on which their sailing so much depends, were deficient as to ad-
justment by mathematical theory. Our associate Mr. Scott Russell has,
as you know, ably developed this view. Experimenting upon the resistance |
of water, and ascertaining with precision the forms of vessels which would
pass through it with the least resistance, and consequently with the greatest
velocity, he has contributed a most valuable series of memoirs, accompanied
by a great number of diagrams, to illustrate his opinions and to show the
dependence of naval architecture on certain mathematical lines. Employed,
in the meantime, by merchants on their own account, to plan the construction
of sailing ships and steamers, Mr. Scott Russell has been so successful in
combining theory with practice, that we must feel satisfied in having at
different meetings helped him onwards by several money grants; our only
regret being, that our means should not have permitted us to publish the
whole number of diagrams of the lines prepared by this ingenious author.

But however desirous to promote theoretical knowledge on this point, the
men of science are far from wishing not to pay every deference to the skilful
artificers of our wooden bulwarks, on account of their experience and practi-
cal acquaintance with subjects they have so long and so successfully handled.
We are, indeed, fully aware, that the naval architects of the Government, |
who construct vessels carrying a great weight of metal and requiring
much solidity and capacious stowage, have to solve many problems with
which the owners of trading vessels or packets have little concern. All that
we can wish for is, that our naval arsenals should contain schools or public
boards of ship-building, in which there might be collected all the “ constants
of the art,” in reference to capacity, displacement, stowage, velocity, pitching
and rolling, masting, the effect of sails and the resistance of fluids. Having
ourselves expended contributions to an extent which testify, at all events,
our zeal in this matter, we are, I think, entitled to express a hope, that the.
data derived from practice by our eminent navigators may be effectively
combined with the indications of sound theory prepared by approved culti-
vators of mathematical and mechanical science.

I cannot thus touch upon such useful subjects without saying, that our Sta-
tistical Section has been so well conducted by its former presidents, that its
subjects, liable at all times to be diverted into moral considerations and thence

ADDRESS. XXXix

_ into politics, have been invariably restricted to the branch of the science
_ which deals in facts and numbers; and as no one individual has contributed
‘more to the storehouse of such valuable knowledge than Mr. George Porter
‘(asevidenced even by his report in our last volume), so may we believe that
in this town, with which he is intimately connected, he will contribute to
raise still higher the claims of the Section over which he is so well qualified
to preside.
If in this discourse I have referred somewhat more largely to those
branches of science which pertain to the general division of natural history,
in which alone I can venture to judge of the progress made by others, Jet me
however say, that no member of this body can appreciate more highly than
I do, the claims of the mathematical and experimental parts of philosophy,
in which my friend Professor Baden Powell of Oxford, who supports me as
a Vice-President of this meeting, has taken so distinguished a part. No one
__has witnessed with greater satisfaction the attendance at our former meetings
of men, from all parts of Europe, the most eminent in these high pursuits.
No one can more glory in having been an officer of this Association when
it was honoured with the presence of its illustrious correspondent Bessel,
than whom the world has never produced a more profound astronomer.
If among his numerous splendid discoveries he furnished astronomers with
what they had so long and so ardently desired—a fixed and ascertained point
in the immensity of space, beyond the limits of our own sidereal system, it is
to Bessel, as 1 am assured by a contemporary worthy of him, that Englishmen —
owe a debt of gratitude for his elaborate discussion of the observations of their
immortal Bradley, which, in his hands, became the base of modern astronomy.
Passing from this recollection, so proud yet so mournful to us all as
_ friends and admirers of the deceased Prussian astronomer, can any one see with
more delight than myself the brilliant concurrence at our present Meeting of
naturalists, geologists, physiologists, ethnologists and statists, with mathemati-
cians, astronomers, mechanicians, and experimental philosophers in physics and
in chemistry? Surely then I may be allowed to signalize a particular ground of
gratification among so many, in the presence at this Meeting of two individuals
im our Experimental Sections, to one of whom, our eminent foreign associate
Oersted, we owe the first great link between electric and magnetic phenomena,
by showing the magnetic properties of the galvanic current; whilst the other,
our own Faraday, among other new and great truths which have raised the
character of English science throughout the world, obtained the converse
_ proof by evoking electricity out of magnets. And if it be not given to the
geologist whom you have honoured with this chair, to explain how such arcana
have been revealed, still, as a worshiper in the outer portico of the temple of
physical science, he may be permitted to picture to himself the delight which
_ the Danish philosopher must have felt, when on returning to our shores, after
an absence of a quarter of a century, he found that the grand train of dis-
covery of which he is the progenitor, had just received its crowning accession
_ in England from his former disciple, who, after a long and brilliant series
_ of investigations peculiarly his own, has shown that magnetic or dia-magnetic
f forces are distributed throughout all nature.
_ And thus shall we continue to be a true British Association, with cosmo-
‘ _ polite connexions, so long as we have among us eminent men to attract such
foreign contemporaries to our shores. If then at the last assembly we ex-
_perienced the good effects which flowed from a concentration of mathe-
“Maticians and magneticians, drawn together from different European king-
_ doms—if then also the man* of solid learning, who then represented the

sh; * Mr. Everett.

eee: -

d2

xl REPORT—1846.

United States of America, and who is now worthily presiding over the Cam-
bridge University of his native soil, spoke to us with chastened eloquence
of the benefits our Institution was conferring on mankind; let us rejoice
that this Meeting is honoured by the presence of foreign philosophers as
distinguished as those of any former year.

Let us rejoice that we have now among us men of science from Den-
mark, Sweden, Russia, Prussia, Switzerland, Italy and France. The King
of Denmark, himself personally distinguished for his acquaintance with
several branches of natural history, and a warm patron of science, has
honoured us by sending hither, not only the great discoverer Oersted, who
evincing fresh vigour in his mature age brings with him new communications
on physical science, but also my valued friend, the able geologist and chemist
Forchhammer, who has produced the first geological map of Denmark, and
who has presented to us a lucid memoir on the influence exercised by marine
plants on the formation of ancient crystalline rocks, on the present sea and
on agriculture.

As these two eminent men and their associates of the North received me
as the General Secretary of the British Association with their wonted cor-
diality at the last Scandinavian Scientific Assembly, I trust we may convince
them that the sentiment is reciprocal, and that Englishmen are akin to them
in the virtues of friendship and hospitality which so distinguish the dwellers
within the circle of Odin.

Still adverting to Scandinavia, we see here a deputy from the country of Lin-
nzeus in the person of Professor Svanberg, a successful young experimenter in
physics, who represents his great master Berzelius—that profound chemist and
leader of the science of the North of Europe, who established on a firm basis
the laws of atomic weights and definite proportions, and who has personally
assured me, that if our Meeting had not been fixed in the month of September,
when the agriculturists of Sweden assemble at Stockholm, he would as-
suredly have repaired to us. And if the same cause has prevented Nilsson
from coming hither, and has abstracted Retzius from us (who was till within
these few days in England), I cannot mention these distinguished men, who
earnestly desired to be present, without expressing the hope, that the memoirs
they communicate to us may give such additional support to our British ethno-
logists, as will enable this new branch of science, which investigates the origin
of races and languages, to take the prominent place in our assemblies to
which it is justly entitled.

The Royal Academy of Berlin, whose deputies on former occasions have
been an Ehrenberg, a Buch, and an Erman, has honoured us by sending
hither M. Heinrich Rosé, whose work on chemical analysis is a text-book
‘even for the most learned chemists in every country ; and whilst his researches
on the constitution of minerals, like those of his eminent brother Gustave on
their form, have obtained for him so high a reputation, he now brings to us
the description of a new metal which he has discovered in the Tantalite of
Bavaria.

Switzerland has again given to us that great master in paleontology, Agassiz,
who has put arms into the hands of British geologists with which they have
conquered vast regions, and who now on his road to new fields in America,
brings to us his report on the fossil fishes of the basin of London, which will, he
assures me, exceed in size all that he has ever written on ichthyolites.

From the same country we have our warm friend Professor Schénbein, who,
in addition to his report on Ozone, to which I have already referred, has now
brought to us a discovery which promises to be of vast practical importance.
The “ gun-cotton” of Schénbein, the powers of which he will exhibit to his

Fe eeece

ADDRESS. xli

colleagues, is an explosive substance, which is stated to exercise a stronger
projectile force than gunpowder, to possess the great advantages over it of
producing little or no smoke or noise, and of scarcely soiling fire-arms ; whilst
no amount of wet injures this new substance, which is as serviceable after
being dried as in its first condition. The mere mention of these properties,
to which our associate lays claim for his new material, is sufficient to sug-
gest its extraordinary value in warlike affairs, as also in every sort of sub-
terranean blasting, and may well lead me to say, that this discovery, which
may almost rival the inyention of the substance which it is destined to sup-
plant, will signally mark this meeting at Southampton. But, as if British
chemistry were not to be outdone, here also there will be promulgated, for
the first time, the very remarkable discovery of our countryman Mr. Grove,
of the decomposition of water by heat.

Professor Matteucci of Modena, who joined us at the York meeting, and
then explained his various new and delicate investigations in electro-phy-
siology, again favours us with a visit, as the representative of the Italian
Philosophical Society of Modena and of the University of Pisa. This
ingenious philosopher, who has measured the effect of galvanic currents in
exciting through the nerves mechanical force in the muscles, doubtless brings
with him such interesting contribution as will add great additional interest
to the proceedings of the Physiological Section.

Among these sources of gratification, no one has afforded me sincerer
pleasure than to welcome hither the undaunted Siberian explorer, Professor
von Middendorff. Deeply impressed as I am with the estimation in
which science is held by the illustrious ruler of the empire of Russia, I
cannot but hope that the presence of this traveller, so signalized by his
enterprising exploits, may meet with a friend in every Englishman who is
acquainted with the arduous nature of his travels. To traverse Siberia
from south to north and from west to east; to reach by land the extreme
northern headland of Taimyr; to teach us, for the first time, that even
to the latitude of 72° north, trees with stems extend themselves in that
meridian ; that crops of rye, more abundant than in his native Livonia, grow

beyond Yakutsk, on the surface of that frozen subsoil, the intensity and

measure of cold in which he has determined by thermometric experiments ;

_to explain, through their language and physical form, the origin of tribes now

far removed from their parent stock; to explore the far eastern regions of
the Sea of Ohkotsk and of the Shantar Isles; to define the remotest north-
eastern boundary between China and Russia; and finally to enrich St. Peters-
burgh with the natural productions, both fossil and recent, of all these wild
and untrodden lands, are the exploits for which the Royal Geographical So-
ciety of London has, at its last meeting, conferred its Gold Victoria Medal on
this most successful explorer. Professor von Middendorff now visits us to con-
verse with our naturalists most able to assist him, and to inspect our museums,
in which, by comparison, he can best determine the value of specific cha-
racters before he completes the description of his copious accumulations; and
I trust that during his stay in England he will be treated with as much true
hospitality as I have myself received at the hands of his kind countrymen.
It is impossible for me to make this allusion to the Russian empire, without
assuring you that our allies in science on the Neva, who have previously sent
to us a Jacobi and a Kupffer, are warmly desirous of continuing their good
connexion with us. It was indeed a source of great pleasure to me to have
recently had personal intercourse in this very town with that eminent scientific
navigator Admiral Liitke, in whose squadron His Imperial Highness the

_ Grand Duke Constantine was acquiring a knowledge of his maritime duties.

xhi REPORT—-1846.

Besides the narrative of his former voyages, Liitke has since published an
account of the periodical tides in the Great Northern Ocean and in the
Glacial Sea, which I have reason to think is little known in this country.
Having since established a hypsalographe in the White Sea, and being also
occupied from time to time in observations in Behring’s Straits, the Russians
will soon be able to provide us with other important additions to our
knowledge of this subject. Separated so widely as Admiral Liitke and Dr.
Whewell are from each other, it is pleasing to see, that the very reeommenda-
tion which the last-mentioned distinguished philosopher of the tides has re-
cently suggested to me, as a subject to be encouraged by this Association, has
been zealously advocated by the former. Let us hope then that this Meeting
will not pass away without powerfully recommending to our own Government,
as well as to that of His Imperial Majesty, the carrying out of systematic and
simultaneous investigations of the tides in the Great Ocean, particularly in the
Northern Pacific,—a subject (as Admiral Liitke well observes) which is not
less worthy of special expeditions and of the attention of great scientific bodies,
than the present inquiries into terrestrial magnetism; and one which, I may
add, this Association will doubtless warmly espouse, since it has such strong
grounds for being satisfied with the results which it has already contributed to
obtain through its own grants, and by the researches of several of its associates.

Lastly, in alluding to our foreign attendants, let us hope that our nearest
neighbours may respond to our call, and may prove by their affluence to
Southampton, that in the realms of science there is that “‘ entente cordiale”
between their great nation and our own, of which, at a former meeting, we
were assured by the profound Arago himself. No sooner was it made known
that the Chair of Chemistry at this Meeting was to be filled by Michael
Faraday, than a compeer worthy of him in the Academy of Sciences of Paris
Was announced in the person of M. Dumas*, by a letter from that philoso-
pher to myself. To M. Dumas it is well known that we owe, not only the
discovery of the law of substitution of types, which has so powerfully aided
the progress of organic chemistry, but also the successful application of his
science to the arts and useful purposes of life; his great work on that sub-
ject, ‘ La Chimie appliquée aux Arts,’ being as familiar in every manufactory
in England as it is upon the Continent.

Nor, if we turn from chemistry to geology, will such of us as work among
the rocks be backward in welcoming any French geologists who may come
to examine, in our own natural sections of the Isle of Wight, the peculiar
development of their Paris basin, the identity of their chalk and our own,
the fine sections of our greensand and of the Wealden formation of Mantell,
and to determine with us iz situ the strict relations of their Neocomian rocks
with those peculiar strata which at Atherfield, in the Isle of Wight, have
been so admirably illustrated by Dr. Fitton and other native geologists, and
of which such beautiful and accurate diagrams have been prepared by
Captain Ibbetson.

Will it not then be admitted, that the gathering together of such foreign
philosophers, as those above mentioned, with our own men of science, must
be productive of good results? Putting aside even the acknowledged fact,
that numerous memoirs of value are published in one country which are
unknown in another, where is the person, acquainted with the present acce-
lerated march of science, who can doubt that the germs of discovery which
are floating in the minds of distant contemporaries, must often be brought
to maturity by the interchange of such thoughts? ‘The collision of these

* The resolution of M. Dumas to visit the Meeting was arrested by a sudden illness, and
his apology only reached the President towards the close of the Meeting.

mt
i

Mo

i

: =e ‘

ADDRESS. xiii

thoughts may indeed be compared to the agency of the electric telegraph of
our own Wheatstone, which concentrates knowledge from afar, and at once

unites the extremities of kingdoms in a common circie of intelligence.

But although the distinguished foreigners to whom I have adverted, and
others, including our welcome associate M. Wartmann, the Founder of the
Vaudois Society, and M. Prevost of Geneva, on whose merits I would
willingly dilate if time permitted it, are now collected around us; many,
among whom I must name M. de Caumont, the President of the French
Society for the Advancement of Science, have been prevented from ho-
nouring us with their presence, because the national meetings in their

- several countries also occur in the month of September. To remedy this in-

convenience, 1 ventured, when addressing you six years ago at the Glasgow
meeting, to express the hope, that each of the European societies might
be led to abstain during one year from assembling in its own country, for
the purpose of repairing by its own deputies to a general congress, to be
held at Frankfort or other central city under the presidency of the universal
Humboldt. Had the preparation of the ‘Cosmos’ and other avocations of
that renowned individual permitted him to accept this proposition, which
the British Association would doubtless have supported, many benefits to
science must have resulted, and each national body, on re-assembling the
following year in its native land, would, I am convinced, have more vigorously
resumed its researches.

But whether it be considered desirable or not to suspend the national
scientific meetings during one year, I call on my countrymen and their foreign
friends now present, to sustain the proposal for centralizing in a future year
the representatives of the various branches of science of different countries,
when they may at once learn the progress made in each nation, and when, at
all events, they can so appoint the periods of their respective assemblies,
as to prevent those simultaneous meetings in France, Germany, Scandinavia,
Italy, Switzerland and England, which are so much to be deprecated as in-
terfering with a mutual intercourse.

Finally, my fellow-labourers in science, if by our united exertions we have
done and are doing good public service, let me revert once more to the place
in which we are assembled, and express on your part the gratification I know
you experience in being on this occasion as well supported by the noblemen,
clergymen, and landed proprietors around Southampton, as by its inhabitants
themselves—an union which thus testifies that the British Association em-
braces all parties and all classes of men.

Seeing near me Her Majesty’s Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs,
the Speaker of the House of Commons, and several persons of high station
and great influence, who willingly indicate by their presence the sense
they entertain of the value of our conferences and researches, let us wel-
come these distinguished individuals, as living evidences of that good opinion
of our countrymen, the possession of whiche will cheer us onward in our
career. And above all, let us cherish the recollection of this Southampton
Meeting, which will be rendered memorable in our annals by the pre-
sence of the illustrious Consort of our beloved Sovereign, who participating
in our pursuits, in some of which His Royal Highness is so well-versed,

_ thus demonstrates that our Association is truly national, and enjoys the
most general and effectual support throughout British society, from the

-humblest cultivators of science to the highest personages in the realm.

REPORTS

ON

THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

{
Report on Recent Researches in Hydrodynamics.
By G.G. Sroxss, M.A., Fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge.

At the meeting of the British Association held at Cambridge last year, the
Committee of the Mathematical Section expressed a wish that a Report on
Hydrodynamics should be prepared, in continuation of the reports which
Prof. Challis had already presented to the Association on that subject. Prof.
Challis having declined the task of preparing this report, in consequence of
the pressure of other engagements, the Committee of the Association did
me the honour to entrust it to me. In accordance with the wishes of the
Committee, the object of the present report will be to notice researches in
this subject subsequent to the date of the reports of Prof. Challis. It will
sometimes however be convenient, for the sake of giving a connected view
of certain branches of the subject, to refer briefly to earlier investigations.

The fundamental hypothesis on which the science of hydrostatics is based
may be considered to be, that the mutual action of two adjacent portions of
a fluid at rest is normal to the surface which separates them. The equality
of pressure in all directions is not an independent hypothesis, but a necessary
consequence of the former. This may be easily proved by the method given
in the Exercices of M. Cauchy *, a method which depends on the considera-
tion of the forces acting on a tetrahedron of the fluid, the dimensions of which

are in the end supposed to vanish. This proof applies equally to fluids at
rest and fluids in motion; and thus the hypothesis above-mentioned may be
considered as the fundamental hypothesis of the ordinary theory of hydro-

_ dynamics, as well as hydrostatics. This hypothesis is fully confirmed by ex-

| periment in the case of the equilibrium of fluids ; but the comparison of theory

and experiment is by no means so easy in the case of their motion, on account

_ of the mathematical difficulty of treating the equations of motion. Still

_ enough has been done to show that the ordinary equations will suffice for

_ the explanation of a great variety of phenomena; while there are others the

laws of which depend on a tangential force, which ts neglected in the common

theory, and in consequence of which the pressure is different in different
directions about the same point. The linear motion of fluids in uniform

_ pipes and canals is a simple instance. In the following report I shall first

- consider the common theory of hydrodynamics, and then notice some theo-

ries which take account of the inequality of pressure in different directions.

‘It will be cunvenient to consider the subject under the following heads :—

__ I. General theorems connected with the ordinary equations of fluid motion.

II. Theory of waves, including tides.

* Tom. ii. p. 42.
1846. B

regen

g ' REPORT—1846.

III. The discharge of gases through small orifices.

IV. Theory of sound.

V. Simultaneous oscillations of fluids and solids.

VI. Formation of the equations of motion when the pressure is not sup-
posed equal in all directions.

{. Although the common equations of hydrodynamics have been so long
known, their complexity is so great that little has been done with them
except in the case in which the expression usually denoted by

edepodyptwde ssi. Se ee FAD

is the exact differential of a function of the independent variables 2, y, 2*.
It becomes then of the utmost importance to inquire in what cases this sup-
position may be made. Now Lagrange enunciated two theorems, by virtue
of which, supposing them true, the supposition may be made in a great
number of important cases, in fact, in nearly all those cases which it is most
interesting to investigate. It must be premised that in these theorems the
accelerating forces X, Y, Z are supposed to be such that Xdx+ Ydy+ Zdz is
an exact differential, supposing the time constant, and the density of the fluid is
supposed to be either constant, or afunction of the pressure. Thetheoremsare—

First, that (A.) is approximately an exact differential when the motion is
so small that squares and products of w, v, wand their differential coefficients
may be neglected. By calling (A.) approximately an exact differential, it is
meaut that there exists an expression udx +4+v,dy+wdz, which is accurately
an exact differential, and which is such that uw, v, w, differ from wu, v, w
respectively by quantities of the second order only.

Secondly, that (A.) is accurately an exact differential at all times when it
is so at one instant, and in particular when the motion begins from rest.

It has been pointed out by Poisson that the first of these theorems is not
true+. In fact, the initial motion, being arbitrary, need not be such as to
render (A.) an exact differential. Thus those cases coming under the first
theorem in which the assertion is true are merged in those which come under
the second, at least if we except the case of small motions kept up by dis-
turbing causes, a case in which we have no occasion to consider initial motion
at all. This case it is true is very important. ;

The validity of Lagrange’s proof of the second theorem depends on the
legitimacy of supposing w, v and w capable of expansion according to posi-
tive, integral powers of the time ¢, for a sufficiently small value of that varia-
ble. This proof lies open to objection; for there are functions of ¢ the
expansions of which contain fractional powers, and there are others which
cannot be expanded according to ascending powers of ¢, integral or fractional,
even though they may vanish when ¢=0. It has been shown by Mr. Power
that Lagrange’s proof is still applicable if «, 7 and w admit of expansion
according to ascending powers of ¢ of any kind{. The second objection
however still remains: nor does the proof which Poisson has substituted for
Lagrange’s in his ‘Traité de Mécanique’ appear at all more satisfactory.
Besides, it does not appear from these proofs what becomes of the theorem if
it is only for a certain portion of the fluid that (A.) is at one instant an exact
differential.

M. Cauchy has however given a proof of the theorem§, which is totally —
different from either of the former, and perfectly satisfactory. M. Cauchy

* In nearly all the investigations of Mr. Airy it will be found that (A.) is an exact differen-
tial, although he does not start with assuming it to be so.

+ Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciences, tom. x. p. 554.

+ Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, vol. vii. p, 455,

§ Mémoires des Savans Etrangers, tom. i. p. 40,

ON RECENT RESEARCHES IN HYDRODYNAMICS. 8

first eliminates the pressure by differentiation from the three partial differential
equations of motion. He then changes the independent variables in the
three resulting equations from 2, y, 2, é to a, b, ec, t, where a, b, ¢ are the
initial co-ordinates of the particle whose co-ordinates at the time ¢ are 2, y, 2.
The three transformed equations admit each of being once integrated with
respect to ¢, and the arbitrary functions of a, 6, ¢ introduced by integration
are determined by the initial motion, which is supposed to be given. The

theorem in question is deduced without difficulty from the integrals thus
obtained. It is easily proved that if the velocity is suddenly altered by
means of impulsive forces applied at the surface of the fluid, the alteration is
such as to leave (A.) an exact differential if it were such before impact.
M. Cauchy’s proof shows moreover that if (A.) be an exact differential for
one portion of the fluid, although not for the whole, it will always remain so

for that portion. It should be observed, that although M. Cauchy has proved
the theorem for an incompressible fluid only, the same method of proof
applies to the more general case in which the density is a function of the
pressure.

In a paper read last year before the Cambridge Philosophical Society, I
have given a new proof of the same theorem*. This proof is rather simpler
than M. Cauchy’s, inasmuch as it does not require any integration.

In a paper published in the Philosophical Magazine+, Prof. Challis has
raised an objection to the application of the theorem to the case in which
the motion of the fluid begins from rest. According to the views contained
in this paper, we are not in general at liberty to suppose (A.) to be an exact
differential when w, » and w vanish: this supposition can only be made when
the limiting value of ‘—2 (wda+vdy+wdz) is an exact differential, where
@ is so taken as that one at least of the terms in this expression does not
vanish when ¢ vanishes.

It is maintained by Prof. Challis that the received equations of hydro-
dynamics are not complete, as regards the analytical principles of the science,
and he has given a new fundamental equation, in addition to those received,
which he calls the equation of continuity of the motion}. On this equation
Prof. Challis rests a result at which he has arrived, and which all must allow
to be most important, supposing it correct, namely that whenever (A.) is an

exact differential the motion of the fluid is necessarily rectilinear, one peculiar
case of circular motion being excepted. As I have the misfortune to differ
from Professor Challis on the points mentioned in this and the preceding
paragraph, for reasons which cannot be stated here, it may be well to apprise
the reader that many of the results which will be mentioned further on as
satisfactory lie open to Prof. Challis’s objections.
___ By virtue of the equation of continuity of a homogeneous incompressible
- fluid, the expression wdy—vd-z will always be the exact differential of a
function of x and y. In the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions§ there
will be found some applications of this function, and of an analogous function
_ for the case of motion which is symmetrical about an axis, and takes place
: in planes passing through the axis. The former of these functions had been
_ previously employed by Mr. Earnshaw.
i II. In the investigations which come under this head, it is to be-understood
that the motion is supposed to be very small, so that first powers only of

i small quantities are retained, unless the contrary is stated.

* Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, vol. viii. p. 307.
+ Vol. xxiv. New Series, p. 94.
__ } Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, vol. viii. p. 31; and Philosophical

_ Magazine, vol. xxvi. New Series, Ps 425, § Vol. vii. p. 489,
By B2

4 REPORT—1846.

The researches of MM. Poisson and Cauchy were directed to the inves-
tigation of the waves produced by disturbing causes acting arbitrarily on a
small portion of the fluid, which is then left to itself. The mathematical
treatment of such cases is extremely difficult; and after all, motions of this
kind are not those which it is most interesting to investigate. Consequently
it is the simpler cases of wave motion, and those which are more nearly con-
nected with the phenomena which it is most desirable to explain, that have
formed the principal subject of more recent investigations. It is true that
there is one memoir by M. Ostrogradsky, read before the French Academy
in 1826*, to which this character does not apply. In this memoir the author
has determined the motion of the fluid contained in a cylindrical basin, sup-
posing the fluid at first at rest, but its surface not horizontal. The interest
of the memoir however depends almost exclusively on the mathematical
processes employed; for the result is very complicated, und has not been
discussed by the author. There is one circumstance mentioned by M. Planat
which increases the importance of the memoir in a mathematical point of
view, which is that Poisson met with an apparent impossibility in endea-
vouring to solve the same problem. I do not know whether Poisson’s attempt
was ever published.

Theory of Long Waves.—When the length of the waves whose motion is
considered is very great compared with the depth of the fluid, we may without
sensible error neglect the difference between the horizontal motions of dif-
ferent particles in the same vertical line, or in other words suppose the par-
ticles once in a vertical line to remain in a vertical line: we may also neglect
the vertical, compared with the horizontal effective force. These considera-
tions extremely simplify the problem; and the theory of long waves is very
important from its bearing on the theory of the tides. Lagrange’s solution
of the problem in the case of a fluid of uniform depth is well known. It is
true that Lagrange fell into error in extending his solution to cases to which
it does not apply; but there is no question as to the correctness of his result
when properly restricted, that is when applied to the case of long waves only.
There are however many questions of interest connected with this theory
which have not been considered by Lagrange. For instance, what will be
the velocity of propagation in a uniform canal whose section is not rectan-
gular? How will the form of the wave be altered if the depth of the fluid,
or the dimensions of the canal, gradually alter?

In a paper read before the Cambridge Philosophical Society in May 1837 t,
the late Mr. Green has considered the motion of long waves in a rectangular
canal whose depth and breadth alter very slowly, but in other respects quite
arbitrarily. Mr. Green arrived at the following results :—If 8 be the breadth,
and y the depth of the canal, then the height of the wave OC po y 4, the
horizontal velocity of the particles ina given phase of their motion OC Bt y—*
the length of the wave OC y®, and the velocity of propagation = gy. With
respect to the height of the wave, Mr. Russell was led by his experiments to
the same law of its variation as regards the breadth of the canal, and with
respect. to the effect of the depth he observes that the height of the wave
increases as the depth of the fluid decreases, but that the variation of the
height of the wave is very slow compared with the variation of the depth of
the canal.

In another paper read before the Cambridge Philosophical Society in

* Mémoires des Savans Etrangers, tom. iii. p. 23.

+ Turin Memoirs for 1835, p. 253.
} Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, vol. vi. p. 457.

ON RECENT RESEARCHES IN HYDRODYNAMICS. 5

_ February 1839*, Mr. Green has given the theory of the motion of long waves
in a triangular canal with one side vertical. Mr. Green found the velocity of
__ propagation to be the same as that in a rectangular canal of half the depth.

_ Ina memoir read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh in April 1839f,
Prof. Kelland has considered the case of a uniform canal whose section is of
any form. He finds that the velocity of propagation is given by the very

%
simple formula a/ Has where A is the area of a section of the canal, and

b the breadth of the fluid at the surface. This formula agrees with the ex-
periments of Mr. Russell, and includes as a particular case the formula of
Mr. Green for a triangular canal.

Mr. Airy, the Astronomer Royal, in his excellent treatise on Tides and
Waves, has considered the case of a variable caual with more generality than
Mr. Green, inasmuch as he has supposed the section to be of any form}. If
A, 6 denote the same things as in the last paragraph, only that now they are
supposed to vary slowly in passing along the canal, the coefficient of horizontal

8.1 ‘ eae, eee

displacement o¢ A~ * 5*, and that of the vertical displacement OC A” * 67%,
while the velocity of propagation at any point of the canal is that given by
the formula of the preceding paragraph. Mr. Airy has proved the latter
formula § in a more simple manner than Prof. Kelland, and has pointed out
the restrictions under which it is true. Other results of Mr. Airy’s will be

more conveniently considered in connection with the tides.

Theory of Oscillatory Waves.—When the surface of water is covered with

an irregular series of waves of different sizes, the longer waves will be con-
tinually overtaking the shorter, and the motion will be very complicated, and

_ will offer no regular laws. In order to obtain such laws we must take a
simpler case: we may for instance propose to ourselves to investigate the
motion of a series of waves which are propagated with a constant velocity,
and without change of form, in a fluid of uniform depth, the motion being in
two dimensions and periodical. A series of waves of this sort may be taken
as the type of oscillatory waves in general, or at least of those for which the
motion is in two dimensions: to whatever extent a series of waves propagated
in fluid of a uniform depth deviates from this standard form, to the sume ex-

tent they fail in the characters of uniform propagation and invariable form.
The theory of these waves has long been known. In fact each element of
the integrals by which MM. Poisson and Cauchy expressed the disturbance
of the fluid denotes what is called by Mr. Airy a standing oscillation, and a
_ progressive oscillation of the kind under consideration will result from the
_ superposition of two of these standing oscillations properly combined. Or,
if we merely replace products of sines and cosines under the integral signs
by sums and differences, each element of the new integrals will denote a
progressive oscillation of the standard kind. The theory of these waves how-
ever well deserves a more detailed investigation. The most important formula
connected with them is that which gives the relation between the velocity of
__ propagation, the length of the waves, and the depth of the fluid. Ife be the
__ velocity of propagation, A the length of the waves, measured from crest to

on

Risa 9
rest, i the depth of the fluid, and m = =, then

1
1s

es g ina p ET a
a es — a Cpe tr ° . . . . . (B.) :
& im ems | sm

i * Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, vol. vii. p. 87.

T Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xiv. pp. 524, 530.
t Encyclopedia Metropolitana, article ‘ Tides and Waves.’ Art. 260 of the treatise.
§ Art. 218, &c.

6 REPORT—1846.

If the surface of the fluid be cut by a vertical plane perpendicular to the
ridges of the waves, the section of the surface will be the curve of sines.
Each particle of the fluid moves round and round in an ellipse, whose major
axis is horizontal. The particle is in its highest position when the crest of
the wave is passing over it, and is then moving in the direction of propaga-
tion of the wave; it is in its lowest position when the hollow of the wave is
passing over it, and is then moving in a direction contrary to the direction
of propagation. At the bottom of the fluid the ellipse is reduced to a right
line, along which the particle oscillates. When the length of waves is very
small compared with the depth of the fluid, the motion at the bottom is in-
sensible, and all the expressions will be sensibly the same as if the depth were

infinite. On this supposition the expression for ¢ reduces itself to ie
T

The ellipses in which the particles move are replaced by circles, and the
motion in each circle is uniform. The motion decreases with extreme rapid-
ity as the point considered is further removed from the surface; in fact,
the coefficients of the horizontal and vertical velocity contain as a factor the
exponential e~”Y, where y is the depth of the particle considered below the
surface. When the depth of the fluid is finite, the Jaw of the horizontal and
vertical displacements of the particles is the same as when the depth is infi-
nite. When the length of the waves is very great compared with the depth
of the fluid, the horizontal motion of different particles in the same vertical
line is sensibly the same. The expression for ¢ reduces itself to ./gh, the
same as would have been obtained directly from the theory of long waves.
The whole theory is given very fully in the treatise of Mr. Airy*. The
nature of the motion of the individual particles, as deduced from a rigorous
theory, was taken notice of, I believe for the first time, by Mr. Green+, who
has considered the case in which the depth is infinite.

The oscillatory waves just considered are those which are propagated uni-
formly in fluid of which the depth is everywhere the same. When this con-
dition is not satisfied, as for instance when the waves are propagated in a
canal whose section is not rectangular, it is desirable to know how the velo-
city of propagation and the form of the waves are modified by this cireum-
stance. There is one such case in which a solution has been obtained. In
a paper read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh in January 1841, Prof.
Kelland has arrived at a solution of the problem in the case of a triangular
canal whose sides are inclined at an angle of 45° to the vertical, or of a canal
with one side vertical and one side inclined at an angle of 45°, in which the
motion will of course be the same as in one half of the complete canalj. The
velocity of propagation is given by the formula(B.), which applies to a rectan-
gular canal, or to waves propagated without lateral limitation, provided we

take for h half the greatest depth in the triangular canal, and for A, or *, a

quantity less than the length of the waves in the triangular canal in the ratio
of 1 to “2. As to the form of the waves, a section of the surface made by
a vertical plane parallel to the edges of the canal is the curve of sines; a
section made by a vertical plane perpendicular to the former is the common
catenary, with its vertex in the plane of the middle of the canal (supposed
complete), and its concavity turned upwards or downwards according as the
section is taken where the fluid is elevated or where it is depressed. Thus

* Tides and Waves, art. 160, &c.
+ Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, vol. vii. p. 95.
+ Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xv. p. 121.

wee?
*

a A
pac

y

ON RECENT RESEARCHES IN HYDRODYNAMICS. 7

the ridges of the waves do not bend forwards, but are situated in a vertical
plane, and they rise higher towards the slanting sides of the canal than in
the middle. I shall write down the value of ¢, the integral of (A.), and then
any one who is familiar with the subject can easily verify the preceding re-
sults. In the following expression x is measured along the bottom line of
the canal, y is measured horizontally, and z vertically upwards :—

g=A(e*¥ +27 *Y) (e%* +2 %*)sin VW 9a(x—ct). . +» +» (CG)

I have mentioned these results under the head of oscillatory waves, be-
cause it is to that class only that the investigation strictly applies. The
length of the waves is however perfectly arbitrary, and when it bears a large
ratio to the depth of the fluid, it seems evident that the circumstances of the
motion of any one wave cannot be materially affected by the waves which
precede and follow it, especially as regards the form of the middle portion, or
ridge, of the wave. Now the solitary waves of Mr. Russell are long com-
pared with the depth of the fluid; thus in the case of a rectangular canal he
states that the length of the wave is about six times the depth. Accordingly
Mr. Russell finds that the form of the ridge agrees well with the results of
Prof. Kelland.

It appears from Mr. Russell’s experiments that there is a certain limit to
the slope of the sides of a triangular canal, beyond which it is impossible to
propagate a wave in the manner just considered. Prof. Kelland has arrived
at the same result from theory, but his mathematical calculation does not
appear to be quite satisfactory. Nevertheless there can be little doubt that
such a limit does exist, and that if it be passed, the wave will be either con-
tinually breaking at the sides of the canal, or its ridge will become bow-
shaped, in consequence of the portion of the wave in the middle of the canal
being propagated more rapidly than the portions which lie towards the sides.
When once a wave has become sufficiently curved it may be propagated
without further change, as Mr. Airy has shown*. Thus the case of motion
above considered is in nowise opposed to the circumstance that the tide
Wave assumes a curved form when it is propagated in a broad channel in
which the water is deepest towards the centre.

It is worthy of remark, that if in equation (C.) we transfer the origin to
either of the upper edges of the canal (supposed complete), and then suppose

hk to become infinite, having previously written A e—“” for A, the result

will express a series of oscillatory waves propagated in deep water along the
edge of a bank having a slope of 45°, the ridges of the waves being perpen-
dicular to the edge of the fluid. It is remarkable that the disturbance of the
fluid decreases with extreme rapidity as the perpendicular distance from the
edge increases, and not merely as the distance from the surface increases.
Thus the disturbance is sensible only in the immediate neighbourhood of the
edge, that is at a distance from it, which is a small multiple of A. The for-
mula may be accommodated to the case of a bank having any inclination by
merely altering the coefficients of y and 2, without altering the sum of the
squares of the coefficients. If i be the inclination of the bank to the verti-
cal, it will be easily found that the velocity of propagation is equal to

eae era ta ‘
F cosi - When 7 vanishes these waves pass into those already men-

tioned as the standard case of oscillatory waves; and when 7 becomes nega-

tive, or the bank overhangs the fluid, a motion of this sort becomes im-
possible.

* Tides and Waves, art. 359.

8 REPORT—1846.

I have had occasion to refer to what Mr. Airy calls a standing oscillation
or standing wave. To prevent the possibility of confusion, it may be well
to observe that Mr. Airy uses the term in a totally different sense from Mr,
Russell. The standing wave of Mr. Airy is the oscillation which would re-
sult from the coexistence of two series of progressive waves, which are equal
in every respect, but are propagated in opposite directions. With respect to
the standing wave of Mr. Russell, it cannot be supposed that the elevations
observed in mountain streams can well be made the subject of mathematical
calculation. Nevertheless in so far as the: motion can be calculated, by
‘taking a simple case, the theory does not differ from that of waves of other
classes. For if we only suppose a velocity equal and opposite to that of the
stream impressed both on the fluid and on the stone at the bottom which
produces the disturbance, we pass to the case of a forced wave produced in
still water by a solid dragged through it. There is indeed one respect in
which the theory of these standing waves offers a peculiarity, which is, that
the velocity of a current is different at different depths. But the theory of
such motions is one of great complexity and very little interest.

Theory of Solitary Waves.—It has been already remarked that the length
of the solitary wave of Mr. Russell is considerable compared with the depth
of the fluid. Consequently we might expect that the theory of long waves
would explain the main phenomena of solitary waves. Accordingly it is
found by experiment that the velocity of propagation of a solitary wave in a
rectangular canal is that given by the formula of Lagrange, the height of the
wave being very small, or that given by Prof. Kelland’s formula when the
canal is not rectangular. Moreover, the laws of the motion of a solitary
wave, deduced by Mr. Green from the theory of long waves, agree with the
observations of Mr. Russell. Thus Mr.Green found, supposing the canal
rectangular, that the particles in a vertical plane perpendicular to the length
of the canal remain in a vertical plane; that the particles begin to move
when the wave reaches them, remain in motion while the wave is passing
over them, and are finally deposited in new positions; that they move in
the direction of propagation of the wave, or in the contrary direction, ac-
cording as the wave consists of an elevation or a depression*. But when we
attempt to introduce into our calculations the finite length of the wave, the
problem becomes one of great difficulty. Attempts have indeed been made
to solve it by the introduction of discontinuous functions. But whenever
such functions are introduced, there are certain conditions of continuity to
be satisfied at the common surface of two portions of fluid to which different
analytical expressions apply; and should these conditions be violated, the
solution will be as much in fault as it would be if the fluid were made to
penetrate the bottom of the canal. No doubt, the theory is contained, to a
first approximation, in the formule of MM. Poisson and Cauchy; but as it
happens the obtaining of these formule is comparatively easy, their discus-
sion forms the principal difficulty. When the height of the wave is not very
small, so that it is necessary to proceed to a second approximation, the theory
of long waves no longer gives a velocity of propagation agreeing with expe-
riment. It follows, in fact, from the investigations of Mr. Airy, that the velo-
city of propagation of a long wave is, to a second approximation, WV g(h+38h),
where # is the depth of the fluid when it is in equilibrium, and 4+£ the
height of the crest of the wave above the bottom of the canalf.

* Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, vol. vii. p. 87.

+ Tides and Waves, art. 208. In applying this formula to a solitary wave, it is necessary

to take for h the depth of the undisturbed portion of the fluid. In the treatise of Mr. Airy
the formula is obtained for a particular law of disturbance, but the same formula would have

ON RECENT RESEARCHES IN HYDRODYNAMICS. 9

_ The.theory of the two great solitary waves of Mr. Russell forms the sub-
_ ject of a paper read by Mr. Earnshaw before the Cambridge Philosophical
Society in December last*. Mr. Russell found by experiment that the hori-
zontal motion of the fluid particles was sensibly the same throughout the
whole of a vertical plane perpendicular to the length of the canal. He attri-
buted .the observed degradation of the wave, and consequent diminution of
_ the velocity of propagation, entirely to the imperfect fluidity of the fluid, and
its adhesion to the sides and bottom of the canal. Mr. Earnshaw accordingly
investigates the motion of the fluid on the hypotheses,—first, that the particles
once in a vertical plane, perpendicular to the length of the canal, remain in
a vertical plane; secondly, that the wave is propagated with a constant velo-
city and without change of form. It is important to observe that these
hypotheses are used not as a foundation for calculation, but as a means of
ing a particular kind of motion for consideration. The equations of
fluid motion admit of integration in this case in finite terms, without any
approximation, and it turns out that the motion is possible, so far as the wave
_ itself is concerned, and everything is determined in the result except two
constants, which remain arbitrary. However, in order that the motion in
question should actually take place, it is necessary that there should be an
instantaneous generation or destruction of a finite velocity, and likewise an
abrupt change of pressure, at the junction of the portion of fluid which con-
stitutes the wave with the portions before and behind which are at rest, both
which are evidently impossible. It follows of course that one at least of the
two hypotheses must be in fault. Experiment showing that the first hypo-
thesis is very nearly true, while the second (from whatever cause) is sensibly
erroneous, the conclusion is that in all probability the degradation of the
wave is not to be attributed wholly to friction, but that it is an essential cha-
racteristic of the motion. Nevertheless the formula for the velocity of pro-
pagation of the positive wave, at which Mr. Earnshaw has arrived, agrees very
well with the experiments of Mr. Russell; the formula for the negative wave
also agrees, but not closely. These two formule can be derived from each
other only by introducing imaginary quantities.

It is the opinion of Mr. Russell that the solitary wave is a phenomenon
suit generis, in nowise deriving its character from the circumstances of the
generation of the wave. His experiments seem to render this conclusion
probable. Should it be correct, the analytical character of the solitary wave
remains to be discovered. A-complete theory of this wave should give, not
_ only its velocity of propagation, but also the law of its degradation, at least

of that part of the degradation which is independent of friction, which is
_ probably by far the greater part. With respect*to the importance of this
_ peculiar wave however, it must be remarked that the term solitary wave, as
| so defined, must not be extended to the tide wave, which is nothing more (as
| far as regards the laws of its propagation) than a very long wave, of which
the form may be arbitrary. It is hardly necessary to remark that the me-
' chanical theories of the solitary wave and of the aérial sound wave are
| altogether different.

‘Ba Theory of River and Ocean Tides.—The treatise of Mr. Airy already referred
| to is so extensive, and so full of original matter, that it will be impossible ~
ithin the limits of a report like the present to do more than endeavour to

Lk ae

_ pes re , —
Bt pA ORE TAA PISS OS

given as expressing the velocity of propagation of the phase of high water, which it is true is
| not quite the same as the velocity of propagation of the crest of the wave; but the two velo-
| cities are the same to the second order of approximation.

-* Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, vol. viii. p. 326.

i i arrived at, by the same reasoning, had the law not been restricted. This formula is

10 REPORT—1846,

give an idea of the nature of the calculations and methods of explanation
employed, and to mention some of the principal results.

On account of the great length of the tide wave, the horizontal motion of
the water will be sensibly the same from top to bottom. This circumstance
most materially simplifies the calculation. The partial differential equation
for the motion of long waves, when the motion is very small, is in the simplest
case the same as that which occurs in the theory of the rectilinear propaga-
tion of sound; and in Mr. Airy’s investigations the arbitrary functions which
occur in its integral are determined by the conditions to be satisfied at the
ends of the canal in which the waves are propagated, in a manner similar to
that in which the arbitrary functions are determined in the case of a tube in
which sound is propagated. When the motion is not very small, the partial
differential equation of wave motion may be integrated by successive ap-
proximations, the arbitrary functions being determined at each order of ap-
proximation as before.

To proceed to some of the results. The simplest conceivable case of a
tidal river is that in which the river is regarded as a uniform, indefinite canal,
without any current. The height of the water at the mouth of the canal will
be expressed, as in the open sea, by a periodic function of the time, of the
form asin (mt+a). The result of a first approximation of course is that
the disturbance at the mouth of the canal will be propagated uniformly up
it, with the velocity due to half the depth of the water. But on proceeding to
a second approximation*, Mr. Airy finds that the form of the wave will alter
as it proceeds up the river. Its front will become shorter and steeper, and
its rear longer and more gently sloping. When the wave has advanced suf-
ficiently far up the river, its surface will become horizontal at one point in
the rear, and further on the wave will divide into two. At the mouth of the
river the greatest velocities of the ebb and flow of the tide are equal, and
occur at low and high water respectively ; the time during which the water
is rising is also equal to the time during which it is falling. But at a station
up the river the velocity of the ebb-stream is greater than that of the flow-
stream, and the rise of the water occupies less time than its fall. If the sta-
tion considered is sufficiently distant from the mouth of the river, and the
tide sufficiently large, the water after it has fallen some way will begin to
rise again: there will in fact be a double rise and fall of the water at each
tide. This explains the double tides observed in some tidal rivers. The
velocity with which the phase of high water travels up the river is found to
be V gk (1+3b), k being the depth of the water when in equilibrium, and
bk the greatest elevation of the water at the mouth of the river above its
mean level. The same formula will apply to the case of low water if we
change the sign of 6. ‘This result is very important, since it shows that the
. interval between the time of the moon’s passage over the meridian of the
river station and the time of high water will be affected by the height of the
tide. Mr. Airy also investigates the effect of the current in a tidal river. He
finds that the difference between the times of the water's rising and falling
is increased by the current.

When the canal is stopped by a barrier the circumstances are altered.
When the motion is supposed small, and the disturbing force of the sun and
moon is neglected, it is found in this case that the tide-wave is a stationary
waveT, so that there is high or low water at the same instant at every point
of the canal; but if the length of the canal exceeds a certain quantity, it is
high water in certain parts of the canal at the instant when it is low water

* Art. 198, &c, 7 Art. 307.

ON RECENT RESEARCHES IN HYDRODYNAMICS. ll

in the remainder, and vice versd. The height of high water is different in

different parts of the canal: it increases from the mouth of the canal to its

_ extremity, provided the canal’s length does not exceed a certain quantity. If

four times the length of the canal be any odd multiple of the length of a

free wave whose period is equal to that of the tide, the denominator of the

expression for the tidal elevation vanishes. Of course friction would pre-

_ yent the elevation from increasing beyond acertain amount, but still the tidal
oscillation would in such cases be very large.

When the channel up which the tide is propagated decreases in breadth
or depth, or in both, the height of the tide increases in ascending the channel.
This accounts for the great height of the tides observed at the head of the
Bristol Channel, and in such places. In some of these cases however the
great height may be partly due to the cause mentioned at the end of the last
paragraph.

When the tide-wave is propagated up a broad channel, which becomes
shallow towards the sides, the motion of the water in the centre will be of
the same nature as the motion in a free canal, so that the water will be flow-
ing up the channel with its greatest velocity at the time of high water.
Towards the coasts however there will be a considerable flow of water to
and from the shore; and as far as regards this motion, the shore will have
nearly the same effect as a barrier in a canal, and the oscillation will be of
the nature of a stationary wave, so that the water will be at rest when it is
_ at its greatest height. If, now, we consider a point at some distance from
_ the shore, but still not near the middle of the channel, the velocity of the

water up and down the channel will be connected with its height in the same

way as in the case of a progressive wave, while the velocity to and from the

shore will be connected with the height of the water in the same way as in a

stationary wave. Combining these considerations, Mr. Airy is enabled to

explain the apparent rotation of the water in such localities, which arises
_ from an actual rotation in the direction of its motion*.

When the motion of the water is in two dimensions the mathematical cal-
culation of the tidal oscillations is tolerably simple, at least when the depth
of the water is uniform. But in the case of nature the motion is in three

_ dimensions, for the water is distributed over the surface of the earth in broad
_ sheets, the boundaries of which are altogether irregular. On this account a
_ .eomplete theory of the tides appears hopeless, even in the case in which the
_ depth is supposed uniform. Laplace’s theory, in which the whole earth is
_ supposed to be covered with water, the depth of which follows a very pecu-
liar law, gives us no idea of the effect of the limitation of the ocean by conti-
_ nents. Mr. Airy consequently investigates the motion of the water on the
_ supposition of its being confined to narrow canals of uniform depth, which
in the calculation are supposed circular. The case in which the canal forms
_ a great circle is especially considered. This method enables us in some de-
gree to estimate the effect of the boundaries of the sea; and it has the great
__ advantage of leading to calculations which can be worked out. There can
be no doubt, too, that the conclusions arrived at will apply, as to their general

_ nature, to the actual case of the earth.
_ With a view to this application of the theory, Mr. Airy calculates the
_ Motion of the water in a canal when it is under the action of a disturbing
_ force, which is a periodic function of the time. The disturbing force at a
point whose abscissa, measured along tle canal from a fixed point, is 2, is
_ supposed to be expressed by a function of the form A sin (nt—ma+a).
_ This supposition is sufficiently general for the case of the tides, provided the

* Art. 360, &c.

.

-

T2 REPORT—1846.

canal on the earth be supposed circular. In all cases the disturbing force
will give rise to an oscillation in the water having the same period as the force
itself. This oscillation is called by Mr. Airy’a forced wave. It will be suf-
ficient here to mention some of the results of this theory as applied to the
case of the earth.

In all cases the expression for the tidal elevation contains as a denominator
the difference of the squares of two velocities, one the velocity of propagation
of a free wave along the canal, the other the velocity with which a particular
phase of the disturbing force travels along the canal, or, which is the same,
the velocity of propagation of the forced wave. Hence the height of the
tides will not depend simply on the magnitude of the disturbing force, but
also on its period. Thus the mass of the moon cannot be inferred directly
from the comparison of spring and neap tides, since the heights of the solar
and lunar tides are affected by the different motions of the sun and moon in
right ascension, and consequently in hour-angle. When the canal under
consideration is equatorial the diurnal tide vanishes. The height of high water
is the same at all points of the canal, and there is either high or low water at
the point of the canal nearest to the attracting body, according as the depth
of the water is greater or less than that for which a free wave would be pro-
pagated with the same velocity as the forced wave. In the general case there
is both a diurnal and a semidiurnal tide, and the height of high water, as well
as the interval between the transit of the attracting body over the meridian
of the place considered and the time of high water, is different at different
points of the canal. When the canal is a great circle passing through the
poles, the tide-wave is a stationary wave. When the coefficient of the dis-
turbing force is supposed to vary slowly, in consequence of the change in
declination, &c. of the disturbing body, it is found that the greatest tide oc-
curs on the day on which the disturbing force is the greatest.

The preceding results have been obtained on the supposition of the absence
of all friction; but Mr. Airy also takes friction into consideration. He sup-
poses it to be represented by a horizontal force, acting uniformly from top to
bottom of the water, and varying as the first power of the horizontal velocity.
Of course this supposition is not exact: still there can be no doubt that
it represents generally the effect of friction. When friction is taken into
account, the denominator of the expressions for the tidal elevation is essen-
tially positive, so that the motion can never become infinite. In the case of
a uniform tidal river stopped by a barrier, the high water is no longer simul-
taneous at all points, but the phase of high water always travels up the river.
But of all the results obtained by considering friction, the most important
appears to be, that when the slow variation of the disturbing force is taken
into account, the greatest tide, instead of happening on the day when the
disturbing force is greatest, will happen later by a certain time, p,. More-
over, in calculating the tides, we must use, not the relative positions of the sun
and moon for the instant for which the tide is calculated, but their relative
positions for a time earlier by the same interval p, as in the preceding case.
The expression for p, depends both on the depth of the canal and on the
period of the tide, and therefore its value for the diurnal tide cannot be
inferred from its value for the semidiurnal. It appears also that the phase of
the tide is accelerated by friction.

The mechanical theory of the tides of course belongs to hydrodynamics ;
but I do not conceive that the consideration of the reduction and discussion
of tidal observations falls within the province of this report.

Before leaving the investigations of Mr. Airy, I would call attention to a
method which he sometimes employs very happily in giving a general expla-

*

Al tiny eights ae, gg ROS

—e- 3 P

os

| He . ° . . . . . .
_ tered if we take into account the cooling of the air by its rapid dilatation.
|The experiments above alluded to were made by allowing the air to enter an

exhausted receiver through a small orifice, and observing simultaneously the

ON RECENT RESEARCHES IN HYDRODYNAMICS. 13

_ nation of phenomena depending on motions which are too complicated to

admit of accurate calculation. It is evident that any arbitrary motion may
be assigned to a fluid, (with certain restrictions as to the absence of abrupt-
hess, ) provided we suppose certain forces to act so asto produce them. The
values of these forces are given by the equations of motion. In some cases
the forces thus obtained will closely resemble some known forces ; while in
others it will be possible to form a clear conception of the kind of motion
which must take place in the absence of such forces. For example, sup-
posing that there is propagated a series of oscillatory waves of the standard
kind, except that the height of the waves increases proportionably to their
distance from a fixed line, remaining constant at the same point as the time
varies, Mr. Airy finds for the force requisite to maintain such a motion an
expression which may be assimilated to the force which wind exerts on water.
This affords a general explanation of the increase in the height of the waves
in passing from a windward to a lee shore*. Again, by supposing a series
of waves, as near the standard kind as circumstances will admit, to be pro-
pagated along a canal whose depth decreases slowly, and examining the force
requisite to maintain this motion, he finds that a force must be applied to
hold back the heads of the waves. In the absence, then, of such a force the
heads of the waves will have a tendency to shoot forwards. This explains
the tendency of waves to break over a sunken shoal or along a sloping
beacht. The word tendency is here used, because when a wave comes at all
near breaking, but little reliance can be placed in any investigation which
depends upon the supposition of the motion being small. To take one more
example of the application of this method, by supposing a wave to travel,
unchanged in form, along a canal, with a velocity different from that of a free
wave, and examining the force requisite to maintain such a motion, Mr. Airy
is enabled to give a general explanation of some very curious circumstances
connected with the motion of canal boats{; which have been observed by
Mr. Russell,

IIL. In the 16th volume of the ‘ Journal de l’Ecole Polytechnique §, will be
found a memoir by MM. Barré de Saint-Venant and Wantzel, containing the
results of some experiments on the discharge of air through small orifices,
produced by considerable differences of pressure. The formula for the ve-
locity of efflux derived from the theory of steady motion, and the supposition

_ that the mean pressure at the orifice is equal to the pressure at a distance

from the orifice in the space into which the discharge takes place, leads to
some strange results of such a nature as to make us doubt its correctness. If
we call the space from which the discharge takes place the first space, and
that into which it takes place the second space, and understand by the term
reduced velocity the velocity of efflux diminished in the ratio of the density
in the second space to the density in the first, so that the reduced velocity

- measures the rate of discharge, provided the density in the first space remain

constant, it follows from the common formula that the reduced velocity va-
nishes when the density in the second space vanishes, so that a gas cannot be

_ discharged into a vacuum. Moreover, if the density of the first space is given,
_ the reduced velocity is a maximum when the density in the second space is
‘rather more than half that in the first. The results remain the same if we

take account of the contraction of the vein, and they are not materially al-

* Art. 265, &c, + Art. 238, &c.
t Art. 405, &c. § Cahier xxvii. p. 85.

14 REPORT—1846.

pressure and temperature of the air in the receiver, and the time elapsed since
the opening of the orifice. It was found that when the exhaustion was com-
plete the reduced velocity had a certain value, depending on the orifice em-
ployed, and that the velocity did not sensibly change till the pressure of the
air in the receiver became equal to about 2ths of the atmospheric pressure.
The reduced velocity then began to decrease, and finally vanished when the
pressure of the air in the receiver became equal to the atmospheric pressure.

These experiments show that when the difference of pressure in the first
and second spaces is considerable, we can by uo means suppose that the mean
pressure at the orifice is equal to the pressure at a distance in the second
space, nor even that there exists a contracted vein, at which we may suppose
the pressure to be the same as at a distance. The authors have given an
empirical formula, which represents very nearly the reduced velocity, what-
ever be the pressure of the air in the space into which the discharge takes place.

The orifices used in these experiments were generally about one millimetre
in diameter. It was found that widening the mouth of the orifice, so as to
make it funnel-shaped, produced a much greater proportionate increase of
velocity when the velocity of efflux was small than when it was large. The
authurs have since repeated their experiments with air coming from a vessel in
which the pressure was four atmospheres: they have also tried the effect of
using larger orifices of four or five millimetres diameter. The general results
were found to be the same as before*.

IV. In the 6th volume of the Transactions of the Cambridge -Philoso-
phical Society, p. 403, will be found a memoir by Mr. Green on the re-
flection and refraction of sound, which is well-worthy of attention. This
problem had been previously considered by Poisson in an elaborate memoir.
Poisson treats the subject with extreme generality, and his analysis is con-
sequently very complicated. Mr. Green, on the contrary, restricts himself
to the case of plane waves, a case evidently comprising nearly all the pheeno-
mena connected with this subject which are of interest in a physical point of
view, and thus is enabled to obtain his results by a very simple analysis. In-
deed Mr. Green’s memoirs are very remarkable, both for the elegance and
rigour of the analysis, and for the ease with which he arrives at most im-
portant results. This arises in a great measure from his divesting the pro-
blems he considers of all unnecessary generality: where generality is really
of importance he does not shrink from it. In the present instance there is
one important respect in which Mr. Green’s investigation is more general
than Poisson’s, which is, that Mr. Green has taken the case of any two fluids,
whereas Poisson considered the case of two elastic fluids, in which equal con-
densations produce equal increments of pressure. It is curious, that Poisson,
forgetting this restriction, applied his formulz to the case of air and water.
Of course his numerical result is altogether erroneous. My. Green easily
arrives at the ordinary laws of reflection and refraction. He obtains also a
very simple expression for the intensity of the reflected sound. If A is the
ratio of the density of the second medium to that of the first, and B the ratio
of the cotangent of the angle of refraction to the cotangent of the angle of
incidence, then the intensity of the reflected sound is to the intensity of the
incident as A—Bto A+B. In this statement the intensity is supposed to
be measured by the first power of the maximum displacement. When the
velocity of propagation in the first medium is less than in the second, and the
angle of incidence exceeds what may be called the critical angle, Mr, Green
restricts himself to the case of vibrations following the cycloidal law. He

* Comptes Rendas, tom. xvii. p. 1140.
+ Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciences, tom. x. p. 317,

ON RECENT RESEARCHES IN HYDRODYNAMICS. 15

Ay
_ finds that the sound suffers total internal reflection. The expression for the
_ disturbance in the second medium involves an exponential with a negative
_ index, and consequently the disturbance becomes quite insensible at a di-
_ stance from the surface equal to a small multiple of the length of a wave.
_ The phase of vibration of the reflected sound is also accelerated by a quan-
tity depending on the angle of incidence. It is remarkable, that when the
_ fluids considered are ordinary elastic fluids, or rather when they are such
that equal condensations produce equal increments of pressure, the expres-
sions for the intensity of the reflected sound, and for the acceleration of
_ phase when the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle, are the same
as those given by Fresnel for light polarized in a plane perpendicular to the
plane of incidence.
VY. Not long after the publication of Poisson’s memoir on the simultaneous
motions of a pendulum and of the surrounding air*, a paper by Mr. Green
was read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, which is entitled ‘ Re-
searches on the Vibration of Pendulums in Fluid Media+.’ Mr. Green does
not appear to have been at that time acquainted with Poisson’s memoir. The
_ problem which he has considered is one of the same class as that treated by
Poisson. Mr. Green has supposed the fluid to be incompressible, a suppo-
_ sition, however, which will apply without sensible error to air, in considering
_ motions of this sort. Poisson regarded the fluid as elastic, but in the end, in
_ adapting his forthula to use, he has neglected as insensible the terms by
which the effect of an elastic differs from that of an inelastic fluid. The
_ problem considered by Mr. Green is, however, in one respect much more
general than that solved by Poisson, since Mr. Green has supposed the oscil-
lating body to be an ellipsoid, whereas Poisson considered only a sphere.
_ Mr. Green has obtained a complete solution of the problem in the case in
_ which the ellipsoid has a motion of translation only, or in which the small
_ motion of the fluid due to its motion of rotation is neglected. The result is
_ that the resistance of the fluid will be allowed for if we suppose the mass of
the ellipsoid increased by a mass bearing a certain ratio to that of the fluid
displaced. In the general case this ratio depends on three transcendental
quantities, given by definite integrals. If, however, the ellipsoid oscillates in
3 the direction of one of its principal axes, the ratio depends on one only of
_ these transcendents. When the ellipsoid passes into a spheroid, the tran-
_ scendents above-mentioned can be expressed by means of circular or loga-
_ rithmic functions. When the spheroid becomes a sphere, Mr. Green’s result
_ agrees with Poisson’s. It is worthy of remark, that Mr. Green’s formula will
enable us to calculate the motion of an ellipse or oircle oscillating in a fluid,
_ in a direction perpendicular to its plane, since a material ellipse or circle may
_ be considered as a limiting form of an ellipsoid. In this case, however, the
motion would probably have to be extremely small, in order that the formula
should apply with accuracy.
__ Ina paper ‘On the Motion of a small Sphere acted on by the Vibrations of
_ an Elastic Medium,’ read before the Cambridge Philosophical Society in April
_ 1841, Prof. Challis has considered the motion of a ball pendulum, retaining
in his solution small quantities to the second order. The principles adopted
by Prof. Challis in the solution of this problem are at variance with those of
Poisson, and have given rise to a controversy between him and Mr. Airy,
7... will be found in the 17th, 18th and 19th volumes of the Philosophical

w+

Ton

_____-* Mémoires de I’Académie des Sciences, tom. xi. p. 521.

__ * This paper was read in December 1833, and is printed in the 13th volume of the So-
_ ¢iety’s Transactions, p. 54, &c. i i

___ ¢ Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, vol. vii. p. 333.

‘
’

16 REPORT—1846.

Magazine (New Series). In the paper just referred to, Prof. Challis finds that
when the fluid is incompressible there is no decrement in the arc of oscilla-
tion, except what arises from friction and capillary attraction. In the case
of air there is a slight theoretical decrement; but it is so small that Prof.
Challis considers the observed decrement to be mainly owing to friction.
This result follows also from Poisson’s solution. Prof. Challis also finds that
a small sphere moving with a uniform velocity experiences no resistance, and
that when the velocity is partly uniform and partly variable, the resistance
depends on the variable part only. The problem, however, referred to in
the title of this paper, is that of calculating the motion of a small sphere
situated in an elastic fluid, and acted on by no forces except the pressure of
the fluid, in which an indefinite series of plane condensing and rarefying
waves is supposed to be propagated. This problem is solved by the author on
principles similar to those which he has adopted in the problem of an oscil-
lating sphere. The views of Prof. Challis with respect to this problem, which
he considers a very important one, are briefly stated at the end of a paper
published in the Philosophical Magazine*.

In a paper ‘On some Cases of Fluid Motion,’ published in the Trans-
actions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society+, I have considered some
modifications of the problem of the ball pendulum, adopting in the main the
principles of Poisson, of the correctness of which I feel fully satisfied, but
supposing the fluid incompressible from the first. In this paper the effect of
a distant rigid plane interrupting the fluid in which the sphere is oscillating is
given to the lowest order of approximation with which the effect is sensible.
It is shown also that when the ball oscillates in a concentric spherical enve-
lope, the effect of the resistance of the fluid is to add to the mass of the
= 5° where a is the radius of the ball, 6 that
of the envelope, and m the mass of the fluid displaced. Poisson, having
reasoned on the very complicated case of an elastic fluid, had come to the
conclusion that the envelope would have no effect.

One other instance of fluid motion contained in this paper will here be
mentioned, because it seems to afford an accurate means of comparing theory
and experiment in a class of motions in which they have not hitherto been
compared, so far as I am aware. When a box of the form of a rectangular
parallelepiped, filled with fluid and closed on all sides, is made to perform small
oscillations, it appears that the motion of the box will be the same as if the
fluid were replaced by a solid having the same mass, centre of gravity, and
principal axes as the solidified fluid, but different principal moments of in-
ertia. These moments are given by infinite series, which converge with
extreme rapidity, so that the numerical calculation is very easy. The oscil-
lations most convenient to employ would probably be either oscillations by
torsion, or bifilar oscillations.

VI. M. Navier was, I believe, the first to give equations for the motion of
fluids without supposing the pressure equal in all directions. His theory is
contained in a memoir read before the French Academy in 1822{. He con-
siders the case of a homogeneous incompressible fluid. He supposes such a
fluid to be made up of ultimate molecules, acting on each other by forces
which, when the molecules are at rest, are functions simply of the distance,
but which, when the molecules recede from, or approach to each other, are
modified by this cireumstance, so that two molecules repel each other less

sphere a mass equal to

strongly when they are receding, and more strongly when they are approaching, -

* Vol. xviii. New Series, p. 481. t Vol. viii. p. 105.
t Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciences, tom. vi. p. 389.

ON RECENT RESEARCHES IN HYDRODYNAMICS. 17

_ than they do when they are at rest*. The alteration of attraction or re-
pulsion is supposed to be, for a given distance, proportional to the velocity
with which the molecules recede from, or approach to each other; so that
the mutual repulsion of two molecules will be represented by f(r) — VF (r);
where r is the distance of the molecules, V the velocity with which they recede
from each other, and f(r), F (7) two unknown functions of 7 depending on
the molecular force, and as such becoming insensible when 7 has become
sensible. This expression does not suppose the molecules to be necessarily
receding from each other, nor their mutual action to be necessarily repulsive,
since V and F (7) may be positive or negative. It is not absolutely necessary
that f(7) and F (7) should always have the same sign. In forming the equa-
tions of motion M. Navier adopts the hypothesis of a symmetrical arrangement
of the particles, or at least, which leads to the same result, neglects the irre-
gular part of the mutual action of neighbouring molecules. The equations
at which he arrives are those which would be obtained from the common
@u du du 7 f = h
(Gatgetae) in place of 5 in the
first, and making similar changes in the second and third. AS is nae an
_ unknown constant depending on the nature of the fluid.

The same subject has been treated on by Poisson, who has adopted hy-
potheses which are very different from those of M. Navier. Poisson's theory
is of this nature. He supposes the time ¢ to be divided into 2 equal parts,
each equal to 7. In the first of these he supposes the fluid to be displaced
in the same manner as an elastic solid, so that the pressures in different
_ directions are given by the equations which he had previously obtained for
elastic solids. If the causes producing the displacement were now to cease

to act, the molecules would very rapidly assume a new arrangement, which
would render the pressure equal in all directions, and while this re-arrange-
ment was going on, the pressure would alter in an unknown manner from
that belonging to a displaced elastic solid to the pressure belonging to the
fluid in its new state. The causes of displacement are however going on
_ during the second interval 7; but since these different small motions will
_ take place independently, the new displacement which will take place in the
second interval 7 will be the same as if the molecules were not undergoing a
: " re-arrangement. Supposing now z to become infinite, we pass to the case in
which the fluid is continually beginning to be displaced like an elastic solid,
| continually re-arranging itself so as to make the pressure equal in all
directions. The equations at which Poisson arrived are, in the cases of a
romogencous incompressible fluid, and of an elastic fluid in which the change
of density is small, those which would be derived from the common equations”

d
equations by writing ~ —

d
| py replacing 7’ <P iin the first by

dp _ du ald i se lh es
dx dat dy? +o BE dy dz

% and making similar changes in the second and third. In these equations a.
and B are two unknown constants. It will be observed that Poisson’s equa-
ions reduce themselves to Navier's in the case of an incompressible fluid.

___ The same subject has been considered in a quite different point of view by
™M. Barré de Saint-Venant, in a communication to the French Academy in

* This idea appears to have been borrowed from Dubuat. See his Principes d’Hydrau-
_ lique, tom. ii. p. 60.
| Y Journal de l’Ecole Polytechnique, tom. xiii, cah. 20. p. 139.

|

18 REPORT—1846.

1843, an abstract of which is contained in the ‘Comptes Rendus*.’ The
principal difficulty is to connect the oblique pressures in different directions

du du
about the same point with the differential coefficients Ts ’ ag &c., which

express the relative motion of the fluid particles in the immediate neighbour-
hood of that point. This the author accomplishes by assuming that the tan-
gential force on any plane passing through the point in question is in the
direction of the principal sliding (glissement) along that plane. The sliding

along the plane wy is measured by Tz +5 in the direction of x, and

d
oy + 7 in the direction of y. These two slidings may be compounded

into one, which will form the principal sliding along the plane ay. It is
then shown, by means of M. Cauchy’s theorems connecting the pressures in
different directions in any medium, that the tangential force on any plane
passing through the point considered, resolved in any direction in that plane,
is proportional to the sliding along that plane resolved in the same direction,
so that if T represents the tangential force, referred to a unit of surface, and
S the sliding, T=eS. The pressure on a plane in any direction is then
found. ‘This pressure is compounded of a normal pressure, alike in all di-
rections, and a variable oblique pressure, the expression for which contains
the one unknown quantity ¢. If the fluid be supposed incompressible, and
é constant, the equations which would be obtained by the method of M.Barré
de Saint-Venant agree with those of M. Navier. It will be observed that
this method does not require the consideration of ultimate molecules at all.

When the motion of the fluid is very small, Poisson’s equations agree with
those given by M. Cauchy for the motion of a solid entirely destitute of elas-
ticity +, except that the latter do not contain the pressure p. These equations
have been obtained by M. Cauchy without the consideration of molecules.
His method would apply, with very little change, to the case of fluids.

In a paper read last year before the Cambridge Philosophical Society}, I
have arrived at the equations of motion in a different manner. The method

employed in this paper does not necessarily require the consideration of ulti- ”

mate molecules. Its principal feature consists in eliminating from the rela-
tive motion of the fluid about any particular point the relative motion which
corresponds to a certain motion of rotation, and examining the nature of the
relative motion which remains. The equations finally adopted in the cases
of a homogeneous incompressible fluid, and of an elastic fluid in which the
change of density is small, agree with those of Poisson, provided we suppose
in the latter A= 3B. It is shown that this relation between A and B may
be obtained on Poisson’s own principles.

The equations hitherto considered are those which must be satisfied at any
point in the interior of the fluid mass; but there is hardly any instance of
the practical application of the equations, in which we do not want to know
also the particular conditions which must be satisfied at the surface of the

fluid. With respect to a free surface there can be little doubt: the condi-

tion is simply that there shall be no tangential force on a plane parallel to
the surface, taken immediately within the fluid. As to the case of a fluid in
contact with a solid, the condition at which Navier arrived comes to this:
that if we conceive a small plane drawn within the fluid parallel to the sur-

* Tom. xvii. p. 1240.

+ Exercices de Mathématiques, tom. iii. p. 187.

t Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, yol. viii, p. 287.

ON RECENT RESEARCHES IN HYDRODYNAMICS. 19

- face of the solid, the tangential force on this plane, referred to a unit of
‘surface, shall be in the same direction with, and proportional to the velocity
with which the fluid flows past the surface of the solid. The condition ob-
eeened by Poisson is essentially the same.

_ Dubuat stated, as a result of his experiments, that when the velocity of
Toxater flowing through a pipe is less than a certain quantity, the water adja-
> _ cent to the surface of the pipe is at rest*. This result agrees very well with

an experiment of Coulomb’s. Coulomb found that when a metallic dise was
made to oscillate very slowly in water about an axis passing through its
centre and perpendicular to its plane, the resistance was not altered when
the dise was smeared with grease; and even when the grease was covered
_ with powdered sandstone the resistance,was hardly increased}. This is just
what one would expect on the supposition that the water close to the disc is
_ earried along with it, since in that case the resistance must depend on the
~ internal friction of the fluid; but the result appears very extraordinary on
the supposition that the fluid in contact with the disc flows past it with a
nite velocity. It should be observed, however, that this result is compatible
‘with the supposition that a thin film of fluid remains adhering to the dise, in
onsequence of capillary attraction, and becomes as it were solid, and that
the fluid in contact with this film flows past it with a finite velocity. If we
‘consider Dubuat’s supposition to be correct, the condition to be assumed in
the case of a fluid in contact with a solid is that the fluid does not move re-
latively to the solid. This condition will be included in M. Navier’s, if we
‘suppose the coefficient of the velocity when M. Navier’s condition is ex-
pressed analytically, which he denotes by E, to become infinite. It seems
probable from the experiments of M. Girard, that the condition to be satis-
ed at the surface of fluid in contact with a solid is different according as the
fluid does or does not moisten the surface of the solid.
___M.Navier has applied his theory to the results of some experiments of
-M. Girard’s on the discharge of fluids through capillary tubes. His theory
shows that if we suppose E to be finite, the discharge through extremely
all tubes will depend only on E, and not on A. The law of discharge at
ich he arrives agrees with the experiments of M. Girard, at least when the
es are extremely small. M. Navier explained the difference observed by
: Girard in the discharge of water through tubes of glass and tubes of
opper of the same size by supposing the value of E different in the two
es. This difference was explained by M. Girard himself by supposing that
n film of fluid remains adherent to the pipe, in consequence of molecular
ion, and that the thickness of this film differs withthe substance of which
tube is composed, as well as with the liquid employed{. If we adopt
vier’s explanation, we may reconcile it with the experiments of Coulomb
supposing that E is very large, so that unless the fluid is confined in a

harrow pipe, the results will depend mainly on A, being sensibly the
ne as they would be if E were infinite.
There is one circumstance connected with the motion of a ball-pendulum
scillating in air, which has not yet been accounted for, the explanation of
Which seems to depend on this theory. It is found by experiment that the
orrection for the inertia of the air is greater for small than for large spheres,
t is to say, the mass which we must suppose added to that of the sphere
a greater ratio to the mass of the fluid displaced in the former, than in
atter case. According to the common theory of fluid motion, in which

* See the Table given in tom. i. of his Principes d’Hydraulique, p.93.

+ Mémoires de l'Institut, 1801, tom. iii. p. 286.
} Mémoires de l’Académie des "Sciences, tom. i. pp. 203 and 234,

C2

20 REPORT—1846.

everything is supposed to be perfectly smooth, the ratio ought to be inde-
pendent of the magnitude of the sphere. In the imperfect theory of friction
in which the friction of the fluid on the sphere is taken into account, while
the equal and opposite friction of the sphere on the fluid is neglected, it is
shown that the are of oscillation is diminished, while the time of oscillation
is sensibly the same as before. But when the tangential action of the sphere
on the fluid, and the internal friction of the duid itself are considered, it is
clear that one consequence will be, to speak in a general way, that a portion
of the fluid will be dragged along with the sphere. Thus the correction for
the inertia of the fluid will be increased, since the same moving force has now
to overcome the inertia of the fluid dragged along with the sphere, and not
only, as in the former case, the inertia of the sphere itself, and of the fluid
pushed away from before it, and drawn in behind it. Moreover the addi-
tional correction for inertia must depend, speaking approximately, on the
surface of the sphere, whereas the first correction depended on its volume,
and thus the effect of friction in altering the time of oscillation will be more
conspicuous in the case of small, than in the case of large spheres, other cir-
cumstances being the same. The correction for inertia, when friction is
taken into account, will not, however, depend solely on the magnitude of the
sphere, but also on the time of oscillation. With a given sphere it will be
greater for long, than for short oscillations.

Sixth Report of a Committee, consisting of H. EK. Srrickuanp, Esq.,
Prof. DauBeny, Prof. HeEnstow, and Prof. Linpury, appointed
to continue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds.

THESE experiments have again been repeated upon 48 kinds of seeds ga-
thered in 1843, as well as upon 26 kinds of new seeds added to the general
collection in 1845.

Many kinds‘of old seeds, of various dates from 1812 to 1845 inclusive,
consisting of 151 packets, have been contributed by Miss Molesworth. These
were for the most part in small quantities, and were sown only at Oxford, on
a slight hot-bed.

A small quantity of soil from the bed of a freshwater lake of the tertiary
period, at Mundesley, Norfolk, containing scales of fish, elytra of beetles,
seeds of Ceratophyllum and other plants from Sir W. C. Trevelyan, was sub-
jected to three tests; viz. one-third part was placed in a shallow pan, and
kept moist with distilled water; the second portion was kept well-saturated
with the same; and the third portion, also in a shallow pan, under about
one inch of distilled water. The whole was kept under a glass case to pre-
vent the chance of seeds, &c. being deposited in it. No vegetation appeared
in either case.

It may be well to remark, that the seeds have been sown under different
circumstances, and have received different treatment at each of the three
places they have been experimented upon. At Oxford, as in previous years, -
a selection was made from the whole quantity to be sown, of such as usually
require the assistance of heat to enable them to germinate ; these were sown
in pots and placed in slight heat, and the remainder were sown on a small
bed made in a cold frame, and, with the exception of two or three waterings,
left to nature.

At Hitcham they were all sown in a border carefully prepared for them,
and afterwards left to nature.

ON THE VITALITY OF SEEDS, | 21

At Chiswick the whole of the seeds were sown in separate pots and placed

in a pit heated with hot water.
- These several treatments will at once account for the great difference there
has been in many cases between the length of time the seeds required to

vegetate, as well as the greater number of seeds which did vegetate at one

place more than at the other, which will be seen on referring to the following
statement of the results.

No. of Seeds of each : :
Species which vege- | Time of vegetating
e tated at in days at
Name and Date when gathered. A ee ae aE TTY
Ox- |,,. Chis-} Ox- | ,..
ford, | Hitcham.| wick.| ford. Hitcham.

—
.

Asphodelus luteus .........+0

. Arctium Lappa

. Angelica Archangelica

. Ageratum mexicanum

. Aster tenella ,

. Allium fragrans

Bidens diversifolia

. Biscutella erigerifolia

. Borkhausia rubra

. Bartonia aurea

. Callistemma hortensis

. Campanula Medium
Centaurea depressa

. Cladanthus arabicus

. Cleome spinosa

. Cnicus arvensis Bad in 1844,

. Convolvulus major

. Dianthus barbatus....... Seer

. Echium grandiflorum

. Eucharidium concinnum ...
Euphorbia Lathyris

. Gypsophila elegans
Helenium Douglasii

. Hebenstreitia tenuifolia
Heliophila araboides
Hesperis matronalis .........

« Hypericum hirsutum....... ne

. Kaulfussia amelloides
Koniga maritima ..,..........
Leptosiphon androsacea

. Lunaria biennis

Loasa lateritia

ONS Ste Go bo

Cnanthe Crocata
. Phytolacca decandra .....
. Plantago media
Polemonium czeruleum
. Rumex obtusifolium .........
. Silene inflata
« Smyrnium Olusatrum
. Schizanthus pinnatus.........
. Tallinum ciliatum

. Tigridia Pavonia
. Valeriana officinalis
. Viola lutea vars

22 REPORT—1846.

‘gate cnpigh—s ipa of eerste
No tated at days at
Name and Date when gathered. sown. | eae lcuveatenal Remarks
‘ -| Ox- "|
fond, Hitcham. bie ford. Hitcham. mri
1845.
49. Ailanthus glandulosa ........ 50 | 20 7 | 36| 382 51 25
50. Alnus glutinosa .....++++..00+ 1 ST BE ea decen (LM Meaass| Sees swese 40
51. Alons0a iNcisa «...cesses«ssees| 100 |iesere DP AZ Wasceos) cosescces 30
52. Beta vulgaris ....... etd heat 75) 73 10 | 63] 6 14 | 35
53. Browallia elata ............00. BO seg HL he teek, BOC TtAD. | teens 30
54. Chrysanthemum coronarium| 150 | 55 15/104 |...... 12 | 20
55. Cytisus albus ..... ged. fissearet 100 | 20 2 | 63 | 10 25 | 40
56. Eccremocarpus scaber ...... ROO teens f\'vecedoase Pel nee lieiesepebue 30
57. Fagus sylvatica .........c00+. MOD 949] eeccdsace 76 {110 |.......4 40
58. Fumaria spicata ......... Besees 100 | 17 1 | 80 | 36 | ......55 20
59. Gaillardia aristata ............ TOD ccccil deesdcace 87 Wevtccclioecesssst 35
60. Gleditschia triacanthos ...... QO |sis-6| covssread [osboon|ssevee| sesevceee
Gs Aris, SPivssicecasscocedounas sats ID. [owae th evcedecte Wa teccelweleescae 35
62. Knautia orientalis ............ 50 | 6 4 | 29 | 12 18 | 30
63. Lopezia racemosa ..... aseboep 150 | 26 64 (122) 6 14 | 30
64. Lymnanthes Douglasii ...... 50 | 14 35 | 42] 6 13 | 18
65. Petunia odorata .........s0000. LEO TOU secede. ap ESE sccccetlaneses we | 25
66. Schizopetalon Walkeri ......| 50 | 26 24 | 46] 5 ll | 18
67. Secale cereale.........sssessees 200 |160 | 102* 1194] 5 Tap
68. Spartium Scoparium .........) 200 | 5 |......... 117 Joeceee] coeeeeees 40
69. Tagetes lucida ......... vey ROUNpecovsl dtneds can 139 |...000) wecseeees 20
70. Verbena Aubletia ............ 100 | 5 Le 4O sO iscesaces 25
71. Viscaria oculata....0....s00.0. 150 }...00. 2 LSS lasvees 10 | 20
72. Xeranthemum annuum...... OWE coeet| axe dees si MAPaieaks ssl tacespenee 25
Just LOR MAYS lescecestvets.cacetees 100 | 98 Diath has Jae bak 22 | 35
74. Zinnia grandiflora ............ MOO aecicecace SU 5 [3242.3) Seesss 25

From Miss Molesworth :—

z é Ee ! so ‘ a
gE) 2 |B é|3|Ps
Name and Date. a & SA Name and Date. a to | 5.8
a) ben In 6] Fle 2
“12 \é3 “| 3 \83
1812. 1828.
1. Ricinus communis ...... 12; 0 15, Aster lactea .....ssseses 100} 0
16. Galium lucidum......... 8} 0
2. Catananche cerulea ...|100 | 0 17. Helianthemum croceum|100 | 0
5. Cucurbita Citrullus ...) 15 | 0 1829.
1825. 18. Cucurbita, Cucuzza di
4. Swiss Melon ......... «| 5} O Spagna......... ssedeaes Zip
1827. 19. —, Cucuzza Tiascheta 54] 0
5. Brassica, white Cauli- 20. Dory cnium monspeli-
MOWER! Seicicvaccscnscter 100 | 0 ONSE seiacccsscvescoonsbete 100} 0
6. —, Brocoli di Carnivale|100 | 0 21. Hypericum fimbriatum |100 | 0
7. —,— Primotice ...... 100 | 0 92,, Miltum. ©... 6. cssivcoodsd 100} 0
8. —, Cavoli Feguti ...... 100 | 0 28. Rumex alpinus ......... 30} 0
9. Cucurbita Citrullus ...| 10 | 0 P
NOs" Melon ceass tre edsbco cd, ede 30) 0 24, Cytisus leucanthus...... 100 | 0
11. Green Melon .......<..4. 50 | 0 25. Genista candicans ...... 16} 0
12. Water Melon............ 30 | 0 26. Sorghum vulgare ...... 150} 9
Ass.) Hy periGHI .isssencctecss 150 | 0 27. Zea Mays ....cc0cssees.,.,100 | 0
14. Spinacea Oleracea ...... 50 | 0

* At Hitcham, of 3 left, 2 did not flower, and the other produced no seed.

.

1 G5. Cassia, Sp. ...cesceeseeses 40

| 66. Euphorbia arkanocarpa}100
{| 67. — Characias .,.......... 80
| G8. Galega sibirica .....:...}110
69. Heracleum asperum ...|100

| 70. Malva, sp. s.....eesccees 80
71. From Malta ........... 8
MPMOUIIEED aco ceccesccsscansces Ay

PRPDE ENE! a ctaVsvcstasosvctecs 8

WAL Memoja \.i..c806250 58055. 5

} 33. Linaria genistifolia......

eee te

52. Scrophulariagrandiflora|200
1835.
58. Cucurbita ......ceseceee 50
| 54, Echinops, sp. ............ 3
55. Heracleum asperum ...| 35
| 56. Gnothera, sp. ........ 200
57. Orobus lathyroides...... 31
58. Podalyria exaltata ...... 36

| 61. Augusta Beans
| 62. Cassia Canarina.........

64, —, from Lisbon.........

al 76. Papaver sominiferum ...
77. Pyrethrum microphyl-

gE
Name and Date. 3
Zz

1832.
28. Calendula, sp.......s0++| 50
29. Cucurbita Cucuzza...... 40

40
29
100
100
50
18

82. Gypsophila altissima ...

34, Phaseolus compressus
35. Podalyria tinctoria......

1833.
36. Cucurbita, | Candahar
Water Melon ..... «. 50
37. Cucuzza Lunga ........ 5
38. — di Spagna ...... badges 20
39. Mellone di Acqua ...... 90
40. — di Pane Bianca...... 50
41, — della Regina......... 50
42, Orange Gourd ......... 40
43. Cucumber, Kabul ...... 5
1884.
44, Catananche cerulea ...|200
| 45. Coix lachryma ........ 1
AG. Gourd..........sseeseeeees 5
| 47. Valencian Melon ...... 50
48. Iris prismatica ......... 10
49, Pinus Pinea .........04 19
| 50. Plantago bonariensis ...}100

51. Sambucus racemosa .

. Tetragonia expansa ...
Verbascum virgatum ...
1836

75. Enothera, sp.........204.

Rite ate bas. desncssostss
78. Saponaria, sp.............
79. Tragopogon pratensis

No. vegetated.

i]
i)

ocoooocomws

—_

s —— a — i —

oO eceosceoooso ScoowosesSe

oT

ocoe copmpocooesooNroocorscre

Time of vege-
tating in days.

“No

E
Name and Date. a
z
1837.
80. Aubergines......seseesea 150
81. Melon.......0... diusianza «.|150
82. Piments ....,.isessasesees 100
83. Tomates ........s02seeeees 100
1838.
84. Anchusa ochroleuca ...| 14
85. Melon from Cassabah ..| 15
86. Water Melon.........«. 10
87. Melon from Valparaiso} 5
88. Cynoglossum, sp. ...... 20
89. Papaver somniferum ...|150
90.. Pinus nigricans ......... 30
91. Tragopogon, Sp.........- 22
G2. 2 Cassia ......cescenseeees 20
93. ? Dolichos ............ +e.| 50
1839.
94, Augusta Beans ......... 50
95. Calliopsis ........0..+... 150
96. Lapsana communis 100
97. Lepidium Draba ...... 50
58. Pisum, Sp: .-+-.ssccesbess 50:
99. Prunella vulgaris ...... 150
100. Ricinus communis...... 7
101. Salvia verbenaca ...... 200
1840.
102. Calliopsis tinctoria...... 150
103. Chenopodium Quinoa |200
104. Canada Beans ......... 50
105. Balsamina hortensis ...|150
106. Gnothera grandifiora...|100
107. Ornithogalum nutans...) 80
108. Ricinus communis...... 10
109. Salvia patens ............ 12
1841.
110, Algoa Bay %....s.-.se0 1
111. Canada Beans..........+ 16
112. Ferula, sp. ........sseeee. 38
113. Papaver somniferum ...|150
114, Physospermum commu-
TAtUM © s..ccsecscsescdous 100
115. Rumex, sp........seeeeeee 30
116, Salvia, sp. ...........s0-- 150
117.- Vicia grandiflora .....: 150
118. Fullard’s German Mar-
TOW Fat. scssosssveeeees
1842.
119. Brassica, Rapa oleifera |100
120. Ervum, sp...........2s... 100
121. Gossypium ? vitifolium| 8
122. Malva moschata......... 100
123. Melilotus macrorhiza...|100
124. Papaver somniferum .../150
125. Phacelia tanacetifolia...|150
126. Trifolium giganticum...|190
127, —, Alsike Clover ...... 100
128. Vicia sativa............6+ 100

ON THE VITALITY OF SEEDS.

No. vegetated.

_

moocoooors

oo
im")

i]

cs
eccoococ

De
coooorenwncow

to
130)

Time of vege-
tating in days.

11
il

36
10

123

~

_
oo MN OoF

~

24 ‘ REPORT—1846.

3138 | 2/38
|= \F | 2 | 23
Name and Date. | & [ss Name and Date. ste (es
$) 5 |82 213 |\83
“|2 les z |e
1843. 1844,
129. Cheiranthus, sp.......... 80 | 388 | 7 ||141. Augusta Beans ......... 5| 5
130. Dianthus chinensis...... 150 | 62 | 8 |142. Cobbett’s Wheat ......) 27 | 12
131. Diplotaxis tenuifolia ....300 | 4 | 19 1845.
132. Augusta Beans ......... 30 | 30 | 9 ||143. Augusta Beans ......... 30 | 27
133. Linum usitatissimum ...|200 | 56 | 7 |\144. Cobbett’s Wheat ...... 15 | 14
134. Melilotus leucantha ...|100 | 60 | 7 About 23 years old.
135. Onopordon tauricum...|150 | 22 | 10 |145. Cashew Nut ........+ oa: Aa ealD
136. — acanthium............ 100 | 40 | 10 |\146. Brazil Nut ............... 1
137. Trifolium giganticum.../100 | 38 | 4 147. Longan .s......seeseeeees 2| 0
135. —, Alsike Clover ...... 100 | 0 148. Quercus, Sp. secceecesers 4| 0
139. Vicia lutea ..............- 100 | 27 | 31 |/149. — Aigilops..........++... 3| 0
140. Fullard’s German Mar- 150. Ricinus .......-scccesress 5| 0
FOWAEAG toknannspchee === 150 |100 | 7 |151. Rhizobolus Pekza ...... 1| 0

W. H. Baxter, Curator.

On the Colouring Matters of Madder. By Dr. Scuuncx.

Tue organic colouring matters present such a wide tield for inquiry, that it
would require the labour of years to enable one person fully to elucidate their
properties, or even to bring this department of organic chemistry into a state
of development proportionate to the present condition of the science. The
substances included under the name of colouring matters by no means agree
in their chemical characteristics; they merely coincide in being possessed of
certain vivid colours, or in giving rise to coloured compounds. Strictly con-
sidered, some of them ought to be classed among the resins and others among
the extractive matters; and on the other hand, if we attempt a definition of
the class according to their chemical characteristics, we shall find it impossible
to exclude a large number of bodies, which, like tannin and catechin, are
capable of giving rise under peculiar circumstances to brown substances,
which in nowise differ in their general properties from the bright red colour-
ing matters of archil, logwood, &c. Some colouring matters are presented
to us ready formed in the different parts of plants and animals; others are
produced artificially from colourless substances, which undergo very complex
changes during the process ; others arise spontaneously during the first stages
of oxidation or putrefaction following the extinction of organic life. In the
investigation of substances thus widely differing in properties and formation,
it would be vain to expect at present anything approaching to general results
in regard to the class as a whole. I must therefore content myself on this
occasion with giving a short account of the results of some experiments
which I have made on one branch of the subject, at the same time apologising
for their present vague and undefined nature.

I have directed my attention in the first instance to madder, partly because
the colouring matters contained in it are almost unknown, or rather worse
than unknown, viz. known in such a manner as merely to mislead those who
wish to inform themselves by the accounts given of them, and partly because
madder is an article of such an immense importance in the art of dyeing that
every discovery in relation to it acquires immediately a practical bearing.

It will be unnecessary for me to allude to the former numerous investiga-

>

ON THE COLOURING MATTERS OF MADDER. 25

tions of madder, except so far as to mention that Robiquet discovered in it
a erystallized volatile colouring matter, which he called Alizarin, and that
_ Runge described five colouring matters which he obtained from it, viz. madder
_ purple, madder red, madder orange, madder yellow and madder brown. I
may here state as one result of my investigation, that I agree with Runge in
thinking that there is more than one colouring matter in madder, though [
am of opinion that the substances which he enumerates and describes are
not pure. Before however entering on this part of the subject, I shall first
give the results at which I have arrived in regard to alizarin. Alizarin is
doubtless the most interesting and the most definite in its nature of all the
substances contained in madder. It also presents itself the most easily to
the observer even on the most superficial examination. If we heat madder
spread out in a thin layer on a metal plate without carrying the heat far
enough to char the woody parts of the root, we shall in the course of a few
hours find its surface covered with small red or orange-coloured crystals,
which consist of alizarin. In the same way any extract of madder, whether
with water, alcohol or alkalies, evaporated to dryness and gently heated, gives
a crystalline sublimate of alizarin, which is variously coloured from a light
yellow to a dark red or brown. Now one of the first points to be ascertained
__ in regard to this body was whether it exists as such in the root, or whether
_ it is formed by the process of sublimation. Robiquet, the discoverer, states
that it pre-existsin the plant. He considered alizarin as the colouring prin-
ciple of madder, and merely subjected it to sublimation for the purpose of
purifying it. But his investigation presents us with no convincing proof of
_ this opinion, for the extract of madder with water, alcohol, &c., from which
he prepares his alizarin by sublimation, shows no trace of anything crystalline;

and many chemists have asserted in consequence that it is a product of de-
' composition, being formed by the action of heat in the same way as pyrogallic,

_ pyrotartaric acid, and many other bodies. I have however no hesitation
| j in affirming that it exists in the plant as such, having in more than one way
| Obtained it in a crystallized state without the intervention of heat. If we
| make an extract of madder with cold water, we obtain a brown fluid which
By produces no reaction on test paper. After being exposed however to the
j ; action of the atmosphere for some hours, it acquires a distinctly acid reaction ;
_ and if it be now examined carefully, there will be found floating about in it
| a number of long hair-like shining crystals: these crystals are alizarin. If
_ the fluid be still further exposed to the influence of the*atmosphere, a yellow
Tisha substance begins to separate, which I shall mention afterwards.

a

_ This is succeeded by a gelatinous substance, and after some days a complete
_ state of putrefaction ensues. It seems as if the alizarin in madder, or at all
| events that part which dissolves in the water, exists in combination with lime.
_ On exposure to the atmosphere, there is formed, from some constituent
| of the root dissolved in the fluid through the instrumentality of the oxygen,
| some acid, which seizes hold of the lime in the solution and separates the
_ bodies which are combined with the lime. Now the alizarin, being a body
_ of very slightly acid properties, is separated first, and the other substances
- follow in succession. The fresher the madder is, the purer will be the ali-
zarin, which separates on exposure to the atmosphere ; in some instances it
orms on the surtace of the fluid a thick light yellow scum; but in most cases
is mixed with brown or red substances, from which it is separated with
difficulty. It is therefore most advisable to separate the crystals which are
_ deposited after twelve hours’ standing, by filtration. These crystals are then

| washed from the filter and boiled with very dilute nitric acid until they have
| become of a bright yellow colour. They are then dissolved in boiling alcohol,

26 REPORT—1846.

from which they separate on cooling in yellow transparent plates and needles
having a strong lustre. Alizarin prepared in this way .has the following
properties :—It has a pure yellow colour without any admixture of red. It
may be volatilized without leaving any residue. The vapour crystallizes on
cooling in beautiful yellow plates and needles. Itsuffers hardly any change
if exposed to the action of the most powerful reagents. It dissolves without
change in cold concentrated sulphuric acid. Concentrated nitric acid hardly
affeets it even on boiling. It is not changed by chlorine. It is insoluble in
water, but soluble in alcohol with a yellow colour. It dissolves in alkalies
with a beautiful purple colour. Its compounds with the alkaline earths are
red and slightly soluble in water. Its compounds with the earths and metallic
oxides are insoluble in water and exhibit different shades of red. It imparts
no colour to cloth mordanted with acetate of alumina or oxide of iron, on
account of its insolubility in water. Very little alizarin is obtained in this
way; perhaps one 1 gr. from 1]b. of madder, though there is more of it con-
tained in the root.

I shall now shortly describe two other colouring matters which I have
obtained from madder. If an extract of madder be made with hot or cold
water, and a strong acid, such as muriatic or sulphuric acid, be added to the
fluid, a dark reddish-brown flocculent precipitate is produced. This preci-
pitate was separated by filtration and washed until the acid was removed.
On being treated with boiling water, a part of it dissolves with a brown colour.
On adding a few drops of acid to the filtered solution a dark brown pre-
cipitate is produced, which seems to me to be a peculiar colouring matter
similar in its properties to orcein, hematin and other soluble colouring
matters. It dissolves in alkalies with a red colour, and is capable of imparting
very lively colours to mordanted cloth. As far as 1 am aware it has not
been described in the former investigations of this subject, though it seems
to be the principal substance concerned in the production of the colours for
which madder is used in the arts. I have however only examined it very
slightly as yet. The residue left behind by the boiling water was treated
with dilute boiling nitric acid, by which every trace of the preceding substance
is destroyed, and the residue itself acquires a bright yellow colour and
a more powdery consistence. This yellow powder contains alizarin, as is
shown by its giving crystals of that substance on being gently heated; in
fact it contains all the alizarin of the root, but mixed with another substance
of an amorphous nature but very similar properties, from which it is difficult
to separate it. By crystallising from alcohol no separation can be effected,
as they are both about equally soluble in that menstruum. They also behave
in a similar manner towards the alkalies, the earths and most of the metallic
oxides. I have hitherto only succeeded in discovering one method of se-
parating them, which is as follows :—The mixture of the two is dissolved ina
little caustic potash. To the solution is added perchloride of iron, which
produces a dark reddish-brown precipitate consisting of peroxide of iron in
combination with the two substances. Now on boiling this precipitate with ~
an excess of perchloride of iron, the aljzarate of iron dissolves, forming a dark
brown solution, while the iron ‘compound of the other substance remains
behind. On adding muriatic acid to the filtered solution, the alizarin separates
in yellow flocks and may be purified by crystallization from alcohol. The
other substance, to which I have not yet given a name, is obtained by de-
composing its iron compound, which remains behind on treating with per-
chloride of iron, with muriatie acid, and washing till all the oxide of iron is
removed. It seems also to be a colouring matter, as it dissolves with a red
colour in alkalies and gives red compounds with the earths and metallic

ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF MEDICINES. 27

oxides. It is insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol with a yellow colour.
- It therefore resembles the resins in its general properties. It cannot be ob-
_ tained in a crystallized state. From a hot concentrated solution in alcohol
__ it separates on cooling as a yellow powder. It imparts no colour to mor-
danted cloth.

On the Physiological Action of Medicines. By J. Buaxn, M.B., F.R.C.S.

- Tue present report is a continuation of those which have already been read
before this section, and which have been published in the reports of the
Association. The only additional experiments I now have to bring forward

have been instituted to investigate the action of the salts of iridium and

osmium, and the acids of selenium and sulphur, when introduced directly
into the blood.

' The experiments that have been made with the salts of iridium and osmium

prove that these substances closely agree in their physiological action with

the salts of palladium and platinum. They are, like these salts, very poison-
ous. A solution containing half a grain of the double chloride of iridium
and ammonia, was injected into the jugular vein of a dog. Before the injec-

q _ tion, the action of the heart was regular and strong*; in eight seconds after

the injection, the action of the heart appeared affected, it being rendered flut-

tering; and after a few seconds there was an apparent obstacle to the passage
of the blood through the systemic capillaries, as the pressure in the arterial
system became greater. In about a minute the pressure again diminished ;

_ the action of the heart was slower, the force it exerted in propelling the blood

being equal to a column of mercury of but three inches and a half, or little

more than the half of that under which the circulation is generally carried
on. The animal appeared to be uncomfortable, owing to the circulation be-

_ coming so feeble. On injecting a solution containing a grain of the salt, the

circulation was arrested in eleven seconds, owing either to the action of the

heart having ceased, or else that its contractions were so weakened that they

did not suffice to force the blood through the pulmonary capillaries. The

‘pressure exerted by the blood in the arterial system became suddenly dimi-

a nished, so as only to support a column of mercury of an inch and a half, at

_ which point the circulation through the capillaries would appear to have

been suspended, for the pressure remained stationary for more than a minute,

' and then sunk to zero, owing to relaxation of the capillaries taking place.
~ Death followed about three minutes and a half after the injection, and the
__eye retained its sensibility to mechanical irritation for three minutes; respi-
_ ration and sensibility continuing nearly two minutes longer than would have
__ been the case had the injection of the salt totally paralyzed the heart. On
Opening the thorax immediately after death, the heart was found contracting
_ tythmically, but very feebly, certainly not with sufficient power to propel its
contents: both cavities were full of blood; in the right it was dark, that in
the left was of a maroon colour, and had evidently been oxygenized, proving
that the circulation had ceased before respiration was suspended. The blood
__ eoagulated imperfectly, and this has been noticed after the introduction of
s the salts of palladium and platinum, which are isomorphous with those of
ui
aia * The state of the circulation is ascertained by the hemadynamometer, an instrument which
enables us readily to detect any change in the action of the heart or in the passage of the

28 , REPORT—1846.

iridium, and which exert, although in such small quantities, a marked effect
in preventing the perfect coagulation of the blood. Another experiment
was performed to observe more particularly the general effects following the
introduction of the salt into the veins ; the hemadynamometer was not used,
and the animal was allowed to run about. On injecting a solution containing
halfa grain of the salt, no immediate effects followed, but in about fort
seconds the animal became unsteady, and there was a tendency to fall back-
wards: in a minute and a half respiration was longer and deeper; sensibility
remained unimpaired; after a few minutes the animal laid down, and the
dyspnoea increased, coming on in paroxysms; in six minutes after the injec-
tion, respiration was suspended for forty seconds, but this was not accompa-
nied by convulsions, or even by loss of sensibility : this occurred four or five
times in the course of ten minutes ; the animal laid perfectly still, and did not
appear to be suffering, although sensibility was unimpaired. A grain of the
salt, on being introduced into the vein, served to increase these symptoms,
although the animal did not die until some minutes after it had been in-
jected. These symptoms are such as would result from the gradual weaken-
ing of the action of the heart, and the consequent diminution of the supply
of blood to the brain; they lead to the conclusion that, when injected into the
veins, this salt does not exert any marked action on the nervous system.
When introduced directly into the arteries, by being injected through the
axillary artery so as to mix with the blood as it passes through the aorta, the
salts of iridium, as those of platinum and palladium, impede the passage of
the blood through the capillaries, to such an extent as to require the heart to
exert more than twice the power that is required in the natural state of the
circulation, to force the blood through them. This sudden increase of the
pressure in the arterial system is attended by general spasm. When a grain
of the salt was injected into the artery, in a few seconds the pressure was equal
to acolumn of mercury of twelve inches; violent spasm immediately came on,
during which respiration was suspended, nor did it again take place regularly.
Six respiratory movements were observed during the next four minutes, after
which there was no further movement. The action of the heart appeared to be
arrested by asphyxia; but even after it had ceased, the pressure in the arteries
was equal to three inches of mercury, showing that the passage of the blood
through the systemic capillaries was still impeded, although the animal had
been dead two or three minutes. When thus brought into direct contact
with the nervous centres, there can be no doubt but that these substances
exert a marked action on them ; it is possible that the violent spasm that im-
mediately followed their injection might be owing to the great pressure the
brain is subject to from the over-distension of the arterial system, but this will
not explain the permanent cessation of its functions.

The salts of osmium are perfectly analogous in their action to those of
iridium, and the other members of this isomorphous group. The salt used
was the double chloride of osmium and potassium, for owing to the chlorides
of both iridium and osmium being decomposed by water, I was forced to use
them combined with another base, although I should have wished to have
avoided this if possible.

The effects produced by selenic and sulphuric acids, when introduced into
the blood, are not very striking, that is, they do not appear to act in a marked
manner On any one organ. They agree in this respect with other bodies,
which either are found entering into the composition of the blood, or have
isomorphous relations with these constituents. The important part which
sulphur takes in the proteine compounds, might lead us to expect that its in-
troduction into the blood, as well as selenium, which is so closely isomorphous

ie

i.

wee

|

i
Le

ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF MEDICINES. 29

with it, might not produce any very marked effect. In an experiment per-
formed with selenic acid, the following are the symptoms that presented
themselves (the acid used was of specific gravity 1046, containing about five
and a half per cent. of real acid). On injecting three drachms of the acid,
mixed with an equal quantity of water, into the jugular vein, no appreciable
effect was produced ; neither the passage of the blood through the lungs, nor
through the systemic capillaries, appeared at all impeded ; nor was the action
of the heart affected ; in about forty-five seconds after the injection its move-
ments appeared slightly fluttering; after two minutes the respiration was
observed to be rather deeper. Immediately after the introduction of half an
ounce of the acid into the vein, there was a falling off of the quantity of
blood sent into the arterial system; and as this took place five seconds after
the injection, it must have been owing to the passage of the blood through
the pulmonary capillaries having been impeded, for there had not been time
for the substance to reach the coronary arteries and act on the heart. After
thirty seconds the supply of blood to the arteries was restored, and the action
of the heart was as strong as before. There appeared to be no marked effect
produced on any organ, although the quantity of acid introduced was very
considerable (seven drachms) ; after a few minutes the respiratory movements
became longer and deeper, and the action of the heart decidedly weaker, the
force with which the blood was propelled into the arteries being only half
what it is in the natural state of the circulation ; there was no expression of
pain. Half an ounce of the acid was again injected into the veins. The
immediate effect was to arrest the passage of the blood through the lungs, no
blood being sent into the arteries, although the heart could be felt beating
through the parietes of the thorax. Respiration was stopped at a minute
and twenty seconds after the arrest of the circulation, sensibility having dis-
appeared a few seconds earlier, On opening the thorax immediately after the
cessation of respiratory movements, the heart was found beating rythmically :
the right cavities were very much distended with blood, which was dark and
grumous, and apparently physically incapable of passing through the lungs.
The left cavities contained a small quantity of scarlet blood, which was co-
agulated ; the lungs were redder than natural; the heart retained its irrita-
bility some time after death. The above symptoms-do not suffice to indicate
_ any particular organ on which the acid exerts a marked influence; for although
death was produced by the passage of blood through the pulmonary ca-
‘pillaries being arrested, yet this was probably owing to the mechanical
impediment which the coagulated state of the blood must have opposed to
its passage through the pulmonary vessels. In other experiments that I have
made with this substance, I have sometimes seen a serous secretion take place
in the air passages. There is also some action on the nervous system, as the

following experiment will show. The animal was small ; it was not confined,

in order that the effects on the functions of voluntary motion and sensation
might be more accurately observed. A drachm of the acid was introduced
into the veins, without giving rise to any marked symptoms. A second in-
jection, containing a drachm and a half of the acid, did not affect the animal
in any marked degree: after a few minutes it appeared rather dull, but there
was no expression of pain, nor was sensibility impaired. On introducing
two drachms into the veins, the animal fell down in about thirty seconds, and
respiration was much affected ; it got up again in about a minute, and jumped
about ina very curious manner, the movements being evidently involuntary,
as if the animal had chorea: it remained standing quite motionless for a few
“minutes, but gradually became weaker, and death took place ten minutes
after the last injection; there were no convulsions, nor was the sensibility

30 REPORT—1846.

destroyed until immediately before death. On opening the thorax, the heart
was found contracting rythmically. There was a considerable quantity of
frothy secretion in the bronchial tubes, and this renders it difficult to deter-
mine if the asphyxia, by which the action of the heart was finally arrested,
was nervous or pulmonary ; that is, whether the nervous system was affected
by the want of aération of the blood, or whether the respiratory movements
ceased in consequence of the action of the acid directly on the nervous
system. ‘The latter opinion I think the more probable.

Sulphuric acid, when introduced into the veins, gives rise to exactly the
same phenomena, the only organ on which it appears to exert any marked
effect being the lungs, although slight nervous symptoms are produced when
a considerable quantity has been introduced into the blood. The action of
these substances when injected into the arteries, and thus applied directly to
the brain and over the system, without previously passing through the lungs,
is evidently on the nervous system. Two drachms of the diluted acid, mixed
with four drachms of water, were injected into the left axillary artery, so as
to pass into the aorta; in ten seconds all movements ceased ; there was a slight
spasm, which relaxed ina few seconds. During the continuance of the spasm,
the pressure in the arterial system was slightly increased, but it rapidly de-
clined, so that I think the passage of the blood through the systemic capil-
laries is facilitated, rather than impeded by these substances, All effective
contractions of the heart ceased a minute after death, probably owing to the
shock produced by the sudden annihilation of the functions of the nervous
system, for it retained its irritability some minutes after death,

With these experiments I conclude the first part of the series of researches
which I propose to undertake for the elucidation of this branch of physiology.
I have been engaged on it for the last six years, but I trust the results ob-
tained fully repay the labour that has been bestowed on it. The action on
the animal ceconomy of the compounds of twenty-nine of the most important
elements has been experimentally investigated, and the facts which have been
observed have led to the discovery of a new law in vital chemistry which
had escaped the attention of former observers, viz. that the reactions which
take place between the elements of the living body and inorganic compounds
are not governed by the ordinary chemical properties of these substances, but
depend on certain properties they possess connected with their isomorphous
relations. The verification of this law enables us to undertake the investi-
gation of the higher chemical phenomena of living bodies from an entirely
new point of view, whilst its existence accounts for the failure that has con-
stantly attended attempts to explain the chemistry of animal life by analogy
from ordinary chemical phenomena. The fact that we now possess the
means of producing well-marked and definite modifications of some of the
most important physiological properties of various organs, and this too by
means of reagents, the laws governing whose action we are acquainted with,
places in our hands an instrument for discovery which has hitherto been
wanting in physiological investigations. ‘The enumeration of some of the
effects that can be produced at pleasure on the more important functions,
will, I trust, suffice to lead others into this rich field of inquiry. As regards
the functions of the heart, we can annihilate or increase its irritability,
quicken or diminish its pulsations, render them regular or irregular, augment
their force or render thém weaker, destroy the contractility of the auricles,
whilst that of the ventricles remains ; keep up the circulation of the blood
many minutes after every sign of life has disappeared, and this too more
actively than when respiration was being carried on; we can facilitate or
arrest the passage of the blood through the pulmonary and systemic capil-

ON THE ACTINOGRAPH. 31

aries; produce important modifications in the functions of the brain :—in
_ short, the injection of various substances into the arteries and veins enables
us to modify all the most important functions of the body ; and this, as before
stated, by reagents, the laws of whose action we can fairly hope to discover.
My reason for having neglected the closer investigation of these interesting
_ phzenomena, was a determination fully to establish the law of the analogous
action of isomorphous substances. ‘This having been accomplished, I shall
now direct my researches to the elucidation of these secondary questions.

Report on the Actinograph. By Mr, Rosprertr Hunt.

If will be remembered that in 1838 Sir John Herschel proposed an instru-
_ ment for the purpose of registering the variations of the actinic or chemical
rays, and published in the Philosophical Transactions a design for what
he termed an Actinograph, by which it was thought both the chemical action
of the direct solar rays and of the diffused daylight would be registered.
_ Dr. Daubeny, Prof. Nichols and Mr. Thomas Jordan have severally designed,
_ and I believe used, instruments somewhat similar, but it does not appear that
any very satisfactory results have been obtained by either of these inquirers.
At the York meeting I pointed out the importance of some such registration,
and at the request of the committee I had an instrument constructed, which
Texhibited to the Association at the Cambridge meeting. The actinograph
_ Ihave been using differs but little from that proposed by Sir John Herschel,
a modification of Mr. Jordan’s being introduced, by which it was thought
_ the results could be tabulated for every hour of the day. As the form of
_ this instrument is published in the Report for 184.5, it will be unnecessary to
do more than describe such alterations as have suggested themselves during
i the past year. The triangular slit, divided into one hundred parts, has been
abandoned, it being found in practice almost impossible to discriminate be-
_ tween the amount of coloration produced on the paper during an exposure of
three minutes or six; consequently it became quite idle to attempt to register
by this plan to the degree of nicety which it was hoped might be attained.
__ A new external cylinder has therefore been constructed, in which are thirteen
holes, commencing with a mere pin-hole and gradually increasing to a $_
inch diameter. By this means thirteen bands are marked upon the sensi-
tive paper, each one separated from the other by an unaltered line, and it
__ becomes easy to distinguish with considerable accuracy between the tints
_ thus produced.
Bromide of silver was the material which, from the circumstance that all
_ the rays of the prismatic spectrum exert some influence upon it, was em-
_ ployed in procuring most of my registrations. It has however been found
% that under all circumstances this preparation is too sensitive, and that although
- in the winter, when the solar radiations are weak, it answers admirably, yet
in the bright sunshine of summer it assumes too great a degree of darkness,
in even diffused daylight, and during the shortest exposure to which it is ex-
_ posed during the revolution of the’cylinder. Many experiments have been
‘made with other photographic preparations, and the result has been in favour
: of the general use of the ammonio-nitrate of silver. It is true that this paper
_ is not impressed by all the rays of thespectrum, but, as it is acted upon by all
_ the rays beyond the yellow ray, and as the influence of the actinic principle
_ throughout the entire range of the spectrum is, as it appears, always equally

32 . REPORT—1846.

effected by. the increased or diminished intensity of the luminous and calo-
rific rays, and consequently that even the actinism residing in the extreme
violet ray is relatively as much influenced by an increase of luminous power
as that which is detected in the yellow ray itself, we may by the use of the
paper prepared with the ammonio-nitrate of silver arrive at a very close ap-
proximation to the true result.

Although I have not been enabled to realize the hope I held forth last year
of presenting at this meeting a register of actinic influences for the year,(which _
I have been prevented from doing by circumstances which I shall presently
explain, ) yet I have determined, most satisfactorily te my own mind, the prac-
ticability of procuring, in favourable positions, such a registration as shall
afford much valuable information.

The circumstances to which I allude as those which have prevented my
procuring any series of registers, are the impossibility of securing in London
any position free from the constant interferences of smoke and fog, and the
difficulty of placing the instrument so as to be free from the reflected radia-
tions of adjoining buildings. The first alone is a fatal objection ; for instead
of securing, what is desired, a registration of the relative amount of chemical
influence as compared with the quantity of light, heat, and the natural at-
mospheric conditions, we only get a register of the influence of smoke in
absorbing the actinic rays. 1 therefore propose to hand over the instrument
to the Association, requesting that it may be placed in a favourable position
at Kew, under the attention of the excellent observer there, when I do not
doubt some curious and instructive results may be obtained.

It is necessary however to state that my experience has pointed out some
objections to this mode of registration, which indeed militates against the
use of the actinograph as a philosophical instrument.

It is a curious fact that upon almost all kinds of photographic paper the
colour produced by the solar rays at different periods of the day varies
considerably. It is not a mere difference of tint, but an actual change in the
colour; thus frequently the light of both morning and evening will give to
chloride of silver a rose hue, whilst that of noon will change it to a bluish
variety of brown. ‘There is consequently much difficulty in deciding which
is the strongest impression. Thus also the rays upon two days, when the sun
appears equally bright, will in one case produce a red brown, and in the other
a blue brown. It is left to the eye to decide upon the intensity of the effect
produced, and with the utmost care it is frequently impossible to say whether
the actinic influence is greatest on the red brown lines, or those which are
blue brown.

The importance of the inquiry has been peculiarly evident during this
summer; many peculiarities have been observed in the growth of plants, in-
fluenced no doubt by the solar radiations. Many of our garden flowers,
particularly roses, have exhibited an abnormal condition, leaf-buds being
developed in the centre of the flower, arising from the vegetative functions
of the plant overpowering its reproductive functions. Again, during the
intense sunshine and the prevalence of the unclouded skies of the hot wea-
ther of June and July, practical photographists found the greatest difficulty —
in obtaining portraits by the Daguerreotype process. At this time, although
the intensity of effect produced on paper in the actinograph under the usual
circumstances of summer sunlight should have been at a maximum, it was
found that it was far below this point, the maximum point being repre-
sented by 120. During several experiments made at the time mentioned, the
greatest effect indicated was 100; whilst the sky still being unclouded and —
the sun shining brightly, it often fell to 90, and sometimes indeed to 80.

eh are

a i

ON THE INFLUENCE OF LIGHT ON THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 33

ve
_ These facts show the importance, amongst many others, of some mode of

registration by which these ever-varying solar influences may be carefully
_ observed. There can be little doubt that they exert an influence, sometimes

i baleful, sometimes beneficial, upon the organized creation, and that we have
_yet to discover, in these emanations or influences, the secrets of many of the
_ grand phenomena of the universe.

.

Notices on the Influence of Light on the Growth of Plants.
By Mr. Rosert Hunr.

THE experiments connected with this very interesting inquiry have been
steadily pursued, and a concluding report would have been made at this
_ meeting, but that some experiments, which had been conducted with much
_ eare, with a view of determining the quantity of solid matter in plants grown
under different circumstances, were destroyed by the hail-storm which lately
_ prevailed over an extensive district of the metropolis, the glasses and troughs
of coloured fluids being broken, and the plants themselves washed into the’
soil. As it was impossible to repeat this year these experiments, there was no
alternative but either to present an imperfect report, or to defer the report
for another year. The latter course has been chosen, and the detail of
_ these experiments will be reserved for a future communication ; I have how-

; ever thought it might be attended with some advantages to state a few of the

_ leading facts which have been determined. The order of the arrangements
_ have been the same as those observed in the former experiments, and nearly

tan the results have been confirmatory of those published six years since.
__ The germination of seeds is peculiarly due to the influence of the actinic
or chemical rays; and if these are completely isolated whilst the luminous
ays are permitted to act upon the soil in which the seeds are planted, no
_ germination will take place. This influence is exerted and is most necessary
| up to the point at which the first leaves begin to form, when the luminous
_ Yays are rendered necessary to effect the formation of woody fibre. It must
_be remembered that this was a point upon which I was at issue with some
_ other investigators; and it is due to them that I should state, that the dis-
‘erepancies between us appear to have arisen from our not observing with a
sufficient degree of accuracy the point at which the two influences balance
each other, previously to the more complete exercise of the exciting force
f light, as distinguished from actinism. The vegetative process having been
| Carried on until the plant arrives at its maturity, a new agency, the calorific,
s more decidedly necessary to develope the reproductive functions of the
| plant; and then, again, the chemical rays combined with the calorific be-
ome more active than the luminous rays. In spring we find the chemical
Influences exerting without interference their most decided force: seeds
then germinate, and young buds and shoots are developed. As soon as this
is effected, the luminous rays, with the advance of the sun, become more
ive, and the formation of woody fibre proceeds under their particular
ency ; not that the chemical power becomes dormant, but it is rendered
portionally less active by the agency of light. In the late summer and
autumn the peculiar properties of the calorific rays are required, and
r their agency, with diminished powers of light, the ripening of fruits

| and the production of seed are accomplished.
_ My experiments have also led me to detect some curious influences which
ap a be due to dissimilar rays, and which in their action exhibit great
e D

34 REPORT—1846.,

inconstancy of effect. One class of rays, the same to which Sir J. Herschel
has given the name of Parathermic rays, are so subdued by the influences of
the more refrangible rays, as to be nearly inactive during the spring and early
summer months; and indeed in the spring they scarcely produce any effect
upon dead vegetable colouring matter, unless their action is assisted by the
use of some decomposing agent, such as sulphuric acid. These rays increase
in power towards the autumn, and to them appears to be due the browning
of the leaf.

It is well known that plants will grow in the dark, but that they do not
then form chlorophylle; the formation of this colouring-matter has been an
object of some attention, and I believe I have determined it to result from
the joint influence of the luminous and actinic rays. Boxes of cress have been
grown in the dark, and they have then been brought under the influence of
a large spectrum formed by a water-prism. It has been stated by Dr.Gardner,
that the plants under those circumstances exhibit a lateral movement, bend-
ing towards the yellow ray. This appears to bea mistake; the plants under
the influence of the red rays bend from the light but along the line of the ray ;
and those exposed to the most refrangible rays turn towards it, but still in the
line of the ray. Now the plants which first become green, by careful treatment
in this way, are those which are exposed to the rays situated between‘the mean
green ray and the extreme blue. The action is continued eventually to the edge
of the most refrangible violet below the yellow ray. There is not any change
effected beyond the visible spectrum, notwithstanding the abundance of dark
chemical rays ; and the change is slow where there is really the largest amount
of light. I therefore conclude that the luminous rays are essential in the pro-
cess, producing the decomposition of the carbonic acid and the deposition of
the required carbon, which is afterwards. in all probability, combined with
hydrogen under the influence of purely chemical force as exerted by the ac-
tinic principle.

Such ate the main results I have obtained. I have several experiments
now in progress, and I hope to be enable? in another year to complete this pars
ticular branch of investigation so far as to present to the British Association a
complete report.

Report on the Recent Progress of Analysis (Theory of the Comparison of
Transcendentals). By R. L. Wuxis, M.A.

1. Tue province of analysis, to which the theory of elliptic functions belongs,
has within the last twenty years assunied a new aspect. A great deal has
doubtless been effected in other subjects, but in no other I think has our
knowledge advanced so far beyond the limits to which it was not long since
confined.

This circumstance would give a particular interest to a history of the ree
cent progress of the subject, even did it now appear to have reached its full
development. But on the contrary, there is now more hope of further pros
gress than at the commencement of the period of which I have been speaking.
When, in 1827, Legendre produced the first two volumes of his ‘ Théorie
des Fonctions Elliptiques,’ he had been engaged on the subject for about
forty years; he had reduced it to a systematic form; and had with great
labour constructed tables to facilitate numerical applications of his results.
But little more, as it seemed, was yet to be done; nor does the remark of.

ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF ANALYSIS. 35

Bacon, that knowledge, after it has been systematized, is less likely to increase
than before, seem less applicable to mathematical than to natural science.
Nevertheless, almost immediately after the publication of Legendre’s work,
the earlier researches of Abel and Jacobi became known, and it was at once
seen that what had been already accomplished formed but a part, and not a
_ large one, of the whole subject.
__ To say this is not to derogate from the merit of Legendre. He created
_ the theory of elliptic functions; and it is impossible not to admire the per-
_ severance with which he devoted himself to it. The attention of mathema-
- ticians was given to other things, and though the practical importance of his
labours was probably acknowledged, yet scarcely any one seems to have
_ entered on similar researches*. This kind of indifference was doubtless dis-
_ couraging, but not long before his death he had the satisfaction of knowing
_ that there were some by whom that which he had done would not willingly
_ be let die.
__ The considerations here suggested have led me to select the theory of the
integrals of algebraical functions as the subject of the report which I have the
honour to lay before the Association.
__ 2. The theory of the comparison of transcendental functions appears to
have originated with Fagnani. In 1714, he proposed, in the ‘Giornale de
Litterati d’ Italia,’ the following problem: To assign an arc of the parabola
_ whose equation is
, y=
such that its difference from a given are shall be rectifiable.
_ Of this problem he gave a solution in the twentieth volume of the same
rnal.
___ The principle of the solution consists in the transformation of a certain
differential expression by means of an algebraical and rational assumption
which introduces a new variable. The transformed expression -is of the same
form as the original one, but is affected with a negative sign. By integrating
both we are enabled to compare two integrals, neither of which can be as-
| Signed in a finite form. It is difficult, however, to perceive how Fagnani was
to make the assumption in question: a remark which applies more or
to his subsequent researches on‘similar subjects.
he theorem which has made his name familiar to all mathematicians, ap»
ed in the twenty-sixth volume of the ‘Giornale.’ In its application to
comparison of hyperbolic ares we find some indications of a more general
lethod. We have here a symmetrical relation between two variables, x and
» such that the differential expression J(#)dx may be written in the form
z. It follows at once that f(z) dz =< dz, and consequently that

WhiOLE +f f(z) dz =f {xdz+zdzx}=x2+ on

3 remarkable manner in which the idea of symmetry here presents itself,

gested to Mr. Fox Talbot his ‘ Researches in the Integral Calculus.’

In applying bis methods to the division of the are of the lemniscate, Fag-
i obtained some very curious results, and has accordingly taken for the

hette of his collected Works a figure of this curve with the singular motto,

eo veritatis gloria.”

3. In MacLaurin’s Fluxions, and in the writings of D’Alembert, instances

3 to be found where the solution of a problem is made to depend on the

ose of M. Gauss, which would doubtless have been exceedingly valuable, have not, I

» been published. They are mentioned in a letter from M. Crelle to Abel. Vide the
eduction to the collected works of the latter, ps Vii.

‘ D2

36 REPORT—1846.

rectification of elliptic arcs, or, as we should now express it, is reduced to
elliptic integrals. But of these instances Legendre has remarked that they
are isolated results, and form no connected theory. MacLaurin is charged, —
in a letter appended to the works of Fagnani, with taking from the latter, —
without acknowledgement, a portion of his discoveries with respeet to the —
lemniscate and the elastic curve.

4. In 1761, Euler, in the ‘ Novi Commentarii Petropolitani’ for 1758 and
1759, published his memorable discovery of the algebraical integral of the —
equation ;

m dx n dy

(A+ Ba4+ Ca? + Das + Eat}? (A+By+Cy+ Dy + Ey)?
m and m being any rational numbers.

He says he had been led to this result by no regular method, “sed id
potius tentando, vel divinando elicui,” and recommends the discovery of a —
direct method to the attention of analysts. In effect his investigations re-
semble those of Fagnani: he begins by assuming a symmetrical algebraical
relation between the variables, and hence finds a differential equation which
it satisfies. In this differential equation the variables are separated, so that
each term may be considered as the differential of some function. With one
form of assumed relation we are led to the differentials of circular, and with
another to those of elliptic integrals, and so on. It is in this manner that
Dr. Gudermann, in the elaborate researches which he has published in Crelle’s
Journal, has commenced the discussion of the theory of elliptic functions.

5. In the fourth volume of the Turin Memoirs, Lagrange accomplished
the solution of the problem suggested by Euler. He integrated the general
differential equation already mentioned by a most ingenious method, which,
with certain modifications, has remained ever since an essential element of
the theory of elliptic functions. He proceeded to consider the more general

equation da dy

where X and Y are any similar functions of a and y respectively, and came
to the conclusion, that if they are rational and integral functions, the equa-
tion cannot, except in particular cases, be integrated, if they contain higher
powers than the fourth. He also integrated this equation in a case in which
X and Y involve circular functions of the variables. It had been already
pointed out in the summary of Euler’s researches, given in the ‘ Nov. Com.
Pet.’ t. vi., that if X and Y are polynomials of the sixth degree, the last-
written equation does not in general admit of an algebraical integral, since,
if so, it would follow that the solution of the equation wisi = 4 , which
[+23 1+

(as the square of 1 + 23 is a polynomial of the sixth degree) is a particular
case of that which we are considering, could be reduced to an algebraical
form. Now this solution involves both circular functions and logarithms, and
therefore the required reduction is impossible. This acute remark* showed
that Euler’s result did not admit of generalisation in the manner in which it
was natural to attempt to generalise it. It was rese#ved for Abel to discover
the direction in which generalisation is possible.

6. The discovery of Euler, of which we have been speaking, is in effect
the foundation of the theory of elliptic functions, as the generalisation of it
by Abel, or more properly speaking, the theory of which Euler’s result is an

* M. Richelot, in one of his memoirs on Abelian or hyper-elliptic integrals, quotes it, in
a slightly modified form, from Euler’s ‘ Opuscula.’

i ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF ANALYSIS. 37

isolated fragment, is the foundation of our knowledge of the higher trans-
-cendents. We may therefore conveniently divide the subject of this report
_ into two portions, viz. the general theory of the comparison of algebraical
integrals, and the investigations which are founded on it. Mathematicians
have been led, by comparing different transcendents, to introduce new func-
tions into analysis, and the theory of these functions has become an important
subject of research.

The second portion may again be divided into two, viz. the theory of
elliptic functions, and that of the higher transeendents.

This classification, though not perhaps unexceptionable, will, I think, be

found convenient.

_ 7. About sixteen years after the publication of Lagrange’s earlier researches
on the comparison of algebraical integrals, he gave, in the New Turin Me-
_ moirs for 1784 and 1785, a method of approximating to the value of any

a where P is.a rational function of z and R the

- integral of the form
_ square root of a polynomial of the fourth degree. I shall consider this im-
_ portant contribution to the theory of elliptic functions in connexion with the
_ writings of Legendre. At present, in order to give a connected view of the
first division of my subject, it will be necessary to go on at once to the works
of Abel, and to those of subsequent writers. In the history of any branch
of science the chronological order must be subordinate to that which is
_ founded on the natural connexion of different parts of the subject.

__ Ishall merely mention in passing, that in 1775, Landen published in the
Philosophical Transactions a very remarkable theorem with respect to the
_ ares of a hyperbola. He showed that any arc of a hyperbola is equal to the
_ difference of two elliptic ares together with an algebraical quantity. In 1780
he published his researches on this subject in the first volume of his ‘ Mathe-
matical Memoirs,’ p. 23. This theorem, as Legendre has remarked, might
have led him to more important results. It contains the germ of the general
theory of transformation, the eccentricities of the two ellipses being con-
nected by the modular equation of transformations of the second order*. It
is on this account that in a report on M. Jacobi’s ‘ Fundamenta Nova,’ con-
lined in the tenth volume of the Memoirs of the Institute, Poisson speaks
f Landen’s theorem as the first step made in the comparison 6f dissimilar
elliptic integrals. Several writers have accordingly given Landen’s name to
_ the transformation commonly known as Lagrange’s.

_ 8. We have seen that even Lagrange failed in obtaining a result more
eneral than that which had been made known by Euler, and yet, as we now
now, Euler’s theorem is but a particular case of a far more general proposi-
. But in order to further progress, it was necessary to introduce a wholly
ew idea. The resources of the integral calculus were apparently exhausted ;
el, however, was enabled to pass on into new fields of research, by bring-
ing it into intimate connexion with another branch of analysis, namely, the
theory of equations. The manner in which this was done shows that he was
not unworthy to follow in the path of Euler and of Lagrange.

wi pel attempt to state in a few words the fundamental idea of Abel’s
thod.

Let us suppose that the variable z is a root of the algebraical equation
0, and that the coefficients of this equation are rational functions of
in quantities a, b, ...¢, which we shall henceforth consider independent
ables. Let us suppose also that in virtue of this equation we can express

* Vide infra, pp. 50 and 67.

38 REPORT—1846.

certain irrational functions* of a as rational functions of 2, a, b,...¢. For
instance, if the equation were a® + ax + se — 1)=0, it follows that

V7{—x*=a+2. So that any irrational function of the form F (2 “1—z*)
can be expressed rationally (F being rational) in # and a.
From the given equation we deduce by differentiation the following,
dxe=ada+fdb+...+yde,
where a, 6, ... y are rational in a, a, b,...,¢.
Let y be one of the functions which can be expressed rationally in a, &c.,

it follows that ydx=Ada+Bdb+...+Cde,

where A, B, ... C are also rational in a, &c.
The equation fa = 0 will have a number of roots, which we shall call
jy +++, It follows that

Yrdt, +e tyday, =
{A,+..+A,}da+{B,+..+B,}db+...+{Cit..+C,} de,

where the indices affixed to y, A, &c. correspond to those affixed to 2, so
that y,, for instance, is the same function of 2, that y, is of 2.

Now A, +... + A, is rational and symmetrical with respect to #,...#y,
therefore it can be expressed rationally in the coefficients of f («) = 0, and
therefore in a, b..¢c. We will call this sum R,, and thus with a similar
notation for b, &c. we get

Y, a2, + oe. + y, dk, = R,da+R,db+...+R.de.

The second side of this equation is from the nature of the case a complete
differential, and it is rational in a, }, c, &c.; it can therefore be integrated

2.
by known methods; and if we denote Y dz by )(a,), we get

v(a,)+---+ ¥(¢,) =M,
M being a logarithmic and algebraic function of a, b, &c., which we may
suppose to include the constant of integration.

) (x) is in general a transcendental function, while a, 6, &e. are necessarily
algebraical functions of x,,..-, x, and the result at which we have arrived
is therefore an exceedingly general formula for the comparison of transcen-
dental functions.

The simplicity and generality of these considerations entitle them to espe-
cial attention: it cannot be doubted that the application thus made of the
properties of algebraical equations to the comparison of transeendents will
always be a remarkable point in the history of pure analysis, :

A very simple example may perhaps illustrate what has been said, Let us

recur to the equation 1
w+ax + 5(a?—1)=0, . . * . ° e (1,)

and suppose that an wig
y V1 —a®

Differentiating the first of these equations, we find that
(Qa +a)dx+(«#+a)da=0.

* It must be remembered that an algebraical function is either explicit or implicit: ex-
plicit, when it can be expressed by a combination of ordinary algebraical symbols ; implicit,
when we can only define it by saying that it is a root of an algebraical equation whose co-
efficients are integral functions of 2. Thus y is an implicit function of 2 if y°-+-vy+1=0.
The remarks in the text apply to all algebraical functions, explicit or implicit.

ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF ANALYSIS. 39

‘Comparing this with the general expression of dx, we perceive that

Peay. ol B=&e.=0;

and as 1 = =, (vide ante, p- 38.),*

oy V1 — x?
ee a
yam Qn+a
so that ap Rin UB
Qx+-a

Let 2, and x, be the two roots of our equation, we have thus to find the
value of

; I 1 ue Q(r+%ta) _
=e ala iFoe a Bayt | oid rah a) (a+ a)
since t+ 2,=— 4.
Hence y,da,t+ Yd t= 0,
and v2.4 r= ec
Since 2+ %=—a,
and

teas
ae, g (a1),

we see that af+af=1, orra=V1—2,.

Hence, as W x=sin-'z, our result is merely this, that the sum of two ares
is constant if the sine of one is equal to the cosine of the other.

An infinity of analogous results may be obtained either by varying the
form of y (e.g. by making y = “1—2®), or by changing the equation (1.).
A formula applicable to all forms of y, and which, for each, includes all the
results which can be established with respect to it, is, it will readily be ac-
knowledged, one of the most general in the whole range of analysis. Abel’s
principal result is a formula of this nature; he developed at considerable
length the various consequences which may be deduced from it,

Generally speaking, the number of independent variables a, 6,...¢ will
be less than that of the different roots, 2,,..- 2; hence a certain number,
say m, of the roots may be looked on as independent (viz, as many as there
are quantities a, b,...c), and the rest will be functions of these. It may
be shown that it will always be possible to make the difference py, — m con-
stant, so that the sum of any number of the transcendents p is expressible by
a fixed number of them, together with an algebraical and logarithmic func-
tion of the arguments, i.e. of #,,...@m. In the case of elliptic integrals, it
had long been known that the sum of two may be thus expressed by a third ;
and Legendre pointed out that the sum of any number may similarly be ex-
pressed by means of one. Accordingly it appears from the general theory,
that in this ease 44 — m may be made equal to unity.

9. The history of this important theory is curious. It was developed by
Abel in an essay which he presented to the Institute in the autumn of 1826,
when he had scarcely completed his twenty-fourth year.

Tn a letter to M. Holmboe, appended to the edition of his collected works,
Abel writes, “ Je viens de finir un grand traité sur une certaine classe de

__ fonctions transcendantes pour le présenter a l'Institut, ce qui aura lieu lundi

* The ambiguous sign of the radical is to our purpose immaterial.

40 REPORT—1846.

prochain. J’ose dire sans ostentation que c’est un traité dont on sera satis-
fait. Je suis curieux d’entendre I’opinion de l'Institut la dessus. Je ne
manquerai pas de t’en faire part.” Long before this memoir was published
Abel had become “ chill to praise or blame.” He died at Christiania in the
spring of 1829.

M. Jacobi mentions in a note in Crelle’s Journal, that while at Paris he
represented, and as he believed not ineffectually, to Fourier, who was then
one of the secretaries of the Institute, that the publication of this memoir
would be very acceptable to mathematicians. A long period however was
still to elapse before the publication took place. It was possibly retarded by
the death of Fourier. In 184] the memoir appeared in the seventh volume
of the ‘ Mémoires des Savans Etrangers.’ It was prepared for publication
by M. Libri.

Thus for about fifteen years Abel’s general theory remained unpublished ;
but in the meanwhile Crelle’s Journal was established, and to the third vo-
lume of this he contributed a paper which contains a theorem much less ge-
neral than the researches he had communicated to the Institute, but far more
so than anything previously effected in the theory of the comparison of
transcendents. ‘This is commonly known as Abel’s Theorem. Legendre, in
a letter to Abel, speaks thus of the memoir in which it appeared :—* Mais le
mémoire... ayant pour titre ‘ Remarques sur quelques propriétés géné-
rales,’ &c., me parait surpasser tout ce que vous avez publié jusqu’a-présent
par la profondeur de l’analyse qui y régne ainsi que par la beauté et la géné-
ralité des résultats.” In a previous letter, with reference I believe to the
same subject, he had remarked, “ Quelle téte que celle d'un jeune Norvé-
gien !”

Abel’s theorem gives a formula for the comparison of all transcendental
functions whatever whose differentials are irrational from involving the square
root of a rational function of z.

In a very short paper in the fourth volume of Crelle’s Journal, which
must have been the last written of Abel’s productions, the chief idea of his
general theory is stated; and in the second volume of his collected works we
find a somewhat fuller development of it, in a paper written before his visit
to Paris, but not published during his lifetime.

While Abel's great memoir remained unpublished at Paris, several mathe-
maticians, developing the ideas which he had made known in his contribu-
tions to Crelle’s Journal, succeeded in establishing results of a greater or
less degree of generality. Researches of this kind may be presented in a
variety of forms, because the algebraical function to be integrated, which
we have called y, may be defined or expressed in different ways. For in-
stance, if M and N are general symbols denoting any integral functions of x,
VM a" ae : : 3

N and y as precisely equivalent, since
by an obvious reduction, and by changing the signification of M and N, the
one may be transformed into the other; and so in more general cases. Thus
the same function may assume a variety of aspects, and there will be a cor-
responding variety in the form of our final results.

In Crelle’s Journal we find a good many essays on this part of the sub-
ject: of these I shall now mention several.

M. Broch is the author of a paper in the twentieth volume of Crelle’s
Journal, p. 178. It relates to the integration of certain functions irrational
in consequence of involving a polynomial of any degree raised to a fractional
power. For these functions he establishes formule of summation, which of

the two suppositions 7 =

te gpa

ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF ANALYSIS. 41

course include Abel’s theorem, since the latter relates to cases in which the
fractional power in question is the (4)th. Subsequently to the publication
of this paper he presented to the Institute a memoir on the same subject, but
gave to the functions to be integrated a different but not essentially more
general form. This memoir, which was ordered to be printed among the
‘Savans Etrangers,’ but which will be found in Crelle’s Journal (xxiii. 145),
may be divided into two portions: the first contains results analogous to
Abel’s theorem; the second relates to the discussion and reduction of the
transcendents which they involve. In this part of his researches M. Broch
has followed the method, and occasionally almost adopted the phraseology
of a memoir of Abel, on the reduction and classification of Elliptic Inte-
grals (Abel's Works, ii. p. 93). MM. Liouville and Cauchy, in reporting on
the memoir, conclude by remarking that the author “ n’a pas trop présumé
de ses forces en se proposant de marcher sur les traces d’ Abel.”

M. Jiirgenson has contributed two papers to Crelle’s Journal on the sub-
ject of which we are speaking. The first, which is very short, contains a
general theorem for the summation of algebraical integrals* when the func-
tion to be integrated is expressed in a particular form. This paper appears
in the nineteenth volume, p. 113. In the second (vol. xxiii. p. 126) the au-
thor reproduces the results he had already obtained, pointing out the equi-
valence of one of them to the theorem established in M. Broch’s first essay.
Besides this, he discusses a question connected with the reduction of alge-
braical integrals.

M. Ramus, in the twenty-fourth volume of Crelle’s Journal, p. 69, has
established two general formule of summation ; from the second he deduces
with great facility Abel’s theorem, and also another result, which Abel men-
tions in a letter to Legendre, published in the sixth volume of Crelle’s
Journal, but which he left undemonstrated.

M. Rosenhain’s researches (Crelle’s Journal, xxviii. p. 249, and xxix.
p- 1) embrace both the summation and reduction of algebraical integrals.
His analysis depends on giving the function to be integrated a peculiar form,
which he conceives leads to a simpler mode of investigation than any other.

A paper by Poisson will be found in the twelfth volume of Crelle’s Jour-
nal, p. 89. It relates to the comparison of algebraical integrals, but is not
I think so valuable as that great mathematician’s writings generally are.

Beside the memoirs thus briefly noticed, I may mention two or three by

_M. Minding: that which appears in the twenty-third volume of Crelle’s

Journal, p. 255, is the one which is most completely developed.
There is also a very brief note by M. Jacobi in the eighth volume of

_ Crelle’s Journal.

_ 10. To the Philosophical Transactions for 1836 and 1837 Mr. Fox Tal-

bot contributed two essays, entitled ‘ Researches in the Integral Calculus.’

These researches may be said to contain a development and generalisation
of the methods of Fagnani. They are however far more systematic than the
writings of the Italian mathematician, and if they had appeared in the last

_ century would have placed Mr. Talbot among those by whom the boundaries
_ of mathematical science have been enlarged. But it cannot be denied that
_ they fall far short of what had been effected at the time they were published,
| nor does it appear that they contain anything of importance not known before.
_Thave assuredly no wish to speak disparagingly of Mr. Talbot; his mathe-

| matical writings bear manifest traces of the ability he has shown in so many

_ * Ihave used the expression “ algebraical integrals,” though perhaps not correctly, to de-
note the integrals of algebraical functions.

42 REPORT——1846.

branches of science*, But as in this country they seem to have been thought,
and by men not apparently unqualified to judge, to contain great additions to
our knowledge, I cannot avoid inquiring whether this be true.

Mr. Talbot points out in the early part of his first paper, that if there are
nm — 1 symmetrical relations among the m variables 2, y...2, then the iden-
tical equation

{y---2}dx+(u...z)dy+t..,+ fy.-.dz=d{ry,..2}

will assume the form

g(x)dxu+ol(y)dy+...+¢(z)dz=d{xy...2},
and thus give us

Sodet+foydy+..+fo(desay...2+C

Precisely the same remark, though expressed in a different notation, is the
foundation of M. Hill’s memoir, published in 1834, on what he calls “ func-
tiones iterate.” It will be-found in Crelle’s Journal, xi. p. 193, A much
more general theorem might be established by similar considerations: they
are of course applicable whether the function ¢ be algebraical or trans-
cendent.

In the course of his researches, Mr. Talbot recognised the important prin-
ciple, that the existence of 2 — 1 symmetrical algebraical relations among
variables may be expressed by treating them as the roots of an equation, one
of whose coefficients at least is variable, the others being either constant or
functions of the variable one. Unfortunately he did not pass from hence to
the more general view, that the existence of » —p symmetrical relations
may be expressed in a similar manner if we consider p of the coefficients of
the equation as arbitrary quantities. Had he done so, it is possible, though
not likely, that he would have rediscovered Abel’s theorem; but as it is, he
has never introduced, except once, and then as it were by accident, more
than one arbitrary quantity. Thus only one of his variables is independent,
and consequently, in more than one instance, his results are unnecessarily
restricted cases of more general theorems,

The character of his analysis will be perceived from what has been said.

If / Xdz be the transcendent to be considered, X being an algebraical func-
tion of «, he makes the following assumption—

X=f(rv),
v being a new variable, and fa rational function. From this assumption he
deduces an algebraical equation in , the coefficients of which are rational
functions of v. This equation then is one of those of which we have spoken,
by means of which the function to be integrated can be expressed in a ra-
tional form, Taking the sum with respect to the roots of this equation, we

get
2(Xd2)=3(f(«v) dz).

It must be remarked that many forms might be assigned to the function f, ©
which would give rise to a difficulty, of the means of surmounting which
Mr. Talbot has given no idea. If # and v are mixed up in f(a w), it is ma-
nifest that we cannot integrate f(2v)d«, since v is a funetion of 2, which

* It must be remembered also that Mr. Talbot admits himself to have been anticipated
to a considerable extent by the publication of Abel’s theorem,

ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF ANALYSIS. 43

if we eliminate we merely return to our function X. We must therefore
express Xf (xv)d x in the form Vdv, V being a function and, as Abel has
shown, an integrable function of ». Abel has given formule by means of
which this reduction may be effected in all possible cases. But there is no-
thing analogous to this in the writings of Mr. Talbot, and consequently he
could not, setting aside the defect already noticed, obtain results as general
as many previously known. In Mr, Talbot's investigations, f(a v) dz is such
that Bf (xv) dx may be put in the form—

Vi 2{P edz} + V2 {P,xde} + &e., .

$,%, %.x, &c. (of which ¢',x, ¢',2, &c. are the derived functions) being
rational functions of z. Then 2¢ 2 =a rational function of v by a well-
known theorem. Let the form of this function be ascertained, and let us
denote it by %v. Then differentiating,

L@'rdr=xy'vdv,

and hence

ZXde=iUf(«ev)de=[V,x'0+ Vix.vt+..] dv,
and the second side of this equation is of course rational and integrable.
But the form of the function f(«v) is unnecessarily restricted in order that
this kind of reduction may be possible, Nevertheless, Mr. Talbot's papers,
from their fulness of illustration and the clear manner in which particular
cases of the general theory are worked out by independent methods, will be
found yery useful in facilitating our conceptions of the branch of analysis
which forms as it were the link between the theory of equations and the in-
‘ tegral calculus.
4 In Mr, Talbot’s second memoir (Phil. Trans. 1837, part 2. p, 1) he has
5 applied his method to certain geometrical theorems, Three of them relate
__ to the ellipse, and are proved by the three following assumptions :—

4 — e272) 4 1— 3
i — oa =} =1+v2, or= std ve

=, or = :
1 c Aig V4 73) 4 1 el
__ These assumptions are all cases of the following—

{inser iactes :

= ?
1— 2x? a+a'z2

_ where @, a’, ¢, e' are arbitrary quantities. The results of this assumption
_ are completely worked out by Legendre (Théorie des Fonctions Elliptiques,
iii, p. 192) in showing how the known formule of elliptic functions may be
_ derived from Abel’s theorem. Mr. Talbot's first theorem is a case of the
_ fundamental formula for the comparison of elliptic ares. This remark has
_ reference to an inquiry which Mr. Talbot suggests as to the relation in which
his theorems stand to the results obtained by Legendre and others.

Tn conelusion, it may be well to observe that Mr. Talbot has remarked
_ that, apparently, a solution discovered by Fagnani of a certain differential
equation cannot be deduced from Abel’s theorem ; but as this solution may
be easily derived from the ordinary formula for the addition of elliptic in-

Ani, TI.

11. I now come to the history of researches into the properties of par-

_ ticular classes of algebraical transcendents. The earliest, and still perhaps
_ the most important class of these researches relates to the transcendents

44 REPORT—1846.

which are commonly called elliptic functions or elliptic integrals. Fora reason
which will be mentioned hereafter the latter name seems preferable, and it is
sanctioned by the authority of M. Jacobi, though the former was used by Le-
gendre. Elliptic integrals then may be defined as those whose differentials are
irrational in consequence of involving a radical of the form 4/{a@ + Baty x*

+0a3+¢a*}. But it may perhaps be more correct to say that all such in-
tegrals may be reduced to three standard integrals, to which the name of
elliptic integrals has been given.

In the Turin Memoirs for 1784 and 1785, p. 218, Lagrange considered,
as has been already mentioned, the theory of these transcendents. He
showed that the integration of every function irrational in consequence of
containing a square root may be made to depend on that of a function of
the form = P being rational, and R the radical in question ; and that if
under the sign of the square root 2 does not rise above the fourth degree,

dx

Vl + pea) (1 + 9? a?)
where N is rational in x. He thus laid the foundation of that part of the
theory of elliptic transcendents in which a proposed integral is reduced
to certain canonical or standard forms, or to the simplest combination of
such forms of which the case admits. In Legendre’s earliest writings on
elliptic functions there is nothing relating to this part of the subject. Having
thus, in the simple manner which distinguishes his analysis, reduced the ge-
neral case to that which admits of the application of his method, Lagrange
proceeded to prove that if we introduce a new variable whose ratio to x is
the subduplicate of the ratio of 1 + p*2® to 1 + ¢* x*, the last written inte-
gral is made to depend on another of similar form, but in which p and g are
replaced by new quantities p' and q'. If p is greater than q, p! will be greater
than p, and q' less than q, and thus by successive similar transformations we
ultimately come to an integral in which g isso small that the factor 1 + q' 2
may be replaced by unity, and the elliptic integral is therefore reduced to a
circular or logarithmic form. Or by successive transformations in the oppo-
site direction we come to an integral in which p' and g' are sensibly equal,
in which case also the elliptic integral is reduced to a lower transcendent.
This most ingenious method is the foundation of all that has since been
effected in the transformation of elliptic integrals, or at least whatever has
been done has been suggested by it. Thus it is to Lagrange that we owe
the origin of two great divisions of the theory of these functions.

In the Memoirs of the French Academy for 1786, p. 616, we find Legen-
dre’s first essay on the subject to which he afterwards gave so much attention.
We recognise in it what may I think be considered the principal aim of his
researches in elliptic functions, namely to facilitate, by the tabulation of
these functions, the numerical solution of mathematical and physical pro-
blems.

He begins, not with a general form as Lagrange had done, but with the

integral fs W1—e?sin? ¢d¢, which as we know represents an elliptic are,
and shows how other functions, for instance the value of the hyperbolic are,
may be expressed by means of it, and of its differential coefficient with re-
spect to the eccentricity c. The memoir does not contain much that is now
of interest. After writing it he became aware of the existence of Landen’s
researches ; and in a second memoir appended to the first gave a demonstra-
tion of Landen’s principal theorem. This demonstration is founded on

it may ultimately be made to depend on that of

r
i ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF ANALYSIS. 45

egendre’s own methods, and he deduces from it the remarkable conclusion,
hut if of a series of ellipses, whose eccentricities are connected by a certain
law, we could rectify any two, we could deduce from hence the rectification
of all the rest. The law connecting the eccentricities of the ellipses is that
which would be obtained by making use of Lagrange’s method of transfor-
mation, with which accordingly this result is closely allied.

Legendre’s next work was an essay on transcendents *, presented to the
Academy in 1792 and published separately the year after. It contains the
same general view as that which is developed in the first volume of the
‘ Exercices de Calcul Intégral,’ which appeared in 1811.

12. The theory of elliptic functions, as it is presented to us by Legendre,
may conveniently be considered under the following heads :—
a. The reduction of the general integral,

Lf Pdz

Vat Batya + ox + ext
in which P is rational to three standard forms, since known as elliptic inte-
grals of the first, second and third kinds f.

This classification, though the reduction of the general integral had, as we
have seen, been already considered by Lagrange, is I believe entirely due to
Legendre. If we consider how much it has facilitated all subsequent re-
searches, we can hardly over-rate the importance of the step thus made. | ia
may almost be said that Legendre, in thus showing us the primary forms with
which the theory of elliptic integrals is conversant, created a new province

of analysis: he certainly gave unity and a definite form to the whole sub-
ject.

For the three species of functions thus recognised Legendre suggested the
names of nome, epinome and paranome, the name of the first being derived
from the idea that it involves, so to speak, the law on which the comparison
of elliptic integrals depends. But these names do not seem felicitous, nor
have they I believe been adgpted. To this part of the subject an important
theorem relating to the reduction of elliptic integrals of the third kind,
whose parameters are imaginary, seems naturally to belong.

B. The comparison of elliptic integrals of the same form differing only
in the value of the variable, or as it is often called, the amplitude of each.
This part of the subject divides itself into three heads, corresponding to the

_ three classes of integrals. The fundamental results are to be found in the
memoirs of Euler, of which we have already spoken. By Legendre how-
ever they were more fully developed.

It is interesting to observe that Legendre suggested that the discovery of

I —-

__ * A translation of it appeared in Leybourne’s Mathematical Repository, vols. ii, and iii.
The original I have not seen—it has long been scarce.
+ These three forms are

; eae Fy 1—eat, x dz
af V (1—a®) (=e 2%) SI Set S, Gao

| a Legendre always replaces 2 by sin @, so that the integrals become

® ee @ pa 9 ay
’ SSO nie in2 » SS
4 , vine or ae he a/1—c? sin? 9d 9; St (1+nsin? 9) /1—c? sin?

The radical 4/1—c? sin? @ is often denoted by A.

___ The constant c is called the modulus; the second constant n (in the third kind) is called
the parameter. The modulus may always be supposed less than unity, and if e=sin s, then
€ is the angle of the modulus.

46 REPORT—1846.

dx dy wihy
+ —_7_ = 0 admits of
sg , Vi@)" VF)
an algebraical integral, f (a) being the polynomial a+ 62+ yur +oas pron )

x

Euler (namely that the differential equation

might be generalised, if we consider the differential equation —7—
+4 ot he 0. H ks that this i h fons ety
—=—+ ... + == 0. He remarks that this is perha e on

VF) Vie) Et SWE” >

way in which it can be generalised.

y. Theorems relating to the comparison of different kinds of elliptic fune-
tions. One of the most remarkable of these is the relation between the
complete integrals (those, namely, in which the variable a is unity) of the
first and second kind, the moduli of which are complementary ; that is, the
sum of the squares of whose moduli is equal to unity. Legendre’s demonstra-
tion of it is rather indirect, but many others have been since given. Another
theorem may be mentioned,—that the complete integral of the third kind
can always be expressed by means of the complete integrals of the first and
second. A third and most important result shows that in elliptic integrals
of the third kind we may distinguish two separate species, and that to one
or other of these any such integral may be reduced. A memorable dis-
covery of M. Jacobi has greatly increased the importance of this subdivision,
of which we shall hereafter speak more fully. This part of the subject is,
a entirely due to Legendre.

6. The evaluation of elliptic integrals by means of expansions.

e. The method of successive transformations. The idea of this method
originated, as we have seen, with Lagrange. It is developed at great length
by Legendre, with a special reference to the modifications required in apply-
ing it to the different species of integrals. As Lagrange had shown, the
series of transformed integrals extending indefinitely both ways conducts us,
in whichever direction we follow it, towards a transcendent of a lower kind
than an elliptic integral, or in other words, towards a logarithmic or cireular
integral. There are thus two modes of approximation, one of which depends
on aseries of integrals with increasing moduli, and the other on a series
whose moduli decrease. Thus for the three species of integrals there will
be in all six approximative processes to be considered. In the case of the
elliptic integral of the third kind, we have to determine the law of formation
of the successive parameters 7, 2', &c.

- ¢, Reductions of transcendents not contained in the general formula

(« 9: —) to elliptic integrals.
V1—28

4. Lastly, applications to various mechanical and geometrical problems.

This analysis, however slight, will give an idea of the contents of that part
of the ‘ Exercices de Calcul Intégral’ which relates to elliptic functions, In
the third volume there are tables for facilitating the calculation of integrals
of the first and second kind: they are accompanied with an explanation of
the manner in which they were constructed. The ninth table is one with
double entry, the two arguments being the angle of the modulus and the
amplitude.

13. In 1825 Legendre presented to the Académie des Sciences the first
volume of his ‘ Traité des Fonctions Elliptiques.’ A great part of this work
is precisely the same as the ‘ Exercices de Calcul Intégral.’_ By far the most.
important addition to the theory of elliptic functions consists in the disco-
very of a new system of successive transformations quite distinct from that
of Lagrange.

ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF ANALYSIS. 47

In the earlier work Legendre had shown that a certain transcendent might
be expressed in two ways by means of elliptic integrals of the first kind.
Comparing the two results, he obtained a very simple relation between the
two elliptic integrals. Their moduli are complementary ; while the ratio of
the A’s in the two integrals can be expressed rationally in terms of the sine

of the amplitude of one. This circumstance seems to have suggested to Le-

=

_ kind) F(ka)=MF (ay), provided that y and a vanish together. The

oe : ; : iad Sues
Pilear that by means of a solution of it we transform the elliptic integral

‘es
iv

gendre the possibility of generalising the result. He accordingly assumed a
relation between the amplitudes of two integrals, of which the equation sub-
sisting in the theorem of which we have been speaking is a particular case ;
and showed from hence that a simple relation perfectly similar to that which
he had obtained in the particular instance existed between the two integrals,
viz. that they bore to each other a ratio independent of their amplitudes.
Their moduli are connected by an algebraical equation, but are not comple-
mentary. This circumstance therefore now appeared to be unessential,
though in the ‘ Exercices’ the investigation is introduced for the sake of ex-
hibiting a case in which an integral may be transformed into another with a
complementary modulus.

Legendre thus obtained a new kind of transformation, which might be re«
peated any number of times or combined in an infinite variety of ways with
that of Lagrange. To illustrate this he constructed a kind of table—a “ da-
mier analytique.” In the central cell is placed the original modulus c. All the
moduli contained in the same horizontal row are derivable from one another
by Lagrange’s scale of moduli; those in each vertical row by the newly-
discovered scale. He seems to have been very much struck by the infinite
variety of transformations of which elliptic integrals admit. The integral of
the first kind is especially remarkable, because of the simplicity of the rela-
tion which connects it with any of its transformations, viz. that their ratio is
independent of the amplitudes.

Legendre’s second work was, as we have remarked, presented to the Aca-
demy in 1825, but it was not published till 1827. In the summer of 1827

_ M. Jacobi announced in Schumacher’s ‘ Astronomischen Nachrichten,’ No.

123, that he was in possession of a general method of transformation for
elliptic integrals of the first kind. He was not acquainted with Legendre’s
discovery of a new scale, and as an illustration of the general theorem gave
two cases of it, the first being equivalent to Legendre’s method of transfor-
mation. Thus much was announced in a letter to M. Schumacher, dated
June 13th; but in one of a later date (August 2nd) he gave a formal
enunciation of his theorem, but without demonstration. The two commu-
nications appear consecutively (Ast. Nach. vi. p. 33).

In No. 127 of the Nachrichten, vi. p. 133, M. Jacobi gave a demonstra-

- tion of his theorein.

If we Gan so determine y in the terms of « as to satisfy the differential

equation

oo ey op Gg
Vv (U—y) i—aty) M V¥(—a*) Ish a)

“it is manifest that we shall have (F denoting the elliptic integral of the first

(M being constant),

question therefore is, how may the differential equation be satisfied, for it is

F(& 2) into another, viz. into F (Ay).

__M. Jacobi shows that if y be equal to a U and V being integral funes

\

48 REPORT—1846.

tions of x, the differential equation will be satisfied, provided U and V fulfil
two general conditions, the second of which is found to be deducible from
the first. He then makes an assumption which is equivalent to assigning
particular forms to U and V, and thence shows, by a most ingenious method,
that these forms of U and V are such as to fulfil the first of the required condi-
tions, which, as has been said, implies the other. He thus verifies, @ poste-
riori, the assumed value of the function y.

In proving that the forms assigned for U and V have the required pro-
perty, it is necessary to pass from an expression of the value of 1—y in terms
of x to one of 1— Ay in terms of the same quantity. This is done by
means of a remarkable property of the functions U and V, namely, that if

1
han
justed) become ne or G Therefore, in any form in which the relation con-
necting y and 2 can be put, we may replace x by i? provided we at the

in both x be replaced by - or y will (the constants being properly ad-

same time replace y by wh This has been called the principle of double

substitution, and by means of it we pass from the expression of 1—y to that
of 1'— ~, and thence obtain that of 1— Ay. It is to be observed that

this principle is used merely to prove a certain property of the functions
U and V. Of course, as the change of 2 into Pm implies that of y into =
in the finite relation between these quantities, the same thing will be true in
the differential equation by which they are connected, a remark which may
very easily be verified. But, on the other hand, it by no means follows that
because it is true in the differential equation therefore any assumed finite
relation between y and x having this property is the integral required. The
property in question therefore does not enable us to verify any assumed
value of y. .

This remark has reference to a communication from Legendre which ap-
pears in No. 130 of Schumacher’s Nachrichten, vi. p. 201. In it he gives
an account of M. Jacobi’s researches, and an outline of the demonstration of
which we have been speaking. I find it impossible to avoid the conclusion
that this great mathematician mistook the character of the demonstration in
question, and that to him it appeared to be in effect a mere verification of
the assumed value of y by means of the principle of double substitution.
He remarks that the direct substitution of the value of y in the differential
equation is impracticable, but that M. Jacobi had avoided this substitution
by means of “ une propriété particuliére de cette équation qui doit étre com-
mune aux intégrales qui la représentent.” This property is the principle of
double substitution ; and after showing that it is true of the differential
equation, the writer proceeds thus: “‘Ce principe une fois posé, rien n'est

plus facile que de vérifier ’équation trouvée y= y? car par la double sub-

stitution on obtient la méme valeur de y 4 un coefficient prés qui doit étre
égal a l'unité;” and, after a remark to our present purpose immaterial, con-

amie : | Oar
cludes, “ Ainsi se trouve démontrée généralement l’équation y = 7 aint

que, etc.”
As we have seen, such a verification would be wholly inconclusive, nor is

.
-

. ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF ANALYSIS. 49
the essential point of M. Jacobi’s reasoning, namely, that the assumed forms
of U and V satisfy the general condition, laid down at the outset of his de-

_ monstration, here adverted to.

In 1828 Legendre published the first supplement to the ‘ Traité des Fone-
tions Elliptiques,’ &c. It contains an account of the researches of M.
Jacobi, and of a memoir by Abel inserted in the third volume of Crelle’s
Journal. The account here given of M. Jacobi’s demonstration is fuller and
more explicit than that already noticed. It leaves, I think, no doubt of the
error into which Legendre had fallen. No notice whatever is taken of the

_ first part of M. Jacobi’s reasoning: and after remarking that the differential

equation is satisfied when the double substitution is made, he goes on, “ Tout

se reduit donc 4 faire cette double substitution dans lintégrale y = = = et

& examiner si elle est satisfaite.” After showing that it is so, he adds, “ Par
_ ce procédé trés simple il est constaté que l’équation y = _ satisfait.....
_ al équation différentielle dont l’intégrale est F (k 9) =p F(h py), ete.” (Trait.
des Fonct. Ell., iii. p. 10).

Legendre remarks, that although M. Jacobi’s demonstration rests on “ un
principe incontestable et trés ingénieux,” it is still desirable to have another
verification of so important a theorem. He accordingly gives an original

_ demonstration of it, which is however more nearly allied to M. Jacobi’s than
_ to him it seemed to be. This demonstration had already been hinted at in
_ his communication to the Nachrichten. The principal difference is, that
_ while M. Jacobi proved generally that if the first of the two required condi-
tions were satisfied, the second would also be so, and then showed that the
_ forms assigned to U and V satisfied the first condition ; Legendre shows the
assigned forms are such as to satisfy both conditions, on the connection be-
_ tween which it is therefore unnecessary for him to dwell. In the third sup-
; plement to the ‘Traité’des Fonctions Elliptiques,’ Legendre has given an-
, other demonstration of M. Jacobi’s theorem, remarking that it is both more
rigorous and more like M. Jacobi’s than that which he had first given. I
have thought it necessary to make these remarks, because it has been said
that it was in the supplements to Legendre’s work that the demonstration of
_ this theorem received “le dernier degré de rigueur” *.
_ __ 14, In 1829 M. Jacobi’s great work on elliptic functions, the ‘ Fundamenta
Nova Theorie Functionum Ellipticarum,’ was published at Kceenigsberg. It
contains his researches not merely on the theory of transformation, but also
_ with respect to other parts of the subject. But the great problem of trans-
_ formation is the fundamental idea of the whole work; the other parts are
_ subordinate to it, or at least derived from it. The subject is treated with
_ great fulness of illustration and in a manner not unlike that of Euler.
Mz. Jacobi begins by considering the possibility of transforming the ge-
_ neral transcendent whose differential coefficient is unity divided by the square
root of a polynomial of the fourth degree. Subsequently, having shown that
__ this transcendent may be transformed by introducing a new variable y equal
to the quotient of two integral functions of x, and also that the general
dy
tr nscendent may be reduced to one of the form S- Vaapa—eyy

he proceeds to consider the latter in detail.
¥ The first step of this reasoning, viz. the possibility of the transformation,
en on a comparison of the number of the disposable quantities in the

* Verhulst, Traité Elémentaire des Fonctions Elliptiques.
1846. E

50 REPORT—1846.

assumed value of y with that of the conditions required, in order that the
quantity under the radical in the transformed expression may be equal to
the square of an integral function of x multiplied by four unequal linear
factors. It is shown that the number of disposable quantities exceeds by
three that of the required conditions. But, as Poisson has remarked in the
report already mentioned (Mem. de l'Institut. x. p. 87), and as M. Jacobi
himself intimates, this does nut amount to an absolute @ priori proof of the
possibility of the transformation; xo constat but that some of these condi-
tions may be incompatible.

Granting however the possibility of putting the quantity under the radical
in the required form, it is shown, as in Schumacher’s Journal, that this
condition is not only necessary but also sufficient, or, in other words, that it
involves the second condition already mentioned.
dy

V(1—y*) (1 —a*y*)

suming 7 = a U being composed wholly of odd powers of 2, and V of even

The transcendent may be transformed by as-

powers of it. Ifthe degree of U be greater than that of V, the transforma-
tion is said to be of an odd order, and of an ever order in the contrary
case.

This being premised, M. Jacobi discusses the particular cases of the trans-
formations of the third and of the fifth order. The first is the same as that
of Legendre. It is shown that if we put

_ (w+ 2u)ve + uo x
I~ oy 8 u(v + 2u5) 2”
where w and v are constants connected by the following equation—
ut— ot + Quv{1—wv'} =0,

we shall get

‘ _ dy IL ee se

Va-=y)d—-xy) & “v¥a—#)1—Bey
in which k = x and A=v*. The equation connecting wu and v is called the
modular equation.

The “ principle of double substitution” may be illustrated by writing ai

for x in the expression for y,; which then becomes, according to the principle

in question, ot

If we seek to show that the assigned value of y actually satisfies the dif-
ferential equation just stated, we begin by finding the value of l=y. Re-
ducing this value by means of the equation between and v, we can put it in

the form (1 — z) a R being an integral function of x and V, as heretofore

the denominator of the expression for y. The value of 1 + y is hence got
by changing the sign of z, while that of 1 — vty is obtained by simultane-

ously replacing z and y respectively by Be and a and reducing. Simi-
uta .

larly for 1 + v+y. Hence it will appear that

(—-¥)U-e8y)=0-a) 1 we)... @)

‘ ; ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF ANALYSIS. 51

be | -

where S, like R, is integral. By differentiating and reducing, we then show
a _v+2u5§
me 2 PI ha x;

i and combining these two results obtain the required verification.
_ The essence ot M. Jacobi’s demonstration consists in showing that if the
_ yalue of y in terms of « is such that an equation of the form («.) subsists,

_ then necessarily d S

P Se saga ag i asth alu a nabldnrd akncenouggs inked
t dx V2

_ where » is a constant; the existence of the two equations (a.) and ({.) being
_ equivalent to the two conditions of which we have already spoken (p. 48).
_ In the particular case we are now considering,

_v+2u
rt & aera tr

15. After considering the transformation of the fifth order (in which the
modular equation is

us — v8 + 5 uv? {u2 — v2} +40 {1 — wv} =0),

, M. Jacobi prepares the way for a more general investigation by introducing
_ anew notation. This step is one of the highest importance.. We have been

d

i in the habit of calling ¢ the amplitude of the fin nM a paaie = = in?
let this integral be called «. The new notation is contained in the equation
6 = vee or if we call sin ¢, x, so that w -f va =e my
_ then z= sin am w.

_ _ A new notation is in itself merely a matter of convenience: what gives it
_ importance is its symbolizing a new mode of considering any subject. We
had hitherto been accustomed to look on the value of the elliptic integral as
_ a function of its amplitude, to make the amplitude (if the expression may so
_ be used) the independent variable. But in reality a contrary course is on
Many accounts to be preferred. We have in the more advanced part of the
theory more frequently occasion to consider the value of the amplitude as
_ determined by the corresponding value of the integral than vice versd ; and
- it therefore becomes expedient to frame a notation by which the amplitude
_ May be expressed as a function of the integral. In a paper in the ninth vo-
lume of Crelle’s Journal by M. Jacobi, which, like many of his writings,
_ contains in a short compass a philosophical view of a wide subject, he has
_ made use of the analogy between circular and elliptic functions to illustrate
_ the importance of the new notation for the latter. When the modulus of an
elliptic integral of the first kind is equal to zero, the integral becomes

fe dz
2 A 2 which, as we know, is equal to the are whose sine is z, or to
°

‘sin-'z. Now this is a function which we have much less often occa-
sion to express than its inverse sin 2, and we accordingly always look on the
latter as a direct, and on the former as an zzverse function. Yet in the case
_ Of elliptic functions, the functional dependence for which we had an explicit

and recognised notation, viz. that of the integral on the amplitude, corre-
ponds to that which in circular functions has always and almost necessarily
een treated merely as an inverse function. ‘The origin of this discrepancy
1s obvious; our knowledge of the nature of circular functions is not derived

: EQ

52 REPORT—1846.

from the algebraical integrals connected with them, and therefore these in-
tegrals are not brought so much into view as in the theory of elliptic func-
tions the corresponding integrals necessarily are; but it is certain that while
the discrepancy continued to exist the subject could never be fully or satis-
factorily developed. The maxim “ verba vestigia mentis” is as true of ma-
thematical symbols as of the elements of ordinary language. 4
We shall see hereafter that Abel took the same step in his first essay on
elliptic functions. At present I shall only remark, that one of the earliest
consequences of the new notation was the recognition of a most important
principle, viz. that the “inverse function” sinam uw, that is, the function
q

f

corresponding to sin x in circular functions, is doubly periodic, or that it re-
tains the same value when w increases by any multiple either of a certain
real or of a certain imaginary quantity. Now M. Jacobi has shown that no
function* can be triply periodic, and therefore these inverse functions pos-
sess the most general kind possible of periodicity, a property which gives
them great analytical importance. ,

Following M. Jacobi, we shall henceforth give the name of elliptic func-
tions to those which are analogous to circular functions. It is on this ac-
count better to call Legendre’s functions elliptic integrals than, as he has
done, elliptic functions (vide ante, p. 44).

By the new notation we are led to consider a great variety of formule
analogous to those of ordinary trigonometry. The sine or cosine of the am-
plitude of the sum of two quantities may be expressed in terms of the sines
and cosines of the amplitudes of each, &c.+; and we have only to make the
modulus equal to zero to pass from what has sometimes, though not with
much propriety, been called elliptic trigonometry to the common properties
of circular functions. ;

M. Jacobi gives a table of formule relating to the new elliptic functions,
and proceeds to apply their properties to the problem of transformation. It
was in this manner that he had treated the problem in the Nachrichten. As

* 7, e, no function of one variable.
+ The fundamental formule are—

sinam ucosamv Aamv- sinam v cosamu A amu
1 — #* sin? am wu sin? am v :

sin am (w+ v) =

cos am ucosamv — sinam usinamvA amu Aamv
] — #* sin? am u sin? am v 3

cos am (wu + v) =

AamuAamv — /* sin am uw sin am v Cos am wu cos am »

Aam (u + v) = 1 — # sin? am u sin? am v 4

k being the modulus, and Aamu= V1—A*sin?amu. If
* =

K= : pee 5 Me and K’ = Sih

» Vi-#sin? 9 » V1—k?* sin?
where #? + #/2 = 1, then it may be shown that

sin am (u-+ 4K) = sinam uw,
and cham
sin am (wu + 2K’ /—1) = sinam u,

so that 4 K is the real and 2K’ /—1 the imaginary period of sinamwu. Hence it is ob-
vious that we shall have generally

sin am (u + 4mK-+ 2nK’ /—1) =sinam u,
m and n being any integers.

be

ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF ANALYSIS. 53

in his earlier essay, he assumes y equal to a rational function of z, whose
coefficients are elliptic functions, and shows that this assumption satisfies the
_ differential equation already mentioned. It may be asked what is gained by
the introduction of elliptic functions into a problem of which, as we have
seen, particular cases (e.g. the transformations of the third and fifth order)
ean be solved by algebraical considerations. The answer is, that the pro-
_ perties of these functions enable us to transform the assumed relation between
_ yand z in a manner which would otherwise be impracticable. It is con-
ceivable that any particular case might be solved by mere algebra, but it
does not seem possible to discover in this way a general theorem for trans-
formations of all orders, and practically the labour of obtaining the formule
for the transformation of any high order would be intolerable.

Having proved the theorem for transformation in nearly the same manner
as he had already done, M. Jacobi developes the demonstration which, as
‘we have said, Legendre hinted at in No. 130 of Schumacher’s Journal.

He then proceeds to consider the various transformations of any given
order. We have seen that the modular equation for those of the third order
rises to the fourth degree, that is to say, for a given value of the modulus of
the original integral four new moduli exist, corresponding to four new in-
tegrals, into which the given one may be transformed. These four trans-
formations are all included in the general formula for the third order; but
it is to be remarked that in general only two of the roots of the modular
equation are real. Thus there are two real transformations and no more.
The same thing is true, mutatis mutandis, of the transformations of any
prime order (to which M. Jacobi’s attention is chiefly directed), that is to
say, there will be 2 + 1 transformations of the mth order, » —1 of which

_ are imaginary. The two real transformations are called the first and the se-
cond ; the second is sometimes called the impossible transformation, because
it presents itself in an imaginary form*. Of the formule connected with
these two transformations M. Jacobi gives copious tables.

He next shows, in a very remarkable manner, that, corresponding to a
transformation in which we pass from a modulus & to a modulus A, there
exists another, whose formulz are derivable from those of the former, in

__ which we pass from a modulus 1 —k to a modulus 1 — a’, or which

connects moduli complementary to A and k. The latter is accordingly called,

_ with reference to the former, the complementary transformation. The first

real transformation of & corresponds to the second real transformation

Pi V1 —k?, and vice versd.

_ _ The next theorem which M. Jacobi demonstrates is not less remarkable.

_ It is that the combination of the first and second real transformations gives

by a formula for the multiplication of the original integral, or, in other words,

_ that the modulus of the integral which results from this double transforma-

tion is the same as that of the original integral, so that the two integrals

& differ only in their amplitudes. Of this theorem he had in the earlier part

of the work proved some particular casest.

regs,
en!

_ * Mr. Bronwin, in the Cambridge Mathematical Journal and in the Phil. Mag., has
"made some objections to this transformation ; but from a correspondence which I have re-
- cently had with him, I believe I am justified in stating that he does not object either to M.
Jacobi’s result or to the logical correctness of his reasoning, but only to the form in which
the result is exhibited.
+ It may be shown that if we pass from / to a by the first transformation, we can pass
from Vi— 2 to V1 — # also by the first transformation. Also, as has been said, we
_ derive from the transformation {% to a} a transformation { VI —FPto V1— a2}, and

54 REPORT—1846.

After fully developing this part of the subject, he next treats of the nature
of the modular equation, and shows that it possesses several remarkable
properties. One is, that all modular equations, of whatever order, are pare
ticular integrals of a differential equation of the third order, of which the
general integral can be expressed by means of elliptic transcendents.

16. We now enter on the second great division of M. Jacobi’s researches,
the evolution of elliptic functions.

The evolution of elliptic functions into continued products with an infinite
number of factors presents itself as the limit towards which M. Jacobi’s
theorem for the transformatlon of the mth order tends as ” increases sine
limite. It is for this reason that we may look on the problem of transforma-
tion as the leading idea in M. Jacobi’s researches.

We may in some degree illustrate these evolutions by a reference to cir-
cular functions. A sine is, as we know, an elliptic function whose modulus
is zero. Now if & is zero, A is also zero. Thus if we apply a formula of
transformation to a sine, we shall be led to another sine either of the same
or of a multiple are. Accordingly the first real transformation degenerates
in the case in question into the known formula for the sine of a multiple
arc; while the second, leading us merely to the sine of the same are, becomes
illusory. Thus in the case of a sine, transformation is merely multiplication ;
but from the formula for multiplication, viz.

i a : gee sin? 6 mos es sin? 6
sin (2m+1)§=(2m-+1) sin 6 rere gre Fe cai To 2me ae
Q2m+1 ; 2m+1

we at once deduce, by making (2m + 1)4= @and 2m + 1 infinite, the

common formula
ES ¢° 9°
sin 6 = ig Bye (2 geld
Cue ? G 9) ¢ 4s x?

This then is a formula of evolution deduced from the first real transfor-
mation. It is however only when & is zero that the first transformation will
give such a formula. In all other cases it is, for a reason which we cannot
here enter on, impossible to derive from it a formula of this kind. M. Jacobi’s
formule are accordingly derived from the second real transformation, and
therefore are illusory when & is zero, or for the case of the sine. There is
nothing therefore strictly analogous to them in the theory of angular sections.
By means of them we express the function sin am 2 in terms of sin mx, m
being a certain constant.

From the fundamental expressions in continued produets, of which there
are three, many important theorems may be derived, This part of the sub-
ject seems to admit of almost infinite increase, and it is difficult to give any
general view of it. I may, however, mention a remarkable transcendental

similarly from { VI —# to VI — ae a transformation {a to kh. The first and last of
these transformations correspond respectively to the differential equations—

dy Ms 1 dx
Vi-y)G—-x#y) MV/G—2)(1— a?)
da’ 1 dy

Ji — a) (1— a?) M/A —y)(1— ayy

Hence, combining these equations and integrating,

1
Fike’) = ivivtag (ka) ;
and it may also be shown that ats is an integer.

MM’

ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF ANALYSIS. 55

_ function of the modulus & which is usually denoted by g, and which occurs
perpetually in this part of the theory of elliptic functions. If for the moment
_ we denote this function by FA, so that g = Ff, then if for k we write ,,
which we suppose to represent the modulus of the first real transformation
of the mth order, we find that g" = F &,, so that if g, is the same function of
_k, that qg is of k
In = q"

This singular property, and others of an analogous character, are of great
use in establishing various formule *.

Before discussing the evolution of integrals of the third kind, M. Jacobi
has premised some important theorems. He proves that the elliptic integral
of the third kind, though it involves three elements, viz. the amplitude, the
modulus and the parameter, can yet be expressed in terms of other quantities
severally involving but two. In order to this we introduce either a new trans-
cendent t or a definite elliptic integral of the third kind, whose amplitude isa

certain function of its modulus and parameter. It is almost impossible to
tabulate the values of a function of three elements, on account of the enormous
bulk of a table with triple entry; we therefore see the importance of the step
thus made. M. Jacobi announced this discovery as generally true of elliptic
integrals of the third kind, but his demonstration applies to that subdivision
already mentioned, which was designated by Legendre “ Fonctions du troi-
siéme ordre 4 parametre logarithmique,” and not to functions “4 parametre
eireulaire ¢.” It is probable that this limitation was in M. Jacobi’s mind, but
he does not seem to’ have expressed it. Further on, in the ‘ Fundamenta
Nova,’ we find another mode of expressing integrals of the third kind in
terms of functions of two elements, but this method also applies only to
* fonctions du troisiéme ordre & parametre logarithmique,” the two methods
being in fact closely allied.

Legendre appreciated the importance of this discovery of M. Jacobi. He
speaks of it in a letter to Abel, as a ‘ découverte majeure,” but adds that
his attempts to extend M. Jacobi’s demonstration to the other class of intee
grals of the third kind had been unsuceessful. The same remarks occur in
his second supplement (Traité des Fonet. Ell., iii. p. 141). The distinction

_ thus made between the two classes of integrals of the third kind appeared

_ to Legendre sufficient to make it desirable to recognise in all four classes of
elliptic integrals, so as to make the division between the two species of the

_ third class coordinate with that between either and the first or second.
_ Legendre says explicitly that M. Jacobi had announced, in making known
__ his discovery, that it applied to functions “a parametre circulaire.” This

i * A method of calculating elliptic integrals by means of g was suggested by Legendre,
_ Yide Verhulst, p. 252, and M. Jacobi in Crelle.
7 This transcendent is denoted by ‘, and is defined by the equation

i dg

ty f=

y fi (00) Xe gy’

where E (¢¢)is the elliptic integral of the second kind, If we introduce the inverse nota-
tion, and make 9 = am u,,we can readily establish the following result,

1 .
T= 50 = eff sin? am ud u?,
_ The function Y, which is the logarithm of © (vide infra, p. 66), has many remarkable pro-
perties. ; i
____ = In the former species (1 + 2) ¢ + =) is negative, and in the latter positive (vide

_ ante,p.45). The specific names are derived from the circumstance that for the former the
fundamental formula of addition involves a logarithm, for the latter a circular are.

56 REPORT—1846.

however possibly arose from some misconception of 'M. Jacobi’s meaning.
Dr. Gudermann, in the fourteenth volume of Crelle’s Journal, has given it
as his opinion that the circular species of integrals of the third kind does not
admit of the reduction in question; and remarks, that it occurs much more
frequently than the other species in the applications of mathematics to na-
tural philosophy.

After having discussed at some length, and by new methods, the proper-
ties of elliptic integrals of the third kind, M. Jacobi concludes his work by
investigating the nature of two new transcendents which present themselves
in immediate connexion with the numerator and denominator of the con-
tinued product by which sin amw is expressed. One of them however
M. Jacobi had already recognised by a distinctive symbol, in consequence of
its intimate connexion with the theory of integrals of the third kind.

Such is the outline of this remarkable work: before it appeared M. Jacobi
gave in the third and fourth volumes of Crelle’s Journal (iii. pp. 192, 303,
403, iv. p. 185) notices, mostly without demonstrations, of the progress of
his researches. Almost everything in the first and second of these notices
is found in the ‘Fundamenta.’ In the third we find a remarkable algebraical
formula for the multiplication of the elliptic integral of the first kind. The
fourth and last relates to ulterior investigations, which it was the intention
of the author to develope in a second part of his work. It contains an indi-
cation of a method of transformation depending on a partial differential
equation * ; values of the elliptic functions of multiple arguments ; a method
of transforming integrals of the second and third kinds; a most important
simplification of the method of Abel for the division of any integral of the
first kind, &c. Of this simplification he had already given some idea in a
note in the preceding volume of the same Journal, p. 86.

17. It may not be improper in this place to observe, that in 1818, and
thus in the interval between Legendre’s first and second systematic works on
the theory of elliptic functions, M. Gauss published the tract entitled ‘ De-
terminatio Attractionis,’ &c. The illustrious author begins by remarking
that the secular inequalities due to the action of one planet on another
are the same as if the mass of the disturbing planet were diffused according
to a certain law along its orbit, so that the latter becomes an elliptic ring of
variable but infinitesimal thickness. The problem then presents itself of
determining the attraction exerted by such a ring on any external point.
In the solution of this problem M. Gauss arrives at two definite integrals;
they can readily be reduced to elliptic integrals of the first and second kinds.
For the evaluation of the integrals to which he reduces those of his problem,
M. Gauss gives a method of successive transformation, analogous in some
measure to that of Lagrange. But the transformation of which he makes
use is a rational one, and is in fact the rational transformation of the second
order. The discovery of this transformation appears therefore to be due to
M. Gauss. He has remarked, though merely in passing, that his method is
applicable to the indefinite as well as to the definite integral. The rational
transformation in question leads to a continually increasing series of moduli,
or is, to use an expression of M. Jacobi a transformation “minoris in
majorem.” The law connecting two consecutive moduli is the same as in
Lagrange’s, which is, as we have seen, an irrational transformation ; so that
M. Gauss’s method does not afford us a new scale of moduli. Nevertheless,
as no rational transformation had I believe been noticed when his tract ap-

* Mr. Cayley, to whose kindness I have been, while engaged on the present report, greatly
indebted, has communicated to me a demonstration of the truth of this equation.

a
ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF ANALYSIS. 57

peared *, his method is, in a historical point of view, of considerable in-

_ terest.

18. In the second volume of Crelle’s Journal, p. 101, we find Abel’s first
memoir on elliptic functions. It was published in the spring of 1827, and

therefore before M. Jacobi’s announcement in No. 123 of Schumacher’s
Journal. But it contains nothing which interferes with M. Jacobi’s disco-
very of the general theory of transformation. Abel’s researches on this part
of the subject appeared in the third volume of Crelle’s Journal, p. 160.
This second communication is dated, as we are informed by an editorial
note, the 12th of February, 1828, and though it is announced as a continu-
ation of the former memoir, it is yet in effect distinct from it, as its contents
are not mentioned in the general summary prefixed to the first communica-
‘tion.

These details may not be without interest, though it is not often that ques-
tions of priority deserve the importance sometimes given to them. There
is no doubt that Abel’s researches were wholly independent of those of
M. Jacobi; and though the coincidence of some of their results is therefore
interesting, yet the general view which they respectively took of the theory of
elliptic functions is essentially different, as different as the style and manner
of their writings.

With M. Jacobi the problem of transformation occupied the first place ;
with Abel that of the division of elliptic integrals. Both introduced a nota-
tion inverse to that which had previously been used, and as an immediate
consequence recognised the double periodicity of elliptic functions. Ex-
pressions of these functions in continued products and series were given by
both, but those of Abel were deduced by considering the limiting case of
the multiplication of elliptic integrals, those of M. Jacobi, as we have seen,
from the limiting case of their transformation. Hence Abel’s fundamental
expressions depend on doubly infinite continued products, corresponding to
the double periodicity of elliptic functions. On the other hand, M. Jacobi’s
continued products are all singly infinite.

_ Other differences might of course be pointed out, but the most remarkable
_ is that which we find in the character and style of their writings. Nothing
_ ean be more distinct. In M. Jacobi’s we meet perpetually with the traces

_ of patient and philosophical induction ; we observe a frequent reference to
4 particular cases and a most just and accurate perception of analogy. Abel’s
"are distinguished by great facility of manner, which seems to result from
_ his power of bringing different classes of mathematical ideas into relation
_ with each other, and by the scientific character of his method. We meet in
_ his works with nothing tentative, with but little even that seems like artifice.
_ He delights in setting out with the most general conception of a problem,
and in introducing successively the various conditions and limitations which
is it may require. The principle which he has laid down in a remarkable pas-
| sage of an unfinished essay on equations seems always to have guided him—
_ that a question should be so stated that it may be possible to answer it.
§ When so stated it contains, he remarks, the germ of its solution +.

:

___ * The fundamental formula of his transformation is incidentally mentioned in Legendre’s
_ second work (Traité des Fonct., i. 61).

___t For instance, Is it possible to trisect an angle by the rule and compass? The ques-
tion thus stated leads us to consider the general character of all problems soluble by the
methods of elementary geometry ; and following the suggestion thus given, we find that it
_ 1s to be answered in the negative. But if the last clause be omitted or neglected, we can
Dowd proceed, as many persons have done, tentatively, 7. e. by attempting actually to solve
oo

: e problem. If we fail, the question remains unanswered; if we succeed, we do answer
it, but as it were only by accident.

58 REPORT—1846.

Ido not presume to compare the merits of these two mathematicians.
The writings of both are admirable, and may serve to show that if ever the
modern method of analysis seems to be an éurepia rather than a réyvn, it
does so, either because it has not been rightly used, or because it is not duly
understood.

To obtain a general view of Abel's writings it may be remarked, that his
earliest researches related to the theory of equations. Of the ideas with
which he was then conversant he has made two principal applications. The
one is to the comparison of transcendents in the manner already described ;
the other to the solution of the equations presented by the problem of the
division of elliptic integrals. The second of these applications is contained
in the memoir published in the second volume of Crelie’s Journal.

He begins by introducing an inverse notation ¢ (w) corresponding to the
function denoted in the ‘ Fundamenta Nova’ by sinamw, while f(w«) and
F (w) correspond respectively to cosam «% and A am w. This notation
has the defect of appropriating three symbols which we cannot well spare.
On the other hand it is certainly more concise than M. Jacobi’s.

He then verifies the fundamental formule for the addition of the new
functions, and goes on to show that they are doubly periodie*. He next
considers the expressions of ¢” a, &c. in ga, &c., and proceeds to prove
the important proposition that the equation of the problem of the division
of elliptic integrals of the first kind is always algebraically soluble.

In order to illustrate this, which is one of the most remarkable theorems
in the whole subject, it may be observed, that as any circular function of a
multiple are ean be algebraically expressed in terms of circular functions
of the simple arc, so may ¢na, fna, Fna@ be algebraically expressed by
means of 6a, fa, Fa.

Conyersely, as the determination (to take a particular function) of sin a in
terms of sin x @& requires the solution of an algebraical equation, so does that
of ¢a in terms of gma. The equation which presents itself in the former
case is, as we know, of the mth or of the (2)th degree as n is odd or even.
But the equation for determining ¢ @ rises to the (®)th degree in the former
case, and in the latter to the (2 x*)th. We may however confine ourselves
to the case in which 2 is a prime number; since if it be composite the ar-
gument of the circular or elliptic function may first be divided by one of
the factors of n, and the result thus got by another, andsoon. Thus setting
aside the particular ease of m = 2, we shall have to consider, in order to
determine sin @ or @, an algebraical equation of the mth or (n®)th degree
respectively.

In consequence of the periodicity of sin a, the roots of the equation in
sin @ admit of being expressed in a transcendental form; they are all in-

cluded in the formula sin { @ + 2p"), in which p is integral, and which
n
therefore admits of only different values.

* The formule in question differ from those already given, only because Abel’s form of

dg 4
iptic i i , which becomes the same as Legendre’s on
the elliptic integral isf- Go ea) peat) 8
making e? = —1, The double periodicity of the functions is expressed by the formula

96=of{(-1)"t" 64 motnoV—)})

with similar formule for f and F. The quantities m and n are integral, and
1 d zt

al dx ras
- ig "V0 = eat) (eat) tag 4 ip VW (1 + c3a%) (1 — a)’

ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF ANALYSIS. 59

But elliptic functions are doubly periodic, and therefore the roots of the
equation in ¢ a are expressible by a formula analogous to the one just written,
_ but which involves two indeterminate integers corresponding to the two
_ periodicities of the function, just as p does to the single periodicity 2 7.

Giving all possible values to these integers, we get »? different values for

the formula.

The question now is, how are we to pass from the transcendental repre-
sentation of these roots to their algebraical expression? Or, in other words,
how are the relations among the roots deducible from the circumstance of
their being all included in the same formula, to be made available in effect-

_ ing the solution of the algebraical equation ?

The answer to this question is to be found in the following principle: that

if % wu be such a rational function of w that

OT AGS A. Aan aan te A
@, Y, .z being the roots of an algebraical equation, then any of these quan-
tities may be expressed in terms of the coefficients of the equation. This
follows at once from the consideration that we shall have

1
X= TAKetxyY tr letate +x 2}>

& being the number of the roots 2, y,-..2- For the sum within the bracket
_ being a rational and symmetrical function of the roots, is necessarily expres-

sible in the coefficients of the equation, and the same is therefore of course

true of x 2, or of any of the other quantities to which it is equal.
If, therefore, by means of the relations whichwe know to exist among the

_ roots of the equation to be solved we can establish the existence of a system
_ of such functions, x, x’, 9!', &e., each of which retains the same value of
_ whichever root we suppose it to be a function; and if by combining these
functions we can ultimately express z in terms of them, the equation is solved,
since each of these functions may be considered a known quantity.
_ Such is the general idea of Abel’s method of solution. The principle on
_ which it depends, namely, the expressibility of any unchangeable function x,
is one which is frequently met with in investigations similar to that of which
We are speaking. M. Gauss’s solution of the binomial equation is founded
upon it. ;
_ [have already remarked that an important simplification of Abel’s process
_ was given by M. Jacobi. The result which M. Jacobi has stated without
_ demonstration may be proved by means of a theorem established by Abel in
_ the fourth volume of Crelle’s Journal, p. 194.
_ M. Jacobi shows the existence of a system of n° functions y, x/, &e., by
(ppowbining which we can immediately express the values of the roots. In the
_ last of his ‘ Notices’ on elliptic functions we find, as has been said, the ex-
plicit determination of all the roots. The formula given for this purpose is,
_ like the former, undemonstrated, and I do not know whether any demonstra-
_ tion of it has as yet been published; but from a note of M, Liouville, in a
recent volume of the ‘Comptes Rendus,’ we find that both he and M. Her-
_ tite have succeeded in proving it.
_ But in whatever manner the solution is effected it will always involve cer-
ain transcendental quantities, which are introduced in the expressions of the
elation subsisting between the different roots. The solution can therefore
_ be looked on as complete, only if we consider these to be known quantities.
_ They are the roots of a particular case of the equation to be solved. They
_ felate to the division of what are called the complete integrals, We may
_ therefore say that the general case is reduced to this particular one. But

60 REPORT—1846,

the latter is not, except under certain circumstances, soluble, though the
solution of the equation on which it depends can be reduced to the solution
of certain other equations of lower degrees.

But for an infinity of particular values of the modulus, the case in ques-
tion is soluble by a method closely analogous to that used by M. Gauss for
the solution of binomial equations. Thus for all such values the problem of
the division of elliptic integrals is completely solved.

The most remarkable of these cases corresponds to the geometrical pro-
blem of the division of the perimeter of the lemniscate. Abel discovered
that this division can always be effected by means of radicals, and further,
that it can be constructed by the rule and compass in the same cases (that
is for the same values of the divisor) as the division of the circumference of
a circle. Of this discovery we find Abel writing to M. Holmboe, “ Ah qu'il
est magnifique! tu verras*.”

In order to form an idea of the nature of the difficulty which disappears
in the case of which we are speaking, let us suppose that we have to solve
the algebraical equation which is represented by the transcendental one
¢ (3 6) = 0, in the same manner as the equation 4.23 — 32 = 0 is represented
by sin (36) =0.

The roots of 4.23 — 3 7 = 0, are, setting aside zero,

_ on . ar
sin ——, sin —.
3 3
Those of the former algebraical equation, which, as we know, is of the ninth

degree, are, beside zero,

2w 40
niga dg
2ai 4 at
kt Nanas

—— ——

Q(w+2ai) ~4(w+2ai)
‘Sa ee
where i= /— 1.
To satisfy ourselves that these are the roots required, we observe that
@ (mw + nai) =0 for all integral values of mand. Hence the general

eanaae but it will be found that

if we give any values not included in the above table to m and , the resulting
expression can be reduced to one or other of the forms we have specified in

virtue of the formula 9 (9) =o{(—1)™t"0+m wt+nai}. E.g. The non-
5w+2at 4 (w+ at)
3

3

form of the roots of our equaticn is ¢

, Since the

tabulated root is equal to our sixth root ¢

sum of their arguments is 3w + 2a, and the sum of 3 and 2 is an odd
number.

* It is right to mention that M. Libri has disputed Abel's title to the theory of the di-
vision of the lemniscate. I shall, however, not enter on the merits of the controversy which
arose on this point between him and M. Liouville. The reader will find it in the seventeenth
volume of the ‘Comptes Rendus.’ It appears that M. Gauss had himself recognised the
applicability of his method to the equation arising out of the problem of the division of the
perimeter of the lemniscate (vide Recherches Arithmetiques, § vii. p. 429. I quote from
the translation published at Paris in 1809), .

—-

ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF ANALYSIS. 61

On considering our table, we observe that it consists of 3 + 1 horizontal
‘rows, each containing 3 — 1 terms, and that the arguments of the terms in
each row are connected by a simple relation; that of the second being double
that of the first. If we were to replace 3 by any odd number p, we should
get an equation of the p* degree, whose roots, setting aside zero, might simi-
larly be arranged in p+ 1 rows, each of p— 1 terms, the arguments of the
terms in each row being as 1, 2, 3, &c,

‘ Moreover, sin is rarionally expressible in sin = and generally sin abn

7” and p being any integers we please. So too are all

, eas on
is sO in sin
Qn

the terms in each horizontal row of our table, whether for the particular case
__ we have written down, or for that of any odd number, rationally expressible
in the first term.

Hence it may be shown that when the divisor 2 + 1 is a prime number,
an equation whose roots were the terms in.any horizontal row could be solved
algebraically, by a method essentially the same as that of Gauss, just as we

can solve the equation the type of whose roots is sin se = I" But to con-
t

_ struct this equation, z. e. to determine its coefficients, requires the solution of
an equation of the same degree as the number of horizontal rows, 7. e. of the
_ degree 2+ 2. And this equation is in general insoluble. The difficulty
_ we here encounter may be expressed in general language, by saying that
_ although we can pass from one root to another along each horizontal row, ,
__ yet we cannot pass from row to row.
Our table, however, has the remarkable property, that supposing, as we
may always do, 2% +1 to be a prime number, all the roots are rationally
expressible in terms of any two not lying in the same row. This depends on
a property of the function ¢, which it is very easy to demonstrate, and it is
intimately connected with the relations which exist among the terms of the
same row.

If, then, which is the case for an infinite variety of values of the modulus,
We can express any root rationally in terms of another of a different row,
say in @ cis ae
2n+1 Qn+1
_ it appears that not only are the roots all expressible in one, but they are so
_ in such a manner that the functional dependencies among them fulfil a cer-
_ tain simple condition, which, as Abel shows in a separate memoir (Crelle, iv.
_ p- 131; or Abel’s works, i. p. 114), renders every equation, all whose roots

_ are rationally expressible in terms of one, algebraically soluble. ~
_ To take the simplest case, the are of the lemniscate may be represented by

, all the roots become rational in terms of ¢ - Moreover,

dz death
_ the integral Fag If ¢ be the function inverse to this integral, we have
| the simple relation between roots of different rows, ¢ Poa i= t@ wat ?
_ w being in this case equal to w.
__ To apply what has been said to the solution of the general equation for
determining ¢ a in terms of 9 (2% ain 1) a, it is sufficient to remark that the
anscendents introduced in considering the relations among the roots of this
7 k 2 Qar :
a ee uation, are simply @ ree and @ ry or at least may be algebraically
expressed in terms of these two quantities.
___ The remainder of the first memoir contains developments of the functions

~

62 REPORT—1846.

¢,f and F in doubly and singly infinite continued products and series. They
are derived from the expressions of @ @, &c. in terms of ¢ =, &c., by supposing

m to increase sine limite, and are therefore analogous to the expression of
sin ¢ in terms of ¢ which we have already mentioned.

The second contains the development of what had already been pointed
out with respect to the lemniscate, so far as relates to the division of its peri-
meter by any prime number of the form 4m-+ 1. In an interesting note
which M. Liouville communicated to the Institute in 1844, and which is
published in the eighth volume of his Journal, p. 507, he has proved gene-
rally that the division of the perimeter of this curve can always be effected
whether the divisor be a composite or prime number, real or compleax (that
is, of the form p + “—q, p and q being integers). In order to do this, it
was only requisite to follow m.m., the reasoning by which Abel has shown
that the equation which presents itself in the problem of the division of the
circumference of the circle is always resoluble. Thus, as M. Liouville has
remarked, his analysis is implicitly contained in Abel’s.

This memoir also contains Abel’s theorem for the transformation of elliptic

integrals of the first kind. It is equivalent to that of M. Jacobi; nor is the

demonstration, though presented in quite a different form, altogether unlike
M. Jacobi’s.

Abel begins by considering the sum of a certain series of ¢ functions whose
arguments are in arithmetical progression. He shows that the sum of this
series is a rational function of its first term. If we call this sum (multiplied
by a certain constant) y, and the first term 2, then y is such a function of ¢
as to satisfy the differential equation already mentioned, viz.

va-yyd—vy) M V¥a=2)0—Ray
or rather an equation of equivalent form. In fact y is m.m. the same func-
tion of x that it is in M. Jacobi’s theorem. Thus the sum of the series of
elliptic functions is itself, when multiplied by a constant, a new elliptic fune-
tion, having a new modulus, and whose argument bears a constant ratio to
that of the first term of the series. It appears also that for the sum of the
elliptic functions we may, duly altering the constant factor, substitute their

continued product. Thus, beside the algebraical expression of y, there are

two transcendental expressions of it, both of which are given by M. Jacobi
in the ‘Fundamenta Nova. At the close of the memoir Abel compares his
result with the one in Schumacher’s Journal, No. 123, and mentions that he
had not met with the latter until his own paper was terminated.

19. In the 138th number of this journal Abel resumed the problem of
transformation, and treated it in a more general and direct manner than had
yet been done. This memoir appeared in June 1828. M. Jacobi, in a letter
to Legendre, has spoken in the highest terms of Abel's demonstration of the
formule of transformation: he says, “Elle est au-dessus de mes éloges,
comme elle est au-dessus de mes travaux.” An addition to this memoir,
establishing the real transformations by an independent method, appeared in
Number 148 of the same journal. ‘These two papers are printed consecu-
tively in the first volume of Abel's Works, pp. 253, 275.

In the first of these two remarkable essays Abel makes use of the perio-
dicity of the function ¢ 6, or, as he here denotes it, AG, to determine @ priori
what rational function of 2, y must be in order that the differential equation

dy dz

Vie) (=F) VER8) Gea)

ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF ANALYSIS. 63

may be satisfied. [I have altered his notation for the sake of uniformity. ]
» Wx be the function sought, then considering y = x as an equation de-
termining x in terms of y, he shows that certain relations necessarily exist
among its roots. Let A be one of them and 6! another, it will readily be
seen that we may put '
. di'!=d6,
_ since each is equal to
- a
Vy) U-#y’)

ih 6! = 6 + a,
Al!
ie @ being the constant of integration, or, which is the same thing, being inde-

pendent of y. Hence a4 being one root, every other root is necessarily of
Rm the form A(§+ a). Again, we see from hence that

] y=) = Yat a)),

iH

a which is to be true for all values of 8, and which therefore implies the exist-
ence of a series of equations, of which the type is
A

i VAG+H—1a)) = (a+ ha)),

§ where # is an integer. Hence A(9 + &«@) is a root, whatever integral value
ba we may give tok. But the equation y= wz has but a finite number of
_ roots, and therefore the values of the general expression A(§ +a) must
Yecur again and again. This consideration throws light on the nature of the
_ quantity a; it must in all cases be an aliquot part of a period (simple or
_ eompound) of the function A 6.

__ All the values of A (@ + ka) got by giving different values to & are roots;
_ but the converse is not necessarily true; all the roots are not necessarily
_ included in this expression. But it is not difficult to perceive that all the
roots are included ina more general expression, viz. A(9+h, a, +h. @.-k, &,),
and conversely, that all the values of this expression are roots. The number
_ mis indeterminate: we may have formule of the form y = Ww 2, in which 2
__ is unity, others in which it is two, &c.; but in all cases a is an aliquot part
f some period of A 6, and & is integral.

It is easy when the roots of y =z aré known, to express y in terms of 6.

wr let Pz = a J and F being integral functions. Then

yFe—fe=(yp—q {(@—Ab) (@— AO +.4)) oe}

is (yp —q being the coefficient of the highest power of « inyFa—fw) an
nti¢ally true equation; whence, to determine y in 9, we have only to assign
a particular value to 2, or to compare the coefficients of similar powers of it*.
This then determines the form which the function y must necessarily be
: the question which Abel goes on to discuss is this: Under what circum-
nees will a function of the form thus determined @ priori be such a func
mn as we require? The character of the reasoning by which this question
treated is similar to that of the method by which Abel had, in his second
Memoir on elliptic functions, verified the form which, without assigning any
reason, he had there assumed for the function y.

The second essay is singularly elegant. If ¢, denote the function inverse

ag

_* T have trot noticed an ambiguity of sign at the outset of this reasoning, as given by
Abel, as for the purposes of illustration it is immaterial.

64 REPORT—1846.

to the imegral | Foy and ¢, the corresponding function for

the modulus ec, then, on introducing the inverse notation, the differential
equation
dy dz
= 24
v7G—y*) iy) V(1—a*) (1—e? 2°)

becomes of course d§' = ad, with c= 6,4 and y= ¢,6'. Hence for a
given increment « of 6, that of 6! isaa.

Let us take the simplest case, and suppose y to be a rational function of
x; then, as 2 or 6,9 remains unchanged when 9 increases by a period of the
function ¢,, ¥ does so too; that is ¢,9' remains unchanged when 6! increases
by a times a period of ¢,, or in other words, a times a period of ¢, is neces-
sarily one of ¢,.

Suppose now & and ¢ to be both real and less than unity; then ¢, and ¢,
have each a real period, here denoted by 2w, and 2w, respectively, and each
an imaginary period w,2 and @w,7 respectively, @, and w, being both real.
Let 6 receive first the increment 2w,, and secondly the increment @, 7, then,
by what has been said,

2aw,=2mw,+ nwt
aa.i=2pu, + qa,t*,

m, n, p, g being certain integers. But can these two equations subsist simul-
taneously? Not generally, since if we eliminate a and equate possible and
impossible parts, we get éwo relations among w, w, w, @;,, Which are con-
tinuous functions of the éwo quantities k and c. Hence both are determinate ;
and if we wish c to remain indeterminate, we must either make m and ¢g
equal to zero, in which case a is impossible, or, making and p equal to zero,
assign a real value to it. When a is real we have
a=m = = q ait
W, ors

and hence the remarkable conclusion, that

wy. Ww,
san ee SY Ns
Dy, @,

m and q being integers.

The commensurability of the transcendental functions “, — is therefore
k G
a necessary condition, in order that an integral with modulus e¢ can be trans-
formed into one with modulus &, the regulator a being real and c indeterminate.
And it may be shown that this condition is not only necessary but sufficient.
Similar considerations apply to the case in which a is impossible.
Simple as this view is, it leads to many consequences of great interest.

The function g, of which we have already spoken (p. 55), is merely e- a
and as we know for the first real transformation of the mth order, it becomes

nw E : wD oT :
e—*-~@. Hence in this case we have Frye ped keg according to the
e

general law. It may be well to remark, that if k = c¢ we have a=m“t=m
Ww,

* here is in M. Jacobi’s notation 2K’, so that 9p¢=9(4+2ma+nwi), mand n
being any integers.

if ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF ANALYSIS. 65

(an integer). Hence in multiplying an integral, the multiplier must be an
integer, if y is rational in x, except for particular values of c.

_ In the paper of which we are speaking Abel has applied precisely similar
considerations to the case in which z and y are connected by any algebraical
equation.

__ Passing over one or two shorter papers, one of which has been already

referred to at p. 59, we come to a ‘Précis’ of the theory of elliptic func-
tions, published in the fourth volume of Crelle’s Journal, p. 236. The
i work of which it was designed to be an extract was never written, and the
_ §Précis’ itself is left unfinished. A general summary was prefixed to it, from

which we learn that the work was to be divided into two parts. In the first
_ elliptic integrals are considered irrespectively of the limits of integration, and
_ their moduli may have any values, real or imaginary. Abel proposes the
~ general problem of determining all the cases in which a linear relation may
_ exist among elliptic integrals and logarithmic and algebraical functions in
_ yirtue of algebraical relations existing among the variables*.

__ His first step is to apply his general method for the comparison of trans-
cendents to elliptic integrals, which may be done by what is called Abel’s
_ theorem, in at least two different ways: the one, that of which he now makes
use; the other, that which we have seen is applied to the case of four func-

_ tions by Legendre in his third Supplement.

_ He next determines the most general form of which the integral of an al-

_ gebraical differential expression of any number of variables is capable, pro- °
Piet it ean be expressed linearly by elliptic integrals and logarithmic and

algebraical functions. The result at which he arrives admits of many im-

portant applications. It is, that the integral in question may be expressed in

a form in which the sine of the amplitude of each elliptic integral and the
' corresponding A, and also the algebraical and each logarithmic function are

all rational functions of the variables and of the differential coefficients of the
integral with respect to each.

He proceeds by an interesting train of reasoning to establish the remark-
able conclusion, that the general problem which we are considering may
ultimately be reduced to that of the transformation of elliptic integrals of the
first kind. The problem of this transformation is then discussed, and by a
method essentially the same as that of which he had made use in his paper in
‘Schumacher’s Journal. The appearance however of the two investigations is
dissimilar, because no reference is made to elliptic functions (as distinguished
from elliptic integrals) in the first part of the ‘ Précis.’ The relations there-
fore which exist among the roots of y=wW=2 are established by considerations
’ independent of the periodicity of elliptic functions; though it is not difficult

a

x

to perceive that they were suggested by the results previously obtained by
means of that fundamental property. It is shown, that if the equation
y= x, where yz is a rational function, satisfy the differential equation (A.),
hen this equation, considered as determining x in terms of y, is always alge-
raically soluble. As the multiplication of elliptic integrals may be consi-
ered a case of transformation (that, namely, in which the modulus of the
nsformed integral remains unchanged), this theorem may be looked on as
an extension of that which we have spoken of (p. 58) in giving an account of
Abel’s first memoir on elliptic functions. The two theorems are proved by
he same kind of reasoning.

The second part of the memoir was to have related to cases in which the
moduli are real and less than unity ; of this however only the summary exists.

f i In the assumed relation, the amplitude, or rather the sine of the amplitude of each
‘ elliptic integral, is to be one of the variables, and noé¢ a function of one or more of them.

66 REPORT—1846.

Abel proposed to introduce three new functions, the first corresponding to

that which he had previously designated by ¢9*. He now denotes it by Ab. —

The second and third functions are apparently what the second and third
kind of elliptic integrals respectively become, when, instead of x, we intro-
duce the new variable §; 2 and @ being of course connected by the equation
x=A6. The double periodicity of the function A and its other fundamental
properties having been established, it was his intention to proceed to more
profound researches. Some of his principal results are briefly stated. I may
mention one, that all the roots of the modular equation may be expressed
rationally in terms of two of them.

One of the last paragraphs of the summary relates to functions very
nearly identical with those which M. Jacobi discusses at the close of the
‘ Fundamenta Nova,’ and which he has designated by the symbols Hand @.

The second volume of Abel’s collected works consists of papers not pub-
lished during his life. Two or three of these relate to elliptic functions.
The longest contains a new and very general investigation for the reduction

of the general transcendent, whose differential is of the form i P being,
as usual, rational and R a polynomial of the fourth degree; together
with transformations with respect to the parameter of integrals of the third
kind.

20. Having now given some account of the revolution which the disco-
veries of Abel and Jacobi produced in the theory of elliptic functions, I shall
mention some of the principal contributions which have been made towards
the further development of the subject since the publication of the ‘ Funda-
menta Nova.’ In Crelle’s Journal, iv. p. 371, we find a paper by M. Jacobi,
entitled ‘De Functionibus Ellipticis Commentatio.’ It contains, in the first
place, a development of the method of transforming elliptic integrals of the
second and third kind, and introduces a new transcendent Q, which takes the
place of ©, with which it is closely connected. M. Jacobi proves that the
numerator and denominator of the value of y, mentioned above, and which

have been denoted by U and V, satisfy a single differential equation of the

third order. The remainder of the paper relates to the properties of Q (vide
ante, note, p.55). When this function is multiplied by a certain exponen-
tial factor it becomes a singly periodic function, and, which is very remark-
able, its period is equal to one of the single or composite periods of the el-
liptic function inverse to the integral of the first kind. By composite period
I mean the sum of multiples of the fundamental periods. ‘The exponential
factor being properly determined, its product by Q is equal to © multiplied
by a constant. In considering this subject M. Jacobi is led to introduce the
idea of conjugate periods. ‘These are periods by the combination of which
all the composite periods may be produced. It is obvious that the funda-
mental periods are conjugate periods; and there are, as may easily be
shown, an infinity of others.

In the sixth volume of the same journal we find a second part of the
‘Commentatio.’ It contains a remarkable demonstration of the fundamental

* In the ‘Précis’ Abel has adopted the canonical form of the integral of the first
kind made use of by Legendre and M. Jacobi; so that the quantity under the radical is
(1—2) (1—c? 2). It is worth remarking, that in his first paper in Schumacher’s Nachrichten
this quantity is (1—e? x”) (1—c? 2”), while in the second it is the same as in the ‘ Précis.’ To
this form he appears latterly to have adhered.

+ It is not-clear whether by roots of the modular equation we are to understand the trans-
formed moduli themselves, or their fourth roots, i.e. in M. Jacobi’s notation A or v. Vide

supra, p. 50,

a

ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF ANALYSIS. 67

formule of transformation of the odd orders founded on elementary proper-
4 ties of elliptic functions.

In a historical point of view a notice by M. Jacobi in the eighth volume
_ of Crelle (p. 413) of the third volume of Legendre’s ‘ Traité des Fonctions
_ Elliptiques’ is interesting. It was here, I believe, that M. Jacobi first pro-
_ posed the name of Abelian integrals for the higher transcendents, which we
_ Shall shortly have occasion to consider. After some account of the contents
_ of Legendre’s supplements, the first two of which contain the greater part of
_ M, Jacobi’s earlier researches, he goes on to generalise a remarkable reduc-
tion given by Legendre at the close of his work.

21, I turn to one of the very few contributions which English mathema-
_ ticians have made to the subject of this report, namely, to a paper by Mr.
_ Ivory, which appeared in the Phil. Trans. for 1831. His design is to give
_ in asimple form M. Jacobi’s theorem for transformation. The demonstra-
_ tion is essentially the same as that in the ‘Fundamenta Nova.’ But Mr.

; Ivory does not set out with assuming y= = U and V being integral fune-

_ tions of x, but with assuming it equal to the continued product of a number
_ of elliptic functions (whose arguments are in arithmetical progression), mul-
_ tiplied by a constant factor. This is one of M. Jacobi’s transcendental ex-
pressions for y, and the two assumptions are therefore perfectly equivalent
in the transformations of odd orders; but in those of even orders, or where
_ the continued product consists of an even number of factors, Mr. Ivory’s
_ amounts to making y equal to an irrational function of x. Transformations
__ by irrational substitutions, though long the only kind known (since Lagrange’s
_ belongs to this class), had not of late been considered in detail. Abel
_ indeed remarked in the beginning of the general investigation contained in
a Schumacher’s Journal (No. 138), that the existence of an irrational trans-
_ formation implied that of a rational one leading to an integral with the same
modulus as the other. He was, therefore, in seeking for the most general
modular transformation, exempted from considering irrational substitutions ;
but in a historical point of view it is interesting to see the connection between

Lagrange’s transformation and those which have been more recently disco-
vered*,

ee: a ser
Ify ane, FF where 5?-+-c?=1, then

Mehr tes Ae Sh sna. hub
Gander 0+) Vas acew)

‘This is Lagrange’s direct transformation, The corresponding rational transformation is
_ 1—(1+44) 2?

Y= Ta (1—b) a”

~ which satisfies the same differential equation as before.
Avain 4 dy a ie dr

=" Vi-~)I-#f) 2 Vi-8)(1—-ex)

js a

l+e

_ (le)
~ 1lfex?’

r2

68 REPORT—1846.

ees.

The question presents itself, what is the connection between the irrational
transformation (that of which Lagrange’s is a particular case) and the rational _
transformation of even orders? Perhaps the simplest answer to it (though
every question of the kind is included in the general investigations contained
in Abel’s ‘ Précis’) is found in a paper by M. Sanio in the fourteenth volume
of Crelle’s Journal, p.1. The aim of this paper is to develope more fully
than Mr. Ivory has done the theory of transformations of even orders, and
particularly of the irrational transformations, which M. Sanio considers more
truly analogous to the rational transformations of odd orders than the rational
transformations of even orders; and also to discuss the multiplication of
elliptic integrals by even numbers, a subject intimately connected with the
other. We have already mentioned the existence of what are called com-
plementary transformations, each of which may be derived from the other
by an irrational substitution, by which two new variables are introduced. In
the case of transformations of odd orders, the original transformation and the
complementary one are both rational, and are both included in the general
formula given by M. Jacobi’s theorem; but to the rational transformation of
any even order corresponds as its complement the irrational transformation
of the same order. This remark, which, as far as I am aware, had not before
been made, sets the subject in a clear light *.

22. In the twelfth volume of Crelle’s Journal (p. 173), Dr. Guetzlaff has
investigated the modular equation of transformations of the seventh order: it
is, as we know from the general theory, of the eighth degree, and presents
itself in a very remarkable form, which closely resembles that in which
M. Jacobi, at p.68 of the ‘Fundamenta Nova,’ has put the modular equa-
tion for the third order. Dr. Sohncke has given, at p. 178 of the same vo-
lume, modular equations of the eleventh, thirteenth and seventeenth orders,
none of which apparently can be reduced to so elegant a form as those of
the third and seventh. Possibly the transformation of the thirty-first order
might admit of a corresponding reduction. The whole subject of modular
equations is full of interest. Dr. Sohncke has demonstrated his results in a —
subsequent volume of the Journal (xvi. 97).

In the fourteenth volume of Crelle’s Journal there is a paper by Dr. Gu-
dermann on methods of calculating and reducing integrals of the third kind.
I have already quoted from this paper the expression of the opinion of its
learned author, that it is impossible to express the value of integrals of the
circular species in terms of functions of two arguments. If this be so, it is

which is M. Gauss’s, and is termed in M. Jacobi’s nomenclature the rational transformation
of the second order. It satisfies the equation

dy Ss fe ha il hal
Jaap dara OT aaa iaeaiy
where, as before, _2Vve

1+e
* Lagrange’s transformation being

ay Lagan ae V1 a!
= 1 t = a d = =
” atnen |e ite V1—y? = en
then we find that _ (+2) 2’

while the differential equation becomes
dy’ Ness A
Vay amy ~ OF) aaa) Pa)
where =1—F?*.

ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF ANALYSIS. 69

a impossible to tabulate such integrals, and therefore our course is to devise
series more or less convenient for determining their values when any pro-
ple, e. g. that of the motion of a rigid body, to which Dr. Gudermann espe-
gially refers, requires us to do so. The formation of such series is accordingly
the aim of this memoir, which contains some remarkably elegant formule ;
one of which connects three integrals of the third kind with three of the
second. :
In the sixteenth and seventeenth volumes of the same Journal, Dr. Guder-
_ mann has given some series for the development of elliptic integrals ; and he
has since published in the same Journal a systematic treatise on the theory
- of modular functions and modular integrals, these designations being used to
denote the transcendents more generally called elliptic. The point of view
from which he considers the subject has been already indicated (vide supra,
p- 36). In asystematic treatise there is of course a great deal that does not
profess to be original, and it is not always easy to discover the portions
which are so. Dr. Gudermann’s earlier researches are embodied and deve-
loped in his larger work ; and in some of the latter chapters (XXIII. 329, &c.)
we find some interesting remarks on the forms assumed by the general trans-
cendent when the biquadratic polynomial in the denominator has four real
roots. Dr. Gudermann points out the existence of a species of correlation
between pairs of values of the variable.
23. The development of the elliptic function ¢ in the form of a continued
product may be applied to establish formule of transformation. ‘This mode
_ of investigating such formule was made use of by Abel in his second paper
in Schumacher’s Journal, No. 148, which we have already noticed; and a
corresponding method is mentioned by M. Jacobi in one of the cursory no-
tices of his researches which he inserted in the early volumes of Crelle’s
Journal. Mr. Cayley, in the Philosophical Magazine for 1843, has pur-
_ sued a similar course. Another and very remarkable application of the same
__ kind of development consists in taking it as the definition of the function ¢,
and deducing from hence its other properties. It has been remarked that
_ the continued products of Abel and M. Jacobi are derived from considera-
tions which, although cognate, are yet distinct; those of the latter being
_ singly infinite, while Abel’s fundamental developments consist of the product
_ of an infinite number of factors, each of which in its turn consists of an in-
| finite number of simple factors. Thus we can have two very dissimilar de-
_ finitions of the function ¢ by means of continued products. M. Cauchy,
who has investigated the theory of what he has termed reciprocal factorials,
that is, of continued products of the form

{i +2)(lféz)......}{(1+¢2-!)(14+ @271)......},

_ which is immediately connected with M. Jacobi’s developments, has accord-
| ingly set out from the singly infinite system of products, and has deduced
| from hence the fundamental properties of elliptic functions (Comptes Rendus,
| kvii. p. 825).

‘4 Mr. Cayley, on the other hand, has made use of Abel’s doubly infinite
| products, and has shown that the functions defined by means of them satisfy
_ the fundamental formule mentioned in the note at page 52, which, as these
| equations furnish a sufficient definition of the elliptic functions, is equivalent
__ to showing that the continued products are in reality elliptic functions. He
| has therefore effected for Abel’s developments that which M. Cauchy had
_ done for M. Jacobi’s. Mr. Cayley’s paper appeared in the fourth volume of
| the Cambridge Mathematical Journal, but he has since published a trans-
| lation of it with modifications in the tenth volume of Liouville’s. On the

70 REPORT—1846.

same subject we may mention a paper by M. Eisenstein (Crelle’s Journal,
Xxvii. 285).

24. M. Liouville has in several memoirs investigated the conditions under
which the integral of an algebraical function can be expressed in an alge-
braical, or, more generally, in a finite form. This investigation is of the
same character as that which occurs in the beginning of Abel’s last published
memoir on elliptic functions (vide supra, p. 65). But while Abel’s re-
searches are more general than M. Liouville’s, the latter has arrived at a
result more fundamental, if such an expression may be used, than any of
which Abel has left a demonstration.

He has shown that if y be an algebraical function of 2, such that J yd

may be expressed as an explicit finite function of x, we must have

Sydaatt Alogu + Blogv +...+ Clog w,
A, B,...C being constant, and ¢, uw, v,...w algebraical functions of a.
The theorem established by Abel in the memoir referred to includes as a
particular case the following proposition, that if

Syde =t+ Alogu+ Blogy+...+ Clogw,
then ¢, u, v, ...w may all be reduced to rational functions of # and y.

Combining these two results, it appears that if #2 yd« be expressible as an
explicit finite function of x, its expression must be of the form
t+ Alogu + Blogv +...+ Clogw,

where ¢, w, v,... w are rational functions of x and y, or rather that its ex- —

pression must be reducible to this form*.

After establishing these results in the memoir (that on elliptic transcen-
dents of the first and second kinds), which will be found in the twenty-third
cahier of the ‘ Journal de l’Ecole Polytechnique,’ p. 37, M. Liouville sup-

poses y to be of the form , where P and R are integral polynomials, and

hence deduces the general form in which the integral cd xz may neces-

sarily be put, provided it admit of expression as an explicit finite function of x.
rE
VR
braical function of xz, it cannot be expressed by any explicit finite function
of it, and finally demonstrates that an elliptic integral, either of the first or

second kind, is not expressible as an explicit finite function of its variable.
In a previous memoir inserted in the preceding cahier, M. Liouville
proved the simpler proposition, that elliptic integrals of the first and second
kinds are not expressible as explicit algebraical functions of their variable
(Journal de l’Ecole Polytechnique, t. xiv. p. 137). His attention appears to
have been directed to this class of researches by a passage of Laplace’s
‘ Theory of Probabilities,’ in which the illustrious author, after indicating the
fundamental, and, so to speak, ineffaceable distinctions between different
classes of functions, states that he had succeeded in showing that the inte-

He shows from hence that if dz cannot be expressed by an alge-

d
geal [ae is not expressible as a finite function, explicit or
implicit, of z. Laplace however did not publish his demonstration.

* An equivalent theorem is stated by Abel in his letter to Legendre for implicit as well
as explicit functions (Crelle’s Journal, vi.).

. = ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF ANALYSIS. 71
In his own Journal (v. 34 and 441), M. Liouville has since shown that
elliptic integrals of the first and second kinds, considered as functions of the
modulus, cannot be expressed in finite terms.
95. In the eighteenth volume of the ‘Comptes Rendus’ (Liouville’s Journal,
_ ix. 353), we find in a communication from M. Hermite, of which we shall
shortly have occasion to speak more fully, a remarkable demonstration of
Jacobi’s theorem. It is stated for the case of the first real transformation,
but might of course be rendered general. This demonstration depends es-
sentially on the principle already mentioned (p. 59), that any rational func-
~ tion of a root of an algebraical equation which has the same value for every
root of the equation is rationally expressible in the coefficients. The equa-
tion to which this principle is applied is that to which we have so often re-

ferred, viz. y = = considered as an equation to determine 2 in terms of y,

and by means of it, M. Hermite shows at once that a certain rational func-
tion of z is also a rational function of y, the form of which is subsequently
determined.
M. Hermite goes on to prove other theorems relating to elliptic functions.
As elliptic functions are doubly periodic, we may determine certain of
their properties by considering to what conditions doubly periodic functions
must be subject. This view is mentioned by M. Liouville in a verbal com-
munication to the Institute (Comptes Rendus, t. xix.). He states that he
had found that a doubly periodic function which is not an absolute constant
and has but one value for each value of its variable must be, for certain va-
lues of it, infinite; that from hence the known properties of elliptic func-
tions are easily deduced ; and that by means of this principle he had suc-
ceeded in proving the expressions of the roots of the equation for the division
of an elliptic integral of the first kind, which M. Jacobi had given without
demonstration in Crelle’s Journal*. I am not aware that any development
of M. Liouville’s view has as yet appeared.
In the recent numbers of Crelle’s Journal there are many papers by M.
_ Eisenstein on different points in the theory of elliptic functions. Among
these I may mention one which contains a very ingenious proof of the fun-
_ damental formula for the addition of two functions, derived from the differ-
_ ential equation of the second order; which each function must satisfy.
___ Other contributions to the theory of elliptic functions might be mentioned ;
x some of these, not here noticed, are referred to in the index which will be
_ found at the end of this report. But in general it may be remarked that the
_ form which the subject has assumed, in consequence of the discoveries of
_ Abel and M. Jacobi, is that which it will probably always retain, however
_ our knowledge of particular parts of it may increase. What has since been
effected relates for the most part to matters of detail, of which, howevér im-
_ portant they may be, it is difficult or impossible to give an intelligible ac-
- count.
_ 26. It does not fall within the design of this report to consider the various
_ applications which have been made of the theory of elliptic functions ; but
_ Ishall briefly mention some of the geometrical interpretations, if the expres-
_ sion may so be used, which mathematicians have given to the analytical re-
sults of the theory.
The lemniscate has, as is well known, the property that its arcs may be
_ represented by an elliptic integral of the first kind, the modulus of which is

si

___ * M. Liouville has mentioned that M. Hermite had demonstrated the formule in question
_ inadifferent manner. ¢

72 REPORT—1846.

<s, The problem of the division of its perimeter is accordingly a geome-

trical interpretation of that of the division of the complete integral, and was
considered by mathematicians at a time when the theory of elliptic func-
tions was almost wholly undeveloped. Besides Fagnani, whose researches
with respect to the lemniscate have been already noticed, we may mention
those of Euler, who however did not succeed in obtaining a solution of the
problem. Legendre, who seems to have attached considerable importance
to geometrical illustrations of his analytical results, assigned the equation of
a curve of the sixth order, whose arcs measured from a fixed point represent
the sum of any elliptic integral of the first kind and an algebraical expression.
He showed also that an arc of the curve might be assigned equal to the el-
liptic integral, but in order to this both extremities of the are must be con-
sidered variable, so that in effect the integral is represented by the difference
of two ares measured from a fixed point (Traité des Fonctions Elliptiques,
i. p. 36).

IM. coe in a note presented to the Institute in 1843 (Liouville’s Journal,
viii. 145), has proved a beautiful theorem, viz. that the sum and difference of
the two unequal arcs, intercepted by lines drawn from the centre of Cassini’s
ellipse to cut the curve, are each equal to an elliptic integral of the first
kind, and that the moduli of the two integrals are complementary. In the
lemniscate, which is a case of Cassini’s ellipse, one of these arcs disappears,
and the moduli of the two integrals are equal, each being the sine of half a
right angle. So that M. Serret’s theorem is an extension of the known pro-
perty of the lemniscate.

M. Serret has since considered the subject of the representation of elliptic
and hyper-elliptic ares in a very general manner. His memoir, which was
presented to the Institute and ordered to be published in the ‘ Savans
Etrangers,’ appears in Liouville’s Journal, x. 257. He had remarked that
the rectangular coordinates of the lemniscate are rationally expressible in
terms of the argument of the elliptic integral which represents the are,

_ 3 is — z3
for if we assume «= VW Baza and y= V7 2a, we shall have

, and if between the first two of these

dz
— 2 2 =—2 es
ds=V {dx +dy}= oe

equations we eliminate z, we arrive at the known equation of the lemniscate*.
So that if we state the indeterminate equation

da +dy=Z.dz2*,

(2, y and Z being real and rational functions of z), the lemniscate will afford
us one solution of it; and every other solution will correspond to some curve
whose arc is expressible by an elliptic or hyper-elliptic integral. Of this in-
determinate equation M. Serret discusses a particular case. He succeeds in
solving it by a most ingenious method, which is applicable to the general
equation, and shows from hence that there are an infinity of curves, the ares
of which represent elliptic integrals of the first kind. M. Serret’s researches
however have not led him to a geometrical representation by means of an
algebraical curve of any integral of the first kind, though his results are ge-
neralised in a note appended to his memoir by M. Liouville. In order that

* On reducing the integral we ae to the standard form of elliptic integrals, we
find that it is an elliptic integral of the first kind, of which the modulus is the sine of 45°.

4
*
ny

3 ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF ANALYSIS. 73
__ the curve may be algebraical, it is necessary and sufficient, as M. Liouville
__ has remarked, that the square of the modulus of the integral should be ra-
_ tional, and less than unity.

Ina subsequent memoir (Liouville’s Journal, x. 351) he has very much
simplified the analytical part of his researches, and in the same Journal
(x.421) has proved some remarkable properties of one class of what may be

called elliptic curves. In the fourth number of the Cambridge and Dublin

_ Mathematical Journal (p. 187), M. Serret has developed this part of the sub-

ject, and has also given a general sketch of his previous papers. M. Liou-

ville (Comptes Rendus, xxi. 1255, or his Journal, x. 456) has given a very
elegant investigation of an analytical theorem established by M. Serret.

In the fourteenth volume of Crelle’s Journal (p. 217), M. Gudermann has

_ considered the rectification of the curve called the spherical ellipse, which is

one of aclass of ¢urves formed by the intersection of a cone of the second

_ order with a sphere. He has shown that its arcs represent an elliptic integral
of the third kind.

In the ninth volume of Liouville’s Journal (p. 155), Mr. W. Roberts proves

_ that a cone of the second order, whose vertex lies on the surface of asphere,
and one of whose external axes passes through the centre, intersects the
sphere in a curve whose arcs will, according to circumstances, represent any

» elliptic integral of the third kind and of the circular species ; or any elliptic
integral of the same kind and of the logarithmic species, provided the angle
of the modulus is less than half a right angle; or (subject to the same con-
dition) any elliptic integral of the first kind ; or lastly, by a suitable modifi-
cation, any elliptic integral of the second kind. The cases here excepted
may be avoided by introducing known transformations. The cases in which

_ the arcs represent elliptic integrals of the first kind, Mr. Roberts has pre-
viously mentioned in the eighth volume of Liouville’s Journal (p.263). He
has since given in the same Journal (x. 297), a general investigation of the
subject, in which it is supposed that the vertex of the cone may have any
position we please. M. Verhulst has represented the three kinds of elliptic

_ integrals by means of sectorial areas of certain curves, and the function T by

_ the volume of a certain solid. It is manifest, however, that it is incom-

_ parably easier to do this than to represent these transcendents by means of

_ the arcs of curves.

_ Beside one or two other papers I may mention a tract by the Abbé Tor-

_ tolini, on the geometrical representation of elliptic integrals of the second and

third kinds. This tract, however, I have not seen.

i Lagrange long since proved (vide Théorie des Fonctions Analytiques,

p-85), that by means of a spherical triangle a geometrical representation of
the addition of elliptic integrals of the first kind may easily be obtained, and

_ that hence by a series of such triangles we are enabled to represent the mul-

tiplication as well as the addition of these integrals.

i M. Jacobi has given (Crelle’s Journal, iii. p. 376, or vide Liouville’s Journal,
X. p. 435) a geometrical construction for the addition and multiplication of

elliptic integrals of the first kind. It is founded on the properties of an irre-

_ gular polygon inscribed in a circle, and the sides of which touch one or more

other circles. It is to be remarked that Legendre, in giving an account of

lis construction in one of the supplements to his last work, has only con-
dered its application to multiplication and not to addition, and has been

_ followed in this respect by M. Verhulst, whose treatise on elliptic functions

_ has been already mentioned. In consequence of this, M. Chasles was led to

believe that until the publication of his own researches, no construction for

_ addition excepting that of Lagrange was known. But he has recently

74 REPORT—1846.

(Comptes Rendus, January 1846) pointed out the error into which he had
fallen.

27. In the Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy (ix. p. 151), Dr.
Brinkley gave a geometrical demonstration of Fagnani’s theorem with respect
to elliptic ares, and in the sixteenth volume of the same Transactions (p. 76),
we find Landen’s theorem proved geometrically by Professor MacCullagh.

M. Chasles has considered the subject of the comparison of elliptic ares
by geometrical methods, and with great success. His fundamental propo-
sition may be said to be, that if from any two points of an ellipse we draw
two pairs of tangents to any confocal ellipse, the difference of the two arcs of
the latter respectively intercepted by each pair of tangents is rectifiable.
Or, what in effect is the same thing, if we fasten a string at two points in
the circumference of an ellipse, and suppose a ring to move along the string,
keeping it stretched, and winding it on and off the are which lies between its
two extremities, the ring will trace out a portion of an ellipse confocal to the
former. If for the first ellipse we substitute an hyperbola confocal with the
second, the swm of the ares will be constant. From hence a series of theo-
rems is deduced, remarkable not only for their elegance, but also for the
facility with which they are obtained. They furnish constructions for the
addition and multiplication of elliptic integrals. The whole of this investi-
gation, of which an account is given in the ‘Comptes Rendus’ (vol. xvii.
p- 838, and vol. xix. p. 1239), shows, like others of M. Chasles’s, how much
is lost in treating geometrical questions by an exclusive adherence to what
may be called the method of co-ordination. Invaluable as this method is,
it yet often introduces considerations foreign to the problem to which it is
applied *.

III.

28. The first outline of a detailed theory of the higher transcendents was
given by Legendre in the third supplement to his ‘ Traité des Fonctions
Elliptiques.’ He proposes to classify the transcendents comprised in the
general formula

f(a)de

(x—a) Vou

according to the degree of the polynomial ¢ 2, the first class being that in
which the index of this degree is three or four; the second that in which it
is five or six, and so on. The first class therefore consists of elliptic inte-
grals; all the others may be designated as wlira-elliptic. This epithet, how-
ever, which was proposed by Legendre, has not been so generally used as
hyper-elliptic, which was, I believe, first used by M. Jacobi. M. Jacobi, how-
ever, has proposed to call the higher transcendents Abelian integrals.

The principle of Legendre’s classification is to be found in the minimum
number of integrals to which the sum of any number of them can be reduced.
As we know, this number is unity in the case of elliptic integrals, and by
Abel's theorem we find that it is two in the first class of the higher trans-
cendents, three in the next, and so on.

Following the analogy of elliptic integrals, Legendre proposed to recognise
three canonical forms in each class of hyper-elliptic integrals, and thus to
divide it into three orders. The sum of any number of functions of the first

* M. Chasles has also considered the subject of spherical conics, as well as that of the
lines of curvature and shortest lines on an ellipsoid. The latter has recently engaged the
attention of several distinguished mathematicians—MM. Jacobi, Joachimsthal, Liouville,
MacCullagh and M. Roberts may be particularly mentioned.

ie ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF ANALYSIS. 75

_ kind will, when the required conditions are satisfied, be equal to a constant ;
_ that of any number of the second and third kinds respectively will, under
- similar conditions, be equal to an algebraical or logarithmic function.
Much the greater part of the remainder of the supplement consists of a
discussion of the particular transcendents
dx dz

V1 — x8 ane V1 +28
It contains a multitude of numerical calculations, and if the writer’s age be
considered (he was then almost eighty), is a very remarkable production.
_ By means of the numerical calculations he recognised, as it were empirically,
_ the values to be assigned in different cases to the above-mentioned constant :
what these values ought to be, he did not attempt to determine @ priori.

At the close of the supplement we find a remarkable reduction of an inte-
gral, apparently of a higher order to elliptic integrals. The method em-
ployed has been generalised by M. Jacobi, in a notice of Legendre’s ‘ Sup-
plements,’ inserted in the eighth volume of Crelle’s Journal (p. 413).

29. In the ninth volume of Crelle’s Journal (p. 394), we find a most im-

portant paper by M. Jacobi (Considerationes Generales, &c.), which may
be said to have determined the direction in which the researches of analysts
- in the theory of algebraical integrals were to proceed.

The writer proposes two questions, both suggested by the cases of trigo-
nometrical and elliptic functions. First, as in these cases we consider certain
_ functions to which circular and elliptic integrals are respectively inverse, and

which are such that functions of the sum of two arguments are algebraically

expressible in terms of functions of the simple arguments, what are the cor-

responding functions to which the hyper-elliptic or Abelian integrals are
inverse, and how by means of them can Abel’s theorem be stated ?

Secondly, as in the same cases we obtain algebraical integrals of differen-
tial equations, whose variables are separated, but which nevertheless can only

_ be directly integrated by means of transcendents*, what are the differential
equations of which Abel’s theorem gives us algebraical integrals? These
two questions are, it is obvious, intimately connected.

_ M. Jacobi first takes the particular case in which the polynomial under the

_ radical is of the fifth or sixth degree, If we call this polynomial X, it follows

_ from Abel’s theorem, that if

-

2
i

d x
: ox= JG
bi Lax
iy and ¢,2 = Vx”
we shall have the equations
. Pat pb=gutoy+ out oy’,
: Pitt PO=O, 2+ Py t+ G2 + Oy’,
where a and 0 are given as algebraical functions of the independent quan-
ae ities x, y, 2', y'.
o> Let Or+oy=u oa'+ oy! =u!

Pitt Pysv Put oy =v.
#E ae dy ff Ces, +3 9 Dla Vix
ba “Ge gt ic which the algebraical integralis 2 V1—y?-+-y V1—2?=C.

ue ach term of this differential equation is a differential of a transcendent function sin wy or

76 : REPORT—1846. .

Then z and y are both given as functions of « and v. We may therefore
put

r=Aa(uvr), y=A (uv);
and similarly,
zl =A(u! v'), ae (u! v'); :
and as gat ¢@b=u+u!
?,a+¢% b=v+I, ;
we shall have a=A(ut+ul,v+v') .

b=A (u+ul, v+v').

Hence the functions A (w+ u', v + v') anda, (u + u!, v + v!) are expres-
sible as algebraical functions of A (uv), A, (wv), A (ul v'), A, (ul v!).

These then are functions to which the integrals are in a certain sense in-
verse, and which have the same fundamental property as circular and elliptic
functions.

In the general case of Abel’s theorem, we introduce (when the degree of
the polynomial is 2m or 2 m—1), m—1 functions analogous to A, each
being a function of m — 1 variables. These functions will, it may easily be
shown, have the fundamental property just pointed out for the case in which
m is equal to three.

Again, the differential equations of which Abel’s theorem gives us alge-
braical integrals, are, if the degree of the polynomial X be five or six, the
following :

dx + dy | dz _ 0.
VX VME YZ
udx ydy zdz

Fo Ws Gu
and generally, if the degree of the polynomial be 2m or 2m — 1, there are
m — 1 such equations, the numerators of the last containing the (m — 2)th
power of the variables. ;

M. Jacobi concludes by suggesting as a problem the direct integration of
these differential equations, so as to obtain a proof of Abel’s theorem cor-
responding to that which Lagrange gave of Euler’s (vide ante, p. 36).

30. Another important paper by M. Jacobi is that which is entitled ‘De
Functionibus duarum Variabilium quadrupliciter periodicis, etc.’ (Crelle, xiii.
p-55). It is here shown that a periodic function of one variable cannot
have two distinct real periods. In the case of a circular function, though we
have for all values of x

sina = sin(x + 2m)
= sin(a +2nzn),

m and m being any integers, yet 2m and 2m do not constitute two
distinct periods, since each is merely a multiple of 27, which is the funda-
mental period of the function. But if we had for all the values of x

S@)=Sf {x + a} =f {x + B},

we should also have
f(z) =f(e@+ma+nfp),

where m and may be any integers, positive or negative. Hencema-+nB

*

i

ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF ANALYSIS. 77

_ may, provided a and are incommensurable, which is implied in their being
_ distinct periods, be made Jess than any assignable quantity, so that we may

put
; fxe=f(ete)
where ¢ is indefinitely small, and this manifestly is an inadmissible result.
Accordingly we see that one at least of the periods of elliptic functions is
necessarily imaginary.
Again, similar reasoning shows that in a triply periodic function, that is
in one in which we have

f (a) =f {x+m(a+ BV —1)+m! (a! +BY =1)4+-m"(a"+p'V—1)}
for every value of x, m, m', m” being any integers, and in which the three
periods a+ B/—1, &c. are distinct, we can make

: S(2) =f (@ + £)
by assigning suitable values to m, m!, m”; € being as before less than any
assignable quantity. Hence as this result is inadmissible, it follows that
_ there is no such thing as a triply periodic function. Whenever therefore a
function appears to have three periods they are in reality not distinct, and
so @ fortiori when it appears to have more than three. But now we come to
a difficulty. For M. Jacobi proceeds to show that if we consider a function

"(a+ Ph)de

of one variable inverse to the Abelian integral Sharma X being of

the sixth degree in 2, this function has four distinct and irreducible periods.
His conclusion is that we cannot consider the amplitude of this integral as
an analytical function of the integral itself. In the present state of our
knowledge, this conclusion, though seemingly forced on us by‘the impossibi-
lity of recognising the existence of a quadruply periodic function of one va-
riable, is not, I think, at all satisfactory. The functional dependence, the
existence of which we are obliged to deny, may be expressed by a differen-
tial equation of the second order; and therefore it would seem that the
commonly received opinion that every differential equation of two variables
has a primitive, or expresses a functional relation between its variables, must
_ be abandoned, unless some other mode of escaping from the difficulty is dis-
covered. It is probable that some simple consideration, rather of a metaphy-
_ sical than an analytical character, may hereafter enable us to form a con-
E “sistent and satisfactory view of the question, and this I believe I may say is
_ the opinion of M. Jacobi himself. The same difficulty meets us in all the
Abelian integrals: as in the case of those of Legendre’s first class, namely
_ where X is of the fifth or sixth degree, so also generally, the inverse function
has more than its due number of periodicities.
___Abel, in a short paper in the second volume of his works, p. 51, has in
_ effect proved the multiple periodicity of the functions which are inverse to
_ the integrals to which his theorem relates. The difficulty to which this gives
_ rise did not strike him, or was perhaps reserved for another occasion.
_ M. Jacobi next proves that his inverse functions of two variables are
_ quadruply periodic, but that quadruple periodicity for functions of two va-
Tiables is nowise inadmissible.
__ A difficulty however seems to present itself, which is suggested by M.
Eisenstein in Crelle’s Journal, viz. that if for each value of the amplitude

L

ae d
_ the integral ¢ 2 or Wz (vide supra, p.75), has an infinity of magnitudes
4

real and imaginary, and the same is the case for ? y, it is by no means easy to
AY a

in

78 REPORT—1846.

attach a definite sense to the equation « = 9 x + @y, or tosee how the value
of w is determined by it *.

31. Two divisions of the theory of the higher transcendents here suggest
themselves, which are apparently less intimately connected than the corre-
sponding divisions in the theory of elliptic functions, viz. the reduction and
transformation of the integrals themselves, and the theory of the inyerse
functions.

But before considering these I shall give some account of what has been
done in fulfilment of the suggestion made by M. Jacobi at the close of
the ‘ Considerationes Generales.’ Mathematicians have succeeded in effect-
ing the integration of the system of differential equations to the consideration
of which we are led by Abel’s theorem, and which is commonly designated
by German mathematicians as the ‘“‘ Jacobische system ;” its existence and
its integrability having been first pointed out by M. Jacobi.

In Crelle’s Journal (xxiii. 354), M. Richelot, after modifying the form in
which Lagrange’s celebrated integration of the differential equation of
elliptic integrals is generally presented, extended a similar method to the
system of two differential equations which occurs when we consider the
Abelian transcendents of the first class. He thus obtains one algebraical
integral of the system. In the case of Lagrange’s equation one integral is
all we want; but in that which M. Richelot here discusses we require
two. Nowif in the former case we replace each of the variables by its reci-
procal, we obtain a new differential equation of the same form as the original
one, and integrable therefore in the same manner; and if in its integral we
again replace each new variable by its reciprocal, that is by the original va-
riable, we thus, as it is not difficult to see, get the integral of the original
equation in a different form. That the two forms are in effect coincident
may be verified @ posteriori. But the same substitutions being made in M,
Richelot’s equations, which are of course those we haye already mentioned
at p. 76, the first of them becomes similar in form to the second, and vice
versé the second to the first. Thus the system remains similar to itself; and
if in the algebraical integral we obtain of it we again replace the new vari-
ables by their reciprocals, we fall on a new algebraical integral of the original
system ; this integral being, which is remarkable, independent of that pre-
viously got. Thus the system of two equations is completely integrated.
Extending his method to the general system of any number of equations,
M. Richelot obtains for each two integrals, but of course these are not all
that we want. At the conclusion of his memoir M. Richelot derives from
Abel’s theorem the algebraical integrals of the “ Jacobische system.”

Though in this memoir M. Richelot only obtained by direct integration
two of the m—1 algebraical integrals of the “ Jacobische system,” yet he put
the problem of its complete integration into a convenient and symmetrical
form. As there are m variables and m — 1 relations among them, we may
suppose each to be a function of an independent variable ¢ Lagrange, as
we know, in integrating the equation

ae dy _ 0
A Beri AX i000
* The difficulty here mentioned may perhaps be met by saying that the value of ¢ de-
wddx
termined by the integral ergs is necessarily determinate, and so likewise is that of w.
0

That considerations connected with the conception of a function inyerse to ¢# make the
latter quantity appear indeterminate is undoubtedly a difficulty ; but it is, so to speak, a
difficulty collateral to M. Jacobi’s theory, and therefore need not prevent our accepting it.

ee -
he

f
4 ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF ANALYSIS. 79

introduced such an independent variable by the assumption = = WX, which
_ of course implied that ae = — WY. This assumption is unsymmetrical,

and it is therefore difficult to see how to generalise it. But if we assume
dz xX d Y
aa ws we shall of course have 4 m4 Les and therefore ¢ is symme-
trically related to « andy. Let Fu =0 be an equation whose roots are
2 and y, then, as we know, whenu = a2, Fu =2—y and, when v= y,
¥F'u=y — 2, so that using an abbreviated notation

ae ox vx wnat = vx
d= Brea dt PG)
Nothing is easier than to generalise this result. For instance, the “Ja-
cobische system ” of two equations is

dz dy dz

gde ydy z2dz
hg Bia alle Yar AR
Now if F xz =0 have a, y, z for its roots, the two preceding equations
may, in virtue of a very well-known theorem, be replaced by the three follow-
ing,
de_ V& dy_ VY dz_VZ
dt™ Wa’? di” Fly’ dt” Fz’
which introduce an independent variable ¢, symmetrically related to a, y and
2; and so in all cases,
M. Richelot * then takes a symmetrical function of 2, y,.+. 2, viz. their

_ sum, and by means of the last written equations arrives at an integrable dif-
_ ferential equation of the second order, the principal variable being the said

\

__ * As M. Richelot’s method of demonstrating Euler’s theorem is more symmetrical and
_ far more easily remembered than Lagrange’s, it ought, I think, to be introduced into all

elementary works on elliptic functions, The equation to be integrated being

bi aie vit Ah civ Cy ME Wel i op
Mat Batya pia pia! VatpytyP ty ty |
assume dv_VYatpaty@piepea

a dt y—@

dy_ VetByt oP PPE,
: dt @-y
ne

_ Letp=x+y. Then after a few obvious reductions

; dp 1

- at sp.

a i. deh. :

® Gane tr,

{Vappetye pie pia — Vat pyt PP yryS

oe =B(y— 2) (y°— 27) + #(y? — 2°),
the algebraical integral sought. It may easily be expressed in other forms,

80 REPORT—1846.

sum, and the independent variable being ¢. From the first integral of this
equation it is easy to eliminate the differentials, and we have thus an alge-
braical relation in a, y, ...z, from which, in the manner already mentioned,
M. Richelot deduces another. We now see that if we could find any other
symmetrical function which would lead to an integrable equation we should
get a finite relation among the variables. :

In the next volume of Crelle’s Journal M. Jacobi took the following func-
tion as his principal variable,

V{(e—2) (uy). (e- 2}
p being a root of X =O or fe =0 if we suppose X=fz. Calling this
function v, we get a simple differential equation in v and ¢, and a correspond-
ing integral of the system. Now fx =0 has 2m or 2m — 1 roots, and we
only want m — 1 integrals. The integrals therefore which we get by making
p the first, second, &c. root of fx = 0 are not all independent.

In the twenty-fifth volume of Crelle’s Journal M. Richelot resumed the
subject of his former paper, and discussed it in a very interesting memoir.
This fundamental or principal result may be said to be a generalisation of
M. Jacobi’s. It is that in the function

V {(u — 2) (uy) ++ (n— 2)}
f» may have any value whatever. The resulting differential equation,
though rather more complicated than when, with M. Jacobi, we suppose
a root of fz = 0, is still very readily integrable. We have thus an indefi-
nite number of algebraical integrals, since the quantity ~ is arbitrary, but
of course not more than m — 1 of them are independent.

In the same volume of Crelle’s Journal, p. 178, there is a curious paper by
Dr. Heedenkamp, in which the algebraical integrals of Jacobi’s system are
for the case of a polynomial of the fifth degree under the radical deduced
from geometrical considerations. It is shown that in a system of curvilinear
coordinates (those of which MM. Lamé and Liouville have made so much
use), the equations of the system are the differential equations given by the
Calculus of Variations for the shortest line between two points. Conse-
quently the finite equations of a straight line are the integrals sought. This
very ingenious consideration is afterwards generalised.

32. In the twelfth volume of Crelle’s Journal, p. 181, M. Richelot has
considered the Abelian integral of the first class. The principal result at
which he arrives is, that the only rational transformation by means of which
such an integral may be changed into one of similar form is linear in both
the variables which it involves. By means of this substitution, he transforms,
under certain conditions, the integral in question into a form analogous to
the standard forms of elliptic integrals. The subject of the division of hyper-
elliptic integrals of each class into three genera is also considered, and the
same principle of classification as Legendre’s is made use of. The paper
concludes by pointing out an error which Legendre committed in the appli-
cation of his principle. Legendre had thought that the formula of summa-
tion given by Abel’s theorem for integrals of the form of Vaz could not
involve a logarithmic function. Thus these integrals would belong to the
first or second kind, according to the value of the index e, and of A the degree
of gz. But in reality, though the integrals in question are of the first kind
(that is, they admit of summation without introducing either an algebraical
or logarithmic function) if e be less than a certain limit, yet if it be not so
their formula of summation will in general involve both algebraical and loga- —

j ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF ANALYSIS. 81

rithmic functions. Either may, under certain conditions as to the form of
@ 2, disappear, but while gz is merely known as the polynomial of the Ath
degree, we cannot decide whether the integral is to be referred to the second
or third kind.

I may mention here a very elegant result due to M. Jacobi. It appears in
the thirtieth volume of Crelle’s Journal, p. 121, and is a generalisation of the
fundamental formula for the addition of elliptic arcs. With a slight modifi-
cation it may be thus stated. If gz involve only even powers of z, the

: 2 pr2m
highest being 2", then the sum of the integrals To is equal to

0
the product of their arguments, that is of the different quantities denoted by
the symbol z. In this case then the logarithmic function disappears, and
the integral belongs to the second kind.

In the twenty-ninth volume of Crelle’s Journal there is a paper by M.
Richelot on a question connected with hyper-elliptic integrals. The reader
will find in it a good many fully-developed results, which may be considered
as particular cases of Abel’s theorem. They illustrate the learned author's
criticism of Legendre’s classification of hyper-elliptic integrals, though they

_ are not adduced for that purpose.

The function M (vide ante, p. 38) is a function of the arbitrary quantities
a, 6, ...c, which, as has been remarked, may themselves be considered func-
tions of the arguments 2,, z,,...2,. To determine M as a function of the
last-written quantities is a necessary ulterior step in almost any special appli-
cation of Abel’s theorem, and this M. Richelot has done in several interesting
cases, establishing at the same time the relations which exist among the
quantities in question. His investigations, however, have an ulterior purpose,
| and are not to be considered merely as corollaries from Abel’s theorem.

Another paper of M. Richelot, on the subject of the Abelian integrals, is
found in the sixteenth volume of Crelle’s Journal, p. 221. The aim of it is
to furnish the means of actually calculating the value of the Abelian integral
_ of the first class by a method of successive transformation, that is, by a method
analogous to that used for elliptic integrals. M. Richelot’s process depends
essentially on an irrational substitution, by means of which we can replace
the proposed integrals by two others which differ only with respect to their
limits. In the development of this idea the author confines himself to the
first kind of the Abelian integrals of the first class, though the same method
“may m.m. be more generally applied*. From the formula which expresses
the proposed integral as the aggregate of two others is deduced another, in
which it is expressed by means of four integrals, the inferior limits of all being
zero. The first and second of these integrals differ only in their amplitude,
| and the same is true of the third and fourth. There are two principal trans-
‘formations, either of which may be repeated as often as we please ; and though
it might seem that the number of integrals would in the successive trans-
formations increase in a geometrical progression, yet by the application of
Abel’s theorem we can always reduce them to the same number. But the
‘development of this part of the subject M. Richelot has reserved for another
“occasion t.

*

{M +Nz}dz

WV {2(1~z) (1—#2z) (1-222) (1—p2z)} Mh at

7 The integral to be transformed is
q

N, &c. being constant. ;

__ t His transformations ultimately reduce ‘the hyper-elliptic integral to elliptic integrals ;

the latter may be considered known quantities, ‘vel per paucas adjectas transformationes

‘directe computentur.”’

82 . REPORT—1846.

At the close of his memoir, M. Richelot has given some numerical exam-
ples of his method for the case of a complete hyper-elliptic integral. The
third example he had previously given in a brief notice of his researches,
published in No. 311 of Schumacher’s Journal.

33. For many years after the death of Legendre the subject of the com-
parison of transcendents was studied principally by German and Scandi-
navian writers*: a young French mathematician, M. Hermite, has recently
made important discoveries in this theory ; but as the principal part of what
he has done is as yet not published, a very imperfect outline is all that can
be given.

In the seventeenth volume of the ‘Comptes Rendus’ we find the report
of a commission, consisting of MM. Lamé and Liouville, on a memoir pre-
sented to the Institute by M. Hermite. This report is reprinted in the eighth
volume of Liouville’s Journal, p. 502. A remark which incidentally occurs
in it, namely, that Abel was the first to give the general theory of the divi-
sion of elliptic integrals, led to a very warm discussion between MM. Liou-
ville and Libri, on the subject of the claims which, as I have already remarked,
the latter had made with reference to this theory.

It appears from the report, that M. Hermite has succeeded in solving the
problem of the division of hyper-elliptic integrals. The division of elliptic
integrals depends on the solution of an algebraical equation; that of the
hyper-elliptic integrals (as the functions inverse to them involve, as we have
seen, more than one variable), on the solution of a system of simultaneous
algebraical equations. This solution can, M. Hermite has shown, be effected
by means of radicals asuming, as in the analogous case of elliptic functions,
the division of the complete integrals) M. Hermite’s method depends for
the most part on the periodicity of the functions considered. A transcen-
dental expression of the roots of the equation of the problem having been
obtained, their algebraical values are deduced from it.

These researches, in themselves of great interest, are yet more interesting,
when we consider how completely they justify the views of M. Jacobi as to
the manner in which Abel’s theorem ought to be interpreted, by showing
that his theory of the higher transcendents is no barren or artificial gene«
ralisation.

At page 505 of the volume of Liouville’s Journal already mentioned, we
find an extract from a letter of M. Jacobi to M. Hermite, in which, after
congratulating him on the important discovery he had made, he points out
that the transcendental functions A (wv), A, (wv) (vide ante, p.'76) are alge-
braical functions of transcendental functions which involve but one variable.

M. Hermite’s subsequent researches have embraced a much more general
theory than that of the Abelian integrals, namely, that of the integrals of
any algebraical function whatever. ‘Thus his views bear the same relation
to Abel’s general theory, developed in the ‘ Savans Etrangers,’ that those of
M. Jacobi in the ‘ Considerationes Generales’ do to Abel’s theorem.

All that has yet been published with respect to them is contained in the
“Comptes Rendus,’ xviii. p. 1133, in the form of an extract of a letter from
M. Hermite to M. Liouville. This extract is reprinted in Liouville’s Journal,
ix. p. 353. It was communicated to the Institute in June 1844.

Following the course of M. Jacobi’s inquiries, M. Hermite proposed to_
determine what are the differential equations of which Abel’s investigations
give the complete algebraical integrals. When this is done it suggests the

* The papers of M. Liouville, already noticed, may be said to be an exception to this
remark,

ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF ANALYSIS. 83

mature of the inverse functions which are to be introduced. The number
of these functions will of course vary in different cases, just as in M. Jacobi’s
less general theory. Let us suppose this number to be denoted by y, then
each function will involve y variables. And if each of these variables be
replaced by the sum of two new variables, then all the functions are given
as the roots of an equation of the yth degree, whose coefficients are rational
in terms of the corresponding functions of each of the new variables and of
certain known algebraical functions. From hence is derived the theory of
the periodicity of these functions.

After some other remarks on the theory of the higher transcendents, M.
Hermite states that the method of division of which he made use in the
_ problem of the division of Abelian integrals extends also to the new trans-

cendents now considered, but that in the theory of transformation he had
_ not as yet been successful. The greater part of the remainder of this re-
markable communication relates to elliptic functions, and has been already
: noticed. The remark just mentioned as having been made by M. Jacobi for
the functions which are inverse to the Abelian integrals, extends, M. Hermite
: observes, to the functions which he considers.

In conclusion, M. Hermite remarks that the method of differentiation with
respect to the modulus of which Legendre made so much use in the theory
_ of elliptic functions, may be applied to all functions of the form

Sf (ayaa,
where y is given by the equation
y'—-X=0.

_ In concluding this report, it may be remarked that the subject of it is still
_ incomplete, and that there is yet much to be done which we may hope it
_ will not be found impossible to do. It is however difficult to predict the
_ direction in which progress will hereafter be made. Yet I think we may
_ reasonably suppose that the question of multiple periodicity, from the para-
_ doxical aspect in which it has presented itself, and from its connexion with
_ the general principles of the science of symbols, will sooner or later attract the
_ attention of all philosophical analysts. M. Liouville’s idea of considering the
eonditions to which a doubly periodic function must as such be subject, can
_ searcely be developed or extended to the higher transcendents without leading
to results of great generality and interest.

_ The detailed discussion of different classes of algebraical integrals, their
transformations and reductions, form an endless subject of inquiry. But in
this, as in other cases, the increasing extent of our knowledge will of itself
tend to diminish the interest attached to the full development of particular
portions of it; and with reference to analytical problems arising out of
estions of physical science, the theory of the higher transcendents will it
_is probable never become of so much importance as the theory of elliptic
functions. We have occasion to make use of circular much more frequently
than of elliptic functions, and similarly we shall, it may be presumed, have
ss frequently to introduce the higher transcendents than elliptic functions.
merical calculations of the values of the higher transcendents are therefore
important than similar calculations in the case of elliptic functions*.

* The Academy of Sciences has proposed as the subject of the great mathematical prize
+ 1846 the following question :—“ Perfectionner dans quelque point’ essentiel la théorie
des fonctions abéliennes ou plus généralement des transcendantes qui résultent de la con-

‘sidération des intégrales de quantités algébriques.” The memoirs are to be sent in before
the Ist of October. ‘
G2

84 REPORT—1846.

The following index is intended to contain references to all the papers in
the first thirty-one volumes of Crelle’s Journal, and in the first ten volumes
of Liouville’s Journal, more or less connected with the subject of this report,
together with a considerable number of others.

In the following Index Crelle’s Journal is denoted by C., Liouville's by L.,
and the present Report by R.

pdx

VR
ganze Functionen sind. —C.i. 185. This paper contains formulz of re-
duction. It is mentioned by M. Liouville, ‘Journal de I’Ecole Polytech-
nique, 23d cah. p.38. It appears in French in Abel’s collected works,
tom. i. 33.

——. Recherches sur les Fonctions Elliptiques.—C. ii. 101, and iii. 160
[1827]. . Abel’s works, i. 141; also R. p. 57.

——. Remarques sur quelques Propriétés Générales d’une certaine sorte
de Fonctions Transcendantes.—C. iii. 313. This paper contains the
theorem commonly known as ‘ Abel’s Theorem.’ V. Abel’s works,
i. 288; also R. p. 40.

——. Sur le Nombre de Transformations Différentes qu’on peut faire subir
4 une Fonction Elliptique par la Substitution d’une Fonction donnée
du premier dessé.—C. iii. 394. V. Abel’s works, i. 309.

——. Théoréme Général sur la Transformation des Fonctions Elliptiques

de la seconde et de la troisiéme espéce.—C. iii. 402. The theorem is

stated without demonstration. V. Abel’s works, i. 317.

Note sur quelques Formules Elliptiques.—C. iv. 85. This paper con-
tains developments of elliptic functions, &e. V. Abel’s works, i. 299.
——. Théorémes sur les Fonetions Elliptiques.—C. iv. 194. They relate

to the demonstration of the theorem stated by M. Jacobi in the third
volume of Crelle’s Journal, p. 86, by means of which Abel’s method
for the division of elliptic integrals is greatly simplified. V. Abel's
works, i. 318; also R. p. 59.

——. Démonstration d’une Propriété Générale d’une certaine Classe de
Fonctions Transcendantes.—C. iv. 200. This short paper contains the
fundamental idea of the memoir presented to the Institute in 1826.
V. Abel’s works, i. 324; also R. p. 40.

——. Précis d’une Théorie des Fonctions Elliptiques.—C. iv. 236 and 309.
This précis was left unfinished. V. Abel’s works, i. 326; also R. p. 65.

——. Extracts from Letters to M. Crelle, one of which relates to the com-
parison of Transcendents.-—C. v. 336. V. Abel’s works, ii. 253.

——. A Letter to M. Legendre.—C. vi. 73. Works, ii. 256. It contains a
theorem proved by M. Ramus in the twenty-fourth volume of Crelle’s
Journal, p. 78 ; and another, proved by M. Liouville in the twenty-third
cahier of the ‘Journal de l’Ecole Polytechnique. V. R.p.41 and p.’70.

——. Mémoire sur une certaine classe de Fonctions Transcendantes. Pre-
sented to the Institute, Oct. 30, 1826, published in 1841 in the ‘ Mémoires
des Savans Etrangers,’ vii. 176. It is the only memoir of Abel’s not
contained in the collected edition of his works published in 1839; the
editor, M. Holmboe, not having been able to procure a copy of it.
V.pR..ps39-

——. Solution d’un Probléme Général concernant la Transformation des
Fonctions Elliptiques.—Schumacher’s Astronomische Nachrichten, No.
138, vi. 365. V. Abel’s works, i. 253; also R. p. 62.

AsrL. Ueber die Integration der differential Formel wenn R and p

_ ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF ANALYSIS. 85

Apex. Addition au Mémoire Précédent—Schumacher’s Astronomische
Nach. No. 147, vii. 33. V. Abel’s works, i. 275; also R. whi supra.
_. . The following papers were published for the first time in Abel's col-

- lected works. ‘The references are to the second volume :—
——. Propriétés remarquables de la Fonction y=¢ 2, etc., p. 51. The
- multiple periodicity of a function inverse to a hyper-elliptic integral is
here mentioned. V. R. p.77.
—. Sur une Propriété remarquable d'une Classe trés étendue de Fone-
tions Transcendantes, p. 54. This paper contains a generalisation of a
theorem relating to elliptic functions.
—. Extension de la Théorie Précédente, p. 58.
_——. Sur la Comparaison des Fonctions Transcendantes, p. 66. This paper
contains a somewhat fuller development of his general theory than that
which is inserted in the fourth volume of Crelle’s Journal, p. 200.
V. R. p. 40.
——. Théorie des Transcendantes Elliptiques, p. 93. V. R. p. 66.
_ — +. Démonstration de quelques Formules Elliptiques, p. 210.
_ Brocu. Sur quelques Propriétés d’une certaine classe des Fonctions Trans-
cendantes.—C. xx. 178. An extension of Abel’s theorem. V. R. p.40.
Mémoire sur les Fonctions de la forme

§
SSS
SJ—7?-" F(a?) (Ra?) "? da, ete.—C. xxiii. 145 and 201.

This memoir, of which the first part may be considered a generalisation

of the preceding, is accompanied by a report of MM. Liouville and

Cauchy. V.R.p.41.

Bronwin. On Elliptic Functions—Camb. Mathematical Journal, iii. 123.

Mr. Bronwin puts the transcendental formula of transformation in a

very neat form.

——. On M. Jacobi’s Theory of Elliptic Functions.—Lond., Ed. and Dub.

Phil. Mag. xxii. 258. V. R. p. 53.

-——. Reply to Mr. Cayley’s Remarks.—L., E. & D. Phil. Mag. xxiil. 89.

e:: V. R. ubi supra.

Caratan. Surla Réduction d’une Classe d’Intégrales Multiples.—L. iv. 323.

_—. Sur les Transformations des Variables dans les Intégrales Multiples.

Mémoires Couronnés par Académie Royale de Bruxelles, xiv. ade

partie, p.1. The third part contains a transformation of a multiple

integral leading to properties of hyper-elliptic integrals analogous to

é known properties of elliptic integrals.

Caucuy. Comptes Rendus, xvii. 825.—V. R. p. 69.

Cavtry. Mémoire sur les Fonctions doublement Périodiques.—L., x. 385.

An enlargement of his paper on the inverse elliptic functions, published

in the fourth volume of the Cambridge Mathematical Journal. V. R.

iy p-:'69.

_——. Remarks on the Rev. B. Bronwin’s paper.—L., E. and D. Phil. Mag.

xxii. 358.

—. Investigation of the Transformation of certain Elliptic Functions.—

L., E. and D. Phil. Mag. xxv. 352. V. R. p. 69. ;

5, a the Inverse Elliptic Functions—Camb. Math. Journal, iv. 257.

- KR. p. 69.

‘Cuastxes. Comptes Rendus de l'Institut, xvii. 838, and xix. 1239. M.

-_ Chasles in these two communications presents to the Institute notices

of his geometrical researches illustrative of the theory of elliptic func-
tions. V. R. p. 74.

86 REPORT—1846.

Ciausen. Schumacher’s Nachrichten, xix. 178. On a particular Integral
mentioned by Legendre.

——. Schumacher’s Nachrichten, xix. 181. It is shown that the ares of
one of the curves, known as the Spirica of Perseus, may be rectified
by means of an elliptic integral.

EIsENsTEIN. Théorémes sur les Formes Cubiques.—C. xxvii. 75. At the
end of this paper we find some developments of elliptic functions in con-
tinued fractions. This subject is continued in the following paper of
M. Eisenstein’s.

Transformations remarquables de quelque Séries——C. xxvii. 193.
and xxviii. 36. See also Theorema, C. xxix. 96.

Bemerkungen zu den elliptischen und Abelschen Transcendenten.—
C. xxvii. 185. M. Jacobi has criticised this paper (of which a trans-
lation appears in Liouville’s Journal, x. 445) in the thirtieth volume of
Crelle’s Journal.

Elementare Ableitung einer merkwurdiger Relation zwischen zwei
unendlichen Producten.—C. xxvii. 285. V. R. p.’70.

- Beitrage zur Theorie der Elliptischen Functionen.—C. xxx. 185,

211. This paper contains a demonstration of the fundamental formula

of elliptic functions. V. R. p. 71.

GupErmann. Integralia Elliptica Tertiz Speciei Reducendi Methodus
Simplicior, &e.—C. xiv. 159, 185. V. R. p. 68.

—. Einige Bemerkungen iiber Elliptische Functionen.—C. xvi. 78.

——. Series nove quarum ope Integralia Elliptica Prime et Secunde
Speciei computantur, &c.—C. xvi. 366. and xvii. 382.

——. Theorie der Modular Functionen und der Modular Integrale-—
C. xviii. 1, 142, 220, 303; xix. 46, 119, 244; xx. 62, 103; xxi. 240;
aes, 301; xxv. 281. A systematic treatise on elliptic functions. V.

- p- 69.

Girziarr. Equatio Modularis pro Transformatione Functionum Ellipti-

carum Septimi Ordinis——C. xii. 173. V. R. p. 68.
dod

HAEDENKAMP. i li 5 :
Pp. De Transformatione Integralis Sf (sin?v—sin® 008")

—C. xx. 97. It is shown to be the product of two elliptic integrals.

——. Uber Transformation vielfacher Integrale—C. xxii. 184. Analo-
gous to the researches of M. Catalan in the ‘ Mémoires de Bruxelles,’
which appears to have been previously published.

——. Uber Abelsche Integrale—C. xxv. 178. V. R. p. 80.

Hermite. Sur la Théorie des Transcendantes a Différentielles Algébriques.
—L. ix. 353. Extracted from the ‘Comptes Rendus’ [June 1844].
This note, which contains scarcely more than an indication of M. Her-
mite’s results, may be said to mark the furthest advance yet made in
the theory of the comparison of transcendents. V. R. p. 82.

Hitt. Exemplum usus Functionum Iteratarum, &c.—C. xi. 193. This
paper contains some interesting applications of the calculus of functions
to the comparison of transcendents. V. R. p. 42.

Jacosi. Addition au Mémoire de M. Abel sur les Fonctions Elliptiques.
—C. iii. 86. A short note, containing an important simplification of
Abel’s method of solving the equation of the problem of division.
VR. p.59.

——. Note sur la Décomposition d’un Nombre donné en quatre quarrés.—
C. iii. 191. The demonstration referred to is founded on elliptic
functions. :

——. Note sur les Fonctions Elliptiques.—C. iii. 192.

ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF ANALYSIS. 87

_ Jacosi. Suite des Notices sur Jes Fonctions Elliptiques.—C. iii. 303.

_ —. Suite des Notices, &c.—C. iii. 403.

——. Suite des Notices, ete—C. iv. 185. These notes contain theorems

stated for the most part without demonstration. V.R. p. 56.

-——. Ueber die Anwendung der elliptischen Transcendenten auf ein

bekanntes Problem der Elementar-geometric, u.s. w.—C. iii. 3°76.

This paper contains a geometrical construction for the addition and

multiplication of elliptic integrals of the first kind, A translation of

the most important part appears in Liouville’s Journal, x. 435. V. R.
» 73.

aay De Functionibus Ellipticis Commentatio.—C. iv,371. Transforma-

tions of integrals of the second and third kinds, &c. V. R. p. 66,

——-. De Functionibus Ellipticis Commentatio altera.—C. vi. 397. We

find here an elementary demonstration of M. Jacobi’s theorem. V. R.
. 66.

eg Note sur une nouvelle application de l’Analyse des Fonctions Ellip-

tiques a l’Algébre.—C. vii. 41. It relates to the development in con-

tinued fractions of a function of the fourth degree.

--—. Notiz zu Théorie des Fonctions Elliptiques de Legendre, Troisiéme

Supplément.—C. viii. 413. V. R. p. 67.

——. De Theoremate Abeliano—C, ix.99. V.R.p.41.

——. Considerationes Generales de Transcendentibus Abelianis——C. ix.

394 [1832]. This memoir lays the foundation of the theory of the

higher transcendents. V. R. p. 75.

—. De Functionibus Duarum Variabilium quadrupliciter Periodicis, &c.

—C. xiii. 55. M. Jacobi here proves the impossibility of a function of

one yariable being triply periodic. V. R. p. 76.

——. De usu Theorie Integralium Ellipticorum et Integralium Abeliano-

rum in Analysi Diophantea.—C. xiii. 353. It is here pointed out that

a problem of indeterminate analysis, discussed by Euler in the posthu-

mous memoirs recently published by the Academy of St. Petersburg,

is in effect that of the multiplication and addition of elliptic integrals.

Suggestions are made as to the corresponding application that might be

made of the Abelian integrals.

——. Formule nove in Theorid Transcendentium Fundamentales.—C. xv.

199. Elegant elementary formule.

_ =. Note von der Geoditischen Linie auf einem Ellipsoid, u. s. w.—
C. xix. 309. M. Jacobi has here announced the important discovery

that the equation to the shortest line on an ellipsoid is expressible by

means of Abelian integrals of the first class. As this is perhaps the first

application made of Abelian integrals since their recognition as elements

of analysis, I have thought it well to mention it in this place. A trans-

} lation of the note is found in Liouville’s Journal, vi. 267.

_-——. Demonstratio nova Theorematis Abelianii—C. xxiv. 28. V. R.

p- 80.

_—- Zur Theorie der elliptischen Functionen.—C. xxvi. 93. This paper

contains series for the calculation of elliptic functions, and a table of

the function q.

_ -—-. Ueber die Additions-theoreme der Abelschen Integrale zweiter und
x, ie Gattung.—C. xxx. 121. We find here some remarkable formule.

q » R. p. 81.

_ ——. Note sur les Fonctions Abéliennes.—C. xxx. 183. This note relates
f principally to the fact announced in M. Jacobi’s letter to M. Hermite.

V. L. viii. 505.

| 88 REPORT—1846.

Jacosi. Ueber einige die Elliptischen Functionen betreffenden Formeln.—
C. xxx. 269.

—. Extrait d’une Lettre a M. Hermite.—L. viii. 505. V. R. p. 82.

—. Extraits de deux Lettres de M. Jacobi, &e.—Schumacher’s Nach-
richten, vi. 33 [Sept. 1827]. They contain the first announcement of
his theorem.

—. Demonstratio Theorematis ad Theoriam Functionum Ellipticarum
Spectantis.— Schumacher, vi. 133. The first published demonstration
of his theorem. See also Legendre at p. 201 of the same volume.
V. R. pp. 47 and 48.

Jircensen. Sur la Sommation des Transcendantes a Différentielles Algé-
briques.—C. xix. 113.

——. Remarques Générales sur les Transcendantes a Différentielles Algé-
briques.—C. xxiii. 126. V.R.p. 41.

Ivory. On the Theory of the Elliptic Transcendents—Phil. Trans., 1831,
p- 349. V.R. p.67.

Lisrr. Sur la Théorie des Nombres.—Mémoires des Savans Etrangers, v. 1.

——. Sur la Résolution des Equations Algébriques, &¢e.—C. x. 167. These
memoirs are referred to in the controversy between MM. Liouville and
Libri.

Liouvitte. Sur les Intégrales de Valeur Algébrique.—Journal de l’Ecole
Polytechnique, cah. xxii. 124.and149. These two memoirs are printed
also in the fifth volume of the ‘Mémoires des Savans Etrangers,’ pp.
76, 105. Poisson’s report on them is inserted in the tenth volume of
Crelle’s Journal, v. infra.

——. Sur les Transcendantes Elliptiques de Premiére et de Seconde
Espéce.—Journ. de l’Ecole Polytech., cah. xxiii. 37. V. R. p. 70.
—. Note sur la Détermination des Intégrales dont la Valeur est Algé-

brique.—C. x. 347. This note is appended to Poisson's report.

——. Sur I'Intégration d’une Classe de Fonctions Transcendantes.—C. xiii.
93. On the same general subject as the preceding memoirs.

——. Sur la Classification des Transcendantes.—L. ii. 56, and iii. 523.
These papers contain an exposition of the principles on which this clas-
sification is to be effected.

——. Surles Transcendantes Elliptiques de Premiére et de Seconde Espéce

considérées comme Fonctions de leurs Modules.—L. v. 34 and 441. It

is proved that these transcendents so considered cannot be reduced to
algebraical functions.
Rapport fait 4 ?Académie des Sciences, &c.—L. viii. 502. =a

on M. Hermite’s memoir. V.R. p. 82.

—. Sur la Division du Périmétre de la Lemniscate—L. viii. 507.
V. R. p. 62.

—. Rapport sur le Mémoire de M. Serret sur la Représentation Géo-
metrique des Fonctions Elliptiques et Ultra-elliptiques—L. x. 290. A
note is appended to this report generalising M. Serret’s theory. V.R.
p- 72.

- Sur un Mémoire de M. Serret, &c.—L. x. 456. V.R. p.73.

Losarro. Surl'Intégration de la Différentielle reer
—C. x. 280. at CE ane
LucuTEeRHANDT. De Transformatione Expressionis
dy

Cc.

Oy Hit(y—-a)(y B)(y—4)]’
—C. xvii. 248.

i ‘ae ,

ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF ANALYSIS. 89
Ogee
| MacCutracu. Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, xvi.'76. An ele-
_ gant geometrical proof of Landen’s theorem.
Minpinc. Théoréme relatif 4 une certaine Fonction Transcendante.—
C. ix. 295. The function in question was shown by M. Richelot to be

reducible to elliptic integrals. a6.
. Sur les Intégrales de la forme /“22P¥P, &e.—C. x. 195. An ad-

dition to this memoir is found at p. 292 of the same volume.

——. Recherches sur la Sommation d’un certain nombre de Fonctions
Transcendantes, &c.—C. xi. 373. These researches relate to an exten-
sion of Abel’s theorem.

—. Propositiones quedam de Integralibus Functionum Algebraicarum
unius variabilis e principiis Abelianis derivatee.—C. xxiii. 255. This.

_ memoir is mentioned by M. Hermite.

Poisson. Rapport sur deux Mémoires de M. J. Liouville, &c.—C. x. 342.
V. supra, Liouville.

——. Théorémes relatifs aux Intégrales des Fonctions Algébriques.—
C. xii. 89. V. R. p. 41.

Bete Bemerkungen zum Principe der doppelten Substitution, u.s. w.—

- xv. 191.
dagen De Integralibus Differentialium Algebraicarum.—C. xxiv. 69.
- R. p. 41.

Ricnetor. Note sur le Théoréme, &c.—C. ix. 407. V. supra, Minding.

——. De Integralibus Abelianis Primi Ordinis Commentatio Prima.—
C. xii. 181. V.R. p. 80.

—. De Transformatione Integralium Abelianorum Primi Ordinis Com-
mentatio.—C. xvi. 221 and 285. V. R. p. 81.

——. Ueber die Integration eines merkwiirdigen. Systems Differential-
gleichungen.—C. xxiii. 354. These equations are those known as the
“ Jacobische System.” V. R. p. 78.

——. Einige neue Integral-gleichungen des Jacobischen Systems Differen-
tial-gleichungen.—C. xxv. 97. The results contained in this paper are
much more general than those of the preceding one. V. R. p. 80.

—. Nova Theoremata de Functionum Abelianorum cujusque ordinis

* Valoribus, &e.—C. xxix. 281. V.R. p. 81.

_ —. Ueber die auf wiederholten Transformationen beruhende Berech-

nung der ultra-elliptischen Transcendenten.—_Schumacher Astr. Nach.

xiii. 361 [July, 1836]. V.R. p. 82.

_Roserts. Sur une Représentation Géométrique des Fonctions Elliptiques

de Premiére Espéce.—L. viii. 263.

-—. Sur une Représentation Géométrique des Trois Fonctions Ellip-

tiques.—L. ix. 155. Mr. Roberts’s papers relate to curves formed by

the intersection of a cone of the second order with a sphere. The fol-

i lowing paper contains a more general exposition of his views.

_ —. Mémoire sur quelques Propriétés Géométriques relatives aux Fonc-

tions Elliptiques.—L. x. 297. V. R. p. 73.

Rosenuain. Exercitationes Analytic in Theorema Abelianum de Inte-

- gralibus Functionum Algebraicarum.—C. xxviii. 249, and xxix. 1.

oe VR. p. 41.

‘Santo. De Functionum Ellipticarum Multiplicatione et Transformatione

que ad numerum parem pertinet Commentatio.—C. xiv. 1. V. R.p. 68.

Serrer. Note sur les Fonctions Elliptiques de Premiére Espéce.—L. viii.

145. V.R. p.72.

90 REPORT—1846.

Serret. Propriétés Géométriques relatives 4 la Théorie des Fonctions
Elliptiques.—L. viii. 495.

—. Note al’occasion du Mémoire de M. William Roberts, &c.—L. ix.
160.

——. Mémoire sur la Représentation Géométrique des Fonctions Ellip-
tiques et Ultra-elliptiques. Addition au mémoire précédent.—L. x.
257 and 286. It was on this memoir that M. Liouville made so favour-
able a report to the Institute. V. R. p. 72.

——. Développemens sur une Classe d’Equations relatives a la Représen-
tation des Fonctions Elliptiques—L. x. 351.

——. Note sur les Courbes Elliptiques de la Premiére Classe.—L. x. 421.

——. Sur la Représentation des Fonctions Elliptiques de Premiére Espéce.
—Camb. and Dublin Math. Journ. i. p. 187.

Souncke. /quationes Modulares pro Transformatione Functionum Ellip-

ticarum et undecimi et decimi tertii et decimi septimi ordinis.—C. xii.

178. M. Sohncke here gives the results which he investigates by a ge-

neral method in the following paper.

/Equationes Modulares, &c.—C. xvi. 97. V. R. p. 68.

Taxzot. Researches in the Integral Calculus.—Phil. Trans. 1836, p. 177;

1837, p.1. V.R.p. 41.

On Comparative Analytical Researches on Sea Water.
By Prof. ForcHHAMMER.

In a paper read today in the Chemical Section, I have tried to show that
in the ocean between Europe and America, the greatest quantity of saline
matter is found in the tropical region far from any land; in such places 1000
parts of sea water contain 36°6 parts of salt. This quantity diminishes in
approaching the coast, on account of the masses of fresh water which the
rivers throw into the sea; it diminishes likewise in the westernmost part of
the Gulf-stream, where I only found it to be 35-9 in 1000 parts of the water.
By the evaporation of the water of this warm current, its quantity of saline
matter increases towards the east, and reaches in N. lat. 39° 39' and W. long.
55° 16’, its former height of 36°5. From thence it decreases slowly towards
the north-east, and sea water, at a distance of sixty to eighty miles from the
western shores of England, contains only 35°7 parts of solid substances ; and
the same quantity of salt is found all over the north-eastern part of the At-
lantie as far to the north as Iceland, always at such a distance from the land
that the influence of fresh water from the land is avoided. From numerous
observations made on the shores of Iceland and the Faroe islands, it is evi-
dent that the water of the Gulf-stream spreads over this part of the Atlantic
Ocean, and thus we see that water of tropical currents will keep its character
even in high northern latitudes.

Besides the southerly direction which any current flowing from the north-
ern polar regions must take, it will, according to well-known physical laws
depending upon the rotation of the earth, always take a direction towards the
west, and thus be driven towards the eastern shores of the continents, while
any tropical current flowing towards the north will, according to the same law
of rotation, take a direction towards the western shores of the continents. —
This is at present the case in the Atlantic Ocean, and its effects upon the
shores of Europe, which by a branch of a tropical current are surrounded by
warm water, produce a mild and moist climate.

ANALYSIS OF SEA-WATER. 91

_ The water of the different seas is much more uniform in its composition
_ than is generally believed. In that respect my analyses agree with the newer
_ analyses of atmospheric air, in showing that the differences are very slight
_ indeed. Sea water may contain more or less salt, from a very small quantity,
as in the interior part of the Baltic, to an amount of 37°] parts in 1000 parts,
_ which I found in water from Malta, and which is the greatest quantity I ever
_ observed ; but the relative proportion of its constituent saline parts changes
_ very little.

In order to get rid of those differences which might arise from the dif-
ferent quantity of saline matter in sea water, I have compared sulphuric acid
oo lime with chlorine, and the following results are the mean of many ana-
lyses :—

In the Atlantic, the proportion between chlorine and sulphuric acid is

10,000 : 1188; this is the mean of twenty analyses, which differ very little
from each other.

In the sea between the Faroe islands, Iceland and Greenland, the same

proportion, according to the mean of seventeen analyses, is 10,000 : 1193.
In the German Ocean, according to ten analyses, it is 10,000 : 1191.
i In Davis's Straits, according to the mean of five analyses, it is 10,000: 1220.
In the Kattegat, according to the mean of four analyses, it is 10,000: 1240.
_ Thus it appears that the proportion of sulphuric acid increases near the
shores, a fact which evidently depends upon the rivers carrying sulphate of
_ lime into the sea.
The proportion between chlorine and lime in the Atlantic Ocean, according
_ to the mean result of seventeen analyses, is 10,000 : 297; and in the sea
_ between Farde and Greenland, according to the mean of eighteen analyses,
it is 10,000 : 300.

In the longitude of Greenland, and more than 100 miles to the south of
the southernmost point of that large tract of land, sea water contains only
35°0 in 1000 parts. In going from this point towards the north-west it de-

" creases constantly, and in Dayis’s Straits, at a distance of about forty miles
1 from the land, it only contains 32°5 parts of salt in 1000 parts of sea water.
_ This character seems to remain in the current which runs parallel to the
shores of North America; and at N. lat. 433° and W. long. 464 the sea water
_ contained only 33°8 parts of salt. Thus tropical and polar currents seem not
_ only to be different in respect to their temperature, but also in the quantity
_ of salt which they contain ; from which it appears, that while the quantity
_ of water carried away from the éropical sea by evaporation is greater than
_ that which rain and the rivers give back to that sea, the reverse takes place
in the polar seas, where evaporation is very small and the condensation of
_ vapour very great. The circulation must on that account be such, that a
"part of the vapour which rises in tropical zones will be condensed in polar
regions, and in the form of polar currents flow back again to warmer climates.
_ Although my analyses are only made on water from the ocean between Eu-
Tope and America, yet little doubt can be entertained that that part of the
Ocean which separates America from Asia is constituted in a similar manner,
and that currents flowing from the poles are the rule, and currents flowing
wards the poles the exception.

_ Lime is rather rare in the sea around the West Indian islands, where mil-
lions of coralline animals constantly absorb it, the proportion according to
five analyses being 10,000 : 247; and it is rather copious in the Kattegat,
here the numerous rivers of the Baltic carry a great quantity of it into the

oe
ey

ocean. The proportion is there, according to four analyses, 10,000 : 371.

‘
a
"

92 REPORT—1846.

On the Calculation of the Gaussian Constants for 1829. By A. ERMAN.

As purely theoretical speculations on natural phenomena remain highly
unsatisfactory until they can be founded on a sufficient number of observa-
tions, in the same manner collections of the most careful observations must
be almost useless before they are thoroughly elaborated according to a given
theory. Nay, the accumulation of observed numbers, notwithstanding the
value they possess when viewed by themselves, may even become injurious
to science, by retarding its progress. Indeed the aspect of progressively in-
creasing, but not duly elaborated, materials, must at last give rise to the ap-
prehension, both on the part of those engaged in furnishing them, and of
every one interested in the results to be gathered from them, that the means
may be wanting to bring such a stock of matter to bear for their proper
purpose. The loss of the whole, that is to say, of data which have not been
acquired without the exertion of considerable scientific labour, and which
seemed pregnant with beautiful germs, would then be a most discouraging
consequence.

The British Association for the Advancement of Science has many times
proved itself convinced of the truth of this principle. A resolution adopted by
the Association in 1833, during its first meeting at Cambridge, warded off the
peril just mentioned, even from a department of science whose long-established
rate of progress had not been able to protect it sufficiently against such a
risk. The reduction of the Greenwich observations of planets, undertaken in
consequence of this resolution, and now published by order of the Lords
Commissioners of the Admiralty, has been fully appreciated by all astrono-
mers, and particularly by the late M. Bessél, who in the last moments of his
life welcomed it as the beginning of a new period in astronomy. Moreover,
the condition that a uniform progress of observation and calculation is equally
indispensable in less-developed or only nascent branches of physical science,
has been expressed by the British Association at its second meeting at
Cambridge in 1845; first, by several of the members being inclined to
raise the question, whether the continuation of magnetic and meteorological
observations were desirable, as long as a great part of the materials collected
by them are still waiting their first employment ; and, secondly, by including
the calculation of the Gaussian constants of terrestrial magnetism for 1829
within the sphere of their own operations, being pleased at the same time to
entrust me with the superintendence of the same, and to place at my disposal
the sum of £50, granted for this purpose for the year 1845 to 1846. I shall
endeavour to point out in a few words the fruits this arrangement seems to
promise, and the results it has already obtained.

I think we are authorised to suppose that all those phenomena which we
have learned to express by numbers, with the help of remarkably accurate
instruments, will at length lead us to a theory of the forces which produce
them ; and that, in consequence, the intriusic value of observations on such
phenomena—a value which hitherto could not be demonstrated—will then
at once become most evident. It was this expectation alone which often
encouraged observers to persevere in labours apparently rather tedious, and
the zeal with which the meteorological and part of the magnetic variations
are pursued by your members in British and colonial observatories, is, I think,
attributable to the same cause. In the branches of physics which they cul-
tivate, these observers, it is true, have still to look to futurity for both kinds
of progress, viz. the discovery of an abstract theory, and the true establishment
of the same by means of observed numbers. As to the first and most import-

A

ON THE GAUSSIAN CONSTANTS FOR 1829. 93

ant of these steps, they have a consolation in the fate of their predecessors
in most similar labours: I allude to the long series of philosophers who de-
voted themselves during the first thirty years of this century to ascertaining
the mean values of magnetic elements for as many points on the surface of
the globe as possible, and whose undertakings are so carefully recorded by
one of them—I mean Col. Sabine, in his admirable report on magnetic in-
tensity. They too were long enough under the necessity of restricting the
immediate application of their operations to refuting some evidently super-
ficial or erroneous theoretical views, and then, after detaching from their re-
sults every accidental influence, to register them in the annals of science, as
contributions to a theory which they only hoped might be attained. But M.
Gauss’s admirable theorem, that any terrestro-magnetical element, that is
_ to say, any observable part of the intensity of magnetic force at a given point
of the earth, or any angle formed by this force with a given plane or line, can
be represented by combining with given functions of the latitude and longi-
tude of this point a limited number (probably twenty-four) of constant quan-
tities, and the way pointed out by him for deriving these constants from a
sufficient number of observed mean values of magnetic elements, have ina
short time so completely realized these hopes, that a great encouragement
was held out, both to former observers of mean magnetic elements, and
to those who were then, and are still employed in less-advanced branches of
physics: nevertheless this encouragement was but an imperfect one. To
complete it, the possibility of applying those former observations had to be
changed to a reality. On this account I am inclined to think that the com-
mittee appointed to conduct the cooperation of the British Association in the
system of combined magnetic and meteorological observations, have parti-
cularly contributed to the satisfaction of their own observers, by encouraging
the calculation of the Gaussian constants for 1829; for, by so doing, they in the
first place have confirmed their adhesion to the general principle, that no set of
observations whatever must remain longer than is indispensably necessary
_ without reduction to theory; and secondly, they have made the immediate ap-
_ plication of the mean magnetic values for 1845, that may be furnished by the
combined British and Russian observatories, the more probable, as it will then
_ be already preceded by a similar application of the analogous values for 1829.
_ Besides this, to prove the influence of your resolution on the department of sci-
ence most directly connected with it, I may remark that a more and more exact
_ determination of magnetic constants (the Gaussian) is equally indispensable
at the present moment (and for the same reason), as the obtaining of the con-
_ stants for planetary orbits was formerly, from the moment in which Kepler’s
_ and Newton’s discoveries opened a possibility of arriving at them. Whatever
~ may be the analogies once to be found in magnetism for the secular varia-
tions and other perturbations of planetary orbits, the entrance into these
“untouched fields of science cannot fail to be effected by fixing the actual
values of Gaussian constants. ©
It was under these circumstances that I long ago felt it to be a debt I had
contracted towards science, that the magnetic elements which I observed
_ from 1828 to 1830, at about 650 equidistant stations, on a line encircling
| the globe, between latitudes 67° north and 60° south, conjointly, perhaps,
with the magnetic elements that had been observed in Europe during the
Same years, should be fully applied to the development of the now existing
‘theory. For the undertaking of such a work, however, it was evidently ne-
_ essary to have more time at my disposal than I have ever enjoyed. M.
_ Henry Petersen, too, a most industrious and talented young mathematician,
_ who in 1842 had undertaken and performed at my request a small part of

|

——*

94 REPORT—1846.

this comprehensive task, found his leisure hours unequal to its completion.
Now, on the contrary, the support of the British Association has enabled and
induced this gentleman to suspend his other official duties for the year just
expired, and to devote himself entirely to the prosecution of the work in
question, in which his success will, I think, be appreciated by the Association,
from the results which I have the pleasure of laying before you, accompanied
by some remarks on the means employed to obtain them. What proportions
these one year’s results bear to the final term of the whole labour, and how
far they deserve to be continued, is a subject which I shall take the liberty
of touching upon at the conclusion of this paper.

The object of the calculations committed to my superintendence may be
stated to consist in finding, by a sufficiently large series of observations,
twenty-four corrections,—

BY, AGP Ry ERO wets tyhshi ves nen cve va Ag'!, Ahi},
to be singly applied to the twenty-four preliminary values,
g*, g*, hts, ht? AOC ew eee eee sereeeeesoes g, 1,1,

which M. Gauss assigned to the constants of terrestrial magnetism, and in
calculating at the same time the probable errors of the so-corrected constants.
To this effect (preserving the literal denominations used in M. Gauss’s theory
of terrestrial magnetism, and marking by AX, AY, AZ, Aw, wAd, pAi, the
differences (theoretical value—actual (or observed) value)), the following
expressions have been derived :—

0=AX + Ag!°sinw—cosu(Ag')!.cosA + Ah!.sin A) +2 cosu.sinu.Ag®°
—cos 2u.(Ag*®!.cos A+ Ah®!.sin A)—sin 2 w(Ag??.cos2A

+ Ah®2. sin 2a)+3 -Ag°.( cos? u—=)sinu—( 3 cos? u—2 cost).

(Ag3:!. cos A+ AA3:!. sin A)—sin %.(3 cos? w—1)(Ag>?. cos 2A
+ Ah3*.sin 2A)—3 cos wu. sin? u(Ag>3 . cos 3 A+ Ah3.5 .sin 3 A)

27

3 , 3 (1.)
+4(costu—5 cos w)sin u.Agt?— (4 cos u* 7 cos? % ++ =)

(Ag*!.cos A+ Ah*! sin A) —2(2 cos’ —F00s usin u.(Ag**.cos20

+ Ah**.sin2A)—(4:cos*u—1)sin?u(Ag*.cos 3 A+ Ah*3. sin 3A)
—4 cos u.sin’ u(Ag*:+.cos 4A+ Att. sin 4A).

O=AY + Ag!!.sinA—Ah!s! . cos A+ cos u (Ag®:! . sin A—Ah®! . cos A)
+2 sinu(Ag®?.sin2 A—Ah**.cos2A) + (Ags:!.sin A — AAS! cosa).

(cose u-=) +sin 2 u.(Ag’:?. sin 2 A—Ah3:2 . cos 2 A)
+8 sin? w (Ag%-’ . sin 3 A—Ah33 . cos 3A) + (cos? u—= cos u). (2.)
(Ag*!.sin A—Ah*!.cos A)+ (2 cos? u—; sin u(Ag+?.sin2 a

—Ah*? cos 2A)+3 cos uw. sin? u (Ag*> .sin 3 A—Ah*3 cos.3 A)
+4 sin’.u (Ag**. sin 4 /—Ah*+* .cos 4A).

!
y

ON THE GAUSSIAN CONSTANTS FOR 1829. ' 95

a
O=AZ+2 cos uw. Ag'°+2 sinu. (Ag'! . cos A+ Ah!) . sin A)
+.B eos? w—1) . Ag? +3 cos u . sin w (Ag! .cos A+ Ah! . sin A)

}
. + 3sin2u(Ag*?.cos 2A + Ah®*.sin 2 A)+ (4 cos$ u -2 cos u) Ags?

+ (4 costa —= )sin & (Ag>:!cos A+ Ah! sin A) +4 cos u sin? wv.

(Ag32.cos2.A + Ah32.sin 2A) +4sinw.(Ags.cos3 A+ Ah®.sin3a) ¢(3-)
+ (5 cos wa cos? + =).ag'" + (5 cos? u-2 cos u).

sin u (Ag*! cos A+ Ah*! sin A)+ (5 cos? u—2) sin? u(Ag*®.cos2A

+ Ah*!2 sin 2 A)+5 cos 4. sin’ w (Ag? .cos 3 A+ Ah*3 .sin 3 A)

+5 sint uw. (Ag**.cos 44+ Ah**. sin 4A);
and denoting by AX, AY, AZ their just-mentioned developments according
to the corrections of constants,

O=Aw —cosd. AX Se) Se er C2)
O=w.Ad.+sin 3. AX 008 GA Yo,s (ope. oe ijouihen Ga)
O=w. Ai +sin i(cos .AX+sin d.AY)—cosi.AZ . . (6.)

and then 283 numerical primary equations, relating to magnetic elements,
observed on a line from Berlin to the east coast of North Asia, at the port
of St. Peter and St. Paul, have been formed, by alternately recurring to one
or the other of these six formule. For the sake of uniformity, their first term,
which always meant the value of the magnetic element calculated with M.
Gauss’s numbers—the observed value of the same element,—has always been
marked by the letter x, independently of its having been derived by the Ist,
the 2nd, ...... the 6th of these formulz ; and also the whole numerical primary
equation has been represented by

O=n + coeff.Ag*°.(Ag*°) + coeff.Ag*!.(Ag*!) + coeff-Ah*}.
4q 4 0 meter + coeff.Ah's!.(Ah"),
_ independently of their origin from formule (1) (2) ............ or (6).
In five of the accompanying tables you will find, according to these de-
- nominations,—1. the numerical values for

log. n, log. coeff. Ag+°, log. coeff. Ag*', log. coeff. Ah*...... log. coeff.Ah!>! 4,

furnished by each single element; 2. the name, the latitude and the lon-
gitude of a station to mark the place of observation; and 3. one of the letters
_X, Y, Z, w, ¢ or i, which respectively indicate that the observed element has
been the northern or the western component of horizontal force, the vertical
force, the whole horizontal force, a declination or an inclination*. In the
three last cases in which therefore ~ denotes the value of Aw, of wAd, or of
WAitt, it must still be noticed that the values of the declination (¢) in the
first, and respectively of the horizontal force (w), or of the total force (f) in

‘

:
;
|

n* of is understood that, according to M. Gauss’s memoir, the meaning of the letters em-
Dloy is—

X Northern horizontal force. 3 Declination.

Y Western horizontal force. i Inclination.

w Total horizontal force. wu North polar distance of the station.

Z Vertical force. a Longitude east from Greenwich of the

_ 4p Total force. station.

Instead of log. coeff. the further abbreviation |.c. being usually employed.

The arcs Ad and Ai being previously changed to the ratio of their sines to unity.

96 REPORT—1846.

the two other, being only approximately required for this purpose, have been
merely calculated by theory, viz. by those values of constants which we are
about to correct.

The correctness of the numbers in those 283 primary equations for the
twenty-four unknown, has then been controlled by determining the theoretic
values of the X, the Y, the Z, or of the two or three of them that were required
for the composition of w, of tang @ or tang 2, a second time in a somewhat
different way. It consisted in calculating according to

X=F(u)+F' (u) cos A+F" (wu) sin A+ F™ (w) cos2 A
2 eee +F™(u) cos 4A+F"™"(u) sin 4A,

or to a quite analogous expression for Y and Z, for which the nwmerical values
contained in F(w), F\(u)..... E(w) are given as resulting from the pre-
liminary values of the twenty-four constants in M. Gauss’s theory of terres-
trial magnetism, § 27.

This part of the task being completed, the second, and by far the most
laborious one, consisted in forming out of the coefficients in each primary

» 25 x 26.5 ws
equation 9 = $325, and therefore altogether 325 x 283=91975 products

of two factors, each according to this form,—

ae A CAGE Ye Ieee Ne sisnis tna tae ole vosce'ocedsncnnbes ans n.(c.Ag'), n(c.Ah!"),

(c.Ag*°).(c.Ag*°), (c.Ag*°).(c.Ag*!),...(c.Ag?).(e.Ag''), (e.Agt?).(c.Ah!1),
(c.Ag*!).(c.Ag*!), ... (e.Ag*!).(e.Ag'!), (e.Agt!).(c.Ah!"),

SOR e eee reese see sesessseseee

See mem eee eee eeeeeeeeeeeeeseses

(c.Ag?').(e.Ag'"), (c.Ag'!).(e.Ah''),

(c.Ah!)!).(¢.Ah!").

The 283 products, assembled under each of these 325 titles, were then
separately summed up, and by this means (marking by [ ] a sum of analogous
terms) the twenty-four final equations of the following form were obtained: —

— [n.(e.Ag*?) ]=[(c.Ag*?).(e.Ag*?) ].Agt?+ [(eAgt)(c.Agh!) ].Agt!+..
+ [(c.Ag*?)(e.Ag'!) Ag+ [(c.Agt)(c.Ahe!)]. Ahh,
_ inane ee [(c.Ag*!).(c.Agt) ].Agt° + [(e.Ag*!)(ce.Ag*!) ].Agt!+..
eee et + L(¢.Ag*"')(e.Ag'!) ].Ag!! + [(e.Ag*!)(e.Ahb!)]. AA,
— [n.(c.Ah*!)] = [(e.Ah*!).(c.Agt?) ].Agt? + [(e.dht!)(c.Agt!)].Agt! +.
Boch EA + [(e.Ah*!)(e.Ag'!)].Ag'! + [(e.Aht!)(c.Ahb!)] Ak'!,

—[n.(e.Ah'})] = [(e.Ah!) (e.dg4) ].Ag49+ [(cAh!!)(c.Agt!)].Agtt +.
Srseestsane + [(¢.Ah).(e.Ag'!)].Ag!! + [(c.Ah!)(c.Ak}!) ].ARL

The numerical expressions of these equations will be found in the table
marked VI. Hitherto they have been controlled by the calculation leading
to them from the primary equations, being repeated a second time in the
same manner as the first, but with the suppression of one decimal figure in
the products and in their sums. To obviate the danger, arising from the ad-

dition of such extensive rows of numbers, lest the compensation of opposite —

errors might produce an illusory agreement, M. Petersen, besides the forma-
tion of new primary equations, has proceeded to subject these final equations

to another kind of control,—I mean the process usually employed in similar —

re eee

ii
1,
qu

" ON THE GAUSSIAN CONSTANTS FOR 1829. 97

cases, and which consists in the formation for each primary equation of a
supplementary term s, equal to the sum of the other, viz. in one case, in the
calculation of

s=coeff. Ag*:° + coeff. Ag*:! + coeff. Ah*:!+.....+ coeff. Ag!:! + coeff. Ah!)!,
whereby we obtain as controlling equations, .

[sz] =[n.c.Ag*° ] + [n.c.Ag*!] + [n.c.Ah*!] +... + [2.c.Ag'!] + [.c.Ah'1],
[s.c.Ag*]=[ (e.g) (c.Ag#")] +[(eAg*®)(e.Ags!)] tut [(cadg'?)(ALY)],

MIAE (C0. AblA)(oiAg4\] 44 calen scscccsccneeceoE Gecdhl)(@AROI) I>

independently of the extension which is given to the sums marked by [ ].
If we now consider, in the first place, the linear primary equations con-
tained in the Tables annexed, we shall find that the values of the Gaus-
sian constants hitherto accepted sufficiently approximate to the truth to
authorise the supposition from which we start, that the powers of their cor-
rections superior to the first can be neglected ; but, on the other hand, that
these values are still so erroneous, that the elements calculated by them differ
from the empirical ones by far more than can be ascribed to errors of obser-
vation, and in quite another manner than would arise from local irregularities
of terrestrio-magnetic power. Indeed we see that when the places of obser-
vation are in similar parts of the globe, the values of 2 belonging to them
remain nearly enough equal to each other; whereas on the longitudes of the
places increasing, these values of m are gradually lessened, and at length
replaced by a series of values with opposite signs. Of course, to observe this
regularity of progress, we must only compare such values of 7 as relate to
magnetic elements of a similar character; as for instance, all to 2, or all to
_ w, and so on.
_ The value [nn ]=233423, marked in the Table of Final Equations as re-
' sulting from 283 equations, shows that for the part of the earth on which
the observations hitherto considered have taken place, the inean difference
between an observed magnetic element and the corresponding calculated one
amounts to 29, the intensity of the whole force at Loaten being =1372 ; and
_ in agreement with this result, we find, for example, by immediate inspection
of the Table of Primary Equations,—

Lat. 56. | 56. | 67. | 54. | 59. 56.

The mean difference —E——E—————EEE— EE
Long. 43. | 60. | 67. | 100.) 145.| 222.

Tn northern horizontal force} +46, |+39)+23/— 6/—28 4.35
In western horizontal force +18 |+19/+40) O|—25
| In perpendicular force ...... +11 {+13)+35)—15|/+30) +38

in whole hori-
zontal force

The concluding table contains besides, as already mentioned, twenty-four
final equations for the twenty-four unknown quantities, by which, mathema-
tically speaking, the whole problem in question would appear to be ready for
a definitive and now most easy solution. In practice, however, this is evi-
dently far from being the case. Thus indeed it is plain, even at a first
glance, that each observation, hitherto registered, has already contributed

to the solubility of the problem all that it will ever be able to do; there
is not in this circumstance alone a sufficient reason for that solubility being
re and then that, on the contrary, the probability of the value to
— -:1846. H

98 REPORT—1846. ‘

t

be obtained for any one of the twenty-four unknown quantities, for ex- —
ample, Ag!' depends entirely on its weight, that is to say, on the magni-
tude of the coefficient with which this quantity remains in the equation —
containing at the origin the terms ...... + [(c.Ag!!).(c.Ag'!)].Ag'!, after
the elimination of the twenty-three others ; and that these weights, as is easily —
shown, will only become sufficiently extensive when there are neither two
nor more of the unknown quantities whose coefficients remain in a constant,
or in a nearly constant relation in the whole series of primary equations, tri-
butary to the final ones. Hence the examination in this same respect of the
above expressiuns for Aw, Ay, .........++. Ai, will easily show that by reason
of the similarity of the latitudes in which by far the greatest part of the ob-
servations till now calculated have been effected, the solution of the final
equations as hitherto obtained would give but a very trifling weight to almost
all the corrections we are seeking for, and therefore be still without interest.

Even the seventy elements that, according to date of observation, follow
next to the 283 finished ones, and for which M. Petersen has also nearly
accomplished the primary equations, will, by their contributing to the final
ones, most sensibly improve them in respect of solubility. Indeed in full
opposition to the now finished ones, these latter elements relate to points of
a line rather northern than eastern in its direction, and extending from 57°
latitude north to about the equator. It is therefore precisely those unknown ~
quantities whose coefficients have hitherto exhibited the least variations, or
followed in their varying a course parallel with that of the coefficients of
other unknown ones, that will vary the most, both relatively and absolutely
speaking, in the set of primary equations next to be formed, and thus will
add to the final equations just what is requisite for increasing the weight of
each of the quantities sought for and thereby preparing their due separation.

M. Petersen will at all events subjoin, in the course of the ensuing months,
this next continuation of his present labour, which I shall then forward to the
Association.

It is plain, notwithstanding, that even then we shall not have reached the
most favourable state which our fund of observations for the year 1829 would
allow of attaining in the knowledge of the Gaussian constants for the same
year. Indeed even then, by substituting, as could be effected through your
further patronage, a full execution of the task to a but partial one, the places
of observation contributing to the final equations may be trebled, and what
is still more important, a considerable improvement be attained in their re-
petition over the globe.

I thought it my duty to submit to the Association my opinion of the
benefits to be derived from the continuation of M. Petersen’s labours, leaving
it to their decision whether they will consider it advisable to grant him their —
further support in devoting himself entirely to the prosecution of his task.

835m |3°31498n |9°48677n
62337 |8°32996n |9°48 5297
7790650 |9°45285n
8°87940 |9°17657n
8°87372 |8°47099n
8°84974 |8°33986n

$°89717 |8°14350
$°96857 |8°81254.
8'96640 |8°92877
8"90906 |9'00657
8°59045 |9'29898
8°46569 |9°37007

$°64810 |9°38158
9°67581n 19°38 7814,
9°67603n |9°87835
9°65364n |9°89819
9°58289n |9°954.16
9°55004M 19°96 567

9°54.970N |9°96487
9°53368n |9°96639
9°508 107 |9°96613
9° 500697 |9°96388
9°499877 |9°95945
9°4.7524N |9°93149 |
9°4605 5 \9°91924.
9°44.99 52 |9°92003 |
9°74430 |9°62987

9°74.504 |9°62756

9°75721 |9°61558 |
9°75777 |9°63108

9°78061 |9°58067
9°79616 |9°53372
9°80841 |9°49290
9°82241 |9°42509
9°83297 |9°35665 |
9°84630 |9°24762
9°87632 |8*70909 |
9°87978 |8°57363 |
9°89227 |8°38284n
9°90866 |9°06160
9°91535 |g°17617”
9°92172 |9°243067

9°92757 |9°29531"
9°93353 |9°34119"
9°94380 |9°43176n
9°95197 |9°49765”
9°96138 |9°56069n
9°96279 |9°58373%

8°89625 19°504837
8°87698 |9°281227
8°33713” |9°262437,
8°63757M |9°221607
8°44862n 19°1734.37
8°12926n 9'1 10944

{e«
|

1

ey ————— -
: TABLE OF PRIMARY EQUATIONS FOR THE GAUSSIAN CONSTANTS IN 1899. ¥

[To face puge 98.

Log. nef. Log. coef, Log. coef,
ap i B ah

Stations and observed elements.

0, By"). Alt, Ag’ AltA, Agi. AlAs,

| =r | = —-
H50215 19°74494 |9'27112 |9°03775 |9'17975n |9'42879n|7'89258 [9°69 968n\9'35279 I9'57074n|g'91651 |8°54835n 8°31498n |9°48677n 9'73581n S'00672 |9°81382n|9r93804 |9'63364n |9'40027n 19°69 r0n |9'S7814N |9'69974 |9'87349n |9'6gor2N
154580 19°74535 |p'26864 |9'03629 |9'179150 |9"43027n|7'96985 \9'6g922n |9'35453 9*5685on |9'91649 /8'56233n /8:32096n|9'48529n 9'73641n 8'08369 |9'81306n |9'93775 |9'63428n 9'40193n Biren '9'87835n \9"69929 [9'87338n |9'6g 1030
163175 1972600 |9°34813 19113233 |910590n|9'39191|(8°55486. |9'71552n |9'44798 19°59843n|\9°91702 |8'12229 |7°90650 |9-45285n 9°73886n 8'68201 |9'84267n '9°58919” 19'37339n 9'61218n |9'Sq8t9n|\9°71786 |9°86246n |9'64666n
180693 9'67578 9'42938 19°31653 |8'72354n |9'30395n 19132986 |9°70380n|9'71024 |p'46194n|9:91167 |8'99225 |8°87940 197176570 \9°75698n 9'48542 |\9'85936n 49°45287n |9°35002n 19°37375n \9'95416n |9°75032 |9'81597n [9703120
174008 |9'68424 19797795 19735536 [803651 |\9°3 30940 |9'55154 |9:61651n \9°75673 |8:75541n|9-91296 |8:89533 887372 |8"47099n |9°77442N 19'70270 |9°76767n 9439347 |9°41774n |8'66224n J9'96567n |9'74582 19'77938" 19'75778N
166652 19168767 19'36818 |9°35228 |7'91274n|9'34893n [9'56008 |9:60798n\9'75286 |8°61831n |p'91345 8'86564. /8'84974 |8'33986n |9'77605n 970444 |9'75724n \9'96516 |9r42276n |9'42686n|8+52868n or96487n 9°74392 |9'77750n |9'70160n

—__ :
Log. epef.|Log. coef Log. coef: Log. coet|Log. coef Log. coef.|Log. coctLog. coef |Log. coefLog. coef|Log. evef|Log. coef |Log. coef Log. cott Log, eoeflLog. eoet| Log. eoet Lon. f !
Log. HN Ah Bhi, | AgA3, 3, ae, | ays. | alan ap2. | ale, | a. | Ai Age, | syate| Vesti eel

Petersburgh, 1-.-..
Petersburgh, 2.
Nowgorod -
Moskwa, 2-
Doskino-......
Nijnei Nowgorod........

Tcbugunul.-... 56 6 1166717, [9°68328 19'36291 I9'47307 |7'70689 |9°33783n|9°60r47 |g:57097m\9'75978 [843011 |orgx282 |8'88701 [889717 [814350 9°77444N |9°75316 |9°72266n|9°96651 |9°42190n|9743206n|8°33545 |9'96639n |9'74636 |9'76346n |9'7736an
Angikowo . F 173340 |9°67529 19195563 19740359 |8'35849 |9'31459n|9'65013 |9°50386n|9'76025 |9'11053 g'91158 |8'92061 896857 [8'81254 |9°76864n \9'80593 |9°65966n \9'96877 |9°38761n|9°43557n \g'01003 |9'96614n |9'75054 |9'74138M |9'78034n
Kasan... 1172107 19'67668 |9'34506 |9'40783 |8°47778 |9'31634n|9'66464 |9'47088n\9'75082 |g'22252 9'91180 |8'90364 [896640 [8192877 |9'76733n |9'81974 |o'62s08n 996839, |9°38173M |9°44450m|9'12532 [9°96388n|9°74983 |9°73738M|9'79014n
Mitjechka 1167624 (968556. |9°32364 |9°39831 {857487 |9°33741n|9'67277 |9'43938nl9'73117 |9'28282 |9'91314 |8'33439 8190906 j9'00657 |9°76911n \9'82326 |9'58988n|9°96583 |9'39058n|\9.46525m (919691 |9"95949n \9'74512 |9'7a864n \9'80331N
Dubrowa - 161972 19'71308 921933 [9136617 |8'92528 |9'38798n|9°70646 |9'17751n|9'608qx |g's0a14 |g:91031 [844361 S*59045 |9'29898 |9'76168n 984155 |9:31260n|9°95585 |9'39627n|9'54311m\9°46879 |9'93149n |9°72783, \9'6g087N|9'83771N

Perm «+ 158591 19°71837 \9'18572 19'36053 |9'00726 |9'3908om|9'71313 |g'01g03n|9°55248 |9:55141 |9°91669 |8'29088 8'46569 |9°37007 |9'75361n|9'84505 |9r14585n|9'95351 |9°38743n |9's6224n|9°53570 |g'91924n |9'72396 |9'67346n |9'S48a7n

Krullasowo ..+..
Potersburgh, tess

sree .)57 33 45] 56 37 38 l1"s2009 [9171067 J9'20192 19°38323 |9'00307 |9'36988n |9'71912 |8'97066n |orss45q 9'57742 |g'gx61x 846679 |8'64810 |9:38158 |9°74839n [985558 [g'107127[9'95683 |9°36841n|9°s4972n|9°55322 |992003n 9172947 |9°66676n \9'84807n
se M159 56 17 $2)r1g988 | —oo I9'14599 |9°37936m 19'72352 |9'47448n|9°81382 |8:co672 |grb3347 [9'41552 | —zo |9'44250 |9:67581n|9'8781q |p-62910n 19'87655 [806945 | —s |9'64012 |9'87349n|9'94087 [9°69183n| —c2 [9'70285 |9'9362an

Petersburgh, aa rtadon | See j9'24760 |9:37995"|9'72395 |9'47283n |9'81306 |8'0836 |9'63108 lorgr7ax | —oo [9'44368 9:67603n|9'87835 |9'62723n|9'87564 [814627 | —oe 9164103 |p'8738ml9-94094 l9'68q81n| —eo |9°70361. lo°93506n
Nowgorod . 2/1"19003 = 19'12190 19°33769n |9'73406 |9'4480sn |9'84267 |8°68201 |9°66758 |9'51713 = |9'43785 |9'65364n|9'89819 [p61218n|9'91182 [875116 | —co |9°64666 |9'86246n|9796734 |9'68133n| —o2 |o°71582 |9'93162n
Moskwa, 2. 18 |1'23704 | —ce |p*x0921 |9'22206n |9'76961 |'18920n |9'85936 |9'48s42 |9°s4463 |9'79293 | —oo |o'47004 19°58289n |9°95416 |9°37475n 206 |9°56812 | —oo [9770312 |9'S1597n|0'03685 |o'45644n| —co |9'78s8r |o'8q866n
Doskino... 36 |1'23603 | oo |9:17478 |9'19638n|9'78425 |8'48082n|9'76767 |9'70270 |8'83605 |9'83737 | —oo |o:s2Rqq Ip*sso0qn \9'96567 |8'G6224n \9'34831 |9°78335 | —s> |9°75778 |9°77938n\o'04631 |8'74288n| —co |9'83842 |9'86c02n

Nijnei Nowgorod ... ssseeee 156 19 20] 43 57 4|1'29270 | —o2 |'18308 19°19898n |9'78474 |8°34855n|9°75724 |9'70944 |8'69810 |9°83265 —2 19°53380 |9°5497cn |9'96487 |8*52868n |9'83703 |9°78923 = |9'76160 |o°77750n|0'04466 |8'60847n| —co |9'84139 |9'85729n
2

Tebugunui sss... ++. crores ys{56 6 241 45 go 1211'23905 = |9°18936 |9°17920n |9'78460 |8:15366 |9°72266 |9°75316 |8'51099n|9'84066 | —co |9°54384 19°53368n |9°96639 |8°33545 [9'8035q |9'S340g | —eo |9'77362 |9'76346n |0'04727 |8'41633 —™~ 985450 |9'S44q4n
Angikowo . Jorg1sg0 | ee j9'19483 |9'14687M|9'78141 [882531 [9165966 980593 |9'19333n|9'84305 | —e |9°55606 |gr50810m|9r96613 |gro1c03 |9'74346 |9'88873 | —oo |9°78934 |9'74138n\0'04893 |9'09283 | —co |o'87214 lo:8aqisn
Kasan. 33 |1103060 | —2 19/0374 |9'14063n19'77965 |8'94109 |9'62598 |9'81974 |9'30499n|9'83329 | —e |9756346 |g*sco69n|9r96388 lo12532 970845 |o'90221 | —2o 19°79614 |9°73538M |0'04634 |9'20778 | —ce |o'8786x |g'81s84n
Mitjechka . 4|roo860 | ea g-az201 Ipr14734n19'77851 I9'01597 |o's8988 |9'B2326 [9°36314n|9'B1149 | —e> |9'57454 |9r49987n |9'95045 |g'19691 |9:67020 |9°90358 | —cxo |9'8033x |9'72864n 0103977 |9'27723 | —oo 9'88363 |9'8o896n
Dubrowa ... 129688 | —a5 I9'29391 |9'14707m |9°76160 |g'ag8g0 [9'31260 |9'84155 |9"57515n|9'68192 | —oo |9'62208 |9'47524n|9'93149 |9'46879 [938561 |o-91456 | —e [9:84771 |o'69087m|o'co450 |9's4180 | —oo |orguo7a |9r76388n
Perm... ++ . 114) 56 13 56 )12167 | —oo |:g1210 |9°13129n|9'75164 |9'36810 |9'14585 |9°84505 |9'6228qn|9'62396 | —co 9"46055n [9'91924 |9'53570 [9121743 |9'91653 | —c2 |9'84827 |9'67346n|9'99072 |9'60718 | —e |9'91975 |9'74494n
Kruilasowo uC Y+157 33 45) 56 57 38)r'18554 | —co 30088 puutos7n 9°749 14 S823 l9'10712 1985558 |9'65109n|9'62821 | —co 944995" 19°55322 9718079 |9'92925 | —ce [9'84807 |9'66676n|9'°99370 |9'62688 | —e2 {o'9a174 [9:74043n,
Petersburgh, 1 ss e+ ss0es ++ 2/59 56 29] 30.17 §2/1'62408 |8'37912 1977807 |9°54470 |9'57216 |9'82120 |7°92831n|9'73541 |9'21217n|9'43012 |9'71286 9°74430 987891 |7°89q13n|9'70123 lo'ogs99 [or05035 |g'81698 |9'56766 [9°81670 |o'24830 |9'93699 |9'7036a
Potersburgh, 2 » q 168789 |8'40815 [9°77822 |9°54587 |9°57007 |g'Ba119 |Br00q84n|9'73421 |9'21332n|9'42729 |9'71450 9'74504 987868 |7797051n|9'69988 |orog652 \o'04979 |g'81745 |9's65320 |9°81632 |o-24845 |9'93629 |9°70394

Pomorania...
Nowgorod .-.

1989997 |8*548scn |9'72392 lovo86ar jo'osrr1 |9°83457 [955606 [9'84045 |o'23560 [994045 |9°74390

142955 |7'72428n |9'76612 |9°54958 |9'55388 |9'33827 |8'57988n |9'75540 |9'288q9n|9'44226 |9'68242 lo-7572%
17 5 913873. 9°30386 |y'84y87 H i 7 9791709 |8°59396n|9°75462 loro7257 \o'5744 |9°84165 |9°57529 |9'86130 Jo'2z189 |o:95051 [9°73471

155157 [8'64038n 19'75453 19°53873 [9°56386 |o'B4987 |8'62169n |9'78238 |9°33191m/9'48236 19'63763 |9'97357 |9°75777

Waldai 138328 |8'84850n|9'73616 |o°552 "50 87132 |9'03179n19°79578 |9'43304n|9'46298 |g'60256 [9'96384 |9°7806x |9°58067 |9:94264 |9'00678n\9'77077 [0106246 |o'05256 |p:86933 [9752762 |9'88959 |o'22913 |9'94837 9'76514
Woichnei Rearen S-o38>3n pe7a368 Beate Brae 3 88387 19°19632N 19'79890 [9'49002n|9°43388 |9°5823x |9'95622 |9°79616 |9°53372 |9'95745 |9°77284n (977539 |o'05670 |o'0q762 |'88757 |948219 p'90sg2 joraa76 |9°94404 97889
Twer 1558331 [9'07282n 1970337 |9°56377 [9°41378 |'8q922 |9'32 1197 |9'81362 [9°55660n|9'42129 |9°53091 |9'9480r |9'8084x |9'49290 |9'97834 |930137n 19179380 |o'o4277 |o'04600 |o-g0640 |9'44505 "93049 9194700 9" 748
Moskwa, 140072 9'218387 1967135 19°55850 |9'33746 |9:91787 |9'45759n|9'83153 |9'64o16n|9°31186 |o'44006 [9'93526 |9r8az4x [9742509 |o'00550 |9'44537n|9'81731 |orozrrs |o'04341 [9'93056 |9'38985 9796326 9195000) p'8373
Platowa 154444 |9'24513n |9'66554 |9's6961 |9'26923 |9°92157 |9'51086n |9°81942 |9'65s82n|9'32660 |9'44272 |9'92890 |9'83297 |9°35665 loco899 |9°49649n \9'80505 0702176 |0'03676 |gr94084 [g'31424 "96658 994321 piaa7e9
Dmitrew 135812M |9'19058n |y'66164 |9°58683 [916190 |9°92363 |9°56272n|9°79657 |9'66319n|9'21570 |9'46167 |9'92110 |9'84630 |9'24762 |o'c0935 |9's4724N |\9'78109 |oro2609 |o'ox6g4 |9'93214 |9'20410 |9'96583 9'93227 |9'85747
MIDS hbloacaccesceccs "17205 |9'64117 9°61 8°62458 |9'92801 |9'67027n 19'73524 |9'68010n|8°67878 |9747467 |9'89792 |9'87632 [870909 |o'01252 |9'65410n|9°71907 |o'02914 |0'00232 |9"98072 p'968a2 9'90687 /9'88527
Nijnei Nowgorod ....... eaeaben pr6a387 rece Btageax 593660 Perea 1972301 |9:67348n|8:53893 948845 |9'89568 |9°87978 |8+57363 jo°co982 |9'6s8o9n\9'70589 0'03242 |or998sq [9198264 19'96467 990224 988634

Tehugunui 9177820 |g°62. "63469 |8'29796n|p'92890 9:72 137n |9'69087 |9'68393n /8'35426n |9'47072 |g'88210 |o'Bo227 [8738284n loro1378 |o-7a534n |9'67484 [ov02820 |o'9B694 [oroq7t0 |8'33878n|9'96972 o'22015 |9°89173 |o'g0189
Saacene Beets Raven 3973790 92989 9°77832m|9'63205 |9:6g05en|9'04078n 19743824 |9'86070 |9'90866 [gr06160n lo'o1770 |o'76421m\9'61794 |o'oa074. |9'9b6904 [oro1760 |pro1946n 9197536 betes or87575 fo'gaa7x
g'2r360n fois8o44. |9:65220 fo'o8886n|9:92742 [9'79142n|9°59763, |o"6Sooanlo-15i7an 44397 985259 fo'91535 |o'x76x7n|o%01473 |g'77699n|9°58329 lo'ozz05 |o'96033 |oroago9 |or13370n 9197236 or23836 |o-8007x, b'gaga7
9'16423m19°59143 |9°66610 |9'rs903n \9'92157 [9°79024M /9°55685 |9°65352n|9'20517M|9'47985 |9'84705 |9'92172 |9'24306N |o'o0sb0 |9°77364n|9'5q026 |0:03037 |9"950B8 |o'oass5 |9'x9846n\9'96098 Jor2zz071 9'B551x |9'9297'

3 79%
0'94988

i " y , - ‘ : , : r76758n 9% i y "94859 |o'22297 |9'84322 |p'92928
Milet = 1112385 |9'10288n/9"59362 |9°67968 |o'21471M |9'91487 |9°78643n |9'51357 |9'62428n|9'24279n |9'51540 |9°84151 |9'92757 |9'29531n |9'99547 |9'76758n|9'49472 \0'03906 9'94125 joroa73x |9'24823n|9'94! ¥ } i
Kojil .. 185336 prorg67n pegoz0, 60440 9'26457n|\9'90654 |9'77950n|9'46247 |9's8883n [9'27110NI9°5s419 |9°83533 |9'93353 |9'34119" /9'98316 [9°75802n |9'44099 |o'o4g08 19193034 oroasse piagieen 9193365 Ra 982968 9:92.78
Bins coe 3122220, |8'94379n |9'58618 |9'71023 [9°35773M |9'89604 /9°78489n|9°36406 |9°54447n 19'34520N 19'57793 |9°81975 |9'94380 |9°43176n|9'97007 |9'76173m |9'34088 fo'ossso |9'91173 or03578 jo\a8assn 9192880 lorsa740 |p'Scoa7 "93342
Dubrowa .. 1126458 [B'90910M 19'57387 |9'72071 |9°42467n |9'88737 |9'79123n |9'26228 |9"s065n |9'39988n |9'58774 |9'80513 |9°95197 |9°49765n [9196035 |9°76732n|9'23837 |oros820 |g'Bgs82 oro4266_j9'44572n 99084: es 9279274 |9'9395
Perms sissiene as 56 |1"42813 [8'82328n |9'56022 19°73503 |p'49000n 1987354 |9'79086n|9:09176 |9'44483n|9'44376n |9'60798 |9°78657 |9'96138 |9°s6069n|9°94423 |9'76544n |9'00633 jo706392 p'87454 eio4a 3s 9'50723n Be uy) or22955 97 993 994474
Kruilasowo. ... 38 |1°14082n |8*94099n |9'54801 |9'72932 |9°50974 |9'87657 |9'80690n|9'05844 |9°45459n |9'47749n |9°57868 |9°78148 |9°96279 |9°58373n 995053 |9°78366n|9'03520 |or05572 |9'87335 o'05466 |9°53245n |9'899 736 |9'77093 |9'95224
H . . 9 . , i Seecpy EEG lee . y y y y "48059n|9'80793n |9'87961n |g'76101 |9°B18547|\9'63438n
Berlin«« +++ 13.24 28166304 |9"56685 [9° 861906 |803326n 20n ;con |9°74667n |9'234350 |9'8sagon |9'87160 |o'41370 [889625 |9'50483n|9"70354n|\9'61299n |9'90778n |9'96170 |p'2 58cm 9'48050M [0 5 ) H 684385
Tosna.. ‘ a ran = Reiare Ban Raa 892859 B-Bas8cn Be Rpae Bade '9'69784n |9'47926 |9'52637n |g'91289 822997 pepe pice e777aen paisa patecte 93787 Pouce ease aabrsre peer oes Paseo Boers
Pomoranii 1 16'4 —|1"59988 19°73369 |9°33796 [8196133 |8'81133n |9'47219n [908227 |9'69763n \9'50072 |9'51934n|9'91330 |8'34663 |8'84713n |9'26243n \9'77812N (916347 |9'Bx i K b i i B i
Snizowo ” aa ay Renan Bee Patoeg aya S008 sn Boers 9'15616 |gr70426n (9'55524 |9'52937M|9:91357 [872560 [8163757 |9'2a100n |9'77704n |9'25031 |9'83404N|9'94767 |9-50745n 9751353 |9'42980N |9'93178n |9'71657 [9°12 79m |9'74331N

Waldai 2.222220)

Waich sine 33.154 [163256 |o'71412 19139207 |g*10879 |8'61280n |9r4284sn |g'22810 |9:70156n |9'59495 |9°50798N|9°91377 |8'80337 |8'4486an |9'17343n 9'77754N |9°33311 |9'83593M |9795134 |9'49103N |9'50254M|9°39066n I9'93849n \9'72221 |9'BO744n |9'74552n
uiichnei Wolotschok .

34 40% [160969 [9'70947 |9'39662 |9'15547 |[8'512417 [9'41556n |9'29870 |9'69483n [963207 |9'46900M/9'91398 [885229 |8:12926n|g'12094M|9°77830n 9°41338 |9'83284n |9'95424 19°47793" |9'49287M 19° 33591" 19'94454N |9'72 061 |9'80197M|9°74867n

)

7

Ta24111
Tyo2785
}N¢67579
} PH71054

» | Lij72702

M8 5699
A182420
P87245
Ey88993
| T¢g 1101
/Mi89549

K(81405
$176890
Sii'92 132

BI58386n |9°96029
T¢569542 |9°96437

Pf22138

0F35744
Br32.868

KP 84524
Tr85125
<I'32.966
W 10809
$1'83075
"79845

9°5 1054.
9°56563
9°59872

"70093 |9°62843
"42260 |9°64960
4.3121” |9°91922
$-4.10237 |9°90689
"391 12N |9°894.21
| 7421730 \9°89153

W-4.252.6n |9°87756
| 5934775” |9°86037
322.562 |9°83803
b:2.99070 |9°81243
| B:286312 |9°78978

"98288
)°97915
98514

Ah3?,

9°77567n
9°77574n
9°76969n
9°77038n
9°77295n

9°76976n
9°77437”
9°77395”
774620
aa he
9°774.60n
9°777320
9°7765 5
9°76135”
9°872570
9°77567”
9°28489n

9°23465n
g'02269n
8°79656n
9°82485
9°97926
9°73835”

9725440
Duy aon
9°72927"
9°72261n
9°68107n
966097”

9°64036n
9626310
9°58551
9°63635
9°67539
9°64291

B-96555 |\9°62401n |9°95772

97325 |9°675332 \9°94587
4:97972 19°714342 |9°93316
97810 |9°664672 |9°91329

9°64.1822 |9°88073
9°74.63 1M |9°92093

$°99273 |9°782117” |9°89755
"99923 |9°811057” |9°87330

7°26900N |9°374.12

‘bro0974. |9°83599” \9°81270 9

9°763720

STANTS IN 1829 (Continu!

pg. coef.|Log. coef.|Log. coef.|Log. co
© |AAB1 | - Ag??,

Age,

‘Stations and observed elements.

Linitrewsk

Marom «.«

Meschnowo -

Poljana -..

Emningasch .
Teheboksar «+...

Milet .
Kojil -
Suri

Slatoustowo

Potsdam...

Konigsberg

Moskwa, 1...

Bogorodsk-... ++.
‘Ten worsts from S

Oxablikowo
Potsdam

Osablikowo
Buikowa

Kirgischansk . .
Tekatrinburgh
Kuschwa ..

Werchotura
Sogark ..
‘Tjumen...

Tnjakowo ....
Tobolsk, lower pa
Buikowa ..

Kirgischansk
Tekatrinburgh

Kuschwa

Werchotura ..

Sugnek ..
Tyumen

Tujakowo ..
Tobolak, low
Buikowa,...

Kirgischansk .. .
Tekatrinburgh ..
Kuschwa ..
Werchotura ..
Bogoslowak .

Bjelaika...

Chatarbitka
Tobolsk, lower
Bogoslowsk .. .

n.

Log.

156289
178902
177590
1140037

1161300
168547
180017
172673
174052
1°54753

1752699
176188
154551
104333
093176
119540

078438
413179
123268

1765427

158263
1939332
168646
147217
58115
158456

1742586
1"46359
134341
146361
121245
1722272

138507
1106903
127875
1'24180
123754

lor20952
141747
'0°6g020
1735083
1732510

156984
165887

1°53643
0°55509

part of the town

142975

— a > ee

TABLE OF PRIMARY EQUATIONS FOR THE GAUSSIAN CONSTANTS IN 1829 (Continued).

coef. |Log. coef |Log. coef. Log. coef.

ay
v62221

9*32001M g'94974n
19'27809n 9'95291n
19'16191n 9'96379"
g'10694n 9°96479"
S'g9102n g'96s03n |

19'79738"
9'79395n \975ox8n
9°78 14.10 |9°

19'77935”
'9°77689n |9”

9'76947"
976791 9769050
'9'76278n |9'77380n
19:75753M |9°77988n
'9°7542an |9'78268n
1974401” 19°79596n

3'79740n 9'96896n

19'74387n |9'8o081n
9'73832n |g'Bo8o8n
9°71265n |9'821290

1163858"
1'57170n

965395” \9'84876n

19633340 |9'8 56350
9'6 142 1n \g'8628an
196 3246n |9'86603n,
(9°62 12.1 |9'37332"
I9s6948n |9'87625n
'9'54286n \g'88323n

I9'51615n |9'8gossn
19°49783n |9'89730n

lo"95761n

122683n

0'72.9970

I9'46514n |9:70018 9°76373n 9'81606 9°7 11420 |9'842330

993705"
9'92297n
9875550

19872620
19'86306n
19°85640n
o742ts
992149

19°'73093"
g7s053n
9691390
i9°70270n

1968873
9'64so1n
91618497.
9'589970
9568510
996424

9197252
19°97896
995804
995532
19°94084
9°98476

'9'98986
9°99473,
999525
9°99272
g'9g09%

(2)

KPI 5% |8°99933
GPT 52 |8°92808
rh 142 |8°76821
4 O'O1147

0°0 144.3
0°01289
0°0094.6
0700440
9°99764.
9°98914

9°98557
9°97767
9°96918
9°97251
O°01429
0°02284

002595
0702898
8°30406
7752820
8°34124n
8°60086n

$°84061n
8°97649n
g'08991n
’ 9°'25890n
3697 |\9°3417 5”
P5442 |9°362752

‘9
991m |9°15066
$°621952

8°4.0031
9°02258
9'04.691
9°05866
9°07560
9°09897

9°49574
9°49088
9750613

Sige , SSF

Ce

TABLE OF PRIMARY EQUATIONS FOR THE GAUSSIAN CONSTANTS IN 1899 (Continued).

Long. East, Log. coef.|Log. coe,

jj
¢ ii ‘Log: coef.|Log. coef-|Log- coef,| Log. coef.| Log. coef. Log. coef.|Log. coef.|Log. coef.|Log. coef.|Log. coef.|Log. coef.| Log. coef.|Log. coef.|Log. coef. |Log. coef.|Log. coef| Log. coef-|Log. cocf,|Log. coef.|Log. coef. Log. coef.
Stations and observed cements. [Latte | HOM, | tog, [Hse bg. se ie es et get eg ae aga ng ct geet lg ca Lg ot tg, tg coat Lag et Log set og eet. at og sat ag ot Log. et Log. cog

pe al) fa) eee,

Latinsk w.)59 20 | 60 9'¢ — |1"26007 |9°73531 897337 |o'33522 |8'98782 I9'45318n [970570 |8-78716n|9'4280r |9°56885 |org1493 [973219 |8:06625 |9r37773 |9:7616rnl9'82521 |8'84865n \g'94113 |9°49176n I9'57101M |9'55016 |9'90526n\9'70553 |9'70B0In |9'84138n
Bjelaika...... w.|56 49 | Gr 53.4 |1"57611 19°09436 |g'08623 [9°45430 |8'85356 |9:37054n \9°73407 |8°53550n 19°44524 |9'67637 |gr91173 |S*10817n [8:99939 |9'38749 \9'74585r 19'87726 |8'48403n |9'95898 |9°43723n |'48q58n|9'60184 |g'91764n 19173526 |9'6q415n \9'83137n
| Kamuischlow w./56 50 | 62 37°4 — |1°57078 |9'69452 |9'06930 |9'4s64x |8:88015 |9'36969n |9°73478 |8'20299n |9'40789 19168736 |prg1160 |8-20a15n|8'99933 |9:40777 9:74244 (9'87741 |8:65482n |9°95870 19'43523" |9'48814n|9'62073 |9'91293n |9'73490 |9'68go0n |9'83433n
Sosnowsk to. |§7 13 G6 14 149262 |9'70174 [Br9B1bx [9'45140 |ot04540 [9°36093m|9'72639 |8'91878 |p'10829 |9:71580 |o'91256 |8:43276n|8'92808 |o'51134 |9'71488M|0'80334 lgrr1445 |o'95627 19°52565n |9'70900 |9°87861n \9°73059 [9°64934n |9'85q57n
Chutarbitka w.|57 58 | 67 584 — |1"28533 Jor7t405 |8°87358 [9'432612 |9°13262 |9°37585n [9°71148 |9°11517 |8'76363 |o°70263 991320 |8r66514n|8'76821 |g"s5511 |9*70229n |9'83993 |9'28180 |9'95049 19°55925|9°73957 |9'85477n \9'72119 |9'63487N |9'36497n
Uwazk ...- #159 3 | 68 45% [119368 |8:27531 |9°38960 [9'79994 |9'76191m|9'72376 |9°71855n |9'4x190n 848641 [9*sq214N|9'66727 |g:60113, lororsg7 |or82g50n |9°78735 |9°68835n \9- 381700 lo'o8153

lorogro6 |gr76a71n\9'72912 |o'23432 |9°57134 |9'98168

| Tugalowsk 69 55'4 [1708707 |816584n 19°37520 |9'81234 |9°76729n |9'69346 |9'68065n|9'43805n /8-73420 |9*50169n |9'70346 |9°57729 loor443 |9'82625n\9°75242 |9'64731n 97404710 [0'09293 lo-08857 |9:76488n|9'69104 |o'23746 |9'53891 |9'97605
| Sawodinsk 69 344 — |x'1g376 |8:57173n 19738784 [981681 |or755s4n |9'6g245 |9:'66876n 9'40749n /8:64250 |9™4788snlor72594 \9:g8392 lororz89 |g'B1x50n |9'7484x (9°63338n \9-372110 [0'10029 Jo-08350 |9'74809n |9'685c0 |o'23950 |9'53997 [996804
Sarnarawo .. -- 68 42°4 [0°75511 |8'80346n|9'41079 |9°82000 |9r73519n |9'69856 |9:65986n |9°35034M 837986 |9°45330n|9'75029 |g6c025 |o00946 |9'78779n \9°75116 |9:62219n |9°31267n [010846 1007614 |9'7a209n |9'685q6 o'2g179 |9°55c08 |9'95929
Kewaschinsk =.\61 37 | 67 45°¢ [095856 |gc02g18n|9:43689 [9°82519 |pr706san |9'69874 |9°63759n |9'27111n |7°66036 |9'40702n|9'78707 |9'61614 |o'00440 |9°7538qn |9'74606 |9:59632n |9'22982n |o'12126 lo'06495 |9'68452n|9°67674 Jo'agsqr |o'55618 |o'94448
| Kondinsk 2. |62 24 66 284 o"41330 |9°16628n\9°46591 [9'82706 |g'67190n|9'70305 |9761864n\9'16586n \8'217410 |9:36130n 1981756 |9'63649 |9'99764 |9'71466n |o'74581 |9°57420n [9121420 [o'r 3227 Jo"05282 |9'64219n |9'°67334 |o'24856 [956805 |9'92920
|/Kunduwansk .. +63 17 | 65 64 [107737 |9'28364n|9:49434 |9°82778 |g'63085n |9'70373 |9'59265n |9'03032m |8'53113n |9'30412n|y'84944 |9'65570 lorg8q14 |p:6686qn lo'74154 |o's4477n|S'98244n [o'14q16 1003855 |9'59273n|9'66563 |o25200 |9°57805 |9'91149
| Beresow. . - ©|1"13609 |9°35382n19°49798 |9°83063 |9'61619n |9'69032 |9'56553n|8'99963n |8"49864n |g'26419n \9'87123 |9'6s292 |9'98557 |o'6soson|9'72463 |9's1523n|8'94931n [0'15250 |p'69827 oroz092 |grs7215m\9'64628 |o'25444 |9°56877 |9'90142
| Katschegatsk 154245 |9°45378n|9°50527 |9'83311 9'58609n \9°66772 |9751784n /8:92953n |8'46849n 19:19186n lo'90594 |9°64983 [9'97767 |9'61463n|9'69626 |9-46345n|8'87517M [0116619 |9'6885x loro16y5 |9'53224n|9'61387 |or2s848 [9755497 g788281
Wandjask 105154 |9°55721M |9°49254 |9°83699 |9°56397M \g'62001 |9°44413n |8'92866n [8210110 |9'09716n |9'94659 |9°62473 |9:96918 |9'5855an|9'64156 |9°38482n|8'86935n 0'18270 |9°65532 |g'99978 |9'49818n \9'55422 |0'26343 [9751684 |9'86129
| Obdorsk....... 55|1°54777 \9°s5829n 1947463 |9'84045 [o"580B1n |g'6osra |9°435297 |8'99861n |7°84804n |g'0og981M \9-94696 |960668 |9'97251 |g’60227n 9162658 \9'37592n|8'93924n o'18291 9°63718 loroogor |9'sx487m\9°53918 \0'26349 |9'49863 |9'86447
Kototschikowo o'55871 |9'10534 \9°30907 \9°76614 [o'81716n [971756 |9°76847n |9'56881n \gro1261 |9°64833n |9°51423 |9°55722 |o'01429 |9°89788n |9'79822 |9°74970N |9's5004n 0103876 |9'65711 Jo-1z418 |9'8s108n\9'75142 |o'22289 [9755916 |ov01623
Tara ... 156 54 0) 74 4°4 — |0°97313 |9'06781 |9'23424 19'77885 |9'84997m|9°64328 |9°70345n |9'66124n \9'29442 |9:60062n |9°53286 1947823 \o'02284 |o'92881n |g'72212 |9'68344n |\9'64123n 0104350 [9757588 [o'12049 |9'88077N|9'67408 |o22413 |9'47669 |o102130
Pokrowsk 1°30363n |9'22427 |9'10774 |9'76103 |9°B8994n 19755966 |9°65397n19'76773n [9750971 |9'58754n (9743514. |9°37266 Jo"02595. I9'97800n 19'64772 |9*64003n |9'75379n \0'02007 |9'48131 |0'13460 |9'93603n |9'60575 lor21806 |9°38819 crogrgs
Tschuluim 141996 |9'28375 |8'9404g |9°75266 |grox749n |9"41674 |9°531710 |9'83816n |9°64240 |gr48827M |9°37650 |g'21676 lo'oz8g8 loroxog3n |9'50968.|9's2094m|9'82739n [0'00759 124 |or14346 |9'97163m |9'47088 jo'21489 |g'24129 |o'os35r
|Uwazk ...... 1°10346) |9'72987 7478 19°37736 |9°19866 |o'4oargn |9"69542 |9'16400 |8'47553 1966939 [9791374 |8°B2633n 830406 |9°57523 [969924 [9°81343 |9'31360 |9'94187 |9°43675n |9'59635n 1974384. [9'S3859n 1970749 |9°63301n \9'87233n
|Tugalowsk .. . 145561 19°73864 jB'61013. |9°34154 |9°24885_ [9'41035n |9'67890 \9'23188 |7°73878M l9°64053, |9r91270 |8-90714n|\7°7528an|9°59833, |9'68gcano'79014 |9'36944 |9'93569 |o'442920 |g'62133n|\9°7568x |o'81973n |9'69823 [o°63423n p'8793sn
Sawodinsk .. 146060 |9°74406 [855413 |9°31341 |9'2580a |9"42400n |9°67527 |9'20404 |7'70415 |9'63014 |9'91211 |8-9q596n |8°34124N \9'59367 |9°69380n|9°78280 |9'33790 |9:93158 |9°45573n \g'63264n |9'74657 |9:82006n|9'69207 |9°63076n\9'879910

Samarowo

143917 |9°74980 |8'50147 |9'27713 |9°25744 |9'44254”|9°67345 |9°13757 |8'45939 |9'60986 |9:91123 |898605n |8'60086n |9'57944 |9°70353n19°77708 |9'26903 [9192677 9°47379" |9'64307N |9'72653 |g'82529n\9°68497 [9643150 |9'87879n

Kewaschinsk w.J6x 37 | 67 454 [x'3410% |9'75789 834908 |p'arx23 |p'26245 |9146678n |9'66546 [o'04817 [870834 \9r57469 |o'909x1 |pro4Bgan |8'8406%n |9rs6277 |o:7x322n|9:76264 |o'17522 |o'91847_ |nr49849n |9166074n|9°70042 |g'82739M 19767306 |9'65756n |9'87
Kondinsk -- aries 66 24 fesse Beg 36017 I9'r4000 for25421 [9'48936n |9'65779 [890445 [888947 19°53738 |9:90655 |g'09948n|8'97649n |9:53745 |9'7250an|9°74956 |o'03189 |9'91058 |p752292n |9r6738on 06733 pt8azean yee. 9673990 97876470
Kundowansk.... 5 w.|63 17 | 65 6:4 — |arx1x60 |g'76y55 [7-6053x |pro4z10 |oragzir |orsrrssn |9764556 [868476 [899978 |9r49086 |o:q0388 |9'15306n |o'o899xn |9:50744 |o'73370n|9°73138 |8'82060 |p'90113, |gr5485em |9:68767n |9'62871 9°B3464n |o'649%4 p*60047n |9:8744n
Katschegatsk ... caver eet (65 3 5% 49°¢ —|1'29270 |9°77571 [8419130 |8'74210 [926493 |o'55283m \9'60938 [858850 [895036 lorgrrr4 |g'Roara |9'24632m |9'25890n |9'49574 |9°72971n |9'68319 [871113 |9'87978 |g's8o120 |9:72157m 959958 981631" p'S2229 97601 m9 879098
Schuruschkarsk ae w./66 13 | 64 524 |x'17173 |9°77665 |867413n |8'26340 |gr27991 |9°540930|\9°58159 |8°57031 |8'89337 [9°35685 |o'883x3 |g'29697n|9'341750 |\9'49088 |9'722G2n |9'64800 |8'67997 |9'86409 9159750n 9-74253n 9°58410 |o-Boo7on 1 Gs re UE
Wandjask - Ww. |66 30 | 65 39°4 [075967 |9°77629 |8*72884n|7'95952 9730036 [9'5370%M |9'57260 |8°70346 [880963 |935005 |9'B8045 |9'30544M |9'36275n |9'50613 |9°71500M |9'63717 |8'79962 |9'85990 |9's96c2n |9'75037n |p's9651 |9'79039n |9'59647 |96g978n|\9'S865
Kototschikowo vross-.156 39 | 70 45"4 — |1"53920 |9'69059 |8°87938 |9'48373 |g'r1863 [g'31049n |9°70402 |9°31048 |8°61246n |9'74480 |g'g1071 |8'49443n\9'0T908 |9'59468 |9'66679n |9'84340 |9'48087 [995944 |9°51925" I9'52.505n 1979596 |9'83082n 19:73656 |9"59578N \g'S6g11n

lo'87332 \9'67069 |8'66247 |o'52 717969 |9'20463n|9°61820 |9's6519 |o'4809sn|9°72156 |or90758 |8'55206n|9'13354 [0767881 |o5s644n|y'76068 |y'73292 |9'96509 |9'26939n |9-51738m|9'88780 |o°72x70n|9'74702 |o'48816n |p'88678n
agit 977621 Bisaqe8 835733 937986 d4ss6on 961815 piosaat Soran 47779 Bees 8*g2207n \9'25472n \9'60465 |9'67878n I9-70082 9'13491 |9'89732 |9'40290n 19'73555n pr7ebs9 i9'7807an pieaa8s 9;578270 yioseg2n
55|132940 |9'78050 }7°75889n |8'12472m \9'43295 |9'45726n 19°54730 Jg'x1062 |8°11321 |9°36498 |9'88452 |9'06985n /9°43568n |9'62027 |9°64458n |9°61306 |9°17038 |9°89387 "431300 9797138 9708 srzast7n pr6c03; 9,559) 0955

141847 |9'69894 [8°92783 |9'47244 |9'30665 |9'09996n |g6or10 |9°55889 |9°38334n|9'68954 |9'91489 [8°33766 |8°88227 |9'70990 |9'50321"19°74433 |9'70212 s'98140 p.oaaan to's B78 9/89057 (9:68 383n |9°73797. |9/387490 9: 90810"
1742275 |9'66084 |8°73447 |9°54669 |9'25765 |8'75090n|9°38924 |9'69569 |9'70178n|9"54765 |9'90913 |8'35752 |9°26974 |9'74453 |9'24378N\9'55229 [985874 |9°97246 |8'72067H \9"53289M 19'95184 [945 109M 19°75757 |9°09655n|9'908771

°

‘i . . . . . = 0. . ; . - "91092 |9°57827n|9'82731 |9'75318 | —2 |or95751 |y'62486n
B BoD +5 = 48878 |9'15613n 1964950 1957537 |9°13491N|9'70082 |9'52440n |8'75875 c= |9°74063 |g'40798n|9'78072 |p'70659 Io:x8149n |9°74741 s [991092 I9°57! i H i tots
Obdorsk. . y = Baer Bear Bea Bees Bera 3.62306 9402 52n |8'15075 —ce |9'77007 |9'40424n19'72517 |9°70086 |9'21392n |9'65060 —o 9192551 9"55968n 976272 9°73840 3 9198305 prsozaan
Tara... ap —20 |9°34261 |8'79800n|9'50807 |9'71476 |y:70213n \9'74433 |9'76644n |9'460zgn| —o2 |9'68351 [9°13890n |9'68382 |9:89081 |o'77902n |9'82123 | —s |p'90610 9-361490 9:76072 |or9@74x | —e jor98300 jov4a839n
‘Tschuluim -.--- ny =e |g'ag6ra |8'48390n |9'26123 [9'76198 |o'B5874n\9'55229 |o'63379N|9°78792n| —co |9'66935 [8'857 x30 lo'4stog [y'95484 |p'9448Bn|0:63843 | —o lgrg0877_ Ipiogbssnjaisa7e2 foroa797 | ee \p'aaggr |ors8zGgn
Tomsk ......... Aa 969123 |8%43168 |orso30a |p:3sx75 |8'58457m [9713467 |o°72045 |or72363n/0'27037 loroxa92 |7'90571 [897705 |o77148 |p'co4son|o:28218 |9'86796 |o'96407 '53877m sg0rim |9°47767 [8-72049 [9174196 |8°84818n 91979520
Krasnojarsk ... ©.\56 0) 92 57 19 |0"15836n|9'68140 |8'23400n |9'52114 |9°33075 |8°34580 |8'92571n19'73263 |9°75352M |9'07428n |g'91252 |7'76858n|9'05572 |9'77146 |8'78651 |9'07838n |9'88530 \9'96706 [828648 |9°57362m|9'49242 18'50747 1974737 |8'63094 |9°9 |
, . 5 y , y i Hl i ¥ y "81278 [9'98584 |8'79354 |9'38617m|\9'52658 [9'25429 |9'78668 |9'29177 |9'S84gon
Irkuzk .. . 6 2 "91428n |9'68 yors84n |\9'60847 |8'96 B:70110 }9°58382n|9°61425 |9°59250n|9°78542n |9'Bg274 |8'So148n|9°39411 [967271 [9'41042 |9'78235n |9'81273 9" " y i i H i e
oo sek sh See oe amine ene ate etn aoe tr ei ey ae et, ee a el ares eee lett ey etl te Oe
| Monachonowo . #.\50 58 6106 28 59 |1-21643n/9'53423 |9'09864n |9°62750 [872018 [853213 |9762937n|9'56164 |9°50035n \9'85038n|q'BB204 [893403 |9'46289 9163154. 9" ream 777278) isogese zeta) 2 97x eer p1a340> 12 Z9e27, aeaes WazeO En
| Arsentschewa 51 16 6 rORBI4N |9'sg6rr |grroggin |9'62147 |8'78115 [860786 |9°63851n |o'ssort |9-46178n \g'B4q317 |9'88477 |8°92916n|9°44572 |y'63256 |9'45927 |p'B5r04n|9'76264 |9'98948 |8'80147 |9:31803n|9" "33849 (9° i nage
Botowsk x Re zs % ra An os 87 39¢n 60258 so7aoan sae aarp 8'99169 |960056n |9:58357 |9'46544n|9'73055M|9'90946 |8'58991n|\9"15066 I9'70013, |9'47455 |9'76276n p:74578 9197307 8°96433 prs2 go8n p4d779. jor2zeax 979679 Beery egetsen
Tomsk ¥-\56 29 39] 85 9 olr00173 | —2 19734555 |8'27421n|9:01183 |9'77901 |9'86796n |9'28218 |9'34929N |g'Bo25sn| —o0 |9'69329 |8'62195n|9'19064 |9'95782 |9°94688n|9'30110 | —% lg'91952 |8'84818n |9'2695 3674 9
Krasnoj . , 5 i : : = : D 5 y +96664n|9'15972n| — |g'91808 |8°63094 [g'06113n \o'04608 | —co |9'99942 [871228
Krasnojarsk oe ye |56 8 - "331 B'04425 |8' on |9°7822 88530 |9'07838n|9'15562 |9'83486n ee |9'68745 |8'40031 |9'97979n 9°96474 9°9! F Me i I ‘ 3 “
poe a ee Rue ca ees | LE Se ATS) ria) eae ieee (ae pel mea eal all eelee yt a |
Troizkosawsk Y.|§0 21 5106 28 © 24|1"39533n| —o2 |9'08391 [8755478 |9'49461n [968299 |9°78661n \9'85389n\9°97707 \9'62783n| —co 9°: 888, 956180 ee 9187208 |9°34322 |9'8: 02396 | —e 9°98. 45291
: i y y i 5 = 9'83591n Joro239) 19'98177 |9'4529
Monachonowo 8 6/106 . - Bet 8°58591 |9°49918n \9'68723 |9°77876n \9'84649n |9'96007 |g'6r004n| —o2 |o's8752 [9105866 |o'72622n|9'91427 |9'BB845n I9'95 Sats 9 y : = i f
Rsaentaphanee iltceenalcetee Salirgaon| cee [irakse |eereo0 [perasin|y'68480 [g-7éaGan loBerogn l-gszar lors6ge8n| =o lgregai6 |g'o7s60. lotzase7m seaseze |i Sega ast Am | ee) ese 7a0) isseg eae once 4 Bee Preepe
Botowsk...... ¥:|55 9 58\105 22° — |r02078n] —e2 |g'28790 |8'72715 |9'49145n|9°71703 |9°74577"|9'76276n|9'81630 |o'55x19n| —e [9'65972 |9'09897 |9'68o70n |9'90628 |9°83152M \9'B4851m 19°89842 (9°33767 |9°76645n 199

(3)

- a et ll
A >

__ JANTS IN 1829 (Continued

Dg. coef.|Log. coef.|/Log. coef.| Log, coe:

—

‘ 03184 o'01421” |9°40731 |9°41789
* 103731 |o*0008 1m |9°23363 |9°'22800
_ 103830 |o*co8oon |8°84385 8842210
© [P3688 joror314m |9"028 197 |9°03203 |
_ |P3430 |0'00927M |9°34462m |9°34884 |
_ 122475 |o°01307M |9°57680n |9°594.59

61637 |0°016122 |9°66700n |9°69570
0395 |0°01677M |9°75448n |9°79584 |
99305 |9°99050n |9°84332M |9°87880

_ 98298 |0°02216n |9°83378n |9°89723

_ 198875 |0'0144.77 |9°82642n |9°88029
99047 |0°00604n |9°83275n |9°88003

199688 |9°996317 |9°82169n |9°85710
p0046 jotors rim |9°77620n |9°8 1982
po8or |0*°00048n |9°76157% |9°78871
P1443 |9°97925n |9°75194” |9°75857
B1857 |9°96410m |9°73849n |9°73024
P2116 |9°93992m |9°73425% |9°70589

—

1984. |9°902 597 |9°75232n |9°69875
16302 |9°72820 |9°40843n |9°60002
80343 |9°76698 |9°18166n |\9°27549
P6595 |9°77337 |8°62980 \g°'21546n
B1237 |9°74834 |9°13395 |9°54753%
29957 |9°72513 |9°25186 |9°65725”

_ [#0822 9°64720 |9°45661 |9°847557 |
~ 189580 |9°65793 |9°43431 |9°82632
40289 |9°67973 |9°36636 |9°77950n
B3243 |9°69547 |9°38146 |9°76391%
23067 |9°70799 |9°40826 |9°753597
97287 |9°72264. |9°44746 |9°734307 (9

WOOO DO Wao wiam—

79973 |9°71365 |9°50672 |9°75134n \9|
©1937 |9°8g016m |9°75376n |9°69154 19
D1608 |9°85830n |9°7694.6n |9°68834 |9
01065 |9°82009n |9°7904.6n |9°68873 |9
Y 00193 |9°76370n |9°8 1201” |9°68177 |9
199342 [9°71 150M |\9°82673n |\9°67203 8

_ }98819 |9°69409n |9°86042n |9°70667
- [98032 9°63967n |9°86285n |9°68403
+ 195980 |9°50091” |9°88328n |9°65516

| 93574 |9°29653” \9°88533n |9°59404

| #92253 |9°25124m \9°88326n 19°5 5657

90894. |8°93365n |9°88807N |9°52678

8
8
8
9
9
9
8°54281n |9°88612n |9°48588 |g
7°15099N |9°892.54n |9°46986 |g
8°48978 |9°89615n|/9°44847 |9
18°58613 |9°90230n|9°45286 |9°
8°74775 |9°90239n|9°43712 |9°
$°95506 |9°90886n |9'41633 |9
9

9

9

9

9

9

9°20483 |9°90895n |9°33763
9°33917 |9°92092m |9°28653
9°40173 |9°93331m |9°26666
9°40297 |9°933017 |9°26463
9°54107 |9°93052n |9'05462
9°71700 |9°89399” |8°74271”

TABLE OF PRIMARY EQUATIONS FOR THE GAUSSIAN CONSTANTS IN 1529 (Continued).

Long. East,

——— —
Log. coef.| Log. coef. Log. coef. Log. coef.|Log. coef.|Log. coef,| Log. coef, Log. coef. Log. coef,| Log. coef, . coef.|Log. coef. Log. coef.|Log, coef.|Log. coef.|Log. coef.|Log. coef.|Log. coef.|Log. coef,| Lo: cea) . coef, ey Log. coef.
Greenwich. | 1° ™ | "ayt0, | Ayst, | ak an, | aes, | ayt | a eal ahh, | gS ai | aya. | Aue | pe | age | dpe. | aaa Hae | awe. | agi. | agll | hh.

—

1216170 |9'26150n /8'84566 |9'76008 |9'92423n\9'31632 |9'42992n |9'84961n |9°66565 |9°38728n |9'40057 lorn1742 |o'o3284 lo'orgzam|o°40731 |9'41789M|y'83758n lorora58 |p'22958 forrg4o0 |yrq741sn|9'36725 Jo'21615 |9°13837 \0'05279
9°94939 |9'12743n /8°7151q |9°78648 [9°918g1n |9°15173 |9'24599" \9°83177n |9'64142 |9'1B816n|\9'50215 |8'96597 |0°0373% |ovooO81n |9'23363 |9'22800n |g'81378n 10°03576 |9'06726 jo'13860 |9:95479n |9'78761 jovz2211 |8:97009 jo'04143
0°84572M |9'14270n |8°31986 |9'78554 [9'92525n|876110 |8'85964n |9'84686n 960777 8'80669n 19°49321 |8'57262 [003830 |oco8oon|8:84385 |$'84221n \9'82943n [0103361 (867492 |o'14060 |9:9625qn|8°79839 [o°22155 |8+57831 (0'04399
1703543M |9°18865n |8"49059n|9'77773 |9'92756n |3'94261n 904760 |9'8545an|9°67914 |8'99990 |9°46312 |8'74976n [003688 |o‘01314n |9'02819N |9'03203 |9'338g5n o'02642 |8'85sazn|0'14257 |9"96954n (8'98459n [0'21969 |8-76068n o'04782
¥°32573n |9'21338M |8-B005Qn |9:77126 |9'92200n |9'25735n 19'36330 |9'84333” |9°65743 [9°31468 [9'44404 [9'06363n [0°03430 |or00927 |9'34462n |9°34884. |9'82887n lo'oa211 |9°17133n|0'14200 |9796678n |9'30219n [0"21858 |g707769n c'c4836
11096 56n |9°33224M |8°98577M \9°73694 |9'91538n \g'47911n jpreeaae 9°83788n \9'63692 |9°56420 |g'31269 |9°27358n 0'02475 [aroxg07M|9'57680n|9'59459 |9'83019n |9799538 |9'39378" lo'14495 |9'9735n |9'54x08n |o'2118x |g°;06pIn orOS¥C8
102 3% —_|1'28035n|p'40218n |9'03660n|9'70701 |9"90985n\9°56073n |9°69788 |9'83392n |9°61945 |9'66847 |9°17447 |9'34596n (0101637 |o'1612n |9°66700n |9°69570 |9'83174n |9'97284 |9'47651n |0'r4692 |9'99591n |9'63679n 021630 |grz95t5n
104 19 54 /0'82737n|9'47100n |9'07183n |9°66446 [9'8qq21n |9'63692n |9°79088 |9'821310 |9°57796 |9'77088 |8'90763 |9'4113an |0°00395 |o'01677n|9'75448n \9'79584 |9°82627n |9'94281 [9'55557n 0"14820 |9°99370n \9°73141M [O'19916 |9-48135n
107 44 10 /0°67210n |9"49220n |9'14648n |9°64155 |9'86868n |9°72150n |9°87117 |9°74500n 937711 |9'83878 |8:75035 |9'49798n |9"99305 9°99050M |9°34332n |9°87880 |9°75263n 19'93131 sere (0°14250 /9°97010n |9'822g2n 0'19649 |9°57588n

lor06556
007398
9107095

Troizkosawsk 3|50 21 5/106 28 24.|109587n|9°55004n |9'05863n |9'58776 |9'88581n \9°69743n [9'38062 |9'S1334n |9°87886 |8°33041m|9°45385n|9'98298 |ovo2a16n |9°33378n |9'89723, \9'82995n 9°89132 1gn|o'15027 |9r01074n |9'82236n |o"18751 |9°55857n 008070
Monachonowo 2,|§0 §8 6/106 28 59 |1°33325n|9'52750m |g'o8405n |9'61291 |9'88434n |9°69629n \9'86751 |9'79978n 9°85615 |8:02694 |9'45989n |9'98875 |o'01447n|\9°82642n |9'88029 |9'81256n g'g0861 Baca 0°14837 |9°9992an [9'B81xa7M |o%19134 |9°553h1n o'o8197
Arsentschewsk F|51 16 42/106 55 49 )/1°17898n|9'51534n |r1072an|9°62478 |9'87899n\9°70570n \9'86914 |9°78074n|9'46274 |9'85027 |8°43393 |9'47391N |9'99047 |orcobo4n 191832750 |9'88003 |9'79163n 9191704 \9°62977n \0'14633. [998890 \9'81561n [o'19323 _|9°56148n lo'o7 804
Tarakanowo - 3 |106 53°4 — |1°56855n|9°48159M |9°15395M 1965160 |9'87668n|9'70206n |9'85084 |9'76432n|9'43615 |9'82021 |8'83759 |9°47923n [9199688 |9°99633n |9'82169n |9'85710 |9'77058n |9'93724 \9'62601n|0'14366 1997454" |9'79992n [019786 |9°55309n [0'07074
Kadilnoja - 59 |104 59° —|0"O9285n|9'48473n [91081143 |9°65339 |9'89485n |9°65594n \9°81316 [981361 |9°55647 |9°79432 |8°81398 |9'42821n \o'00046 jo‘orsrin|9°77620n |9'81982 |9'82027n |\9°93552 |9'57576n|o"14801 |9°99374n|\9'75483n [019746 |9'50324n [0°07549
Olsonsk « 2 r4 [451970 |9°43096n |g-a4sx8n|9°68743,|g'8892n [9:65 101" 19°78816 \9-78861n |9°51499 |9°75284 |9'08877 |9743576n \orc080r |orcoa48n|9)76157n|9'7887x |9'78gx6n |g'96150 |y's7150n\0'r4375 |9'97300n \9'73409n(0'20357 |9'49387n|o'cbs22
Tjumenows! " 1°36922M |9°35247M |9°15882n |9°72106 |9'87931n |9'65200n \9'76481 |9'75010n |9'44690 |9°70841 |9'27966 |9'45219n |o'01443 |9'97925n |9°75194n |9'75857 |9'74386n 998944 |9°57509n |0"13733, |9°94498n (9°71767n 0'21036 |9°48967n joroszgx
Botowsk. 187448n |9'27704n |9°18291n|9'74366 |9'87176n 9'64618n 19:74140 |9'724410 |9'40489 |9'67000 |9'38410 |9:4578an|o'01857 \9'96410n |9°73849n \9'73024 |\9°71325n (C'Og14 |9'57158n [013233 |9'92491N [9169933 (0'21528 |9'48124N |o'04199

Bojarsk - 1144855 |9'15806n|9'22268n|9'76642 |9'85627n |9°65060n \9'72273 |9'67915n|9°32169 |9'63079 |9'48396 |9'47752 lo'oa116 |9'93992n|9°73425n \9'70589 |9°662q1n 0703135 |9's8079n |o'12453 |g 8qs04n|9'68938n[0'22096 |o°48477n lo'oz8sr

Potapowsk

1451177 |8'97955n |9'28603n |9'78362 |9'67704n |9°82731n 972112 |9°59950n 9°14758 |9'59986 |9°56674 |ots2225n lo"o1984 |g’90259n|9'75232n |9'69875 |9°57713n '05244 |9°61567\0'11426 |9'8s219n\9'70x92M\0'22649 |or51q120 |oror171
Kolaiwan -

115045 |9'66277 |8'20361 |o's4154 [9123170 |9'08823n\9°46319 |9'67676 |9°68708n\9°56049 \g'90650 [8G4315n 9'16302 \9°72820 |g'go843n \9'60003 \9'84234 9'96751 |9'16808n |9'52461n|9'93736 |9°56x97M |9°75136 |9'35449n 9'89990n

Podjelnik . . 106930 |9'68569 |819705n|g 50605 |o°33812 |S94988n |g'16875 |g°72214 |9°73641n|9°19845 |9'91032 |8'7506an |9'00343 |9°76658 |9°18266n 9'27549 |9°87199 9'96157 |9'0564an |9's7991n|9°95617 |9'29387n|9'74002 |9°17387n |9'91488N
Kanskji Ostrog -|55 48 | 96 6: |rr08849 \9r67504 [8+73865n \9'52230 |p°33343 |7'97808n|g:0r951m|9°73307 |9°74758n 9'26393n |9°91005 |8'7510—n\9'06595 [9°77337 |B'62980 [9'21540n 9188530 9:96660 /8'54630M |9's7110n |9r96684 898580 |9°74802 |7°31419M |9°91836n
Kursan ... -\54 31 100 3° | 1rogz0an |9°64574 |8'883877N\9°55807 |9'24685 |8°31335 |9°36242n /9'70632 [9°71593N |9'56764n |9'90552 |8°78639n \g'21237 |9'74834 |9°13395 |9°54753" 19°87202 9797456 |7'27144 [9'51865n|9°96046 |9°39726 |9'76276 |8:87102 [9'g0g48n
Salaria -

-/53 31 |x02 34 Jorgroogn|g:61910 |8'96229M |9'58x98 |o:x0003 [844232 |9'46467n |g'68x49 \9'68579” 19°67376n |9'90043 |B'83462n l9'29957 |o:7a513 |g'asx86 |9:057350 9°85893 9°97983 |8'22351 |9'47054n|9°95303 |9'51088 |o°77353 |pr05x18 [g-g0%36n]|
(

Werchnei Udinsk
Tarakanowo
Kadilnoja -

0°34830 |9'56565 |9'126g0n |9'60847 [891448 |8°60557 |p*64000n \g'ssorx |9'42304n |9'841z0n 19'8B912 |8"96820n p'40821 [9°64720 |9'4566r |9'84755n 9'75019 |9'98743, |8'72377 |9'36286n|9'90808 |9'73106 |9'79093 |9'33317 [987861
jo"82086n pre7a6e prrogogn 960584 [895868 [859951 |g'6z121n \9'57621 |9'48s95n 9'82427M |9'89090 |8'94759n|9'39580 |9°65793 |9'43431 |9'83632n|9'77295 \9'98652 |8168423 [9'37987n19'91704 [9°70643 9'78867 |9r30228 Deb rets
v22246n \9'57119 |g:06218n|g'61092 |8°97374 |8'446r4 [9°57119M |9°62549 |p'60169n|9°79146n \9'8g023 |892732n \9'40289 |9'67973 |y'36636 |9'77950n |9'82281 [9:93664 [851648 |o'38178n19°93643 |9'O4655, 78947 si23048 98 76n
1'27985n|\9'60519 |9'04514N /9°58864 |p'0g195 [8163451 |9°57007n |9'62554 |9'57804n|9°76589n \9'89773 |8'88172n |9°33243 |9°69547 |9°38146 9:763910 9'8o8o7 {9198233 |8*6o105 9'44024n |9°93262 |9'64059 s:7787 pe sr89se6n
1936173 963948 |groags4n|9'55735 |9°19075 |8'72527 |9°57574M \9'61556 [9'53169m)9°74128n |9'90482 |8'82374n 19/3067 |9°70799 |9'40826 9°75359" 9'78400 |9'97657 |8'70587 |9'4980an |g'92440 "64405 9176621 9.239) 7 |9" 936m
0°83885n \9°68615 |8°99507n 19'49170 |9'30672 |8°97369 |g"s8041n|\9'59168 |9'44483n |g'6966an |g'g1282 |B8-69640n|8'97287 |9°72264 |9'44746 |9°73430" 9'73740 |9'96508 |8°B4214 |9°57784n|g'90822 |9'64902 |9'74412 |9'26821 |g'90906n| |

7 . % . ‘ 9 . , , Fi ° ‘ . 7 ‘i . "7 ’ 1 , , 33586) lo:91074n
Potapowsk. o*89s42n |9'70728 |8'99248n|\9°44354. 19°33973 |9'09545 |g*61048n|9'53814 |9'29934n|9'68909n \9'9 1548 /8°57753n |8'70973 [9°71365 |9'50672 |9'75134n |9'67233 |9'95775 |8'97569 |9'61166n |o'S8405 |9'68897 |9'73125 J9°33586 9"

Kirensk . 18/108 474 rag8ten -8874an keeee Sytoae o:81780n 9°68 40m |9'71586 |9°57360n \9'08013 |9°58497 |9°59333 [9153304 |0°O1937 |9'B9016n|9'75376n|9'09154 |9'54938n |o%05977 |9'62299n |o"10932 rsa78in pizerain pears grs1949n preosta
Itschora 109 3514 |r'6r416n |8-64885n|o°34814n|9'79680 |pr79107M |9'702231 |9°71602. |o'49874n 8'87019 |9'5623x |9'03673 |9°56739% lororG08,|9°858 on |p°76946n|9°68834 |p'47106n|o‘o7a28 |9'65x39M lor1oce8 |p'8o269n 9-71385n)o'25180 [9'544530 |9'99322
Paschinsk 1sjirx 31-4 |1'81224n|818752n|\9°39604m|9'8cor> |p'75699n |9°72730n \9171936 |9'39639n [837356 |9°53920 |9'67128 |9'60657n\o'o1a65 |9'82c09n|9-7q046n |9'68873, |9°36586n ‘08274 |9'68558n|or08966 |yr761530 9:73tgen|or23465_|9°57587n 9°97995
Kantins 54 tg 54 °72156n |8°34044 |9°45224M\9'80180 |9'705720 |9°75403" \9°71577 |9'22053n |8°544537 1949741 |9°71083 |9°65234N I0'00193 \9°76370N |9'S1201n \9°68177 \9°18653M \o'09532 |9°72533M |o'O7492 srzere7n 9°7499 in ease: ; pee G.) 99) Hs
Terbinsk z.|60 28 1/116 15-4 —_|1'28307n|8*6gs04 |9749357n|9'80047 |965713n |9'77236n |g'70849 |g'00636n |888388n [945502 |9°73751 |9'68652n\9°99342 |9'71150n \9'82674n\9'67203 |8'96gg0M lo'10415 |9'75527n 0106217 |9'64701N|9°70224n|0'24058 |9°63963n |9'94653

Beresowskji Ostrow

0268 |9'71124n|9'98819 |9'69409n |9'36042n|9'70667 |8-758s9no-09269 |o'78549n |o'06244 |9'63279n |9'79912n|0'23739 |9'67304n 19194999
Olekma .......

i 8 ) 78589 |9°6 "801371 |9° 8+79186n \g'07 1447 |9°47767 i ; H
Hes reseed Pape 1 DR) (ee a ce ee 73328 |9°73397n|9'98033 |9'63967n |9'86285n |9'68403, |B:o4984n lo'10273 |9'80340n|o%04975 |9°57558n|9'79876n |o'24or8 |9°688r6n \9'9 3451

1°44917M |8°65273. |9°53986n |9'78621 |9's8472n \9'80790n |9772009 |8'085gon |9"14991n |g'42011

9°71
9°7:

j 3 i tf o ‘ . EGE . r . “8823 ‘| " 2 “a coxanlla% -43464n |9'S1699n 9732820 |9'g08c9
Sanajachtatsk 1'49748n |8°846 59670M 19°77197 |9°449147 |9°83149M |9'69340 |8'99089 |9'29679n \9'29749 [9°75621 |9°78453m |9'95980 |9'50091N |9'88328n |9'65516 [895263 jorr1049 |9'Bso2qnjo'oz 551 19°43464N/9) % i i
Tojon Aruin odofain prowess Benet a Regancn 19'83830n |9°63553 \9'27009 |9°34650n 19'O8858 [9'78905 |9'82scon|9':93574 (9°29653m \9°88534n\9'59404 |9'22860 |o-12197 |9'88516n 9°99599 si227088 parse era4sex p76445n 987523
Takuzk ...- 1'45040n |9*10534 |9°66781N\9°74785 |9'10632m |9°83834%19'59951 |9°34771 \9'35412M |8'93832 |9°80324 |9'84249" |9'92253 |9'15124N \9°88326n 1955657 |9'30477 Jo'12705 [g'g0020M |9'98024 piceeaas Dees jo'2470% 9778 oes ;
Porotowsk - 1593187 |9*10449 |9:68606n |9'73420 |8:88870n |9°84312" 1956970 |9'42285 |9'37357|8'72559 |9'80}02 |g'B6oBon|p*q0894 |8'93365n |9'8S807n |9'52678 |9'37993 |or12698 |9'91854n |9'96668 27.0 |9°817 4704 |9°79644n 98445)

‘| 9 a f i i , ; % , 2 , 95184 |8-47118n|9'81449n|0'24772 |9"80936n|9°82906
Lebegine v122505n|9°13290 |9'70268n|9'72238 |8:4o884n \9'84215n |9's2948 |g'47024 |9'37282n|8'33143 |g'80956 |9'87555n|9'89sas_ |8'54281n |9'8861an |9'48588 [9'42666 |or12936 |g'93214N |9°95184 {8 } y } !
Nochinsk . Faeaen Barres Bc Rea ieeect 9°84716n |g"s125x |grsx013 |9°38849n|6'94799 \9'So020 \9'8Rb07n \9'RR686 |7°15099M |9'8p254n|9°46986 |9'46750 jor12596 |y'o4431n progsze yokes a8 Bere o'24675 pie z2508 982329
Three wersts from Bjelshi Perewse 043450 |9'06183 |9°71799n|9°70095 844345, |9'84982" |or49044 [9°54165 |9'39635n|8'291697 19°79379 |9'89s33n \9'87829 848978 |9'Bo6r5m/0°44847 |o'49968 Jo'12305 [9'95470m 19°93766 |41978. 9/8 Sr5m aera Begsesan orBs8s6
Mschernoljesk 1754258n |9'00924 |9'71770n |9'69674 [853824 [9°85441" |9°49376 |9°55685 |9'41046n|8:39633n 9°78322 |g'89804n|9'87708 8'58613 |gr902;0n|9'45286 |9°51595 Jorx1990 [9'95920M |993824 BeS2 7B Iain SBN eee eal tgae aang
Jamastach. 1°55255n |g'00292 |9'72188n|9'69148 |8*69969 |9°85433"\9'47790 |9°56968 |9'40975n|8'55828n |9'78202 |g'90253n 987213, |8°74775 |9'90239n|9'43712 |9°52890 Jorx1948 |9°96390N 19193350 Hee Peo ea a8 eae ra laren
Allachjuna lo'25285 |8'92169 |9°72687n |9'67866 |q0492 |9'85872"|9'45569 \g'60275 |9'42226n|8'77491N |9'76769 \g'91154n|9'86335 [8'95506 |9'90886n|9'41633 1956339 "11446 |9'97533”|9'92712 767 |9'84147n/0'24348 |9'85679n |g'8o85
: ‘ ; ° : % ‘ ; : ¥ , * y "90811 |9'13848 |9'84260n|o'sg244 |9°87590n|9°79061
Tudomsk "38 "85126 |9'74022n |9165. "15318 |9°85730n |9°37595 |9°64608 |9'41262n|9'02684n \9°75703 |9'92784n 1984255 |9'20483 |9'90895n |9'33763 |9"60776 Jo'r1078 |9'9934cn|9'90 pet R “ , 9"
- Sorel eaten arya 965975 Borers psesaan 32139 3165308 9429870 piavoasn 72052 19'93980n 84739 19'33917 |9'92092n 9738653 ar6s9r0 Jerca8eo poreis Beer Baeea eae pete Pa eae
a 143 11 "36 1764345" \9'73806m \9'61212 |9°34020 |9'87178n |9'29825 |9°72733 |9'45284n|9'26155M 19'08355 I9'94537" |9'81943 |9'40173 |9'93331M |9'2 PELL 10% x i is i % 4
Rea te Haak Ob eta (OStg=s)) 59 22 Bre 3 A He Cats Bes 67796 Beyer Bieagic 9'29626 |9'72728 |9'45186n|9'26242n |9'68402 \9'94551n \'B1915 [940297 |9'933010 19° 26463 9'69565 "08673 oroaabany pieabag 9734333 Beer eae Beer Paes
Seaiof Ochork 5845 of1g6 5 41 /1"47144n|8'51720n [9174536 |9°57281 |9'47543 |9'86490n \9'08345 |9°76669 |9'41303m|9'40302n y'65085 |9'96108n|9°78853 |9'54107 |979305an|9'05462 9'73786 |o'o7650 Jo'o4307" sie7e5 Berea 9°83935n (o'23073 |9'96714n lg'6g612
Item 58 16 x7\151 49 — § 1134753 |8°74076n\9°76438M (9749337 |9'64807 |9'82506n |8-76932n|9'78940 |9'16956n|9°54747M \9'62317 |9'9870An|9°7160r |9'71700 |9'89399n|3'74271M |9'76279 |o'ob830 |o'o7294n|9'So1g }9'6625! 3935)

(@)

St.|"91982
Paq'076017

BAN AAR WEGYYY A Bunun
oom DANO HWA 000 Oaf bb oon]
OB 92 sae AA ee

wm an
Aa

9°
9°
9
9°
9°
9
9
9
9
9
9°
9°
9°
9°
9
9
9°
9°
9°
9°
9°
9°

UA UNA ADL

co
=

9°54460n |9°5 71912 19°49
; 9°69

9°92289 |8°606727 19°71
9°92260m |8°76795n |9°724

Stations and observed elements. {Log B: Fare 1g. coef. Log, B CORE log ae (eg. soct eer ee Sod jag coef. g. coef. ]

Sea of Ochozk «
Magascinskji Pad).

8°7435 1M |9°78376n |9'40738

19'0672.6n |9°77 126n |9°31039
9° 124.50n |9°76347M |9°30721

19°357557 19°75996
9°42092n |9°75749

7'90432n |9'58279n |9°62280
9°59410n \9'60814
9°63 569 (9°53270

9°33097R 19°73338
g°7 62870 0329. 56
9°742 74" C'22412

9°54095n 19°7 3881
9°55337™ |9°7 5472

oro1765n
oro2186n
o°02877n

19'20575n \9°7469
9°28 556n \9"7271

I9°75513" O'22223
9°79092M [0°21893
Ig’ S1gssm o'21478

19'42651 |9'67270n |9'27340

0°04736n
loroggban
jo’ob219n
g'9961an
9°93294"
g'Sg8ain

oneee I9°87151n |o"20400
St. Peter and St. I9'866g0n jo"20342

19'43241n |9'67083n |9'26244 |9
19°52459 |9"59691M |9°23313n
9°63992M |9'45944n
"64.78 5n |9'58307
1965 582m |9'63438n

196 5114n |9°64446n

9°97088n |9'91078
99 §85n \9'97425

197693147 0°43 54
19°668 son |o"04602

Item (harbour of Siteha) .

988955"
941910

8°94316n |9'42949
8°94884n |9°35292

962498 |9°95521
946423 |9°94496
9°09172 |9°93337

gr4ghs

95853
963225
9°75183

19"77009
9'78610
9°79481
1980370
ig’ 80802
983813

1989645
19°89853
989614
988969
988368
19°87093

S*17002 |9°93421
9°4.5461n \g'9 183%

19°52967m |9°91837
9°57948n |9°9 1664
19°61590n |9°9 1913
19° 5662n |9'92340
19'66907M 1992366
19°79819" 1994300

9°81171M 19°95349
9°79967M \'96141
I9'Bog29n |9°9639%
9°83613n |9°96797
19°35726n |9°97259
19°89 488n |9°98237

8°48 160n 19°79777 Hrd Beer

19°39341M |9°92500

19°81398n 19°79138
19°8 5690n |9°75245
19°857130 19°75856
19'84667n |9°78369
19°84261n 19°79940
19'84.308n |9'82001

Magascinskji Padj

St. Peter and St. Paul....... .

9'89191n |9'98281

19°8 7157
9°85352
9°97802
19°96861
9°95271
9°93945

19°93830 |9"99025 9°85296n 1979843

988584
i9'8 7222

19°91705n |9"94011n
9°91142n |9'94694n

19°84933" |9°98952
I9'85296 |9'82565n Jo'og7 51m 19°60384
19°76468n 19°58709 19°94

St. Peter and St. Paul -

19°48974n 19°85352
9709289 19°64 100n |9°8 5341
I9'26847 [9663982 19°77436

197938307 19°49463
19°63 589n |9°46383

9'62670 J9's994iM
9°35866" I9'19971

i y 9°72755 |9°71782
o"79449n \9'72552 preo7%4 |9's6263 g'80068 \9'70018

19'674.09n |9°91677

19°52259

9°63397 965585

7 . 9
sra7scee ioazoee I9'55219 (9'70928 ig'S15220 |8

96 384.3m |9'91646
19'69930n |8'78616

I9"19920 |9°61606n \9°91673

9°33487 |9°34261

Beresowskji Oftrow .

964 125m \9°69583

"89826 19°93983

1'02938n |9'74246 9724252 |9°39564

9°85448 \9'70244 |9'59908 |9'88475n

(5)

7°379
7°767
"575790 |8°377
"7508 5n |9'411
‘71926 |9°38x

05340 |9°342
"08657 19°335

11'5592
18°6579 |
0'2149

19325 ||
73°9182
55°4073

+ 275941 ||
= 17°3423
— 13°2269 |;

— I0°I757

+ 46°2468
+ 32973]
= 21125

+106°0129
— 61°8273 |;

+ 3°5400
— 22458
+ 74°7282

+ 874.568 ||
— 18413]!
+127°3487)
+ 12°4076

+ 79°1037
+ 11°2201

TABLE OF PRIMARY EQUATIONS FOR THE GAUSSIAN CONSTANTS IN 1829 (Continued).

| Long. East,

|
Greenwich Log. n. Log. coef, |Log. coef.| Log. coef,| Log. coef. Log. coef.|Log. coef. Log. coef,| Log. coef.|Log. coef,|Log, coef. Log. coef.

|Log. coef:|Log. coef.|Log. coef.|Log. coef, Log. coef.|Log. coef.|Log. coef.|Log. coef,| Log. coef,| Log. | Log. coef.
apt | apt | atte | apts, | “ait. | “apts. | aise. | “ays. | canis, | ays. | agen. | alol, | aga | aise. | ayes. | ante | pe, | dgtt | ists | “Agee cal Hog. eet xn,

Stations and observed elements. Latitude.)

ou
jSerusecialay 123 344 [138364n)9°75516 [p'or008n |g'18858 |9'09235 [9°47967 |9°67807m|8'98183n [9'45513 [9'45358n |9'91496 [864875 |8-Booqan|g'37775 |9°76373 |9'78418n|9'08728n |9'92952 19746834 |o'64o22n\9's1010 |o'89552 |9'68716 |9'68758 |g'B60s1n
Tojon Aruin .--- ie 46° — |1'27944n 976226 |8'98505n|9'10062 |8'91997 1951774 |9'63700n |9'27576n|9'51860 |9'25741n |9'91293 |8'83417 |8°93176n |pr18921 ° iB iets |neeeen patria Breteler \brcera isc

2. "78474. 697" Ton \9"921 "52961 |9°63633n I "908 "676 7 "841380
Three wersts from Bjelskji Perewse tw. |61 47 136 74 1°327977 |9'76324 |9'04870n \9'02933 Brogg81m 9°53333 "4959579" 54567n|9°56987 |8'45658 |g'91255 |8'91189 |8*g008on |8-37133n Eee resacenlet Reese Beas Beat pr63633n 931377 ear 567468 RgorsG Bata
Allachjuna. - - 5 . 238 10" 1385787 19°7577% |g'a1917N |9'06927 [855511 \9°51715 19°44734n|9°59308n|9°58442 893444 [991435 [881852 |8°77666n|8°84549n|9°79538 \g°55112N \9°69698n |y'92699 |9°59936 |955278n|8'96544n |9°92438 |9'68351 |9'81419 \9'7671an
Tudomsk - 11)140 35° — |1°54357M|9°75533 |9°45737" \'06414 [8°77788n|9'50645 |9°36707N |9'62974n 997136 917755 |9°91492 |8'77173 [8:72176n\g'o68x1IN |9°79001 |9°47238n 9°73582n 19°92933 |9°60046 |9°52944M 19'20246n |9"92157 |9°68689 |9'82706 |9'74749n
Arki ... 6 [a 20°4 1°43949M |9'74680 [9°22557N |9'10552 |8'87612n |9°48013 |9'29744n \9'66020n|9°57504 |9°31776 |9°91631 |8°54797 |8°50038n|g'18527n\9'78270 \9'40928n \9°77412N |9'93603 19°59648 |9'49366n |9°32824n |9'92305 |9°69763 |9°83403 |9'72804n

Bank of Knshtin near Ochozk.

SO022 | 243028 14 /1:33465n) 9°73780 |9'27589n \9°14385 |8'g0660n 9°45495 |9°25630n\9°67781n \9°58427 |9°38875 |9'91696 [810508 |8'12092n|9'24425n 19°77676 |9°37460n 9'79721N |9'94292 |9°58230 |9'46478n |9'38530n|9'92561 |9'70717 |9°83625 |ov71563n
Sea of Ochork .--. . 158 0}146 § 41 |1'78504n|9°72936 |9132748n |'14202 |8:99662n \9742321 |9'05760n|9'70324n|9°53965 |9°5x658 |9'91705 |7"96477n |7°37927n \9'34754n |9'76142 |9°17830n |9°82840n 9°94789 |9°57612 |9'42665n 950794" \9'91725 19°71494 |9°84631 [9'68Sqan
Item ..- 8 16 r7/r51 49 5 1°47305N19°72195 |9'38191M |9'07234. \g'11706n 9°37894 [8°35547 |9'71898n|9'52577 |9'5071 |9'91656 |8+50222M |7°76762n |gr4qq0gn |gr72521 |8°54648 |9'84821n|9'95131 19757765 |9'37981n |9'66409n |9'B8465 |9'72058 |9'80390 |9'63885n
Item .. 815 54/157 11 $9 |1'67888n|9°72101 |9°40446n /8'94283 |g'20190N |9°34945 |9'16568 |9°70245n|3"70794 |9'69275 |9'91580 |8°57579n |8°37777M \9°58527N \9°08340 |9°31242 io B3orin |9°95055 |9°5885x |9°35695n |9°75732n |9'83830 J9'71991 |9°87796 |o"s9464n
Pacific Ocean 334 37/213 25 23 |1'09237n|9°58130 |9'41210n |9'41034N |9°44 504N |8°39631N |9°40354 19°75214 |9'24373 |9°83370N |9'S6726 |8'75085n |g'41101n \9°74960n|9'49760N |9'46183 |9'89841 |9'94002 |9'60927 |9*10730n \9'8984an |9°784.51n |9'73338 |9'92360 |8'78407
Ttian'}; so cvieecscoee 5

15220 45 21 /1°51957 |9°62186 [9723501 |9'43402n |9°47429n |9'14100n [860198 |9°78248 [961699 |9°67033n |9'86143 |8'71926 |9°38194n |9'6g378n

965994 8702664n |9r91831 9°92033 |9'68705 |8'85884n |9°79797n |9'°87383M |9'70303 [993050 9'14102

3.35 11)1°58320 |9°64398 |9°08661n |9°42435n |9'47532N |9'29158n |8°61800N |9°77164 |9°65131 |9°548q1N\9°85991 \9'05340 |9°34253n|\9'66130n |9'70744n
433 34 /0°99476n |9°64553 |gto5525n |9'42536n |\9'46853n 19°318 557 |8°84320n |9°76866 |9'66216 |9°50719N |9°85930 |9'08657 |9"33590n |9°64651n

Item 91043670 |9'89007 19'90639 |9'72492 |8°62157n |\9'74484n \9'Sg189N |9'68225 9193487 |9'22083
19°720270 9°16 561 \9°88429 19'90461 |9°72909 |8*52125n |9'72488n |9'90023n \9'67982 |9°93443 |9°25076 |

FINAL EQUATIONS FOR THE CORRECTIONS OF GAUSSIAN CONSTANTS, DERIVED FROM 283 OBSERVED ELEMENTS.

ag, | Agi. AW, | agi. alt. Ag! alts, Ag, |* Ants, Ag, Agi. Ania, Ag}. A182, 4933. Ani, Ag?. Ag? Area. Ag? 4122, gh. Ag",
| | | —_——| | :
. to | AcE “288< 5 % ys 7 5 AY Je ety 1 Le. arts 7g37) ||| =) Aten! Cs | Seen arr 4 = 152839 |-+ 1570106|— 5'2827
— =) +3376423 | + 03856 | + 74550 |+ 5'9292 | — 62885 | + 7'7261 | — 40981 | + 8'8918 4675371 0°9548 7°6516| +11'2025 11°5592|+ 9°7937 42273 \+ 440515 | 3°4183 29'4357 ae 14°8789 | ns28ag ig !
03856 | 4+-20°9350 + 371436 — 2°6433 $19:1153 — 62171 | — o'o2z10 | + 0'5697 1°3258|+30°7629 |+ 4'0848|— 2°3692 |4+ 18'6579|— gorgs | — 06867 |+ 10568 |-+ 342°3000|-+ 3°4058|— 1'2624|+ 123184 — 2841 + 214271
74550 | + 3°1436 | +34°7352 | —19°5229 | 4+ 10130 | — 2°6505 | — 374168 | — 019765 39°1814| + 374737 | 58'6617| —20:0157 |— 0'2149| — 1°7290 | — 476575 |-+ 76°6369|\+ 1'8450|-+ 53°6054/— 16%4226/— 1'9981)+ 93°7050|— 11314

5'9292 | — 276433 | —19°5229 | +43°0555 | — 21662 | + 16852 | +31'4607 | — 8:7596
62885 | +1971153 |+ 10130 | — 2°1662 | +55:0245 | —37°1425 | + 0°6655 | —10°1216
7°7261 | — 6'2171 = 2'6505 | + 176852 | —37°1425 | +56'2684 | — 6°6373 | — 274670

3'8640| — 9°1377 |— 38°8651| +58'9842 |— 1'9325| + Vo710 | +34'0877 |—
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ON THE IRON MANUFACTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 99

On the Progress, present Amount, and probable future Condition of
the Iron Manufacture in Great Britain. By G.R. Porter, .R.S.

In obedience to the request of the Council of the British Association, made

at its meeting in June 1845 at Cambridge,—a request from that body being
- equivalent to a command,—I avail myself of the first moment of leisure that
has since presented itself, to investigate the condition of the iron manufac-
ture in Great Britain.

The incessant claims upon my time, of public duties, which have called in
their performance for the most anxious and unremitting labour, throughout
all of the present year that has hitherto elapsed, may perhaps be allowed to
plead in excuse for the imperfect manner in which I am able to perform my
task. I wish, most sincerely, that it had been otherwise, and that it had
been possible to devote to its accomplishment an amount of time and a de-
gree of research that might have enabled me to present a work more worthy
of the acceptance of this body, and better proportioned to the importance of
the subject.

* It was, doubtless, a conviction of the great and growing influence which
the progress of the iron manufacture must exercise upon other important
branches of our national industry, that led the Council of our body to desire
information concerning it, and all that has since arisen in the course of our
legislation has given additional interest to the subject, so that it has become
more than ever of consequence to know the actual condition of this great
branch of our industry, and of the capabilities which present themselves for
its increase. The enormous demand for iron caused by the general and
simultaneous construction of railways all over this kingdom, and not here
only, but in various parts of Europe and in the United States of America,
and also by their promised extension to India, is calculated to produce much
of anxious inquiry into the subject, in order to ascertain, in the first place,
whether, and in what way, that enormous demand can be met, and then to
satisfy ourselves that through the cessation of that demand, which from its
nature must be in a chief degree temporary, we may not be exposing to
ruinous depreciation establishments for the formation of which vast capitals
have been and will be sunk, in which many skilled workmen are trained, who:
during the continuance of the existing great demand will be receiving high
wages, but who.when it ceases may, many of them, be thrown out of em-
ployment, and who must be so, unless some new and permanent uses can be
found for the produce of their industry.

_ The object of the present inquiry does not call for any research into the
“remote history of the iron manufacture. It will not assist us in the solution
of the questions now pressing upon our attention, to ascertain whether, in
“eenturies preceding the Christian zra, when the Pheenicians traded with our
‘ancestors for tin, the Britons did, as some writers have assumed, know and
| oiteig the manufacture of iron. Certain it is, that the rise of that manu-
facture upon any scale deserving of notice as a national object, dates from a
‘time within the memory of persons now living. In 1788 the whole quantity
of pig-iron made in England and Wales is said to have amounted to no more
than 61,300 tons, of which quantity 48,200 tons were made with coke of
and the remaining 13,100 tons were still made with charcoal (see
Appendix No.1). In the same year the production in Scotland did not
exceed 7000 tons. In Ireland charcoal-iron was made on a moderate scale
during the seventeenth century. Sir William Petty tells us in his ‘ Political
Anatomy of Ireland,’ that in 1672 the quantity of iron made there was about
1000 tons, giving employment to about 2000 persons of both sexes. Works
eh H 2

100 REPORT—1846.

established by Sir William Petty in the county of Kerry in 1660, continued
to be carried on until the exhaustion of the timber in the neighbourhood
brought them to a stand, and in 1788 there does not appear to have been
any iron-work in existence in Ireland.

About this time the iron-masters in Great Britain began to avail them-
selves of Mr. Watt's improvements of the steam-engine, and were thus en-
abled greatly and rapidly to increase the productive power of their works,
so that in eight years from 17788 the quantity of British-made iron was nearly
doubled. An inquiry made in 1796, consequent upon the proposal of Mr.
Pitt, which was afterwards abandoned, to place a tax upon coal at the pit’s
mouth, showed the make of British iron to be then—

In England and Wales... 108,993 tons.
In Scotland ......... een 16,086 tons.

Together ...... 125,079 tons. (See App. No. 2.)

Ten years later, in 1806, it was proposed to tax the production of iron,
and again on that occasion an account was taken of the number of furnaces
and the quantity of iron produced, which was found to have been more than
doubled in ten years; the production being

In England and Wales... 234,966 tons.
TneScotldnd alto. desieds 23,240 tons.

Together ...... 258,206 tons. (See App. No.3.)

Of this quantity it was stated that about 95,000 tons were converted into
bars and plates, and that the capital engaged in the manufacture amounted
to £5,000,000. The proposed tax was so powerfully opposed in the House
of Commons, that the bill was carried through the Committee by a majority
of only ten, and the measure was abandoned.

The next account of this manufacture which has been given, was prepared
by Mr. Francis Finch, formerly member for Walsall, and had reference to
the year 1823. From that account (see App. No. 4) it appeared that in
seventeen years the make of iron in Great Britain had been increased from
258,206 tons to 452,066 tons. Between 1823 and 1830 there were erected
ninety-six new furnaces; and in the latter year it was found, on a further ex-
amination by Mr. Finch, that the quantity of pig-iron made in Great Britain
amounted to 678,417 tons (see App. No.5). Our confidence in the cor-
rectness of the quantities here stated should be confirmed by their having
been adopted in his evidence before the Committee on Import Duties in 1840
by Sir John Guest, whose authority upon this subject is conclusive.

From this time (1830) a series of improvements has been introduced
into the processes of making iron, which has had the effect of improving
the quality of the metal and of materially ceconomising the cost of its pro-
duction. One of the most important of these improvements was made the
subject of a patent in 1829 by Mr. Neilson of Glasgow, and consisted in the
artificial heating of the air previously to its being passed into the furnaces.
The effect of this plan in saving fuel has been most remarkable. In 1829,
at the Clyde Iron Works, where Mr. Neilson’s experiments were made, and
in which his patent was first adopted, it required more than § tons of coal,
when converted into coke, to produce | ton of cast iron. This was when
the air was forced into the furnace at its natural temperature. By heating
the air to 300° Fahrenheit preparatory to its introduction, it became neces-
sary to consume for each ton of iron produced only 5 tons 34 cwt. of coal
converted into coke; but in heating the air to the required degree, nearly

Se tae

ON THE IRON MANUFACTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 101

8 ewt. of coal was consumed. The saving was thus found to be 22 tons of
coal for each ton of iron. Thus encouraged, further experiments were made.
The previous heating of the air was raised to 600° Fahrenheit, and it was
then found, not only that a further great ceconomy was produced in the fuel,
but that coal could be used for smelting in its raw or uncoked condition. It
was further discovered that the same blast-machinery, when the air was thus
heated, sufficed for a greater number of furnaces, so that the power neces-
sary for three furnaces, when cold air was employed, became ample for four
furnaces of equal size when the air was previously heated. The result may
be thus stated :—

In 1829, using coke and cold air, each ton of iron required for its produc-
tion 8 tons 1 cwt. 1 qr. of coal.

In 1830, using coke and heated air, each ton of iron was made with 5 tons
3 ewt. 1 qr. of coal.

In 1833, using raw coal and heated air, each ton of iron was made with
2 tons 5 ewt. 1 qr. of coal. .

The saving in fuel is thus seen to amount to 72 per cent.

The effect of the hot-blast upon the quality of the iron produced has
been the object of many experiments to determine. As those experiments
were in great part undertaken at the instance of the British Association, and
as their results have been published from time to time in its Transactions, it
cannot be necessary to notice them further here. Mr. Neilson’s invention
was for a long time greatly decried, and to this day it is the practice with
some few of our leading engineers, when drawing specifications for works, to
forbid the use of hot-blast iron. Under these circumstances, the introduc-
tion of this plan has been by no means universal in thé iron-works of England
and Wales, although it is otherwise in Scotland, where the increased make
of iron, from 37,500 tons in 1830, to nearly 500,000 tons in the past twelve
months, may be in great part, if not altogether, ascribed to the ceconomy
which Mr. Neilson’s plan has occasioned. But for the introduction of that

plan, we should in all likelihood not have witnessed the unequalled develop-

ment exhibited during the past fifteen years in this, which has now become
one of the greatest branches of our national industry. Without this discovery
our railroad system could not have marched forward with such giant strides,
and in all probability the application of iron to the building of ships,—an
application from the extension of which, in future years, so many advantages
may be made to arise,—might have continued unthought of.

In a letter which has reached me while writing, from a most intelligent
iron-master in the North of England *, the subject is thus noticed :—

“ Previously to this invention, metal was made with such coal only as was
easily destructible before the blast, thereby admitting a greater quantity of
air into the furnace. Air is the food of fire. Coals of a stronger or more
bituminous character were not serviceable; the current of cold air at the
Tuyeres had the effect of caking the coal and choking the admission of air,
by which the process of reduction was stopped. But when Mr. Neilson intro-
duced his method the difficulty was conquered. By heating the air up to 600°
Fahrenheit, the caking at the Tuyeres no longer took place; the air entered
freely into the furnace, and coal hitherto unserviceable was enlisted into the
service of mankind, and applied to the great improvement of their condition.

“It was pretended that the metal made with hot-blast was not so good;
that it was weaker; and for a long time it was tabooed in all contracts; but

this delusion is gradually giving way to truth. There was no foundation for

such prejudice. It is known that air does not burn until it reaches 3000°
* Charles Perkins, Esq.

102 ; REPORT—1846.

Fahrenheit ; the raising of it to 600° before admission to the furnace was
nothing, nor did it destroy any of its elementary qualities ; it only secured
its admission and ensured its regularity of action in the process of reduction.
This was an increase of man’s power over elementary matter: it is by the
additions to and the increase of this power that men will in time accomplish
a greater and more powerful condition.”

The disinclination to adopt an innovation, which as we have seen in this
case of the hot-blast, has not been entirely overcome by more than fifteen
years’ experience of its advantages, has not been confined to that instance,
but has been allowed for a much longer period to influence, in another case,
the proceedings of our iron-masters. It was as long ago as 1801, that Mr.
David Mushet, to whom the world is greatly indebted for his scientific re-
searches and his practical exertions in this important branch of metallurgy,
discovered when crossing the river Calder, in the parish of Old Monkland, a
description of ironstone, to which the name of black-band, or Mushet-stone,
has been given. For many years following this discovery the black-band was
used only in the Calder Iron Works, which were established in 1800 by Mr.
Mushet, and it was not even there employed alone, but was used in combi-
nation with other iron ores of the argillaceous class. It was not until 1825
that it was first used alone by the Monkland Company, whose success in the
experiment led gradually to its adoption by other establishments, and to the
erection of additional works.

Mr. Mushet, in his ‘ Papers on Iron and Steel,’ p. 128, thus describes the
advantages of this kind of ironstone :—

“Instead of 20, 25 or 30 ewt. of limestone formerly used to make a ton of
iron, the black-band now requires only 6, 7 or 8 cwt. to the production of a
ton. This arises from the extreme richness of the ore when roasted, and
from the small quantity of earthy matter it contains, which renders the ope-
ration of smelting the black-band with hot-blast more like the melting of
iron than the smelting of an ore. When properly roasted, its richness ranges
from 60 to 70 per cent., so that little more than a ton and a half is required
to make a ton of pig-iron; and as one ton of coal will smelt one ton of
roasted ore, it is evident that when the black-band is used alone, 35 ewt. of
raw coal will suffice to the production of one ton of good gray pig-iron.”

This calculation is strongly corroborated by a statement which was pro-
duced by Dr. Watt to the Statistical Section of the Association at Cambridge,
from which it appeared, that to make 400,400 tons of iron in the counties of
Lanark, Ayr, Stirling and Clackmannan, the quantity of coal consumed was
934,266 tons, or 2 tons 6 ewt. 2 qrs. 18 lbs. for each ton of iron, part of which
is the produce of argillaceous ores.

The statement of these discoveries appears necessary in order to account
for the great and rapid extension given since 1830 to the production of iron
in this kingdom, and especially in Scotland.

In 1836 every iron-work in Great Britain was visited, and an account taken
of its produce, by a highly-gifted gentleman, M. F. Le Play, “ Ingénieur en
chef,” employed in the Ministry of* Public Works at Paris, under whose di-
rection are made the yearly reports describing the progress of mining indus-
try in France, of which I have on former occasions availed myself in pre--
paring papers read before this Section of the Association. The result of his
inquiries showed that in that year the quantity of iron made reached to
1,000,000 tons, an amount then deemed almost incredible, but which in the
years immediately following was greatly exceeded. In his ‘ Papers on Iron
and Steel,’ to which reference has already been had, Mr. Mushet states
(p- 421) that the quantity of British iron made in 1839, was 1,248,781 tons
(See App. No. 6).

4
ON THE IRON MANUFACTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 103

In the following year a very elaborate inquiry into this subject was made
by Mr. William Jessop of the Butterley Works in Derbyshire, and the result
of his inquiries was printed by him for private distribution. His statement
embraces every iron-work in Great Britain, and gives the number of furnaces
in blast and out of blast, with the weekly produce of each establishment.
From Mr. Jessop’s tables it was shown that the number of furnaces in blast
in that year (1840) was 402, and the number out of blast 88; the weekly
produce of the 402 furnaces being 27,928 tons, and consequently the yearly
produce, taken at 50 weeks’ working, 1,396,400 tons. In the production of
this quantity Mr. Jessop states that there were consumed 4,877,000 tons of
coal, being at the rate of 3 tons in Scotland, and 3 tons 12 ewt. in England
and Wales, for each ton of iron. This was exclusive of the coal used in
converting pig-iron into wrought iron, and which he sets down at 2,000,000
tons additional (see App. No.7). At the time Mr. Jessop’s account was
taken, it appeared that out of 420 furnaces erected in England and Wales,
there were 82, or | in 5, out of blast, and that of 70 furnaces in Scotland,
6, or 1 in 11, were in that condition. The rapid increase of this manufac-
ture during the preceding ten years forbids the belief that this large number
of furnaces could have been idle through dilapidation. In fact, the country
was then suffering under an amount of commercial depression of no ordinary
character, and which continued to press heavily upon almost every branch of
its industry, until the abundant harvest of 1844, joined to the effect of the
fiscal reforms introduced in 1842, caused the return of healthiness to our
trading interests. The continuance of the depression, which had no doubt
extinguished so many of the furnace fires in 1840, caused still more of them
to be put out of blast in the years immediately following, and it was shown
by a statement drawn out under the direction of an association of the iron-
masters of Yorkshire and Derbyshire, that the quantity of iron made in the
first six months of 1842 in Yorkshire, Derbyshire, Staffordshire, Shropshire,
South Wales and Scotland did not exceed 523,214 tons, or at the rate of
1,046,428 tons per annum. The quantity of iron made in those divisions of
the kingdom in 1840 was, according to Mr, Jessop’s statement, 1,343,400
tons, so that the diminution of production was at the rate of more than 22
per cent., which rate was probably experienced throughout the kingdom;
and in this case the whole quantity of iron made in 1842 did not much ex-
ceed one million of tons, the quantity ascertained by M. Le Play to have
been made in 1836.

A great impulse had been given at that time to this branch of industry by
the demand arising from the construction of railways. This impulse, and
the subsequent depression, may be easily inferred from the following state-
ment of the number of railway acts passed in each year from 1831 to 1843,
distinguishing such as were for new lines from those which authorized ex-
tensions or amendments in former acts, and giving the amount of capital
authorized by Parliament to be raised under those acts.

Acts passed for

Years. = aac Capital authorized.
New Lines. |Extensions,&c. P

£
1831. 5 r| 1,799,873
1832. 5 4 567,685
1833. 5 6 5,525,333
1834. 5 9 2,312,053

104 REPORT—1846.
TABLE (continued).
Acts passed for

Years. ———_————}_ Capital authorized.
New Lines. |Extensions,&c.

£
1835. 8 11 4,812,833
1836. 29 6 22,874,998
1837. 15 27 13,521,799
1838. 2 1g 2,096,198
1839. 3 24 6,455,797
1840. wie 24 2,495,032
1841. 1 18 3,410,686
1842. 4 18 5,311,642
1843. 5 19 3,861,350

We see from these figures, that in the two years 1836 and 1837, Parliament
passed 77 railway bills, of which 44: were for new lines, and that the capital thus
authorized to be raised, amounted to more than 36 millions of money. The
length of the lines then sanctioned amounted in the aggregate to nearly
1200 miles, and would call for the production of more than 500,000 tons of
iron. The price of bar-iron, which in 1834 had been 6/. 10s. per ton, and
in 1835 was 7/. 10s., advanced in 1836 to 11/., and this gave a powerful
stimulus to the extension of the manufacture. So great a rise in the market
value of the metal checked its use however for a great variety of purposes,
and when, in the years following 1837, the railway speculation so far sub-
sided, that only 15 acts were passed for the construction of new lines in the
six years from 1838 to 1843, the price of iron fell as rapidly as it had previ-
ously risen, and it could with difficulty be sold at less than half the price
which it commanded in 1836. In this state of things, the iron-masters
sought to lighten their loss by limiting the production, rather than by forcing
their goods into use by lowering the price. This appears to have been done
to a greater extent in England and Wales than in Scotland, where for reasons
already explained, the cost of production had been so lessened as to enable
the iron-masters to work to a profit at prices by which their English compe-
titors were losing on every ton they brought to market.

Since Mr. Jessop made his statement in October 1840, not any attempt
has been made to ascertain the progress of the iron manufacture throughout
England and Wales, from which any result can be confidently given. In
Scotland, where the principal extension has occurred, several statements of
the kind have been put forward. One of these, the correctness of which has
been generally admitted by those whose knowledge upon the subject should
give weight to their opinion, states the number of furnaces in blast in March
1845, and the weekly and yearly produce from the same to have been 76
furnaces, yielding 8250 tons of iron weekly, or in the year of 50 weeks, 412,500
tons. At that time there were, according to this statement, 22 more fur-
naces built and building, and the whole of these it was expected would be
in blast in the course of 12 months from that time. It is stated by a respect-
able firm in Glasgow, that in December 1845, there were 87 furnaces in
blast in Scotland, the number at the end of 1844 having been 69; the in-
creased make of pig-iron in 1845 as compared with 1844 is stated at 60,000
tons. The lowest price at Glasgow in January 1844 was 40s. per ton, and
the highest price for the year, caused in great part by the purchases of spe-

ON THE IRON MANUFACTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 105

culators tempted by that extremely low price, occurred in April, when the
quotation stands at 65s. per ton: in September the price was again reduced
to 50s., and the average price of the year was 55s. 6d. per ton. In 1845, the
lowest price, which also occurred in January, was 60s., and in March the
price had advanced to 100s.; in May purchases were freely made at 110s.;
and we cannot wonder that with a rise in price equal to 175 per cent., so great a
stimulus should be given to the extension of iron-works. On the authority
of the same firm, it is stated, that the number of furnaces in blast, which at
the end of 1845 was 87, was on the 30th of June 1846 increased to 97, and
that the computed make of pig-iron in Scotland, in the first six months of
the present year, is 260,000 tons, equal to 520,000 tons in the year, showing
that the production has been more than doubled in the six years since 1840.

I have before me a detailed account of the iron-works of Scotland in
August 1846, which gives 105 as the number of furnaces in blast, 21 as those
out of blast, in addition to 11 more building. The weekly make of pig-iron
at the 105 furnaces is said to be 11,010 tons, equal to 550,050 tons per
annum ; estimating that each furnace is in action during 50 weeks. This ac-
count is in part corroborated by a table kindly sent tome by Dr. Watt, of the
works in Lanarkshire, and which places the yearly produce of that county at
390,000 tons. It is further stated, that notwithstanding the great increase in
the quantity made, according to the concurrent testimony of all parties, the
stock of iron in the hands of the makers and dealers has materially decreased.

The stock in Glasgow at the end of 1845 was 210,000 tons
and on the 30th of June 1846, only .... 140,000

TO Yeteh ats oye” mPa (2 LAY gee Nae eee ae eR 70,000 tons.

It may be assumed that this increase of production, although it may have
been at first called forth by speculation, has not been sustained by those
means, since the stock has thus diminished in the face of that increase, while
the price has been declining. In January it was 80s. and in June 68s. per ton.

A statement which appeared in the ‘Glamorgan Gazette’ computed the
make of iron in 1843 at 1,210,550 tons, of which quantity 238,750 tons were
assigned to Scotland. The entire quantity was stated to have been the pro-
duce of 339 furnaces in blast, while there were said to be 190 furnaces out
of blast in different parts of the kingdom. Another statement, communicated
to me by Mr. Buckley (Member of Parliament for Newcastle), differs but
slightly from that which was inserted in the ‘Glamorgan Gazette,’ the total
quantity made being given as 1,215,350 tons (see App. No. 10).

In the absence of any authentic statement of the make of iron in England
and Wales at this present, time, an attempt bas been made by correspondence
to ascertain the facts as they exist in different localities. The result of in-
quiries thus conducted cannot have the same value as the investigations made
by Mr. Jessop in 1840, but is offered here as the best which it has been in
my power to produce.

It is given as the opinion of several most intelligent iron-masters whom I
have consulted, that nearly all the increased production of iron in this king-
dem since 1840, has been drawn from Scotland. It is true that insome of the
Scotch works there is already experienced a short supply of materials, but on
the other hand, new fields are discovered and brought into working. Mr.
_ Jessop states, that “a new field of coal and iron has been opened out in
_ Ayrshire, but not so favourable as the Airdrie and Coalbridge district.” The
_ great demand at present experienced, and that which is sure to follow from
_ the extent of the railway projects which have received legislative sanction in
- 1845 and 1846, have naturally stimulated every establishment to its utmost

. 106 REPORT—1846.

point of production. But in order to add materially to the make of iron, a
great variety of circumstances must be brought to concur. One of the
greatest difficulties with which the manufacturers have to contend in such
circumstances is offered by the workmen, who naturally enough, perhaps,
strive to obtain for themselves the largest possible share of the increased value
of that which they produce. To be of much use in any branch of this ma-
nufacture a man must have undergone a season of instruction, and as the
number of skilled workmen is limited, these, whenever any great or unwonted
demand arises, hardly know how to set limits to their demands. On this
subject, a recent number of the ‘ Merthyr Guardian’ contains the following
paragraph.

* Prosperity in the Iron Trade.— We believe the iron trade in this district
was rarely ever known to be in a more thriving state than at the present
time. Forgemen and puddlers realize from 10/. to 182. per month. But
this state of prosperity brings its attendant snare, inasmuch as the surplus
which should be accumulating in the Savings’ Banks, is in too many cases
squandered in debauchery or lavished in vice. The state of things calls
loudly for a remedy.”

This complaint will not surprise us when we call to mind the fearful de-
scription of the state of the population of Merthyr, read before this section
of the Association at Cambridge, by Mr. Kenrick. But the same complaint
is made in other quarters, and there is but too much reason to fear that it
might be universally preferred. In a letter now before me, an extensive
iron-master in the north of England writes on the 15th of August last,—“ The
cost of making iron from the recent spirt of prosperity has increased so
enormously that the ‘ prosperity’ has well-nigh ruined many makers! wages
are so ruinously raised.”

A gentleman writes from Scotland in June 1845,—* This is the present
position of the trade. The speculators were first bitten by the mania of an-
ticipated consumption; then the masters took the fever, and, as was to be
expected, the workmen follow, and say they must have a rise of wages equi-
valent to the 110s. price. It is nothing to them that iron has again fallen;
they say, first put us up equivalent to the high price before you can ask us
to conform to the present. The iron-master will therefore find that he must
give the wages corresponding to 110s., although he may sell at ‘70s. or less.”
It is understood that chiefly from this cause the cost price of iron in Scotland
has been increased about 15s. per ton.

May we not reasonably allow ourselves to indulge the hope, that at some
future, and perhaps not very distant day, the two classes of employers and
workmen may come to the better understanding of their mutual interest, so
that the sun of prosperity, whenever it arises, may shine equally for both ?

Statements were inserted in the course of last year in the ‘ Mining Journal,’
and were made the subject of remark by different persons without impugn-
ing their accuracy, to the effect that the make of iron in Great Britain during
1845 would amount to about 1,330,000 tons. If the statement concerning
the production in Scotland already mentioned should be correct, this would
leave for the make in England and Wales 917,500 tons, being 134,000 tons
less than the quantity stated by Mr. Mushet as made in 1839, and 238,000
less than the produce of 1840, as given by Mr. Jessop. The increase in
Scotland during the five years was, on the other hand, 171,500 tons, thus
leaving the whole produce of 1845 less than that of 1840 by 66,500 tons.

It will doubtless appear extraordinary, that with so much cause for increa-
sing the quantity as had arisen last year out of the actual and anticipated
demand for railway purposes, the produce in England and Wales should not

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ON THE IRON MANUFACTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 107

at least have overtaken that obtained in 1840, and that it had not done so
ealls for explanation. In the endeavour to obtain this I have been met by
statements which might appear to be in some respects somewhat contradic-
tory of each other, the different writers representing matters as presented to
their own views and experience, and without possessing that general acquaint-
ance with the facts existing in other districts which it is so desirable to attain,
One most highly intelligent iron-master whom I have consulted writes, “I
consider now,” that is, since the discovery of the hot-blast system, “that all
the ironstone and coal of this country is applicable to the production of iron.
I fear however that the deposits of ironstone exceed very much those of coal,
and that the increasing demand upon this latter article will before many years
show its effects. I think in Staffordshire they already feel a want in the high
price of coal, and the iron trade seems migrating northward, where coal is
more abundant and different deposits of ironstone are continually discovered.”
The gentleman who thus writes is interested in iron-works in the county of
Northumberland, where the make of iron has increased and is increasing
greatly and rapidly, but still not sufficiently to compensate for the falling off
of production elsewhere.

Another gentleman, from whom I have received great assistance in my
inquiries, writes, “ In some of the localities in Scotland there is beginning to
be a great scarcity of ironstone, several furnaces being recently put out in
consequence ; and in Staffordshire still more so. People’s ideas about increase
of make of iron travel much faster than the reality. In fact, during 1845
great numbers of the furnaces in Staffordshire were going on ha/f-quantity,
simply from want of materials; this J know.” It is corroborative of this re-
presentation, that a powerful iron company, having works in Staffordshire, has
for some time had two new furnaces completed without putting them in action.

From a third correspondent, whose interest is in the great iron district of
South Wales, I hear of so great a number of new works building in Durham,
Cumberland, Northumberland and Scotland, that any account taken of the
produce in those districts, even so recently as last April, must necessarily be
very imperfect. He adds, “They are progressing so rapidly, and can pro-
duce iron at such a cheap rate in these new iron districts, as to lead to the
conclusion that ultimately the principal seat of the iron manufacture will be
removed from South Wales to the North of England and Scotland.”

On the other hand, Mr. Mushet, whose acquaintance with the subject is
probably of a more general nature than that of my correspondents previously
quoted, writes so recently as the 16th of August in the present year,—“ The
principal object in the iron trade which now attracts attention is the recent
discovery of an extensive district of black-band ironstone, ranging from
beyond Cwm Avon, through Maesteg, towards the valley of the Taffe. The
two principal beds or veins of black-band lie high in the coal series, and in
this respect differ from the Beaufort black-band, which wa’ found over the
lowest coal, and from the Scotch, which was found descending in the coal-
series at various depths. These beds measure fifteen inches each in thick-
ness, and will each yield fully 3000 tons per acre. The lower bed contains
40 per cent. of iron, and is put raw into the furnace ; the other is previously

roasted, as it contains more shale, and when so roasted yields the same quan-

tity of iron as the other when raw. As this range of minerals occupies both
sides of the line from Cwm Avon to Cwm Taffe, large tracts of black-band
ironstone must unavoidably be found, and it may not be hazardous to pro-
nounce that this in time may rival Merthyr, and become an extensive iron-

making district, probably the Lanarkshire of South Wales.” Mr. Mushet

furnishes a list of fourteen furnaces in which this black-band ironstone is

108 REPORT—1846.

partly used, and mentions three other furnaces now building in which it will
be employed.

Referring to the counties of Durham and Northumberland, Mr. Mushet
gives a list of thirty-five furnaces where twenty years ago only one blast-
furnace, at Chester-le-street, was known to exist; and he mentions, but not
as of his own knowledge, another source of supply as about being brought
forward into notice from the spoil and waste of the lead-mines in Weardale,
“which are now worked and have been so for ages.” He says, “‘ The rider
of the lead-ore is a true carbonate of iron, some of it yielding from 25
to 40 per cent. A small blast-furnace has been erected at Stanhope, where
a very important and interesting experiment has been made, aud a suc-
cessful result obtained, in which this rider ironstone has been smelted, and
pig-iron of a strong and excellent quality produced. This ore, even after
being ground and washed, still contains some particles of galena, and which
in smelting gives out at the furnace-top a heavy cloud of sulphurous smoke,
of a forbidding aspect. The pig-iron, however, when remelted, yields no
smoke from its surface, which would be the case if a small quantity of me-
tallic lead were thrown in, from which it may be inferred that the lead is in
the process of smelting entirely dissipated and driven off. What effect may
be produced upon the conversion of this iron into bar-iron remains to be de-
termined. The result of this experiment has been deemed so satisfactory as
to induce the company to erect large smelting-works about three miles from
Wolsingham. These works consist of two powerful blast-engines and six
large blast-furnaces. In this enterprise we shall by and by behold the spoil
of ancient mines, which has reposed for ages, brought to light, no longer as a
useless, but as a useful material for the production of the common and ordi-
nary sorts of pig-iron. Great and beneficial results are calculated upon, and
should they be realized, will no doubt contribute greatly to the produce of
our iron manufacture.”

Other authorities do not speak so hopefully of this discovery, and certain
it is, that of the six blast-furnaces of which Mr. Mushet speaks, only three
have hitherto been erected, and only one of these is lighted. A great part
of the furnaces now existing in Durham are chiefly employed in reducing
ores procured from Whitby and from Scotland, and occasionally small quan-
tities of hematite ore are procured from Devonshire and from Cumberland.
There is a considerable quantity of ironstone of the argillaceous kind in the
eastern division of Durham, but it is for the most part found at inaccessible
depths, or in such positions of dislocation as to render the cost of working it
too great. At a place called Shottley-bridge, about fifteen miles west of
Newcastle, where the ore is plentiful and very accessible, there have been
eight furnaces at work for some time, and six others are now about to be
lighted. The argillaceous ironstone found at that place resembles in quality
the ironstone of Staffordshire. This is the only portion of the county of
Durham in which it has hitherto been found practicable to make iron in any
large quantity with materials wholly found on the spot. I have a list of
twenty-two furnaces now in blast in the two counties of Durham and North-

umberland yielding weekly 1895 tons of pig-iron, equal to a yearly produc- —

tion of 94,750 tons, the quantity made in 1843 having been estimated at
25,750 tons, and in 1844 to only 21,250 tons. In various localities in North-
umberland there is abundance of clay-ironstone in the immediate vicinity of

plenty of excellent coal and limestone, and in the course of years large quan- —

tities of iron may be made in that district. The great obstacle to any sudden
increase there and elsewhere is offered, as already mentioned, by the difficulty

of procuring skilled labour. Any addition to the number of coal-miners can

ON THE IRON MANUFACTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 109

be made only by slow degrees, and the same condition applies to all other
classes of persons whose labour is required for the manufacture of iron. It
is hopeless to stimulate the exertions of the persons already employed. They
are naturally ready enough to exact higher rates of wages when the demand
for their labour becomes more urgent, but sueceeding i in this they prefer to
obtain the same amount of earnings, with higher rates a wages, to the secu-
ring of greater gains by the exertion of even “the same amount of toil, so that
a greater urgency in the demand may be, and frequently is, accompanied by
a lessened production.

Under these circumstances, how the enormous demand existing and to arise
from carrying out the railway schemes already sanctioned is to be met, it
would be most difficult to say. The laying down of these lines and providing
them with the needful working stock of carriages, &c. would absorb all the
iron which it is reasonable to expect will be made in Great Britain during
the next three years, and it affords no satisfactory solution of this difficulty to
say that the quantity required will only be called for progressively, and that
the demand will be spread over the same three years. To render this circum-
stance effective, we should be assured that no further projeets will be sanc-
tioned during the time spent in their construction, an assurance for which
we can hardly look, and even then we should be left without a ton of iron
applicable to the thousand other purposes for which this metal is so indis-
pensable. If the difficulty presented by the want of labour could be sur-
mounted, there appears no rational ground for supposing that we should, for
a very long time to come, experience any deficiency in the means for making
iron. In-the anthracite coal district of South Wales, where clay-ironstone is
thickly interstratified with the coal seams, there appears to be no reason to
doubt that if the means employed in the anthracite district of America for
: smelting the clay-ironstone were adopted, it would prove equally successful.

The difficulty consists in the sluggish nature of anthracite, which requires a
: more rapid draught than can be provided by the ordinary means of bellows

and tall chimneys; and this is overcome in America by obtaining a great
volume of air by means of fanners. The iron made with raw anthracite coals
has been found by Mr. Mushet to be much stronger than iron made with
coke, and after a variety of experiments, the earlier of which afforded but
small encouragement, this fuel has been adopted by the proprietors of twenty-
three furnaces, who avail themselves of only the ordinary means for providing
a blast. The manner in which the railway demand has already limited other
__ uses of iron, may be gathered from the following extract from a letter of
_ recent date written to me by Mr. Mushet :—
_ At the above period (1840) merchant bar-iron, boiler-plate, sheet-iron
_ and rod-iron, principally occupied our mills; but these of late, particularly in
_ South Wales, have given way in a great measure to the manufacture of
railway bars, so as to eclipse in a striking manner the varied and extensive
assortments required by the merchants’ demands.” The long period of dul-
ness that intervened between 1839 and the beginning of 1845, accompanied
as it was by a continued fall in the market price of iron, caused this metal to
_ be applied, most advantageously, to a variety of new purposes, from which it
will be prejudicial henceforth to withdraw it. In a well-known mercantile
circular letter issued in February 1845 by Messrs. Jevons of Liverpool, it is
‘stated that there had arisen “a new and increasing demand for iron roofs,
iron houses, and fire- proof buildings in Liverpool,” and that during the year
_ then just passed upwards of 20,000 tons of cast and wrought iron had been
- sousedinthattown. These gentlemen further stated that preparations were
_ going forward for the erection of still more extensive ranges of buildings of

110 REPORT—1846.

similar construction during 1845, and that the sailing-ships and steam-vessels
then under construction in that port would require 25,000 tons of plate-iron
and angle-iron.

The employment of iron for the purpose last mentioned, that of ship-
building, has already been an object of very great national importance. The
extent to which this use for the metal may be carried in future years it is
not possible to foresee, but we may base upon even our present limited ex-
perience the hope that by this means our furnaces and forges may be pro-
vided with some employment when our system of railways shall be completed.
The tonnage of mercantile shipping belonging to the British empire in 1845
was 3,714,061 tons, and exceeded the amount in existence in 1814 by
1,097,096 tons, but during that interval there were built and registered ships
amounting in their measurement to. 5,476,957 tons, so that there were required
to be built ships of the aggregate burthen of 4,379,861 tons, in order to re-
pair the waste occasioned by wear and tear and by losses: altogether the
building of ships has gone forward at the average rate of 176,676 tons
yearly. Assuming for the moment that this same rate of building will be
called for in future years, and that the whole of the mercantile shipping con-
structed would be built of iron, this would prove a very insufficient substitute
for the demand now existing for railway purposes. I have before me a
statement of the weight of iron used in building eight large sea-going steam-
vessels, the aggregate measurement of which was 5922 tons, by which it is
shown that the metal used was 2877 tons weight, or 9 cwt. 2 qrs. 24 lbs. for
each ton of measurement, and at this rate the construction of 176,676 tons of
shipping in each year would provide a market for no more than 85,814 tons
of wrought iron, equal to 115,849 tons of pig-iron. We cannot suppose,
however great may be the advantages attendant upon the substitution of iron
for timber in ship-building, that this use of the latter material will be all at
once, or indeed for many years, abandoned. There are many existing inter-
ests opposed to the change, and there is much of prejudice still to be over-
come before all our merchant-ships will be built of iron. We must likewise
bear in mind the now well-established fact, that iron ships are far more durable
than those built of timber, that they require much less repair, and that they
are less subject to accident and to loss. It cannot be necessary, however, to
enlarge upon this subject, since the Association has already been favoured
by Mr. Fairbairn at one of its former meetings—that held at Glasgow in
1840—with a valuable paper upon the subject.

Placing this subject in another point of view, may we not however feel
justified in believing, that when opposing interests shall have been silenced,
and existing prejudices shall be overcome, and the fast increasing commerce
of this country shall have experienced some degree of that development
which is expected to spring from late changes in our commercial legislation,
the rate of increase hitherto sufficient to supply the waste of our mercantile
marine, and to provide what has been necessary for its increase, will no longer
suffice to that end, and that although our iron ships may outlast by three or
four times the less durable vessels now constructed, and through all their
existence may call for little or no materials to be used for their repair, that
the necessity for additional shipping may in great part prove an equivalent
for the lessened demand otherwise arising ?

The building of iron ships is at this time proceeding at a greater rate than
at any previous moment since their first introduction, although the price of
iron has so materially advanced, and this should give us the assurance that
when, as we may expect it will happen, the falling off of railway demand, or
the exertions of our iron-masters, shall have restored the equilibrium between

ON THE IRON MANUFACTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. i Ria

supply and demand, and the price shall again have become more moderate,
an impetus will be given to the production of shipping, not alone for the
uses of our own merchants, but for carrying on the trade and navigation of
other countries. The cost of our shipping will then be so materially reduced,
both their first cost and the expense of their maintenance, that the objection
so often and unfortunately so successfully offered by our shipowners to any
relaxations in our commercial code affecting their business, that the greater
cheapness with which shipping can be produced in foreign countries prevents
their successfully competing with ships of those countries, can no longer be
urged with any plausibility; but on the contrary, that ships of English con-
struction will then be the cheapest in the world. It has been said that fluc-
tuations in the price of iron do not cause any considerable difference in the
cost of iron vessels, so large a proportion of their whole cost consisting in
labour. A reduction of 20s. per ton in the price of the material will, how-
_ ever, cause an ceconomy of 10s. per measurement ton in the cost of the ship,
and it will hardly be said that the very possible rise or fall of 3/. or 4d: per
ton in the price of iron plates is an immaterial circumstance to the ship-
builder. But the cheapness here spoken of will no doubt be principally
found in the greater durability and the insignificant cost of repairs of metal
ships.

A statement was inserted a few months ago in a Scotch newspaper, giving
the particulars of the iron ships then under construction in the Clyde; they
amounted to twenty-four in number, and were of the aggregate burthen of
14,032 tons (see Appendix No.8). These were all steam-vessels, to which
class of shipping iron has hitherto been principally applied, although there is
no reason for supposing that it is not equally applicable to every description
of naval architecture. The reason for this circumstance may probably be
found in the fact, that the construction and employment of steam-vessels has,
for the most part, been undertaken by persons not previously interested in
shipping, and who consequently had no prejudice or habit to overcome in
their choice of material. i

This statement, imperfect as it necessarily is, would be more glaringly so
if it did not present some particulars of our external iron trade.

So recently as the beginning of the present century more than two-fifths
of all the iron used in this kingdom was imported from the north of Europe.
Foreign metal was then used for very many of the purposes to which iron
was at that time generally applied in England, and it was so used indiscrimi-
nately with British iron. In 1806 the use of foreign iron had been lessened
by nearly one-third, while the home production was so increased as to form
seven-eighths of the quantity used. In a few years after our make was be-
yond our own wants, and foreign iron ceased to be imported for any pur-
poses to which the produce of our own forges could be applied. Thence-
forward our demands have been confined to metal of the qualities from which
alone steel can be made. Our exports of British iron have, on the contrary,
increased progressively, and have now become an object of great national
importance. The statement given in the Appendix, No. 9 shows the yearly
progress of the trade since 1827 up to the year 1845 inclusive. . It will be
seen on consulting this statement, that the quantity had increased from 92,313
tons in 1827 to 351,978 tons in 1845, and that’ the declared value of the
shipments advanced in that interval from £1,215,561 to £3,501,895. A
column has been added to the table, exhibiting the average value per ton of
all forms of iron exported in each year, from which it will be seen how great
an influence price has, in its advance and its diminution, upon the lessening
or increase of our exports. In 1840, when the average value appears to have

112 REPORT—1846.

been 9/. 8s. 2d., the quantity of British iron exported was 268,328 tons. The
price in the following years fell rapidly, and the demands from other countries
increased as rapidly. In 1843, when the average price is represented by
5l. 15s. 5d. per ton, the exports were 448,925 tons. In 1844 the quantity was
slightly increased, viz. to 458,745 tons, although the price had advanced to
6l. 19s. 2d. per ton; but in 1845, the further advance in the average declared
value to 9/. 18s. 11d. per ton, reduced our foreign shipments to 351,978 tons,
or by more than 23 per cent.

It is worthy of remark, that we now export largely, more largely than in
former periods we ever imported from the same quarter, iron in its crude
state, and articles manufactured with the same, to the countries whence we
once drew the largest proportion of what was used by us. In 1844 our ship-
ments of iron, in its various forms, to the north of Europe amounted to
178,635 tons, equal probably to 200,000 tons of pig-iron; and in 1845, not-
withstanding the great speculative demand and rise in price at home, our
shipments amounted to 140,006 tons, equal probably to 160,000 of pig-iron.
In those two years the whole of our colonies and dependencies took from us,
in 1844, '78,594 tons; and in 1845, 60,683 tons.

Our largest customers are found in the United States of America, and it
is probable that they will long continue to be so, unless the citizens of those
states in which materials for producing iron are found should be unduly
stimulated to increase their home production through the existence of high
prices in this country. An increased demand from that quarter is expected
when the more liberal tariff recently passed at Washington shall come into
operation, but it is clear that the realising of that expectation must depend
greatly upon the state of markets in this country (see Appendix, No. 11).

A writer of the protectionist school, in an article inserted in the ‘ National
Magazine,’ published in New York in July 1845, states that the make of iron
in the United States in that year from 540 blast-furnaces would amount to
486,000 tons, and that the domestic supply would ere long be brought to
meet the entire wants of the country. New furnaces and rolling-mills are,
according to this writer, being erected in every direction, and those works
that had been inoperative and unproductive, from the low prices of iron in
1843 and 1844, were again at work, so that it might soon be unnecessary to
import a ton of the metal from Europe. With a moderate price in England
we need not put much faith in this assertion, which was put forth as an in-
ducement to Congress to add to the high protection then afforded by the
tariff, but which is now reduced.

France, notwithstanding the exorbitant duties charged on importation,
takes from us a considerable and constantly increasing quantity of this metal
(see Appendix, No. 12), and although the production of pig-iron in that
country has increased from about 220,000 tons in 1831 to about 420,000
tons in 1843, and is still increasing, the want of a sufficient supply of this
all-important metal is severely felt in that country, and the high price is
found to weigh grievously upon various branches of industry. In particular
a cry has been raised, which it is expected may be successful, in favour of
the admission, free of duty, of plate-iron suitable for ship-building, but the
eagerness now shown to obtain this concession will be much abated should
the price of the material advance in any great degree in England. At this
time we are certainly not in any condition to meet the demand that might
come upon us should that concession be made by the French Chambers.

With the exception of England, Sweden appears to be the only country
which has or can be expected to have any disposable quantity of iron for export-
ation, and it does not seem likely that we shall be a customer for any, except

ON THE IRON MANUFACTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 113

that which we need for converting into steel, to which use Swedish iron is
peculiarly applicable, and for which its high price causes'it to be reserved. To
gg our shipments of this metal are fully equal to the quantity imported
thence.

After much consideration given to the circumstances in which our iron
manufacture is now placed, and to its prospects for the future, I venture,
with some hesitation, to offer the following opinion.

Legislative sanction has been given in this and the two preceding years
to the construction of many thousand miles of new railways, in the comple-
tion of which so many interests are engaged, that we must not expect any
considerable portion of them to be abandoned by their projectors. We must
for this reason expect that for some few years to come, during which these
works will be going forward, the price of iron will be high. The tendency
of this high price will be, to give an impetus to the manufacture, and to cause
much new capital to be invested for its extension, for which ample opportu-
nity presents itself in different localities, although in other places, as in
_ Staffordshire, where the manufacture has hitherto flourished, there is more
reason to expect diminution than increase, owing to a failure in the supply
of materials. The great obstacle to the forming of new establishments, and
to the extension of those already in operation, consists in the difficulty of
procuring the necessary amount of labour, miners, furnace-men and others.
This obstacle will, however, be gradually and progressively lessened, and
when the present exaggerated railway demand shall have ceased, as it must
necessarily do through the completion of the lines which alone can be pro-
fitably opened, and the demand thence arising for iron shall be limited to
the quantity—still, however, considerable—which will be needed for keep-
ing the lines in repair (see App. No. 13), we shall find ourselves in posses-
sion of means for making iron much beyond what have at any previous time
existed, and very greatly beyond any probable demand to arise from other
and existing channels of employment at home, or from foreign countries.
The price will consequently fall, as it has done at former times and under
analogous circumstances. We shall then find that this metal will again be
employed in uses from which it may have been excluded by the previous
high price. From the improvements already made, and from others which
we may expect will be introduced into the processes of manufacture, we may
even find that the market price will fall to a lower point than has hitherto
been witnessed, and new uses may in consequence be discovered whereto to
apply this metal. All this, however, must be the work of time, and it seems
but too probable that in the meanwhile our iron-masters will have to undergo
a somewhat lengthened season of adversity, for the enduring of which they
are in a measure prepared by former experience.

114

REPORT—1846.

AppEnDIx No. 1.
Manufacture of Pig-iron in England and Wales, 1788.

Made with coke of pit-coal.

——— 48,200

Counties, No. of Furnaces. Tons of Iron,
SEP BIILES eds fey sdapaneseonten ens » SU UNEE ve rade egstt spueed 23,100 |
MIGAHOTASITE 5 seneseas¥eeesasbsens CD iE RE ee 6,900
WeEpysOITe sepecesresnaccdcaacane NY (TEAR: 4,200
NVOPKSHITG cceaseceeactsasees cep odnen Rank ea 4,500
Gimberlandets. peer tee 1 i hae ahaa A 700
Chigshire ite erie recent eeesets | Wane eR ee 600
Glamorganshire ......c.sssesees GS Gi cccavediotdeeis 6,600
Brecknockshire ......... Teer By aig Aone: veo e008

Made with wood-charcoal.
Gloucestershire ........ss000e ps ava oh eee eee te 2,600
Monmouthshire ........seessseres iS era ssacddeiecieds 2,100
Glamorganshire ..........0009 eas hl MLD Wicwede keene a ap ae 1,800
Carmarthenshire ,,.....0ccersceees | ees eee 400
Merionethshire ........eseeeeeeee 1 Lp SP Bari ve Ire 400 .
RUNIPOPSIINGs caaanenass ipaesccnevoens piasaei sates andar 1,800
Derby shite Wecssaps-spsseyscsese sins’ NUprc eS acccscosenes te 300
RYOrKSNne te cont othe eater eaeete 1 eRe ACHEP EEE 600
Westmoreland .........ccccscessees GRR ie 400
Crimberland yee ieescce ct Tt Rea 300
Lancashire 2304. see tess Beatesa eae ees 2,100
PUIGBORK iain davies cdathavte caeeedeuad D sice Mv cpentactexkep 300
DN GtAl i dca tuccavakavarastiaceussicsscaeheotade 61,300

AppENDIx No. 2.

Manufacture of Iron in Great Britain in 1796.

Counties. No. of Furnaces. Tons of Iron.
Chester ..2.:..60055 MEOW Lue CL Bs aetna eae 1,958
Cumberland 4.....6..c0000. 00004 Boi. Save sia Saeie 2,034
Derbyshire’ \);...0.0caveeeacawes Bel ask dad sivas ene: ead
Gloucestershire ......... ey CA ree 380
Herefordshire .........+ececeees Dir casetbeeseedsdeece 2,529
Lincolnshire............ Wiavoceas DR co auction conte 705
BHPOPSNINE oo. c5ezerdancxemandee BS) \aisersavent press 32,969
MSSEK. aairsheccecestaresore PS ok.) Meee 4 et Sr. 173
Mouph Wales sccccschecesecshos OR ah scieccs ase 34,251
INOrEaiWales Vecvacsccclacsossves By aibiccsuiecdseeee 1,434
Staffordshire...c....scsecccessess At Halse eere ets 13,211
Yorkshire...... .. tile See is QO asi eeiee eed 17,242

104. ccacassecmcadierns 108,993
SICOLLANG Nevsadercsaeascoecevssans 17... didepacdaassesdaos 16,086

Total—Great Britain ... 121 ..occcscosscessoe 125,079

=

:
;
:
|
F
7
4
é

ON THE IRON MANUFACTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 115

9 ApPrENDIX No. 3.
k Production of Iron in 1806 in Great Britain.
: Counties, No, of Furnaces, Tons of Pig-iron.
% Cumberland ...........ceseeeeee. 2 ie dase ae ap a 1,491
i Derbyshire .....4...00 Badberces Wyo TePereeeweanranseeces 10,329
4 Gloucestershire ...... cori cce i eer pe et ae astues 1 1.629
fi Lancashire .............+8 sake impr -e ree veese 2,000
Monmouthshire ............... i atdieeteserdeaes: 2,444
} Shtopshire’ ............esesesees NRE Pe heir RE es 54,966
i sDRAMORCEMIE ;.2...,.....5-.-00058 lea Pb fob aae'rs 49,460
i 28 ee ei bmn Hl des een lh 26,671
‘ South Wales........csccccseesues S| al REESE ehh ae 75,601
% aa Wales: aR ieccesuccrccsuaeee 2,075
i Old charcoal furnaces in dif-
N ferent counties .......00..0..- } T] ssseseeseeeerense 7,800
; Total—England and Wales 155 ssesssesssssseases 234,966
; erin oe a lt Bea Miter cgaee eno 23,240
Total—Great Britain ...... Bs apecdane vse Pl 258,206
j
: Appenpix No. 4.
4 Production of Iron in Great Britain in 1823.
' Counties, No. of Furnaces. Tons of Pig-iron.
b) Staffordshire ..,...... AP ESE Ome Bana eehapeeans 133,590
Shropshire ......... Rav auce cakes Stele Ee sahacaees 57,923
Workshire . c.2d.décccscec.cso0es DOT) wines ra. bathaceens 27,311
Derbyshire ...... iebatyackos. Wich cokes en NG 14,038
Northumberland and Durham = 2... sca eceeee ere oy Ky
South Wales ..........0..0ee08 PF OCS AO OR « 182,325
North Wales (estimated)...... MeCN eansiancs vavacive 10,000
NG. ccesax Risceceanacs 427,566
RCOCLADE ooo .c cscs hevasiilh Ne i ea 24,500

Total—Great Britain ...... 259 ..ccccsceessssere 452,066

APPENDIX No. 5.
Production of Iron in Great Britain in 1830.

Counties. No. of Furnaces. Tons of Pig-iron.
Staffordshire ......... doattugce DS as epee 212,604
ESMTOPAUIEG ssspeiysn esas anshines rasa Bees pera w. 73,418
Yorkshire .......ceccecceeeeeee DN caen Pe Oba tt 28,926
PIPED VENI, 5 ansceseuacdesesetae PB wakes geatacceets 17,999
Northumberland and Durham = 4._—Ck.. esc ec cen ceee 6,827
South Wales .......eecesceeees PTS ea ay 277,643
North Wales (estimated)...c. 1... scccesensssssceses 25,000

BBS vecene wachebaaeete 640,917

Seotland 56) b tit ae C7 GR een See 37,500
Total—Great Britain ...... SHON ace sossesees 678,417
12

116 REPORT—1846.

AppENDIXx No. 6.

Quantity of Iron made in Great Britain in 1839, as stated by David
Mushet, Esq.

Districts. No. of Furnaces, Tons of Pig-iron.

South Wales ......cc.cccsssecsees De ere sanvaccccocucee 453,880
POGrEGt AGH AE ea nas Ream sewsee 18,200
PHO PHENRS Eisschthen ties ncswdane at teatns: SaaNer cases 80,940
Staffordshire (SOME) ("5 ec saese NOG arate totes ssc vs 346,213
Staffordshire (North)............ Me arbepnccneutae eee 18,200
Neat WV alee ce 1 Seder SE ie aca 33,800
Derbyshire ............ ARR Le eas a: Mamudiont« 34,372
NWeorighie oe eacsndeb We. Mistees sate anenters 52,416
Northumberland and Durham BG SR) ccereteenes 13,000
PUD laid srg see. asks cues ve caes OE i inci sc esracceeuene 196,960
OUh. caiscesatoenneee 1,247,981

Lancashire (charcoal-iron) ......sc.sssssessenseseessaseeces 800
Total of pig-iron in Great Britain ............ 1,248,781

APPENDIX No. 7.

Production of Iron in Great Britain in the year 1840, as ascertained by
Mr. William Jessop, of the Butterley Iron Works, Derbyshire.

Number of Furnaces

Districts. Iron made. Coal used.
In blast. |Out of blast.

tons. tons ;
Forest of Dean .........06. + . 15,500 60,000
South Wales ..........s000 132 31 505,000 1,436,000
North Wales ...........00- 12 3 26,500 110,000
Northumberland............ 5 1 11,000 38,500
Workshines G4 i.deies cor: 25 7 56,000 306,500
Derbyshire .........csseeeee- 13 5 31,000 129,000
North Staffordshire ...... 7 9 20,500 83,000
South Staffordshire ...... 116 19 407,150 1,582,000
SHEOPERIRG: gressceceerases: 24 7 82,750 409,000
Scola a, Govncesesecserise 64 6 241,000 723,000
402 | 88 -| 1,396,400 | 4,877,000
Coal used in converting to wrought-ir0n..........sseeseeeeeeseoene 2,000,000
6,877,000

Of the above 402 furnaces, there were using hot air, 162; cold air, 240.

j ON THE IRON MANUFACTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. _117

AppENDIXx No. 8.
Iron Steam-Vessels being built in the Clyde during the Spring of 1846.
1 of 2,000 tons burthen and 750 horse-power.
520

: PESO cas sescrvissniyotss
GMOS 5... LLRs 450
Be WOO: 5. eseaNeeee 400
Eig oa cap AN 400
BRE PRU Siac tacl verse cs 400
Ba ZOD sana aawrseveheae 280
Te Tar Te inline cated 300
ATG TTT he ent a 220
Bs SOO. cman ee 300
Ee ROU: Scacetecmmseoretcees 200
He AHO) | cat Oupeptscp-ee 250
Be Wane a AM I 250
PER ABO pias ies 150
a PeMee aia cer Mee ecu 50
Tec AN ee ba, os Oh va 50
9 ag ie a Sea 160
BRT re cceaceac\oe 35
SC» NO cae A 35
Pee ates tee gous 35
Ga MEU oe ores tocpaioen 120
[Att | DR EO 100
Tee ee bdstle 65
WS UP sy veceatsesnnateaats' 60

24 14,032 | 5,580

AppEnpDIx No. 9.

Quantities of British Iron exported, with the declared value of the same, and
the average value of each ton exported in each year from 1827 to 1845
inclusive, stated in tons.

nee EE EEEET [SEER SSNEASEN GREE

Declared Average de-

Years, | Bar-iron. | Pig-iron. | Castings. | All kinds*. value. clared value
per ton.

£ £8 d
1827.| 45,284 | 7,095 | 6,292 | 92,313 | 1,215,561 | 13 3 5
1828.| 51,108 | 7,826 | 6,205 | 100,403 | 1,226,617 | 12 4 4
1829.| 56,178 | 8,931 | 8,219 | 108,275 | 1,162,931 | 10 14 9
1830.| 59,885 | 12,036 | 8,854 | 117,420 | 1,078,523 | 9 2 8
1831.| 64,012 | 12,444 | 10,361 | 124,312 | 1,123,372 | 9 0 8
1832.| 74,024 | 17,566 | 12,495 | 147,636 | 1,190,749 | 8 1 3
1833.| 75,333 | 22,988 | 14,763 | 162,815 | 1,405,035 | 812 7
1834.|. 70,809 | 21,788 | 13,870 | 158,166 | 1,406,872 | 8 17 10
1835.| 107,715 | 33,073 | 12,604 | 199,007 | 1,643,741 | 8 5 2
1836.| 97,762 | 33,880 | 19,891 | 192,352 | 2,342,674 | 12 3 7
1837.| 95,663 | 44,387 | 12,373 | 194,292 | 2,009,259 | 10 6 10
1838. | 141,923 | 48,554 | 14,942 | 256,017 | 2,535,692 | 918 1
1839. | 136,452 | 43,460 | 10,836 | 247,912 | 2,719,824 | 10 19 6
1840.| 144,719 | 49,801 | 9,886 | 268,328 | 2,524,859 | 9 8 2
1841. | 189,249 | 85,866 |14,077 | 360,875 | 2,877,278 | 719 5
1842. | 191,301 | 93,851 | 15,934 | 369,398 | 2,457,717 | 613 0
1843. | 198,774 | 154,770 | 16,500 | 448,925 | 2,590,833 | 515 5
1844. | 249,915 | 99,960 | 18,969 | 458,745 | 3,193,368 | 619 2
1845.| 153,813 | 77,362 | 22,036 | 351,978 | 3,501,895 | 9 18 11

po
* * Including the kinds stated in the previous columns, together with bolt- and rod-iron, iron-
__ wire, anchors, grapnels, &c., hoops, nails, and all other sorts not included in the foregoing.

118 _ REPORT—1846.

Appenvix No. 10.
Make of Iron in 1843 compared with 1840.

1840, 1843. Decrease, | Increase.
tons. tons. tons, tons.

Forest of Dean .........0.000+ 15,500 8,000:'} 7,500
South Wales .......scsseseree 505,000 457,355 | 47,650
North Wales ..............00.- 26,500 19,750 6,750

Northumberland ............. 11,000 ay (3) Ul RABE ce 14,750
IVOLKSIING: oc 0c acctcncaacoms seer 56,000 42,000 | 14,000
Derbyshire... ...2ccss-sasasso a0. 31,000 25,750 | 5,250

North Staffordshire ......... 20,500 P17 DU lecdacusoseae 1,250
South Staffordshire ......... 407,150 300,250 | 106,900
Shropshire......... Renae ecasess 82,750 76,200 6,550
Scotland <i .ccsscrcsans exe css 241,000 238,550 2,450

1,396,400 | 1,215,350 | 197,050 | 16,000
MOD SDO Ts cactessenctons 16,000
Less in 1843 ..... Sates USL 000" ecko. tee: ese 181,050

AppEenpix No. 11.

Quantity and declared Value of Iron, wrought and unwrought, exported to
the United States of America in each year from 1831 to 1844.

Tons, Value. Years. Tons. Value.
GSEs cavaecodes USS. idaasee £248,707 SSS ceo ecgee. 71,235 ...... £634,395
TEER tee BRAT eee 284,502 BOO. © cava GALLS. cenoeus 801,198
Wonaugneseses 4,194 . oo. 412,515 B40 Gs c.5 38,603 __...... 355,534
1834 A eeG2D ics. 322,156 WBA Vevtint T9186 .ceeee 626,532
LBSD, ooatee BGS © 5.00. 408,368 1S42 se css 58,418 ...... 394,854
VEBG ccc TO OU | ascaue 912,387 WSSSio Gecces 31,909 wivin 223,668
1837. ...... 49,204 ...... 489,309 IS44. ccsinas 107,879 ...... 696,937

Apprrenpix No. 12.

Quantity and declared Value of Iron exported to France in each year from
1831 to 1844.

Years Tons Value. Years. Tons. Value.

1SB1. 0 hs.ae PI2U dsices £ 21,416 NSBR A aides 15; 72a ‘ices £103,026
NBSP cen iy Caer 32,768 BBB. vsas 14,288). /..s06 93,356
1833;,) 3..k TAZA acess 41,696 USAD,: xsces 16,804 ...... 88,631
USS4.:y Besies 8,506) as 55,060 USSD. Cie gks. 19,099 \.j.6.505 95,943
ISSDs)ygueeds 14,863 is... 82,302 LBAZ, Su jave 23,428 — scare 105,172
PS5G0) Keccse 14,016 ...... 115,718 1843, ....0- 29,626 .r.000 120,220
Sy A ee 15,015 sue 96,415 || 1844, ...... 21,352 ..... 100,982

a ee ee

ag Ree

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:
i
u
i

ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 119

Apprenpix No. 13.

Estimated quantity of Iron required for the construction and putting into
* operation each mile of Railway.

Tons per mile. Tons of Pig-iron.

Rails, 75 Ibs. per yard .....seeseeeees sees 235 equal to 3172
Chairs, 40 lbs. each ......... sivddane diztses DOG Aisiekscasenss 125
Locomotive engines, 1 per mile ciscsseee 2D seveeevenees 332
Wagons and carriages, iron-work ..00.. 20 ssssesseeeee 333
TA gE OCG) Irautdeata nemnde sd cons. aie cebtbate UE as Pie we ncteie
Turntables, points and sidings............ OU iiaraehs ahs 110
Workshops ..,..+sceseserssseeeses eee AE iE) Lah Een 402
Coke, ovens and sundries........sesesss0e. Loe ALPE 5
Bridges, roofs, stations, &c. ..sesseeceee 380 eeseeeeeeee 404

711

Required to maintain the above, each year—

Rails, chairs, locomotives, turntables, &c., 50 tons of wrought- and cast-iron,
equal, each year, to 61 tons of pig-iron.

N.B. ‘The above estimate has been furnished by an experienced railway engineer
to the chairman of a railway company. The quantities are greater than are com-
monly assigned, but an abatement of 25 per cent. would not disturb the calculation
made by me (page 109); and when provision is made for maintaining in repair the
railways now open, it would absorb all the iron which will probably be made in the
next four years, to construct, at that abatement of 25 per cent., the lines now sanc-
tioned by Parliament.

Third Report on Atmospheric Waves.
By Wiuu1aAM RapcuirF Birt.

Tue two former Reports which I have had the honour to present to the Asso-
ciation necessarily possessed a fragmentary character. Sir John Herschel,
in his Report on Meteorological Reductions (1843), distinctly traced two
well-defined atmospheric waves which passed over the British Isles and the
west of Europe, one in September 1836, the other in December 1837. These
may be regarded as the earliest instances of our detecting and clearly appre-
hending the character of the atmospheric undulations constantly traversing
our oceans and continents, and mark the commencement of that era in atmo-
spheric research to which Mr. Forbes alluded in his Report on the Recent
Progress and Present State of Meteorology, presented to the Association in
1832, when he said, “ The great extent of country over which the accidental
variations of the barometer take place, is one of their most striking features ;
and in a future and more advanced state of meteorology we may be able to
draw the most interesting and important conclusions from the great atmo-
spheric tidal waves which are thus perpetually traversing oceans and conti-
nents.’

Sir John Herschel, in the conclusion of the report to which allusion has
been made, noticed the larger fluctuations which I had observed in the
autumn of 1842, especially the symmetrical wave which occupied thirteen

_ days in November for its complete rise and fall. The curves representing

these larger undulations were appended to Sir John Herschel’s report; and
the Association, under the direction of the Magnetical Committee and the
immediate superintendence of Sir John, entrusted me with the further in-

120 REPORT—1846. ;

vestigation of these waves, especially that of November. The mode of in-
vestigation and the partial results arrived at during the period between the
sittings of the Association in 1843 and 1844 form the subject of my first re-
port, which, as before stated, must be regarded only as a fragment.

During the further investigation of the wave of November various obser-
vations came to hand, which appeared to throw considerable light on the
general character of atmospheric undulations. The publication of the Green-
wich and Toronto observations afforded an interesting comparison of the
passages of certain maxima at these distant stations, and by extending this
comparison to Prague and Munich, several interesting features of certain
secondary waves during the transit of a supposed normal wave appeared so
clearly to be made out, that it was deemed desirable to include the whole of
this comparison in the succeeding report, rather than run the risk of its being
lost by deferring it until after the examination of the great wave should be
completed. Another most interesting result arrived at about this time, was
the recurrence of the great wave of November. The return of this interest-
ing phzenomenon appeared so strikingly distinct in 1843 and 1844, that to
have omitted noticing it in the Report would have greatly contributed to re-
tard the inquiry. It accordingly forms the second section of the Report of
1845. These circumstances, with the further investigation of the great wave
of November 1842, give to the second report a more fragmentary character.

Previous to entering on the immediate subject of the present report, it will
be desirable to review the steps that have been taken for observing the great
symmetrical wave on its return in 1845; and also to notice any other cir-
cumstance that may have transpired during the past year at all calculated to
throw any light on the subject of our investigations. With regard to the first
point, certain instructions were drawn up, which were forwarded to gentle-
men interested in meteorological research, and otherwise circulated, in con-.
sequence of which a number of interesting and valuable observations were
obtained. The results of the examination of these observations, as far as it
has yet proceeded, will form the first part of the present report. In the Phi-
losophical Magazine for April in the present year Mr. Brown published a
voluminous paper on the oscillations of the barometer, with particular refer-
ence to the meteorological phenomena of November 1842, the month in
which I first observed the great symmetrical wave. This paper is accom-
panied by diagrams representing the direction of the wind in England, Scot-
land and Ireland every day, from the Ist to the 26th inclusive. Upon a very
careful perusal of it, I found that the observations, as given in the diagrams,
very beautifully illustrated Prof. Dove's theory of parallel currents or alter-
nately disposed beds of oppositely directed winds, and appeared to throw so
clear a light on the real character of the atmospheric undulations, that I was
induced to enter upon a very careful examination of the barometric obser-
vations in connexion with the diagrams of the wind. The result of this ex-
amination has been to give the inquiry a completeness which it was before
destitute of. It was previously difficult to define the real notion we formed
of an atmospheric wave ; not so much from the distribution of pressure over
a tract of country gradually decreasing on each side a line of maxima, as
from the relation of the aérial currents or winds to this distribution of
pressure of which we were to a certain extent ignorant. The examination
of these observations has exhibited very clearly the distribution of the aérial
currents in relation to the distribution of pressure, and enabled us to define
the nature of an atmospheric wave both as regards its undulatory and mole-
cular motion. This definition, with the examination of the observations,
forms the second part of this report.

poe

ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 121

Part I.—ReECURRENCE OF SYMMETRICAL WAVE.

The following were the instructions drawn up for observing the Great
Symmetrical Wave on its return in 1845.

“The recurrence of the great November Wave observed in 1842 (an en-
graving of which is inserted in the Report of the Thirteenth Meeting of the
British Association for the Advancement of Science), during the autumns of
1843 and 1844, renders the barometric movements of the months of October
and November highly interesting. It is accordingly proposed that meteoro-
logical observations, on a similar plan, should be made as extensively as pos-
sible, with a view to observe this particular wave; and meteorologists are
invited to direct their particular attention to the oscillations of the barometer
during the months above-named.

“ Times of Observation.

“The following hours are the most suitable for the object now in view:
3 A.M., 9 A.M., 3 P.M. and 9 p.M.; these hours divide the day into four equal
parts; they have been recommended by the Royal Society as meteorological
hours, and are the hours at which observations are made daily, by direction
and under the superintendence of the Honourable the Corporation of the
Trinity House, which have been most advantageously used in the examina-
tion of atmospheric waves.

In cases, however, in which the observation at 3 a.m. may be inconve-
nient or impracticable, it will be important to substitute for it two observa-
tions, one at midnight and the other at 6 in the morning, so that the hours of
observation will in such cases be 6 A.M., 9 A.M., 3 P.M., 9 P.M. and midnight.

“To individuals who cannot command these hours, it is recommended
that observations should be made as near them as possible; these will still be
valuable, although not to so‘great an extent as those made at the regular
hours. In these cases, however, it will be absolutely necessary to substitute
two readings for every one of the regular hours omitted—one previous to,
the other succeeding the hour so omitted; and these should, if possible, in-
clude an equal interval both before and after such hour. In all cases the
exact hour and minute of mean time at the place of observation should be
inserted in its appropriate column in the form sent herewith.

“ At the regular hours of observation, or any others that the observer may
fix upon, in accordance with the foregoing instructions, it will be necessary
to observe,

“Ist. The barometer, with its attached thermometer, and enter in the
form the actual height observed with the temperature of the mercury.

“2nd. The external and dry thermometer.

“3rd. The wet bulb thermometer.

“[ These observations are particularly essential in order to separate the
pressure of the vapour from the aggregate pressure, as measured by the mer- .
curial column. |

“Ath. The direction and force of the wind.

“These are important to determine the connexion between the undula-

_ tory and molecular motion of the wave. ]

"
®
+
Vs

‘

A

*

a

** 5th. The character of the weather at the times of observation; which
may be recorded by Capt. Beaufort’s symbols.
“Tt is proposed to commence the observations on the 1st of October next,

_ and continue them daily until the end of November, unless it should be found

that at that time the Wave is not completed, in which case it will be requisite
to continue them a few days longer.
“ft will be necessary, on returning the form when filled, to accompany it

122 REPORT—1846.

with the following data for reduction. A blank is left for this purpose on
the back of the form.

“The geographical co-ordinates of the place of observation, viz. latitude
and longitude.

** The altitude of the cistern of the barometer above the level of the sea,
exactly ; if not, as near as it can be obtained.

“ The internal diameter of the tube of the barometer.

** The capacity, neutral point, and temperature.

“‘ [These are usually engraved on the instrument. ]

“If the co-efficients of the diurnal and annual oscillations have been de-
termined for the place of observation, include them.

“ Those sets of observations which may be reduced by the observers, should
be accompanied with the original observations, and a reference to the tables
used in their reduction, also the data above-mentioned.

“ All observations that may be made in accordance with these instructions
and forwarded to me, will be carefully examined and reported on at the next
meeting of the British Association. ‘Ww. R. Brrr.”

“2 Sidney Place, Cambridge Road, Bethnal Green.”

In accordance with these instructions observations were received from the
following stations and observers.

Taste I.

Station. Vessel or Establishment. Observer or Authority,
Sandwick Manse, Orkneys .....| ......sssssssessscsssesscessees Rey. Charles Clouston.
West coast of Scotland ......... H.M.S.V. “ Shearwater”| Commander C. G. Robinson.
East coast of Great Britain ...) H.M. Ketch “ Sparrow”) William Turton, R.N.
Firth of Forth ........sesseseeeces H.M.S.V. “ Mastiff” ...| The Officers.
Longstone, Northumberland ..| Lighthouse ............... William Darling.
Newcastle-upon-Tyne ......... Philosophical Society ...| George Muras, Esq.
EltUst,y LICIAMIL ccc agetssarctctkedl(vcenvess-s¥eees Wabstecrcesetas Dr. Stevelly.
MtOKESEY;' YOTKBHILE sive. c tel cocvdsdsocessctacisissvobasccct John Cail, Esq.
Markree) Ireland ..iisicdscaveca|Wecdaskebsoncttis sdb tdesssse sce Edward J. Cooper, Esq., M.P.
MOUK: -ciaiess oaschtsveseecahogs sddea]/tesbunccechtactavedstysulocieut John Phillips, Esq., F.R.S.
Heligoland .......... Bo dhacceuinben Lighthouse.
Galway, Ireland ..............+6 ndlpexatietiesesaaca teas « aieeud sate Lieut. Sidney, R.N.
Lough Corrib and Galway ...| ........sccsescsessccssercesees Lieut. Beechey, R.N.
Porttarlington, T'eland) sitiwesel lic iecevessddsesessbs.cccese M. Hanlon, M.B.
Dublin, Ireland ...........2...00- Ordnance Survey Office .| Capt. Larcom, R.E.
Hamerick:. Ireland n...destesaescaliugendevndeexsthandseke vante cae R. T. Maunsell, Esq.
Bardsey Island off Wales ...... Lighthouse.
BUCMINPHAM | y.,.csseseansancedes Philosophical Institution} William Onion, Esq.
Haisboro’, Norfolk.......+2..0+ Lighthouse.
Coast of Suffolk...... near tuteeee H.M.S.V. “ Blazer”...... Capt. Owen Stanly, R.N.
South of Ireland ..........es0e. H.M.S.V. “ Lucifer” ...| Commander G. A. Frazer.
South of Ireland ..........0..4. H.M.S.V. “ Tartarus”...| Commander James Wolfe.
South Bishop off Wales......... Lighthouse.
Pembroke HeM.S.V. “Hirefly”’.«.... Capt. Beechey, R.N.
GIOMCESHOR PF. Nose ds co casccveseesnelisvas.¥allvcduesttercancavcs ibe Johu Jones, Esq.
Harwich ........0008 H.M.S.Y. “ Porcupine ’’.| The Officers.
ViGHOONceasepeaneeecesesn cares oves|\scseacccse=s dp cfaestos aveaen st W. R. Birt.
Ramsgate H.M.S.V. “ Porcupine ”’.| The Officers.
MICHIVTLBIES uromtspcccencccccosart ns Lighthouse .<css.....0<000 E. L. Davis.
Helstony Cornwall voc cvsses ise il Weacevetvctetsettwcncr see une M. P. Moyle, Esq.
POLTRMOUH 9! odes SELES) io veceuees onaten ade cetwbeetets Commander W. L. Sheringham,
St.Catherine’s Point, I. of Wight| Lighthouse. [R.N.
PIASUIN GR nad, Acti wanbd vcap sche th nek| tcacunde stssapudeversnsavonc yar’ Sir Howard Elphinstone, Bart.
ME EICHETIS, J CLREY cevasareberver (secu vsveucy.<cuetwpacestssenie Capt. Childers.

N.B. I am indebted to the Honorable the Corporation of the Trinity House for the Light- —

ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 123

house observations, and to Rear-Admiral Beaufort, R.N., for the observations made on board
the surveying vessels.—W. R. B.

These observations, which were principally undertaken with a view to ob-
serve the return of the great wave, have been attended with highly interesting
results. I shall first notice the result of the comparison of the observations at
this station (Cambridge Heath) with those made at Leicester Square in 1842,
as fully establishing not only the return of the great wave, but also that of
other extensive undulations.

Section I.—Comparison of observations made at Cambridge Heath (north-
east of London) from Oct. 1, 1845 to Nov. 21, 1845, with observations
made at Leicester Square from Sept. 14, 1842 to Nov. 25, 1842.

The observations of 1842 are projected in curves and appended to Sir John

Herschel’s ‘ Report on Meteorological Reductions,’ 1843.

1842. I. Plate I. fig. 1 (Report 1843) exhibits an undulation consisting of

a gentle barometric fall and almost as gentle a rise during seventeen days,

» namely from Sept. 14 to Oct. 1, interrupted only by the diurnal oscillations,
which are in general well-developed.

1845. In 1845 this undulation of seventeen days’ interval returned. It
was observed from Oct. 1 (the commencement of the observations) to the
19th, but instead of exhibiting the gentle fall and ascent noticed in 1842, it
was interrupted by two most remarkable superposed waves. The first oc-
curred on the 4th, 5th, and 6th of October, and the second from the 11th to
the 16th.

_ When these waves (the commencement and termination of each being well-
marked) are abstracted from the general curve, the resemblance between the
curves of 1842 and 1845 is very apparent.

1842. September 14 to October 1.

1845. October 1 to October 19.

Il. The curves of the succeeding four days in the two periods 1842 and
1845 exhibit similar barometric fluctuations, so that the movements during
the four days succeeding the seventeen-day wave in 1845 are identical with
those of the four days succeeding the same wave in 1842.

1842. October Zto 5 . :
1845. October 19 to tg Lie

III. The exact identity between the curves of 1842 and 1845 breaks off
on Oct. 23, 1845. The barometer maintains an elevation above thirty inches
during the period in 1845 that the movements are not in accordance with
those of 1842.

___ IV. Plate I, fig. 3 (Report 1843). The identity between the curves of
_ 1842 and 1845 again commences on Oct. 27, 1845, and is maintained in a
_ very close manner until midnight of Nov. 6.

1842. Ociober 31, midnight to November 11, noon.

1845. October 27, noon to November 6, midnight.
Y. In consequence of the movements from Oct. 27 to Nov. 6, 1845, ex-
_ hibiting so close a similarity to those between Oct. 31 and Nov. 11 in 1842
_ which immediately preceded the great wave in that year, considerable ex-
_ pectation was raised that the great wave would set in on the morning of the
7th. At midnight of the 6th, the similarity between the curves that had been

so closely maintained during ten days and a half began to fail, and rendered

it difficult to determine for some days if the preceding movements had really
_ been followed by the great wave. This question was set at rest as the obser-
_ Yations proceeded ; for on comparing the curve from the 6th to the 21st with

_ that of the great wave of Nov. 1842 (Plate II., Report 1843), there was every
M4

;
“mt

124 REPORT—1846.

reason to believe that it had again returned and that its fourth transit had been
observed. Between these epochs, Nov. 6 and 21, all its essential features were
exhibited. The large central undulation, also forming the crown of the great
wave and occupying in this instance five days, was very distinctly marked ;
and the two smaller undulations on each side the central wave, making with
it the five of which the great wave is composed, were also well-developed.
These smaller waves did not appear to co-ordinate with those of former
transits. The great wave culminated on the 14th.
Corresponding barometric movements.
Crest.

1842. November 11 to November 25. Nov. 18.

1843. November 6 to November 21. Nov. 14.

1844. October 20to November 4. Oct. 27.

1845. November 6 to November 21. Nov. 14.

VI. The movements between the above epochs in each year were more or
less symmetrical, the axes occurring on the dates indicating the passage of
the crests. In the year 1845 the symmetrical movements appeared to extend *
greatly beyond the limits noticed above, for not only did the central undula-
tion which culminated on the 14th form the axis of the great wave (properly
so called), but also of a system a¢ least double its extent, namely from Oct. 29
to Nov. 28. Observations received from Hastings appear to indicate that
the barometric oscillations during October, November and December were
symmetrical, the axis occurring about the middle of November.

VII. In my last report (Report, 1845, page 116) I stated that the mini-
muni of the 16th of Feb. and that of the 5th of Oct. in the year 1841, formed
the limits of the period of least range for that year. It is well known that
the barometric oscillations are divisible into éwo classes ; those of small range,
confined to the swmmer half year; and those of great range, the period of
their development being the winter. These greater oscillations begin to appear
in October. Fig. 2, Plate I. (Report, 1843) exhibits a similar undulation
to that of Sept. ]4 to Oct. 1, 1842, of seventeen days’ interval with wo sub-
ordinate maxima interposed. The depression of the 23rd was very considera-
ble, and rendered memorable by the inundation of the Madeiras. We ac-
cordingly find that the larger undulations began to appear in these latitudes
in 1842, about the 16th of Oct. The seventeen-day undulation, Sept. 14 to
Oct. 1, occurring about a fortnight later in 1845, brought it within the period —
of the commencement of the greater secondary undulations, and we find it
interrupted by ¢wo very remarkable waves, in both cases rising above the
general surface of the normal wave. On comparing the curve from Oct. 1 to
17, 1845, with that of Oct. 15 to 31, 1842, and bringing the minima in both
cases on the same vertical line, but little if any resemblance can be traced
between them. There are however these interesting exceptions. During —
the first seven and a half days the descent in each case is interrupted by a —
superposed wave, the co-ordinates of that of 1842, being about double those of —
the superposed wave of 1845. The ascent during the succeeding seven and
a half days is also interrupted in each case by superposed waves, but the
characters of them are reversed, the largest occurring in 1845 and the smallest —
in 1842; the relations are nearly similar to those characterizing the super-
posed waves of the descent, that of 1845 being nearly double that of 1842. —
Another most remarkable circumstance is also apparent on the comparison —
of these curves, the displacement of the maxima of these superposed waves,
or the interval between their crests. It is probable that three waves transited
during the seventeen-day undulation, Oct. 14 to 31, 1842, having their re-
spective maxima on the 21st, 25th, and 27th; there are also traces of three _

ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 125

during the seventeen-day undulation of Oct. 1 to 19, 1845, having their re-
spective maxima on the 5th, 10th, and 14th. ‘Taking the same vertical or-
dinates in each curve, we have the epochs of the troughs of the first superposed
waves nearly similar but separated by an interval of civil reckoning of four-
teen and a half days; thatis, the gentle undulation of the last half of September
occurred a fortnight later, and the superposed waves indicating the disturbed
state of the atmosphere, and characterizing the period of greater barometric os-
cillation, came rolling on a fortnight earlier ; the two coinciding and producing
the compound curve really observed. The first of these superposed waves
being about half the size of the corresponding wave in 1842, passed its maxi-
mum about a day and a half earlier, and a small wave succeeding it brought
the minimum on the same vertical line as that of 1842. Ina similar manner
the largest superposed wave in 1845 culminated at a later period of the normal
wave than the smaller wave of 1842. In consequence of these different rela-
tions of the superposed waves of 1842 and 1845, the two apices were much
nearer in 1842 than in 1845.

From these remarks it appears that, taking the barometric movements from
Sept. 14, 1842 to Nov. 25 of the same year, containing two undulations of
seventeen days’ interval, and comparing them with those from Oct.1 to Nov.
21 of 1845, only one undulation of seventeen days’ interval was observed in
the latter year, namely from Oct. 1 to 19; that this undulation was not of the
gentle flowing character manifested by that from Sept. 14 to Oct. 1, 1842,
but was interrupted by the same number of superposed waves as that from
Oct. 14 to 31, 1842; and that this state of things was brought about by the
later occurrence of the normal wave, and the earlier occurrence of the super-
posed waves. Of the two seventeen-day undulations of 1842 the first (Sept.
14 to Oct. 1) returned in 1845.

VIII. In addition to the absence of the second seventeen-day interval, Oct.
14 to 31, 1842, in the observations of 1845; the preceding movements, Oct. 6
to 13, 1842 (the barometer attaining a considerable altitude), were not ob-
served in 1845.

IX. During the period from Oct. 1 to Nov. 21 in 1845, the barometric
movements of Oct. 23 to 26 were the only oscillations that appeared to have
no corresponding movements in 1842.

X. The distinctness with which the great wave commenced in 1842 and
1845, and the breaking off of the exact similarity between the curve of the

' preceding ten and a half days which had been so closely maintained just as
the wave commenced in 1845, exhibit this interesting phenomenon in all its
individuality, and completely separate it from all the preceding barometric

_ movements. ;

XI. The individuality which is thus given to the great wave, the distinct-

ness of its essential features, the close resemblance of its curves in 1842, 1843
_ and 1845, and the closer relations existing between those of 1842 and 1845,
induce the strong belief that we have obtained the ¢ype of the barometric
_ oscillations during the middle portion of November. ‘This type I propose to
_ express in the following language. .
_ That during fourteen days in November more or less equally disposed about
the middle of the month, the oscillations of the barometer exhibit a remarkably
symmetrical character, that is to say, the fall succeeding the transit of the
maximum or highest reading, is to a great extent similar to the preceding
rise. This rise and fall is not continuous or unbroken; in three out of four
i of the occasions on which it has been observed, it has been found to consist of
_ five distinct elevations. The complete rise and fall has been termed the great

_ symmetrical barometric wave of November, and as such has been considered
©

C
Ps

4.

i

126 REPORT—1846.

to result from the transit of a large wave ; but there is great reason to believe
that while it may be due to the transit of a normal wave of about fourteen
days’ amplitude, it also exhibits the transits of five secondary superposed waves
of a similar character to those riding on the wave of seventeen days’ interval,
Oct. 1 to 19 (VII.). The great November wave consequently possesses a com-
pound character : at its setting-in the barometer is generally /ow, sometimes
below twenty-nine inches. ‘This depression is succeeded by éwo well-marked
undulations, varying from one to two days in duration. Thecentral undulation,
which also forms the apex of the great wave, is of larger extent, occupying
from three to five days; when this has passed, two smaller undulations, cor-
responding to those at the commencement of the wave, make their appearance,
and at the close of the last the wave terminates.” This was the order of
things in 1842, 1843 and 1845. The smaller undulations in these instances
were not identical, that is, they did not occur on the same points of the wave
in each case; but the two preceding and the two succeeding undulations to
the larger or central one were well-marked ; the physiognomy of the wave was
readily recognized.

The wave of 1844 exhibited a striking departure from this type in two re-
markable particulars ; the epoch of transit and compound form of wave. The
epoch was considerably earlier than in 1842, 1843 or 1845, namely Oct. 27;
and the compound form consisted only of ¢hree instead of five undulations.
The symmetry however was very apparent. This departure fromthe November
type may probably be connected with the earlier occurrence of the wave;
future observations will doubtless make us acquainted with its cause.

XII. Capt. Larcom of the Royal Engineers has most obligingly forwarded
me, in addition to the observations made during the months of Oct., Nov. and
Dec. 1845, curves of the barometric undulations observed at Dublin during
the Novembers of 1829 to 1845 inclusive. These curves are so admirably cal-
culated to confirm or disprove the views advanced in XI., that I avail myself of
his permission to lay them before you; and I beg to acknowledge the great
obligations I am under to that officer for the valuable assistance he has rendered
me inthisinquiry, both with respect to the immediate subject now under discus-
sion (the great wave), and the return of the other extensive undulations before
alluded to, which are admirably illustrated by the curves with which he has
furnished me, and which I have much pleasure in submitting to the Association.

Review of the essential features of the Great Symmetrical Barometric Wave,
as exhibited in aseries of Curves representing the Barometric Undulations
as observed at Dublin (Mount Joy, Ordnance Survey Office, Phoenix Park)
during the Novembers of 1829 to 1845 inclusive.

[It may be well to notice, previous to proceeding with this review, that
Dublin is not constantly situated in the line of greatest symmetry. In 1842
it appeared to form one of the points in the line, but the observations of Nov.
1845 have shown that this line is not stable. The line of greatest symmetry
appeared on that occasion to coincide to a great extent with the southern
coast of England, so that Dublin was thrown to the north of it. It is pro-
bable this line has a sort of oscillatory motion, and this may to a great ex-
tent explain the nodal character of Brussels asa barometric station, the fixed
point in the line being not far removed from that city. The departure from
symmetry on many of the returns of the great wave at Dublin, may readily
be accounted for by the line of greatest symmetry being considerably removed
from thence. ]

1829. The great wave very distinct; the two anterior undulations well-
marked, the two posterior not so distinct.

ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 127

‘Transit of anterior trough, Nov. 9.
Transit of apex ........ » 16
Transit of posterior trough ,, 23.
Amplitude in time, fourteen days.

1830. The symmetry of the great wave not so apparent; the subordinate
undulations strongly marked.

Transit of anterior trough, Nov. 15.
Branstt of ‘apex 5...) leisy) of GBs

1831. The symmetry of the great wave clearly observable; its amplitude
much smaller ; éwo subordinate waves, one on the anterior, the other on the
posterior slope, well-developed.

Transit of anterior trough, Nov. 6.

Transit of apex ........ ys, bd

Transit of posterior trough ,, 165.
Amplitude in time, nine days. ;

1832. The symmetry very distinct on this occasion ; the curve somewhat
resembled that of 1842; the two anterior and two posterior undulations well-
developed.

Transit of anterior trough, Nov. 9.
Transit of apex ........ 39° GS
Transit of posterior'trough ,, 23.

Amplitude in time, fourteen days.

The trough succeeding one of the posterior undulations is deeper than the
posterior trough of the great wave, a circumstance that occurred in the year
1845 at this station (Dublin). The similarity between the transits of the
great wave in 1829 and 1832, especially as to time, is highly interesting.

The remaining movements in this month were also strikingly symmetrical.

1833. The great wave very difficult to recognize; taking the well-marked
depressions of the seventh and twenty-first as the anterior and posterior troughs,
and regarding the movements between these epochs as due to the great wave,
although greatly concealed by the strongly developed subordinate waves, we
may regard the whole as a transit of the great wave at a station considerably
removed from the line of greatest symmetry ; the two anterior subordinate
waves are strongly marked ; the posterior appear to be broken into a number
of smaller undulations.

' Transit of anterior trough, Nov. 7.
Transit of apex ........ Pa oy
Transit of posterior trough ,, 2i.
Amplitude in time, fourteen days.
1834. The great wave very distinct, the subordinate waves but slightly
_ developed.
Transit of anterior trough, Noy. 7.
DCTSNBIE OPER ol 6 a udrnioscipo-cr Ltn
Transit of posterior trough ,, 21.
Amplitude in time, fourteen days.
_ _ 1835, The great wave very distinct and considerably amplified ; the subors
’ dinate waves distinct but not strongly developed.
j Transit of anterior trough, Nov. 3.
Transit of apex ........ CNANIGE
Transit of posterior trough ,, 21.
; Amplitude in time, eighteen days.
__ 1836. The great wave extremely difficult to recognize ; two well-marked
depressions on the 4th and 17th mark the terminations of a somewhat sym-
metrical system of movements. If these movements may be considered as

Dee ee

eee

128 REPORT—1846,

replacing the great wave, they are characterized by the most remarkable
absence of the central undulation forming its crest; two of the subordinate
undulations, equally posited with regard to the anterior and posterior troughs,
are strongly and strikingly developed; and where the central undulation
should have occurred, raising the apex above thirty inches, a great depression
is seen.

1837. The great wave well-developed ; the last posterior subordinate wave
strongly developed.

Transit of anterior trough, Noy. 1 or Oct. 31.

Transit of apex ........ yee)
Transit of posterior trough ,, 14
Amplitude in time, fourteen days.

1838. The similarity between the curve of this year during the transit of
the great wave and that of 1842 during the same period is very striking ; the
anterior slopes in each case are almost representatives of each other ; the two
subordinate waves on the anterior slopes are so nearly identical as to leave no
doubt of the movements of 1842 being a most decided return of those of 1838 ;
the similarity of the subordinate waves on the posterior slopes is not so distinct,
the two are however well-marked. One striking difference between the
curves must nevertheless be noticed ; in 1838 the anterior trough was lowest,
in 1842 the posterior was lowest.

' Transit of anterior trough, Nov. 7.
Transit of apex ........ lee
Transit of posterior trough ,, 21.

Amplitude in time, fourteen days.

1839. The great wave in this year is very difficult to recognize. A maxi-
mum was passed on the 23rd, subordinate waves were developed on each
side this maximum. There appears to be some similarity in the movements
of this year to those of 1830, the subordinate waves are however not so
distinct. Transit of apex, Nov. 23.

1840. In this year also the great wave is difficult to detect unless the broad
maximum of the 26th forms its crest, in which case the posterior slope runs into
December ; this is borne out by the Greenwich observations, they however ex-
hibit a large development of one of the subordinate waves on the posteriorslope.

In the following table all the above features are collected. The amplitudes
(in all cases except two being of the same extent, namely fourteen days)
strongly confirm the views advanced. These views receive still greater con-
firmation from the epochs of the transits of the crests, which are arranged
according to the days of the month on which they occurred in Table III.

Taste II.

Posterior |Amplitude Remarks,
trough. in time,

Anterior
trough.

1829 Noy. 23 14 Very distinct.

1830 NKeeshsaed ailtssnasees Symmetry not so apparent.

1831 15 9 Symmetry clearly observable.
1832 23 14 Symmetry very distinct.
1833 21 14 Wave very difficult to recognize.
1834 21 14 Very distinct,
1835 21 18 Very distinct.

1836 sevesecest) llibansdats vecote ff oesovcwoge Extremely difficult to recognize.

1837 14 14 Well-developed.

1838 21 14 Similarity between 1838 & 1842 ;
very great.

VESD 4) vecsscossasee liste pereiwi|\seku ene sasneli| teascocens Wave very difficult to recognize.)

BOAUle\Vovercnsececs (teiuseenatncee | lessueoncater ecoreesan Difficult to detect.

ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 129

Taste III.
Distinct, well-marked transits. Doubtful transits.
Year. Epoch of crest. Value. Year. Epoch of crest. Value.
1837 Noy. 6 30:20 1833 Noy. 13 30:03
1831 12 30°32 1830 23 ' 30:12
1835 12 30°40 1839 23 30:13
1838 12 30°36 1840 26 30:23
1845 13 29°87
1834 14 30°48
1843 14 30°27
1829 16 30°47
1832 16 30:21
1842 17 30°35
1841 25 | * 29-79

From the above table it appears that with two exceptions in eleven years
ot distinct and well-marked transits of the great wave, the epochs of the maxima
were confined to five days near the middle of the month, namely from the
12th tothe 17th. The greater proportion, twelve years out of seventeen, in-
cluding 1844, in which the wave has distinctly returned, greatly confirms the
results noticed in sec. XJ., namely that we have obtained the type of the
barometric movements during fourteen days in November, more or less equally
disposed about the middle of the month.

I cannot here avoid noticing another feature of a most interesting character
which isvery strikingly developed in these curves of November; itisapparently
unconnected with the great wave. I allude toa general tendency to depres-
sion in the mercurial column about the last four or five days in the month:
the following are the years in which this depression occurred :—

TaBLeE IV,
och of
Year. | Bal ren Value.
1829 Barometer falling.
1830 Nov. 27 29°40
1832 28 29:19
1833 28 28:31 ‘
1834 28 28-97 r
1835 30 28°86
1836 27 28°81
1837 28 29-26
1838 28 27°77
1839 29 29-08
184] 29 28°47
1842 24* | 28-38
; 1843 26 | 29-15
BA 1844 28 29-74

ei 1845 29 29-08

ee. * A minimum occurred on Nov. 27, value 28°56.

__ This depression has occurred so regularly, only two exceptions having been
“observed in seventeen years, that it appears highly probable that its return
may be expected with as much if not more regularity than that of the great
wave itself, on or near the 28th of the month.
(1846. kK

130 REPORT—1846.

Section II.

Comparison of contemporaneous observations of the return of the Great
Wave, Nov. 1845.

Of the observations that have come to hand, the following have been pro-
jected in curves in order to exhibit the characters of the great wave at various
and distant stations; the epoch of the curves are Nov. 6 to 22, the duration
of the great wave.

Scilly. London. Birmingham.
Helstone. Yarmouth. Stokesley.
St. Catherine’s Pvint. Haisboro. Belfast.
Portsmouth. Heligoland. Galway.

These stations being considerably less than half the number from which
observations have been received, it would be premature to draw any conclu-
sions from a comparison of the curves, as well as appearing to give a preference
to certain observations to the exclusion of others which have been executed
with great care and fidelity, and from which in connection with the whole
the most valuable results are likely to be arrived at. Every exertion would have
been made to have completed the rough projection in curves of all the ob-
servations made during the transit of the great wave, in order to have sub-
mitted to the present meeting a first approximation to its general characters
as exhibited at a diversity of stations, had not the publication of Mr. Brown’s
paper directed my attention to the arrangement of the aérial currents over the
area of the British Isles during the transit of the great wave of Nov. 1842,
the value of which I have alluded to in my introductory remarks.

It may however be important on this head to report the progress made, and
to notice a few particulars merely as indicating the course pursued and the
highly important results likely to be obtained from a complete discussion of
the observations, not only for the period during the transit of the great wave,
but also during the two months over which the observations extend. The
curves are susceptible of a variety of arrangements, according as it may be
deemed desirable to exhibit certain characteristic features of the normal or
secondary waves. In submitting the projected curves to your notice on this
occasion, I have selected that arrangement best calculated to exhibit,—first,
the symmetrical character of the wave, and secondly, the direction in which
this symmetrical character is most departed from.

The first two curves (Scilly'and Helstone) are characterized by three periods
of barometric readings of nearly the same value (slightly above twenty-nine
inches), occurring on the 7th, 11th and 19th; between the 11th and 19th we
find the central undulation forming the crest. "The Helstone curve gives the
greatest symmetrical arrangement. From these curves we may conclude that
Scilly, and especially Helstone, were situated near the line of greatest symmetry.
It is desirable particularly to notice, that at these stations the depressions of
the“7th and 11th are about equal ; there appears to have been no fall from the
commencement of the wave to the depression of the 11th. Two distinct and
well-marked waves (the two at the commencement of the great wave) are
very discernible.

The next two curves, St. Catherine’s Point (Isle of Wight) and Portsmouth,
nearly agree with the two preceding, especially in the depressions of the 11th
and 19th being of equal value. There is however a marked difference be-
tween these curves and those of Scilly and Helstone, in the two anterior waves
being less developed, and the barometer exhibiting a fall from the commence-
ment of the great wave to the depression of the 11th; and this fall is not only
traced towards the E.N.E. through the stations London, Yarmouth and Har-

ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 131

wich, Haisboro and Heligoland, but it increases in value as we approach
the N.E. Now this state of things would result from a large wave passing
from W.S.W., the posterior slope from Heligoland to Scilly. The readings
for contemporaneous epochs at each E.N.E. station would be higher, and the
fall greater. Taking the Helstone curve as the type of greatest symmetry—
consisting in the equality of the three depressions above named, and the whole
of the readings being above these depressions,—we have St. Catherine’s
Point and Portsmouth slightly departing from this symmetry, in the move-
ments from the 7th to the 11th being thrown higher than those at Scilly and
Helstone.

The curves in which we have traced the increase of the fall from the 7th
to the 11th, exhibit a much greater departure from symmetry, in the depres-
sion of the 19th being lower than that of the 11th; and this difference in-
creases in the order in which the curves are arranged, viz. London, Yarmouth,
Haisboro, and Heligoland ; and so great is this difference in the last three
curves, that when combined with the fall from the 7th to the 11th, the baro-
metric movements (abstracting the secondary waves) are of a downward
character, that is, from the 7th to the 19th at these stations the tendency in
the mercurial column is to fall very slowly and gently. At Scilly, Helstone,
Portsmouth and the Isle of Wight, this tendency to fall did not exist.

Birmingham offers a striking difference from the last-named curves; the
departure from symmetry is more apparent, but the downward movement is
confined to the period between the depressions of the 11th and 19th. On
this hand the Birmingham curve is connected with the south-eastern group,
and clearly shows that the symmetry is greatly departed from to the N.E. of
Scilly and Helstone. On the other hand, it is connected with the Scilly and
Helstone curves by the movements of the 7th to the 11th, with aslighter de-
velopment of the two anterior waves; if there is any difference, there is a
slight rise from the 7th to the 11th.

Stokesley in Yorkshire presents features nearly approaching Birmingham,
with a greater departure from symmetry, more especially in the depression of
the 19th, which is deeper.

Belfast in Ireland exhibits the same departure from symmetry, in the de-
pression of the 19th being thrown considerably below that of the 11th; but
there is in this curve a certain return to a symmetrical arrangement of a
somewhat different character to that exhibited by the curves of Scilly and
Helstone; this consists in a most decided rise from the depression of the 7th
_ to that of the 11th: the depressions of the 7th and 19th are thus brought
_ Hhearer to an equality. In these respects (especially the latter) the curves of
| Belfast and Galway strikingly agree, and offer a decided contrast to the south-
_ eastern group, which exhibits a fall to the depression of the 11th.

We thus have the area included by the angular points, Scilly, St. Catherine’s

Point, Heligoland, Belfast and Galway, parcelled out into three barometric

_ areas. Near the extreme southern station the greatest symmetrical move-
ments occurred ; the south-western portion of our island may therefore be re-
garded as the area of greatest symmetry. A line passing from Scilly to

Stokesley will divide the area into two portions, each characterized by dif-
_ ferent and opposite barometric movements, as far as the observations from

_ the 7th to the 11th are concerned. On the N.W. of this line the barometer
~ was rising, while on the S.E. of it, it was falling.

___ We noticed that the fall might be occasioned by a wave passing off toward
i the E.N.E.; now as a rise is occasioned by an anterior slope, a wave coming
_ up from the N.W. would occasion the phenomena observed. In that por-
_ tion of the area covered by the advancing wave the barometer would rise ;

t K 2
i

132 . REPORT—1846.

in that covered by the receding wave it would fall, while in that in which
the two waves interfered so as to counteract each other, a quiescent state of
the atmosphere would result, This appeared to be the case in the area of
greatest symmetry, in which the larger waves so interfered as to exhibit the
smaller secondary waves uninfluenced by them. This leads us to the real
character of the symmetrical wave ; not that there is such a reality in nature,
as will be shown in the next part of this report, but that it results from the
combination of large normal waves moving in different directions so as to
interfere*.

I do not place any stress upon these deductions, as I have alluded to them
merely to show the progress I have made, and that a complete discussion of
the observations is likely to be attended with highly important results. The
results of the examination of Mr. Brown’s observations, as detailed in the next
part of the report, are I apprehend calculated to throw much light on the
inquiry, and when these observations are discussed with reference to the
views there set forth, our knowledge of these interesting movements will I
have no doubt be greatly increased.

Parr IL.
Examination of Mr. Brown's paper on the Oscillations of the Barometer.

In the Philosophical Magazine for April last, Mr. William Brown has
published a paper on the oscillations of the barometer, with particular reference
to the meteorological phenomena of November 1842. The object of this
paper is to show that the barometric oscillations are produced by the meeting
of opposite or nearly opposite aérial currents; that one current thus meeting
or impinging on another, deflects it, and under some circumstances produces
a rise of the mercurial column, but under others occasions a fall in many
cases of considerable magnitude. In order to elucidate his views, Mr, Brown
has collected barometric observations from eleven stations, which are scattered
over an area included by the following angular points:—The Orkneys,
Christiania in Norway, Paris, Plymouth and Cork. These observations are
in most cases given as read off from the scale. In addition to these the
paper is accompanied by six plates, in which the direction of the wind at
numerous stations is indicated for every day during twenty-six days in the
month by arrows. The anemonal observations published in the body of the
paper not being in all cases for consecutive days, a comparison of them with
the plates is rendered difficult ; nevertheless the plates form a very valuable
portion of the communication, and if they have been laid down from accurate
observations, they furnish us with an important addition to our knowledge of
the arrangement of the aérial currents, especially with respect to the distribu-
tion of pressure. It is a matter of regret that Mr. Brown did not so arrange
his observations and plates, that the accuracy of the latter could have been
seen by inspection.

I have alluded to this paper as peculiarly interesting at the present time,
when the attention of meteorologists is directed to the important and interest-

* T have accompanied these curves with one on a smaller scale, representing observations
at the Orkneys by the Rey. C. Clouston. The very striking departure from symmetry is
extremely apparent in this curve by the depression of the 19th sinking considerably below
the readings at any other station. This curve is more in accordance with those from the Irish
stations in the rise from the 7th to the 11th, and it appears to be connected with Heligoland
by the depression of the 11th being but slightly developed ; in this respect it also agrees with
the Stokesley curve. The depression of the 11th is very apparent in the 8.W. curves, and it

gradually decreases as we approach the N.E., where it is much less. The Orkneys appear

to have been under the anterior slope of the wave coming from the N.W. 3

a

oo

—

PS

a

ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 133

ing problem of the barometric oscillations,—one class of philosophers re-
garding them as only the effects of currents of air of unequal temperature
and moisture; and another as the effects of undulations progressing in the
manner of waves of sound, and propagating themselves with great velocity over
large portions of the earth’s surface (Report, 1845, page 30).

It is not my intention to enter into an examination of the conclusions and
results which Mr. Brown has arrived at; as the question is open, I apprehend
I shall not be doing an injustice to that gentleman by employing a rather
different process to that which he has used, and further discussing the ob-
servations he has given. I beg to acknowledge the obligations I am under
to him for these observations, and especially for the plates, of which I have
before spoken: they are extremely interesting in the present inquiry.

In accordance with these remarks, I shall select the following stations from
Mr. Brown’s list:—the Orkneys, Belfast, Shields, Cork, Bristol, Plymouth,
London, Paris, and Christiania. The reason I have omitted Glasgow and
Armagh will be apparent from Mr. Brown’s notes. As I intend to discuss
these observations with especial reference to the wave hypothesis, I shall
most cautiously avoid in my future remarks any thing that may at all bear
on Mr. Brown’s views. The plan I intend to proceed on is as follows. I
shall select the middle observation of each day ; at those stations where only
two are given morning and evening; I shall take a mean of them. These
observations I shall so arrange that they may exhibit the distribution of
pressure over the area for each day—the line or lines of the greatest diminu-
tion of pressure—and the relation of such distribution and of such lines to
the aérial currents or winds. As a convenient method of readily expressing
these various relations and giving to the discussion that completeness which
otherwise it would want, I shall adopt the wave hypothesis, and to every line
of barometric maxima apply the term crest and to every line of minima the
term trough. Ina word, I shall regard the progress of the barometric and
anemonal phenomena as the progress of waves. The observations will re-
main the same both in Mr. Brown’s and my own discussions, the results only
will be different ; and it will remain for other philosophers, by more closely
investigating the subject, and submitting the observations to a more rigorous
and searching discussion, to advance this interesting inquiry and to become
more intimately acquainted with the causes of these interesting phenomena.

Having announced my intention of discussing these observations on the
wave hypothesis, it will be important before commencing such discussion to
supply a deficiency in my two former reports, and endeavour to give a com-
pleteness to them which at present they are destitute of. ‘The nature of the
inquiry occasioned them to be drawn up and presented to the Association in
a fragmentary manner, the first detailing the steps I intended to adopt in the *
examination of the great wave of Nov. 1842, and the second the further in-
formation I had obtained relative to this and other atmospheric undulatory
movements ; and to a certain extent the same remark will apply to the present
report, embodying as it does the progress made since the last meeting of the
Association. The deficiency to which I allude is the notion we form of an
atmospheric wave ; I shall therefore, previous to placing the discussion of Mr.
Brown’s observations before you, as clearly as I can, state the idea I entertain
of such a wave, and in introducing it to your attention I shall avail myself of
Mr. Scott Russell’s designation of the elements of a wave as in figure 1, and
then proceed with the definition of an atmospheric wave.

134 REPORT—1846.

Szcrion I.
Definition and Phenomena of an Atmospheric Wave. ’

When a number of barometric observations are projected on paper accord-
ing to a suitable scale, and continued for months and years, the eye on
contemplating them will recognize a variety of curved forms, some of large
and some of small amplitude; some rising to a considerable altitude, others
sinking far below the level, representing the mean barometric pressure at the
station of observation. At first there appears but little regularity in these
curvilinear records of the ever-shifting state of our atmosphere, but here and
there the attentive observer will notice some similarity existing between two
or more individual curves, and he may notice some which possess a certain
symmetrical arrangement of the ascents and descents. In consequence of
this similarity and symmetrical arrangement, he examines more carefully the
records of barometric pressure, and not only discusses the observations at
one station, but compares those observations with others made at various
stations ; and here again he finds apparent irregularity and confusion. The
curves to a certain extent agree, but in many minor points they differ often
very considerably, in some cases rising at one station while falling at another ;
this induces a still more minute and careful investigation : the distribution of
pressure over the largest area he can command is carefully examined ; and
whether his stations are few or many at any given time, he finds on this area
a point of maximum pressure and a point of minimum pressure; between
these points he finds various pressures, generally increasing from the point of
least pressure to the point of greatest pressure. On some occasions he finds
a line of high pressure, stretching quite across the area, and on others a line of
low pressure. By continuing his inquiries for successive epochs, he finds
these lines of high and low pressure move across the area, or in other words,
the high pressure or low pressure is gradually transferred from one point to
another. He also finds at still more remote epochs other lines of high and
low pressure, some having the same direction with the lines originally noticed,
and others crossing the direction of the original lines at various angles.

The questions which now suggest themselves are the following. What
are these movements? How can they be represented? In what manner
can they be explained? A simple consideration of the curves suggests the
idea of waves as explanatory of the phenomena, and the term atmospheric
wave has been used to designate that ideal individuality which the mind
attributes to the process which it observes of the successive change of place
which the barometric maxima and minima undergo, and by which they re-
gularly succeed each other over the area under examination; this ideal in-
dividuality has been employed as a mean of examining the movements just
alluded to. The line of high pressure stretching across the area (the figure
being supposed to cut this line transversely) has been termed the erest, W ;
the line of low pressure in advance of the crest, the anterior trough, a (the
origin of Mr. Scott Russell’s water wave) ; the line of low pressure succeeding

x >—> xe Fig. 1.
w

7
1
1
1
i
H
!
1
1
4
‘

ke

W, The crest. wa, The amplitude. a, The origin *,
W a, The front. W h, The height. w, The end.
W w, The back.

* Mr. Scott Russell designates the point a the origin; a better term I apprehend would be
commencement.

ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 135
the crest, the posterior trough, w (the end of Mr. Scott Russell's water wave) ;
the line w...h, as measured by the mercurial column, the altitude of the wave;
the slope W a, the anterior slope or front of the wave; the slope W w, the
posterior slope or back of the wave; w a constitutes the amplitude of the wave,
and x x in the same direction, the axis of translation.

The existence of atmospheric currents, especially the equatorial and polar,
has been well-established ; and there is a class of philosophers who attribute
the barometric oscillations entirely to the effects of these currents as con-
tra-distinguished to the effects of waves such as we have just mentioned. In
contemplating the transference of the barometric maxima and minima, we
regard only the wave-motion—but very different must be the atr-motion.
Prof. Dove, in his letter to Col. Sabine relative to the magnetical and mete-
orological observations, has announced his opinion that the equipoise of the
atmosphere is maintained in the temperate zone by currents on the same level
flowing in opposite directions (Report, 1845, page 61) ; thus we have a bed or
stratum of air moving from the S.W., and on each side of this are strata of
N.E. winds. We may here inquire, how are these alternate aérial currents
related to the waves before alluded to? Itis one of the objects of the following

y Fig. 2.
a i ain
m— > > US SCO SS > = SS
SW s—S> Sa Si SS 3—S> Sas evans sw

PS DS Sei => >> .
Vox =e le K << eK mE v

NO =<—_—« <K* << <— << K <———_* NE
pa SS ee eee << aa ee <

discussion to exhibit this relation, which may be thus briefly expressed, at least
in so far as the examination of the observations has yet extended*. Let the
strataa a a! a’, b' b' bb, fig. 2, represent two parallel aérial currents, a a a! a!
being from §.W. and 6! d' b b from N.E., and conceive them both to advance
from the N.W. in the direction of the large arrow, that is the strata themselves
will advance with a lateral motion. Now conceive the barometer to com-
mence rising just as the edge 6 6 passes any line of country, and to continue
rising until the edge 6! bd! arrives at that line, when the maximum is attained.
The wind now changes and the barometer immediately begins to fall, and
continues to fall until the edge a a coincides with the line of country on
which 6 6 first impinged. During this process we have all the phenomena
exhibited by an atmospheric wave ; when the edge 6 8, fig. 2, passes the line
of country, the point a, fig. 1, of the wave (the anterior trough) transits that
line of country and the barometer begins to rise with a N.E. wind. During
the period the stratum J’ 6! dd, fig. 2, transits the line the anterior slope W a,
fig. 1, passes; when the conterminous edges of the strata a’ a’ 5! 6’, fig. 2,
pass, the crest W, fig. 1, extends in the direction of the preceding trough:
the barometer now begins to fall, and when the edge a a, fig. 2, occupies the
place of 4 6, also fig. 2, the descent of the mercurial column is completed ; the

* For this knowledge I am indebted to Mr. Brown’s plates.

136 -REPORT—1846.,

posterior slope W w, fig. 1, has passed, and the posterior trough w, fig. 1, now
occupies the line in which the anterior trough extended.

From these considerations, we readily see that the wave is a convenient
method of representing the barometric fluctuations; we have already noticed
the wave motion, the lateral transference of the parallel beds of aérial currents.
We have seen that the rise is due to the anterior slope and the fall to the
posterior ; and we now further learn that the direction of the aérial current on
the anterior slope is at right angles to the axis of translation directed towards
the left-hand, while on the posterior slope it is the reverse; still at right angles
to the axis of translation, but directed towards the right-hand.

Having thus noticed the wave-motion with its accompanying ai-motion,
these interesting questions suggest themselves. How are the forces of this
air-motion arranged? Jo all the particles move with the same velocity ?
Are there different velocities in different parts of the wave? Our anemo-
meters will answer these questions. In the troughs, the edges 6 6 aa, the
forces are strongest; as the barometer rises, the force gradually subsides; when
the crest passes, it is zero; and as the barometer falls, it increases until the
trough passes, when it is again strongest.

The examination of the transit of a single wave by means of barometric
and anemonal observations, would be comparatively easy, but it seldom
happens, from the operation of natural causes, that an isclated or solitary
wave is produced. In almost every instance (except in those in which the
generating power is very much greater than any which occasions the pro-
duction of smaller waves) the wave is contemporaneous with others of equal,
if not of greater magnitude, so that different systems are in motion at the
same time, each individual pursuing its own course, and although perfectly
independent of every other, yet greatly modifying the resulting phenomena
as exhibited by the barometer and anemometer. When therefore we pro-
ceed with the examination of certain barometric and anemonal phenomena
in the manner above alluded to, we are speedily perplexed with the baro-
metric and anemonal effects of cross waves; the flowing of one set of waves
in a certain direction is apparently interrupted and interfered with by an-
other in a different direction, and before the first set can be exhibited with
its proper proportions, and the true altitudes, amplitudes, velocities, and direc-
tions of its individual waves assigned, all the phenomena of the other set
must be carefully disentangled and separated from the aggregate phenomena
presented by the contemporaneous systems. The barometric curve, including
a complete rise and fall at any one station, is not the curve resulting from
the transit of any one wave; it does not represent the form of any reality
in nature ; but it does represent, and is an exponent of the effects resulting
from the contemporaneous transits of waves, or systems of waves, such as have
been described.

The contemporaneous existence of these cross waves, with their appro-
priate aérial currents, as manifested by the barometer and anemometer, ap-
pears likely to form an experimentum crucis between the conflicting hypotheses,
the oscillations of the barometer as dependent on waves, in contradistinction
to that of the same oscillations as dependent only on the aérial currents.
When a current meets with another at any angle, both are altered in direc-
tion; and if the forces are different, the united current proceeds with an
increased or diminished strength, according to the situation of the station
relative to the separate currents before confluence. This union would of
course influence the barometer; if the station is in a current of slow pro-
gress, and the air possesses considerable density, the barometer would fall
upon the new current being established ; while at another station, where the
force of the wind is great and the pressure low, it would rise when the con-

ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 137

fluence took place. These phenomena, however, could only occur upon the
impinging of currents; upon M. Dove’s theory of parallel currents in oppo-
site directions, it does not appear likely that they can exist. M. Dove has
suggested that these parallel currents may be shifting ones, and we have
supposed that the parallel currents of N.E. and S.W. winds may advance
from the N.W. with a lateral motion. The same cause that~ produces the
opposite and superposed equatorial and polar currents, will also give rise to
the same opposite dué parallel currents in the temperate zone, namely, the
ascending column of heated and consequently rarefied air. Now it is well
known that in stormy weather, when the wind is blowing with great force,
the barometer being nearly at its minimum, upon the wind changing the
barometer commences rising ; the wind however continues to blow with about
the same force as it did with the previous falling barometer. Upon M.
Dove's view of parallel and opposite currents, somewhere in or near the line
forming the boundary between the currents, towards or in the torrid zone,
we ought to find the point of rarefaction, and to this point the N.E. current
would rush with the greatest force to supply the ascending column of heated
air*. This N.E. current would be compensated by a S.W. current of nearly
or quite the same force, situated just to the S.E. Fig. 3.
of it, as in fig. 3, in which let a point of rare-
faction, @ for instance, exist in any locality,
so that a N.E. current may be established to ¥
supply the ascending column; suppose the
greatest force to exist along the line of crossed |
arrows 6 6, the air would be drawn from the
end of this line to fill up the vacuum at a, |
and a compensating S.W. current, ¢ c; esta-
blished. This S.W. current would be established |
partly by the descent of the overflowing current
at a, and partly by the rush to supply the air | \
constantly drawn off to feed the ascending co-
lumn. hen however it is once established, \
the velocity of the line of S.W. current nearest
to the N.E. would probably be equal, or nearly \ a
80, to that of the N.E. current itself. <a

Tn this way it is easy to conceive that a complete barometric wave may be
produced ; the lines of greatest velocity of the parallel currents will indicate
the trough; the rapidity with which the currents pass in opposite directions
greatly diminishes the pressure, and according to this view somewhere near
_ the direction of the trough and to the S.W. of it, we ought to find the point
_ of greatest rarefaction: the velocity decreases on each side this trough,
_ and with this decrease of velocity the pressure increases, so that we have a

_ * Tn attributing the greatest force to the N.E. current, I do not by any means wish to put
_ forward or support any hypothesis that would at all interfere with the well-known fact, that
_ the greatest force is usually manifested by $.W. winds. The point to which I wish more par-
ticularly to solicit the attention of the Association is this, the cause which induces the south~
westerly current itse(f. This must reside in or near the torrid zone. Here we have a suffi-
cient cause; we are presented with phenomena fully adequate to explain an influx of cool air
| from the N.E. This is the current that must first be established, and in the first instance its
force will be greatest. We have however only to turn to Prof. Dove's letter to Col. Sabine
_ (Report, 1845; p. 61), and we shall at once find the reason why S,W. winds manifest by means
_ of our instruments the greatest force. The N.E. currents are narrower, and the force soon
abates as they pass over towards the S.E.; while on the other hand the same station is not
~ only oftener, but longer in the S.W. currents, and as the line of greatest force approaches, the
_ force increases, on some occasions very rapidly, until the wind changes. The lineof greatest
_ force soon passes the station, so that upon a mean of numerous observations the south-westerly
; wind exhibits the greatest force. .

wt
ve

138 REPORT—1846.

distribution of pressure of a wave form gradually rising on each side the
trough, the pressure being dependent on the velocity of the parallel currents,

The constant ascent of air at the point of rarefaction would continually
draw off a quantity of air from the S.E. side of the line of greatest velocity
6 —2, fig. 3, and this would be attended with two results ; first, there would
be a veal hollow or trough formed in the line of junction of the parallel cur-
rents ; and secondly, this line would gradually advance towards the S.E.; for
as more air would be drawn off from that side, the whole body of air would
advance in that direction to supply the deficiency ; and should the rarefying
process cease, we can readily conceive that not only will the wave-form be
continued, but also wave-motion. The establishment of the parallel currents
will give the air-motion ; the diminution of pressure towards the lines of
greatest velocity will give the wave-form ; and the drawing-off of air from
the S.E. will induce the wave-motion. The wave thus generated is negative ;
it consists of a hollow produced by the ascending current of heated air
carrying off a considerable portion of air set in motion by this ascending
column, and its direction of motion is determined by more air being drawn
off from the S.E. slope than the N.W. a

It might be expected that as the trough passed, a motion of the air or
wind from the N.W. (the body of air moving from that. quarter to supply
the constant drain in feeding the ascending current) would be observed; but
so strong must the parallel currents be which give rise to the wave, that
such motion would doubtless be concealed by them.

The barometric and anemonal phenomena would present very regular
phases, provided there was only one system of waves, one set of parallel and
opposite currents constantly passing from N.W. to S.E. I have however in
former reports shown that different systems have contemporaneously traversed
the area over which the observations have extended, and the discussion of
Mr. Brown’s observations has clearly brought to light a set of parallel and
opposite currents at right angles to those we have just been contemplating,
namely, from N.W. and S.E. with a wave-motion towards the N.E., pro-
ducing the cross waves which occasion the complexity before alluded to.
The late Professor Daniell has remarked that the curves increase in range
towards the N.W., and in general the neighbourhood of water presents
curves remarkable for the boldness of their contour and the large extent of
their range. In venturing a speculation on these cross waves from the S.W.
with parallel and opposite currents from N.W.and S.E., I should be inclined
to attribute them to the effect of the solar influence on the terrestrial sur-
face, extending from Cape Verd in Africa to the extreme north of Lapland
in Europe. This surface extends from S.W. to N.E., or somewhat in that
direction. It may be remarked, that to the north-east of Cape Verd is situ-
ated the Sahara or Great Desert of Africa, and here we have a great rarefy-
ing surface. To the north-west or west-north-west of this extensive rarefy-
ing surface, the broadest part of the Atlantic ocean is situated. The relative
positions of the Great Desert and the broadest extent of the Atlantic will.
produce a great indraught of cool air from the ocean ; the direction of this
wind will be W.N.W. or N.W. To the north-east of this current, probably
in the neighbourhood of Morocco, Fez, Algiers, Spain and Portugal, and
the north-west portions of the Mediterranean sea, we ought to find the
counter current from the S.E. or E.S.E., the two portions in juxtaposition
moving with the greatest velocity. Somewhere in the Atlantic the turning-
point of these oppositely directed currents should exist. The line of junc-
tion of these parallel currents will determine the trough of the wave, and as
before shown, in consequence of the air being drawn off from the north-east —
to supply the ascending current, the wave will progress towards that quarter; ~

ae

ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 139

the barometer first descending with the S.E. wind as the trough approaches
stations to the N.E., and rising with the N.W. as the current produced by
the rarefaction approaches, until the crest passes, when the new counter cur-
rent or slope of the next wave would set in *.

Pursuing this idea further, there can be no question that Ireland and
Scotland become points, or unitedly constitute a great point of rarefaction,
forming as they do the nearest land to the northern part of the Atlantic, the
Jand becoming hotter than the neighbouring water, and in consequence a
N.W. current with its compensating current from the S.E. is induced. Not
only will the rapidity of the currents reduce the pressure, but the ascending
column from the land will transfer some of the air into the general current
of the atmosphere, and there will be a real difference in the distribution of
air as well as pressure ; a section transverse to the line of greatest velocity
will exhibit a hollow or trough, and the same phenomena will result from
this arrangement of the aérial currents as we noticed arising from the N.E.
and S.W. currents, the only difference being in direction.

The following marine stations are admirably suited for testing the views
just advanced, and tracing a wave of this system from the most western
point of Africa to the north of Europe.

Cape Verd. Lisbon. Glasgow.
Cape Verd Islands. Oporto. Inverness.
The Canaries and Madeiras. Corunna, The Western Isles.
| The Azores as an outlying Brest. The Orkneys.
! station. The Scilly Islands. |The Shetland Isles.
_ Astation in Morocco near Cape Clear. Christiania.
Cape Cantin. Limerick. Coast of Norway near
Tangier. Galway. the Arctic Circle.
Gibraltar. Markree. Hammerfest or Alten.
Cadiz.

A station in Iceland as an outlier would be very valuable.

The following inland stations are calculated to exhibit the influence of the
land in modifying the waves in their progress towards the N.E.

St. Petersburg. « Prague. Venice. Naples.
Warsaw. Vienna. Rome. Tunis.

In thus considering these rectangularly posited systems of parallel and
opposite currents, many complex anemonal and barometric phenomena re-
ceive an easy explanation, particularly the revolution of the vane in one
- uniform direction, and the barometric wind-rose. When the conterminous
edges of any two currents pass a station, the barometer is either at a maxi-
_ mum or minimum with respect to that particular system of currents; the
_ wind also changes at this time. If the barometer has previously been rising
_ with a north-easterly wind, it now begins to fall with a south-westerly : the
cross currents are however passing at this time with a lateral motion towards
_ the N.E.; in this set of cross currents the barometer will rise with a north-
westerly wind and fall with asouth-easterly. Suppose while the posterior slope
_ of a N.W. wave transits, wind S.W., and before its trough passes, the trough of
the cross wave from the S.W. also transits, and is immediately succeeded by the

_ following anterior slope with its N.W. current, the wind will pass from S.W.
‘to W. Now while this slope continues, upon the trough of the N.W. system
_ passing, the wind changes to N.E., and the resultant of the two currents is N.
It is easy to pursue this reasoning, and thus trace the changes of the wind
_ arising from these two cross systems completely round the compass.

f - * Tn the above suggestion I have considered the northern portion of the African continent
as inducing the N.W. current, but of course, the entire surface, as far as the extreme north of
__ Europe, including Great Britain and Ireland, will act as a rarefying surface.

140 REPORT—1846.

The two systems of cross currents naturally divide themselves into four
beds of opposite currents, namely, N.E. S.W., N.W. S.E.; with the first of
each system, N.E. N.W., the barometer rises, and with the last of each, S.W.
S.E., it falls, so that in the barometric wind-rose the maximum is found
about the N.E., the prevailing system, and the minimum near the 8.W., the
opposite current of this system.

The extent of are which the wind-vane frequently describes, especially in
stormy weather, also receives an explanation from these systems of cross
currents. A contemporaneous S.W. with a N.W. wind will occasion large
ares to be described between these points; the south-westerly gusts prevail-
ing, directing the vane to that quarter; and the north-westerly immediately
following, instantly occasions a change carrying the vane towards the N.W.
These sudden and extensive changes are rendered more distinctly perceptible
by means of a small kite flown with about 250 or 300 feet of string, or even
more ; the distinctness and independence of the direction of the two currents
are readily seen, as well as the difference in their strength.

Col. Sabine has shown in his Report on the Meteorology of Toronto, that
the intensity of the wind increases as the temperature increases. The con-
sideration of these cross currents opens up to us another mode of contem-
plating the force of the wind. It appears probable that the force diminishes
on each side the line of greatest velocity. Now in order to obtain the true
expression of this force, its numerical value, it will be important to correct
the results, either anemometric or those obtained by estimation for the daily
period ; this will give the value of the force of the currents then passing, and
will in a great measure test the hypothesis.

Section II.
Discussion of Mr. Brown’s Observations.

In the following discussion I have first arranged such of the observations
collected by Mr. Brown, or deductions from them, as indicate the barometric
pressure about the middle of each day at the stations before-named, as near
as the data furnished by that gentleman will allow. These observations or
deductions will be found in Table V. The arrangement is such that the eye
may readily ascertain the barometric state of the atmosphere at any station
on any day embraced by the area and period included in the table. The
changes at any one station are also readily seen, the altitudes above 30
inches being distinguished from those between 29 and 30, and those below
29 also being distinguished from the rest. This table forms the basis of the
following deductions which have been thus arrived at. The values corre-
sponding to each day have been arranged with especial reference to the
maximum and minimum of that day 7” space, that is, the station exhibiting
the greatest pressure on any particular day has generally been placed first
on the list for that day; and that exhibiting the least, last. At the head of
each list are placed the directions of the crests as indicated by the observa-
tions. Crests passing from N.W. to S.E. are distinguished by the odd
numbers, and those passing from S.W. to N.E. by the even. When the
observations give two slopes from a crest or trough passing between such
slopes, the observations have been arranged to exhibit this. After the
arrangement of the observations, the lines of the greatest diminution of

pressure corresponding in a majority of cases to tranverse sections of the ©
waves, aud exhibiting either their anterior or posterior slopes, are inserted. —
These are succeeded by the direction of the wind on each side of the crests

as given in Mr. Brown’s plates, and the discussion of each day’s observation
is concluded by a few explanatory notes.

ni

j

i

ete

j

i

eo

ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 141

Taste V.—Barometric Observations, November 1842.

Station. In. | 1.] 2.] 3] 4.) 5.) 6] 7. | 8 | 9. | 10.) 11.) 12.) 13.

Orkneys . . | 30 |:16 | -23 | -24 |-49 | -52 | -46 |-15 |-63 | -80 |-39 | -24 |-10 | -35
Belfast . . - | 80 | ‘33 |°18 |°18 |-45 | -55 | +51 | 43 | -04 | -41 57 | 02 | +21 | 27
Shields. . . | 30 /*17 |-19 |-10 | -34 | -33 | -35 |-27 | 97 ‘28 |-58 |-99 | -07 | 24

Cork. . . . | 30 |-15 |-92 |-83 |-16 |-32 |-30 |-33 |-01 | -42 |-20 |-91 |-31 |-40
Bristol . . . | 80 |*18 | -05 |-96 |-14 | -20 18 |-07 |-60 | :46 | 03 | -31

Plymouth . . | 30 |:21 |:04 | -91 |-15 | 22 | -24 |-24 |-13 ‘72 | °48 | °12 | -46 | °46
London. . . | 30 |°17 |-10 |-96 |*13 | +12 |-16 | -13 | -08 | +70 | -64 | -00 | 33 | 26
Paris . . .| 30 | -04 | 86 |:73 | 80 | -75 | 83 | -89 |-90 |*76 | -63 | -25 | -43 | -53
Christiania. . | 29 |°78 |-11 |°31 | °37 |-27 | -21 | -02 |-67 |-37 |-24 |-48 | -20 | 94

Station. In. | 14.| 15.| 16.) 17.| 18.| 19.| 20.| 21.| 22.) 23.) 24.) 25.) 26.

eS

Orkneys . . | 29 |-76 |-O1 | -22 |-35 |-18 |-91 |-96 |-86 |-43 |-33 |-10 |-07 |-10

Belfast . . . | 29 |-91 |-82/-06 /-51 |-37 86 |-91 |-95 |-42 |-32 |-79 |-82 |-04
Shields. . . | 29 |-82 |*83 |-03 /+45 |-42 |-77 |-85 |-89 |-30 |-27 |-78 | 82 | -99
Cork. . . . | 29 |-60 |-37 |-70 |-31 |-18 | -92 |-80 |-83 |-58 |-10 |-54 | ‘80 | -04

Bristol . . + | 29 |-65 |-61 |-78 | 36 | -42 | -98 79 | 39 |°26 |-79 | 84 |-14

Plymouth . . | 29 | -68 |-64 70 | ‘36 “A7 | +14 |°73 |-79 | 53 | 80 | -91 | -93 | -20
London. , .| 29 |-80 "62 | -79 | "36 |*53 | -06 ‘77 | 82 | +28 | -59 | -92 | °88 | -17

Paris . .. |-29 '67 |°55 | 50 | -99 ‘BB |-17 |-55 |-57 |-13 |-41 02 | -O1 | -17

Christiania. . | 29 |-35 |-70 |-86 |-94 |-11 |-91 |-60 | +54 |-55 | -62 |-66 | -62 | -57

The numbers in the columns immediately succeeding the names of the stations indicate the
initial inch of the barometric readings of the 1st and 14th of November, the succeeding num-
bers are decimals of an inch. Observations above 80 inches are not underlined. Those be-
tween 29 and 30 inches have a single line —, and those below 29 inches a double line =.

November 1, 1842.
Crest No, 1.

Dy Wormers re
Crest No. 2.

SWearoraee ocr hs ke
b Anterior slope, Crest No. 1. Posterior slope, Crest No. 1.
oo Max. Belfast .... 30°33 Max. Belfast .... 30°33
Y Shields ..., 30°17 Bristol ..,. 30°18
Orkneys.... 30°16 Plymouth.. 30°21
Christiania... 29°78 Cork . 0:3 30°15

Anterior slope, Crest No, 2.
London ...... 30°17
Parisy sor Sips s: 30°04

142 REPORT—1846.

Slopes.—Lines of greatest diminution of pressure.

” ” ” Zs ” Paris wees ee ee +29

Currents.—Wind on N.E. side of Crest No. 1, N.W.
gt aS. Wem) 85 bs e changing to S.E.

A decided crest or line of maximum pressure passes across Ireland and
England with a general direction N.W.—S.E. The stations in the first
column are N.E. of this crest, the pressure gradually decreasing. The line
of greatest diminution is Belfast to Christiania. This indicates the anterior
slope of the wave; altitude from Christiania ‘55. The wind along the slope
is N.W. The stations in the second column are S.W. of the crest; at these
stations the pressure. but slightly differs from the maximum; the wind ap-
pears to be changing to S.E. in the S.W. part of our island; this wind is
that due to the posterior slope. The diminution of pressure from Belfast to
Paris =*29. This indicates the anterior slope of a wave at or nearly at
right angles to the former. At two stations the wind is N.E., that of the
anterior slope of this system.

November 2, 1842.
Crest No. 1.

N.W.———————_ SE.
Crest No. 2.
S.W. N.E.
Anterior slope, Crest No. 1. Anterior slope, Crest No. 2.
Max. Orkneys.... 30°23 Max. Orkneys .. 30°23
Christiania... 30°11 Shields.... 30°19

Belfast .... 30°18
London .. 30°10
Bristol .... 30°05
Plymouth.. 30°04

Cork... © .> 29°92
Paris... <3: - 29°86
Slopes.—Lines of greatest diminution of pressure.
Anterior slope, Crest No. 2, Orkneys to Paris...... 37
Posterior slope, Crest No. 1, ” Corks 20. “31
Currents.—Wind on S8.W. side of Crest No. 1, mostly S.E.
” S.E. ” ” ae afew N.E.

The progression of the crest, which was so distinctly developed on the Ist
towards the N.E. and the succeeding S.E. current, is most decided. The
altitudes at Belfast and Christiania are nearly equal, indicating that the crest
is between them. The wind, with but few exceptions, is S.E. over nearly
the whole of Great Britain and Ireland, while at Christiania on the anterior
slope itis N.N.W. The posterior slope from the Orkneys to Cork is well-
exhibited. Altitude from Cork to Orkneys = °31.

The line of greatest diminution of pressure this day, Orkneys to Paris,
crosses that of yesterday nearly at right angles; this arises from the advance
of the anterior slope of the wave (Crest No. 2); at a few stations the wind
is N.E. that of the advancing slope, and these in the neighbourhood of a
line where the wind appears to have been variable. Altitude from Paris to
Orkneys = °37.

ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 143

November 3, 1842.

Crest No. 1.
N.W.——_——_———_S..E.
Crest No. 2.

S.W. N.E.
Posterior slope, Crest No. 1.
Max. Christiania... 30°31 Bristol .... 29°96
Orkneys.... 30°24 Plymouth .. 29°91
Belfast .... 30°18 »Cork....... 29°83
Shields .... 30°10 Paris......% 29°73

London .... 29°96
Slope.—Line of greatest diminution of pressure.

Posterior slope, Crest No. 1, Christiania to Paris...... 58
Currents——Wind on S.W. side of Crest No. 1, S.E.
ie S.E 5 ce 2, N.E. towards trough.

” N.E. 5; » 1, N.W. Christiania.

The crest No. 1 is now approaching Christiania. The observations of
this day offera decided contrast to those of the 1st; the posterior slope of
crest No. | is well-developed, the point of greatest pressure being to the
west of Christiania: the point of least pressure is still Paris, where the
barometer has been falling since the 1st: this station appears to be near the
intersection of the troughs of both waves. The progress of the maximum
point is extremely interesting. On the 1st we find it at Belfast, on the 2nd
at the Orkneys, and on the 3rd at Christiania; the direction of the progres-
sion is consequently undoubted. The general direction of the wind over
England, Scotland and Ireland, is ‘S.E.; that due to the posterior slope, at
Paris and in the South-east of England, the wind is E. and N.E., the anterior
slope of crest No. 2.

November 4, 1842. .
Crest No. 1.
N.W.———_————__ SE.
Crest No. 2.
S.W.———————_NE.
Anterior slope, Crest No. 2.

Max. Orkneys.... 30°49 Plymouth .. 30°15
Belfast .... 30°45 Bristol .... 30°14
Christiania... 30°37 London .... 30°13
Shields .... 30°34 Parigy 21.0. chee 29:80
Cork ..... . 30°16 :

Slope.—Line of greatest diminution of pressure.
Anterior slope, Crest No. 2, Orkneys to Paris...... °69
Currents.—Wind on S.W. side of Crest No. 1, S.E. at a few stations.
ee S.E. 4s » 2, N.E.

The anterior slope of crest No. 2 is well-developed, and the evidence of
__ its extending over the whole of the British islands extremely strong ; also the
_ establishment of its proper wind N.E.; a few stations exhibit the S.E. wind
as the posterior slope of crest No. 1 is passing off. The line of the greatest
diminution of pressure is identical with that of the 2nd, namely, Orkneys to
Paris, but it is nearly doubled in value, being now equal to ‘69, showing
that the greatest curvature is approaching.

The crest No. 1 appears now to be over Christiania, or a little to the east of it.

144 REPORT—1846.

November 5, 1842.
Crest No. 1.

NW. SE.
Crest No. 2.
S.Wette ero NE.
Max. Belfast ...... 30°55
Orkneys. ..... 30°52 > Probable direction of Crest No. 2.
Gork ,...00-8 18032
Shields ...... 30°33)

Christiania.... 30°27
Plymouth ..., 30°22
Bristol en fu 30°20
Hondon =... .COULZ
Paris). eo TO

Slope.—Line of greatest diminution of pressure.
Anterior slope, Crest No. 2, Belfast to Paris...- *80.

Currents.—Wind on S.E. side of Crest No. 2, N.E.

The anterior slope of crest No. 2, extending from Cork, Belfast and the
Orkneys to Paris, is well-developed. Belfast is the highest point, Paris the
lowest. Altitude from Paris ‘80. The posterior slope of crest No. 1 is now
scarcely perceptible. The wind is that due to the anterior slope of crest
No. 2. The following table will show the gradual approach of the anterior
slope of this wave. Paris the lowest point :—

Belfast to Paris,

November 1........ *29
ee, Gee 32
“ CW hee 45
3 AU Wire al avergra ‘65
sy Big o ciagieeds “80

November 6, 1842.
Crest No.2.

SW JE.
Anterior slope, Crest No. 2.

Max. Belfast .... 30°51 Plymouth .. 30°24
Orkneys,,.. 30°46 Christiania,, 30°21
Shields .,.. 30°35 London,... 30°16
COrk ig. «5 30°30 Paris ...... 29°83

Slope—Line of greatest diminution of pressure.
Anterior slope, Crest No. 2, Belfast to Paris.... *68.
Currents.—Wind, with but few exceptions, N.E., anterior slope of Crest
No. 2.

Nearly the same state of the barometer is maintained over the area as on
the 5th, with nearly similar winds. The anterior slope of crest No. 2 is still

strikingly developed. The greatest curvature has passed with a very slight _

fall at Belfast and a very slight rise at Paris.

ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 145

November 7, 1842.

Crest No. 2.
We NE
Crest No. 3.
We
Crest No. 2. Posterior slope, Crest No. 2.
Max. Belfast.... 30°43 Max. Belfast.... 30°43
Cork .... 30°33 Orkneys... 30°15
Shields .. 30°27
Plymouth 30°24
- Bristol... .. 30°18
London .. 30°13 }Anterior slope, Crest No. 2.
Christiania 30°02 |
Paris .... 29°89 J
Slope.—Line of greatest diminution of pressure.

Anterior slope, Crest No. 2, Belfast to Paris...... "54.
Currents.—Wind on S.E. side of Crest No. 2, N.E.
stn Nes 4 3, 5 W-

advancing anterior
3, N.W. he
slope of new wave.

» N.E. ”

The crest No. 2 has now passed the Orkneys, which exhibits a falling
barometer and the §.W. wind. The trough between crests 1 and 3 is now
to the N.E. of Belfast and Paris; the higher readings in the south-west part
of the area, with the lower in the north-east, clearly indicate the advancing
anterior slope of the new wave. Diminution of pressure from Belfast to
Christiania, *41.

November 8, 1842.
Crest No. 2. ;
SW ee ON
Crest No. 3.
NIG saa eB
Anterior slope, Crest No. 2. Posterior slope, Crest No. 2.
Max. Plymouth.. 30°13 Max. Plymouth.. 30°13
London .. 30:08 Corkins. cOOL
Bristol .... 30°07
Paris” ...3) 29°90
Anterior slope of Crest No. 3.

London...... 30°08 Christiania...... 29°67
BeWese cy. ss 30°04: CHICBEYS 4.7 = = t= 29°63
Shields ...... 29°97

Line of greatest diminution of pressure. Plymouth to Orkneys .. *50
Currents—Wind on S.E. side of Crest No. 2, N.E.
a N.W. a 2, S.W.
46 N.E. c 3, N.W.
The crest No. 2 appears on this day to pass from Plymouth towards Bris-
_ tol and London. The direction of the line of greatest diminution of pres-
f sure varies considerably from that of the three preceding days; this partly
_ arises from the great fall which commenced on this day at the northern ‘sta-
_ tions, Orkneys, Belfast and Christiania; and from the anterior slope of the
+ wave (crest No.3). The direction of the wind is closely in accordance with
crest No. 2, passing in the direction from Plymouth towards London, being
_S.W. on the north-west side of the crest.
: 1846. L

146 REPORT—1846,

Anterior slope, Crest No. 2.

The wave (crest No. 2), with its front towards the south-east, has been
very distinctly developed during the preceding days. The altitude of the
crest appears to have subsided as the wave progressed ; the highest reading
at Belfast was 30°55 on the 5th, at London 30°16 on the 6th, and at Paris
99:90 on the 8th. The following tables exhibit the features of the anterior
slope. Table VI. shows the barometric rise and fall at stations arranged
more or less with regard to a line cutting the crest of the wave transversely.
The depressing influence of the wave, crest No. 1, is clearly seen at London
and Paris on the 5th. Tables VII., VIII. and IX. exhibit the depression of
the south-easterly stations below those to the north-west of them while the
anterior slope passed.

Taste VI.—Barometric differences arising from Anterior and Posterior
Slopes of Crest No. 2.

Epoch. Belfast. Bristol. London, Paris
Nov. 2 —15 —13 —07 —18
hy 00 —09 —'14 —'13
Pa | +:27 +:18 +17 +:07
a +:10 4-06 aes | a
» 6 a Oe Baa 4-04 4-08
Bary é —'08 —'O1? —'03 +:06
ae —'39 —ll —05 +01

Belfast. London. Tondap:

30°33 30°17 — 16
18 10 —'08
18 29:96 —'22
“AD 30°13 —'32
5D 12 —43
“51 16 —'35
“43 13 —'30

30-04 30-08 +04

Taste VIII.

Epoch. London. Paris. =_
Nov. ] 30:17 30°04 —'13
ar: 10 29-86 —24
» 3 29°96 73 —'23
ie | 30°13 80 —-33
pant) 12 ‘75 —37
68 16 ‘83 —'33
orenid 1 “89 —"24
= 8 3008 29-90 —18
Se ee ee
TaseE IX.

Epoch. Belfast. Paris. bie
Noy. 1 30°33 30°04 —-29
Bi 18 29°86 —32
We 18 73 —-45
oe 45 80 —65
Uirneg 55 75 —'80
» 6 51 +83 —'68
na | 43 “89 —54
8 30°04 29°90 —'14

4
ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 147

November 9, 1842.
Crest No. 2.

S.W. N.E.
Posterior slope, Crest No. 2.

Max. Paris...... 29°76 Belfast .... 29°41
Plymouth .. 29°72 Christiania... 29°37
London..,. 29°70 Shields .... 29°28
Bristol .... 29°60 Orkneys.... 28°80
orks: S18 a 29°42

Slope.—Line of the greatest diminution of pressure. Paris to Orkneys, ‘96

Current.—Wind on N.W. side of crest, S.W., fully established.

The posterior slope of crest No. 2 now comes into full view, stretching
from Paris to the north-west coasts of Ireland and Scotland, with its proper
wind S.W. The altitude of this slope from the Orkneys to Paris is *96.
The greatest altitude of the anterior slope, from Paris to Belfast, was °80.
It will be seen that the greatest oscillation has been in the north-west, Paris
exhibiting but a very slight oscillation, 17, while that at the Orkneys has
amounted to 1°72.

The following table exhibits the fall of the barometer on the 8th and 9th:

TasLE X.—Fall of Barometer, November 8 and 9, 1842.

Station. November 8. | November 9.
| Orkneys........00. “52 83
Christiania........ 35 30
39 63
30 69
32 59
‘ll AZ
‘ll Al
05 38
+01 14

From these numbers we learn that the greatest barometric fall, as well as
_ the greatest oscillation, occurred in the N.W. The fall gradually decreases
as we approach the S.E.
It appears to me that the difference of oscillation at two stations, as the
Orkneys and Paris, may be thus explained. The curves in the north-west
_ of Ireland, as determined by the discussion of Sir John Herschel’s hourly-
_ Observations, are remarkable for boldness and freedom of contour and great
range of fluctuation. The late Professor Daniell found, from an examina-
_ tion of the Manheim observations, that the range increased towards the north-
_ west, and that the greatest oscillation occurred in the neighbourhood of water.
_ Now a wave generated in any way and approaching the continent of Europe
_ from the north-west, would most probably impinge on it with a high and in

i some cases acuminated crest 5 Veale but as it passed onward

the crest would gradually subside Cee et ea tis) gy BO Ga eae eae
ae considerably to the south-east the fluctuations would be very much

less than at or near its point of genesis. Again, a negative wave, with a

deep trough also approaching from the north-west , would

present large fluctuations as it impinged on the land; but after passing on-
L2

148 REPORT—1846.

wards, the opposite to subsidence would take place; the depth of trough

would decrease™ ~~ -~____—_ , and the oscillations to the south-east

would also decrease. Such phenomena appear to be presented by the ob-
servations from the 5th to the 10th of November 1842.

November 10, 1842.
Crest No. 2.

S.W. N.E.
Crest No. 3.
N.W. SE,
Max. London...... 29°64

Shields... 9958 (Near crest No.8
Belfast ...... 29°57
Plymouth.... 29°48
Bristol soi as 29°46 pe posterior slope, No. 3.
ark co42 3024" 29°20

Orkneys .... 29°39
Christiania .. 29°24

Slope-—Line of greatest diminution of pressure on posterior slope of
Crest Now2. Londen to Cork (5. psi eeccd seats ne. oS "44.

Altitude of anterior slope, Crest No. 3. Christiania to London.. *40.

Altitude of posterior slope, Crest No. 3. Cork to Belfast........ "37.

Currents.—Wind on N.E. side of Crest No. 3, N.W.

se. DW 9% 5 3, S.E.

* posterior slope of Crest No. 2, S.W.

oS anterior slope of Crest No. 4, N.E.
Trough succeeding Crest No. 2 now transits Christiania.

The direction of the crest No. 3 is nearly identical with that of No. 1,
which passed Great Britain and Ireland on the Ist. This appears to suggest
that they were either successive crests of the same system of waves, or were
succeeding waves produced by the same disturbing causes. The altitude of
crest No.3 is about half an inch less than that of crest No.1; but between
the transits of the two crests a wave from the N.W. with a deep posterior
trough has passed the area, which has probably depressed crest No.3. The
interval between the crests Nos. 1 and 3 is equal to nine days.

It was noticed in the remarks on the 9th, that the great difference in the
oscillation at the Orkneys and Paris most probably resulted from the sub-
sidence of the crest as it progressed. The crest No.3 came from the S.W.,
so that a line from Plymouth to Christiania would cut it more or less trans-
versely ; the ranges however are nearly the same at both stations. The crest
which traversed England on the Ist arrived at Christiania on the 4th; at this
time the barometer had commenced rising at Plymouth from the anterior
slope of crest No. 2, and it continued rising until the 7th, when the crest
passed. At Christiania the barometer had fallen from the posterior slope of
crest No.2. It appears from a careful comparison and consideration of the
barometric movements at Plymouth and Christiania, that crest No. 2 passed
Christiania about a day earlier than it did Plymouth, that is, the longitudinal
direction of the crest was such as to cause it to pass over Christiania while
Plymouth was still under the anterior slope of the wave, the sections passing
over Christiania and Plymouth being separate and distinct. The character
of the passing wave is well-determined at both stations, the posterior slope

\ Under anterior slope, No. 3.

exhibiting a rapid and deep fall, which took place alike at Christiania and 7

Plymouth.

_—

ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 149

The crest No. 2 passed Cork, Belfast and the Orkneys on the 5th, Ply-
mouth on the 7th, and Paris on the 8th, with a diminution of oscillation.
We find however no diminution of oscillation at Christiania as compared with
Plymouth. It is highly probable, the subsidence of the crest, as it proceeded
towards Paris, resulted from the influence of the land in England, while both
at Plymouth and Christiania the crest was but slightly interfered with by
the influence of land, the difference of level resulting from the anterior slope
of crest No. 3.

These considerations exhibit a large wave of considerable breadth and slow
motion, extending in a longitudinal direction from the extreme south-west of
England towards the Swedish capital.

Nov. 10.—Mr. Brown’s diagram for this day very distinctly and beautifully
exhibits the change of currents resulting from the transit of crest No. 3, as
well as from the progress of the posterior trough of crest No.2. The trough
of the latter wave is now between the Orkneys and Paris (the deep trough
before mentioned), the wind in the south-eastern portion of the diagram is
S.W., the strength increasing-towards the trough. At Thurso and North
Shields the wind is N.W., the anterior slope of crest No. 3; in the south-
west of Ireland, the wind is S.E. (posterior slope). The N.E. wind on the
anterior slope of the wave succeeding crest No. 2 is seen on the north-west
side of the trough.

November 11, 1842.

Crest No. 2.
s.W.——_____—_————_N.E.
Crest No. 3.
N.W.—__—_—————-S.E.

Max. Christiania ...... 29°48 Crest No. 3.

3 sea 7 het, site \ Under posterior slope of Crest No.2.
ee ‘dibt pins In the neighbourhood of posterior
Shields... .l..u0. gaooe} ) troughs Crest No.2,

Cork .......... 28°91} Posterior trough, Crest No. 3.
( Under anterior slope of wave succeed-

Meliast tes 29°02 . :
2 ing Crest No.2 and posterior slope
Orkneys ........ 29°24. i i aa No. 3. P P
Max. Christiania ...... 29°48
Orkneys ‘o/s 29°24:
Belfast.......... 29°02 >Under posterior slope, No.3.
Shields........ -. 28:99 |
Cork stent auatt.« 28°91 J
London ........ 29°00
Paris: ii6 oes wie) ast 202)
ie aa ahr page Under posterior slope, No. 2.
emis ih oda 28°91
Slopes.—Lines of greatest diminution of pressure.
On posterior slope of Crest No.3. Christiania to Cork.. *57 «
On posterior slope of Crest No 2. Paris to Cork ..... » “34

Currents —Wind on N.W. side of Crest No.2, S.W.
i S.W. 7 ef 3, S.E.

* Depressed by posterior trough of Crest No. 2.
+ Depressed by posterior trough of Crest No. 3.

150. . REPORT—1846.

The progressive motion of the two posterior slopes is very discernible.
Crest No. 3 has passed the Orkneys and arrived at Christiania seven days
after crest No. 1 passed that station. We found an interval between the
crests as they passed the central parts of England of nine days. Most pro-
bably a discussion of observations at shorter intervals and more numerous
stations, especially to the north-east of Christiania, would explain the dis-
crepancy. The difference in level is very much greater than that which cha-
racterized the transits of the crests over the centre of England, but in the
interval between the crests passing England and Sweden, the deep trough of
crest No. 2 has advanced, which must very considerably have depressed the
crest at Christiania, as compared with the English stations ; indeed so great
was the depressing influence of the wave, crest No. 2, that no rise is recorded
as crest No. 3 passed Plymouth.

Crest No. 2 is situated considerably to the south-east of Paris, so that its
progress is not perceptible on the area; but that of its posterior slope is very
clear. On the 9th, the deep posterior trough of this wave passed the Orkneys
with a depression of 28°80 ; (bearing in mind thet its direction was S.W.—N.E.)
another section passed Christiania on the 10th, 29°24; and a third passed
Plymouth on the 11th, 29°12.

Symmetrical Wave.—On this day the great symmetrical wave commenced
at London; the position of this station was nearly similar under both slopes,

November 12, 1842.
Crest No. 3.

N.W.———_———-S..E..
Crest No. 5.
N.W.—— S.E.
Christiania ...... 29:20
Orkneys .......- 29:10 >Under posterior slope, No. 3.
Mint. a Shields.)-ee sere 29:07
Trough.
Belfast: ee rehet 29:21
Cork, .: 29°31
Sa 5 age es Under anterior slope, No. 5.
Panis: awisen sae 29°43
Max. Plymouth ...... 29°46

Slopes.—Lines of greatest diminution of pressure. —
On posterior slope of Crest No. 3. Christiania to Shields.. 13
On anterior slope of Crest No. 5. Plymouth to Shields.... +39
Currents.—Wind on S.W. side of trough, N.W.
A few stations exhibit a S.W. wind on the posterior slope of Crest No. 2.
The receding posterior slope of crest No 3, the intervening trough, and
the approaching anterior slope of crest No. 5, are brought fully into view
this day ; the wind also is in close accordance with the transit of these waves.
The wave (crest No.3) appears to be much smaller than that of No. 1; the
interval between the crests, as passing the centre of England, was found to
be nine days; the epoch of the passage of the intervening trough occurred
on November 7 ; interval between the troughs five days, taking the last in-
terval as the amplitude in time of the wave; it is clearly much smaller than
the preceding.

Symmetrical Wave-——London is situated under and rising from the ante- —

rior slope of wave No. 5.

ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 151

November 13, 1842.

Crest No. 2.
S.W. N.E.
Crest No. 5.
N.W. S.E.
Anterior slope, Crest No. 5.
Max. Paris ...... 29°53 London...... 29:26
Plymouth .. 29°46 Shields ...... 29°24
Cork fk 29°40 Orkneys .... 29°35
Belfast .... 29°27 Christiania .. 28°94

Slope—Line of greatest diminution of pressure.
Anterior slope, Crest No.5. Paris to Christiania.. *59.
Trough succeeding Crest No. 2. Between Paris and Orkneys.
Trough between Crests Nos. 3 and 5 now transits Christiania.

Currents.—Wind on S.E. side of trough No. 2, S.W.

2? rm 9? 39 ”» ”?

The anterior slope of crest No. 5, the third wave of the S.W. system, is
well-developed; but the prevailing winds are those due to the S.E. and N.W.
sides of the trough succeeding crest No. 2.

It appears from a consideration of the continuation of the tables appended
to Nov. 8, that one or two small waves rode in the trough succeeding crest
No. 2, which entered on the area on the 9th, and most probably traversed it
during the next four days, presenting the same slowness of motion as the
crest itself. :

Symmetrical Wave.—London is situated under the anterior slope of crest
No.5 and the posterior slope of crest No. 2, and falling either from the latter
slope or the posterior slope of one of the small waves riding in the deep
trough.

November 14, 1842.

Crest No. 5.
N.W. S.E.
Crest No. 4.
. S.W. N.E.
Max. Belfast ......-- 29°91
Shields ......-- 29°82 Near the Crest No. 5.
London......-. 29°80
Orkneys ....-- 29°76 d
Glsiute BN mini" Sy Under anterior slope, No. 5.
Plymouth ...... 29°68 ;
ee aT oe Under posterior slope, No. 5.
Cork. .antiaties: 29°60

Slope—Line of greatest diminution of pressure.
Anterior slope, Crest No. 5. Belfast to Christiania... *56.
Currents.—Wind on advancing slope of Crest No.4, N.E.

ij N.E. side 3 5 5, N.W.
” S.W. ” ” ” 5; S.E.

The crest No. 5 now passes over Great Britain and Ireland much in the
same direction as the crests Nos. 1 and 3 (compare Nov. 1 and 10). Its
altitude is about -25 higher than that of the last S.W. crest; the advancing
slope of the second N.W. wave has approached, raising the present crest.

152 REPORT—1846.

Symmetrical Wave.—The crest No. 5 forms the second subordinate maxi-
mum on the anterior slope of the great symmetrical wave (see plate 2 ap-
pended to Sir J. Herschel’s Report, 1843, and plate 3, illustrating the volume
of Reports, 1845). The first strongly developed rise and fall on the anterior
slope of the symmetrical wave appears to be a small wave riding in the
trough (A%).

It appears highly probable that the large wave from the N.W. possessed
both a broad crest and broad trough, with a very slow progressive motion.
The anterior slope of crest No. 4 appears to have commenced riding over
Christiania on the 10th.

November 15, 1842.

Crest No. 5.

NN ee
Crest No. 4.
4 Ogata are apre mmr sO
Anterior slope, Crest No. 5. Posterior slope, Crest No. 5.
Max. Orkneys.... 30°01 Max. Orkneys.... 30°01
Christiania, 29°70 Shields .... 29°83

Belfast .... 29°82
Plymouth .. 29°64
London.... 29°62
Bristol .... 29°61
Pats ee 29°55
Cark 17,22 29°37
Slope.—Line of the greatest diminution of pressure.
Posterior slope, Crest No.5. Orkneys to Cork.. *64
Currents.—W ind on anterior slope of Crest No. 4, N.E.
P posterior As As 5, S.E,

The southern coasts of England exhibit a S.W. wind.

The progression of the crest No. 5 in the same direction as crest No. 1
(see Nov. 2), is very discernible; there can be no doubt of its being a wave
of the same system.

Symmetrical Wave.—The barometer at London has fallen from the pos-
terior slope of No. 5, but the anterior slope of No, 4 is gently raising it.

November 16, 1842.
Crest No. 5.

N.W. S.E.
Crest No. 4.
S.W.—____N.E..
Anterior slope, Crest No. 5? Anterior slope, Crest No. 4.
Max. Orkneys.... 30°22 Max. Orkneys.... 30°22
Christiania.. 29°86 Belfast .... 20°06

Shields .... 30°03
London.... 29°79
Bristol .... 29°78
Plymouth .. 29°70
Corks: ..2eea2ore8
Paris: ch.':im 29°50

Slope.—Line of greatest diminution of pressure. f

Anterior slope, Crest No. 4, Orkneys to Paris.. *72 f
Currents.—The winds this day appear to be those due to the anterior slope
of crest No. 4, or resultants of that and the posterior slope of erest No. 5. ‘

«2suntnige nia tls pel

ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. ° 153

The posterior slope of crest No. 5:is well and strikingly developed, and the
advancing slope of crest No. 4, the succeeding wave to that of No. 2, is in-
dicated by the line of greatest pressure, Orkneys to Paris, *72 (see Nov. 2,
when the first wave from the N.W. was coming up).

Symmetrical Wave.—London is situated under the posterior slope of crest

~ No. 5 and anterior slope of crest No. 4, and slightly rising from the latter.

:
J

November 17, 1842.

Crest No. 7.
ON eer
Crest No. 4.
Anterior slope, Crest No. 4. Anterior slope, Crest No. 7.
Max. Belfast .... 30°51 Max. Belfast .... 30°51
Shields .... 30°45 Orkneys... .~ 30°35
Bristol .... 30°36 Christiania.. 29°94
Plymouth .. 30°36 Posterior slope, Crest No. 7.
London .... 30°36 Max,,. Belfast. ... 30°51
Prarie iat 6 ae. 29:99 rl) sion 6 30°31
Slopes.—Lines of greatest diminution of pressure.
Belfast to Paris........ "52

Belfast to Christiania .. *57
Currents.—Wind on anterior slope of Crest No. 4, N.E.
» posterior ,, > Sil des

In the south-west of Ireland and England the wind is easterly, being the re-
sultant of these forces.

The anterior slope of crest No. 4, extending from Belfast to Paris, is well-
developed with its proper wind N.E. This anterior slope may be advantage-
ously compared with the anterior slope of crest No. 2, which occupied the
same area on the 5th (interval twelve days). The altitude on that occasion
from Paris to Belfast was equal to °80, on the present it is only equal to ‘52.
This may to a certain extent be explained by the presence of crest No. 7,
which this day passes over Belfast, so that this crést elevates the anterior
slope of No. 4. The anterior slope of crest No. 7 is well-developed towards
the Orkneys and Christiania, and the diminution of pressure resulting from

_ the posterior slope is conspicuous at Cork; we have consequently two crests
_ traversing the area and crossing each other at Belfast.

Crest No. 4 passes the Orkneys, Belfast, Shields and Cork this day.
Symmetrical Wave.—London is situated nearly under the crest of No. 7

_ and under the anterior slope of crest No. 4, and rising from the latter.

November 18, 1842.

Crest No. 7.
N.W.——______———-S..E..
Crest No. 4.
S.W.——_——__——_—_——_N.E.

Transit of the Crest of the Great Symmetrical Wave.

a Anterior slope, Crest No. 4. Crest No. 4:

— Max. London .... 30°53 Max. London.... 30°53

WAPIG/ <i! 2 1,42 D010 Plymouth .. 30°47
Bristol .... 30°42
Shields .... 3042
Christiania,. 30°11

154 REPORT—1846.
Posterior slope, Crest No. 4. Anterior slope, Crest No. 7.
Max. London.... 30°53 Max. London .... 30°53
Shields .... 30°42 Christiania.. 30°11
Belfast .... 30°37 :
Corks sain. 80°18

Orkneys .. 30°18

Slopes.—Lines of greatest diminution of pressure.

Posterior slope, Crest No.4. London to Cork...... "35
” ” 39 ” 4. ” Orkneys. evbya *35
Anterior slope, Crest No. 7. _ ,, Christiania.. °42

Currents.—Wind on posterior slope of Crest No. 4, S.W.

A few S.E. directions indicating the posterior slope of Crest No. 7.

The crest No. 4 has advanced with considerable rapidity as compared with
No. 2. It now passes London. The depressions to Cork and the Orkneys
are equal; these lines are on the posterior slope; the crest No. 7 rises between
the stations. This crest appears to have a very slow motion ; its anterior slope
is well-seen in the diminution of pressure from London to Christiania, =-42.

Crests Nos. 4 and 7 cross at London.

Symmetrical Wave.—The crest passes over London; it is identical with
the crest No. 4.

November 19, 1842.

Crest No. 7.

|

Crest No. 4.
S.W NE.

(
Max. Paris ...... 30°17 i
Pitincutl 4, 80:1 i Under anterior slope, Crest No. 9.

London .... a0 06) Under anterior slope, Crest No. 9, at a
Bristol .... 29°98 > lower level
Cork ...... 29°92) ;

Belfast .... 29°86
aiths /Bhidkisitiy< at Near the trough between 9 and 7.

Orkneys.... 29°91 ‘
Ghirinteg net Saat Under posterior slope, Crest No. 7.
Slopes.—Line of greatest diminution of pressure.
Paris to Shields.... °40

Currents.—Wind on posterior slope, No. 4, S.W.
” ” ” ” Te S.E.

Symmetrical Wave.—London is situated under the posterior slope of crest
No. 4 and anterior slope of crest No. 9, not far removed from the preceding
trough.

The crest No. 4 has now passed considerably to the S.E. of Paris, which 9
exhibits the greatest pressure ; the posterior slope extends in the direction to- _
wards Belfast, although Shields is the minimum point. The trough between —
crests 7 and 9 passes somewhat near Belfast and Shields.

ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 155

November 20, 1842.
Crest No. 9.

MO ee a ee
Crest No. 6.
SU te ee.
Anterior slope, Crest No. 6. Anterior slope, Crest No. 9.
Max. Orkneys.... 29°96 Max. Orkneys.... 29°96
Belfast’ °) 2. 29°91 Christiania.. 29°60
CORRS S FG 29°80

Shields .... 29°85

London .... 29°77

Plymouth .. 29°73

Paris <2) .'5's - 29°55

Slope.—Line of greatest diminution of pressure.

Anterior slope, Crest No. 6. Orkneys to Paris .. *41
Currents.—Wind on anterior slope of Crest No. 6, N.E.

5 posterior ,, J » 9, S.E. and E.

The observations of this day, both barometric and anemonal, indicate the
presence of an anterior slope of a wave succeeding crest No. 4 of the N.W.
system. Crest No. 9 now passes over the Orkneys and between Christiania
and Paris..

Symmetrical Wave, two days after transit.—London is situated under the
anterior slope of crest No. 6 and posterior slope of crest No. 9.

On the 16th, two days before transit, London was similarly situated with
respect to waves Nos. 4 and 5, with nearly the same barometric pressure.

On the 13th a permanent rise took place at London, which continued until
crest No. 4 passed the station. It appears that this should be carefully distin-
guished from the rise and fall of the 16th to 19th, the latter being due to
a separate and distinct wave.

The curve from noon of the 16th to midnight of the 19th appears to re-
present the form of the N.W. wave riding on the top or superposed on the
normal or great symmetrical wave.

November 21, 1842.

Crest No. 11.
N.W.2-—— SE.
Crest No. 6.
S.W.—@____—___-N.E..
Crest No. 11.
Max. Belfast .... 29°95
Shields .... 29°89
Max. Belfast .... 29°95
Orkneys.... 29°86 } Under anterior slope.

\ Near the crest.

Min. Christiania... 29°54
the Pastis ue, ae \ Under posterior slope.
Crest No. 6.
Max. Belfast .... 29:95)
Corks wins ins 29°83
SS Ni na aah De Meo the anterior slope at
Plymouth .. 29°79 different levels.
London .... 29°82
Min. Paria 6 s<s0° 29°57

156 REPORT—1846.

Slopes.-—Lines of greatest diminution of pressure.
Anterior slope of Crest No. 11. Belfast to Christiania .. *41*

Anterior slope of Crest No. 6. Belfast to Paris........ “38
Currents.—Wind on anterior slope of Crest No. 6, N.E.
44 posterior ., syimw igs, UO ESB
Another S.W. wave now transits the area, and the crest of No. 6 is rapidly
approaching.

Symmetrical Wave, three days after transit—London is situated under the
anterior slope of No. 6 and posterior slope of No. 11, and slightly rising from
the former.

On the 15th, three days before transit, London was similarly situated with
respect to waves 5 and 4.

November 22, 1842.
Crest No. 11.

N.W.——__——————-S..E..
Crest No. 13.
N.W.———_——-S..E.
Crest No. 6.
SOW NE
Max. Cork ...... 29°58

Belfast .... 29°42

Orkneys .... 29°43 All under the anterior slope of
Plymouth .. 29°53 crest No.6. The trough between
Bristol .... 29°39 No. 11 and 13 is seen at Belfast
Shields .... 29°30 and Shields, the stations being ar-
Christiania .. 29°55 ranged to exhibit this.

London .... 29:28
PATIS).e yjoaehets 29'13

Slopes.—Lines of greatest diminution of pressure.

Anterior slope, Crest No. 6. Cork to Paris ...... “45
Posterior slope, Crest No. 9. Christiania to Paris.. *42

Currents.—Wind on S.W. side of trough between crests 11 and 13, N.W.

A few S.W. directions as Crest No. 6 passes.

The anterior slope of crest No. 6 is still strikingly developed from Cork to
Paris ; the trough between crests 11 and 13 extends in the direction of Belfast
and Shields.

Symmetrical Wave, four days after transit.—-London is situated under the
anterior slopes of crests Nos. 6 and 13, The barometer has fallen from the
posterior slope of crest No. 11.

November 23, 1842.

Crest No. 13.

NWS aes es
Crest No. 6.

ee ie
Max. Christiania... 29°62
London .... 29°59
Paris’, .'s2., 20°
* From a comparison of the St. Petersburg observations, it appears that wave, crest No. 11,

was a small wave, and that the diminution of pressure, Belfast to Christiania, was compounded
of the anterior slopes of crests 9 and 11, that of 11 being very small. See Postscript.

} Under anterior slope, Crest No. 6.

‘|

a ee ee

ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 157

London .... 29°59
Boyan ne saad Under posterior slope, Crest No. 6.
Shields .... 29-97 )

oe Bist snl Under posterior slope, Crest No. 6,

Orkneys.... 29°33 J at a lower level.

Slopes.——Lines of greatest diminution of pressure.
Posterior slope of Crest No. 13. Christiania to Cork.... °52
Posterior slope of Crest, No.6. London to Cork ...... *49
A trough between crests No. 13 and 15 extends in the direction of Cork
and Bristol*.
Currents —Wind on S.W. side of this trough, N.W.
i N.W. ,, Crest No. 6, S.W.

Crest No. 6, the third of the N.W. system, now passes London five days
after the transit of crest No. 4, the second of this system. Christiania at this
time exhibits the greatest pressure; most probably the crest No. 13 is ap-
proaching this station, and this, combined with crest No. 6, produces the in-
creased pressure. At the transit of crest No. 4 Christiania exhibited the
least pressure ; the difference may probably be explained by the transits of the
cross waves.

Symmetrical Wave.—London is situated under the crest of No. 6, not far
removed from the trough, between crests 13 and 15.

November 24, 1842.

Crest No. 13.
1[ 3) 2 EE eg eS
Crest No. 6.

S.W N.E.

Max. Christiania.. 29°66)
Paris: 2.0.08 29-02
London .... 28-92

. Plymouth .. 28°91 |
Bristol .... 28°79 p
Shields .... 28°78
Cork 2. . 5S. 28°5k
Belfast .... 28°79
Orkneys.... 29:10)

Max. Christiania.. 29°66)

Orkneys.... 29°10 |

Belfast .... 28°79 > Under posterior slope, No. 13.
Shields .... 28°78 |

Cork ...... 28°54)

London .... 28°92

* The barometric fall between the 21st and 23rd, that occurred at all the stations except
one, appears to have given rise to an apparent regression of the trough observed in the neigh-
bourhood of Belfast and Shields on the 22nd. It was shown that on the 22nd the anterior
slope of crest No. 6 was coming up from the N.W., so that the fall of the 21st resulted from
the posterior slope of crest No.9. On the 23rd the crest No. 6 passes London, and we have
at some stations a much more sudden fall than resulted from the passage of the posterior slope
of crest No.9. We may therefore regard the trough in the direction of Cork and Bristol as
an indication of the approaching trough of crest No. 6, rather than a new trough between 13
and 15. Should this view be correct, the line of greatest diminution of pressure, Christiania

All except Christiania under posterior
slope of Crest No. 6.

_ to Cork, will be on the posterior slope of crest No. 9,

158 REPORT—1846.

Paris 5 ou 2 29°02 }
hee aa + Under posterior slope, No. 6.
Cork ...... 28°54 J
Slopes.—Lines of greatest diminution of pressure.
Christiania to Cork.... 1°12. Slope, No. 13.
Paris 59) fas} avela ts Me AS a 34
Currents.—Wind on posterior slope of Crest No. 6, S.W.
” ” ” » » 13, S.E.

East in the north of Scotland and the Orkneys.

The progressive motions of the two slopes are well-seen from the obserya-
tions of this day, which may be very advantageously compared with those of
the 11th, when the movements were similar; crest No. 13 has advanced. to
Christiania with the succeeding trough ; crest No. 6 has advanced to or be-
yond Paris.

Symmetrical Wave.— London is situated under the posterior slope of crest
No. 6, not far removed from and to the S.W. of the posterior trough of
crest No. 13.

November 25, 1842.

Crest No. 13.
hfe nae ee ee EH
Crest No. 6.

SVS ee Ns

Max. Christiania.. 29°62)
Paris pate cie ss) ZO
London.... 28°88

A fae i % pi \ Most probably all under the posterior

Shields .... 28°82 slope of Crest No. 6.

Cork. jom:< 28°80
Belfast .... 28°82
Orkneys.... 29:07
Max. Christiania.. 29°62 }

Orkneys.... 29°07

Belfast .... 28°82 Under posterior slope, No. 13.
Shields .... 28°82 |
Ea ay lat 28°80 J
London .... 28°88
Paris’... 2. 29°01
Plymouth .. 28°93
Bristol .... 28°84
OF tains 28°80

Slope.—Lines of greatest diminution of pressure.
Posterior slope, No. 13. Christiania to Cork., *82

Under posterior slope, No. 6.

Posterior slope, No.6. Paris to Cork ...... 21
Currenis.——Wind on posterior slope of Crest No. 6, 5.W.
2? te 9 ” ” 13, S.E.S.
59 anterior ,, 3 gg? LE NW

The barometric state of the atmosphere much the same as yesterday ; the
greatest difference occurs at Cork, most probably from the advancing slope
of the wave, crest No. 15. The wind is closely in accordance with the wave
slopes.

ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 159

November 26, 1842.

Crest No. 13.
S.E.

Crest No. 6.

PN ns eid EE oe EN
Crest No. 15.

NENA eee eee ee

Max. Christiania,. 29°57
Orkneys.... 29°10

Min. Shields .... 28°99 Trough.
Belfast «... 29:04)

\ Under posterior slope, No. 13.

Corks css 29°04:

rea? Bee ai + Under anterior slope, No. 15.
Pariatisé.. 803 29°17

Plymouth .. 29°20

Paristie gee 29°17 )

London .... 29°17 |

Bristol .... 29°14 pe posterior slope, No. 6.
Belfast .... 29°04

Cork:.4 4% . 29°04 j

Slopes.—Lines of greatest diminution of pressure.
Posterior slope, No.13. Christiania to Shields .. °58
eS 3 gy Oe.” Paris tot @ork: men en: 13
Anterior ,, ,, 15. Plymouth to Belfast .... °16
Currents.—W ind on posterior slope of Crest No. 6, S.W.
” ” ” » » 15, N.W. -

The advance of the anterior slope of crest No. 15 is well-seen from the
observations of this day. The wind proper to it, N.W., has increased in the
S.W. portion of the area. It appears that the motion of the waves—crests
Nos. 13 and 15 with the included trough—is slower than that of the waves,
erests Nos. 3 and 5 (see Nov. 11 and12). The same arrangement of stations
as to the distribution of pressure which required only ene day to establish
in the case of waves 3 and 5, has occupied éwo days in the case of waves 13
and 15. The distribution of pressure was similar on the 11th and 24th; it
was also similar on the 12th and 26th.

Section III.

Results of the foregoing Discussion,

In collecting the results of this discussion, I have arranged in Tables XI. and
XII. the principal lines of diminution of pressure; the succession of waves
as well as the distinct systems become very apparent from these tables. The
succeeding Tables XIII.and XIV. exhibitthe principal features of the respective
waves of each system. The most prominent result appears to be the con-
firmation of Prof. Dove's suggestion of parallel and oppositely directed cur-
rents. The diagrams of the wind in connection with the barometric obser-
vations clearly exhibit such currents, and we see by a glance at Tables XIII.
and XIV. that the beds of these currents varied considerably in breadth. At
the opening of the observations they were very much broader than at the
close, and the N.W. system (waves No. 2, 4, 6) were altogether larger than

the S.W. We have in fact two systems of waves or currents crossing each

160 REPORT—1 846.

other at right angles, the individuals in both gradually decreasing in size. In
the speculation which has been ventured relative to the S.W. system, the
mass of terrestrial surface forming the N.W. boundary of the great eastern
continent has been assumed as the rarefying surface, producing the set of
parallel and oppositely directed S.E. and N.W. winds, the currents gradually
shifting towards the N.E. The gradual contraction of the beds of each
system as the observations proceed is a highly interesting feature, which re-
quires a more extensive discussion for its elucidation.

Tasie XI.—Exhibiting the principal lines of the greatest diminution of
pressure of the N.W. system of waves, Nos. 2, 4, and 6.

Epochs. Directions. Values. Slopes,

Nov. 1 [Belfast to Paris ......... ‘29 Anterior, No. 2
2 {Orkneys to Paris......... 37 2

4 Orkneys to Paris......... 69 2

5 {Belfast to Paris ......... 80 2

6 |Belfast to Paris ......... 68 2

7 |Belfast to Paris ......... “54 2

9 |Paris to Orkneys......... 96 Posterior, No. 2

10 |London to Cork ......... “44 2

IL, AN Paris'to0\Cork ‘scceceessaes 34 2

16 |Orkneys to Paris......... 72 Anterior, No. 4

17 _—‘|Belfast to Paris ......... 52 4

18 |London to Cork ......... 35 Posterior, No. 4

18 {London to Orkneys...... 35 4

20 |Orkneys to Paris......... “Al Anterior, No. 6

21 ‘|Belfast to Paris ......... 38 6

22 [Cork to Paris «........... “45 6

24 _|Paris to Cork: s.....0s0s.< “48 Posterior, No. 6

25 .|Paris to,Cork -ssvs-seneess “21 6

26) "Paris to Cork s.,..cck-- es 13 6

TasLe XIJ.—Exhibiting the principal lines of the greatest diminution of
pressure of the S.W. system of waves, Nos. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15.

Epochs, Directions. Values. Slopes.
Noy. 1 [Belfast to Christiania... "55 Anterior, No. 1
3 |Christiania to Paris...... 58 Posterior, No. 1
1l_‘|Christiania to Cork...... 57 3
12 |Christiania to Shields... 13 3
12 |Plymouth to Shields ... “39 Anterior, No. 5
13 ‘|Paris to Christiania...... 59 5
14‘ |Belfast to Christiania ... “56 5
15 |Orkneys to Cork......... “64 Posterior, No. 5
17 _—_‘|Belfast to Christiania ... 57 Anterior, No. 7
18 |London to Christiania... 42 7
21 ‘| Belfast to Christiania ... “41 Anterior, No. 11
23 |Christiania to Cork...... 52 Posterior, No. 13
24 Christiania to Cork...... 1:12 13

———

ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 161

TABLE XIII.—Exhibiting the principal features of the waves of the N.W.
system Nos. 2, 4, and 6.

Wave No. 2.
Winds.
Epochs. Phases. Directions and Localities. VACANCES eae
Anterior | Posterior
— _Slope._|_Slope._
Nov. 1 Crest. N.W. of the United Kingdom ......
2 Crest. N.W. of the United Kingdom ...... N.E.
3 Crest. N.W. of the United Kingdom ...... ae N.E.
4 Crest. N.W. of the United Kingdom ..,....; 3049+] N.E.
5 Crest. From Cork to the Orkneys ......... 30°55 N.E.
6 Crest. SiH; Of, Belfastil nosee's detsaoscaasecaces 30°51+| N.E.
7 Crest. S.E. of the Orkneys .......sssesessseee 3043+] N.E. | S.W.
8 Crest. Passes Plymouth..........s..cseeeseeees 30°13
2 Crest. NH Of Barigg 22-64 s50scsfGncsanntsessés 29-904 S.W.
9 | Post. Trough. [Passes the Orkneys.......06 sessecesees 28°80 S.W.
10 | Post. Trough. |Near the eastern coast of Ireland
: extending to Christiania............ 29°24 S.W.
11 Crest. Considerably S.E. of Paris............
11} Post. Trough. /Passes Plymouth....... matehecs EEE 29-12 S.W.
Wave No. 4.
Noy. 17 Crest. Passes Belfast ........ssssssesceceesecees 30:51 | N.E. E.
18 Crest. Passes London .......ssceeceseeeeeenes 30:53 | N.E. S.W.
19 Crest. Considerably S.E. of Paris....... aah
Wave No. 6.
Noy. 21 Crest. N.W. of Belfast and Cork ........ Fr ha cercce N.E.
22 Crest. Near Cork, Belfast and Orkneys...... 29°58
23 Crest. Passes London ......sssenseseseescaees 29°59 S.W.
24 Crest. Near to or S.E. of Paris...... cae Perse S.W.

Tazsrie XI1V.—Exhibiting the principal features of the waves of the S.W.
system Nos. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, and 13.

Wave No. 1.

Winds.
Epochs. Phases. Directions and Localities. Algtudes.| |=
Anterior | Posterior

Slope. Slope.

Nov. 1 Crest. Belfast to Paris <.......cececessseeceeee 30°33 | N.W. S.E.
2 Crest. Between Belfast and Christiania ...| 30°23+-|N.N.W.| S.E.
3 Crest. W. or S8.W. of Christiania ............ 30:31+]| N.W. S.E.
7 | Post. Trough. |N.E. of Belfast and Paris ............
Wave No. 3
Nov. i Ant. Trough, |N.E. of Belfast and Paris ............
Crest. S.W. of Belfast and London ......... Peecen SNA
o Crest. Belfast to! Paris” cccccccessecncsec-oce0se 29°64 | N.W. S.E.
11 Crest. |Near Christiania ............ce0...sceeee 29:48 S.E.
12 | Post. Trough. |Between Belfast and Shields......-.. |

1846. M

162 REPORT—1846.

Tasie XIV. (continued).
Wave No. 5.

Winds,
Anterior. | Posterio:

Directions and Localities,

Slope.
Noy. 12 | Ant. Trough. |Between Belfast and Shields.........
13 Crest. S.W. of Cork, Plymouth and Paris...
14 Crest. Belfast to London ......sessssseeseeees S.E.
15 Crest. Passes the OrkneyS......+ecseceecseceee S.E.
16 Crest. Between Orkneys and Christiania... Eg
Wave No. 7.
Noy. 17 Crest. Pasnes CMAs 203s 2ccercesscenspess cones 30°51 S.E. E>
18 Crest. Between Cork and the Orkneys......
19 | Post. Trough. |Near Belfast and Shields ............. S.E.
Wave No. 9.
Nov. 19 | Ant. Trough. |Near Belfast and Shields ............
2 Crest. Passes the OrkneyS.......s0ee+.seee0++- 29°96 S.E.
Wave No. 11.
Noy. 21 Crest. Near Belfast and Shields ............ 29°95 | N.W. |S.E.E.>
22 | Post. Trough. |Near Belfast and Shields ............
Wave No. 13.
Noy. 23 Crest. S.W. of Christiania.....,...0-2...-0+0s- 29°62
Post. Trough. |Cork to Bristol ............+6 “Prepeh f

b Resultants of N.E. and S.E. currents.

Part II].— Desiderata.

In addition to briefly reviewing the progress made in this inquiry, it may —

be well to glance at the desiderata that now present themselves to our notice.
The object of this report, in connection with the preceding ones, has been to
show that we have observed on some occasions the successive returns of ex-
tensive barometric undulations, that these undulations have exhibited a certain
physiognomy, and that we have been able to recognize and characterize them ;
that when these undulations have been observed at various and distant
stations, and the observations carefully reduced and compared, they have been
resolved into separate and distinct waves of pressure, each having an advan-
cing front, a crest extending in a certain direction, a receding posterior slope,
and bounded by an anterior and a posterior trough. It is the object of the
second part of this report particularly to show that these characteristic
features of a wave are intimately connected with a certain arrangement of
the aérial currents first suggested by Prof. Dove, consisting of horizontal
and parallel beds of oppositely directed winds. In his letter to Col. Sabine,
the Professor speaks of these currents as northerly and southerly, the mean
direction being converted into south-westerly in the northern hemisphere by
the rotation of the earth. The examination of Mr. Brown’s data has clearly
developed a set of parallel and opposite currents at right angles to these,

Hiatthiicrrintonscs

——

vt ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 163

namely, from N.W. and S.E.; and it has been suggested that these two sets
of oppositely directed currents, N.E.—S.W. and N.W.—-S.E., continually cross-
ing each other, occasion the complexity of the barometric and anemometric
phenomena, and that in future discussions these should be particularly taken
into account. Should the views thus advanced be substantiated, we are
beginning to unravel some of the complicated problems of meteorological
research : still much remains to be done; we are as yet only on the thresh-
hold of the vast meteorological arena now opening upon us. The subject, over-
whelming with interest, naturally divides itself into two branches. First, the
determination of the phases of the larger undulations,—-the barometric curves
which include complete elevations and depressions of the barometer, and
which represent, and are exponents of, the effects resulting from contemporane-
ous transits of waves or systems of waves such as have been previously
noticed. These, with the smaller secondary waves superposed on their slopes,
form the types of the various seasons of the year. Second, the absolute extent
of each normal wave of each system in space, as it exists with the smaller
superposed waves riding on its slopes. ‘The direction of its crest, its am-
plitude in miles, the altitude of its crest above, and the depression of its
troughs below the surface of general repose of the atmosphere, the place of
its formation, the manner in which it is propagated, the precise direction and
extent of its motion, the force with which it is translated from place to place,
and the locality of its final extinction, are questions which the present state
of our knowledge is inadequate to resolve.

These desiderata regarding the waves as resulting from parallel and op-
positely directed currents, may be thus expressed. The absolute extent, both
as regards length and breadth of each current with that of its counter and
oppositely directed current, together forming the two slopes of the wave
with its included trough ; the points or lines of intersection of the two systems
of parallel and oppositely directed currents; the precise direction of the
conterminous edges of the currents, the lines in which the velocity of the
wind is greatest answering to the included trough; the amount of the dimi-
nution of pressure resulting from this velocity below the mean pressure of
the atmosphere ; the locality of the formation of these currents; the direction
in which they advance with a lateral motion; the force with which they are
translated by means of such lateral motion from place to place, and the
locality of their final extinction or disappearance.

With respect to the first branch of inquiry, the phases of the larger un-
dulations, the seasonal barometric types, but little has yet been done towards
its accomplishment. ‘There is some hope, as mentioned in the foregoing re-
marks, that we have obtained the type of fourteen days in November for one
locality only ; and we have also a glimpse of the character of the movements
during a portion of October. This is however very small compared with
the extent of the problem. At the utmost it will only amount to the twelfth
partof the annual type; even the 24th cannot yet be said to be fully established.
Again, the station of observation is to be taken into account; were the
entire year's observations for one station projected, and year after year such
observations compared, we should only have the annual type at thaé station.
The examination of the symmetrical wave of 1842 has already shown that
there is a line of greatest symmetry as far as that wave is concerned, namely
Dublin, Birmingham, Brussels and Munich; and the discussion of the equi-
noctial and solstitial observations, 1835 to 1838, has clearly established
Brussels as a nodal point, and we find it situated on this line of greatest
symmetry. At very short distances N.E. and S.W. of the line of greatest
symmetry of 1842, the symmetry is departed from. On the return of the

great wave in the autumn of 1845, the line of greatest symmetry appears to
M 2

164 REPORT—1846.

have been confined to the southern shores of England: Brussels is not far
removed from this line; so that while the symmetry on the last return is
considerably departed from at Dublin, it is highly probable that at Brussels
the movements are more in accordance with its nodal character. It is there-
fore important for the complete determination of the problem, not only to
obtain the annual type at one station; we also require it at numerous stations ;
and we ought to be furnished with local types similar to those, but more ex-
tensive, which Sir John Herschel has established for different stations from
the observations of 1835 to 1838.

It has already been observed that the barometric curves at any one station
do not give sections of waves passing the station, that is, the curve as pro-
jected is not a section of the wave then transiting, but exhibits the effects
of two or more systems of waves passing at the same time. Now as like
causes produce like effects, it is highly probable that there may be a general
flowing of the larger normal waves in the same direction, about the same
season of the year ; and as we have seen in the case of the symmetrical wave
that the secondary waves are erratic, sometimes falling on one point and
sometimes on another of the normal waves, these normal waves may be
crossed at these seasons by similar systems of secondary waves slightly re-
moved froma normal epoch year after year, giving rise to a similarity, within
certain limits, between the eombined barometric curves as observed at the
stations. These combined curves furnish us with the local and annual types.

While this labour is accomplishing, and we are in progress of obtaining
annual and local types, we may be accumulating information that will bear
considerably on the second branch of our inquiry. At present we are un-
able to answer these questions fully. We have obtained some glimpses of
the vast extent of these waves, and in our contemplation of them we must,
as Sir John Herschel beautifully observes, enlarge our conception till in the
extent of their sweep and the majestic regularity of their progress they
approach in some degree to the tide waves of the ocean; still our knowledge
of them is very small. The volume of any one atmospheric wave, the extent
of surface it covers, indeed any particular feature we may name and which
we may wish to be exhibited to us in all its details, we must still reckon among
our desiderata.

In closing this report, I beg to acknowledge the valuable assistance I have
received from the following public bodies and gentlemen.

To tHe British GovERNMENT I am indebted, through the hands of the
Astronomer Royal and Lieut-Col. Sabine, R.A., for the volumes of Greenwich
Magnetical and Meteorological Observations for the years 1840 to 1843, and
the volume of similar observations made at the Colonial Observatory, Toronto,
in the years 1840, 1841 and 1842. Iam also indebted to both the above-
named gentlemen for the readiness with which they have furnished me with
extracts from the records of their respective observatories, and for many
valuable suggestions which I have received, especially from Col. Sabine.

To tHE Lorps ComMISsIONERS OF THE ADMIRALTY I am indebted for
several valuable sets of observations made on board our surveying vessels,
and received through Rear-Admiral Beaufort, our excellent hydrographer.
To this gentleman I am peculiarly indebted for the lively interest he has
taken in forwarding the inquiry, and also to the officers under whose directions
the observations have been made, for the care and fidelity with which they
have been executed. The names of the respective officers of Her Majesty's
surveying vessels will be found in Table I.

To tHE HonouRABLE THE CORPORATION OF THE TRINITY HousgE, I am
indebted for the ready access which has been afforded me to the records of
meteorological observations kept at certain lighthouses; and I take this op-

ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 165

portunity of testifying to the care and fidelity with which the observations
are made daily by the lighthouse keepers. The situation of the lighthouses
at which observations have been made especially to assist in this inquiry, will
be found in Table I. ; and I am greatly indebted to the Corporation for certain

- modifications in the observations at these lighthouses, which have been made at

my suggestion in order that the subject should receive the fullest investigation.

To tHe Roya Socrery I am indebted for several sets of observations
extracted from records preserved in its archives. In connection with the
Society, I may mention the kind assistance I received from the late Pro-
FEssoR DaAnrELL; and IJ take this opportunity of recording the kindness
and urbanity which he ever manifested, when applied to in reference to this
or any other scientific inquiry.

To Sir Joun F. W. Herscuet, Bart., I am under peculiar and
especial obligation: the kindness I experienced from that gentleman while
engaged in discussing the quarterly observations, called for and collected by
himself, demands the most lively gratitude ; and I take this opportunity of ac-
knowledging this kindness, and particularly the publication, in the report
drawn up by Sir John, of the remarks which had been suggested in the course
of my labours, and which I had communicated at intervals. I need scarcely
mention that this report forms the foundation of all my subsequent labours,
and that we must ever regard Sir John as the first individual who has given
an impetus to this inquiry, and who has first trodden the field to which Prof.
Forbes some years since directed the attention of meteorologists. It has been
well-said by Col. Sabine, “that Sir John Herschel is the father of all our
modern researches in meteorology ; to him we owe all our hourly observations,
and to him we are indebted for those systematic arrangements by which
meteorology will take its due place among the sciences.” The observation
of the great symmetrical wave in November 1842, was an immediate con-
sequence of the discussion of Sir John’s hourly observations. It resulted in
fact from a continuance (at such intervals as I could command) of the
observations until a complete rise and fall of the barometer had been observed,
and projected in a curve on a similar but reduced scale to that used in the
projections of the quarterly observations. My former reports carry on the
history ; in them I have mentioned the further assistance I have received from
Sir John, which I have now great pleasure in acknowledging.

To Cart. I.arcom, R.E., I am indebted for a valuable series of observa-
tions, accompanied with curves during October, November, and December
1845. I have already alluded to these in the body of the report.

To Proressor Puitiies and Dr. Stevetty I am indebted for some
valuable series from the north of England and Ireland. I am also indebted
to Dr. Luoyp for several extracts from the records of the Dublin observatory :
also to Str THomAs BrisBaAneg, Proressor Nicuor and Sirvanus THoMp-
son, for observations made at their respective observatories.

To Proressor QueETELET I am indebted for a valuable series from the
observatory at Brussels, and for several series of the quarterly observations
collected by himself, which may be most advantageously used in such inquiries

__as the present.

To E. W. Bray ey, Jun., Es@., of the Lonpon Instirurion, I am greatly
indebted for the valuable assistance which he has on several occasions in con-
nection with this inquiry most readily afforded me; especially the great in-

terest which he manifested at the commencement of the discussion of Sir

John Herschel’s quarterly observations which materially contributed to the

_ reductions being entrusted to my hands; and I take this opportunity of acknow-
_ ledging, not only such assistance, but also the direction which that gentleman
_has given to my earlier studies, and the advice he has offered me in prosecuting

166 . REPORT—1846.

my inquiries. The interesting conversations on this and kindred subjects that
Ihave had with him during the last ten years, have greatly assisted me in my
labours. I am also indebted to GEorcr GwittT, Esa. and to E. Jonnston,
Esgq., for the assistance afforded by those gentlemen, in my earliest endeavours
to observe and trace a complete wave.

To the gentlemen named in the third column of Table I., I am indebted
for observations at the stations recorded in the first column of that table,
which have been made with great care, and mostly at the hours named in the
instructions.

I cannot close this report without remarking, that many of the observations
which have thus been collected and partially discussed, owe their existence en-
tirely to the auspices of this Association ; and should the further discussion
of them be entrusted to my hands, the same care shall be manifested which
I have endeavoured to exhibit in my previous labours; and by examining
them in every point of view and under every possible aspect, I trust the re-
sult will be such as fully to accord with the great object of the Association ;
and should no new facts be elicited, yet it is to be hoped that these observa-
tions, called for as they have been by the Association, will confirm the sug-
gestions, and throw considerable light on the labours of several eminent
meteorologists, so that in these respects subjects at which we have only ob-
tained a glance, may be brought fully into view, and thus by means of these
observations the science in some degree advanced.

Of the grant of £7 placed at my disposal I have expended £3 3s. 3d. As
nearly the whole of the observations on the return of the great wave in the
autumn of 1845, as well as those during the previous October are at present
unreduced, I respectfully request a continuance of the grant.

W. R. Birt.
Postscript, April 10, 1847.

During the period between the sitting of the Association and this report
passing through the press, I have been furnished, by the liberality of the
Royal Society, with the magnetical and meteorological observations made
during the year 1842 at various stations in the Russian empire. These
stations embrace’an area extending over 195 degrees of longitude. The ob-
servations at St. Petersburgh, the nearest station to those given by Mr. Brown,
in a great majority of cases fully confirm the results arrived at in the pre-
ceding discussion, and in others the views obtained by means of Mr. Brown’s
observations are corrected, and considerable light thrown on the real character
of the smaller waves traversing Great Britain and Ireland. In addition to
these advantages, the Russian observations, in connexion with others, exhibit
to us the vast area over which the slopes of these waves extend, so vast that
they actually approach in the extent of their sweep and the regularity of their
progress to the tide-waves of the ocean. But this is not all ; the records of the
Russian observatories contain ample materials for carrying out the suggestion
of Sir John Herschel, expressed in the close of his Report on Meteorological
Reductions (Report, 1843, page 98), “ that when dealing with undulations of
such extent, it is by no means a visionary speculation to consider the possi-
bility of tracing them over the whole of our globe.” The area embraced by
Mr. Brown’s and the Russian observations extends over 235 degrees of lon-
gitude ; and it is apparent from the observations themselves, that the greater
fluctuations are readily traceable. Our Colonial Observatory at Toronto will
carry on the observations from Sitka, and the stations on the eastern shores
of America will enable us to trace the waves from the eastern to the western
shores of the Atlantic, over the vast continents of Europe and Asia.

The following table contains the altitude of the barometer at St. Peters-
burgh during the twenty-six days included by Mr. Brown's observations.

————

,

ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 167

Whenever the results obtained by means of Mr. Brown’s observations are
either confirmed or illustrated by them, a reference is made to the day on
which the particular wave, as indicated by the observations given in page 141,
is either identified with one as developed by my previous investigations, or
more clearly exhibited and its true character more distinctly brought to light.

TaBLe XV.—Barometric readings at St. Petersburgh, 1842. Nov. | to 26,
at noon, illustrating Table V.

Date, Eng. In. Date. Eng. In, Date. Eng. In,

Noy. 1 | 29°449 | Nov. 10 | 29:890 | Nov.19 | 30-155
1] “659 20

2 | 29-795 29°866
3 | 30213 12 870 21 “776
4 222 13 617 22 “419
5 251 14 530 23 | 29-585
6 | 30-164 15 139 24 | 30:032

7 | 29:961 16 ‘450 25 080
8 963 7 682 26 110
9 | 29-916 18 848

November 5. Crest No. 1.—The observations of Nov.1 indicated a crest
which passed across England and Ireland with a general direction N.W.—S.E.
This crest is now vertically over St. Petersburgh. We have traced it from
Belfast, past the Orkneys to Christiania, and we now find it at St. Petersburgh.
The observations of this day, as given by Mr. Brown, clearly indicate the
direction of crest No. 2, so that the point of intersection of the two crests,
Nos. 1 and 2, must have been situated towards the north-west of Norway.
This at once explains the greater amount of pressure in the north-west of
Europe in the early part of November.

November 8. Posterior slope, crest No. 2.—This slope was characterized
by a deep barometric fall, which was very considerable, especially at the north-
western stations. A very careful comparison of Mr. Brown’s observations
with those made at St. Petersburgh and those given in my last report, Sec-
tion III. (Report, 1845, pp. 124 to 128), identifies crest No. 2 with wave A°
of the last report. The direction of the crest, from a comparison of the num-
bers over the larger area, including St. Petersburgh, appeared to extend from
the south-west of England past Norfolk to the east of Christiania, and be-
tween this station and St. Petersburgh.

It has been observed in the remarks under the head anterior slope, crést
No. 2 (page 146), that the altitude of this crest (No. 2) appears to have sub-
sided as the wave progressed. This subsidence was aiso observed at Chris-
tiania and St. Petersburgh. At Christiania the crest passed with about the
same altitude as it passed Plymouth, 30°27, and at St. Petersburgh it was
slightly under 30 inches.

November 9. Posterior slope, crest No. 2.—On this day this posterior
slope comes into full view. We have already identified crest No. 2 with wave
A® of my former investigations. The observations of this day give us the
direction of the posterior slope, which more or less accords with the sections
of atmospheric pressure at 3 P.M. of this day, as exhibited in plates 45 and 46,
Report 1844.

November 10. Crest No. 3.—The direction of this crest is nearly identi-
eal with that of No.1, which passed over Great Britain and Ireland on the
lst. A comparison of Mr. Brown’s observations with those at St. Peters-
burgh and those given in my last report, identifies this wave, crest No. 3,
with B° (see Report, 1845, page 125).

Crest No. 2.—This crest is situated to the east of St. Petersburgh on this
day, at the same time that its posterior trough is situated to the east of the

168 REPORT—1846.

Orkneys. This will give some idea of the extent of country covered by this
wave and the vast amount of its amplitude. The direction of the trough is
indicated on plate 42, Report, 1844. i

November 11. Posterior troughs, crests Nos. 2 and 3.—On Nov. 5 we
distinctly traced the directions of the crests Nos. 1 and 2, and the observa-
tions at St. Petersburgh assisted us in indicating the locality of their inter-
section. The observations of this day, Nov. 11, indicate the contemporane-
ous existence of the posterior troughs of crests Nos. 2 and 3.

It appears probable, from a consideration of the observations of November
12, that the depression which occurred at Plymouth (sce page 150) was oc-
casioned by the crossing of the posterior troughs of crests Nos.2 and 3. If
so, we are enabled to form a correct estimate of the direction of these contem-
poraneous troughs. The posterior trough of crest No. 2 now passes St.
Petersburgh. Table IX. (Report, 1845, page 125) clearly indicates that the
depression of this day, in the south of England, was due to the posterior
trough of crest No.3. We find Paris under the posterior slope of crest No. 2,
so that the intersections of the troughs must have been situated in the neigh-
bourhood of Plymouth, or between Cork and Plymouth: the direction of the
trough of crest No. 3 appears to have extended from Paris towards Cork
while the crest was passing Christiania. It appears the velocity of crest No.
3 was greater than that of crest No. 1, which may, to a certain extent, explain
the discrepancy noticed in page 150.

November 12. Crest No. 3.—This crest now passes St. Petersburgh, while
its posterior trough passes Belfast and Shields.

November 15. Anterior trough, crest No. 5.—This trough now transits
St. Petersburgh. The fact of the succeeding crest (No. 5) passing the Ork-
neys at the same time, clearly indicates the wave to be much smaller than the
preceding two.

November 17. Crest No.’7.—It appears from a comparison of the Chris-
tiania and St. Petersburgh observations that the wave, crest No.7, was very
small.

November 18. Crest No. 4.—This wave, which forms the crown of the
great symmetrical wave, has been very distinctly developed by the discussion
of Mr. Brown’s observations. The altitude it attained, especially in the
south-east of England, has contributed to bring it prominently into view.
The observations at St. Petersburgh make us acquainted with the great ex-
tent of its longitudinal direction. Its crest passed Dublin on the 17th, Lon-
don on the 18th, and Munich on the 19th (see plate 2, appended to Sir John
Herschel’s Report on Meteorological Reductions, Report, 1843). In the fol-
lowing table the transit of its crest at the three northern stations, the Orkneys,
Christiania and St. Petersburgh, is readily seen. The direction in which the
wave progressed being N.W. to S.E., the section which passed over St. Peters-
burgh was more northerly than the others. The maximum occurred at St.
Petersburgh at least twelve hours later than at Munich, and about two days
later than at Dublin.

Taste XVI.
Epoch. Orkneys. Christiania. | St. Petersburgh.|
Nov.17 | 30:35° 29:94 | 29-68
18 30:18 30-11° 29-85
19 29:91 29°91 30:16¢
© Crest.

[For Addenda to this Report see end of the Reports. |-

OP i EO

Pres]

Repori on the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton.
By Prof. Owen, F.R.S.

Part I.—Speciat Homotoey.

Introduction.
Wuen the structure of organized beings began to be investigated, the parts,
as they were observed, were described under names or phrases suggested
by their forms, proportions, relative position, or likeness to some familiar ob-
ject. Much of the nomenclature of human anatomy has thus arisen, espe-
cially that of the osseous system, which, with the rest of man’s frame, was
studied originally from an insulated point of view, and irrespective of any
other animal structure or any common type.

So when the exigences of the veterinary surgeon, or the desire of the
naturalist to penetrate beneath the superficial characters of his favourite
class, led them to anatomise the lower animals, they, in like manner, seldom
glanced beyond their immediate subject, and often gave arbitrary names
to the parts which they detected. Thus the dissector of the horse, whose
attention was more especially called to the leg as the most common seat
of disease in that animal, specified its ‘cannon-bone,’ its ‘great’ and ‘small’
pastern-bones, its ‘coffin-bone,’ and its ‘nut-bone’ or ‘coronet’: some
cranial bones were also named agreeably with their shape, as the ‘os qua-
dratum,’ for example. The ornithotomist described, in the same irrelative
manner, the ‘ossa homoidea,’ ‘ossa communicantia’ or ‘ interarticularia,’
the ‘columella’ and ‘os furcatorium.’ Petit* had his ‘os grele’ and ‘os
en massue ;’ Herissant+ his ‘os carré’; which, however, is by no means the
same bone with the ‘os carré’ or ‘os quadratum’ of the hippotomist. The
investigator of reptilian osteology described ‘ hatchet-bones’ and chevron-
bones, an ‘os annulare’ or ‘os en ceinture,’ and an ‘os transversum’: he
likewise defined a ‘columella’; but this was a bone quite distinct from that
so called in the bird. The ichthyotomist had also an ‘os transversum,’ which
again was distinct from that in reptiles, and he demonstrated his ‘os discoi-
deum,’ ‘ os ccenosteon,’ ‘os mystaceum,’ ‘ossa symplectica prima,’ ‘secunda,’
‘tertia,’ ‘suprema,’ ‘postrema, &c. Similar examples of arbitrary names might
easily be multiplied ; many distinct ones signifying the same part in different
animals, whilst essentially distinct parts often received the same name from
different anatomical authors, occupied exclusively by particular species.
Each, at the beginning, viewed his subject independently ; and finding, there-
fore, new organs, created a new nomenclature for them; just as the anthro-
potomist had done, of necessity, when, with a view to the cure or relief of
disease and injury, he entered upon the vast domain of anatomical science by
the structure of Man, or of the mammals most resembling man.

* Observations Anatomiques sur les mouvemens du bec des Oiseaux, Mémoires de l’Acad.
des Sciences, 1748, p. 345.

+ Mém. de l’Acad. des Sciences,-1774, p. 497.
1846. N

170 REPORT— 1846.

It may well be conceived with what a formidable load of names the me-
mory must have been burthened, if any could have been found equal to it,
had the anatomy of animals continued and made progress under its primitive
condition of an assemblage of arbitrarily described and uncompared facts.

Happily the natural tendency of the human mind to sort and generalize its
ideas could not long permit such a state of the science, if science it could be
called, to remain. A large and valuable portion of the labours of the com-
parative anatomists who have honoured the present century, has been devoted
to the determination of those bones in the lower animals which correspond
with bones in the human skeleton; the results being usually expressed by
applying to the parts so determined the same names, as far as the nomen-
clature of anthropotomy allowed. Few, however, of the parts of the human
body have received single substantive names; they are for the most part in-
dicated by shorter or longer descriptive phrases, like the species and parts of
plants before Linnzeus reformed botanical nomenclature.

The temptation to devise a systematic Nomenclature of Anatomy, generally
applicable to all animals, increases with the advance of the science, and from
the analogy of what has taken place in other sciences it may one day be
yielded to and exercise the ingenuity of some ardent reformer. But the same
analogy, especially that afforded by chemical science since the time of Lavoi-
sier, would rather lead the true friend of anatomy to deprecate the attempt
to impose an entirely new nomenclature of parts, however closely expressive
of the nature and results of the science at the period when it might be devised.
For there is no stability in such descriptive or enunciative nomenclature ; it
changes, and must change with the progress of the science, and thus becomes
a heavy tax upon such progress.

If the arbitrary term ‘ calomel,’ which, like ‘ house’ and ‘dog,’ signifies the
thing in its totality, without forcing any particular quality of its subject
prominently upon the mind, be preferable, on that account as well as its
brevity, to the descriptive phrases ‘submuriate of mercury,’ ‘ chloride of
mercury,’ or ‘ proto-chloride of mercury,’ in enunciating propositions respect-
ing the substance to which it is applied ; and if it possesses the additional ad-
vantage of fixity, of a steady meaning not liable to be affected, like a descrip-
tive name or phrase, by every additional knowledge of the properties of the
substance; the anatomist, zealous for the best interests of his science, will feel
strongly the desirableness of retaining and securing for the subjects of his
propositions similar single, arbitrary terms, especially if they are also capable
of being inflected and used as noun adjectives.

The practice of anatomists of the soundest judgement has usually been,
to transfer the anthropotomical term or phrase to the answerable part when
detected in other animals. The objection that the original descriptive or
otherwise allusive meaning of the term seldom applies to the part with equal
force in other animals, and sometimes not at all, is one of really little moment ;
for the term borrowed from anthropotomy is soon understood in an arbitrary
sense, and without regard to its applicability to the modified form which
the namesake of the human bone commonly assumes to suit the ends required
in the lower species. No anatomist, for example, troubles himself with the
question of the amount of resemblance to a crow’s or other bird’s beak in the
‘coracoid’ bone of a reptile, or with the want of likeness of the kangaroo’s
‘coccyx’ to the beak of a cuckoo; or of the whale’s ‘vomer’ to a plough-
share; or ever associates the idea of the original mystic allusion in the ana-
tomical term ‘sacrum’ with his description of that bone in the megatherium
or other monster. Common sense gratefully accepts such names when they
become as arbitrary as cat or calomel, and when such concretes or adjectives
as ‘coccygeal, ‘yomerine’ and ‘sacral’ can be employed to teach the pro-
perties or accidents of their subjects.

Gt <a

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 171

_ To substitute names for phrases is not only allowable, but I believe it to be
indispensable to the right progress of anatomy ; but such names must be arbi-
trary, or, at least, should have no other signification than the homological one,
if anatomy, as the science of the structure of all animals, is to enjoy the inesti-
mable benefit of a steady and universal nomenclature. I am far from being in-
sensible to the advantages which other sciences have derived from revolutions
in their technical language; but experience has also demonstrated attendant
evils ; and these, it is to be feared, would preponderate in the case of anatomy,
on account of the peculiar character of its origin, and the fact of its cultivators
being for the most part introduced to the science through the portal of anthro-
potomy. Solong, likewise, as due deference continues to be paid to the deep
and vital importance of the practical applications of the parent science in
medicine and surgery, it will be in vain for any man to expect that his sole
authority would suffice for the general reception of an entirely new nomen-
¢lature, however philosophically devised or clearly enunciative of the highest
and most comprehensive truths of the science at the time of its formation.

_ After maturely considering this subject in its various relations, I have ar-
rived at the conviction that the best interests of anatomical science will be
consulted by basing the nomenclature applicable to the vertebrate subking-
dom upon the terms and phrases in which the great anthropotomists of the
16th, 17th and 18th centuries have communicated to us the fruits of their
immortal labours, For it is only on this firm foundation that we may hope
to avoid that ceaseless change of terms which follows the device of a syste-
matic nomenclature significant of a given progress and result of scientific
research, But the names of the parts of the vertebrate animals so based on
or deduced from the language of anthropetomy must divest themselves of.
their original descriptive signification, and must stand simply and arbitra-
rily as the signs of such parts, or at least with the sole additional meaning
of indicating the relation of the part in the lower animal to its namesake or
homologue in Man. Jt is an old maxim accepted by the best logicians, that
no name is so good as that which signifies the total idea or whole subject,
without calling prominently to mind any one particular quality, which is
thereby apt to be deemed, undeservedly, more essential than the rest.

The chief improvement which the language of anatomy, based upon that
of anthropotomy, must receive in order to do its requisite duty, is the substi-
tution of ‘names’ for ‘ phrases’ and ‘definitions’; and this is less a change
of nomenclature than the giving to anatomy what it did not before possess,
but which is absolutely requisite to express briefly and clearly, and without
periphrasis, propositions respecting the parts of animal bodies. Such names
should be derived from a universal or dead language, and when anglicized,
or translated into other modern equivalents, ought to be capable of being
inflected adjectively.

A few examples will suffice to show how greatly the advantage of such
names preponderates over the trouble of substituting them in the memory
for the definitions which previously signified the ideas.

In the classical Anthropotomy of Soemmerring, a well-defined part of the
skull, which is a distinct bone in the human embryo, and permanently so in
all cold-blooded Vertebrata, is called “ pars occipitalis stricte sic dicta partis
occipitalis ossis spheno-occipitalis*.” Monro, in his justly-esteemed treatise
‘On the Human Bones+,’ defines the same bone as ‘‘all the part of the (oc-
cipital) bone above the great foramen.” In the ‘Elements of Anatomy,’ by
Dr. Quain{, a work of repute for its clearness and minuteness of detail, the

* De Corporis Humani Fabrica, 1794, t.i. p.162. | + Kirby’s edition, 8vo, 1820, p. 76.
} Elements of Descriptive and Practical Anatomy, 8vo, 1828, p. 50.
nz

172 REPORT—1846.

part in question is neither named nor described. The term supra-occipitale,
Lat. (supra-occipital, Eng., sur-occipital, Fr.), is obviously a gain to anatomical
science in all propositions respecting this part in the vertebrate series.

Certain parts of a vertebra, distinct bones at an early period in man, and
throughout life in most reptiles, are defined by Soemmerring as ‘ radices ar-
cls posterioris vertebree,’ or ‘ arcus posterior vertebre ’ collectively *. Monro
describes the same parts separately, as “a broad oblique bony plate extended
backwards,” and together, as “a bony arch produced backwards”: he names,
defines and minutely describes the processes, &c. of these bony plates, which
in the series of Vertebrata are soon found to be non-essential characters ; but
for the plates themselves, which are the most constant and essential consti-
tuents of a vertebra, he hasno name. Dr. Quain defines the same parts as “ two
plates of bone, the lamellz or arches, which complete the central foramen +.”
They are sometimes more briefly but vaguely spoken of in English works
of Comparative Anatomy as “the vertebral lamelle” or “ vertebral lamine,”
or “ perivertebral elements.” The term ‘ newrapophysis, Lat. and Eng. (‘ neur-
apophyse, Fr.), applicable to each element individually, under which all its
properties may be predicated of by the adjective ‘ neurapophysial,’ without
periphrasis, seems by its adoption in the classical works of MM. Agassiz
and Stannius, to be as acceptable as the term ‘sur-occipital’ substituted by
Cuvier for the definitions in anthropotomy above cited.

Similar instances of the absence of determinate names, capable of in-
flection, for parts of the human frame, will be seen in the last column of
Taste I., and others will occur to the anatomist, even in regard to most
important parts, as the primary natural divisions of the neural axis, for
example, to the great hindrance of brief, clear and intelligible descriptions.
So long as the phrases ‘marrow of the spine,’ ‘chord of the spine,’ continue
to usurp the place of a proper name, all propositions concerning their sub-
ject must continue to be periphrastic, and often also dubious. Thus if the
pathologist, speaking of diseases of the spinal marrow, desires to abbreviate
his proposition by speaking of ‘ spinal disease,’ he is liable to be misunder-
stood as referring to disease of the spinal or vertebral column. The vague,
but often-used phrase ‘chorda dorsalis’ for the embryonic fibro-gelatinous
basis of the spine, adds another source of confusion likely to arise from the
use of the term ‘spinal chord,’ as applied to that most important part of the
neural axis which I have proposed to call ‘Myelon{,’ a term which, if adopted,
would be attended by this advantage, that no ambiguity could arise in speak-
ing of ‘ myelonal functions,’ ‘myelonal affections,’ or other properties of this
part of the central axis of the nervous system.

Anthropotomy, in respect to its nomenclature, or rather the want of one,
is, as I have already remarked, not unlike what botany was before the time of
Linnzus, and we may anticipate the happiest effects from a judiciously re-
formed technical language in the advancerrent of the true and philosophic

knowledge of the human structure, from the rapid progress of botany when.

the opposition raised by sloth or envy to the Linnzan reforms was overcome.
For a good general anatomical nomenclature, based and regulated upon the
principles above defined, must reflect its benefits upon anthropotomy. 1 dare
not flatter myself that the names adopted or proposed for the Osseous System
of the Vertebrata in my ‘ Hunterian Lectures’and in the first column of TableI.
will meet at once with acceptance, but the attempt to establish such a nomen-
clature will be felt to have been an indispensable step in undertaking a general
survey of the homological relations of the vertebrate skeleton.

* De Corporis Humani Fabrica, 1794, t. i. pp. 235, 236.
+ Elements of Descriptive and Practical Anatomy, 8vo, 1828, p. 121.
t Hunterian Lectures, vol. ii. ‘ Vertebrata,’ part ip. 172.

——”

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 173

In proposing a definite name for each distinct bone, declaratory of its
special homology throughout the vertebrate kingdom, I have sought earnestly
to reduce the amount of reform to the minimum allowed by the exigences
of the case. Agreeably with Aphorism III. of the ‘ Philosophy of the In-
ductive Sciences’ (p. lxvii.), the nomenclature of anthropotomy forms the
basis, and all the names given to parts by one or other of the great French
anatomists have been accepted, with the modifications of a Latin or an En-
glish termination, wherever such names had not been applied, as is the case
with some proposed by Geoffroy St. Hilaire, to two different parts. In sub-
stituting names for phrases, I have endeavoured, conformably with another
of Dr. Whewell’s canons (Aph. XVII. op. cit. p. cxvii.), to approximate the
sound of the name as nearly as possible to those of the leading terms of the
definition or phrase, as e. g. alisphenoid for ‘ ala media, &c. sphenoidalis’ and
for ‘grande aile du sphénoide’; orbitosphenoid for ‘ala superior seu orbi-
talis, &c. sphenoidalis,’ and for ‘aile orbitaire du sphénoide*.’

The corresponding parts in different animals being thus made namesakes,
are called technically ‘ homologues.’ The term is used by logicians as syno-
nymous with ‘homonyms,’ and by geometricians as signifying ‘the sides of
similar figures which are opposite to equal and corresponding angles,’ or to
parts having the same proportions}: it appears to have been first applied in
anatomy by the philosophical cultivators of that science in Germany. Geof-
froy St. Hilaire says, “Les organes des sens sont homologues, comme s'ex-
primerait la philosophie Allemande; c’est-d-dire qu’ils sont analogues dans
leur mode de développement, s'il existe véritablement en eux un méme prin-
cipe de formation, une tendance uniforme a se répéter, 4 se reproduire de la
méme facont.” The French anatomist, however, seems not rightly to
‘define the sense in which the German philosophers have used the term:
there is a looseness in the expression ‘analogous in their mode of develop-
ment,’ which may mean either identical or similar, and also different kinds of
similarity. Parts are homologous in the sense in which the term is used in
this Report, which are not always similarly developed: thus the ‘pars occi-
pitalis stricte sic dicta,’ &c. of Soemmerring is the special homologue of the
supraoccipital bone of the cod, although it is developed out of pre-existing
cartilage in the fish and out of aponeurotic membrane in the human subject.
I also regard the supraoccipital as the serial homologue of the parietal and
the midfrontal, although these are developed out of the epicranial membrane
in the fish, and not out of pre-existing cartilage, like the supraoccipital.
The femur of the cow is not the less homologous with the femur of the cro-
codile, because in the one it is developed from four separate ossific centres, and
the other from only one such centre. In like manner the compound mandi-
bular ramus of the fish is the homologue of the simple mandibular ramus of
the mammal, as the compound tympanic pedicle of the fish is homologous
with the simple tympanic pedicle of the bird, the differences expressed by
the terms ‘simple’ and ‘compound’ depending entirely on a difference of
development.

Without knowing the precise sense in which Geoffroy St. Hilaire under-

__ * The happy facility of combination which the German language enjoys has long enabled
the very eminent anatomists of that intellectual part of Europe to condense the definitions of
anthropotomy into single words; but these cannot become cosmopolitan; such terms as
-‘ Hinterhauptbeinkérper,’ ‘ Schlafbeinschiippen,’ and ‘Zwischenkiemendeckelstiick,’ are likely
to be restricted to the anatomists of the country where the vocal powers have been trained
from infancy to their utterance.

+ This is the sense in which the term is defined in the French Dictionary and in our
Johnson’s Dictionary.

~ Annales des Sciences Naturelles, tom. vi. 1825, p. 341.

174 REPORT—1846.

stood ‘analogous development,’ one cannot determine how much or how little
it is applicable to the determination of homologies or to the definition of
homologous parts. Dr, Reichert seems to have been unduly influenced by the
idea of ‘analogy or similarity of development in the determination of homo-
logous parts’ when he rejected the parietal and frontal bones from the system
of the endo-skeleton, because they were not developed from a pre-existing
cartilaginous basis*, or, because they could be easily detached from subja-
cent persistent cartilage in certain fishes; the essential distinction between
these and the supra-occipital in regard to development being, that whereas
the cartilaginous stage intervened in the latter between the membranous and
the osseous stages, in the other, usually more expanded, cranial spines, the
osseous change appears to be immediately superinduced upon the primitive
aponeurotic histological’condition.

M. Agassiz seems, in like manner, to give undue importance to similarity
of development in the determination of homologies, where he repudiates the
general homology of the basi-sphenoid with the vertebral centrum, and con-
sequently its serial homology with the basi-occipital, because the pointed end
of the chorda dorsalis has not been traced further forwards along the basis
of the cranium in the embryo osseous fish than the basi-occipitalt. But the
development of the centrum of every vertebra begins, not in the gelatinous
chord, but in its aponeurotic capsule, and it is in the expanded aponeurosis
directly continued from the ‘chorda’ along the ‘ basis cranii’ that the thin
stratum of cartilage-cells is formed from which the ossification of the basi-
sphenoid, presphenoid and vomer proceeds.

There exists doubtless a close general resemblance in the mode of deve-
lopment of homologous parts ; but this is subject to modification, like the
forms, proportions, functions and very substance of such parts, without their
essential homological relationships being thereby obliterated. These rela-
tionships are mainly, if not wholly, determined by the relative position and
connection of the parts, and may exist independently of form, proportion,
substance, function and similarity of development. But the connections
must be sought for at every period of development, and the changes of rela-
tive position, if any, during growth, must be compared with the connections
which the part presents in the classes where vegetative repetition is greatest
and adaptive modification least.

Relations of homology are often not only confounded with those of analogy,
but in some recent and highly estimable works on comparative anatomy the
terms ‘ analogy’ and ‘analogue’ continue to be used to express the ideas of
homology and homologue, or are so used as to leave in doubt the meaning of
the author. Thus when we read in the latest edition of the ‘ Lecons d’ Ana-
tomie Comparée’ of Cuvier, “ Les branchies sont les poumons des animaux
absolument aquatiques,” t. vii. p. 164; and with regard to the cartilaginous

or osseous supports of the gills, “elles sont, A notre avis, aux branchies des

poissons, ce que les cerceaux cartilagineux ou osseux des voies aériennes sont
aux poumons des trois classes supérieures,” Jbid. p. 177, we are left in doubt
-whether it is meant that the gills and their mechanical supports merely perform
the same function in fishes which the lungs and windpipe do in mammals, or
whether they are not also actually the same parts differently modified in re-
lation to the different respiratory media in the two classes of animals. The
deeper-thinking Geoffroy leaves no doubt as to his meaning where he argues

__ * Vergleichende Entwickelungsgeschichte des Kopfes der nackten Reptilien, 4to, 1838,
pp. 212, 218.
t Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles, 4to, 1843, i. p. 127.

2

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 175

in the ‘ Philosophie Anatomique’ (8vo, 1818, 4iéme mémoire, p. 205), that
the branchial arches of fishes are the modified tracheal rings of the air-
breathing vertebrates: we perceive at once that he is enunciating a relation
of homology.

I have elsewhere* discussed the relations, both homological and analogical,
of the respiratory organs of the air-breathing and water-breathing vertebrate
animals, and have here adverted to them merely to illustrate the essential
distinction of those relations. In the ‘Glossary’ appended to the first volume
of my ‘ Hunterian Lectures,’ the terms in question are defined as follows :—

« ANALoGuE.’—A part or organ in one animal which has the same func-
tion as another part or organ in a different animal.

«« HomoLocur.”—The same organ in different animals under every variety
of form and function +.”

The little ‘ Draco volans’ offers a good illustration of both relations. Its
fore-limbs being composed of essentially the same parts as the wings of a bird
are homologous with them; but the parachute being composed of different
parts, yet performing the same function as the wings of a bird, is analogous
to them. Homologous parts are always, indeed, analogous parts in one sense,
inasmuch as, being repetitions of the same parts of the body, they bear in
that respect the same relation to different animals. But homologous parts
may be, and often are, also analogous parts in a fuller sense, viz. as perform-
ing the same functions: thus the fin or pectoral limb of a Porpoise is homo-
logous with that of a Fish, inasmuch as it is composed of the same or answerable
parts: and they are the analogues of each other, inasmuch as they have the
same relation of subserviency to swimming. So, likewise, the pectoral fin of
the flying-fish is analogous to the wing of the Bird, but, unlike the wing of
the Dragon, it is also homologous with it.

Relations of homology are of three kinds: the first is that above defined,
viz. the correspondency of a part or organ, determined by its relative position
and connections, with a part or organ in a different animal; the determination
of which homology indicates that such animals are constructed on a common
type: when, for example, the correspondence of the basilar process of the
human occipital bone with the distinct bone called ‘ basi-occipital’ in a fish
or crocodile is shown, the special homology of that process is determined.

A higher relation of homology is that in which a part or series of parts
stands to the fundamental or general type, and its enunciation involves
and implies a knowledge of the type on which a natural group of animals,
the vertebrate for example, is constructed. Thus when the basilar process of
the human occipital bone is determined to be the ‘ centrum’ or ‘ body of the
_ last cranial vertebra,’ its general homology is enunciated.

If it be admitted that the general type of the vertebrate endo-skeleton is
rightly represented by the idea of a series of essentially similar segments
succeeding each other longitudinally from one end of the body to the other,
such segments being for the most part composed of pieces similar in number
and arrangement, and though sometimes extremely modified for special func-
tions, yet never so as to wholly mask their typical character,—then any
given part of one segment may be repeated in the rest of the series, just as
one bone may be reproduced in the skeletons of different species, and this
kind of repetition or representative relation in the segments of the same
skeleton I call ‘ serial homology.’ As, however, the parts can be namesakes
only in a general sense, as centrums, neurapophyses, ribs, &c.; and since

* Lectures on Vertebrata, 1846, p. 279. :

{ Lectures on Invertebrate Animals, 8vo, 1843. Glossary, pp. 374,379. My ingenious
and learned friend Mr. Hugh Strickland has made a strong and able appeal to the good

sense of comparative anatomists in favour of the restriction of these terms to the senses in
which they are here defined.—Phil. Mag. 1846, pp. 358, 362. :

176 REPORT—1846,

they must be distinguished by different special names according to their par-
ticular modifications in the same skeleton, as e. g. mandible, coracoid, ilium,
&ce., I call such serially related or repeated parts ‘homotypes.’ The basi-
occipital is the homotype of the basi-sphenoid ; or in other words, when the
basi-occipital is said to repeat in its vertebra or natural segment of the ske-
leton the basi-sphenoid or body of the parietal vertebra, or the bodies of the
atlas and succeeding vertebra, its serial homology is indicated. The study
of this kind of homologies was commenced by Vicq d’Azyr, in his ingenious
memoir ‘On the Parallelism of the Fore and Hind Limbs.’ If we except
the complex and extremely diversified and modified parts of the radiated
appendages of the vertebral segments, to which Vicq d’Azyr restricted his
comparisons, the serial homologies of the skeleton are necessarily demon-
strated when the general and special homologies have been determined.

In the present section of this Report I propose to consider some of those
examples of special homology which are least satisfactorily determined and
respecting which different opinions still sway different anatomists. Such
instances are fortunately few, thanks to the persevering and successful labours
of the great comparative anatomists of the last half-century: pre-eminent
amongst whom will ever stand the name of Cuvier, in whose classical works,
‘ Ossemens Fossiles,’ ‘Histoire des Poissons,’ ‘ Lecons d’ Anatomie Comparée’
(posthumous edition), and ‘ Régne Animal,’ 1828, will be found the richest
illustrations of the special homological relations of the bones in the four classes
of vertebrate animals.

Second only to Cuvier must be named Georrroy St. H1Laire, whose
memoir on the Bones of the Skull in Birdsascompared with those in Mammals,
in the ‘ Annales du Muséum, t. x. (1807), forms an early and brilliant example
of the quest of special homologies, which could not fail, with other and similar
investigations of the same ingenious author, to impart a stimulus to that
philosophical department of anatomical inquiry*. In regard to the osteology
of the crocodile, we find Cuvier and Geoffroy engaged in a long parallel series
of rival researches, the results of which have had the happiest effects in de-
termining some of the most difficult questions of special homology.

Nor was the co-operation of zealous cultivators of comparative anatomy
wanting in the eminent schools and universities of Germany. GOETHE, in-
deed, had taken the lead in inquiries of this nature in his determination, in 1787,
of the special homology of that anterior part of the human upper maxillary
bone which is separated by a more or less extensive suture from the rest of
the bone in the foetus; and the philosophical principles propounded in the
great poet's famous anatomical essays called forth the valuable labours of the
kindred spirits, Oken, Bosanus, MrecxeL, Carus, and other eminent culti-
vators of anatomical philosophy in Germany.

It is not requisite for the purpose I have in view, to trace step by step the
progress of the special homological department of anatomy. Its present
state, as regards the skull of the Vertebrata, will be best exposed by the sub-
joined tabular view of the fruits of the latest inquiries.

TasLE I. (See end of the Report.)

This table gives at one view the general results of the researches into
the conformity of structure of the skull throughout the vertebrate series,

* Oken’s famous ‘“ Programm, Uber die Bedeutung der Schadelknochen” was published
in the same year (1807) as Geoffroy’s Memoir on the Bird’s skull; but it is devoted less to
the determination of ‘ special’ than of ‘ general homologies’: it has, in fact, a much higher
aim than the contemporary publication of the French anatomist, in which we seek in vain
for any glimpse of those higher relations of the bones of the skull, the discovery of which
has conferred immortality on the name of OKEN.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. EEF

by the two great French anatomists who have most advanced this part of
osteological science; by the authors of two classical German works on
Comparative Anatomy; and by their countryman Dr. Hallmann, who has
detailed in an elaborate treatise his especial investigations of some of the most
difficult parts of this difficult inquiry. I have added the synonyms of the
bones of the bead of fishes from the great work of the celebrated Swiss na-
turalist, who has, so happily for ichthyology, devoted himself to the advance-
ment of that interesting branch of Natural History ; and also, the anthropo-
tomical terms for the corresponding’ parts in the human skeleton. These,
after much comparison and deliberation, 1 have chosen from the justly-cele-
brated work of So—EMMERRING, the high reputation of which has been sanc-
tioned by the new edition to which some of the most eminent of the German
professors of anthropotomy and physiology have recently devoted their com-
bined labours. The English teacher of these sciences will find some of the
descriptive designations of the parts by Soemmerring not agreeing with
those which he may be in the habit of using, and which are current in the
later Manuals of Anthropotomy published in this country: the ‘ ossa la-
teralia lingualia’ are more commonly called, with us, the ‘cornua majora
ossis hyoidei’ ; the ‘os spheno-occipitale’ is generally described as two di-
stinect bones, the ‘os occipitis’ and ‘os sphenoide’; the ‘pars occipitalis
stricte sic dicta,” &c. is sometimes called ‘squama occipitalis,’ or occipital
plate ; and other synonyms might easily be multiplied from the osteolo-
gical treatises of Monro and later authors of repute. The fact of such a
conflicting and unsettled synonymy still pervading the monographs relating
to the human structure, should stimulate the well-wisher to the right progress
of anatomy to lend an earnest aid to the establishment of a fixed and deter-
minate nomenclature. A little present labour and the example of adoption,
where the reasonableness and necessity of the reform are plain and undeni-
able, will much accelerate the future progress of anatomical science; and I
would respectfully appeal to the Professors and Demonstrators of Human
Anatomy for an unbiassed consideration of the advantages of the terms pro-
posed in the first column in Table I. It is designed to express the results of
a long series of investigations into the special homologies of the bones of the
head, in simple and detinite terms, capable of every requisite inflection to
express the properties of the parts, and applicable to the same bones from
the highest to the lowest of the vertebrate series.

The degree and extent of the diversity of my determinations from those
of other anatomists are shown in the succeeding columns, headed by their
names ; and I proceed now to give the reasons which have compelled me, in
such instances, to dissent from the high authority of Cuvier, Geoffroy, Meckel,
Hallmann and Agassiz: these reasons will exonerate me, I trust, from the
reproach of underrating their justly-esteemed opinions, which have been
abandoned only where nature seemed clearly to refuse her sanction to them.
The instances of such dissent are much fewer than they appear to be at first
sight. In most cases, where the names differ, the determinations are the
same. For ‘basilaire,’ which Cuvier exclusively applies to the ‘ pars basilaris’
of the occiput, and which Geoffroy as exclusively applies (in birds) to the
‘pars basilaris’ of the sphenoid, I have substituted the term ‘ basioccipital’

- (bast-occipitale, Lat.) ; aterm which, as it is more descriptive of the bone in

question (1 figs. 1 to 25), will, perhaps, be the more acceptable to those
who prefer a determinate to a variable nomenclature, since Cuvier himself
has almost as frequently applied to that bone the term ‘occipital inférieur’
as the term ‘ basilaire.’ For the descriptive phrase ‘ occipital latéral,’ the
term ‘exoccipital’ (exoccipitale, Lat.), proposed by Geoffroy, is preferable for

178 He REPORT—1846.

the bones 2,2, figs. 1 to 25; especially since the paroccipital is the most lateral”
of the elements of the occipital bone, in the definite sense in which the term
‘lateral’ is used in the precise and excellent anatomical nomenclature of
Dr. Barclay. For the numerous syno- ;

nyms borne by the elements of the oc- Fig. 1.

cipital segment of the skull, the term
‘supraoccipital’ (swpra-occipitale, Lat.)
seemed to best agree with the truest de-
scriptive phrase of the part, viz. ‘ occipital
supérieur.’ The interparietal is no con-
stant cranial element, nor is it a dismem-
berment of one and the same bone of the
skull. It is at best only the largest and
most common of the accidentally interca-
lated ‘ossa wormiana. Sometimes, for
example, in the Cebus monkey, it is a
dismemberment of the backwardly-pro-
duced frontal bone: more frequently it is
the detached upper angle of the supra-
occipital. But by this term ‘ supraoccipi-
tal,’ I signify the totality of the bone s (in
figs. 1, 5, 18, 22, 23, 24, 25), confining
the term interparietal to its superior and Dinerticuiated epencerillin or meeemberia eel eet
anterior apex when detached, or to the “"™™ °™ 07S: © Ne dees

superior and posterior apex of the frontal, when it is in like manner detached
and wedged between the parietal bones. The inapplicability of the term ‘in-
terparietal’ to the whole of the supraoccipital is strongly manifested in those
fishes, e.g. the carp and tench, in which the supraoccipital is withdrawn from
between the parietals to the back part of the skull, leaving those bones to come
into contact and unite by the normal sagittal suture on the mesial line of
the vertex. Geoffroy’s error is of the same kind, and scarcely greater than
Cuvier’s, where he applies the term ‘interparietal’ to the whole of the parietal
bones in Birds*.. The supraoccipital thus defined can never be mistaken for
the ‘sur-occipital’ of Geoffroy, who by this term signifies the elements called
‘occipitaux externes’ by Cuvier. At the same time the term ‘sur-occipital’ is
too near in sound to ‘supraoccipital,’ and too significant of the highest part of
the occipital segment to be retained for elements, which, like the ‘ paroccipi-
tals’ (fig. 1,4,4), are usually inferior in position to the supraoccipital. Geoffroy:
moreover, is not consistent in his application of the term ‘sur-occipital.’ In
his memoir on the skull of the crocodile in the ‘ Annales des Sciences’ for
1824, he applies that term to a part of the bonet, the whole of which he calls
‘exoccipital’ in his later memoir, on the skull of the crocodile, of 1833¢ ;
whilst in the memoir illustrated by the skull of the Sea-perch (Serranus
gigas) in the ‘ Annales des Sciences’ for 1825, the term ‘suroccipital’ is ap-
plied to the whole of the bones described as ‘ occipitaux externes’ by Cuvier.
I trust, therefore, to have shown the necessity for the definite name of
‘ paroccipital’ (paroccipitale, Lat.) which is here proposed for the elements, 4,
of the occipital segment of the cranium (figs. 1 and 5). The name has re-
ference to the general homology of the bones in question, as ‘ parapophyses’
or transverse processes of the occipital vertebra. And if the purists who are
distressed by such harmless hybrids as ‘mineralogy, ‘terminology’ and ‘mam-

* Annales du Muséum, x. p. 363, pl. 27.
T Pl. 16. fig. 5z+R. “ Plur-occipital formé du sur-occipital et de l’ex-occipital.”
{} Mémoires de l’Acad. Royale des Sciences, t. xii. Atlas, p. 43.

he, oF

|
0)

in

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. LO

malogy,’ should protest against the combination of the Greek prefix to the
Latin noun, I can only plead that servility to a particular source of the fluc-
tuating sounds of vocal language is a matter of taste; and that it seems no
unreasonable privilege to use such elements as the servants of thought;
and, in the interests of science, to combine them, even though they come from

_ different countries, where the required duty is best and most expeditiously

performed by such association.

For the same motive that suggested the term basi-occipital, viz. because
the anthropotomist has been
long accustomed to hear
that and the corresponding
element of the sphenoid
bone described as ‘basilar
processes,’ I propose to sub-
stitute the term ‘ basisphe-
noid’ (basisphenoideum, Lat.)
for the three different de-
scriptive phrases applied to
the part (5, figs. 2, 5, 19,&c.)
by Cuvier, for the two ad-
ditional synonyms of Geof-
froy, and for the ‘sphenoi-
deum basilare’ of Hallmann.
‘ Alisphenoid’ (alisphenot-
deum, Lat., 6, 6, figs. 2.5, 19, :
&e.) seemed to retain most of Disarticulated mesencephalic or neuro-parietal arch, viewed
the old anthroputomical term etre ta ak ae
of ‘alze majores,’ or wings ‘ par excellence’ of the os sphenoideum ; as ‘ orbito-
sphenoid’ (orbito- sphenoideum, 10, 10, figs. 3 and 20) best recalls or expresses
the idea conveyed by the descriptive phrase ‘ale orbitales,’ or ‘ailes orbi-
taires,’ often applied to the homologous bones, regarded as processes of the
sphenoid in human anatemy. Here, however, in reference to the alisphenoid,
we find the first marked discrepancy in the conclusions of the anatomists
who have particularly studied its special homologies. The bone which ap-
pears as the ‘grande aile du sphénoide’ to Cuvier and Agassiz in fishes, is
the ‘petrosum’ to Hallmann and Wagner ; it is also ‘rocher’ (petrosal) to
Cuvier himself in reptiles, and is again ‘ grande aile du sphénoide’ in birds
and mammals.. The reasons which have led me to the conclusion that the
bones so denominated, as well as the ‘ ptéreal’ and ‘ prérupeal’ of Geoffroy,
are homologously one and the same, are so intimately linked with the con-
sideration of the true petrosal and of other elements of the anthropotomist’s
‘temporal bone,’ that I reserve the discussion of these questions until I have
completed the apology for the names proposed in the first column of Table I.

The ‘parietal’ (parietale, Lat.,7.7, figs. 2,5, 19, &c.) and ‘ mastoid’ (mastoi-
deum, Lat., 8, 8, figs. 2, 5,19, &c.) are amongst the few bones that have had
the good fortune to receive, originally, definite names, applicable to them
throughout the vertebrate series; although the mastoid, being like the par-
occipital, essentially a parapophysis, loses its individuality sooner than do
other bones of its segment, and becomes, therefore, a ‘processus mastoideus
ossis temporis,’ in the language of anthropotomy. ‘The homology of the
‘parietal’ has fortunately been, with a single exception, universally recog-
nised throughout the vertebrate subkingdom ; the exception being furnished
by the eccentric homologist Geoffroy, who is, as usual, inconsistent with
himself, even on this plainest and least mistakeable point.

180 REPORT—1846.

Theterm ‘presphenoid’ (presphenoideum, Lat.o, figs. 3, 5,20, 24, 25,&c.) is pro-
posed for the ‘sphénoide antérieur,’ on the principle of substituting, as the better
instrument of thought, a definite name for a descriptive phrase. For the same
reason ‘postfrontal’ ( postfron- :
tale, Lat., 12, 12, figs. 3, 5,20, &e.) Fig. 3.
is substituted for Cuvier’s ‘ fron-
tal postérieur’ and its synonyms.
The ‘frontal’ (frontale, Lat. u1,
figs. 3, 5, 20, &e.) and ‘ vomer’
(vomer, Lat., 13, figs.4, 5, 20, 25),
are among the few bones which
have had their special homolo-
gies recognised unanimously
throughout the vertebrate sub-
kingdom ; in the one case even
without departure from the
original anthropotomical name,
and in the other, with but a
single deviation from the esta-
blished nomenclature. But when
Geoffroy was induced to reject
the term ‘vomer’ as being ap-
plicable only to the peculiar
form of the bone in a small
proportion of the vertebrata, he
appears not to have considered
that the old term, in its wider
application, would be used with- 68
out reference to its primary Disarticulated — = a a arch, viewed
allusion to the ploughshare, and
that becoming, as it has, a purely arbitrary term, it is superior and prefer-
able to any partially descriptive one. ‘ Rhinosphénal,’ it is true, recalls the
idea of the vomer forming the continuation in the nasal segment of the skull
of the basi- and pre-sphenoidal series of bones in other segments; but ‘ vomer,’
used arbitrarily, summons equally every idea derived to form the complex
whole from the general study of the bone throughout the vertebrate series.
‘Prefrontal’ (prefrontale, Lat., 14, 14, f
figs. 4, 5, 21, &c.) claims the same pre- Fig. 4.
ference over anterior frontal, and its
foreign equivalents, as does postfrontal
over its synonymous phrases. There is
also another reason for proposing the
term ; viz. because it is applied to bones
in the vertebrate series generally, accord-
ing to conclusions as to their homologi-
eal relations, which differ from those to
which Cuvier and Geoffroy had arrived.
The discussion of the discordant deno-
minations at present applied to this im-
portant element of the skull will be fully
carried out in the sequel. ‘Nasal’ Disarticulated rhinencephalic, or neuro-nasal arch,
(nasal, 15, figs. 4, 5,21, &c.) is another Weve om Denes SO .
of the few instances in which it is possible to retain and generally apply an
old and received anthropotomical term. No one, it is presumed, will con-

7 wat tart

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 181

tend for the perpetual expression or insertion of the understood generic word
‘bone’ or ‘os’ in this case any more than in the parietal, frontal, &c., which,
from being originally specific adjectives, have been properly and conveni-
ently converted into definite nouns.

In conformity with this mode of acquiring an improved as well as brief
and precise expression of anatomical facts, I have substituted for ‘pars petrosa’
or ‘os petrosum’ the substantive term “ petrosal’ (Lat. petrosum, figs. 5,25, 16).
The necessity for some such designation for an essentially and often physically
distinct bone in the vertebrate skull has been felt by both Cuvier and
Geoffroy, when they respectively proposed the names ‘rocher’ and ‘ rupéal’
for the element in question. ‘ Petrosal’ has appeared to me to be the best
English equivalent of Cuvier’s ‘ rocher’ ; as containing the most character-
istic vocable of the old anthropotomical descriptive phrase ‘pars petrosa
ossis temporis,’ &c. ‘ Rupéal’ unfortunately has no determinate meaning : it
is applied by its author with certain prefixes to several distinet bones, which
already had their proper names. * Sclerotal’ (sclerotale, Lat., figs. 5, 22, 23, 17)
for ‘ossicula seu laminze osseae membrane sclerotic,’ is proposed on the same
grounds as exoccipital, postfrontal, &c., viz. the substitution of a name for a
phrase. The sclerotals have not been usually included amongst the bones of
the head, though they have precisely the same claims to that rank as the pe-
trosals, or other bony capsules of the organs of special sense. Retaining the
old anthropotomical term ‘ethmoid,’ I restrict its application to the very irre-
gular and inconstant developments of bone in the cartilage or membrane
which is applied to the anterior outlet of the cranium proper, for the support
or defence of the cranial part of the organ of smell. The ‘ossa turbinata supe-
riora,’ and the ‘ cellula athmoidez’ are parts of the capsule of that sense, ex-
tensively developed in the mammalia, to which the term ethmoid may properly.
apply ; but they must always be distinguished from the modified though con-
stant neurapophyses of the nasal vertebra, called ‘ prefrontals,’ with which the
above developments of the olfactory capsule usually coalesce in birds and mam-
mals. ‘Turbinal’ (turbinale, Lat.,figs.5, 25,19), like petrosal, is a substitute for
the phrase ‘os turbinatum inferius,’ and its synonym ‘os spongiosum inferius.’

‘ Palatine’ (palatinum, Lat., ib. 20) is another of the few fortunate instances
of the general recognition of the homologous bone throughout the vertebrate
kingdom, with the further advantage of a steady retention of a good old name.

‘Maxillary’ (mazilla, Lat., ib. 21) is a similar instance ; but Geoffroy, as

‘usual, makes himself singular by adding an uncalled-for synonym. If

Soemmerring’s term ‘mandibula’ for the lower jaw were universally adopted
and constantly understood to signify the totality of that part of the tympano-
mandibular arch throughout the vertebrate series, it would be unnecessary
to encumber ‘ maxilla’-with the distinctive epithet ‘superior,’ which, indeed,
expresses a character peculiar only to Man and a few mammalia: in the ver-
tebrate series the ‘maxilla’ is more commonly anterior than superior to the
‘ mandibula.’

I have adopted the term ‘ premaxillary’ ( premazillare, Lat. ib. 22), as used
by M. de Blainville and some other distinguished continental osteologists, in
preference to ‘intermaxillary ;) because that term has already been applied
(by Schneider) to another bone of the skull (the tympanic in birds), of which
it is more accurately descriptive, than it is of a bone which is more com-
monly before than between the maxillary bones. ‘ Entopterygoid’ (entoptery-
goideum, Lat.) claims preference to the phrases ‘ptérygoide interne’ of Cuvier
and Agassiz, on the same logical grounds as have already been urged in favour
of ‘ exoccipital,’ ‘ prefrontal,’ &c. But I have also another reason for pro-
posing a definite term for the bone 23, fig. 5, which I regard as a peculiarly

182 REPORT— 1846.

ichthyic development. Cuvier has applied the term ‘ ptérygoide interne’
to another part of the diverging appendage of the palato-maxillary arch,
which part, I concur with Dr. Kostlin in regarding as homologically distinct
from the ‘entopterygoid’ of fishes. For the part in question, viz. the ‘ os
transverse’ of Cuvier in the skull of fishes (23, fig. 5), and its homologue in
reptiles, which he calls ‘ ptérygoidien interne’ (24, fig. 22), I retain the term
‘pterygoid’ (pterygoideum, Lat.), meaning pterygoid proper: and to the
bone which Cuvier calls ‘transverse’ in reptiles (24', fig. 22), I apply the
term ‘ectopterygoid’ (ectopterygoideum, Lat.) ; but this, as the table demon-
strates, does not signify Cuvier's ‘os transverse’ in the skull of fishes. En-
topterygoid, pterygoid and ectopterygoid, have, therefore, both the advantages
of substantive terms, and of being applied steadily each to a distinct bony
element. The ‘hérisséal’ of Geoffroy, like the ‘ ptérygoide interne’ uf Cuvier,
means one thing in a fish and another in a crocodile ; Geoffroy has also en-
cumbered the latter bone with a third synonym. ‘ Malar’ (madlare or os male,
Lat.) is preferable to ‘jugal,’ because Cuvier applies that name to one bone
in a fish, to another in a mammal, and to two essentially distinct though
coalesced bones in a bird. Malar is also the name most commonly applied
by English anthropotomists to the bone, to the true homologue of which I
would restrict its application throughout the vertebrate series.

With regard to the ‘squamosal’ (sguamosum, Lat. pars squamosa, &c., figs,
22-25, 27), it may be asked why the term ‘ temporal’ might not have been re-
tained for this bone. I reply, because that term has long been, and is now uni-
versally, understood in human anatomy to signify a peculiarly anthropotomical
coalesced congeries of bones which includes the ‘squamosal’ together with the
‘ petrosal,’ the ‘tympanic,’ the ‘ mastoid,’ and the ‘stylohyal.’ It seems prefer-
able, therefore, to restrict the signification of the term ‘ temporal’ to the whole
(in Man) of which the ‘squamosal’ isa part. ‘To this part Cuvier has unfor-
tunately applied the term ‘temporal’ in one class and ‘jugal’ in another: and
he has also transferred the term ‘temporal’ to a third equally distinct bone in:
fishes; whilst to increase the confusion, M. Agassiz has shifted the name toa
fourth different bone in the skull of fishes. Whatever, therefore, may be the
value assigned to the arguinents which will be presently set forth, as to the spe-
cial homologies of the ‘ pars squamosa ossis temporis,’ I have felt compelled to
express the conclusion by a definite term, and, in the present instance, have
selected that which recalls best theaccepted anthropotomical designation of the
part, although ‘squamosal’ must be understood and applied in an arbitrary
sense, and not as descriptive of a scale-like form, which, in reference to the bone
so called, is rather its exceptional than normal figure in the vertebrate series.

The term ‘tympanic’ (tympanicum, Lat.) appears to have received the most
general acceptance as applied to that bone which the early ornithotomists have
called ‘os quadratum’ and ‘ os intermaxillare,’ (fig. 23,28) and which as a pro-
cess of the human temporal, sometimes called ‘external auditory,’ supports the
tympanic membrane (fig. 25,28). ‘Caisse’ is the French and ‘ pauke’ the Ger-
man equivalent ; but Cuvier more commonly uses the phrase ‘ os tympanique.’
The chief point, in reference to that term, as applied by Cuvier, from which
I find myself compelled to dissent from the great and ever-to-be-revered
anatomist, relates to the view which he has taken of the large and long pe-
dicle which supports the mandible in fishes, and which, in that class, is sub-
divided into sometimes two, sometimes three, and commonly into four pieces.
I regard this subdivision of the elongated supporting pedicle as explicable
chiefly, if not solely, by reference to a final purpose, viz. to combine strength
with a certain elastic yielding and power of recovery, in the constant and
powerful movements to which it is subject in the transmission of the respi-

- ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 183
ratory currents, and in the prehension and deglutition of the food. Cuvier
himself regards in the same light the analogous subdivision of the mandibular
or lower half of the arch, and both Conybeare* and Bucklandt have well
illustrated the final purpose which the subdivision of the lower jaw of the
‘Crocodile into overlapping pieces, subserves. Cuvier has given distinct and

convenient names to these several pieces of the mandible, but he views them
collectively as answering to the simple mandible of the mammal and the bird.
I, in like manner, regard the subdivided pedicle supporting the mandible in

fishes as answering to the undivided pedicle supporting the mandible in ophi-

‘dians, lizards and birds. ‘There is the same necessity or convenience for a

distinct name to each distinct part of the tympanic pedicle, or upper part of the
tympano-mandibular arch, as for the divisions of the mandible or lower part of
that arch. But Cuvier unfortunately persuaded himself that the subdivisions
of the tympanic pedicle in fishes represented other bones in higher vertebrates
besides the tympanic, and applied to them the names of such bones. I have
been compelled, therefore, in dissenting from this view to propose new names
for the peculiar ichthyic subdivisions of the tympanic, and in doing so I have
been careful to retain the dominant term, and to distinguish the parts by
prefixes indicative of their relative position. Time and the judgement of
succeeding homologists will determine the accuracy or otherwise of this
view; and, should it be ultimately adopted, I feel great confidence that the
terms ‘epitympanic’ (epitympanicum, Lat., fig. 5, 282), mesotympanic (meso-
tympanicum, 2b), pretympanic ( pretympanicum, 2sc) and hypotympanic
(hypotympanicum, 23d), will be preferred to the names proposed by Geoffroy
St. Hilaire for the same parts. With regard to the subdivisions of the man-
dible in cold-blooded vertebrates, I adopt most of those proposed by Cuvier.
As, however, ‘operculaire’ had been applied by the great anatomist toa
distinct bone in fishes, it was necessary, in order to avoid its use in a double
sense, te substitute a distinct name for the part of the jaw in question, and as
it is always applied, like a surgeon’s splint or plaster to the inner side of most
of the other pieces, that of ‘ splenial’ (splenium, Lat., figs. 22,23, 31) suggested
itself to me as the most appropriate name. For an obvious reason I have
restored the term ‘ coronoid’ (coronoicewm, 31') in place of ‘ complementary,’
for the piece into which the crotaphite muscle is always more or less inserted
in the mandible of reptiles. There isno ground for disturbing the appropriate
names given by Cuvier to the parts of the diverging appendage of the tym-
pano-mandibular arch in fishes; and the same principle which he has adopted
in distinguishing the different opercular bones (fig. 5, 31-37), has guided me
in naming the different parts of the bony pedicle which supports them.

I have gladly adopted as many of the well-devised terms which Geoffroy
proposed for the elements of the hyoid arch, as his unsteadiness in their ap-
plication would permit to be retained. They are obviously preferable to the
descriptive phrases by which Cuvier designates the homologous parts.

The substantive terms applied to the corresponding divisions of the bran-
chial arches have been modelled on those of the hyoid system; but I have
deviated in one instance from the rule which has governed throughout my
nomenclature of the bones, in proposing a second name for a modified homo-
logue in the air-breathing animals, of a part of the branchial apparatus in
fishes, viz. that part which is retained even in the human hyoid, and which
is known in anthropotomy as the ‘ os laterale linguale,’ or ‘ cornu majus ossis
hyoidei ;’ for this part I have proposed the name ‘thyrohyal,’ for the reasons
assigned in the note (2) to Table I.

The names assigned to the bones of the scapular arch (figs. 5, 22, 23, 24, 25,

* Geol. Trans., vol. v. p. 565. tT Bridgewater Treatise, vol. i. p. 176.

icaaeiel

184 REPORT—1846.

23, 50-52) and its appendages (tb. 53~ss) agree so closely with those which
they have always borne as to require no explanation here. The chief
surprise of the anthropotomist will be occasioned by their being included
amongst the bones of the head. That the upper or pectoral extremity
and its supporting arch form actually integrant parts of the occipital seg-
ment of the skull, will be proved in the memoir on the general homologies
of the bones of the head. I may, here, however, in reference to the terms
‘ulna’ and ‘radius,’ request the anatomist to compare the skeletons of the
perch or cod with that of the porpoise. The pectoral extremity is in the
form of a fin, and in both fish and marine mammal it is applied, in a state of
rest, prone to the side of the trunk; in this position it will be seen in the
Delphinus, that the radius is downward, and the ulna with its projecting
olecranon upwards. I take this as the guide to the homology of the two bones
that support the carpal series of the pectoral fin in fishes. Cuvier, however,
gives the name of ‘cubital,’ perhaps on account of its angular olecranoid
prolongation, to the lower bone, and ‘radial* to the upper bone: and in
these determinations he is followed by M. Agassiz. Both bones coalesce
with the supporting arch in the lophius and some other fishes; and since, in
the lophius, two of the carpal bones are unusually elongated, Geoffroy mistook
these for homologues of the radius and ulna. The condition of the pelvic
member or ventral fin is, in fact, here repeated in the pectoral; there being
no homologous segment of thigh or leg interposed in any ventrals between
the supporting (pelvic) arch and the fin-rays representing the tarso-me-
tatarse and phalanges. The earlier stages in the development of all loco-
motive extremities are permanently retained or represented in the paired fins
of fishes. First the essential part of the member, the hand or foot, appears :
then the fore-arm or leg; both much shortened, flattened and expanded, as
in all fins and all embryonic rudiments of limbs: finally comes the humeral
and femoral segments; but this stage I have not found attained in any fish.
It is with considerable doubt that I place, qualified by a note of interroga-
tion, Cuvier’s “troisiéme os qui porte la nagoire pectorale” as the homologue
or rudimental representative of a ‘humerus.’ Normally, I believe this proxi-
mal member of the radiated appendage of the scapular arch not to be di-
stinctly eliminated from that arch in the class of fishes. The Siluroids are
examples of a similar confluence of the first segment (preoperculum) of the
diverging appendage of the tympanic arch with that arch. With regard to
the lower, distal or apical element of the scapulo-coracoid arch, always the
largest bone of the arch in fishes, Cuvier’s idea that it is the ‘ humerus,’ far
less accords with the law of the development, the connections, and the essen-
tial nature of that bone, than the more prevalent view, that it represents the
clavicle: a view entertained by Spix, Meckel, and Agassiz, by Wagner,
who calls it ‘ vordere Schliisselbein,’ and by Geoffroy, who calls it ‘ furculaire.’
I have, however, been induced to regard the lower element of the scapular
arch, in fishes (fig. 5, 52), as homologous with that bone, the ‘ coracoid,’ which
progressively acquires a more constant and larger development in descending
from mammals to fishes, and which is manifestly a more essential part of the
arch than the clavicle, since it is more constant in its existence, and always
more completely developed in birds and reptiles; and especially since it con-
tributes more or less of the surface of attachment for the radiated appendage,
which the clavicle never does. With reference, also, to the Cuvierian deter-
mination of the hzemapophysial portion of the occipital inverted arch in fishes,
this is unquestionably as essential an element of the arch as is the ‘ coracoide’
in other vertebrates ; and it is the most important part in the piscine class, in
no member of which does it present the slightest approach to the character of

Disarticulated bones of the neural arches (N I to 1V) and sense-capsules; the heemal arches (H I to 1Y) and appendages in diagrammatic outline. Cod (Morrhua vulgaris).

4 7
us ne
! \

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 187

a diverging appendage, such as the humerus essentially is, whenever if has an
independent existence. By some ichthyotomists, the bone which I call cora-
coid (52) has received the special name of ‘ ccenosteon.’

Cuvier’s usual judgement and acumen seem to have been in abeyance,
when, having determined the rays of the pectoral fin to represent the bones
of the hand, and the two bones which support them in fishes to be those of
the fore-arm, he concluded that, therefore, the great bone which completed
the scapular arch “répondra done nécessairement a lhumérus.’— Hist. des
Poissons, 4to. i. p. 274. The great anatomist assigns no other reason: but
the arch supporting the ventral fin does not necessarily answer to the tibia
or the femur, because neither of these segments are interposed between the
arch and its appendage—the modified foot*. The scapula of many reptiles,
especially of the batrachia, is manifestly, he proceeds to state, composed of
two bones. But in those reptiles the arch is completed below by a third
bone, which neither Cuvier nor any other anatomist has called ‘humerus.’
Now Cuvier’s ‘humerale’ in fishes precisely answers to that third bone in
reptiles which he rightly calls the ‘ coracoid’ in that class.

The coracoid of fishes being thus determined, it necessarily follows that
that inconstant bone, or pair of bones (5s) posterior to it on each side, cannot
be, as Cuvier, Geoffroy, Meckel and Agassiz have supposed, the representa-
tive of the ‘os coracoidien’ of the reptile and bird. It holds, indeed, as they
have said, the same relative position to the bone 52, here called coracoid,
which the coracoid in the lizard and bird holds to the clavicle in those ani-
mals. But is no account to be taken of the remarkably though normally ad-
vanced position of the scapulo-coracoid arch in fishes? Granting, as I shall
give evidence to prove in treating of the general homologies of the bones,
that the bone (5s) called by Cuvier ‘coracoidien’ in fishes appertains to a
vertebral segment posterior to the occipital one, yet in the extraordinary back-
ward displacement which the true scapulo-coracoid arch undergoes in the
air-breathing vertebrates, may not its relative position to that arch become
reversed, and the part which is behind in fishes become before in birds? I
entertain no unmeet confidence in the correctness of my view of the special
homology of Cuvier’s ‘ os coracoidien’ in fishes with the furculum or ‘ clavicle’
of air-breathing vertebrates: the argument against such a view, from its pos-
terior position in fishes, has not, however, the same weight with me as it ap-
pears to have had with Cuvier and his followers: and, leaving this as oue of
the undecided points in special homology, with the proposition of the pro-
visional name of ‘ epicoracoid’ (cpicoracoideum, Lat.) for the bone in ques-
tion, I proceed to consider other mooted points of special homology, of which
there are better and surer grounds for the determination.

The first discrepancy, demanding special consideration, which meets the
eye in the TasLe I. is that which relates to the determination of no.6. The
German authorities regard what I believe to be the homologue of the human
‘ala ae sphenoidalis’ in the cold-blooded Vertebrata, to be the homologue
of the ‘ pars petrosa ossis temporis. Cuvier recognises the ‘ grande aile du
sphénoide’ in mammals, birds and fishes, but regards my ‘alisphenoid’ in
reptiles as the ‘rocher’ or ‘ pars petrosa,’ Geoffroy concurs with Cuvier and
the German anatomists so far as to view my ‘alisphenoid’ in the Crocodile
as a dismemberment of the petrosal, calling it ‘ prérupéal ; but he recognises,
like Agassiz and Cuvier, the true alisphenoid i in fishes, and with them differs
in that respect from the German homologists. It does not appear that the
alisphenoid has been mistaken for any other bone than the petrosal, and the

* The great Linnzus indicates his appreciation of the homology of the ventral fins of
fishes by styling the fishes without those fins ‘ Apodal.’

02

188 REPORT—1846.

question to he determined, therefore, is, what are the essential characters re-
spectively of the ‘alisphenoid’ and the ‘ petrosal’ in the vertebrate series ?

Those of the alisphenoid appear to me to be the following :—1st, its con-
nection below with the basisphenoid and behind with the petrosal, where it
forms the forepart of the ‘ otocrane’ or cavity for the reception of that osseous
or cartilaginous immediate capsule of the labyrinth or internal organ of hear-
ing: the alisphenoid is also commonly, but not constantly, joined before
with the orbitosphenoid, and above with the parietal: it has other less con-
stant connections with the squamosal, the exoccipital, the supraoccipital and
the basioccipital: 2ndly, with regard to its essential functions, the alisphenoid
protects more or less of the side of the mesencephalon, or (in mammals) of
the middle lobe of the hemisphere: it gives exit, by notches or foramina, to
the third, and usually, also, to the second divisions of the trigeminal or fifth
pair of nerves.

The essential character of the petrosal is to envelope immediately the
whole of the vascular and nervous tunics of the labyrinth or internal organs
of hearing, either in a membranous, a cartilaginous or an osseous state ;
its histological condition being much less constant than that of the alisphe-
noid.

On viewing the alisphenoid on the interior surface of the human skull
(fig. 6, 6), it seems to be the least significant and important part of the lateral

Fig. 6.

Vertical longitudinal section of the human cranium,

walls of the cranial cavity: it forms their smallest portion: it is much sur-
passed in extent by the squamosal (2b. 27) and the supra-occipital (2b. 3),
and still more so by the enormously expanded parietal (7) and frontal (11).
Nevertheless we find it connected, anchylosed indeed, below to the basisphe-
noid (5), bounding anteriorly the space into which the petrosal (16) is
wedged; connected in front with the orbito-sphenoid (10), and usually
articulating by its superior apex with the parietal: I purposely omit the
mention of other connections of the alisphenoid in Man which are less
constant in the vertebrate series. But it is important to observe, notwith-
standing the displacement which the alisphenoid has undergone through the
intercalation of the extraordinarily developed squamosal into the lateral walls

<——t

al

ei?
x :

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 189

of the cranium, that it is still perforated by the third (2b. ¢r) and second
divisions of the fifth or trigeminal nerve. 5

In tracing the alisphenoid downwards through the mammalian series, we can-
not but be impressed with the conviction of its true character and importance
as an essential part of the cranium, from its constancy in the formation of its
walls, and by observing that, whilst the share which the squamosal takes in them
progressively decreases,—until in the sheep, for example, it is quite excluded

Fig. 7.

Vertical longitudinal section of the cranium of a sheep (Ovis Aries).

from the cranial cavity,—that of the alisphenoid (fig. 7, 6) increases as the
cavity itself diminishes in size; and, further, that this increase is not accom-
panied with any material change in the relative size of the alisphenoid to the
basisphenoid. The share which the alisphenoid takes in forming the ante-
rior boundary of the otocrane increases; as does also the extent of its supe-
rior connections, especially of that with the parietal (7). It is important,
in tracing these modifications, to note, also, the change in the relative position
of the foramen ovale in the mammalian series. In Man the foramen ovale
(fig. 6, tr) is close to the hinder border of the alisphenoid; and in some
quadrumanes the third division of the fifth escapes through a notch in the
same border. This position of the foramen ovale relates to the alisphenvid
being pushed forward by the intrusion not only of a large ossified petrosal
(1s), but of a still larger squamosal (27). In the sheep, however, the fora-
men ovale is no longer at the posterior margin; but, the alisphenoid, having
retrograded by the recession of the squamosal towards its more normal ex-
terior position in the vertebrate series, the third division of the trigeminal
now perforates its middle part (fig. 7, ér). It may be observed that, con-
comitantly with this retrogradation of the alisphenoid, the orbito-sphenoid
(2. 10) acquires larger proportional dimensions than in Man (fig. 6, 10).

In the bird the alisphenoid (fig. 8, 6) is recognizable by the repetition of
the connections which it presented in the sheep; the squamosal being quite
excluded from the cranial parietes, and, indeed, never again presenting itself
in the capacity of a cranial bone in any of the oviparous vertebrates. The
alisphenoid (fig. 23, 6) is in contact posteriorly with the petrosal (7. 16),
which soon becomes anchylosed with it, as well as with the exoccipital (2),
mastoid (s), and other bones forming the cavity for its reception, in all birds,
The alisphenoid further manifests its true homology in the bird by its other
constant character of transmitting the third and also the second or maxillary
division of the trigeminal nerve ; which divisions, in the young ostrich, I

190 REPORT—1846.

Fig. 8.

Partly disarticulated cranium of a young ostrich (Séruthio camelus), natural size.

found distinctly perforating the middle of its lower border (fig. 8, 6, &r). The
alisphenoid is deeply impressed by the chief ganglions of the mesencephalon,
viz. the optic lobes. The prosencephalon or hemispheres are still defended
principally by expanded parietals (¢b.7) and frontals (tb. 11)*. ~

In the crocodile these spinal elements of the cranium are much restricted
in their development, and a larger proportion of the hemispheres is defended
by the orbitosphenoid (fig. 9, 10), which here surpasses the alisphenoid (ib. 6)
in size. This, however, still performs its essential and characteristic fune-

Fig. 9.

Vertical longitudinal section of the cranium of a crocodile (Crocodilus acutus).

tions of protecting the sides of the mesencephalon, and giving issue to the
chief part of the trigeminal nerve. Owing to the diminution in size of the

* The right frontal has been removed to show better the extent and connections of the
orbitosphenoid (10) and the prefrontal (14).

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 191

petrosal (16), and the retention by a great proportion of this capsule of the
acoustic labyrinth of its primitive cartilaginous state, it occupies a smaller
interval between the alisphenoid (6) and exoccipital (2). It no longer pro-
trudes as a large bony wedge (as in figs. 6 and 7, 16) into the cranial eavity,
but permits the alisphenoid to come into connection with the exoccipital.
The result of this further retrogradation of the alisphenoid, in regard to the
relative position of the outlet of the third division of the fifth, is analogous
to that which occurs in the sheep. We saw in that mammal, through the
recession of the squamosal, the foramen ovale advanced from the posterior to
the middle part of the alisphenoid; in the crocodile, through the further re-
moval from the cranial cavity of the interposed petrosal, the foramen ovale is
advanced to the anterior border of the alisphenoid ; which border, in fact, it
notches, the nerve escaping by a common foramen or ‘trou du conjugaison’
between the alisphenoid and the orbitosphenoid, the hole, however, being

- principally formed by the alisphenoid (fig. 9, tr). This position of the ‘ fora-

men ovale’ loses all its value as an argument in favour of the petrosal cha-
racter of no. 6, by analogy with the position of the foramen ovale in man
or the ape, when we take into consideration the necessary consequences of
the successive withdrawal of the squamosal and true petrosal from the inner
surface of the cranium in descending to the reptiles. The orbitosphenoid
(fig. 9, 10), notwithstanding its great relative size, retains all its essential cha-
racters: it is perforated or notched for the exit of the optic nerves (op) and
first division of the fifth pair (s); it rests upon the presphenoid (9) kelow,
and likewise, through its backward development, partly upon the basisphe-
noid, and it articulates with the frontal (11) above, and also through the
same backward extension with the parietal (7); it constitutes the anterior
border of the lateral bony parietes of the cranium, which are interrupted
by the orbits, and separated by their interposition in saurians and fishes
from the rhinencephalic part of the cranial cavity (at 14, fig. 9). The cha-
racters, in fact, of the orbitosphenoid are so clearly manifested in the cro-
codile, that Cuvier, having been led by the increased share, as compared
with mammals, which the crocodile’s alisphenoid (fig. 9, 6) takes in the form-
ation of the otocrane, to regard it as the petrosal, and yet perceiving the
essential characters of the orbitosphenoid in the bone (2d. 10) anterior to it,
was driven to the conclusion that that bone represented both orbitosphe-
noid (‘aile orbitaire du sphénoide’) and alisphenoid (aile temporale du sphé-
noide). The cold-blooded crocodile, however, is not exactly the animal in
which we should expect to find so unusual an instance of obliteration of
sutures, as that between the alisphenoid and orbitosphenoid*. The actual
and most characieristic modification of the orbitosphenoid in the crocodile’s
skull, is its retrogradation together with the alisphenoid, or rather the main-
tenance of its normal connection therewith by increased antero-posterior
development, whereby it comes into communication above with the parietal
(7) and below with the basisphenoid (5); whilst the alisphenoid, in like
manner, gains a connection with the supra-occipital (3) above and the basi-
occipital (1) below; although it still retains its more normal relations with the
parietal, and rests in great part on the basisphenoid (5), as the orbitosphe-
noid rests in great part upon the pre-sphenoid (9.) The superior connec-

* No one better appreciated the characteristic persistence of the sutures in the crocodile
than Cuvier, when his attention was not diverted from it by a favourite hypothesis. “Le
crocodile a cela d’avantageux 4 l’étude de son ostéologie, que ses sutures ne s’effacent point,
du moins n’en a-t-il disparu aucune dans nos plus vieilles tétes,” is the remark with which
he commences his article on the determination of the bones of the head of that reptile
(Ossemens Fossiles, 4to. v. pt. ii. p. 69): but at p. 76, a suture is assumed to be effaced,

which is present in most mammals and all cold-blooded vertebrates, where a wider space
does not intervene between the alisphenoid and orbitosphenoid.

192 REPORT— 1846.

tions of the orbitosphenoid and alisphenoid are always less constant than
theirinferior ones. By these latter characters, and still better by their nerve-
vutlets and their relations to the primary divisions of the encephalon, are
they rightly and truly determinable. The German authors who have fol-
lowed Cuvier in his views of the special homology of the alisphenoid in rep-
tiles, are more consistent than the great French anatomist in regard to the
alisphenoid of fishes. Dr. Hallmann, accepting Cuvicr’s characters of the pe-
trosal, taken from its internal position and lodgement of the whole or part
of the labyrinth*, naturally applies them to the alisphenoid in fishes, and
adds to the grounds for regarding that bone as the ‘ petrosal,’ that it is in
some fishes perforated by the opercular branch of the great trigeminal nerve+.
But, admitting the homology of the opercular nerve with the facial nerve of
mammals, yet its wider homology and essential character as a motor division
of the great trigeminal nerve must not be lost sight of: its origin in close
contiguity with the great sensory portions of the trigeminal in fishes accords
better with the character of that nerve as the great spinal nerve of the brain,
than it usually presents in higher classes; and it is surely no important de-
parture of the alisphenoid from its normal character, that it should give exit
to both motory and sensory divisions of the great nerve with which it is so
intimately associated from man down to the fish. Indeed, the progressive
withdrawal of the bony petrosal from the interior of the skull and the con-
comitant backward extension, or retrogradation of the alisphenoid, ought to
prepare us to expect that nerves which traverse the petrosal in mammals
should perforate the alisphenoid in reptiles and fishes. And so we find
in the carp that the glosso-pharyngeal even perforates the posterior border
of the alisphenoid; but its origin close to the acoustic and facial nerves
in fishes diminishes the force of the argument which might be drawn from
this exceptional perforation, in favour of the petrosal character of the ali-
sphenoid. I concur entirely with Cuvier and M. Agassiz in their determi-
nation of the alisphenoid in fishes; but, if the great share which that bone
in reptiles (figs. 9 and 10, 6) contributes to the formation of the otocrane,
if the anterior position of the foramen ovale, and the superior connection of
the bone with the supra-occipital, are proofs (as Cuvier believed) of its ho-
mology with the petrosal in the class Feptilia, they ought also, as Hallmann
and Wagner contend, to establish the same special homology of the bone (6)
in the class Pisces. But none of these are essential characters of the petrosal.
The petrosal is a contentum aud not a paries, or any part of the parietes of the
cranial chamber or otocrane lodging the organ of hearing: it is the outermost
tunic, membranous, gristly, or bony, of the labyrinth or essential part of the
acoustic organ. Had the above-cited anatomists clearly appreciated the
general homology of the petrosal, they could scarcely have failed to detect
its special homologies in the vertebrate series. Cuvier was evidently guided
to the true determination of the alisphenvid in fishes, less by its own essen-
tial characters, than by observing in certain fishes, the perch and cod for ex-
ample, a partial ossification of the acoustic capsule, to which, therefore, he
assigned the name ‘rocher.’ And, having thus satisfied himself of the ex-
istence of the homologue of the ‘pars petrosa,’ &c., he could not but assign
to the bone which rested below upon the basisphenoid, which protected late-
rally the optic lobes and gave exit to the third division of the trigeminal nerve,
the name of ‘grande aile du sphénoide.’ But all these characters equally
coexist in the bone which Cuvier calls ‘ rocher’ (petrosal) in the crocodile and
other reptilia. He was not aware, however, that in both gavials and cro-
codiles a distinct ossicle, the veritable homologue of the intra-cranial pyra-
* Ossemens Fossiles, 4to, t. v. pt. i. p. 81.
+ Der vergleichende Osteologie des Schlafenbeins, p. 64.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 193

midal-shaped petrosal of mammals and birds, makes its appearance between
the alisphenoid, exoccipital and basioccipital, as at 16, fig. 9. Here, however,
it is necessary to offer a few observations on the sense in which I use the
térm ‘petrosal’ as applied to that ossicle.

The petrosal, properly so called, considered in its totality, as the immediately
investing capsule of the labyrinth or internal organ of hearing, is wholly carti-
Jaginous in many fishes and saurians, and in all batrachians, ophidians and
ehelonians, and is contained in a cavity or orbit (otocrane) which most, or all
of the elements of the occipital and parietal vertebrae concur in forming. A
part of the ear-capsule remains cartilaginous in the crocodile; but several
portions become ossified around the semicircular canals and rudimental
cochlea, which ossifications contract slender adhesions to the smooth oto-
eranial surfaces of the supraoccipital, exoccipital and alisphenoid; and to
one of these portions (on the principle on which Cuvier applies the term
‘rocher’ in fishes) the name petrosal might more particularly be given, as it
is more distinct and moveable than the other partial ossifications of the cap-
sule, and contributes to form the ‘ meatus internus’ towards the cranial cavity,
surrounds nearly the whole of the ‘ fenestra rotunda’, and one-half of the ‘ fe-
nestra ovalis’ towards the tympanic cavity. Looking upon the inner surface
of the lateral walls of the cranium (as at fig. 9), one sees at the bottom of
the T-shaped suture* uniting the otocranial laminz of the exoccipital, ali-
sphenoid, and supraoccipital bones, a fourth osseous element (16), presenting
a convex extremity towards the cranial cavity, and completing, with the exocci-
pital, the lower half of the foramen for the nervus vagus. If this little bone
be pressed upon with a needle or probe, it yields and moves, being divided
by smooth harmonize from both the exoccipital (2) and alisphenoid (6).

The protuberance in question, which thus projects into the cranial cavity,
is the rounded angle of the border of the inferior plate of the petrosal, which
joins the exoccipital. This lower horizontal plate of the petrosal forms the
upper wall of the ‘ fissura lacera posterior,’ and the lower wall of the ‘ fenestra
cochlez’: the fore-part of the horizontal plate bends upwards, twisting
and expanding into a vertical oval plate, articulated by its anterior surface to
a corresponding sutural surface of the alisphenoid. The lower margin of
this plate forms the upper boundary of the ‘fenestra cochlez,’ and is con-
tinued into a thin plate of bone which divides the ‘ fenestra cochlez’ from the
‘fenestra vestibuli’ above. This thin plate of the petrosal joins and is usually
anchylosed to the exoccipital: it is the only part of the true petrosal noticed
by Cuvier, who describes it as a slender filament of bone which separates
the two fenestre+. Seen edgewise, looking into the tympanic cavity, the
plate appears like a filament: and this plate forms the sole connection, when
any exists, between the petrosal and the exoccipital. I have always found
the sutures persistent between the petrosal and the alisphenoid. The upper
border of the ‘fenestra vestibuli’ is formed by a petrosal, or rather otocra-
nial, process of the alisphenoid.

The part (fig. 9, 16) entering into the formation of the lateral walls of the
brain-case, and which is here specially indicated by the name of ‘ petrosal,’
seems to have been overlooked: it is, however, relatively to the alisphenoid
or exoccipital, as large as is the petrosal (Cuvier’s rocher) in the perch: it
has a true osseous texture, and is quite distinct from the lenticular mass of
calcareous matter in the adjacent cochlear chamber which Cuvier compares
to starch (‘amidon durci’).

* Suture 4 trois branches, Cuvier, /. c. p. 165.

Du cote de la caisse la paroi est percée de deux fenétres trausversalement oblongues et
5 a p p gz
séparées par un filet mince.” /. c. p. 82.

194 REPORT— 1846.

Neither the figure of the interior surface of the cranium of the crocodile,
which Spix gives as that of the Nilotic species in his great ‘Cephalogenesis,’
tab. ii. fig. 6; nor the figure given by Geoffroy of the skull of his Crocodilus
suchus in the ‘ Annales des Sciences,’ tom. iii. pl. 16, fig. 2; nor that of the
Crocodilus biporcatus, which illustrates the later memoir by the same author
in the ‘Mémoires de l Académie Royale des Sciences,’ t. xii. (1833), pl. 1,
fig. 2.; nor that (if it be an original figure) published by Dr. Hallmann in
his ‘Comparative Anatomy of the Temporal Bone’ (taf. iii. fig. 49), give any
indication of this, in the determination of the homology of the alisphenoid
and petrosal, most significant and important ossicle. The proof of its normal
character will be afforded by comparisons of the description and figure of
the part here given with a section of the cranium of any true Crocodilus,
Alligator or Gavial. In the latter, the otocranial plates of the alisphenoid,
exoccipital and supra-occipital, project considerably into the cranial cavity.
Any one of these plates might be called ‘ petrosal,’ for such reasons as have
induced Cuvier to apply that name to the alisphenoid in the crocodile and
other reptiles*. We find, indeed, that Geoffroy has applied the equivalent
term, by turns, to each. But the true idea of the petrosal should include all
those gristly and bony parts of the immediately investing capsule of the la-
byrinth which occupy the otocranial excavations of the exoccipital, supraoc-
cipital and alisphenoid ; and as the ossified portions of the true petrosal, in the
crocodile, usually contract a bony union with the parietes of the otocrane,
all these bony portions of the immediate capsule of the labyrinth might be
called ‘petrosal processes’ of the bones to which they respectively adhere.
That portion which unites to the exoccipital is attached by two lamelle; it
forms a great part of the cochlear cavity, the lower half of the posterior semi-
circular canal and the hinder half of the external or upper semicircular canals:
that plate which belongs to the supra-occipital is attached to its otocranial
surface by three points, and forms the upper third part of the anterior semi-
circular canal and the crus of the posterior canal which communicates there-
with : that part which adheres to the alisphenoid forms the anterior crus of the
anterior (in Man superior) semicircular canal and the anterior beginning of the
external canal. The proper and usually distinct bony portion of the petrosal
(fig. 9, 16), which articulates with both alisphenoid and exoccipital, forms
part of the ‘meatus internus,’ nearly the whole of the ‘ fenestra cochlez,’ and
half of the ‘fenestra vestibuli’: it can only be regarded a ‘ petrosal process’
of the exoccipital by virtue of the very limited anchylosis occasionally con-
tracted by the thin plate dividing the two ‘fenestre,’ along with the true
petrosal process of the exoccipital above described.

If we compare with
the inner wall of the cro-
codile’s cranium that of
an ophidian, the python
for example (fig. 10), we
shall find the walls of the
‘otocrane’ or chamber
of the labyrinth to be
contributed by the ex-
occipital, (2) supra-oc-
cipital(s )andalisphenoid
(6) in nearly equal pro-
portions ; the basioccipi- =
tal (1), also, being ac- Cranium ofa python partially bisected. Natural size.

* Ossemens Fossiles, 4to. 1824, y. ii. pp. 81, 180, 258.

Fig. 10.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 195

eessory to the formation of the floor of the ear-chamber: the three principal
bones are united, as in the crocodile, by a triradiate suture. The petrosal,
which, like the squamosal, was gradually more and more withdrawn and
shut out from the cranial cavity, as we decended from mammals, now entirely
disappears from view: and it retains its primitive cartilaginous state in ser-
pents as it does in chelonians, lizards and batrachians. The essential cha-
racters of the exoccipital (2) are manifested by its relative position and con-
nections; by its affording exit for the vagal (v) and hypoglossal (Ag) nerves,
and by its protecting the sides of the epencephalon. ‘The alisphenoid (c) is
not less clearly indicated by its constant and essential characters ; it rests below
upon the basisphenoid (5), it articulates above with the parietal (7), and
behind with the cartilaginous petrosal ; but the otocranial plate being, as in
the crocodile, unusually extended backwards, unites with the basioccipital
(1), exoccipital (2) and supraoccipital (3), in almost equal proportions, and
becomes directly perforated by the acoustic nerve (ac). Its chief foramen
(t&), however, is, as usual, that which answers to the foramen ovale in the
human alisphenoid, and which gives passage, as in fishes, to the great third
division of the fifth, and to the branch which is homologous with the
contribution by the fifth to the ‘nervus lateralis’ in many fishes, and at
the same time with the nerve called ‘ chorda tympani’ in anthropotomy.

In the frog I have given an external view of the alisphenoid (6) and the
cartilaginous petrosal (16) in their undisturbed connections, in fig. 13, with
the surrounding bones. The alisphenoid is here perforated, as in Man, by
both a foramen ovale and foramen rotundum (ér.): it forms posteriorly the
fore-part of the chamber for the cartilaginous petrosal, and usually coalesces
with the mastoid (s), which overarches the petrosal: the back wall of the
otocrane is contributed, as usual, by the exoccipital (2); the floor by the
homologue of the coalesced basisphenoid and basioccipital. Had the outer
part of the petrosal (16) been the seat of a partial ossification, a bone would
have resulted corresponding precisely with Cuvier’s ‘ rocher’ in the cod and
perch: but the immediate capsule of the labyrinth retains the same histolo-
gical condition in the batrachia as it does in the carp and pike, and as in the
salamandroid polypterus and lepidosteus: in the latter fish, at most, the only
ossified part of the petrosal forms a small bony cup covering the posterior
extremity of the outer semicircular canal*.

The attention of the justly celebrated ichthyotomist of Neuchatel appears
to have been too exclusively occupied with the persistent embryonic condi-
tion of the ‘ petrosal’ in these highly organized fishes, to gain that true and
clear idea of the essential nature of the petrosal of which its partial ossifica-
tion in the perch and cod is indicative. Adopting the opinion of Cuvier, in
preference to that of Meckel and Hallmann, touching the special homology
of the alisphenoid, M. Agassiz originally diverged into the opposite extreme
of repudiating altogether the existence of a petrosal in the class of fishes.
Thus, he says, “Il devrait suffire ce me semble de voir lorgane de l’ouie
présenter des modifications graduées dans toute la série des vertébres, pour
se convainere que le rocher n’existe pas du tout chez les poissons, par plus
que les osselets de la cavité du tympan. S’il y avait un rocher chez les
poissons, ce devrait étre un os qui entourerait le labyrinthe et les canaux
semicirculaires; mais nous avons vu que ces parties de l'oreille interne se
trouvent dans la cavité du crane sans enveloppe osseuse particuliére, et pro-
tégées seulement par les parois des os qui entourent le rocher, la ou il existe+.”

* This condition answers to that in the human embryo of about the fourth month, in which
a light porous bony crust begins to be formed upon the cochlea and semicircular canals
commencing with the outer and upper ones, the rest of the petrosal being cartilaginous.

+ Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles, tom. v. p. 66.

196 REPORT—1846.

M. Agassiz is perfectly accurate in his character of the petrosal, according
to its relative position, as completely investing the entire labyrinth (of which,
by the way, the semicircular canals are an integrant part in all vertebrates
and form almost the whole in fishes); but he takes a narrow view of its
histological characters. The sclerotic is not less essentially a sclerotic in the
shark, where itis cartilaginous, than it is in the cod, where it is osseous; neither
is it less the eye-capsule and homotype of the petrosal in the mammal because
it retains the earliest histological condition of the skeleton, viz. that ofa fibrous

membrane. And, in point of fact, in those fishes where the essential parts of «

the internal organ of hearing appear to be protected solely by the parietes of
the bones, which, in the animals where the petrosal is ossified, or, as M. Agassiz
expresses the fact, ‘ exists,’ surround such petrosal, the vascular and nervous
parts of the labyrinth are actually in such fishes more immediately enveloped
by the petrosal in its membranous or cartilaginous states. What is peculiar
to the petrosal in fishes is, that it is never entirely ossified ; and, furthermore,
that whenever itis partially ossified, the bony part is external and appears on
the outside of the skull instead of the inside, as in the crocodile and birds.
In the chelonia, a larger proportion of the petrosal intervenes between the
alisphenoid and exoccipital upon the inner wall of the cranial cavity than in
the crocodile ; but it is wholly cartilaginous. In the bird, on the contrary, the
whole petrosal capsule of the organ of hearing soon ossifies and becomes
firmly anchylosed to the parts of the exoccipital, mastoid, alisphenoid and
basisphenoid that form its primitive chamber or otocrane; owing, however,
to the larger relative size of the ossified part of the proper capsule (petrosal
proper) which penetrates the cranial cavity, none of the surrounding bones
which contribute accessory protection, have received the name of ‘ rocher,’
or pars petrosa. Itis chiefly from not recognizing or appreciating the general
nature or homology of the ‘ petrosal’ that Cuvier failed to perceive its special
homology in reptiles. Speaking of the skull of the crocodile, he says that
‘the petrosal, or ‘rocher,’ is not less recognizable than the ‘tympanic’ and
other so-called dismemberments of the temporal by its internal position,
by its lodging a great part of the labyrinth, and by its contributing essen-
tially to the formation of one of the fenestre (/. c. p. 81). But the part in
the crocodile which I regard as homologous with Cuvier’s ‘rocher’ in the
perch, is more completely internal in position than is Cuvier's so-called
‘rocher’ in the crocodile: it contributes a greater share to the formation
of the ‘ fenestra vestibuli,’ and it forms almost the whole of the ‘fenestra
cochlee.’ It is not true of the alisphenoid (Cuvier’s ‘rocher’) in the ecro-
codile, that it lodges a great proportion of the labyrinth*: the otocranial
or petrosal process of the alisphenoid lodges a part only of the anterior
semicircular canal, and no part at all of the other semicircular canals. The
exoccipital is that tributary of the otocrane which lodges the major part
of the labyrinth ; it contains, for example, parts of two semicircular canals,
and the rudimental cochlea: and, when the middle, usually distinct part
of the petrosal is joined to it, the exoccipital may be said to form the
whole ‘fenestra cochlez’ and a greater part of the ‘ fenestra vestibuli.’ We
see, then, that the characters by which Cuvier deems his ‘ rocher’ to be so
easily recognizable, are more prominent in the exoccipital than in the ali-
sphenoid : and the choice of the latter by Cuvier as the representative of
the ‘rocher,’ seems chiefly to have been influenced by the more obvious and
unmistakeable essential (neurapophysial) characters of the ‘ occipital latéral’
(fig. 9,2), whilst the accessory character which this bone derives from its
lodging and becoming confluent with part of the true petrosal, was not allowed

* “T) loge en grande partie le labyrinthe,” /. c. p. 81.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 197

to prevail, as in the case of the alisphenoid, in the determination of its special
homology.

The supraoccipital, by virtue of its internal position and lodgment of part
of the labyrinth, has equal claims to the name of ‘rocher,’ according to the
Cuvierian characters of that bone, and Geoffroy St. Hilaire did not make a
less arbitrary choice in singling out this element as ‘le seul rupéal*,’ than
Cuvier did in choosing the alisphenoid, or, as any other anatomist would do
in preferring any other element of a cranial vertebra in the crocodile to
represent the ossified ear-capsule of the fish or mammal, because portions of
that ossified capsule are protected by, or have coalesced with, such vertebral
elements. Had Cuvier looked beyond the special homology of the bones of
the head of the crocodile, and permitted himself to appreciate their higher and
more general relations, he could scarcely have failed to perceive the corre-
spondence of his so-called ‘ rocher’ in batrachians, ophidians, chelonians and
saurians, to the bone which he so well recognizes as ‘the great wing of the
sphenoid’ in the perch and cod-fish.

The Mastoid—tIn the human embryo of the fifth month a centre of ossi-
fication is established on the outer surface of the mass of cartilage occu-
pying the interspace between the basioccipital (fig. 11, 1) and exoccipital
(2) below, the tympanic (2s) and squamosal (27) in front, the supraoccipital
(3) behind, and the parietal (7) above: this mass of cartilage incloses the
membranous labyrinth, about which a light osseous crust has begun to be
formed ; and, from the centre (s) established near the outer border of the
posterior semicircular canal, ossification radiates to complete that part of the
cranial parietes, which, in the adult skull, is impressed on its inner surface by
the great venous channel called ‘fossa sigmoidea,’ and developes from its
outer surface the ‘ processus mastoi-
deus.’ The primitive independence
of the base of this process, which
Kerkringius so clearly and accurately
delineates in his tab. xxxv. fig. iii. as
the posterior of his ‘tria petrosi ossis .
distincta ossicula+,’ is a fact of much
more significance than its brief and
transitory manifestation would lead
the anthropotomist to divine. The
coalescence of the primitively distinct
mastoid with the ossifying capsule of
the labyrinth is very speedy, being
usually complete before the foetus has
passed its fifth month, and a com- -
posite ‘ petro-mastoid’ bone is thus
formed, which, retaining its indivi-
duality in monotremes, marsupials,
ruminants and many rodents, pro- Skull of the human embryo ; fifth month.
ceeds to coalesce with the additional as et
elements of the ‘temporal’ bone in man, and with other surrounding cranial
bones in birds. In the cold-blooded vertebrata, the mastoid retains, with a few
exceptions, its primary embryonic distinctness, as an independent element of

_ the skull. In tracing the modifications of this element downwards from man,

we find the external process from which its anthropotomical name originated,

* Annales des Sciences Naturelles, tom. iii. 1824, p. 271, pl. 16.
T Spicilegium Anatomicum, 4to. 1670, Osteogenia Foetuum, p. 269.

* 198 REPORT— 1846.

inconstant, its functions being transferred in many mammals to another pro-
cess, sometimes udder-shaped, sometimes of great length (fig. 24, 4), but
which is developed from the exoccipital, and is represented in the human skull
by the ‘eminentia aspera,’ &c. of Soemmerring (‘TaBve I. 4), and bythe “sca-
brous ridge extended from the middle of the condyle towards the root of the
mastoid process” of Munro (op. eit. p.. 72); but sometimes also here deve-
loped, as a rare anomaly, on one or both sides, into a process like a second
but smaller posterior mastoid*. The more constant and essential characters
of the mastoid are its contribution to the walls of the acoustic chamber,
carried to anchylosis with the petrosal in birds and mammals, and its sutural
connection in the latter with the exoccipital, parietal, and squamosal (the
squamo-mastoid suture becoming obliterated in many species, e. g. the hog,
fig. 24, 8, 27): it is also grooved, notched or perforated by a greater or less
proportion of the lateral venous sinus, whether this is continued to the ‘ fora-
men jugulare,’ as in man, or sends a large division to escape by the ‘meatus
temporalis’ which forms the large orifice between the mastoid and squamosal
above the meatus auditorius in the horse and ruminants, and which directly
perforates the mastoid in the echidna (fig. 12, m).

Partially disarticulated cranium of the Echidna setosa. Natural size,

It is important to keep these essential characters steadily in view,and toavoid
giving undue importance to the apophysial character of the mastoid, which has
led to so common a transference of its name, in the great osteological works of
Cuvier and De Blainville, to a quite distinct element (paroccipital) of the
cranial wallst. It is necessary, also, to be prepared for that change of the

* The continuators of Cuvier make mention of an example of this kind and propose the name
of ‘ paramastoid ’ for the process (Lesons d’Anat. Comp. ii. (1837) p. 312). I have observed
it in the skull of a New Zealander and in that of an Irishman, preserved in the Museum of
Anatomy in Richmond Street, Dublin. Believing it to be the homologue of the ‘ paroccipital ’
(4), which is developed independently in chelonia and most fishes, I retain that name for it :
it must not be confounded with that angle of the occipital which projects into the ‘ foramen
jugulare’ in the human skull, and which has received the name of ‘ processus jugularis,’ in
some systems of anthropotomy.

+ How essential a correct view of special homology becomes to the appreciation of the

ee

s

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 199

connections of the mastoid, which results from the gradual withdrawal, in the
mammalian class, of the squamosal from the proper cranial walls. With much
inconstancy of relative size in the mastoid, of which the dugong and the walrus
offer two extremes, we discern upon the whole a progressive increase in de-
scending through the mammalian class: in the walrus, for example, the mastoid,
or petromastoid, forms as large a proportion of the outer lateral walls of the
cranium as does the squamosal; and, in the sheep, the removal of the squamosal
exposes the connection of the petromastoid with the alisphenoid,—a return toa
relation common in the oviparous vertebrata: it is shown from the inner side
of the cranium in the sheep, in fig. 7, 16 and 6. The mastoid of the echidna
(fig. 12,8) presents a most interesting and instructive combination of both the
modification of expansion and of that of direct union with the alisphenoid (6),
which is here effected by the mastoid plate independently of the petrosal (16).
In fig. 12 these characters are well exposed by the removal of the squamosal
27, and tympanic 23, which retain their primitive independence throughout
life in the echidna. If now we compare the bone s and i6 with the carti-
Jaginous and osseous mass s and 16 in the skull of the human embryo (fig. 11),
and allow for the change produced in the position of the alisphenoid (6) by
the gradual withdrawal of the squamosal (27), traceable in the intervening
forms of mammalia, the special homology of the petromastoids at the two ex-
tremes of the mammalian class will be obvious and unmistakeable. The bone
s and 16 in the echidna, fig. 12, is connected below and behind with the basi-
occipital and exoccipital (2), behind and above with the supraoccipital (3) and
parietal (7), in front with the tympanic, the squamosal, and also, as a conse-
quence of the modified position of the latter and of its own increased deve-
lopment, with the alisphenoid (6). - All the connections, save that with the
alisphenoid, are identical with those of 8 and 16 in the human embryo; and
the supervening alisphenoidal connection in the echidna affords an additional
light to the determination of the bone in the lower vertebrata, since it is a

.consequence‘of the progressive advance to a lower (oviparous) type, in the

descent through the mammalian scale. In regard to the essential functions
of the petromastoid, we find the petrosal portion inclosing the membranous
labyrinth, and the mastoidal portion giving exit to the blood from the great
lateral venous sinus and supporting the tympanic*. It will be unnecessary
to dwell further on the broad and obvious characters by which the homology
of the bones and 16 in the echidna is established with the equally independent
petromastoid in the sheep and walrus, and with the petromastoid portion of
the human ‘temporal bone.’

_ The continuators of the ‘ Legons d’ Anatomie Comparée,’ influenced by the
large proportional size of the petromastoid in the echidna and the share
which it consequently takes in the formation of the cranial parietes, supposed
it to be the squamosal:—‘“le véritable temporal, qui n’aurait pour. toute
apophyse zygomatique qu'un trés petit tubercule prés de la facette glénoide,”

higher law of general homology may be learnt from the application by Cuvier of his idea of
the mammalian mastoid to the refutation of the vertebral theory of the skull. ‘On a aussi
trouvé quelque rapport entre l’apophyse mastoide qui, dans la plupart des animaux, appar-
tient a l’occipital, et ’apophyse transverse de l’atlas et des autres vertébres; sur quoi il faut
remarquer que ces rapports sont moindres dans l’homme a certains égards que dans les qua-
drupédes, puisque l’atlas n’y a ordinairement qu’une echancrure pour le passage de |’artére,
et que l’apophyse mastoide y appartient enticre au rocher.”—Resumé sur le question— Le
erane est-il une vertébre ou un composé de trois ou quatre vertébres?’ Lecons d’Anatomie
Comparée, t. ii. (1837) p. 711.

* Tn the article ‘ Monotremata,’ Cyclopedia of Anatomy and Physiology, 1841; influenced,
then, by the absence of the external character of the process, I described the petromastoid as
the petrous bone.

Pa

200 REPORT—1846.

op. cit. t. ii. (1837) p. 377. This tubercle is the rudiment of the mastoid
process, which is so largely developed in birds, and which, in the echidna,
overhangs the tympanic cavity. There is no glenoid articular surface upon
the bone s and 16. We find, on the other hand, the squamosal under its proper
mammalian form and connections, with a long and slender zygomatic process,
and performing the function, peculiar to the class Mammalia, of supporting
the mandible by the true glenoid articular surface in the echidna (fig. 12, 27).
Dr. Kostlin, whose painstaking and minutely accurate description of the
osteology of the vertebrate skull renders his conclusions as to their homo-
logies worthy of respectful consideration, concurs with me in regard to the
squamosal (27) of the monotremes, but regards the bone s-16 in the
echidna as a dismemberment of the alisphenoid. In no mammal, however,
do we find the alisphenoid concerned in immediately protecting the semicir-
cular canals—this is the function of the petrosal: in neither mammal nor
bird does the alisphenoid extend its connections so far back as to the basi-

ex- and supra-occipitals. Inthe echidna, as in every other mammal and bird, -

the alisphenoid (6) exists, exclusively exercising its essential function of trans-
mitting the third division of the fifth pair by the large vacuity (¢) and with
its normal connections modified only, as in the sheep and some other inferior
mammalia, through the recession of the squamosal, by joining the mastoid,
in addition to those which it unites with in man. I confess that I can perceive
no other gain to anatomy by Dr. Kostlin’s new determination of s and 16 in
the echidna as ‘hintere Abtheilung des Schlafenfligels’ or ‘hintern Schla-
fenfliigel*’ (posterior alisphenoid), than an additional phrase to the synonyms
of the mastoid.

The discussion of the homologies of this bone under its modifications in
the mammalia, and especially in the monotremata, will not be deemed super-
fluous or too detailed, when it is remembered how valuable a key the cranial
organization of the implacental monotremes with their bird-like heads becomes
to the comprehension of the modifications of the cranial structure in birds
themselves. If we pass from the comparison of the echidna’s skull, as re-
presented in fig. 12, to that of the ostrich (fig. 8), we shall find there a bone
(s) articulated in front to the alisphenoid (6), behind to the exoccipital (2),
below to the basi-occipital and basi-sphenoid, above to the parietal 7, and
coalescing by its inner surface with the petrosal. The sole modification of
note in regard to connective characters, as compared with the mammalian
petromastoid, is the loss of the connection with the squamosal, for which we
have been progressively prepared by the conditions of that bone in rodents, ru-
minants and monotremes. [n the bird this least constant element of the cranial
walls (fig. 21, 27) has undergone a further degradation, is now dismissed en-
tirely from any share in the formation of even the outer surface of the cranial
parietes, and is reduced to its mere zygomatic form and function, serving
exclusively to connect the jugal (fig. 21, 26) with the tympanic (2s); which
function it performs in the echidna and in man, besides other superadded
offices arising out of its peculiarly mammalian expansion into a scale-like
lamina, or as compensatory of the reduction of the tympanic bone. Dr.
Hallmann, however, in his elaborate monograph on the temporal bone, con-
siders the bone s (fig. 8) to be the squamous or zygomatic element, and cites
the following characters of the bone, in the young cassowary {, as establishing
its homology with the squamosal :—“ its junction above with the parietal, in
front with the alisphenoid and post-frontal and behind with the occipital: also
its formation of the upper border of the meatus auditorius externus, and its

* Op. cit. pp. 29, 126.
+ Die vergleichende Osteologie des Schlafensbeins, p. 8. pl. 1. fig. 5.

ow.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 201
*

contribution of the articular surface for the tympanic bone,” which surface
he regards as homologous with the glenoid cavity of the squamosal for the
lower jaw in mammals.
Cuvier, whose homology of no. s he thus adopts, describes it in the bird
as being on the outer side of the parietal, advancing also to beneath the
frontals, occupying the region of the temporal fossa and giving origin to the
temporal muscle, and as forming the superior border of the tympanic cavity.
« The temporal fossa,” adds Cuvier, “is in great part excavated in the tem-
poral bone, and is bounded behind by a special process which might be re-
garded as the analogue of the zygomatic did it not remain far removed from
the malar bone*.” The annotators add, “that there are some species of bird
in which, nevertheless, such zygomatic process does approach very close to
the jugal+.”

First, then, with regard to the character which appears to have most
weighed with Cuvier, from his twice citing it in the above brief definition
of no. s,—the marks of the origin of the temporal muscle. To conclude that
the bone impressed by the so-called ‘temporal fossa’ in the skull of the bird,
is therefore the temporal bone, because such fossa impresses a bone called
‘temporal’ in the mammal, is an example of that fallacy which logicians call
arguing ina circle. The two propositions by no means reciprocally prove
each other. Suppose, for example, that the bone no. s in the bird had been
determined, by way of ascensive comparison from the fish (fig. 5) and cro-
codile (fig. 16), to be the homologue of the bone no.s in those animals, which
we will assume to have been rightly called ‘ mastoid’ by Cuvier, and that he
had arrived at the determination of no. in the bird by this surer method,
than by the descent from placental mammals ; and supposing that, having thus
recognized no.s as the mastoid, the fossa and muscle with which it is im-
pressed in the bird had been called ‘ mastoidal’ instead of ‘temporal ’; then,
ascending to the mammalian cranium, Cuvier might with equal reason have
said that the bone 27, figs. 11 and 22, was the ‘ mastoid,’ because it occupied the
region of the mastoidal fossa and gave origin to the mastoidal muscle. The
origins of muscles are not, however, sufficiently constant to be included amongst
the characters of connection or function determinative of special homologies.
The transference of the ‘sterno-mastoideus’ from the true mastvid process
(Man, Carnivora and Rodentia) to the angle of the mandible (horse), and to
both this part and the second cervical vertebra (Ruminants), shows that the
attachments of a muscle must be determined after the recognition of the bone,
and not the homology of the bone by muscular attachments. With the very
ease in question the uncertainty of the character is illustrated: in the skull
of the ostrich, for example (fig. 8), the temporal fossa is chiefly formed by the
conjoined portions of the parietal (7) and alisphenoid (6), which intervene be-
tween the mastoid (s) and the post-frontal, the mastoid forming not more of
the posterior part of the fossa than the post-frontal does of the anterior part.
Dr. Hallmann probably appreciated the unsoundness of the argument from
the muscular impression, since he does not cite it; he repeats, however, the
character adduced by Cuvier, from the relation of no. 8 to the tympanic
cavity, or as Hallmann expresses it, the meatus auditorius (aussern Gehor
6ffnung), the value of which therefore I next proceed to consider.

In the skull of the ostrich, with the tympanic bone and ear-drum in place,
the upper border of the meatus, as defined by the periphery of the membrana:

_tympani, is formed, not by no. 8, but by the tympanic anteriorly, and by the
_paroccipital: process (4) posteriorly. When the tympanic bone and mem-
brane are removed, then the descending process of no. s overarches the
* Lecons d’Anat. Comp. ii. (1837), p. 580. + Jb. p. 581.
1846. P

202 REPORT—1846.

6
upper and forepart of the tympanic cavity so exposed. So much for the
facts of the argument*.

We may next ask, Is the formation of the upper boundary of the meatus
externus an essential character of the squamosal in mammals; or is it not
rather a secondary consequence of the expansion and application of that bone
to the side of the cranium in this particular class? If we were desirous of
obtaining a homological character by comparison of the contour of the
meatus externus or the tympanic cavity in mammals and birds, ought we
not rather to select the lowest and most ornithoid of mammals, as best cal-
culated to throw light upon the real nature of the modifications of this part
of the skull in the respective classes? In the echidna, then, we find that
the squamosal does not form the whole of the superior border of the shallow
tympanic cavity, but that the mastoid forms the posterior half of that border,
and sends a short obtuse process downwards (at 16, fig. 12), which overhangs
the cavity and gives attachment to the tympanic (2s). Behind the mastoid
is the exoccipital. Now in birds the antero-posterior extent of the cranium
between the exoccipital and post-frontal bones is much shortened as compared
with mammals, and this modification I interpret as the result, in a great de-
gree, of the entire removal of the squamosal from the cranial parietes. Of
the homology of no. 4 as a part of the exoccipital there has been no question,
although its development, and the share it takes in the lateral parietes of the
head, is increased, as compared with most mammals, rather than diminished.
The exoccipital constantly unites anteriorly with the mastoid in mammals,
from man down to the echidna; but the extension of the squamosal back-
wards to articulate with the exoccipital is far from being a constant character
in mammals. We ought on that ground therefore to conclude that the bone s,
which articulates with the fore-part of the exoccipital in the bird, is the
‘ mastoid,’ rather than that it is the ‘squamosal.’ It overhangs the tympanic
cavity by a longer or shorter process ; but being more advanced in position,
partly by the development of the exoccipital behind, and the non-interposition
of a squamosal between it and the alisphenoid in front, it overarches the
middle of the upper instead of the posterior part of the upper border of the
tympanic cavity in the bird; but it is still in great part posterior to the tym-
panic pedicle, a relative position which is foreign to the squamosal. The
process of no. s resembles the mastoid process in mammalia, inasmuch as
it terminates freely in most birds; and in those, the parrot for example, in
which it joins another process to form a zygoma or bridge over the temporal
fossa, that process answers to the post-frontal, the very bone which the mas-
toid similarly joins in the crocodile, and does not answer to the malar bone,
which the squamosal joins in both mammals and crocodiles.

The mastoid always coalesces with the petrosal, rarely with the squa-
mosal, in the mammalia; such coalescence is therefore a more constant cha-
racter of the mastoid than of the squamosal, and the argument becomes
cumulative in favour of the mastoid or petromastoid character of no. s in the
bird. When we remove the squamosal in the sheep we bring away the man-
dible which articulates with it, but we leave the distinct and independent tym-
panic closely articulated to the petromastoid. Precisely the same thing
happens in the rodentia, in the marsupialia, and especially in the echidna,
in which the tympanic has the slightest connection with the squamosal. The
articulation of the tympanic therefore with the petromastoid is a more con-
stant character than its articulation with the squamosal ; therefore the arti-
culation of the unquestioned tympanic bone in birds with the bone no. s is a

* The same formation of the upper boundary of the meatus externus is shown by Geoffroy
in the young fowl.—Annales du Muséum, x. pl. 27. fig. 2. V.Q.

——

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 203

stronger proof of no.s being the petromastoid than of its being the squamosal :
and for the same reasons that the articulation of no. s with the exoccipital, and
its coalescence with the petrosal, are more essential characters of the petro-
mastoid than they are of the squamosal, so I regard the articular surface
furnished by no.s to the tympanic bone to be homologous with the articular
surface of the petromastoid for the tympanic in the ruminants, rodents
and other mammals, and am compelled to dissent from Dr. Hallmann’s idea
of its answering to the articular surface furnished by the squamosal to the
mandible in mammals. In the ostrich a part of the articular cavity for the
tympanic is excavated in the exoccipital, and would afford as good an argu-
ment to prove that bone to be the squamosal as the one which Dr. Hallmann
has deduced from the same character in favour of the petromastoid in the
bird being ‘the squamosal. Dr. Hallmann cites the junction of no. s (his ¢,
taf. i. fig. 5, op. cit.) with the post-frontal in a young cassowary as evidence
of its squamous character. I have not met with this union in the young
ostrich nor in the young emeu, in which latter bird there is a distinct post-
frontal: the anterior inferior angle of the parietal descends and meets the
alisphenoid in both these Struthionide, at the part where the post-frontal is
marked (at f"’) in Dr. Hallmann’s figure above cited. The extremity of the
mastoid process does, however, arch over the temporal fossa to join the post-
frontal process in certain birds, as above mentioned ; but this junction, when
we ascend in our pursuit of the homologies of the elements of the composite
temporal bone of mammals, as it is safest to do, from fishes to reptiles,
and from these to birds, forms a repetition of a very characteristic feature
of the mastoid in the cold-blooded classes, and one that is quite intelligible
when we rise to the appreciation of the higher relations of both mastoid and
post-frontal as parapophyses of their respective vertebra.

In every mammal the squamosal is applied to the cranial parietes, and at-
tached by a peculiar suture called squamous; the outer surface of the bone
exceeding the inner surface. In no bird is the mastoid so united to the sur-
rounding bones, but joins them by harmoniz vertical to the surface, as the
other true cranial bones are joined before they coalesce; and the outer very
little, if at all, surpasses the inner surface, to which the petrosal is confluent.
The petromastoid of the mammal resembles that of the bird in this respect.

‘There is no difficulty in the ascensive survey in appreciating the special
homology of no. s in the bird (fig. 23) with no. s in the crocodile (fig. 22)
and in the fish (fig. 5); and Dr. Hallmann, retaining a firmer and more
consistent view of their common characters than Cuvier, enunciates clearly
this homology: but having persuaded himself that the ‘ mastoid’ of the bird
was its ‘squamosal,’ he concludes that the bone which Cuvier had called mas-
toid in the crocodile and fish must also be their squamosal. I believe Cuvier
to have rightly determined the bone (no.8) in the cold-blooded classes to be
the mastoid ; but he is not consistent with himself when he adopts a different
conclusion with regard to no.s in the bird. The greater development of
the bird’s brain, as compared with the crocodile’s, requires a greater expan-
sion of the cranial part of the mastoid, just as the still greater development
of the brain in mammals calls forth a peculiar expansion and application of
the cranial end of the squamosal, involving a transference of the mandibular
joint to that expanded end.

‘Cuvier, in descending from mammals to the consideration of the homolo-
gies of no. s in the bird, passed too abruptly to the comparison, lacking the
instructive link furnished by the monotremes. It might have sufficed for
the present report to have demonstrated the homology of no.s in the bird,
ascensively, with Cuvier’s well-determined mastoids in fishes and reptiles;

: PQ

= a

204 REPORT—1846.

but since both Cuvier and Dr. Hallmann have elucidated their views of its
homology by characters drawn from the mammalian class, I have endeavoured,
and I trust satisfactorily, to meet their objections and to determine the true
homology of the bone by other arguments drawn from modifications of the
petromastoid in the same class.

Pursuing therefore the comparison descensively, I proceed in the next place
to consider the characters of the mastoid in the crocodile (figs. 19 and 22, s).
Cuvier premises his determination of the bone in that reptile by citing the
following as its characters in the mammalia :—“ La partie mastoidienne qui
recouvre le rocher en arriére de l’écailleuse et de la caisse, mais qui se soude
de si bonne heure a ce rocher que l’on paroient 4 peine a la reconnaitre
comme distincte dans les plus jeunes fétus ot elle est quelquefois double*.”
The squamosal he defines as a bone “qui devient de plus en plus étrangére
au crane 4 mesure qu’on descend dans l’échelle des quadrupédes, en sorte
que dans les ruminans elle est plutdt collée dessus qu'elle n’entre dans la
composition de ses paroist.” If we pause to apply these characters to the de-
termination of nos. s and 27 respectively in the bird, before proceeding to
the crocodile, we shall see how far they sustain the conclusions I have ar-
rived at, in opposition to the views of Cuvier and his followers, in reference
to the true homologue of the mammalian squamosal in birds. With regard
to the mastoid in the crocodile, Cuvier says, “ Le mastoidien des crocodiles
proprement dits et des gavials a cela de particulier, qu'il s’avance latérale-
ment jusqu’a s’unir au frontal postérieur, et a entourer avec lui et le pari-
étal le trou de la face supérieure du crane qui communique avec la fosse
temporale ; dans quelques caimans il s' unit méme 4 ces trois os pour couvrir
entiérement cette fosse en dessus, et dans les tortues de mer, non-seulement
ils font la méme chose, le temporale et le jugal venant aussi a s’unir au mas-
toidien et au frontal postérieure, ils couvrent la fosse temporale, méme par
dehors.” £

Doubtless the German anatomists who dissent from Cuvier’s determination
of the bone s in the crocodile (fig. 22) have been influenced in some degree
by the little conformity between the character above assigned to the mastoid
in that reptile and the character Cuvier had previously assigned to the mas-
toid in mammalia. The confluence of the mastoid with the petrosal, for
example, is a modification peculiar to the warm-blooded vertebrates, whilst
the relative position of the mastoid, above and external to the petrosal and
behind the squamosal and tympanic, is a constant character in all vertebrates ;
to which must be added, that in most mammals and all other vertebrates the
mastoid affords an articular surface for the tympanic bone, and developes an
outstanding (mastoid) process for the attachment of strong muscles moving
the head upon the trunk.

With regard to the relative position of the mastoid process to the cranial
walls, its origin ascends as the expansion of the parietal diminishes with the
decreasing size of the cerebrum: in mammals, the process, when present,
extends from the lower border of the postero-lateral wall of the cranium:
in birds it projects from near the middle of that wall, and nearer the upper
surface in the flat-headed Dinornis: in the crocodile it has ascended to a
level with the upper surface of the cranium, and forms the posterior angle of
that surface. The paroccipital presents a similar progressive ascent, but later
in the series traced descensively ; it does not gain the level of the mastoid
until we arrive at the class of fishes.

The mastoid, thus determined in the crocodile, is recognized with ease
and certainty in chelonia, lacertia and ophidia. It is a distinct bone in all

* Op. cit. t. v. pt. ii. p. 81. + Ib. p.81. { Ib. p. 84.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 205

these reptiles, and preserves with singular constancy its normal relative po-
sition anterior to the exoccipital, superior to and supporting the tympanic,
and anterior to the squamosal when this is present. In lizards the mastoid
is much reduced in size: in serpents it attains a considerable length. In the
python and most serpents it forms no part of the proper wall of the cranium,
but overlaps the contiguous parts of the parietal, alisphenoid, supra-occipital,
and exoccipital, projecting backwards beyond the latter. It is large in the
serpentiform batrachia, but presents in Cecilia (Cuvier, Régne Animal, 1817,
pl. 6. figs. 1 & 2, g) its normal connections with the occipital (f), parietal
(e), tympanic (#), and also with the post-frontal, which has coalesced or is
connate with the frontal (at d, l.c.). Cuvier does not admit of this conflu-
ence in the cecilia; and although he assigns the character ‘ point des fron-
taux postérieures’ to the typical batrachia*, gives the name ‘ posterior frontal’
with a note of doubt, indeed, to g, and assigns to the bone h, which suspends
the mandible, the name of “mastoidiens et caisses réunist.’ There is no
actual necessity for assuming so rare a confluence to characterize the cecilia.
The mastoid exists with all its normal connections, and beautifully manifests
by its independence and large size the affinity of the cecilia to the true
ophidia. In the typical batrachia, where the cranium is remarkably cha-
racterized by instances of confluence which seem borrowed from the warm-
blooded classes, the mastoid sometimes loses its independence, and appears
as an exogenous process from the external and posterior part of the parietal,
retaining however its normal office of suspending the tympanic : but in a skull
of the Rana boans now before me, the suture between the mastoid (fig. 13, s)
and parietal (7) is not obliterated, and it further articulates with the exocci-
pital (:) behind and the alisphenoid (6) in front. Cuvier, in his description of
the tympanic of the Rana esculentat, says,.that its upper branch articulates
with the ‘rocher.. In Rana boans that branch articulates exclusively with
the truncated extremity of the broad outstanding mastoid, which mastoid
overhangs, as in all fishes, the petrosal, which is chiefly cartilaginous in the
Rana boans (ib. 16). In Rana esculenta the mastoid (Dugés, Recherches
sur les Batrachiens, fig. 1, 12) appears to have coalesced with the alisphenoid
(ib. figs. 2, 6 & 7,12); and the compound bone has received the name of
‘rocher’ from Cuvier and that of ‘rupéo-ptéreal’ from Dugés. The fora-
men ovale however marks the alisphenoidal part (a distinct bone in my Rana
bvans), and the suspension of the tympanic marks the mastoid, which, with
its other connections, overhangs also in Rana viridis that mass of cartilage§
which immediately invests the membranous labyrinth and forms the ‘fenestra
ovalis’ against which the plate of the columelliform stapes is applied.

Prof. J. Muller has well recognized the homologue of this sense capsule in
the Cecilia hypocyanea, in which he describes it as “ petrosum cum operculo
fenestree ovalis||.” It is situated further back than in Rana, and appears poste-

rior to the tympanic (7) and the large suspending mastoid (/), to which Muller

gives the name of ‘temporale.’ In the singularly modified cranium of the
Lythlops the mastoid articulates above with the parietal and supraoccipital,
behind with the exoccipital, coalesces in front with the alisphenoid, as in
some batrachia, and affords the usual articulation below to the tympanic.

_ How necessary it is to retain a clear and consistent appreciation of these evi-

* Ossem. Fossiles, v. pt. i. p. 386. + Régne Animal, ed. 1817, t. iv. p. 102.
Ossem. Fossiles v. pt. ii. p. 390.

§ The precocious development of this capsule in the larva of the frog is well shown by
Reichert, ‘ Entwickelungsgeschichte des Kopfes,’ 4to, pl. i. figs. 13—15, x: it resembles
that in the myxinoids and lampreys. :
|| Beitrage zur Anatomie der Amphibien; Tiedemann’s Zeitschrift fiir Physiologie,
Bd. iy. 1831, p. 218, pl. 18. fig. v. &.

206 REPORT—1846.

dences of the homology of the mastoid is shown by the second synonym, ‘ os
petrosum,’ which it has received from the justly-celebrated author of this
instructive memoir (pl. 20. figg. 10, 12, 13, 14, p). The actual capsule of
the membranous labyrinth is covered by the mastoid and exoccipital, and
remains wholly cartilaginous, as in other ophidia ; and as it likewise does in
Rhinophis, where its name ‘ petrosum’ is in like manner transferred by Prof.
Muller to the coalesced mastoid and alisphenoid. In Cheirotes the course
of confluence proceeds to obliterate not only the suture between the mastoid
and alisphenoid, but that between the mastoid and parietal; as also of those
between the frontal, parietal and supra-occipital; the whole cranium pre-
senting almost the extent of coalescence which characterizes the hot-blooded
bird. Only the immediate covering of the membranous labyrinth remains
cartilaginous.

The sides of the superior surface of the cranium of bony fishes usually
extend outwards as a strong irregular ridge, from which three processes more
particularly project, which are supported by three distinct bones, suturally
united, and each impressed with an articular glenoid cavity. And here I
cannot avoid remarking how beautifully the principle of vegetative repe-
tition* is exemplified in the lowest class of the Ve: iebrata, where conse-
quently the relations of serial homology of the parapophyses in question are
unmistakeable. The posterior process or bone which sustains (in part) the
scapular arch is the paroccipital (fig. 5,4); the anterior one, which sustains
in part the tympano-mandibular arch, is the post-frontal (2b. 12); and the
intermediate and usually most prominent bone (75.8), which sustains in part
the epitympanic (28a), and through that the hyoid arch, is the homologue of
the bone whose essential characters have been discussed under the name of
‘mastoid.’ The paroccipital having now risen to a level with the mastoid,
this forms the second strong transverse process at each side of the cranium.
The process is developed from the outer margin of the mastoid; the inner
side of the bone is expanded, and enters slightly into the formation of the
walls of the cranial or rather the otocranial cavity, its inner, usually cartila-
ginous surface lodging the fibro-cartilaginous continuation of the petrosal
which immediately covers the external semicircular canal. It is wedged into
the interspace of the ex- and par-occipitals, the petrosal, the alisphenoid, the
parietal and post-frontal bones.. The projecting process lodges above the
chief mucous canal of the head, and below affords attachment to the epi-
tympanic or upper piece of the bony pedicle from which the mandibular,
hyoid, and opercular bones are suspended : its extremity gives attachment to
the strong tendon of the dorso-lateral muscles of the trunk.

It might have been supposed that this contribution to the walls of the
cranial cavity, ‘this articulation to the occipital and tympanic bones, all of
which are constant characters of the mastoid in mammals, and but occasional
ones in the squamosal—not to speak of the apophysial form and functions of
the bone in question in the skull of fishes—would have made the balance in-
cline to the choice of the ‘ mastoid’ rather than of the ‘squamosal’ elements
of the human temporal in the judgement of every unbiassed investigator of
its homologies. The German anatomists, however, in falling with Cuvier
into the mistake respecting the homology of the ‘ mastoid’ (no.s) in birds,
with the squamosal in mammals, adhere more consistently to their error and
continue to apply the name ‘squamosal’ or its equivalents to the homologous
bone in reptiles (fig. 22, 8) and fishes (fig. 5, 8).

* This principle or law is explained in the first volume of my Hunterian Lectures ‘ On the

Invertebrata,’ in which classes of animals it is necessarily most strikingly and fully exem-
plified.

ae

——

;
4

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 207

The high repute which M. Agassiz has so justly earned in ichthyotomy
renders the accession of his name in support of Drs. Hallmann, Reichert,
and Kostlin’s determination of the bone in question, one to which those able
homologists and their followers will naturally attach great weight, and which
indeed has caused me to pause and retrace more than once, and with the
utmost pains and care, every step in the series of comparisons which have
finally brought conviction of the accuracy of the Cuvierian determination of
no.s in fishes.

- I am not aware that any anatomist has replied to the objections to the
Cuvierian view propounded by M. Agassiz. Drs. Hallmann and Kostlin,
who have published the most elaborate monographs on the temporal and
other bones of the skull since the time of Cuvier, concur entirely with the

~ learned Swiss naturalist. Dr. Reichert, in giving the name of ‘squama tem-

poralis’ to no. s, and that of ‘processus temporalis posterior’ to its process,
transfers the name ‘ processus mastoideus’ to the paroccipital (no. 4, fig. 5)*.
It becomes then necessary to consider the arguments of M. Agassiz in favour
of the homology of no. s. in fishes with the squamosal no. 27 in mammals.
In the valuable monograph on the osteology of the pike (/sox) in the 15th
‘Livraison’ of the ‘Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles,’ the author says
(p. 66), “ Un os de la téte placé entre le frontal postérieur, le frontal prin-
cipal, le pariétal, la grand aile sphénoidale et l’occipital latéral, ne saurait
jamais étre envisagé comme correspondant a l’apophyse mastoidienne du
temporal. D’aprés ses liaisons, je crois donc qu'il faut envisager le mastoidien
de Cuvier comme l’analogue de I’ écaille du temporal ou comme le temporal
proprement dit. C’était déja l’opinion de Spix, qui est tombé juste sur ce

_ point.” To this I reply that, in regard to the connections of the mastoid, those

with the parietal, alisphenoid and exoccipital, are more constant than that
with the frontal, which is interrupted in mammalia by the interposition of
the expanded squamosal, peculiar to that class; but the mastoid retains its
piscine connection with the postfrontal in many reptiles and some birds. On
the other hand, the union of the squamosal with the frontal is by no means
a constant character in mammalia: it is rarely found in the orang, still more
rarely in man, never in the cetacea and monotremes, nor in certain ruminants,
nor in the myrmecophaga, &c. The connection of the mastoid with the
frontal is more common than is the connection of the squamosal with the
exoccipital. It is a bold leap to take from the mammal to the fish in the de-
termination of a variable bone like the squamosal: nevertheless, | would re-
quest the unbiassed reader to glance at fig. 12, whilst he reads M. Agassiz’s
précis of the character of the squamosal above cited, and see how far no. s de-
viates from it, save in regard to the frontal connection. Spix, who appears
not to have traced the beautiful gradation of the mastoid in the mammalia,
and who was unacquainted with the decisive step to its normal condition in
the oviparous vertebrates made by the monotremes,—and who was influenced,
therefore, by seeing that bone in higher mammals pushed back from any con-
nection with the alisphenoid and postfrontal by the interposed squamosal,
which usurps these connections and combines them with others, as with the
parietal and tympanic, which the mastoid (no. s) presents in fishes,—not un-
reasonably concluded that no. s represented the squamosal in that class; and
it is probable that M. Agassiz, who received his anatomical rudiments at
Munich, and was early engaged in describing the fishes collected in Brazil by
the author of the ‘ Cephalogenesis,’ might have derived a bias in favour of this
view which prevented his assigning their due value to the connection of no. s
in fishes with the paroccipital, and its contribution to the otocranial cavity.

* Op. cit. tab. iii. figs. 9 and 13, p, g.

208 REPORT—1846,

In urging a reconsideration of the value and significancy of these charac-
ters, I may repeat that in mammals the mastoid constantly presents them,
whilst the squamosal very rarely has the first, and not often the second cha-
racter. It must also be remembered that the squamosal loses its connection
with the frontal and progressively decreases in the mammalian class to less than
the dimensions of the mastoid itself, as e. g. in echidna (fig. 12), whilst in this
monotreme the mastoid, s, besides its connections with the parietal and exocci-
pital, extends forwards to articulate with the alisphenoid, 6. If ossification
were restricted in mammals to no. s, fig. 11, in reference to 16, which re-
mained cartilaginous, then no. s would have the same relation to the otocrane,
or in other words, would contribute the same protection to the acoustic laby-
rinth, which no. s, fig. 5, performs in fishes; the external semicireular
canal at least would be protected in the mastoid by both: only in mammalia
the mastoid would also extend over the posterior canal. The petrosal loses
no part of its essential character as the capsule or outer tunic of the laby-
rinth by becoming ossified, nor is it less recognisable in fishes within the
mastoid, by remaining membranous or cartilaginous, than is the sclerotic
capsule of the eye in its chamber or orbit; which capsule, in like manner,
presents all the corresponding histological modifications in one or other part
of the vertebrate series. The*mask which has concealed the true features of
resemblance in tke human mastoid to that of fishes, is simply the petrosal
ossified and cemented to it. But the squamosal presents no such relations to
the bony capsule of the semicircular canals in any mammal. Even the
connection of the squamosal with the tympanic bone is, as we have seen, far
less constant and intimate in mammals than the connection of the mastoid
with the tympanic*.

In the anatomical description of the existing ganoid fishes which M.
Agassiz has unfortunately called ‘ Sauroid +,’ the bone no. s is described as

* From the remark in p. 53, t. ii. pt. ii. ‘Recherches sur les Poiss. Foss.,’ it would seem
that the circumstance of the extension of the tympanic air-cells into the mastoid, in certain
mammalia, had weighed with M. Agassiz in determining its homological characters.

+ All the characters by which these highly organized fishes approximate the Reptilia are
found, not in the highest, but in the lowest order of that class, viz. in the batrachia, and herein
more especially in the salamanders. The air-bladder of Lepidosteus resembles the lung of
the serpent in its singleness, and those of the salamander in the degree of its cellularity ;
some parts of the structure being peculiarly piscine. The bifid air-bladder of Polypterus
resembles the lungs of the salamandroid menopome and proteus, in the want of cellular
walls. The characteristic large bulbus arteriosus and its numerous rows of valves, which
distinguish the ganoids from most other osseous fishes, are retained in the menopome, but
are not present in any saurian. The anterior ball and posterior cup of the vertebra of Le-
pidosteus are repeated in the salamander and pipa, but in no existing saurian. The laby-
rinthodont character of the teeth of Lepidosteus was developed to its maximum in the great
extinct reptiles (Salamandroides, Jager), which, by their double occipital condyle, denti-
gerous double vomer, and biconcave vertebrz, were essentially Batrachia, not Sauria; and
which combined characters now found in the lower salamandroid Batrachia, with the dental
ones borrowed from fishes, and but feebly manifested by the most fish-like of saurians
(Ichthyosaurus). All the so-called sauroid fishes retain the characteristic piscine articular
concavity on the basioccipital for the atlas: it is, however, very shallow in the polypterus ;
and is also extended transversely, with the lateral borders or angles so prominent, that, as
M. Agassiz well remarks, “ it needs very little to change this transverse articulation with its
two lateral ridges into two distinct articular condyles,” /. c. p. 71. But this would convert,
pro tanto, the polypterus into a batrachian, not into a saurian. So far as the character of a
single convex occipital condyle is valuable as a mark of affinity to the Sauria, it is present
in a fish of a different order from the ganoids, and with much fewer approximations in other
respects to the reptilian class, viz. in the Fistularia tabaccaria. There remains, therefore,
only the character of the enamelled scales which the polypterus and lepidosteus present in
common with all the lower organized ganoids, and which to a certain extent resemble the
bony scutes of the crocodilia. If the deposition of calcareous matter in and upon the skin
were not essentially a retention of a very low type of skeleton; if it were not presented by

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON.” 209

taking part, by its large size, in the formation of both the internal and ex-
ternal surfaces of the cranial* box, which size depends essentially on the
degree of development of the frontals, parietals and occipitals: it is further
urged that the suborbitals (‘apophyse jugale’) are likewise attached to it; that
the preopercular(‘apophyse styloide’) diverges, and is directed or abuts against
it; that, finally, the bone in question (no. s, fig. 5) is, with the exception of the
petrosal, the sole part of the temporal bone which takes a direct part in
the formation of the cranial box. ‘“ D’aprés ces considérations,” M. Agassiz
proceeds, “il est impossible de prendre l’os No. 12 [no.s, in fig. 5], que
Cuvier a nommé mastoidien, pour autre chose que pour la véritable écaille du
temporal. Il prend part a la formation de la boite cérébrale, il donne inser-
tion 4 l’areade zygomatique, enfin, il préte une articulation au préopercule,
que nous regardons maintenant comme le véritable représentant de l’apo-
physe styloide du temporal,” /. c. p.63. Admitting, for the sake of the argu-

ment, that the preopercular is the homologue of the stylohyal, and that it arti-

culates with the so-called ‘ écaille du temporal,’ which is not the case in the
majority of fishes, yet this would prove more for the ‘mastoid’ than for the
‘ squamosal’ character of no. s, fig.5. The stylohyal unquestionably articu-
lates in many mammals with the mastoid or petromastoid, between which
and the tympanic it is anchylosed in man, and it rests with M. Agassiz to
demonstrate the species in which it articulates with the true squamous part
of the temporalt.

With regard to the connection with the suborbital chain of ossicles, which
M. Agassiz regards, with Geoffroy, as the jugal or zygomatic arch, even
admitting such connection to be the rule and not the exception, all its
force as an argument in favour of the squamosal character of no. s will
depend on the ultimate decision of comparative anatomists as to the respect-
ive claims of the upper and lower zygomata in the macaw’s skull, for
example, to a special homology with the zygomatic arch in man and other
mammals. The orbit in the bird cited, as in other Pstttacide, is cireum-
scribed below by a bony frame continued from the lacrymal to the post-
frontal, and thence to the bone (no. s) which I regard as the mastoid.
Below this frame, the slender bone, considered by Cuvier as the jugal, and
by me as the coalesced jugal (26) and squamosal (27, fig. 23), extends from
the maxillary (21) backwards to the tympanic (2s), and forms a second arch
orzygoma. According to the Cuvierian and generally-received view of the
homology of no.s in the bird, the bridge which it sends forward over the
temporal fossa to join the above-described inferior boundary of the orbit,
in the macaw, would be the zygomatic process; and that boundary would be
what M. Agassiz calls its homologue in fishes, viz. the jugal or ‘arcade zygo-
matique. But what then is the parallel zygomatic arch below, connecting

Many fishes of different grades of organization, and by some, as the sturgeons and siluroids,
e. g. under a scattered arrangement, more like that in the crocodiles than is seen in the scale
armour of the typical ganoids, it might have some weight in proving the affinity of such
ganoids to the highest order of reptilia; but, viewing this character under all its relations,
I am not disposed to regard it as establishing that affinity more directly, than it would the
affinity of the crocodile to the mammalian genus Dasypus. It is for the reasons above assigned
that I have been accustomed to treat, in my Lectures, of the anatomical characters of the
group represented by the Polypterus and Lepidosteus, as those of a Salamandroid, rather than
of a Sauroid family of fishes; the characters being carried out in the direction of the batra-
chian order by the remarkable genera Protopterus and Lepidosiren.

* More properly ‘ otocranial,’ in lepidosteus at least.

+ In my notes on the osteology of Mammalia, I find that the stylohyal sometimes articu-
lates with the petrosal, sometimes with the mastoid, exclusively, as in most mammals,
sometimes with the tympanic, sometimes with the paroccipital process: but no instance is
recorded of its articulation with the squamous portion of the temporal.

210 REPORT—1846.

the maxillary with the tympanic, and marked 2” in fig. 7, taf. i. of Dr. Hall-
mann’s monograph? If Cuvier had been correct in regarding no. 8 as the
squamosal, the name ‘jugal’ ought to have been transferred from the lower
zygoma to the upper one connected with such squamosal in the macaw : and
with a like consistency the name ‘jugal’ ought to have been retained for the
suborbital chain of dermal bones in fishes, to which it had been applied by
Geoffroy St. Hilaire, and to which it has been restored by M. Agassiz. But,
in truth, there may be clearly discerned in the beautiful modification which
has been adduced from the Psittacide, a proof of Cuvier’s erroneous homo-
logy of the bone no. in the class of birds, and at the same time of his
accurate homology of the same bone in that of fishes.

Is there no significance in the fact of the bone anterior to the orbit, which
we call lacrymal in man down to the lowest reptile, being constantly per-
forated by a mucous duct? Can we not recognize in this function and
glandular relation, as in the commonly thin scale-like character of that bone,
and its connections in front of the orbit, the repetition of the characters of
the largest, most anterior, and most constant of the suborbitals in fishes? If
the rest of that chain be sometimes wanting, but more commonly present in
that class; if it should present the condition occasionally of a strong conti-
nuous bony inverted arch, spanning the orbit below from prefrontal to post-
frontal, as in the right orbit of the Hippoglossus and the left orbit of Rhombus;
ought we to lose our grasp of the guiding thread of ‘ connections’ by being
confronted with a repetition of that condition in the skulls of certain birds,
caused by a continuous ossification from the lacrymal to the post-frontal,
seeing that a diverging bony appendage of the maxillary arch, unknown in the
class of fishes, has there established a second and true ‘zygoma’ below the
suborbital one? The extension of the ossification from the post-frontal crus
of the suborbital arch to the mastoid is, in truth, a beautiful repetition of an
ichthyic cranial character, not unknown however in the reptilia ; and whilst
it adds a proof of the mastoidal character of no. 8 in the bird, it reflects
reciprocal confirmation of the accuracy of Cuvier’s determination of that
bone in fishes.

The true signification and homologies of the bones in that interesting
class could never have been elicited from an exclusive study of it, however
extensive, detailed or profound; nor will the feeble rays reflected from an-
thropotomical reminiscences lend sufficient light in their determination: they
can be clearly discerned only by the full illumination of the beams concen-
trated from all the grades of organic structure. M. Agassiz, descending to
the determination of the squamosal in fishes from its characters in man, con-
cludes that it must be the bone no. s, fig. 5, because that bone takes part in
the formation of the inner as well as the outer walls of the cranial cavity. But
this protective function is an exceptional one in the squamosal (fig. 6, 27);
it is peculiar to that bone only in one class, and, as we have seen, is not con-
stant even there; whilst, on the other hand, the mastoid is recognizable
from the inner surface of the cranial walls of the highest mammal (in the
human cranium where it is impressed with the fossa sigmoidea, fig. 6, 8), and
in a still greater degree in that of the lowest mammal (Echidna, fig. 12, 8)5
whilst in almost every mammal, by its coalescence with the outer surface of
the petrosal, it closely repeats the protective character in relation to the ex-
ternal semicircular canal, which it presents in fishes,—a function which is
altogether foreign to the squamosal in every mammal. I have dwelt thus
long, perhaps tediously, and it may be thought unnecessarily, on the true
characters and homologies of the petrosal and mastoid. But their determina-
tion is essential to, and, indeed, involves that of the squamosal and other

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ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 211

dismemberments of the human temporal bone ; and we cannot climb to the
higher generalizations of anatomical science, except by the firm steps of true
and assured special homologies. There are more important subjects than
homologies, no doubt ; but nothing is more important than truth, in whatever
path we may be in pursuit of her.

Orbitosphenoid.—As evidence will be given in the section on ‘General
Homology’ that both squamosal and tympanic belong to a quite distinct
category of bones from the parts of the ‘temporal’ which have just been
discussed. I shall proceed next to the neurapophyses that precede the
alisphenoid.

As the determination of this bone (c in all the figures) involves that of
the orbitosphenoid (10), which has rarely been mistaken* for any other bone

‘than 6, there remains little to be added in proof of its homology after

what has been advanced respecting the alisphenoid. The most constant
character of the orbitosphenoid is its relation to the optic nerve, which either
perforates or notches it, whenever the ossification of the primitive cartilage
or membrane holding the place of the bone is sufficiently advanced, which
is not always the case in fishes, especially those with broad and depressed
heads, and still more rarely in lacertine saurians. The recognition of the
orbitosphenoid is also often obscured by another cause, viz. the tendency in
the class Reptilia, and especially in ophidians and chelonians, to an extension
of ossification downwards into the primitive membranous or cartilaginous
neurapophysial walls of the brain-case, directly from the parietal and frontal
bones.

_ In the fishes with ordinary-shaped, or with high and compressed heads,
the orbitosphenoids are usually well-developed: they are, however, repre-
sented by descending plates of the frontal in the garpike ; and they are, like the
alisphenoids, mere processes of the basisphenoid in the polypterus, which thus
offers so unexpected a repetition of the human character of the correspond-
ing partst. In the cod (fig. 5, 10) they are semielliptic, raised above the pre-
sphenoid (9), suspended, as it were, between the alisphenoid (6) and the
frontal (11), and bounding the sides of the interorbital outlet of the cranium:
the optic nerves pierce the unossified cartilage closing that aperture, imme-
diately beneath the bone itself. In the malacopterous fishes with higher
and more compressed heads, the orbitosphenoids are more developed ; they are
directly pierced or deeply grooved by the optic nerves, and are pierced also
by the ‘nervi pathetici’ in the carp. The crura of the olfactory ganglions
(rhinencephala) pass out of the interorbital aperture of the cranium by the
upper interspace of the orbitosphenoid, into the continuation of the cranial
cavity which grooves the under surface of the frontal, in their course between
the orbits to the prefrontals. The orbitosphenoids protect, more or less, the
sides of the prosencephalon ; and this function, their transmission of the optic
nerves, their anterior position to the alisphenoids, and their articulation
above with the frontals, establish their special homology from the-fish up to
man.

In certain fishes a distinct centre of ossification is set up in the median
line of the fibrous membrane or cartilage, closing the interorbital aperture
of the cranium, below the orbitosphenoids, and extending forwards as the in-
terorbital septum. ‘The bone (represented in outline in fig. 5, at 9') extends
downwards to rest upon the presphenoid (2b. 9), and bifurcates, as it ascends,

' * Geoffroy in his memoir on the skull of birds (Ann. du Mus. x.), indicates the orbitosphe-
noid at P, fig. 2, pl. 27, as the ‘rocher’: and Cuvier describes it as part of his ‘os en cein-
ture’ in anourous batrachia.

_ + Agassiz, Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles, ii. p. 38.

212 REPORT—1846.

to join and prop up the elevated orbitosphenoids in the perch and carp (not
in the cod). The relations of this ossicle are precisely those of the part
forming the conjoined bases of the orbitosphenoids in mammals, and usually
called the ‘ body of the anterior sphenoid, in them; though this is deve-
loped from two distinct centres. In the young whale I found it supported
by a direct extension of the basisphenoid forwards, which joins the back-
wardly prolonged vomer, as in fishes. The common base of the orbitosphe-
noids is peculiar, as a distinct bone, so far as I know, to fishes. It has been
ealled by Bojanus* the ‘ basis alaruam minorum sphenoidei seu rostrum sphe-
noidei’ ; by Geoffroy ‘entosphénal’ ; and by Cuvier ‘le sphénoide antérieure.’
M. Agassiz opposes these determinations by the following remarks, founded
on the embryological researches of the ingenious Dr. Vogt :—“In fishes
with a short and thick muzzle, the cartilaginous embryonal plate (‘ plaque
faciale’ of Vogt), which serves as the base of support to the prosencepha-
lon and the nasal fossz, is transformed into an independent bone, “se trans-
forme intégralement en os.” It is then, he says, “ represented by the cranial
ethmoid (le sphénoide antérieure of Cuvier), an azygous bone, ‘os impair,’
short, of an almost square form, in which are pierced the canals for the
transmission of the olfactory nerves. But in the fishes with elongated
muzzles, and of which the eyes in place of preserving their primitive lateral
position at the sides of the mesencephalon are carried forwards. in advance
of the cranium between that and the nasal fossz, the relations of the
‘plaque faciale’ are necessarily altered: part of the plate remaining in its
primitive situation is transformed into the ‘cranial ethmoid,’ the other part
is carried forwards, but is never transformed into a distinct bone: it re-
mains cartilaginous as the nucleus of the muzzle; or if, indeed, the ossifi-
cation of the muzzle is completed, it disappears by virtue of the progressive
encroachment of the exterior ossification. This is the reason why fishes
have never a true ‘ nasal ethmoid’ (the bones called ethmoid by Cuvier are
the nasals), but only a cranial ethmoid+.” Influenced by the deservedly
high authority of M. Agassiz, I adopted his homology of the bone 9! in the
‘ Hunterian Lectures on Vertebrata,’ delivered in 1844. But since the notes of
those lectures were printed, having been charged with the formation of a new
Osteological Catalogue of the Hunterian Museum, I have carefully reconsi-
dered this question. Passing over, for the present, the assertion that the homo-
logue of the ‘ nasal ethmoide’ does not exist in fishes, I would first observe,
that if the orbital aperture (or what appears to those who deem the rhinen-
cephalic crura to be olfactory nerves, the anterior aperture) of the cranium
were homologous with the aperture closed by the cribriform plate in man, then
any bony bar or plate tending to close that aperture might be held to be homo-
logous with the cribriform plate or crista galli of the ethmoid: but the inter-
orbital aperture of the cranium is always bounded laterally, in fishes, by the
orbitosphenoid ; and the rhinencephala and their crura extend forwards, toa
considerable distance in most fishes, before the olfactory nerves sent off from
the rhinencephala escape by those perforations in the prefrontals, which are the
true homologues of the single foramina of the olfactory nerves in the so-called
ethmoid of birds, and of the cribriform foramina in mammals. The inter-
orbital groove or canal in the skull of fishes, which is continued from the
presphenoidal or interorbital aperture to the prefrontal foramina, is as essen-
tially a part of the cranial cavity as is that contracted anterior olfactory
chamber of the cranium of mammals, which, in the thylacine, for example,
extends forwards, from where the orbitosphenoids sustain the frontals, ex-
* Oken’s Isis, 1818, p. 508.
+ Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles, t. i. p. 120.

Rw ee ee

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ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 213

panding, to where the frontals and the modified prefrontals (ethmoid) form
the actual anterior boundary wall of the cranial cavity; the chief distine-
tion between the condition of this boundary in the mammal and the fish,
being, that whereas it is perforated by numerous apertures in the mammal,
the olfactory nerves in the fish escape each by a single foramen or groove
in the homologous bones. As beautiful as true was that clear perception
by Bojanus of the homology of the simply perforated prefrontal of the fish,
with its sieve-like homologue in the class in which the olfactory sense reaches
its maximum of development and activity, and modifies all around it. The
coalesced bases of the orbitosphenoids, forming the anterior boundary of the
bed of the optic chiasma, answer to the separate ossification called ‘ eth-
moide cranien’ by Agassiz, in fishes: it has the same relation with that con-
tracted area of the cranium answering to the interorbital aperture of the cra-
nium in fishes, which the so-called eranial ethmoid (entosphenoid) presents
in fishes ; aud this same entosphenoid (fig. 5, 9’) has as little relation to the
formation of the canals pierced by the olfactory nerves in fishes, as the
orbitosphenoid has in mammals. The olfactory, rhinencephalic or anterior
division of the cranial cavity in most fishes has its lateral bony walls incom-
plete, and it opens freely, in the dry skull, into the large orbital chambers
below, which are then said to have no septum: we see a similar want of de-
finition of the cranial cavity in relation to the great acoustic chambers in most
fishes. But in manimals the orbits are always excluded from the rhinence-
phalic, or olfactory compartment of the cranium* ; and a like exclusion
obtains in some of the highly organized ganoid fishes and in the plagiostomes.
As the prosencephalic parts of the brain progressively predominate, and the
rhinencephalic parts diminish, in the higher mammals, the compartment of
the cranium appropriated to the latter loses its individuality, and becomes
more and more blended with the general cavity. In the elaborate ‘Icono-
graphy of Human Anatomy’ by Jules Cloquet, for example+, the small pe-
culiarities of the ‘trou borgne’ and the ‘apophyse crista galli’ are both in-
dicated, and very properly; but the rhinencephalic or olfactory division of
the cranial cavity, though defined by the suture between the orbitosphe-
noids and prefrontals and lodging the olfactory ganglia or rhinencephala,—
so important an evidence of the unity of organization manifested in man’s
frame and traceable in characters, strengthening as we descend to the lowest
osseous fishes—is wholly unnoticed. Thus, very minute scrutiny, con-
ducted with great acuteness of perception of individual features, qualities
highly characteristic of the anthropotomists of the school of Cloquet, being
directed from an insulated point of view, prove inadequate to the apprecia-
tion of sometimes the most constant and important features of their exclusive
subject. .

But to return to the homology Fig. 13.
of the orbitosphenoids. In the me-
nopome these neurapophyses are
elongated parallelograms, perfo-
rated by the optic nerves, and are
distinct bones. In the great bull-
frog (Rana boans) they present a
similar form (fig. 13, 10), but are ee
confluent with the prefrontals (14): Side view of cranium (Rana oans), nat. size.
in both batrachians an unossified sPace intervenes between them and the ali-

_ * This is not to be confounded with the olfactory chamber itself, lodging the organ of
smell.

T Manuel d’Anatomie Déscriptive, 4to, Atlas, pl. 8, fig. 2.

214 REPORT—18446.

sphenoid (6). In most lizards the wider roof of the cranium, supported by the
long mastoids, squamosals, postfrontals and malars, like a bony scaffolding
on each side, is independent of its proper (neurapophysial) walls for support,
and these retain, through the ceconomy of nature, their primitive semi-mem-
branous, semi-cartilaginous state. A dismemberment of the alisphenoid
(which may be discerned as a process of that bone in the piscine genera
Xiphias, Sphyrena) props up the parietal upon the pterygoid, so like a post
or pillar, that the name ‘columella’ may well be retained for it. At the
sides of the membrane forming the orbital aperture, rudiments of the orbi-
tosphenoids may be seen in most lacertia: I find them, e. g. in the form of
a slender osseous filament on each side, slightly bent inwards and bifurcate
above, in a large Australian lizard (Cyclodus gigas). In the crocodile (figs.
9, 20, and 22, 10) the orbitosphenoids attain their maximum of development,
but retain all their typical characters: they bound the orbital aperture of the
cranium ; are notched below, as in many fishes, by the optic nerves (op);
are perforated by the pathetic and other orbital nerves at the ‘ foramen spheno-
orbitale’ (s); they protect the sides of the prosencephalon ; support above the
frontals (and by their backward development also the parietals); and they
rest below upon a peculiar development of the presphenoid (9), which seems
to answer to the entosphenoid in fishes.

Some salient points of resemblance between the cranial organization of fishes
and birds have elicited remarks from more than one comparative anatomist.
Not to dwell upon the more obvious correspondence arising out of the mo-
bility of the upper jaw, chiefly through its connection with the pedicle of the
lower jaw, I may indicate the overhanging position of the orbitosphenoid
(figs. 8, 23, 10), raised high above the presphenoid (9), at the back part of the
interorbital septum: we see exactly the same position of the orbitosphenoid
in many fishes. Cuvier accurately represents it in the skull of the perch*.
This beautiful trait of unity of organization is completely put out of sight by
the false homology of the orbitosphenoid in fishes with the alisphenoid in
birds and mammals. The progressive recession of the orbitosphenoid and .
alisphenoid, as we descend from mammals to fishes, transfers indeed their
characteristic nerve-notches or foramina from their posterior to their ante-
rior margins. But the notch (op, fig. 8) at the posterior margin of the orbito-
sphenoid in the bird for the escape of the optic nerve by a foramen common
to it and the nerves of the orbit, is not less significant of its true homology
than is the anterior notch in the crocodile or fish; the osseous connections
with the sphenoid below, with the frental above, and with the alisphenoid
behind, being the same.

Prefrontals.—If the cranium of a cod-fish be bisected horizontally and
longitudinally, its most contracted part will be found at the upper part of
the interorbital aperture, bounded by the orbitosphenoids, which mark the
division between the prosencephalic and rhinencephalic compartments of the
cavity: the latter extends as a triangular channel or groove on the under
part of the frontal, opening below into the orbits, gradually expanding as it
advances forwards, and dividing into two canals, which diverge to the inter-
spaces left on each side of the nasal, between it and the bones (fig. 4, 14), that,
meeting behind the anterior expanded end of the nasal, bound the anterior
extremity of the true and entire cranium. The diverging canals of the rhi-
nencephalic compartment are formed by the two bones in question: the rhinen-
cephala or olfactory ganglions are sometimes lodged at the extremities of these
canals, and they send out the olfactory nerves by the apertures formed be-
tween the bones 14 and 15, which then ramify upon the vascular olfactory sacs,

* Histoire des Poissons, pl. ii. figg. i. vii. 14.

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Z ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 215

supported by the bones 19, fig. 5. For the arguments by which the olfactory
ganglions in the cod are shown to be homologous with the olfactory ganglions
that rest upon the cribriform plate in man, and by which the medullary cords
or crura connecting them to the rest of the brain are shown to be homologous
with the so-called ‘ olfactory nerves’ in the human cranium, and for the ge-
neral homology of both as primary divisions and peduncles of the encephalon,
the reader is referred to Dr. Desmoulins, ‘ Anatomie des Systémes nerveux
des Animaux a Vertébres,’ 1825, 8vo. t. i. p. 169; to Mr. Solly’s excellent
treatise ‘On the Human Brain,’ 1836, p.’78; and to my ‘Lectures on the
Vertebrata,’ 1836, p. 184. I there adopt the expressive name applied by
MM. Vogt and Agassiz to this most anterior of the four primary divisions
of the brain of fishes, and apply to the peduncles of the ‘rhinencephala,’
which are frequently of great length in fishes, the name of ‘rhinencephalic
crura, since they are serially homologous with the prosencephalic or cerebral
erura; and I eall that division of the cranial cavity which specially lodges
these crura and their lobes the ‘rhinencephalic’ chamber or compartment.
The right appreciation of the above essential characters of the most anterior
division of the brain and the brain-case is indispensable to the accurate pur-
suit of the homologies of the bones 13, 14 and 15, whose development, espe-
cially of the pair no. 14, is governed by that of the rhinencephalon. In man
the all-predominating cerebrum, overarching the mesencephalon and epen-
cephalon behind, and the rhinencephalon in front, so modities the surround-
ing cranial bones as to obliterate every part of the rhinencephalic division,
save the terminal fossa that immediately supports the so-called ‘olfactory
ganglia,’ which fossa seems, as it were, to be unnaturally drawn in and
blended with the great prosencephalic chamber, by reason of the enormous
outswelling development of the proper spines or roof-bones of that chamber,
the frontals. Still, even here, through the absence of any commissural band
connecting tegether the rhinencephala, a fibro-membranous process of the
endoskeleton extends between them, and into this septum ossification extends

' from below, called the ‘crista galli. In the cod-fish the homologous parti-

tion between the rhinencephala is cartilaginous, and it extends some way back

between their crura, not being opposed by a coextended overhanging cere-

brum with great transverse commissures. In many fishes (e. g. Xiphias) the

outlet of the olfactory nerves, which notches the inner side of no. 14 in

the cod, is converted into a foramen by the extension of ossification around

the mesial surface of the nerves. Where the olfactory nerves are sent off
from the ganglions in great numbers (e. g. Raia), they perforate a mem-,
brane before reaching and ramifying upon the vascular pituitary sac. In

man, the homologous membrane, or basis of the olfactory capsules, is ossi-

fied, and called from its numerous apertures the cribriform plate. The holes

which these cribriform plates fill up are homologous with the foramina, or

grooves forming the outlets of the olfactory nerves in the bones no. 14 in fishes

(figs. 4 and 5).

The grounds for this homology are so plain that we cannot be surprised
that they should have been early appreciated, as e. g. by the painstaking and
philosophic Bojanus in 1818*. I never could comprehend the precise mean-
ing of the statement with which Cuvier opposed his view :—“ M. Bojanus, par-
tant sans doute du trou qu'il a dans plusieurs poissons pour le nerf olfactif, en
fait une lame cribleuse de l’ethmoide ; mais cette opinion, qui n’a pas ce soutien
dans toutes les especes, est réfutée d’ailleurs par les autres rapports de cet os
avec les os voisins}+.” Cuvier seems to have thought the ground of Bojanus’s
opinion to be cut away by the fact that in the cod and some other fishes the

* Isis, heft iii. p. 503. t Ilistoire des Poissons, i. p. 235.

216 REPORT—1846.

olfactory nerves groove instead of perforate the bones no.14._ But the trige-
minal still determines the alisphenoid, whether it perforates or notches that
neurapophysis in its escape: the relation of the alisphenoid to the division
of the 5th, including the gustatory nerve, and that of the orbitosphenoid to
the nerve of sight, are not more constant than is the relation of no. 14 to the
nerve of smell. The differences of connection of no. 1a—‘les autres rap-
ports’—are not specified by Cuvier, and I know none that affect its essential
character.

No. 14 is however the, most anterior of the neurapophysial or lateral
bones of the true cranium, and is in relation with the anterior terminal divi-
sion of the encephalon and with the first or anterior terminal pair of nerves.
Like all extreme or peripheral parts, it is subject, as we should be prepared
to find it, to a greater extent and variety of modifications than the more
central neurapophyses. The difference between its connections in the fish
and that of the cribriform plates and their sustaining basis in man may
therefore be expected to reach the extremes of possible homology. It will
be interesting to inquire whether there are intermediate modifications by
which the nature of that difference may be appreciated, and how many of
such links are permanently retained in the intervening species.

We might anticipate the smallest amount of departure from the fun-
damental vertebrate type, as respects form, size and connections of the bones
in question, in that class where the principle of vegetative repetition most
prevails and the archetypal plan is least obscured by teleological adaptatious.
Adopting the name modified from the phrase applied to these bones by Cu-
vier in those vertebrata in which they present their most typical characters,
we find the ‘prefrontals’ in all bony fishes resting below upon the vomer (figs.
4 and 5,13) and on part of the presphenoid (9), sustaining by their mesial and
upper surfaces the nasal (15) and fore-part of the frontal (11), affording the
whole or part of the surface of articulation for the palatine (20) or the palato-
maxillary arch, and giving attachment exteriorly to the large suborbital or
lacrymal bone (figs. 22 and 25, 73), when this exists. Besides their protec-
tive functions, in relation to the olfactory ganglions and nerves, they close the
cranial cavity and bound the orbits anteriorly. The most constant and cha-
racteristic connections appear to be with the vomer, nasal, palatine and frontal.
In the murenoid fishes, where confluence begins to prevail in the cranial bones,
we find that the prefrontals coalesce with the vomer and nasal, not with the
true frontal. This fact, though not of a class materially affecting relations
of homology, is not devoid of significancy in regard to the real character of
the bone usually described as one of the ‘ deux démembremens du frontal*.’
A elew not to be neglected in tracing the homologies of the prefrontals is
their histological progress, although the value of such embryonic characters
has been overrated and their application sometimes abused. The substramen
of their ossification, like that of the exoccipitals, mastoids and post-frontals,
is a cartilaginous mass, a part of that which M. Dugés has called ‘ cartilage
cranio-faciale,’ and M. Vogt ‘ plaques protectrices latérales.’ The frontals
and parietals, being ossified in supra-cranial fibrous membrane with so rapid
and transitory a cartilaginous change as to have escaped general recognition,
have been, on that account, rejected from the vertebral or endo-skeletal system
of bones by Dr. Reichert, and with as little real ground as the rejection of the
vomer and sphenoid from the same system, because they are ossified in mem-
brane extended from the under and fore-part of the sheath of an evanescent
subcranial ‘ chorda dorsalis,’ like the homologous basal ossification beneath
the coalesced anterior abdominal vertebra of the siluroids.

* Agassiz, op. cit. i. p. 123.

y

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 217

M. Dugés, who has accurately figured the ‘cranio-facial’ cartilage of a
gadoid fish in pl. ii. of his valuable Monograph*, gives as accurate a figure
of the same cartilage in the Rana viridis (pl. i. figs. 6,7, of the same work),
out of which has been ossified a bone which transmits the olfactory nerve to
its sense-capsule: this bone (15 in the figures cited) rests below upon the di-
vided vomer and on the end of the presphenoid, sustains above the nasal and
fore-part of the frontal, affords an articular surface on its outer part for the
palatine, and only fails to repeat every characteristic connection of the pre-
frontals in fishes, because (as likewise happens in certain of that class) there
is no lachrymal bone developed in the Batrachia. The sole modification

. of any consequence tending to mask the homology is this; that whereas we

find in many fishes ossification extending into the persistent part of the cra-
niofacial cartilage connecting, whilst it separates, the prefrontals, so as to
cireumscribe the canals for the transmission of the olfactory nerves, such ossi-
fication proceeds in the anourous batrachia to anchylose the prefrontals with
each other, and convert them into a single bone. This difference however
sufficed with Cuvier to make of it a new and peculiar bone—an ‘os en cein-
ture+.’ It would have been as reasonable to have given a new name to the
supraoccipital in the Lepidosteus, because it is divided in the middle line in-
stead of being single, or to the frontal in the species where it is single instead
of being divided, or to the vomer in the frog because it is double instead of
single, or to the exoccipitals in the same reptile, which manifest the same
mesial and annular confluence as the prefrontals. But, adds Cuvier, in refer-
ence to the single bone (fig. 13, 14) resulting from this modification, “ Je ne
Yai pas trouvé divisé, méme dans des individus trés-jeunes qui avoient encore
un grand espace membraneux entre les os du dessus du crane.” Nor did the
great anatomist ever find the rudiments of the radius and ulna distinct at any

’ period of development of the single bone of the Batrachia, which he never-

theless rightly describes as representing both. bones of the fore-arm: nor
did he ever find a division of the single parietal in the embryo crocodile,
which he equally well recognized, nevertheless, as the homologue of the two
parietals, which in most fishes have been subject to greater modifications in
their connections and relative position than the single prefrontal presents in
the anourous batrachia. These are not the only instances where relations of
homology are by no means obscured, nor ought to be, by reason of the con-
fluence or even connation{ of essentially distinct elements. The capsule of

‘the olfactory organ, partly protected by the anterior infundibular expansions

of the connate prefrontals, undergoes no partial ossification homologous with
the ‘turbinal’ (19, fig. 5) of fishes, but remains cartilaginous, like the scle-
rotal and petrosal.

_ The prefrontals, however, are not only connate with each other in the
frog, but coalesce with the contiguous neurapophyses—the orbitosphenoids
(io, fig. 13). And this modification has led Cuvier, notwithstanding the
connection of the bone 10 with the presphenoid below, with the frontal
above, and with the prosencephalon, optic nerve (op) and orbit, to charac-
terise the batrachian skull as having “un seul sphénoide sans ailes tempo-
rales ni orbitaires ;’ the true and distinct ‘alisphenoid’ (6, fig. 13), with its
typical connections and nerve-perforations (¢r), being described as the pe-

* Recherches sur l’Ostéologie, &c. des Batraciens, 4to, 1835. :
+ Ossemens Fossiles, 4to, t. v. pt. ii. p. 387. He had before applied the name of ‘ ceinture
osseuse’ to the scapular arch in fishes.—Lecons d’ Anat. Comp. i. (1800) p. 332.
_ £ L use these terms in the same definite sense as the botanists ; those essentially distinct
parts are connate which are not physically distinct at any stage of development, those united
parts are confluent which were originally distinct.

1846. Q

218 REPORT—1846.

trosal, ‘rocher*.’ But the real difficulties which beset the quest of general
truths in comparative osteology are such that we may well dispense with any
over-statements of the amount of deviation from the cranial archetype which
much-modified skulls like those of the anourous batrachia may present.
Fortunately the light which the development of such skulls throws upon
their mature characters, is aided by the persistent larval stages manifested
by the perennibranchiate species.

In the menopome, for example, the prefrontals remain distinct, both from
each other and from the orbitosphenoids+, their characteristic connections
and functions being the same as those of their coalesced homologues in the.
frog, except that they are notched, instead of being perforated by the olfac-
tory nerve, which grooves their inner border, as in ‘the cod and some other
fishes. Cuvier just hints at the possibility of his ‘os en ceinture’ in the frog
representing “a la fois le frontal principal et l’ethmoide},” or as having an
equal pretence to one or the other name.

The suture, however, which marks the limits between the frontal 11 and:
parietal 7 is persistent in the menopome, and indeed. in all batrachians but
the anourans; and even in the very young larve of these, Cuvier admits
(and the observations of M. Dugés warrant the admission ) * que l’on sépare
une partie postérieure de forme ronde de l’antérieure qui est allongée” (Jbid.
p- 387). The permanently distinct frontals present a similarly elongated form
in the urodeles, and are therefore recognized by. Cuvier in the salamander,
e.g. at ¢, pl. xxv. fig. 1, op. cit.; in the newt, pl. xxvi. fig. 6 ; in the menopome,
fig. 4; in the axolotl, pl. XXVii. fig. 24; in the siren, 7b. fig. 2; and in the am-
phiuma, ib. fig. 6. In all these crania the true frontals are indicated by the
same letter ¢; in none of them do they close the cranial cavity or bound the
orbits anteriorly, or are perforated by the olfactory nerves, or articulate with
the vomer below, or perform any of the essential functions, or combine the cha-
racteristic connections of the prefrontals of fishes, all of which concur in the
‘os en ceinture.’ But the frontals do present the chief connections and occupy
the relative position of the anterior half of the bone (11—, fig. 13) which
Cuvier calls the parietal in the frog. The evident tendency to coalescence of
essentially distinct bones which pervades the skeleton in the adult anourans
greatly diminishes the difficulty, through the loss of the suture between the
parietal and frontal, of recognizing the homology of the latter bone, which,
with that exception, not only repeats the characters of the frontals in fishes,
but of those in most tailed batrachians.

Next, then, with regard to the ethmoid, the second of the two bones to
which Cuvier restricts the choice of the homologues of the ‘os en ceinture,’
no. 14. No name has been applied more vaguely or with a less definite
meaning than this same ‘ethmoide.’ In the sense in which Cuvier would
permit its application in the present instance, it is a bone which forms the

* Op. cit. p. 386.

+ The menopome, which represents a gigantic tadpole of the tailless batrachia, manifests
a. beautiful conformity to the general type, and well illustrates the real nature of the apparent
deviations which take place in the course of the remarkable metamorphoses of the anourans.
At first sight the orbitosphenoids seem to be barred out from their normal connection with
the frontal by the junction of the parietal with the prefrontal in the menopome, as appears,
for example, i in the figure given by Cuvier in the ‘ Ossemens Fossiles,’ v, pt. ii. pl. Xxvi. fig. 4,
where c’ h divides ec from u. Remove, however, the prefrontal h from the parietal e ’ (which
may be readily done, the suture, which i is not indicated in the figure cited, being persistent),
and the anterior and mesial half of the orbitosphenoid (z) is then seen extending inwards
(mesiad), beneath the parietal and prefrontal, to join a triangular surface formed by a de-
scending process from the middle of the outer edge of the frontal.

t Op. cit. p. 388.

—

, ey ee ae ee

i

pet er eS

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 219

anterior and antero-lateral walls of the cranium, defends the rhinencephala
and transmits the olfactory nerves, but is altogether distinct from and pos-
terior to the capsules of the organs on which those nerves are ramified.
In the crocodile Cuvier restricts the term ethmoid to the cartilaginous
lamine, capsules, or supports of the olfactory ramifications after the nerves
have left the cranium. In mammals the ethmoid is made to include both the
bones that close the cranium anteriorly, support the rhinencephala, give exit
to the olfactory nerves, and those which defend and sustain the enormously
developed. and complex superior parts of the organ of smell*. Whilst this
confusion is permitted to vitiate osteology, it is plain that no intelligible
homological or other proposition can be predicated of the ‘ ethmoid.’

When Cuvier, with.reference to the hypothetical possibility of the homo-
logue of the frontal forming part of the bone 7—11 in the frog, adverts to
the second chance of bringing the ‘cs en ceinture’ into the ordinary cate-
gory of cranial bones, by viewing it as the ‘ethmoide,’ he adds, that it would
then be “un ethmoide ossifié, ce que sera une grande singularité” (2.
p- 388). Here it is obvious that the predominating idea of the ethmoid was
that presented to his mind by the capsules of the olfactory organ in the
crocodile“and other reptiles,;which he had so called, and which are wholly or
in great part cartilaginous. But the parts of Cuvier’s ethmoid in birds and
mammals, which are in functional and physical relation with the cranial cavity,
thinencephala and olfactory nerves, are ossified : the bone, also, to which he
gives the name ‘ ethmoid’ in fishes (fig. 5, 15) is ossified ; and, what is more
to the purpose, the bones (11) in fishes, ophidians, chelonians and saurians,
which repeat the essential characters of the batrachian ‘ os en ceinture, are
likewise ossified.

General homology teaches that the bone or bones in relation to the defence
of the rhinencephala and the transmission of their nerves belong to one class,
and that the parts of the skeleton, whether membranous, gristly or bony,
which form the capsule or sustain the olfactory organ itself, belong to another
and very different class of parts of the skeleton. But, not to anticipate what
belongs more properly to a subsequent section of this report, observation
shows the two parts to be physically distinct in all vertebrates except mam-
mals, and to be distinct in the foetus of these. Whether we restrict the term
*ethinoid’ to the neurapophysis or to the sense-capsule (which in mammals
constitutes the ‘ conchz superiores’ and cells of the ethmoid), the term must
be applied arbitrarily in its extended or homological signification, since the
neurapophysis dismisses the nerve by a single foramen or groove in all the
vertebrates below mammals. The multiplied foramina in the neurapophysial
or cranial part of the anthropotomical ‘ ethmoid,’ whence that name, as well
as the special designation of the part called ‘lamina cribrosa,’ are modifica-
tions peculiar to the mammalian class, but not constant here, and they form
no essential homological character of the bone in question. It appears to
me preferable, since we have two essentially distinct parts of the skeleton
combined in the mammalian and human ethmoid, to restrict the term to the

* Objecting to Oken’s idea, that the prefrontal in the crocodile was homologous with the
part of the ethmoid called ‘os planum’ in anthropotomy, Cuvier says, “ Or l’os planum ne
parott jamais sur la joue; il ne se montre plus dans J’orbite 4 compter des makis si ce n’est
un petit point dans les galeopitheques et dans quelques chats. Dans tous les autres mam-
miféres l’ethmoide est entiérement enveloppé et caché par le palatin’”’ (note that significant
connection) “et par le frontal et spécialement par cette partie du frontal dont il est main-
tenant question et qui se détache dans les ovipares. Le véritable ethmoide est enveloppé
de la méme maniére dans le crocodile, quoique presque toutes ces parties restent cartilagi-
neuses.”—Ossem. Foss., v. pt. i. p. 73. i

Q

220 REPORT— 1846.

part which appertains to the sense-capsule, i.e. which is directly concerned
in the support of the membrane and cells of the olfactory organ.

But leaving for the present the question of names, and returning to things,
let us pursue our search and comparisons of the bones which continue in the
higher classes to repeat the essential characters of those called ‘ prefrontals’
in fishes. Were it necessary to add to the reasons above assigned for regarding
no. 14, fig. 13, as the homologues of 14 in the fish, notwithstanding they are
connate in the batrachian, I would cite the structure and relations of those
bones in the sword-fish. The whole of the anterior part of the, extensive
interorbital space is occupied by the prefrontals, which join each other at the
median line by an extensive vertical cellular surface: they form the anterior
border of the orbit, and the posterior wall of the nasal fossa; they close the
cranial cavity anteriorly, and transmit the olfactory nerve to the capsule by
a central foramen. They are almost entirely covered by the frontals above,
which they support by a broad flat surface; a very small portion only ap-
pearing on the upper surface of the skull at the anterior angle of the orbital
ridge. Were the frontals separated, the prefrontals would then appear, as in
the frog, at the median line: were the suture between the two prefrontals
to be obliterated in Xiphias, an ‘os en ceinture’ would be produced like that
of the frog. The nasal bone of the sword-fish, which Cuvier calls ‘ ethmoide,’
presents a cellular structure of its base, designed to break the force of the
concussion arising from the blow which is delivered by the ‘sword.’ But the
prefrontals manifest more extensively this peculiar cellular structure, which
Cuvier well says, “l’on prendrait presque pour les cellules de lethmoide d’un
quadrupéde*.”

Cuvier, not perceiving or not appreciating the grounds of the homology of
the ‘os en ceinture’ with the prefrontals, describes the divided nasal (1s, fig.
13), in the batrachia as the ‘ frontaux antérieures’ ; and reciprocally, having
called the bones in fishes, homologous with the bone 14, (which he thought
might represent the ethmoid in the frog) ‘frontaux antérieures,’ he gives the
name ‘ ethmoide ’ to the bone 15, fig. 5, whether single or divided, in ‘fishes.
It is not necessary to add anything to the arguments by which M. Agassiz
has sustained the conclusion of Spix, that Cuvier’s ‘ethmoid’ in fishes is the
‘nasal.’ And it needs, I think, only to compare the connections of the
bones 15, fig. 13, with either the single or the divided nasals in fishes, and to
glance at the obvious homology of the bones / in Cuvier’s pl. xxiv. fig. 1—6,
with the bones gg in figs. 4 & 6 of pl. xxvi. (‘ Ossemens Fossiles,’ t. v. pt. 2),
to ensure the acceptance of the conclusion, that his ‘ frontaux antérieures’
in the frog and the other anourans are the true nasal bones.

In the python Cuvier transfers the name ‘frontaux antérieures’ to the
lacrymal bones. The bones in this serpent, which are in neurapophysial
relation with the olfactory nerves, and which present other essential charac-
ters of the prefrontals (14) in fishes, are also two in number, in the form of
thin osseous plates, intervening on each side, anterior to the frontal, between
the vomerine and nasal bones, bent outwards, in the form of a semicylinder
about the olfactory nerves, which they support and guide to the cartilaginous
capsule of the organ of smell, and having the palatine bones articulated to
their under and outer sides. The bones, which thus present every essential
character of the prefrontals, are those (ss in pl. ix. figs. 1, 2, 3, ‘ Régne
Animal,’ t. iii. 1830) which Cuvier there calls ‘cornets inférieures.’ But
the true ‘cornets’ (turbinals) are cartilaginous in serpents as in every other
reptile, and give attachment to the palatines in no animal. The bones 06 in

* Hist. des Poissons, t. viii. p. 194.

~

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 221

the same figures, to which the name of ‘anterior frontal’ is given, have no
relation whatever to the protection of the rhinencephala or the exit of the
olfactory nerves, but they have a large perforation for the passage of the
muco-lacrymal duct from the eye. They repeat indeed the single and
least essential character of the prefrontals, in standing anterior to the fron-
tals and the orbits; but these are characters common to the great anterior
mucous scale-bone in fishes, whose essential function—the transmission of a
mucous duct—they superadd to the repetition of its connections, viz. with
the prefrontal, nasal and superior maxillary bones*.

The bones, which more resemble the anchylosed prefrontals in the frog, are
the frontals of the python; but the resemblance is confined to one character
only, and that an exaggeration of a character common to the frontal bones of
many birds, and of the ornithorhynchus among mammals, viz. a develop-
ment of a median bony partition from the line of the frontal suture into the
median interspace of the encephalon. In the python each frontal sends
down at the fcre-part of this suture such a partition, which is therefore double,
as the falx essentially is in man and the mammalia, in which it retains its
primitive histological condition of a fibrous membrane. The ossified lamin
of the falx in the python bend outwards and coalesce helow with the external
or orbitosphenoidal plates of the frontal, and thus surround the lateral divi-
sions of the fore-part of the brain; in fact, the olfactory nerves, drawn back
in the progress of the concentrative movement of the cerebral centres, so as
also to occupy the prosencephalic segment of the cranium, the prosencepha-
lon being, in like manner, protected chiefly by the mesencephalic bony arch.
The change is precisely analogous to that which takes place at the opposite
extremity of the neural axis in ‘higher animals. In the python every segment
of the spinal chord retains its primitive relation to the segment of the endo-
skeleton, through which it transmits its pair of nerves. In the mammal the
concentrative movements of the spinal chord draw its segments in advance
of their proper vertebre, and the primary relation is indicated by the nerves

which these vertebrz continue to transmit, and by which alone we are guided
from the segment of the endoskeleton to that of the neural axis which origi-
nally governed its development.
~ So, likewise, at the opposite end of the skeleton, we trace the relation of
the anterior osseous segment, which transmits the olfactory nerves to their cap-
sule, to its proper segment of the neural axis, by following those nerves back
to the retracted ganglions (rhinencephala) from which they take their origin.
The connections of the annular frontals of the python with the parietals
and post-frontals behind, with the connate orbitosphenoids, and through
them with the presphenoid below, prevent their homology being mistaken ;
for they are far from completely representing or repeating the essential cha-
racters of the coalesced annular prefrontals of the frog.

Not to lengthen unnecessarily this exposition of the homologues of the pre-
frontals (14, figs.4 and 5) in fishes, I pass at once to the highest of existing rep-
tiles, the crocodile. Here we find, in the dry skull, the condition of the cranial

* No one could better. appreciate the value of the functional character of the lacrymal
perforation in a homological discussion than Cuvier, when the more obvious features of the
prefrontals of fishes were so repeated in any higher animal as to have led him to distinguish
the prefrontals in that animal from the lacrymal bone. Thus with regard to the pre-
frontals of the crocodile, Cuvier says, ‘‘ Quant a M. Spix, entrainé par un autre systéme et
négligent le trou lacrymal, qui cependant est bien visible, et qui, spécialement dans le cro-
codile, est percé tout entier dans l’os auquel je donne ou plutét auquel je maintiens le méme
nom, c’est mon frontal antérieur qu’il appelle lacrymal.’” (Ossemens Fossiles.) Change
python for crocodile and Cuvier for Spix, and the criticism equally applies in the present
instance to its original author.

299 REPORT—1846.

cavity in the fish beautifully and closely repeated: the prosencephalice part
opens freely by the aperture bounded by the orbitosphenoids (fig. 9, 10) into
the common orbital cavity (07), and the rhinencephalic division of the cranium
is prolonged, as a groove upon the under surface of the coalesced frontals
(ib. 11) above the orbits, expanding as it advances, until it is arrested by a
boundary formed by two bones (7d. 14), which rest below upon the vomer
and give attachment there to an ascending process of the palatines (20), which
sustain by their mesial and upper expanded surfaces the nasal (15) and fore-
part of the frontal (11); and articulate exteriorly with the large lacrymal
bone (fig. 22,73) perforated as in the fish and serpent by a mucous duct from
the orbit. They are each grooved on their inner or mesial surface (indicated
by the numerals 14, in fig. 9) by the olfactory nerve, where it escapes from
the cranium to spread upon the membranes sustained by the cartilaginous
capsules anterior to the bones in question; below these grooves the bones
(14) extend inwards and meet at the mesial linc; but do not coalesce there
as in the frog, nor extend their mesial union upwards, so as to convert the
olfactory grooves into two complete canals. They, therefore, retain or resume
much more of their primitive piscine character than do their homologues in
the frog or serpent, and manifest it conspicuously by developing a subtrian-
gular external plate which appears on the upper surface of the cranium at
the anterior angle of the orbit between the frontal, the lacrymal and the
nasal bones. In short, the homology of the bones 14 in the crocodile (figs. 9,
21, 22) with those so numbered in the fish (figs. 4 and 5), was quite unmis-
takeable ; and, with the exception of Spix, all anatomists have concurred in
this respect with Cuvier: only some of them have extended further and
expressed differently the homologies of the bones in question.

Now, bearing in mind the small brain of the cold-blooded crocodile, and
the concomitantly restricted development of the spine or roof-bone in special
relation with the cerebrum, viz. the frontal (11), which is aided in its se-
condary function in relation to the orbit by distinct supraorbital bones in all
crocodiles, and contrasting the condition of the part of the brain which,
chiefly governs the development of the frontal bone with that of the same
division of the brain of mammalia,—-let us proceed to make the comparison
which Cuvier recommends*, in order to trace the homologues of the croco-
dile’s prefrontals in the mammalian class.

We place the skull of a ruminant (the red deer, e. g.) by the side of that
of a crocodile, and delineate a suture which would detach a portion from the
frontal, having the same superficial connections as the upper peripheral plate
of the prefrontal has in the crocodile. It appears to be far from presenting
the same figure; but most assuredly such artificially detached portion of
the ruminant’s frontal has not the same functions (‘emploi’) as the pre-
frontal has in the crocodile. For if we even include with the part so
detached the anterior portion of the descending orbital plate of the frontal,
we find it joining below the orbitosphenoid without any connection with the
vomer, or any attachment to the palatine: it forms no immediate part of the
supporting plate of the rhinencephalon, nor of the foramina for the exit of
the olfactory nerves. Such artificially detached portions of the mammalian
frontal are entirely separated from each other; whilst one of the important

* “T] suffit en effet de placer une téte de mammifére, de ruminant par example, a cdté
d’une téte de crocodile, pour s’assurer qu’il s’est fait ici (‘ du frontal antérieur’) un démem-
brement du frontal. On pourroit, sans rien déranger, dessiner sur le frontal du mammifére
la suture qui existe dans le crocodile, et on détacheroit ainsi dans le premier un frontal
antérieur qui auroit la méme position, presque la méme figure, et absolument le méme emploi
que dans le crocodile.”—Ossem. Fossiles, y. pt. ii. p. 73.

dS

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 923

points of resemblance between the prefrontals of the crocodile and those of
the fish are the mesial approximation and junction of their descending (neu-
ropophysial or rhinencephalic) plates—the most constant and important parts
of the bones in question.

If the frontal of the ruminant or other mammal were expanded only at

the parts corresponding with the detached bones called “frontaux anté-
rieures” in the crocodile, there might then be a primd facie probability that
such expansions were connate parts, dismembered in the crocodile’s skull.
But the vastly increased lateral as well as anteroposterior development, and
the more or less vertical convex expansion of the frontal in the highest
vertebrate class, naturally indicate, in the first place, an inquiry into the
concomitant modification of the nervous centres by which the development
of that bone is mainly governed; and if such modification should then be
found to exist, in the cerebrum, for example, which, from the ascertained
correlative progress of the frontal in other classes, ought to cause or be
associated with such a general development of that bone as characterises the
skull in the mammalian class, it must surely be superfluous and gratuitous
to explain that development by the hypothesis of a coalescence of another
essentially distinct element of the cranial parietes: especially if that element
be proved by a similar tracing of its relations to the progressive development
of the cerebral centres, to have as essential and exclusive a dependence
upon the rhinencephalon as the frontal bone has upon the prosencephalon.
_ The position of the upper peripheral part of the prefrontal in the situation
in which it is seen in the crocodile, is, in fact, the least constant and import-
ant of the characters of that bone. in the bull-frog, for example, the ex-
posed part of the prefrontal is mesiad of the conjoined parts of the nasals
and frontals instead of being lateral: in the sword-fish the prefrontals barely
appear, and in the python they do not appear at all upon the upper surface
of the skull; but they retain in each their more typical neurapophysial po-
sition, with all their more constant and essential characters. The enormously
developed frontal of the mammal masks these characters, and usurps the
less constant and least important one, viz. superficial position, on which alone
Cuvier insists as proving the prefrontal of the crocodile, with its complex
functions and connections, to be such a dismemberment of the true frontals
if the ruminant, as may be marked off with the pen on the upper surface of
the skull.

The descending [rhinencephalic] plates of the prefrontal in the crocodile
(fig. 9, 14) are subcompressed in the axis of the skull, and expanded laterally,
especially at their upper part ; where, in the alligator, I find them forming a
shallow cup, concave forwards for the lodgment of the cartilaginous olfactory
capsule,—of that part, namely, which is ossified in mammalia, and there de-
veloped into the great labyrinth of the superior turbinals and ethmoidal cells.
The vertical plates, continued forwards from the prefrontals, which extend
above to the nasal suture and descend into the vomerine groove below, to aid
in forming the ‘septum narium,’ are cartilaginous in the crocodile: they are
more or less ossified, and form the ‘lamina perpendicularis ethmoidei’ in
mammals. The median plate, dividing the olfactory nerves at their exit, and
developed backwards as a partial septum of the rhinencephalic chamber of
the cranium, and continued into the simple interorbital septum of the croco-
dile, also remains cartilaginous: when ossified in mammals, it forms the
‘crista galli.’ Now not one of these cartilaginous representatives of the parts
of the compound bone called ‘ ethmoid’ in anthropotomy, is united or con-
nected with the portions of the frontal in mammals which Cuvier has assumed
to be the homologues of the prefrontals in the crocodile ; those bones being

224 REPORT—1846.

in that reptile, as the prefrontals are in fishes, chiefly concerned in closing
the anterior end of the cranial cavity, in giving exit to the olfactory nerves,
in suspending the palatine arch, in connecting the vomer with the nasal ver-
tically, and the nasal with the frontal and lacrymal horizontally, repeating in
the crocodile for the latter purpose the development of the upper or horizontal
plate which had almost or entirely disappeared in some of the intervening
forms of reptiles. In most chelonians this portion of the prefrontal coalesces
or is connate with the short nasal: but I have found the instructive exception
presented by the existing freshwater tortoise (Hydromedusa) of the persistent
suture between the nasals and prefrontals, repeated in two fossil chelonians
(Chelone planiceps and Chelone pulchriceps)*.

Proceeding in the ascensive track of the homologies of the prefrontals,
I have selected from the class of birds the skull of the ostrich (figs. 8 and 23),
the representative of an aberrant order, in which every deviation from the
type of the class that has been supposed to tend towards the Mammalia, tends
equally or more towards the Reptilia+, and in which, conformably with the
lower development of the respiratory system, the original sutures of the
cranium, or in other words, the signs of the vertebrate archetype on which it
is constructed, are longest retained. Were we to cut off the corresponding an-
terior angles of the frontals, no. 11, to those supposed to represent in mammals
the bones we are in quest of, we should have even fewer of their characters
than in the higher class alluded to, because the descending orbital plate is
less developed, and the frontal, though its general size is much augmented,
retains more of its oviparous horizontality as an expanded spine or roof-bone
of the cranium.

There is a large bone (fig. 23,73) bounding the anterior border of the orbit,
and from which, as we have seen in the parrots, ossification sometimes extends
backwards along the inferior contour of the orbit to the postfrontal. But this
bone, besides its repetition of the connections of the lacrymal in the fish and
crocodile, resting as in the latter animal upon the true malar bone, is either
perforated or grooved by the lachrymal duct, which it defends in its course
from the eye to the nose, and has none of the essential characteristics of the
prefrontal. But we see on the exterior of the skull of the ostrich and other
struthious birds, a distinct rhomboidal plate of bone interposed between the
frontals and nasals, precisely in the situation in which the upper surface of
the coalesced prefrontals appears in the skull of the frog and other anourous
batrachians. In a nearly full-grown ostrich’s skull, I removed the left fron-
tal, nasal, lacrymal and tympanic bones, and the zygomatic arch, as in fig. 8,
and found the facet in question to be the upper and posterior expanded
surface of a large irregularly subquadrated compressed bone (7d. 14), consist-
ing of two vertical compact plates coalesced at their periphery, and including
a loose cancellous texture. The upper and posterior expanded surface of the
bone extends a short way back beneath the frontals, descends and closes the
anterior aperture of the cranium, and sends out from each side a plate of
bone which arches over the o!factory nerves and forms the canals by which
they are conducted along the upper part of the orbits. The anterior and upper
surface of the bone again expands (at 14!, figs. 8 and 23), and there sustains,
and is covered by, the nasal bones, and again overarches, and is sometimes

* Report on British Fossil Reptiles, Trans. Brit. Assoc. 1841, pp. 169, 172. :

+ The urinary bladder and intromittent organ, e. g.: the modification of the feathers in
the Struthionide is a degeneration of a peculiarly ornithic character ; but not, therefore, an
approximation to the hairy covering of mammals.

+ In the emeu (Dromaius ater) at 14, fig. 1. pl. 39. Zool. Trans. t. iii.: and in the casso-
wary at f, fig. 3, taf. i. in Hallmann’s ‘ Vergleichende Osteologie des Schlifenbeins.’

F

ee

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 925

perforated by the olfactory nerves (the course of which along the rhinen-
cephalic continuation of the ‘cranial cavity, is shown by the arrows, ol. 14,
figs. 8 and 23) prior to their final expansion on the olfactory organ; the
main body of the bone forms the fore-part of the interorbital septum and
the back part of the nasal septum, a slight outstanding ridge or angle
dividing the two surfaces: it rests below upon the rostral prolongation of
the presphenoid, which, however, barely divides it from the semicylindrical
grooved vomer (13) which sheathes the under part of that process. The
posterior extremities of the palatines develope broad horizontal plates mesiad
and upwards (fig. 23, 20), which join the lower border of no. 14, where it rests
upon the presphenoid. The outer margins of the anterosuperior expansion
of no. 14 come into contact with the lacrymals: the posterior border of the
vertical or rhinencephalic plate joins and soon coalesces with the orbitosphe-
noids (10). Thus we have all the essential characters of the prefrontals in
the fish, the frog and the crocodile, with a repetition of their first important
modification in the tail-less batrachians, viz. that of median confluence ; and
it is not unimportant to observe that this is associated with the obliteration of
other cranial sutures, by which also those batrachians resemble birds. The
first step in the progress of this median approximation of the prefrontals, is
the development of the plates which, in certain fishes, convert the olfactory
grooves into foramina; these mesial plates next come into contact at the middle
line, e. g. in Xiphias and Ephippus ; they proceed to coalesce in the frog, and
the pretrontals are so much further compressed in the bird that the olfactory
grooves open upon the outer or lateral instead of the inner or mesial surfaces of

the rhinencephalic plates: they are, however, very deep grooves in the ostrich.

and in the apteryx are canals protected by a distinct external-plate. The
interruption of the direct vomerine connection by the prolonged presphenoid
is the chief secondary modification of the prefrontals in the bird. No other
bone in the bird’s skull repeats the more essential characters of the prefrontals
in fishes and reptiles, save the bone no. 14, figs.8 and 23. Cuvier calls this bone
the ‘ethmoide’; but blames the clear-sighted and consistent German anato-
mists who applied that name to the prefrontals in fishes and reptiles ; yet the
part of Cuvier’s ethmoid in the bird answering to the ‘ lamina cribrosa’ of the
mammal, sometimes gives passage to the olfactory nerve by a single foramen,
sometimes by merely a groove, a difference which does not prevent him
adopting the homology here, though he opposes it to the adoption, by
Bojanus, of the homology of the same part in the fish (ande, p. 215). The
smooth plate forming, with the orbitosphenoid, the interorbital septum, is
the ‘os planum,’ or papyraceous plate of the bird’s ethmoid, with Cuvier :
the masking of this part in most mammals by the downward development
of the orbital plates of the frontal, offered no difficulty to the ethmoidal de-
termination of no. 14 in the bird; and it forms as little valid objection to
Oken’s mode of expressing the ethmoidal homology of the prefrontals in the
cold-blooded ovipara.

For the reasons before assigned, viz. that the terms ‘ frontal antérieur’
had been given to the bone in question, no. 14, in those animals in which it
deviates least from its general type, as the nasal neurapophysis, I retain the
name prefrontal for it under all its metamorphoses. Cuvier, after balancing
the characters of the bones nos. 15, 22 and 7a (fig. 23) in birds, inclines to the
opinion that 15 is the true nasal, and 22' an essential part (nasal process) of
the premaxillary : with regard to 73, he says, “les os externes et plus voisins
de l’orbite seraient presque comme on le voudrait, ou des frontaux anté-
rieurs ou des lacrymaux.” In which case, no. 14 having been described as
the ‘ethmoid,’ one or other of the above-named bones would be wholly absent

226 REPORT—1846.

in birds. ‘Ce que pourrait faire croire que c’est le frontal antérieur qui
manque, c’est que dans les oiseaux iln’y a point de frontal postérieur, et que
la paroi antérieur de J’orbite, a l’endroit ou le frontal antérieure se trouve
ordinairement, est manifestement formée en grande partie par une lame
transverse de l’ethmoide*.” But the postfrontal is not always absent in
birds: it is present as a distinct bone, though small, in the emeu’s skull,
figured in the ‘ Memoir on the Dinornis’ above-cited ; and it is still more
developed in the remarkable extinct (?) genus, the immediate subject of that
memoir. Besides, to anticipate the subject of a subsequent part of this report,
a parapophysis always disappears from a typical segment of the skeleton
sooner than a neurapophysis. ‘The rest of Cuvier’s difficulty in the recog-
nition of the prefrontal in birds was more nominal than real.

The ethmoid, in the restricted sense in which Cuvier applies the term in the
crocodile and other animals with divided prefrontals, and in which I would
apply it in those animals also in which the prefrontals have coalesced, is
present but remains cartilaginous in the bird. In the mammal it becomes
bony and contracts anchyloses not only with the still more reduced debris of
the coalesced prefrontals, but also, in consequence of the change of position
of the prefrontals through the further progress of concentration, whereby
they are drawn backwards closer to the prosencephalic part of the cranium,
and in consequence of the concomitant expansion of the true frontals,—with
the orbital plates of the frontals ; whereby these plates usurp in most mammals
the office and the position of the external parts of the prefrontals in the cold-
blooded vertebrata+.

The posterior part of the coalesced prefrontals (figs. 24 & 25, 14) divides
the anterior aperture of the cranium into two outlets, upon the inner cireum-
ference of which the rhinencephala rest ; each outlet being commonly closed
by part of the olfactory capsules, which are ossified and perforated to receive
the divisions of the olfactory nerves. When the prefrontals extend backwards
and beyond the cribriform plates, they form what is termed the ‘ crista galli’:
this exists in comparatively few mammalia ; but is as large in the seal tribe
as in man. In the tapirs the prefrontals expand above and overarch the ol-
factory capsules, but their upper horizontal plates are overlapped by the
nasals and true frontals. In the Delphinide, where the olfactory capsules
are absent, the prefrontals expand posteriorly, and diverge from their median
coalesced portions constituting the septum of the nasal passage, in order to
form the posterior boundaries of those passages and the anterior wall of the
cranial cavity. They again expand and form a thick irregular mass anterior
to the nasal passages in some Delphinide, and in Ziphius ossification extends
along the fibrous continuation of the prefrontals forwards to near the end of
the premaxillaries{. They are connate with the orbitosphenoids behind, and
soon coalesce with the vomer below; they rise anterior to the frontals and
support the stunted nasals which are wedged between the prefrontals and
frontals. The cetacea are the only mammalia in which the prefrontals appear
upon the exterior of the skull, and which in this respect resemble the reptilia.

* Lecons d’Anat. Comp. 1837, t. ii. p. 580.

+ Cuvier takes this ground in objecting to Oken’s ethmoidal homology of the prefrontal
in the crocodile, and says, “the ethmoid coexists in a cartilaginous state with, and is enve-
loped by, the prefrontal, ‘comme la partie antérieure du frontal enveloppe l’ethmoide des
ruminans.’”’—Hist. des Poissons, vy. p. 235. The correspondence is exaggerated, but it
matters not. There are other characters of the mammalian ethmoid, as the closing of the
cranium anteriorly, the transmitting the olfactory nerves, &c., which are nowise manifested
by Cuvier’s cartilaginous ‘ethmoide’ in the crocodile, and are very satisfactorily so by the
prefrontals in that animal.

t Ossem. Foss. y. pt. i. p. 351.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. po7

Cuvier describes the posterior and superior expanded and diverging plates
of the prefrontals as “a lame cribreuse de l’ethmoide:” the coalesced part
forming the septum, he ascribes to the vomer*. Dr. Kostlint, also, who
rightly recognises the ethmoid to be no proper bone of the skull, but only
an ossified organ of sense, yet describes, after the anthropotomists, the coa-
lesced prefrontals as the cribriform and azygos processes of the ethmoid
(‘Siebplatte’ and ‘ Scheidewand des Siebbeins,’ pp. 85. 89) in cetacea which
have no organ of smell. In a young balenoptera, in which the frontals, the
vomer and the nasals were ossified, I find the prefrontals as two cartilaginous
plates, extending from the nasals above to the groove of the vomer below. In
the manatee the essential parts of the prefrontals which close the cranial
cavity anteriorly, and give exit to the olfactory nerves, are thick and unu-
sually expanded. But in no mammal do these parts, with their continuation,
the ‘lamina perpendicularis,’ which, as the coalesced neurapophysial plates
of prefrontals, bring the vomer below in connection with the nasals above,
ever undergo such modifications as to obliterate their true and essential ho-
mological characters.

In proceeding next to consider the special homologies of the bones of the
arch closed by the premaxillaries (22) and constituting the ‘upper jaw,’ I
commence with the palatines (20), because they form, throughout the verte-
brate series, the most constant medium of suspension of that arch to the
anterior cranial segment formed by the vomer, prefrontals and nasal. This
‘secret affinity,’ as Goethe would have termed it, before the knowledge of
the general type had revealed its nature, is manifested by the process of the
palatine in man, which creeps up, as it were, into the orbit to effect its wonted
union with the prefrontal, to that part of the bone, viz. of which Cuvier had
recognised the homologue in his ‘ ethmoide’ of the bird}. It is the very
constancy, indeed, of these and other connections which has exempted the
palatine from the different determinations and denominations attached to
other bones, and which renders further discussion of its special homology
unnecessary here.

Passing over, for the same reason, the maxillary (21) and premaxillary (22),
and referring to the excellent treatise by Dr. Kostlin§ for the grounds of
the determination of the ‘pterygoid’ (21), I proceed to notice other bones
which, diverging from the maxillary arch, serve to give it additional fixation
and strength in the air-breathing vertebrates. The first of these is the malar
bone (fig. 11, 26), the homology of which has been traced without difference
of opinion throughout the mammalian class ; where, however, the inconstancy
of its proportions, number of connections, and very existence, is sufficient to
indicate its comparative unimportance as an element of the maxillary arch.
_ It is absent in many insectivores (Centetes, Echinops, Sorex): it has not
___ been detected as a distinct bone in the zygomatic arch in the monotremes, on
__ aecount perhaps of its early coalescence, as in birds, with the maxillary
(fig. 12, 21, 26): in Myrmecophaga gigantea and Manis, it projects back-
_ wards, as a styliform appendage, from the maxillary, but does not attain the
squamosal; whilst in the sloths and their extinct congeners the gigantic
megatherioids, the malar presents its maximum of development and complex-
ity||. In the Delphinide, again, the malar is much reduced: its slightly ex-
panded maxillary end forms part of the orbit and joins the frontal ; the rest
extending backwards, as a very slender style, beneath the orbit to the squa-

el

Te

* Ossem. Foss. v. pt. i. pl. xxvii. fig. 3, A.

+ Der Bau des Knéchernen Kopfes, p. 11.

t See the passage above quoted from the ‘ Lecons d’Anat. Comp.’ ii. p. 580.

§ Op. cit. p. 328. || Description of the Mylodon robustus, 4to, p. 19.

228 REPORT—1846.

mosal. The malar joins the post-orbital process of the frontal in the Mana-
tus senegalensis, the hippopotamus, the solipeds, and ruminants, some carni-
vores and the lemurs; in the true quadrumanes and man it joins the alisphe-
noid, and sometimes also the parietal.

The presence, form and connections of the malar are much more constant
in the class of birds ; where, however, it must be sought for as an indepen-
dent bone at an early period. In the young ostrich (fig. 23, 26) it is reduced
to the form of a simple, straight, slender style, and coalesces first with the
similarly-shaped squamosal (27), and next with the malar process of the
maxillary (21’). In the crocodile the malar bone (fig. 22, 26) becomes more
developed, and adds the connections with the postfrontal (12) and the ecto-
pterygoid (24') to the more constant ones with the maxillary (21) and squa-
mosal (27), which alone sustain it in birds. In most of the chelonians the
malar presents the same connections as in the crocodile, but is transmuted
from a ‘long’ to a ‘flat’ bone. It retains the expanded shape in the agama ;
but in most other lizards it resumes the styloid form ; being broadest, how-
ever, in those genera, e. g. Iguana, Thorictes, Tejus, in which it extends from
the maxillary to the postfrontal and squamosal; in the Varani it projects
freely backwards, like a styliform appendage of the maxillary, as in the
toothless mammalian Bruta, above-cited.

There is no malar bone in ophidians and batrachians. The lower portion
of the tympanic pedicle in the Anowra sends forward a process which joins a
backward prolongation of the maxillary: in all other batrachia the lower
portion of the tympanic pedicle is restricted to its normal connections and to
its function of affording articulation to the lower jaw. With regard, there-
fore, to the zygomatic modification of this portion of the pedicle in anourous
Batrachia, some may deem it the homologue of the malar; and, in marsu-
pial quadrupeds, the malar actually forms part of the glenoid cavity for the
lower jaw: or it may be regarded as the squamosal, which constantly sup-
ports the lower jaw in mammals: or it may be viewed as the coalesced homo-
logue of both bones: or finally, as a simple modified dismemberment of the
tympanic pedicle of the higher reptiles and birds; effecting a union with
the maxillary bone which makes it analogous to, but not, therefore, homolo-
gous with, the distinct malar and squamosal in those higher vertebrates. This
is a question of special homology on which I am unwilling at present to
express a decided opinion: but viewing the inconstancy of the squamosal in
reptilia, and its deprivation of the function of exclusively supporting the
mandible in all ovipara, I am disinclined to adopt the idea of its sudden resti-
tution to that mammalian function in frogs and fishes ; yet, if either of the
bones 26 and 27 are to be selected as the homologue of the hypotympanic (28d)
of batrachians and fishes, I should regard the claims of the squamosal to be
stronger than those of the malar, which Cuvier has chosen. The further sub-
division, however, of the tympanic pedicle in fishes, prepares us, in the as-
censive comparison, for the simple division of the pedicle in batrachia, and
for recognising in the lower articular portion a vegetative dismemberment of
as in the crocodile.

The characters and chief changes, in respect of connections and functions,
of the squamosal (27) in the mammalia have already been noticed in the dis-
cussion of the homologies of other elements of the complex ‘ temporal bone’
in that class. In birds the bone (fig. 23, 27) undergoes the same change of
form which has been noticed in the jugal, viz. from the squamous to the
styloid. It continues, however, to connect the malar with the tympanic as
it does in figs. 11 and 12, but it bas no connections with other bones. Cu-
vier having been led to recognise the squamosal in the mastoid (fig. 23, 8) of

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 229

birds, does not distinguish 27 from 26, the true ‘jugal:’ and Geoffroy v iewing
the ‘portion écailleuse’ of the temporal in that cranial bone of the bird, which
he figures under the letter R, fig. 17, pl. 27 (Annales du Muséum, x.), calls
the true squamosal, the original separation of which from the malar he had
noticed in the chick, ‘jugal postérieure.’ He did not admit that this division
of the zygomatic style was constant or common in the osteogeny of the skull
of birds: but I have always found such division in the embryo, and it con-
tinues longer than usual in those very species, e. g. the duck and ostrich
(fig. 23, 26, 27), in which Geoffroy denies its existence (J. ¢., p. 361). Oken
accurately describes the two constituents of the zygoma in the skull of the
goose, in his characteristic and original Essay *, where he calls the posterior
piece (27) the humerus, and the anterior one (26) the radius of the head.
Bojanus+, who also recognised the fact of the essential individuality of the
bone (27) in birds, but who saw the homologue of the squamosal rather in the
tympanic (23), calls it ‘os zygomaticum posterius.’ I could cite other testi-
monies to the primitive existence of the distinct bone in birds connecting the
malar with the tympanic; but the fact which chiefly concerns us here is, that
if the special homology of no. s with the mastoid, and that of no. 2s with
the tympanic be proved, we then have a bone presenting ‘the most constant
connections of the squamosal in no. 27: if, however, that name be transferred,
as has been done by Cuvier, Bojanus{ and Geoffroy, to other bones, then a
new boue and a new name must be introduced into vertebrate craniology,
for which, as I trust I have shown, there is no sufficient ground.

Both Oken and Bojanus rightly discern in the permanently distinct bone
which, in the crocodiles (fig. 22, 27) and chelonians, connects the malar (26)
with the tympanic (28), the homologue of the bone they call ‘cranial hume-
rus, or ‘zygomaticum posterius’ in the bird. Cuvier is more accurate in his
determination of this bone (fig. 23, 27) as the ‘squamosal’ in reptiles; but
again at the expense of his consistency in regard to the characters of his
squamosal in the bird: for the homology of no. s (Cuvier’s ‘squamosal’) in
fig. 22 with no. s (Cuvier’s ‘ mastoid’) in fig. 23, is as obvious and unmistake-
able as is that of no. ev (Cuvier’s ‘ squamosal’) in fig. 22 with no. 27 (his dis-
memberment of the jugal) in fig.23. The squamosal is relatively stronger in
crocodiles than in birds, and in many chelonians resumes its flat, scale-like
form ; although, as Cuvier well observes, it answers, in function, only to the
zygomatic part of the mammalian squamosal :—“ c’est un temporal dont la
partie craniale a disparu§.” In lizards the squamosal again resumes the zy-
gomatic or styloid shape, connecting the mastoid and tympanic with the
postfrontal, and usually also with the malar ; the posterior connections being
here, as in mammals, the more constant ones.

As the squamosal varies in form with the malar, so it likewise disappears
with it in ophidians ; unless the anatoinist, tracing it descensively, prefers to
see it again in the peculiarly developed hypotympanic of the anourans. Ac-
cording to this view of the sudden resumption of its mammalian function in
regard to the lower jaw in batrachia, the name ‘squamosal’ may be trans-
ferred to the hypotympanic in fishes; and, if we must view the pedicle
(23 a—d, fig. 5) as ‘homologically compound,’ and not, like the mandibular

_ ramus, ‘ teleologically compound,’ 2sd seems to me a less arbitrary selection

from the pieces of that long and subdivided pedicle, for the representative

* Ueber die Bedeutung der Schadelknochen, 4to, 1807, p. 12.

+ Anatome Testudinis Europe, fol. Parergon, 1821, p. 178, fig. 196, 7.
' = The tympanic bone 23 is described in the same work as ‘squamosum sive quadratum,”
(fig. 196, g.): the mastoid is rightly named.

§ Ossemens Fossiles, 4to. t.v. pt. ii. p. 85.

230 REPORT— 1846.

of the squamosal, than the proximal or uppermost piece (23a) to which Cu-
vier has applied that name. If, indeed, Bojanus could have determined to
his own satisfaction or that of other anatomists, that the pedicle (2s, fig. 23),
articulated by one end to the mastoid, and by the other to the mandible, in
birds, was the ‘squamosum, then there would have been some ground for
regarding the bone (2sa, fig. 5) connected in fishes, with the mastoid as the
‘ squamosum.’

But when Cuvier had persuaded himself that the bone no. s, fig. 23, in
birds, to which the tympanic pedicle is articulated, was the ‘ écaille du tem-
poral,’ we feel at a loss to know on what principles special homologies can
be traced, when we find the name transferred to the upper part of the tym-
panic pedicle in fishes (fig. 5. 28 a), which is articulated to the bone (s) un-
equivocally answering to Cuvier's ‘ écaille du temporal’ in birds. M. Agassiz
is more consistent, and abandons with reason the Cuvierian determination of
the squamosal in fishes: if, however, the grounds assigned are conclusive as
to the homology of no. s, figs. 8 & 23 in birds with the mastoid of mammals
and reptiles, M. Agassiz cannot be correct in regarding the bone no. s, fig.
5 in the fish, as the ‘ écaille du temporal.’

With reference to the idea entertained by Spix, Geoffroy and Agassiz, of
the homology of the suborbital muciferous scale- bones in fishes with the malar
bones of higher vertebrates, I may refer to what has already been said in
regard to the actual repetition of the osseous arch connecting the prefrontal
with the postfrontal in certain birds, where that arch coexists with, and in-
dependently of, the bone recognised as the ‘malar’ by both Spix and Geof-
froy. The connection of the malar with the lacrymal and post-frontal is
less constant and characteristic of the bone than that with the maxillary and
squamosal. And it may further be remarked, that the functional character
of circumscribing a mucous duct, manifested by the lacrymal or anterior
end of the upper zygomatic or suborbital arch in the parrot, is superadded to
the character of connections in proof that such arch, and not the true zygo-
matic arch below, is homologous with the suborbital chain of bones in fishes.
All these discrepancies as to the jugal and squamosal in fishes arise, in my
- opinion, out of the circumstance that those bones are normally absent in
that class; both 26 and 27, figs. 11, 22, 23, 24, 25, being accessory parts, de-
veloped only in saurians, chelonians, birds and mammals, for additional fixa-
tion of the upper jaw, or for additional expansion of the cranium, or for both
purposes*.

According to this view, I regard the tympanic (2s) as essentially charac-
terized in the oviparous vertebrates (fishes, reptiles, birds) by its free articu-
lation by a convex condyle with the mastoid above, and by a convex condyle
with the mandible below; and I regard its subdivisions in the lowest of
these vertebrates, in the same light as the subdivisions of the mandible itself.
The formation of the tympanic cavity and support of the tympanic membrane
are secondary functions. The tympanic pedicle is essentially a single cranial
element, and actually so in all air-breathing vertebrates above batrachians.
We see plainly, even in the frog, that the portion which supports the ‘mem-
brana tympani’ is a mere exogenous process of the pedicle : it has still less the
appearance of a distinct part or process in the saurians, chelonians and birds :
and when the tympanic is excluded by the squamosal in mammals from its
normal office of supporting the mandible, it still manifests its character of

* The inconstant ossicle suspended to the back part of the free extremity of the maxillary
in the percoid fishes would have the best claim to homology with the malar, if the further
subdivision of the maxillary in the herring and lepidosteus did not indicate it to be a vege-
tative dismemberment of that bone.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 931

unity, whether it be expanded into a ‘bulla ossea, extended into a long tube
or meatus, or both, as in fig. 24, 28, or whether, as in fig. 25, it be reduced to
a mere ring or hoop supporting the tympanic membrane, until it coalesces
with other parts of the temporal, to form the tympanic or ‘ external auditory
process’ of that bone. In no air-breathing vertebrate have I ever found, or
seen described, the separation of the part of the tympanic forming the wall
of the tympanic chamber from the part supporting the tympanic membrane,
or this distinct, save in batrachia, from the part supporting the lower jaw*.
The tympanic pedicle is still further subdivided in fishes; but M. Agassiz’s
original idea of the ‘epitympanic’ as a dismemberment of the pedicle, which
he proposed to call ‘os carré supérieur,’ is, in my opinion, much more consist-
ent with nature than his later determination of that bone as the ‘ mastoid,’
or than Cuvier’s attempts to find the homologues of both the mammalian
‘squamosal’ and ‘jugal’ in the piscine subdivisions of the same pedicle.
There is as little ground for making the zygomatic process a distinct element
from the squamous portion, as for severing the annular process from the rest
of the tympanic. This idea of the zygomatic as an independent piece, which
Dr. Kostlin has also adopted, seems to rest only on the mal-determination
by Bojanus and Oken of the true squamosal in birds and reptiles as the
‘zygomaticum’ or ‘jugale posterius’: and the idea was perhaps further
strengthened in the mind of M. Agassiz, by what he deems to be the essen-
tial and characteristic function of the squamosal. But its protective cere-
bral or cranial scale is a peculiarly mammalian development ; much reduced
in the ruminants and cetacea, and totally disappearing in the oviparous ver-
tebrates. The zygomatic functions and connections are, notwithstanding a
few exceptions, as in the scaly manis and a few lizards, the essential] homo-
logical characters of the ‘squamosal.’ The necessity for forming an opinion
of the essential nature and general homologies of the parts blended together
in the human ‘os temporis’ by the ascensive or synthetic method, is strikingly
exemplified by the results of the application of M. Agassiz’s idea of its nature
to his determination of the bones in the head of fishes.

As the palato-maxillary arch in most air-breathing vertebrates supports, ac-
cording to my views, certain appendages, e. g. the malar and squamusal, which
are not present in fishes; so, I believe, with Cuvier, that the tympano-man-
dibular arch supports in fishes, certain appendages, which are not developed
in any other class. It is this fact, chiefly, that has led to so much discrepancy
in the attempts to determine by reference to bones in higher vertebrates the
opercular bones of fishes,—the chief battle-field of homological controversy.
All the four opercular bones forming the diverging appendage of the tym-
pano-mandibular arch (fig. 5, 34 to 37) were deemed by Cuvier to be peculiar
ichthyic super-additions to the ordinary vertebrate skeleton ; whilst by Spix,
Geoffroy, and De Blainville they are held to be modifications of parts which

* M. Agassiz applies the subjoined analysis of the ‘temporal bone’ to elucidate the homo-
logies of the skull of fishes :—‘‘ Nous distinguons encore dans le temporal complet les parties

_ suiyantes: l’écaille, servant de complément a la paroi latérale du crane dans sa partie posté-

rieure; le mastoidien, servant de rempart postérieur a la cavité tympanal ; Ja caisse, logeant
les parties principales de la cavité tympanale; l’anneau tympanique, servant d’appui a la
membrane du tympan; l’apophyse jugal, formant l’appui postérieur de l’arcade zygomatique 5

_ Vapophyse styloide, offrant une insertion a l’os hyoide, par laquelle ce dernier se fixe au crane;

et enfin l’os carré, formant la surface articulaire sur laquelle la machoire inférieure exerce
ses mouvemens. . La maniére variée dont ces différentes piéces se soudent ensemble, se séparent
et se combinent, occasionnent ces innombrables variations auxquelles le temporal est sujet
dans son ensemble. L’écaille du temporal est destinée, comme nous venons de le voir, 4 pro-

__ téger les parties cérébrales postérieures de la téte, sur la face latérale du crane.” —Recherches

sur les Poissons Fossiles, t. ii. pt. 2, 1843, p. 62.

232 REPORT—1846.

exist in the ordinary or endo-skeleton of other vertebrata. The learned
Professor of Comparative Anatomy in King’s College, London, who regards
this as “the more philosophical mode of considering them*,” has briefly
stated the homologies proposed by the supporters of this view, viz. that the
opercular bones are gigantic representatives of the ossicles of the ear (Spix,
Geoffroy, Dr. Grant+): or that they are dismemberments of the lower jaw
(De Blainville, Bojanus),—a view refuted by the discovery of the compli-
cated structure of the lower jaw in certain fishes, which likewise possess the
opercular bones: he then cites a third view, viz. that they are parts of the
dermal skeleton; “in short, scales modified in subserviency to the breathing
function ;” an opinion which Professor Jones correctly states that he derived
from my Lectures on Comparative Anatomy, delivered at St. Bartholomew’s
Hospital in 1835, and which he adopts, although its accordance with his first
proposition is not very clear. I have subsequently seen reason to modify that
view, though it has received the sanction of the greatest ichthyologist of the
present day, M. Agassiz; and, as I have since found, had presented itself so
early as 1826, under a peculiar aspect to the philosophical mind of Professor
Von Baer. In his admirable paper on the endo- and exo-skeleton, M. Von Baer
expresses his opinion, that the opercular bones are (dermal) ribs or lateral
portions of the external cincture of the head{. The idea of the relationship
of the opercular flaps to locomotive organs is presented by Carus, under the
fanciful view of their homology with the wing-covers of beetles and the valves
of a bivalve shell§. In 1836, M. Agassiz propounded his idea of the relation
of the opercular bones to scales in a very precise and definite manner ;
though, as I have elsewhere shown ||, the chief ground of his opinion is erro-
neous. He says, “Les piéces operculaires des poissons ne croissent pas,
comme les os des vertébres en général, par irradiation d'un ou de plusieurs
points d’ossification; ce sont, au contraire, des véritables écailles, formées,
comme celles qui recouvrent le tronc, de lames déposées successivement
les unes sous les autres, et dont les bords sont souvent méme dentelés
comme ceux des écailles du corps. Tels sont l’opercule, le sub-opercule, et

* Professor Rymer Jones, General Outline of the Animal Kingdom, 8vo, 1841, p. 509.

+ Lectures, Lancet, Jan. 11, 1834, p. 573; Outlines of Comp. Anat. p. 64.

t “In mancher Beziehung gehoren die Kiemendeckel zu ihr, und ich halte sie um so
mehr fiir (Haut) Rippen, d. h. fiir Seitentheile der aussern Ringe des Kopfes, da ich sie auch
in den gewohnlichen Knockenfischen fiir nichts anderes ansehen kann. Hat bei diesen auch
der oberste Knochen des Kiemendeckels wenig Aehnlichkeit mit Rippen, so geht dagegen
der unterste so unverkennbar in die strahlender Kiemenhaut iiber, das der Uebergang gar
nicht zu verkennen ist.”—Meckel’s Archiv, 1826, 3 heft, p. 369.

An analogous idea of the relation of the opercular bones to the inferior or costal arches was
proposed by Geoffroy St. Hilaire (Annales des Sciences, t. iii. pl. 9), and Cuvier (Hist. des
Poissons, i. p. 232), and has been adopted by the learned Professor of Comparative Ana-
tomy in University College, who, speaking of the occipital vertebrz, says, “‘ The two external
and the two lateral occipitals form the upper arch, and the two opercular and two sub-
opercular bones constitute the lower arch.” (Lectures, Lancet, 1834, p. 543.) He subse-
quently, however, adopts and illustrates (p. 573) the homology of the opercular bones with
the ‘ossicula auditis’ of mammalia; and in the ‘ Outlines of Comp. Anat.’ cites only the
Spixian and Blainvillian hypotheses (pp. 64, 65). In my Hunterian Lectures (vol. ii. 1836,
pp- 113, 130), I have adduced the grounds which have led me to the conclusion that the
opercular bones are neither ribs of the exo-skeleton, nor inferior arches of the endo-skeleton,
but persistent radiating appendages of an inferior (hemal) arch ; not, however, of the occipital
vertebra, but of the frontal ; just as the branchiostegal rays are the appendages of the hamal
arch of the parietal, and the pectoral fins of that of the occipital vertebra. That parts of
both endo- and exo-skeleton may combine to constitute the opercular fin is the more pro-
bable, inasmuch as we see the same combination of cartilaginous and dermal rays in the
pectoral fins of the plagiostomes, and in the median fins of most fishes.

§ Urtheilen des Knochen und Schalengeriistes, fol. p. 122.

|| Lectures on Vertebrata, p. 139.

ae ee

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 233

Yinter-opercule. Le supra-scapulaire méme peut étre envisagé comme la
premiére écaille de la ligne latérale, dont le bord est également dentelé. On
pourrait dire aussi que le scapulaire n’est qu'une trés grande écaille de la
partie antérieure des flancs*.” And he adds, “‘L’opinion que j’ai émise 4
leur égard prouve que je suis loin d’admettre les rapports que l’on a cru
trouver entre les piéces operculaires et les osselets de l’oreille interne.”

I apprehend that the idea of the development of the opercular bones by
the successive excretion or deposition of layers, one beneath the other, ac-
cording to the mode in which M. Agassiz supposes scales to be formed, was
derived merely from the appearance of the concentric lines on the opercular,
subopercular, and interopercular bones in many fishes. I have examined
the development of the opercular bone in young gold-fish and carp, and I
find that it is effected in precisely the same manner as that of the frontal and
parietal bones. The cells which regulate the intussusception and deposition
of the earthy particles make their appearance in the primitive blastema in
successive concentric layers, according to the same law which presides over
the concentric arrangements of the radiated cells around the medullary canals
in the bones of the higher vertebrata: and the term ‘successive deposition,’
in the sense of excretion, is inapplicable to the formation of the opercular
bones. The argument in favour of their dermal character drawn from the
phzenomena of the development of the opercular flap, would equally apply to
prove the bones (ulna, radius, carpus, &c.) supporting the pectoral fin, to be
‘dermal’ bones tf.

The interopercular as well as the preopercular bones exist in the Lepi-
dosiren annectens with all the characters, even to the green colour, of the rest
of the ossified parts of the endo-skeleton ; the preopercular, as an appendage
to the tympanic arch, retaining its primitive embryonal subcylindrical form,
the interopercular being partly attached to the hyoid arch. Of the supra-
scapular there is no trace in the lepidosiren; but in the sturgeon it plainly
exists as part of the cartilaginous endo-skeleton, under the same bifurcate
form, and double connection with the cartilaginous skull, which it presents
in most osseous fishes. The large triangular bony dermal scale firmly adheres
to its broad, triangular, flat, outer surface. The epi- and meso-tympanic
cartilages in like manner expand posteriorly, and give a similar support to
the large opercular ganoid scale. Were the supporting cartilages of the
opercular and suprascapular scales to become ossified in the sturgeon, they
might become anchylosed to the dermal bony plates, and bones, truly homo-
logous with the opercular and suprascapular in ordinary osseous fishes,

_ would thus be composed of parts of the endo- and exo-skeleton blended

_ together. I cannot, therefore, concur with Von Baer in the opinion that the

opercular bones are ribs of the exo-skeleton, nor with Agassiz that both the
opercular and suprascapular bones are merely modified scales. In explaining
my views of the opercular bones, I am compelled, believing them to have no
special homologues in higher animals, to express those views in the terms of
a higher generalization. The suprascapular bone (fig. 5, 40) is the upper or
first part of the hemal arch of the occipital segment of the skull, and corre-
sponds in serial homology with the epi-tympanic portion (2s a) of the mandi-

_ bular arch, and with the palatine portion (20) of the maxillary arch. The

opercular bones are the diverging appendages of the tympano-mandibular

* Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles, livraison 6me, 1836, tom. iv. p. 69.

+ Ib. p. 73.
{ “L’embryologie nous prouve, en effet, que la formation de l’appareil operculaire n’est

bo qu’un simple produit de la peau, qui peu-a-peu s’étend par dessus les branchies, d’abord
_ entiérement dégagées dans l’embryon.”—ZJb. p. 64.

1846. R

324 REPORT—1846.

arch, and correspond, in serial homology, with the branchiostegal appendages
of the hyoid and the pectoral appendages of the scapular arches, and have
the same title to be regarded as cephalic fins, and as parts of the normal
system of the vertebrate endo-skeleton; but neither opercular bones nor
branchiostegal rays are retained in the skeletons of higher vertebrata. All
diverging appendages of vertebral segments make their first appearance in
the vertebrate series as ‘rays’; and the opercular bones are actually repre-
sented by cartilaginous rays, retaining their primitive form in the plagio-
stomes. Inthe conger the subopercular still presents the form of a long and
slender fin-ray.

The opercular and subopercular, in ordinary osseous fishes, may frequently
coalesce, like the suprascapular, with their representative scales of the dermal
system ; but they are essentially something more than peculiarly developed
representatives of those scales. M. Agassiz, indeed, excepts the preoper-
cular bone from the category of “piéces cutanées,” believing it to be the
homologue of the styloid process of the temporal bone in anthropotomy, or
the ‘stylo-hyal’ of vertebrate anatomy, as the piece, viz. which completes the
hyoid arch above. “C'est en effet,” he says, “cet os ala face interne duquel
los hyoide des poissons est suspendu, qui s‘articule en haut avec le mastoi-
dien et trés souvent méme sur l’écaille du temporal.” So far as my obser-
vation has gone, it is a rare exception to find the hyoid arch suspended to
the preoperculum ; the rule in osseous fishes is to find the upper styliform
piece of the hyoid arch (fig. 5, 3s) attached to the epi-tympanic (28 a) close
to its junction with the meso-tympanic bone (28). It is equally the rule to
find the preopercular (34) articulated with the epi-, meso-, and hypo-tym-
panics ; and it is an exception, when it rises so high as to be connected with
the mastoid (‘écaille du temporal’ of Agassiz). If the stylo-hyal be not the
upper piece of the hyoid arch displaced, and if the upper piece connecting
that arch with the mastoid is to be sought for in osseous fishes, I should
rather view it in the posterior half of the epi-tympanic (2s a), which is usually
bifurcate below and very commonly also above, when the posterior upper
division articulates with the mastoid, and one of the lower divisions with the
hyoid arch.

The normal position, form, and connections of the preoperculum clearly
bespeak it to be the first or proximal segment of the radiated appendage of
the tympano-mandibular arch: the opercular, subopercular, and interoper-
cular bones form the distal segment of the same appendage.

M. Vogt, in supporting M. Agassiz’s views of the Ganoid order, reiterates
his original idea that the preopercular bone is the proximal piece (styloid)
of an arch distinct from the tympano-mandibular one ; but as the chief ground
of this opinion rests on a simple question of fact easily determinable, viz.
whether, as a rule, the hyoid arch is suspended from the preoperculum, and
this from the mastoid in fishes, neither of which accord with my observation
of their connections of those parts, the verdict may be left to the experience
of other observers. From a remark of M, Vogt’s*, viz. that “ M. Miller
attache, 4 ce qu'il parait, trop peu d'importance a ce fait, que toujours le
préopercule, et cela aussi chez les Siluroides, sert de point d’attache a l’are
hyoidien,” it would seem that, perhaps, the accomplished physiologist and
ichthyologist of Berlin had not found the fact ; and, therefore, gave not more
than its due importance to the rare exceptional circumstance of such an at-
tachment. The preopercular can be removed in most fishes, except where,
as in the siluroids, it coalesces with the tympanic arch, without dislocating

* Annales des Sciences, 1845, p. 56.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 935

or disturbing the connections of the true stylo-hyal (fig. 5, 28) with the epi-
tympanic (2s@) from whjch it is normally suspended.

M. Vogt correctly observes that the ‘temporal’ Sa 28a), ‘sym-
plectique’ (mesotympanic, 2s 6), and ‘jugulaire’ (hypotympanic, 23d), “a
eux seuls forment déja un arc suspensoir complet, 4 la face postérieure
duquel le préopercule est seulement accolé*.” But this only proves that the
preoperculum is an appendage to such arch, not that it is a suspensory pier
of a second arch.

The only essential modification which the siluroids present is the confluence
of the preoperculum with the true tympanic pedicle, here reduced to a single
piece. But this does not disprove its character as an appendage of the

‘tympano-mandibular arch, any more than does the confluence of the ulna and
radius with the scapular arch in the sturgeon disprove the character of those
elements as appendages of that arch. I have not been able to trace in the
siluroids the primitive boundaries of the coalesced preoperculum to such an
extent as to justify the statement, that it is intercalated between the epitym-
panic and hypotympanic, replacing the mesotympanic : but, if the preopercular
should extend in any siluroid fish so far as M. Vogt describes, this excep-
tional development would rather prove it to belong essentially to the tym-
panic and not to the hyoidean arch: at least it is only through this abnor-

_ mal encroachment that the preopercular can detach the stylohyal from the
epitympanic.

As the otosteals, or ‘ ossicula auditts,’ have borne a prominent share in the
discussions of the special homologies of the tympanic pedicle and its append-

ages, I may here remark that the extension in the embryo ‘mammal of the
long and slender process of the malleus in the direction of the mandible, and
its continuation or connection with the cylindrical cartilage (hemal portion
of the tympano-mandibular arch) from which the lower jaw is subsequently
developed, is a circumstance which renders the idea of the malleus, at least,
being a modified element of the tympano-mandibular arch ia batrachians
and fishes, worthy of consideration. The prolongation from the mesotym-
panic of the cylindrical cartilage, described by Meckel, and around which
the mandible is ossified in fishes, and the characteristic cylindrical or styloid
form of the mesotympanic, have induced M. Vogt+ to view that bone, the
*symplectique’ of Cuvier, as the homologue of at least part of the malleus;
and at the same time of the bone called ‘tympano-malléal’ by Dugés (my
‘hypotympanic’) in, the batrachians, M. Vogt offers no other reasons for
‘the determination. | find that the cartilage which in the batrachians forms
the medium of communication between the semi-ellipsoid ossicle (stapes)
closing the fenestra ovalis and the tympanic membrane, is repeated or repro-
duced in the more malleiform cartilage connecting the columelliform stapes
of the saurian reptiles to the membrana tympani. In birds a portion of the
cartilage attached to the tympanum becomes ossified and coalesces with the
columelliform stapes; and at the angle of union one or two cartilaginous”
processes exist, which some anatomists have compared with the incus. But
all anatomists have concurred in recognising the homology of the peripheral
bent-down portion of the long columella, which adheres to the membrana
tympani, with the part of the malleus called ‘manubrium,’ or handle, in
mammalia. The superadded modifications characteristic of the otosteals in
this class, have their seat between the manubrium mallei and the stapes, and
chiefly result in the development of the new bone called ‘incus’ and its epi-
physis, which has been termed the ‘os orbiculare.’ Notwithstanding, there-

_ fore, the connection of the ‘processus gracilis mallei’ with the embryonic

* Annales des Sciences, 1845, p. 55. + Loc. cit. p. 58.

R@

236 REPORT— 1846.

heemal or visceral cartilage of the mandibular arch in mammals, the homo-
logy of the malleus is so clearly traceable down to.its first independent ma-
nifestation in coexistence with the tympanic membrane of the batrachia, to
which it connects the unequivocally acoustic ossicle representing the ‘stapes,’
that the reference of all the additional ossicular mechanism of the ear-drum
to the same system of the skeleton as the petrosal itself, appears to me to be
most consonant with the recognised facts in their development and compara-
tive anatomy.

M. Agassiz has never countenanced the idea of the reproduction of the
mammalian tympanic ossicles in a magnified form in either the tympanic
arch or its opercular appendages. Returning to the consideration of these
bones in the last volume (p.68) of his admirable ‘ Recherches,’ he reaffirms
his opinion, that the opercular, subopercular, and interopercular are ‘ osse-
lets particuliers de la peau;’ but calls them ‘ branchiostegal rays.’ If he
had meant that they were parts essentially distinct, but comparable to the
true branchiostegals, he would have accurately enunciated their ‘serial ho-
mology.’ M. Agassiz, however, expressly repudiates this idea of represen-
tative relation, and affirms them to be part of one and the same series of
rays. “Mais en disant que les piéces operculaires sont des rayons branchio-
stégues, je n’entends point faire une simple comparaison, mais bien affirmer,
que je considére ces plaques osseuses simplement comme les rayons bran-
chiostégues supérieurs *,” This idea is, in fact, a necessary consequence of
M. Vogt’s conclusion, that the preoperculum is the upper or styloid element
of the hyoidean arch. The combination of the opercular rays or bones with
the branchiostegals in the support and movements of the continuous gill-
cover and gill-membrare, does not prove them to be diverging appendages
of the same arch, any more than the similar combination of the rays of the
pectoral and ventral fins in the sucker of the Cyclopterus proves those rays
to be parts of the same arch. And I may repeat that, admitting the humerus
to be, as Bakker surmised, confluent in all fishes with the bone sg, fig. 5;
and since in the plagiostomes, sturgeons and lophioids, the second segment of
the rudimental fore-limb is not liberated from the supporting arch ; so, like-
wise, the proximal member of the opercular limb may remain, or become in
some instances confluent with its sustaining arch, without that exceptional
state invalidating the determination deduced from its more constant and re-
gular character as the proximal element of the free appendage to that arch.

The third inverted arch of the skull is suspended in fishes by a slender
styliform bone, the ‘stylohyal’ (fig. 5, 3s), from the lower end of the epi-
tympanic (2s a) close to the joint of the styliform ‘mesotympanic’ (2s b) ;
and it is connected, through the medium of the posterior division and
joint of the epitympanic, with the mastoid (s). Now, either that division
of the epitympanic may be viewed, by virtue of its proper articular condyle

_ above, and its connection with a distinct inverted arch below, as the proximal
piece of that arch, coalesced with the proximal piece of the next arch in
advance, which articulates with the post-frontal; or, it may be viewed as an
excessive development of the proximal piece of the tympano-mandibular arch,

which, extending backwards, has displaced the hyoid from the mastoid, just _ f

as the squamosal, by a similar backward development, in mammals, displaces
the mandibular arch from the tympanic. J
According to the first view, the bone no. 3s would be a dismemberment
of the proximal element of the hyoid arch ; according to the second view, it
would be the entire element reduced and displaced: in both cases it would
be homologous with the proximal slender piece of the hyoid arch in all

* Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles, v. pt. ii. p. 68.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 237

yertebrata, and to which piece the term ‘styloid’ or ‘stiliform’ has been
given from the fish up to man (see TasreI.). The homology, indeed, is so
obvious, that M. Agassiz, in accepting the conclusion of M. Vogt, that the
bone (fig. 5, 34), peculiar to osseous fishes, which so rarely articulates di-
rectly with the mastoid or with the hyoid arch, and so constantly sustains
the distal segment of the operculum, was the homologue of the ‘processus
stiliformis ossis temporis,’ nevertheless retains the name ‘styloide’ for the
part no. 3s in question.

The true homology of no. 34, already explained, removes the anomaly of
viewing that peculiarly piscine bone as the homologue of a constant element
of the hyoid arch in all the vertebrate classes, and the greater anomaly of
the introduction of a new element—a styloid piece of the os hyoides—in
addition to the ‘styloid process of the temporal’ in fishes. The ‘stylohyal’
articulates below to the apex of a triangular piece (39), which is pretty con-
stant in fishes, and to which I give the name of ‘ epihyal,’ as being the upper
of the two principal parts of the cornu or arch: the third longer and stronger
piece is the ‘ceratohyal’ (¢. 40).

The keystone or body of the inverted hyoid arch is formed by two small
subcubical bones on each side, the ‘basihyals’ (76. 41). These complete the
bony arch in some fishes: in most others there is a median styliform ossicle,
extended forwards from the basi-hyal symphysis into the substance of the
tongue, called the ‘ glossohyal’ (#b. 42), or ‘os linguale’; and another symme-
trical, but usually triangular, flattened bone, which expands vertically as it
extends backwards, in the middle line, from the basihyals; this is the ‘ urohyal’
(ib. 43). It is connected with the symphysis of the coracoids, which closes below
the fourth of the cranial inverted arches, and it thus forms the isthmus which
separates below the two branchial apertures. In the conger the hyoidean
arch is simplified by the persistent ligamentous state of the stylohyal, and
by the confluence of the basi-hyals with the ceratohyals: a long glossohyal
is articulated to the upper part of the ligamentous symphysis, and a long
compressed urohyal to the under part of the same junction of the hyoid arch.
The glossohyal is wanting in the Murenophis.

The appendages of the hyoidean arch in fishes retain the form of simple,
elongated, slender, slightly curved rays, articulated to depressions in the outer
and posterior margins of the epi- and cerato-hyals: they are called “ bran-
chiostegals,” or gill-cover rays, because they support the membrane which
‘closes externally the branchial chamber. The number of these rays varies,
and their presence is not constant even in the bony fishes: there are but
three broad and flat rays in the carp; whilst the clupeoid Hlops has more
than thirty rays in each gill-cover: the most common number is seven, as
in the cod (fig. 30, 41). They are of enormous length in the angler, and
Serve to support the membrane which is developed to form a great receptacle
on each side of the head of that singular fish.

Branchial Arches.—In the class of fishes, certain bony arches, which ap-
pertain to the system of the visceral skeleton, succeed the hyoidean arch,
with the keystone of which they are more or less closely connected. Six of
these arches are primarily developed, and five usually retained ; the first four
of these support the gills, the fifth is beset with teeth and guards the opening
of the gullet: this latter is termed the ‘ pharyngeal arch,’ the rest the ‘ bran-
chial arches.’

The lower extremities of these arches adhere to the sides of a median chain
of ossicles, which is continued from the posterior angle of the basi-hyal, or
from above the uro-hyal, when this is ossified: the bones which form those
extremities are the ‘hypobranchials’; and they support longer bent pieces,

238 REPORT— 1846.

called ‘cerato-branchials.’ It is with these elements of the branchial arches
in fishes and perennibranchiate batrachians that we are chiefly concerned
in tracing the homology of the hyoid apparatus in the air-breathing verte-
brates. With regard to the branchial and pharyngeal arches, which attain
their full development only in the class of fishes, I regard them as appertain-
ing to the system of the splanchno-skeleton, or to that category of bones to
which the heart-bone of the ruminants and the hard jaw-like pieces support-
ing the teeth of the stomach of the lobster belong. The branchial arches
are sometimes cartilaginous when the true endo-skeleton is ossified: they are
never ossified in the perennibranchiate batrachians, and are the first to dis-
appear in the larve of the caducibranchiate species; and both their place
and mode of attachment to the skull demonstrate that they have no essential
homological relation to its endo skeletal segments.

The hyoid arch or apparatus retains most resemblance to that of fishes in
the Siren lacertina ; the basihyal is simplified into a single osseous spatu-
late piece, with the bowl of the spoon anterior, and supporting a broad and
flat semicircular glossohyal. A strong and thick ceratohyal is articulated
by means of a small cartilage to the side of the expanded part of the basi-
hyal, and a cartilaginous epihyal arches backwards from its upper end. A
cartilaginous urohyal extends from the hind end of the basihyal, and ex-
pands into a radiated disc, which supports the membranous trachea and the
simple glottis. One pair of bony ‘hypobranchials’ is articulated to the
basi-uro-hyal joint and a second pair to the sides of the urohyal: and to the
upper and outer ends of these are attached four pairs of cartilaginous ‘ cerato-
branchials. The fimbriated branchiz are attached to the three anterior
ceratobranchials.

In the proteus the urohyal is absent, and it is not again developed in any
batrachian. The long subcylindrical basihyal supports a subcircular carti-
laginous discoid glossohyal, and at the angle of union the bony ceratohyals
are sent off. A pair of hypobranchials diverge from the end of the basihyal ;
to which a second small pair of basibranchials are loosely connected by an
aponeurosis. These support three ceratobranchials on each side, which are
bony.

Ru the newts there is neither a glossohyal nor urohyal, or but a rudiment
of the latter, to each side of which are articulated two hypobranchials, whose
distal ends converge on each side to support a single cartilaginous gill-less
rudiment of a ceratobranchial. The special homologies of all those parts of
the complex hyoid, rendered more complex by the retention of part of the
branchial skeleton, are clearly demonstrated by pursuing the metamorphoses
of the hyo-branchial skeleton in the larve of the anourous batrachians. In
the full-gilled tadpole a short and simple basihyal supports laterally two
thick and strong ceratehyals, and posteriorly two short and broad hypo-
branchials, to which four ceratobranchials are attached: all the parts are
cartilaginous. The type of this stage is retained in the siren, with the histo-
logical progress to bone in the hyoid and hypo-branchial pieces. The second
well-marked stage in the tadpole shows an extension of the external and
posterior angles of the hypobranchials, with progressive absorption of the
cartilaginous ceratobranchials. The growth and divergence of the posterior
angles of the hypobranchials refer to the development of the larynx, now
commencing, which part they are destined to support. That period may be
described as the third stage at which the ceratobranchials have disappeared,
and the posterior angles of the hypobranchials increase in length and assume
the character of posterior cornua of the os hyoides. The last and adult
stage shows the ossification of the elongated angles of the hypobranchials,

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 239

the coalescence of their cartilaginous bases with the basihyal, the expansion
of the basihyal and extension of its anterior and external angles ; in front of
which the now long and slender ceratohyals usually coalesce with the basi-
hyal; their opposite ends having shifted their attachments and retrograded,
like other hemal arches of the skull, in the course of the metamorphosis.
In the case of the hyoid arch of the frog, the change of place is from the
tympanic pedicle backwards to the persistent cartilaginous petrosal: and
this is a very suggestive and significant change. All the parts of the hyoid
‘remain cartilaginous except the appended and persistent detachments from
the visceral system of the branchial arches: these long ‘hypobranchials’
(‘cornes thyroidiennes’ of Cuvier and Dugés) diverge and include the larynx
in their fork. The relative position, connexions and office in subserviency
to the larynx, to which the retained parts of the splanchno-branchial arches
are introduced in the lowest of the air-breathing vertebrates, are preserved in
‘all the higher classes. The ‘hypobranchials’ are as constant in their ex-
istence, therefore, as the upper larynx itself, and attach themselves more
especially to the thyroid element of that larynx. We recognise them by this
relation in birds and man (as, figs. 23 and 25), where they always much ex-
ceed the parts of the true hyoid arch (cerato- and epi-hyals) in length; and
in birds, where these elements (ao, fig. 23) are sometimes obsolete and always
rudimental, the hypobranchials have been mistaken by both Cuvier and
Geoffroy * for the ceratohyals or anterior cornua.

For the modifications and special homologies of the complex hyoid appa-
ratus in lizards, I refer to my ‘ Lectures on the Vertebrata.’ The crocodiles
offer a well-marked ordinal difference from those inferior sauria in this as
in most other parts of their structure. The basihyal and thyrohyals have
coalesced to form a broad cartilaginous plate, the anterior border rising like a
valve to close the fauces, and the posterior angles extending beyond and sus-
taining the thyroid and other parts of the larynx. A long bony ‘ ceratohyal’
(fig. 22, 40), and a commonly cartilaginous ‘epihyal’ (7b. 39), are suspended
by a ligamentous ‘stylohyal’ to the paroccipital process ; the whole arch
having, like the mandibular one, retrograded from the connection it presents
in fishes.

In birds as in chelonians, the ceratohyals are much reduced, and the chief
‘cornua’ of the hyoid are represented by the hypo- and epi-branchials (thy-
rohyals), which here attain their maximum of length and tenuity. The basi-
hyal (fig. 23, 41), as in Chelys, is long and slender, but is always a simple
piece ; and, as in lizards, is usually most expanded posteriorly, from which
expansion the thyrohyals (48) are sent off. Conforming with the long and
slender tongue in most birds, the basihyal extends forwards, and is articu-
lated with the rudimental ceratohyals (40), when these exist, at some distance
from the thyrohyals. A commonly long and slender, sometimes spatulate
glossohyal (42), is articulated to the fore-part of the basihyal; and a con-
stantly long, slender and pointed urohyal (43) is articulated with the posterior
end of the basihyal, and extends backwards beneath the trachea. The thyro-
hyals (46) diverge and include the larynx in their fork ; and support at their
extremities a bony or gristly (cerato-branchial) style (a7). This is never
attached by ligament to the base of the skull, but is suspended freely, as in
the chelonia, by the glossohyoid and omohyoid muscles ; it, however, curves
over the back and upper part of the cranium in the woodpeckers, and the
extremities of both cerato-branchials are inserted, by way of rare exception
_ in that bird, into the right nostril.

- * Dugés appears to have first pointed out this error, but without, however, perceiving the
true homology of his ‘ cornes thyroidiens’ with the hypobranchials of fishes.

240 REPORT—1846.

In mammals the normal completion of the hyoidean arch, as it first ap-
pears in fishes, is again resumed, and that not by a slender cartilage, as in
the frog, but by a chain of bones, in which we again recognise the cerato-
(fig. 24, 40), epi- (39) and stylo- (3s) hyals suspending the basihyal (41) and
the tongue to the base of the skull, often to the petrosal, sometimes to the
tympanic, or to the mastoid, or to the exoccipital. The ungulates and the
true carnivora best display this type.

In man (fig. 25) the ceratohyals are reduced, as in birds, to mere tuber-
cles of bone (40), and the extent of the arch between them and the stylo-
hyals, which become anchylosed to the temporal bones, retains its primitive
ligamentous condition. Occasionally, however, ossification extends along
the stylohyoid ligament, and marks out, as in the specimen figured by
Geoffroy St. Hilaire (Philosophie Anatomique, pl. 4, fig. 87), the more nor-
mal proportions of the ceratohyal, and also the epihyal. Other examples of
this ‘ monstrosity’ are recorded in works on anthropotomy. The thyro-
hyal (4s)—the last remnant of the branchial arches—maintains more con-
stancy in its existence and proportions ; but manifests its true character of
free suspension below the skull, and an articulation by short ligaments to the
angles or horns of the thyroid cartilage.

The remarks already made on the special homologies of the parts of the
scapular arch and its appendages, preclude the necessity of further extending
the present part of this Report.

Part II].—GeneraL Homotoey.

On taking a retrospect of the results of the researches of anatomists into
the special homologies of the cranial bones, the student of the science, how
little soever practised in such inquiries, cannot but be struck with the amount
of concordance in those results. It must surely appear a most remarkable
circumstance to one acquainted only with the osteology of the human frame,
that so many bones should be, by the common consent of comparative ana-
tomists, determinable in the skull of every animal down to the lowest osseous
fish. This fact alone, so significant of the unity of plan pervading the ver-
tebrate structure, has afforded me, at least, a large ground of hope and
much encouragement to perseverance in the reconsideration of those points
on which a difference of opinion has prevailed ; and in the re-investigation of
what is truly constant and essential in characters determinative of special
homologies.

In this, as in every other inquiry into nature, the first labours are neces-
sarily more or less tentative and approximative: but if errors have to be
eliminated in the course of successive applications of fresh minds to the
task, truths become confirmed and established. And I regard the body of
such truths (see Table I.) to be now so great, in respect of the determination
of the homologous bones in the heads of all vertebrate animals, as to impe-
ratively press upon the thinking mind the consideration of the more general
condition upon which the existence of relations of special homology depends.

Upon this point the anatomical world is at present divided, lacking the
required demonstration. The majority of existing authors on comparative
anatomy have tacitly abandoned*, or with Cuvier and M. Agassiz, have

* Waaner, ‘ Lehrbuch der Zootomie,’ 8vo, 1843, 1844. Srezonp and Srannivs, ‘ Lehr-
buch der Vergleichende Anatomie,’ 8vo, 1845, 1846. Mrtne-Epwarps, ‘ Elemens de
Zoologie,’ 8vo; 1834. Prof. Rymer Jones, ‘ Outline of the Animal Kingdom and Manual
of Comparative Anatomy,’ 8vo. 1841. The sentiments which this pleasing and instructive
writer expresses, are probably akin to those which haye influenced the above-cited authors

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 241

directly opposed the idea of ‘ special homology’ being included in a higher
law of uniformity of type.

Yet the attempt to explain, by the Cuvierian principles, the facts of special
homology on the hypothesis of the subserviency of the parts so determined
to similar ends in different animals,—to say that the same or answerable bones
occur in them because they have to perform similar functions—involve many
difficulties, and are opposed by numerous phenomena. We may admit that
the multiplied points of ossification in the skull of the human feetus facilitate,
and were designed to facilitate, childbirth; yet something more than such a
final purpose lies beneath the fact, that most of those osseous centres repre-
sent permanently distinct bones in the cold-blooded vertebrates. The cra-
nium of the bird, which is composed in the adult of a single bone, is ossified
from the same number of points as in the human embryo, without the pos-
sibility of a similar purpose being subserved thereby, in the extrication of
the chick from the fractured egg-shell. The composite structure is repeated
in the minute and prematurely-born embryo of the marsupial quadrupeds.
Moreover, in the bird and marsupial, as in the human subject, the different
points of ossification have the same relative position and plan of arrange-
ment as in the skull of the young crocodile, in which, as in most other rep-
tiles and in most fishes, the bones so commencing maintain throughout life
their primitive distinctness. These and a hundred such facts force upon the
equal and knowing anatomist the inadequacy of the teleological hypothesis
to account for the acknowledged concordances expressed in this report by
the term ‘special homology.’ If, therefore, the attempt to explain them as
the results of a similarity of the functions to be performed by such homo-
logous parts entirely fails to satisfy the conditions of the problem; and if,
nevertheless, we are, with Cuvier, to reject the idea of their being manifes-
tations of some higher law of organic conformity on which it has pleased
the divine Architect to build up certain of his diversified living works,
there then remains only the alternative that special homologies are matters
of chance.

This conclusion, I apprehend, will be entertained by no reasonable mind;
and reverting, therefore, to the more probable hypothesis of the dependence
of the special resemblances upon a more general law of conformity, we
have next to inquire, what is the vertebrate archetype? The gifted and
deep-thinking anatomist, OKEN, obtained the first clew to this discovery by

?
4
Q
ts

on this subject. ‘It is not by any means our intention to engage our readers in discussing
all the conflicting and, sometimes, visionary opinions entertained by different authors re-
lative to the exact homology of the individual bones forming this part of the skeleton; and
we shall, therefore, content ourselves by placing before them, divested as far as possible of
: superfluous argumentation, Cuvier’s masterly analysis of the labours of the principal inquiries
__ concerning this intricate part of anatomy.”—p. 494. A later English author, who has em-
_ bodied a most valuable amount of careful and exact osteological observation in the article
z “ Zoology” of the ‘ Encyclopzdia Metropolitana’ (4to, 1845), seems scarcely to regard even
7 & the determination of special homologies as a necessary object of anatomical research. Thus,
in discussing the differences of opinion respecting the coracoid (fig. 5, 48). he says, “ Bakker’s
| view, however, if it be absolutely necessary to hunt up analogies, seems more correct.”—
, . 302.
a This reserve is, however, perhaps less obstructive to the philosophical progress of anatomy
___ and to the requisite resumption of original inquiry to that end, than the mere reproduction
ie of the transcendental views of others without criticism or attempt to explain or refute the
; objections to such views which have been promulgated by so great authorities as Cuvier and
Agassiz. Thus Bojanus’s 4-vertebral theory of the cranial part of the skull is adopted by
M. De Blainville (Ostéographie, 4to); whilst Dr. Grant (Outlines of Comparative Anatumy,
8yo, 1835, p. 63) deems the composition of the skull, in fishes, to correspond nearly with
Geoffroy’s theory of this part of the skeleton being composed of seven vertebrz, each con-
sisting of a body with four elements above and four elements below. Rent,

242 ; REPORT—1846.

‘the idea of the arrangement of the cranial bones of the skull into segments,
like the vertebree of the trunk. He informs us that walking one day in the
Hartz forest, he stumbled upon the blanched skull of a deer, picked up the
partially dislocated bones, and contemplating them for a while, the truth
flashed across his mind, and he exclaimed “ It is a vertebral column !*” Oken
afterwards tested and matured this happy inspiration by examining the skulls
of a cetacean, a chelonian, and a cod-fish in Dr. Albers’s museum at Bremen ;
and on his return to Jena in 1807, he published his beautiful generalization in
a now very scarce Introductory Lecture, or ‘ Programm beim Antritt der Pro-
fessur,” entitled ‘ On the signification of the bones of the skull’. He illus-
trates his views by reference to the skull of a ruminant. “Take,” he says,
“a young sheep’s skull, separate from it the bones of the orbit, also those
cranial bones which take no share in the formation of the ‘basis cranii,’ e.g.
the frontal, parietal, ethmoid and temporal, and there will remain an osseous
column which any anatomist, at first glance, would recognise as three bodies
of a kind of vertebra with transverse processes and foramina. Replace the
cranial bones with the exception of the temporals, for, without these, the
cavity is still closed, and you have a cranial vertebral column, which differs
from the true one (‘von der wahren’) only by its more expanded neural
canal (Ruckenmarkshohle). As the brain is a more voluminously developed
spinal chord, so is the brain-case a more voluminous spinal column. As
the cranium includes, then, three vertebral bodies, so must it have as many
vertebral arches. These are next to be sought out and determined. One
sees the sphenoid divided into two vertebre ; through the foremost pass the
optic nerves, through the hindmost the maxillary nerves ( par trigeminum).
I call one the ‘ eye-vertebra’ (Augwirbel), the other the ‘ jaw-vertebra’
(Kieferwirbel). Upon this latter abuts the basilar process of the occipital
bone and the petrous bones: both belong to one whole. As the optic nerve
perforates the ‘ eye-vertebra,’ and the trigeminus the ‘jaw-vertebra,’ so the
acoustic nerve takes possession of the hindmost vertebra. I call it, there-
fore, ‘ear-vertebra’ (Ohrwirbel): and I regard this as the first cranial ver-
tebra; the jaw-vertebra as the second, and the eye-vertebra.as the third.”—
ib. p. 6.

After entering upon the difficulties which beset him in determining whether
the petrosal belonged to the first (Ohrwirbel) or the second (Kieferwirbel),
and enunciating his views on the essential relations of each cranial vertebra
with a single special sense (excluding, however, smell and taste, as being
inferior in dignity to the others), Oken proceeds, in his characteristic bold
metaphorical language :—“ Bones are the earthy hardened nervous system :
Nerves are the spiritual soft osseous system—Continens et contentum.”

«« Between the sphenoid and occipital, between the sphenoid and petrosal,
between the parietal (the temporal being removed) and the occipital, there
runs a line which defines the anterior boundary of the first vertebra. In the
line between the two sphenoids, or that which in man extends anterior to

- * “Tm August 1806 machte ich eine Reise iiber den Hartz,’’—“ ich rutschte an der Siid-
seite durch den Wald herunter—und siehe da; es lag der schénste gebleichte Schadel einer
Hirschkuh vor meinen Fiissen. Aufgehoben, umgekehrt, angesehen, und es war geschehen.
Es ist eine Wirbelséule! fuhr es mir wie ein Blitz durch Mark und Bein—und seit dieser
Zeit ist der Schadel eine Wirbelsaule.”—TIsis, 1818, p. 511.

+ Uber die Bedeutung der Schadelknochen, 4to, 1807. I am indebted to my friend
Mr. Tulk, the able translator of ‘Wagner’s Comparative Anatomy,’ for the opportunity of
perusing this most suggestive and original essay, which does not exist in either the Library
of the British Museum, that of the College of Surgeons, or that of the Medico-Chirurgical
Society. Mr. Tulk is at present engaged in the arduous task of translating the “ Lehrbuch
der Natur-philosophie ” of Oken for the ‘ Ray Society.’ ;

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 243

the pterygoid processes laterally and upwards through the fissura orbitalis
superior, anterior to the great ala, and finally between the frontal and the
parietal bones, we trace another line, which divides the second from the
third vertebra ” (7b. p. 7).

* Now,” says Oken, “take the ear-vertebra from a foetus of any mammal
or of man, place near it an immature dorsal vertebra, or the third cervical
of a crocodile, and compare the pieces of which they consist, their form, their
contents, and the outlets for the nerves.

“ According to Albinus and all anthropotomists, each vertebra of the
foetus consists of three distinct parts—the body and the two neurapophyses
(bogentheile). You have the same in the occipital bone, but more clearly
and more distinctly: the ‘pars basilaris’ is separated as the body of the ver-
tebra from the ‘partes condyloidez,’ which form the lateral parts: these
are still more distinct from the ‘pars occipitalis’ which forms the spinous
process: even this part is often bifid, like the spinous processes in spina
bifida” +

ey Since then the foramen magnum is the hinder or lower opening of a
vertebral canal, the condyles true oblique vertebral processes, the foramen
lacerum an intervertebral foramen, and the crista occipitalis a spinous pro-
cess, proved to be such by both its position and the muscles inserted into it,—
since lastly the whole occipital bone in relation to its form as well as its
function—inclosing the cerebellum as a production of the spinal chord,—is
a true and in every sense characteristic vertebra, it is unnecessary to dwell
more diffusely on parts, the bare mention of which suffices to make their
nature recognizable.”—2b. p. 7.

This will serve as an example of the close observation of facts, the philo-
sophical appreciation of their relations and analogies, and, in a word, of the
spirit in which Oken determines the vertebral relations of the cranial bones
of the skull: and I refer to Taste II. for his conclusions as to the parts of
the second and third cranial vertebre.

Reverting to the petrosal, Oken thus beautifully and clearly enunciates
its essential nature and homology :—* You will say I have forgotten the
‘pars petrosa.’ No! It seems not to belong to a vertebra, as such; but to
be a ‘sense-organ’ (Sinnorgan), in which the vertebral- or ear-nerve loses
‘itself; and, therefore, is as distinct an organ from a vertebral element as is
any other viscus (Eingeweide), or as is the eyeball itself. The (cause of)
delusion (as to the homology of the petrosal) lies in this, viz. that it must be

_ossified agreeably with its nature (wesen),just as the eye must be crystallized.”

Although Oken does not in this essay formally admit a fourth vertebra
anterior to the ‘ eye-vertebra,’ he recognises the vertebral structure as being
earried out rudimentally or evanescently, by the vomer, as the prolongation
of the cranio-vertebral bodies, by the lacrymal bones, as their neurapo-
physes, and by the nasal bones, as the spinous process. His ideas of a
vertebra have evidently at this period not extended beyond the ordinary
anthropotomical one of centrum and neural arch with its transverse, oblique,
and spinous processes. When he indicates (beautifully and truly) the general
homology of the palatine bones, as pleurapophyses, under the name of an-
ehylosed or immoveable ribs of the head, it has reference to the transcen-
dental idea of the repetition in the head of all the parts of the body. Thus
the squamosal in mammals and the tympanic in birds represent the ‘scapula’
of the head, and at the same time, also, the ilium. The homologue of the
squamosal (fig. 21, 27) in the bird is the ‘humerus capitis’: the malar (26)
and the maxillary (21) are the ‘ oberarm’ (radius and ulna capitis) : the pre-
maxillary (22) is the ‘manus capitis.’ The segments of the hind limb are

244 REPORT—1846€,

represented by divisions of the compound lower jaw in the crocodile and
embryo bird (see Tasie, No. III.). The pterygoids (24), the essential di-
stinction of which from the sphenoid Oken clearly recognises, are his ‘ clavi-
culz capitis.’ Oken hints at, without accepting, the (serial) homology of
the hyoid arch with the pelvis; but he regards the stylohyal (ss) as. the
‘sacrum capitis’ (7b. p. 16).

The year after the publication of Oken’s famous ‘ Introductory Lecture,’
Prof. Duméril, apparently unacquainted with its existence, communicated
to the French Institute a memoir entitled ‘ Considérations générales sur
Yanalogie qui existe entre tous les os et les muscles du trone dans les ani-
maux, the second paragraph of which is headed “ De la téte considérée
comme une vertébre, de ses muscles et de ses mouvements.” In this para-
graph, repeating the homological correspondences, demonstrated by Oken,
between the basioccipital as a vertebral centrum, the condyles as ‘ oblique
processes,’ and the occipital protuberance as a spinous process, he adds, that
the mastoid processes are entirely conformable to transverse processes. And
M. Duméril has, I believe, here the merit of having first enunciated the
general homology of the mastoids, although he does not aim at showing to
which vertebral segment of the skull they properly belong. Nor, indeed,
-with the exception of an observation that ‘ very often the body of the sphe-
noid, like the ‘apophyse basilaire’ of the occiput, resembles the body of a
vertebra,” does he push the transcendental comparisons further. Geoffroy
St. Hilaire tells us*, that even the moderate and very obvious illustrations
of the general homologies of the cranial bones, which M. Duméril deduced
from the anatomy of the occiput, excited an unfavourable sensation in the
bosom of the ‘ Académie; and that the phrase ‘ vertébre pensante,’ which a
facetious member proposed as an equivalent for the word ‘ skull,’ and which
circulated, not without some risibility, along the benches of the learned
during the reading of the memoir, reaching the ears of the ingenious author,
the dread of ridicule checked his further progress in the path to the higher
generalizations of his science, and even induced him to modify considerably
many of the (doubtless happy) original expressions and statements in the
printed report, so as to adapt it more to the conventional anatomical ideas
of his colleagues.

As the truth of Oken’s generalization began to be appreciated, it was remem-
bered, as is usually the case, that something like it had occurred before to
others. Autenrieth and Jean-Pierre Frank had alluded, in a general way, to
the analogy between the skull and the vertebral column : Ulrich, reproducing,
formally, Oken’s more matured opinions on the cranial vertebre, says,
“ Kielmeyerum preeceptorem pie venerandum quamvis vertebram tanquam
caput integrum considerari posse in scholis anatomicis docentem audivi.’
And the essential idea was doubtless present to Kielmeyer’s mind, though
he reversed M. Duméril’s proposition, and, instead of calling the skull a ver-
tebra, he said each vertebra might be called a skull. But these anticipations
detract nothing from the merit of the first definite proposition of the theory.
It would rather be an argument against its truth, if some approximative idea
had not suggested itself to other observers of nature, who only lost the merit
of developing it, from not appreciating its full importance. He, however,
becomes the true discoverer who establishes the truth: and the sign of the
proof is the general acceptance. Whoever, therefore, resumes the investiga-
tion of a neglected or repudiated doctrine, elicits its true demonstrations,
and discovers and explains the nature of the errors that have led to its tacit

* Annales des Sciences Naturelles, t. iii. 1824, p. 177.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 245

or declared rejection, may calmly and confidently await the acknowledgments
of his rights in the discovery.

It has been unfortunate for Oken, that, with one exception—the gifted
Bojanus—his successors in the development of the vertebral theory of the
skull have hitherto exaggerated rather than retrenched the errors of their
guide. Spix* lends an almost servile aid to Oken in endowing the artist’s
symbol of the cherub with all that it seems most to want, a thorax, abdomen
and pelvis, arms, legs, hands and feet. He adopts Oken’s original number
and composition of the cranial vertebrae, and gives them new names, which
being dissociated from Oken’s peculiar idea of the essential subserviency of
the cranial segments to certain organs of sense, are likely to be retained.

: Bojanust+ seems first to have determined the true elements of the neural
arch of the nasal vertebra; and was as happy in perceiving the pleurapo-
_ physial relations of the tympanic pedicle, as Oken had been in reference to
__. the palatine bone. He was less accurate in his idea of the vertebra to which
it belonged. The analysis of Bojanus’ craniovertebral system given in Table
ILI. precludes the necessity of dwelling upon it in the brief historical sketch
here attempted.
3 The modifications of his original idea which Oken has introduced into his
___ edition of the ‘ Natur-philosophie’ of 1843, bring it into close accordance with
that of Bojanus, excepting that Oken conceives the cranial neurapophyses to
answer also to ribs :—“ An den Seiten eines jeden Korpers liegen Filiigel-
fortsitze, welche den Querfortsaétzen der Halswirbel oder den Rippen ent-
_ sprechen: ‘die Gelenkképfe des Hinterhauptsbeins’ (exoccipitals), ‘die
grossen’ (ali-) ‘und kleinen Fliigel’ (orbito-sphenoids’), ‘und die beiden
Seiten des Siebbeins ’ (prefrontals),” p. 304. With regard to the facial bones
of the skull, Oken still includes the explanation of their general homology in
his original idea, that “ the head is (a repetition of ) the whole trunk with all
its systems. .... The encephalon is the myelon (riickenmark); the cranium,
the vertebral column ; the mouth is intestine and abdomen ; the nose, lungs
and thorax; and the jaws, limbs (glieder).”— Op. cit. p. 300. An idea which
__ vitiated his original essay, and which has had the effect of obscuring a great
& truth in nature in the smoke of a sacrifice to a false system.
F This seems the place to notice a virtual testimony to the general accuracy
of the Okenian cranial system, published in 1816 by the present eminent
3 -osteologist who holds the chair of Comparative Anatomy in the ‘ Jardin des
Plantes.’ In a note to his ‘ Prodrome d’une Nouvelle Distribution Systéma-
5 tique du Régne Animal,’ published in the ‘ Bulletin des Sciences par la So-
eiété Philomathique,’ 1816, p. 105, M. de Blainville says, “ J’essayerai de
montrer (1!) que la téte dans les animaux vertébrés est composée, 1° d’une suite
d articulations ou de vertébres soudées, chacune développée proportionnelle-
‘ment au systéme nerveux particulier qu’elle renferme, comme dans le reste
_ de la colonne vertébrale ; 2°, d’autant d’appendices paires qu'il y a de ces
fausses vertébres, et pouvant avoir des usages différens” (p. 108). M. de
Blainville does not (like Bojanus) expressly mention the general homology
of any of these appendages to the ribs, or parial appendages of the true ver-
tebree ; but he leaves it to be so understood by his subsequent enumeration
and classification of the ‘ appendices paires ou symmétriques,’ which he de-
scribes as being always in relation with a vertebra or median piece. He
says, e.g. “Ils peuvent étre divisés en simples ou en composés, ou peut-étre
daprés leurs usages. Les appendices simples sont les cétes. Les appendices
' eomposés sont les membres, les machoires, les appareils des organes des

* Cephalogenesis, fol. 1815.
T Isis, 1818, and ‘ Parergon’ in the ‘ Anatome Testudinis Europe,’ fol. 1821.

246 REPORT—1846.

sens, le styloide, les branches de l’hyoide, qui sont ordinairement formés d’un
plus ou moins grand nombre de piéces placées bout 4 bout. Quelquefois
ces appendices sont libres 4 leur extrémité, d’autres fois ils se réunissent
dans la ligne médiane inférieure en entr’elles, ou au moyen d’une piéce mé-
diane, qu’on peut comparée, jusqu’d un certain point, au corps des ver-
tébres; d’ou il résulte ce quon nomme ‘sternum’ dans les mammiféres,
appareil branchial des poissons, hyoide, sternum des oiseaux,” ete. (7b. 1817,
p- 110). Reserving the consideration of some of these propositions for a
subsequent part of the present Report, I shall only notice, en passant, the
complete concordance between these views of the general homology of the
locomotive members with those which Oken expresses with his usual apho-
ristic brevity :—“Freye Bewegungsorgane konnen nichts anderes als frey
gewordene Rippen seyn.”

Cuvier includes amongst the general characters of the class Mammalia the
arrangement of their cranial bones into three annular segments, corresponding
essentially with those of which Oken had demonstrated the vertebral relations.
‘“ Leur crane se subdivise comme en trois ceintures formées; l’antérieure,
par les deux frontaux et l’ethmoide ; l'intermédiaire, par les pariétaux et le
sphénoide ; la postérieure, par l’occipital: entre l’occipital les pariétaux et
le sphénoide, sont intercalés les temporaux, dont une partie appartient propre-
ment a la face*.”

What M. de Blainville (1816) pledges his efforts to demonstrate, Oken
(Isis, 1817) was exulting in the reception of, ‘not only in Germany but all
Europe. “ Seit Erscheinung dieser Schrift und nun 10 Jahre verflossen.—
Man spricht nun von Kopfwirbeln, Kopfarmen und Fissen, von Bedeutung
der einzelnen Skeletknochen wie von einer uralten Sache; die schon in der
Bibel und den Propheten gestanden,” p. 1204. The chief differences, as
compared with Oken’s definition, are, that Cuvier, finding the frontal arch
to rest upon both ethmoid and presphenoid, assigns to the former bone the
completion of the anterior cranial cincture below; and completes, in like
manner, the parietal cincture by the sphenoid in its anthropotomical sense,
making no distinction between the anterior and the posterior divisions of the
bone. Cuvier does not apply this principle of arrangement of the cranial
bones to the skull of the lower classes of vertebrata (in which, nevertheless,
it is more clearly manifested than in mammals): in generalising on the con-
stitution of the vertebrate skull, he classifies the bones, after the anthropoto-
mists, into ‘those of the cranium which encompass the brain, and those of
the face, which consist of the two jaws and the receptacles of the organs of
sense. + With regard to the skull of fishes, in which Bojanus had found so
clear an illustration and confirmation of the Okenian views, Cuvier merely
says, it is almost always divisible into the same number of bones as that
of other ovipara. The frontal is composed of six pieces; the parietal of
three ; the occipital of five ; five of the pieces of the sphenoid and two of each
of the temporals remain in the composition of the cranium {.

In his great works the ‘ Histoire des Poissons’ and the ‘ Lecons d’Ana-
tomie Comparée,’ posthumous edition, he expresses more decidedly his ob-
jections to the views of the segmental or vertebral structure of the skull.

Gothe, in a small fasciculus of ‘ Essays of Comparative Anatomy,’ which
he published in the year 1820, entitles the 8th, “ Can the bones of the skull

* Régne Animal, 8vo, 1817, t. i. p. 62.

+ “La téte est formée du crane, qui renferme le cerveau, et de la face, qui se compose
des deux machoires et des receptacles des organes des sens.”—Reégne Animal, i. ed. 1817,
p. 62; ed. 1829, p. 52.

t 1c. ii. (1817), p. 107; (1829), p. 125.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 247

be deduced from those of the vertebral column, and thence receive an ex-
planation of their forms and functions?” He states that the idea of the
three facial vertebre occurred to him in the year 1790, prior to which time
he says “die drei hintersten erkennt ich bald.” The idea is developed in his
essay as follows :—‘ The skull of mammalia is composed ef six vertebra;
three for the hinder division inclosing the cerebral treasure ; three composing
the fore part which opens in presence of the exterior world, which it seizes
and introduces.

“ The first three vertebrae are admitted (he alludes to Oken and Spix) :
they are,—

“ The occipital.

“ The posterior sphenoid.

“ The anterior sphenoid.

“ The three others are not vet admitted; they are,—

“ The palatine bone.

“The upper maxillary.

« The intermaxillary.

_ Tf some of the eminent men who ardently cultivate this subject should
feel interested by this simple enunciation of the problem, and would illus-
trate it by some figures indicating by signs and ciphers the mutual relations
and secret affinities of the bones, its publication would strongly draw the
thinking mind in that direction, and we may, perhaps, one day, ourselves
give some notes on the mode of considering and treating these questions.”
Professor Carus of Dresden has best responded to this appeal of his ims
mortal countryman: but it must be admitted that the detailed and complex
exposition of the theory of the six vertebra and intervertebre, of which the
general results are given in Table IIL. have yielded to anatomical science a
result which is hardly equivalent to the zeal and pains manifested in the at-
tempt, or to the artistic merit of the illustrations, published by the accom-
plished author of the ‘Urtheilen des Knochen und Schalengeriistes’ (fol.
1828).

Coe St. Hilaire deems the skeleton of the head to be composed of
seven vertebre ; and he has the merit of having more steadily sought the
homologies of the inferior arches of the cranial vertebre than his predeces-
sors, who seem not to have sufficiently appreciated the essential character of
these portions of the primary segments of the vertebrate endo-skeleton.
Nevertheless it must be admitted that Cuvier has made good the grounds of
his rejection of Geoffroy’s theory, as one based less on observation than on
purely @ priori views, according to which the bones of the skull, real or
imaginary, are arranged into seven vertebrze, composed of nine pieces each *,
The cranio-vertebral system of Geoffroy is liable to the further objection,

a that he has combined, as in the ease of his typical vertebra from the tail of

the flounder, parts of the exo-skeleton (e.g. the suborbitals) with parts of
the endo-skeleton to which alone the vertebral theory is applicable.

In the fasciculi of the magnificent ‘ Ostéographie’ with which Professor de
Blainville has enriched his science, the descriptions follow the plan of the
classification of the bones of the skeleton propounded in the above-cited Me-
moirs in the ‘ Bulletin des Sciences’ for 1816 and 1817. In the Prospectus of
the ‘ Ostéographie’, M. de Blainville briefly refers to the great questions of
comparative anatomy, which the German organologists have comprehended
under the name of ‘ Signification of the Skeleton, in allusion only to the
‘gross errors and opinions almost extravagant, of some of the persons who
have occupied themselves with these questions:” whilst he reprobates, on the

* Cuvier, Histoire des Poissons, 4to, t. i. p. 230.

248 REPORT—1846.

other hand, in equally general terms, “ those who have been unable to elevate
themselves to these kind of questions, partly on account of the nature of their
minds, partly from the want of proper and sufficient subjects of contempla-
tion*.”

Neither the first step, the most difficult of all, nor any of the succeeding
steps in the acquisition of such views of the ‘ Signification of the Skeleton’
as M. de Blainville adopts are noticed : no objection to the vertebral system
of the skull is answered: no error that may have opposed itself to a reception
of the doctrine is explained or refuted: of the particular labours and dis-
coveries of individual homologists the author of the ‘ Ostéographie’ is silent.
He defines a vertebra, in the language of anthropotomy, as a single bone :—
« Une vertébre, considérée d’une maniére générale, et par conséquent dans ~
son état complet, est un os court, médian, symmétrique, formant un corps,
partie principale de la yertébre, aux deux faces opposées de laquelle, externe
ou dorsale, interne ou ventrale, s’'applique un are plus ou moins développé,
d’ou résultent deux canaux, l'un au dos, l’autre au ventre.” (7b. fase. i. p. 6.)
We discern the influence of the ideas of his ingenious contemporary, Geoffroy
St. Hilaire, in the admission of the ventral or inferior, as well as the dorsal or
superior arch; and, like Geoffroy, he recognises the physiological relation
of the upper arch to the protection of the nervous system, and that of the
lower arch to the protection of the vascular system : but, overlooking or re-
jecting the idea of the relation of the ribs as the inferior protecting arches of
the expanded central organ of the vascular system, he considers the ventral
(hzemal) arches as arriving at their maximum of development in the tail. The
dorsal and thoracic vertebrz are, accordingly, characterized as those which are
provided with costiform appendages diversely articulated to them; over-
looking, I may remark, the costal appendages of the cervical vertebre in the
saurians and those which become anchylosed to the cervical vertebrae in
birds, as do, frequently, their serial homologues to the dorsal vertebre in the
same class. M. de Blainville seems, also, wholly ignorant of the fact that the
bent-forward ends of the long transverse processes of the lumbar vertebree of
the hares, cavies, and many other rodents, are primarily developed as distinct
costal rudiments : the same rudiments of lumbar ribs are found in the feetus
of the hog, and in the first lumbar vertebra of many mammalst. “ Les lom-
baires,” says M. de Blainville, “n’ont plus de cétes, méme incomplétes.”

The ribs not being regarded as essentially parts of the inferior or hemal
arches of vertebra, the sternal bones which complete these greatly expanded
arches are accordingly regarded as a distinct series of bones, and called
« sternebers.’ M. de Blainville, as we have seen, had before ( 1817) compared
them to vertebral bodies. In the ‘ Ostéographie,’ however, he rightly regards
the body of the hyoid as their serial homologue, but does not extend his com-
parison to the bones that in like manner complete the mandibular and max-
illary arches. These, with the cornua of the hyoid, and the sternal and verte-
bral ribs, he classes with the bones of the extremities, under the name of
appendages (appendices), adopting, in his larger work, as in his original essay,
essentially the idea of Oken, that the locomotive members are liberated ribs.

After much additional research and comparison since the first publication
of my ideas of the constitution of the typical vertebra or primary segment
of the endo-skeleton}, I have found no reason for modifying them, but have -
derived additional evidence of their accuracy ; and I therefore reproduce the
diagrammatic figure with which they were originally illustrated (fig. 14).

* Ostéographie, Prospectus, April, 1839, p. 9.
+ Thirle, in Miiller’s Archiv fur Physiologie, 1839, p. 106.
+ Geological Transactions, 4to, 1838, p. 518.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 249

Although my investigations of the fundamental type of the vertebrate
skeleton were first made upon the class of fishes, where vegetative uniformity
or irrelative repetition most prevails, and where, therefore, the type is least
obscured by the modification of one part in mutual subserviency with an-
other, I soon found that I should be led astray by confining my observations
to fishes, and by borrowing my illustrations from that class. Comparison
of the piscine skeleton with those of the higher animals demonstrates that
the natural arrangement of the parts of the endoskeleton is in a series of
segments succeeding each other in the axis of the body. These segments are
not, indeed, composed of the same number of bones in any class or throughout
any individual animal. But certain parts of each segment do maintain such
constancy in their existence, relation, position, and offices, as to enforce the
conviction that they are homologous parts, both in the constituent series of the
same individual skeleton, and throughout the series of vertebrate animals.
For each of these primary segments of the skeleton J retain the term ‘ verte-
bra’; but with as little reference to its primary signification, as a part
specially adapted for rotatory motion, as when the comparative anatomist
speaks of a sacral vertebra. The word may, however, seem to the anthro-
potomist to be used in a different or more extended sense than that in which
it is usually understood ; yet he is himself, unconsciously perhaps, in the
habit of including in certain vertebra of the human body, elements which he
excludes from the idea in other natural segments of the same kind, influenced
by differences of proportion and coalescence, which are the most variable.
characters of a bone. Thus the rib of a cervical vertebra is the ‘ processus
transversus perforatus,’ or the ‘radix anticus processus transversi vertebrae
colli’*: whilst in the chest, it is ‘ costa,’ or ‘ pars ossea costz.’ But the ulna
is still an ulna in the horse, although it be small and anchylosed to the radius.
The osteology of man, therefore, cannot be fully or rightly understood
until the type of which it is a modification is known, and the first step to
this knowledge is the determination of the’ vertebral segments, or natural
groups of bones, of which the myelencephalous skeleton consists.
I define a vertebra, as one of those segments of the endo-skeleton which con-
stitute the axis of the body, and the protecting canals of the nervous and
vascular trunks: such a segment may also support diverging appendages.
Exclusive of these, it consists, in its typical completeness, of the following
elements and parts :—

Te Kile ee ie cca ROSMAN esis Spine is

Fig. 14.

| Bm neural spine.
zygapophysis. ~~. i
lll.

neurapophysis.

© >....pleurapophysis.

parapophysis. pe @
h rr
~~~ heemapophysis.
fps A

zygapophysis. |
je hemal spine.
Ideal typical vertebra.

* Soemmerring, De Corporis Humani Fabrica, 1794, i. p. 239.
1846. 8

250 " REPORT—1846.

The names printed in roman type signify those parts which, being usually
developed from distinct and independent centres, I have termed ‘ autoge-
nous’ elements. The italics denote the parts, more properly called pro-
cesses, which shoot out as continuations from some of the preceding elements,
and are termed ‘exogenous’: e.g. the diapophyses or upper ‘transverse
processes,’ and the zygapophyses, or the ‘ oblique’ or ‘articular processes’ of
human anatomy.

The autogenous processes generally circumscribe holes about the centrum,
which, in the chain of vertebrae, form canals. The most constant and exten-
sive canal is that (fig. 14, 2) formed above the centrum, for the lodgment of
the trunk of the nervous system (neural axis) by the parts thence termed
‘neurapophyses. The second canal (fig. 14, 2), below the centrum, is in
its entire extent more irregular and interrupted ; it lodges the central organ
and large trunks of the vascular system (hemal axis), and is usually formed
by the laminz, thence termed ‘hzmapophyses.’ At the sides of the cen-
trum, most commonly in the cervical region, a canal is circumscribed by the
pleurapophysis or costal process, by the parapophysis, or lower transverse
process, and by the diapophysis, or upper transverse process, which canal
includes a vessel, and often also a nerve.

Thus a typical or perfect vertebra, with all its elements, presents four
canals or perforations about a common centre; such a vertebra we find in
the thorax of man and most of the higher classes of vertebrates, also in
the neck of many birds. In the tails of most reptiles and mammals, the
hemapophyses (as in fig. 14) are articulated or anchylosed to the under
part of the centrum; space being needed there only for the caudal
artery and vein. But where the central organ of circulation is to be
lodged, an expansion of the hzmal arch takes place, analogous to that which
the neural arches of the cranial verte- Fig. 15
bre present for the lodgment of the
brain. Accordingly in the thorax, the
pleurapophyses (fig. 15, pl) are much
elongated, and the heemapophyses (fig.
15, h) are removed from the centrum,
and are articulated to the distal ends
of the pleurapophyses ; the bony hoop
being completed by the intercalation
of the hemal spine (fig. 15, As) be-
tween the ends of the hemapophyses.
And this spine is here sometimes as
widely expanded (in the thorax of birds
and chelonians, for example) as is the
neural spine (parietal bone or bones)
of the middle cranial vertebra in mam-
mals. In both cases, also, it may be
developed from two lateral halves, and
a bony intermuscular crest may be ex-
tended from the mid-line, as in the
skull of the hyzna, and the breast-bone
of the bird (fig. 15, hs). To facilitate
the comparison of the merits of the
preceding view and nomenclature of
the typical vertebra with those of other
comparative anatomists, I have thrown
the results into the form given in
Table II.

Natural typical vertebra: thorax of a bird.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 251

To the question why I should have invented new names when Geoffroy St.
‘Hilaire had already proposed others for the vertebral elements, I can only re-
peat the regret with which I found myself compelled to that invidious step,
after having arrived at the conviction, that the learned Parisian Professor had
sometimes applied the same term to two distinct elements, and sometimes
two distinct names to one and the same element: and I am glad to be able to
cite the authority of Cuvier for the propriety and advantage of such a step.
His words are in reference to an analogous case, ‘‘ Donner a un mot connu un
sens nouveau est toujours un procédé dangereux, et, si l’on avoit besoin
d’exprimer une idée nouvelle, il vaudroit encore mieux inventer un nouveau
terme, que d’en détourner ainsi un ancien *.” Now there is scarcely one term
in the first column in Table II. which is synonymous with its opposite in the
second column, or which expresses exactly the same idea; and the discrepancy
becomes greater in regard to the terms applied to the vertebral elements of the
head, in columns 1 and 5 of TableIII. The respective concordance of the views
of the vertebral archetype entertained by Geoffroy and myself with Nature will
be determined and judged of by succeeding impartial and original observers.

With regard to the term cycléal, ‘de xvxdos, cercle, pour rappeler sa
forme annulaire, permanentes chez les premiers,” (Articulata, Dermoverte-
brés, Geoff.) “et, au contraire, non persévérante chez les derniers” (Verte-
brata, Hauts-vertébrés, Geoff.), it is understood by its author to apply to the
annular segment of the crust of the insect, as well as to the ‘centrum’ of the
endoskeletal vertebra. Geoffroy’s primary division of the parts of a vertebra
is into the centre or nucleus (noyau) and the lateral branches. The upper
‘ branches laterales’ or ‘ périaux’ are equivalent to my neurapophyses and
also to my neural spine, in fishes : the lower lateral branches or ‘ paraaux’ are
sometimes free and floating+, when they answer to my ‘pleurapophyses’;
but they are sometimes so united as to form a canal, when they answer
to my ‘ parapophyses’ in the tail of fishes t, and to my ‘hamapophyses’ in
the tail of cetaceans. Geoffroy supposed, for example, that the hemal canal
in the tail in all fishes was formed by the ribs, bent down and anchylosed
at both ends§, and that the hemal canal in the tail of the crocodile and
whale was constituted by a like metamorphosis of the same vertebral elements.
He, also, argued that, as the small spinal chord of fishes did not demand
so great a development in breadth of the neurapophyses, they were permitted
to attain to unusual length; and that, coalescing together, they thus consti-
tuted not only the neural arch but the neural spine, to which latter, therefore,
he extended the name ‘ périal’; whilst to the corresponding: part in mammals
he gives the name of ‘épial’. But, again, in fishes, he calls the dermal
spines developed in the embryonic median fold of integument which is meta-
morphosed into the dorsal fins, ‘épiaux’ ; and the corresponding dermal spines
of the ventral fin ‘ cataaux.’ The lepidosiren, however, manifests the neural
spine distinct from both the neurapophyses below and the dermo-neural spine
above: and such neural spine is unequivocally homologous with the anchy-
losed neural spine in osseous fishes ||. It is quite in harmony with the position
of the class of fishes at the bottom of the vertebrate scale that they should
present a greater degree of calcification of the parts belonging to the same
category of the skeletal system as the shells and crusts of the invertebrates :
hence it is that whilst the median dermal fins of the marine mammalia have

* Mémoires du Muséum, t. xx. p. 123.
+ As they are illustrated in the abdominal vertebra of the fish figured by Geoffroy in the
‘Mémoires du Muséun,’ t. ix. (1822), pl. 5, fig. 4, o. t Jb. fig. 2,0 0.
§ This occurs as an exceptional condition, in the lepidosteus, and perhaps in lepidosiren.
|| Linn. Trans, vol. xviii. p. 23, fig. 4, ¢, d.
s2

252 REPORT—1846.

their supporting skeleton in the primitive histological Fig 16,
fibrous state, the corresponding parts are ossified in fishes:
rarely, however, are such parts in answerable number to fg
the vertebre; and the true spines of these vertebrae, a z
when the median fins and their bony spines are removed, Sf) 8
in fishes, show as little indication of the place or existence & E
of such fins, as do the vertebre in the porpoise of the a
existence of its dermal fin. In proportion as ossification

has extended into the dermal system of fishes it has been

arrested in the vertebre, which in the trunk and tail of

fishes present their least complex condition. Two of the * 4
autogenous elements, the ‘ hzmapophyses,’ are absent, and g 5
are commonly represented, in the tail, by the modified % 5
‘ parapophyses.’ ‘The seeming complexity of a fish’s ver- a =

tebra arises from the intercalation of bones appertaining
to the system of the dermo-skeleton : it would have been an
unusual exception to the general course of development if
the lowest of the vertebrate classes should have presented
the vertebral skeleton in its highest state of complication ;
and Geoffroy St. Hilaire was unfortunate in taking a fish’s
vertebra with its extrinsic evertebrate complications, as the Po
perfect type of that primary segment of the myelencepha- y:
lous skeleton (fig.16). He was still more unlucky in having
for the subject of his figure* a specimen from which two
of the pieces, had been accidentally lost, as Cuvier after-

Métapérial.
Neural spine
‘. Neurapophysis.

- Cyclopérial.

Cycléal.
Centrum.

wards pointed out ; yet Geoffroy’s mutilated caudal ver- . 2, |) s de
tebra of the plaice continues to be copied in some 2 eae
compilations of comparative anatomy, as the type ofa = & a 8
vertebra! To obtain the dermal spines (pro-epial and pro- oS 5 é
cataal) of the vertically extended caudal vertebre of fishes, a
Geoffroy had recourse to a hypothetical division length-

wise of the interneural and interhemal spines (which are -
represented as being single in his figure), and to as gra- q | 3
tuitous a displacement of one of the halves froin the side 8 \ 2
to the summit of the other t. Now the interneural and & 2
interhamal spines are actually double in relation to the om
neural and hzmal spines ; yet they coexist with a dermo-

neural and dermohzmal ray, which therefore needs no

imaginary change of place of either of its supporting :
spines to account for its existence. I subjoin in fig. g 3
16 an entire vertebra answering to the mutilated one g 8
figured by Geoffroy ; and for the better understanding of g e
the difference between his determinations of the vertebral 8

elements and those given in the present Report, the names

respectively indicating those different determinations are

added to the figure. In the description of the plate in Endo: and exo-ske-
the ‘ Mémoires du Muséum,’ Geoffroy explains that the caudal, vertelsa of)

‘ pro-épial’ is the left half or ‘épial gauche,’ and the en-épial 9, 7aice (Pleuro-
the right half or‘ épial droit’ : that the en-cataal is the right

half or ‘ cataal droit,’ and the pro-cataal the left half or ‘ cataal gauche,’ of his
imaginarily divided epivertebral and catavertebral elements (i. ep. 115)

* Mémoires du Muséum, t. ix. (1822), pl. 5, fig. 1.
+“ Lune de ces pieces monte sur l’autre”—‘ l'une se maintient en dedans, quand
l’autre s’élance en dehors,” id. p. 97.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 253

The trunk of fishes, in respect of its viscera and the degree of development
of the endoskeleton, answers to the lumbar and caudal regions of air-breath-
ing vertebrates, where the vertebra usually lose some of their elements, at
least as bones. The heart and respiratory organs are placed in the head of
the fish; and it is only in this region that the vertebral segments attain to
typical completeness in that class. Geoffroy, in studying the special and
general homologies of the bones of the head of fishes, blends indiscrimi-
nately, as in the supposed typical vertebra from the tail, elements of the
dermoskeleton (suborbitals and lacrymals, e. g.) with those of the endo-
skeleton ; and also presses the capsules of the special organs of sense into the
composition of the seven cranial vertebre of his system. It needs only to
compare the synonyms of the elements of these vertebre in Table III. to
perceive how impossible it would have been to have expressed the ideas
which I wish to expound and illustrate in this Report by the use of the names
for the vertebral elements proposed by Geoffroy, or of English equivalents.
The prefrontals, e. g. (no. 14), which I regard as the neurapophyses of the
nasal vertebra, are, according to Geoffroy, epials of the 2nd or labial vertebra
in the class of fishes; but are epials of the Ist or nasal vertebra in the cro-
codile, according to the tables given in the ‘ Annales des Sciences,’ t. iii. pl. 9,
and ‘ Atlas,’ p. 44; whilst they are the perials of the 2nd vertebra in the
scheme of 1825, cited in the fifth column of Table III.

I have deemed it requisite to enter the more fully into the grounds for
abandoning the analysis and nomenclature of the typical vertebra proposed
by Geoffroy, because they have received the sanction in this country of the
learned Professor of Comparative Anatomy at University College. Dr. Grant*
converts the French names into English equivalent phrases ; ‘cyclo-vertebral
element’ for cycléal, ‘perivertebral element’ for périal, &c.; and abandons
the advantage of a definite name, without remedying the disadvantages of
the double employment of the same names for two distinct elements, and of
the application of different phrases for the same element. If, for example,
the neural spine of the reptile or mammal be, in nature, the homologue of
the neural spine of the fish, then the latter is called an ‘ epivertebral element,’
whilst the former is called a ‘perivertebral element.’ If the dermo-neural
spines of the dorsal fin of a fish be, in nature, homologous with the fibro-
ligamentous tissue supporting the dorsal fia of the dolphin, then the term
‘ epivertebral element’ is applied to a spine of the exoskeleton in the fish, and
to a spine of the endoskeleton in the mammal, which spine co-exists with such
dermal spine in the fish (see fig. 16). If the parapophysis or inferior transverse
process in the fish be a distinct element from the diapophysis or superior
transverse process in the mammal, the same phrase, ‘ paravertebral element,’
is applied to each. Dr. Grant, moreover, gives the same name, ‘catavertebral
elements,’ to the free vertebral ribs in fig. 28, B. g. p. 58, op. cat., as he applies
to the hemapophyses in the tail of the reptile or cetacean, in fig. 28, C. g.
loc. cit.; whilst Geoffroy applies the name ‘cataaux’ to the sternal ribs,
and not to the vertebral ribs: and it is precisely with the sternal ribs that
the chevron bones in the tails of reptiles and cetaceans are homologous, and
both are, therefore, the ‘ hemapophyses’ in my system. The transference
of the term ‘ catavertebral elements’ (for cataaux), from the ‘ cdtes sternales’
to the pair of ribs extended from the ends of the parapophyses of the abdomen
of fishes, is a deviation from the original vertebral system of Geoffroy, which
seems to lead further away from nature. If it is meant that the outstretched
parapophyses in the diagram of the abdominal vertebra of a fish (fig. 28, B. f. f.
loe, cit.), and which are there called ‘ paravertebral elements,’ are the homo-

* Outlines of Comparative Anatomy, 1835, pp. 57-59.

954 REPORT—1846,

logues of the ‘ cdtes vertébrales’ of higher vertebrates, to which Geoffroy
assigned the name ‘ paraaux,’ this appears to be another misapprehension of
the relations in question.

Development of vertebre.—Before applying the idea of the archetypal
vertebra, or primary segment of the endo-skeleton, given in figs. 14 and 15,
to the elucidation of the modifications of those segments in the different ver-
tebrate classes, I shall premise a few observations on the mode of develop-
ment of the vertebrze in those classes.

The chief condition of the development of distinct vertebra in the trunk
is the conjunction of nerves with, or their progress from the spinal chord :
at least, this circumstance, with the concomitant exit of blood-vessels from
the neural canal, seems to determine the development of the neurapophyses :
and the vertebral bodies are not slow in coinciding in number with those im-
portant arches; and in determining with the regular primary pairs of (inter-
costal, lumbar, &c.) arteries, the inferior or hemal arches. We may learn how
much the development of the neurapophyses and vertebral bodies depends,
in the trunk, upon the conjunction of nerves with the spinal chord, by the
fact that, in the regenerated tails of lizards, the vertebral axis remains con-
tinuous and unjointed, because there is no co-extensive spinal chord giving
off pairs of nerves.

An extremely delicate fibrous band, with successively accumulated gelati-
nous cells, compacted in the form of a cylindrical column, and inclosed by a
membranous sheath, is the primitive basis, called ‘notochord’* (chorda dorsa-
lis seu gelatinosa, Lat., gallertsdule und ruckensaite, Germ.), in and around
which are developed the cartilaginous or osseous elements by which the
vertebral column is established in every class of Myelencephala.

The earlier stages of vertebral development are permanently represented,
with individual peculiarities superinduced, in the lower forms of the class of
fishest. In the Dermopteri or cyclostomous fishes, the neural and hemal
canals are formed by a separation of the layers of the outer part of the apo-
neurotic sheath of the gelatinous chorda: in the lancelet (Amphioxus) there
is no distinction of structure in the cranial part supporting the anterior end
of the neural axis, with which the trigeminal, optic and olfactory nerves com-
municate, and the rest of the rudimental vertebral column: a labial carti-
laginous arch supporting the tentacula is, at least, the only lineament of
development which sketches out the skull. In the myxinoids the skull in-
cludes a complex system of cartilages, but the vertebral column of the trunk
has not advanced beyond the gelatino-aponeurotic stage. In the lamprey
cartilaginous laminz are developed in the outer layer of the fibrous sheath,
and give the first indication of neural arches{. In the sturgeons (Sturio,
Polyodon) the inner layer of the fibrous capsule of the gelatinous notochord
has increased in thickness, and assumed the texture of tough hyaline carti-
lage. In the outer layer are developed distinct, firm, and opake carti-
lages, the neurapophyses, which consist of two superimposed pieces on each
side, the basal portion bounding the neural canal, the apical portion the
parallel canal filled by fibrous elastic ligament and adipose tissue; above this
is the single cartilaginous neural spine. The parapophyses are now di-
stinetly developed, and joined tugether by a continuous expanded base, form-
ing an inverted arch beneath the notochord for the vascular trunks, even in
the abdomen. Pleurapophyses are articulated by ligament to the ends of the

* Noros back, yopdn, string. We have hitherto had no English equivalent for this em-
bryonic keel or basis of every vertebrate animal: ‘dorsal chord’ or ‘chorda’ is liable to
be misunderstood for the ‘ spinal chord.’

+ Hunterian Lectures on Vertebrata, 1846, pp. 45, 46.

t Cuvier, Mémoires du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle, t. i. 1815, p. 130.

Pa
2

~

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 255

Jaterally projecting parapophyses in the first twelve or twenty abdominal ver-
tebre : in the anterior ones these ‘vertebral ribs’ are composed of two or
three distinct cartilages* : the posterior pleurapophyses are short and simple.
The parapophyses gradually bend down to form hzmal arches in the tail, at
the end of which we find hemal cartilaginous spines corresponding to the
neural spines above. The tapering anterior end of the notochord is con-
tinued forwards into the basal elements of the cranial vertebre. Vegetative
repetition of perivertebral parts not only manifests itself in the composite
neurapophyses and pleurapophyses, but in a small accessory (interneural ) car-
tilage, at the fore and back part of the base of the neurapophysis; and by a
similar (interheemal) one at the fore and back part of most of the parapo-
physes t.

Amongst the sharks (Squalide) a beautiful progression in the further
development of a vertebra has been traced out, chiefly by J. Millert. In
Heptanchus (Squalus cinereus) the vertebral centres are feebly and vege-
tatively marked out by numerous slender rings of hard cartilage in the noto-
chordal capsule, the number of vertebrz being more definitively indicated by
the neurapophyses and parapophyses; but these remain cartilaginous. In
the piked dog-fish (Acanthias) and the spotted dog-fish ( Scylliwm) the ver-
tebral centres coincide in number with the neural arches, and are defined by
a thin layer of bone, which forms the conical articular cavity at each end:
the whole exterior of the centrum is covered by soft cartilage, except at the
concave ends; the two thin funnel-shaped plates of osseous matter coalesce
at their perforated apices, and form a basis of the vertebral body like an
hour-glass ; the series of these centrums protecting a continuous moniliform
remnant of the gelatinous notochord. In the great basking-shark (Se/ache)
the vertebral bodies are chiefly established by the terminal bony cones, the
thick margins of which give attachment to the elastic capsules containing
the gelatinous fluid, which now tensely fills the intervertebral biconical spaces.
Four sub-compressed conical cavities extend, two from the bases of the
neurapophyses, and two from those of the parapophyses, towards the centre
of the vertebral body, contracting as they penetrate it. These cavities always
remain filled by a clear cartilage: the central two-thirds of the rest of the
vertebral body contain concentric, progressively decreasing, and minutely
perforated rings or cylinders of bone, interrupted by the four depressions:
the peripheral third of the vertebral body contains longitudinal bony lamin,
which radiate, perpendicularly to the plane of the outermost cylinder, to the
circumference ; these outer laminz lie, therefore, parallel with the axis of the
vertebra, and the intervening fissures, like those between the concentric cylin-
ders within, are filled by clear cartilage, which shrinks, and leaves them open
in the dry vertebra §.

In Cestracion, the intermediate part of the centrum between the terminal
cones is strengthened by longitudinal radiating plates only ; in Squatina by
concentric cylinders only. In the tope (Galeus) all the space between the
terminal bony cones is ossified, except the four conical cavities, the bases
of which are closed by the neur- and par-apophyses; so that the whole
exterior of the centrum appears formed by smooth compact bone.

In the osseous fishes | find that the centrum is usually ossified from six
points, four of which commence, as Rathke|| describes, in the bases of the

.. * Brandt & Ratzeburg, Medizinische Zoologie, 4to, 1833, t. ii. pl. iv. fig. 1.
+ Hunterian Lectures on Vertebrata, 1846, p. 53, fig. 12.
t See Agassiz, Recherches sur les Poiss. Foss. t. iii. pp. 361, 369.
§ Hunterian Lectures on Vertebrata, 1836, p. 55, fig. 13.
|| Abhandlungen zur Bildungs und Entwickelungsgeschichte, Zweiter Theil, 1833, p. 41.

256 REPORT—1846.

two neurapophyses and the two parapophyses ; but the terminal concave plates
of the centrum are separately ossified. They coalesce with the intermediate
part of the centrum, which is sometimes completely ossified, but commonly a
communicating aperture is left between the two terminal cones; and in
many cases, the plates by which calcification attains the periphery of the
body leave interspaces permanently occupied by cartilage, forming cavities
in the dried vertebra, especially at their under part, or giving a reticulate
surface to the sides of the centrum. ‘The expanded bases of the neur- and
par-apophyses usually soon become confluent with the bony centrum; some-
times first expanding so as wholly to inclose it, as, for example, in the tunny,
where the line of demarcation may always be seen at the border of the arti-
cular concavity, though it is quite obliterated at the centre, as a section
through that part demonstrates.

Miller correctly distinguishes a ‘central’ from a ‘peripheral’ (cortical) part
or seat of the ossification of the vertebral bodies of fishes. The peripheral
ossification which takes its rise from the outer layer of the fibrous sheath of
the notochord sometimes extends into broad plates beneath the anterior ver-
tebree of the trunk, and tends to fix or anchylose a certain number of them;
when they are commonly represented by the partially distinct central parts
of the bodies, together with the neur- and par- and pleur-apophyses.

The batrachia follow closely the stages above-cited in fishes ; the centrums
being arrested at the biconical stage in the perennibranchiates, but converted
into ball-and-socket vertebr by the ossification of the interposed gelatinous
ball* and its adhesion, either to the fore-part of the centrum (Pipa, Sala-
mandra), or the back part (Rana, Bufo). The mode of ossification of the
centrum varies somewhat in batrachia. Miullert describes annular ossifi-
cations in the sheath of the notochord of the Rana temporaria and R. escu-
lenta, which support, at first, the neurapophyses. Dugés, apparently in-
fluenced by M. Serres’ so-called ‘law of centripetal development,’ describes
two cartilaginous nuclei, side by side; but the more obvious and better-de-
termined development of the vertebrz of fishes gives no countenance to this
bilateral beginning of ossification of the centrum as a general law. The first
distinct bony nucleus in the centrum observed by Dugés was bilobed, and
afterwards cubical; but excavated before and behind, as well as beneatht.
The ossification of the centrum is completed by an extension of bone from
the bases of the neurapophyses, which effect, also, the coalescence of these
with the centrum. In Pelobates fuscus, and Pelobates cultripes, Miller found
the entire centrum ossified from this source, without any independent points
of ossification.

The vertebrz of the tail of the larve of the anourans are represented di-
stinctly only in the aponeurotic stage. Even when the change to cartilage
takes place, the tendency to coalescence has begun to operate, and only two
long neurapophyses are established on each side: the ossification of these
plates extends into the fibrous sheath of the remnant of the coccygeal noto-
chord, and they coalesce when the perishable parts of the tadpole-tail have
been absorbed, and the fore- and hind-legs developed, constituting the long,
often hollow, and inferiorly grooved coccygeal bony style.

In saurians, birds and mammals, the notochord is inclosed by cartilage
before ossification begins; which cartilage is continuous with the cartilagi-
nous neurapophyses§. In birds, the two histological processes, chondrifica-

* Duirochet, Mémoires pour servir a l’Histoire Nat. et Physiol. des Animaux, &c., t. ii.
p- 302. 1837.
+ Neurologie der Myxinoiden, 1840, p. 69.

t Recherches sur les Batraciens, 1835, 4to, p. 106.
§ Muller, Vergleichende Anatomie der Myxinoiden, Neurologie, 1840, p. 74.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 257

tion and ossification, do not precisely follow the same route. In the centrums
of the dorsal and cervical vertebra of the chick chondrification is centripetal:
it begins from two poiuts at the sides and proceeds inwards, the middle line
of the under surface of the primitive notochord resisting the change longest.
But, when the lateral cartilages have here coalesced, ossification begins at
the middle line and diverges laterally ; the primitive nuclei of the bony centres
‘appearing as bilobed ossicles, and its direction is centrifugal. The lobes
ascend to embrace the shrivelled remnant of the chorda, like the hollow ver-
tebral centres in fishes. Only in the sacral vertebrae has ossification been
seen to begin from two distinct points at the middle line. The bases of
the separately ossifying neurapophyses extend over much of the centrum,
and soon coalesce with it. In reptiles a greater proportion of the centrum
is ossified from an independent point, and the bases of the neurapophyses
often remain permanently distinct and united to the centrum by suture. In
mammals, as in fishes, the centrum is ossified from an anterior and posterior
centre, establishing the articular surfaces, as well as from an intermediate
point. This is considerably overlapped by the bases of the neurapophyses,
before they coalesce with the centruin. The three primitive parts of the
centrum remain longest distinct in the cetacea. The body of the human
atlas is sometimes ossified from two, rarely from three, distinct centres placed
side by side*. From these ascertained diversities in the mode of formation
of the central element of the vertebra, it will be seen how little developmental
characters can be relied on as affecting the determination of homologous parts.
General Characters of Veriebre of the Trunk.—The ossified parts of the
abdominal vertebre of osseous fishes answer to ¢, centrum; ”, neurapo-
physes ; 2 s, neural spine ; p, parapophyses; pl, pleurapophyses; and a, ap-
pendages (fig. 17).
The neurapophyses com- Fig. 17.
monly coalesce with their re-
spective centrums; except in
the case of the atlas, where the
neural arch is sometimes quite
separated from the centrum,
and wedged between those of
the occiput and second verte-
bra. I have found also the
neurapophyses of the two last
caudal vertebra unanchylosed
to their centrums in a large
sea-perch (Centropristis gigas,
O.) in which the five terminal
heemal arches and spines re-
mained similarly distinct, and
articulated with the centrums
below. In the carp and pike,
the primitive independence of
both neurapophyses and par-
apophyses is more general and : ; ;
longer maintained. In the le- Ossified parts of abdominal vertebra, hers
pidosiren the vertebral bodies are not developed, the notochord being per-
sistent; but the peripheral vertebral elements are well-ossified : the neur-
apophyses in this fish remain distinct from the neural spines ; and the hemal
spines are in like manner moveably articulated to the hemal arches. These

* Meckel, Archiv fiir die Physiologie, Bd. i. (1815) t. vi. fig. 1.

258 REPORT—1846.

are formed by the gradually bent-down ribs*, which are formed in the
abdomen either by unusally elongated ‘parapophyses’ (if they be inter-
preted by the condition of those elements in the cod-fish), or by pleurapo-
physes articulated directly to the fibrous sheath of the notochord; which
interpretation of the mode of formation of the hemalarches is supported by
Professor Miiller’s discovery of the nature of those arches in the Lepidosteus +.
Whether we adopt the analogy of the Anacanthini, or the Ganoidei (and
the general affinity of the Protopteri to the ganoids would incline the choice
to the latter), the constitution of the hzmal arches in the lepidosiren is
strictly piscine; at least if we take the skeleton of the tailed batrachia
(tig. 28) as our guide to the homology of the caudal inferior arches in
higher reptiles and mammals. The unusual size and length of the abdo-
minal parapophyses in the cod-tribe ( Gadide), the flat-fishes (Pleuronectide),
and the genus Ophidium, evinces the natural character of the order Anacan-
thini, in which they have been grouped together by Professor Miller: the
pleurapophyses are, conversely, very short and slender in this order. In all
bony fishes the costal arch in the abdomen is completed by the aponeurotic
septa between the ventral portions of the myocominatat, which there repre-
sent the ‘ hemapophyses’ (cartilagines coste, inscriptiones tendinee muse. recti
abdominis of anthropotomy). Indeed, when we reflect that the trunk of
the fish, by reason of the advanced position of the heart and breathing organs,
answers to the abdominal and caudal regions of the trunk of higher verte-
brates, we could hardly expect the typical vertebra to be there carried out in
osseous tissue; but rather be prepared to find the hemapophyses retaining
the same primitive histological state which they present in the abdomen of
mammals and man (fig. 25, h'’). ;

Immediately behind the coracoid arch, it is usual to find a long and slender
rib-like bone, sometimes composed of two pieces, on each side; it gives a
firmer implantation to the portion of the myocommata immediately behind
the pectoral fin; and is obviously the ossified serial homologue of the hema-
pophysial aponeuroses between the succeeding myocommata. It is usually
detached from its centrum and articulated superiorly to the inner side of the
coracoid: when it rises higher, as in the Batrachus, it becomes attached to
the atlas, and in the Argyreiosus vomer it meets and joins its fellow below,
forming a true inverted or hemal arch, parallel with, but more slender than
the coracoid arch. No other idea of the general homology of this arch pre-
sents itself than as a hemal one, completing the costal arch as an ossified
hemapophysis, differing from the typical vertebra (fig. 15) only by the non-
development of a sternum or hemal spine: and there appears to be as little
ground for hesitation as to the particular segment of the endoskeleton to which
to refer this costal or inverted arch; its immediate succession to the correspond-
ing arch attached to the occiput, as well as the occasional direct attachment,
indicating that segment to be the atlas or first vertebra of the trunk.

The best-marked general character of the vertebral column of the trunk in
the class Pisces is that which Professor J. Miiller first pointed out ; viz. the
formation of the hemal arches in the tail by the gradual bending down and
coalescence of the parapophyses ; the exceptions being offered by the ganoid
polypterus and lepidosteus and the protopterous lepidosiren. The pleurapo-
physes are, sometimes, continued in ordinary osseous fishes from the parapo-
physes after the transmutation of these into the hemal arches. The dory,

* Linn. Trans. vol. xviii. pl. 23, fig. 4, 2 2.
. + Remarks on the Structure of the Ganoidei, in Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs, vol. iv.
p. 551.

+ Lectures on Vertebrata, 1846, p. 163, fig. 44, h p.

oho

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 259

tunny, and salmon yield this striking refutation of the idea of the formation
of those arches in all fishes, by displaced, curtailed and approximated ribs. In
some fishes, however (e. g. the cod), reduced pleurapophyses coalesce with the
parapophyses to form the heemal arches of the caudal vertebra. The meno-
pome, amongst the lowest or perennibranchiate reptiles, yields a clear disproof
of the formation of the hemal arch in the tail by the pleurapophyses (the

rts, viz. called by Geoffroy ‘ paraux, and by Dr. Grant ‘ catavertebral ele-
ments ’ in the abdomen of fishes)*. The vertebral ribs or pleurapophyses in
the menopome (fig. 27, p/) are short and simple and suspended to the extre-
mities of the diapophyses (d) at the beginning of the tail, where they coexist
with hzemal arches (A, h): these must be formed, therefore, by different ele~
ments, which, since no trace of parapophyses exists in any part of the spine,
I conclude to be the ‘hemapophyses.’ The young crocodile and the adult
enaliosaurs give the same evidence of the nature of the hzmal arches in the
tail, with which the corresponding arches or chevron-bones, in cetacea and
many other mammalia, are homologous.

_ Thus the contracted hemal arch in the caudal region of the body may be
formed by different elements of the typical vertebra: e. g. by the parapophyses
(fishes generally) ; by the pleurapophyses (lepidosiren) ; by both parapophy-
ses and pleurapophyses ( Sudis, Lepidosteus), and by heemapophyses, shortened.
and directly articulated with the centrums (reptiles and mammals)+. The
caudal vertebree of some flat-fishes (Pleuronectide, fig. 16), and the mu-
reenz, would seem to disprove the parapophysial homology of the hemal arches
in such fishes, since transverse processes. from the sides of the body coexist
with them, as they do in the cetacea. But, if we trace the vertebral modifi-
cations throughout the entire column in any of these fishes, we shall find that
the hzmal arches are actually parts of the transverse processes ; not independ-
ent elements, as in the cetacea ; but due to a progressive bifurcation : this, in
Murena Helena, for example, begins at the end of the transverse processes
of about the twenty-fifth vertebra, the forks diverging as the fissure deepens,
until, at about the seventy-third, the lower fork descends at a right angle to
the upper one (which remains to represent the transverse process), and,
meeting its fellow, forms the hzmal arch, and supports the antero-posteriorly
expanded hzmal spine. In the plaice a small process is given off from the
expanded base of the descending parapophysis of the first caudal vertebra,
which increases in length in the second, rises upon the side of the body in
the third, becomes distinct from the parapophysis in the fourth, and gradually
diminishes to the ninth or tenth caudal vertebra, when it disappears. These
spurious transverse processes never support ribs.

' The neurapophyses are often directly perforated by the nerves in fishes,
but are sometimes notched by them, or the nerves issue at their interspaces.

_ The neurapophyses, which do not advance beyond the cartilaginous stage in
the sturgeon, consist in that fish of two distinct pieces of cartilage; and the an-
terior pleurapophyses also consist of two or more cartilages, set end on end: and
this interesting compound condition is repeated in cases where the pleurapo-
physial element is ossified and required to perform unusual functions in the
bony state in other fishes. Amongst the more special or exceptional modifi-
cations of the vertebre of the trunk of fishes, which indicate the extent to
which their normal segmental character may be marked, I would cite those

-of the anterior vertebre in the pipe-fishes, in the loaches, and in certain

siluroids.

* Outlines of Comparative Anatomy, p. 58, fig. 28, B, g.

+ By a misconception of the sense in which I use the term ‘ hemapophyses,’ M. Agassiz
has applied it to the lamin of the inferior or hemal arches in fishes. ‘‘ Recherches sur les
Poiss. Foss.” tom. i. p. 95.

260 REPORT—1846.

In the Fistularia tabaccaria the four anterior vertebra are much-elongated;
the second one even to eight times the length of the ordinary abdominal ver-
tebree: and their centrums are firmly interlocked together, by very deeply
indented sutures, The parapophyses are co-extended with the centrums, and
overlap each other, forming a continuous outstanding horizontal ridge on each
side ; and the neural spines form a similar vertical continuous crest.

In the Cobitis fossilis and C. barbatula the par- and pleur-apophyses of
the second and third vertebrz coalesce and swell out into a large ‘ bulla ossea’
on each side, inclosing the small air-bladder of these fishes: they also lodge
the little ossicles which bring this vertebral tympanum into communication
with the prolongations or atria of the labyrinth *.

In a large South American siluroid fish, I found the fore-part of the verte-
bral column of the trunk apparently formed by one large vertebra, the body of
which sent a broad triangular plate outwards on each side, giving it a rhom-
boidal figure, viewed from below: these plates in this fish support and coalesce
with five parapophyses, which ascend and increase in breadth as they approach
the skull, where they join the paroccipitals, as they are, themselves, joined to-
gether so as to form a continuous broad oblique outstanding plate of bone.
Above these, the continuous bony neural arch is perforated for the exit of five
pairs of nerves; the dorsal and ventral roots escaping separately, as in the
sacrum of birds. The coalesced neural spines send up a lofty pointed plate
to the overhanging supraoccipital. On vertically bisecting this specimen, I
found the central parts of the bodies of five vertebrae, which had been deve-
loped in the notochord, distinctly marked out, and preserving in their an-
terior and posterior deep concavities the persistent gelatinous remains of the
notochord; although the rest of the circumference of such centrums were
anchylosed to the cortical or peripheral parts developed from the capsule of
the notochord, viz. to the continuous expanded plate of bone below, to the
parapophyses laterally, and to the neurapophyses above. The body of the
first vertebra, or atlas, presented the exception of being quite detached from
its elevated parapophyses, as well as from its neural arch ; it was anchylosed
only to the bony plate below. The body of the second vertebra was six times
as long as that of the atlas: yet the apices of the two deep terminal jelly-
filled cones extended to and met in its centre. The bodies of the third and
fourth vertebrz were elongated, but less so than that of the axis: the body
of the fifth vertebra was singularly modified; its anterior half presenting the
long and slender character of the antecedent vertebre ; whilst the posterior
half was suddenly shortened, but extended in depth and breadth so as to
adapt its shallow posterior concavity to that of the short and broad body of
the first free vertebra of the trunk, which is followed by others of similar
character. I have seen few better instances of adherence to type, irrespective
of obvious function, than the persistence of the biconcave articular cavities,
with the elastic capsules and contained fluid, in the centrums of these five
rigidly fixed anterior vertebrz of the siluroid fish.

The continuous bony plate supporting those centrums was perforated
lengthwise by the aorta, offering another mode of formation of a hzemal canal,
viz. by exogenous ossification in and from the lower part of the outer layer
of the capsule of the notochord: the carotid hamal canal in the necks of
birds seems to be similarly formed; and the neck of the ichthyosaurus derives.
additional strength and fixation from apparently detached developments of
bone in the lower part of the capsule of the notochord, at the inferior inter-
space between the occiput and atlas, and at those of two or three succeeding
cervical vertebre f.

* Weber, G. H., De Aure et Auditu Hominis et Animalium, 4to. 1820.
+ Sir Philip de M. Grey Egerton, in Geol. Trans. 2nd ser. vol. v. p. 187, pl. 14.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 261

_I am inclined to regard the ‘ odontoid process’ of the mammalian axis as the
homologue of one of these subvertebral wedge-bones, or peripheral develop-
ments of the outer layer of the notochordal capsule. It cannot be the pecu-
liarly developed anterior articular epiphysis of the second vertebra, since this
is represented by a distinct centre of ossification between the odontoid process
and the body of that vertebra, according to Professor Miiller’s observation
in a foetal foal *.

The diverging appendages of the hemal arch in the abdominal vertebre of

fishes present the form of long and slender spines (fig. 17, a a), usually at-
tached to, or near the head of the ribs, and extending upwards, outwards
and backwards, between the dorsal and lateral portions of the muscular
segments, to which they afford a firmer fulerum or basis of attachment ;
acting, therefore, asso many pairs of rudimental and concealed limbs. They
are termed the ‘obere rippe’ by Meckel, and at the fore-part of the abdomen
of the polypterus they are stronger than the pleurapophyses themselves.
As the vertebre approach the tail these appendages are often transferred
gradually, from the pleurapophysis to the parapophysis, or even to the cen-
trum and neural arch.
_ In the air-breathing vertebrata, in which the heart and breathing organs
are transferred backwards to the trunk, the corresponding osseous segments
of the skeleton are in most instances developed to their typical complete-
hess, in order to encompass and protect those organs. The thoracic hemapo-
physes in the crocodiles are partially ossified, and in birds (fig. 15, h, h) com-
pletely so; in which class the hzemal spines of the thorax (As) coalesce together,
become much expanded laterally, and usually develope a median crest down-
wards to increase the surface of attachment for the great muscles of flight.
This speciality is indicated by the name ‘sternum’ applied to the confluent
elements in question. The abdominal hemapophyses and spines retain their
primitive aponeurotic condition, though still preserving their characteristic
expansion+. In the crocodiles and enaliosaurs the abdominal hemapophyses
are also ossified; and, in the latter, they manifest the same composite character
which has been noticed in the pleurapophyses of the sturgeon, consisting of
three or more pieces, which overlap each other}. The abdominal hemal
spines, in the Plesiosaurus Hawhinsii, are transversely extended, they are
marked ¢ c in the figure quoted below: the compound hzemapophyses them-
selves are marked 6 6 in the same figure.

The typical thoracic vertebrze of most birds support diverging appendages
(fig. 15, a, a), either anchylosed or articulated, as in the penguin and apte-
ryx, to the posterior border of the pleurapophysis (pl). The function of the
appendages in this form of typical vertebra is to connect one hemal arch
with the next in succession, so as to associate the two in action, and to give
firmness and strength to the whole thoracic cage. (A portion of the next
rib so overlapped is shown at pl, a, fig. 15.)

With regard to the connections of the pleurapophyses, we have seen that,
in fishes, they may be directly attached to the centrum, or to the ends of the
parapophyses (fig. 17,p),or they may be quite detached from their proper seg-
ment, and suspended to the heemal arch of an antecedent vertebra, as in the
case of the clavicle or epicoracoid, no. 2s. In batrachians, ophidians, and
lacertians, the proximal end of the pleurapophysis is simple, as in fishes,
but is articulated to an exogenous tubercle or transverse process from the

is Vergleichende Anatomie der Myxinoiden. Abhand. Akad. der Wissensch. Berlin,
1834, p. 105.
T Myology of Apteryx, Zoological Transactions, vol. iii. pt. iv. pl. 35, g*, g*.

} Buckland, Bridgewater Treatise, vol. ii. pl. 18, fig. 3.

262 REPORT— 1846.

side of the centrum or the base of the neural arch, called ‘diapophysis,’a di-
stinet part from the autogenous parapophyses in fishes. The anterior verte-
bre of crocodiles have an exogenous inferior transverse process from the side
of the centrum, answering to the ‘parapophysis,’ as well as an upper transverse
process or ‘ diapophysis ’ developed from the base of the neurapophysis : and
the proximal end of the pleurapophysis bifurcates and articulates with both
transverse processes, circumscribing with them a foramen at the side of the
‘centrum. The same structure obtains in the cervical and anterior thoracic
vertebra of birds and mammals: thus the rib (p/) in fig. 15 articulates to the
parapophysis p and the diapophysis d. Very few, however, of the thoracic
ribs in the cetaceans offer this structure; the first or second may reach the
centrum, but the rest are appended to the ends of the long diapophyses, and
a character of affinity to the saurians is thus manifested. The cervical re-
gion is distinguished by the brevity of the pleurapophyses and the absence
of bony hemapophyses, in saurians, birds, and mammals ; but in the warm-
blooded classes the short floating vertebral ribs soon anchylose to the diapo-
physes and parapophyses, and constitute thereby the ‘anterior roots of the
perforated transverse process’ of anthropotomy*. ‘The cervical pleurapo-
physes are indicated diagrammatically at p/, in the neck of the embryo skele-
ton (fig. 25): those of the seventh cervical vertebree sometimes attain in
the human subject proportions which acquire for them the name of ‘ribs.’
The pleurapophyses retain their moveable articulation in the ninth, and
sometimes the eighth, vertebrae of the elongated neck of the three-toed
sloths f.

. The thoracic or dorsal vertebrze of mammalia are characterized by the free ar-
ticulations of the pleurapophyses (fig. 25, pl) : most of these are much-elon-
gated, and most, if not all, support hemapophyses (ib. /) ; which, in a greater
or less number of the anterior vertebree, articulate with beemal spines (ib. As),
completing the arch: these spines commonly remain distinct, and are called,
some ‘sternebers,’ others ‘manubrium,’ and ‘ xiphoid appendage,’ and to-
gether they constitute the ‘sternum.’ In most mammals the thoracic hema-
pophyses are cartilaginous: they become ossified in Dasypus, Myrmecophaga,
the megatherioids and monotremes. The hinder pleurapophyses, which pro-
gressively diminish in length, also, usually become simply suspended to the
diapophyses: all the ribs are so attached in Balena longimana, according
to Rudolphi. The lumbar vertebra, which in some mammals show, in the
foetal state, distinct rudiments of pleurapophyses more minute than those
in the neck, have them soon anchylosed to the extremities of the diapo-
physes, which are thus elongated; and the vertebra is characterized in anthro-
potomy as ‘ having no ribs, but simple imperforate transverse processes.’ The
hzemapophyses of these segments of the skeleton are represented by the
‘inseriptiones tendinex’ (fig. 25, h'') ; they do not advance even to the state
of cartilage, but retain the primitive condition which they presented in the
corresponding part of the trunk in fishes.

If a vertebra succeeding the lumbar or abdominal ones have its hemal
arch completed, as in the thorax, by pleurapophyses and hzmapophyses,
with diverging appendages, forming the ‘pelvic arch and hind or lower
limbs,’ it is called a ‘sacrum’ (fig. 28, p', H, A). If two or more vertebre
anchylose together, without such completion of the typical character, they
likewise are said to form a ‘sacrum,’ of which an example may be found in

* Meckel, Archiv fiir Physiologie, B. i. (1815) p. 594, pl. vi. fig. 12, e; and System der Ver-
gleichend. Anatomie, B. ii. p. 294. .
t+ Prof. Th. Bell, Trans. Zool. Society, i. p. 115. pl. 116, a, .

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 253

the two or three anterior caudal vertebre of certain flat-fishes (Pleuro-
nectide*), characterized as usual by the simple parapophysi:l hzmal arch,
In most air-breathing vertebrates the sacrum is characterized by both modifica-
tions, which are carried out to their extreme in birds: in no other class is so
large a proportion of the vertebral column converted into a ‘sacrum’ by
coalescence (e. g. seventeen vertebrz in Struthio) : in none is the diverging
appendage developed to such enormous proportions (e. g. Apteryx, Dinornis).
The centrums of the middle sacral vertebre (fig. 27, ¢ 1-4) are expanded
transversely, but depressed, and converted into horizontal plates: the neur-
apophyses (ib. n 1-4) are lofty, expanded, and arch over the dilated part of
the neural canal, lodging the great sacral enlargement of the myelon, with
its ventricle. In the young ostrich, before the general anchylosis is completed,
the bases of these neurapophyses are found to cross the interspaces of the
centrums, and to rest equally upon two of those elements. This modifica-
tion was retained throughout life, unobliterated by anchylosis, in the sacrum
of the extinct dinosaurs (Jgwanodon, Megalosaurus, Hyleosaurus), and it
obtains in the dorsal vertebra of the chelonians. The adjoining portions
of the centrums and neurapophysis extend outwards into a short parapo-
physis, which affords an articular surface of three facets for the short pleur-
apophysis. One of these elements is figured iz situ at pl, fig. 27 ; it expands
at its distal end, and coalesces there with the contiguous pleurapophyses :
the long diapophyses (d, d) abut against the inner side, and the ilium applies
itself to the outer side of these expanded and anchylosed ends of the short
sacral ribs. The spinous processes of the sacral vertebrz (s, s) are developed
antero-posteriorly, and soon coalesce into a lofty longitudinal crest of bone.
In the chelonians, the dorsal spines develope horizontal plates from their ex-
tremities, which unite by suture to the similarly united and expanded pleura-
pophyses, forming with them the ‘carapace. The ‘plastron’ is formed of
the flattened and expanded hemal spines, which are divided in the middle
line, and have an intercalated bone (entosternal) between the halves of the
central pieces. Professor Miiller has noticed the sacral pieurapophyses in
the human and other mammalian embryost+.

_ As the segments of the endo-skeleton approach the end of the tail, in the
air-breathing vertebrates, they are usually progressively simplified ; first by
the diminution, coalescence and final loss of the pleurapophyses ; next by the
similar diminution and final removal of the hzmal and neural arches ; and
sometimes also by the coalescence of the remaining central elements, either
into a long osseous style, as in the anourous batrachia, or into a shorter
flattened disc “which has the shape of a ploughshare},” as in many birds.
The coalesced representative of the terminal vertebral centrums is developed
principally from the outer layer of the fibrous eapsule of the primitive noto-
chord. In fishes, however, the seat of the terminal degradation of the verte-
bral column is first and chiefly in the central elements, which, in the homo-
cercals §, are commonly blended together and shortened by absorption, whilst
both neural and hzmal arches remain, with increased vertical extent, and

indicate the number of the metamorphosed or obliterated centrums.

* Hunterian Lectures on Vertebrata, 1846, p. 65, fig. 22.

T ‘‘Selbst am Kreuzbeine mehrere Thiere giebt es noch abgesonderte Querfortsatze oder
Rippenrudimente.”—Anatomie der Myxinoiden, heft i. 1834, p. 239.

t “*La derniére de toutes (des vertébres de la queue), 4 laquelle les pennes sont attachées,
est plus grande et a la forme d’un soc de charrue, ou d’un disque comprimé :—dans le jeune
age, elle est évidemment composée de plusieurs vertébres.”—Cuvier, Lecons d’Anat. Comp.
2d ed. i. p. 208, and “ Lawrence’s Blumenbach’s Comparative Anatomy,” ed. 1827, p. 62.

§ M. Agassiz’ expressive name for the fish with a symmetrical bilobed tail.

264 REPORT—1846.

Summary of modifications of corporal vertebre.—To sum up the kind and
degree of modification to which the several elements of the primary segnients
of the endoskeleton of the trunk are subject, without masking their general
homology, we may commence with the centrum; and first, as to its existence.
It is wanting, as an ossified part, in the atlas of the wombat and koala*, in
which it remains permanently cartilaginous: in the petaurists, kangaroos,

and potoroos, ossification extends from the bases of the neurapophyses into |

this cartilage, but the neural arch or ring long remains interrupted by a me-
dian fissure below. In man the rudimental body of the atlas is sometimes
ossified from two or even three distinct centrest. The centrums at the oppo-
site extremity of the vertebral column in homocercal fishes are rendered by
centripetal shortening and bony confluence fewer in number than the per-
sistent neural and hemal arches of that part. The centrums do not pass
beyond the primitive stage of the notochord in the existing lepidosiren, and
retained the like rudimental state in every fish whose remains have been found
in strata earlier than the permian era in Geology, though the number of
vertebrz is frequently indicated in Devonian and Silurian ichthyolites by the
fossilized neur- and hem-apophyses and their spines}. The individuality of
the centrums is sometimes lost by their mutual coalescence without short-
ening.

‘Although the normal form of the centrum is cylindrical, it may be cubical,
conical, hour-glass shaped, like a longitudinal bar, like a transverse bar, like
a depressed or a compressed plate, like a ploughshare, &c. The co-adapted
terminal surfaces of the centrum may be flat, slightly concave, deeply con-
cave, cupped or conical, concave vertically and convex transversely at one
end and the reverse at the other end§; or the fore-end may be concave and
the hind-end convex||; or the reverse] ; or both ends may be convex**;
or both ends produced into long pointed processes with intervening deep fis-
sures, so as to interlock together by a deeply dentated sutural surfacet+-.

The centrum may be quite detached from its neural arch (atlas of siluroid
and many fishes), and from its hemal arch (atlas of most fishes).

The centrum may develope not only parapophyses but inferior median
exogenous processes, either single, like those of the cervical vertebre of
saurians and ophidians (which in Deirodon scaber perforate the cesophagus,
are capped by dentine, and serve as teeth {{); or double (atlas of Sudis gigas §§
and the lower cervical vertebra of many birds) ; or the fibrous sheath of the
notochord may develope a continuous plate of bone beneath two or more nuclei
of centrums, formed by independent ossification in the body of the notochord ;
these nuclei being partially coherent to the peripheral or cortical plate. The
vertebral centrum often shows the principle of vegetative repetition by its
partial ossification in the form of two or three bony rings, which answer to a
single neural arch (Heptanchus|\\|), or by three osseous discs, one for each

* Art. Marsupialia, Cyclopedia of Anatomy and Physiology, vol. iii. p. 277, fig. 99.

+ Meckel, Archiv fiir Physiol. i. taf. vi. fig. 1.

t See the admirable Monograph by Agassiz, Sur les Poissons Fossiles du Systeme Dé-
vonien, 4to, 1846. § Most birds.

|| Existing saurians and ophidians.

g Extinct saurian called ‘ Streptospondylus ;’ existing Salamandra, Lepidosteus.

** 4th cervical of Emys, Bojanus, Anat. Test. Europ., tab. xiv. fig. 51,4. Ist caudal of
crocodile.

+t Cervicals or anterior trunk-vertebre of Fistularia.

+t Jourdan, cited in Cuvier’s Lecons d’Anat. Comparée, ed. 1835, p. 340, and ‘ Odonto-

graphy,’ p. 179.
§§ Agassiz in Spix, Pisces Brasilienses, 4to, 1829, p. 6, tab. B, fig. 8.
\||| Miller and Agassiz, in Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles, t. iii. tab. 40°, fig. 1.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 265

articular surface, and a thicker intermediate piece, as in all foetal mammals,
and throughout life in some cetaceans.

With respect to function, the centrum forms the axis of the vertebral
column, and commonly the central bond of union of the peripheral elements
of the vertebra: as a general rule it supports, either immediately or through
the medium of the approximated or conjoined bases of the neurapophyses,
the neural axis (in the trunk called myelon, or spinal marrow, and its mem-
branes); the terminal centrums being usually deprived of this function by
the withdrawal of that axis from them in the course of its centripetal or con-
centrative movement.

The newrapophyses are more constant as osseous or cartilaginous elements
of the vertebrz than the centrums; but they are absent, under both histolo-
gical conditions, at the end of the tail in most air-breathing vertebrates, where
the segments are reduced to their central elements. The neurapophyses lose
their primitive individuality by various kinds and degrees of confluence ; as
e. g. first, of the bases of each pair with their supporting centrum ; secondly,
of the apices of each pair with one another and with the neural spine,—the
lepidosiren affording a rare exception of the persistent individuality of this
element and of each neurapophysis throughout the trunk; thirdly, of two
or more neural arches with one another, as in the neck of some fishes, cetacea,
and armadillos, and in the sacrum of birds and mammals; where they also

often coalesce with the pleurapophyses, as they do in the neck of most mam-
mals and birds. The neurapophyses rarely depart from the form of plates,
either broad or high, or both ; sometimes they are straight, sometimes arched,
sometimes bent ; sometimes by the inward extension of their bases, they form
together a bony ring above the centrum, excluding both that and the spine
from the neural canal. The neurapophyses may develope, as exogenous pro-
cesses, either diapophyses or zygapophyses, and the latter are sometimes
double from both the anterior and posterior borders of the plates ; as e. g. in
the vertebrz of Mugil, in some serpents, and in the lumbar vertebrz of some

mammals. The observed extent of variation of position of the neurapophyses

_ is from the upper surface of their own centrum to above the next intervertebral
space, so as to rest equally on two centrums; or they may be uplifted bodily
from their centrum, and wedged or suspended between the two contiguous
neural arches, as e. g. in the atlas of ephippus and other deep-bodied fishes.

Except in the cartilaginous neurapophyses of the sturgeon, I am not aware
of any instance of the subdivision of this element into two pieces, placed
vertically upon each other. Some plagiostomes show the principle of vegetative
repetition in two or three star-like centres of ossification, side by side, in the
primitive basis of the neurapophysis, but the second of the two cartilaginous

_ plates on each side of the neural canal, coextensive with the single centrum,
in most sharks, which second piece has the form of a wedge with the small
end directed down over the intervertebral space, seems to answer, as Prof.
Miller has suggested, to the intercalary or interneural piece in bony fishes.

The most constant functional relation of the neurapophysis is to protect
the spinal nerve in its exit from the spinal canal, either by a direct perfora-
tion of the neurapophysis (many fishes, and some mammals), by a notch in
the margin, or by the interspace between two neurapophyses. This function
alone is performed, in reference to the nervous system, at the posterior part
of the vertebral column in many animals, where the place of the shortened

_ myelon is occupied by the lengthened roots of the nerves: in the rest of the
trunk the neurapophyses protect also the neural axis. The original relation

_ of each neurapophysis to the segments of that axis is determined by the place

_ of connection of the perforating nerve with the shortened myelon.

1846. T

266 © REPORT—1846.

_'The neural spine commonly retains in the trunk the form indicated by its
name ; but in the atlas of the crocodile, where it is distinct from the neur-.
apophyses, it isa depressed plate. In the thorax and abdomen of chelonians
it becomes still more expanded and flattened, and its borders unite by dentated.
suture to contiguous spines and to the similarly expanded pleurapophyses.
The neural spine is absent in the thin annular cervicals of the mole; it is
unusually developed and forms a thick square columnar mass of bone in the
cervicals of the opossum. It is double in the anterior vertebrze of some
fishes: in the barbel one stands before the other; in the tetrodon they
stand side by side: and various other minor modifications of this peripheral
element might be cited,

The parapophyses of the trunk-vertebre manifest their autogenous cha-
racter in fishes alone; andin most species the character is soon lost, the par-
apophyses becoming confluent with the centrum ; and, in the tail, either with
the pleurapophyses also, or with each other and the hzmal spine, thus comple-
ting the hemal canal (fig. 16). Amongst air-breathing vertebrates the par-
apophyses of the trunk-segments are present only in those species in which
the septum of the heart’s ventricles is complete and imperforate, and here.
they are exogenous and confined to thecervical and anterior thoracic vertebree,
or to the sacrum (as in the ostrich, figs. 15 and 27, p). The parapophyses are
subject to a certain extent of variation as to form: they are either mere
tubercles; or simple, shorter or longer, transverse processes ; or they may take
the form of long plicated laminz (in the tails of some pleuronectidz): they
are longer and broader than the pleurapophyses in the cod-tribe ; and are
sometimes much expanded in the anterior vertebre of fishes, where they
ascend in position, and in the siluroid species above described, coalesce to
iorm a broad outstanding ridge, directed outwards and a little upwards, and
rising as they approach the cranium, where they are joined by close suture to
the paroccipitals.

The normal function of the parapophyses is to give attachment to muscles
and articulation to ribs, and, occasionally, additional strength and fixation to
anchylosed portions of the vertebral column, As a rare and exceptional in-
stance, the expanded and excavated parapophyses of the second and third
vertebra in the genus Cobitis perform an office closely analogous to one of
those of the mastoid in man, since they inclose air-cells brought into com-.
munication with the acoustic labyrinth by a chain of small ossicles : and these
singularly modified rudiments of the swim-bladder seem to have no other func-
tion in the groveling loaches than that in connection with the sense of hearing.

The pleurapophyses are less constant elements than the neurapophyses ;
they exist as free appendages or ‘ floating vertebral ribs’ in the trunk, and
sometimes at the fore-part of the tail, in fishes, serpents, and certain batra-
chians (fig. 28, pl). The atlas has its pleurapophyses in most fishes, but they.
are often detached from their centrum, and sometimes joined to long bony
hzmapophyses, as is well-seen in the Argyrecosus, and other deep-bodied
scomberoids. Ossified heemapophyses are not present in any other vertebra
of the trunk in fishes. In batrachians the pleurapophyses of the single pelvic
vertebra are similarly connected with hamapophyses, and the costal arch is,
there completed.’ In the menopome, the pleurapophysial element of the sacrum,
ib. pl', is ossified from two centres. Such typical vertebrae are more common
in the higher air-breathing classes. Here the pleurapophyses have generally
the long and slender form understood by the word ‘rib ;’ but they expand into
broad plates in the thorax of the apteryx, in the anterior thoracic vertebra of
whales, and more especially in the carapace of chelonians, where they are
joined to each other by suture, and also to the expanded neural spines. These.

*

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 267

broad pleurapophyses are occasionally ossified from two centres in the great
land-tortoises of India and the Galapagos isles. The free extremities of the
short cervical pleurapophyses of crocodiles and plesiosaurs are expanded and
produced forwards and backwards, like axe-blades, whence the name of
‘hatchet-bones,’ applied to them prior to the recognition of their true homo-
logy.

"The pleurapophyses are appended sometimes simply to the ends of par-
apophyses ; sometimes to the ends of diapophyses; sometimes by a head and
tubercle to both kinds of transverse processes ; sometimes directly to the
side of the centrum; and sometimes they are shifted backwards over the in-
tervertebral space, and are articulated equally to two centrums (human
thorax), and sometimes to two centrums, to a neurapophysis and to a long
diapophysis, as in the sacrum of the ostrich (fig. 27, pl). In the atlas of
some fishes the pleurapophysis is detached from its centrum, and is suspended,
with its heemapophysis, from the antecedent hzemal arch (scapulo-coracoid).
In some sturgeons the abdominal pleurapophyses are composed of two or
more cartilaginous pieces. I have observed some of the expanded pleurapo-
physes in the great Testudo elephantopus ossified from two centres, and the
resulting divisions continuing distinct but united by suture. The pelvic
pleurapophysis is in two pieces, as a general rule (fig. 28, pl’ attached to
D"); and the lower piece is the seat of that most common and simple kind
of modification, viz. increase of size with change of form from the cylindrical
to a flat bone (as indicated by the dotted line in fig. 27), whereby it comes
into connection with the pleurapophyses of other vertebre besides the proxi-
mal piece of its own; such pleurapophyses having their development stunted
so as not to exceed in size the proximal portion of the pelvic pleurapophysis,
whose expanded distal portion (62) receives the special name of ‘ilium.’ This
bone retains its rib-like shape however in the chelonians, as in the batrachians:
in most species it unites below with two hzmapophyses, called, on account
of their modifications of form and proportions, ‘ischium’ and ‘ pubis.’ The
pleurapophyses defend the hzmal or visceral cavity ; they are the fulcra of
the moving powers which expand and contract such cavity in respiration,
when its walls admit of those movements ; they frequently support ‘ diverging
appendages,’ and give origin to muscles moving such appendages, or acting
upon the vertebral column. In some exceptional cases the pleurapophyses
become, themselves, locomotive organs, as in serpents and the Draco volans.

The hemapophyses, as osseous elements of a vertebra, are less constant than
the pleurapophyses ; although they sometimes exist in segments, e. g. the
lumbar vertebra of certain saurians, and in the case of the ischium, or second

“pelvic heemapophysis, in which the corresponding pleurapophyses are absent,
or short, or anchylosed to the transverse processes. The only true bony
hzmapophyses in the trunk of fishes appear to be those of the atlas, forming
the lower piece of the epicoracoid ; and of the last (?) abdominal vertebra,
forming the ischial or pubic inverted arch supporting the appendages called
‘ventral fins.’ It is at least to the last abdominal vertebra solely that the
homologous arch and appendages are connected, by the medium of the
pleurapophyses (iliac bones) in the batrachians, and it needs but the removal
of the pleurapophysis, or of its second complementary portion (pl! in fig.

*28), to reduce that vertebral segment to the condition which it presents in an
abdorainal fish. The so liberated inferior (hemapophysial) portion of the
pelvic (last abdominal costal) arch is subject, in fishes, to changes of pesition
far more extensive than have been observed in the neurapophyses or pleur-
apophyses of the trunk-vertebra, without however preventing the recognition

of the segment to which such shifted hemapophyses actually and essentially
oe G Wa?

268 REPORT—1846.

belong. The homologous hzmal arch exists in the same free and detached
condition in cetaceans and enaliosaurs ; but in all other air-breathing verte-
brates it is connected with the iliac bones and completes the typical character
of the proper sacral vertebra. The bony hemapophyses of the lumbar vertebrae
are found suspended in the fleshy abdominal walls of certain saurians: but in
the region of the thorax in these and higher vertebrates, the heemapophysis
(fig 15, h) articulates by one end to the pleurapophysis (pl) and by the
other to the hzemal spine (sternal bone, fs) ; or its lower end is attached to a
contiguous hemapophysis ; or it is suspended freely from the pleurapophyses
(as in the ‘ floating ribs» of man and mammals), or it may be joined below
to the sternum, and have its upper end free, as in the seventh dorsal vertebra
of the Ciconia Argala. When the upper end of the hemapophysis articulates
with the pleurapophysis in birds, it is usually by a distinct condyloid joint,
with smooth articular cartilage and a synovial capsule.

Where hemapophyses exist in the tail, they articulate directly to the
under part of the centrum, or to two centrums at the intervertebral space ;
and are either free at the opposite end, as in some caudal vertebre of ser-
pents and in those of the enaliosaurs, or they are confluent with each other
at their distal ends; when each pair of hemapophyses forms the so-called
V-shaped or chevron-bone. The changes of position of that detached ‘ pubic
arch’ or ‘chevron-bone’ which supports the ventral fins in fishes afforded
Linnzeus the characters of the orders ‘ Abdominales,’ ‘ Thoracici,’ and
‘Jugulares’ in the ‘ Systema Naturz’; and its immortal author, in giving the
name ‘ Apodes’ to those fishes in which the ventral fins were absent, con-
cisely indicates his perception of their relation to the hind-legs of batrachia
and the lower limbs of man. If, then, mere change of relative position,
however extensive, failed to conceal the special homology of the detached por-
tion of the pelvic arch and its appendages from the keen-sighted naturalist,
still less ought such a character to blind the philosophic anatomist to the
general homology of such detached vertebral elements, or prevent his tracing
them, wherever he may find them, to the remainder of their proper segment;
especially when its place is so clearly and beautifully indicated, as it is by the
condition of the pelvic arch in the perennibranchiate reptiles (fig. 28).

The function of the hemapophyses is to complete, with or without a hemal
spine, the hemal arch of the vertebral segment ; and, in so far to protect the
hzemal or visceral cavities and support their contents. They give attachment
to the lower or ventral portions of the primary muscular segments ‘myo-
commata’*, called ‘intercostals’ in the thorax, and ‘recti abdominis’ in the
abdomen of the higher vertebrata; and they thus serve as fulcra to the
muscles that expand and contract the abdominal or thoracic-abdominal cavity :
and sometimes more directly aid in these movements by the elasticity resulting
from an arrest in their histological development at the cartilaginous stage, e.g.
in the thorax of most mammals. Hzmapophyses may support or aid in sup-
porting diverging appendages; and in giving attachment to the muscles of
those appendages. The hemapophyses are usually slender, longer, or shorter
simple bones; but are broad and flat, overlapping each other in the thorax
of monotremes: they become broader and shorter in the expanded and fixed
thoracic abdominal bony case of chelonians, and are still broader where they
close the pelvic arch in the plesiosaurs. Inthe abdominal region of these ex-*
tinct saurians and in crocodiles, the freely suspended heemapophyses are com-
pounded of two or more overlapping bony pieces.

* See the description of these segments, usually confounded under the name of the ‘ great

lateral muscle’ or ‘ longitudinal muscles’ in fishes.—Hunterian Lectures on Vertebrata, 8vo,
pp. 163-165.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 269

» The hemal spine is much less constant as to its existence, and is subject
to a much greater range of variety, when present, than is its vertical homo-
type above, which completes the neural arch. Long, slender, and ‘ spinous’
in the tail, the hemal spine is reduced to a short and thick bone, often
flattened, in the thorax of mammals, a series of thirteen such modified spines
forming the so-called ‘sternum’ in the two-toed sloth: the thoracic hemal
spines are few in number, and are expanded and perforated in the whales:
the horizontal extension of this vertebral element is sometimes accompanied
by a median division, or in other words, it is ossified from two lateral centres ;
this is seen in the development of parts of the human sternum: the same vege-
tative character is constant in the broader thoracic hemal spines of birds ;
though, sometimes, as e. g. in the struthionide, ossification extends from the
same lateral centre lengthwise, ¢. e. forwards and backwards, calcifying the
connate cartilaginous homologues of halves of four or five hzemal spines,
before these finally coalesce with their fellows at the median line. In some
other birds, however, there are two or more lateral centres, and usually,
also, a median one, from which the ossification of the keel extends down-
wards, prior to its confluence with the rest of the ‘sternum. In the thorax
of chelonians four hemal spines are established, each by two lateral centres
of ossification, forming four pairs of sternal bones with a ninth ‘ entosternal’
piece between the first and second pairs. ~The ‘ plastron’ is the result of
this extreme development of the hemal spines :—the modified moieties of
which, remaining permanently distinct and united by suture, have received
from Geoffroy St. Hilaire* the convenient special names of ‘ episternals,’
‘hyosternals,’ ‘ hyposternals’ and ‘xiphisternals,’ respectively, as they suc-
ceed each other from before backwards.

The diverging appendages are, as might be expected, of all the elements
of the vertebral segment, the least constant in regard to their existence, and
the subjects of the greatest amount and variety of modification. Simple
slender spines or styles in fishes (fig. 17, aa), simple plates retaining long
their cartilaginous condition in crocodiles, short flat slightly curved pieces in
birds (fig. 15, a a), in some of the lowest species of which, e. g. Aptenodytes,
they become expanded, like their homologues in the crocodile ; such, with
one exception, is the range of the variety of form to which these parts are
subject in the segments of the trunk. But that exception is a remarkable
one: even under its normal ichthyic condition, as a simple style or filament,
the diverging appendage of the insulated heemapophysial portion of the pelvie
arch in the protopterust and lepidosiren{ is composed of many cartilaginous
segments, and projects freely from the surface, carrying with it a smooth
covering of integument. In other fishes similar filaments or jointed rays are
progressively added to the sustaining arch, which cause a progressive expan-
sion of the common investing fold of skin, forming the organ called the
‘ventral fin,’ which is accordingly described by the ichthyologist as having
two rays (Blennius), three rays (Zoarces), up to more than twenty rays, (as
Acipenser in the sturgeons).

When we quit the piscine class we find the diverging appendage of the pel-

. * Du Sternum considerée dans les Oiseaux et dans les Poissons. Anatomie Philoso-
phique, p. 69. pl. 2, fig. 21. Here Geoffroy contends that the parts of the hyoid arch (39,
40 and 43) are the homologues of the modified hzmal spines which he calls episternals, hyo-
sternals and hyposternals in the plastron of the turtle: but these names may well be retained,
that of ‘ hyosternal’ being used in an arbitrary sense, without reference to the hypothesis
which first suggested it.

_.¥ Linn. Trans. vol. xviii. pl. 23, fig. 4, z. Lectures on Vertebrata, p. 79, figs. 27, 66.
~ = Bischoff, op. git. pl. 2, fig. 5, c.

e

270 - REPORT—1846.

vic arch resuming its primitive unity, and with fewer joints than in lepidosiren,
but manifesting the principle of vegetative repetition by a bifurcation of the
distal segments. Such is itsform in the Proteus anguinus and in the Amphi-
uma didactylum : in another species of amphiume, the radiated type is more
strongly marked by the subdivision of the last segment into three rays, the
homology of which with certain of the five terminal rays, called toes or
digits in the human foot, is signified by Cuvier’s specific name ‘ tridactylum’
applied to this species ; the middle segment of the appendage is bifid, the
first one is undivided. In the menopome (fig. 28), the proximal segment
(65) is likewise single, the second segment (66, 67) double, and a mass of carti-
lage (6s) separates this from the last segment which branches into five jointed
rays (cv). In the frog two styliform bones are developed in the position of
the cartilage (6s in fig. 27), forming a fourth segment of the division: they
are replaced by more numerous and shorter ‘bones in higher vertebrates, in
which it will be unnecessary to pursue the metamorphoses of the appendage
as itis adapted for swimming, steering, balancing and anchoring, for explora-
tion, for burrowing, creeping, walking and running, for leaping, seizing;
climbing, or sustaining erect the entire frame of the animal. Its parts under
these endless and extreme modifications have necessarily received special
names: the first segment (65) is the thigh, femur ; the second is the leg, and
its two rays or bones are called-¢bia (66) and fibula (67): the segment (6s)
is called ankle or tarsus, each of its component ossicles having its proper
name ; and the last radiated segment (69) includes the metatarsus and pha-
langes: the segments 6s and eo are termed collectively, the foot, pes*.

The primitive function of the simple diverging appendages (fig. 17, a, a)
of the abdominal vertebre in fishes is closely analogous to that of the more
developed appendage of the pelvic vertebra, viz. to aid in locomotion, as
fulcra to the muscles concerned in that act. In crocodiles and birds they
serve to connect one costal arch with the next arch in succession, associating
them in action or giving fixity and strength to the whole thoracic cage.

Any given appendage might, however, have been the seat of such develop-
ments as convert that of the pelvic arch into a locomotive limb: and the true
insight into the general homology of limbs leads us to recognise many poten-
tial pairs in the typical endo-skeleton. The possible and conceivable modi-
fications of the vertebrate archetype are far from having been exhausted in
the forms that have hitherto been recognised, from the primeeval fishes of
the palzeozoic ocean of this planet up to the present time.

The beneficent Author of all, who has created other revolving orbs, with
relations to the central source of heat and light like our own, may have willed
that these also should be the seat of sentient beings, suited to all the condi-
tions of animal enjoyment existing in such pianets; basking, perhaps, in the
solar beams by day, or disporting in the soft reflected light of their earth’s
satellites by night. The eyes of such creatures, the laws of light being the
same, would doubtless be organized on the same dioptric principles as ours;
and, if the vertebral column should there, as here, have been adopted as the
basis of the higher animal forms, it may be subject to modifications issuing
in forms such as this planet has never witnessed, and which can only be con-
ceived by him who has penetrated the mystery of the vertebrate archetype,
aud recognised the kind and mode and extent of its modifications here.
_ It is, for example, by no means essential to that organic type that it should
be ‘tetrapodal’: although it best accords with the force of attraction and other

* A remarkable example of the extent to which an early or low form of such segment

may be regained by adnormal development in a higher species is given by Kerkringius,
Opera Omnia, 4to. 1717, p. 55, tab. viii. : : : r

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 271

conditions of our globe, that not more than two pairs of the latent limbs or
appendages of the vertebral segments should be developed to react, as loco-
motive instruments, upon its waters, its atmosphere and its dry land.

The views of the essential relations of such limbs to the vertebrate type
which suggest these and similar reflections, may not be accepted by all anato-
mists: some may be disposed to regard the parts 62 and 64 in fig. 28 as pecu-
liar superadditions, rather than a reappearance of normal elements completing
the costal or hemal arch of a segment of the endo-skeleton and restoring it
to its typical condition: and, in the same spirit, they may deny the special
homology of the radiated appendage A, with the hinder filamentous fin of
the lepidosiren, and the ventral fins of other fishes, and consequently, will re-
pudiate its general homology as the diverging appendage of such hemal
arch, and its serial homology with the simple diverging appendages of the
thoracic-abdominal vertebra of fishes, crocodiles and birds.

Tam sensible how large a demand is made on the most philosophic faith in
general laws of organization, by seeking acquiescence in the view of the parts
of the hind-limb, so variously and definitely modified for special functions, as
having for their seat the homologues of segments and rays, which are the
result in the first instance of the common course of vegetative repetition of a
single vertebral element—an element under all circumstances compounded
teleogically, and, therefore, essentially one bone.
~ But here I must explain what I mean by ‘ teleological ne Indi-
vidual —— of a skeleton,—what are commonly “called < bones,’—are fre-
quently ‘ compound’ or composed vf the coalescence of several primarily
distinct osseous pieces: In human anatomy every single and distinct mass
of osseous matter entering into the composition of the adult skeleton is called
‘a bone’ ; and Soemmerring, who includes the thirty-two teeth in his enumera-
tion, reckons up from 259 to 264 such bones. He counts the os spheno-
occipitale as a single bone, and also regards, with previous anthropotomists,
the os temporis, the os sacrum, and the os innomiratum, as individual bones ;
the sternum, he says, may include two or three bones, &c*. . But in birds
the os occipitale is not only anchylosed to the sphenoid, but they both very
soon coalesce with the parietals and frontals ; and, in short, the entire cranium
proper consists, according to the above definition, of asingle bone. Blu-
menbach, however, applying the human standard, describes it as composed
of the proper bones of the cranium consolidated, as it were, into a single
piecet. And in the same spirit most modern anthropotomists, influenced by
the comparatively late period at which the sphenoid becomes anchylosed to
the occipital in man, regard them as two essentially distinct bones. In direct
ing our survey downwards in the mammalian scale, we speedily meet with
examples of persistent divisions of bones which are single in man. Thus it
is rare to find the basioccipital confluent with the basisphenoid in mamma-
lian quadrupeds ; and before we quit that class we meet with adults in some
of the marsupial and monotrematous species, for example, in which the supra-
occipital, ‘ pars occipitalis proprie sic dicta,’ of Soemmerring, is distinct from
the condyloid parts, and these from the basilar or cuneiform process of the
os sccipitis: in short, the single occipital bone in wan is four bones in the
opossum or echidna ; and just as the human cranial bones lose their indivis
duality in the bird, so do those of the marsupial lose their individuality in the
ordinary mammalian and human skull. In many mammals we find the
Pterygoid processes of anthropotomy permanently distinct bones; even in

SUPT * De Corporis Humani Fabrica, t. i. p. 6.
+ Manual of Comparative Anatomy, by Lawrence, ed. 1827, p. 56.

272 REPORT— 1846.

birds, where the progress of ossifie confluence is so general and rapid, the
pterygoids and tympanics, which are subordinate processes of other bones in
man, are always independent bones.

In many mammals, the styloid, the auditory, the petrous, and the mastoid
processes remain distinct from the squamous plate of the temporal, through-
out life ; and some of these claim the more to be regarded as distinct bones,
since they obviously belong to different natural groups of bones in the skeleton ;
as the styloid process, for example, to the series of bones forming the hyoi-
dean arch.

The artificial character of that view of the os sacrum, in which this more
or less confluent congeries of modified neural arches is counted as a single
component bone of the skeleton, is sufficiently obvious. The os innominatum
is represented throughout life in most reptiles by three distinct bones, answer-
ing to the iliac, ischial, and pubic portions ir anthropotomy. The sternum
in most quadrupeds consists of one more bone than the number of pairs of
ribs which join it ; thus it includes as many as thirteen distinct bones in the
Bradypus didactylus.

The arbitrary character of the definition of a bone, as ‘any single piece of
osseous matter entering into the composition of the adult skeleton,’ the com-
plex nature of many of such single bones, and the essential individuality of
some of the processes of bone in anthropotomy, are taught by anatomy, pro-
perly so called, which reveals the true natural groups of bones, and the modi-
fications of these which peculiarly characterise the human subject.

It will occur to those who have studied human osteogeny, that the parts of
the single bones of anthropotomy which have been adduced as continuing
permanently distinct in lower animals, are originally distinct in the human
foetus: the occipital bone, for example, is ossified from four separate centres;
the pterygoid processes have distinct centres of ossification ; the styloid, and
the mastoid processes, and the tympanic ring, are separate parts in the foetus.
The constituent vertebra of the sacrum remain longer distinct ; and the ilium,
ischium, and pubes are still later in anchylosing together, to form the ‘ name-
less bone.’

These and the like correspondences between the points of ossification of
the human fcetal skeleton, and the separate bones of the adult skeletons of
inferior animals, are pregnant with interest, and rank among the most stri-
king illustrations of unity of plan in the vertebrate organization.

The multiplication of centres from which the ossification of an ultimately
single bone often proceeds has especially attracted the attention of the philo-
sophical anatomists of the present century with reference to the right or
natural determination of the number of the constituent parts of the verte-
brate skeleton. Geoffroy St. Hilaire, in his memoir on the skull of birds, in
1807, says, “ Ayant imaginé de compter autant d’os qu'il y a de centres d’os-
sification distincts, et ayant essayé de suite cette maniére de faire, jai eu
lieu d’apprécier la justesse de cette idée*.” Cuvier adopted and retained
the same idea to the last. Commenting in the posthumous edition of the
‘Lecons d’Anatomie Comparéet’ on the character of some of the defini-
tions of single bones in anthropotomy, he, also, concludes that, in order to
ascertain the true number of bones in each species, we must descend to the
primitive osseous centres as they are manifested in the foetus. But according
to this rule we should count the humerus as three bones and the femur as four

* Annales du Muséum, t. x. p. 344.
+ Tom. i. 1835, p. 120. “ Mais ces distinctions sont arbitraires, et pour avoir le véritable

nombre des os de chaque espéce, il faut remonter jusqu’aux premiers noyaux osseux tels
qu’ils se montrent dans le foetus,”

ON THE VERTEBRATE 8KELETON. 273

bones, in the human skeleton ; for the ossification of the thigh-bone begins at.
four distinct points, one for the shaft, one for the head, one for the great
trochanter, and one for the distal condyles: such deference, however, to the
judgment of the great Comparative Anatomist has been withheld by the most
devoted of his admirers; whose disinclination to regard these parts and pro-
cesses as distinct bones is justified by the fact that in birds and reptiles the
femur is developed from a single centre.

The rule laid down by the French authorities above-cited fails in its appli-
cation to the difficult question of the nature and number of bones in a skeleton,
because they did not distinguish between those centres of ossification that
have homological relations, and those that have only teleological ones ; 2. e.
between the separate points of ossification of a human bone which typify
vertebral elements, often permanently distinct bones in the lower animals; and
the separate points which, without such signification, facilitate the progress
of osteogeny and have for their obvious final cause the well-being of the grow-
ing animal. The young lamb or foal, for example, can stand on its four legs as
soon as it is born; it uplifts its body from the ground and soon begins to
run and bound along. The shock to the limbs themselves is broken and
diminished at this tender age, by the divisions of the long bones, and by the
interposition of the cushions of cartilage between the diaphyses and epiphy-
ses. And the jar that might affect the pulpy and largely developed brain of
the immature mammal, is further diffused and intercepted by the epiphysial
articular extremities of the bodies of the vertebre.

We thus readily discern a final purpose in the distinct centres of ossifica-
tion of the vertebral bodies and the long bones of the limbs of mammals
which would not apply to the condition of the crawling reptiles. The dini-
nutive brain in these low and slow cold-blooded animals does not demand
such protection against concussion; neither does the mode of locomotion in
the quadruped reptiles render such concussion likely : their limbs sprawl out-
wards and push along the body which commonly sweeps the ground; there-
fore we find no epiphyses at the ends of a distinct shaft in the long bones
of saurians and tortoises. But when the reptile moves by leaps, then the
principle of ossifying the long bone by distinct centres again prevails, and the
extremities of the humeri and femora long remain epiphyses in the frog.

' . A final purpose is no doubt, also, subserved in most of the separate centres

of ossification which relate homologically to permanently distinct bones in
the general vertebrate series ; it has long been recognised in relation to faci-
litating birth in the human fcetus; but some facts will occur to the osteo-
genist, of which the teleological explanation is by no means obvious.
» One sees not, for example, why the process of the scapula which gives at-
tachment to the pectoralis minor, the coraco-brachialis, and the short head of
the biceps should not be developed by continuous ossification from the body
of the blade-bone, like that which forms the spinous process of the same
bone. It is a well-known fact, however, that not only in man, but in all mam-
mals, the coracoid process is ossified from a separate centre. In the mono-
tremes it is not only autogenous, but is as large a bone as in birds and reptiles,
in which it continues a distinct bone throughout life. Here, then, we have
the homological, without a teleological explanation of the separate centre for
the coracoid process in the ossification of the human blade-bone.

This distinction in the nature and relations of such centres is indispen-
sable in the right application of the facts of osteogeny to the determination

_ of the number of essentially distinct bones in any given skeleton.

7

_ All those bones which consist of a coalescence of parts answering to di-
stinct elements of the typical vertebra are ‘homologically compound.’

274 REPORT—1846.

All those bones which represent single vertebral elements are ‘ teleologi-
cally compound,’ when developed from more than one centre, whether such
centres subsequently coalesce, or remain distinct, or even become the subject
of individual adaptive modifications, with special Joints, muscles, &c. for par-
ticular offices.

In the human skeleton, the clavicles, the (thoracic vertebral) ribs, are in-
stances of simple and truly individual bones. The occiput, sphenoid, eth-
moid, temporal, superior maxilla, mandible, hyoid, scapula, the so-called true
vertebrae, the sacrum and coccyx, the sternum, and ossa innominata are
‘homologically’ compound bones.

The two parietals are essentially like the frontal and vomer, one ‘teleologi-
cally’ compound bone : so, likewise, are the two nasals. And, if the view of
the homology of the jointed filamentary skeleton of the rudimental ventral
fin of the lepidosiren with the simple diverging appendages of the costal
arches of the abdominal vertebrz be correct, then is not merely the mam-
malian femur a teleologically compound bone, but the whole skeleton of the
hind-limb from the femur to the distal phalanges inclusive must be regarded
as representing the essentially single vertebral element, here called ‘diverging
appendage, subdivided according to the law of vegetative repetition of centres;
which law is progressively overruled and masked by-the supervention of the
higher law of special modification and adaptation of such vegetative subdivi-
sions to the exigences and habits and sphere of life of the species.

In many animals all the parts of the skeleton of the limbs, and in all ani-
mals some of the parts, are simple bones, in the sense of being developed
from a single centre; but in none can they claim that essentially individual
character which the clavicles and osseous parts of the ribs are entitled to, as
being primary vertebral elements.

To trace the mode and kind and extent of modification of the same ele-
mentary parts of the typical segment throughout a large natural series of
highly organized animals, like the vertebrata ; and to be thus led to appreciate
how, without complete departure from the fundamental type, the species are
adapted to their different offices in creation, brings us, as it were, into the
secret counsels that have directed the organizing forces, and is one of the
legitimate courses of inquiry by which we may be permitted to gain an in-
sight into the law which has governed the successive introduction of ee ;
forms of living beings into this planet.

Vertebre of the Skull—Since it has been found that the bones of the trunk
maintain through every kind and degree of adaptive modification, whether as
‘thorax,’ ‘ carapace’ or ‘sacrum,’ an arrangement into segments in the con-
stitution and relative position of the parts of which the vertebral type has been
universally recognised—let us next examine, without bias, and, if possible,
without reference to or recollection of previous attempts, in the first instance,
whether such type be traceable through the remaining anterior part of the
axis of the endo-skeleton, which, like the thorax and pelvis, has received, on
account of its degree of coalescence and other modifications, the special col-
lective term of ‘ skull ;)—or, whether nature has, in this part of the endo-ske-
leton, so far departed from the pattern on which all the rest is constructed,
that we cannot, without manifest violence to her arrangements, demonstrate
the segmental composition ; or refer, without admitting modifications distinct
in kind as well as degree from those that mark the vertebral character in the
trunk, the constitution of such segments to the vertebral type.

Taking the conical skull of an ordinary osseous fish—that of the cod (Mor-
rhua vulgaris) for example,—if we detach the bones which form its hinder
extremity, or base, and which immediately precede and join the atlas, from

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 275

those riext in advance, we have the-circle, or the base bone (1) and arch
(2,3, 4), represented in figure 1, and we also bring away, articulated therewith,
an inferior or inverted arch with its appendages, represented in profile outline
in fig. 5, 50-57: the arrow indicating the course of convergence, and its head
the point of union, of the two flanks or crura, forming the closing point or
crown of such inverted arch.

We have thus removed a segment of the skull, and with as little or even
less violence or disturbance to the other bones, than must have been used in
detaching a similar segment from the thorax or pelvis of a land-animal. If
we compare this cranial segment with the typical vertebra fig. 14, we recog-
nise in the single median bone (1, fig. |) the centrum, by its relative position
and its articular surface for the atlas, which retains, moreover, the concave
form characteristic of the vertebre in the piscine class: in the pair of bones
(2, 2), which articulate with the upper surface of the centrum, protect the
sides of the epencephalon, and are perforated by the ‘ nervi vagi,’ we have the
neurapophyses: in the single symmetrical bone (3) which completes the
arch, and terminates in a crest for the attachment of the uppermost or dorsal
portions of the vertebral muscles continued from the trunk, we have the newral
spine: and in the pair of bones.(4, 4), wedged between this spine and the
neurapophyses, which give attachment to the inferior arch of the segment
(fig. 5, H i), and terminate in a free crest or spine for the attachment of the
upper and lateral portions of the vertebral muscles, we have the parapo-
physes ; for whose elevated position we have been prepared by their gradual
ascent in the anterior vertebrz of the trunk. The rest of this natural segment
has undergone the same kind of modification as the thoracic vertebre present
in higher animals (fig. 15), and which consists in the great expansion of the
hzmal arch, the removal of the hemapophyses (fig. 5, 52) from the centrum
(ib. 1), and the interposition of elongated and deflected plewrapophyses (50, 51):
finally, the great inverted arch, so formed, enconipasses, supports.and protects
the heart, or centre of the hemal axis. The elements of this arch are open
to two interpretations according to the type of figure 15: either 50 may be
pl, 51, h and s2 hs; or 50 and 51 may be a divided (teleologically compound)
pleurapophysis, and 52 an unusually developed heemapophysis : and this latter
conclusion is more agreeable with the character of the vertebral segments of
the trunk in fishes, in which the hemal spines are absent, the hemapophyses,
when ossified, long and sometimes joined together at their lower ends, as é. g:
in the first trunk- vertebra of Argyreiosus vomer, and the pleurapophyses some-
times, as e. g. in the sturgeon, composed of two or more pieces, set end to
end. The condition of the pleurapophysis of the pelvic arch in the meno-
pome (fig. 28, 62, pl), which sustains a radiated appendage (ib. A) of the

_ chemal arch of the occipital vertebra, indicates the true character of the
_ pleurapophysis: and the modifications of this arch in the higher classes will
be found to establish the accuracy of the general homvlogy of the bone 52;
with the hemapophysial element, since the lower extremities of 52 are actu-
ally drawn apart and articulated to a hzemal spine, which completes the arch

_ below in reptiles and birds (fig. 22, Hs). boit |

Even should there be error in assuming the subdivision of the pleurapo-
physes and the absence of the hemal spine, in the particular determination of
the constituent elements of the arch in question, yet the alternative is still
within the recognised limits of the vertebral modifications of the trunk; and
the want of unquestionable proof of the precise elements forms no valid ob-
jection to its general homology as a hemal vertebral arch, expanded and modi-
fied after one or other of the types of those which, in the thorax of the air-

breathing vertebrates, encompass and protect the more backwardly placed

276 REPORT—1846.

centres of the vascular system (heart and lungs) ; according to which types,
for example, it may be either closed below by the meeting of the sternal ribs
one $i or by the intervention of a single or divided sternal bone

hemal spine). And, further, since in fishes, as the lowest class of vertebrata,
the vegetative character of repetition of forms, proportions and composition
in the successive segments of the skeleton prevails in a greater degree than
in any of the higher classes, so we may conclude that this hemal arch pre-
sents, by its articulation with the epencephalic neural arch, its normal position;
and that the whole occipital vertebra here manifests its veritable and typical
character.

As the hemal arches in the trunk of fishes commonly support diverging.
appendages, which project freely outwards and backwards, but are hidden and
buried in the muscular masses to which they give attachment, so the occipital
arch, also, commonly supports its diverging appendages. They are absent
in Gymnothorax and some other Murenide. The appendage is present in
the form of a single multiarticulate filament in the eel-like protopterus* and
lepidosirent ; it is modified by that mode of vegetative repetition which
results in adding to the number of similar filaments directly articulated to
the supporting arch; and is further complicated by the expansion or conflu-
ence of the proximal joints in different degrees as they recede from the sup-
porting arch, so as to constitute definable segments of the appendage}.

Such is the condition of the part in most osseous fishes, and such is shown
in the diagram of the base of the appendage in figure 5 ; where the proximal
segment consists of two broad and flat bones (54 and 55), the next segment of
five narrower and shorter but thicker bones (56), and the last segment of
more numerous bones of the primitive filamentary form and multiarticulate
structure, which bifurcate and radiate as they recede from the centre of at-
tachment.

We may connect the tendency to extreme and variable development in the
peripheral parts of a vertebral segment, with the freedom which is the neces-
sary consequence of their position: they are attached by one end only, they
have not, therefore, that physical restraint to growth which may arise out of
the fettering by both extremities, which characterizes the more central ver-
tebral elements entering into the composition of the neural and hemal arches.
Even in these we find the disposition to luxuriant growth or vegetative sub-
division greatest in the peripheral elements, viz. the neural and hemal spines :
much more, therefore, might it be expected in the less constant, diverging,
and commonly freely projecting appendages of the vertebral arches. Although
here the polarizing forces which tend to shoot out particle upon particle after
the pattern of dendritic corals, plants or crystals, are so controlled by the
antagonizing principle of adaptation, that the radiating growth is always
checked at that stage and guided to that form which is suited to the wants
and required by the mode of life of the species.

Since, however, we are able to retain firmly and with certitude our recog-
nition of the special homology of the diverging appendage of the occipital
hzmal arch, through all its modifications, from the single ray of the lepidosi-
ren to the hundred-fold repetition of the same elements with superadded
dichotomous bifurcations sustaining the enormous pectoral fins of the
broad and flat plagiostomous fishes thence called ‘ rays’ par excellence, so
we can retrace, with equal certitude, the serial homology of this appendage,
when it is so plainly manifested by its simple form as well as connections in

* Linnean Transactions, vol. xviii. pl. 23, fig. 4, w. ;

~ tT Bischoff, Lepidosiren paradora, Ato, pl. 2, fig. 4, ¢.
} Hunterian Lectures on Vertebrata, figs, 27, 40, 41, 42, 43, 75.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 277

the lepidosiren, the amphiuma or the apteryx, with the scarcely more simple
or less-developed appendage of the thoracic abdominal hzmal arches (ribs)
of birds and fishes (figs. 15 and 17, a, a) ; and thus we are led to determine
its general homology, under its manifold forms of fin, fore-limb, wing, or arm,
as the diverging appendage of the hzmal arch of the occipital vertebra.

_ Thenatural and typical vertebral segment above-defined cannot bedetached,
in every fish, hy the mere disjunction of sutures: in the lepidosiren, e. g. the
ossified part of the centrum has coalesced with that of the next segment in
advance and would require to be divided by the saw: the same coalescence
occurs in the human skull, and has led to the definition of the cranial bone,
called ‘os spheno-occipitale*.’ In osseous fishes, either by connation of 5
with 9, fig. 5, or by excessive development of bone in the notochordal capsule
extending forwards from the centrum 5, and producing 9, there results the long
bone (5,9) continuing the series of vertebral centrums forwards, and corre-
sponding in position with two segments or arches above. On the hypothesis
that it represents the central elements of both those arches, it must be divided
artificially, in order to separate that segment of the cranium which next suc-
ceeds the occipital one. And, further, either by a similar coalescence of the
proximal elements of two hemal arches, or by the undue extension of such
element of one of the arches, interposing itself between the next arch and
the rest of the vertebra to which that arch belongs, it happens, that unless the
proximal element or elements in question be artificially divided, as at 28a, 28a,
fig. 5, two hemal arches (H 1 and H 111) would be brought away, with the
neural arch detached by the separation of sutures and the division of the
bone 5,9. If neither that bone, nor 23a were divided, but were, with the
bones in superior connection with them, separated from the bones anteriorly
articulated to them by suture, then we should have the group of bones, in-
cluded by the curved lines marked N u1, N 111, Hut, H 111 in fig. 5. Two
vertebral segments are plainly indicated in this group by the distinct hemal
arches and their appendages, H 11 and H 111; but three pairs of bones, 16, 6
and 10, fig. 5, appear to be in neurapophysial relation with the single and
symmetrical median bone 5,9. If, however, what has been urged in the
chapter on ‘ Special Homology’ (pp. 188-196) respecting the petrosal cha-
racter of 16 be a true interpretation of that bone, then we must eliminate it
from our present inquiry, inasmuch as being a partial ossification of a sense-
capsule (and nature herself removes them, as such, in most fishes), it apper-
tains to.a category of bones (splanchno-skeleton), forming no part of the pro-
per neuro- or endo-skeleton, in which alone we seek for evidence of asegmental
disposition of parts corresponding with the segments of the nervous system.
_ The bony petrosals (is) being removed, let us, then, with the view of ex-
_ amining the composition of the segment of the skull with which the occipi-
tal vertebra was articulated, saw across the bones 5, 9 and 28a, and separate
the bones 6, 7, s from their sutural connections with those in front of them.
In thus obtaining the segment in question, the opponents to the vertebral
theory of the skull are entitled to assert that violence is done to nature by
the sections of the single bones above-cited; the validity of which as an
objection to that theory will be afterwards inquired into. :

It is not, however, absolutely necessary to divide the basal bone 5,9: in
miany osseous fishes a symmetrical bone (fig. 5, 9’) supports the parial bones
10, and stands in the relation of a centrum tothem ; the neural arch or circle
of that segment would not, therefore, be broken by the removal with the
posterior segment of the whole of the bone s, 9. If the corresponding

* See Table I., Soemmerring. if

278 7 - REPORT—1846. me

development from the under part of the centrum of the second cervical ver-
tebra of the siluroid-fish (p. 260) were removed, with that segment, from the
atlas, the atlantal neural arch would still be completed by the rudimental body,
beneath which the ossification from the succeeding vertebrae had extended
itself.

Whether, however, we divide or not the bone 5, 9, those which rest upon
its posterior or basisphenoidal part present, after the removal of the petro-
sals, when viewed from behind, and slightly disarticulated from each other,
the arrangement exhibited in fig. 2. The bones 6,6 support and defend
the lobe of the third ventricle or the mesencephalic segment of the brain ;
they give exit to the trigeminal nerves (¢r), and thus, as well as by their con-
nections with the other bones of the arch, repeat the newrapophysial characters
of the bones 2, 2 in the occipital segment. The bones s,s, by their more ex-
ternal position, by affording an articular surface to the hemal arch (28a,
H 1), and their development of a strong transversely and backwardly pro-
duced process for muscular attachments, obviously repeat the parapophysial
characters of the bones 4, 4 in the occipital vertebra.

' The arch is not completed above in the cod-fish; the bones 7, 7 being se-
parated at the mesial line by the interposition of the produced spine of the
occipital vertebra s, which joins with 1. In some other fishes, however,
e. g. carp and pike, the bones 7,7 do come in contact and join each other by
a ‘sagittal’ ‘suture, thus completing the neural arch. It will afterwards be
seen, by tracing the homologues of these bones in other animals and their
homotypes in other segments, what value may be assigned to the objection to
their general homology as the crown or hemal spine of the mesencephalic
neural arch, founded upon the median division and occasional divarication of
the two halves of no. 7 in osseous fishes. I may so far anticipate the discus-
sion as to remark that, even in the present group of vertebrates, the spine of
the occipital vertebra; (3) is divided by a median suture in the lepidosteus ; so
that the condition of the epencephalic arch in that fish is precisely that of
the mesencephalic arch in the carp. and essentially the same as that in fig. 2,
and in most other osseous fishes. ak

- The remainder of the second or parietal segment of the skull, H 11, repeats the
expanded modification of the hemal arch of the occipital vertebra, and even
approaches nearer to the character of the thoracic vertebre of the higher
animals, by the development of single symmetrical bones at the crown of the
inverted arch. But the principle of vegetative repetition is still more mani-
fested in this arch than in the occipital one. If we regard the posterior half
of. the epitympanic, 2sa, as the proximal piece of the parieto-hemal arch,’
which has coalesced with the corresponding piece of the fronto-hzmal arch,
then the pleurapophysis of the parieto-hzmal arch will consist, in bony fishes,
of two pieces, esa and 3s, like the pleurapophysis of the occipito- haemal arch,
50ands1. Thebones, 39 and 40,represent the hemapophysis of the parieto-hzemal
arch. The two pairs of small bones (41) with the single median anterior (42)
and posterior (43) appendages, represent a still more subdivided spine or key-
bone of this inverted arch. ~

Beneath this mask of multiplication of bony centres, the broad characters:
of the inverted arch suspended to the parapophyses of the parietal vertebra,
as the hemal complement of that natural segment of the skull, stand boldly
Out: it encompasses, sustains and protects the branchial organs—the ana-
logues of lungs—the next great development of the vascular system anterior
to the heart ; and the subdivision of the piers of this expanded arch relates to .
the necessity for a combination of strength, with flexibility and elasticity, in
tlfe execution of the movements producing the respiratory currents.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. ‘279

- The correspondence with the scapular, or occipito-hemal arch, is further
carried out by the presence of appendages (44) which freely diverge from it, but
the development of these appendages has not been observed to extend beyond
_ that second phase, marked by vegetative multiplication of the simple ray,
directly attached to the arch itself. The lepidosiren offers the simplest con-
dition of such ‘diverging appendage’ in the single slender bony piece con-
nected with the element 40*. Cuvier und other ichthyologists cite a series
of stages of this kind of development of the hyoidean appendage from a si-
nilar simple beginning up to a 30-fold repetition of the single ray (Zlops);
and the ‘ branchiostegal’ rays have been found in much greater numbers in
certain fossil fishes. Like the ‘ pectoral’ rays, they support a duplicature of
membrane, which plays freely backwards and forwards, reacting upon the
ambient medium, and forming, in short, a cephalic fin, but with its powers
so restricted and adjusted, as to propel the water through the branchial cham-
bers of the fish, instead of driving the fish through the water ; in which latter
action, indeed, the occipital appendages (pectoral fins)in most osseous fishes
can and do perform but a very small share.
If we next proceed to compare the frontal segment, N 111 and H 111, dis-
‘membered as above described from the parietal vertebra, and, by the separa-
tion of the sutures, from the bones terminating the skull anteriorly, we shall
find a neural arch (fig. 3) closely repeating the characters of that of the oc-
cipital vertebra. The centrum is sometimes represented simply by the forward
extension of ossification of the basisphenoid (11), which I regard as the ho-
motype of the ossification of the capsule of the notochord beneath the cen-
trums of the anterior trunk-vertebre in the silurus ; sometimes, also, of a di-
stinct superincumbent symmetrical ossicle (9, fig. 5), answering to the rudi-
mental (central part of the) body of the atlas supported by the inferior bony
plate, inthesilurus. This more complex condition of the centrum of the frontal
vertebra is well-seen in the sword-fish. The bones 10, 10, which directly rest
upono’, when it exists, which defend the sides of the, prosencephalon, and
which are either grooved by the optic nerves, or have tliose nerves perforating
the fibro-cartilaginous membrane close to the margin of the bone (10) from
‘which it is continued, are obviously the newrapophyses. They are, however,
small; inasmuch as the segment of the brain to which they relate is of inferior
size in bony fishes: and they are still smaller in comparison with the spine
-(11) which is enormously expanded, in relation to its accessory functions as
the chief contributor to and protector of the orbits. The bones 12, wedged
between the neurapophyses and spine, affording an articular surface to the
proximal piece of the hemal arch, and developing a transverse process for
muscular attachments, are the parapophyses. ‘The bones (17) have as little
essential connection with the typical neural arch above demonstrated, as the
bones 16, 16” had with the corresponding arch of the parietal vertebra: and
‘their more peculiar form in relation to the ball which they protect, and their
variable histological condition in the vertebrate series, have not only prevented
their ever being mistaken for parts of cranial vertebre, but-have led to the
opposite extreme of excluding them altogether from the bones of the skull,
with which they are as much entitled to rank as the petrosal (16) or the
turbinal (19) ; but always in the category of sense-capsules or ‘ splanchno-
skeletal’ pieces.
_ In regard to the inferior arch of the frontal segment, the subdivision of its
constituent elements, in subserviency to its special functions, is carried to as
great an extent as in that of the parietal segment. I regard the four over-
lapping and closely-connected pieces from the upper joint (2s) to the lower
Set ; * Hunterian Lectures on Vertebrata, p. 79, fig. 27, 37. ny

250 REPORT—1846.

joint (28d) inclusive, as the plewrapophysis: it is not so obvious whether
the bones 20-32 form a subdivided hemapophysis, or whether the terminal
bone (32), forming by symphysis with its fellow the crown of the inverted arch,
may not be the moiety of a mesially divided hemal spine. But the general
character of the inverted arch (H 111), as the hemal complement of the fron-
tal vertebra is unmistakeable, and its serial homology with the succeeding
arches (H 11 and H 1) is fully illustrated in fishes by its supporting diverging
appendages (31-37). These, in the series of fishes, manifest, in as many
permanent arrests, the ehief phases of development that the corresponding
appendages of the occipito-hzmal arch have been described to pass through.
The diverging appendage of the fronto-hemal arch is a single and simple
bony style in the lepidosiren ; it consists of three or four simple rays in the
monk-fish and some other plagiostomes ; it has one ray expanded into a broad
proximal piece in the conger, which sustains a distal segment of the appendage,
one member of which, the ‘subopercular,’ still retains the long and slender,
ray-like form, which is, also, clearly traceable in: the broader but long and
curved ‘opercular’; in the cod, as in most osseous fishes, the parts of the
second segment of the appendage (35, 36, 37, fig. 5) are metamorphosed, like
the proximal one (34), into broad and flat bones. The fin-like fold of inte-
gument, sustained and moved by means of this diverging appendage and its
muscles, reacts upon the surrounding water ; but, like the hyoid-fins, with
which the tympanic or opercular fins are closely connected, they are chiefly
subservient to the creation of the respiratory currents and their direction
through the gill-chambers. The weight of these appendages, and the con-
stant movements in connection with respiration, as well as those which the
hemapophysial portions of the arch, modified in subserviency to nutrition
have to perform, as jaws, explain the necessity of the subdivision of the sup-
porting pedicle into overlapping pieces allowing of a certain elastic yielding
with recoil, and thus diminishing the liability to fracture without affecting,
except by increasing, the strength of the arch. The trochlear joint between
- the two elements of this arch (at 28d and 29) with its cartilage and synovial
sac, repeats the complex structure of the articulation between the vertebral
and sternal portions of the ribs in birds. To the fore-part of the lower piece
(28d) of the pleurapophysis is usually articulated a bone (24) connecting it
with another bone (20) inadvance: the ground for regarding 24 as appertain-
ing to the arch (20, 21 and 22, H 1v) will be explained in the description of
that arch.

There remains, then, in the fish’s skull, to be considered, the group of
bones (N tv, H rv, fig.5) forming its anterior extremity; and we have to in-
quire, whether there can be traced in this easily separable group such a con-
cordance in its formation with the arrangement of the constituents of the
foregoing segments as will justify its being regarded as a natural segment of
the skull, and as still illustrating the type on which all the other segments of
the endoskeleton have been constructed. Fig. 4 gives the same view of the
bones of this group in vertebral relation with the rhinencephala as the views
in figs. 1,2 and 3 do of the bones having a similar relation to the three larger
segments of the brain: we perceive the single and symmetrical bone (13)
forming the basis of the arch, and sustaining the bones 14, 14, which more
immediately support the olfactory ganglicns and transmit their nerves, either
by grooves or foramina, to the olfactory capsules: the key of the arch is
formed by the single and symmetrical bone 15, which is articulated to and
chiefly sustained by the bones 14, 14: but 15 is expanded and deflected
anteriorly so as to rest directly upon 13 and completely obliterate the neural
canal ; the heemal canal being in like manner closed by the approximation of

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 281

the hemal spine (22) to the nasal centrum (13), and by the upward develop-

nt of the processes of 22 which join the neural spine (15). Much modifi-
cation was to be expected in the segment which terminates the skeleton
anteriorly ; and yet the typical characters of the neural arch are more com-
pletely preserved here than at the opposite end of the vertebral column. If
the bones 4, s, 12, which I recognise as ‘ parapophyses’ in the cranial
segments 1, I, 111, must be viewed as superadded intercalations for the
special and characteristic expansion of the neural arches of those segments—
normal elements, indeed, of the typical vertebra, but with modified connections
for cranial functions—then the disappearance of their homotypes in the nasal
segment restores its neural arch (fig. 4.) to the more common condition, and we
recognise in 13 the centrum, in 14, 14, the newrapophyses, and in 15 the neural
spine of the nasal vertebra.

_ But the segment to be complete should exhibit a second arch, inverted ; and
we find such arch closed or completed by the symphysis of the bones 22,
fig, 5, and suspended to the sides of the centrum 13 and to the neurapophyses
145 14, by the bones 20, as the piers or crura of the arch ; these bones being
connected to the key-bones 22, by the intermediate bones 21. Now, the
modifications which these elements of the inverted or hzmal arch of the
nasal vertebra have undergone, are, also, much less than might have been
anticipated from the extent to which the segments are modified at the oppo-
site extreme of the endoskeleton. All the normal elements of the hemal
arch, for example, are. retained: 20 is the pleurapophysis, 21 the hemapo-
physis, and 22 the hemal spine, in most fishes divided at the middle line, but
sometimes confluent with its fellow e.g. Diodon. The essential (pleur-
apophysial) part of 20 extends in many fishes (e. g. percoids) like a short
straight rib from its articulation with 13 and 14 to the condyle at its opposite
end to which the hemapophysis 20 is articulated ; but it usually, also, de-
velopes a process from its hinder margin downwards and backwards, which
gives attachment to the diverging appendage of the arch Hiv, The de-
velopment of the other bones of the arch, 21 and 22, outwards, downwards
and backwards, is still more marked in relation to the protractile and retrac-
tile movements of the arch in most osseous fishes; and some anatomists,
influenced by the form and proportions rather than the connections of those

‘bones, have described them as independent parallel arches: but, as such,
they must be regarded as being suspended by their apices or key-stones to
the axis of the skull, and as having their haunches hanging freely downwards
and outwards—a position the reverse of that of the foregoing inferior arches
of the skull and of every typical hemal arch. The reduction of that di-
-vergent development, characteristic of the bones 21 and 22 in fishes, is ef-
fected in a great degree within the limits of the piscine class: already we
_ find one of the spurious arches abrogated in the salmonoid fishes by the short-

ening of 22, and its more direct continuation from 21, which now forms the
larger part of the upper border of the mouth and supports teeth: the con-
fluent maxillaries and premaxillaries send down only a single divergent
process from their point of suspension to the palatine condyle in the plecto-

hig gnathic fishes; and the consolidation of all the elements of the palato-maxillary

arch into its normal unity is effected in the lepidosiren*. The palatines (20)
always form the true bases or suspensory piers of the inverted hemal arch

at their points of attachment to the prefrontals (14) ; the premaxillaries, 22,

_ constitute the true apex or crown at their symphysis or point of confluence,
_ H41v; the approximation of which to the anterior end of the axis of the skull
is rendered possible, in fishes, by the absence of any air-passage or nasal

z * Hunterian Lectures, Vertebrata, p. 81, fig. 29.
_ 1846. U

282 REPORT—1846.

canal. The diverging appendage, sometimes single and anchylosed to the
arch (lepidosiren); sometimes single and detached like a long, narrow bone
(some murenoids); more commonly consists of two bones (23, 24), which
extend outwards, downwards, and backwards from the pleurapophysis (20) ;
but the more constant and better ossified bone of the two, no. 24, articulates
posteriorly with the succeeding pleurapophysis (23) and combines its move-
ments with those of its own arch, just as the diverging appendages of one
thoracic hemal arch in the bird associate the movements of that arch with
those of the next in succession (as in fig. 15, pl, a, pl). The hemapophyses
here, as at the opposite end of the body, begin so far to dissociate themselves
from the pleurapophyses as to articulate also directly with the centrum (13)
as well as with the pleurapophyses. I regard this as a very interesting ap-
proximation to that condition of the typical vertebra which is illustrated by
the diagram (fig. 14), and which is seen in nature in the caudal vertebre of
the crocodiles, enaliosaurs and menopome (fig. 28, H).

From the foregoing analysis it appears, then, that in osseous fishes the
endoskeletal bones of the head are arranged, like those of the trunk, in seg-
ments; that these are four in number, and that they closely conform to the
. character of the typical vertebra. ,

Thus we have four centrums and neural arches : viz.

N 1. Epencephalic arch (figs. 1 and 5, 1, 2, 3, 4);

N 1. Mesencephalic arch (figs. 2 and 5, 5, 6, 7,8);

N 1. Prosencephalie arch (figs. 3 and 5, 9; 10, 11, 12);
N iv. Rhinencephalic arch (figs. 4 and 5, 13, 14, 15).

As a collective name for the sum of these immoveably articulated arches
would be as convenient as the anatomist finds the names ‘sacrum’ and ‘cara-
pace,’ applied to similarly consolidated portions of vertebral segments in the
pelvic and abdominal regions of certain air-breathing vertebrates, that of
‘cranium’ may well be retained for the neural arches of the skull: but it
should be understood to signify, in all animals, the bones 1 to 15 inclusive ;
whereas it has, hitherto, been applied variably in different species; some-
times including sense-capsules and facial bones, intercalated to expand the
walls.of the cavity for a large brain; and more frequently excluding true
cranial bones, those of the rhinencephalic arch, for example, which encompass
as essential a part of the encepbalic chamber, as the sacral vertebre do of the
neural canal at the opposite end of the vertebral axis ; although in both in-
stances the extremities of the neural axis may have been withdrawn, in the
course of its concentrative change and movement, from their original seat.

The hemal arches indicated by the arrows in fig. 5, the heads marking
the point of junction or crown, are,—

H 1. Scapular arch (50-52) ;
H 11. Hyoidean arch (3s—a3) ;.
H ur. Mandibular arch (28-32) ;
H tv. Maxillary arch (20-22).
The diverging appendages of the hemal arches are,—
1. The Pectoral (54-57) ;
2. The Branchiostegal (44) ;
8. The Opercular (34-37) ;
4. The Pterygoid (23-24).

The bones or parts of the splanchno-skeleton which are intercalated with

or attached to the arches of the true vertebral segments, are,—
The Petrosal (16) or ear-capsule, with the otolites, 16";
The Sclerotal (17) or eye-capsule ;
The Turbinal (19) or nose-capsule ;
The Branchial arches ;

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 283

.) The Teeth.
_. The bones of the dermo-skeleton are,—
The Supratemporals ;
_. The Supraorbitals ;
. The Suborbitals ;
The Labials.

Such appears to be the natural classification of the parts which constitute
the complex skull of osseous fishes.

As the object of the present report relates chiefly to the endoskeleton, I
have only added the osseous parts of the sense-capsules to the cranial vertebrae
in fig. 5; omitting the branchial arches and dermal bones: the hemal arches
and their appendages are given in diagrammatic outline.

Reptiles—In proceeding with the inquiry into the natural arrangement of
the skull-bones, I have selected from the Zeepétilia the crocodile, as a typical
example of that class, and one most likely to facilitate the inquiry on account
of the characteristic persistence of the primitive cranial sutures.

Pursuing the same mode of investigation as in the case of the fish, let us
disarticulate the hindmost segment of .
the skull and so detach the four bones, Fig. 18.
represented in fig. 18. The dotted ;
circle indicates the points at which
these bones are joined together, in
order to encompass the epencephalon,
or hindmost segment of the brain.
No.1 is the centrum ; 2, 2 are the neur-
apophyses with the coalesced par-
apophyses (4, 4); and 3 is the neural
spine. This element differs but little
in size and shape from the similarly
detached and depressed neural spine
of the atlas of the crocodile. The Bn: ; ;
single convex condyle at the back part _Disstticulated epencephalic such, viewed from

of no. 1 makes that centrum resemble

the posteriorly convex bodies of the
trunk-vertebre in as striking a manner as the repetition of the articular
concavity in the basioccipital of the cod (fig. 1,1) marks its serial homo-
logy with the succeeding vertebral centrums of the same animal. In the
descending process from the under part of the occipital centrum of the
crocodile (fig. 18, 1), we see a second character of the cervical centrums in
that reptile repeated, viz. their inferior exogenous spine. The neurapo-
physes (2,2), like those of the atlas, meet above the neural canal: they give
exit to the vagal and hypoglossal nerves, and protect the sides of the me-
5 dulla oblongata and cerebellum, The neural spine (3) protects the upper
Rn surface of the cerebellum: it is also traversed by tympanic cells, and assists,
with the bones 2, 2, in the formation of the chamber for the internal ear.
The special homology of the outstanding processes (4,4) in the crocodile
and serpent (fig. 10), with the similarly situated but distinct ‘ paroccipital’
bones in the cod, is confirmed by their resuming their independency in the
hinder segment of the skull of the chelonian reptiles; and the occipital neural
_arch of the crocodile is reduced by their confluence with the neurapophyses
to the condition of those of the trunk-vertebre, as composed, viz. of four
instead of six elements. <

The epencephalic arch offers the same simple condition not only in the
ophidians but in most saurians: the chameleons however retain, like the

u2

:

.

ae BX

284 REPORT— 1846.

chelonians, the ichthyic independence of the parapophyses (4, a)... In batra-
chians the epencephalic arch is reduced to the two important elements, the
reurapophyses ; which meet and join each other below as well as above the
foramen magnum, and develope the exogenous zygapophyses, or two occipital
condyles, for articulation with the corresponding processes of the neural arch
of the atlas. The basioccipital, if it exists in batrachians, is rudimental and
confluent with the basisphenoid, and the supraoccipital is in like manner
recognisable only as the posterior border of the hackwardly produced parietal.
The parapophyses are short exogenous processes of the neurapophyses of this
much simplified epencephalic arch in all batrachian reptiles.

‘The chief modification that distinguishes the above-described segment of
the crocodile’s skull from its homologue in the fish, is the absence of an
attached inverted or hemal arch. We recognise, indeed, the special homo-
logues of the piscine constituents of that arch in 50, 51 and 52, fig. 22. The
upper suprascapular piece (50) is however free, disconnected from any seg-
ment, and retains, in connection with the loss of its proximal or cranial
articulations, its cartilaginous state : the scapula (51) is ossified, as is likewise
the coracoid (52), the lower end of which is separated from its fellow by the
interposition of a median, symmetrical, partially ossified piece called ‘epister-
num’ (As). The power of recognising the special homologies of 50, 51, and
52 in the crocodile, with the similarly numbered constituents of the arch H1
in fishes (fig. 5), though masked not only by modifications of form and pro-
portion but even of very substance, as in the case of 50, depends upon the
circumstance of these bones constituting the same essential element of the
archetypal skeleton: for although in the present instance there is superadded
to the adaptive modifications above cited the rarer one of altered connections,
Cuvier does not hesitate to give the same names (suprascapulaire) to 50
and (scapulaire) to 51, in both fish and crocodile: but he did not perceive or
admit that the narrower relations of special homology were a result of, and
necessarily included in, the wider law of general homology. According to
the view of this law here taken, we discern in 50 and 51, fig. 22, a teleologically
compound pleurapophysis, in 52 a hemapophysis, and in hs the hemal
spine, completing the hemal arch.

The general relations of the scapulo-coracoid arch to a hemal or costal
one have been long recognised, but the vertebral segment to which it apper-
tains seems not hitherto to have been suspected, and has certainly not been
satisfactorily determined. Oken, who had observed the free cervical ribs in
a specimen of the Lacerta apoda, Pallas (Pseudopus), deemed them repre-
sentatives of the scapula, and this bone to be, in other animals, the coalesced
homologues of the cervical pleurapophyses*. In no animal are the conditions
for testing this question so favourable and obvious as in the crocodile: not
only do cervical ribs coexist with the scapulo-coracoid arch, but they are of
unusual length and are developed from the atlas as well as from each suc-
ceeding cervical vertebra: we can also trace them beyond the thorax to the
sacrum, and throughout a great part of the caudal region, as the sutures of
the apparently long transverse processes of the coccygeal vertebrae demon-
strate in the young animal; the lumbar pleurapophyses being manifested
at the same period as cartilaginous appendages to the ends of the long dia-
pophyses.

* “ Auch die Scapula nicht ein Knochen, sondern wenigstens eine aus finf Halsrippen
zusammengeflossene Platte ist.”—Programm, &c., 4to, 1807, p. 16. He reproduces the
same idea of the general homology of the scapula in the ‘ Lehrbuch der Natur-philosophie,’
1843, p. 331, § 2381. Carus also regards the scapulo-coracoid arch as the reunion of seve-

ral (at least three) protovertebral arches of the trunk-segments. ‘ Urtheilen des Knochen
nnd Schalen gerustes, fol. px.

See.

a ney
2

Mi

4
:
4
a
“A
:

4

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. | 285

-“The scapulo-coracoid arch, both elements of which retain the form of
‘strong-and thick vertebral and sternal ribs in the crocodile, is applied in the
skeleton of that animal over the anterior thoracic hemal arches. Viewed
as a more robust heemal arch, it is obviously out of place in reference to the
rest of its vertebral segment. If we seek to determine that segment by the
‘mode in which we restore to their ceutrums the less displaced neural arches
‘in the sacrum of the bird (fig. 27, m 1-7 4), we proceed to examine the verte-
bre before and behind the displaced arch with the view to discover the one
which needs it in order to be made typically complete. Finding no centrum and
neural arch without its pleurapophyses from the scapula to the pelvis, we give
‘up our search in that direction ; and in the opposite direction we find no verte-
“bra without its ribs until we reach the occiput: there we have centrum and
neural arch, with coalesced parapophyses—the elements answering to those
included in the arch N 1, fig. 5—but without the arch H1; which arch
can only be supplied, without destroying the typical completeness of antece-
dent cranial segments, by a restoration of the bones 50-52, to the place which
they naturally occupy in the skeleton of the fish. And since anatomists
“are generally agreed to regard the bones 50-52 in the crocodile (fig. 22)
as specially homologous with those so numbered in the fish (fig. 5), we
must conclude that they are likewise homologous in a higher sense ; that in
fig. 5 the scapulo-coracoid arch is in its natural or typical place, whereas in
the crocodile it has been displaced for a special purpose. Thus, agreeably
with a general principle, we perceive that as the lower vertebrate animal
‘illustrates the closer adhesion to the archetype by the natural articulation of
the scapulo-coracoid arch to the occiput, so the higher vertebrate manifests
the superior influence of the antagonising power of adaptive modification by
the removal of that arch from its proper segment.

The scapula retains the more common cylindrical long and slender rib-

like form of the pleurapophysis in the chelonian reptiles, where, from the
- greater length of the neck, it has retrograded further than in the crocodile
‘from its proper centrum, and is placed not upon, but within, an anterior
thoracic hemal arch, the pleurapophysis of which has, on the other hand,
been expanded like a scapula. 5
If the arguments founded upon the relations of the scapulo-coracoid arch
to the segments of the skeleton in osseous fishes and crocodilians be admitted
“to sustain the conclusion here drawn from them, that arch must be held to
form the hemal complement of the occipital vertebra in all animals. Bojanus,
in illustrating his vertebral theory of the skull by the osteology of the Eimys
. Europea, thus defines the
g J “ VERTEBRA OCCIPITALIS, SIVE CAPITIS PRIMA.
' “Basis occipitis, seu corpus hujus vertebra,
~~ Pars lateralis occipitis, sive arcus,

“Crista occipitalis, processus spinosi loco,

“ Cornu majus hyoidis, coste vertebre occipitalis comparandum *,”

He adds a dotted outline of the hyoid arch to complete the vertebra oc-
cipitalis, in tab. xii. fig. 32, B. 1 of his beautiful Monograph.

Supposing the special homology of the middle cornua of the hyoid of the
chelonian, so represented and compared to ribs by Bojanus, with the stylo-,
epi- and cerato-hyals of the fish (fig. 5, 38, 39,40) to have been correct, which

the metamorphoses of the hyoid and branchial arches in the batrachians dis-

» prove, the singular and highly interesting change of position as well as shape

of the true ceratohyals, during the same metamorphosis, prepares us to expect
_aretrogradation of the hyoid arch in respect to its proper centrum, in the
* Anatome Testudinis Europzz, fol, 1819, p. 44.

286 REPORT—1846. 3

skulls of the air-breathing vertebrates. In the young tadpole the thick car-
tilaginous hyoidean arch * is suspended, as in fishes, from the tympanic pedicle :
the slender hyoidean arch of the mature frog is suspended from the petrosal
capsule +. The mandibular arch has, also, receded ; and the scapular areh
which, at its first appearance, was in close connection with the occiput, further
retrogrades in the progress of the metamorphosis to the place where we find
it in the skeleton of the adult frog.

The argument, therefore, may be summed up as follows. The position of
the neurapophyses in the dorsal vertebra of chelonians and in the sacral ver-
tebrze of dinosaurians and birds, -shows that a change of relative position in
respect of other elements of the same vertebra may be one of the teleological
modifications to which even the most constant and important elements are
subject. Instead of viewing such shifted arches as independent individual parts,
we trace their relation to the stationary elements of the vertebral segments—
the centrums. Thus, commencing, for example, with the anterior of the
sacral vertebre of the ostrich, A in fig. 27, we observe that, besides sup-
porting its own neural arch, it bears a small portion of that of the next ver-
tebra: the third neural arch (” 1) has encroached further upon the centrum
of the vertebra in advance ; and thus, in respect to the neural arch ( 2), if
it were viewed with the centrums, ¢2 and ¢1, upon which it equally rests,
apart from the rest of the sacrum, it would appear to appertain equally to
either, and be referable to the one in preference to the other quite gra-
tuitously. Nevertheless 72 is proved, by the intermediate changes in ante-
cedent neural arches, to belong actually, and in no merely imaginary or trans-
cendental sense, to ¢ 2 altogether, and not to the segment of which ¢ 1 is the
centrum ; and in tracing the modifications of those sacral vertebrae which
follow ¢ 2, we find 2 4 to have regained nearly the whole of its centrum, ¢ 4,
and the normal relations of the elements are quite restored in the sueceeding
vertebra.

Now let us suppose the habits of the species to have required a more
extensive displacement of the arch (7 2) and its appendages: if its formal
characters as a neural arch were still retained beneath the adaptive develop-
ment superadded to the adaptive dislocation, and if the segments before and
behind the centrum ¢ 2 were found complete, and that centrum alone wanting
its neural arch; would the mere degree of modification in respect of relative
position nullify the conclusion that the shifted arch appertained to such in-
complete segment, and forbid that restoration to the typical condition, which
no anatomist, it is presumed, will dispute in the case of m 2, ¢2, fig. 27? No
anthropotomist hesitates in pronouncing the exact vertebra to which the
sixth ribs belong in the human skeleton. But, separate that costal arch
with the two bodies and neural arches of the vertebrae with which it articu-
lates, and to which of them it belonged would be as questionable as in the
instance of the displaced neural arch in the bird’s sacrum. The head of each
rib is applied half to the upper centrum, half ‘to the lower one: the upper
border of the neck of the rib articulates with the upper neural arch, the tu-
bercle with the diapophysis of the lower neural arch. Ifa naturalist, not
conversant with the definitions of human anatomy, were shown this detached
part of the human skeleton and were pressed to determine the proper centrum
and neural arch of the hypothetically displaced costal element, the attempt
might seem to him gratuitous: and to the question, to which of such
centrums the rib exclusively (as to the pre-existing pattern) belonged ? he

* Cuvier, Ossem. Foss. v. pt. ii. pl. 24, fig. 23, a.
+ Ib. fig. 27, a:—an intermediate stage is shown at fig. 25. Dugés and Reichert confirm
and further illustrate this change of position of the hyoidean arch.

i
:

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 287

might reply, to neither. And such, doubtless, would be the matter-of-fact
answer most congenial to the character of mind which would limit its views
to the specialities of the ribs as parts independent of any ideal archetype, or
be unable or unwilling to push the consideration of their connections beyond
the purposes apparently subserved thereby. A second anatomist might see
in the more constant articulation of the costal tubercle with the transverse
process, a character which would incline the balance in favour of the vertebra
to which the transverse process belonged. A third anatomist might extend
his comparisons to other ribs and centrums, and finding the lower centrum
obtaining by degrees a greater proportion of the head of the rib, until the
first and last ribs respectively wholly articulated to the centrum answering to
the lower one in the case of the hypothetically detached sixth pair, he would
conclude that such pair of ribs belonged essentially to the lower and not
to the upper supporting centrum, and he would count accordingly such
lower centrum with its neural arch, as the sixth of those vertebrze which are
characterized as supporting ribs. The anthropotomist, in fact, in so counting
and defining the dorsal vertebre and ribs, admits unconsciously perhaps, an
important principle in general homology, which pursued to its legitimate
consequences and further applied, demonstrates that the scapula is the modi-
fied rib of that centrum and neural arch which he calls the ‘ occipital bone,’
and that the change of place which chiefly masks that relation (for a very
elementary acquaintance with comparative anatomy shows how little mere
form and proportion affect the homological characters of bones) differs only
in extent and not in kind from the modification which makes a minor amount
of comparative observation requisite in order to determine the relation of the
shifted sixth 1ib to its proper centrum.

With reference, therefore, to the occipital vertebra of the crocodile, if the
comparatively well-developed and permanently distinct ribs of all the cervical
vertebre prove the scapular arch to belong to none of those segments, and,
if it be wanting to complete the occipital segment, which it actually does
complete in fishes, then the same conclusion must apply to the same arch in
other animals, and we must regard the occipital vertebra of the tortoise as
«completed below by its scapulo-coracoid arch, and, not as Bojanus supposed,
by its hyoidean arch*.

With these views of the general homology of the scapulo-coracoid arch,
the embryologist will observe with less surprise its constant appearance in
the first instance close to the occiput, and its equally constant primitive ver-
‘tical position; however far back it may be subsequently removed, or to
whatever extent it may be rotated, in the same progress to maturity, out of
its original parallel direction with the more normal pleurapophyses.

Returning to.the study of the crocodile’s skull in reference to the verte-
brate archetype, if we proceed to dislocate the next segment in advance of
the occipital, we bring away in connection with the long base-bone, 5 and 9,
fig. 22, the bones connected by the double lines N11, N 111, and by the

* Geoffroy St. Hilaire selected the opercular and subopercular bones to form the inverted
arch of his seventh (occipital) cranial vertebra (Table III. and note 11), and took no account
of the instructive natural connections and relative position of the hyoidean and scapular
varches in fishes. With regard-to the scapular arch, he alludes to its articulation with the

_skull:in the lowest of the vertebrate classes as an ‘ amalgame inattendue’ (Anatomie Philo-

sophique, p..481); and elsewhere describes it as a ‘‘ disposition véritablement trés singuliére,

et que le manque absolu de cou et une combinaison des piéces du sternum avec celles de la
téte pouvoient seules rendre possible.”—Annales du Muséum, ix. p.361. A due appre-
ciation of the law of vegetative uniformity or repetition, and of the ratio of its prevalence
and power to the grade of organization of the species, might have enabled ‘him ‘to discern
the true signification of the connection of the scapular arch in fishes.

288 REPORT—1846.

curved arrows H 11 and Hu. The relations of the superior series of bones
as neural arches to the optic lobes and cerebrum are even less doubtful than
in many fishes, by reason of the much smaller degree of independent ossifi-
cation of the proper capsule of the acoustic labyrinth. Taking, then, the
bones forming the arch N 11, we find them, viewed from behind, to present
the general arrangement shown
in fig. 19. The hinder (basisphe-
noidal) portion of the bone s and
9 forms the centrum, and imme-
diately supports the floor of the
mesencephalon, or lobe of the
third ventricle, being’ excavated
for the pituitary prolongation of
that cavity: it also sends a pro-
cess downwards, repeating, like
the basioccipital, the inferior
exogenous spine of the centrums
of the cervical vertebra. The
bones 6, 6 protecting the sides
of the mesencephalon, and notch-
ed for the transmission of the
trigeminal nerve, manifest the Pie : ; {
neurapop hysia i characters of the rete ae mesencephalic arch, viewed from behind :
segment. As accessory func-
tions they contribute, like the corresponding bones in fishes, to the forma-
tion of the ear-chamber. They have, however, a little retrograded in posi-
tion (see fig. 9), resting below, in part, upon the occipital centrum, and sup-
porting more of the spine of that centrum (3) than of their own (7); which
is, however, formed of a single bone, and in so far manifests more of the
normal character of the element completing the neural arch, as its crown or
key-bone, than does the homologous divided and often divaricated bone in
fishes. This and other analogous facts show that although the lowest ver-
tebrate class adheres most, as a whole, to the archetype, yet that it can be
recognised clearly and unequivocally only by patient study of its modifica-
tions in all classes: for even the lowest have special exigencies arising out
of their sphere of existence calling for modifications of the type which are
not present in other and higher classes. We shall find, indeed, that the con-
nation of the basi- and pre-sphenoids ceases in mammals, and that they only
coalesce in that class, being primitively distinct ; so that the second cranial
centrum (5) may be removed with its neural arch, in the foetal quadruped
(fig. 24) or human subject (25), without doing violence to nature by the use
of the saw. The bones s, s, fig. 19, wedged between 6 and 7, here, also, ma-
nifest more of their parapophysial character than in fishes, inasmuch as they
are excluded from the inner walls of the cranium, whilst they retain and
manifest broadly their characters as outstanding processes for muscular at-
tachment. But, besides affording ligamentous attachment to the hyoid arch
(29, 40), they articulate largely with the proximal element (1s) of the man-
dibular arch, whose backward displacement, in comparison with its more
normal position in the fish’s skull (fig. 5), is as clearly illustrated in the meta-
morphosis of the anourous batrachia, as is that of the hyoidean or scapular
arches.

Referring, then, to the side view of the cranial vertebra of the crocodile
(fig. 22), we see the hemal arch of the second or parietal vertebra in the
hyoid (39, 40, 41) retaining so much of its embryonic dimensions as is required

P
e

‘ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 289

by ‘its restricted functions, and having no call for progressive growth in sub-
serviency to a branchial respiration. It consists of a ligamentous stylohyal,
its plewrapophysis, retaining the same primitive histological condition which
obstructs the ordinary recognition of the same elements of the lumbar hemal
arches. The hemopophyses and hemal spine are, however, here as there,
more advanced in respect of their tissue. The hemapophysis is ossified like
the so-called ‘abdominal ribs,’ and usually, like them, consists of two portions,
having the special names of epihyal (39) and ceratohyal (40): the hemal
spine (41) retains its cartilaginous state like its homotypes in the abdomen:
there'they get the special name of ‘ linea alba’ or abdominal sternum, here
of * basihyal.’ With respect to formal modification, this element is chiefly
remarkable in the crocodile for its broad expanse: it sustains the ascending
valvular ridge at the base of the tongue, which, applying itself against the
descending ‘ palatum molle,’ constitutes an effectual barrier against the entry
of water into the glottis from the mouth, whilst the crocodile is engaged in
overcoming the struggles of a submerged and drowning prey.

There being no need of diverging appendages from the hyoidean arch in

‘the crocodile, brauchiostegal rays are not developed. The scapular arch is

similarly simplified in Anguts and other serpentiform lizards ; but, to those
who recognise its true homology, its presence without a trace of its appen-
dages, the fore-limbs, will create no more surprise, than the presence of the
hyoidean arch without the branchiostegal fins or of the mandibular arch without
the opercular fins.

On removing the neural arch of the parietal vertebra, with or without the
section of the connate centrum (5), the bones completing, with the part (9),
the corresponding arch of the frontal vertebra present the general arrange-
ment shown in fig. 20.°

The compressed produced
bone, 9, shown in natural con-
nection with the bone 10 in
fig. 9, notwithstanding its mo-
dified form, presents all the
essential characters of the cen-
trum of the arch: although it
may have been developed ex-
clusively from the capsule of
the notochord, like the coa-
leseed inferior parts of the cer-
vical centrums in the silurus:
there is no distinct ossicle an-
swering to the central part of
the centrum of the frontal ver-
tebra, likeo', fig.5,in certain
bony fishes. On the other hand,
awefindthe neurapophysial cha-
racters of the orbito-sphenoids
(10, 10) more largely and typi-
cally manifested in the croco-
dile: they are smoothly excavated within by the sides of the prosencephalon :
they dismiss the great special-sense nerves of the eye by the notch (fig. 9, op),
and the motor nerves by the notch s: they show, however, the same ten-
dency to change of position as the succeeding neurapophyses; for though

Disarticulated prosencephalie arch, viewed from
behind: Crocodile.

_ they support a greater proportion of their proper spine (11), they also sup-

port part of the succeeding spine (7), and rest below in part upon the pa-

290 REPORT—1846.

rietal centrum (5). The newral spine of the frontal vertebra (11) retains its
normal character as a single symmetrical bone, like the parietal spine, which
it partly overlaps. It is much developed longitudinally, but more in the
anterior, and less in the lateral direction than in most fishes,

One cannot contemplate the relative position of the frontal to the parietal
and of the parietal to the supraoccipital, which is overlapped by the parietal
and itself overlaps the flattened spine of the atlas, without a conviction of the
serial homology of these single, median, imbricated bones, all completing
arches above the neural axis, and each permanently distinct from tie piers
or haunches of the arch of which it forms the key-stone. In like manner
the serial homology of those piers or neurapophyses, viz. the lamine of
the atlas, the exoccipitals, the alisphenoids and the orbitosphenoids, is equally
unmistakeable. Nor can we close our eyes to the same serial relationship
of the postfrontals (fig. 20, 12, 12) as parapophyses of their vertebra, with
the mastoids (s) and the coalesced paroccipitals (4). The frontal parapo-
physis, 12, is wedged between the back part of the spine, 11, and the neur-
apophysis, 10: its outward process extends backwards and joins the next
parapophysis (s); but, notwithstanding the retrogradation of the mandi-
bular arch, it still receives a small part of its own plewrapophysial element
(28). This element now manifests its typical unity: vegetative subdivision,
much reduced in the batrachian reptiles, no more prevails in the develop-
ment of the frontal pleurapophysis in any higher vertebrate. The serpents
exhibit this element under the common form of a rib; longer, indeed, than
are any of the pleurapophyses in the batrachian order; but it has so far
retreated in serpents as to be exclusively attached to the parietal parapo-
physis, which is remarkably elongated and produced backwards, and sus-
pends the long, slender, straight and simple frontal pleurapophysis (tympanic
pedicle) vertically from its posterior extremity. In lacertians no. 2s is ver-
tically suspended from no. s, and, commonly also, from no. 27, which is con-
tinued from the backwardly produced parapophysis of the frontal vertebra
(12) to that of the parietal vertebra (s) in most of this division of the Cu-
vierian order Sauria. In chelonians and crocodilians the diverging appen-
dage of the maxillary arch (27) descends and applies itself to a large propor-
tion of no. 2s, down to its lower articular end, and contributes to fix and
strengthen that bone, as well as the modified costal arch from which it di-
verges.

The condition of the shortening, expansion and fixation of the frontal
pleurapophysis in crocodiles and chelonians is exemplified in the uses to
which the modified heemapophyses, completing that' costal arch, are put.
Tortoises crop the grass by the application of the trenchant horny plates of
the under to those of the upper jaw: turtles equally need a fixed suspensory
joint of the under jaw in the act of biting and dividing the tough sea-weeds.
Crocodiles have the frontal hemapophyses (mandibular rami) unusually
long; supporting numerous large laniary teeth, and requiring a fixed and
firm point of suspension in the violent actions to which they are put in re-
taining, and overcoming the struggles of their prey.

The teleological complication of the lower or distal elements of the arch
in question (29-32, fig. 22) is carried further than in fishes: there was more
need, in fact, for a combination of the greatest elasticity and strength with
the least weight of bone* in the frontal hamapophysis of the crocodile than
in the frontal pleurapophysis of the fish (2s a—2s d, fig. 5).

There, lastly, remain then in the skull of the crocodile the bones inter-

* Conybeare, Geol. Trans. 1821, p. 565. Buckland, Bridgewater Treatise, 1836, vol. i.
p. 176. This author well illustrates the final purpose of the subdivision of the mandibular

“cephalic prolongations traversing

“spine of the nasal vertebra was

‘cies of alligator I have observed

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 291

‘sected by the lines N rv and the arrow H rv, with those numbered 26, 27,
and 73, and we have to inquire whether through all the modifications which
their extreme position subjects them to, we can still trace any evidence of their
arrangement according to the vertebrate type.

A long and slender symmetrical grooved bone, like the ossified inferior
half of the capsule of a notochord, is continued forwards from the centrum
of the foregoing vertebra, and stands in the relation of a cenérum (13) to the
vertical plates of the bones 14, which expand as they rise into the broad and
thick triangular plates with an ex- :
posed horizontal superior surface. Fic. 21
The arch of which these form the My Sar
piers, and to the anterior rhinen-

which arch they stand in the re-
lation of neuwrapophyses, is com-
pleted by the two bones(13): which
I, therefore, regard as a divided
neural spine. In fishes we have
seen that the corresponding ele-
ment of the parietal vertebra was
similarly divided, whilst the neural

single: in the crocodile the re-
verse conditions prevail. In a spe-

the bone 13 continued further for-
ward, expanded, and divided at the
middle line, the two divisionsform-
ing a small disc on the bony palate.
The centrum of the nasal vertebra
‘a divid ed longitudinally ue the ane Disarticulated rhinencephalic arch, with the anchylosed
‘dian line in batrachians, ophidians, pterygoids (24) viewed from behind : Crocodile.
and most lacertians; it is single in

‘chelonians, but retains its carti-

Jaginous ‘state in some species (Emys expansa, e.g.). The neurapophyses
(14, 14) transmit the olfactory nerves in all reptiles; but the ganglions are
usually withdrawn backwards into the prosencephalic neural arch, leaving

ramus in the recent and extinct saurians by pointing out the similarity of the structure to
that adopted in binding together several parallel plates of elastic wood, or steel, to make a
cross-bow; and also in setting together thin plates of steel in the springs of carriages. Dr.
Buckland-adds, ‘Those who have witnessed the shock given to the head of a crocodile by
the act of snapping together ‘its thin long jaws, must have seen how liable to fracture the
lower jaw would be, were it composed of one bone‘only on each side.”’—Jb. p. 177. The
same reasoning applies to the composite condition of the long tympanic pedicle in fishes.
In each case the splicing and bracing together of thin flat bones of unequal length and of
varying thickness affords compensation for the weakness and risk of fracture that’ would other-
wise have attended the elongation of the snout. Inthe abdomen of the crocodile and plesi-
osaur the analogous composition of the hemapophyses (abdominal ribs) allows of a slight
change of length in the expansion and contraction of the walls of that cavity: and since
amphibious reptiles, when on land, rest the whole weight of the abdomen directly upon the
ground, the necessity of the modification for diminishing liability to fracture further appears.
‘But what we are here ‘chiefly concerned in is the evidence that ‘the general homology of
elementary:parts of a natural segment is not affected by the modification of teleological
composition of such parts. What happens to the hemapopbysial or inferior elements of
the inverted arch in the abdominal segments of the crocodile also affects the same elements
of a cranial hemal arch; and the subdivision of the pleurapophyses of the trunk in the
“stutgeon is repeated in the same elements of the cranial vertebrz in osseous fishes.

292 REPORT—1846.

only the nerve-trunks to be protected by the nasal neurapophyses. These
are, therefore, more approximated, and the antericr termination of the neural
canal is much contracted; and, in the tailless batrachia, the nasal neur- ’
apophyses coalesce together.

We recognise in that element (20) of the fourth or foremost inverted arch
of the crocodile’s skull, which is in connection with the body (vomer, 13) and
descending plates of the neurapophyses (prefrontals, 14) of the nasal vertebra,
the proximal or pleurapophysial element of such arch; and the same repe-
tition of the characteristic connections of the bone, 20, which enabled Cuvier
and Geoffroy to recognise its special homology with the palatine bone in the
fish, establishes its claim to be equally regarded in the crocodile as the pleur-
apophysis of its vertebral segment; although it now affords but a partial at-
tachment to the bone 21, which forms the next element of the inverted arch.
This bone, the hemapophysis, has undergone a striking change in its propor-
tions by development both in length and breadth: it is connected not only with
no. 20 behind and with no. 22 before, but with the elongated spine, no. 15, of its
own vertebra, and with the lacrymals, 73, above ; with its fellow of the opposite
side below, and with a well-developed proximal element, no. 26, of a strong
diverging appendage behind. The hemal spine, no. 22, is divided, and the
arch is completed by the symphysial junction of the two halves at Hiv. The
nasal aperture or entry to the air-passages forms the span or area of the
much-modified inverted arch constituting the upper jaw of the crocodile.
The two proximal elements of the arch, nos. 20 and 21, continue to send
outwards and backwards exogenous diverging processes; but they consti-
tute a smaller proportion of the bones than in fishes, and both processes di-
rectly support distinct bones representing the diverging appendage of the
arch, and serving to fix and attach it to the succeeding arch. The pleurapo-
physial appendage (pterygoid, 24) soon coalesces, however, with its fellow
and with the centrum of its own vertebra (vomer, 13), and then expands to
unite by a broad sutural surface with the coalesced centrums of the frontal
and parietal vertebre (9 and 5). A second osseous piece (ectopterygoid,
24’) diverges from the pleurapophysis external to the preceding and attaches
it to the hemapophysis, to the heamapophysial appendage, and to the par-
apophysis of the frontal vertebra. The strong diverging ray from the hem-
apophysis is teleologically subdivided into nos. 26 (malar) and 27 (squamosal),
and firmly attaches the maxillary arch to the pleurapophysis (28) of the man-
dibular one.

In the chelonian reptiles the modifications of the nasal segment of the
skull adhere pretty closely to the type of those in the crocodile; the centrum
is more independent and better developed, but the divisions of the neural
spine have coalesced with their neurapophyses: the diverging appendages,
a6 and 27, are usually developed into broad and flat bones. In many lizards
we find the nasal centrum divided but the neural spine single: the hemal
spine is, also, single, as a general rule, and sends upwards and backwards a
process to join the neural spine, divide the area of the hemal canal, and
terminate the vertebral series anteriorly. The hemapophysial diverging ap-
pendage commonly resumes its long and slender ray-like proportions, and joins
the parapophyses of both frontal and parietal vertebre as well as the prox-
imal end of the pleurapophysis of the mandibular arch. In serpents both
divisions of this appendage are absent (indicating the inferior character of
the bones 26 and 27 in general homology), but the two parts of the pleurapo-
physial appendage, 21 and 24', are retained and serve as levers in the move-
ments of the maxillary arch. The spine of that hemal arch is single, and
commonly united only by lax and elastic ligaments with the hemapophyses,

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ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 293

which may be divaricated like the halves of the mandibular arch, so as to
widen the mouth laterally ; and this free suspension and incomplete closure
of the principal costal arches of the cranium in serpents repeats in an inter-
esting manner the characteristic free and open condition of all the costal arches
of their trunk. In the genus Tythlops the diverging appendage of the
palato-maxillary arch is reduced to the primitive condition of a long and
slender ray. In anourous batrachians a long and slender backwardly pro-
duced exogenous process of the hzmapophysis (maxillary) joins a shorter
advancing exogenous process of the distal division of the next pleurapo-
physis (tympanic): but in the tailed species the maxillary arch is fixed only
by a broad (pterygoid) appendage; and both maxillary and premaxillary retain
only their essential connections as forming the inferior arch of their segment.
In the proteus and siren the pleurapophysis (maxillary) is almost obsolete.

The bones nos. 24, 24', 26 and 27, being shown to be the least constant
members of the group forming the nasal segment, and to form by their posi-
tion and direction, the diverging appendages of the hzmal arch H tv, there
remains in the skull of the crocodile only the bone 73, which by its position
in front of the orbit and its relation to the lacrymal duct, is to be referred
like the great anterior suborbital mucous bone in fishes to the dermal skele-
ton. In like manner the palpebral or supra-orbital scale-bones are to be ex-
cluded from the category of the pieces of the endoskeleton. The small and
inconstant ossifications in the capsule of the organ of smell, together with the
scarcely ossified sclerotals (17), the small petrosal, is, and the columelliform
stapes, 16, are intercalated portions of sense-capsules and appendages re-
ferable to the system of the splanchnoskeleton.

Thus the endoskeletalsystem of bones of the head of the crocodile are natu-
rally arranged in four segments, each composed of a centrum with a neural
and a hemal arch. The hemal arches have been subjected, as in the trunk,
to most modification ; that of the occipital vertebra having been displaced;
that of the parietal vertebra detached from its segment and arrested in its
development ; whilst that of the frontal vertebra is articulated in a very small
proportion to the parapophysis of its own segment, but chiefly to that of the
parietal segment, with paroccipital connections also; it is immensely de-
veloped, the hemapophysial portion being the chief seat of extension. The
heemal arch of the nasal segment is also very large, but shows as much
excess of development in breadth as that of the frontal vertebra in length.

‘The diverging appendage is more complex than in fishes: one piece indeed,

no. 25, fig. 5, is absent, but three others, 24’, 26 and 27, have been superadded.
The diverging appendages of the frontal and parietal vertebree cease to be
developed in every class above that of fishes ; but that of the occipital hemal
arch, though it no longer shows the luxuriant profusion of rays that distin- ~
guishes it in fishes, begins to assume a more fixed and definite character with
more special powers and independent movements of its constituent parts.
The first segment (53), doubtfully and obscurely recognizable in any fish, is
henceforth a constant and important bone, and is always single: the next
segment consists as exclusively of two bones, connate, indeed, in batra-
chians: the distal segment presents two jointed rays (digits) in the Amphi-

‘uma didactylum ; three rays in Amph. tridactylum and the proteus and four
‘rays in the Siren lacertina ; it branched into as many as nine rays in the ex-

tinct ichthyosaurs ; but they never exceed five in the existing saurians, which
number is presented by this appendage in the crocodile (57, fig. 22.)
Birds.—The cranium of the bird offers the extremest instance of a homo-
logically compound bone, and its development the clearest evidence of that
principle of unity of composition which lies at the bottom of all the modifica-

294 REPORT—1846.

tions of the cephalic division of the vertebrate endoskeleton. Although, as a
general rule, the separate cranial bones can be discerned only at a very early
period, yet in those birds in which the power of flight is abrogated the indi-
cations of the primitive centres of ossification endure longer, and in the
species here selected for the illustration of the cranial segments (fig. 23) the
constituent bones of the skull, though figured of their natural size, have, with
the exception of the basioccipital, 1, and basisphenoid, 3, and the two bones,
6 and s, which coalesce with the petrosal, 16, been separated by maceration
merely. I may remark, however, that in all birds, certain bones, which
coalesce with others in the cranium of most mammals, always retain their
primitive individuality ; the tympanic (2s) and the pterygoid (21) for ex-
ample.

The hindmost segment of the cranium (N 1, fig. 23) so closely repeats the
characters of the epencephalic neural arch of the crocodile (fig. 18), as to
render a separate and full view of it unnecessary for the illustration of its
vertebral character. The basioccipital (1) still developes the major part of
the single articular condyle, and sends down a process, more marked in the
struthious genera, and especially the dinornis, than in most other birds: in
all respects this primitively distinct bone retains the character of the centrum
of its vertebra.

The exoccipitals, 12, contributing somewhat more to the occipital condyle
than in the crocodile, develope, as in that reptile, the paroccipital (24) as an
outstanding exogenous ridge or process: but it is lower in position than in
the crocodile: the proper newrapophysial characters of no. 2 are fully main-
tained. The supraoccipital (3) now begins to manifest more strongly the
flattening and development in breadth, by which the spinous elements lose
the formal character from which their name originated, and are converted
from long into flat bones. We saw the first step in this most common of the
changes to which one and the same endoskeletal element is subject, in the
detached neural spine of the atlas of the crocodile: that of the occipital
vertebra of the same animal presented another stage in the metamorphosis:
we have a third degree in the bird, and the extreme of expansion is attained
in the human subject (fig. 25, 3), where the spine is sometimes developed,
like that of the parietal vertebra, from two centres. But the arrested steps
in this strange change of form and proportion demonstrate the essential
nature of the part, as the neural arch, whilst the constancy of the characters
of connexion is shown by this crown of the arch of the occipital vertebra
having the exoccipitals as its piers or haunches from the fish to the human
subject. It always protects the cerebellum; is absent in the frog where this
organ is a mere rudiment; and is present in the crocodile in the ratio of
the superior size of the cerebellum. The further development of the cere-
bellum is the condition of the superior breadth of the spine or crown of
the epencephalic arch in the bird.

The arguments that determined the nature and displacement of the hemal
arch of the occipital vertebra in the crocodile apply with equal force to that
in the bird. The extent of the displacement, it is true, has been greater:
not seven, but seven-and-twenty vertebre may intervene between the place
of the scapulo-coracoid arch and the remainder of its proper segment con-
stituting the occipital region of the simple cranial box in the bird. But this
difference of extent ought no more to mask the real relationship of such
costal arch to its centrum, than the degree of development of the spine of
the: occipital vertebra affects the general homology of that element.

In the ostrich, and other struthious birds, the hemal arch of the occipital
vertebra has retained much of its embryonic proportions. The pleurapo-

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ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 295

physial part (51) has, also, retained its slender rib-like form* ; it has coalesced
with the hemapophysis (sz), and the inverted arch is completed, as in the
crocodile, by a hzemal spine, as much modified in form by flattening and ex-
pansion as is the neural spine represented by the supraoccipital (3). The
diverging appendage of the occipito-hemal arch also retains much of its
primitive simple character: a long and slender bone (53) supports two rays
(4, 55), and there is an attempt at three at 57, of which one is short, atrophied
and anchylosed to the rest. In the two small bones (s6, 56) interposed be-
tween this and the preceding segment, we recognise the special homologues
of the carpal series in the crocodile and fish: in 51 we have the ulna, in 55
the radius, in 53 the humerus, in 57 the metacarpus ; in d 3 and da the rudi-
ments of the digits so numbered in the crocodile (fig. 22) and the mammal
(fig. 24). The evidences of the unity of plan in the construction of the
scapular limb, whether it be an arm with the prehensile hand, a hoofed fore-
leg, a wing, or a fin, are admitted by all; the same scapula, humerus, anti-
brachial, carpal, metacarpal and phalangial bones are readily recognised by the
tyro in comparative osteology in the ape, the horse, the whale, the bird, the
tortoise and the crocodile. The beautiful simplicity of the fundamental basis
of all these adaptations of structure is descanted upon in all our popular
teleological treatises. But the higher law governing the existence of these
special homologies has attracted little attention in this country. Yet the
inquiry into that more general principle of conformity to type according to
which it has pleased the Creator of organic forms to restrict the manifesta-
tions of the variety of proportion and shape and substance and even relative
position of the limbs requisite for the various tasks assigned to the vertebrate
species, is one that by no means transcends the scope of the comparative
anatomist. And the conclusion to which my comparisons have conducted
me is, that one and the same element, viz. the diverging appendage of the
occipital vertebra, forms the seat or substratum of all the adaptive modifica-
tions of the’ part called ‘anterior’ or ‘ superior extremity.’

The second segment of the skull has for its central element a bone (fig.
23, 5), which in the bird, as in other ovipara, is connate with that (9) which
stands in the same relation to the third cranial segment; the proof of the
natural distinction of these segments is given by the neural, N 11, N 111,
and hemal, H 11, H 111, arches. Probably the circumstance of the bodies
of those vertebré being formed by ossifications of the fibrous capsule of the
‘notochord, representing the external or cortical parts only of such centrums,
may be the condition, or a favourable physical cause of such connation.
The neural arch of the parietal vertebra retains the same characters which
it first manifested in fishes. Besides the neuwrapophyses (6) impressed by the
mesencephalic ganglia and transmitting the trigeminal nerves, besides the
vastly expanded and again, asin fishes, divided neural spine (7), the parapo-
physis (a) is independently developed. It is of large proportional size ; and,
owing to the raised dome of the neural arch, is relatively lower in position
than in the crocodile; it sends downwards and outwards an unusually
long ‘mastoid’ process, and forms a large proportion of the outer wall of
the chamber of the internal ear with the bony capsule of which it speedily
coalesces. :

The hzmal arch of the parietal vertebra (H 11) is more reduced than in
the crocodile, and owes much of its apparently typical character to the re-
tention of the thyrohyals (46, 47) borrowed from the branchial arches of the

* The very common modification of form which this element undergoes in becoming ex-

panded into the broad scapula of man and other mammalia, appears to have influenced Oken
in his idea of that bone being the homologue of a congeries of ribs,

296 REPORT—1846.

visceral system, which are feebly and transitorily manifested in the embryo
bird. These spurious cornua project freely or are freely suspended, and are
the subjects of singular and excessive development, as has been exemplified
in the chapter on Special Homology. -

The bones (10) of the third neural arch protect a smaller proportion of the
prosencephalon than in the crocodile, but maintain their newrapophysial rela-
tion to it and to the optic nerves: the neural spines (11) cover a larger proportion
of the hemispheres, and, with their homotypes (7), exhibit a marked increase
of development in conformity with that of the cerebral centres protected by
their respective arches. The parapophysis of the frontal vertebra (12) is
relatively smaller in the bird than in the cold-blooded vertebrates, and is
rarely ossified from an independent centre ; but I have seen this in the emeu,
and it appears to have been constantly an autogenous element in the dinornis.
The hemal arch of the frontal vertebra has been transferred backwards to
the parietal one; its plewrapophysis (28), which is simple, as in the crocodile,
articulating exclusively with the parietal parapophysis (s), though this in
some birds unites with that of the frontal vertebra. In the ycung ostrich
and many other birds traces of the composite character of the hemapophysis
are long extant; and bear obviously a homological relation to the teleologi-
cally compound character of the element in the crocodile: for the pieces,
nos. 29, 29/, 30/ and 31 ultimately, and in most birds early, coalesce
with each other and with the hemal spine (32), the halves of which are con-
fluent at the symphysis.

The centrum (13) of the nasal vertebra is always single, and, when it does
not remain distinct, coalesces with the neurapophyses, 14, and pleurapophyses,
20, of its own segment, and sometimes, also, with the rostral production of the
frontal centrum (9): it is elongated and pointed at its free termination, and
deeply grooved above where it receives the above-named rostrum ; indicating
by both its form and position that it owes its existence, as bone, to the ossi-
fication of the outer capsule of the anterior end of the notochord. In the
ostrich the long presphenoidal rostrum intervenes between the vomer (13)
and prefrontals (14). These latter bones manifest, however, as has been
shown in the paragraph on their special homology (p. 214), all the essential
neurapophysial relations to the rhinencephalon and olfactory nerves: but
they early coalesce together, or are connate, as in the tailless batrachians.
The neural spine (15) is divided along the middle line ; but in most birds the
suture becomes obliterated and the spine coalesces with its neurapophyses,
with the frontal spine and with those parts of the hemal arch of the nasal
vertebra with which it comes in contact.

The pleurapophyses (fig. 23, 20) of this inverted arch retain their typical
connections with the nasal centrum and neurapophyses at one end, and with
the hemapophysis (21) at the other end, and they also support the constant
element of the diverging appendage of the arch, no. 2. The hemapo-
physis (21) resumes in birds more of its normal proportions and elongated
slender form: but the hemal spine (22) is largely developed though undi-
vided, and sends upwards and backwards from the part corresponding to the
symphysis of the spine, when this element is divided, a long pointed process
(22'), which joins and usually coalesces with the neural spine (15) and divides
the anterior outlet of the hzemal canal into two apertures called the nostrils.
The modification of the inferior arch of the nasal vertebra in the lizard tribe
is here repeated. The pleurapophysial appendage, 24, connects the palato-
maxillary arch with 2s, and in the ostrich and a few other birds, also with s:
the second or hemapophysial ray of the diverging appendage is deve-
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ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 297

of the hemal arch of the nasal vertebra with that of the frontal vertebra,
and consisting of the two styliform ossicles (26 and 27) which extend from the
hemapophysis, 21, 21’, to the pleurapophysis, 28 : the essential relationship of

the compound ray, 26 and 27, with the nasal vertebra, is indicated by their

becoming confluent with its hemapophysis (at 22”), whilst they always main-
tain an arthrodial articulation with the pleurapophysis (2s) of the succeeding
vertebra.

The bones of the splanchno-skeleton intercalated with the segments of the
endoskeleton in the bird’s skull are the petrosal (16), between the neural
arches of the occipital and parietal vertebra, early coalescing with the ele-
ments of those vertebre with which it comes in contact: the sclerotals (17),
interposed between the frontal and nasal neural arches: and the thyro-hyals
(a7), retained in connection with the debris of the hemal arch of the parietal
vertebra, H u. The olfactory capsule remains cartilaginous. The dermal
bone (73) is well-developed and constant: a second supraorbital dermal bone
is occasionally present. All the endoskeletal bones manifest, under every
adaptive modification, the segmental arrangement, and it is difficult to con-
template the repetition of the arrangement of the cranial bones around the
primary segments of the encephalon in the series of arches closed respectively
by the bones N 1, N 11, N 111, N tv, together with that of the corresponding
number of arches closed below, at H rv, H 111, H 11 and H1, without a con-
viction that the type illustrated in fig. 15 is that upon which these seg-
ments of the skull have been constructed. ‘This conclusion might seem
forced, in respect to the occipital vertebra, were its displaced hemal arch
and appendages to be viewed without reference to their relative position and
connections in the lower vertebrate classes; but it will be confirmed and
shown to be agreeable to nature and to the recognised kinds and grades of
modification to which the elements of one and the same vertebra are subject,
by observing in the young bird the distinct pleurapophysial elements of those
cervical vertebrae, beyond which the corresponding elements of the occiput
have retrograded, in obedience to the functions which the hemal arch of
that vertebra and its appendages are destined to perform in the feathered
class.

Mammals.—ltf the foregoing views of the general homology of the bones
of the skull be agreeable to their essential nature, we should expect that the
new and additional modifications, in the mammalian class, which tend to
obscure those relations would be seated in the appendages and peripheral
elements of the endoskeletal segments, or in the capsules and appendages of
the special-organs of sense.

I have selected with a view to testing such anticipation the skull of a young
pachyderm*, and, after successively disarticulating the segments in the order
in which they have been previously described, I have given a side view of
them arranged in correspondence with the figures 23, 22, and 5. (Fig. 24.)

The neural arch of the occipital vertebra, N 1, agrees with that of the bird and
crocodile in the coalescence of the parapophysis, 4, with the newrapophysis,
2; but the process, 4, now descends from the lower part of the arch, and,
as in many other mammals, is of great length. An articular condyle is also
developed from each neurapophysis which articulates with the concave an-
terior zygapophysis of the atlas, and is the homotype of the posterior zyga-
pophysis in the trunk-vertebre. The centrum (1) is reduced, like that of

_ the atlas, to a compressed plate, and its hinder articular surface is not more

is

* The skull of the ruminant is perhaps still better adapted to demonstrate the vertebral
relations of the cranial bones: that of the sheep is the subject of the diagram for this pur-
pose in the concluding volume of my ‘ Hunterian Lectures.’

1846. x

298 REPORT—1846.

developed than is the front one of the centrum of the atlas, with which, in-
deed, it is loosely connected by ligament. The expanse of the occipital
‘spine, 3, has been governed, agreeably with a foregoing remark, by the su-
perior development of the cerebellum. :

The hzemal arch of the occipital vertebra is represented, like those of the
cervical vertebra, by the plewrapophysial elements only (51); but these, in
most mammals, are developed into broad triangular plates with outstanding
processes: that called ‘spine’ and ‘acromion’ is exogenous ; but that called
‘coracoid’ is always developed from an independent osseous centre (a rudi-
mental representative of the hemapophysis, 52), which coalesces with the
pleurapophysis in mammalia, and only attains its normal proportions, com-
pleting the arch with the hemal spine (episternum) in the monotremes.

In many mammals the arch is completed by bones, which are, apparently,
the hemapophyses of the atlas, e. g. in man (fig. 25, 52’), which have followed
the occipital heemal arch in its backward displacement, but not quite to the
same extent.

The diverging appendage, though retaining the general features of its
primitive radiated form, has been the seat of great development and much
modification and adjustment of its different subdivisions (53-57) in relation
to the locomotive office it is now called upon to perform.

With the exception of this excess of development of the appendage, the
defective development and displacement of the hzmal arch, and the coales-
cence of the parapophyses in the neural arch, there are few points of resem-
blance which are not sufficiently salient between the segment N1, H1 in the
mammal, and that so marked in the fish (fig. 5). And, if the interpretation
of the more normal condition of this segment in the lower vertebrate, ac-
cording to the archetypal vertebra, fig. 15, be accepted, then the explana-
tion of the nature of the modifications of the special homologues of the con-
stituents of the occipital segment by which that archetype is masked in the
mammal, may be confidently left to the judgement of the unbiassed student
of homological anatomy.

In commencing his comparisons of the second segment of the skull with the
typical vertebra, he will be unexpectedly gratified by finding, in the immature
mammal, the centrum, 5, naturally distinct, and the hemal arch, H.1, retaining
its natural connections with the rest of the segment, and by means of a more
complete development of the pleurapophyses (3s) than in any of the inferior
air-breathing vertebrates. He may now separate, without artificial division of
any compound bone, the entire parietal segment, but he brings away with it
the petrified capsule of the acoustic organ, and the anchylosed distal piece (27)
of the maxillary appendage, which more or less encumbers and conceals the
typical character of the neural arch of the parietal vertebra in every mammal :
least so, however, in the monotremes and ruminants. The newrapophyses (6)
of the parietal vertebra, like the mesencephalic segment of the brain, are but
little more developed in mammals than in the cold-blooded classes: they are
notched in the hog and perforated in the sheep by the larger divisions of
the trigeminal, and they send down an exogenous process, which articulates
and sometimes coalesces with the appendage (24) of the palato-maxillary
arch. The neural spine (7), always developed from two centres, often vastly
expanded, and sometimes complicated with a third interealary or inter-
parietal osseous piece, is occasionally uplifted and removed from its neur-
apophyses by the interposed squamous expansion of the bone 27; but this,
which reminds one of the occasional separation of the neural arch from the
centrum of the atlas in fishes, is a rare modification in the mammalian class.
A still rarer one is the separation of the halves of the parieto-neural spine

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 299

‘from each other by the extension and mutual junction at the median line

of the occipital and frontal spines. A specimen of this, in a species of
Cebus, which repeats the common modification of the parts in fishes, is pre-
served in the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. The parapophysis
(s) always commences as an autogenous element by a distinct centre of ossi-

fication, as shown in the human feetus, fig. 11,8; it speedily coalesces with
the petrosal, but otherwise retains its individuality in some of the lower mam-

mals, as e.g. in the echidna (fig. 12,8): or it coalesces with the curtailed
frontal pleurapophysis 2s, or with the maxillary appendage 27, or with both

‘these and the pleurapophysis of its own vertebra (38), when the complex

‘temporal bone’ of anthropotomy is the result. In most mammals the pleur-
apophysis (38) retains its primitive independency and rib-like form, with
usually the ‘head’ and ‘tubercle’; but by reason of its arrested growth it
has been called ‘styloid’ bone or process. Sometimes it is separated from
the short hemapophysis, 40, by a long ligamentous tract, sometimes it is imme-
diately articulated with it, or by an intervening piece. The hemal spine, 41,
is usually small, but thick and alwayssingle. The rudiments of hypobranchial
elements (46) are retained as diverging appendages of the parieto-hzmal arch
in all mammals, and have received the special names of ‘ posterior cornua,’
or ‘ thyrohyals,’ from their subservient relationship to the larynx.

In the frontal segment the centrum, 9, and neurapophyses, 10, very early
coalesce. ‘Two separate osseous centres mark out the body (fig. 26, C, 9),
and each neurapophysis has two distinct centres (7b. 10, 10), the optic foramina
(op) being first surrounded by the course of the ossification from these
points. The superior development of the neurapophysial plates (10), as com-
pared with those of the parietal vertebra (6), in most mammals, harmonizes
with the greater development of the prosencephalon ; but the chief bulk of
this segment of the brain is protected by the expanded spines of the frontal (11)
and parietal(7) vertebrae, and by the intercalated squamosals (27). And the ap-
pendicular piece (27) not only usurps some of the functions of the proper cranial
neurapophyses, but, likewise, the normal office of the frontal pleurapuphysis

(2s), in the support, viz. of the distal elements of the hzmal arch (29, 32),

which now articulate directly with 27, in place of 2s as in all oviparous verte-
brates. The true pleurapophysis of the frontal vertebra (2s) is almost re-
stricted in the mammalian class to functions in subserviency to the organ
of hearing, is sometimes swollen into a large bulla ossea, like the parapophyses
and pleurapophyses of the cervical vertebra of Cobitis ; it is sometimes pro-
duced into a long auditory tube, and sometimes reduced to the ring supporting
‘the tympanic membrane. Yet, under all these changes, since its special ho-
mology is demonstrable with 2s in the bird (fig. 23) and crocodile (tig. 22) as
well as with the teleologically compound bone, 2s a, b, c, d, in the fish (fig. 6),
so likewise must its general homology, which is so plainly manifested in
the fish, be equally recognised. The frontal hemapophysis (fig. 24, 29, 30),
and the corresponding half of the hemal spine (ib. 32) are connate on each
side in all mammals, and become confluent at H 111, in most. The hemal
arch of the frontal segment of the skull, as in other air-breathing vertebrates,
has no diverging appendage, unless the tympanic otosteals be so regarded,
an idea which is not borne out by their development.

The nasal segment (N rv, H rv) is chiefly complicated by the confluence of
parts of the enormously developed olfactory capsules (1s) in the mammalian
class, and its typical character is masked by the compression and mutual coa-
lescence of the neurapophyses, 14. The centrum is usually much elongated,
as at 13, and socn coalesces with both newrapophyses (14) and nasal capsules
in the hog. The newral spine (15) is usually divided, but is sometimes single,

x2

300 REPORT—1846.

e.g. in Simia. In the rhinoceros it supports a dermal spine or horn. The
pleurapophysis (20) or proximal element of the hzmal arch of the nasal ver-
tebra has its real character and import almost concealed by the excessive
development of the second element of the arch (21), which resumes in mam-
mals all those extensive collateral connections which it presented in the cro-
codile ; and to which are sometimes added attachments to the expanded spine
of the frontal vertebra, as well as to that of its own segment. The pleurapo-
physis however, besides its normal attachment to its centrum, 13, sends up a
process to the orbit, in order to effect a junction with its neurapophysis which
sometimes appears there, as the ‘ os planum’ of anthropotomy. The hemal
spine (22) is developed in two moieties, which never coalesce together, al-
though, in the higher apes, and at a very early period in man, each half
coalesces with the hzmapophysis, and repeats the simple character of the
corresponding elements (rami) of the succeeding (mandibular) arch.

The appendicular element (24) which diverges from the pleurapophysis
(20), contributes to fix and strengthen the palato-maxillary arch by attaching
it to the descending process of the parietal centrum (s) ; with which, in most
mammals, it ultimately coalesces. The other elements of the diverging mem-
ber of the arch correspond in number and in the point of their divergence
with those in birds, chelonians and crocodiles. They are two in number, suc-
ceeding each other, and both become the seat of that expansive development
which is followed by the multiplication of their points of connection ; thus
the proximal piece (‘ malar’ 26) articulates in the hog not only with the
heemapophysis (21) from which it diverges, but likewise with the mucc-dermal
bone, 73. The distal piece of the appendage (squamosal, 27) expands as it
diverges, and fixes the naso-hemal arch not only to the frontal pleurapo-
physis (2s), but also to the frontal, parietal and occipital neurapophyses and
spines: it also affords, in the hog, as in other mammals, an articular surface
to the frontal hemapophysis (29).

The development of an osseous, centre in the cartilage of the snout of
the hog, and the homologous’£ prenasal’-ossicle in certain fishes, the carp,
e.g might be regarded as rudiments ‘of terminal abortive segments more
anterior than the nasal vertebra. The multiplied points of ossification in the
vomer have been, also, deemed indications of that bone being, like the vome-
rine coccygeal bone in birds, a coalescence of several vertebral bodies. Of
course, @ priori, the segments in the cranial region of the endoskeleton
might as reasonably be expected to vary in number in different species, as
the segments in the thoracic or sacral regions. I have not, however, been
able to determine clear and satisfactory representatives of more than four
vertebrz in the skull of any animal ; and the special ossifications in the nasal
cartilages appear to me to belong to the same category of osseous parts, as
the palpebral bones in certain crocodiles and the otosteals.

Man.— Arriving, finally, in the ascensive survey and comparison of the
archetypal relations of the bones of the vertebrate skull,at Man, the highest and
most modified of all organic forms, in which the dominion of the controlling
and specially adapting force over the lower tendency to type and vegetative
repetition is manifested in the strongest characters, we, nevertheless, find the
vertebrate pattern so obviously retained, and the mammalian modification of it,
as illustrated in the preceding paragraph and diagram, so closely adhered to,
as to call for a brief notice only of those developments of the common
elements which impress upon the human skull its characteristic form and
proportions.

The neural arch of the occipital vertebra differs from that of the hog by
a much greater development of the newral spine (fig. 25, 3) and a much less

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ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 301

development of the parapophysis. This, as in other mammals, is not only an
exogenous process of the neurapophysis, 2, but is commonly reduced to a
mere “ scabrous ridge extended from the middle of the condyle towards the
root of the mastoid process” (Monro, J. ¢. p.’72)—the “ eminentia aspera
musculum rectum lateralem excipiens” of Soemmerring: the knowledge of
its general homology, however, makes quite intelligible and gives its true
interest to the occasional development of this ridge into a ‘ paramastoid’
process, which now, however, projects, like the true ‘ mastoid,’ downwards
from the basal aspect of the cranium (ante, p. 204).

The occipital plewrapophysis, pl, 51, shows the same displacement as in
other mammals, but is still more expanded in the direction of the trunk’s
axis, and its exogenous (acromial) process is still more developed. The hem-
apophysis (52), originally distinct, has its development checked and speedily
coalesces with the pleurapophysis.

If the bone 52! be the special homologue of the bone, ss, in the fish,—and
considering the backward displacement of 51 and 5, its anterior position to
them in man is no valid argument against the determination,—then we may
adopt the same general homology, and regard the clavicle, in its relations to
the vertebrate archetype, as the displaced hemapophysial element of the
atlas, to which segment its true relative position is shown in the same low |
organized class in which the typical position of the scapular arch is likewise
retained.

The adaptive developments of the radiated appendage of the occipital
hemal arch reach their maximum in man, and the distal segment of the ap-
pendage constitutes in him an organ which the greatest of ancient philoso-
phers has defined as the “ fit instrument of the rational soul ;” and which
the first of modern physiologists has described “as belonging exclusively to
man—as the part to which the whole frame must conform”*. And these ex-
pressions give no exaggerated idea of the exquisite mechanism and adjust-
ment of its parts.

It is no mere transcendental dream, but true knowledge and legitimate
fruit of inductive research, that clear insight into the essential nature of the
organ, which is acquired by tracing it step by step from the unbranched
pectoral ray of the protopterus to the equally small and slender but bifid
pectoral ray of the amphiume, thence to the similar but trifid ray of the
proteus, and through the progressively superadded structures and perfec-
tions in higher reptiles and in mammals. If the special homology of each
part of the diverging appendage and its supporting arch are recognisable
from Man to the fish, shall we close the mind’s eye to the evidences of that
higher law of archetypal conformity on which the very power of tracing the
lower and more special correspondences depend ?

Until the alleged facts (p. 285) are disproved, demonstrating change of
position to be one of the modifications by which parts of a natural and re-
cognisable endoskeletal segment are adapted to special offices, and until
the conclusions (p. 286) deduced from those facts are shown to be fallacious, I
must retain the conviction that, in their relation to the vertebrate archetype,
the human hands and arms are parts of the head—diverging appendages of
the costal or hemal arch of the occipital segment of the skull+.

* Bell (Sir Charles), ‘“ The Hand.” Bridgewater Treatise, 1833, pp. 16, 18.

Movoy 6é kai augoézvoy yiyverat Tw Gdd\wy Cowy avOpwros.— Aristotle.

+ As another example of the new light and interest which a knowledge of general homo-
logy gives to the facts of abnormal anatomy in the human species, I may cite the remark-
able case described by Sir C. Bell (op. cit p. 52), of the boy ‘ born without arms,’— but who
had clayicles and scapule.’ Here development was arrested at the point at which it is normal

302 : REPORT—1846.

The centrum, 5c, of the parietal vertebra gives, in the human fcetus, the
same evidence of its essential individuality, by the same absence of the mask
of connation which somewhat concealed it in the oviparous classes, as
we have already noticed in the lower mammal (fig. 24). The newrapo-
physes (6) rise higher to reach their proper spine (7) in the lofty cranial dome
of man, of which that divided and enormously expanded element forms the
greatest part of the roof: but the base of the neurapophysis continues to be
perforated by the homologous divisions of the nerve (¢r) that notches it in
the cod-fish (fig. 5, 6 ér). The parapophysis (s) retains its autogenous or
independent character in relation to its proper neural arch, the ‘ additamental’
suture by which it manifests its normal relations to the neural spine (7) being
persistent; but it speedily coalesces with the acoustic capsule, 16 (from
which it is artificially separated in fig. 25), and with the modified plewrapo-
physis, 28, as has been already explained in the chapter on ‘ Special Homo-
logy’ (Mastoid, pp. 197-210).

The proper pleurapophysis (3s) of the parietal vertebra ordinarily becomes
confluent with contiguous and coalesced portions of the parapophysis, s, and
acoustic capsule, 16; and the ossified portion of the hemapophysis, a0 h, is
separated from it by a long ligamentous tract, and becomes confluent with
the hemal spine, 41hs. The entire inverted arch exhibits the usual arrested
growth characteristic of the air-breathing vertebrates, and its appendages
are represented by the still retained ‘hypobranchial’ elements, 46, of the
splanchnic arches, which are so voluminously developed in the fish.

The centrum and neurapophyses (9, 10) of the frontal vertebra manifest the
same speedy coalescence as in other mammals. The spie, 11, though developed
from two lateral moieties, regains its normal unity, as a general rule, in man
by the obliteration of the median suture: its transverse and vertical expanse
here attain their maximum. The parapophysis (12) is developed, as in the
occipital segment, as an exogenous process, called ‘external angular or or-
bital’ in anthropotomy, but from the neural spine instead of the neurapo-
physis. This element is perforated by its characteristic nerve (op). The pleur-
apophysis, 28, is now separated from its parapophysis, 12, by both parts, 27 and
26, of the diverging appendage of the maxillary arch ; but yet it is interesting
to note that it is still connected through the medium of these with the same
element to which, agreeably with the greater retention of the vertebrate
archetype, it directly articulates in the fish (fig. 5, 12, 2s a-d). The inter-
calated piece (27) further interposes itself, as in other mammals, between
the pleurapophysis, 2s, and heemapophysis, 29, of the frontal segment, directly
articulating with the latter and leaving the proximal element of the arch (2s )
reduced in man to its subordinate function of sustaining the ear-drum. The
hemapophysis,29,and hemal spine, 32, are connate, and soon coalesce with their

in the Anguis, Pseudopus, and some other limbless and snake-like lizards. The usual pre-
dominating development of the scapular appendage has bred so prevalent an idea of the sub-
ordinate character of the supporting arch, that the existence of the arch minus the append-
age, is adverted to not without a note of surprise in the above-cited and other excellent works.
General homology, however, teaches that a vertebral arch is a more constant and important
part than its appendages ; and, that, being anterior in the order of development, it may be
expected, in cases where development is arrested, whether normally in accordance with the
nature of the species or abnormally as an individual defect, to be present when the diverging
appendages are absent. Sir Charles Bell, well recognising the primary function of the modi-
fied occipital rib in relation to breathing, observes, in reference to the above-cited case, ‘“‘ We
would do well to remember this double office of the scapula and its muscles, that, whilst it is
the very foundation of the bones of the upper extremity, and never wanting in any animal
that has the most remote resemblance to an arm, it is the centre and point d’appui of the
muscles of respiration, and acts in that capacity where there are no extremities at all!”
p. 52.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 303

opposites at the symphysis menti; and the whole distal portion of the inverted
arch of the frontal segment is then formed by a continuous bar of bone, modi-
fied in its form and articulation, and by its dental appendages, in subserviency
to mastication and other subordinate functions in relation to the human mouth.

We recognise the centrum of the nasal vertebra in the human skull by the
position and connections of the bone, 13, notwithstanding it has undergone
as extreme a divergence from the ordinary cylindrical shape of such elements,
as its homotype at the opposite extreme of the vertebral column in birds,
which Cuvier compares to a ‘soc-de-charrue’: it is, in fact, more compressed
and vertically developed than in the hog (fig. 24, 13); but it is shorter, and
commonly retains its original individuality. It directly supports the similarly
modified compressed, and also, coalesced newrapophyses, 14, which termi-
nating in like manner the series of their vertebral homotypes anteriorly, have

-undergone the extremest modification. But the arguments which show the

coalesced prefrontals of the frog, the bird and the mammal to be the special
homologues of the bones so called in the fish, establish, as a corollary, their
general homology with those bones, which retain in so much greater a degree,
and unmistakeably, their neurapophysial characters in that lowest class of
cold-blooded vertebrates. The nature of the additional complication by
which those vertebral or archetypal characters are further masked in mam-
mals, has been already explained in relation to the nasal neurapophyses of
the hog. The olfactory nerves are transmitted in man, as in that and most
other inferior mammals, by numerous foramina, 14, ol. The nasal spine, 15, is
divided, but much-restricted in its growth, and presents a singular contrast
in that respect to its homotypes, 11, 7, 3, in the succeeding cranial vertebre.
The development of the neural arch of the nasal vertebra is so modified in
man, so contracted as well as retracted, that the orbits, instead of being
pushed apart and directed laterally, have approximated by a kind of reci-
procal rotation towards the median plane, and have thus gained a directly
anterior aspect.

General homology perhaps best explains the import of the continuation

of the small and seemingly insignificant bones (20, pl) from the roof of the

mouth “up the back part of the nostrils to the orbit,” where they are
connected “to the ossa plana and cellule ethmoidee by the ethmoid suture.”
That the connection is the best possible for the functions of the bone we
may feel assured, without the sentiment being damped by discerning in it,
at the same time, the attempt to retain the type, and repeat those constant con=
nections of the plewrapophysis in question, not only with its centrum (vomer),
but also with the modified neurapophyses of its proper segment (prefron-
tals with coalesced olfactory capsules constituting the compound ‘ ethmoid
bone’ of anthropotomy). The connections of the pleurapophysis, 20, with its
hzemapophysis, 21, in front, and its diverging appendage, 24, behind, are also
retained in man ; and in short, all those characters that, depending on the
essential nature of the palatine bone as the pleurapophysis of its vertebral
segment, have served to indicate its special homology from man to the fish,
without doubt or difficulty, to all anatomists (see Table I.).

The hemapophysis (20) has the usual mammalian expansion, but is unu-
sually short in man, and coalesces unusually early with the corresponding
moiety of the hemal spine (22). Besides the normal and constant connec-
tions with 20 and 22, the hemapophysis, 21, articulates with its fellow, with
the centrum (13), neurapophysis (14, os planum), and spine (1s), of its
own vertebra, with the spine of the frontal vertebra (11), with the detached
portion of the olfactory capsule (19), and with the muco-dermal bone (73).
It also affords a large surface of attachment to the proximal piece of

304 REPORT—1846.

its diverging appendage (26), which, in addition to the more constant con-
nections with 21 and 2, articulates in man with the neurapophysis (10)
and parapophysis (12) of the frontal vertebra. The distal extremity of the
second bone (27) of the diverging appendage attains its maximum of expan-
sion in man, and besides its connection with 26, and the glenoid articulation
for the hemapophysis, 29, it joins the parietal neurapophysis, 6, and spine, 7,
and sometimes also (in the melanian race) the spine (11) of the frontal: ver-
tebra: and it speedily coalesces with the reduced pleurapophysis, 2s, of the
frontal vertebra, and with the parapophysis (s) of the parietal vertebra, to-
gether with a portion of the capsule of the acoustic organ.

In reviewing the general characters of the human skull in reference to the
vertebrate archetype, we find the occipital segment simplified by the atrophy
and connation of its parapophyses and hemapophyses; and modified chiefly
by the excessive growth of its neural spine and pleurapophyses, and by the
backward displacement of the latter element, as in all other air-breathing
vertebrates. The parietal segment, retaining, like the occipital one, the more
normal proportions of its centrum and neurapophyses, is still more remark-
able for the vast expanse of its permanently bifid spine. As in most cold-
blooded vertebrates, the parapophysis preserves its independence in respect of
the neural arch of its own segment. The hemal arch retains its almost foetal
proportions, but is less displaced than in some of the inferior air-breathing
vertebrates. The primitive individuality of the centrum of the parietal vertebra
is a feature by which the human subject, together with all other mammals,
manifests a closer adhesion to type than is observable in this part of the skull
in any of the oviparous vertebrates, and it shows the necessity of extending
comparisons over the entire series, and not deducing the vertebrate arche-
type exclusively from those inferior forms: for although it may be upon the
whole best retained in them, yet the modifications superinduced in subser-
viency to their exigences, and by which they diverge to that extent from the
common plan, and, as a series of species, from the common vertebrate stem,
may affect a part which the conditions of existence of higher forms do not
require to be so masked. The early ossification and large proportional size
of the hyoidean arch in the human embryo is very significant of its true
nature and importance, in relation to the archetypal vertebrate structure,
i.e. as being the hemal complement of a primary segment of the skull.

Exogenous processes descend, like the pair from beneath the lower cer-
vical vertebrae of some birds, from the body of the parietal vertebra; but
the true transverse processes are the mastoids, which always articulate with
a corner of the parietals.

The centrum and neurapophyses of the frontal segment retain their ordi-
nary proportions, and the spine is again the element which, by its extreme
expansion and its modification in subserviency to the formation of the orbits,
chiefly masks the typical features of the neural arch. The parapophysis is
connate and reduced in size, and its vertebral relations with the pleurapo-
physis of its segment interrupted by the interposition of the diverging appen-
dage from the antecedent hemal arch: the unusually expanded distal end
of the same appendage also intervenes between the frontal pleur- and hem-
apophyses ; the pleurapophysis (2s) being more atrophied in man than in
most inferior mammals. The hemapophysis and spine are on the other
hand much developed and modified as above described, for the business of
mastication, though relatively shorter than in other mammals.

The compression and extension, both vertically and longitudinally, of the
centrum (13), the compression and coalescence of the neurapophyses (14),both
with each other and the nasal capsules (1s), and the corresponding proportions

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 305

_ of the divided spine (13), mainly characterize the neural arch (N rv) of the

terminal or nasal segment of the human skull. The early coalescence of each
heemapophysis(21) with the corresponding half of the divided hzemal spine (22),
and the unusual expansion of the bones, especially the second (27), which
diverge from the hemapophysis, form the chief characteristics of the hzemal
arch (H 1v) of the nasal segment. The hemapophysial portions of both the
nasal and frontal vertebre are much less elongated than in most other
animals.

It may serve to test the accuracy of the general homologies here assigned
to the bones of the human skull, if we notice the degree to which they have
been subject to modification in connection with such determinations.

According to the general character of the vertebral elements in the rest of
the frame, we should be prepared to expect that the hemal arches would be
subject to a greater variety in respect of development and relative position
to their segments than the neural arches; and that in the latter the parts
determined as centrums and neurapophyses would retain more of the or-
dinary proportions of such parts in other segments or in other animals, than
the peripherally situated spines. If new bones are added, we should expect
to find them in the relative position of appendages to the normal vertebral
arches: or should these be homologous with similar superadditions in the
skulls of lower animals, they will probably be the seat of more extensive
changes of form, proportion and connections, than the elements of the verte-
bral arches themselves. :

Now if the reader will glance at fig. 25 and compare the bones forming
the segments of the skull with those in figs. 24, 23, 22 and 5, he cannot but be
struck with the remarkable degree of uniformity in the dimensions of the
bones 2, 6 and 10: no. 14 being the terminal neurapophysis, has been the seat
of mere variety ; but the general steadiness of this series of bones in regard
to their dimensions and connections accords with the characters assigned to
them, as-neurapophyses, which are always the most constant and important
of the ossified vertebral elements.

The bones 1, 5, 9 and 13 equally conform in the kind and degree of their
modifications with their determination as the bodies of the vertebre.

The increasing capacity of the neural canal of the head, demanded for the
lodgment of the progressively expanded encephalonas the vertebral scale rises,
is chiefly acquired by the expansion of the bones, 3, 7, 11, which, being deter-
mined as ‘neural spines’ in the fish, might be expected to be subject to greater
deviations from their typical form and proportions than the more central
and essential parts of the neural arches. ‘The terminal neural spine, 15, is
subject to still greater varieties in the range of species, as might also be ex-
pected from its position. In one mammal, e.g. the porcupine, it is more
expanded than any of its succeeding homotypes in the cranium; in man its
proportions are so much reduced as greatly to mask the homotypal relation.
Tn one mammal, e.g. the orang, the nasal spine is not only diminutive but
single: in another mammal, e.g. the manatee, it is also diminutive but di-
vided, and the halves completely separated by the intervention of part of the
succeeding spine.

The abnormal conditions of the human skull give further illustration of the
truth of these general homologies of the cranial bones, and reciprocally re-
ceive light from such determinations. In the case of idiots from defective
growth or development of the brain, where the cavity of the cranium is re-
duced to half or less than half its normal capacity, as e. g. in the skull described
and figured in my ‘ Memoir on the Osteology of the Chimpanzee*,’ it might

* Zoological Transactions, vol. i. p. 343, pl. 57 and 58.

306 REPORT—1846.

have been expected from the anthropotomical ideas of the cranial bones,—
according to which no one bone is deemed either more or less important
than another in its essential nature, and where the squamosal is as little re-
garded in the light of a superadded or intercalary piece as the alisphenoid,—
that all would be reduced in the same proportion in forming the parietes of
the contracted brain-chamber. But this is by no means the case. In the
instance above-cited the basioccipital and basisphenoid have been developed
to their usual size, and the distance from the posterior boundary of the bony
palate to the anterior border of the foramen magnum is as great as in any
normal skull. The exoccipitals (condyloid portions of the occiput), the
alisphenoids and the orbitosphenoids retain in like manner their full dimen-
sions. The distance between the frontal and temporal bones is as great as
in the average of fully developed Caucasian skulls, and is greater than in
most of those from the Melanian race, in which the direct junction of the
frontal with the temporal, as in the chimpanzee, is by no means rare. The
contraction of the capacity of the brain-chamber is due chiefly to arrested
development of the frontals, parietals, supraoccipital and squamosals. By
the reduction of the supraoccipital and the retention of the centrums of the
cranial vertebra of their normal proportions, the foramen magnum becomes
situated nearer the back part of the basis cranii than in the normal skull.

In a still smaller cranium of a female idiot, who reached the age of twenty-
one years, which is preserved with the male idiot’s skull above-mentioned in
the anatomical museum of St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, the contrast between
the normal proportions of the basioccipital, basisphenoid, exoccipitals, ali-
sphenoids and orbitosphenoids, on the one hand, and the reduced dimensions
of the supraoccipital, parietals, frontals and squamosals on the other, is still
more striking and significant of the true nature of those bones. The normal
growth of the centrums, indeed, might be explained by the concomitant nearly
normal size of the medulla oblongata, base of third ventricle and optic chi-
asma, in the brain of the same idiot: but it is not so obvious from the con-
dition of the brain itself why the alisphenoid should not have shrunk in the
same proportion as the parietals, frontals and squamosals. To the homologist,
however, the recognised difference of subjectivity to modification presented
by the neurapophyses, spines and diverging appendages of the typical seg-
ments, renders very intelligible the partial seats of arrested growth in the
bones of these idiots’ crania.

In reference to disease, also, one sees not why the alisphenoid should have
a minor attraction for the morbid products deposited, or be less subject to
the destructive actions excited, during syphilitic or mercurial disease, than
the parietals, or the orbitosphenoids than the frontals, or the exoccipitals
than the supraoccipital: yet it needs but to examine any series of such
morbid skulls in our museums of pathology to be convinced that the variable
and peripheral elements of the neural arches, viz. their expanded spines, are
almost exclusively so affected: the frontal and parietal being the most
common seats of the disease ; the supraoccipital a less frequent one, concomi-
tantly with its minor deviation from the typical standard of the element. I have
yet seen no example in which either a cranio-vertebral centrum or neura-
pophysis was so affected ; but the nasal bones are notoriously attacked.

It would be easy to multiply such instances of the new light—new eyes,
so to speak,—with which human anatomy, normal and abnormal, is viewed,
after the essential nature or general homology of the parts have been appre-
ciated.

If the bones 4, 8, 12, fig. 5, have been correctly determined as the parapo-
physes of the cranial vertebra, they might be expected to be subject in the

——

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 307

course of adaptive modification to the loss of their individuality, and from
autogenous elements to be reduced to the condition of exogenous processes.
Now this is exactly what we trace in the series of vertebrate skulls ; and we
are further prepared to expect that the simplification of the segment forming
the anterior extremity of the vertebral series will be in part effected by the
total disappearance of its least important elements, the parapophyses. These
are, in fact, absent in the nasal vertebra in all animals; they become con-
fluent with the occipital vertebra in most reptiles and all warm-blooded ani-
mals ; and in the latter, we find, with the exception of a few birds, that the
parapophyses of the frontal vertebrae have likewise lost their individuality.

The first endoskeletal bones which plainly disappear from the skull in
tracing its modifications upwards from fishes are those which, in the present
vertebral theory, have been referred to the category of diverging appendages;
viz. the entopterygoid (fig. 5,23), the operculars (7b. 34-37), and the branchi-
ostegals (ib. 41). The first bones that we discover to be plainly superadded
to those that remain after the above subtraction, in the skull of the reptiles,
for example, are, also, referable, in the present vertebral theory, to the same
variable and inconstant class of elements: they are the ectopterygoids (fig.
22, 2a’), the malars (figs. 22 to 25, 26) and the squamosals (#6. 27) ; and are,
in general homology, diverging appendages of the palato-maxillary arch.
They are subject to more inconstancy as to their existence than the more
regular and normal elements of the skull: some reptiles, for example, have
the malar and squamosal, whilst others want them; most reptiles have the
ectopterygoid, but this, which is not present in fishes, is again taken away in
the warm-blooded vertebrates. With reference to inconstancy of form and
connections no bone of the cranium exceeds the squamosal, and it is precisely
this distal element of the diverging appendage, which, through its inordinate
development, most masks the archetypal character of the human cranium
(compare 27, fig. 25, with 27, fig. 23).

Classification of Skull-bones.—A knowledge of the special homologies of
the bones of the skull is essential to that of their general homology, and a know-
ledge of their general homology is indispensable to their natural classification.

Cuvier divides the bones of the head in all animals into bones of the cra-
nium and bones of the face.

The bones of the cranium are those of the cavity containing the brain:
all the rest are bones of the face and contribute to form the cavities for the
organs of sight, smell and taste*. But these primary divisions do not in-
clude the same bones in all animals: the nasal (fig. 5, 15) and vomer (éb. 13)
are cranial bones in fishes, but not in mammals: the squamosal (fig. 25, 27) is
a cranial bone in mammals and not in birds or reptiles, &c. And this dis-
erepancy in the Cuvierian classification of cranial bones is due, not only to a
non-appreciation of their essential nature, but partly to mistakes of special
homologies: thus the nasal is called ethmoid in the fish, and the squamosal
is called jugal in the bird.

In all anthropotomical classifications the bones of the cranium are reckoned

eight in number: four single, viz.—

The frontal (fig. 25, 11) ;
The ethmoidal (2d. 14 and 18) ;
The sphenoidal (5, 6, 9, 10 and 24) ;
The occipital (1, 2 and 3): and
four in pairs, viz.—
The two parietal (7), and
The two temporal (2, 16, 27, 23 and 3s).

* Lecons d’Anat. Comp. t. ii. (1837) p. 159.

308 REPORT—1846.

The bones of the face are reckoned as fourteen in number, viz.—
The two malar (26) ;
The two maxillary (21, 22) ;
The two palatal (20) ;
The two nasal (15) ;
The two turbinal (19) ;
The vomer (13), and
The mandible (20-3).

The detached portion of the hyoid arch (40, 41) and its appendages (47),
together with the whole of the scapular arch and its appendages, are excluded
from the category of the bones of the head.

The natural classification of the bones of the human skull appears to me
to be, first into those of

The EnDo-sKELETON,
The SPLANCHNO-SKELETON, and
The Exo-sKELETON.
The primary division of the bones of the endo-skeleton is into the four seg-
ments, called
Occipital vertebra, N 1, H1;
Parietal vertebra, N 11, H 11;
Frontal vertebra, N 111, H 11;
Nasal vertebra, N tv, H tv.
These are subdivided into the neural arches, called
Epencephalic arch (1, 2, 3) ;
Mesencephalic arch (5, 9, 7, 8);
Prosencephalic arch (9, 10, 11 and 12) ;
Rhinencephalic arch (13, 14, 15) :
and into the hemal arches and their appendages, called
Maxillary arch (20, 21 and 22) and appendages (24, 26, 27) ;
Mandibular arch (28, 20-32) (no appendage) ;
Hyoidean arch (3s, 40, 41) and appendages (46) ;
Scapular arch (51 and 52) and appendages (53-58).
The bones of the splanchno-skeleton, are
The petrosal (16) and otosteals (16')* ;
The turbinals (1s and 19) and teeth. (The sclerotals retain their primitive
histological condition as fibrous membrane.)
The bones of the exo-skeleton, are
The lacrymals (73).

* These ossicles are described by most anthropotomists as parts of the ‘temporal bone.’
‘Os temporum infantis magnopere ab osse temporum adulti differt ; labyrinthi et ossiculorum
auditis fabrica absoluta est,” says Soemmerring in the classical work before cited (t. i.
p- 132). The signification of the differences between the foetal and adult human temporal
bone, which the great anthropotomist truly regarded as so remarkable, is made plain by
anatomy ; which shows the bone to be an assemblage of several essentially distinct ones, and
at the same time exposes the character of that singularly heterogeneous assemblage and
coalescence of osseous elements to meet the exigences of the peculiarly developed frame of
man. What the ‘ossicula auditis’ are, is a problem which still awaits careful additional
research in the embryonic development of the hemal arches of the cranium, for its satis-
factory solution. The question is not, of course, whether they are dismemberments of the
‘temporal bone,’ since this has no real claim in any animal to an individual character; but
whether the ossicles of the ear-drum in mammals are to be regarded, like the pedicle of the
eye-ball in the plagiostomous fishes, as appendages to a sense-organ, and thereby as develop-
ments of the splanchno-skeleton ; or whether they are, like the tympanic ring, modifications
of the tympano-mandibular arch. The reasons are adduced in the Chapter on ‘Special
Homology’ (p. 235) which have led me to view them as peculiar mammalian productions
in relation to the exalted functions of a special organ of sense.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 309

The course of coalescence reduces the epencephalic arch (fig. 25, N 1) to
one bone, the scapular arch to one bone (the arch is apparently completed
by the connexion of an element (s2') not appertaining to the skull). The
centrums 5, (9) and neurapophyses (6, 10) of the parietal and frontal vertebra
coalesce together and with the diverging appendages (21) of the maxillary arch
to form one bone, the ‘sphenoid’ of anthropotomy, and this ultimately coa-
lesces with the epencephalic arch and constitutes the ‘os spheno-occipitale’ of
Soemmerring. The expanded halves of the parietal spine (7) remaining
usually distinct are reckoned as two bones. The expanded halves of the frontal
spine (11) usually coalescing together form asingle bone. ‘The halves of the
nasal spine (13) rarely coalescing are counted as two bones. The mastoid (s)
coalescing with the petrosal (16) and this with the tympanic(2s), squamosal (27)
and stylohyal (ss), the whole is reckoned a single bone, which thus combines
a parapophysis and pleurapophysis of one vertebra with a pleurapophysis of
another and a diverging appendage of a third vertebra, and all these parts of
the endo-skeleton become confluent with a sense-capsule belonging to the
splanchno-skeleton: such is the heterogeneous compound character of the
‘temporal bone’ of anthropotomy. The neurapophyses of the nasal vertebra
(14) coalesce with each other and with a considerable part of another ossified
sense-capsule (1s), to form the single bone called ‘ethmoid.’ The maxillary
bone includes the superior maxillary (21) and premaxillary (22) of the lower
animals. The hyoid bone includes the basihyal (41), with the ceratohyals (40)
and the thyrohyals (46). The scapula includes both the pleurapophysis (51)
and the hemapophysis (52) of the occipito-hemal arch. The signification of
the separate points of ossification of the human fcetal skull is made plain by
the foregoing applications of the ascertained general homologies of the bones
of that part of the skeleton.

Objections to the Cranial vertebre considered—The latest and most formal
objection to the fundamental idea on which the general homologies of the
bones of the head have been worked out in the present Report, is also
the most formidable in respect of the great and deserved eminence of the
objector. In a manuscript left by Baron Cuvier, entitled, “ Le crane est-il
une vertébre ou un composé de trois ou quatre vertébres?” appended to
the posthumous edition of the ‘Lecons d’Anatomie Comparée*,’ he admits
that “the analogy of the basilar and two condyloid parts of the occiput with
the body and two halves of the annular part of the atlas is very appreciable.
The basioccipital and the body of the atlas serve equally to support the
myelon ; the exoccipitals and the two halves of the ring of the atlas to cover it.
The condyles are represented by the articular processes by which the atlas is
joined to the dentata. The condyloid foramen, which gives passage to the
nerve of the ninth pair, has some relation with the hole in the atlas which
gives passage to the first cervical nerve and to the first bend of the vertebral .
artery. Some have also found a certain relation between the mastoid process,
which in most animals appertains to the occipital bone, and the transverse
process of the atlas and the other vertebree ; upon which it must be remarked
that these relations are less in man, in some respects, than in the quadrupeds,
since the atlas has commonly only a notch for the passage of the artery, and
the mastoid belongs in man entirely to the petrosal”}. “‘ We may even com-
- * Tome ii. p. 710. (1837) par MM. F. G. Cuvier and Laurillard, who hold the arguments
of their author to be conclusive. The criticism in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ t. i. p. 230,
bears only upon the @ priori cranio-vertebral theory of Geoffroy, and does not concern us
here.

+ “L’analogie de ces trois piéces, Je basilaire et les deux condyloidiens, avec les trois

piéces de l’atlas, son corps et les deux moitiéy de sa partie annulaire est trés sensible. Le
basilaire et le corps de l’atlas servent également 4 supporter Ja moélle épiniére ; les condy-

310 REPORT—1846.

pare,” Cuvier says, “the supraoccipital to the spinous processes which in
certain animals originate by special points of ossification and remain for some
time distinct from the rest of the vertebra: nevertheless, there is already here
a great difference of structure and function*.” With regard to the points in
which Cuvier is willing to admit an ‘ analogy’ between the occiput and the
atlas, he subjoins, agreeably with his idea of the law which governed such
correspondences,—“ These resemblances might naturally be expected in the
part of the head placed at the extremity of the vertebral column, and the
functions of which are, in fact, analogous to those of vertebra, since it gives
passage, like them, to the great neural axis+.”

With regard to the feature of resemblance (quelque rapport) which some
had seen between the mastoid process and a transverse process, Cuvier founds
his objection to its application to the vertebral character of the occipital
bone on a false homology. Concluding that the mastoid in man (fig. 25, s)
was homologous with the paroccipital in the hog (fig. 22, 4){ and some
other quadrupeds, he deems the determination of the paroccipital as the
transverse process of the occipital vertebra to be invalidated by the fact
that the ‘ mastcid’ belongs, in man, not to the occipital but to the petrosal.
There were cases, however, not unknown to the able Editors of the posthu-
mous edition of the ‘Lecons d’Anatomie Comparée,’ where the true trans-
verse processes of the occipital vertebra, though exogenous, like those of the
succeeding trunk-vertebree in man, had become developed to an equal extent
with such transverse processes ; the abnormality of the human occipital thus
repeating its normal condition in the quadruped. They however do not cite
these instances, or notice the confusion by their author of the true mastoid
with the paroccipital in reference to this his first objection to the vertebral
homology of the occipital segment. But it might further have been re-
marked, in respect of the segment of the skull to which the mastoid really
stands in parapophysial relation, that although the mastoid belongs in man to
the petrosal in the sense of being anchylosed with it, it articulates with the
parietal ; and the persistence or obliteration of a primitive suture is too vari-
able a phenomenon to determine to which of two bones a third connected with
both essentially belongs. The constant existence of the paroccipital either
as an autogenous element or an exogenous transverse process in all the
oviparous vertebrate classes, its common existence in mammals, and occa-
sional, though rare, development in man, establish that additional, though
by no means essential vertebral character in the occipital segment, which

loidiens et les deux moitiés de l’anneau de V’atlas 4 la couvrir. Les condyles sont repré-
sentés par les facettes articulaires au moyen desquelles l’atlas s’unit 4 axis. Le trou con-
dylien qui laisse passer le nerf de la neuviéme pair, a quelque rapport avec le trou de l’atlas
qui laisse passer le premier nerf cervical, et la premiére courbure de l’artere vertébrale. On
a aussi trouvé quelque rapport entre l’apophyse mastoide qui, dans la plupart des animaux,
appartient a l’occipital, et l’apophyse transverse de l’atlas et des autres vertébres; sur quoi
il faut remarquer que ces rapports sont moindres dans l’homme 4 certains égards que dans
les quadrupédes, puisque V’atlas n’y a ordinairement qu’une échancrure pour le passage de
Vartére et que l’apophyse mastoide y’appartient entiérement au rocher.”—1. c. p. 710.

* “Qn pourrait méme comparer l’occipital supérieur aux apophyses épineuses qui, dans
certains animaux, naissent par des points d’ossification particuliers, et restent quelque temps
distincts du reste de la vertébre; cependant il y aurait déja ici une grande différence de struc-
ture et de fonction.” —/. c. p. 711.

+ “Ces resemblances étaient naturelles 4 attendre dans la partie de la téte placéé a l’extré-
mité de la colonne vertébrale, et dont les fonctions sont en effet analogues a celles des ver-
tébres puisqu’elle laisse passer comme elles le grand tronc medullaire.”—. ¢. p. 711. i

t Cuvier, e. g. describes this element as “ L’apophyse mastoide, qui est trés-longue, trés-
pointue et ae de l’occipital,” in his elaborate Ossemens des Cochons, Oss. Fossiles, t. ii.
pt. i. p. 117.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 311

Cuvier seeks to obscure by the normal absence of its proper transverse pro-
cesses in man, and the assumed transference of them to another part of the
skull.

_ Cuvier in the next place objects to the comparison of the supraoccipital
with the neural spine of a trunk-vertebra, ‘“ because of its vast difference of
structure and function.” He does not specify the nature of the difference :
he admits that the neural spines have distinct centres of ossification in certain
animals; and all will allow that, in most of the trunk-vertebre of such, the
neural canal is closed by the coadapted ends of the neurapophyses to which
the spine articulates or becomes anchylosed : that therefore such spine does not
directly cover the neural axis, but, retaining the shape signified by its name,
performs exclusively the function in relation to muscular attachments. At
first view the contrast seems conclusive against all homology between such
‘mere intermuscular spine and the broad thin convex plate applied over the
cerebellum and posterior cerebral lobes in man. And it must be confessed
that the determination of their general homological relations could not have
been satisfactorily demonstrated by the mere relations of the parts to the
laminz supporting them, in so limited a range of comparison. - But, if we
descend to the fish, we shall find the supraoccipital equally excluded from
the neural canal by the meeting of the exoccipitals beneath its base; we
shall, also, see it still retaining the spinous figure, indicating its function in
relation to muscular attachments to predominate over that in subserviency
to the protection of the epencephalon. If we next ascend to the crocodile,
we shall find the neural spine of the atlas to be one of those examples alluded
to by Cuvier, where the ossification proceeds from an independent centre:
and it not only thus manifests its essential character as an autogenous ver-
tebral element, but maintains its permanent separation from the neurapo-
physes: and it further indicates the modifications of form to which the cor-—
responding elements will be subject in the more expanded neural arches of
the antecedent cranial segments by having already exchanged its compressed
spinous for a depressed lamellar form. Here indeed Cuvier might not only
have objected to recognise it as a vertebral spine by reason of its change of
form and function, but also by its continuing a distinct bone, which is
not the case with the expanded ‘spine’ of the mammalian occipital vertebra.
But returning to the crocodile, we observe in the segment anterior to the atlas
that both the form and connections of the supraoccipital (fig. 22, 3) are
so closely similar to those of the neural spine of the atlas that the recog-
nition of their serial homology is unavoidable; and we have a repetition
of the same characters of the vertebral element in question in the small and
undivided parietal (ib.7). Now Cuvier makes no difficulty in admitting the
‘occipital supérieur’ in the crocodile to be the homologous bone with its
more expanded namesake in the bird; or this with the still more expanded
‘partie grande et mince de l’occipital’ in mammals and man: he is also
disposed to admit the special homology of the supraoccipital under all
its variations of form and function in the above-cited air-breathing animals
with the bone 3 in fishes, which he sometimes calls ‘ occipital supérieur,’
sometimes ‘interpariétal.’ If then the special homology be admitted on the
‘ground of the constancy of the connections of the part, with what show of
reason can its general homology be rejected which forms.the very basis or
condition of the characters determinative of such admitted special homology ?
But Cuvier is not consistent with himself in his grounds of objection to the
essential nature of the human supraoccipital as the neural spine of its seg-
ment ; for he does not hesitate to call the atlas of the crocodile a vertebra,

312 REPORT—1846. q

although its ‘annular part’ is closed above by a transverse plate*. instead of
by a vertical spine, of which, indeed, there remains hardly more vestige than _
is presented by the tubercle or rudiment of the spinous process in the supra-
occipital of man. It must also be remembered, that the human supraoccipital
does retain to a certain extent the same function in relation to the attach-
ment of the proper vertebral muscles (splenii capitis, complexi, and the modi-
fied interspinales called ‘recti capitis postici maj. et min.) as the succeeding
vertebral spines; and combines this with the same place of completing, as
the key-stone, the neural arch; although by reason of the more voluminously
developed segment of the neural axis protected by that arch the peripheral ele-
ment is chiefly modified for the acquisition of the required increase of space.’

Cuvier next proceeds to comment on Oken’s endeavour to represent the
basisphenoid and the two alisphenoids with the two parietals as forming a ver-
tebra: and he admits that there is some analogy, though this is much more
feeble than the differences. ‘The basisphenoid, having another function,
takes on a different form from the basioccipital, especially above, by virtue :
of the posterior clinoid processes: and in the embryo it is composed not of
a single nucleus, but of twot+.” With respect to the objection from the
modification of form alluded to, it may be remarked that the same element
in other vertebral segments of the body undergoes much greater change
of shape; the centrums of the lower cervical vertebra in many birds send down
two processes as well-marked as the ascending ones called ‘ clinoid’ in that
of the parietal vertebra, not to speak of the ‘soc de charrue’ of the coccy-
geal vertebre of the bird, for example, without any difficulty having been felt
or expressed by Cuvier in their recognition as modified vertebral bodies, the
more essential characters of their general homology being as plainly retained
as in the case of the basisphenoid ; in its relation, e. g. to the neur-
apophyses and the support of the mesencephalon. With regard to the
objection from the two centres of development, if this be valid against the
general homology of the basisphenoid (6, fig. 25) as a vertebral centrum, it
equally tells against the body of the atlas (¢), which, as Cuvier well knew,
was ossified sometimes from two, and sometimes from three centres{. And
I may further observe that, although Cuvier affirms the two ossifie centres of
the basisphenoid to retain for a long time between them simple cartilages,
my observations bear out the accuracy of the remark of Kerkringius, (whose
figures Cuvier cites,) touching the “ dua ossicula distincta” (tab. xxxiv. fig.
iii. c, c), viz. “que celerrimé in formam figure apposite K coalescunt”:
and the figure of the coalesced rudiments of the basisphenoid given by Kerkrin-
gius closely resembles the bilobed rudiment of the vertebral centrums in the
sacrum of the chick.

Cuvier next objects to the neurapophysial character of the alisphenoids,
that the ‘foramen ovale’ is rarely a notch, more often a complete hole.

* “ Tes vertébres. L’atlas est composé de six pieces, &c.—La premiere, a, est une lame
transverse qui fait le dos de la partie annulaire. Elle n’a qu’une créte 4 peine sensible pour
toute apophyse épineuse.’’—Ossemens Fossiles, t. v. pt. ii. p. 95.

+ En avant du basilaire se trouve le corps du sphénoide postérieur, aux cdtés duquel ad-
hérent les deux ailes temporales ou grandes ailes. On a aussi cherché areprésenter ces trois
pieces comme formant une vertébre avec les deux pariétaux. II reste en effet encore quelque
analogie, mais beaucoup plus faible, tandis que les différences deviennent plus fortes. Le
corps du sphénoide a bien l’air d’une répétition du basilaire, mais ayant une autre fonction il
prende aussi une autreforme, surtout en dessus,au moyen des apophyses clinoides postérieures ;
et dans les premiers temps du fcetus il n’est pas composé d’un seul noyau, mais de deux, qui
ont long-temps entre eux de simples cartilages.’’—/. c. p. 712.

t Legons d’Anat. Comparée, t. i. (1836) p. 174. Meckel has figured the variety of three
ossific centres in this element of the human atlas in the Ist vol. of his Archiv fir die Phy_
siologie, taf. vi. fig. 1.

A

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 313

“Now,” he urges, “vertebra properly so called give passage to the nerves only

by the intervals that exist between them and the other vertebra, and not by
particular foramina*.” Therefore the young anatomist must conclude that
the dorsal vertebree of the ox, the abdominal vertebrz of the lophius, and
every other segment of the trunk whose neural arches are directly perforated
by the spinal nerves, are to be rejected from the vertebral category !

_ Ithas been shown in the generalities on the corporal vertebra (p. 265), that
the neurapophyses in relation to the passage of their governing nerves may
be either untouched, notched or perforated by them, without prejudice to
their neurapophysial character. Viewed in the entire series of vertebrata
the cranial neurapophyses are more frequently perforated than notched, those
of the trunk more frequently untouched or notched by the nerves in passing
through their interspaces.

The penetration and sagacity of Cuvier nowhere shine forth more brightly
than in his bold and true determination of the bone 6, fig. 5, in the cod-fish t
as the homologue of the temporal wing of the sphenoid in the human skull.
To any less-gifted comparative anatomist the relation would have been masked

by the coalescence of the homologous part in man, by its connections with the

squamosal and frontal, and its comparatively small proportions under the
guise of a subordinate process; none of which characters exist in the ali-
sphenoid of fishes: it still retains, however, in that class, as in man, its most
essential connevtions in relation to the bones of its own segment and to the
brain and nerves; and Cuvier availing himself of these in the determination
of its special homology, was little likely to be swayed by so unimportant a
variety as the transmission of the characteristic nerve by a foramen instead
of by a notch. No sooner, however, has the time arrived and the call been
sounded for an advance to a higher generalization, which includes and ex-
plains the minor proposition, than Cuvier interposes the least important
difference of the alisphenoid to check the progress. It will be obvious to
the anatomist that the foregoing explanation of the value of the nerve-
notch or hole in the homological character of a neurapophysis has been’
called forth by the weight of the name of the ebjector rather than by the
force of the objection.

. Cuvier directs his next argument against the vertebral character of the
(neural arch of the) parietal segment generally. “Its composition,” he avers,
“is different from that of other vertebra, since the ring (he had just before
denied its annular form) would be composed of five pieces or even of six, inclu-
ding the interparietal.” Yet Cuvier does not hesitate, in his Article V., ‘Les Ver-
tébres’ (Ostéologie des Crocodiles), to reckon as the first vertebra, the atlas
notwithstanding its composition of six pieces.

_ If,indeed, Cuvier had subscribed to Geoffroy’s assertion, that “ Nature repro-
duces the same number of elements, in the same relations, in each vertebra,
only she varies indefinitely their form,’—his objection to the vertebral charac-
ter of any given segment that might deviate from the assumed normal number
of pieces would have been intelligible. But even, then, he would not have
been guided consistently by his own principle; for the objection founded
upon the supposed abnormal number of pieces in a cranial segment weighs

' ¥* “ Ses ailes different beaucoup plus encore et des deux condyliens, et des deux piéces qui
forment la partie annulaire des vertébres. A'la vérité, le trou ovale n’est quelquefois qu’une
échancrure ; mais le plus souvent il est entouré d’os, et par conséquent un vrai trou. Il-en
est de méme du trou rond toutes les fois qu’il est distinct du sphéno-orbitaire ; or les verté-
bres proprement dites ne laissent passer les nerfs que par les intervalles qui existent entre
elles et les autres vertébres, et non par des trous particuliers.”—/. c. p. 712.

" F Régne Animal, 1817, pl. viii. fig. 2,0, p. 184.

t “‘L’atlas est composé de six piéces qui, a ce qu’il paroit, demeurent pendent toute la vie

distinctes.’’—Ossemens Fossiles, t. v. pt. ii. p. 95.

1846. x5

314 REPORT—1846.

not at all against the recognition of a corresponding segment of the trunk,
though similarly composed. ©

In fact, throughout this attack upon the vertebral theory of the skull, it -
will be seen that it is based upon the @ priori assumption that all the endo-
skeletal segments of the trunk, however modified, are vertebre, and all those
situated in the head, are not vertebre. The essential character of a vertebra
is thus deduced from its position, not its composition. It needs only to com-
pare any of Cuvier’s objections to the vertebral character of the cranial seg-
ments, with the modifications of the corporal segments admitted by him to
be vertebrz, previously enumerated in this Report (pp. 264-270), to see that
the characters of the cranial vertebra objected to by Cuvier differ in degree not
in kind, and become valid arguments against the admittance of natural seg-
ments into the vertebral category, only when they happen to be situated at or
near the commencement of the series.

It has been abundantly proved, I trust, that the idea of a natural segment
(vertebra) of the endoskeleton, does not necessarily involve the presence of
a particular number of pieces, or even a determinate and unchangeable ar-
rangement of them. The great object of my present labour has been to
deduce, by careful and sufficient observation of Nature, the relative value
and constancy of the different vertebral elements, and to trace the kind and
extent of their variations within the limits of a plain and obvious maintenance
of a typical character.

In reference to the neural arch, the variation in the number and disposition
of its parts, illustrated in the figures 1, 2, 3,4, 18, 19, 20, 21, do not seem to
me, nor will they I apprehend to any unbiassed anatomist, to obliterate the
common typical character of that part of a vertebra. Those elements which
are furthest from the centrum are the chief seat of the changes. Ifthe reader
will compare figure 2 with figure 19, he will see for example that the crown of
the arch is formed by a single bone(7) in the crocodile, but by two bones (7,7)
in fish ; nay, in most fishes the halves are even pushed apart by the interposi-
tion of athird bone. Yet the sagacity of Cuvier led him to determine the di-
varicated moieties of the divided parietal in such fishes to be the same (homo-
logous) bone with the single parietal of the crocodile. With what consistency,
then, can the general homology of the segments be rejected, which sufferno
other change in their composition than that resulting from the single or bifid
character of the same bone in each? Is the single frontal of the human
adult regarded as a distinct bone from the bifid frontal of the foetus? If,
therefore, the neural arch of the parietal vertebra (mesencephalic arch) of
the crocodile be free from the objection, raised by Cuvier to the vertebral
character of the homologous arch in man, on the score of the number of its
elements; neither can that objection be allowed to have any force when it
rests upon the mere division in the human mesencephalic arch of the recog-
nised homologue of the single spinous element in the crocodile.

In the sheep, the arch which encompasses the epencephalon is formed by
only three elements, the neural spine resting upon the conjoined upper ends
of the neurapophyses. In the dog these elements are divaricated and the
epencephalic arch is closed above by the neural spine. Now Cuvier does
not allow this difference of arrangement of the latter element (3) to affect his
recognition of the ‘ suroccipital’ in both mammals; and, therefore, one is at
a loss to discover the consistency of the ideas which would repudiate the
general homology of the bones or of the entire arches which they surmount,
because, as Cuvier would say, “ the composition of the arch is different, being
of three pieces in the sheep and of four pieces in the dog.” Yet this is pre-
cisely the kind of objection which he has directed against the mesencephalic
arch, viz. because it may be composed of five or even six pieces, in certain

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 315

animals, In the fish, in fact,—by reason of the parietal parapophyses (8, s)
being subject to the same variation in their relative position to the other
elements, which has been illustrated in respect of the neural spine in the
epencephalic arch of the dog and sheep,—the mesencephalic arch is com-
posed of seven pieces, or, including the interposed supraoccipital, of not less
than eight bones. Yet even here we clearly and easily trace the kind and
degree of modification to which the fundamental plan of the neural arch
has been subject. The archetype is nowise obliterated: the general homo-
logies of the modified elements are not less recognisable than their special
homologies. The centrum and neurapophyses are the steadiest elements:
the spine is not only subject to great diversity of size and shape, but to some
variety of position, and, moreover, to be either single or bifid: the parapo-
physes have less range of variety in point of dimensions, but may be more
or less interposed between spine and neurapophyses, or may become con-
fluent with either element. Thus the epencephalic arch of the crocodile
(fig.18) differs essentially, in a Cuvierian sense, from that of the tortoise or the
fish (fig. 1), because it is composed of four pieces in the first and of six
pieces in the latter; the difference of composition merely depending, how-
ever, on the more exterior position and connation of the parapophyses, 4, 4, in
the crocodile.

The independency of the parietal and frontal bones is next urged by
Cuvier as militating against the idea that they complete a vertebral arch
formed respectively by the alisphenoids and orbitosphenoids as the piers or
haunches: and the more so, inasmuch as they are separated from those bones
in some animals by the intercalation of the squamosals*. By parity of reason
we must reject the general homology of the neural arch and spine of the
atlas in the Ephippus and some other fishes, because that part of the verte-
bra is not only distinct, but uplifted and removed from the piers or base of
the arch by the intercalation of the articular processes of the neural arches
of the occiput and axis. According to Cuvier such separated atlantal arch
must. be regarded as a new bone, and the centrum ought therefore equally
to be viewed as ‘une piéce particuliére qui a une destination particuliére ’:
but the general homology of vertebral elements may be determined not only
by their relations to their own segment, but by those which they maintain
with their less modified homotypes in contiguous segments.

The centrum of the atlas in the Ephippus directly sustains other neur-
apophyses than its own, and so far has a new or particular function ; but,
since it continues to unite the centrum of the axis with that of the occiput,
we still regard it as their homotype, and as standing in the relation of the
centrum to its uplifted and shifted neurapophyses. So, likewise, although
these elements now aid in strengthening the joint between the zygapophyses
of the neural arches of the occiput and axis, and thus perform a new and
very peculiar function, their relation to these and other neural arches in the
series of vertebre renders it impossible to overlook the serial homology of
the separated ‘ laminz’ of the atlas and that of its spine with the other and
larger vertebral laminz and spines.

* “ Tans tous les cas, on ne pourrait regarder cette vertébre comme annulaire, ni supposer
ane Jes pariétaux en forment le complément ; d’une part, ce serait une composition différente

e celle des autres vertébres, puisque l’anneau serait formé de cinque piéces et méme de
six, en comptart l’inter-pariétal; de autre, il arrive dans plusieurs animaux que les ailes
temporales du sphénoide n’atteignent pas au pariétal, parceque le temporal va toucher au
dessus d’elles, soit au frontal soit au sphénoide antérieur. Ainsi les pariétaux sont des
piéces indépendantes du sphénoide postérieur, des piéces particuliéres qui ont une desti-

nation particuliére, celle de servir de bouclier 4 la partie moyenne et postérieure des hémi-
_ sphéres, tout comme les grandes ailes ont celle de servir de support aux lobes moyens dans

a we

lesquels ces hémisphéres se terminent vers le bas.”—I. e. p. 713.

y@2

316 REPORT—1846.

The new functions which the uplifted and independent spines of the pari-
etal and frontal vertebrae perform in man and many mammals are, with
respect to the parietal bones, to shield the upper surface of the middle and
posterior parts of the cerebral hemispheres, whilst the frontal is confined to
covering the anterior lobes of the same hemispheres.

Hereupon it may be asked whether such relations and offices are the rule
or only the exception; and, if the latter, whether it occurs in the lowest or
the highest of the vertebrate series ; whether in that class where the arche-
typal arrangement of parts is most, or in that in which it is least departed
from? All these considerations are felt to be indispensable by the homo-
logist in quest of the true signification of the parts of the animal frame,
before drawing his conclusions from the first modification that may present
itself. They are neglected by Cuvier in the objection to the vertebral cha-
racter of Oken’s ‘kiefer-wirbel,’ founded upon the relations which the parietal
bones present to the encephalon in the mammalian class. Yet the more
normal relations of those bones, both to the encephalon and to the alisphe-
noids, seem to have been present to the mind of Cuvier, and to have been
duly appreciated by him when he defined, in 1817, the second cranial cine-
ture as constituted by the parietals and sphenoid*.

With regard then to the first of Cuvier’s arguments for viewing the human
and mammalian parietals as ‘ des piéces particuliéres qui ont une destination
particuliére,’ viz. that they are separated from the alisphenoids by the tem-
poral bones. If we commence our consideration of it by the question, whether
this separation be the rule or the exception, the reply which Nature sane-
tions will be that they are not so separated in any of the three great classes of
oviparous vertebrata, nor in the majority of mammalia, nor even, as a general
rule, in man himself. With regard to the second objection founded on the
interposition of the enormously and backwardly developed prosencephalon
between the mesencephalic spines (fig. 25, 7) and the mesencephalic segment
of the brain, to which the parietal vertebra essentially relates,—-its value will
depend on the choice made by the homologist between the function of the
parietals as immediate shields to the optic lobes (mesencephalon) in the cold-
blooded classes, and their function as mediate ones through the interposed
mass of the prosencephalon in the warm-blooded classes, as that which best
manifests adhesion to the ideal archetype. What to me has ever appeared one
of the most beautiful and marvellous instances of the harmony and simplicity
of means by which the One great Cause of all organization has effected every
requisite arrangement under every variety of development, is the fact, that
the protection of the enormous cerebrum peculiar to the higher mammals
has not been provided for by new bones: by bones, e. g. developed from
centres so numerous or so situated as to render any determination of their
homologies as vague and unsatisfactory as would result from the attempt to
determine those of the dermal ossifications upon the head of the sturgeon, in
reference to the endoskeletal epicranial bones in fishes and reptiles. We
might well have expected, had conformity to type not been a recognizable
principle in the scheme of organized beings, to have had so many ‘ particular
bony pieces’ and so situated in the expanded human cranium as would have
baffled all our endeavours to reduce them to the type of the epicranial bones
of the reptile or fish. Yet the researches of the great comparative anatomists
of the present century, and more especially those of Cuvier himself, have
proved that there is no such difficulty: and a glance at the Table of Special
Homologies, No. 1, will show that the bones (3, 7, 11) most modified in rela-
tion to the expanded cerebrum and cerebellum of man and mammals are

* Reégne Animal, i. p. 73.

“gaa7

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 317

precisely those of which the determination has been easiest, and respecting
‘the names and nature of which there has been the least discrepancy of opi-

‘nion. It is with pain and a reluctance, which only the cause of truth has
‘overcome, that I am compelled to notice the inconsistencies into which the

great Cuvier fell, when his judgement became warped by prejudices against
a theory, extravagantly and, perhaps, irritatingly, contended for by a con-
temporary and rival anatomist. After having established by the clearest
evidence and soundest reasoning in his great and immortal works that the

‘bones (7) in the fish (figs. 2 and 5) and reptiles (figs. 9, 10, 13, 19, 22) were

homologous with those in birds (7, figs. 8 and 23), mammals (7, figs. 12 and

24), and even in man (7, figs. 11 and 25); and, after contending that they

ought to bear the same name—under which, indeed, we find him describing
them in the ‘ Lecons d’Anatomie Comparée’ from man down to the fish—
Cuvier comes at last to declare that, in those animals in which they are

‘separated from the alisphenoids and mesencephalon, they are “ particular

pieces which have a particular destination !”

~The relation of the mastoids (s,s), as parapophyses, to the parietal or
sphenoidal vertebra not having been detected in Cuvier’s time, he supposes
that the pterygoids, in the system which makes a vertebra of the sphenoid,

‘ean be compared to nothing else than the transverse processes of such. As,

according to my views, they are recognizable in General Homology as quite

_ distinct elements of another cranial vertebra, the arguments which Cuvier

advances in disproof of what he thought they must be called, do not concern
the subject of the present Report. The inferior exogenous processes, in-
deed, of the basisphenoid in mammals are not unlike those developed from
the under surface of the centrum of the atlas in Sudis gigas, or from some

‘of the cervical centrums in birds. The argument founded by Cuvier on the

autogenous development of the true pterygoid (figs. 24 and 25, 21) would
weigh little against its parapophysial nature, if other characters concurred

‘to prove it a ‘ parapophysis;’ but its connections and position show it to be
-a ‘diverging appendage.’

‘With respect to the anterior sphenoid, Cuvier affirms that its composition
is totally different from that of the posterior sphenoid and occipital, and from

‘that of any vertebra. By the term ‘ sphénoide antérieure’ is meant the
“eoalesced presphenoid and orbitosphenoids (figs. 24 and 25, 9 and 10); and the

two bones referred to in the comparison signify, the one, the basi- and ali-

sphenoids (i. 5 and c), and the other the basi- and ex-occipitals (#b. 1 and 2).
‘With respect to 9 and 10, Cuvier remarks that it is never, in mammals, formed
“of three pieces, but only of two; and that these are properly the bony rings
‘for the optic nerves, which in course of time approximate and coalesce with

each other: but so long as the median suture divides them, no distinct or

“third bony nucleus is developed in the intervening cartilage*.

» Since, however, we see that the homologues (recognised as such by Cuvier)
of the orbitosphenoids are something more than rings surrounding the optic
nerves in the bird (figs. 8 and 23, 10) and crocodile (figs. 9 and 22, s)—that
they are merely notched by the optic nerves, and are chiefly developed in

* “Ton a voulu aussi considérer le sphénoide antérieur comme une vertébre dont les

_frontaux compléteraient la partie annulaire, et ou la position du trou sphéno-orbitaire entre

les deux sphénoides repondrait assez aux trous inter-vertébraux ordinaires. Mais la compo-

“sition du sphénoide antérieur lui-méme est toute différente de celle des deux os, dont nous
avons parlé avant lui, et de celle d’aucune vertébre. Il n’est jamais, dans les mammiferes,

formé de trois piéces, mais seulement de deux; ce sont proprement des anneaux osseux pour
les nerfs optiques, qui par suite du temps se rapprochent et se soudent entre eux; la suture

est toujours au milieu, et tant que V’ossification n’est pas complete, il n’y a entre les deux
anneaux que du cartilage, dans Jequel il ne se forme pas de troisicme noyau.”—/. ¢. p. 714.

318 REPORT—1846.

neurapophysial relation to the sides of the prosencephalon,—we are led to
carry our inquiries into an earlier period of their development than that ad-
duced by Cuvier, as contravening their vertebral characters. Cuvier cites
the figure 2, in pl. xxxv. of the ‘Osteogenia Foetuum’ of Kerkringius, as evi-
dence of his statement of the developmental characters of the ‘ sphénoide
antérieur.” That figure, however, exhibits the condition of the bone, when,
although the median suture remains, each orbital ala has become anchylosed
with the posterior sphenoid, and is likewise directly perforated by the optic
nerve. The gelatinous cells of the anterior extremity of the notochord very
early retrograde to the basioccipital region of the basis cranii, and the noto-
chordal capsule alone is continued to the anterior extremity of the basis.
This is converted into cartilage,

and the osseous particles which Fig. 26.

ultimately constitute the anterior
sphenoid are deposited as follows :
first a centre or nucleus appears,
in each orbital ala, external to the
hole by which the optic nerve
passes through the primitive carti-
lage (fig. 26, A, 10); soon after a
second nucleus (76. B, 10) is esta-
blished at the inner or mesial side
of each optic foramen : these cen-
tres form the foundation of the
neurapophyses or orbitosphenoids,
and ultimately coalesce around the
optic nerve, as Kerkringius has
depicted. Buta third pair of ossi-
fic centres (ib. C, 9) is established
behind the optic foramina between
poe te oe henna (s). Phases of deyclapmeas the a Sphenoid bone:

a single transverse bar (2b. D, 9),

before coalescing with the orbitosphenoids in front, or with the basisphenoid
behind, and that bar transitorily represents the centrum of the frontal vertebra.
To the objection that such supposed centrum is developed from two points
instead of one, the same reply may be made that was made before to a similar
objection raised by Cuvier against the general homology of the basisphenoid ;
which objection, as was then shown, would be equally valid against the uni-
versally admitted homology of the body or centrum of the atlas.

The frontal neurapophyses manifest in their development, each from two
centres (fig. 26, B, C, 10), a transitory mark of vegetative repetition analogous
to that which permanently characterizes the neurapophyses of the trunk-verte-
bre in the sturgeon.

Thus the evidence of development, when complete, tells for, rather than
against the serial homology of the ‘sphénoide antérieur’ of Cuvier with the
centrum and the neurapophyses of other vertebre ; and the more obvious
and important characters of relative position to the other bones of their own
segment, and to their homotypes in the contiguous segments, as well as to
prosencephalic segment and characteristic nerves,—which characters have
served to determine the special homologies of the coalesced bones in ques-
tion (9,10) from man down to the fish,—concur with the developmental
characters in establishing their general homology as centrum and neur-
apophyses.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 319

_. Cuvier affirms, however, in support of his argument, that, although the
orbitosphenoids are never separated from the frontals, as the alisphenoids are
from the parietals, in the mammalia, they are almost always separated from
the frontals in the other classes, so that the vertebral ring is again inter-
rupted *. But, were even the frontals commonly uplifted above the orbito-
sphenoids in birds, reptiles and fishes, which does not accord with my ex-
perience, the objection, on that score, to regarding them as ‘neural spines,’
would as little apply, as it does to the universally recognised general homology
of the separated and uplifted neural arch of the first vertebra of the trunk
of the Ephippus and some other fishes.

Cuvier finally regards the connection of the frontals with the prefrontals,
which he calls ‘ ethmoid’ in mammals, ‘l’enchdssement de l’ethmoide,’ as a
function quite remote from any of a vertebral character, “ relative 4 toute
autre chose.” This objection only shows the necessity of a right apprecia-
tion of special homologies, in order to form a true judgement respecting
general homology ; and, with respect to the ‘ ethmoide,’ I must refer to the
section on the prefrontals in the chapter on ‘ Special Homology (p.214). If
the arguments there adduced be held to prove the crista galli and cribriform
plate in the human skull to be the homologues of portions of the coalesced
prefrontals and olfactory capsules, we may next remark that these portions
are not merely wedged between the orbital plates of the frontal, but articu-
late behind by a persistent suture with the orbitosphenoids. As neurapo-

physes, the coalesced prefrontals of the terminal vertebra of the skull thus

articulate with their next succeeding homotypes; and, by virtue of the ex-
cessive development of the spine of the frontal vertebra, as well as from their
being contracted and drawn backward in the human skull, they articulate
with such spine (the frontal) as well as with that of their own proper seg-
ment (the nasals). But, in the crocodile (fig. 9), we have seen a similar
relation manifested not only by the more normal neurapophyses (14) of the
nasal vertebra, but likewise by those (10) of the frontal, those (6) of the
parietal, and those (2) of the occipital vertebra.

All the objections raised by Cuvier to the general homology of the cranial
bones as modified vertebral elements, equally apply to elements of vertebree

in the trunk, which Cuvier himself has admitted to be vertebra, notwith-

standing such modifications. The repetition of the perforated character of
the human alisphenoid and orbitosphenoid in the neurapophyses of the trunk-
vertebrze of many inferior animals, requires only a passing notice. The
flattening, expansion and sutural union of the human supraoccipital, parietal
and frontal bones, are matched by the neural spines in the carapace of the
tortoise. If the basioccipital, basisphenoid and presphenoid are broad and flat,
instead of cylindrical, so likewise are the bodies of the sacral vertebre in the
broad-bodied megatherioids and in many birds. If the basioccipital and
basisphenoid are lengthened out and firmly united together by deeply in-
dented sutural surfaces in most fishes, so likewise are the bodies of the four
anterior vertebre of the trunk in the pipe-fish (fistularia). If the basi-
sphenoid and presphenoid be developed each from two ossifie centres, as in
man, so likewise may the body of the human atlas be ossified; and even should
the moieties of that centrum not coalesce at the median plane, they would
» * “Ce que j’ai dit des pariétaux s’applique aux frontaux, considérés comme compléments du
sphénoide antérieur ; leur fonction est relative 4 toute autre chose, la protection des lobes
antérieurs du cerveau et 4 l’enchassement de l’ethmoide; et quoique le sphénoide antérieur
n’en soit jamais séparé dans les mammiféres comme le postérieur l’est souvent des pariétaux,
il Pest presque toujours dans les autres classes, en sorte qu’alors V’anneau vertébral serait
aussi interrompu.”—/. c. p. 714.

320 REPORT—1846.

nevertheless still retain their essential characters as divisions of a single ver-
tebral element: just as does the vomer in the salamanders, salamandroid
fishes and serpents, which begins to be developed from two lateral points,
like the body of the human atlas occasionally, without the development end-
ing, as it always does in such atlas, by confluence of the resulting halves. It
would be more reasonable to repudiate the general homology of the body of
a whale’s dorsal vertebra with the centrum of the typical vertebra, because
it consists of three pieces set end to end, than to deny the general homology
of the vomer because it may consist of two pieces set side by side, or that
of the anterior trunk-vertebrz of the silurus because they consist of two
pieces set one upon the other. These are examples of a principle of varia-
tion which Cuvier never permitted to blind his perception of the special ho-
mology of certain bones, the mandibular ramus, for example ; though vege-
tative or teleological subdivision is carried out to a much greater extreme
there than in any vertebral centrum; unless, indeed, the number of points
from which the whale’s vomer be ossified may equal those in the crocodile’s
lower jaw. But if the differences in this developmental character, viz. of ossi-
fication from a single ossifie point as in the vomer of the cod, or from two
points as in that of the lepidosteus, or from three or more points as in the
human vomer, interpose no obstacle to the determination of the special homo-
logy of the bone 13 from man to fish, it can as little avail as an argument
against its general homology, which is determined not by the development of
the vomer but by its relations to the other constituents of the segment of the
skeleton to which it naturally belongs. ‘

The great difficulty which the anthropotomist may naturally experience in
forming an idea of the vomer as the body of a vertebra, will arise from ‘its
extremely modified form in the human subject: but he must bear in mind
that it is an extreme part, the last of its series counted forwards; and if he
should desire some higher and better established authority than the present
Report before yielding assent to the vertebral character of the bone, under
its characteristic ‘ ploughshare’ mask in man, I know no name more influen-
tial than that of Cuvier himself, in regard to the equally and similarly modi-
fied centrum at the opposite end of the vertebral series in the bird. For
although the mask of coalescence is superadded to that of strangeness of
shape in the bone which Cuvier there compares to a ploughshare [ vomer, or
‘soe de charrue’ ], the great anatomist and cautious generalizer does not hesi-
tate to affirm that it is “ composed of many vertebre ” (see ante, p. 263).

It may, perhaps, be said that the coccygeal vomer must be vertebral in its
nature because it is situated in the tail; but the ‘ petitio principii’ in this
argument will be transparent, if we transpose the locality, and say that ‘the
cranial vomer must be vertebral in its nature because it is placed in the
head.’ For what are ‘head,’ ‘tail,’ ‘ thorax,’ or ‘ pelvis,’ but so many di-
versely modified portions of a great segmental whole? These localities do not
determine the nature of the segments composing them ; such knowledge can
only be acquired by a study of the composition of the segments ; andit is the
modifications of the segments that determine the nature of the localities or
divisions of the endoskeleton, to which such special names as ‘ head,’ ‘ tho-
rax,’ &c. are applied.

Yet Cuvier himself, perhaps, little suspected how much his ideas of the
essential nature of a segment of the endoskeleton were governed by the part
of the body in which it happened to be placed. Whenever the young ana-
tomist finds a difficulty from the peculiar form or development, division
or coalescence, of a cranial bone, in recognising or admitting its vertebral

ce a

xray

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 321

character, Jet him compare the results of his own observations with those
summed up in pp. 264-266, and see whether the same kind of modification
may not'be’repeated in the homologous element of a vertebra of the trunk
in one or other of the species of vertebrate animals.
» The latest direct objection to the cranio-vertebral system is from the pen
of the celebrated ichthyotomist of Neuchatel. M. Agassiz represents the
current ideas respecting this system at the period when he published his
objections to it, in the following graphic passage of his invaluable and
splendid work :—“ It was M. Oken who had printed the first programme on
the signification of the bones of the skull. The new doctrine which he set forth
was received with extreme enthusiasm in Germany by the school of physio-
philosophers [Natur-philosopher]. The author at that time required three
cranial vertebrz, and the basioccipital, the sphenoid and the ethmoid were
viewed’as the central parts of these cranial vertebra. Upon these pretended
bodies: of vertebree were raised the arches enveloping the central parts of the
nervous system (our ‘protective plates’) ; whilst to the opposite side were at-
tached the inferior pieces which should form the vegetative arch destined to
embrace the intestinal canal and the great vessel (the ‘ facial arches’ of which
we'shall presently speak). It would be tedious to enumerate here the changes
which each author has rung upon this theme in modifying it agreeably with
his notions. These contented themselves with the number admitted by Oken;
those raised the number of cranial vertebre to four, six, seven, or even more:
some'saw nothing but ribs in the branchial arches and jaws ; others took the
latter for limbs of the head, analogous to arms and legs. If they could not
agree about the number of the vertebrz, still less were they at one in regard
to’ the part assigned to each bone. The most bizarre nomenclatures have
been* proposed by different authors who thus sought to generalize their
ideas. Some have gone so far as to pretend that the vertebre of the head
wereas complete as the vertebre of the trunk, and by means of dismember-
ments, with divers separations and combinations they have reduced all the
forms of skull to vertebre, assuming that the number of pieces was in-
variable for every form of skull, and that all vertebrate animals, whatever
their definitive organization, bore, in their respective crania, the same number
of points of ossification *.”
-» And thus it is that a great truth in nature has been endeavoured, and

* “(C’est M. Oken qui fit imprimer le premier programme sur la signification des os du
crane, La nouvelle doctrine qu’il exposait fut accueillie en Allemagne avec un enthousiasme
extreme par l’école des philosophes de la nature. L’auteur postulait alors trois vertébres
du crane, et Voccipital basilaire, le sphénoide et l’ethmoide étaient envisagés comme les
parties centrales de ces vertébres craniennes. Sur ces prétendus corps de verteébres s’élevaient
des’ arcs enveloppant les parties centrales du systéme nerveux (nos plaques protectrices) ;
tandis. que du. coté opposé étaient attachées des piéces inférieures qui devaient former l’are
végétatif destiné & embrasser le canal intestinal et les gros vaisseaux (les arcs de la face dont
nous traiterons plus tard). Il serait trop long d’énumerer ici les changements que chaque
auteur apporta 4 ce travail en le modifiant 4sa maniére. Les uns se contentérent du nombre
admis par Oken, les autres élevérent le nombre des vertébres craniennes jusqu’a quatre, six,
sept et méme plus ; les uns voulurent voir des cotes dans les arcs branchiaux et les machoires ;
les autres prirent ces derniéres pour des membres de la téte, analogues aux bras et aux
jambes. Sil’on n’était pas d’accord sur le nombre des vertébres on l’était encore moins sur
le réle qu’on assignait & chaque os. Les nomenclatures les plus bizarres ont été proposées
par les différens auteurs, qui cherchaient ainsi 4 généraliser leurs idées. On alla jusqu’a
prétendre que les vertébres de la téte étaient aussi complétes que les vertébres du tronc, et
au moyen de démembremens, de séparations et de combinaisons diverses, on ramena toutes
les formes du crane 4 des vertébres, en admettant que le nombre des piéces etait invariable-

ment fixé pour toutes les tétes; et que tous les vertébrés, quelle que soit d’ailleurs leur
organisation définitive, portaient dans leur téte le méme nombre de points d’ossifications.”

—Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles, t. i. (1843), p. 125.

322 REPORT—1846.

too successfully in regard to the rising generation of anatomists; to be
obscured. Ideas and statements are misquoted, unintentionally, doubtless,
and through neglect of reference to the original work (as in the citation of
the bones representing the bodies of the cranial vertebra in the Okenian
theory): or they are misunderstood (as where the arches, neurapophyses or
‘ bogentheile,’ composed as Oken truly said by the alisphenoids and orbito-
sphenoids are held to be synonymous with the ‘ plaques protectrices’ of M.
Vogt): the most extreme and least defensible views are selected out of each
tentative step in the inquiry, and are clubbed together to represent the
general result, which is of course dismissed with as sweeping a condemnation.
The specific objections raised by Cuvier are deemed well-founded and un-
assailable ; and to these M. Agassiz adds the following. Premising that,
“the formation of vertebrae presupposes as a first condition the existence
of a notochord* ;” and, arguing upon this basis, and on the assumption
that the cephalic extension of the ‘ chorda dorsalis’ as it is permanently
manifested in the Branchiostoma is not so great in the embryos of other and
higher fishes, but is arrested at the region of the alisphenoid from the com-
mencement of its development, M. Agassiz concludes: —“ Now, the application
of this principle to the composition of the skull demonstrates at once that there
exists but one cranial vertebra, the occipital vertebra, and that the rest of
the skull is foreign to the vertebral system+.”

At the period of development described and figured by M. Vogt in the em-
bryo of the Coregonus, which period M. Agassiz conceives to represent the very
earliest condition of the anterior extremity of the notochord, the pointed ex-
tremity of the gelatinous central cells of this part terminates at the posterior
boundary of the hypophysial space: but the peripheral capsule of the notochord
extends over that space and forwards to the obtuse anterior extremity of the
embryonal ‘ basis cranii’: and it is in the expanded aponeurosis, directly con-
tinued from the chorda along the basis cranii, that the thin stratum of carti-
lage cells are developed, arching along the sides of the hypophysial. space,
from which the ossification of the basisphenoid, presphenoid and vomer
proceeds {.

The superaddition or the later continuation of the cylindrical gelatinous
‘chorda’ in the aponeurotic basis of the cartilaginous and osseous growths of
the vertebral centres in the trunk, seems to relate chiefly to their more or
less cylindrical form in that region : the notochord regulates, asa mould, the
course of ossification, disappearing by absorption as the bony lamelle of the
vertebral bodies encroach upon it in their centripetal progress: the notochord
plays an important part also in the establishment of the elastic jelly-filled
capsular joints in the back-bone of fishes; and therefore it might well be
dispensed with, or be early and rapidly removed, in the development of the
flattened, expanded and anchylosed or immoveably articulated bodies of the
cranial vertebra. And, besides, the notochord is immediately concerned in
the development of only one of the elements of the typical segment of the
endoskeleton. It is obviously, therefore, an unwarrantable and erroneous
application of a developmental character, to conclude, from a modifica-
tion of this one character in respect of a single element, the ‘ centrum,’ that
every other character establishing the general homology of such element, as

* “La formation des vertébres suppose, comme premiére condition, l’existence d’une
* corde dorsale.’’’—Op. ci¢. tom. i. p. 127, livr. xviii. (1843.)

+ “Or, V’application de ce principe 4 la composition de la téte nous montre d’entrée qu’il
n’existe gwune seule vertébre crdnienne, la vertébre occipitale, et que le reste de la téte est
étranger au systéme vertébrale.”—Jb. p. 127.

+ Hunterian Lectures on Vertebrata, 1846, p. 71.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 323

well.as every character determining that of the surrounding vertebral elements,
are to be nullified and set aside! M. Agassiz, moreover, seems not to have
suspected that the notochord may have other and more immediate and import-
ant functions than even those relating to the vertebral column. The peculiar
elective attraction of its component cells for the gelatinous principle may be es-
sential to the due operation of those neighbouring cells which form the basis of
the neural axis, and which as exclusively assimilate the albuminous principle :
and this reciprocal antagonism in the selection of particular proximate prin-
ciples from the common primitive blastema may explain the contemporaneous
origin of notochord and myelon in the embryonic trace, when all development
is as yet the work of cell-assimilation and metamorphosis, without any supply
from a vascular system, this being a later formation in the building up of the
organic machinery. By confining, however, his views of the notochord to one
of its functions in relation to a single vertebral element, and by extending his
conclusions from this to the entire vertebra, M. Agassiz, though recognising
more absolutely than Cuvier, the vertebral character of the neural arch of
the occipital segment, concludes that Nature discards that type in the con-
formation of the cinctures that precede it and which successively girt the
mesencephalon, prosencephalon and rhinencephalon.

Assuming a gratuitous explanation of the hypothetical absence of the bodies
of the cranial vertebre (Poissons Fossiles, t. i. p. 128), M. Agassiz asks,
“ Ainsi, que seraient dans cette hypothése, le sphénoide principal, les grandes
ailes du sphénoide, et l’éthmoide, qui forment pourtant le plancher de la
cavité cérébrale ?— Des apophyses ?—Mais, les apophyses ne protégent les
centres nerveux que du cdté et d’en haut ?—Des corps des vertébres ?—
Mais ils se sont formés sans le concours de la corde dorsale ; ils ne peuvent
done pas étre des corps des vertébres.” (1b. p. 129.) To this it may be
replied, first that the bodies of the cranial vertebra are not absent; they
are represented, as above explained, by their cortical portions in the vomer
(fig. 5, 13), presphenoid (2b. 9) and basisphenoid (2. 5), and by both cortical
and central portions in the basioccipital (2d. 1): nay, the central part of the
body of the frontal vertebra is represented in some fishes by the entosphenoid
(2b. 9'), which remains distinct from the cortical part below, as does the central
part of the body of the atlas in the siluroid fish. If it were true, indeed,
that the entosphenoid was pierced by the canals transmitting the olfac-
tory nerves*, Bojanus’ idea of its general homology as the centrum of the
‘vertebra optica’ must be abandoned. But the parts called ‘olfactory
nerves’ by M. Agassiz, pass from the prosencephalic to the rhinencephalic
compartments of the cranium not merely above the bone called ‘ cranial
ethmoid ’ by the same author, but, also, through the upper part of the inter-
space between the bones (orbitosphenoids) which the entosphenoid (9')
sustains: and the true olfactory nerves perforate the neurapophyses (14)
which Bojanus called ‘ ethmoid’ and which Cuvier and M. Agassiz have
termed ‘frontaux antérieurs’ (see ante, pp. 214-226). The alisphenoids, being
notched or perforated by their proper intervertebral nerves, are ‘ apophyses’
(neurapophyses), and accordingly do protect the sides of their proper nervous
centre, the mesencephalon. The central jelly-cells of the notochord appear to
be withdrawn into the occipital region before ossification of the basisphenoid
commences, and that modified vertebral body is therefore developed at the
expense of the fibrous sheath of the notochord, and is represented by its
‘cortical’ part only. But its general homology is determined by its con-

* M. Agassiz has described this bone under the name of ‘ éthmoide cranien’ as “un os

impair, court, de forme presque carré dans lequel sont percés les canaux servant aux nerfs
_ olfactifs.”—Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles, t. i. p. 120.

<

324 REPORT—1846.

nections with the basioccipital (admitted by Agassiz to be a vertebral body)
behind, and with the alisphenoids above.

In many fishes the basisphenoid unites with the basioccipital by a deeply
indented sutural surface, like that which unites together the elongated bodies
of the anterior trunk-vertebre in the Fistularia. In mammals the basioc-
cipital and basisphenoid join each other by flat surfaces, also like the bodies
of the trunk-vertebre, until the period when, in most of the class, the
joint is obliterated by anchylosis. These and similar repetitions of class-
characters of vertebral elements in the regions of the head and trunk are not
so wholly devoid of signification, as they must seem to be to the opponents
of the cranio-vertebral theory.

In his new and elaborate classification of the bones of the skull of fishes,
M. Agassiz divides them primarily, like Cuvier, into bones of the cranium,
or ‘ box which envelopes the brain and the organs of sense’: and into bones
of the face, ‘which is composed of the moveable pieces subservient to nutrition
and respiration’ (/. c. p. 110).

This division is open to the objection that the bony or cartilaginous cap-
sules which immediately envelope the organs of sense are always originally,
and most of them permanently, separate from the box or capsule that enve-:
lopes the brain. The independent character of the ear-capsules, for example,
is manifest on their first appearance in the ammocete ; and, although they
subsequently lose their distinctive features by the accumulation of cartilage-
cells around them in which the foundations of the neurapophyses and parapo-
physes, contributing to the otocrane, are laid, one centre of ossification is
commonly established, even in fishes, in special relation to the immediate
protection of the vascular and nervous parts of the labyrinth.

As to the proper bony envelope of the eye, M. Agassiz does not enumerate
it amongst the cranial bones of fishes: but admits into that series only the
accessory protecting pieces which form the orbit ; or rather only those that
at the same time form the brain-case: for, the suborbitals, the entopterygoids
and palatines are placed amongst the ‘ facial’ bones : whilst the supraorbi-
tals are transferred to another category of osseous pieces, the natural Oy
here prevailing over the artificial one.

Subjoined* is an outline of the arrangement of the two primary classes of
‘cranial’ and ‘facial’ bones, founded upon the embryological researches of

* CRANIAL BONES. (OS CRANIENS.)

A, EMBRYONIC BASIS (‘ BASE EMBRYONALE, Vogt).
a. Nuchal plate (‘ Plaque nuchale,’ V.). Basioccipital, Exoccipitals, Paroccipitals,
Supraoccipital, Petrosals.
b. Lateral loops (‘ Anses latérales,’ V.). Alisphenoids, Orbitosphenoids.
c. Facial plate (‘ Plaque faciale, V.). Entosphenoid (l’ethmoide cranien, Ag.).
B. PROTECTIVE PLATES (‘ PLAQUES PROTECTRICES,’ V.).
a. Superior plates. Parietals, Frontals, Nasals.
b. Lateral plates. Prefrontals, Postfrontals, Mastoids (temporaux, Ag.).
c. Inferior plates (‘ Plaque buccale,’ V.). _Basi- pre- sphenoid, Vomer.

FACIAL BONES. (OS DE LA FACE.)

1. Mazillary arch. Suborbitals (jugaux, Ag.), Maxillary, Premaxillary.

u1. Palatine arch. Palatines, Entopterygoids, Pterygoids (transverses, Ag.).

111. Mandibular arch. Pretympanics (‘ caisses,’ Ag.), Mesotympanics (‘tympano-mal-
leaux,’ Ag.), Hypotympanics (‘ os carrés,’ Ag.), Mandible.

tv. Hyoidean arch. Epitympanics (‘ mastoidiens,’ Ag.), Preoperculars, Stylohyals, Epi-
hyals, Ceratohyals, Basihyals (‘1’os lingual,’ Ag.).

y. VI. vil. vimt.. Branchial arches. ‘ Composes chacun de deux ou trois piéces et reunis
sous le gorge par le corps de l’hyoide.’

1x. Pharyngeal arch. ‘Composé d’une ou de plusieurs pieces,’ &c.—Op. cit. t. i.
pp. 124, 130.

4

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 325

Vogt. With regard to the series of nine arches into which the facial

‘bones are distributed, it may be remarked that the independence of the maxil-

Jary from the palatine, which is more apparent than real in the osseous fishes,
ceases to be manifested in any degree in the plagiostomes and lepidosiren :
that the first and second arches are suspended by their crowns with their
haunches projecting freely outwards, whilst the third and fourth arches are
‘suspended, in the reverse position, viz. inverted, with the crowns or key-stones
‘downwards: the four next arches are rather complete cinctures, their sum-

‘mits meeting and being loosely suspended to the basis cranii, or, in pla-

giostomes and cyclostomes, to the under part ef the vertebral column of the
trunk. Although professing to base his classification upon developmental
characters, M. Agassiz owns with regard to the posterior branches of the
maxillary arch, e. g. the suborbitals, “that they appear to be rather formed
by the dermal system.” And this is unquestionably true: whilst the pala-
tines, which are the true piers of the arch, are developed from the blastema
‘of the same visceral arch as the maxillaries and premaxillaries.

The error in regard to the special homology of the suborbital bones, deter-
mined by M. Agassiz as the malars, and which is so clearly exposed by the
structure of the skull of the Psittacide (ante, p- 209), has misled him in re-
spect to the natural and typical constitution of the maxillary arch.

_ The mistake in reference to the Se ee homology of the epitympanic (2sa),
determined by M. Agassiz as the ‘ mastoid,’ has, in like manner, influenced
him in dissociating it from the other dismemberments of the tympanic pedicle,

and referring it to a different arch.

With regard to the hyoid and branchial arches, it will be observed that
M. Agassiz makes no distinction between the systems of the neuro- and
splanchno-skeleton. An arch constant and ossified in all vertebrates where
the rest of the endoskeleton is ossified, and which, even admitting M. Agassiz’
special homology of the preopercular as the styloid process of the temporal,

‘would still be suspended in the inverted position, like a true hemal arch, is
‘placed in the same category as the branchial girdles, which are often cartila-
ginous when the hyoid is osseous, in bony fishes ; and which disappear, in the
‘metamorphosis of the tadpole, with the evanescent respiratory viscera for
the support of which they are exclusively developed.

The constitution of a distinct 9th facial arch for the posterior pair of bran-
chial girdles, which retain their gills in lepidosiren, though modified in sub-
servience to mastication in most osseous fishes, appears to be giving undue
importance to an artificial or adaptive character. Finally, the natural con-
nections of the scapulo-coracoid arch in osseous fishes are totally disregarded,
and it is left out of the enumeration of the bones of the head.

The unbiassed anatomist may find an element for judging of the natural
character of the cranio-vertebral system propounded in the present Report,
by contrasting the classification of the bones of the fish’s skull to which it
leads, with that proposed by M. Agassiz, and with nature*.

Having thus responded to the objections advanced by Cuvier and M.
Agassiz to the interpretations of the segmental constitution of the bones of _
the head which were open to the criticism of those great authorities in
anatomy, I proceed briefly to explain the segmental constitution of the bones

~* Tam bound here to say that in the discussion of the subject of this Report with M.

Agassiz, which, amongst other advantages of the meetings of the British Association, I en-
joyed at Southampton, he admitted, with his characteristic frankness, that some points of

his classification of the bones of the head in fishes would require reconsideration. One of

‘the eminent physiologists who was present at the debate which followed the reading of the
Report, has recorded the impression it produced upon him in a review of my ‘ Hunterian
— on Vertebrata’ in ‘The British and Foreign Medical Review,’ No. xlvi. p. 490.

pi. ssc

326 REPORT—1846.

of the trunk of the human subject according to the archetype with which the
segments in the head have been illustrated.

The first seven segments of the trunk consist each of centrum (fig. 25, e),
neurapophyses(z), neuralspine (s), and rudimental pleurapophyses(p/), which -
coalesce, in each segment, into one bone, called ‘ cervical vertebra’ in anthro-
potomy. If the hemapophyses (s2') have the same relation to their centrum
which those of the seventh dorsal vertebra, in the Ciconia Argala, more ob-
viously bear to theirs,—that is, being attached below and disunited at theirupper
ends from their pleurapophyses, which are short, stunted and anchylosed to the
centrum,—and if, as the apparent homologues of 52’ in fishes would indicate,
the atlas be actually the centrum to which such detached and shifted hema-
pophyses belong, then the first wilkbe the sole segment of the cervical region of
the trunk in which those elements are ossified.

In the seven vertebra which succeed the cervicals the pleurapophyses (p/)
are progressively elongated; they are shifted from their proper centrum to the
interspace between it and the next segment above, or in advance, and retain
their moveable joints. The hemapophyses (/) are cartilaginous and articulate
with the ends of the pleurapophyses and with the hemal spines (As), which are
flattened, slightly expanded, and ultimately blended into one bone called ‘ ster-
num. The hzmal spine of the first typical segment remains longest distinct :
it receives, also, the extremities of the displaced heemapophyses (s2’) and has
been called ‘ manubrium sterni.’. The hemal spine of the seventh segment
commonly continues longer distinct, and is later in becoming ossified, whence
it is called ‘ ensiform cartilage’: it probably includes the rudiments of some
succeeding hzmal spines. In the four succeeding segments the pleurapophyses
become progressively shorter, and the hemapophyses, still cartilaginous, are
severally attached by their lower attenuated ends to the pair in advance ;
leaving the hemal arch incomplete below. In the next vertebra (19th from
the skull) the still shorter pleurapophyses resume the exclusive articulation
with their proper centrum ; and the correspondingly short and pointed hem-
apophyses terminate freely.

Those pleurapophyses and hemapophyses which directly articulate with
hemal spines (sternum) are called collectively ‘true ribs’ (cost vere), the
proximal element being ‘the bony part of the rib’ (pars ossea coste), the distal
one the ‘cartilage of the rib.’ The rest of the hemal arches which are in-
complete through the absence of the hemal spine, are called ‘false ribs’
(costz spuriz); and the last, which terminates freely in the origin of the
diaphragm, is a ‘ floating rib.’ The centrum, neurapophyses and neural spine
of each segment with freely articulated pleurapophyses coalesce into one bone,
called ‘ dorsal vertebra’ in anthropotomy : these vertebre are twelve in
number. Each of the five succeeding segments is represented by the same
elements (centrum and neural arch) coalesced that constitute the so-called
dorsal vertebre : they are called ‘lumbar vertebre ' (fig. 25,L.): they have no
ossified pleurapophyses ; and the hemapophyses of these segments are repre-
sented only by the aponeurotic ‘inscriptiones tendinez musculi recti’ (”).

Certain elements of the five succeeding segments (7b. S.) coalescing together
in the progress of growth form the bone called ‘sacrum’: and are described in-
dividually as sacral vertebra. The first four of these each combine the same
elements, coalesced, as in the neck; viz. centrum, neurapophyses, neural spine,
and short but thick pleurapophyses*: in the fifth sacral vertebra there are no

* J. Miiller notices the rudimental ribs in the first and second sacral vertebre of the
human foetus in his Anatomie der Myxinoiden, heft i. 1834, p. 240. Mr. Carlile has
described (Report of British Association, 1837, p. 112), and Dr. Knox has figured (Lancet,
1839, p. 191) these ribs and their homotypes in the third and fourth sacral vertebre.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 327

osseous rudiments of pleurapophyses ; and the neural spine is commonly un-
developed. One or more typical segments are obviously completed by the
meeting of the broad sides of the inverted arch (62, #3, 61) at the ‘ ischio-
pubic symphysis’ forming the ‘pelvis’ of anthropotomy. Before, however,
entering upon the difficult inquiry into the general homology of the pelvis,
I would beg to refer the reader to the analysis of the sacrum of the ostrich
given at p. 263: and I here subjoin a figure of seven of those vertebre,
from an immature specimen, the pleurapophyses being removed from all
_ save the last (pi), in order to show the change of place of the neurapophyses
m1—4,in relation to their centrums, c 1 to 4: dd are the long diapophyses ;
the short parapophyses. The sacral spines, s s, are enormously developed.
In the bird the modification of the vertebral segments at the posterior
region of the trunk in relation Fie. 27
to the transference of the whole Reels
weight of the body and fore-
limbs (wings) upon the hind-
limbs, is greater and more ex-
tensive than in the ‘bipes im-
plume,’ and the essential nature
of the pelvic arch is still more
masked in the bird than in man.
In order to obtain an insight
into the model according to
which it is constructed, we must
descend still lower, even to the
humblest of the vertebrated
creatures that crawl upon the 7 sacral vertebree of a young ostrich (Struthio camelus),
_ earth. The example which is here selected for that purpose is the perenni-
branchiate amphibian calleq Menopome Alleghanniensis.
The three anterior ver- Fig. 28.
tebrz which answer in po-
sition to the ‘lumbar’ in
_ fig. 25, differ chiefly in ha-
_ ving rudimental pleurapo-
physes (P/) articulated to
_ the ends of the diapophyses
(D). In the next vertebra
thediapophysis(D')andthe
_ rudimental pleurapophysis
(Pl) are thickened and
_ enlarged: a second pleur-
_ apophysial rib-like piece(62)
__ is joined by one end to the
4 pleurapophysis, and by the Sacral vertebra and appendage with contiguous vertebrze. Menopome.
other to a broad partially ossified cartilage (61) which meets and joins its
fellow, completing a hemal arch and restoring the vertebra in question to
the typical character. A radiated appendage, moreover, diverges on each
side from the articulation between 62 and 641, and forms the hind-limb. Now
the special homology of this limb with the undivided filamentary appendage
similarly situated in the lepidosiren, and with the ventral fins of fishes, ‘jn
the descending series ; and with the hind-limb of other reptiles, of birds and
of mammals in the ascending series, is unmistakeable, and, I believe, is gene-
_ rally admitted: so that comparative anatomists have not hesitated to call
_ the rib-like bone, 62, ‘ilium,’ and the part, 61, ‘ pubis” in the menopome.

=

328 _ REPORT—1846. 7
?

The special homologies of these elements of the pelvis being thus deter-
mined, it follows, that their general homology, as ‘it may be revealed by the
simple condition of the pelvic arch in the species in which the pelvis, as
complete and fixed to a sacrum, makes its first appearance in the animal
kingdom, will be equally applicable to the parts under all their metamor-
phoses in the higher air-breathing vertebrates.

The correspondence of the segment of the endoskeleton in the menopome
D’, Pl’, H, A, with the typical vertebra, as illustrated by fig. 15, is such,
that any other explanation of its essential nature than as a representative or
repetition of such fully developed segment or vertebra seems contrary to ~
nature. The chief modification has its seat in the most peripheral part or
appendage A. as compared with its simple homologue in the thoracic segment
of the bird (fig. 15). If 62 and 61 are to be regarded as strangers to the
vertebral system, new parts introduced for special purposes, and not as
normal elements modified for special purposes, I am at a loss to know on
what principles, or by what series of comparisons we can ever hope to attain
to the higher generalizations of anatomy, or discover the pattern according
to which the vertebrate forms have been constructed. It may be said thatthe
arch which they constitute performs a new function, inasmuch as it sustains
a locomotive limb which reacts upon the ground. But this new function
arises in the menopome, rather out of the modifications of the appendage
than of the arch itself. In so far as the mere support of the appendage is
concerned, the inverted or hemal arch Pl’, H, performs no new function, but
one which is common to such arches inthe thorax of birds, and to the less com-
pletely ossified homologous arches in the abdomen of fishes, where moreover
the simple diverging appendages do give attachment to the muscles of locomo-
tion. Comparing, then, the hemal arch in question with that of the typical
vertebra (fig. 15), we find that, like the scapulo-coracoid arch in fishes
(fig. 5, H 1), its parts are open to two interpretations. The upper piece of
Pl' may be thewhole pleurapophysis, the lower, 62, the heemapophysis, and the
part, 64, the half of an expanded and bifid hemal spine: or Pl’ with 62, may
be two portions of a teleologically compound pleurapophysis, and 64 the heem-
apophysis, which would join with its fellow without, or with a mere rudiment
of, a hemal spine intervening. From the analogy of the scapulo-coracoid
arch in fishes, which is proved by its modifications in higher animals to
want the hemal spine, it is most probable that such is the condition and
true interpretation of the correspondingly simple pelvic arch under considera-
tion. But the genera] relation of this arch to the hemal one of the typical
segment is not affected by the alternative. ~

I regard, therefore, Pl’, 62, as two portions of a fully developed pleurapophy--
sis; and the pleurapophyses, Pl’, P/ of the contiguous vertebree as answering
only to the upper portion of the pelvic one. In ascending from the meno-
pome to the crocodile, we find the homologue of 62 broader than it is long,
and articulated to the thickened proximal portions of the pleurapophyses of
two segments ; and we observe, likewise, the pelvic arch completed below
by two pairs of hemapophyses: for the anterior pair the name of ‘ossa
pubis’ is retained ; to the posterior pair that of ‘ischia’ is given. In general
homology these bones complete, as hemapophyses, the two vertebral seg-
ments modified to form the sacrum of the crocodile; and the intermediate
connecting piece (ilium) may be interpreted, as either the confluent distal
portions of the pleurapophyses of both vertebree, or as an expansion of one
such portion, answering to 62 in the menopome, and intruding itself between
the stunted pleurapophysis and distant hemapophysis of the second sacral
vertebre in the crocodile.

Saag

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON, 329

ie bird the expansion of the element 62 proceeds to a further extent,
1 besides the proximal piece of the pleurapophysis of its own segment o2,
is rought. into connection with the homologous stunted or proximal ends
pl pleurapophyses of several contiguous segments, in the manner indicated

the dotted line in fig. 28. Now, if the ilium, so expanded, were inter-
tg as the coalesced complementary portions of all the short pleurapo-
physes with which it articulates, its condition would be very similar to that
which Oken has attributed to the scapula. But its ossification radiates, as
in the simple rib-like ilium of the menopome, from a common centre: there
are no corresponding multiplications of haemapophyses below; these are
restricted in the pelvis of all animals to the number which they present in
the crocodile. And since the scapula has been proved to be, under its most
expanded form, the homologue of a single pleurapophysis, so also I am dis-
posed to regard its homotype, the ilium, as maintaining under every variety
of form and proportion, the same fundamental singleness of character, as it
presents on its first appearance in the perennibranchiate batrachian.

The first sacral vertebra, then, in man is complete; but its pleurapo-

physis i is. divided, and the lower portion expanded to form the so-called
‘ilium’ (62). The heemapophysis (6a) coalesces with that of the succeeding
yertebra (63), and with its own pleurapophysis (62).
_ The second sacral vertebra has its hemapophysis (63, called ‘ ischium ’)
gssified, but separated from its proper pleurapophysis by the expanded (iliac)
portion of that of the preceding vertebra, with which it coalesces, as well as
with the preceding hemapophysis (pubis). The short and thick pleurapo-
physes of the third sacral vertebra also articulate in the adult with the ex-
panded distal portions of those of the first sacral vertebra: but these (iliac
bones) are restricted in infancy and early childhood to their connections
with the first and second sacral vertebre, which connections are permanent
in most reptiles.

The fourth sacral vertebra consists of centrum, neurapophyses, and rudi-
mental pleurapophyses; the fifth sacral vertebra of centrum and rudimental

neurapophyses, which rarely meet above the neural canal.

_ In each sacral vertebra the elements of the neural arch and rudimental
ribs first coalesce together; and afterwards the vertebrae unite with each
ether and form the anthropotomical bone called ‘ sacrum.’

The first coceygeal vertebra in man consists of a centrum and of stunted
eR wide apart above, but developing zygapophyses, which join
those of the last sacral vertebra, and diapophyses which extend outwards
further than those of the same vertebra. The neurapophyses are represented

exogenous tubercles of bone in the second coccygeal vertebra ; and the

ird and fourth vertebre are reduced to the centrums only.

ae The cartilaginous deposits in the primitive blastema of this extremity of
the. trunk indicate a greater number of caudal vertebre, and the rudimental
tail i is proportionally longer in the embryo than in the adult. It is shortened,
however, by absorption prior to the commencement of ossification, and but
four segments are indicated by depositions of the earthy salts in the situa-
tions proper to the above-specified elements of a typical vertebra: these
finally coalesce into a single bone “ of a crooked pyramidal figure,” which
got its name of ‘os coccygis’ from its supposed resemblance to a cuckoo’s
beak +.

The early recognition of these and other specialities arising out of the va-
rious adaptive modifications of the typical segments of the human skeleton
found its expression, necessarily, in special terms, the convenience of which

* “ Shoulders of the os coccygis.”-—Monro, J. c. p. 142. t i. p. 141.

1846. Zz

330 REPORT—1846.

will ensure their permanence ; but the course of anatomical science having
unfolded the primary form which is the basis of those modifications, there

arises the same necessity for giving utterance to ideas of the generie cha-

racter of the parts by general terms.

Inasmuch, however, as the different segments of the human skeleton de-
viate in various degrees from the common archetype, and as the different
elements of such segments differ in their modifiability, anthropotomy has at
no period wanted also its ‘ general terms’ expressive of the recognised ex-
tent of such conformity: such terms also, indicating, obscurely indeed, so
much perception of the pre-existing model as could be obtained from the
study of one form, at a period when that form—the human frame—was
viewed as something not only above, but distinct from, if not antithetical
to the structures of the brute creation, and when it was little suspected
that all the parts and organs of man had been sketched out, in anticipation,
so to speak, in the forms of the inferior animals. Thus the word ‘ vertebra’
shows, by the number of the segments or parts of segments to which it is
applied in anthropotomy, the recognition of the obvious extent to which the
archetype is retained in such primary constituents of the human endoskeleton.
And, inasmuch as in some regions (the cervical, e.g.) the ‘ vertebra’ includes
all the elements of the typical segment, there developed, it has been retained,
but, with a more definite meaning, as the technical term of the primary
constituent segment of the endoskeleton in all vertebrate animals.

The ‘true vertebra’ of anthropotomy are those segments which retain the
power of moving upon each other ; and the term is applied in a peculiar and
empirical sense very different from the meaning which the anatomist at-
taches to a true or typical vertebra. ‘The ‘ false vertebre’ of anthropotomy
are those segments or parts of segments forming the lower or hinder extreme
of the endoskeleton, and which do not admit of reciprocal motion at their
joints. And Monro, admitting that the condition of even the human os
coccygis sometimes militates against the definition, meets the objection by
arguing for the speciality of that bone, and with as good or better reason
than those who have subsequently contended against admitting the cranial
segments into the category of vertebra. “From the description of this bone ”
(os coccygis), “* we see how little it resembles vertebre ; since it seldom has
processes, never has any cavity for the spinal marrow, nor holes for the pas-
sage of nerves*.”

Embryology has since demonstrated that the parts of the os coecygis are
originally in vertebral relation with the neural axis; and that this is subse-
quently withdrawn by a concentrative movement, which in like manner
withdraws it from the terminal segment at the opposite extreme of the endo-
skeleton. The homology of the divisions of the sacrum with the true ver~
tebre is admitted by Monro, because of the perforations for the nerves : and
this character is still retained in the nasal vertebra in the form of the cribri-
form foramina, although its neurapophyses, like those of the sacrum, have
lost their primitive relation to the neural axis.

Homological anatomy, therefore, teaches, that the term ‘ vertebra’ should
not only‘be applied to the segments of the human skeleton in the technical
and definite sense illustrated by figs.14 and 15, but be extended to those
modified and reciprocally immoveable segments which terminate the endo-
skeleton superiorly, and are called collectively ‘ skull.’

The term ‘ head,’ then, indicates a region of specially modified vertebra, like
the terms ‘ neck,’ ‘ chest,’ ‘loins,’ &c. ; and amongst the species of the primary
segmeuts characterized by specific modifications, the ‘ cranial’ vertebrae must

* Monro, /.c. p. 143.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 331

be added to the ‘ cervical,’ ‘thoracic or dorsal,’ ‘ lumbar,’ ‘ sacral,’ and ‘ coccy-
geal or caudal.’

Such, with reference to the ‘general’ term ‘ vertebra,’ seems to be the
advance of which anthropotomical science is susceptible, in order to keep
progress and be in harmony with anatomy.

As to the elements of the typical vertebra, anthropotomy has also its gene-
ral phrases (see Table II. column vi. ‘Soemmerring.’), some of which are
equivalent to the clearly defined technical terms of such elements in anatomy
_ properly so called.

The serial homology of the centrum (corpus vertebre) has been recognised
in all the so-called ‘true vertebra,’ and in some of the ‘ false vertebre :’ thus
Monro says, “ The fore-part of the os sacrum, analogous to the bodies of the -
true vertebre, is smooth and flat*.” But their smooth and flat homotypes in
the skull have only the special names of ‘basilar’ and ‘cuneiform’ processes ; of
‘processus azygos’ and ‘vomer.’ The ‘neurapophyses’ are recognised as re-
petitions of the same part under the definitions of ‘a bony bridge produced
backwards from each side of the body of the vertebra,’ of ‘ areus posterior

- vertebre,’ of « vertebral laminz’ or ‘ pedicles.’ Monro describes these rudi-

mental elements in the last sacral vertebra as ‘ knobs,’ and in the first coccy-

geal vertebra as its ‘shoulders.’ In the skull they receive the special defini-
tions of “ the pieces of the occipital bone situated on each side of the great
foramen ; from which nearly the whole condyles are producedt+ ” (partes late-
rales seu condyloidee, Soem.); ‘great’ or ‘ temporal wings of the sphenoidal
_ bonet;’ ‘ orbitar wings’ or ‘ processes of the sphenoidal bone ;’ ‘ nasal” or

‘ vertical plate’ and ‘ cristi galli’ of the ethmoid (‘pars media ossis ethmoidei,’
_ Soem.).

The neural spines are called generally ‘ spinal processes’ in every segment
of the trunk: in the head they are known only by the special names of ‘oc-
cipital plate,’ ‘ parietal bones,’ ‘ frontal bone,’ ‘ nasal bones.’

The pleurapophyses, when free, long, and slender, are called ‘ ribs,’ ‘verte-

_ bral ribs,’ or ‘bony parts of the ribs’; when short and anchylosed, they are
, called, in the neck, “the second transverse processes that come out from the
_ sides of the body of each vertebra§ ;” (radix prior processus transversi ver-
7 tebre, Soem.;) in the sacrum ‘transverse processes’ and ‘ilium’; in the skull,

* scapula’, ‘styloid process of the temporal bone,’ ‘ external auditory or tym-
i panic process of the same bone’; ‘ palatine bone.’

_ In like manner the serial homology of the hemapophyses is recognised in
the thoracic region by the general term ‘ cartilages of the ribs’ or ‘ cartilages
_ of the sternum’ there applied to the same elements of twelve successive seg-
_ ments. When ossified in other vertebre they have received the special names
_ of ‘ischium,’ ‘ pubis,’ ‘ coracoid process of the scapula,’ ‘clavicle,’ ‘ appendix *
_ or lesser cornua of the hyoid bone,’ (‘ crwra superiora,’ ‘os linguale superius,’
_ Soem.), ‘lower jaw’ or mandibula, ‘ upper jaw’ or mazilla.

' The exigences of descriptive anthropotomy and its highly important ap-
_ plications to Medicine and Surgery necessitate such special nomenclature, and
the reform which that nomenclature chiefly requires is the substitution of

names in the place of phrases for the parts of the human body.

_ But the retention and use of specific names for specially modified elements
in the different segments by no means precludes the entertainment of general
_ ideas and the necessity of expressing them by generic names for the homo-
4 logous elements in the entire series of vertebre.

If anthropotomy is to make corresponding progress with anatomy, and
_ to derive the same light from the generalizations of zootomical science which
, * Monro, J. c. p. 138. + L. c. p. 76. t L.c, p. 86. § L. ae 126,

Zz

332 REPORT—1846.

medical botany has done from general botanical science, its nomenclature
must expand to receive those generic terms which express the essential
nature of the parts, heretofore named and known only according to the
results of particular and insulated observation. A term which truly ex-
presses the general homology of a part enunciates the most important and
constant characters of such part throughout the whole animal series, and
implies therefore a knowledge of such characters in that part of the human
body, when used and understood by the human anatomist. Before the eunei-
form process of the occipital bone could be defined as the ‘ occipital cen-
trum,’ the modifications and relations of the homologous part in all classes of
vertebrate animals had to be accurately determined. The generic homo-
logical term expresses the sum or result of such comparisons, and the use of
such terms by the anthropotomist implies his knowledge of the plan or pattern
of the human frame which lies at the bottom of all the modifications that
raise it to an eminence so far above those of all other vertebrate animals.

In no species, however, is each individual segment of the endoskeleton
so plainly impressed with its own individual characters, as in Man ; the prac-
tised anthropotomist, for example, will at once select and name any given
vertebra from either the cervical, the dorsal, or the lumbar series. During
that brilliant period of human anatomy which was illuminated by a Fabricius,
an Eustachius, a Fallopius, and a Laurentius, the terms expressive of the
recognition of such specific characters were more numerous and often more
precise than in our modern compilations. Pleurapophyses were indivi-
dualized in the thorax as well as in the head: the ‘antistrophoi,’ ‘stereai’
and ‘sternitides,’ for example, were distinguished from the other ‘ pleurai
gnesiai’*.

General anatomical science reveals the unity which pervades the diversity,
and demonstrates that the whole skeleton of man is the harmonized result
of essentially similar segments, although each segment differs from the other,
and all vary from their archetype.

Part III.—SeriaL Homo oey.

Since, then, we are led by the observations, comparisons and reasonings re-
corded in the preceding parts of this Report, to recognise, as the fundamental
type of the vertebrate endoskeleton, a series of segments repeating each
other in their essential characters, it follows that, not only the power of de-
termining the homologous bones throughout the vertebrate series, but also
throughout the vertebral segments of the same individual, is included in
such generalization.

The recognition of the same elements throughout the series of segments
of the same skeleton I call ‘the determination of serial homologies.’ This
kind of study appears to have been commenced by the gifted Vieq d’Azyr,
in his ‘ Mémoire’ entitled “ Paralléle des os qui composent les extrémités,”
printed in the Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciences for the year 1774, and
Condorcet, in his Report on this ingenious Essay, speaks of it as “ un essai
d’une autre espéce d’Anatomie comparée, qui jusqu’ici a été peu cultivée.”

Vicq d’Azyr compares, or points out the serial homology of, the scapula
with the ilium, the humerus with the femur, the two bones of the fore-arm
with the two bones of the leg, the small bones of the carpus with those of
the tarsus, the metacarpus with the metatarsus, and the fingers with the toes.
He is not so happy in his particular as in his general determinations: his

* Anatomica Humani Corporis, &c., multis controversiis et observationibus novis illustrata.
Andr. Laurentio, fol. 1600, p. 95.

ay
t

.
E.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 333

choice in the leg, for example, of the homotypes of the radius and ulna in
the fore-arm, is erroneous ; but the whole memoir is an admirable example
of the appreciation of correspondences which later researches in the same
direction have proved to flow from a higher and more general law of uni-
formity of type. It is, indeed, a striking instance of the secret but all-pre-
vailing harmony of the vertebrate structure that serial homologies should be
determinable to such an extent in the parts of the diverging appendages,
which are the seat of the greatest amount and variety of deviations from the
fundamental type.

Tt will, of course, be obvious that the humerus is not ‘the same bone’ as
the femur of the same individual in the same sense in which the humerus
of one individual or species is said to be ‘the same bone’ as the humerus of
another individual or species. In the instance of serial homology above-cited,
the femur, though repeating in its segment the humerus in the more advanced
segment, is not its namesake, not properly, therefore, its ‘homologue’. I
propose, therefore, to call the bones so related serially in the same skeleton
‘homotypes,’ and to restrict the term ‘homologue’ to the corresponding bones
in different species, which bones bear, or ought to bear, the same names.

In the skull those bones are homotypes, or repetitions of the same essential
part in the series of vertebral segments, which succeed each other length-
wise, as in the last four columns of the subjoined Table :—

VERTEBRE. OcciPiTaAL. PaRIETAL. FRONTAL. NASAL.
Centrums ..........++- Basioccipital ....|Basisphenoid...... Presphenoid ....|Vomer.
Neurapophyses.... ..|Exoccipital ..../Alisphenoid ...... Orbitosphenoid. . |Prefrontal.

Nasal spines..... ..|Supraoccipital ..|Parietal .......... Frontal ......., Nasal.

Parapophyses ......:...|Paroccipital ....|Mastoid.......... Postfrontal...... None.
Pleurapophyses ........ Seapula ........ Stylohyal ........ Tympanic ...... Palatal.
Hemapophyses ........ Coracoid........ Ceratohyal........ Articular ...... Maxillary,

Hemal spines .......... Episternum ....|Basihyal.......... Dentary ........ Premaxillary.
Diverging appendages ..|Fore-limb or fin|Branchiostegals ..|Operculum ....|Pterygoidand Zygoma.

Thus the basioccipital, basisphenoid, presphenoid and vomer are homo-
types with the centrums of all the succeeding vertebra. The exoccipitals,
alisphenoids, orbitosphenoids, and prefrontals, are homotypes with the neur-
apophyses of all the succeeding vertebra. The paroccipitals, mastoids and
postfrontals are homotypes with the transverse processes of all the succeeding
vertebre. The supraoccipital, parietal, frontal and nasal are homotypes
with the vertebral neural spines.

The petrosals, sclerotals, and turbinals are homotypes of each other, as

being respectively sense-capsules of the splanchno-skeleton.

The suprascapula and scapula are together the homotypes of the stylohyal

and epihyal; of the tympanic, whether simple or subdivided, and of the
palatal: and all these are the homotypes of the pleurapophyses collectively,

whether modified as ribs, hatchet-bones, or iliac bones, in the rest of the
vertebral segments.

The coracoid is the homotype of the ceratohyal, this of the articular di-
vision of the mandible (with its subdivisions called angular, sur-angular and
coronoid, in cold-blooded animals), and this, again, of the maxillary bone: all
four being homotypes of the heemapophyses of the remaining vertebral seg-

‘ments, whether modified to form clavicles, pubic bones or ischia, chevron-bones,
‘sternal ribs, abdominal ribs, cartilages of ribs, abdominal cartilages or tendi-
nous intersections of the modified intercostal muscles called ‘recti abdominis.’

The entosternal, when present, is the homotype of the basihyal, of the

dentary or premandibular, and of the premaxillary bones ; and these collec-
tively are homotypes of the hemal spines of the rest of the vertebral seg-

334 REPORT—1846.

ments, whether retaining their spinal shape as in the caudal hamapophyses,
or flattened as ordinary ‘ sternal bones,’ or expanded and subdivided, like the
neural spines in the cranium, in order to complete below the thorax of the
bird or to form the plastron of the turtle.

There reigns a beautiful parallelism in the kind and degree of modification
of the parts of the neural with the corresponding parts of the hzmal arch of
the same vertebral segment: and as the serial homologies which have just
been enunciated succeed each other longitudinally (horizontally in beasts,
vertically in man) in the axis of the vertebral column, so these manifest them-
selves in a direction perpendicular to that axis.

The manubrium sterni of the bat developes a spine downwards, as the
supraoccipital of the fish sends a spine upwards: the expanded manubrium
sterni of the whale repeats the condition of the supraoccipital in birds and
mammals. The form of the ordinary sternal bones in mammals is repeated
by the parietal and supraoccipital bones of the crocodile. The divided sternum
of the young ostrich, before the two lateral ossifications have coalesced
at the median suture, repeats the condition of the divided parietal in most
mammals. The development of the crista from the obliterated suture of
the lateral halves of the expanded hemal spine in the thorax of birds is
paralleled by the development of the crista from the obliterated suture of
the expanded neural spine in the cranium of carnivores. The interposition
of the entosternal piece in the chelonian carapace parallels below the inter-
position of the interparietal bone in the rodent cranium above.

Thus modifications and developments of the same kind and degree manifest
themselves in the upper (neural) as in the lower (hemal) peripheral elements
of the vertebra ; and though not always in the same vertebra, nor in the
same animal, yet they are sufficiently exemplified in the myelencephalous series
generally, to establish the conclusion that the hemal spines under all their
modifications are vertical homotypes, not of the centrums, as Oken, Meckel
and De Blainville have supposed, but of the neural spines of the same verte-
bre. In the composition of the neural arch of the occipital, parietal and
frontal vertebre, we find the neurapophyses repeating the pleurapophyses of
the hemal arch, and the parapophyses repeating the heemapophyses in their
relative positions to the centrum and the spine or key-bone of such arches.

Symmetry or serial homology of parts of the same vertebral segment is
usually still more strictly preserved in the transverse direction, and is so
obvious, as to have immediately led to the detection of the homologous parts,
which are accordingly distinguished as ‘ right’ and ‘ left.’

To return to the consideration of those serial homologies with which Vicq
d’Azyr commenced the study of these relations, | may remark that the bones
of the fore- and hind-limbs of some of the marsupial quadrupeds best illus-
trate the true relations which my revered Preceptor in Anatomy, Dr. Barclay*
was, I believe, the first to enunciate in respect of the bones of the fore-arm
and leg.

The skeleton of the Phalangista or Phascolomys plainly demonstrates that
the tibia is the homotype of the radius, and that the fibula is the homotype
of the ulna. In both wombat and ornithorhynchus the fibula assumes those

* In his explanations of Mitchel’s Plates of the Bones, 4to, 1824, pl. 24, figs. 3 and 4,
Dr. Barclay, without referring to Vicq d’Azyr’s Memoir, simply enunciates the correct
view of the serial homology of the bones of the fore-arm and leg, as follows :—* On com-
paring the atlantal (pectoral) and sacral (pelvic) extremities, the fibula is found to be the bone
corresponding to the ulna; and accordingly, upon extending our researches to Comparative
Anatomy, we perceive it exhibiting the like variety and unsteadiness of character, sometimes
large, sometimes small, and sometimes merely a process of the tibia,” &c. He does not push
his comparison to the bones of the distal segment of the limbs.

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 335

proportions*and developes that process from its proximal end, the want of

_ which in'man and most mammals deceived Vicq d’Azyr, as it has misled,

more recently, M. Cruvelhier. The complex explanation of the serial homo-
logies of the bones of the upper and lower extremities proposed by the last
named pains-taking anthropotomist*, involves more unnatural transpositions
and combinations of the parts than those of the D’Azyrian hypothesis, which
its ingenious author could not but admit seemed paradoxical ; viz. that the
anterior member of one side of the body repeated or corresponded with the
posterior member of the opposite side. Cuvier, however, seems to sanction
this idea by repeating the statement of Vicq d’Azyr, “C’est la droite d’une
paire, qu'il faut comparer 4 la gauche de l'autret.”

M. Flourens has exposed in detail the fallacies of this view in an excellent
memoir in the ‘Annales des Sciences’ for 1838 (t. x. p. 35); in which he
arrives at the same conclusions as Dr. Barclay, and from similar considera-
tions from Comparative Anatomy, as to the serial homologies of the bones of
the fore-arm and leg ; and he confirms those of the carpal and tarsal bones,
which had been so truly and acutely discerned by Vicq d’Azyr.

In mammalian quadrupeds generally the fore-limb takes the greater share
in the support, the hind-limb in the propulsion of the body. The manus is
accordingly-commonly shorter and broader than the pes ; this may be seen in
the terminal segment of even the monodactyle hand and foot of the horse.
Consequently the transverse direction prevails in the arrangement of the
carpal bones and the longitudinal in that of the tarsal bones.

The difference is least in the carpus and tarsus of the long and slender fore-

and hind-hands of the quadrumana. If the carpus of the chimpanzee, for
example, be compared with that of man, the first difference which presents
itself is the comparatively small proportion of the scaphoid which articulates
with the radius, as compared with that in man, in whom the distal articu-
lation of the radius is equally divided between the scaphoides and lunare
-which are on the same parallel transverse series. In the chimpanzee and
orang, on the contrary, the scaphoid is elongated, and extends, almost as much
from the os lunare as from the radius, along the radial side of the carpus, to
reach the trapezium and trapezoides; it is, as it were, interposed between the
lunare of the proximal row and the trapezium and trapezoid of the distal row
of the carpal bones. The similarity of its connections, therefore, in the carpus
with those of the scaphoid in the tarsus (fig. 25, se.){ is so close that the
serial homology of the two bones is unmistakeable. The astragalus (2. a),
then, in the foot, repeats the os lunare (/) in the hand, but usurps the whole
of the articular surface of the tibia, and presents a larger proportional size,
especially in man, whose erect position required such exaggerated develop-
-ment of the astragalus, or homotype of the lunare. The prominent part of
the calcaneum obviously repeats the prominent pisiforme (p), and the body
of the calcaneum (cl) articulates with the fibula as the cuneiforme (cz)
articulates with the ulna. The strain upon the homotype of the pisiforme to
produce the required effect in raising the back-part of the foot with its super-
incumbent weight upon the resisting ends of the toes, required its firm
coalescence with the homotype of the cuneiforme ; in other words, the cunei-

* “T/extrémité supérieure du tibia est représentée par la moitié supérieure du cubitus,
et la moitié inférieure du tibia par la moitié inférieure du radius ; tandis que le péroné est
représenté par la moitié supérieure du radius et par la moitié inférieure du cubitus.”—Anato-
mie Descriptive, t. i. p. 315.

+ Lecons d’Anat. Comp. t. i. 1836, p. 342.
= The carpal and tarsal bones are indicated diagrammatically in fig. 25 ; their ossification

has not commenced at the period of the embryonic skeleton there represented.

336 REPORT—1846.

forme and pisiforme of the carpus represent together the os calcis of the
tarsus. With regard to the other bones there is no difficulty ; the cuboid
(b) supports the two ulnar digits, iv, v, of the foot, as the unciform bone (w)
does those of the hand: the ecto-cuneiform supports the digitus medius, iil,
of the foot as the os magnum (m) does that of the hand: the meso-cunei-
form supporting the toe ii is the homotype of the trapezoid supporting the
finger 2, and the ento-cuneiform (ci?) is the homotype of the trapezium (¢).

It is no unusual exception that of two essentially distinct bones in one
segment being represented by a coalesced homotype—a single bone—in an-
other segment, as in the explanation above given of the serial homology of
the caleaneum. The scaphoides and astragalus in the tarsus of the lion are
represented by the single scapho-lunar bone in the carpus. The seaphoid
and a cuneiform bone in the tarsus of the sloth and megatherium are repre-
sented by the single scapho-trapezium in the carpus.

I have long entertained the opinion that an appreciation, vague and indi-
stinet, perhaps, of certain serial homologies, may have been associated with,
if it did not suggest the epithets “scapula of the head,” “femur of the head,”
&c. applied to certain cranial bones by Oken and Spix.

To Cuvier this language seemed little better than unintelligible and mystical
jargon, and he always alludes to it with ill-disguised contempt*. It has beer
commonly cited by those who have followed the great palzontologist in de-
preciating the cranio-vertebral theory, as a sufficient instance, needing no
comment, of the extravagances essentially inherent in such attempts to recog-
nise and explain the fundamental pattern to which the modifications of the
cranial bones are subordinated. And it must. be confessed that the expres-
sions by which the philosophical anatomists of the school of Schelling have
endeavoured to illustrate in the animal structures the transcendental idea of

-*the repetition of the whole in every part,’ have operated most disadvan-
tageously and discouragingly to the progress of calm and dispassionate
inductive inquiry into that higher law or condition upon which the power
of determining the special homologies of the bones of the skeleton depends.
Nevertheless the utterances of gifted spirits to whom the common intellectual
storehouse is indebted for such original and suggestive generalizations as those
contained in the “ Program tiber die Bedeutung der Schadelknochen” are
entitled to some, and we will hope to respectful consideration, even when
they happen to be least intelligible or most counter to the conventional ex-
pressions of the current anatomical knowledge of the day; nor will the at-
tempt to detect their latent meaning be wholly unproductive.

With regard, for example, to the term ‘scapula capitis’ applied by Oken
to the tympanic bone in birds (fig. 23, 28), it is quite possible that some ap-
preciation of its serial homology with ribs and other modifications of the pleur-
apophysial element, besides that exhibited by the blade-bone, may have lain at
the bottom of the expression. And, we may ask, whether the error here be not
rather inthe mode of expressing the relationship than in the relationship itself?
Had Oken, for example, said that the tympanic bone of the bird was a modified
‘ pleurapophysis,’ or expressed by any other equivalent general term his idea of
its standing in such general relation to its proper cranio-vertebral segment, his
language would not only have been accurate, but might have been intel-

* “ Quant 4 M. Oken—il déclare les piéces en question les parties écailleuses des temporaux,
ou, selon son langage mystique, ‘la fourchette du membre supérieur de la téte.’ ””—Ossem.
Foss. v. pt. ii. p. 75.—“ Cet humérus de la téte de M. Oken devient pour M. Spix le pubis
de cette méme téte; ou, pour parler un langage intelligible, un des osselets de 1’ouie,
‘savoir, le marteau.””—‘‘ M. Spix croit aussi qu’il répond a la partie écailleuse du temporal,
quwil décore du titre d’iléon de la téte."—&c. Ib. pp. 85, 86.

Se ee

PSL SS eM aS

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 337

ligible to Cuvier. When Oken called the ‘tympanic’ a ‘cranial scapula’ he
unduly extended the meaning of the term ‘scapula,’ and converted it froma
specific to a generic one. The tympanic is the homotype of the scapula,
both being modified pleurapophyses, but each has an equal claim to its proper
or specific name indicative of their respective modifications.

I am aware that Oken meant more than mere serial homology when he
called the tympanic the ‘ blade-bone of the head’: it is part of the phraseology
of the hypothesis of the head being a repetition of the whole body, &c. But
at the time when that anatomist wrote it was not known or suspected that
the head already possessed the scapula, and that the modified pleurapophysis
so called, actually appertained to a segment of the skull (fig. 5, 50, 51). In
the terms ‘femur capitis,’ ‘tibia,’ ‘fibula,’ « pes capitis,’ applied by Oken to the
parts of the teleologically compound mandibular ramus, and in those of ‘ wlna’
and ‘ manus capitis, applied to the distal segments (21, 22) of the maxillary
arch, we have not only instances of the attempt to express general relations of
repetition or homology by special terms, but these modes of expressing the
serial homologies of nos. 29, 30, 32, and of 21 and 22, betrays the misappre-
ciation of the general homologies of the locomotive extremities, and their
relations to the vertebral arches supporting them.

To gain an insight into whatever proportion of truth may be involved in
the ideas signified by the phrases above cited, it is necessary to determine
the essential nature of the parts called ‘femur,’ ‘tibia,’ ‘ humerus,’ ‘ ulna,’
‘manus,’ ‘ pes,’ &c., or the general homology, in short, of locomotive members,
and the attempt to master this problem has been not the least difficult part
of the present inquiry. Cuvier has offered no opinion, nor does he appear
to have ever troubled himself with the attempt to decipher the significa-
tion of the locomotive members of the vertebrate animals; 7. e. of what
parts of the primordial or pre-existing vertebrate model they are the
modifications.

_ Oken’s idea of the essential nature of the arms and legs is, that they are no
other than ‘liberated ribs’: “ Freye Bewegungsorgane konnen nichts anderes
als frey gewordene Rippen seyn *.”

Carus, in his ingenious endeavours to gain a view of the primary homologies
of the locomotive members, sees in their several joints repetitions of vertebral
bodies (¢ertiar-wirbel)—vertebre of the third degree +—a resultof an ultimate
analysis of a skeleton pushed to the extent of the term ‘ vertebra’ being made
to signify little more than what an ordinary anatomist would call a ‘ bone.’
But these transcendental analyses sublimate all differences, and definite
knowledge of a part evaporates in such unwarrantable extension of the mean-
ing of terms.

it has been, however, I trust, satisfactorily demonstrated that a vertebra
is a natural group of bones, that it may be recognised as a primary division
or segment of the endoskeleton, and that the parts of that group are definable
and recognizable under all their teleological modifications, their essential
relations and characters appearing through every adaptive mask.

According to the definition of which a vertebra has seemed to me to be sus-

‘ceptible, we recognise the centrum, the neural arch, the hemal arch, and the
appendages diverging or radiating from the hemal arch. The centrum,

though the basis, is not less a part of a vertebra than are the neurapophyses,
hzmapophyses, pleurapophyses, &c.; and each of these parts is a different
part from the other: to call all these parts ‘vertebra’ is in effect to deny

* Lehrbuch der Natur Philosophie, p. 330, 8vo, 1843.
t Urtheilen des Knochen und Schalengeriistes, fol. 1828.

338 REPORT—1846.

their differential and subordinate characters, and to voluntarily abdicate the
power of appreciating aud expressing them. The terms ‘secondary’ or
‘tertiary vertebra’ cannot, therefore, be correctly applied to the parts or
appendages of that natural segment of the endoskeleton to the whole of
which segment the term ‘ vertebra’ ought to be restricted.

So likewise the term ‘ rib’ may be given to each moiety of the hzemal arch
of a vertebra; although I would confine it to the pleurapophyses when they
present that long and slender form characteristic of the thoracic abdominal
region, viz. that part of such modified hzemal or costal arch to which the term
‘vertebral rib’ is applied in comparative anatomy and the term ‘ pars ossea
coste’ in anthropotomy : but, admitting the wider application of the term
‘rib’ to the whole hemal arch under every modification, yet the bony di-
verging and backward projecting appendage of such rib or arch is something
different from the part supporting it.

Arms and legs, therefore, are developments of costal appendages, but are
not ribs themselves liberated: although liberated ribs may perform analo-
gous functions, as in the serpents and the Draco volans.

If then the arms or pectoral members be modified developments of the
diverging appendage of the scapulo-coracoid arch, and if this be the hzmal
arch of the occipital vertebra, it follows that the pectoral members are
parts of the head, and that the scapula, coracoid, humerus, radius and ulna,
carpals, metacarpals and phalanges, are essentially bones of the skull.

The transcendentalism, therefore, which requires for its illustration that
the maxillary arches be the arms and hands of the head, meets its most direct
refutation in the fact of the diverging appendages, properly called arms and
hands, belonging actually to one of the modified segments of which the head
itself consists.

The head is, therefore, in no sense a summary or repetition of all the rest
of the body: the skull is a province of the whole skeleton, consisting of a
series of parts or segments essentially similar to those of which the rest of
the skeleton is constituted.

Most of the phrases by which Spix attempted to systematize and carry out
the repetition-hypotheses of Schelling and Oken, as applied to the osteology
of the vertebrate skull, may be similarly explained, and when well-winnowed
some grains of truth may be recovered.

In denominating the palatine bone the ‘hyoid bone of the f. face,’ Spix en-
deavours to express a relation of general homology by a term which should
be confined to the enunciation of a special homology: but he adds “ cornui
ossis hyoidei anteriori analogum,” which shows an almost correct appreci-
ation of the serial homology of the palatine bone. It answers, however, in
the maxillary arch to the stylo-hyal or proximal element of the hyoidean
arch, not to the cerato-hyal or hemapophysial element ; and it needs only to
recognise the palatine as the ‘ pleurapophysis’ of its vertebral segment, to

. eS

appreciate all its true serial homologies. It might as well have been called the | |

‘tympanic pedicle of the face,’ the ‘styloid process,’ the ‘scapula,’ the ‘vertebral
rib,’ or the ‘ilium—of the face’, according to Oken’s and Spix’s faulty method
of expressing serial homological relations, since it holds in its vertebral segment
the same place which each of the above-named bones respectively does in its
segment.

So also, with regard to the term ‘ os faciei iliacum’ applied by Spix to the
mastoid (s), the error lies not only in the application of a special term to ex-
press a general homological relation, but in the supposed serial homology so
expressed. Had Spix detected, in a cranial vertebra, the precise element
answering to that called ‘iliac bone’ in a post-abdominal vertebra, yet it

[Insert at, the end of the Report.]

SOEMMERRING*.
Names. Nos.

; Pars prior sive basilaris partis occipitalis ossis 1.
z spheno-occipitalis.
: Pars lateralis sive condyloidea, &¢. ...++-.-+++++++ 2.
¥ Pars occipitalis stricte sic dicta, &C. ....+-++-se0+++ a
a
A Eminentia aspera musculum rectum lateralem 4.
it excipiens, &c.
Mi Basis sive corpus partis sphenoidalis ossis sphe- 5.

; no-occipitalis.
1° (in|, | Ala media sive major partis sphenoidalis, &c. ... 6.

i

¢ Dol SERRE {6b Se ee nee ee 6!
le); iq, | Os bregmatis sive parietale ........:seeessesereeees i:
. al 9% | Processus mastoideus ossis temporis ---+- seseees 8.
tosphé, | Pars prior sive rostrum basis partis sphenoidalis ae

; ossis spheno-occipitalis.
7 ae oe DPE on acsivehaconjiecccdpeiaesenesssancdssee Berackan fone nate 9!
' (in er, | Ala superior sive minor partis sphenoidalis, &e. | 10.
fronta, | Os frontis ...... La ee eee Se ase ae pe eee 11.
19.&20 (i) | Apophysis orbitaria externa .....s6+..:0++++s00 my (ea
hérissé{, | Vomer....... Bee eee BUN Sle uct sacadaeceasnanseenue: th ndiaea
ophysa|, | Pars media ossis ethmoidei .........+++-++-++eeeee 14.
le); nal. | Os nasi ...... ee Se ese Resear 15.

mpéal (. | Pars petrosa partis pyramidalis ossis temporis... | 16.

“

eexacss . | Ossicula audittis .......-..cceesescoeerseeneneeees atenwa 16’.

a3 p.. . | Tunica sclerotica opaca oculi ......- seaebweaen 17.
i 2 ......\.. | Partes laterales. seu cellule et conch ethmoidei | 18.
Fy f the “i 30 “Schuppentheil des Schlafenbeins” (in fishes, reptiles and
%) ertains birds); hintere Abtheilung des Schlafenfliigels (in monotremes),
.. ii. p. 10 Késtlin ; “ Felsentheil desselben (os petrosum),” Bojanus.
- the ty 31 “ Kleine Fligel des Keilbeins,” Bojanus ; “‘ Vordere Schla-
3 4 applied fenfliigel,”’ Kostlin.
pet os. 28a 32 Siebbein, K6stlin.
rof horr 33 Mastoideum, Bojanus and Kostlin.
Ss. V. PD 34 « Os transversum,” Kostlin.
hyals. 35 « Gelenktheil des Schlafensbein,” Késtlin; ‘ Paukenring-
2 Osseus knochen,” Bojanus.
je total 36 Gaumenflugel des Keilbein, Bojanus.
\oides’ 37 Jochfortsatz, Késtlin; Fligelbein, Bojanus.
nian g¢ 38 Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles, 4to, t. i. 1843.

1 plus 39 De Corporis humani Fabrica, 8vo, 1794.

Selerotal .
Keio
moturbinal,
‘Turbinal

Palatine
Maxillary
Premaxillary

Entopterygoid,
Prerygoit

Eetoptery
Malar

Squamosal

‘Tympanie

Bpihyal

Ceratoliyal

Basi-hyal

Glosso-hiyal

Uroliyal

Brunchiostegal
Hasibranchial

Hypobranchial (in
‘ishes) : Thyro-

hyal (in other

vertebrates™),

Corato-branchial...
Lpibranchial ss.
rh

haryngo-branchinl
Suprascapula ..

Seapula

Coracoidl

Clavielo

P
\upratern por
Suborbitals

Lachrymal
Labial...

Mastoidien

Noval (in fivbs

Palatin

Maxillais
Tot
r

‘Transverse

pitee

siren").

Os phas
Sune i

Sur-orbitaire
Sur-temy

Colomelle (in
Pariétal

repoiles) ; temporal
Sphénoide principal (in fishes)
ip! peels oc. fr
Sphénoide antérseur (im fishes) 5
Aile orbitaire (in fisbes, birds and mammals); aile texsporale et une grande partie de
Vaile orbitaire (in erocexfile?).

Lngrassial (in Bisbes); ptéreal™ in crocodile); rocher (in binds)"; pl.

Frontal (in fishes and birds); frontal unique (in ervcodile) ...
Temporal (in fishes)"; jugal™** (in erocodile),
eed (im fishes)"; Bériméal (partly, in crocodile); yomer (in
Hone fishes)"; ethmophysal (in crocodile); nasal ethmordal (in

Frontal principal (in fisbes and reptiles); frontal ow frontal unique (in birds snd mam-
reptiles); borde externe ou posténicur de V'arcade
)

).
Frontal powtérieur (in fishes and
sourciliére du frontal

Vomer were

Provtal anténeor (i
Jews batrachians'

mals).
Ethmoule (im fi
saurians, bil

Rocher (in fishes, birds and mammals)
Onselets de Voreille
* Viteos it
Partie ersniente

(in mammals),

crorodiles) ; os en ceinture (in tail~

fishes, tailed batrachians and
o ni }}; ethmoide (im birds and rnam-

");, comets inféniears (in ephidians|

); fromtal antérieur (in tail-Lexs batrachians) ; nasal (in opbidians, | Nasal (in fishes and crocodile); nasal maxillaire (ia binls) .
irds wad maxmmals)-

Tn-rupéal (in fishes)"; post-nipéal (in part, in crocodile)™

Ethmophyxal (in fishes)"; rhinosphénal (in crocodile)™ -s-sscyensssiee

Palatal (in fishes and crocodile); palatin antéricur (in bints)* ....

Addental (in fishes! and. crocodile)”,
iasal (in flies and crocodile)”

Wérisaéal (in fishes)".

Adgustal (in fishes)"; hérisséal (in crocodile
birds),

maxillaire aupérieur (in birds)".

maxilinire™ inter-taxillaire (in birds) #4 ,
sidicn interne (in flahes")

verse (in fhea?), prérygoidien (in batrachians and saurians

terne (in ophidians*),

‘Transverse (in ophidians*, # in lizards’, d in crocodiles") ..
crocodiles", f, We in mammals*).
#

} ptérygoidien in- Palatin postéricur (in

Adgustal (in erocodile)®

Gavier includes the squa- | Adorbital (in crocodile)”; pidee antéricure de Vos jugal (in birda)".

‘Temporal, ou partic feailleuse (in lizards’, p in crocodiles, ¢, &e. in mammals); jugal | Cotyléal (in crocodile)"; pitee postéricure do I'os jugal (in binds)".

(in birds and monotremer

Enostéal (in crocodile); tympano-styloide (ia birds). ....

Le ean (n ophidinns and i eo) ro ympanique (in Tard); ox ar (in
1 partic tympanique dix tem

panique (in batrachians Serval (in fishes). .
mpanitad Uroservial (in fishes)
Epicotyléal (in fishes)
Hypocotyléal (in fishes).
Submalléal (in fishes);
Subjugal (in crocodile)
Subcotyléal (in fishes)

piras!), cai
‘Temporal ({n fis
Sympleetique (in
‘Tympe (in fishy

wubrupéal (in crocodile)".

gabtewsporal (in erocodile)”
Subvoméral (in fishes); sublachrymal (in crocodile)
Subpalpicbral (in crocodile). x
Subdental (in fishes and crocodile)!

Styl-lyol (in fishes and mammals).

Gs styloidien (in lizards”
branche’ suspensoire, al),
on come antérieure
jéee de In corne nntéricure (in
‘and mammals); petit of
ilice cartilagineux (in crocodiles*).
pitee de la corve nntérieure
(in lzards* and mammal
térieure (in crocodiles
remibre pidce impaire de I'os hyo
~Wyatrachia)*; carps de V'ox hyoide (in sau-

Hyposternal (in fishes); cernto-hyal (in mammals)...

Grunile pidee Intérale
(in fishes);

Fone moyenne (in Hyo-sternal (in fishes); glomo-byal (in birds); npo-hyal (in mammals)*

Grande pido latérale
‘some chelonians™);

(in fishes);
Petites pices latérnfen (in faite Apo-byal ad cerato-hyal (in fishes); basi-hyal (in binds and mammals)*
paira de Vox hyoide (1n ot)
rinns and some ebelanians™, in W
Os Lingo (i fishes und binks?); ew
particulier dle In langue (in ehel
Queue de Mos hydide (in falies?

al (in fishes and some birds); ento-hyal andl uro-hyal (in mam-
Episternal (in fishes) ¢ uro-hyal (in bia) Moose

Cotes sternales™sees.cees
Basi-hyal and uro-hyal (in fishes)

‘ui soutient la langue (in batrachians’}; ox

Virds)) seconde pidee iunpaire de Vor hyoide (in

Tayon branchioatégal +.
Chafne intermédiaire d'omelets

ythenéal (in fishes) =; apo-hyal and cerato-hyal (in

Piteo interne ie inferieure de Varceau brancbiale (in fishes); branche latérale
FET pete : Vinls}*; glosso-hyal (in mammals) *.

‘unl come postéricur* de l'os hiyoide (in batrachinns); la deuxieme paire de comes
nde come and corne moyenne (in some chelouians); corne anté-
rheure (in binds’); came postéricure (in mainmals).

(in Tiare);

Piteo externo de la partic inféricure de Marceau branchiale, and pharyngien inférieur | Plural inférieure and ericéal (in fishes)*.
(in fishes). ‘
Partio nupdricurs do Vareeau branchiale «
nygien superie f :
re? (in fishest); laine cartilagincuse du bord spinal de Vomoplate

‘dies nnd saurians); yuirtie spinale de omoplate {in anourans)s

petite os particuliers dans le ligament de Yomoplate (in cheloninn
Scaplilaire® (in fishcs); col de l'omoplate (in proteus); l'autre partie, b, de l'omoplate

(io anourans).

Tuméat (in fsbo) ox comesitien (reptiles and hinds); apophyse ou tubercule | Furculaire (in fshes); coraccide (in reptiles, binds and mammals)

coracoide (in

Clavicule arromion de Vomoplate* (in chelonians®) ; clavicule (in other reptiles, birds | Furculaire (in reptiles, birds snd mammals) *
= anil mammals).
Troinme om de Varna
yptiles, binds and rat
Headial! in Hohes}; cubitus (Wi reptiles, binds and mammals).
Cubital” (in fishes); radii (iu reptiles, birds and mammals) .

J Op da earpe? osssse
| ARayons de In peetorale? (in fishes); métacarpicns and phalanges (in other vertebrates)

porte la nageoire pectorale® (in fiahes); humérus (in | Humérus (in reptiles, birds andl mammala)*4* ...

cubitus (in reptiles, birds and mammals)?
vrua® (in fishes); radius (in reptiles, birds and mammals)
and cubitus™ (in some fishes); ox du carpe in reptiles,

gea™ (in some fishes); os du métacarpe and phalanges
(in reptiles, birds and mammals)*.

Os caracaidien® (in fishes) Coracoisde ™ (im fishes)

Sous-orbitaire®

a
‘MECKEL” —WAGNER®.
News,

(Corps oni Oceipitissanenseten
Ooxpinks baerie ee

(i H
sqibenodSei (in fabes and rep=

magna
tiles); ala parva (un birds and mam
Pr ams :

Prontalle sessserssorserenvenssvenvessavecssseene

birds and mammals)
ficula auditos

One turbinata superior
Nasale (in fishies) se-secsscsarseres

Palatinum ...
Maxilla superior
Totermaxillare
Pterygoideum interaum
Pterygoideum externutn (in fishes!

+ rygoideum (in other vertebrates

‘Transversum
Zyomaticun

Quadrato-jugale ani quadrato-maxillare
(in reptiles and birds); squats tem
poralis (in maummals™),

Os quadratum seu tyrpanicum...

‘Os quadratum seu tympanicam (in fishes).
‘Os sympleeticum (in fishes)

Pterygoideum posterius (in fishes)
Or quadrata-jugale (in fishies)
Os articulare

‘Os dentale
Macxilla inferior
Preoperculum...
Operculum
Subaperculum
Jnteroperenlum
Processus styloideus

Das vierte doppelte Seteustick ios Zan:
gen-beinbogens (in fishes), |

* | purposely depart,
name (o the bomologo:
pedantic to persist in extendiog a
special function in one class, which
in that sense to the bom
have substituted,
hypoliranchials in
acconls with ite constant
‘lasses, and which harmonises in its termi
of the other parts of tbe hyoid apparst

arngoty from Eta Oe aalen
real” and “come

™thyro-byal" has occurred to me

for No. 46, that of = thyro-hyal Y his Soi omen

‘os the root a} eb with wie it is

lature adopt

us part i
herefore, for ie depe

te, and as agree!
for the parts of the hyuid

lying the same
here, from the rule of applying the same

associated. have the less hesitation in thus deviatin ® Not reckoned as part of the
‘ince the metamorpboses of © The term “*intermaxillare™

"is bunks, or “os

Wlstoire Naturelle des Possaons,¢.&. (182%)

4 Rigoe Animal, t. iii. (1830.) pp 431,432. In this work the

indicated by letters: the sumbers cited are thove used
Possoca”

“Vapophyse_mastoide
‘oecipital.” The same

the
Razrachians, whieb, with those
Agaaniz, will he found after Nat. 236 to 28d.
1 Cavier salds, that this pase of borns ix “ celle qui représent
Jes on styboidiens"—Onx Fog x. part ii. p.19%, Bot they
The epi-hyal of thie Chee

them by Geoffroy and

‘Omemens Fousiles, 410, tip. 23;
(9e ek courte, et sppartient
‘of the par-eccipital with tbe true mastoid process per-

* Lesons d’Amatomie Conaparée, t. fi. 1837.)
2 Onernens Fensiles, ¥-

vorbitaire (in Lizard)
* Owemens

answer to the epi- and .

yn he describes as “ane pitch

sayenne."—Ibd. p 194. The
sometimes called

76. Aile temporale et Iaile

Cavier.
= ‘genera in which the “corps
Ato, & ¥. part fh (1824.) prices”

© Cuvier specifies the
Ge Vow bryoide™ is ™ subelivise

the pharyngeal bones (1
Physiologie, iv. (1618.) p. 240. Cavier these parts
hyold as “ cornes onseuses fieures,” in the *Legous
a Avatowle Comparte,’ ii. (1805.) p-252, bot afterwards adopt
Meckel's view of 1 aod that “ile ponr.

that
the hypo-branchials.
1s To oot regard this howe as part of a cranial vertebra.
& Die Verglachende Osteologie dea Schiifeabeios, 4t0, 137,

: ee =
aS a

Nenes. sn

a
‘Squamsa Qeeipitalis wassererecessssceenneece |

a r
Occipital exterme cress
Sphénoide principal, snnece
Grande aile du xphéngide ccs:

‘Seitlichen obern Hinterhauptbein vss.ss

“Roeilbeinklirper ssesesnssesnessseeessesen

‘Febmateia™ (0, fhe and
‘mararmals)™, Lo

‘Schlifbeinschuppe oder vonlere do. ....+-

nasal (in sau |
nians, birds and mammals).
Oe iegomarem ts ‘petrosum (in

fishes); wntere Muscheln

Maxillaire supéricur
Tntermaxillairo®..,
Peérygoiilien interne

Zwischenkieferbei

Auserer Fligelfortaats (in reptiles)
Jochbein Ceenaion binls and mam-

mals),
Tlintere Schlif beinsehuy

Cartilage mobile du Her... | Ox xpongiosim sive turbinatum inferius .., 1.
On palati srescoee 20.
‘Maxilla nyperior al.
Thre incisive maxillon 2.

23.
Y ory
rygolilet partis sphouoiilalis ossis spheno-
bevipitalis
Pte 26,
Ox jugale seu inalio 26.
Pare squamosa oasis tomporie ....). 7,

.. | Lamina omen omix tomporis © qui ineatus mudi | 28,

Obere Gelenkbein™ ...,. orn
Griffelfurniges Stick des Schlifebeins.

‘aixse, oF ox tympani,

Unteres Geleakbein®.... earré, of of quailraturn.

Gelenstiick dos Unterkiofers ..

Kronenstiick dex
‘Zahstiick des Unter

Varkicmendeckelstiick
Higontlich Kiemendeckelstiick ,.
Unterkiomendeckelstuick
‘svisohenkiomendeckelstiick
Kleine stilotfirmigo Knochen dos Zun-
nbein (in fishes); Griffelfortsite
des Schtifenbeins (in maimtnals),
Zungen-hor, oder...

Zungen-bogen. Drittes, vorderstes weit
Jeiner Hornerpuar (in chelonians).

Branche latérale -....+00

Mittlero Stick der Zangenbein Tite glénoidlale s.....5.0+

Zungenkerne (W.) v0»:

Tlintore mittlore Stick dor Zungenbein,

Kiemenhautetrablen sae
Unpaare Kuochen in der Miteli

Queue de Vos hy

jimnerpanr (in batruchians) 5
tem nilaseren Zungenbeinhirner
res Hornerpaar (in.

Pitee orticolaire ...

hintern Horner (in
Stick der Kiesnenboger

Pitco branchial, et
Pharyngien inféricure,
Pigs branchialo «sere»

veh
hen der Sehulterthell (in

Obere Knochen deswelb, oder Schulter-
Schulterblate (io

Unterste Knochen der Sebultertheil.
Vordere Schliimelbein (in fishes);
Tlintere Schliisselbein (in other ver-

.

Vordere Behl teeth (in reptiles, birds
Oberummknochen seers
Vorderarmknochen.

Mandwurselknochen

Brusttlowenstrable (in fishes) ; Mittel~
handkoochen und Phalangen (i

Jugal et apophyse rygomatique

7 ™ Kthmoldeam erit
™ Aonales des Sciences

de VAead. Royale des Sciences, t. xii, (1833).

® Annales da Muséom, t. x. (1807.) pp. 42—360.
Anstomeps 1818; p. 196: pl: 3 4.

ie, Bo, Ths fe il. 121,
144,

batrachia, Vergl. Anat.’

sa

«|

ar pra ave rstr nase rte coals a

torius externiis oritur,

\iliformis parti pyrninidne

a roceen
is tomporia,

Tis onal

Ligomentumn ov lingoalo suporius inter et pro | 9.
comsun atiliformem.

Os lingualo auperins vel pisiforme esses | 40,

Os linguale modtiumn so.

(QM LSpraul Ns rseresszocecavoronthl | Pasratinratecre OMTERUENSTT econ ante! | AY

Corps de Whyaiile

Oven lateralia lingualia

Os lnerimale «.

ot
ila Schlafembein,” Kénilin * Paukenting»
a ercnendigal dex KelTbin,Bojanas
2 Jochorvatr, Konllin, Wigelbein, Bojanus.
™ Recherches eur les Poissons Powsiles, 4to, t. i. 1843.
® Te Carports homaui Fabric, HY0, 1794.

[Insert at the end of the Report.]

SOEMMERRING®.

jo ph coceschrseceredeed dncince Corpus vertebree. ;
ut lames vertébrales ...... Areus posterior vertebra, seu radices arcus
posterioris.
ls roche Scer Seasechagencerene Radix prior seu antica processus tramsversi ver-
tebree.
Mee Meerian cage ch sk'se,c dee sue Processus transversus vertebr cervicalis. Costa,
seu pars vertebralis, seu ossea, costz.

thorax); cétes abdomi- Cartilago cost seu pars sternalis coste; (in
ges ventraux (in abdo- the abdomen) inscriptiones tendinex mus-
é en chevron (in tail). culi recti.

| Spoccaccososuernegnennedces Processus spinosus vertebra.

Eee aeeeasenteecthsctsucuss Ossa sterni et processus ensiformis; (in the ab-
domen) linea alba.

S[2 GBP oc ee*an- ConeBEBBEDOe Radix posticus processus transversi vertebre,
(and) processus transversus.
Processus obliquus vertebree.

der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1834. The terms adopted in

-ind anal fins * most of the recent works of the German zootomists correspond
ataaux”’ by with those of John Miller. ;
7 Lecons d’Anatomie Comparée, t.i. edit. 1835.
‘ol. 1828. 8 De Corporis Humani Fabrica.

TasLte I].—SYNONYMS or tue ELEMENTS or toe TYPICAL VERTEBRA: [Insert at the end of the Report.]

OWEN'. GEOFFROY®. CARUS®. MULLER®. CUVIER?. SOEMMERRING*.
Autogenous Dlements.

Centrum (kévrpov, CONG) apmreeevsstenvsirctsnects Cycléal .. Tertiar-wirbel ......... Wirbel-kérper «..... Corps! deivertebreverscsccssssssesnexteses Corpus vertebrie.
Neurapophysis (vedpov, nerve, and dndpuors, a Périal «.... Deckplatten and Grundplatten . Oberer Wirbelbogen.. Partie anmulaire, on lames vertébrales Arcus posterior vertebrae, seu radices arcus

process of bone). pan
Parapophysis (apd, across, and dmdduats) «+++ Paraal (in the tail of fishes) ...... Querfortsatz ... Unterer Querfortsatz. Apophyse transverse . Rad cRnoF seu anticn processus transversi ver-

tebree.
Pleurapophysis (wAevpa, a rib, and drrddvuots) «+ argaltsccccesacversss sorsavonseesens Riickentheil and Ober-sternal-theil des | ..... sovenceasecesansnsnans Cotes vertébrales ...sscccscccccescesscceeeseees Processus transversus vertebrae cervicalis. Costa,
Urwirbelbogens. seu pars yertebralis, seu ossea, costa.

Haemapophysis?; by syncope for hamato-apo- Cataal ... Unter-sternal-theil des Urwirbelbogens... Unterer Wirbelbogen Cotes sternales (in thorax); edtes abdomi- Cartilago coste seu pars sternalis cost; (in

physis (from Gr. alya, Wood, and dréuars) nales, ou cartilages ventraux (in abdo- the abdomen) inscriptiones tendines: mus-

men); os ployé en chevron (in tail). euli recti.
Neural spine ...... sonsensecesssensne feveveretvexsesee Périal (in fishes); épial (in other (Its base is the) Oberer Tertiar-wirbel, Oberer Dornfortsatz.. Apophyse €pimeuse sscseeeeesssseereeensaeens Processus spinosus yertebra:.
vertebrates). (its apex is the) Oberer Dornfortsatz.
Homal spine ......006+ muvetee dcetece OASLOCCELECO EDD Paraal (in fishes); cataal (in other Sternal-wirbel Korper .....ssseeceeeees cco Unterer Dornfortsatz syabonataavdenccan?darssansuvaddeavaudeasiah maaerenccey Ossa sterni et processus ensiformis ; (in the ab-
vertebrates) *. domen) linea alba.
Exogenous Parts.
Diapophysis (8:4, across, and drdcbuats) ......0. Paraal (in reptiles and mammals) Querfortsatz ..... SACRED CORDON EOCUCC CCL Oberer Querfortsatz.. Apophyse transverse ........++ Mrtaddccccth Badle osticus processus transversi vertebrae,
and) processus transyersus.

Zygapophysis (Cvyds, junction, and drduats)... * én Seitlicher Tertiar-wirbel .. Gelenk-fortsatz ...... Apophyse articulaire ........ Eccceeerepnsnscenee riosuend obliquus vertebra.
' Description of the Plesiosaurus macrocephalus (April1838), apophyses.” Dr. Stannius, it seems, would abrogate the useful 3 Mémoires du Muséum, 4to, t. ix. 1822, p.89. der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1834. The terms adopted in
‘Geological Transactions,’ 2nd series, vol. v. p. 518. license of the grammarian’s syncope and apocope: but how 4 The dermal spines which sustain the ‘dorsal and anal fins most of the recent works of the German zootomists correspond
’ The accurate and laborious coadjutor of Prof. von Siebold, many current scientific terms must be expanded into sesquipe- of fishes are called respectively “épiaux” and “‘cataaux” by with those of John Miiller. é
the second part of a recently published compendium of Com- dalian longitude, if such “ purism”’ should prevail! See‘ Lehr- Geoffroy. 7 Lecons d’Anatomie Comparée, t.i, edit. 1835.
rative Anatomy, adopting in part my Nomenclature of the buch der Vergleichenden Anatomie,’ yon V. Siebold und Stan- 5 Urtheile des Knochen- und Schalen-geriistes, fol. 1828. ® De Corporis Humani Fabrica.

ticbral Elements, corrects this word, and writes “ hemato- uius, Zweiter Theil, p. 5. ® Vergleichende Anatomie der Myxinoiden: Abhand. Akad.

jaRCLEITE

{

OWEN (1846)?

|
} OKEN (1807)*.

Taste III.—SYNONYMS or tue BONES or tue HEAD, accorptnc ro THEIR GENERAL HOMOLOGIES.

| [Insert at the end of the Report.)

SPIX (1815)',

Occipital Vertebra.
1. Occipital centrum «+-+++ee+06

neurapophyses «+++...

} diverging appendage ...

Splanchno-skeleton.

16
| Capsules of f sens f
18. Japs! ie3 0! organs of sense . |

Radius capit
Humerus capitis

Corpus vertebra.

is

Koprwirpex oder KoprsiNNESWIRBEL.
Ohrwirbel.
oder Korper der Ohrwirbel

Processus transyersi et obliqui oder Seiten- und Schiefenfortsiitze do.

pia bests ecs tsi vaate Processus spinosus - oder Stachelfortsatz do. Pars superior processus spinosi
F yertebree prime,
Ei Partes inferiores spi-
4. FAPOPLYSCS ss eeeereeree Undetermined *:. -.:s..s5-cusesstiettercnssuvapsdaprcucsr scans { : Processus s ‘}
‘ parapophyse s ; ; nosi vertebra: prima.
50, 51. plewaponbyses Line aus finf Halsrippen zusammengeflossene Platte Notiracopuinedinsteleniantarcn he
52. hemapophyses : Rae Tt yasteham Tee ees Ossa extremitatis thoracic «++
53-57. diverging appendages «
Parietal Vertebra. Kieferwirbel. Vertebra Cents seu parie-
iy Parietal centrum. Corpus vertebrie ...- : ; oder Korper des Kieferwirbels Corpus vertebrae secundie ..-+++
6. 7 Processus transyersi et obliqui oder Seiten- und Schiefenfortsit Processus transyersi vert. 2de.
ii. spine Processus spinosus . oder Stachelfortsatz do. tae media processus spina
4 vertebrae secunds.
8. parapophyses Undetermined ...... Os facie iliacum .........2000+
38 leurapophyses
39, 40. izemapophyses . Se
41-43. escalate 5 Sacrum capitis... Ossa extremitatis cervicalis ...

44. diverging appendage...

Frontal Vertebra. Augwirbel. Vertebra tertia, seu frontalis.
9,9" Frontal centrum.. . s ee . E ? Corpus vertebra tertie

10. neurapophyses . Corpus et processus transyersi oder Korper nebst den ised [oan des Augwirbels. { ae Bansvetoertl inti

11. spine ... Processus spinosus . . oder Stachelfortsatz nebst seinen Seitentheilen Processus spinosus vert. tertiee

12, parapophyses .....+.000 Undetermined... Os faciei scapulare

28. pleurapophyses «.......+ Scapulz capitis (in birds)...... oder Schulterblatt des Kopfes ............ seswaeseseneesersenseese Os faciei ischiale.........0.2000+

Femur capitis
29, Tibia capitis Femur, tibia, fibula, tarsus, faciei
a Fibula capitis
Slee |Ueavexvcree seeeesenees tye
ay nuenee })_ Pes capitis Phalanges pedis faciei seers»
34-37. diverging appendage... Os pubis faciei
KoprruMPFSINNESWIRBEL.
Nasal Vertebra. Nasenivirbel*.

13. Nasal centrum Corpus vertebrale ...........-... oder Korper der Nasenwirbel Os mediastino-faciale.

14. “Das Siebbein mit seinen Windungen (18) fiir das zu Gefassen metamorphosirte Hirn. Ossa thyreoideo-facialia.

15. Processus spinosus ....-.--..-- oder Stacheltheil der Nasenwirbel Os faciei sternale
pleurapophyses ......... Costa capitis fixe ...-...... s+ oder Verwachsene Kopfrippe «sessessscressereeetssesetseenesees Os secundum hyoideo-faciale ..
hemapophyses ... Ulna capitis ....-20.secseseeseee oder Ellenbogenbein des Kopfes -.:....::00:sseesseeseeeeeeeeeee Os ulmare faciei «..........c00e8 :
hamal spine ... Manus capitis -....-es210+ee00+ oder Hand des Kopfes® ...sc+cesersssesscerseestensensseseereereee Os radiale faciel ...........c00008

ader Schliisselbein des Kopfes ....:sssccssscseeeeesseeesseeeereee Os hyoideo-faciale ..........0.0+

. oder Speiche des Kopf

Sinnorgan

45,
ASAT Branchial arches....-.s.s0++e++
48, 49.
Dermo-skeleton,
71. Supra-orbital sealebone ...... Undetermined .......... Prod FrlOLEr Hon cer Ps pPLEAP CCCOSEC RSD) CLDF PLE ECE PEECEE PEPE Cer EPE PEP EEE EE PPRCELDS
Supra-temporal do. Undetermined.
Lacrymal do. Processus transyersus
Suborbital do. Undetermine
Labial do. Undetermined.

. oder Oberarm des Kopfes (in birds); seapula capitis (in man)

BOJANUS (1818)7.

GEOFFROY (1824).

Vertebra prima, seu occipitalis.
Corpus vertebrae primm ...++++++

Processus transversi yert, 1a--

Undetermined

Os erico-arytenoideo-faciale
Os coracoideum faciale .

Undetermined

v

Javiculare faciei .
Os humerale facie:

Ohrwirbel (Vertebra acus-

Ohr-Grundstiic

Bogenstiicke «.
Dornfortsatz .

Undetermined....--:..6-+-01--«

{ Not

Schmeckwirbel (Vertebra

recognised as elements
of cranial yertebrax.

ae vertebrae primm, seu
occipitalis *.

{ Cost:

Sehwirbel (Vertebra optica).

Undetermined...
Seh-Bogenstiicke
Dornfortsatz

Undetermined

Undetermined ........6000

Undetermined ........cceree é

Undetermined scccsscsereesseees

Undetermined

Riechwirbel ( Vertebra olfac-

Riech-Grundstiick
Bogenstiicke
Dornfortsatz
vertebrae 4ta,
wthmoidalis *.
Undetermined...

Undetermined..

Coste vertebra:
seu sphenoidales *.

Undetermined
Undetermined ;
Grundstiick der Sehw

Undetermined

Processus zygomaticus sae
frontis.
Undetermined .

Ossa jugalia

tica).

Vileme vertébres
Périaux du Viléme yertébre
Epial du Viéme vertébre ...

Epiaux du VIléme vertebre.

Not recognised as elements
of cranial vertebrae,

gustatoria).
Schmeck-Grundstiick. Cyeléal du Véme yertébre” .
Bogenstiicke ... Epiaux du TVeme yertebre .,
Dornfortsatz Epiaux du Véme yertébre ...

Périaux du Vieéme vertebre..

Not recognised as elements
of cranial vertebrae,

Cyeléal du TVéme vertébre ”
Périaux du 1Veme vertébre .
Epial du I1leme vertébre ...

Périaux du Véeme vertébre...

Anneau inférieure du Véme
vertébre,

Undetermined........:.0:s0+0+

Undetermined ..

34. Anneau inférieure du
37. Viéme vertébre.

35, Amneau inférieure du
36, f Vleme vertébre".

toria).

Cycléal du Ide vertébre ”..,
Périaux du IIde vertébre®.
Epial du Ide vertébre ......

Cataaux du T1Iéme yertébre

seu }

Cataaux du Tere vertébre ..

yertebre.
Cataaux du IVéme vertébre.
Paraaux du Ide vertébre -

we et Stire, }

Undetermined

Epiaux du Tere yertébre:

Cataaux du Ide vertebre

Pleureaux, ou Cotes de ln
poitrine

me vertdbre!*
me yertebre.

‘aranux du Ter
Paraaux du IVéi

dieters des Viéme oh

Heras and Paraaux du pa

}

}

Nos,
Grundbein oder Wirbelkérper (Unterer paral-
{ dele eras ‘bel) fice I, Schiidelwir- if
els,
Bogenstiicke oder Grundplatten des I, S. W. 2.
Obere Deckplatten des I. S. Wirbels......-.. 3.
Untere Deckplatten des I. S. Wirbels ..... 4
Oberer Sternantheil.. “
{ Unterer Sternantheil, } der Halsrippen
Glieder der Brustflosse ......0.0..202005
Wirbelkorper des Il. Schadelwirbels 5.
Bogenstiicke des II. S. Wirbels 6.
Deckplatten des IT. S. Wirbels co 7.
Obere Bogenstiicke des I. Zwischenwirbels. 8.
Riickentheil der Eingeweide-rippe .. 38.
Sternantheil der Eingeweide-rippe
Eingeweide-wirbelkorper ......... 4143.
Auswarts gekehrte Ausstrahlungen des Kopfs- 44.
eingeweidskelettes.
Wirbelkorper des ITT. Schiidelwirbels . pate
Bogenstiicke des IIT. S. Wirbels 10.
Deckplatten des III. S. Wirbels . i.
Vordere Abtheilungen d. obern Grundp! Heal 12.
{ des I. S. W.
a. Obere Riickenstiicke der I. Zwischenrippe
6, Unterer Rickentheil der I. Zwischenrippe 23,
c. Rudiment der I. Schadelrippe 3
d. Oberer Sternaltheil der I. Zwischenrippe.
Hintertheil des untern Kopf-gliedmaasses oa
{ 30.
| Vordertheil des untern Kopf-gliedmaasses «..{ 33°
Obere-hintere Kopf-gliedmaasse . 34-37.
Wirbelkérper des IV, Schiidelwirbels - 13.
Grundplatten des IIT. Zwischenwirbels 14.
Deckplatten des IV. S. W. 15.
Ite. Antlitz-rippenpaar 20.
2te. Antlitz-rippenpaar .. 21.
3te. Antlitz-ripperpaar .. 22.
Schadel-rippenpaar des IIT, S. W. ..-- 23.
Unterer Sternaltheil der I. Zwischennppe re
‘ 26.
27.
5 16
. 17.
: 18.
Grundplatten des V. Schadelwirbels. . 19.
Bauchwirbelkérper . 45.
Unterer Theil der Eingeweiderippe - 46, 47
Oberer Theil der Eingeweidenippe 48, 49

CARUS (1828),

' These are the numbers by which the bones of the
head are indicated throughout the present ‘Report’ and
in the subjoined work.

Fs Hunterian Lectures on Vertebrata, 8vo, 1846.

. Ubere die Bedeutung der Schiidelknochen, 4to, 1807.

This vertebra is not formally admitted in the Pro-
gramm of 1807; but in a subsequent essay (Esquisse
d'un Systéine de l’Anatomie, de Physiologie, &c., Paris,
1619), Oken admits this as a vertebra of the face, and
calls it “vertébre nasale;” and in the ‘ Naturphiloso-
phie,’ 1843, p. 304, it receives the name above cited,

* “Toh halte die Zihne fur die Finger.” ({ regard the
teeth as digits.) Oken, 1. c. p- 14; and those of the pre-
pay he regards as more particularly representing

e thumb (/bid. p. 14), and deems it worthy of remark,

that the thumbless mammals likewise want premaxil-
lary teeth: not considering, or at that time not know-
ing, that the thumbless ateles has premaxillary teeth,
whilst certain bats (Taphozous perforatus, Geoff, for
example), and seyeral Edentata, have the homologue of
the pollex but no teeth in the premaxillaries,

© Cephalogenesis, fol. 1815.

7 Versuch einer Deutung der Knochen in Kopfe der
Fische, Isis von Oken, 1818,

vi Anatome Testudinis Europem, fol, 1819-1821,
p. 44.

® Tableau de la Composition de Ja téte osseuse de
V'Homme et des Animaux, cited by Cuvier (Hist, des
Poissons, t. i. p. 230) as being the Jast which Geoffroy
published, and of the date of December 1825. It differs

in many respects from the “ Tableau" given in the An-
nales des Sciences Naturelles, t. iii 4

W Body of cranial vertebra.
Comp. Anatomy, 8vo, 1835, p. 62.

41“ The number of distinct osseous pieces in the com-
position of the skull is greatest in fishes, aud they cor-
respond nearly with the theory of this part of the skele-
ton, being composed of seven vertebrie, each consisting,
as usual, of a body with four elements aboye and four
elements below. ....- The arches, which hang down
from the sides of the yertebral column, are more like
ribs in fishes than in higher classes, as the lower jaw,
the os hyoides, the scapular arch, and that of the pel-
vis.’—Grant, doc. cit. pp. 63, 65. It does not appear
that the scapular any more than the pelvic arch is recog-

rant, Outlines of

nised as essentially a part of a cranial vertebra, In the
Lectures (Lancet, 1833-34), the lower jaw is described
‘as “the first of these inferior arches”; the hyoid as “the
second arch."—p.572. And, with regard to the poste-
rior cranial vertebra, “* the two external and two lateral
occipitals form the upper arch, and the two opercular
and two subopercular bones constitute the lower arch.
—p. 543. This is the view taken hy Geoffroy of the
posterior (his seventh) cranial vertebra. e

12 The prefrontals of fishes, being called “lacrymauxy
are the “ épiaux”” of the second cranial vertebra; whilst
those of the crocodile form the “épiaux” of the first
cranial vertebra in the ‘Tableau’ of 1824. J

18 Philosophie Anatomique, 1818, p. 217, “The
branchial arches are connected with the os hyoides,

Lectures, Lancet, 1833-34, p. 573.

which, by extending backwards behind these arches, pro-
duces a true thoracic sternum, considering the branchial
apparatus as analogous to ribs for respiration. *—Grant,
Tn the ‘ Outlines”

(p. 65) the branchial arches are stated to be “ the ana-
Jogues of tracheal rings,”” which is likewise a view pro-
pounded by Geoffroy. ae 4

4 The lacrymals of the crocodile (adorbitals) are the
‘ périnux”” of the third vertebra in the ‘Tableau’ of
1824.

1 Urtheile des Knochen- und Schalen-gerustes, fol.
1828. ie
16 Carus views the modified centrum of the occipital
vertebra of the carp as including also the whole hemal
arch of that vertebra,

4
J »

ON THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. 339

‘would have been more proper to have signified such serial homology by giving
the general term applicable to such parts, as abstract vertebral elements.

The fact is, however, that the mastoid (s) is the parapophysis of its verte-
bra, whilst the ilium is a portion of the pleurapophysis of its vertebra; and
the mastoid is serially homologous with the transverse process (parapophysis)
of a sacral vertebra (fig. 27, p), not with the pleurapophysis or ‘ilium’; it
is not, therefore, a repetition of the ilium in the skull. The true expression
of the ideas which suggested the terms ‘ ilium of the head,’ ‘scapula of the
head,’ &c., will be found in the true enunciation of the serial homologies of
the vertebrate skeleton.

It finally remains for inquiry, admitting the explanation of the endoskeletal
archetype given in this Report to be the true one, whether such is the
ultimate attainable generalization, or whether we may not also gain an in-
sight into the nature of the force by which all the modifications of the
vertebrate skeleton, even those subservient to the majesty of man himself,
are still subordinated to a common type.

We perceive in the fact of the endoskeleton consisting of a succession
of segments similarly composed,—in the very power, in short, of enunciating
special, general and serial homologies,-—an illustration of thatlaw of vegetative
or irrelative repetition which is so much more conspicuously manifested by
the segments of the exoskeleton of the invertebrata, as, for example, in the
rings of the centipede and worm, and in the more multiplied parts of the
skeletons of the echinoderms.

The repetition of similar segments in a vertebral column, and of similar

_ elements in a vertebral segment, is analogous to the repetition of similar cry-

stals as the result of polarizing force in the growth of an inorganic body.
Not only does the principle of vegetative repetition prevail more and more
as we descend in the scale of animal life, but the forms of the repeated parts
of the skeleton approach more and more to geometrical figures; as we see,
for example, in the external skeletons of the echini and star-fishes: nay, the
calcifying salt actually assumes in such low-organized skeletons the very
crystalline figures which characterize it when deposited, and subject to the

general polarizing force, out of the organized body. Here, therefore, we

have direct proof of the concurrence of such general and all-pervading polar-

_ izing force with the adaptive or special organizing force in the development
_of an animal body.

The marvellous phenomena of this development have, hitherto, been ex-
plained by two hypotheses or forms of expression, as the result, viz. of ‘ vital
properties’ either peculiar to living matter or common to all, but latent in
dead, matter ; or, as due to the operation of one or more ‘vital principles,’
vital forces, dynamies or faculties, answering to the idéac of Plato, deemed
by that philosopher to be superadded to matter and mind, and which he de-

fined as a sort of models, or moulds in which matter is cast, and which

regularly produce the same number and diversity of species*.
Now besides the i¢éa, organizing principle, vital property, or force, which
produces the diversity of form belonging to living bodies of the same materials,

which diversity cannot be explained by any known properties of matter, there
appears also to be in counter-operation during the building up of such bodies
_ the polarizing force pervading all space, and to the operation of which force,
or mode of force, the similarity of forms, the repetition of parts, the signs
_ of the unity of organization may be mainly ascribed.

The platonic i¢éa or specific organizing principle or force would seem to
: * See Barclay, Life and Organization, 8vo, 1822. ©
*

340 REPORT—1846.

be in antagonism with the general polarizing force, and to subdue and mould
it in subserviency to the exigences of the resulting specific form.

The extent to which the operation of the polarizing or vegetative-repeti-
tion-force is so subdued in the organization of aspecific animal form becomes
the index of the grade of such species, and is directly as its ascent in the scale
of being. The lineaments of the common archetype are obscured in the same
degree: but even in man, where the specific organizing force has exerted its
highest power in controlling the tendency to type and in modifying each
part in adaptive subserviency to, or combination of power with, another part,
the extent to which the vegetative repetition of segments and the archetypal
features are traceable indicates the degree in which the general polarizing
force may have operated in the arrangement of the parts of the developing
frame: and it is not without interest or devoid of significance that such
evidence should be mainly manifested in the system of organs in whose tissue
the inorganic earthy salts most predominate.

On Anemometry. By Joun Putuuirs, F.R.S., F.G.S.

ANEMOMETRY, or the registration of wind, is a process of recording certain
effects of the (horizontal) pressure or movement of the atmosphere. Ac-
cording to the kind of effect which is subjected to observation, and to the
process of measuring, weighing or counting which is adopted, the anemo-
metrical instruments vary, and it is required to determine the forms of these
instruments which are best adapted for accurate meteorological inquiries.
Correct anemometers may be applied with advantage as auxiliaries in a variety
of important problems not meteorological, but they are of primary import-
ance in meteorology, and derive their value in other branches of knowledge
from their proved adaptation to this.

A complete anemometrical register should give on a scale of time the
direction of the wind, and its pressure or velocity in a continuous series, or
at very frequent intervals, for days, weeks, months or years. We may for
particular inquiries be desirous of learning the total space traversed by the
aérial movement, or be satisfied with knowing the maxima and minima of
pressure, in a given period of time, or in other ways simplify the problem,
which in its general form cannot be solved without adding a clock or other
register of time to the apparatus for measuring wind.

Mechanical Effects of the Movement of the Atmosphere.

The (horizontal) movement of the air over any given point on the earth’s
surface, one of the most important desiderata in meteorology, can only be
observed directly in the phenomena of the clouds. The velocity of these
light bodies may be measured trigonometrically, by their change of position,
or when the sun shines, by observing the progress of their shadows on the
ground. But these are rather experiments than observations, and when we
attempt by instrumental means to register the velocity of the wind, some
considerable difficulties at once appear. The air moves because it is pressed :
machines to be influenced by wind must be made to receive and yield to its
pressure. If this pressure be received on a machine so contrived that it has
a resisting power, which rises with the increase of pressure till equilibrium
is gained, the displacement of the spring, the elongation of the lever, the
augmentation of the weight, &c. may be taken as proportioned to the

ON ANEMOMETRY. 341

Pressure. Many such instruments have been invented, the most famous
_ being M. Osler’s anemometer, first erected at Birmingham.

But if the pressure (P) be received on an instrumental contrivance, which
(its inertia being overcome) is set into a continuous motion (as the various
sorts of windmills), the rate of this motion goes on increasing till the resist-
ance which the motion generates balances the wind-pressure on the sails.

This resistance consists of two parts, one caused by the displacement of the
air in the path of revolution of the sails, and consequently proportioned to
the square of the velocity of revolution (or to v'?); the other caused by the
ordinary friction of machinery, which being a uniformly retarding force (db),
destroys the power P exerted on the machine a quantity proportioned
to the space moved over*, and consequently to v'. P then is prop. to
av'+bv', the coefficients a and b requiring to be separately determined for
each instrument.

If we conceive friction to be very small, so that the second term almost
vanishes, the velocity of revolution becomes nearly proportioned to V, the
velocity of the wind; but if friction be very large, the velocity of revolution
i of the machine becomes nearly proportioned to P or V%. The former is the

case on a windmill in heavy wind-pressures ; the latter of the same machine
when the wind-pressure is light t.
Hence all machines of this kind have a rate of revolution proportional to
the movement of the air, retarded by quantities which are proportioned to
something else. The smaller we can make this retardation, the nearer to
perfection is the instrument. Such an instrument is Whewell’s anemometer.
Whewell’s Anemometer.— Assuming in respect of this instrument that its
general action is like that of a windmill, we see with low velocities of wind,
the term 6 v! is not only greater in proportion to av’? than with high veloci-
ties, but may acquire a higher numerical value than it.
Coulomb found with a windmill (the load being constant), the following
proportions of wind’s velocity and revolutions of sail :—

Wind Vel. | Revolutions.

Vi. v.
7:0 3:0
125 75
20:0 13°0
28:0 22°0

We may with these data compare the following calculation :—

Wind Vel. | Revolutions. || ________ Calculation, Vv :
Vv. v. av?+ bv = | Sum.— v®. \calculatea.| PHference-
; 7-0 3-0 9-04 44:3 53:3 730 | +030
12°5 75 55°3+100°6 165°9 12-88 +0°38
20-0 13°0 169:0+191°8 360°8 18-99 —1:01
28-0 22:0 484:04+-324°6 808°6 28°43 +0°43

_ * This is not strictly the case with varying pressures of wind, if these act unequally on
the bearings of the axles.

+ Mr. Harris’s experiments with Whewell’s anemometer (Reports of the British Asso-
ciation, 1844, p. 245) confirm this view. He had previously observed (Reports of the
Association, 1842, p. 33) in one limited set of experiments with low velocities of wind, the
_ space described by the pencil to be proportional to the square of the velocity of the wind.
_ But in a larger series of trials, in strong and steady breezes, the spaces passed over by the
pencil came nearer the simple ratio of the wind’s velocity. In strong winds the ratio be-
tween the revolutions of the fly and the velocity of the wind is [nearly] constant.

342 REPORT— 1846.

In this calculation a is taken at 1:0 and 4 at 14°75. The small differences
are quite within the range of errors of observation.

Mr. Harris has furnished us with experiments* in which the revolutions
of the vane of Whewell’s anemometer were compared directly with the
wind-pressure on Lind’s well-known instrument, and to these the same form
of calculation is equally applicable. In the subjoined Table the observed
values of v! and V2 are first given, and then a column of values of V®, cal-
culated from the formula P = av'?+ 6v', the values of a and 6 being taken
at 1 and 10.

v. V2, v2.
Observation.| Calculation. | Difference.
|
* . i“ . “ut . t
Se ah mts 7 These differences of V? are
2-0 -080 -081 +001 much within the possible
2-5 -100 “106 +006 errors of observations. Those
3-0 “130 132 4-002 marked ” examined by differ-
355 “160 “160 asta ences, appear to be the least
4-0 ‘190 -190 i in harmony with the rest,
aoe -290 297 +007 and it is from these that the
5:0 “270” O54 _ 016 greatest deviations occur in
Be -290 -288 _-002 the calculation. Similarly
6:0 330 396 —-004 compared, V as deduced from
65 +350” 360 4-010 Lind and V as deduced from
7-0 “400 +1) hee hae age Whewell,are almost identical.

By this very simple calculation, then, any one rate of revolution of the vanes
of Whewell’s anemometer may be made to indicate the corresponding velo-
city of the wind. But we cannot from the sum of these rates, obtain by this
calculation the corresponding sum of the velocities of the wind; since the
relation of these sums to each other depends on the individual values of v’,
and these are not recorded. They may be recorded, in a form fit for the cal-
culation, by adding a clock-movement, which shall cause the instrument to
register the series of values of v', but the machine then loses its simplicity.
An approximation to the individual values of v' may be had by a process
suggested by the inventor, but not (it is believed) put into constant use by
any observer. It consists in simply turning round the cylinder, on which the
wind register is written, after regular intervals of time by hand. The shorter
these intervals, the nearer the approximation.

If we knew precisely the Jaw according to which the wind’s velocity rises
and falls with the lapse of time, the correction of the record in Whewell’s
anemometer might become more complete ; and it seems no small recommen-
dation to observers for practising the hourly rotation of the instrument, that
this process would speedily furnish data for the determination of that law.

The conversion of the register effected by Whewell’s anemometer into
pounds of pressure or miles of air-movement may perhaps be sufficiently
easy and accurate, if only two things are attended to :—first, the values of
the constants a and 6 in the previous formula must be determined by obser-
vationt; and secondly, the register scale should be read and the results re-
corded sufficiently often to obtain an adequate number of values of 2’.

* Reports of the British Association, 1844, p. 263.
+ The observation must be a comparison of Whewell’s registration with some experimental
contemporaneous determination ; the simple pressure of wind may be obtained by Lind’s

ON ANEMOMETRY. : 343

__ Anemometers on the principle of Dr. Whewell’s, almost perfectly fulfil the
intention of the inventor at high velocities, and also give results capable of
satisfactory interpretation at all velocities down to a certain low rate of
wind movement, but below that the instrument ceases to be sensibly affected.
Its sensibility to light winds might be perhaps augmented by a change of
_ construction—especially by substituting wheel-work for the screw, and the
sails should probably be set to the angle of maximum effect*. This instru-
ment appears applicable tu a variety of problems in which the air-movement
enters as an element. Among the results which have been already obtained
for meteorology by the diligent use of it, Mr. Harris’s demonstration of the
_ path of the air over Plymouth is very conspicuous. Were such records con-
_temporaneously kept at only three selected stations in the British Islands, for
a few years, or even one year, and accurately discussed and compared, how
great and how valuable would be the accessions to our knowledge of the
winds !
Osler’s Anemometer.—The pressure of the wind on Osler’s anemometer is
resisted by the equable force of a spring, and by the friction of the machinery
_ for registration. The pressure of the wind is well-known to be subject to fre-
_ quent and great pulsations, all of which (except the very quickest and feeblest )
the instrument registers. By enlarging the scale, every the minutest variation
of the wind’s force has been traced during the flow of the minutes and seconds,
_ so that in one minute twelve conspicuous (besides many smaller) undulations
of the wind’s direction, and twice as many notable risings and fallings of its pres-
_ sure have been graphically recorded by the pencils of the anemometert.
Thus the machinery is kept in continual and sometimes quick motion, and the
friction which it generates is considerable. The pressure of the wind then is
balanced by two forces, one of which is proportional to itself, the other to the
_ frequency and extent of the fluctuations of strength and direction of the wind.
Each of these fluctuations is a function of the pressure ; they are not necessa-
ily similar functions; but from Osler’s experiments in November and De-
-cember 1846, they seem to be proportionate to one another.
_ It is of importance to the theory of this instrument to obtain a correct ex-
pression for these functions, since if they determine movements whose extent
is simply proportioned to the pressure, the instrument, properly set to an
adapted scale, would register exactly for all winds the continually varying
pressure of the atmosphere down to some certain small pressure, below which
there will be no record. But if the movements in the machinery caused by
these pulsations and fluctuations are in extent not simply proportional to the
-wind’s pressure, but to something else, as for instance to the wind’s velocity,
the forces balancing the wind’s pressure would then be of two kinds, or
P=aP'+6¥P’; a similar form of expression to that for Dr. Whewell’s
anemometer ; and this instrument, like Dr. Whewell’s, would require a com-
‘puted correction, and in small wind-pressures this might become important.
_ Mr. Osler’s latest inventions have so greatly increased the sensibility of
his apparatus to light winds, that it may be seen working freely, when
_the wind-pressure is no more between half a pound per foot and0. This on

tube, of the deviation of a falling body from a vertical line, or the recession of a fine spring.
The simple velocity of wind may be measured by the transference of clouds, the shadows
of clouds, or the movement of light bodies near the surface of the earth.

__ * Since these remarks were written, the Association has received from the Rev. Dr.
Robinson a notice of the construction of an anemometer with a different mechanism, which
appears to satisfy the much-desired object of a direct registration of the wind’s velocity.

_ ¥ Report of the Philosophical Society of Birmingham. -

344 : REPORT—1846.

Lind’s anemometer corresponds to the space from 0:0 to 0°10 inch, and to a
velocity of from 0 to 15 feet per second, that is to say, 0 to 10 miles per
hour*,

Except the instrument be very carefully constructed, this degree of accu-
racy is unattainable, and pressures less than 1b. per foot, and velocities of
several miles per hour, may not be recorded at all. One of the most inter-
esting of the powers connected with the use of this instrument has been
already noticed,—the power of studying the momentary phases of air-move-
ment at the observatory. This is peculiar to the principle of Mr. Osler’s
invention ; another result of great importance has been derived from the study
of its tracings. The force of the wind for every hour of the day and night
has been determined not only for the whole air-movement, but for each direc-
tion of wind, and in each season of the year. Mr. Osler’s conclusions on
this subject, supported by Harris, Brewster and Sabine, go directly to deter-
mine a law of the wind’s daily pressure and to connect it with the progress
of diurnal heat. In fact the curves of daily wind-force and of daily mean
temperature are almost identical, as may be seen in Col. Sabine’s Observations
on the Meteorology of Toronto.

The same registration gives data for investigating what may be called
curves of storm pressure, the law according to which wind-pressure rises to
a maximum and sinks to a minimum, a subject of great interest and import-
ance. From some data which may be found in Mr. Osler’s Report, in the
volume of the Association for 1840, I have obtained the following Table of
pressures during a strong wind of 96 hours’ duration.

* Tt may be useful to give here Smeaton’s Table of Wind Velocity in relation to Pressure
in Ibs. (Phil. Trans. 1759.)

Velocity of Wind. Pressure on
Ta VE ACI comes | hance omg
} . avolr- .
— bet pe ae Se-| ™ pats
1 1:47 005 Hardly perceptible.
2 2°93 020 Taat tibl
3 4-40 044 ust perceptible.
: 0 mee } Gentle pleasant wind.
10 14°67 *492 .
15 22-00 1107 | Pleasant brisk gale.
20 29°34 1:968 a as
25 36°67 3-075 a
30 44:01 4:429 3
35 51°34 6-027 } Bigh wind.
40 58°68 7°873 ;
45 66-01 9-963 } Very high.
50 73°35 12:300 Storm or tempest.
60 88-02 17°715 Great storm.
80 117°36 31°490 Hurricane.
100 146°70 49-200 Destructive hurricane.
913°6 1340* | One atmosph.

Vh atmosphere in feet x 83, = feet per second,

ON ANEMOMETRY. 345

4 Table of Mean and Minimum and Maximum Wind-pressures during 96

hours.

. Maximum.| Minimum. Mean.
First twelve hours ...........+ 25 0°5 1°5 lb.
Second twelve hours ......... 2:0 1:0 1:5416+
Third twelve hours ........- 3°5 20 2°5
Fourth twelve hours ......... 4°5 3:0 3°5416-+-
Fifth twelve hours........... | 45 25 3°29164
Sixth twelve hours ......... 25 2:0 2°125
Seventh twelve hours ...... 2:0 1:0 1:54
Eighth twelve hours ......... 2:0 05 1:0

The regularity of the results is conspicuous when represented by curves.
_ The central ordinate of pressure is seen to occur two hours before the middle
hour of time. It occurs in a lull of the wind.

It is much to be wished that the numerous observations which have been
made with Osler’s anemometer under the direction of the Association, should
_ be reduced and tabulated so as to determine from them the annual air-move-
_ ments over the place of observation, for comparison with the result given by
Mr. Harris at Plymouth. The registers for Inverness, Edinburgh, Dublin, Bir-
- mingham, Greenwich and Plymouth, thus brought together, would afford a valu-
able basis for reasoning on the leading vicissitudes of British climate. This will
probably be included in the reductions on which Mr. Harris is now engaged.

It is neither an obvious nor an easy thing to obtain correctly the mean
velocity of air-movement, or the total horizontal transference of the air in a
given period, from the register of wind-pressure. The momentary velocity
‘is a constant function (the square root) of the momentary pressure ; but the
‘mean velocity is not a constant function of the mean pressure; the total air-
“movement is not a constant function of the sum of the pressures. The larger
the range of these pressures, the more variable is the relation of the mean
velocity and the mean pressure ; the duration of the several values of pres-
‘sure influences the calculation of the total air-movement, so that to obtain it
even approximately from a register of momentary pressures a great number
of these must be separately valued and reduced to velocity, and this is a great
arithmetical labour. It might be diminished if we could assume as sufficiently
known, the Jaw of the variation of the pressure, from 0 to the maximum, and
calculate corrections in conformity with the successive swellings and sub-
sidings of the wind; but this would still leave the result unsatisfactory.

ressure in ~ Velocity in
8. per foot miles per
iquare. hour.

meee > ~~~ ~~ ~~~ ~~ ~~ | - - - - - - - ~~ +--+ ~~ ~~~ ~~ - + --) - -- i} - - - - o - -

Mee
ETE:

| nt
Il ili y a Mu a

- aaa WE SES
_ A mechanical process may be substituted with evident advantage. If on
1846. P =

$ lhour }

BSE)

346 REPORT—1846.

the register paper now ruled for a scale of momentary pressure, we rule
another scale, that of momentary velocity, or copy the register on a paper
prepared with such a scale, the ordinates of velocity may be measured off
with nearly as much accuracy as those of pressure, and the mean velocity
and total air-movement be approximately obtained with great facility. It is
obvious that the paper in Mr. Osler’s apparatus may be ruled, as in the speci-
men, p. 345, both for velocity and pressure, with very little additional expense.

The pressure lines may be continuous, the velocity lines dotted. Such a
table shows how imperfectly the registration of wind-pressure to one pound,
or even one-tenth of a pound per square foot, satisfies the question of the
velocity of the wind. In many cases winds of several miles an hour have been
left entirely unnoticed.

Lind’s Anemometer.—In Lind’s anemometer, the pressure of wind is ba-
lanced by the weight of a column of water, + the force due to the friction of
its movement. Owing to the facility of liquid movements, this instrument, if
made with a siphon of large diameter, is very quick in its indications, and
prettily exhibits what Mr. Osler’s pencils record, the continual fluctuations
of the wind. Pressures which move the water to a difference of level of less
than one-twentieth of an inch, can scarcely be noted accurately, but may he
estimated to one-fortieth or one-fiftieth. ‘This gives as the limit of wind-ve-
locity really measurable five or seven miles an hour.

Lind’s anemometer may be rendered self-registering, but not without
some sacrifice of its quickness and accuracy *. -

It is possible to arrange apparatus which shall allow of the flowing of a
liquid under the pressure of the atmosphere with the velocity due to that

ressure ; it is also possible so to regulate the direction of this flowing that the
direction shall be known of the wind to which the efflux is due; and in other
ways the apparatus may be varied; but it does not appear that by these pro-
cesses any real advantage can be gained over the instruments of Whewell
and Osler, when these are properly attended to. I proceed therefore to an-
other view of the subject.

Molecular Effects of the Movement of the Atmosphere.

The class of phenomena to which attention is now requested depends on
the molecular condition of the air, and on its rate of movement; if it can

* Table for Lind’s Anemometer.

Difference The Vel. in
feelin | renee, | mals Pet
0°25 13 18-0
0°5 2°6 25°6
1:0 iy 36:0
20 10°4 50°8
3:0 15°6 62°0
4:0 20°8 76:0
50 26:0 80°4
60 ald 88:0
7:0 36°5 95°2
8:0 41:7 101°6
9:0 469 108°0
10°0 52:1 113°6
11:0 57°3 119-2
12:0 62°5 124°0

ON ANEMOMETRY. 347

be made the basis of wind-registration, there will be no mechanism required
_ for recording the measures of air-movement or pressure, and the scale of re-
_ sults will increase in accuracy as the wind-force grows less, and may be in this
_ direction more and more trusted as we approach to zero; a circumstance which
would confer upon this mode of anemometry a peculiar value, and render it
_ almost a necessary complement to the mechanical processes now in use, for
_ these take but little notice of very light winds, which yet it is of much im-
portance to record.
One of these joint effects of the molecular constitution of the air, com-
bined with its rate of movement, is seen in the rapidity with which objects
exposed to wind acquire the temperature of the atmosphere.
If a thermometer whose temperature differs from that of the atmosphere
_ by m degrees be exposed in the open air, it instantly begins to undergo
change of temperature, and loses or gains heat continually until it has be-
come sensibly of the same temperature as the surrounding medium. This
_ effect, a mixed result of radiation and conduction of heat, is in the open air
very nearly in simple proportion to m; but in closed vessels, where conduc-
tion is impeded and radiation influential, the changing temperature of the
surrounding bodies complicates the experiment, and the wet thermometer
- does not in this case lose or gain heat in the same simple proportion to m.
Exposure of the thermometer to a current of wind accelerates the process
by which its temperature is made sensibly equal to that of the surrounding
medium, and thus by careful experiments the momentary velocity of the
current may be estimated, as Sir John Leslie has proposed*.
_ If we maintain a continual moisture on the bulb of the thermometer, a
new element of change of temperature is introduced, the force of vaporiza-
_ tion, the effect of which is finally to reduce the thermometer to the tempera-
_ ture of evaporation, where it remains.
_ If we commence the experiment with the temperature of the wet bulb
raised by the quantity m above that of the surrounding atmosphere (¢), it will
_ sink under the operation of two forces, the cooling power of air, proportioned
to m, and the force of vaporization. (The movement of the air is not now
considered.) By the swm of these forces it approximates to ¢, at which point
_m being =0, the cooling power of the air ceases. By the force of vaporiza-
tion it is depressed below this point to ¢’, but between ¢ and @' the air exerts
a heating power proportioned to m. The rate of cooling in air of a wet-bulb
thermometer is thus found to be complicated with two quite distinct functions,
at every point but one, viz. at the temperature ¢ of the atmosphere; at this
‘point it depends solely on the force of vaporization, modified by the move-
‘ment of the air. If then we perform a series of experiments on the rate of
cooling of a wet-bulb thermometer exposed in the open air, from ¢+4° to
t—+°, under the influence of winds of very unequal velocity, and under the
influences of very unequal degrees of dampness in the air, we shall be able
to distinguish the effects of these influences, and assign to each its proper
functional expression, But if one of these can be determined theoretically,
fewer experiments will be required. It appears that the cooling influence of
evaporation at different temperatures and in different hygrometrical states of
the atmosphere can be thus determined.
The rate of evaporation of water in the atmosphere depends upon the force
of aqueous vapour at that temperature, diminished by the force of the aqueous
vapour actually present in the atmosphere. Thus if f’ represent the force of
vapour at the temperature of evaporation, and f" the force of vapour at the
temperature of the dew-point, f’—/" is the unbalanced and active force

* Professor Forbes in Reports of the British Association for 1832.
2a2

348 REPORT—1846,

which determines the rate of evaporation into the open air. Now by Dr.

Apjohn’s researches f!—f" is exactly proportional to e x where d is the

difference in,degrees between the temperature of the air and the tempera-
ture of evaporation, and / the barometric pressure. Water undergoing eva-
poration takes up for each unit of weight a certain measure of heat from the
substances in contact ; its cooling effect on them is therefore proportioned to
the quantity of water evaporated in a given time, which again is proportional

piles ‘ hi enh
to the force f'—f", that is, to a * 30°
A convenient mode of experiment to obtain separately the cooling power
of evaporation from that of air currents and radiation, is to note the times of
cooling of one thermometer first dry and then wet, other circumstances being
similar, as in the following experiment, made in the calm air of a large room
(air 55°, evaporation 4:7°8, dew-point 38°6).

Temp. of Time of cooling 5°
‘Thermometer, in seconds,

dry. wet

105 0 0
100 45 18
95 52 21
90 60 23
85 70 29
80 85 36
75 102 42
70 125 54
65 168 70
60 257 93
DD) oy rith : nebees ve 137
50 Gaunehier 253

The reciprocals of these times (=) correspond to the cooling powers ex-
erted on the two instruments and appear in the following table (column A
and B). The difference between them obviously corresponds to the cooling
power of evaporation exerted on the wet bulb (column C). Column D con-
tains the numerical values of the forces of evaporation due to the successive
temperatures of the bulb in the existing state of the air; and column E a
series of numbers proportioned to these, and representing the successive
cooling powers as they ought to be found experimentally if the theory
already advanced be true. F shows the difference between theory and
experiment.

Mean Temp. A. B. Cc. D. E. F,
wet.

1025 | 293 | 555 | 333 | 1-758 | 352 | 419
975 | 192 | 476 | 284 | 1-458 | 292 | +8
925 | 166 | 435 | 269 | 1-208 | 242 | —28
875 | 143 | 344 | 201 | 1014 | 203 | +2
s25 | 117 | 279 | 162 | -a31 | 166 | +4
775 98 | 237 | 139 | -673 | 135 | — 4
70°5 80 | 185 | 105 | +535 | 107 | +2
67°5 59 «| «(143 84 | -418 | ‘84 0
62-5 38 | 107 69 | -316 | 63 | —6
57°5 20 73 53 | 229 | 46 | —7
50.5 eo ed: Aiwidy A SPN 155 | 31
arp \eenieds Sen eee. 091 18
LAD ERE BR! ASL Wet DN 000 0

ON ANEMOMETRY. 349

_ The truth of the theory may therefore be regarded as established, the
small differences being quite unimportant.

On regarding attentively the columns A, B, it will be seen that the pro-
gression of each is nearly similar, from which it follows that C, their differ-
ence—representing their cooling power of evaporation—contains a series of
numbers nearly proportioned to B. Ranging these columns side by side, and
reducing to the same mean values, we have

B. Cc. E.

83 84. | 82
62 69 61
43 53 45

From which it follows, that for temperatures of the wet bulb above
_ that of the atmosphere, we may disregard the correction in column A, and
take the whole cooling effect of air and vapour, as proportioned to the va-
porizing force. The problem is thus simplified for practical use.

To judge if the same rule applies when the temperature of the wet bulb is
below that of the atmosphere, the following sets of experiments were made
in the open air, with variable differences between the temperature of the air
and that of the wet bulb (air 75°, evap. 63°):—

Temperature of I. Il. Ill. IV.
air above that | Thermometer | Thermometer | Thermometer {Mean of observed)

of wet bulb. at rest. swung slowly. | swung faster. times.
10” 17” 13” 12” 14:0”

9 18 13 11 14:0

8 19 14 15 16:0

7 20 20 16 18°6

6 26 24 17 22:3

b) 30 26 24 26°6

The numbers in columns I. II. IIL. TV. represent the seconds of time in cooling 1° of the wet
__ thermometer.

With the mean of the times we may compare a series of numbers propor-
‘tioned to the vaporizing force due to the temperatures, in the given condi-
tion of air, as under :— .

Tempera f Mean of
air asore tit observed Cepigied
of wet bulb. times.
10 14:0 13°0
9). 14:0 14°4
8 16:0 16°3
7 18°6 18°6
6 22:3 21°6
5

26°6 ° 26°1

_ From which it appears that the rate of cooling of the wet bulb is still
nearly proportional to the force of vaporization, until the temperature of the
wet bulb deviates much from that of the atmosphere.

350 REPORT—1846.

For determining the influence of the rate of air-movement on the rate of
cooling of the wet bulb, several processes have been employed, both in the
open air and in the house.

1. In the first place, choosing a day when the air was considered nearly
calm, (%.e. moving so gently that only leaves with very flexible petioles were
swayed by it,) the wet bulb was first suspended at res¢ in this gentle current
(A); secondly, it was carried across it ( B) at the rate of 2°75 miles an hour;
thirdly, it was swung across it at the rate of 6°18 miles an hour (C). The
effects are recorded in the table below.

Experiment of 22nd Aug. 1846. Temperature of air 75°, of evaporation 63° (€d=12).

. B. Cc.

Time of cooling 1° ...... 16° 12: 9°

Reciprocals of these numbers, which represent the cooling powers of the air
in the several conditions, appear below :—

A. B. Cc.

625 833 TLE
and are obviously not in simple proportion to the velocity of the air-move-
ment in the several cases. If we suppose the so-called ‘calm’ air to move
two miles an hour (which the movement of smoke at the time seemed to in-
dicate), the velocities, obtained by calculating the diagonals of the air-move-
ments combined with the thermometer-movements, would be as under :—

A. B. Cc.
2:00 3°40 6:48,
and their square roots, viz.—
1-41 184 2:55

approach nearly to the ratio of the cooling powers.

2. Experiments of this kind however being unsusceptible of much preci-
sion, recourse was had to railway movement in a ‘calm’ day. Temperature
of air 70°, of evaporation 64° (d=6). Time of cooling 1°, at 3 inches from
the carriage window, 14''; at 18 inches, 10"; at 24 inches, 9”.

Again, on another occasion, temperature of air 69°5, of evaporation 64°
(d=5'5). Time of cooling 1°, at 20 inches distance from the window, 10".

In each of these cases the real velocity of the train was believed to be
about 36 miles an hour.

These experiments are sufficiently in accordance with those already dis-

cussed to allow of our applying the formula a = VV toall; where T is
the observed time of cooling 1° and C a constant peculiar to the instrument.
By taking C = 300, and employing this value for the several experiments,
the estimated and calculated results appear thus :-—

ae gC velocity | Calculated velocity

in miles. in miles,
Calm air! deehetecectstee 2-00 2-44
Thermometer carried ... 3°40 431
Thermometer swung ... 6:48 771
Railway movement...... 36°00 30°86
Railway movement...... 36:00 29°75

As all these experiments are complicated with the uncertain and variable
influence of what is called ‘calm’ air, their accordance with one general for-
mula appears quite as great as could be expected. The drag of air, which
the unequal rates of cooling at different distances from the carriage indicate,

ON THE CRYSTALLINE SLAGS. 351

-may perhaps not be wholly eliminated at even 20 or 24 inches distance.
Perhaps no better mode of experiment on this peculiar transportation of the
_ atmosphere by railway trains could be devised than the trial of its cooling
_ power. In the first of the above experiments the air-displacement appeared
to be about 13 miles an hour at 3 inches from the carriage ; about 24 miles
_ at 18 inches, and 30 miles at 24 inches.

The result now arrived at must, however, be regarded as only a first ap-
proximation, and requires to be tested and corrected by more rigorous pro-
cesses. For this purpose the cooling of the wet bulb has been observed
when carried round by a lathe movement, and when subject to the vibrations
of a pendulum. The results are yet incomplete, but may be offered for the
consideration of the Association on a future occasion.

Report on the Crystalline Slags. By Joun Percy, M.D.

_ We have pleasure in now presenting to the Association the results of our
investigation of the crystalline slags. It is obvious that such an investiga-
_ tion must be limited by the opportunity of obtaining specimens, which re-
quire to be diligently sought for at the various metallurgical works; and
that, consequently, it is impossible for us at present to offer anything like a
complete report upon this interesting subject. We have however been for-
tunate in procuring already an extensive series of beautifully crystallized
slags, several of which we have not yet had time to examine. We are espe-
cially indebted to Mr. John Dawes, of West Bromwich, and to Messrs.
Blackwell and Twamley, of Dudley, for many valuable contributions. In
_ the present Report we have confined our attention to the slags produced in
_ the smelting and manufacture of iron. We shall adopt the following ar-
rangement :—

1. The crystallographic and mineralogical description by Professor Miller.

2. The analysis*.

3. Special remarks.

The first series is composed of six specimens. Nos. 1 and 2 were ob-
tained from hot-blast furnaces in the vicinity of Dudley ; Nos. 3 and 4 from
_ Messrs. Blackwell's hot-blast furnaces at Russell’s-hall, near Dudley; No. 4
_ from one of Mr. Philip Williams’s cold-blast furnaces, at the Wednesbury
_ Oak Works, near Tipton; No.6 was brought by Mr. Samuel Blackwell from
a hot-blast furnace named La Providence, at Marchienne, Charleroi, Bel-
‘gium. No. 3 was produced when the furnace was considered to be work-
ing unsatisfactorily, from some interruption to the free course of the blast.

The crystals of the slag No. 3 are square prisms, terminated by planes
perpendicular to the axis of the prism. Many of the prisms have their
angles truncated by planes, making equal angles with the adjacent faces of
the prism.
Al ., Specific gravity of slag |
Hardness = 6. At 19°1 specific gravity of water =2°9242.

_ _ The crystals of slag No. 4 are square prisms, having the angles truncated

like No. 3.

Hardness = 5°5. At 18°-2 C Ue? Beno OF SIRS eat) oF sins,
specific gravity of water

* Tam happy to state that I have had the assistance of my friend Mr. David Forbes,

_ brother of Professor Edward Forbes. To the analyses made by myself I shall append my

_ Own initials, and to those made by Mr. Forbes the initials of that gentleman.

=2'9187.

352 REPORT—1846.

The crystals of No. 5 are square prisms, having the angles truncated like
No. 3. Hardness = 5°7.

No. 1. Square prisms like No. 3.
specific gravity of slag

— 9, —O-
Hardness = 6. At 19°2 C specific gravity of water =2°9052.
No. 2. Square prisms like No. 3.
f :
Hardness = 6. At19°2C ~~ bel alt =2°9152.

specific gravity of water

Analysis——The slags composing the first series were found to contain
silica, alumina, lime, magnesia, protoxides of manganese and iron, potass in
small quantity, and sulphur as sulphuret. Phosphoric acid was also found
in some of them. They are readily decomposed by digestion with dilute
hydrochloric acid. The following method of analysis was adopted.

Method of Analysis —1. The fine powder obtained by trituration in an
agate mortar was digested with dilute hydrochloric acid. The whole was
evaporated to dryness. The dry mass was treated with hydrochloric acid,
and left fora few hours. Nitric acid was added sometimes before and some-
times after evaporation to peroxidize the iron. The silica separated by fil-
tration was washed with boiling water until nitrate of silver ceased to pro-
duce the slightest turbidity, dried, incinerated at a bright red heat, cooled
under a glass shade containing sulphuric acid, and then weighed.

2. To the acid solution was added a slight excess of ammonia. Filtration
was conducted as rapidly as possible, the funnel being covered with a glass
plate.

3. The precipitate (2) was boiled with potass. The solution was treated
with an excess of hydrochloric acid, and the alumina then precipitated by
carbonate of ammonia.

4, The insoluble residue (3) was dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and the
iron was precipitated by succinate of soda or ammonia with the usual pre-
cautions.

5. The lime was precipitated by oxalate of ammonia from solution (2),
after treatment by ammonia. The precipitate, which consisted of oxalate of
lime mixed with oxalate of manganese, was incinerated at a bright red heat,
and then digested with dilute acetic acid, which dissolved the lime and left
the brown oxide of manganese. A slight excess of sulphuric acid was added
to the solution of acetate of lime; the whole was evaporated to dryness, and
heated to redness; from the sulphate of lime thus obtained the lime was
calculated.

6. The solution (4), after separation of the iron, was added to solution (5)
after separation of the lime. The manganese was precipitated by hydrosul-
phate of ammonia in a close vessel, and in every instance at least twelve
hours were allowed for precipitation. The sulphuret of manganese was dis-
solved in hydrochloric acid, and precipitated as carbonate by carbonate of
potass. The carbonate of manganese was incinerated at a bright red heat
for a considerable time. The oxide of manganese thus produced was esti-
mated as MnO-+ Mn? O3.

7. The solution (6), after precipitation of the manganese, was digested
with excess of hydrochloric acid until the sulphur separated by decomposi-
tion of the excess of hydrosulphate of ammonia had completely separated.
The magnesia was precipitated by phosphate of soda and excess of ammonia.
Generally twenty-four or forty hours were allowed for complete precipita-
tion. The precipitate was washed with ammonia-water until no sensible
residue was left by evaporation on a plate of glass. When dry, generally
as much of the magnesian salt as possible was detached from the filter, and

ON THE CRYSTALLINE SLAGS. 353

slowly heated to redness; the filter, with what adhered to it, was then intro-
duced into the crucible and incinerated as usual. ;

8. To determine the potass, the slag was digested as usual in hydrochloric
acid, the iron was peroxidized by nitric acid, and the solution was then
treated with excess of carbonate of ammonia. The filtrate was evaporated

to dryness, and the ammoniacal salts were expelled by heat. The residue
was treated with boiling water, and the solution filtered from the brownish
residue. The filtrate was evaporated to dryness after the addition of excess
of sulphuric acid. The residue was dissolved in water, acetate of baryta
was added in excess, the sulphate of baryta was separated'with the usual
precautions by filtration; the filtrate was evaporated to dryness, and after-
wards heated to redness. The solution contained the potass as carbonate;
hydrochloric acid was added, and from the amount of chloride obtained by
evaporation and heating to low redness, the potass was estimated. Berze-
lius’s method of separating potass from magnesia by oxide of mercury was
also occasionally resorted to.

9. The sulphur was determined either by oxidizing with strong nitrous
acid, or by fusing with nitrate of potass and a mixture of carbonate of potass
and soda. Chloride of barium was added to the acid solution. From the
_ sulphate of baryta produced the sulphur was estimated.

_ 10. The method resorted to for the detection of phosphoric acid will be
described in each case.
The actual quantities of the substances found by analysis will always be
given, in order that the calculations may be corrected in the event of any
errors in the received atomic weights being corrected by future observers. .
The calculations have been made from the tables in the French translation
of Rose’s work by Peligot (Paris, 1843).

1. Anatysis. By J. P.

1. Weight of slag employed 27°57 grains, after having been gently heated
over a spirit-Jamp.

2. Silica 10°49.

8. Alumina 3°89.

4. Sulphate of lime 24°35.

5. Phosphate of magnesia (2MgO, P? O*) 5°74.

6. Oxide of manganese (MnO + MnO? 03) 0:12.

7. Sesquioxide of iron 0°39.

8. Potass. Weight of slag employed 50°47 grains. Chloride of potas-
sium 1°48. A minute quantity of precipitate was produced by the addition
of antimoniate of potass to the solution. The quantity of chlorine was de-
termined by nitrate of silver. The chloride of silver obtained weighed 2°814
grains, which correspond to 0°694 of chlorine. 1°48 of chloride of potassium
by the tables, contains 0°702 of chlorine. Difference 0°702—0°694=0°008.
The chloride may therefore be estimated as nearly pure chloride of potassium.
__ 9. Sulphur. Hydrosulphuric acid was liberated by the action of hydro-
ehloric acid. Weight of slag 22°68. The nitrous acid process was em-
ployed. The sulphate of baryta weighed 0°59. It was ascertained that the
slag did not contain sulphuric acid. The sulphur is admitted to exist as
sulphuret of calcium.

10. Phosphoric acid was not detected. Weight of the slag employed
51°38 grains. It was digested with hydrochloric acid, and the silica sepa-
ted as usual. The precipitate obtained by the addition of ammonia in
light excess was dissolved by hydrochloric acid; tartaric acid was added,

354 REPORT—1846.

and then chloride of magnesium and excess of ammonia; no trace of the
characteristic precipitate of phosphate of magnesia and ammonia appeared
after several days.

Analysis tabulated. Oxygen.
Gilson. a!s2'.'. - Can. teens SBMS wleNiiee. vest 19°76
Alumina ........ i. ake oo ee ne a 6°59
RAMOS i iesie', M6 ooees & SEO vices’ 1008
Magnesia.......... Cece PGLiwwa 4 29% (
Protoxide of manganese... 040.... 0°09 oe
Protoxide of iron........ LAT cease O29
Potassiii honors om POSS aih s covese OD]
Sulphuret of calcium .... 0°82
Error of loss.......... ie OLD

100°00

2. ANALysIs. By J. P.

1. Weight of slag employed 25°41 grains, after having been gently heated
over a spirit-lamp; the odour of free sulphur was distinctly remarked.

2. Silica 9°85
- Alumina 3°68.

. Sulphate of lime 22:04.

. Phosphate of magnesia 4°76.
. Oxide of manganese 0°07.

. Sesquioxide of iron 0°34.

- Potass. Weight of slag employed 46°93. Chloride of potassium 0:82.
By treatment with nitrate of silver 1:51 grain of chloride of silver was ob-
tained, which corresponds to 0°372 of chlorine. 0°82 of chloride of potas-
sium contains 0°389 of chlorine.

9. Sulphur. Hydrosulphurie acid was evolved by the action of hydro-
chloric acid. Weight of slag 20:06. The nitrous acid process was em-
ployed. The sulphate of baryta weighed 0°63.

10. Phosphoric acid was not sought for.

COnF OH TS Oo

Analysis tabulated. & Oxygen.
SICA erect teeatis mee te ae 38°76" .is. einielcsinele }) COne
Alumina ..... stole als 1 LAB i cc dtrentew ee, 4: GNTbe
Laimesc. oon. ae Pig tea MSO GOL mate.) O02
WTRETNCRIA! o's. 'o ntoiatniaha Bits 684 c.06 2°56 12°89
Protoxide of manganese... 0°23 .... 0°05
Protoxide of iron...... oes DIRS Fildes O87
POtass 'x> viddebdes » = DEES Si’ <'s oh esl olde’ 8 0:19
Sulphuret of calcium .... 0°98
Error of loss,......... «» =O°74

100°00

3. Anatysis. By J. P.

1. Weight of the slag employed 25°27, after having been gently heated
over a spirit-lamp.

2. Silica 9°51.

3. Alumina 3:23.

4, Sulphate of lime 20°68.

5. Phosphate of magnesia 4°58.

6. Oxide of manganese 0°72.

7. Sesquioxide of iron 1°18.

4

ON THE ORYSTALLINE SLAGS. 355

8. Potass. Weight of slag 50°47. Chloride of potassium 1°53. By the
addition of bichloride of platinum to the solution a copious yellow granular
precipitate was produced. Carbazotie acid also occasioned a copious pre-
cipitate. Antimoniate of potass occasioned a minute quantity of precipitate.
9. Sulphur. Hydrosulphuric acid was evolved by the action of hydro-
chloric acid, and the odour of free sulphur was also observed on the appli-
_¢ation of heat. Weight of slag, after gently heating over a spirit-lamp, 20°13.
_ The nitrous acid process was employed. Sulphate of baryta 0°58.
Analysis tabulated. Oxygen.
BIMOB cress nieirerne cans £688) SCO nev eee seas ee MOD
BYGMING. 0). soe scene dd Hal 1298. s doo

U0 ae er voce S346 20... 9°40
Warmest Yih. 28s scree Sete ¢ | GG4 concn 248 13-46
Protoxide of manganese... 2°64 ...... 0°67
Protoxide of iron........ 3°91 ...... O91
Potiies ides SPR cate eae s - 032
Sulphuret of calcium .... 0°68
Error of loss........%++: 0°34

100-00

4, AnALysts. By D. F.

1. Weight of slag employed 25°38 grains.

2. Silica 9°62.

3. Alumina 3:30.

4, Sulphate of lime 21°43.

5. Phosphate of magnesia 5°09.

6. Oxide of manganese 0°76.

7. Sesquioxide, of iron 0°35.

_ 8. Potass. Weight of slag employed 75°68. The weight of the chloride
was lost after the calculation of the potass.

9. Sulphur. The process by fusion with nitrate of potass and a mixture
of carbonate of potass and soda was adopted. Weight of slag 20°83. Sul-
phate of baryta 2°45.

_ 10. Phosphoric acid was not detected by the process resorted to in No. 1
- (sup. Pp. 353).

Analysis tabulated. Oxygen.
PUMOlr 6 eae .n. sk 6 Rak bh Oe he sales ree er 19°69
AAD ii: ee ef) 0) ra Sakis tra, OO
TGMO. . cig Weck Nad». 2.0 BRA bias oc 8°73
Magiesiat a osc tis ong) TRA, cae os 281 | 19.97
Protoxide of manganese.. 2°79 ...... 0°52
Protoxide of iron........ OB acini an) OF
Protas Fs. . 4s ae ihe Klaha ACD sik wh ace an Hn a, 1), OPE
Sulphuret of calcium .... 3°65 .
Error of loss....... icaee . O44

100-00

5. Anatysis. By D. F.

J. Weight of slag 25°76 grains.
Q. Silica 10°18.

3. Alumina 3°89.

_ 4, Sulphate of lime 21:23.

356 REPORT—1846.

5. Phosphate of magnesia 2°45.

6. Oxide of manganese 0°80. ©

7. Sesquioxide of iron 0°61.

8. Potass. Weight of slag 27°52. Chloride of potassium 0°46.

9. Sulphur. The fusion process was adopted. Weight of slag 22°63.
Sulphate of baryta 1°54.

10. Phosphoric acid was sought for by the process previously mentioned,
but not a trace was detected even after standing a week.

Analysis tabulated. Oxygen.
LLIGH Ye ele ras ve tebeeeholohars Sey Oy Mabie eidaloncdeidvssis 20°50
Alumina atiete VORL pitied 7:06
Eames F.O042 cn: fon Eee S2BE) scans tie 9°60
DMienegigie 22... 2 aie ince steele Pao cuenee 135 | 10.05
Protoxide of manganese... 2°89 ...... 0°64 f
Protoxide of iron........ 2:02 ...... O46
bthss 3S ee <4 2.61206) 5. Ueeiws tai OT
Sulphuret of calcium .... 2°15
Error of lone oni cs, Sy 1:24

100°00

6. Anatysis. By J. P.

1. Weight of slag employed 19°78 grains, after drying i vacuo over sul-
phuric acid for twenty-four hours.

2. Silica 8°32.

3. Alumina 2°62.

4. Sulphate of lime 15°9.

5. Phosphate of magnesia 0°57.

6. Oxide of manganese 0°48.

7. Sesquioxide of iron 1°09.

8. Potass. Weight of slag, after drying im vacuo during twenty-four
hours over sulphuric acid, 20°44 grains. Chloride of potassium 0°87.

9. Sulphur. Hydrosulphurie acid was evolved by the action of hydro-
chloric acid. Weight of slag 20°01 grains. The fusion process was adopted.
Sulphate of baryta 0°65. 4

10. Phosphoric acid. The alumina and oxide of iron obtained in the pre-
ceding analysis were fused for a considerable time with bisulphate of potass.
The mass was digested with hydrochloric acid; some flocculent matter re-
mained undissolved. To the solution tartaric acid was added, and after-
wards chloride of magnesium and excess of ammonia. Two days afterwards
minute crystalline particles were observed adhering to the glass. On exa- —
mination with a simple microscope, the well-known star-shaped crystals of
phosphate of magnesia and ammonia were immediately recognised. The solu-
tion was allowed to stand several days afterwards. The minute quantity of
crystals was collected on a filter, and washed with cold ammonia-water, until
no sensible residue was left by evaporation on a plate of glass. After in-
cineration the phosphate of magnesia weighed 0°06. The phosphoric acid is
admitted to exist in combination with the alumina.

ON THE (CRYSTALLINE SLAGS, 357

Analysis tabulated. Oxygen.
ICR Pathe lore. Gi Sa ROG) eiev ee ore e's veee 20°81
AlUmEM Ay eee aie Saved OOS "sol. oe red 6:05
Dene wae ello PLE 32°53 .... 6. O14
Gy le ar 1:06 ...... O41 U iy4¢
Protoxide of manganese... 2°26 ...... 0°51
Protoxide of iron ...... 4°94 ...... 1°12
POtaRsii ye see te eee ay DOR oe oewee ee §=O'46
Phosphoric acid .. 0°19 ‘
Alumina ........ O12 O31"
Sulphur ........ O45 Y
Calcium ........ age 2?
Error of loss .......... 0:19

100-00

From an examination of the preceding analyses, it is evident that the fol-
lowing formula is the correct expression of the composition of this series: —
Al?03, Si0’+2 (3(Ca, Mg, Mn, Fe) 0, SiO®).

The formula differs from that of Vesuvian, in containing two equivalents of
the silicate of lime series instead of one. Ivanov however has described a
mineral from Slatoust, identical in composition with the preceding slags
_ (Rammelsberg, Part 2. p. 258, and first supplement, p. 151); but Professor
_H. Rosé informs us that the analysis of Ivanov has been clearly proved
erroneous. Berthier has given the results of several analyses of slags
from blast furnaces of nearly the same composition, but has incorrectly de-.
duced the formula “(Ca, Mg, M, f)S+ AS,” which is that of Vesuvian.
He has also omitted in his analysis of a slag from Dudley, protoxide of man-
_ganese, potass and sulphur, which were found in all the preceding analyses

_ of slags from the same locality.

7. ANALysiIs. By J. P.

__ This slag was obtained from one of Mr. Dawes’s hot-blast furnaces at
Oldbury. It was found mixed with coke and other matters; it contains
globules of iron, and sulphur may be readily observed deposited here and
_ there upon the crystalline plates.

__ The crystals are thin square plates, the lateral faces of which are perpen-
dicular to each other, and to the terminal faces. They appear to belong to
the pyramidal system. They are white, and when very thin transparent.

# Hardness =5°7.

7. ANALysis a. By J. P.

__ 1. Weight of slag, after heating carefully over a spirit-lamp to expel the
free sulphur 20°19.

2. Silica 5°71.

_, 8. Alumina 4°89.

_ 4. Sulphate of lime 20°97.

_ 5. Phosphate of magnesia 1°64.

_ 6. Oxide of manganese 0°016.

_ 7. Sesquioxide of iron 0:06.

__ 8. Potass. After heating to expel the free sulphur, weight of slag 14°74.
‘Chloride of potassium 0:15. The presence of soda in minute quantity was
also clearly detected, as follows :—

a, By heating before the blowpipe a platinum wire, and making a com-

* Estimated as 2Al? 03, 3PO05 (51°44 x 2+55°44 x3).

358 REPORT—1846.

parative experiment with platinum wire alone, a decided yellowness
indieative of soda was observed.

b. By the addition of the solution of antimoniate of potass to a few
drops of the solution on a watch-glass, a minute quantity of preci-
pitate appeared.

9. Sulphur. Hydrosulphuric acid was copiously evolved by the action
of hydrochloric acid. Sulphur existed in three states, free, combined as sul-
phuret, and also as sulphuric acid. The free sulphur was not estimated.
The nitrous acid process was adopted. 14°74 grains, weighed after expul-
sion of the sulphur by heat, furnished of sulphate of baryta 1°71. By a
second determination of sulphur 13°01 grains, heated as before, and treated
with nitrous acid, gave of sulphate of baryta 1°58. By the first total sul-

POU...) WOR eee eww TGA. Gs cee we 1°60 per cent.
Bythe weeontd ai «esses jes 3 22 1°67
Sine ince ucarict qe ae EPR” 1°63

phur, were digested with hydrochloric acid. Evaporation to dryness was
omitted, and the solution was immediately filtered; baryta water was added
to the filtrate. The sulphate of baryta weighed 0:104, This, by tables,
corresponds to 0°37 per cent. of sulphuric acid, and to 0°15 of sulphur.
The whole amount of sulphur is 1°63. Therefore 1°63—0°15=1°48 is the
sulphur combined as sulphuret,.

10. Phosphoric acid was not sought for.

7. Anatysis &. By J. P..

1. Weight of slag, after treating as before, 20°31 grains.
2. Silica 5°76.

8. Alumina 4°93.

An accident occurred in the determination of the lime.

7. Anatysise. By J. P.

1. Weight of slag, after heating as before, 20°23 grains.
2. Sulphate of lime 20°77.
3. Phosphate of magnesia 1°44,

Analysis tabulated.
a.

b. eC Mean Oxygen.
Silica, eee Pts sens QSOS SLO sO teen. s« QBS evn Aone a aieg
AM NAMI NS Weed Se DE OD . QMaOTIRES. 2 ye 4 BAW Se he 11°33
DB Sy i a sie ous 5 ahd geo A390 shah ale 39°96.. 40°12.. 11°27
IBERIA eis oe es we DQ aier <stehets 262). DQ aes 19°49
Protoxide of manganese .. 0°07 ...<..--....-- 0°07.. O01
Protoxide of iron........ ae Mee AE Se Ry 4c Ba 0:27... 0-06
Potass with trace of soda ............--0--- de OOS tnt Glee
Silphateiar Wine yy oo rs 22 EO, ae en iy ear
Sulphuret of calcium. 6/2 ay dpe} en eae
100°09
Error of excess ....... tr ep A att eee 0:09

This interesting specimen approximates very nearly in composition to
Gehlenite, of which we introduce the following analyses for comparison (see
Rammelsberg).

ON THE CRYSTALLINE SLAGS. 359

Crystallized
Fuchs. Oxygen. by V. Kobell.
Silica ». 2.24. eeiaha Ra litiovet aie 's st fete lameyee 29°64... 15°38 ........ 310
PERU Uline lalida iigiididlais eGo iefaMeMO BL EE SB ais cs cies 21°
I Se Te en's at ey aie oes wee OO Pe ceigie hie 37°4
(CAA EEVI ES nis ag ri a ia sili aaa 3°4:
Oxide of iron (eisen oxydoxydul),. 6°56 .......... FeO 44
RP ee LEY iy os ody 3 i008 CLO bene ge | ee _ 2:0
99°60 99°6
Damour. Oxygen
Bineey Cue ene FG! EPO, 16°18
Alumina {2.50305 00.9 y. 19°80 '....-. 9°24. \ 11-03
Sesquioxide of iron...... ak oy ac Red 1°79
ime peak arate a2 38°11 j 10°83
Daprepiay).. 2211.5. Ae BOONE OBS PUNE
2 a ea RR OB ei aeoxey 0:08
PRVUG ES sires ts hin avaias sath 1°53
99°54
Slag 7 Native Gehlenite. Native Gehlenite.
Fuchs. Damour.
Oxygen Oxygen. Oxygen.
Le iganpagtine taf Fm ig) a Nar DC 15°88. oes es 16°18
Alumina bases.... 11°33 ...... 11°58 ....,. 11°03
Lime bases ...... DADs emer. DSO Cease. L176

In slag 7 we may probably be justified in regarding the sulphate of lime and
sulphuret of calcium as impurities, and in no way connected with the for-
mula; just as the water, which appears to exist in natural Gehlenite in
variable proportion, may be similarly regarded. Metallic iron and frag-
ments of coke being mixed up in the slag, the crystalline plates were care-
fully selected as free from impurity as possible.

The oxygen of the silica is to the oxygen in either the alumina or lime
bases in the proportion of 4 to 3. This leads to the formula

3(3CaO, Si O3)+3Al2 Os, Si O03,
or as represented by Berzelius’s method of notation,

nee ne

which also appears to represent the constitution of Gehlenite more nearly

‘than 2Ca3 Si+ Al Si, which is usually assigned to it (Rammelsberg, Hand-

_worterbuch, Theil i. p. 250; second supplement, p. 53).
_ By contracting the following calculations from the respective formule

7

this statement will appear clear.

4, 2.
3Ca’ Si+ AP Si 2Cas Si+ Al? Si
A Oxygen. Oxygen.
Si 3086 1602 3360 17°44
Al 25:89 12:07 9498 11°65
Ca 4367 12:08 41°49 11°63

Si is taken as 46-22, Alas 51:44, and Ca as 28°52.

360 _REPORT—1846.

We are unable to conjecture why the latter formula should have been pre-

ferred to the former, unless because the combination Al, Si was supposed
improbable; examples however of such a combination are afforded by Kolly-

rite Als Si+15H, Heterokline Mn’ $i, and Sismondine 4Fe? Si+5AP Si
+15H.

We may also call attention to the fact, that the slag in question has the
same hardness as natural Gehlenite.

Admitting this slag to be really Gehlenite, the: circumstance of its pro-
duction at a high temperature in an iron furnace, may possibly be made
available by the geologist in explaining the formation of the rocks in which
the natural mineral occurs in Fassathal in the Tyrol. We subjoin in a note
the following interesting description of the locality of Gehlenite by Von
Buch, translated by Mr. Warington Smyth, of the Museum of Economic
Geology *.

8.

This specimen was also presented to us by Mr. Dawes. It was obtained
during the process of remelting cast iron with lime in a small cupola.

No. 8 is a mass of pearl-gray slag containing imbedded long yellow erystals
which appear to be square prisms with the angles truncated, cleavable per-
pendicular to the axis of the prism. In part of the specimen the crystals
are very fine and radiated.

8. Anatysis. By D. F.

Nitrous acid was employed, instead of hydrochloric, to decompose this
slag. Magnesia and potass were not present. After the precipitation of the

* The syenite of Mount Monzon descends steeply from the snow limit, and is very like
the zircon syenite of Norway. The hornblende is green, and accompanied by grains of
iron pyrites. Tourmaline also appears there in crystals, radiating from a centre. In cracks
and hollows of this syenite are found Vesuvian, Gehlenite, brown garnet, Ceylanite and
Fassaite, a sort of augite.

In ascending the branch valley from Vigo to Monzon (see plan) fine cliffs of dolomite are
seen on both sides, and on the left the augitic porphyry, or melaphyre, is seen to underlie
it; higher up the whole valley is strewed with blocks of syenite fallen from the Alp above.

From beneath the height may be seen a thick bed of Vesuvian, from which fragments
often fall, though no one has as yet been able to ascend to it; its crystals are four-sided
prisms with the terminal faces much-modified, and are always imbedded in cale spar, gene-
rally of a blue colour.

Cordier considered that the Gehlenite is only Vesuvian with its crystallization impeded by
the presence of cale spar. There are also brown crystals enveloped in cale spar, with
neither end free, and these are undistinguishable from Vesuvian. When they form groups
together, they lose lustre and colour, and the calc spar disappears. The only place where
it is found is quite on the west side of the syenite, close to the dolomite; for it is only near
the edges that calc spar, which always accompanies these foreign minerals, is found in the
syenite.

Above the Vesuvian and Gehlenite are fine druses of Ceylanite in crowded and generally
good dark octohedrons; which were probably at first also imbedded in cale spar, since a
little of it, with corroded surface, sometimes lies among the crystals. In a similar manner
the sort of augite termed Fassaite lies in calc spar; when fresh the crystals are fine grass-
green: this augite is often found on the sides of Vesuvian crystals.

At Monzon the cracks are often covered with fine rhombohedrons of chabasite, and some-
times are slight traces of mesotype, the only zoolites found here; though among the other
zoolites in the Fassa valley chabasite is not found.

The relations of this syenite to the red sandstone and to the porphyry are difficult to
determine, from the great steepness of the mountain on the south side also.

ON THE CRYSTALLINE SLAGS. 361

lime, the sulphuric acid, produced by the oxidation of the sulphur existing as
sulphuret, was determined by the addition of acetate of baryta.

1. Weight of slag 25°46 grains.

2. Alumina 2°95.

3. Sulphate of lime 24°27.

4, Oxide of manganese 0°25.

5. Sesquioxide of iron 0°34.

6. Sulphate of baryta 1°44.

Analysis tabulated. Per cent. Oxygen.
Se ee Re ery ABO WTI, HB 23°68
Alumma .....2 02.05... PSB RNS..ed, ERS
i ee ee a 38°20 10°73
Protoxide of manganese .. 0°91 .... 0°20 > 11°18
Protoxide of iron........ PED A k O85
Sulphuret of calcium .... 1°76
Error of loss............ 0°55

100°00

Without attempting to extort from the preceding analytical results a pre-
cise atomic expression, we may state that probably the formula of Hum-
boldtilite, as deduced from the analysis of Von Kobell (Rammelsberg, 2nd
part, p. 308), nearly represents the constitution of this slag. The formula
in question is

3R2Si+ R Si.
_ We introduce Von Kobell’s analysis (Rammelsberg, Ist part, p. 314) :—
Oxygen
Sei Gi dbe sis voile, x .- aed bv. 6 AB OG jniycs)- deny 44>» 21°83
Die | nea Siri ta 31°96 .... 897
BEEN Mul slp cats GLO peice) OO 11°86
Protoxide of iron........ 232 .... 0°53
MA | os ey 120. awd d- aael-, 228
ee ee Peele fh 3 ADS vie adh whi Pibgiae 4 1:09
en oe elena tahictngs,< 0°38 ‘ 0:06
: 10020 | -
‘The per-centage composition calculated from the formula would be,—
rite Lem 52) th 45°37
Alumina.......... 1262
Lime ............ 41°99 99°98

Damour assigns a different formula for Humboldtilite, which he believes
© be identical with Mellilite*; and this formula is precisely that which we
lave given for the first series of blast-furnace slags. For the sake of com-
arison we subjoin Damour’s analyses.

Mellilite. Humboldtilite.
nig Oxygen.

Memied ek. SF eetites wee ss SOO... Ye 21°13
welumina...-....... 6°42 .. 2:99 610 443 .. 2:06 5
Sesquioxide of iron.. 10:17 .. 311 10°88 .. 3:33 f 99
Se 82-47 ., 312 162 81°81. 8921 1,

_Magnesia.......... 6°44 .. 2-50 5°75 .. 222
ra oS ESG Ae eatatet ae Dei caries 0 (6) a Bsa ade 0°06
ae SARA SURO REE 2c. SOE 112
' 98°18 98-35

1846. 2B

362 REPORT—1846.

Berzelius remarks that “in designating by 7 the bases with 1 atom of
oxygen, and by R the bases with 3 atoms of oxygen, the formula 27S+RS
will be obtained, which expresses a somewhat rare kind of composition.”

9 and 10.

The two following specimens were communicated by M. Krantz, the
well-known mineralogist of Berlin. They were labelled, Olsberger Fur-
naces, on the Rhine.

No. 9 contains a drusy cavity with projecting crystals, which are not suf-
ficiently bright for measurement with the reflective goniometer. They
appear to belong to the oblique prismatic system. They have a single end-
face which is not at right angles to the axis of the prism. Hardness = 5,
No. 10 is a mass exhibiting a radiated crystalline structure, the individuals of
which are too small for measurement. Hardness = 5°7.

To one side of each of these specimens are attached minute scales of
graphite.

9. ANALYSIS a. By J. P.

The three following slags not being decomposable by hydrochloric acid,
the method of fusion with a mixture of equal parts of carbonate of potass
and soda* was resorted to.

1. Weight of slag 20°16 after heating over a spirit-lamp and cooling over
SO’. Being extremely hard, it was broken between writing-paper on an iron
plate, further reduced in a steel mortar, and finally triturated in an agate
mortar, and levigated until the whole piece detached was reduced to im-
palpable powder. It was fused with 80 grains of the carbonate of potass-
soda mixture. The fused mass had a blue-green colour.

. Silica 10°74.
. Alumina 1°02.
. Sulphate of lime 14°88.
. Phosphate of magnesia 5°21.
. Oxide of manganese 0°31.
. Sesquioxide of iron 0°23.
. Potass. Weight of slag 50°51 grains. Fused with 200 grains of car-
bonate of baryta and proceeded in the usual way. This alkali was distinctly
recognised by the following tests :—
a. Bichloride of platinum produced the characteristic yellow granular
precipitate.
b. Carbazotic acid, after the lapse of a short time, produced the charac-
teristic crystals of carbazotate of potass.
c. No indication of the presence of soda was furnished by antimoniate
of potass.
A source of error occurring, the weight of the chloride of potassium was not
determined ; however, it is certain that the quantity must have been very
small, less than in any of the preceding analyses.

9. Sulphur existed combined as sulphuret in minute quantity. By the ac-
tion of hydrochloric acid a slight evolution of gas was occasioned, but it had
the odour of hydrogen (from particles of iron detached from the steel mor-
tar ?), obtained by the aetion of an acid on iron; the odour of hydrosulphurie
acid could not be distinctly recognised; yet on suspending for some time a
piece of moistened acetate of lead-paper at the top of a test-tube containing

M~I™MDM-S ov

* Prepared by calcination of pure tartrate of potass and soda.

ON THE CRYSTALLINE SLAGS. 363

some of the powder of the slag and hydrochloric acid, blackening was slowly
produced. No quantitative determination of sulphur was made.

10. Phosphoric acid. The precipitate obtained by ammonia (8 in the
potass examination) was dissolved in hydrochloric acid, tartaric acid was
added, and then excess of ammonia, and finally chloride of magnesium. After

standing many days not a trace of crystalline precipitate could be detected.

9. Anatysis &. By J. P.

1. Weight of slag 20°21 grains. Fused with 100 grains of the carbonate
_ of potass-soda mixture.

2. Silica 10°81.

3. Alumina 1°05.

4. Sulphate of lime 14°97.

5. Phosphate of magnesia 5°26.

6. Sesquioxide of iron 0°20.

Analysis tabulated. a. b. Mean. Oxygen.
|S) CCE Ya A A er 8 BROT Me. | DRAB eben OO AL coin cele cie le
Alumina............ 506 .. 519... Ir) AA ee 2°81
Oy) Ua Se BR Rr 3065 .. 30°78 .. 30°71 .. 8°62
Magnesia’ ..........- aT ts. feo, dint. 9 OG? . selon
Protoxide of manganese 1°41 .. iB AS TA ok 0°31
Protoxide of iron .... 1°02 .. Oso .. O95 .. 0:21

101:06

10. Anatysis. By D. F.

1. Weight of slag 17:54 grains. Fused with 80 grains of the carbonate of
potass-soda mixture. :

2. Silica 9°43.

_ 3. Alumina 0°84.

4, Sulphate of lime 12°43.

5. Phosphate of magnesia 4°70.

6. Oxide of manganese 0-24.

_ 7. Sesquioxide of iron 0°29.

8. Potass. The slag was decomposed by digestion with fluoride of calcium
nd sulphuric acid. Potass was not detected.

Analysis tabulated. Oxygen.
Silica: is DP ad oe e's SRT RG eae 27°93
Adem as ob. 5» 5%, 2 AcE Wiehe s\alate 2:29
Line. 2 sop eae Ws «) o!olalg 29°48 ss eee 8:28
Magnesia: ictas 2.3: O82) ne args) ) O80,
Protoxide of manganese .. 1°30 ...... 0°29
Protoxide of iron........ TAB Oise OBE

100°60

ith the exception of a few small crystals in a drusy cavity in No. 9, the
rystallization of the two preceding slags is confused, so that we could scarcely
ope to deduce from their composition a satisfactory formula. The oxygen
the acid being nearly double that of the bases, the slag is formed of bisili-
and evidently approximates very nearly in composition to some varieties
ugite (pyroxene) containing alumina. Several analyses of augite giving
yout the same per-centage of alumina may be found in the first part of
2B2

364 REPORT—1846.

Rammelsberg’s admirable work previously referred to. The silicate of alu-
mina exists probably as an accidental constituent, and does not enter into
the formula (Vide ‘ Handbuch der Chemie,’ von L. Gmelin, Zweiter Band,
p- 383).

W

This specimen was brought by Mr. Blackwell from the hot-blast furnaces
called L’Espérance, at Seraing, near Liége, in Belgium.
This slag is brown, porous, and confusedly crystalline.

1]. Anatysis. By D. F.

1. In the first analysis an accident happened, and the lime only was de-
termined. Weight of slag 23°63. Fused with the carbonate of potass-soda
mixture. Sulphate of lime 15°04.

2. Weight of slag 17°34.

3. Silica 9°95.

4, Alumina 2°48.

5. Phosphate of magnesia 1°02.

6. Oxide of manganese 0°49.

7. Sesquioxide of iron 0°42.

8. Potass. Weight of slag 30°40. Fused with 120 grains of carbonate of

baryta. Chloride of potassium 0°86.
9. Sulphur was present in very minute quantity.
Analysis tabulated. Oxygen.
Silica; 2 cash sey hs Ga FAA cikh dive 28°97
ARIUS ‘ase {taailae oe ADM est. bora 8 649
WEROIEG ca here ee ah mle ahs a) > 22°22 624
DMB Rneaia. 7/35 ee as ce 210 O81 $09
Protoxide of manganese... 2°52 0°56
Protoxide of iron........ 212 0°48
GEARS yt. naeiota sie See Els, eevee | hats Ral cst 0°30
100°41

As the crystallization was very confused, and as the analytical results do
not point satisfactorily to a formula, we do not attempt to deduce any rational —
expression of the composition of this slag.

12.

This specimen of “ Refinery Cinder” was produced in the Bromford Iron
Works, near Birmingham, and was communicated by one of the proprietors,
our friend Mr, John Dawes. The process of refining, which is not now ex-
tensively practised in Staffordshire, consists in exposing the surface of melted
cast iron to the action of a blast. The products are refined or white iron,
and “ refinery cinder” or slag.

12. AnAtysis. By D. F.

Method of Analysis —25:178 grains were fused with 80 of the carbonate
of potass-soda mixture and 30 of nitrate of potass. The fused mass was de-
composed by hydrochloric acid, and the solution evaporated to dryness. The
dry mass was digested with hydrochloric acid and filtered. The silica on the
filter not being white, it was again fused with 40 grains of the carbonate of

ON THE CRYSTALLINE SLAGS. 365

_ potass-soda mixture and LO of nitrate of potass. The fused mass was digested

as before with hydrochloric acid; but even then the silica did not appear

_ perfectly white, and, accordingly, it was again fused and treated as before,

_ when it was obtained beautifully white. The alumina was determined in the

usual way. The iron and manganese were separated by the succinate plan.

_ On redissolving both the oxides of iron and manganese, a small quantity of
_ silica was left, which was collected and added to that previously obtained.

_ The solution from which the alumina was separated, was precipitated by a

little chloride of barium, and the sulphur determined from the sulphate of

baryta: the excess of chloride of barium was removed from the filtrate by

_ the addition of 20 grains of strong sulphuric acid diluted with 6000 grains
_ of water; a liquid which does not precipitate lime. The lime was deter-

mined, as usual, after separation of some oxide of manganese by acetic acid.
_ The remaining manganese (the greater part having been precipitated with

_ the alumina and iron by ammonia) was thrown down by hydrosulphate of

ammonia. The magnesia was then determined by ammonia and phosphate

of soda.

1. Weight of slag employed 25:18 grains.

2. Silica 5°73.

3. Alumina 1°84.

4, Sulphate of lime 2:07.

5. Phosphate of magnesia 0°49.

6. Oxide of manganese 0°98.

7. Sesquioxide of iron 17:19. The iron must be estimated as protoxide,

as will be evident from the results of the analyses.

8. Sulphate of baryta 0°89.

Analysis tabulated*.
RIGA. eee ale Gs eet OnE So Sas 11°83
Protoxide of iron........ Lo.) Sure Re et 13:95
Protoxide of manganese .. 3°58 ...... 0°70
it gt al Ie ae lela iD aati ino! ite Aa cla 3°41
1 ii ial ed cl cageue We Rae ets ae Ory,
Hs Co 2 a ae ee Lf ee 0°29
21). ee I a ee OD
Error of loss... /......... 0°45
100-00

From the identity in crystalline form of this slag with the one succeeding,
_ we are inclined to regard it as a mixture of silicate of protoxide of iron with
_aconsiderable amount of impurity, represented especially by the alumina.
_ This view would also appear to receive confirmation from an inspection of
_ the slag itself. We need scarcely refer to the numerous instances of well-
formed crystals containing much foreign matter, so that there seems to be
nothing improbable in this view respecting the composition of the crystals of
4h: . .

' this slag, which are certainly not perfectly formed.

13.

q ‘The following beautifully crystallized specimen was presented by Mr.
Dawes. It was found in the flue of a puddling furnace, where it had pro-
bably been exposed to a high temperature for a considerable time.

_* T have no doubt that phosphoric acid and sesquioxide of iron existed in this slag in
small quantity.—J. P.

366 REPORT—1846.

The surface of this slag is covered with bright black crystals, exhibiting
occasionally an iridescent tarnish. The crystals belong to the prismatic
system. The normals to the faces make the following angles with each
other :—n 2! = 49° 24', nt = 65° 18’, kk! = 98° 24', ht = 40° 48’. They
cleave readily parallel to a plane p, which is perpendicular to the faces
t,n,n', and makes equal angles with the faces f, h'.

Hardness = 6. At 186 C. specific gravity of slag

specific gravity of water
fT

= 4°0805.

om

mi Ra Tene. ts
pe
Ny a ee

13. AnaLysis. By J. P.

This slag was found to contain silica, protoxide and sesquioxide of iron,
protoxide of manganese, alumina, lime, magnesia, sulphur as sulphuret, and
phosphoric acid. It was decomposed by long digestion with dilute hydro-
chloric acid. The silica, however, obtained by this means was more or less
gray; and in order to obtain it perfectly white, it was fused with the car-
bonate of potass-soda mixture, and the fused mass, which had a bluish-green
colour, was decomposed with hydrochloric acid. The solution was treated
with nitric acid to peroxidize the iron ; ammonia was then added in slight
excess, and the analysis continued in the manner formerly described. The
proportion of the two oxides of iron, the phosphoric acid and the sulphur,
were determined by separate analyses, as will be described in the sequel.

1. Weight of slag 20°20 grains, after drying in vacuo over SO8 during 48
hours.

2. Silica 5°98. Repeated by Mr. Forbes; 20:14 grains of slag gave 5:99.

3. Total amount of iron obtained as Fe? O3, 14°63. The oxide of iron
contained a minute quantity of P?O°, which was not removed by boiling
with potass; for on redissolving the iron in hydrochloric acid, adding excess
of tartaric acid and afterwards excess of ammonia, and lastly, chloride of
magnesium, a few minute crystalline grains appeared after standing some days.
However, this error of excess must be very small.

4. Oxide of manganese 0°256.

5, Alumina 0°53. As the alumina was precipitated from its solution in
presence of P? O°, and as only a minute quantity of this acid was retained by
the iron, the whole amount of P? O05 may be subtracted from the alumina.
The total P? O° obtained (vide sequel) was 1°34 per cent.

20:2 (slag) : 0°53 :: 100 : 2°62.
2°62 — 1:34 = 1:28 alumina.
Taking the phosphate alumina as 4Al*O%, 3P205 (see Rappert Annuel,

ON THE CRYSTALLINE SLAGS. 367

Berzelius, 7#™¢ année, p. 127, and Graham’s Chemistry), 2°62 of the salt
would contain 1°28 of alumina.

6. Sulphate of lime 0°23.

7. Phosphate of magnesia 0°19.

8. Sulphur. This determination was made by Mr. Forbes by fusion with
nitrate of potass and the carbonate of potass-soda mixture. 20°14 grains
gave of sulphate.of baryta 0°87. The odour of hydrosulphuric acid could
not be'detected by the action of hydrochloric acid upon the powder of the
slag; but on suspending for some time a slip of moistened acetate of lead
paper in a test tube containing some of the powder of the slag and hydro-
chloric acid, it became slightly brown. Now, as the slag contains sesqui-
oxide of iron, the hydrosulphuric acid liberated by the action of hydrochloric
acid upon any sulphuret which may be present, would evidently be imme-
diately decomposed, with the separation of free sulphur, by the sesqui-
chloride of iron which would be formed at the same time; and, accordingly,
free sulphur was always distinctly recognised by its odour in drying the silica
obtained from slags of this group. It may perhaps appear somewhat remark-
able that sulphuret of iron and sesquioxide should exist together in the same
slag; the fact however is certain. It may be that the sulphuret is irregu-
larly diffused, and is, as it were, entangled in the mass. No trace of sul-
phuric acid could be detected by the addition of baryta water to the solution
of the slag in hydrochloric acid, even after standing 24 hours.

9. Sesquioxide of iron. About 10 grains were digested in dilute hydro-
chloric acid in a well-stopped flask over the water-bath. The necessary
precaution of previously filling the flask with carbonic acid was carefully
observed. The clear supernatant liquor was decanted rapidly into a stoppered
phial containing excess of the solution of chloride of gold and sodium. The
phial was well-closed and left for several days. The metallic gold weighed
3°93, which by the tables corresponds to 4°16 FeO. The filtrate was deprived
of the excess of gold by digestion with oxalic acid. The iron was precipi-
tated by hydrosulphate of ammonia; redissolved in hydrochloric acid; per-
oxidized by chloride of potass, and precipitated by ammonia ; the precipitate
was boiled with potass, redissolved in hydrochloric acid, and precipitated by
succinate of soda with the usual precaution. The sesquioxide of iron weighed
5°76, but from this must be deducted 4°16 FeO, estimated as Fe? O3=4:°63 ;
5°76 —4°63=1°13 iron existing as Fe?O%. The ratio of FeO to Fe? O3 is
4°16: 1:13. The total amount of iron estimated as Fe® O8 is 72-42 per cent.
5°76 : 1°13 :: 72°42: 14°20. But 0°60 of S, as sulphuret, was present, which,
by tables, gives 2:91 Fe? O%. The total amount of Fe?O* per cent. is
1420+ 2:91 =17°11 . 72°42—17:11=55'31 Fe? O3=49°73 FeO, from which
must be subtracted a quantity of Fe proportionate to 0°60 S. This quantity
is 1:01—1-01 +0°60=1:61=quantity of FeS. 1-01 corresponds to 1°30 FeO.
49°73 —1-30=48'43=total FeO per cent.

Fe as FeO 48°43
Fe as Fe? O3 17-11
Fe as FeS 1°61

10. Phosphoric acid. Weight of slag 20°10. Proceeded to obtain asolu-

tion in hydrochloric acid free from silica in the usual way. The tartaric acid

_ process was adopted. The whole was allowed to stand several days. The

ammoniaco-magnesian phosphate was washed with cold ammonia water.

Phosphate of magnesia 0°42. Colour pale brown from a trace of manga-
hese. Every trace of carbon was burnt out.

368 REPORT—1846.

Analysis tabulated. Oxygen.
ST OA ier ee aaa CTE) nies «02. ASH
Protoxide of iron ........ BSNS Gel», », 0,0 11°02
Sesquioxide of iron........ 1h eee 5:24
Protoxide of manganese*.. 1°13 ...... 0°25
RTI... nd: ti0 ns hela asl SI dal bs, ohn 0°59
PLING 5. xiniin'b Seven wks sca REEL Golkeaus ¥ 013
Dp gnesih .:.5.cieips tie ducetdn Da a aiaas Son 0°13
Phosphoric acid.......... Dein atti, 0°75
Sulphuret of iron ........ 1°61

101°32

These crystals closely resemble olivine in their form. The faces of the
crystals are denoted by the same letters as the faces of olivine in Naumann.
t, k, n of Naumann correspond to p, e, 5, of Phillips respectively.

Crystals similar to these in form, composition and mode of occurrence, were
described by Mitscherlich in the Annales de Chimie, t. xxiv. Measurements
of crystals of the same form, and a comparison of their angles with those of
olivine, were given by one of the authors (W. H. M.) of the report in the ©
third volume of the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society.

Estimating the whole of the iron as protoxide, the composition would be

nearly that of Fe’ Si, the formula assigned by Thomson to the mineral from
Ireland, named “ Anhydrous silicate of iron.” Now, this slag had evi-
dently been in a position favourable to the absorption of oxygen, namely,
the flue of a puddling furnace; and we shall probably be justified in sup-
posing that, after crystallization as silicate of protoxide of iron, oxygen may
have been absorbed, and that the crystal may consequently be regarded
to a certain extent pseudomorphous. In the case of the following slag,
which is similar to the one in question, it was found by experiment that the
powder of the slag readily absorbed oxygen by calcination in the air. If
this view be admitted, the slag will in constitution as well as form resemble
olivine, the magnesia of the latter being replaced by protoxide of iron.

14.

This slag was found by Mr. Twamley at the Bloomfield iron-works, Tip-
ton, in a heap of calcined puddling furnace slag, technically called “ tap
cinder.” The proprietors of these works have secured by patent the appli-
cation of calcined tap cinder for the beds of puddling furnaces. It is stated
that, by the process of calcination, which is conducted in large kilns similar
to brick-kilns during a fortnight or three weeks, the slag is rendered much
less fusible, and is therefore well-adapted to the purpose to which it is ap-
plied. The analysis will probably explain this fact. The heat of the kilns
appears, from an examination which one of us has made (J. P.), to be suffi-
cient to soften and agglutinate the pieces of slag together, but not to effect
perfect fusion.

This slag is a mass of large iron-gray crystals, the faces of which though
even are much too dull to be measured with the reflective goniometer. The
general resemblance of their forms, however, to those of No. 12 is so close
as to leave no doubt of their crystalline identity.

At 182°C. Specific gravity=4°1885.

It attracts the magnetic needle strongly.

* Probably a portion existed as a superior oxide.

ON THE CRYSTALLINE SLAGS. 369

14. Anatysis. By J.P.

This slag was found to contain the same constituents as the one preceding,
and the analysis was conducted in a similar manner.

1. Weight of slag 21:00 grains.

2. Silica 5°01 grains.

3. Total amount of iron obtained as Fe? O% 14°44.

The oxide of iron in this case after boiling with KO twice, was redissolved
in HCl and precipitated by hydrosulphate of ammonia.

4. Oxide of manganese 1°39. The manganese was precipitated as MnO?
_ by chlorine and ammonia.

5. Alumina with phosphoric acid 1°87. The Al? O° was precipitated from
a solution containing much more P? O than required for saturation, for the
greater part of the P? O° had been dissolved out of the iron precipitate by
KO. This fact was confirmed in another case by dissolving the oxide of
iron after treatment by KO in HCl and digesting with excess of hydro-
sulphate of ammonia, and testing the filtrate for P?O%. Admitting the
phosphate of alumina, as precipitated by ammonia, to be 4Al? O3, 3P2 05
(Rammelsberg, Rapport Annuel, Berzelius, 7*™¢ année, p. 127), the calcu-
lated proportion of alumina is 0°91.

6. Sulphate of lime 0°136.

7. Phosphate of magnesia 0°139.

8. Sulphur. The observations upon this element in the preceding analysis
exactly apply to the present. 26:14 grains of slag were fused with 50 of
nitrate of potass and 100 of the carbonate of potass-soda mixture. Sulphate
of baryta 0°44.

9. Sesquioxide of iron.

1. By chloride of gold and sodium process. Weighed roughly 10 grains.
Proceeded precisely as in the former analysis. Metallic gold 3:32.
Total quantity of iron as Fe? O, 5°85.

2. By Fuchs’s method with pure copper. The necessary precautions
concerning the exclusion of air during solution, &c. by carbonic
acid, were carefully attended to. The copper was left in the solu-
tion during several days, until the latter had become colourless.
Weight of slag 25°83 grs. A piece of electrotype sheet-copper was
used; before immersion it weighed 18-176, afterwards 15°815 grs.

Fe? O83 per cent. by the first method ...... 22°65
Ditto second versa cay eae
But the slag contains 0°23 per cent. of sulphur, which corresponds
to 1:12 per cent. of Fe O%. From the preceding data the following
results are obtained :-—

Peas. Pe Ors ales 39°83
Fe as Fe? OS8 .......... 23°75
Feas FeS............ 0°62

10. Phosphoric acid.

1. By the tartaric acid process. Weight of slag 25:83. The solution
used in the Fe* OS determination by Cu was employed. The
phosphate of ammonia and magnesia having a brown colour, it
was redissolved and reprecipitated by ammonia. Phosphate of
magnesia 2°76.

2. The solution obtained in the sulphur determination was also em-
ployed. Weight of slag 26:14. Phosphate of magnesia 2°66.

P? O° per cent. by the first method .... 6°40
Ditto second cece G45
Wears asin igias S96 Mbs eee ye Le eae GMD

-

370 REPORT—1846,

11. Our friend T. H. Henry, Esq. of London, determined the proportions
of several of the ingredients of this slag, and has communicated to us the
following results :—

Si O° 23°77 per cent. Fe O 40:07. Fe*® O08 22-68 (quantity corresponding
to sulphur not added). Al*O% with P?0* 1:6. P?0O® 6°40.

Analysis tabulated. Oxygen.
Pes sais ns. 5 aia ote union fc ar 12°41
Protoxide of iron........ a ie 9°07
Sesquioxide of iron ...... 2k ot ce mG 2
Protoxide of manganese .. 6°17 ...... 1:38
VANES, OF cra are 2 oon ania a a a 0°42
ASAE «0 chute a sbaeclala wis cole. b'e O25 her iaers ; 0:08
WeHCRIARE 0 3p i0's = = ny 6 RE AS ine 0:09
PRGepHOTiG BENG Fo 5iy aie, ORE pomp at 3°60
Sulphuret of iron,....... 0°62

102-08

We regard this slag as similar in constitution to the preceding, the alumina,
some of the sesquioxide of iron, and the phosphoric acid being present as
impurity. The presence of so large a quantity of sesquioxide of iron in this
slag is probably to be explained by its long exposure in the kiln, during
which it was in a condition favourable to the absorption of oxygen. The
powder of the slag, when heated to redness in a platinum crucible, changes
colour, acquiring a brown tint, and increases in weight. The quantity of
phosphoric acid is also remarkable, and is well-deserving of the attention of
those engaged in the smelting of iron. Berthier has given the analysis of a
refinery slag from Dudley (Traité des Essais, t. 2. p. 289), containing 7-2
per cent. of phosphoric acid. It is found that when puddling furnace slag
(tap cinder) is worked with the ordinary ores of iron, such as argillaceous
ore and hematite, the iron is liable to be “cold short,” or possess that
property which is known to be dependent upon the presence of phosphuret
of iron. Now it is evident that in smelting tap cinder, which will probably
always be found to contain a sensible amount of phosphoric acid, the manu-
facturer will be introducing into the furnace the very element, in a concen-
trated form, which it is one object of the puddling furnace to remove, namely,
phosphorus. An immense quantity of iron slag, far richer than many iron
ores, is annually thrown away, and it may be that the presence of phos-
phorus in sensible quantity is one of the causes which prevents the resmelting
of this slag with advantage. This fact has not yet sufficiently attracted the
attention of those engaged in the manufacture of iron. The discovery of a
method of extracting economically good iron from these rich slags would be
of great advantage to the country, and could not fail amply to reward its
author.

ioe

The history of this slag is doubtful; though it is probable that it was
produced in a puddling furnace. It has not yet been analysed; yet we in-
troduce the results of its crystallographic examination in order to illustrate a
new process of admeasurement of crystals of this kind, by W. H. M.

One side of this piece of slag is bounded by a plane smooth surface, on
which are traced the outlines of a number of crystals packed close together,
separated by a lighter-coloured slag. Some of the outlines of crystals are
rectangles, others rhombs, haying their obtuse angles cut off by parallel lines,

ON THE CRYSTALLINE SLAGS. 371

An attempt was made to measure approximately the

acute angle of the rhomb in the following manner :— fn

_ By means of a stout branch with an universal joint like
that of Wollaston’s goniometer, the slag was attached
to a common six-inch circular protractor graduated to A B
half degrees, with its plane surface upwards, and parallel
to the plane of the protractor. The protractor was
placed upon a table, having traced upon it a fine straight
line longer than the diameter of the protractor. A com-

pound microscope, having a spider line in the focus of
the eye-piece, was firmly fixed with its axis perpendi-
cular to the table, and at such a distance from it as to
command distinct vision of the plane surface of the
slag. By moving the protractor with the slag attached to it till the images
of the sides of the rhomb formed in the microscope successively coincided
with the spider line, and reading off the degrees and minutes at which the
protractor met the line traced on the table, the angle is obtained through
which the protractor has been turned between the two observations; or, the
angle of the rhomb. The values of the angle ACB thus observed were,—
77°-0, 79° 45', 81° 30’, 80°, 78° 15', 79° 15’, 77° 45', 78° 20', 82° 6’, 80° 50’,
77° 30', 80°, 80° 15’. Such a method of observation is obviously insuffi-
cient for the identification of a crystalline species; yet renders it probable
that these crystals are the same as No. 13, a section of which, by aplane
perpendicular to £', would produce a rhomb of 81° 36’.

At 181 C. specific gravity of slag = 3°9984,

We conclude our present report by the cry- Crystal in profile.
stallographic description of an interesting slag

obtained from the gold and silver refinery of
Messrs. Betts of Birmingham. The matrix is
very heavy, and probably differs considerably in
composition from the minute crystals in question,
which appear to be, as it were, sublimed upon the
surface, and of which it is impossible to obtain
sufficient for analysis. mW /m
The surface of this is studded with numerous
extremely small black bright crystals belonging End of crystal. | m' | m

Cee rr ea ee eR

all
=

-to the oblique prismatic system. The angles
between normals to the faces are mm! 73° 10’,
pp! 86°, mp 29° 42’. The edge in which pp!
intersect makes an angle of nearly 46° 30! with
the intersection of m,m!*. For a portion of the
slag having crystals adhering to it, at 19%1 C.
specific gravity of slag = 6°3802.

We have remaining an extensive series of slags from various metallurgical
works, which we have not yet had time to investigate, but we hope to be able
to continue our labours in this department, and to present to the Association
a second report at no distant period. We have several specimens of beauti-
fully crystallized octahedral or magnetic oxide of iron, and many other
erystals from the copper furnaces. We take this opportunity of publicly
thanking those gentlemen who have obligingly contributed to our collection,
and of inviting any others, who may have the opportunity, to further our
views in a similar manner by the contribution of specimens.

* I cannot find any mineral having the same or nearly the same angles.—W. H. M,

Addenda to Mr. Birt's Report on Atmospheric Waves.

The following table exhibits the distribution of pressure on the transit of
the crest of the great wave, Nov. 18, 1842, with especial reference to the
wave, crest No.4, including St. Petersburgh as a station.

Tasre XVII. | parom. Phase. Station. Altitude. Wave Phase.

Min. The Orkneys ... 30°18
COM ccrnabrt hes ags 30°18
EWASt. scscecacsee 30°37 Posterior
Shields {35 .0..08e 30°42 Slope.
Bristol. sez. cate. 30°42
Plymouth.....-..« 30-47

Max. ponege ee beer A < 30°53... | . Crest.

AUIS: Waadaps aun ae5 30°38 .

Christiania ...... ig it Nir pecs

Min. St. Petersburgh.. 29°85 ope:

A the highest reading at these stations on this day.

Altitude of anterior slope. St. Petersburgh to London *68
(A very oblique section.)

Altitude of posterior slope. Cork to London *35
(The posterior trough was doubtless some distance north-west of Great Britain and Ireland.

November 22. Trough between waves 7 and 9.—The trough now trans-
its St. Petersburgh, crest No. 9 now transits Christiania. We have already
noticed that crests 7 and 11 were small waves ; abstracting them, we have this
succession of large waves thus, Nos.1, 3, 5, 9. When crest No.1 traversed
England on the Ist, its anterior trough extended beyond St. Petersburgh ;
when crest No.3 traversed England on the 10th, its anterior trough also ex-
tended beyond St. Petersburgh; when crest No. 5 passed the Orkneys on the
15th, its anterior trough passed St. Petersburgh; and when crest No. 9 passes
Christiania (this day), its anterior trough passes St. Petersburgh. These facts
clearly show the gradual contraction of the waves or oppositely directed beds
of parallel currents.

General Conclusion.

It will be readily apparent from the collation of Mr. Brown’s with the St.
Petersburgh observations, that the results arrived at in the preceding discus-
sion have been fully confirmed, and there appears to be but little doubt that
the waves as determined in the first instance by a discussion of observations
from the stations announced in my first report (Report, 1844, page 267), and
further identified and illustrated by the observations collected by Mr. Brown,
as well as those which have been brought to light by means of Mr. Brown’s
observations, and confirmed and illustrated by the St. Petersburgh observa-
tions, had a real existence; an individuality has been attributed to certain
arrangements of aérial currents and distribution of pressure in connexion
with such currents, the aggregate pheenomena forming an atmospheric wave.
Of the waves thus brought to light, two occupy very prominent positions ;
they stand out as it were from the others; the individuality of each is very
striking, and the velocities with which they traversed the area isolate them
from their predecessors and exhibit them not as gregarious, but solitary waves.
These waves are B° and crest No. 4, the first occurring just previous to the
setting-in of the great wave, and the last forming its crown. The wave, crest
No.4, appears from its elevated position on the symmetrical or normal wave,
admirably adapted to crown our investigations with success, especially in so
far as its amplitude, velocity and path are concerned, we are now, I appre-
hend, in possession of materials to determine with a considerable approxima-
tion to accuracy, these elements. Its longitudinal direction appears to have
been very extensive. This element would receive considerable elucidation
by means of observations from the south of France, Spain, Portugal and the
north of Africa. It is highly probable that this wave in the direction of its
length stretched from the extreme south to the very north of Europe.

NOTICES

AND

ABSTRACTS OF COMMUNICATIONS
TO THE

- BRITISH ASSOCIATION

FOR THE

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE,

AT THE

SOUTHAMPTON MEETING, SEPTEMBER 1846.

rig:

ADVERTISEMENT.

Tue Epirors of the following Notices consider themselves responsible
only for the fidelity with which the views of the Authors are abstracted.

CONTENTS.

NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS OF MISCELLANEOUS
COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS.

‘MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
Page

Professor Youne on the Principle of Continuity in“reference to certain Results
Of Analysis ....cscccsceeceeeeeereee Reskicsiiawaebent = ways epak «= ded Sandia evpleerhemerian cave 1
Professor OrrsTED on the Deviation of Falling Bodies from the Perpendicular 2

Professor PowEuu on certain Cases of Elliptic Polarization of Light by Re-

fleXION ........sceceeeee 5 Pere Becondet see Reais easeneean aicee Seneesicsbe nang esunaaee 3
— on the Bands formed by partial Interception of the Pris~
Matic Spectrum ......ssceeeseeeees Rcltuadantedelcabicbiesnieesae seats tataawendoss=veeusecsdens 4
SS SSS on attempts to explain the apparent projection of a Star on
the Moon ............. ppiddakouhaas oe siddsoupenmasus selene reataeandecs Mhatdsaney es Sepisinpenin teen a
Mr. Daze on Elliptic Polarization ..........ssscsesesseeceneccueeeees iSvadtada sesh tieeas 5
Sir Davip BrewstTeEr’s Notice of a New Property of Light exhibited in the
Action of Chrysammate of Potash upon Common and Polarized Light ....... i
Dr. Greene’s Description of a Portable Equatorial Stand for Telescopes with-
out Polar Axis........ Hpeaeo serene ce = Andee dualaalcobloubvuriceabeehoweciee ea ee 8
Mr. Henry Lawson on an easy pat of contracting the Aperture of a
Mare Telescope’! Lis.) idec bes ties cdeaede ecaeateasweevecevevedwewesvivaneses dan cel eteads 9
on the Arrangement of a Solar Eye-piece .........sseeeeees 9
Mr. F. Ronatps on the Meteorological Observations at Kew, with an Account
of the Photographic Self-registering Apparatus ...ccc..ecesscseeeseeasees peepee 10
Professor WARTMANN on some Meteorological Pheenomena ............+..40+ Se re illp!
Dr. Banks on a New Anemometer ...........ccccesseeeceersetneeseeveseeeesees ery 12
Capt. W. W. CuitpErs’s Meteorological Observations ...........sseeeeeee ecactis 13
Rev. T. Ranxrn’s Notices of a Halo, Paraselene and Aurore Boreales ......... 15
Rev. W. WHEWELL’s Method of Measuring the Height of Clouds ............... 15
Capt. SHoRTREDE on the Force Of Vapour.......,.csssecsseenessesessenceecececesecees 16

Mr. G. Dottonp’s Account of an Atmospheric Recorder.......cssecereesessecseeee 17
Mr. C. Brooxe on the Construction of a Self-registering Barometer, Thermo-

meter, and Psychrometer ......+ Bdsddacs vide pda sewed wae Rowine 4 ad asia a bicdvwcacsee 17
Mr. J. F. MituEr’s Table of the Fall of Rain in the Lake Districts of Cum-

berland and Westmoreland, &c. in the Year 1845 ..........06 eean Seah Uidadaeee 18
——— Readings of Mountain Gauges, June, July and August -

1846........ Peeeeeeeseeeseesesesee @eeersesseree SCeeeeseeseseseeesese eeeeeetsesaseses COC CCC eeeeee 21

Lt. Colonel Syxzs on the Fall of Rain on the Coast of Travancore and Table
Land of Uttree, from Observations of M. General Cullen .........ssececoeesssees 22

_ Mr. E. J. Dent on a New Portable Azimuth Compass............ Sescntheoecnande (EE

lV 4 CONTENTS.
Mr. Tuomas Hopxrns on the Relations of the Semi-Diurnal Movements of the
Barometer to Land and Sea-Breezes..........ssseeeeseeeees eaels- sateen athabte douse
Mr. Witx1am Mayes’s Abstracts of Meteorological Observations made at Aden
WINS oto reseemaeecetet «sac ce -eszsevceeue Sbewseenemeelsteleaeisinsele s0ccecbesemeusehee seeeee
Mr. Witi1am Mayes’s Meteorological Observations taken at Fort George Bar-
racks, Bombay, in July, August, September and October 1845 ......es0...00-
Prof. WartmMann’s New Experiments on Electro-Magnetism ........scssseeees she
Prof. Matrrucci’s Summary of Researches in Electro-Physiology...............
Dr. Josspu Buxtxar on the Identity of certain Vital and Electro-magnetic
LAWS .....c00000 se nssesege sees e SpE A Oy 18 ech Poe Seer Sobte Paces cts dusassscns cubes ay oooh
Prof. SVANBERG on a new Multiplying Condenser............. cud cUalodamaheenessae <
Mr. J. A. Broun on some Results of the Magnetic Observations made at General
Sir T. M. Brisbane’s Observatory, Makerstoun ......scscsesesesesereceseereeeesens
Mr. G. Tow Ler on Magnetic Causation .........ssseccsscssssscececescesseeees en
Mr. We Petrie on the Results of an extensive Series of Magnetic Investiga-
tions, including most of the known varieties of Steel ............seseceseeeecneeees
Rev. W. Scoressy on the Mode of Developing the Magnetic Condition.........
Dr. Laine on the Constitution and Forces of the Molecules of Matter.........
Mr. W. R. Brrr on Atmospheric Waves....c.secseseseseceeceversenes RE as tas be Se ¥
i
CHEMISTRY.
Prof. OzRsTED on the Changes which Mercury sometimes suffers in Glass
Vessels hermetically sealed ............04. wowesossjasiaacdegterths conaten anaeeaeenn en
Prof. H. Rosz on a second new Metal, Pelopium, contained in the Bavarian
Tantalite ..........4. ade aa dein ees pem anche gecesine ata aoiedees wae. dceskagnaugonadeneeten aeeee

Prof. Dauseny on Cavendish’s Experiment respecting the production of
INTERIGEACIO} cc 3h emcee Acero dan enasisapeibmapeecscacy sacha nencee clin a nus dente Doge immer
Dr. Gzorer WIxson on the extent to which Fluoride of Calcium is soluble in
Water at 60°F. ............00- senassiessiesnsmeDheddeteseshosciees cus eectaO tans ebm eheeweas
Prof. ConnELL’s Analysis of the American Mineral Nemalite .,...........0:0000+
Observations on the Nature of Lampic Acid ..........6. sseeeees
Mr. James Buaxe on the Connexion between the Isomorphous Relations of
the Elements and their Physiological Action .....0....:ssssssscesceseeeeeceeneeenee
Mr. H. Letuesy on the Action of Oxalic Acid upon the Dead Tissues of the
Animal Body *......2.0s---acedusssenses epnie ae seeee ata de aad nesis pas os «=~ sc dae eee eenaee
Dr. R. D. THomMson on an important Chemical Law in the Nutrition of Ani-
MUA S dain cm a sies aneassicas sees acieisceteteaacansnancesvaadatuemeneners sss caclesscvncessacnwe dadenwe ee
Mr. H. Leruesy on the Difference in the Physiological Actions of the Yellow
and Red Prussiates as an evidence of their containing dissimilar Radicals ....
Mr. W. West on the use of stating, with the results of Analyses, the nature of
the Methods employed: a. .s.5scoassncesaneae¥ecaneaisdncensieansiees ses doscacucenanguecns
Mr. Henry Ossorn on the presence of Atmospheric Air, uncombined Chlo-
rine, and Carbonic Acid found in the Water of some of the Wells in the
suburbs of Southampton, and their Action on Lead.......ccccsseeeserecnecneeeaee

Professor DausEny on the Rationale of certain Practices employed in Agricul-

Professor Way on the Fairy-rings of Pastures .......... Sao scnnccescscscousarsnasnape .

Mr. Wiii1am Cuarves Spooner on certain Principles which obtain in the
application of Manures.......cccsseccsecererseceecstescascascenscstscecsssccsevenecnes gs

Page

25
26

26
27
28

29
31

32
33

33
35
35
35

37
37
38

38
39
40

CONTENTS.

_ Dr. G. Kemp on the application of the Principles of a Natural System of Or-
ganic Chemistry to the Explanation of the Phenomena occurring in the
Missased Potato WUDelnas ihe sccvecsesseoathantniadeiataldcuiiicecnseasceevecectcou succes de

Mr. J. PripEaux’s Inquiries into the Extent, Causes and Remedies of Fungi
destructive in Agriculture........ solves ou susan saeeeeetnee tenes cdaisace vosee ccs Racretcae

Professor Dauseny’s New Facts bearing on the Chemical Theory of Volcanoes
Dr. Reape’s Notices of Experiments in Thermo-Electricity............cccsesseeees
Professor Marrrvcci on the Electrization of Needles in different Media.........

ses

PY Re

Dr. Lexson on Crystallography and a new Goniometer..,........++5 pie Uta els he's *

Rey. T. R. Rosinson on the Influence which finely-divided Platina exerts on
the Electrodes of a Voltameter..........sesscsscsesenscereececsseses He Es seidehemads's

Mr. John P. Gassior on the Electricity of Tension in the Voltaic Battery ......

Prof. W. R. Grove on the Decomposition of Water into its constituent Gases
by Heat...... eveveees Beek esuaee Seansisiatrat ap wiaiesabicatele cle oisih cthinwcicsmeatibsiaies cs cistalenel

Dr. Percy’s Notice of a Gas Furnace for Organic Analysis....c...sesesssceessesee

Sa ae

#
h
é

Mr. E. R. J. Knowzzs on an extraordinary appearance in the Flame of a
Commonatouldcandlerpiisisle.iiesscseces Uusscevectaetsseatavecare codtieadeaatacncds

GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

EE SEP E

Professor GOprert on the Origin of the Coal of Silesia............sccseeceveseeeeees
Professor ForcHHAMMER on Sea Water, and the Effects of Variation in its Cur-

_ M. Agasstrz on the Fishes of the London Clay...........c:sseccseeeeeeeeeceneeeeeeees
_ Mr. J. R. Keezxz on the Artesian Well on the Southampton Common...........

Rev. W. Buckiawp on the applicability of M. Fauvelle’s mode of boring Arte-
sian Wells to the Well at Southampton, and to other Wells, and to Sinkings
for Coal, Salt, and other mineral beds... scccccccccecscssacseccenccecsccccsescsevsvens

Mr. JosspH Prestwicu, Jun. on the occurrence of Cypris in a part of the
Tertiary Freshwater Strata of the Isle of Wight.............scsesscsseseecreeeecees

_ Dr, Firron on the Arrangement and Nomenclature of some of the Subcretaceous
POEM GAN es sin shtedvicsele oe sna saa -LOUU Spr Gageb6r UR AS BSC CUE ECU n Sep RuH OnE ne SRA Se pases soecreee. =

_ Mr. W. Hopxrtwns on certain Deviations of the Plumb-line from its Mean Di-
rection, as observed in the neighbourhood of Shanklin Down, in the Isle of
_ Wight, during the progress of the Ordnance Survey................ See ep eae acdsee

. Mr. W. Sanpzrs on Railway Sections made on the Line of the Great Western
Railway, between Bristol and Taunton ............scsscsssesvescecseceeeserseeensenes

t Captain IpBETSON on three Sections of the Oolitic Formations on the Great
Western Railway at the West end of Sapperton Tunnel...................seseee0

. Mr. James Buckman on the Age of the Silurian Limestone of Hay Head,
near Barr Beacon, in Staffordshire ..............0c00s See endees Ha aaa eS aE

——=».

oo ’s Notice of the Discovery of a new Species of Hypantho-
crinite in the Upper Silurian Strata..........ccccceceecscsccececeensceeececaecececesees

Mr. Rozzrr Baxp on the Mushet Band, commonly called the Black-band
Tronstone of the Coal-field of Scotland...............cscssceseeseeccecssceceeeasensans

Mr. G. Wareinec Ormerop on the extent of the Northwich Salt-field.......s.

_ Professor AnsTEp’s Notice of the Coal of India, being an Analysis of a Report
_ communicated to the Indian Government on this subject

SO reece ecerese eee seceseses

Prof. OweEn’s Notices of some Fossil Mammalia of South America.......s.ses0+

vi CONTENTS.

Mr. J. B. Juxes’s Notice of some Tertiary Rocks in the Islands stretching from
Java to Timor...... poateceds Mtaeres Sparignoseanacess eaRT ERE on vas computer te panbsitde x
Sketch of the Geological Structure of Australia ............++

Mr. J. Duncan’s Notes on Geological Phenomena in Africa ........ se eonaaee is
Mr. A. C. G. Jopert’s Note on Graphic Granite ..,......0.sseecsecreserees ft opee he

Prof. E. Forsxs’s Notices of Natural History Observations Bhi since last
Meeting bearing upon Geology .......ssssscsssereesseeesenseceeceeressneseneseanesenees

Dr. Cuartuezs T. Bexe on the Physical Character of the Table-land of Abes-

Mr. W. Desporoven Coorzy’s Synopsis of a proposal respecting a Physico-
Geographical Survey of the British Islands, particularly in relation to Agri-
CUILUTE .....cccecccscencscccccccceccncccccesencseceseseeseesseesenssosccsecensseeseseseucoage

M. GuErRIn on the Georama .........seeesssees weeee SoA ee its See EL A ies

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.
Prof. Royiz’s General Observations on the Geographical Distribution of the
Flora of India, with Remarks on the Vegetation of its Lakes............ decades
Mr. Joun Hoae’s Synopsis of the Classification of the Genera of British Birds

Mr. Joun Buackwa.Lw’s List of the Names of Periodical Birds, and the dates
of their appearance and disappearance, at Llanrwst, in North Wales .........

Mr. J. Bonomi on the Figures of Birds observed on a Tomb at Memphis ......

Dr. H. Fatconer and Mr. W. Toompson on the Crania of two species of
Crocodile from Sierra Leone .........sscsseccssecsscecscsssssssecssesenseesesscescvesces

Dr. R. Knox’s Recollections of Researches into the Natural and Economic
History of certain Species of the Clupeadz, Coregoni, and Salmonide .......

on the Application of the Method, discovered by the late Dr.
Thibert, of Modelling and Colouring after Nature all kinds of Fishes .........

Mr. J. Coucu on the Egg-purse and Embryo of a Species of Myliobatus ......
Prof. Taomas Bxrxu on the Crustacea found by Prof. E. Forses and Mr.

McAnprew in their Cruises round the coast .........ssssseeeee sana ak as ae Rabe sans
Dr. CarPENTER on the Structure of the Pycnogonided..........secsssecssesecceeees
Mr. L. Reeve on the Dissimilarity in the Calcifying Functions of Mollusks,

whose organization is in other respects Simla’: syacactetc.: ccc snas a. caeeee
Prof. ALLMAN on certain Peculiarities in the Anatomy of Limax Sowerbii......
Messrs. Jospua ALDER and Atpany Hancocx’s Notices of some new and

rare British species of naked Mollusca...........-+++++ i dh ona sihedeira dace Sete ddias 0 tela
Rev. T. Rankin on the Hybernation of Snails .........scceeecesesseseseeseenes pases

Mr. W. Tuompson’s Notes on the Land Mollusca, Zoophytes, and Algz of the
[ste tof, Wight: s1.<::ctsesceeuttewedsssssasn deer nesamveasuns sects siecsssdeeseaneemdetaestee

to that of Dritaim sic tiie cece aes eebaes tobe cesecs eecet es cebseecaecesc@enee se: tae ae

on the Zoology of Lough Neagh, compared with that of the
Takes of Geneva: vas.cocsstietesecustubs ss nss tates cettecescpecectocseeetecdencee pecans

Captain Portiocx’s Notes on the Natural History of Corfu ...............ce0eee
Prof. E. Forszs on the Pulmograde Medusz of the British Seas..................
Mr. C. W. Peacu on the Marine Zoology of Cornwall .........sessecessceseeeeces
Mr. Joun Price on the Embryogeny of Pulmogrades and Ciliogrades ..........

on the Quasi-osseous System of Acalephz.......... Siesta “i
Mrs. Wurtsy on the Cultivation of Silk in England..........csscsssseeseeeene Ravesk

Page

CONTENTS,

_ Prof. ALLMAN on the Structure of Cristatella mucedo .........e0ss00 Src,
Dr. T. Beit Satter’s Observations on the true Nature of the Tendril in the

BD RCUCUMDEL ..,.cesseveeceeerereres onda Meee Aa i Pea ie Nesisitslepp'cap ean v dy Yeates
_ Professor ALLMAN on an undescribed Alga allied to Coleochete scutata ....... si
Mr. W. Hoean on the means of obviating the ravages of the Potato Disease,
by raising fully-grown healthy Potatoes from seed in one season............4..
Mr. T. D. Morriss-Stirxine on proposed Substitutes for the Potato .........
Mr. A. Henrrey on the Development of Cells ..........ccsseecceceeeseceenecseuscees

Mr. W. Tuompson’s Comparison of the Periods of the Flowering of Plants in
the early spring of 1846, in the Botanic Garden of Belfast, and the Jardin
CHM IARICGS AEE AUIS! 125 cede ccdcdowcedoddscidaddactes tease edema daigeeacntdeatets tauatceres

Mr. B. Crarxe on the Foliage and Inflorescence of the genera Phyllanthus
and Xylophylila........ Sc pUSSICE CoRR bch ated ganmigdgdenricsog cancer capepncencass” Savon aaa

MEDICAL SCIENCE.

_ Dr. Carpenter on the Physiology of the Encephalon....... nde secgneetateee se tocass
Dr. Fow.er on the Relations of Sensation to the Higher Medical Processes....
q Dr. SeaRze on the Cause of the Blood’s Circulation through the Liver....... dee
_ Dr. Laycocx on some Diseases resulting from the immoderate use of Tobacco.

—’s Diagrams showing the Mortality of Diarrhcea concurrently with
progressive Increase of Pemperature in London..........2c0sesseeeee ceecaccecsecccs

| Dr. Benner ona peculiar form of Ulceration of the Cervix Uteri............00000

STATISTICS.

’ Licut.-Colonel Syxxs’s Statistics of Civil Justice in India for four years, from
_ 1841 to 1844, both inclusive .....e.cececssececeee EabawaWars ees SPARRO HES CHEE AARAE
. Statistics of the Criminal Courts of India..............+
Statistics of the Government Charitable Dispensaries
_ Of India.........seseeseeereeeenes Betees rs Sfbacc CadoctUcerRCARAaae aritdach Lnoceeade anasaceed

| Professor Axison on the Medical Relief to the Parochial Poor of Scotland under
the Old Poor Law.............seseseess be aevease str csestece. tesseasuat uae aesias ebb aduhala -

Mr. Nrewp’s Crimina! and Miscellaneous Statistical Returns of the Manchester
_ Police for the year 1845......... PRE AA aay AEE EE SE eteeeeanaaes dees been ois
| Mr. James Heywoop’s Oxford University Statistics.......-.... pelea ara deg <eok
Dr. Guy on the Duration of Life in the Members of the several Professions.....
‘Mr. WiceLeswortu on the Mortality of Children............+ Dee dain An sence ns
' Mr. R. Vatry’s Review of the Mines and Mining Industry of Belgium.........
_ Mr. H. Howarp on Plate Glass-making in England in 1846, contrasted with
|. what it was in 1827.........c.eseseees ee Naataeceasanswaceases sedcbededete neabtee ear tc

‘Mr. A. Lippe x1 on the Statistics of Education in Glasgow in 1846......... aoeee
7 Mr. F. G. P. Netson’s Statistics of Crime in England and Wales, for the years
_- 1842, 1843, and 1844.........00. hase ip iat OU aR Tone Oa a af oh
Dr. Laycock on the Statistics of Sickness and Mortality in the City of York...

t

Mr. E. R. J. Knowzzs on the Annual Consumption of Coal, and the probable
a “duration of the Coal Fields .........+.+++ nemesis sdebtie oc tdb'gas teen eR satcaste

SD

98
99
100
100

101
101

102
104

104

Vill CONTENTS.

MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

M. Fauvextz on a new method of Boring for Artesian Springs..... PO - Baek 105

Mr. Lams on Mechanical Apparatus employed for the purpose of preventing
Incrustationtofipsteam: Boilers... v.e0as ¢-sendaacwep sss saeoesns-00%s .ainssyouescepdesse 106

Mr. W. Farrparrn’s Experiments on the Tubular Bridge proposed by Mr.
Stephenson for crossing the Menai Straits ..........-.s...+++ cond: sescenqaumncteces 107

Mr. E. Hopexinson’s Experiments on the Tubular Bridge proposed by Mr.
Stephenson for crossing the Menai Straits.........--.ssssssecsesecseeeseeesereseneees 108

Mr. Scorr Russet on the Law which governs the Resistance to Motion “
Railway Trains at High Velocities.....-.....-..ssscossseaseaseescvssedarovensconcocees 109

Rev. T. R. Roprnson’s Modification of Dr. Whewell’s Anemometer for mea-
suring the velocity of the Wind.........scecsccseeceseessesececscrenceees ito seagate 111

Dr. Purpps on the sailing powers of two Yachts, built on the Wave Principle.. 112
Mr. Brockepon on Vulcanized Caoutchouc...........+. suslase'la « «v's sespe eee eaametster 113
Mr. M. Ricarpo on a Machine for registering the Velocity of Railway Trains. 114
Mr. J. SHarp on the Comparative Value of the different kinds of Gas Meters

MG WLTSUSE bo uannesahecasa ce csydoeseasacniines s teslsoch com arlene Saueeaeddee osonsbiacee wowae, Ld
ETHNOLOGY.
Mr. J. Breve Juxes’s Notice on the Aborigines of Newfoundland..............- 114
———— Notes on the three Races of Men inhabiting the Islands
of the Indian and Pacific Oceans........scececssececsesessevece Becca eee eantaeern eae 114
Dr. Larnam on a Vocabulary of the Bethuck Indians of Newfoundland.......+. 115
Dr. Twin1ne on the Nekrasowzers of Bessarabia.......... Sdhadeeee acobiacesaanumets 115
Mrs. Suort on the Natives of Timor and Macassar.............0+e00. Sedawepeaveseen 115
Dr. LarHam on the present state of Ethnological Philology ...........- Deaecetans LOD
Professor Von MippenporrrF on certain Races of Siberia...........+sseeseererenss 115
Professor Rerzius on the Ethnographical Distribution of Round and Elongated
Crantarindcccrnoactanetsands acs aiaidaisiine sida Noises Nase’ vahia seas ee ommemaners casio waag esata ae 116
W. Botraert, Esq. on the Comanche Indians..........-s2.sseeeseessresereeeeeeees - 116
— on the Indian Tribes of Texas...........sceeeseeevee SS ecane LLG
Dr. Latuam on a Comanche Vocabulary.............++ Sbetiebs's vs co ciccute kien eeaere eewae 117
Mr. G. Finuay on the Origin of the Modern Greeks ..............cseeeeeeeneees weaset LLM
Mr: Hi B: Davirs’on ‘the Pasmaniams sscssccseetressne00000+eccscm on sueneceneakebanar 117
Captain Brian on the Africans of the neighbourhood of Bonny..............+ bel, BOF
Rey. J. Frremman on the Inhabitants of Prince’s Island............ssesseseeseeoeeees 117
Mrs. Suort on the Inhabitants of Port Essington............scccsessceseeeeseeereees 117

' Mr. Cuartzs Lyexton the Delta and Alluvial Deposits of the Mississippi, and
other points in the Geology of North America, observed in the years 1845-46 117

>

NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS

OF

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS.

MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

On the Principle of Continuity in reference to certain Results of Analysis.
By Professor Youne, Belfast.

Tue principal object of this paper is to examine into the influence of the law of
continuity, as it affects the extreme or limiting values of varying functions, and to
exhibit some remarkable verifications of the mathematical axiom that “ what is true
up to the limit is true a¢ the limit.”

Much error and confusion exists in the writings of analysts, more especially in those
of Cauchy and Poisson, in consequence of the imperfect views generally entertained
in reference to the principle of continuity, whenever extreme or ultimate values of a
"variable come under consideration. In certain infinite series where the condition
of continuity avowedly prevails, it is the common practice to neglect this principle in
_ the limiting cases, and to treat such cases as if they were entirely isolated and un-
connected with the general forms to which they really belong; whilst in other classes
of series, those namely that have been called periodic, as also in definite integrals
involving periodic quantities, it is a practice equally common to introduce the condi-
tion of continuity where in fact it has no legitimate existence. Many false conclusions
have thus obtained currency in analytical writings, and it is the aim of the paper, of
which this is a very brief abstract, to inquire into the sources of these errors, and to
supply the requisite corrections,

As respects series, for instance, it is shown that the limiting cases of
2
v1 +5 += +..... ad inf., corresponding to#= 1land«= —1,

are very different from what Cauchy and other writers affirm them to be. Cauchy
says, that when these limits are reached, the series will be divergent in the first case,
and convergent in the second: but it is proved in the paper adverted to, that “if x
ascend from an inferior numerical value (that is from a fractional value either positive
‘or negative), up to =1 or x = — 1, the limiting cases will both be convergent,
like all the preceding cases; but if the same limits be reached through descending
values of the variable, the extreme cases will then, on the contrary, be divergent.”
bs In like manner the limit of the series

os lt+oet2a2?4+ 2.3234 2.3. 424+ &c. ad inf.

when x arrives at zero, and which is said by Cauchy to be equal to 1, is proved to be
reality equal to a quantity infinitely great.

‘The errors of Cauchy arise from his neglecting the influence of continuity in these
miting cases: the errors of Poisson, in his researches into the theory of periodic
series and definite integrals in the ‘ Journal de |’Ecole Polytechnique,’ and in his
Théorie de la Chaleur,’ are of a directly opposite character: they arise from his
arbitrarily introducing continuity where no such principle exists. Poisson admits
that periodic series and periodic integrals are in themselves indeterminate; but
he considers himself at liberty to overrule this indeterminateness, by introducing
into the series the ascending powers of a quantity infinitely little different from unity,
and by introducing into the integral the arbitrary multiplier e—47. By means of this
unwatrantable artifice the periodicity is in both cases destroyed: the series is ren-

—~«(1846. B

2 REPORT—1846.

4
dered convergent instéad of periodic, and the integral is rendered determinate instead
of indeterminate.

To avoid the recurrence of these errors, it is proposed to divide infinite series and
definite integrals into two classes, those which are dependent upon some condition of
continuity, and those which are altogether independent, or neutral. Hutton restricted
the term neutral series to the form 1 — 1 + 1 —14, &c., because of its being neither
convergent nor divergent. It is here proposed to extend the signification of this
term, so as to have no especial reference to convergency or divergency: a strictly
neutral series may be either convergent, divergent, or periodic.

Some controversy has arisen of late respecting Poisson’s theory of definite integrals,
and certain forms have been condemned as erroneous which are really correct. Thus

the integrals ;
% sin ax 2 COs ax
Eis z dwand J 9 Tha dx

have been recently affirmed to be indeterminate, which they arenot. The second of
these however has been investigated by Legendre, Gregory and others, by methods
altogether objectionable, as is fully shown in the present paper. A correct process
for obtaining the proper determinate result, has been given by Sir W. R. Hamilton
in his paper on Fluctuating Functions, in the nineteenth volume of the Transactions
of the Royal Irish Academy. The ordinary investigations of the first of the pre-
ceding forms are correct, although objected to in a paper in the recently published
per of the Cambridge Transactions, yet the conclusions obtained by Euler, Fourier,

oisson, and indeed by analysts generally, in reference to this integral, are affected

F Cy :
with error: the values of the integral are always stated to be A ops 2 according

as the constant a is positive, zero, or negative.
It is easily shown however, by a reference to the law of continuity, that the
middle one of these values, viz. 0, has no existence; for if « become zero by vanish-

ing positively, the value of the integral is still 7 ; and if it become zero by vanishin
8 Pp y: 8 5 y g

negatively, the value is — a i

Among the collateral topics discussed in the present paper, notice is taken of the
method proposed by Deflers, and so often quoted by Poisson, for verifying the well-
known integral theorem of Fourier; this method has been properly objected to by Mr.
De Morgan, as involving an inadmissible principle: by.a little modification, sug-
gested by the theory unfolded in this paper, the defect is removed, and Deflers’ short
and ingenious proof of Fourier’s remarkable theorem rendered conclusive.

The paper terminates with some observations on what is called discontinuity, a term
which it is thought is often injudiciously and unnecessarily employed in analysis.
It is suggested that expressions called discontinuous may generally be contemplated
with advantage, as consisting of distinct continuities embraced in a single form. An
instance of this is shown in the consideration of definite integrals of the form

A tm a which are treated by Poisson, ‘in the eighteenth cahier of the Journal of
—™m «

the Polytechnic School, but whose conclusions are, by this mode of viewing the —

integral, shown to be erroneous. The entire paper will probably be published in the
Cambridge Transactions.

Letter, on the Deviation of Falling Bodies from the Perpendicular, to
Sir Jonn Herscuet, Bart., from Prof. OERsTED.

The first experiments of merit upon this subject were made last century, I think in _

1793, by Professor Guglielmini. He found in a great church an opportunity to
make bodies fall from a height of 231 feet. As the earth rotates from west to east,
each point in or upon her describes an are proportional to its distance from the
axis, and therefore the falling body has from the beginning of the fall a greater ten=
dency towards east than the point of the surface which is perpendicularly below it;

thus it must strike a point lying somewhat easterly from the perpendicular. Still, the i
P b'|

i

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 3

_ difference is so small, that great heights are necessary for giving only a deviation of
some tenth-parts of an inch. The experiments of Guglielmini gave indeed such a
deviation; but at the same time they gave a deviation to the south, which was not in
accordance with the mathematical calculations. De la Place objected to these expe-~
riments, that the author had not immediately verified his perpendicular, but only some
months afterwards. In the beginning of this century, Dr. Benzenberg undertook new
experiments at Hamburg from a height of about 240 feet. The book in which he de-
scribes his experiments, contains in an appendix researches and illustrations upon the
subject from Gauss and Olbers, to which several abstracts of older researches are added.
The paper of Gauss is ill-printed, and therefore difficult to read; but the result is,
that the experiments of Benzenberg should give a deviation of 3:95 French lines.
The mean of his experiments gave 3-99; but they gave a still greater deviation to
_ the south. Though the experiments here quoted seem to be satisfactory in point of
re the eastern deviation, I cannot consider them to be so in truth; for it is but right to
state that these experiments have considerable discrepancies among themselves, and
i that their mean therefore cannot be of great value. In some other experiments made
_ afterwards in a deep pit, Dr. Benzenberg obtained only the easterly deviation; but
_ they seem not to.deserve more confidence. Greater faith is to be placed in the ex-

periments tried by Professor Reich in a pit of 540 feet at Freiberg. Here the easterly

a

SIS EN

deviation was also found in good agreement with the calculated result; but a con-
i siderable southern deviation was observed. Iam not sure that I remember the num-
_ bers obtained; but I must state that they were means of experiments which differed
( much among themselves, though not in the same degree as those of Dr. Benzenberg.

Professor Reich has published his researches, an abstract of which is to be found in Pog-
gendorff’s ‘ Annalen der Physik.’ After all this there can be no doubt that our know-
ledge upon this subject is imperfect, and that new experiments are to be desired; but
these are so expensive, that it is not probable that they would be performed with all
means necessary to their perfection without the concurrence of the British Associa-
tion. I will here state the reasons which seem to recommend such an undertaking.
1. The art of measurement has made great progress in these later times, and is here
exercised in great perfection. 2. All kinds of workmanship can be obtained here in
the highest perfection. I think it would not be impossible to have-an air-tight cylinder
of some hundred feet high made for the purpose. This would indeed be expensive,
but it would present the advantage that the experiments could be made in the vacuum
and in different gases. 3. With these experiments others could be connected upon
the celerity of the fall and the resistance opposed to it by the air and by gases. Pro-
_ fessor Wheatstone’s method for measuring the time would here be of great use.
_ 4. If the southern deviation should be confirmed, experiments could be undertaken in
_ order to discover in how far this could be effected by magnetism in motion. For this
purpose balls of different metals might be tried. Very moveable magnetical needles,
_ well-sheltered, but placed sufficiently near to the path of the falling bodies, would

_ indicate magnetical effects induced in them.

On certain Cases of Elliptic Polarization of Light by Reflexion.
By the Rev. Professor Powett, V.P.B.A.

__ From the principle investigated by Fresnel, that polarized light changes its plane in
_ reflexion, by a certain law dependent on the incidence, for transparent media, and the
__ extension of a similar law to the reflexion from the second surface by Sir D. Brewster
- (Phil. Trans. 1830), other formule were obtained by the last-named philosopher to
_ express the varied phenomena observed by himself (Phil. Trans. 1841), in the re-
_ flexion of polarized light from thin jilms, in extension of those previously investigated
_ by Mr. Airy and M. Arago. The whole subject was reduced to the principles of the
| undulatory theory by Dr. Lloyd (Brit. Assoc. 1841, Sect, Proc. p. 26), who pointed
_ out the further theoretical result, that owing to the difference of phase or retardation,

_ thus produced in the two portions into which the reflected light is divided, polarized
_ light reflected by a thin plate will in general become elliptically polarized*.

_ * This deduction, though stated in the report given in the Atheneum, is omitted in the
volume of the Association, SR
: BQ

4 REPORT—1846.

It is certain however that in a great number of cases of thin plates examined by
the author of this communication no ellipticity can be detected. Glass superficially
decomposed and giving brilliant tints produces no ellipticity, except in those instances
where it has a decided metallic lustre. Vapour condensed on soaped glass (in the
manner described by Sir D. Brewster), oils of turpentine, cassia, &c. between glass
plates (the upper being slightly prismatic to separate the reflexions), are equally de-
void of any indication of ellipticity. 4

The theory therefore clearly needs some further modification to express the condi-
tions under which the effect may be sensible. _

There are doubtless many cases of thin plates in which elliptic polarization is pro-
duced (as in the films formed by Nobili’s process and by heat, as investigated by the
author of this communication, or again, as in mica which has become laminated, &c.),
but in these cases the modus operandi is well understood; the former arising from the
enormous refractive power, in the latter from the crystalline structure.

In the instance of China ink observed by the author, the ellipticity appears equally,
whether it be in the form of a film or in a solid mass; but it is only seen in the
purest specimens.

In the numerous other cases examined by Mr. Dale it does not appear that any-
thing like films can be supposed; the only condition seems to be the high refractive

ower.

It may still be a question, then, whether the theory proposed independently by M.
Cauchy and by Mr. Tovey be not more easily applicable; since it requires nothing
but the very simple and admissible hypothesis, that the molecules of ether, for a minute
depth within the surface, are unsymmetrically distributed*,

In various substances containing but a very small proportion of metal, ellipticity
has been detected, in addition to those enumerated by the author on a former occa-
sion. Among these are prussian blue, and a specimen of the meteorite from the Cape
of Good Hope, 1839, which contains only about 33 per cent. of protoxide of iron, very
small portions of oxides of nickel and chrome, and a minute trace of metallic iron.

On the Bands formed by partial Interception of the Prismatic Spectrum.
By the Rev. Professor PowEtt, V.P.B.A,

In the discussion} relative to these bands one or two points suggested themselves
which appear to need further remark.

The principal objection was, that according to the theoretical formula, a contrac-
tion of the aperture of the eye or telescope should produce an enlargement of the in-
tervals between the bands, which is not confirmed by experiment.

The author finds that with a contraction down to the twentieth of an inch, though
there is no sensible enlargement of the intervals, yet the bands become greatly more
vivid and distinct, while they extend only over a smaller portion of the spectrum at a
time §.

With the same plate, the enlargement of the intervals appears to depend solely on
the increase in the angular extent of the spectrum subtended at the eye, whether pro-
duced by a greater distance from the origin, a greater prismatic angle, higher di-
spersion, or greater power in the telescope.

The formula involves the ratio of the semieaperture to the distance of an assumed
point on the retina from the geometrical image of the point of light; and this “ dif-
fusion” being no arbitrary supposition, but a direct portion of the theory, it seems un-
reasonable to pronounce it “ untenable” and “ quite inadmissible,’ when the question
at issue is, whether the theory as a whole will apply to the phenomena.

Apart from all theory, when under certain conditions bands are formed equally
whether the plates be applied at one end of the spectrum or at the other, “ polarity”
seems an improper term by which to describe the effect,

* See the author’s Treatise on the Undulatory Theory, &c., p. 33.

+ See Phil. Trans. 1839, i. 86.

t See Brit. Assoc. 1845, Sectional Proceedings, p. 7.

§ Both these results have since been shown to be in perfect accordance with theory by
Mr. Airy.—Phil. Mag. Nov. 1846.

>.

ARSED ae me

Ie See

y
FA

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 5

_- On attempts to explain the apparent projection of a Star on the Moon.
By the Rev. Professor PowEti, V.P.B.A.

Some remarks having been brought forward at the last meeting* relative to the sin-
gular phenomenon above named, in which “ diffraction” was referred to as at least
in a general sense likely to afford an explanation, the author of this communication
conceived that some observations he has made might have a bearing on the question.

“< Diffraction” has often been appealed to in cases apparently of the same class,
but in the more strict and limited sense of the term it cannot apply, since both the
conditions and the resulting phenomena appear essentially different.

The phenomena properly ascribed to “ diffraction” exhibit fringes, and suppose the
edge of the intercepting body to be within the area of the rays.

But there are some effects of a concomitant kind which have been less attended to.
One of the most remarkable of these is that described by Newton (Opt. bk. iii. pt. 1.
obs. 5, 6, 7), in which the light admitted through a hole a quarter of an inch in dia-
meter, falling on the edge of an opake body, besides the phenomena since called
“diffraction,” gave rise to long streaks or “trains” of light darting into the shadow
perpendicular to the edge and shown on a screen; or, when the eye was substituted,
producing a /uminous line running along the edge, between it and the first fringe.

The author has repeated this experiment in a different manner, and though in the
original experiment the edge is within the area of the rays, yet a part of the same phe-
nomenon (viz. the line of light along the edge) is seen, even when the edge is beyond
the rays, by the naked eye, or with a telescope.

When the origin of light is reduced to a mere point (as by using the sun’s rays re-
flected from a very small globule of mercury) and the rays are wholly intercepted by
a small circular opake disc at the distance of about 2 inches, so that both the luminous
point and the disc may be seen at once in focus by a small telescope about 12 feet dis-
tant, the bright line is reduced to a luminous patch on the edge of the disc at the part
nearest the luminous point which appeared to extend to a small distance inwards, and
then the rays converging crossed and diverged again faintly. This might possibly be
regarded as affording some experimental imitation of the case of the star: the origin
is not an absolute point; but if it were, the patch of light on the disc might appear
like a projection of its image.

Another explanation has been proposed of the phenomenon of projection, on the
principle that owing to aberration, the star being seen out of its true place, a screen
placed in its érue direction, as the moon, would exhibit the star projected on its disc
(Royal Astron. Soc. Reports, vol. vi. p. 246) ; and taking into account the proper mo-
tions of the stars, this would explain the appearance of the phenomenon in one instance

_ and not in another, on the supposition that those proper motions are in opposite direc-

tions in the two instances. But this will not apply in the very instance to which re-
ference has been made, of the two stars 119 and 120 Tauri, which have proper motions
both in the same direction ; also, the principle of this explanation is rendered ques-
tionable altogether from what has been lately suggested by Prof. Challis on the theory
of aberration.

The whole subject is perhaps not yet ripe for explanation, since the first astro-
nomers are so much at variance as to the facts, the appearance having been frequently
seen by one observer and not by another; while it is believed by some to occur or
not, according as the attention is directed to the moon or to the star; which, if true,
would seem to point to some ocular cause. Hence a further accumulation of in-
stances is much wanted, any statements of which the author of this paper would be

thankful to receive addressed to him at Oxford.

On Elliptic Polarization. By Mr. Date.

The paper which I have to read to the Section relates to some new observed facts
in the subject of elliptic polarization, which appear to point out the physical element
on which depends the different action of metals on light, as compared with transparent
substances in general. They have already been communicated to the Ashmolean

_ Society at Oxford, but I have been induced to bring them forward at present, with a

* Brit. Assoc. Report, 1845, Sect. Proc. p. 5.

6 REPORT—1846.

view of more readily gaining for them the notice of those interested in optics. This
peculiar action, it will be remembered, is of this kind: first, that the metals (and
metallic sulphurets, &c.) have no angle of complete polarization for common light ;
and secondly, that a plane polarized ray becomes elliptically polarized after reflexion
from their surfaces, whereas it remains plane polarized after reflexion from glass and
such like bodies. Endeavours have naturally been made to account for these phzeno-
mena on the principles of the undulatory theory ; and always, apparently, on the suppo-
sition that the laws of reflexion from transparent (uncrystallized) bodies were already
rigorously given by Fresnel’s formulz, but that a new and distinct theory was required
for metallic reflexion: thus assuming that the two classes of phenomena were ab-
ruptly separated, without any intermediate links of connexion. It has, indeed, long
been known that several transparent or translucent substances have no angle of com-
plete polarization. Thus Biot (Traité de Physique, iv. 288) has excepted sulphur
and the diamond; and Sir John Herschel (Optics, Art. 845 ; see also 831) excludes
from the general rule, besides the metals, those substances which have the adamantine
lustre; which term is applied, in Mohs’s system of crystallography, to several of the
minerals to be presently spoken of, as resembling the metals in another respect. I
do not know that any writer, except Mr. Green (in Camb. Phil. Trans. vol. vi.), has
stated this exemption to be general for all substances having a high refractive index;
but it is important to recall this experimental fact to our attention, on account of its
coincidence and harmony with the new result which I have now to state. It consists
in this: that these same highly refractive substances resemble the metals also in a
second respect—that they confer elliptic polarization on a plane polarized ray reflected
from them. The following list of substances, in which this property was observed,
will be found to contain most of those at the top of Sir D. Brewster's list of refractive
indices :-—

Indigo—which is remarkable for possessing the metallic lustre without con-

taining any metal.

Artificial realgar.

Diamond—of which three specimens were tried.

Sulphuret of zine in transparent crystals.

Glass of antimony—translucent.

Sulphur—melted on a polished slip of zine foil.

Tungstate of lime—transparent.

Carbonate of lead in crystals, clear and limpid as glass.

Hyacinth, or zincon—translucent.

Arsenious acid.

Garnet.

Idocrase.

Helvine.

Labrador hornblend.
Of which the last five possess the property in a very slight degree only. The test
used in every case was the dislocation of the rings of a plate of cale spar; of which a
very good specimen was used, capable of exhibiting eight or nine red rings: and all
the experiments were made by candle-light, which is indispensable, It will secure
greater confidence in these results to say, that all the specimens which I submitted to
Prof. Powell’s examination, in a different instrument, were found by him to produce
the above effect; and from his published observations several more cases may be
quoted in confirmation of the general result: such are—chromate of lead, litharge,
plumbago, and Indian ink. The natural conclusion from these facts appears to be,
that in a perfect mathematical theory of reflexion, both cases should be embraced in
one set of formule, of which some terms or coefficients should be insensibly small,
except when the refractive index was very large ; that, strictly speaking, no substances
completely polarize common light at any angle, but that the residue of unaltered light
is too feeble to affect the eye, when the refractive index is below a certain limit;
and that plane polarized light always becomes elliptically polarized, but that the vir-
tual difference of paths of the two compact vibrations parallel and perpendicular to
plane reflexions is insensibly small, except the refractive index surpass a certain value
greater than the refractive indices of felspar and sapphire, which I found to produce
no dislocation of the rings. It is remarkable, that such formule have some time

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 7

since been deduced from a very profound mathematical investigation by Mr. Green,
in the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions, vol. vii—whose results, however, do
not seem to have met with much attention. Now, however, that they have met with
the above undesigned general confirmation, it seems very desirable that they should
be compared with the numerical results of experiments of Sir D. Brewster and Prof.
Powell. Mr. Green adopts, as part of the basis of his calculation, the original view
of Fresnel,—that the vibrations of a polarized ray are perpendicular to the plane of
polarization ; but as this point is a matter of dispute amongst mathematicians, I have
thought of an experimental method by which this point might, as I think, be decided,
independently of all theory. Itconsists in the observation of the shifting of the fringes
produced by two pencils of light polarized in the same plane on interposing in their
paths a piece of compressed glass. This last apparatus is to be constructed in the
following manner :—A strip of clear plate, 4 or 5, inches long by half an inch broad,
is to be provided; and its narrowest faces (or narrowest long sides of the parallelo-
piped) are to be carefully polished, and rendered perfectly plane and parallel to each
other,—at least, in the middle part of their length, through which the light is to pass,
And the glass must be so well annealed and so free from striz as to allow of the for-
mation of fringes by interfering pencils which have traversed it. It is to be provided
with a wooden frame and screw, capable of compressing it in the middle, [A similar
apparatus has already been employed by Brewster, Ling, and Pouillet, to show that
glass under pressure possesses double refraction.] We may now proceed to the ex-
periment itself. Let us suppose, then, that the arrangements have been made in a
darkened room for producing the interference of two pencils of light, which are to be
polarized in the same plane, by passing, for example, through the same tourmaline
plate. This arrangement might, in fact, be that of Fresnel, in which a slender beam
is reflected from two glass plates very slightly inclined, provided that the light were
incident at the polarizing angle of glass. And, for the sake of clearness, let us suppose
the two foci, or virtual foci, to be vertically one above the other, the plane of polari-
zation to be vertical, and the glass to be interposed with its length horizontal, Then,
in its natural state, it will produce no displacement of the fringes, if made carefully
after the above description. But let us consider what will be its effect if interposed in
its bent state. The elasticities on its convex and concave sides are different in this
respect, that the particles are dilated or compressed parallel to the length of the glass ;
whereas little or no alteration of elasticity is produced in a plane perpendicular to the
length of the glass. Hence if the vibrations of the two polarized pencils are really
executed perpendicularly to the plane of polarization, or parallel to the length of the
glass (according to the arrangement above agreed upon), they will be propagated
with different velocities, and the fringes will be displaced paralle] to the length of the
glass, in a direction which might be inferred from some statements of Sir D. Brewster,
but which is quite unimportant to the present purpose. If, however, on the other
hand, the vibrations be executed in the plane of polarization, or perpendicular to the
length of the glass, the two rays will traverse the glass with almost, or quite the same
velocities, and the fringes will either not be displaced at all, or to a far less amount
than in the preceding case.

Notice of a New Property of Light exhibited in the Action of Chrysammate
of Potash upon Common and Polarized Light. By Sir Davip BREewsTER,
KL, FRS. .

The Chrysammate of Potash, which crystallizes in very small, flat rhombic plates,
has the metallic lustre of gold, whence it derives its name of golden sand. When the
_ . sun’s light is transmitted through the rhombic plates it has a reddish yellow colour,
and is wholly polarized in one plane. When the crystals are pressed with the blade
of a knife on a piece of glass, they can be spread out like an amalgam. The light,
transmitted through the thinnest films thus produced, consists of two oppositely polar-
ized pencils,—the one of a bright carmine red and the other of a pale yellow colour,
With thicker films, the two pencils approach to two equally bright carmine red pencils,
It is to the reflected light, however, and its new properties, that I wish to direct the
attention of the Section. Common light, reflected at a perpendicular incidence from
the surfaces of the crystals, or of the films, has the colour of virgin gold, It grows
less and less yellow as the incidence increases, till it becomes of a pale bluish white

8 REPORT—1846.

bs
‘

colour at very great incidences. The compound pencil, thus reflected and coloured,
consists of two oppositely polarized pencils,—one polarized in the plane of reflexion,
and of a pale bluish white colour at all incidences; and the other polarized perpendi-
cular to the plane of reflexion, and ofa golden yellow colour at small incidences, passing
successively into a deeper yellow, greenish yellow, green, greenish blue, blue, and
light pink, as the angle of incidence increases. This very remarkable property, which
I have discovered also in some other crystals, is not caused by any film of oxide formed
upon the natural surface of the crystal, nor is it the result of any change produced
upon the surface by external causes. It is exhibited, under the usual modifications,
if the surface of the chrysammate is in optical contact with fluids, and, by pressure, with
’ glass :—and when the crystal is in the act of being dissolved, or when a fresh surface is
exposed by mechanical means, the superficial action of the crystal upon light is in both
cases the same. When the chrysammate is re-crystallized from an aqueous solution, it
appears in tufts of prisms of a bright red colour, the golden reflexion being overpowered
by the transmitted light ; but when these tufts are spread into a film by pressure, the
golden yellow colour reappears. When the crystals of chrysammate are heated with
a spirit lamp, or above a gas burner, they explode with a flame and smoke like gun-
powder ; and, by continuing the heat, the residue melts and a crop of colourless amor-
ee th is left. I have found the same explosive property in the Aloetinate of
otash,

Description of a Portable Equatorial Stand for Telescopes without Polar
Axis. By Ricwarp Greene, M.D.

All previous attempts to produce equatorial motion have (the author believes) been
based upon the notion that the telescope should revolve upon a material axis, which
of course must be adjusted parallel to the axis of the earth. The principle also is
bad, inasmuch as the telescope is supported near the centre, and the moving power is
applied to that point, instead of the extremity of the tube.

In following any of the heavenly bodies either to the east or west of the meridian
with the common stands mounted with altitude and azimuth movements, the observer
is obliged to keep them both continually in action to prevent the object getting out of
the field of the telescope. As the effect of these two powers acting at right angles to
each other is to cause the tube to move in the diagonal between them, it occurred to
the author that it would be more simple and equally efficacious to employ only one
moving power in the direction of that diagonal, and thus obtain the same motion by
one screw, which before was obtained by the two screws worked together. He also
remarked that when the object is passing the meridian, for a certain time it will re-
main in the field of view by moving the azimuth screw alone.

The essential principle of the invention is simply to be able to place the horizental
or azimuth screw in all situations of the heavenly bodies in a position similar to that
in which it is placed when an object is passing the meridian, viz. parallel to a tangent
of the circle the body is describing and touching the circle at the point where the body
then is. The common azimuth screw fully answers the purpose when the body is on
the meridian, as the tangent is then horizontal. When the body observed is to the
east of the meridian, as it is then rising higher every instant, and at the same time
moving westward, all that is required is to point the adjustible screw, which the author
calls the equatorial screw, upwards from the observer to such an angle as appears to
be parallel to the path the body is describing, which, from its altitude and distance
from the meridian, can be pretty nearly guessed by an astronomer. If he has ele-
vated the screw to the proper angle, the body will remain very nearly in the centre
of the field of view during the time he is following it through the length of the screw.
Tf, however, it appears to sink in field, it shows that the screw is not sufficiently ele-
vated, and that it rises faster than the axis of the telescope, and he must raise the
remote end of the screw a little more; if the star rises in the field, of course it shows
that the screw is too much elevated. By two or three trials the angle may be found
in less than a minute. If the body viewed be to the west of the meridian, the remote
end of the equatorial screw is of course to be depressed, pointing downwards from the
observer.

The principle of this equatorial movement is easily applied to many of the stands
now in general use, as well as to the Herschel stand, on which the author first tried it.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 9

Having no stands of his own, except the Herschel stand, (and this certainly defec-
tive in stability, in consequence of the great mirror being unsupported except by the
tube, upon which it acts through a long and powerful lever of agitation,) Dr. Greene
turned his attention to the construction of some simple stand based upon the principle
of stability which the triangle affords, and presented a model of his first attempt to
attain that object.

In this arrangement the heel of the telescope hangs by two pivots upon two Ys
fixed to the upper surface of a flat circular disc, which revolves upon another similar
disc, by means of a pin in the centre; the lower disc stands upon three very low feet to
ensure its stability. The upper or eye-end of the telescope is attached by a pin to an
equatorial slide. ‘The pin is united to a slide which moves parallel to the tube of the
telescope at its under side, and being moved by a rack and pinion, gives the slow
elevation movement. The equatorial slide is supported by a pair of shears, capable
of being lengthened or shortened at pleasure, to effect the quick motion in altitude.
The legs of the shears rest upon the two extremities of a sliding piece moving by rack
and pinion in the groove of a piece of mahogany or other hard wocd in the shape of
the letter T, supported by three very low feet to ensure its steadiness. The sliding
piece is moved by a long handle attached to the pinion, and gives the slow azimuth
motion to the entire stand. To unite the different parts into one system, the piece
which supports the shears, and the lower circular disc which supports the heel of the
telescope, are attached by two bars with hooks at each extremity, the bars being
themselves bound together by two diagonal braces.

It will be seen at a glance, that the telescope and its stand form one great triangle,
while each of its parts is a minor triangle; that the great mirror is solidly supported,
having no tendency to disturb any part of the fabric by its disposition to be moved by
any slight external force.

On an easy Method of contracting the Aperture of a Large Telescope.
By Henry Lawson, .RS., FRAS., &e.

It is well known to the practical astronomer, that in using a telescope of large
diameter it is needful to contract the aperture of the object-glass when measuring
binary stars, &c., and also when the haziness of the atmosphere demands such con-
traction. The mode adopted is the adaptation of a brass tube, 6 to 12 inches long, to
the eye-end of the telescope tube, in such a manner that it may slide out and in with
facility. Into one end of this tube the eye-pieces of the telescope must screw (or
what is better, slide). Within this tube is to be placed a moveable diaphragm, made
to slide up and down the tube by means of a slit and stud. The diaphragm is to be
pierced with an aperture of such size as just to let the whole cone of rays proceeding
from the object-glass pass through it towards the eye-glasses, when the diaphragm is
drawn down or stands near to the eye-piece. When the aperture of the object-glass is
required to be contracted, the diaphragm must be slid towards the object-glass, and it
wiil have the effect of circumscribing the cone of rays to any required diameter. The
benefits resulting from the above-described plan are the following: that the astro-
nomer can with the greatest facility and without moving from the eye-end of his tele-
scope, adjust or contract the aperture of the object-glass to any required diameter ;
he can vary the magnifying power without shifting or deranging the aperture; and,
lastly, he can produce these benefits without fear of altering the adjustments, or
turning the telescope from the object in view.

On the Arrangement of a Solar Eye-piece.
By Heyry Lawson, F.RS., F.R.AS., &c.

This arrangement does away with the inconvenient and dangerous breaking of the
dark glass when viewing the sun through telescopes of large size, and enables the
astronomer to view the sun with the whole aperture of his telescope, however large it
may be; thus giving an immense advantage when scrutinizing the wonderful and
most interesting appearances of the solar disc. The method consists in placing the
dark-glass or glasses within the telescope, by means of a brass tube supported between
the object-glass and the eye-glass of the telescope, the tube being from 3 to 18 inches
(according to the length of the telescope), measured from the eye-piece, to which

10 REPORT—1846,

it is to be attached. By this means the cone of rays proceeding from the object-glass
towards the eye-glass is intercepted by the dark glass at a considerable distance from
its focus, or most heating point, and thus the heating power of the rays, being spread
over a large surface of the dark glasses, passes through without injuriously heating
them, and enters the eye in a cool and agreeable temperature. Another benefit de-
rived by this arrangement is, that the cell holding the dark glass may be made to con-
tain several glasses; and those may be of different colours; whereby an opportunity
is afforded of repeating the valuable experiments of Sir John Herschel on transmitted
light through different coloured media; and also attempering or adjusting the inten-
sity of the light entering the eye to the sensibility of the retina. Another benefit is
obtained, that of using various magnifying powers with the same dark glass arrange-
ment with the greatest facility.

On the Meteorological Observations at Kew, with an Account of the Photo-
graphic Self-registering Apparatus. By F. Ronaups, F.RS.

Mr. Ronalds, on presenting his third annual volume of observations and experi-
ments made at the Kew Observatory, described his experiments on the photographic
self-registration of the electrometer, the barometer, the thermometer and the declina-
tion magnetometer ; explained his existing apparatus for these purposes, and exhibited
the resulting photographs, but first briefly adverted to his previous proposals in 1840
and 1841, and experiments in 1844, relative to the subject. The principal charac-
teristic of his improved system is a peculiar adaptation of the lucernal microscope.
An instrument of this kind was employed in July 1845 to register the variations of
Volta’s atmospheric electrometer. The pair of straws were properly insulated and
suspended within the body of the microscope and towards its object-end. A con-
densing lens was placed at the end itself, and a good lamp stood beyond it. A strong
light was therefore projected upon those sides of the straws which were turned towards
the condensing lens, and the other sides were in deep shade. The light also impinged
upon a little screen fitted into the back of a case about two feet long, fixed to the eye-
end of the microscope at right angles with it, and vertically. Through this screen
was cut a narrow curved slit whose chord was horizontal and radius equal tothe length
of the straws, Between the electrometer and the screen a combination of achromatic
lenses by Ross was adjusted to produce a good chemical focus of the electrometer, at
a distance as much beyond the external surface of the screen as the thickness of one
of the plates of glass to be presently mentioned. In the long vertical case was sus-
pended a frame about half the length of the case, provided with a rabbet, into which
two pieces of plate glass could be dropped, and these brought into close contact by
means of six little bolts and nuts. The frame could be removed at pleasure from the
line by which it was suspended, and the line, after passing through a small hole stopped
with grease at the top of the long case, was attached to a pulley about four inches in
diameter on the hour arbor of a clock. Lastly, counterpoises, rollers and springs
were used for ensuring accurate sliding of the frame, &c. A piece of Mr. Collen’s
photographic paper was now placed between the two plates of glass in the moveable
frame ; the long case was closed so as to prevent the possibility of daylight entering it,
the clock was started, and the time of starting was noted. All that part of the paper
which was made to pass over the slit in the screen by the motion of the clock, became
now therefore successively exposed to a strong light, and was consequently brought
into a state which fitted it to receive a dark colour on being again washed with the
usual solution, excepting those small portions upon which dark images of the lower
parts of the straws were projected through the slit. These parts of course retained
the light colour and formed the long curved lines or bands, whose distances from each
other, at any given part of the photograph, i. e. at any given time, indicated the
electro-tension at that time. Sometimes daylight was used instead of the light from
a lamp, and in that case, during the process, some appearances of the sky were occa-
sionally noted, by which it was evident that in serene weather, when the sun’s light
and heat varied, and the paper became consequently either more or less darkened,
the electric tension, as shown in the photograph, varied also, increasing with the in=

. crease of light, &c. This fact has not perhaps been before observed, but as the dark-
ening effect on the paper could not be always depended upon, separate notes were
taken of the intensities of light and the same results obtained. At the suggestion of

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ll

the Astronomer Royal, a distinguishing electrometer, formed on the dry pile system,
was afterwards employed, which exhibited in the photograph, not only the tension,
but the kind of electricity possessed by the electrometer at any given time. The dry
thermometer was next tried. It was of the horizontal kind, had a flat bore, and its
tube was introduced through the side of the microscope. The tube had a diaphragm
of very narrow aperture fixed upon it, and the slit in the screen, at the eye-end of the
microscope, was now of course straight and horizontal. The image was a little mag-
nified, and the breadth of the dark band or line in the photograph became the mea-
sure of temperature inversely at any given time*. ~The barometer employed was of
the siphon kind. The microscope was turned in order to bring the long case and its
sliding frame into a horizontal position. The clock was placed at one end, and a
little weight, sufficient to keep the frame steady, was suspended by a line passing over
a pulley at the other. The lower leg of the barometer was introduced through the
now bottom of the microscope; it was provided with a similar kind of diaphragm to
that on the thermometer, and of course the slit in the screen was now vertical. A
light blackened pith-ball rested on the surface of the mercury, and its image was
slightly magnified, but will in future be much more so. The declination magnet was
one of two feet, lent to Mr. Ronalds by the Astronomer Royal. It was provided with
a damper, and its mode of suspension was essentially similar to that of the Greenwich
declinometer. In order to adapt it for self-registration, a light conical brass tube,
projecting six inches beyond its north end, was affixed to the lower side of the spur
which carried it, and to the north end of that tube a small wire, called the index, was
attached at right angles. This index descended through little slits in the bottoms of
the two cases which enclosed the magnetic, and took the place of the electrometer
in the lucernal microscope, which was placed below the cases, and was now required
to be much longer than before, in order that the image and motion might be suffi-
ciently magnified, yet a flat field retained. Everything was firmly fixed upon the two
pillars which formerly carried the transit instrument of His Majesty George III, A
great many photographs were obtained and sent for inspection to Greenwich. Con-
cerning some term-day impressions, Mr. Glaisher, the Magnetical and Meteorological
Superintendent of the Greenwich Observatory, says, in an official note, that “the
beautiful agreement of the results with these at Greenwich is highly satisfactory.”

On some Meteorological Phenomena. By Professor WARTMANN.

Although many attempts have been made of late to extend our knowledge of ‘the
electrical phenomena of the atmosphere, it must be confessed that much remains to
be done. The frequency of the flashes of lightning, according to the latitude to the
seasons, is a subject of inquiry which has been recommended.by M. Arago. It
would also be interesting to record the duration of thunder-storms, the number of
flashes of each of the three classes which have appeared, the height and general
appearance of the clouds, and the hygrometric state of the atmosphere. ’

I shall take the liberty to point out some facts which I had occasion to witness on
the evening of the lst of August last. After many hot days, clouds appeared on
the south-west part of the horizon of Lausanne, and when over the town they began
to become illuminated almost without interruption. I counted more than forty flashes
in twenty-two minutes, two-fifths of which were of the first class, and all going
eastward.

A flash, of such a white byilliancy that the eye could not bear it, but the appear-
ance of which was perfectly definite, did not disappear suddenly, but left a florescent
trace of a dark red colour, like to the illusions of the dissolving views and the trainées
or trails of certain shooting stars which I observed on the night of the 10th of
August 1838.

Another flash of the first class appeared at the under part of the clouds, and after
a rather long course, it vanished at the very edge of it: no thunder was heard.
Two flashes were bicuspidated ; three others were tricuspidated at some distance from
their origin, two of which appeared together, one over the other, in the same hori-

* Tn order to convert this into the wet bulb hygrometer, nothing of course is necessary but
the application of the usual cup of water and the capillary threads.

12 REPORT—1846.

zontal position. Are those flashes as scarce as it is generally believed? Are they pro-
duced by a particular state of humidity which makes the state of the air better
conductors in many given directions simultaneously than in others? This I am not
able to decide; but I think that the quantity of rain which happens to fall during a
thunder-storm has a great influence upon the falling of the electric fluid. Indeed, in
a recent instance, a thunderbolt fell in a low part of a vintage near Lausanne,
burning all the stems on an area of more than eighty feet square, during a shower of
the most tremendous character, and without being attracted by more elevated con-
ductors which were at a short distance; and, on the contrary, two years ago, during
a storm which was accompanied by no rain, the thunder fell on a neighbouring situa-
tion, and burned by ricochets, stems here and there, upon a surface of more than
four acres.

Dr. Lee presented the following tables to the Section :—

1. Meteorological Observations for the year 1845, made by J. R. Crowe, Esq., the
British Consul-General of Norway, residing at Christiana. These tables are a con-
tinuation of others made in 18438, and presented to the British Association at York,
and of similar tables made in 1844, and presented to the Association at Cambridge,
and which are noticed in the volume of the Proceedings for 1545, at page 19 of the
abstracts of communications to the Section of Mathematics and Physics. They con-
sist of observations of the barometer and thermometer, and of the direction of the
wind, made on nearly every day in the year 1845, at the hours—7 a.m., 9 a.M., 2P.M.,
4 p.m., and 10 p.m., with the means of each column for each month, and the mean tem-
perature of each month. The depth of snow is given for the months of January,
February and March, in cubic inches; and the quantity of rain in cubic inches for each
of the other months of the year.

2. Meteorological Observations made at Alten in West Finmark, at the Kaafjord
Meteorological Observatory, in the years 1844 and 1845, by J. F. Cole, Esq. and
J. H. Grewe, Esq., of the Alten Mining Company. These tables are a continuation
of others for the year 1848, presented to the British Association at York, and which
have been deemed worthy of notice by Colonel Sabine, who has referred to them in
a note on his paper on the Meteorology of Bombay, at p. 80 of the Report of the Pro-
ceedings at Cambridge, in the volume published in 1845. These tables contain the
height of the barometer and thermometer, in shade, at 9 a.m., 3 p.M., and 9 P.M., with
the maxima and minima of the thermometer at 3 p.m.; the quantity of rain or melted
snow; the force and direction of the wind, and of the clouds, and the description of
clouds, and the proportion of clear sky at the same hours. To which are added,
tables of the half-hourly results of all the above observations on the 21st and 22nd of
each month in the year.

3. Observations on the Aurora Borealis during the year 1845, made at the Kaaf-
jord Meteorological Observatory at the Alten Copper Works, by J. F. Cole, Esq. and
J. H. Grewe, Esq. These tables contain observations upon the position and the
degree of intensity, and the forms of the aurora, which have been made by these zeal-
ous amateurs of meteorology during the months of January, February, March and
April, September, October, November and December; no observations being practi-
cable during the summer months, on account of the brighiness of the daylight during
this portion of the year.

On a New Anemometer. By Dr. BAnks.

The instrument is worked by a vane supported on a hollow wooden shaft about
two inches diameter and three feet long, whose upper end is supported by slight
friction rollers, and the bottom rests on a steel point.

Each of two levers holds a pencil, one for the direction of the wind, working
in a spiral of three turns, which by a very simple contrivance returns to its position
if the wind moves round the compass with frequency. The other lever is acted upon
by the force-board attached to the vane, and which, in its retirement from an in-
creasing wind, raises a series of weights together with a disc, upon which, by a roller,
the lever rests. ‘The instrument is about 24 feet long by 2 feet high, exclusive of the
vane, which is attached to a tin tube of length according to circumstances.

EFS

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TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 13

Meteorological Observations. By Capt. W. W. CHILDERS.
Taste A.—Meteorological Observations, Saint Helier, Jersey, deduced from Hourly
Observations taken by William Walbanke Childers, late Captain in the 42nd Royal
Highlanders, assisted by Mr. John B. Le Roy, Optician; from the Mean of four
barometers and three thermometers. The extremes noted by a perpendicular Self-
Registering Thermometer eighty-five feet above the mean level of the sea. Soil
gravelly clay. Latitude 49° 11’ N., Longitude 2°06’ W.

Height of Thermometer Daily prevailing Wind. Barometer.

2 &
Joie] lel-ldi@] og | 4 : g
Jel JEL IE > = 2
silulalalelejeleia| 2 | g@ | 38 | 4
inches. inches.| inches.| inches,
52|50/49/48)45| 4¢ g| 2] 4| 5] 3\..}..| 2] 30 | 29°65 | 30°15 | 28°30 | 29°40
39|41)40139|39|36) 39°0|49|24| 36°5| 4}15| 4] 5)..]..)..]..|..| 3] 31 | 29°65 | 30°05 | 28°65 | 29°35
42|44)49/41/41|39] 41°5|/49|32] 40°5| 3] 3] 3) 5] 1} 7] 3] 3] 1) 2] 31 | 20°55 | 30°00 | 98°60 | 29°30
38]41/38/38/38/35| 38°5|49|26] 37°5| 2/19] 1] 2! 1] Q)..| 4] 2| 2) 28 | 29°60 | 30°25 | 29°35 | 29-80
39]42)39|38/36/35| 38°0|55|25] 40°0| 5]12]..|..| 2] 3] 2} 1) 5) 1) 31 | 29°65 | 30°35 | 29°05 | 29°70
46}44| 49°0}65|39] 52°0| 1|12/..] 4!..] 4] 4) 3] 2)..) 30 | 20°45 | 29°90 | 28°65 | 29°95
49|46| 51°7|70/41| 56°0) 5} 6)..) 1] 1} 4] 2} 8] 4)..}) 31 | 29°70 | 30°30 | 29°25 | 29°75
56/54] 60°0|77/40| 58°5) 2) 6} 1) 2) 1] 4] 8} 5] 1)..] 30 | 29°90 | 30°45 | 29°30 | 29:90
57|55| 61°0/79|48} 63°5)..}..| 6) 5]..|10) 4} 4] 2)..} 31 | 29°70 | 29°90 | 29°30 | 29°60
58|56/54| 59°5|69|43| 56°0) 3] 2) 1) 2)..| 4/11} 8). 31 | 29°70 | 30°20 | 28-90 | 29°55
56/55/53] 58°0|72/44] 58°0)..|11) 1) 2]..| 8} 5} 2} 1)..) 30 | 29°60 | 30°00 | 29:00 | 29:50
55|58/54/52/51|40| 53°5/68/41| 54°5| 2] 6] 1| 7) 1] 3) 5} 3) 1] 2] 31 | 29°90 | 30°35 | 29°05 | 29°70
51/54151/49|48)45| 50°0|79|24| 51°5/31187/26|37/11|54|47/41\19]12|365 | 29°65 | 30°45 | 28°30 | 29°35
50)54/51/49|48/46} 49°5/58/37] 47°5). .
'46)40147|46)45/43] 46°0|56)31]43°5) 1) 1|..

45]49]45|45|44/43] 45'0/54|32/ 43°0|..
46/48]46/45]44)43) 45°0/57|31| 44°0} 2) 5
'46|50|47/45144|42! 45°5|54|/32/ 43'0) 2) 3}..
50/53/51/48/47|44) 49°0/59/34) 46°5| 2) 5

Taste B.—Meteorological Observations, Saint Helier, Jersey, taken by Captain
William Walbanke Childers, for the year 1846, with a Comparative Table ot’ the
difference in Temperature between that place and the Horticultural Gardens at
Chiswick, as reported in the Gardeners’ Chronicle. St. Helier, 49° 11! N. Chis-
wick Gardens, 51° 20'N.

Comparative Table.

‘Thermometrical Observations. Direction of Wind. a eee eee

fey Difference between

Ghiswicie | Tesey as Ohlawitie

23 Sper e lh Sis
23) ¢ 3 : glsis] ¢|/ $$] 8] 4
ololslalulel & eel 2 |e lSielai.. JE) 3/4) S)el2] 3] S| 2) 8
4] 4 EA] & 14) a) ala Elazlelol a |e/S] S| Be] a] 4

1846. |o}ololololol o

Jan, |45/49/45/45/44/43 45-0|5al32 43:0)... al vAe 5] 1 5| 31 {56/21 44-3|— 21401 +07
Feb. |46/48/46)45/44/43) 45°0/57/31| 44°0/ 2] 5) 1) 8]. 3) 5 1} 28 |64/24| 40°2!|— 7/+ 8] +4'8
Mar, |46/50|47/45|44/49] 45°5/54|32/ 43°0/ 2] 3}..| 7]... peyl3 31 (62/20] 43'°4)— 8}-+12) +2°1
Apr. {50 salsilssla7|44 49°0|59|34| 46°5| 2 |. 5]..] 9}... 217 30 |65/29|47°8) G/+ 5) +12
May { Giga ere ae a 13] 2} 5]. 2] 1 31 |g1/34] 52°3

June 68|73\70|68|65 63 68°0)80]57} 68°5]..|15)..] 2).. ++|--| 2} 1] 30 93/43] 70°0}—13/+14] —2°0 |.
July |66)69|68|65)\62'59) 65°0/81\49| 65°0}..|..) 4) 5).. 3}... | 2)..| 31 |92/44) 66°4)—11/4+ 5} —1°4
Aug, 65\6a\66\63|61150 63°8/79] 2] 65°5|..| 8} 1] 1] 1 1} 6} 2] 1] 31 (92/44) 61°6}—13/+ 8] +22
Sept. |63/67/64/61 sols8 62°0|74|50} 620}, . |16]..} 1).. 4} 1) 3} 2} 30 |78)40| 60°0}— 4)+10| +2°0
Oct, {54}57|55/53/52/50) 53°8/64/41) 52°5}..} 4/ 1] 2) 1 6] 3} 4] 1] 31 |67\29] 49°5|— 3)+12| +3°0
Noy. |47/49|48)46/46/44] 46'3/61/31| 46°0}..|10] 1] 7) 1 1} 1] 1} 30 |61/16| 39°4)+ 0)/+15] +8°0
Dec. |31/49/39/38|38/35] 38°5/50)25 |37°5| 1116)..|..|.. 1] 7} 1)..{ 31 44/11] 31°0)+ 6]+14) +6°5
Aver. |53|57|55)52/51/49| 53'0/61/25 |52°5| 7/95/10|54| 3/107 |27|35\15|13/365 g3\11| 51°6|—19|-+14 +1'0

14 REPORT—1846.

From the above comparative table, it appears that Jersey, although within a comparative
short distance of London; enjoys a far more equable temperature, neither undergoing so great
a degree of heat nor exposed to so extreme cold. This ina great measure arises from its
position, and the great rise and fall of the tide, upwards of forty feet between the levels at
high and low water, spring tides and the nature of its soil; a rich loomy clay with gravelly
subsoil. In June and July, for instance, the temperature in London reached 93°, in Jersey only
81°; whereas in December the thermometer in London fell to 11°, in Jersey no lower than 25°.
Jersey is a very moist climate, §.W. winds having prevailed: 107 days during the year, and
the quantity of rain fallen being nearly double that at Chiswick.

Taste C.—Meteorological Observations, Saint Helier, Jersey, for the year 1844,
commencing in November 1843, before taking the Observations hourly, by Captain
Childers.

Direction of Wind.

5 GI Pe a) Ss Oe Sains hae PE er a nee Se rar ee eee ee ee
Thermometrical Observations.

|e

9)2}5]s\n a
1843, }o}/olOlolojola jolo|lo inches.| inches.| inches.| inches.
Noy. |48|52|49]48)47|44| 48+4]58|29) 43°5}..| 5] 1] 2] 1] 8) 3) 4) 6|..| 30 | 99-40] 30°10 | 28°80 | 29°45
Dec. |46/49|47]46,45/43| 45°5|53/39) 42°5|..| 5] 2} 6|..| 4] 1] 4) 3] 6) 31 | 30°10] 30°30 39°80 30°05
ood 145}47|46|46145/41| 45°0|54/31| 42°5| 3] 9] 1] 3|..} 4] 1] 8) 1] 1} 31 | 29°00 | 30°00 | 28°70 | 20°35
Feb. |42/44/42/4)/41/38] 41°5|52/26) 39°0| 3) 6j..] 1] 1) 5) 6) 5) 2}..| 29 | 29:00 | 29°65 28°15 28°90
- |Mar, |46}49/47|45/44/40| 45°3/62/26] 44-0] 1} 6) 5] 2] 2) 5) 4! 6)..]..| 31 | 99°95 | 30°10 98°50 29°30
April |54]59}56)51/48/44] 51°7|75|36) 55°5| 4/11) 3] 1) 2) 2) 3) 2) 1) 1) 30 | 99°70 | 30°15 29°10 29°60
May. |54|57/55|52)49}45| 52°5|67\40| 53°5| 6/20] 1)..}..|--|..| 3) 1]..] 31 | 29°60 | 29°95 | 29°30 | 29°65

June |59|62|61|59/57/53] 58°3/71/46] 58°5|..| 3] 4] 1] 1/14] 4) 1) 2)..) 30

July |63|67\66 63160 57| 62-6\e7\5a| 70-0] 1) 5| 2] 5| 1| 6| 5| 5| 1|..| a1 | Observations not to be de-
‘Aug. |62\67|64/61|59|55] 61-3|76|51| 63°5| 4| 5) 3]..| 1] 6] 5) 3) 4)..| 31 pendetupin, Wea
Sept. |63168167|64\62|57| 63-s|79\50| 64-s| 5{12| 6 2|..| 2|..| 2 1}..| 30 |/y taken during my absence,
Oct. |56)59/57|55|54/51| 55°2/65/40| 52°5] 1) 5; 2} 3) 6) 8) 1) 4)..] 1] 31 | 29°10 | 20°85 | 28°25 | 29°05
Aver. |53/57|55/53/51|47| 52°6/87/26) 54°7/28/92/30/26)15|64 33/47/22 9/366 sie 28°15 | 29°40

Taste D.—Comparative Temperature Table for the years 1843, 1844, 1845. and
1846, taken by Captain Childers at St. Helier, Jersey, Latitude 49° 11’ N.

1843. 1844, 1845. 1846,
a ie 2 3 a|¢ zs] ¢ :
o o =| o — | . o 3S | 5 o 2 os
BIE E/ 81 S| EF) #1) 8 [Sl El a] EL Sl Ears
gixlal|<] & 8 a 4 j|/m)/A} a 4 - | | apes 4
° ° °

March} 60) 32] 46°0)42°0) 62 26 44°0|} 45°3| 55} 25) 40°0| 38°0; 54] 32) 43°0] 45°
April | 58] 37)47*5|}49°0) 7 36 55'5| 51°7| 65) 39] 52°0| 49°0| 59] 34) 465} 49°0

June 68} 48)58°0|60°0| 71 46 58'5| 58°3| 77) 40} 60°0| 60°0| go} 57| 68°5| 68°0
July 74| 56) 65:0) 63°0| 987 53 70°0| 62°5| 79| 48] 63°5| 61°0| 81} 49] 65:0] 65°0
Aug. 81} 60) 70°5| 660} 76 51 63°5| 61:3| 69| 43) 56°%0| 50°5| 79| 52) 65°5| 63'8
Sept. | 79} 47) 63°0| 65-0) 7 50 64°0| 63:5] 72| 44| 580| 58°0| 74] 50) 62°0| 62°0
Oct. 70| 30\ 50:0] 56°0) 69 40 52°5| 55°2| 68] 41) 54°5| 53°5| 64) 41] 52°5} 53°8
Nov. 58| 29) 43°5|}48'5| 59 32 45°5| 48'7| 58] 37| 47°5} 49°5| 61] 31) 46:0) 46:3
Dec. 53} 32) 43°5} 45°5| 49 24 36°5| 3970] 56) 31) 43:5] 46°0| 50) 25) 37°5) 38'S
Ayer. | 65] 40 38 0| 52'°3 52'7

Differ.|- 1|+ 1

i
be
ie
f
We
tm
a

=<

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 15

Taste D. (continued).

REMARKS.

B)el|.:
=| &| &| 8 | Hottest day, 23rd July 1944. Ther. 879,
Hi] Al =| < | Coldest day, 5th March 1845, Ther. 25°,
i heal Ue 2. . HOTTEST MONTHS.
Sie August 1843...... 66°
Feb. |52'2|28°2/41'0/40°0 September 1844 .. a
58'0|290 149"2 |49° July 1845 ........ 1
eset i anal June 1846........ 68
April 64°5 |36°5 |50°0 |46°5
May |69°0|410|53"0 [520 COLDEST MONTHS,
+0 140°0 |61°0 |62* February 1843.... 37°
“he vaiee Verb tae Hitete December 1844 .. 39
July |78°0|51°5|64"0 |63°0 March 1845 ...... 38
Aug. |76:0/52*5 |63°5 |63-0 February 1846.... 45
. |76°0|47°0/61'0 \62°
Ga ae Bar Hottest year ..........05 1846,
pete 68°0 |37°0 |53°0 |65°0 Coldest year .......+...5 1845.
| ° “0 |33°0 |45° ‘
Pays (678 a id 52° Average Mean Temperature. May 1843,
Dec. |63°0 |31°0 |42°0}44°0) April and May 1844, and May 1845, repre-
——|——|—|-_ | sent the Mean Temperature,

Aver. |64°0|39°0 |52°0 |52°0

Taste E.

From a series of observations, commenced in 1826 and continued to the present
period, it is observed that the most rain falls in November, the least quantity in April.
The ratio of the year is as follows :—

November, July, September, October, December, January Rainy months,
August, February, March, June, May, April ..... seseeeseee Dry months.

The observations which complete the record for 1846, have been forwarded by the
Author since the Meeting.

Notices of a Halo, Paraselene and Aurore Boreales. By the Rev. T. RANKIN.

The halo occurred on Sunday, October 12, 1845, at 5 p.m., at Huggate in York-
shire; it formed a portion of an ellipse above the sun, which was in a focus of the con-
jugate diameter of the ellipse. The inner part of the are was most luminous.

In the evening of the same day occurred a paraselene, from 7 to 10 p.m.; its dia-
meter was about 20°, and the inner part of the arc was most luminous.

On the evening of October 6, 1837, January 3, 1840, and August 29, 1845, aurorz
were noticed at Huggate.

Method of Measuring the Height of Clouds.
By the Rev. W. Wuewe 1, D.D., F.R.S.

I do not know whether it has been observed how easily the height of clouds ma
be measured when the reflexion of them can be seen in a lake from a station above it.
In that case the angle of elevation above the horizontal plane for any selected point
of a cloud is not equal to the angle of depression of the image ; for the latter angle is
the angle of elevation of the cloud at the point of the take where reflexion takes place,
and is therefore greater than the former. The difference of these two angles gives us
the means of finding the height of the cloud. If « be the angle of depression of the
image of the cloud-point, 6 the angle of elevation, and h the vertical height of the
station of observation above the level of the lake, it is easily shown by trigonometry
that the height of the cloud above the level of the lake is

h sin (w + #)

sin(« —#)
The angles « and 3 may be measured by any contrivance for measuring elevations
and depressions; for instance, a graduated quadrant with a plumb-line, or hanging
alidade, and plain sights. No great accuracy is attainable or is needed in this inquiry
Hence a table of double entry (there being two elements, « and @) would be a conve-

16 REPORT—1846.,

nient mode of determining the multiplier of %. But the multiplier varies rapidly
with variations of « — 6; more slowly with variations of « + 6. Hence it would be
convenient that a table should be arranged for small intervals of « —@ (say 1°, or be-
low 1° to 15!), while larger intervals for « might suffice, as 5°. Hence this might be
the form of the Table (or rather these the numbers to be calculated :—

And for intermediate values, the multipliers would be given by interpolation. But since
the result depends so much upon the value of « — 8, it would be desirable to observe «— 6
directly, rather than by taking the difference of two observations. This may be done
thus: take a dark cup full of water, and place it so that the surface of the water in it
is seen at the cloud-point reflected in the lake. Also place it so that the boundary of
the water in the cup when it falls upon the cloud-speck is in the vertical plane passing
through the speck. Then the horizontal edge of the cloud-speck, seen in the lake andin
the water-cup, will be dislocated, and the amount of dislocation subtends the anglea—f
at the eye. Hence a— may be measured directly on the limb of the quadrant; or a
micrometer affixed to the alidade of the quadrant for the purpose of measuring 2—8
may easily be devised. The same formula and process may obviously be applied to
measure the height of a mountain when h is known. If the height of the mountain
be known, # may be deduced by the same formula. Without knowing 4, the formula
will serve for comparing the height of a cloud with that of a mountain, when both can
be seen in the lake. The arc a— will usually be very small, and will vary as its
sine ; and in this case a+ will be 2« nearly. Hence, in comparing clouds and moun-
sin2 «
a— p
seen very near the mountain top are inversely as the dislocations in reflexion. If the
mountain image be dislocated three times as much.as the cloud-image, the cloud is
three times as high as the mountain. If the altitude be different—for example, if the
mountain be 15° and the cloud 45° elevated, and the dislocation still as 8 and 1, the
height of the cloud is six times the height of the mountain (for, sin 2x 15°=%,
sin2x45°=1). The same is the case of different strata of clouds. When seen in
the same quarter, their heights are inversely as the dislocation of their images.—N.B.
Perhaps a piece of glass ruled with parallel equidistant lines held at a given distance
from the eye would be a good way of comparing dislocations of images.

tains, their height will be as Hence the heights of a mountain and of a cloud

On the Force of Vapour. By Captain SHorTREDE.

The author adopts the experiments of the French Academy at high temperatures,
and those of Magnus at low temperatures, as being the most carefully performed
and the most extensive of all yet available. In the Academy’s experiments, the in-
dications of the smaller thermometer in the steam are preferred to those of the larger
thermometer in the water; because the temperature of the water increases with its
depth, and always exceeds that of steam formed at its surface, besides the heat
which may be necessary to overcome the cohesion of water in passing into vapour.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 17

It is probable, also, that the temperature of the steam in the manometer was, from
exposure to the air, less than that of the steam in the boiler, so that the small ther-
mometer may be expected to give the temperature too high rather than too low.

An Account of an Atmospheric Recorder. By G. Dotionp, F.R.S.

It having appeared to be desirable at the last meeting of the British Association
that a correct self-registering apparatus should be constructed, by which the various
changes of the atmosphere should be recorded upon paper, in such manner that they
might be referred to at a future period, I have the pleasure to describe an apparatus
which records the indications of the following eight instruments, viz. the barometer,
the thermometer, the hygrometer, the electrometer, the pluviometer, the evaporator,
the force-board, and the anemometer, in relation to time. I have found it answer the
purpose for which it was intended, in every way satisfactorily, 1st. The barometer
registers the change which takes place in the weight of the atmosphere at every half-
hour, and the line may be traced from one point to the next without any difficulty.
2nd. The thermometer registers the various changes from cold in the night or morn-
ing, to the greatest heat in the afternoon, continuously. 3rd. The hygrometer is
adjusted to show the changes from dryness to extreme saturation of moisture to every
hundredth of the scale, and is extremely steady in action, 4th. The electrometer is
acted upon by a conductor, and registers each flash of lightning which comes within
the range of the conductor, 5th. The pluviometer registers the drops of rain which
fall upon the surface of the receiver, and shows the continuation of the falling quan-
tity until an inch is received; this is then discharged and the process recommences
for another inch, and so on continually. 6th. The evaporator is so constructed as to
retain a quantity of water with the surface exposed, and so guarded that rain cannot
enter into the vessel. The surface gradually evaporates, as shown by a diagonal line
upon the paper until an inch is evaporated, when a discharge takes place and another
line commences. 7th, The force or power of the wind acts upon a board one foot
square, whose movement is registered in pounds and ounces avoirdupois, from one
ounce to thirty pounds. 8th. The direction of the wind is shown in circles, which
immediately upon inspection show the direction of the course or change which has
taken place, for instance, if it has passed through the south or the north, from east to
west, and the point from which it started and that to which it returned. All these
eight varieties have their scales about half an inch from the marking-points, and can
be very easily read or referred to. There are markers on each edge of the paper for
time, the paper being carried forward by a clock.

Mr. Dollond gave an account of the storm, as shown by this instrument, at Cam-
berwell on the 1st day of August 1846, during his absence :—

The barometer changed from............... 30°03 inches to 29°82 inches,
The thermometer FFOM.......000002s+- 69° to 98°
during the day, or twenty-four hours.

The hygrometer ranged from 39° to 80° of moisture.

At two o'clock the electrometer was affected by the lightning, and registered fifteen
discharges or flashes in one hour.

At 35 23! the rain commenced falling, and in two minutes the pluviometer dis-
charged an inch, which had previously stood at 11°90 for several days. At 4° 3!
"another inch was registered, and at 55 25!’ a third inch was marked upon the regis-
tering paper ; and so tremendous was the fall of rain and hail, that at 5% 35! a fourth
inch was marked upon the paper, making on the whole 3°12 inches in 25 17’.

The force of the wind was equal to one pound four ounces, and the direction
changed from east to west, through the south at 3" 20'.

On the Construction of a Self-registering Barometer, Thermometer, and
Psychrometer. By C. Brooxe, MB.

"Mr. Brooke remarked that he had been induced by the want of efficient means of
automatic registration of the variation of meteorological instruments, and especially
of magnetometers, which was so generally expressed at the last meeting of the British

—«*1846. c

18 ‘ REPORT—1846.

Association at Cambridge, to bestow some attention to the subject, and was enabled
to report to the meeting that he had succeeded in devising a method of continuous
registration with as much accuracy as the purposes of science require.

Various mechanical means have been proposed for the registration of all meteoro-
logical instruments except the magnetometers ; but the amount of magnetic force is
so small, that the variations of its intensity and direction are incapable of actuating
any mechanism, and therefore can only be expected to be recorded by the aid of
photography ; and by these means the proposed object had been accomplished: as
however a detailed description of the apparatus by which magnetic variations have
been registered is already in the hands of the Royal Society, Mr. Brooke did not con-
sider himself authorized to enter into a description of it, further than is necessary to
explain those modifications of the apparatus which formed the subject of the present
communication. A piece of prepared photographic paper is placed between two con-
centric cylindrical glass surfaces, which are carried round their common axis, placed
horizontally, by the hour-hand of a time-piece movement. The paper consequently
passes vertically behind a horizontal slit in a case of suitable form in which the
cylinders are enclosed to protect the prepared paper from the influence of diffused
light. A cylindrical refractor, the axes of whose surfaces are parallel to the slit, is
placed in front of the slit, and at such a distance from it that the rays of light falling
on it may be refracted to a focus on the paper. In the case of the magnet, a sphe-
rical concave reflector is attached to a stem by which the magnet is suspended, and a
camphine lamp having a vertical narrow slit in the chimney is placed at such a dis-
tance from it that an image of the slit may be formed at the distance of the paper ;
a portion of the image is condensed vertically by the cylindrical refractor, and im-
presses the photographic paper. Some registers obtained by this apparatus were
exhibited to the Section, from which the position of the declination magnet might be
determined by a scale with a probable error not exceeding 10", and in some, not ex-
ceeding 5".

In obtaining the register of the barometer, a lamp is placed in front of the appa-
ratus, and a screen with a narrow vertical slit attached to the end of the long vertical
arm of a lever is interposed between the refractor and the horizontal slit before de-
scribed. This lever is balanced, anda short horizontal arm rests on a float supported
by the mercury in the shorter tube of a siphon barometer; the lengths of the arms of
the lever having been taken as 10 to 1, the variation of the height of the column will
be magnified 5 times, and the light passing through the point at which the two slits
cross, will trace out a line sufficiently distinct to indicate the height of the barometer
at any period to the =4,th of an inch.

The registration of the thermometer and psychrometer was obtained by interposing
the stem of these instruments with a flat bore, wide enough to exclude the light, be-
tween the slit and the refractor ; as however this expedient is not new, it need not be
more particularly described; the only novelty in Mr. Brooke’s apparatus was in
placing the stems of the two instruments on opposite sides of the cylinder, so as to
obtain a register of both on the same paper, and in making the bulbs long narrow
cylinders instead of spheres, in order to increase the surface and consequently the sus-
ceptibility of changes of temperature. By having each degree about 3th of an inch
long, the temperatures may be obtained at any time to jth or oth of a degree.

Table of the Fall of Rain in the Lake Districts of Cumberland and West-
moreland, &e. in the Year 1845. By J. F. M1Luer.

The writer exhibited a series of registers in a tabular form, from which it resulted
that at Seathwaite there have been 31 days in which the fall was between 1 and 2
inches, five days between 3 and 4 inches, one day between 4 and 5 inches, and one
day between 6 and 7 inches. ;

On the 27th of November, 1845, there was measured at Seathwaite 6:62 inches,
and on the 26th and 27th nearly 10 inches, being the greatest quantity of rain which
has ever been measured in the same period in Great Britain. At Langdale Head in
Westmoreland, the fall on the 27th was 6:28 inches, and on the 26th and 27th nearly
9 inches.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ‘SECTIONS, 19

The consequence was the heaviest flood which had occurred at these places for at
least sixty years past.

Windermere Lake had not been so high for the last fifteen years; on the night be-
tween the 26th and 27th it rose 2 feet in perpendicular height; the quays along the
banks of the lake were immersed in water, and much wood was carried away by the
current and lost. Keswick Lake had not been so high since November 30th, 1838.

Of the total quantity of rain, measured in the vale of Borrowdale in 1845, 106-58
inches fell in the months of January, March, August, October, November and De-
cember; and nearly 46 inches in the two latter months.

Such was the violence of the storm on the night of the 28th of December in the
lake districts, that a number of fish were found next day on the margin of Bassen-
thwaite Lake, which had been thrown up by the waves in the course of the night by the
force of the wind,—a circumstance wholly without a parallel, except on the night of the
memorable 6th of January, 1839. The rain which fell in the preceding twenty-four
hours amounted to 4:22 inches; at Whitehaven the quantity was °323, or nearly one-
third of an inch.

Through the kindness of various gentlemen I am enabled to add returns of the rain
in 1845, from several places throughout Great Britain, by way of comparison with the
quantities measured in the lake districts.

inches.
Allenheads, Northumberland ......ssseeeseseesseeerseee S6'411
Kendal, Westmoreland ............. See daae seereveee 00'S46
Cartmel, ditto.....++.s+.- ar eeaadnae's Seba ita cla aes tad sala 3 53°665
Rampside, ditto ...ssescseeeeeeseeees Rae ete tale vaciae’d 40-289
Tivil, ditto ...ssecccceceees aeiaaesene errors Soaenitsbdalels eee 40°000
Bolton-le~Moors......+++ seaawevaadeus Sacekgevan waa deeoenae 48:110
Carlisle, Cumberland..........s.+0+ Bi scala ca tiorsta S08 hea ees. 31°280
Brougham Hall, ditto .....ssesseeseeeee iia Wan aheaawenuas 35:000
Manchester...... seh geste eas arial site aah eats tea socevece: 44°415
Doncaster. .........000s pita usledha tists bydeicpangene he vaunres 29198
Highfield House, Nottinghamshire ......... Sunde neice va 29°595
Girencesten)sdo.cassccony ccsernasenadatedeasaace NM ieevadaesatali 251 OO
Leeds ........ Settee desadess ius dane sundae aa esscarpeederene 25°586
North Shields............ i sear da lea Sane pW iedvavadcemaese 26:200
Culloden, Inverness, N.B....... de Migtet od: ub ivideadvess < 27°632
Applegarth Manse near Lockerby, N.B. .......c2c00e . 30°32
Arbroath, Co. Angus, N.B. ......s0esee0 eis gees Maas 28-211
Liverpool ........4+ Aree arch ac cotener er core apie Rearherrree 34:06
*)| pStratton, Cornwalhi.icsdelevcidesaccvacsane Me Weces aware 40°89
Uckfield, Sussex........se000+ Betis atin caieny cacteitscsaeatas 25:08
Empingham, Rutlandshire ...........secsesesscseeeneees 24°61
Helston, Cornwall ............:sceeecessseeeeees bce ceases goeSD
Kelso, Roxburghshire, N.B.......... BS Sod caeeteseet 24°42
Makerstoun, near Kelso ......sceccscancesseceenscnsenses 21:27

The fall at Seathwaite is more than 3 times the quantity measured at Whitehaven,
one of the wettest éowns in the kingdom. It exceeds the fall at Leeds by 6 times; at
_ Culloden by 53 times; at Doncaster and Highfield House, N ottinghamshire, by 5 times;
__ at Cirencester and Arbroath by 54 times; and at Makerstoun near Kelso, the seat of
Sir Thomas Brisbane, Bart., by more than 7 times.

Seathwaite exceeds Doncaster, in January, by 15 times ; in November by 21 times ;
and in December by 9 times. It exceeds the quantity at York, in January, by 16
inches, or 20 times; in March by 9 times; and in November by 20 times. It ex-
ceeded Dublin, in March, by 14 times; in April by 13 times; in October by 5 times;
and in November by 7 times.

The quantity measured at Seathwaite and Langdale Head, in the month of De-

_ eember (24-02), is more than falls at some places in Great Britain during a year.
_ Mr, Miller said, “ It is much to be regretted. that the meteorology of our lake and
- mountain districts should have been so long neglected. Prior to the establishment
of these gauges, there were none stationed in the lake district of Cumberland, and, so
_ far as I am aware, only two among the lakes of Westmoreland, viz. one at Esthwaite
. c2

20 REPORT—1846,

Lodge, and the other at Grasmere; and the largest quantities measured in any year
were 86 inches, and 90 inches respectively. And so startling did these results appear
to meteorologists, when first made known, that many were led either to doubt their
authenticity, or to suspect the accuracy of the instruments employed.

“ But subsequent investigation shows that these values are exhibited in some por-
tions of the lake district of Cumberland only in the very driest years. Thus, in the
period from July 1844 to June 1845 (which for drought has only found a parallel in
the memorable 1826), the fall at Gatesgarth and Wastdale Head amounted to 83°96
and 88°42 respectively, and at Grasmere in Westmoreland to 74 inches nearly. But we
suspect that meteorologists will hardly be prepared for the discovery, that we have
localities in our own country, which, even in average years, exceed the amount of rain
annually deposited in many tropical climates; yet such is the almost incredible fact.
At Grenada, lat.12°5', the average fall is 126 inches; at St. Domingo, lat. 18° 20’, it is
120 inches; and at Calcutta, in lat. 22° 35’, it is 81 inches. In the past year the
quantity measured in the vale of Borrowdale exceeds the largest of these amounts by
25°87 inches. An inspection of a map of the country in connection with the table
will show, that the wettest portions of the lake district are those situated at the head
or eastern extremity of those valleys formed by our highest mountain ridges, amongst
which are the Great Gabel, Sca Fell, Glaramara, Red Pike and Honister; the first
being apparently the grand central point of attraction and condensation for the warm
vapour atriving in a south-westerly current across the Atlantic; and it is a remark-
able coincidence that nearly all our lakes bear in the direction of Gabel, so that if ex-
tended onward in a direct line, they would all converge at the base of this noble
mountain.

“‘ Immense as is the deposit of rain at Gatesgarth, Grasmere, Wastdale, and in other
portions of the lake district, even these enormous quantities sink into comparative in-
significance when compared with the fall at Seathwaite, a small hamlet at the head of
the vale of Borrowdale, which exceeds the wettest of the other localities by 27°74 inches,
or by one-fourth nearly. Now it is chiefly the deposit in the vale of Borrowdale which
supplies the majestic river Derwent and the extensive and picturesque lakes of Der-
went and Bassenthwaite, so that we might @ priori have expected to find the greatest
amount of rain in this section of the district.

“ The great difference in the fall between places closely contiguous to each other is
very remarkable: the proportion which obtains between Ennerdale lake, and a farm-
house about 11 mile distant, is as 2 to 1 nearly. x

“« Loweswater, Buttermere and Gatesgarth are all in the same line of valley, sur-
rounded by the same ridges of mountains, and are each distant about 2 miles from the
other. Buttermere exceeds Loweswater by 18 inches or one-fourth; but Gatesgarth,
at the head of the valley, exceeds Buttermere by 36°65 inches, or nearly one-half. Here
the difference between the head and foot of the valley, in a distance of 4 or 5 miles, is
54°588 inches.

“ But the great increase in the fall towards the head of the valleys is appreciable at
much more limited distances. At Wastdale Head I have two gauges of precisely the
same size and shape, and within a quarter of a mile of each other, yet the difference
of the receipts in a single month sometimes amounts to half an inch.

“ The annexed statement will show that the excess is always in favour of the higher
gauge marked No, 1.

1845. No. 1. No, 2. Diff.

October ......| 12°35 | 11-89 | -46
November ...| 12°31 11:90 “41
December ...| 16°18 15°78 40

1846.
January ...... 12°97 12°47 50
February ...| 6°60 658 | :02
March ...... 10°35 10:07 28
April ....... | 659 | 616 | -43

May sec] 3°65 3:44 | -21

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 21

“ The current of vapour is apparently only partially decomposed in passing over a
flat or even an undulating country; it aims at once for the loftiest heights, passing
over the less hilly districts with little diminution of its original weight or volume. But
on reaching the mountain peaks, the sudden change of temperature causes a rapid and
continuous condensation in the form of vast torrents of rain, whilst comparatively
little descends on the adjacent plains.

“« As an instance of the low temperature on our mountain tops, I may mention that
on making the ascent of Skiddaw, on the 5th of September last year, the thermometer
on the summit, at noon, stood at 41°; sky overcast, the sun gleaming out at intervals.
The temperature of a strong spring, about 2 miles from the summit, was also 41°.
The temperature of the air at the foot of the mountain, at 35 30™ p.m., was 58°.

“« Snow not unfrequently continues on Sca Fell till the middle or end of June; we
remember seeing a patch on the 15th of June, 1843; and on the neighbouring moun-
tains the air was so intensely cold that we think it could not be more than 2°or 3° above
the point of congelation. That the rapid increment in the fall of rain in approaching
mountainous districts is owing to the causes above alluded to, and not to the greater
number of wet days, is evident on an inspection of the table, where it will be found
that we have as many wet days at Whitehaven near the level of the sea; indeed it
rarely rains in the lake districts, that the day is not also wet, more or less, at the coast.

“« And in comparing the number of wet days at various places, we not unfrequently
find them to obtain in the inverse ratio to the fall of rain; thus, in 1845, they range
from 195 to 211 in the lake district; but at Manchester, with a fall of 41 inches, they
amount to 235; at Culloden, with a fall of 27 inches, to 237; but at Kendal, where
the quantity of rain is 53 inches, the wet days are only 178.

“ At Carlisle the wet days are the same as in the lake district, where the fall is four
times as much.

‘© We are informed by a gentleman recently returned from India, who was many
years medical attendant to the Rajah of Sattarah, that he seldom measured more
than 40 inches of rain in the plain, but among the hills 30 miles distant, the annual
cal reached 350 inches; and as much as 9 inches has been known to fall in 24

ours.

“ The utility and beauty of this arrangement is obvious, since the mountain torrents
afford a continuous supply of water to the lakes and rivers, which otherwise could
scarcely have an existence, The rivers thus called into being aid the efforts of the
husbandman by carrying off the superfluous moisture from the plains, which, without
such a provision, would be in danger of stagnating into pestilence.”

Readings of Mountain Gauges, June, July and August 1846.
By J. F. Mitier.

Feet above Sea. June, July. August,

inches. inches. inches,

Whitehaven * ........006 100 2°311 9-061 4:066
Scilly Banks, near ditto.. 500 27103 8626 | 3-465
Sea Fell Pike............ Fis 3166 5:000 | 14-380 7°050
Great Gable ..... a ecreded 2925 7:60 16°870 § 650
Sparkling Tarn....... ase 1900 6°55 22°730 | 12-030
Stye Head Pass ...... vee 1250 6°26 17°760 | 11:080
Valley (Wastdale)... .. oee 160 5°33 16820 | 8-960
Seatollar (Borrowdale) ... 1850 5°79 18°350 8:150
Valley (Seathwaite) ...... 300 6:29 22°125 | 10°480

In March, April and May, the higher gauges received less rain than the lower; in
June the reverse of this is the case, owing doubtless to the greater elevation of the
nimbi or rain-clouds in the warmer months, and especially when the air is highly
charged with electricity, as was the case last month.

* On the spire of St. James’s Church, eighty feet above the street, 1°680.

22 REPORT—1846.

The number of gauges in the lake districts, in addition to the above, is twelve,
most of which are read off daily.

It would appear from the average results since April last, that the amount of rain
increases from the valley upwards, to an altitude of about 2000 feet, and gradually
decreases above that elevation; thus the gauge at Sparkling Tarn (1900 feet) almost
invariably receives more than any other of the gauges; much however depends upon
the position of the mountain with respect to the prevailing wind; thus the gauge on
Seatollar (nearly the same elevation as Sparkling, but bearing nearly due north) in-
variably receives Jess rain than the valley at the end of a month; nevertheless, mea-
surements made at short intervals, when a north or north-west wind had prevailed,
show that it sometimes receives considerably more.

Fall of Rain on the Coast of Travancore and Table Land of Uitree, from Ob-
servations of M. General Cullen, Resident in Travancore. By Lt.-Colonel
Sykes, F.R.S.

At former meetings of the British Association I have had the means of submitting
to the Physical Section facts illustrative of the meteorology of portions of Western
India, particularly at great elevations, such as at Mahabuleshwur, near Sattarah,
at the height of 4500 feet above the sea, and at a distance of about 30 or 40 miles
inland. It was shown that the fall of rain in one monsoon was of the prodigious
amount of 302°21 inches, or more than 25 feet depth of water. At a similar height
at Merkara in Coorg, about 5° of latitude S. of Mahabuleshwur, and in about the
same longitude, and at 65 miles from Cananore on the coast, the mean fall of rain
for the years 1838, 1839 and 1840, was 143-35 inches. Communications from my
friend General Cullen, the British minister at the Travancore court, enable me to ex-
tend the meteorological observations, at least as far as relates to temperature and the
fall of rain, to Cape Comorin, supplying also data for a comparison of the fall of rain
on the coast and at short distances inland, at a considerable elevation. I may state
that we are indebted for the present communication from India to the stimulus oc-
casioned by the publication of the Mahabuleshwur and Merkara observations in the
volumes of the Association. General Cullen’s letter to me is dated Cochin, the 27th of
July 1845, and he states that he had been in the habit for many years past of observing
the meteorology of his location, wherever that might be, but that the pressure of his
public duties had disabled him from reducing and arranging the observations, parti-
cularly the barometrical. He had, however, been enabled to transmit to the govern-
ment of Madras, statements of the fall of rain along the western or Malabar coast of
Hindoostan, from Cape.Comorin in Travancore, lat. 8° 4!, to the town of Cochin and to
Panlghatcherry, in lat. 10° 45’, as well as at several inland stations in the provinces of
Cochin and Travancore; and in the Company’s district of Tinnevelly, on the east side
of the Ghats, for the years 1841, 1842 and 1843. These statements were accompanied
with explanations which I shall shortly notice. In the year 1841 the stations selected
in Travancore were 5; but the observations did not commence at Nagercoil, Trevan-
drum and Quilon, before the month of May; and at Allepy and Cochin in the month
of June. The stations on the east side of the Ghats were 3; at Vaurioor the obser-
vations commenced in June, at Shenkotah in July, and at Palamcottah not before
October. As the observations are not for equal periods, I shall confine myself to ob-
serving that both the Malabar and Coromandel coasts appear to have been subjected to
both monsoons, the S.W. and N.E. rain having fallen at all the stations in the months
of October, November and December, as well as in the usual S.W. monsoon months of
June to September inclusive. In the year 1842 the stations in Travancore and Cochin
were extended to 8, and the observations were for the whole vear, with the exception of
Tritchoor and Chittoor, where they did not commence until May, and at Koravantava-
lum, where they did not commence until August. At the three former stations in Tin-
nevelly the observations were for the whole year. In this year, although both mon-
soons appear to have operated upon both coasts in the months of August, September,
October and November, yet in the month of December rain only fell on two days on the
Travancore coast, and only five times at Palamcottah on the opposite coast. The same
discrepancies exist with respect to the months of January, February and March, rain
having only fallen on thirty-eight days at all the eleven stations together, on both coasts,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 23

during those three months. In the year 1843 Cape Comorin is added to the eight stations
in Travancore, and the observations at all the stations are for the whole year. AtCape
Comorin, at an elevation of fifty feet above the sea, we have the singular fact of not a
single shower having fallen in the months of February, March, April, August and No-
vember, months belonging to both monsoons; and the fall for the whole year at Cape
Comorin was only 19:2 inches. At Palamcottah, on the Coromandel side, there was
not a single fall of rain in the months of June, July, August and September, and only
1 and 3 and 1 and 4 falls respectively in the months of February and March, at all
the stations in Tinnevelly. The total fall at each station exhibits a rapid increase in
quantity, in increasing the latitude, as is shown by the annexed tabular statement.

TRAVANCORE.

Cape Comorin,| Nagercoil, | Treyandrum, Quilon, Koravantava- Allepy,
50 feet 150 feet 130 feet 30 feet lum, 300 feet 30 feet
above sea. above sea, above sea. above sea. above sea. above sea.

Ce ee ee EO

From May
only, 1841j ... | .... | 73 | 46:8 |103 | 86:07 | 124/ 94-76] ... | ... 1140) 96:8

1842)... | ... | 63 | 385°7 | 97 |57-7 |131| 81:06] tmecomplete | 168} 104:5
1843 | 32 | 19:2 | 71 | 42:6 124 85°45 | 121 |105-7 2 129-0 | 184 | 131-85

CocuHIn. TINNEVELLY.
Cochin, Tritchoor, Chittoor, Shenkotah, | Palamcottah,} Vaurioor,
20 feet 60 feet 400 feet 600 or 700 feet 200 feet 60 feet
above sea. above sea. above sea. above, sea, above sea. above sea.

From May From Oct.
28 | 3)-48)} 20 | 14:57} 29 | 18-05

only, 1841}124| 77:3

Incomplete.

Incomplete.
1842 | 119} 105-27} 129| 104-4 | 82 | 52-3 | 51 | 39:45) 71 | 23:1 | 60 | 20:27
1843 | 138 | 124-49) 115} 80-15/108} 68:6.| 68 | 48:1 | 58 | 26:9 | 66 | 25-75

It exhibits also the fact of the total fall on the Coromandel side bearing no compari-—
~ son to that on the Travancore side. or instance, at Shenkotah, at the east base of
the Ghats, sixty miles from the sea coast of Travancore, and about eighteen miles due
east of Koravantavalum on the west side of the Ghats, and forty miles from Quilon, the
fall of rain at Shenkotah was 48-1 in. in 1843, and at Koravantavalum 129 inches,
both places being at a considerable elevation. Palamcottah again is in the latitude
of Quilon, is sixty miles from the western coast, and thirty miles east of the chain of
Ghats. Here the fall of rain was 26-9 inches in 18438, while at Quilon, on the western
coast, the fall was 105-7 inches. Cape Comorin and Vaurioor are placed in the same
category, but the former is in Travancore and the latter in Tinnevelly, the latter
being only three miles N. and a little E. from the former; but the difference is 63
inches of rain in favour of Vaurioor. The next feature is the singularly limited
fall of rain at Cape Comorin and Vaurioor, both of them situated at the extremity of
the peninsula of India, and both freely expesed to the first action of both monsoons,
N.W. and S.E., and yet the amount of rain is not one-fifth the amount of that which
falls at places on the Travancore coast, a few miles N.W. Nagercoil is the next sta-
tion to Cape Comorin and comes into the same category, but it is nine miles inland,
and though so near to Cape Comorin, has a fall of rain more than double that of the
Cape. The next feature is the great and progressive increase in the fall of rain which
takes place at the respective stations as they lie north-westward from Cape Comorin,
along the western coast. Trevandrum, Quilon and Allepy, are apparently under nearly
similar physical circumstances on the coast, yet the first in 1843 had only 85 inches,
the second 105, and the last 131 inches of rain. Chittoor, which is fifty-five miles in-

94. REPORT—1846.

land E. from Quilon, and in the gorge of the great gap in the Ghats at Palghat, which
opens to the Coromandel coast of ‘Tinnevelly, and on the high road it might be said
of the aqueous vapour of both monsoons, had only 68 inches, while Allepy, on the
open coast, had 131 inches, and Cochin 124 inches. The fall is greatest on the sea
coast, diminishes at stations inland to the foot of the Ghats, but, as I shall have oc-
casion to show, increases enormously on ascending the Ghats to their plateaus or table-
lands. u

General Cullen says it is difficult to attempt explanation of the differences in the
amount of rain exhibited in his tables; but he offers some remarks on the winds and
physical structure of the country as necessarily influencing the distribution of rain.
The peninsula of India, as is known, is in a triangular form, the apex of which is Cape
Comorin. The western Ghats in maps appear to run continuously without break from
Cape Comorin to the 24 or 25° of latitude N.; but such is not the case. The land
within the apex of the triangle to Palghat, a distance of 150 miles, rises precipitously
into a table land 2000 or 3000 feet high, with peaks and masses attaining an elevation
of 5000 or 6000 feet. It has at its sides a narrow low tract of land on both coasts. In
the latitude of Palghat, this table land suddenly terminates in a chasm or gap forty
miles long by thirty miles broad, without a single hill or ridge. There are other gaps,
but of less marked character; in one of these stands Shenkotah. It might be supposed
the continual passage of aqueous vapour through these gaps would continually drench
them; but such is not the case, as the vapour passes through only partially condensed ;
for Chittoor, which is at the western gorge of the Palghat gap, has only 68 inches of
rain and Shenkotah only 48 inches; both however have rain in every month of the
year, excepting February at Chittoor, and in the month of November, at both places,
there was only one fall of rain. The paucity of rain at Palamcottah, General Cullen
attributes to the intercepting of the vapour of the western monsoon by the table lands
of Travancore. But this does not explain the paucity of rain at Cape Comorin and
Vaurioor, which are open to both monsoons; and why should they not be deluged at
least by the S.W. monsoon as well as Allepy or Cochin?

General Cullen made the observations which I have adverted to without a view to
the illustration of any particular meteorological phases or phenomena ; but observing
the publication in the annual volume of the Association of the extraordinary fall of
rain at high elevations, as at Mahabuleshwur and Merkara, he was induced to ascer-
tain whether a similar fact obtained on the high lands of Travancore. He therefore,
on the 23rd of June 1844, established a pluviometer at a spot called Uttree Mullay.
thirty miles E.N.E. of Trevandrum, at an elevation of 4600 feet above the sea
(about that of Mahabuleshwur), and continued his observations simultaneously with
others at Trevandrum and Quilon on the coast until the end of December. The fall
of rain on the table land was 164 inches, while the fall at Trevandrum and Quilon
respectively was only 36 and 363 inches. The variation of the monthly mean tem-
perature at Uttree Mullay was only from 64° to 67° Fahr., and at Trevandrum from
772° to 782° Fahr.

Temperature. Rain.
Uttree Mullay, | Trevandrum, | Uttree Mullay, | Trevandrum, Quilon,
4600 feet. 130 feet. 4600 feet. 130 feet. 30 feet.
1844, TEE A. A oe :
June 23 to 30 66 78h 73 Y3
July <..ccusccess 67 78 263 53
August.......+ 64 782 23 63
September ... 66 783 24
October ...... 66 784 41% 14
November ... 65 774 363 3}
December ... 64 78 23 3+
Total...... 653 78k 164 36

SE

SEP.

==

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 25

have been much greater; but as it is, it is sufficiently remarkable*. Above 100 inches
of the rain which fell at Uttree Mullay occurred in the months when the $.W. mon-
soon is considered to have ceased on the western or Malabar coast, and may there-
fore be said to belong to the N.E. monsoon of the Coromandel coast, There appear
to have been two occasions when the fall of rain was remarkable in twenty-four
hours. On the 10th of October there fell 9 inches, and on the 26th of November
there fell 7°35 inches; but there also fell from the 6th to the 10th of October inclu-
sive, 29°4 inches, averaging nearly 6 inches daily, or more than falls in most of the
counties in England in a twelvemonth. Iam glad to communicate the assurance of
General Cullen, that not only will he continue these interesting observations throughout
the year, but that he has also established two pluviometers in the central table land of
Travancore, which is about thirty miles across to the Coromandel side; one at Perre-
gaar at 2300 feet, and another on the eastern or Coromandel edge at an elevation of
3600 feet. General Cullen considers the area of this table land to be about 2000
square miles, much of it at an elevation of 4000 feet. He states that it is lost to
civilization, from the Travancore government drawing only cardamoms from it, and
rigorously prohibiting culture to protect their cardamom monopoly. ‘The main fea-
tures of these observations correspond with those of Mahabuleshwur and Merkara, and
testify to one of those benevolent provisions of nature which the inquirer always
meets with, of the continuous impingement of aqueous vapour upon mountain masses,
occasioning very great condensation, and furnishing the perennial sources of springs and
rivers. The apparent discrepancy of the comparatively small fall of rain at Chittoor,
situated in the midst of the great gap of Palghat, confirms this view ; for though the va-
pour is constantly driving through the gap, it does not meet with any impediment to
force it up into a much lower temperature than its own, and it is therefore only partially
condensed. The paucity of rain however at Cape Comorin and Vaurioor, both open
more or less to both monsoons, does not admit of a ready solution. If,as General Cullen
asserts, the S.W. moonsoon beats rather from the N.W. and westerly points than from
the 5.W., it eannot be said that Ceylon intercepts the vapour from Cape Comorin;
and then, why is there a fall of 131 inches and 124 inches respectively at Allepy and
Cochin on the open coast, and only 19 inches at Cape Comorin? With respect to the
N.E. monsoon, some of its vapour may be cut off from Cape Comorin by shoulders
or peaks from the table land of Travancore, and yet the whole mass of the table land
does not prevent Trevandrum and Quilon from receiving a portion of the N.E. mon-
soon, as is shown in the preceding table. A closer attention to local physical circum-
stances is evidently necessary before a rational account can be given of these discre-

ancies ; but General Cullen is too zealous an observer not to work out the question ;
and I look to being enabled, at a future meeting of the Association, of laying before
this Section a continuation of General Cullen’s observations and a satisfactory solu-
tion of the existing difficulties.

On a New Portable Azimuth Compass. By E. J. Dent, F.R.A.S.

Mr. Dent exhibited this instrument. The magnetic needle was suspended in an
inner case, and that again fitted in an outer case in such a manner as to admit of
having either its ends reversed so as to eliminate errors of centring ; or its faces re-
versed so as to eliminate the error of collimation.

On the Relations of ihe Semi-Diurnal Movements of the Barometer to Land
and Sea-Breezes. By Tuomas Horxins.

Mr. Hopkins exhibited diagrams, drawn up from Col. Sabine’s paper ‘ On the Me-

Pa teorology of Bombay,’ of the diurnal temperature curve, total pressure curve, and ga~

‘seous pressure curve; with a diagram representing the, swelling and sinking of the
land and sea-breezes ; and endeavoured to show that these were inconsistent with the

_ explanation given by Col. Sabine, but harmonized with alternations of pressure caused
_ by the alternate extrication of heat and absorption of it during the alternate evapora-
_ tions and depositions of water, in the state of clouds and dew.

_ * Since this paper was read it has been ascertained that the fall of rain for the whole year
was 290 inches,

26 REPORT— 1846.

Abstracts of Meteorological Observations made at Aden in 1845.
By Wii.1am Mayes, Serjeant in 7th Regiment.

I. Hourly Means, for the Month of February, of the Temperature of a Thermometer
observed in the Sun.

Time, Mean of Therm. Readings. Max. Min.
8 a.m. 83°9 — 90°0 — 80:0 —
9 88-5 — 93°2 — 80-0 —
10 91:9 + 97°38 + 8270 —
11 95:1 + 99°2 + 90°0 +
12 96°9 + + max. 100°2 + + max. 90°0 +
lr... 9671 + 99°3 + 92°0 + + max,] °
2 94-4 + 98:2 + 90:0 +
4 91°5 + 94:0 — 86°0 +
4 87-9 — 91-2 — 84-0 —
5 82°5 — 86:0 — 79°0 —
einai een | 90-9 Sa aks ‘mam { 85°3

The readings above the average are marked + (the maxima being marked + +),
and those below the average —.

II. Means of Dry and Wet Bulb Thermometers, in February 1845, at the following Hours.

Hour. Dry Bulb. Wet Bulb. Diff.
2 A.M. 76°9 BET hese 3-2
as 76°6 73°9 27 #8
6 76-4" 73°8 26
8 78°4 74:4 a 4-0
9 79°9 74°7 su 7)
10 80°8 (Appelt 55
12 81:9 74-9 4 7-0
2 P.M. 81°5 (o-4 6-1
4 79°9 74:7 + 5-2
6 78°8 74:3 4:5
8 78°3 74:2 4:1
9 77°8 74-3 3-5
10 717-9 74:8* 3:8
12 77°9 73°9 4:0
ediop nie oes ibe 74:3
co tcome ee eee 44

III. The barometric curve at Aden on the 24th and 25th of March 1845, corrected
for temperature, had two maxima, viz. a principal one at 10 a.m. and a lesser one at
10—11 p.m.: it had two minima, viz. at 2—3—4p.m. and 4a.m. The extreme
diff. from the lowest min. (2—38 p.m. on the 24th) to the highest max. (10 a.m. on
the 25th) is 30°074 — 29°859 = 0°215. The author appends a column of corrections
for the moisture of air.

Meteorological Observations taken at Fort George Barracks, Bombay,
in July, August, September and October 1845. By WitL1am Mayss,
Serjeant in 7th Regiment.

The instruments observed are dry bulb thermometer, wet bulb thermometer, and

* In the MS. this is written 74°8, but the correct mean is 74:1.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 27

(for part of the time) rain-gauge. The wind is recorded in direction and estimated
in force; and the state of the sky and character of weather are noticed several times
daily.

‘The hours for registration of instruments are sunrise, 9 a.m., 2 P.M., sunset, 9 P.M.
The max. min. and range of the daily observations are entered, with the several ob-
servations in tables. [After the 7th of October the observations were taken at Calabar
Barracks.] We extract the following general results :—

; i Extreme
Extreme | Extreme Mean diff.

Mean Mean diff. of Dry
Mean Temp. s A of Dry and
P-| Max. Temp.|Min. Temp-|Max. Temp.|/Min. Temp. Wet Bulb. ae 4

— | ——— | | SS | Le, |

August .....} 81:3 83°8 78°8 86°5 77:0 4°1 75
September..| 81-7 84:7 78°8 89:0 76°8 5:0 9-0
October.....| 85°0 89°9 80°1 97-2 74:0 79 10°6

New Experiments on Electro-Magnetism. By Prof. WARTMANN.

Since the discovery made last year, by Dr. Faraday, of the action of magnets upon
polarized light passing through different media, it became interesting to ascertain
whether this influence is limited to the rotation of the plane of polarization of the ray.
Numerous experiments have shown that no change whatever is undergone by the
fixed lines of the spectrum, either in position, or in quantity or visibility, when they
are produced by rays of natural or artificial light, common or polarized, which have
_ been made to go through different substances, such as air, nitrous acid gas, water,
_ alcohol, oil of turpentine, syrup of sugar, a solution of ferruginous alum, or a long
prism of flint glass, put in the sphere of action of powerful electro-magnets. As
far as those researches have been brought, they lead to the conclusion, that neither
light nor the medium suffers any constitutional derangement which could alter the
_ property of the ray to be partially absorbed when it is refracted through a prism.
The view generally entertained by foreign philosophers as to the real action of the
magnet being one upon the material substance which gives way to the luminous ray,
_ it became necessary to test whether the new magnetical state of molecular equilibrium
_ would not be concordant with some new properties of chemical affinity. Indeed, it
has long ago been asserted by Ritter, Fresnel, Hansteen, Murchmann, Lodeck, Mur-
ray and others, and more recently by Mr. Hunt, that the magnets have a decided in-
fluence upon chemical phenomena. I have taken advantage of powerful electro-
_ magnets, which are put in action by sixty pairs of Bunsen’s battery, to make some
_ fresh trials upon the subject, convinced that such means would afford me an oppor-

tunity of witnessing, if any, far more decisive actions than those which have been
described. But all my attempts have proved unsuccessful to produce any difference
in the electrolysis of acidulated water of ferruginous dissolutions, or in the electro-
chemical decomposition of sulphate of copper, or of acetate of lead by soft iron. All
the results have been carefully and repeatedly tested by accurate weighings; and in
the case of the electrolysis of water, 1 employed electrodes of soft iron gilt by elec-
trical process, and supported by the very poles of the magnets, with the interposition
of a film of mica as thin as possible. The apparatus have been placed in all direc-
tions relative to terrestrial magnetism, and the poles of artificial magnets have been
made to act both separately or together, without any different result whatever. But
_ in expressing this my opinion, I must add that I mean not to say that magnetism is
not able to interfere with molecular disposition, which is quite a different view of the
_ subject, though it has not perhaps been sufficiently distinguished from the former one.
Indeed we have ample evidence that this is the case under favourable circumstances,
‘These experimental inquiries have led me to ascertain two facts which it may perhaps
not be improper to state here. Ifa chemical action is produced by the immersion of
two pieces of soft iron into a liquid which is able to corrode them, or to be decom-
posed by the metal, and if the poles of a magnet be applied upon these cores, an elec-

u
.

28 REPORT—1846.

tro-magnetic rotation takes place all round each, which is in the sense of the hypo-
thetic currents of Ampére. Prof. Grove has just pointed out to me that such an action
had been stated by Dr. Christie, though, as far as I know, it had been referred to
by no treatise on electro-magnetism, and that he himself had witnessed the phzeno-
menon many times. ‘The other fact seems to be of a higher interest, since it declares,
as it were, to the eye, what may be called the lines of chemical affinities. I shall now
content myself by merely describing what I have been able to witness and to show to
many scientific men, reserving for a future occasion to complete this communication
and to dwell upon the theoretical part of the subject. Common sulphate of copper is to
be dissolved in water, and a cylinder of soft iron dipped into it; as soon as the first
deposit of copper has taken. place, it is easy to perceive all round the cylinder light
films of a blue matter which are extending themselves as diverging rays from the very
centre of the cylinder which may be thought to represent the centre of the chemical ac-
tion. I suppose this substance to be a subsulphate of copper, and Prof. H. Rose is of
the same opinion; but from want of time and scarcity of matter, I have not yet been
able to submit it to analysis. During the progress of its manifestation, the nature of the
liquid is always varying, sulphate of iron taking the place of a corresponding quantity
of sulphate of copper. When this change has reached a certain extent, the phenome-
non ceases to spread. It is then like to a large passion-flower, with slender stamina
terminated by a continuous circular and opake ridge of thick anthere. Its figure,
which is altogether independent of the nature and the form of the vessel, is very geome-
trical. After halfan hour, more or less, this extraordinary design fades by the deposition
of the matter at the bottom of the trough. When two cylinders are used in the same
plate, two of the rays meet each other perpendicularly on the line of shortest distance of
the centres. Others join in direction more and more oblique, and being totally deprived
of the faculty of entering their relative dominions, they incurve themselves in hyperbolic
arches. Thus a perfectly straight line is formed which cuts into two halves the line
of shortest interval. It is scarcely necessary to add that the rays which are not to
meet others, extend as in the first case described. With three centres situated at the
summits of an equilateral triangle, the lines of separation intersect each other in a
point which is at equal distance from the summits, and thence run perpendicular to the
three sides of the triangle. The diverging rays, opposite in two directions, are much
inflected. The whole of the figure is perfectly regular. These rays are not affected
in their development by the magnetization of the cylinders; at least, if one observa-
tion made on this point suffices for deciding the question. If there are but two cylin-
ders, and if they are lifted up in the liquid by means of an appropriate horse-shoe
magnet, it is possible to move them very slowly without any disturbance of the figure,
and particularly without the least incurvature of the line of separation, which follow
the cylinders backwards and forwards, as if firmly tied together. But a shock loosens
all those particles geometrically adherent ; they fall down, and all the design vanishes.

Summary of Researches in Electro-Physiology. By Prof. Martevucct.

In the first place he described the experiments which prove that the development of
electricity in living animals is a phenomenon appertaining to all organic tissues, and
principally to muscular fibres, and that it is a necessary consequence of the chemical
processes of nutrition. He particularly wished to prove that the development of elec-
tricity in the muscles can never produce electric currents which circulate either in the
muscular mass or in the nerves. It is only by a particular arrangement of the expe-
riment that we succeed in obtaining a muscular current.

Further, all experiments contradict the opinion of an electrical current existing in
the nerves. M. Matteucci proved that the current said to be proper to the frog is
on the contrary a general phenomenon which exists in all the muscles that have ten-
dinous extremities unequally distributed, and that this current, supposed to be peculiar
to the frog, is only a particular instance of muscular current. In the second place,
the Professor laid before the Section his last researches on electrical fishes. He showed
that the laws of the electrical shock of these animals are a necessary consequence of
the development of electricity, which is produced in each cell of the electrical organ
under the influence of the nervous power. In the third place, he showed the relation
which exists between the electrical current and nervous power, and proved that mus-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 29

eular contraction is always pence by a phenomenon analogous to the electrical
_ spark, and that the electrical current does but modify the nervous excitability. On
_ these facts M. Matteucci establishes a simple theory of electro-physiological pheno-
- mena. In the last part of his communication he treated of inducted contraction; and
after having demonstrated that these phenomena cannot be explained in supposing
an electrical discharge of any kind indiscriminately, he concluded that inducted con-
traction is an elementary phenomenon of the nervous power, which acts in muscular
contraction, and is analogous to all the actions of induction of physical forces.

On the Identity of certain Vital and Electro-magnetic Laws.
By JosEru Butiar, M.D.

The object of this paper was to show that the direction and formation of bleod-
vessels and the capillary circulation through them, which is independent of the pro-
pulsive power of the heart, are in accordance with laws of the vital force, identical in
their direction and relation to each other with those of the electro-magnetic force.
In such an investigation the forms of bodies were considered of the highest import-
ance, Growth is invisible, but the forms it produces are the evidence of the unseen
vital force, and by announcing its direction, determine its law. To seek therefore the
primary forms of which others are mere varieties, and to ask, “ From what direction
of the living force does such a form derive its shape?” is a legitimate step towards the
discovery of the cause of that form, the “formal cause” of Bacon, or the law in mo-
dern language. The formation of blood and blood-vessels in the germinal membrane
which grows round the embryo during the incubation of a hen’s egg, was taken as a
simple type of this process. The small whitish disc on the yolk-bag (the cicatricula),
is the spot where the vital changes begin. The embryo occupies the centre of this
spot, and becomes the centre of the vital force excited by the mother’s warmth. From
this centre the force is communicated to the yolk-bag. The disc enlarges, still keep-
ing its circular form, and marked by concentric circles more or less perfect. The disc
is produced by the conversion of the yolk into cells, which adhere as a thin circular
layer. The circular form of this disc and the general concentric arrangement of the
cells, were considered to indicate that the lines of vital force which arranged and pre~
served that form were circular. The next step is:the conversion of a portion of these
cells which form the disc into blood and blood-vessels, The trunks pass in the direc-
tion of radii of the original disc and central germ. The main trunks unite at the
central heart, which is at first only a bent portion of the common trunk. The capil-
laries inosculate at the circumference; thus the vessels form a complete circle. This
circular arrangement of the vessels as radii indicates a second circular force at right
angles to the plane of the former one. The vessels are formed thus. Those called
by Harvey “ vasa lutea” are coarse, and the stages in their formation are more easily
watched, They are formed in the substance of the disc, and out of the same mate-
rial,—the cells of the yolk, These cells continuing to accumulate, some are arranged
as cylinders, then in succession as half-circles, circles, net-work, and trunks conver-
_ ging to the central embryo. At this stage each vessel is a coarse yellowish cylinder,
' with a red streak down its axis. Externally it is composed of cells of various sizes,
which can easily be brushed off from the semi-transparent tube which they cover, and
_ which is composed of smaller cells, and contains the red blood flowing towards the
' centre. The inference drawn was, that this tube, formed of cells around the current,

is the evidence of a circumferential force around the current, arranging the cells as
- atube. It was next shown that such a direction and relation of the vital force in
_ arranging the disc and its vessels were in accordance with the direction and relation of
_ the electro-magnetic force. The law of this double force, which bears on the present
inquiry, is, that in order to act both currents must circulate, that is, each must return
into itself. That the galvanic force must circulate, is evident from the construction
_ of a galvanic cell. The magnetic force accompanying the galvanic obeys the same
law. It also circulates, but in a plane at right angles to the galvanic. Dr, Wollaston
called it, in consequence of its cireulation, verfiginous magnetism. These two cur--
_ xents are inseparable. They are directive forces, or carrying, according to the con-
| dition of matter on which they act. What is true of the magnetic current circulating
' round a single wire conyeying the galvanic current, applies to two or more wires if

30 REPORT—1846. .

put together as a ribbon, or to a slip of metal, the only difference being the increase
of force in the latter instances, If the galvanic wire be bent in a circle, or if several
wires are arranged so as to form a series of concentric rings, or if, which is the same
thing, a spiral coil of wire be made, the magnetic force still retains the same direc-
tion as in the straight wire; but as the whole of the wire acts upon the circle of mag-
netic force, its direction is through the centre of the ring or coil. If such a spiral
coil be placed on iron filings, they arrange themselves in lines, passing through the
centre parallel to its axis, and then folding up on either side as radii round the edge,
where they meet. These experiments were quoted from Dr. Faraday. Such a spiral
coil, through which galvanic force circulates, was considered to represent the disc
around the embryo; and the iron filings to represent the direction of the capillary
vessels, arranged circularly in a plane, at right angles to the disc, by the magnetic
force accompanying the galvanic. From comparing the two, the conclusion was drawn,
that in both cases the force at work obeys the same laws; that the formation of a
circular living disc, by a central force constantly acting, proves the existence of a
circular force around that centre, and is analogous to a flat spiral or disc, through
which the galvanic force is circulating; and that this vital force in the disc is neces-
sarily attended by a second circulating force in the direction of radii to it, such as is
indicated by the vessels. The actual movements of the cells in this living process
are invisible, as it is one of growth; but the forms produced are explicable on the
hypothesis that the living force acts in accordance with the laws of a force the direc-
tion and relation of which have been ascertained. This analogy is rendered still more
probable by the connexion between heat and galvanism discovered by Seebeck. If
a current of heat instead of a current of galvanism be made to circulate through the
spiral coil of wire, it will, like galvanism, develope magnetic currents in the direction
of radii to the centre. Now as the mother’s heat is the source which supplies force
to the embryo, in both instances, in the metal coil of wire and in the disc the force is
in the form of heat. In both there is a primary concentric arrangement of matter
for the transmission of this force; and in both there is the evidence of a second cir-
cular force in a plane at right angles to the first.

If, instead of the arrangement of the galvanic wire as a flat spiral coil, the rings are
arranged side by side, as a spiral tube or helix, then the second or magnetic force
would be through its axis. It would be a tube, which, if placed in water, would carry
one pole of a magnetic needle, floated on cork, through it; and iron filings would
arrange themselves in a circular line, going through the helix, round on the outside,
returning into itself (Faraday). The spiral galvanic force here is attended by the
current through the tube. The converse would be the case. The steps in the forma-
tion of vessels are, that blood is first formed, and when it circulates a tube is formed
around it. The current of blood indicates a force through the axis of the tube; the
tube itself indicates a circumferential force around the current to arrange its materials
as a tube. The tubes are arranged circularly, meeting at the heart in the centre, and
at the capillaries in the circumference. The living tube, if it followed electro-mag-
netic laws, would have (like the helix of wire through which the galvanic force was
circulating) a circular force through its axis; and conversely, this current would tend
to form a tube around itself—supposing always appropriate materials. The vital
force has evidently appropriate materials in the form of cells. Those cells, which
exposed to oxygen become converted into red globules, are moved in a current; thus
showing that they are fit matter for the influence of vital force in one direction, and
that such a force is moving them; whereas the smaller cells are arranged round the
current as a tube; thus showing a second force at work around the first. There is a
current in one direction, and a tube around it; neither tube nor current can be ex-
plained without the assumption of a moving power: both are readily explained by
two circular forces having the same relation to each other as the electro-magnetic.

The cells out of which the disc and vessels are built have been regarded so far as
under the influence of a force external to them. But each cell has a vital force of its
own, similar in kind to the central force, but less in degree. The central force sub-
ordinates all lesser forces and makes the disc one. Embryologists have shown that
the earliest appearance of organization in the ovules of plants and ova of animals is a
cell, and that such cell has a nucleus, and each nucleus a nucleolus, or central spot,
which is the essential part of each cell, and which has the power of forming cells and
of arranging them round it. Dr. Barry has shown that each secondary cell becomes

‘a vented from touching by plates of glass
_ cemented to them, and a little larger for

- an instance of its use, suppose the first
' condenser has received a small positive

with the finger, D will become negative

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 31

in its turn the centre of a similar action, smaller ones being generated and arranged
round the larger ones. Prof. Goodsir finds that the inner membrane of the tubes of
glands is formed of cells, and that nucleated cells are found among them, which he
calls centres of nutrition, as if these nucleated cells were the parents of successive broods
of young cells passing off from them, and arranged round them as centres. These
centres of nutrition are here called centres of force; and according to the law of this
force, there would be a common centre, bringing all these isolated and secondary
centres into one comprehensive whole. The blood corpuscles are also nucleated
cells, each having its own central living force, and thus their relation to the vital force
whilst circulating is analogous to that which a magnet holds to the electro-magnetic
force moving it. Both are bodies containing within themselves these forces.

The vascular disc of the yolk-bag had been taken as a central fact, the right com-
prehension of which would explain other facts of the same kind, but more complex.
Its application to some few facts in physiology was then shown,—such as the formation
of new blood-vessels; the tubular form of vessels and ducts among cells; the circu-
lation through capillaries independently of the contraction of their coats, or of the
propulsive power of the heart; and of that universal fact, that wherever there is a
central heart, there are powers at work which neither its propulsive power nor capil-
lary action can explain,—of forming new vessels in connexion with the old ones. Such
a universal fact becomes a law, when the cause is shown. This cause or law, now
proposed as the solution of these living processes, is, that the vital force circulating
in two directions, one circle being in a plane at right angles to the other,—thus iden-
tical in direction and relation with the electro-magnetic force,— will explain the phe-
nomena; or, in other words, that wherever there is a central moving force there is
a power at work around, and to and from that centre, capable of arranging fit matter
as tubes, and of circulating fluid to a certain extent through them, and that the tubu-
lar formation is owing to a vital power identical in its direction with the galvanic;
and the radiated arrangement of these vessels, and the circulation (to a certain ex-
tent) of fluid through them, are dependent on a power accompanying the former, and
identical in its direction with the magnetic force. The conclusion was not drawn that
the vital and electro-magnetic forces were the same, but that the direction and rela-
tion of both forces were identical.

On a new Multiplying Condenser. By Prof. A. F. SVANBERG.

The author was led by the process used by M. Pfaff of Kiel, in his researches on the
electricity of contact between metals and fluids, to construct a new instrument, which,
by asingle contact of zinc and copper, can be charged by manipulation, requiring only
a minute of time, to an intensity sufficient to give a brilliant spark and strong shock.
It consists of two ordinary condensers, whose plates are of copper, the two lower con-
nected by a copper wire. They are pre-

the sake ofinsulation. The lower plates
are supported by insulating stems, and
the upper have insulating handles. For

charge ~ a. Raising A and touching C

and C positive by induction, Remove

_ the finger from C to D, the electricity of this last is retained by that of C; and at the

same time replacing A, which had not lost its electricity during the preceding opera-
tions, that of B can be transported to D by a repetition of the process. By three such

_ operations the tension of D’s electricity is tripled, and this can be transferred to B by
_ raising C and touching A. In this way it is obvious that by 3” manipulations the

final electricity=3".a; it is easily seen that there is a certain number of transfers
before changing, which gives the greatest result. ‘Thus with two transfers and three
changes 2”. a=4096 a, while 3 (which is the best number of transfers) give with the
amount of manipulation 5°.a—=6561 a; 4 transfers give 4°.a=4096a@, Such an in-

strument made for the Cabinet de Physique at the University of Upsal, of six inches

32 REPORT—1846.

Santis gives by twenty-four manipulations a strong spark and shock felt in the
elbows.

On some Results of the Magnetic Observations made at General Sir T. M.
Brisbane's Observatory, Makerstoun. By J. A. Broun.

1st. Magnetic Declination.—The annual diminution of westerly declination at
Makerstoun is 5'"8, When proportional parts of this have been added to the monthly
means, from January 1844 till August 1846, their whole range is only 2"1; that is
to say, the mean position of the magnetic needle for any month, freed from secular
change, has not been above 2'1 further west than the mean position for any other
month. Mr. Broun conceives that he has found the annual period of westerly decli-
nation to consist of a minimum at the vernal, and of a maximum at the autumnal
equinox; the mean range being under 1/2. From the observations for 1843, Mr.
Broun has concluded that there is a maximum of westerly declination when the sun
and moon are in opposition, and a minimum when they are in conjunction ; that there
is a maximum of westerly declination when the moon has its greatest north, and also
when it has its greatest south declination, minima occurring when it crosses the
equator, In the diwrnal period, the double maximum and minimum have been found
to exist in eachJmonth of the year. In the Transactions of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, Mr. Broun has given certain results relating to the horizontal and vertical
components of the earth’s magnetic force; but these results were obtained in scale
divisions corrected for temperature by his method. In order to deduce the variations
of magnetic dip and of the total magnetic force from the variations of these compo-
nents, it was necessary to determine the values of the scale divisions in known units.
Mr. Broun had previously shown* the inapplicability of the method given by the
Committee of Physics of the Royal Society of London for the balance magnetometer.
He now described a method by which the value of the micrometer divisions may be
satisfactorily determined. This method will be found in the Introduction to the
Makerstoun Observations for 1843. He has applied the same method to the bifilar
magnetometer, and has found that the value of the scale divisions, obtained in the way
recommended by the Committee of Physics, is also inaccurate for this instrument.
With the aid of the values obtained by the new method, the following results have
been deduced.

2nd. Magnetic Dip.—tThe dip is a minimum when the sun and moon are in con-
junction, and a maximum when they are in opposition. In the mean diurnal period
for the year,

The principal maximum occurs at 10° 10™ a.m.

Me minimum is 5 40 pm.
A secondary maximum ,, Bit AOU Asis
o minimum —,, 5 40 a.m.

Makerstoun mean time being always used. These periods vary to some extent
throughout the year, the principal minimum occurring at 6 a.m. in winter; the two
minima being nearly equal at the equinoxes, and the diurnal curve being single in
summer. Mr. Broun has found that there is a maximum of dip about four hours and
a half before the moon’s passage of the superior meridian ; a minimum about half an
hour after that passage; a secondary minimum about three hours after it; and a se-
condary maximum about eight hours after it.

8rd. Total force of the Earth’s Magnetism.—A minimum occurs when the sun and
moon are in opposition, equal maxima near the quadratures, and a secondary mini-
mum at the time of conjunction. In the mean diurnal period for the year,

The principal maximum occurs at 55 40™ p.m.

oa minimum se, 2 10 a.m.
A secondary maximum _,, 7 10 a.m.
> minimum ,, 10 10 a.m,

The periods of maxima and minima shift about two hours in the course of the year,
and in summer the principal minimum occurs at 10" 30" a.m, The variations of
force with reference to the moon’s hour angle were found by Mr. Broun as follows :—

* Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xvi.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 33

The principal maximum occurs about two hours after the moon’s passage of the infe-
rior meridian ; a secondary minimum about four hours before the passage of the su-
| perior meridian ; a secondary maximum about one hour after the superior passage ;
and the principal minimum about six hours and a half after that passage.
Curves were exhibited illustrating these results, and also the diurnal motion of a
magnetic needle freely suspended in the direction of the magnetic force. From the
: latter some curious results have been deduced, which will be found elsewhere, It will
be enough to mention, at present, that in the mean for the year, the motion from 6 p.m.
till 6 a.m. is very trifling ; between midnight and 6 a.M. the needle is almost stationary,
nearly the whole motion occurring between 6 a.m., Noon, and 6 p.m. The end of the
needle describes an ellipse whose major axis is at right angles to the magnetic meridian ;
but the direction of this axis varies throughout the year.

Magnetic Causation. By G. TowLer.

Magnetic phenomena are due to two distinct classes of forces, which, in the absence
of more appropriate terms, may be called the “intrinsic” and “contingent.” It is to
the consideration of the intrinsic forces that this paper is directed. The “intrinsic”
forces of the magnet are due, first, to the mechanical structure of the bodies in which
magnetical phenomena are displayed, the capacity of the interstices of which bears a
given ratio to the dimensions of the particle of fluid constituting atmospheric air, by
and through which such interstices become highly sensitive conductors of atmospheric
air; and, secondly, to the fluxion through and circulation round a magnetic bar of the
particles of atmospheric media.

The following are among the propositions which the author regards as established :—

Each extremity of a magnet perpetually exercises the same power over the other
that each does over indifferent masses of iron; in other words, one-half of a magnet
is constantly magnetizing the other.

The “intrinsic” attribute, or sine qua non of a magnet, is the extreme sensibility
of the fluid particles in its interstices to motion, from minute forces, arising from the
mechanical conformation of magnetical substances; and the extremities, or opposite
forces of the body, being within that distance of each other, whereby the forces gene-
rated by such action are sufficient to reproduce it.

On the Results of an extensive Series of Magnetic Investigations, including
most of the known varieties of Steel. By W. PETRIE.

On the Process of Manufacture to produce permanent Magnets having the greatest
_ fixity and capacity conjointly secured.—\st. The original iron—should be the purest
soft iron charcoal made (not coke) ; the Swedish from the Dannemora mine is better
than any other. 2nd. Converted—with pure charcoal; it should be carbonized
lightly, the process to be stopped when the bars, of the usual size, are scarcely steel
through, yet so that it will harden with certainty without an undue heat. 3rd. Sorted
_ —with attention to homogeneous conversion, &c., according to the ordinary rules.
_ 4th. Melted—the pot kept covered, and not longer than necessary in fusion. 5th.
__ Cast—into a large ingot, so as to allow of its being weld rolled out singly, before it
_ becomes reduced to the requisite thinness. 6th. Rolled—while hot from casting, to
| save a second heating. It should not be doubled over nor sheared and faggofed.
_ The rolling should be conducted at as low a temperature as convenient, as it thereby
_ acquires a harder and closer texture and finer grain. 7th. In cutting—into shape,
the substance (if large or of varied form) should not be strained, as by boring with
rimers, or straightening (oftener than is unavoidable) with the hammer, as it is
then apt to warp and to have unseen commencements of cracks on becoming subse-
quently hardened.

_ More carbonization than that previously described as best is of little injury to the
_ magnetic goodness of the steel, provided it be so prepared as to preserve a homo-
geneous and white appearance of fracture when hardened, which is not so easily ma-
_naged as with that of lower carbonization ; but if it be again carbonized more than
“usual (as razor steel, or above that) it rather improves; and again, an increase dete-
‘Tiorates it as in cast iron, and a further increase again improves it. In short, in the

1846. D

Se ate

D?
‘
.

34 REPORT—1846.

scale of carbonization there is a succession of continually decreasing maxima of
advantage.

On the Physical Properties which the Steel should possess.—The fineness of grain is
affected by many adventitious circumstances, which must be considered and allowed
for in judging of it; and the most important fact is the difference between the appear-
ance in the hard and sofé states ; for in the general properties, both optical, mechanical
and magnetical, their order, in’any set of samples, is reversed in the hard state, inde-
pendently of the absolute change in each property.

The steels should be examined by breaking with a single bend at a file notch
(notching with a chisel, bending back, &c. changes the appearance). A microscope
of six or ten lineal power is better than any other power for examining it.

The general properties, without going into detailed description, should be as follows,
the terms being comparative with other samples of less value, and not at all with the
hard or soft states of the same steel.

IN A SOFT STATE. IN A HARD STATE.
General appearance, uniform darkish gray ... Uniform white.
Rather a large grain, compared with razor
steel (or finer if much rolled). ............
Rather irregular in size and shape of Bie? } Rather more regular than before ;

Unless LINE ...crrceacceesercaeensscenregenesens rounded crystallization disappears.
Grains individually distinct with good

metallic lustre.

Close texture without cavities .........0.see... Not particularly close.

Rather tough for steel .,.......s.eseseeseeeeseee+ Brittle and very hard.

Attracted considerably before magnetizing ... Ditto.

Loses induced magnetism more freely Retains magnetism well and abun-
than other steels ..........s000 antchecedche } dantly.

Care must be taken to discriminate between real cavities and indentations arising
from the crystals being torn up by the breaking; pure iron often appears porous
from this cause.

The author added some peculiar considerations on the chemical constitution and
molecular arrangement of certain sorts of steel; and on the molecular peculiarities
of iron and other metals, in connexion with their magnetic capacity, illustrated by a
tabular arrangement.

On Hardening, &c.—In the ordinary process there is much risk and difficulty for
large work, owing to unequal heat, unnecessary time and heat applied, especially to
fine edges, decarbonization, scaling, &c.

These are obviated by a process, which is new as applied on a large scale, namely,
heating in melted lead. It will be observed that the precise heat is imparted quite
uniformly in half a minute or so, and the finest edge is heated momentarily no higher
than the thickest part (rendering this process incomparable for all instruments where
it is the edge or smaller parts that are of importance). No scale is formed, the finest
polish or sharpest edge being preserved through the hardening; the previous prepa-
ration of the steel and some other points are described ; and particularly the manner
of refrigeration in water (salt), and for securing hardness and great evenness, are
also detailed.

The process has been applied to steel sheets of 10 inches by 20, obtained quite flat,
and as hard as a file throughout, even at the middle parts, which has hitherto been
found very difficult, we may say impossible. Magnets prepared by these means only
differ generally in magnetic power by jth part, many being absolutely equal.

Particulars are then given of the advantage of certain high powers for magnetizing
bars, and of an apparatus constructed weighing 2 cwt. and possessing nearly as great
aggregate power as the colossal magnet in possession of the Royal Society (weighing
we believe 2 tons).

A method is suggested for verifying the constancy of magneto-meteorologic instru-
ments, by means of the terrestrial magnetism itself; independently of its own varia-
tions, or of the comparison of the mutual action of three or more bars.

A smaller grain than it was before.

Rounded crystallization ......s.sseeeessesees {

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 35

On the Mode of Developing the Magnetic Condition.
By the Rev. W. Scoressy, D.D., F.RS.

Dr. Scoresby stated that he had, at York, shown a new and superior mode of deve-
loping the magnetic condition in properly prepared and hardened steel bars, by inter-
posing a thin plate of soft iron between the operating magnet and the bar of steel to
be magnetized. He had, at that time, supposed it to be necessary to extend the thin
plate of soft iron the entire length of the bars of steel to be magnetized. But he had
since found this to be by no means the case; since by laying any number of unmag-
netized bars of steel in a long line, and passing along them a horse-shoe magnet with
its poles connected with a thin polished plate of soft iron (he used common hoop iron),
the ends being slightly bent upwards to cause it to pass more freely over the steel
bars, and then turning them over and renewing the process on the other face, he found
he could communicate to the bars the full charge which they were competent to re-
ceive. The author exhibited this experiment: and by simply passing a horse-shoe
magnet thus armed with an interposed piece of sheet iron, once over each face of
twelve previously unmagnetized bars of steel, he communicated to them so much
power as that they sustained their 6wn weight, when held up as a chain.
F 7

On the Constitution and Forces of the Molecules of Matter. By Dr. Laminc.

In this paper the author applied a theory of the molecular constitution of matter in
forty-two distinct propositions to the explanation of gravitation, temperature and spe-
cific heats of gases, cohesion, affinities, latent heat, volume, disturbances of electrical
equilibrium, and other electrical phenomena, with electro-motion and electro-chemical
decomposition. In this theory, matter is regarded as constituted of atoms; each of
which consists of three sorts of spherical atoms, distinguished as basic, calorific, and
electrical. The only force it recognizes is attraction. The basic atoms do not attract
one another, neither do the calorific; but the electrical attract each other with a force
reciprocally as the square of their distances. ach electrical atom attracts calorific
atoms around it, and each basic atom attracts calorific in unlimited numbers; whilst
it also attracts around it electrical atoms, in some large but definite number. This
number is in each case unchangeable, but the basic atoms differ one from another in
attracting around them a greater or less number of electrical atoms. The force be-
tween basic and electrical atoms is much greater than that between the electrical
_ atoms mutually; hence one of these is termed the major, the other the minor
electrical force. The attraction of the basic for the calorific atoms is intermediate
between these. The attraction of the electrical for the calorific atoms is the greatest
of all the mutual forces. The immediate consequence of these forces is to cause
_ each electrical atom to be surrounded by calorific atoms, and each basic atom to be
then enveloped with these electrical atoms, in greater or less number according to
_ its chemical nature, but in each case definite. One of these basic atoms so sur-
rounded is the elementary molecule of matter, or the simple atom of the chemist.
_ Each basic atom thus surrounded by its sphere of electrical atoms constitutes an elec-
_trosphere ; but a change of the calorific atomospheres of the electrical atoms of this,
_ may cause a change of their arrangements about the central basic atoms, so that some
_ of the electrical atoms may be thrown out on the surface of the electrosphere and
thus become complementary ; and it is upon the mutual actions and relations of these
complementary atoms that all electrical and other phenomena involving change are
“supposed to depend. One remarkable consequence of this theory is, that pravitation
_ depends on the electrical atoms alone; and that hence a positively electrified body must
_ be heavier, and a negatively electrified body lighter, than the same body with its elec-
tricity in the ordinary undisturbed state. This the author proposed to prove experi-
' mentally to the Section.

On Atmospheric Waves. By W. R. Birt.

In introducing his report, the author noticed the steps he had taken during the last
autumn for observing the great symmetrical wave of November. Instructions de-
tailing the instruments to be observed, times of observation, &c., were drawn up and
forwarded by him to gentlemen interested in meteorological research, and also other-

D2

36 REPORT—1846,

wise circulated*, In accordance with these instructions, about thirty sets of inter-
esting and valuable observations had been made; the stations extending in one
direction from the west of Ireland to Heligoland, and in the other from the Scilly
Isles to the Orkneys. These observations Mr. Birt had subjected to a very careful
comparison, especially those made at his own residence near London, with those
which he made in the autumn of 1842 at Leicester Square. The result of this com-
parison was such as clearly to show that there was a most striking coincidence between
the barometric movements of October and November 1845, and those of a portion of
September, October and November 1842. So close did this coincidence appear to
the author, that during the period from October 1 to November 21 in 1845, the baro-
metric movements of October 23 to 26 were the only oscillations that appeared to
have no corresponding movements in 1842. It appeared that the great wave com-
menced in 1845, near midnight, between the 6th and 7th, that it culminated on the
14th, and terminated on the 21st; during the 10% days previous to the setting in of
the wave, the movements in 1842 and 1845 were almostidentical. Mr. Birt observed
that in 1845 the great wave, in all its essential features, was very distinctly marked ;
that it was completely separated from all the preceding barometric movements, and
that the individuality that was thus given to it, induced the strong belief that we haye
obtained the type of the barometric oscillations during the middle portion of No-
vember. This type he proposed to express in the following language :—

“‘ That during fourteen days in November, more or less equally disposed about the
middle of the month, the oscillations of the barometer exhibit a remarkably symme-
trical character, that is to say, the fail succeeding the transit of the maximum or
highest reading, is to a great extent similar to the preceding rise; this rise and fall is
not continuous or unbroken; in three out of four of the occasions on which it has
been observed, it has been found to consist of five distinct elevations. The complete
rise and fall has been termed the great symmetrical barometric wave of November,
and as such has been considered to result from the transit of a large wave, but there
is great reason to believe that while it may be due to the transit of a normal wave
of about fourteen days’ amplitude, it also exhibits the transits of five secondary super-
posed waves. At the setting in of the great November wave the barometer is gene-
rally Jow, sometimes below 29 inches. This depression is succeeded by éwo well-marked
undulations, varying from one to two days in duration. The central undulation, which
also forms the apex of the great wave, is of larger extent and longer duration, occu-
pying from three to five days; when this has passed, two smaller undulations, corre-
sponding to those at the commencement of the wave, make their appearance, and at
the close of the last the wave terminates.”

Mr. Birt exhibited curves of observations that had been made during November at
Dublin, from 1829 to 1845 inclusive, which he had received from Capt. Larcom of
the Royal Engineers. From these curves, it appeared that the great wave had been
observed at Dublin in twelve out of seventeen years, and that with two exceptions in
eleven years of distinct and well-marked transits of the great wave, the epochs of the
maxima were confined to five days, near the middle of the month, namely from the
12th to the 17th+.

The author then proceeded to notice the comparison he had instituted between the
curves he had obtained from various stations, and exhibited curves from twelve stations
in Ireland, England and Heligoland. From a consideration of these curves (which
were so arranged as to show the departure from symmetry in certain directions), he
argued that while the posterior slope of a wave of considerable magnitude was passing
off towards the E.N.E., the front of another was approaching from the N.W., and that
it was the interference of the two that produced the symmetrical arrangement of the
curves. In that portion of the area covered by the advancing wave the barometer
rose; in that covered by the receding wave it fell; while in that in which the two
waves interfered, the atmosphere as regarded these waves was quiescent, and the
smaller secondary waves passed on uninfluenced by them. He also showed that

* These instructions, with a short notice of the wave, were published in the Atheneum
of Sept. 6, 1845. No. 932, pp. 880, 881.

+ While exhibiting these curves, the author invited the attention of the Section to a very
remarkable and apparently constant depression of the mercurial column which occurred about
the 28th of November. It had been observed in fifteen out of the seventeen years’ observa~
tions, and appeared to be unconnected with the great wave.

ie

“

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 37

these lines of symmetry or interference varied in different years ; in the year 1842 the
line of greatest symmetry passed from Dublin through Brussels to Munich; in 1845
it appeared to be confined to the south of England.

Mr. Birt next proceeded to notice the arrangements of the aérial currents or winds
with regard to the distribution of pressure. He stated that the observations on the
winds in November 1842, clearly established Prof. Dove’s theory of parallel and
oppositely directed currents, and he showed by diagrams that if these currents are
shifting ones, as the Professor suggests, as they passed over any tract of country in
a direction transverse to those in which the wind was blowing in each, all the phe-
nomena of an atmospheric wave would be produced. He remarked that if there was
only one set of these parallel currents passing over a line of country, then the exa-
mination of the phenomena of an atmospheric wave would be comparatively easy.
The discussion of the observations had however shown that there were two sets of
parallel and oppositely directed currents at right angles to each other, one set from
the N.E. and 8.W., with a lateral motion from the N.W., and the other from N.W.
and S.E., with a lateral motion from the S.W.; and also that when these currents are
referred to the wave, the N.E. and N.W. currents, in their respective systems, re-
present anterior slopes with the direction of the aérial currents at right angles to the
axis of translation directed towards the left-hand; and the S.W. and S.E. currents
represent posterior slopes, the direction of the aérial currents still at right angles to
the axis of translation, but directed towards the right-hand*. ‘Vhe author considered
that these rectangularly posited currents explained several phenomena, such as the
barometric wind-rose, the revolution of the vane in one uniform direction, &c., and
concluded his report with pointing out several important desiderata that it was desi-
rable should be made the subjects of future inquiries.

CHEMISTRY.

On the Changes which Mercury sometimes suffers in Glass Vessels hermeti-
cally sealed. By Prof. OrrstTep.

Ir has been frequently noticed that. mercury inclosed in glass tubes, even when
those tubes were hermetically sealed, undergoes a remarkable change. It first be-
comes covered by a thin film of a yellow colour, which adheres to the glass, and
becomes eventually nearly black. This has been attributed to oxidation, but the
oxidation which would arise from the exceedingly small quantity of atmospheric air
which could be contained within the bulbs exhibited by Professor Oersted was too
small to account for the formation of such a quantity of dark and yellow powder as
many of them exhibited. Professor Oersted referred the change on the mercury to
the action of that metal on the glass of which the bulb was formed. It appears that
sulphate of soda is frequently employed in the manufacture of glass, and it is thought
that a sulphuret of mercury is formed by the decomposition of the glass itself. This
is not however satisfactorily proved, and the subject has only been brought forward
that attention might be directed to a subject which appeared to involve some remark-
able conditions.

On a second new Metal, Pelopium, contained in the Bavarian Tantalite.
By Prof. H. Rose.

In a former communication it had been shown that the so-called tantalic acid
which occurs in the Bodenmais in Bavaria, consisted of two acids, one of which
' differed materially from all known acids. To this Professor Rose gave the name of
Niobium, regarding it as a new metallic oxide. After a most elaborate investigation,
- Professor Rose has found that the other acid contains another oxide of a metal dif-

* These directions are in close accordance with that of the rotation of the air in revolving
_ Storms, and appear strongly to support Sir John Herschel’s suggestion, that such storms may
_ be produced by the crossing of two large atmospheric waves moving in different directions.
See Sir John’s Report on Meteorological Reductions, Report, 1843, p. 100.

38 REPORT—1846,

fering from niobium, and to this metal he has given the name of Pelopium, from
Pelops the son of Tantalus and the brother of Niobe. The tantalite of Bavaria is
therefore now shown to contain three metals—tantalium, niobium and pelopium.
These differ from each other in specific gravity, and they exhibit different and pecu-
liar chemical properties.

On Cavendish’s Experiment respecting the production of Nitric Acid.
By Prof. Dauseny, M.D., F.RS.

Dr. Daubeny stated the result of some experiments he had instituted with the
view of ascertaining whether the production of nitric acid by electricity, as was first
effected by Cavendish, really arose from the direct union of oxygen with nitrogen, or
was produced indirectly through the presence of minute portions of ammonia. For
this purpose he deprived the air, through which the electrical sparks were to be
passed, of water, and of any traces of ammonia that might have been contained in it,
by allowing it to stand in contact with concentrated sulphuric acid for some time
previous to the commencement of the experiment. Even in this case, although the
air had been in contact with no liquid except the mercury over which it was con-
fined, the usual diminution of volume took place after the electrical sparks had been
passed through it, and solution of litmus, when introduced into the tube, became
sensibly reddened. Hence the author infers that nitrogen does combine directly
with oxygen, as it is now known to do with carbon, but he still questions whether
it can do so with gaseous hydrogen, since ammonia cannot be formed, as nitric acid
is, by means of electricity ; and, as in all the cases in which ammonia has been pro-
duced artificially, one of the elements appears to have existed in what is called a
nascent state. But if nitrogen can be made to combine directly with oxygen, how
comes it that through the operation of thunder-storms the composition of the whole
atmosphere has not before this time been changed by the production in it of con-
siderable quantities of nitric acid? This the author explains by the small amount of
heat generated by the union of the two gases, owing to which only those particles
combine which lie contiguous to the line of the electrical spark ; whereas in other
cases, as in that of the union of oxygen with hydrogen, so much heat is elicited
by the union of those particles which are affected by the passage of the electrical
spark, that a condensation of other portions of the mixture results, whence will arise
a union of more of the particles, and an extrication of a larger amount of heat. In
this way the explosion propagates itself through all parts of the mixture with a ra-
pidity which causes it to be considered by us as instantaneous. In all cases however
in which gaseous elements that can remain together without acting upon each other
are made to unite, the modus operandi, whether it be by electricity, by heat, or (as in
the case of porous bodies) by adhesive affinity, appears to be the same, that is, such
a condensation of the respective gases as shall bring their particles within the sphere
of their mutual affinity.

On the extent to which Fluoride of Calcium is soluble in Water at 60° F.
By Grorce Witson, M.D.

In April of this year, 1846, Dr. Wilson read a paper to the Royal Society of
Edinburgh announcing the solubility of fluoride of calcium in water, and stating
that in consequence of observing this fact, he had been led to seek for that salt in
milk, in blood, and in sea-water, where it had not been previously detected, but in
all of which he found it. He also mentioned that he was able to confirm the re-
sults of previous observers as to the presence of fluoride of calcium in natural waters,
in plants and in animal remains, as well as in the urine of man.

Since that paper was read, Dr. Wilson ascertained the extent to which fluoride of
calcium is soluble in water at 60° F. ; and as it is a point of some interest in connexion
with geological and mineralogical, as well as with chemical speculations, he brought
it before the Chemical Section of the Association. The experiments recorded below
were performed with a solution of native well-crystallized fluor spar, prepared by
boiling distilled water upon the powdered fluor, which had been previously purified
by digestion with warm aqua regia, so as to remove any trace of metallic oxides,
lime-salts or the like, which might be present. The solution at 212° F., was filtered

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 39

whilst warm, and left at rest for some days in stoppered bottles at a temperature of
about 60°, till it deposited the excess of fluor soluble above that temperature. It was
then filtered a second time. A certain volume of the solution measured at 60° was
evaporated to dryness on the vapour-bath, in a counterpoised platina basin, and the
weight of the residue ascertained.

Twenty-four pints of the solution were thus made use of. In six experiments,
one imperial pint of the solution (16 fluid ounces, or 7000 grains) was taken at each
trial. In four trials three pints were evaporated at each experiment. In one case
six pints were employed. The following are the results :—

Per pint.
Expt. I. evap. 1 pint of solution. Residue 0°27 grs.
Il. ” ”» ” 0°28
Ii. ef ” par Oe
IV. ” ”» ” 0°24
Ve a3 2? a> 0°27
VI. 2 » 9 0°25 Average 0°265 per pint.
+ Per pint.
Expt. VII. evap. 3 pints of solution. Residue 0°79 = 0°263
Vill. » » » 0°78 = 0'260
IX. ” 2” ” 0°78 = 0°260
Xx. ” » ” 0°77 =0°257 Average 0°260 per pint.
Per pint.

Expt. XI. evap. 6 pints of solution. Residue 1°62=0°27 Average 0°270 per pint.

Twenty-four pints of distilled water thus dissolved 6-330 grains of fluor spar; so
that the average amount dissolved in one pint will be 0°2637 grains. One grain
therefore of fluor will requrie 26°545 grains of water at 60° F. to dissolve it, or water
at that temperature will take up seuagths of its weight of the salt.

The solubility here indicated must be considered great for a salt hitherto reputed
quite insoluble. It is still more soluble in water at a high temperature, as the de-
posit left by warm solutions on cooling shows. These facts will now be connected
with the appearance of fluoride of calcium in plants and animals, as well as in mineral
veins and elsewhere, and may perhaps prove sufficient to explain these hitherto per-
plexing phenomena.

Analysis of the American Mineral Nemalite. By Prof. Conne.z, P.RSE.

This mineral bears a striking resemblance to asbestus, so that by the eye it can
hardly be distinguished from it. It was first chemically examined by Mr. Nuttal,
who ascertained that it differs entirely in constitution from asbestus, and concluded
from his experiments that it consists essentially of magnesia and water with a little
oxide of iron and lime. It was subsequently examined by Dr. Thomson, according
to whom it also contains 12 per cent. of silica. The constituents found by the
latter were—

Magnesia ......seseeeee . 51°721
Silica ....cs0s Ditapvess s.. 12°568
Peroxide of iron...... ase D874
Water ........ seca seseee 29°666

99°829

The result which I have obtained differs somewhat from both the preceding.
According to both the previous experimenters, the mineral is soluble in acids without
effervescence. But I have found that even perfectly fresh portions of the specimens
(which I have) of the mineral from Hoboken in America sensibly effervesce when
dissolved in acids, showing some carbonic acid to be contained in it. I have also -
_ found only a very minute quantity of silica, the mineral leaving scarcely any residue
when dissolved.

__. The amount of water was determined by ascertaining the quantity of water col-
lected by ignition in a tube of German glass twice bent, and containing at one end

40 REPORT—1846.

fused chloride of calcium. The carbonic acid was estimated by the loss of weight on
treating a portion of the mineral with dilute acid in a little bottle connected with a
tube containing chloride of calcium.

The solid constituents were determined by ordinary methods. The result was, in
100 parts,—

Magnesia ......ssccsensecee 57°86
Protoxide of iron......... 2°84
SillGbcesccertatecttesSaneene. 0°80
Water 7%, cctecaedaae cess cate 27°96
Carbonic acid .........00. 10°00

99°46

Considering the protoxide of iron to replace a little magnesia, the mineral appears
to be a combination of hydrate of magnesia and hydrated carbonate of magnesia.
The formula 5MgO, HO + MgO, CO?, HO will nearly express its constitution, and
gives—

Magnesia ...sssssceeeeeeees 61°67
IV SECT nc 'csr sinre Seaaeate 27°24
(CAaTbDONICACIA secescesenss 11°09

100°00

The native hydrated carbonate of zinc (zinkbliithe) is a mineral of analogous con-
stitution.

Observations on the Nature of Lampie Acid. By Prof. Conn 1, F.RS.E.

The author had shown some years since that a large quantity of formic acid and
a little acetic acid exist in lampic acid as prepared in the ordinary way. Marchand
and others, admitting the presence of these acids, maintain that in addition it con-
tains aldehydic acid. It appears however to Professor Connell that the mere reduc-
tion of oxide of silver without effervescence, the formation of resin with alkaline
solutions, the blackening of the lampic salts on evaporation and by the action of sul-
phuric acid, are insufficient to support this view; and these facts are all explained
on the idea of aldehyde being associated with the acetic acid present in the liquid.
Further, the atomic weight of lampic acid, 50°35, is much too high to belong to an
acid, containing aldehydic acid, associated with much formic acid. But if we sup-
pose a foreign body, such as aldehyde, associated with the acetic portion of the
liquid, and entering for the time into the constitution of its salts, we can easily ex-
plain the high atomic weight and chemical reactions.

On the Connexion between the Isomorphous Relations of the Elements and their
Physiological Action. By James Buaxe, MB. F.R.CS.

In a paper read before the Academy of Sciences at Paris, the author remarked
“that when introduced directly into the blood, the salts of the same base appear to
exert the same effect on the animal ceconomy.”’ Since that time further researches
have led to the discovery of a law, equally interesting under a chemical as under a
physiological point of view. The law alluded to is that, when introduced into the
blood, all isomorphous substances produce analogous effects and give rise to the same
reactions in the animal ceconomy. This law has been verified by an extended series
of experiments with the salts of magnesia, lime, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, zinc,
cadmium, copper, bismuth, lead, baryta, strontia, soda, silver, potash, ammonia,
palladium, platinum, osmium, iridium, antimony,—the acids of phosphorus, arsenic,
bromine, chlorine, iodine, sulphur, and selenium. One of the facts observed is the
connexion which exists between the physiological action of these substances, and
their isomorphous relations to the elements of the blood. It is found that those
substances which exist in the blood, or which have isomorphous relations with its
elements, give rise to the least marked reactions: thus phosphoric and arsenic acids
can be introduced into the veins without producing any marked phenomena, whilst,
on the other hand, those elements which are most distinct in an isomorphous point

aa

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 41

of view, from the constituents of the blood, are those which give rise to the most
marked phenomena. Two drachms of arsenic acid injected into the veins will pro-
duce no marked effect on any organ; but a grain of chloride of palladium, or two
grains of nitrate of baryta, are sufficient instantly to arrest the movements of the
heart. Several other instances analogous to those quoted were pointed out.

On the Action of Oxalic Acid upon the Dead Tissues of the Animal Body.
By H. Letuesy, WB.

It has been stated by Dr. Coindet, Dr. Christison and others, that oxalic acid does
not appear to have any corrosive action on the stomach like the mineral acids. Dr.
Letheby however remarks that these statements are opposed to the observations
which he has made. In every case which he had examined of poisoning by oxalic
acid, the stomach soon after death was found to be completely corroded, so that it
would scarcely hold together. Numerous experiments were made with various
animal tissues, such as submitting skin, stomach, intestine, muscle and tendon to
the action of solutions of oxalic acid of different strengths. After standing about
twelve or fourteen hours at a temperature of 60° Fahr., it was found that the cel-
lular and mucous tissues of each underwent either complete solution, or else were so
softened that they broke down under the pressure of the thumb and fingers; the
albuminous and muscular tissues were also softened and looked as if they had been
scalded.

On an important Chemical Law in the Nutrition of Animals.
By R. D. Tuomson, M.D.

This paper was a recapitulation of the results obtained by Dr. Thomson when
engaged on the Government Commission, and published in the Report presented to
Parliament, and also in Dr. Thomson’s ‘ Researches on the Food of Animals.’

On the Difference in the Physiological Actions of the Yellow and Red Prus-
siates as an evidence of their containing dissimilar Radicals. By H.
Letuesy, MB.

In the course of his inquiries into the actions of the various compounds containing
cyanogen on the animal ceconomy, the author was particularly struck with the great
dissimilarity in the effects produced by the yellow and red prussiates of potash, and
was led to think it might furnish some evidence upon the side of Liebig’s doctrine,
that the two salts contain radicals which are dissimilar. To prepare himself for this
inquiry, however, he thought it necessary to ascertain what would be the effects of
the simple and the double cyanides, and then to experiment with the yellow and red
prussiates of similar bases. Of the simple cyanides, he chose those of potassium,
sodium, ammonium, mercury, lead, iron, zinc and silver ; and, to provide against any
fallacy which might arise from the action of the gastric juice, injected them into the
veins or peritoneal cavity. Contrary rather to his expectations, it was found that
_ they were all poisonous ; the soluble ones generally acting as quickly as prussic acid,
_ while the others required a little longer time for the development of the symptoms ;
but in all cases death followed their administration, from two to five grains being
sufficient to produce such a result. Of the double cyanides, he chose those of po-
tassium and zinc, potassium and silver, potassium and nickel, and a mixture of
cyanide of potassium with cyanide of iron. These also were found to be most poi-
_ sonous, proving fatal in doses almost as small as the preceding. Now, these in-
quiries clearly established two facts,—that neither the simple nor double cyanides
_ could be given even in five-grain doses with impunity. The author was therefore
_ much astonished to find that a class of salts regarded by some chemists as double
_cyanides should have little or no action upon the animal ceconomy, and that they
might be administered in doses of half an ounce without their exhibiting any un-
pleasant symptoms whatever. This was found to be the case with the ferrocyanides,
experiments having been made with those of potassium, sodium, ammonium, barium,
lead, iron and silver.

42 - REPORT—1846,

He next examined the effects of the red prussiates; and here again, contrary to
what would have been surmised from the want of action in the preceding compounds,
it was found that they constituted a class almost as poisonous as the simple cyanides.
The experiments were made with the red prussiates of potash and lead, and with a
crystalline acid obtained by the action of muriatic acid and ether upon the former
of these compounds. Each of them was quickly fatal in doses of from ten to forty
grains.

On the use of stating, with the results of Analyses, the nature of the Methods
employed. By W. West, F.R.S.

The author of this communication pointed out the necessity which existed for
knowing, not merely the results to which chemists might arrive, but the processes
by which these results were obtained. It was shown that many of the discrepancies
found to exist in analytical results would thus be satisfactorily explained, and all
doubt as to the correctness of an analysis removed.

On the presence of Atmospheric Air, uncombined Chlorine, and Carbonic Acid
found in the Water of some of the Wells in the suburbs of Southampton,
and their Action on Lead. By Henry Osporn.

The principal object of this paper was to caution persons residing in the neigh-
bourhood of Southampton against the use of leaden pipes for conveying water, and
to induce them to avoid the use of lead in any form for that purpose without having
the water previously examined, in order to ascertain whether it possessed the property
of acting upon the metal and holding it in solution. The author brought forward
several instances of the serious consequences which had resulted from the use of
water impregnated with lead, and pointed out the different solvent principles found
in the water, one of which was uncombined chlorine discovered in a spring in the
New Forest. This water possessed the property of bleaching Brazil paper and redden-
ing litmus paper after concentration. The amount of uncombined chlorine was esti-
mated as chloride of silver by deducting the amount of the latter contained in twenty
ounces of water from that of the chlorine contained in the solid contents, the former
weighing 1°2 more than the latter; thus indicating 0°296 of uncombined chlorine
which is capable of uniting with 0°864 of lead, forming 1°16 of chloride of lead in
the imperial pint. The lead held in solution by carbonic acid and the oxygen of
atmospheric air was converted into chromate of lead, and estimated as chloride of
lead, which indicated 0°25 or 0*2 of the oxide in twenty ounces of water. The solid
contents in an imperial pint were found to vary from one to three grains, and to be
composed of the chlorides of sodium, calcium and magnesia, sulphate of lime, silica
and vegetable matter. Notwithstanding the preservative property which the salts
contained in spring-water are said to possess by forming an insoluble crust in the
interior of the pipes, it was found that the leaden pipes had been in use for some
years and the action of the water on the lead still continued with as much energy as
when they were first laid down, thus showing the presence of the above solvents, and
that they met with no resistance from the presence of the saline matter.

On the Rationale of certain Practices employed in Agriculture.
By Prof. Dauseny, M.D., FBS.

The Professor instanced among other practices the use of quicklime and of gypsum
as fertilizers to the land.

The former of these substances he supposes to act in part by rendering those in-
organic substances which are present in the soil more soluble, or, in accordance with
the views laid down by the author in a memoir which he has published in the Phi-
losophical Transactions of last year, by converting the dormant constituents of the
soil into active ones, or into a state in which they become immediately available.

He appealed to the authority of Professor Fuchs, confirmed by that of Mr. Pri-
deaux of Plymouth, as showing that the alkali may be extracted from granite readily
by water after the rock in a pounded form has been heated together with quicklime ;

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 43

and he stated that a soil exhausted by long-continued cropping was found by him-
_ self to yield to water twice as much alkali, after having been mixed with quicklime,
as it had done before.

Hence the frequent application of lime tends to produce exhaustion in the land,
not only because it supplies in itself no fresh alkali, but likewise because, by ren-
dering that which the soil contains more soluble, it causes it to be washed away
more readily by atmospheric water.

Ploughing, and other mechanical methods of pulverizing the soil, appear to act in
the same way; and so also may we suppose to do the sprinkling of the soil with
sulphuric acid, as is practised in some parts of the continent.

The author then alluded to the various modes of explaining the advantage attri-
buted to gypsum which certain leading agricultural chemists had proposed; one
ascribing its virtues to the direct influence of the salt; another to the indirect good
resulting from it, owing to its property of fixing ammonia; a third regarding its acid
constituent as of the principal utility ; and a fourth its base.

Dr. Daubeny gave reasons for rejecting the third and fourth of these hypotheses,
but considered that the use of gypsum may be in part attributable to the first and in
part to the second of the causes pointed out; supposing that this substance is gene-
rally useful to all plantssfrom its property of fixing ammonia, and also especially
serviceable to certain species, by supplying them with a salt which they require for
their development. He was principally anxious however to bring forward this sub-
ject, in the hope of inducing chemists to institute fresh experiments for the purpose
of setting the question at rest.

On the Fairy-rings of Pastures. By Prof. J. T. Way.

A description of these patches, with which most persons are familiar, was given ;
and it was stated that the grass of which such rings are formed is always the first
to vegetate in the spring, and keeps the lead of the ordinary grass of the pastures
till the period of cutting. If the grass of these fairy-rings be examined in the spring
and early summer, it will be found to conceal a number of agarics or “‘ toad-stools”
of various sizes. They are found situated either entirely on the outside of the ring
or on the outer border of the grass which composes it. The theory of DeCandolle,
that these rings increase by the excretions of these fungi, being favourable for the
growth of grass but injurious to their own subsequent development on the same
spot, was remarked on, and shown to be insufficient to explain the phenomena. A
chemical examination of some fungi (the true St, George’s Agaric of Clusius—Agaricus
graveolens) which grew in the fairy-rings on the pasture around the College at Ciren-
cester was made. They contained 87°46 per cent. of water, and 12°54 per cent. of
dry matter, The ashes of these were found to contain—

Silicas.sssunsssssecdevessass.. “1°09

Lime ....cecece phedintdeiouka® (1°35
Magnesia. ......escsecsesees 2°20
Peroxide of iron ......... trace
Sulphuric acid ............ 1°93
Carbonic acid ........ sexe 3°80

Phosphoric acid ......... 29°49

VOtAGE) sancisnmenpurpasesacs 00:10

SOdA dsp asesateanccadeaceadne a a2

Chloride of sodium ...... 0°41

98°69
The abundance of phosphoric acid and potash, existing no doubt as the tribasic
phosphate of potash (3KO, PO5), which is found in these ashes is most remarkable.
The author’s view of the formation of these rings is as follows :—A fungus is deve-
loped on a single spot of ground, sheds its seed and dies: on the spot where it grew
it leaves a valuable manuring of phosphoric acid and alkalies, some magnesia, and a
little sulphate of lime. Another fungus might undoubtedly grow on the same spot
again; but upon the death of the first the ground becomes occupied by a vigorous
_ crop of grass, rising like a Phoenix on the ashes of its predecessors. It would thus

44 REPORT—1846.

appear that the increase of these fairy-rings is due to the large quantity of phosphated
alkali, magnesia, &c. secreted by these fungi; and whilst they are extending them-
selves in search of the additional food which they require, they leave, on decaying, a
most abundant crop of nutriment for the grass. :

On certain Principles which obtain in the application of Manures.
By Witt1aM CHARLES SPOONER.

This was a paper by a practical agriculturist, who has paid attention to the re-
commendations of chemists as to the application of manures. It was pointed out
that many of the recommendations of chemists were nearly valueless to the practical
farmer on account of the expense involved in their employment. The direct appli-
cation of sulphuric acid and silicate of potash were adduced as examples, the expense
in both cases rendering their use impracticable, however valuable these ingredients
may otherwise prove. Many other examples were given enforcing on chemists the
necessity of connecting with their experimental inquiries the practicability of their
agricultural applications, both with reference to economical use and the ease with
which they may be employed.

On the application of the Principles of a Natural System of ‘Organic Che-
mistry to the Explanation of the Phenomena occurring in the diseased
Potato Tuber. By G. Kempe, M.D.

At the meeting of the Association last year at Cambridge, Dr. Kemp introduced
to the notice of the Society an outline of the results of two years’ investigation into
the nature of the changes effected by vital and physical agents on organized bodies,
his principal aim being to suggest an arrangement founded upon natural affinities,
and capable of interpreting the results of organic analysis, consistently with the phe-
nomena which natural or artificial agents have effected.

At an early period of the ravages committed last year by what is called the potato
disease, Dr. Kemp was induced, by the application of elementary analysis, to attempt
the removal of some of the difficulties in which the explanation of the subject was
involved. The results of those analyses are recorded in the abstracts of the Cam-
bridge Philosophical Society. By the application of the principles of the natural
system of organic chemistry which he has suggested, the author arrived at the con-
clusion, ‘‘ that the true nature of the affection is an abnormal tendency to premature
germination,” and that the changes which the diseased tuber undergoes are identical
with those which had three years previously been discovered by Erdmann, Marchand
and Scharling to take place during the normal germination of seeds and tubers.

Some remarks followed which all bore on the importance of autumn planting.
Numerous striking instances were adduced in which healthy potatoes had been grown
from diseased tubers planted in the autumn.

Some Inquiries into the Extent, Causes and Remedies of Fungi destructive in
Agriculture. By J. PRIDEAUX.

lst. Extent.—DeCandolle’s theory of injurious excretions having been opposed
by many arguments and experiments, particularly those recently published by Dr.
Daubeny ; that of Liebig, of specific exhaustion of the soil by plants of one species,
leaving it fit for another which required different ingredients, had been generally
substituted. Some however had taken a middle course, and supposed plants to breed
animalcules ; which they left in the soil, and which would feed upon other plants of
the same species, but not upon those of different ones. The writer also, unsatisfied
with the theory of specific exhaustion of inorganic ingredients, from the occasional
unaccountable efficacy of ashes and soot, and the inconsistent effects of inorganic
manures ; had investigated the organic residues on the soil,—after wheat, barley, tur-
nips and potatoes; compared them with the premature decay of wheat (where too
often cultivated) in patches, expanding from centres, like fairy-rings; and with the
notoriety of fungus in the potato disease; and had thence been led to inquire how
far such fungous parasites might be the general representatives of DeCandolle’s sup-

ae

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 45

posed injurious excretions. To what extent this may be true, the microscope will
best decide, by examining the roots and contiguous soil of plants after harvest, espe-
cially those which have ripened seeds.

2nd. Causes.—Fungi and mucors were supposed to bear somewhat the same re-
lation to vegetable, as mites and the like to animal, life—a sort of debased or degraded
vitality, produced when the organizing vital power was not enough predominant over
the disorganizing tendency to decomposition, to effect due assimilation of the nutri-
_ tious matter presented ; but still sufficiently so to prevent decomposition or decay.
The constant struggle between the organizing vital force, and the decomposing power
of chemistry, was described ; and instances were adduced to show that the invigora-
tion of the vital force by solar light, and abundance of proper nourishment, enabled
it effectually to repress the decomposing action; whilst, on the contrary, gloom,
warm damp, and stagnant electrical air, assisted the disorganizing force, and often
produced predatory fungi, which might thus be considered a sort of retarded disor-
ganization. So ripening plants, as their vital powers decay, might generate such
parasites, which would explain how they weaken the soil so much more than green
crops, in proportion to the contents of their ashes. Such fungi, though not the
cause of disease or decay, are effectual promoters of both, and probably the chief
means of infection, where that also exists.

3rd. Remedies.—If further investigation prove fungi thus generated to produce
such generally injurious effects, the remedies will be of practical importance. These
should be cheap and antiseptic, as well as destructive to fungi. Sulphate of copper
with salt, which had been successfully used for seed potatoes, was too costly for
spreading over the soil. Fresh lime, the general destroyer of noxious vermin, roots
and seeds, would probably answer till rendered inert by carbonic acid. Salt, which
appeared more promising, he had found, in some experiments, rather promote than
destroy fungi. Lime and salt digested together would eliminate caustic soda, a very
active destroyer; and soda ash, with or without lime, would have a somewhat like
effect ; and ammoniacal gas liquor is perhaps a still more destructive application.
But none of these alkalies can be regarded as antiseptic; and the ammonia, when
neutralized in the soil, might even promote disorganizing fermentation where already
too strong; and therefore, though they might do after seed crops, more antiseptic
dressings must be used where there is putrescent tendency. Chloride of lime, in
solution, he had found useless on diseased potatoes; the powder had been said to
answer better, but either would soon be rendered inactive in the soil by the humous
matters. Sulphuric acid, diluted, might succeed, where farmers had the means of
applying it; and alum, which is of easy application, is a cheap and powerful anti-
septic.

Dressings of this kind, intended to kill the fungi and check the disorganizing
action, would be turned under in the first ploughing after harvest, independent of the
usual manure for nourishing and exciting vital action.

New Facts bearing on the Chemical Theory of Volcanoes.
By Prof. Dauseny, MD., F.RS.

This communication detailed the views formerly promulgated by the author in
support of that at one time entertained by Sir Humphry Davy, that volcanic phe-
nomena are due to the oxidation of the metallic bases of the earths and alkalies by
the access of water and atmospheric air to the interior of the earth.

After alluding to the hypothesis of central heat, and pointing out in what respects
it fails to account for the phenomena presented by volcanoes, Dr. Daubeny particu-
‘larised two new facts which lend countenance to the chemical theory. The first of
these is the chemical composition of volcanic products, which, according to recent
researches, is such as to lead to the inference that they are derived from granitic
materials, by the super-addition of those alkaline and earthy ingredients, which would
arise from the supposed oxidation of the inflammable bases assumed to exist in the
interior of the earth.

The other new fact was the emission of flames from the orifices of Vesuvius and
other volcanoes, attributable apparently to the combustion of hydrogen in some of its
combinations, this disengagement of hydrogen being an immediate consequence of
the supposed process,

46 REPORT—1846.

Notices of Experiments in Thermo-Electricity. By J. Reaper, M.D.
Some experiments were shown by which a brass bar covered with paper, placed
in the focus of a reflecting sheet of copper bent into a semicircular form, and at a
short distance from a spirit-lamp, was made to revolye. This Dr. Reade thought to
be due to the influence of thermo-electricity.

On the Electrization of Needles in different Media.
By Prof. C. Matreucct.

Professor Matteucci has found that needles electrized in air, in oil, or in water,
were differently affected by the current, the magnetism varying with the nature of
the medium in which the needles were placed. The materials employed were the
oil of turpentine, olive oil, alcohol and water, and also plates of mica. The discharge
of a Leyden jar was then passed near the needles suspended in these fluids, and the
amount of magnetization ascertained.

On Crystallography and a new Goniometer. By H. B. Lerson, M.D.

This new system of crystallography was, during the last session of the Chemical
Society, brought under the notice of that body, and illustrated by models and instru-
ments, Dr. Leeson’s goniometer consists in adapting to a microscope a polarizing
prism ; the crystal observed through this polarizing eye-piece of course presents two
faces instead of one, but by turning the eye-piece until these two angles are made to
correspond, the true angle of inclination from the axial line is obtained, and its value
is read off from a graduated circle within which the polarizing arrangement moves.

On the Influence which finely-divided Platina exerts on the Electrodes of a
Voltameter. By the Rev. T. R. Rozinson, D.D.

Having occasion some years ago to construct a small voltaic battery on Daniell’s
principle, and wishing to make it as powerful as was consistent with a limited size,
I was led to determine its constants by Ohm’s theory. Using the voltameter, and
grouping observations by the means used in astronomy, I succeeded in this; and
when Mr. Wheatstone’s paper on the ‘ Rheostat’ appeared, wished to confirm by
that instrument my results. The facility of its application led me to other examina-
tions, one of which I have ventured to lay before the Section, as it seems to me im-
portant in its bearing on a matter lately brought before the scientific world by Grove
and Faraday, namely the intimate connexion of all or nearly all the molecular forces,
The galvanometer used by me, being intended to measure powerful currents, con-
sisted of a simple needle suspended in the centre of a massive rectangle of copper.
I was in hopes that this simplicity of construction might give some simple relation
between the deflection and force, but it was not so; the denominator of Ohm’s ex-
pression of the force of the current is

R+=r Veo taagd B cos* 6 }.

as given by careful interpolation; but I have not tried whether this can be deduced
from theory. The needle’s magnetism was constantly examined and kept at satura-
tion. The rheostat was of Mr. Wheatstone’s second kind slightly modified, its wire
copper 7;th of an inch, and 100 turns of it are 70 feet. The value of E, the elec-
tromotive force of Ohm, or rather the infensity of the sum or difference of the che-
mical affinities exerted in the cells is, as in Wheatstone’s memoir, expressed by the
number of turns of the rheostat required to bring the needle from 45° to 40°. The
determinations of it are very consistent, provided that the magnetism of the needle is
constané and all the apparatus in given positions *.

* The author adds the value of E in the following cases :—

Copper, zinc, dilute sulphuric acid .........seseeeeeeeee peunaaae FEE conssosscsesesecs 2 = oL'U
Platina, zinc, dilute sulphuric acid ..........sesecscecessnversesreveeors oawd soa sesame ane .. E = 43°0
Daniell’s cell ....... to seeaccenecerccedcarerstocccgscsnsccsesesrsoncs osegenescecsenadnestane® cote = OF
Ditto, with mur. acid and ammonio-chloride of COpper .sccsseseceeseceeeeeecsceereceee . E = 539
Zinc in dilute mur. acid, copper and a mixture of sulph. of copper and nitr.ofammon. E = 68°0
Groye's)cell, .i3. Wukesssiecscecedéacess sederseseeseecvean edad. Gdssasen tacdbbecncvocccoscabedes Mules Oma

These values neither change with the concentration of the fluids nor with the temperatures.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 447

When one of these cells is connected with a voltameter, no decomposition takes
place that is sensible, though a feeble current passes. With two a slight extrication
of gas takes place at first and ceases, though it may be made continuous by reversing
the direction of the current. Three act steadily: the inactivity of the others is owing
to what has been called polarization of the electrodes, but which I would rather name
electrolytic resistance. It may be measured as E in turns of the rheostat, and was,
with the particular charges which I then used, 2°5 E. Obviously, therefore, two cells
could not decompose it, for in that case by Ohm’s theory the energy of the current

pu2E—e5E
~“2R+rt+y
(y being the resistance of the voltameter) is negative.

This antagonist force is, I believe, referred to the accumulation of nascent hydrogen
and its peroxide on the electrodes; and it seemed likely that the evolution of these
substances might be promoted by coating the platina with that metal in a state of
fine division. This was performed by filling the voltameter with chloride of platina,
immersing in it a positive platina wire, and making the electrodes negative. The case
was now altered; one cell decomposed feebly with chlorine compounds as charges,
but decidedly with sulphates; two give 1*1 cubic inch of the mixed gases in five
minutes. With higher numbers the difference is also decided. The quantities given
by 3 cells had been 2°5,now 5°5

6 a3 ? 9°9 o> I 1 8

6 double ,, 185 ,, 25:3

My first impression was that the electrolytic resistance must have been lessened, for
the fact of decomposition implies that n E is greater than e in the formula; but on
examining it I found that e=E x 2°49. Therefore J infer that the force which thus
assists the battery in subverting the affinity of oxygen for hydrogen is of such a
nature that the galvanometer does not take cognizance of it, and therefore is not elec-
tric. What then is its nature? The only explanation which occurs to me is, that
the energetic capillary attraction which appears to exist at the surface of this platina
coating may be, like heat or electricity, convertible into chemical attraction, or that
the film of water in contact with it being decomposed, the heat evolved by its con-
densing a new one (for the intensity of this capillary force is very great) may, as in
Grove’s recent discovery, aid the separation of the gases. I may add that this pe.
culiar action is more energetic at the positive electrode than the other. I removed
the coating from one of the plates by filling the voltameter with muriatic acid, and
making it positive. The surface retained however some of it which could not be re-
moved. When this was the negative electrode, more gas was evolved than when it
Was positive. With 2 cells the quantities are 2°18 and 2°68, with 6 cells 8°60 and
9°12. It maybe added, that in all these cases the resistance of the voltameter itself
appears to have been the same, the different measures varying from 38 to 35.

On the Electricity of Tension in the Voltaic Battery.
By Joun P. Gassiot, F.R.S.

_The author, referring to a paper presented to the Royal Society in December 1843,
remarks that the water battery he then used, which with 3520 pairs gave a continued
series of sparks, is at this time nearly as energetic in its action as at first, merely re-
quiring to be refilled with water from time to time as it evaporates.

This was the only arrangement of the voltaic battery by which he was then en-
abled to exalt the effects of tension so as to obtain the electrical spark before contact
of the terminals; although with the assistance of an exceedingly delicate gold-leaf
electroscope, he at that time elicited distinct signs of tension in a single cell of Grove’s
nitric acid battery, and subsequently in one of copper and zinc charged with sul-
phuric acid. But in all the different series of experiments described in the paper
‘referred to, he invariably found that the higher the chemical affinities of the elements,
the greater was the development of the effects of tension, For instance, to produce
a certain extent of tension with the gas battery of Grove when charged with oxygen
and hydrogen, ten or twelve pairs of cells were required; with hydrogen and chlo-
rine, six pairs ; with chlorine in a single tube and amalgamated zinc as the positive

48 REPORT—1846.
~
element, two pairs; and while it took sixteen cells of the water battery to produce a
_ given effect on the electroscope, ten of the same cells when charged with dilute acid
produced the same effect in the same instrument.

The static effects of a voltaic battery are very feebly developed, except when the
battery is insulated, and the difficulties of insulation in an extended series are at all
times great. In the battery excited by acid solutions these difficulties are much in-
creased, in consequence of the conducting power of the liquids ; still they are not
insurmountable; and as of all the batteries hitherto constructed, the nitric acid battery
of Grove is composed of elements of the highest chemical affinity, the 13 in.
author determined on constructing one, in which the effects of tension
should be heightened to the extent of exhibiting the spark before the
circuit was completed, which he hoped to accomplish without being
compelled to extend the series to any extraordinary number, as he had
done in the water battery previously described.

For this purpose he had 100 glass cells constructed three inches deep,
with stems seven inches long; the zinc of each series was attached to
a slip of platinum foil; each cell was carefully charged in the usual
manner (but only half-full), with strong nitric and dilute sulphuric
acid, and great care was taken that the outside of each cell with the
stem was perfectly dry. To the terminals of this battery were attached
the copper plates of the micrometer electrometer described in a former
paper (Phil. Trans. 1840). On approximating the plates of this in-
strument to about 555th of an inch, a series of minute sparks took
place, and in a few seconds the usual voltaic are was produced ; this arc
could then be elongated to the extent of half an inch, in consequence of
the particles of the copper having passed between the plates.

If, in lieu of the copper plates, pieces of charcoal be similarly ap-
proximated to z2,5ths of an inch, the arc is at once produced, instead
of the sparks as from the discs ; the loose particles of the carbon being
more easily detached by the force of tension, and consequently at once
producing the are.

The author believes that this is the first instance in which a ¢rue spark
has been obtained from so small a series of the voltaic battery.

‘soul ¢

‘soqouy £

On the Decomposition of Water into its constituent Gases by Heat.
By W. R. Grove, F.R.S.

Mr. Grove called attention in the first place to the fact, proved by Cavendish
and the French philosophers, that oxygen and hydrogen being exposed to a high’
temperature the electric spark immediately combined to form water. He stated his
belief that the explosion of the mixed gases by the electric spark was due only to the
heat of the spark, and not to any specific electrical effect. He then announced his
discovery that similar processes to those by which water may be formed are capable
of decomposing water. Priestley’s method for decomposing gases by passing them
through heated tubes was described, and the advantages of using a form of eudio-
meter devised by Mr. Grove, in which an incandescent platina wire was employed
to effect combination and decomposition, were pointed out. By an apparatus of this
kind, ammonia, camphor, the protoxide and peroxide of nitrogen were readily de-
composed. It was stated that hydrogen gas exposed to the ignited wire always
showed the presence of oxygen, and that it is impossible to pass hydrogen gas
through water without its taking up so much oxygen as to acquire the power of
giving luminosity to phosphorus in the dark.

It was found that if equal volumes of hydrogen and carbonic acid were exposed to
the action of the ignited wire, there was a contraction to one volume, leaving a resi-
due of carbonic oxide. If carbonic oxide alone was exposed to the wire over water,
the gas expanded in volume, and the carbonic oxide, taking oxygen from the water,
was converted into carbonic acid. Here we have two dissimilar results produced by
the same cause. By means of hydrogen we take oxygen from carbonic acid, leaving
carbonic oxide ; and by means of carbonic oxide we take oxygen from water, leaving
hydrogen. If steam is formed in the eudiometric tube and acted on by the ignited

r, . TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 49
wire, on cooling a small bubble of gas is formed, which is found to be mixed oxygen
and hydrogen in the proportions in which they form water. This is the result of the
first action of the heated wire: in a few seconds a small bubble of gas is formed ;
but if the action be indefinitely continued, the gas does not increase in quantity.
It is however easy to remove the bubble after it is formed, and bring a fresh supply
of steam under the influence of the heated wire, and thus to collect a sufficient
quantity of gas for an eudiometric examination.
_ Numerous forms of apparatus were described by which this result can be ob-
tained. It might be objected that, as the wire was ignited by a voltaic battery, the
_ decomposition was not due to the heat of the wire, but to an electric action. This
_ objection would not indeed be maintained by those who were well acquainted with
electrical phenomena. With the view, however, of removing all doubt, the use of
_ the battery was entirely done away with, and all the results obtained by the agency
' of heat alone, in the following manner :—
Into a silyer tube a narrow tube of platina is soldered ; and this is again connected
_ with a bent tube which admits of the removal of any gas formed. The tubes being
filled with distilled water, and the open extremity immersed in a vessel of water, the
_ flame of an oxyhydrogen blowpipe is made to act upon the narrow tube of platina,
by which this is brought to a white heat. The water is of course instantly con-
verted into steam, and this steam is decomposed by the agency of the heat alone.
By apparent boiling, we thus convert steam into mixed oxygen and hydrogen gases ;
and this operation may be continued for any length of time by bringing a fresh
_ supply of steam under the influence of the ignited platina. Ifa fused or intensely-
| heated globule of platina is plunged into water, bubbles of oxyhydrogen gas imme-
| diately ascend from it, which may be collected in an inverted tube.
Prof. Grove went on to show the probable connexion between this phenomenon
of decomposition, and the spheroidal state of fluids when projected on capsules of
| heated platina; this had been referred to a repulsive action of a coating of steam
_ enveloping the spheroid of fluid; but in all probability the spheroidal drop was
_ made to assume a state of tension approaching decomposition by the agency of the
_ heat to which it was exposed. He also entered into several considerations suggested
_ by the above facts as to the relation of heat to chemical affinity, as well as their
geological bearings and possible practical applications.

Notice of a Gas Furnace for Organic Analysis. By Joun Percy, M.D.

In this arrangement, gas burnt, mixed with air through wire-gauze, is substituted
for charcoal. The advantages are its extreme cleanliness, and the power which the
operator possesses of regulating at will the heat, which is not practicable in the or-
dinary furnace for organic analysis with charcoal.

Extraordinary appearance in the Flame of a common mould candle.
By E. R. J. KNow es.

The writer’s attention was suddenly attracted by the light of the candle flitting,
as though a moth had flown into the flame, when to his surprise instead of an insect
struggling he saw a bright spot revolving with great rapidity in the flame; on exa-
“mining it, the bright spot was found to be the end of a very fine filament attached to
the side of the wick about half-way up the ignited part, and thus held to it, while
_ the extremity with the bright spot of light revolved in a circle like a ‘‘ Catherine
_wheel,””—the circle described being about 4th or 33,ths of an inch in diameter. It
moved with a velocity of about three or four revolutions in a second, and ceased
revolving in about three seconds. As stated, when it commenced it was a very small
- luminous point, and it increased visibly in size as it revolved, becoming eventually a
ball or aggregation of carbon, suspended by a single thread like a very fine hair.

| Experiments on the Expansion of Salts. By Messrs. Joure and PLAYFAIR.

[This paper will be published elsewhere in extenso. ]
1846. E

50 REPORT—1846., .

GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

On the Origin of the Coal of Silesia. By Professor GoprEert of Breslau,
Communicated by Sir R. I. Murcuison, G.C.St.S., PRS,

Tue Society of Sciences of Holland at Haarlem, proposed in the year 1844, the
following prize questions :—

Ist. To point out by accurate investigation of the different coal-measures, whe-
ther the beds of coal derived their origin solely from the vegetables which once lived
upon their present locality, or whether they originated from plants which had been
floated thither from other places.

2nd. To inquire whether different coal layers have had a different origin.

At the session of that Society of the 23rd of May, 1846, a paper sent in by me
was honoured with both prizes : the suggester of the questions, Professor Von Breda,
received a silver medal.

Regretting very much that I am unable to attend the present meeting of the
British Association, I beg to submit to the Society’s indulgent criticism some ex-
tracts from the before-mentioned paper, the materials for which were derived from
the coal formations of Silesia. I am now about to extend this inquiry, at the re-
quest of the Prussian authorities, to the other coal strata situated in the Rhenish
provinces of Westphalia. : ;

Geologists had rarely found in former years any well-preserved plants in the coal
itself, and had inferred its composition from the plants that lie in the shale,
&c. associated with the coal: my observations in Upper and Lower Silesia prove
the correctness of this inference, as I have met with extended coal layers in
which the plants (Sigillaria, Stigmaria, Calamites, Lepidodendra, Nogyerathia) are
still so well preserved that we can distinguish with the naked eye the individual spe-
cies. Thesestems, or more properly their barks, lie pressed flat one upon the other,
commonly without the inner parenchyma (yet sometimes the latter is preserved
and converted into coal), in such a manner that we are able still to recognise, under
the microscope, the cells of the parenchyma. Besides this, the so-called mineral
charcoal, or fibrous anthracite, does not occur here in single little fragments as it
is found elsewhere in the coal, but in broad compressed stems a foot long, which
offer the structure of the Araucariz of our present period (Araucarites carbonarius,
mihi).

According to the predominance of one or the other genus of plants, I distinguish
at many places in Upper Silesia, coal of Sigillaria, Araucarian coal, and Lepido-
dendron coal, of which the last is far the rarest.

In consequence of these observations I can now give a very simple explanation
of the way in which coal has been formed. The Sigillariz (Stigmaria), Lepido-
dendrez, Calamitez, containing a softer parenchyme, soon began to be decomposed
and disaggregated ; but when this process of decomposition was terminated, by early
depositions covering the vegetable mass, and the formation of coal was rendered
possible, the Araucariz, which were much harder, and therefore not equally ad-
vanced in decomposition, were introduced into the mass in longer fragments, in
which the ligneous structure, viz. the parenchymatous wood, cells and medullary
rays, are still clearly discernible even under a simple lens. By a more detailed re-
search into the situations which are occupied by all the species of plants detected in the
coal itself (which species amount to eighty in number), compared with those plants
which occur in the slate-clays and sandstonesof the Silesian coal-pits (which produce
about four millions of tons a-year), certain positive relations, or modes of distribu-
tion, became apparent, such as could not be overlooked. I observed a separation
into groups, or the consociated occurrence of certain species; the failing of one
species and the substitution of another of the same genus in one and the same coal
stratum ; and also a different condition of the vegetables in the strata superimposed
one on another.

Besides this, the mode of preservation of the fossil plants (ferns with flexible but
browned leaflets, &c.), the uniform continuity of many strata with the same thick-
ness over a space of many German miles, the multitude of upright stems, of which
as many as 200 have already been observed, with other conditions not noticed here, ~
are proofs of tranquil deposition over the present localities,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 51

On the other hand, calculation shows, that to form such thick strata of coal as
occur in our country (to the thickness of from thirty to sixty feet), the plants which
could grow upon the same area, even in their most luxuriant condition, would never
have sufficed. I therefore cannot but suppose that a large part of our layers of
coal have been formed after the manner of our peat moors, during a long course
of time; and certainly in the humid way, as I have formerly attempted to show,
and as I have more recently exemplified satisfactorily by experiments. If, for in-
_ stance, we keep vegetables in boiling water for a long time (for three months to a
year), they are converted into brown coal (lignite), and they acquire at last a totally
black coal-like condition, if we add a small quantity of sulphate of iron, in the
proportion of half a drachm to six ounces of plants; no one will doubt that this
salt, which occurs so commonly in coal, has largely cooperated in the formation of
the mineral.

I may state that many spherosiderites of the coal haye been produced just as

_ our marsh iron ores (Limonite, Rasenerz) now are.

On Sea Water, and the Effects of Variation in its Currents.
By Prof. Forcunammer of Copenhagen.

The author, referring to a chemical examination of sea water in different latitudes
and currents, tried to show the influence which a change in oceanic currents might
have had upon the climate of the North of Europe, The inquiries of Prof. Steenstrup
and Lovén respecting the changes in the forest- trees and marine animals indicated a
slow increase of the mean temperature of Northern Europe. To account for this, Dr.
_ Forchhammer supposed the British Channel to have been closed, and a polar current to
haye passed over the lower partsof Northern Russia into the Bothnian Gulf, and thence
into the German Ocean. The separation of England from France was supposed to
have taken place in recent times ; and without quoting the zoological evidence col-
lected by British naturalists, he would refer to physical features,—such as the va-
_ rious changes which the Rhine and the Scheldt suffer at their mouths, and which even
the smallest rivulet on the western shore of the Cimbrian Peninsula undergoes.
These rivers turn their mouths towards that side from which the tide comes,—one ha-
Ying, in historical times, changed its mouth more than thirty miles to the south. The
mouth of the Rhine has been known for about 2000 years; and since the time of
the Romans, when it flowed straight towards the north, where at present the Zuy-
der Zee is, it has been seen constantly turning towards the west. From this change,
he inferred a change in the direction of the tide, which he supposes to have arrived
formerly at the coast of Holland from the north, instead of from the west, as at pre-
sent, The marshes on the southern and eastern sides of the German Ocean become
| broader in proportion as they approach the mouth of the present channel ; a circum-
tance the very reverse of what might have been expected under present circum-
stances, since the clay is never deposited when there is any considerable motion in
the water. On the contrary, if the Channel were shut up, then the present locality
of the marshes would be that best adapted for their formation: from which he infers
that the principal marshes were formed before the opening of the Channel. The
) earliest accounts of the Channel date from the fourth century 8B.c., and at the time
f Alexander the Great we find that news of a very great inundation in the north-
ern countries (the Cimbrian flood) had reached Greece; and a tradition still ex-
isting in Jutland connects such a flood with the opening of the Channel. Along
all the western part of the Cimbrian Peninsula occurs a bed of pebbles, and in some
jlaces occur rolled pieces of the clay of the marshes, which must be ascribed to an
undation washing away the lighter materials. This inundation the author regards
‘as that of which both history and tradition speak ; and he thinks it was occasioned.
by the first opening of the Channel. These changes were in close connexion witha
depression of the greater part of Northern and Western Europe ; which is indicated
ong the coasts of Denmark and England by submerged forests and peat-mosses.
In the shore of the dukedom of Sleswig a tumulus has been found in a submerged
st ; it contained knives of flint, and shows that the subsidence took place after
the country-was inhabited. The continuous elevation of the North of Europe would
d to this result,—that the White Sea would flow over the lower parts of Russia

EZ

52 REPORT—1846.

and Finland, bringing cold water and masses of ice into the German Ocean, which
being at that epoch a bay receiving waters also which had flowed round the northern
coast of Scotland, must have been materially influenced in its climate, so as to have
been colder than it is now. f

On the Fishes of the London Clay. By M. Acassiz.

The Professor stated that since his last report the number of species known from |
the Paris basin increased; whilst few new forms had been obtained in the London
clay. He had however been interested in the examination of specimens of the teeth
of the saw-fish (Pristis) ; and had noticed some curious changes which they under-
went during the growth of the animal. The young teeth were covered with enamel,
and had a notch in their posterior margin; whilst in old tusks the bony material
alone existed and the margin was entire. On these grounds he considered the
three species of Pristis described by Shaw (P. semi-sagittatus, microdon and cuspi-
datus) as constituting in reality only one. Widely as these teeth differed in appear- _
ance from the flat, pavement-like teeth of the Sting-rays (Myliobatis), their micro-
scopic structure was identical; and Prof. Miiller of Berlin had lately shown that
the Pristis was not a shark, but belonged to the family of Rays. The Professor
then pointed out a peculiarity in the construction of the ventral fins of the Medi-
terranean Goby, a fish which fixes itself to the bottom by its fins; that act also like
springs in enabling the fish to rise from the bottom. He expected soon to be able
not only to discriminate every individual bone of any importance in the skeleton of
a fish, but also to distinguish the separate fin rays. M. Agassiz then made some
general remarks on the geographical distribution of recent fishes. There were many
families—of which the flying-fish (Exocetus) was an example—which were found
equally in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic Oceans. Others, like the Sharks and
Rays, were found in every sea from the Arctic circle to the tropics, but the species
differed on each coast; whilst some families were confined to the Indian seas, and
co-extensive only with the great land animals of that region. The Goniodontes
were peculiar to the freshwaters of South America; but these were connected with
the Ganoides of North America ; and these again closely allied to the Sturgeon, whose
affinities have hitherto been little understood. We have here, confined to the New
World, all the representatives of an order widely dispersed over the ancient strata.
Looking at the distribution of a particular species, like the Silurus, confined to the
Danube, Rhine, and a few other freshwaters of Europe, it might be asked by what
means it had wandered from one locality to another; to which he would reply that
these freshwater fish must have been created in the very streams in which they now
live, and in the same proportion as now. They leave the egg in so short a time, that
it was quite impossible they should be transported by birds or otherwise. The fishes
in the Paris basin appeared to have lived on a coral reef or rocky bottom, whilst
those of the London clay were such as in existing seas are found in shallow seas
and muddy waters.

On the Artesian Weil on the Southampton Common.
By J. R. Keerz, M.R.CI.

It will be seen on reference to the map that Southampton is situated about the
middle of a tertiary basin, and in its geological position is not very different from
London or Paris. The supply of water hitherto obtained has chiefly been from
private wells: almost every house in the town of any pretension as to size or value
has one, varying in depth from 10 to 25 feet. It is not known that any well
in the town exceeds that depth, since beyond that point, in most parts of the
town, we enter the bed of London clay, which lies under the whole district. There
is also a fluctuating supply obtained from the Common, about a mile-and-a-half
or two miles from the town. The extent of the Common is about 360 acres, and
its elevation varies from 100 to 200 feet above the sea-level of the town; the
quantity of water got from this quarter has been gained by intersecting the Common
in various directions by drains of varying depth from 10 to 20 feet: the water
thus collected flows into three reservoirs, from whence it is conveyed into the town
by iron pipes. This supply is variable according to the season; in the winter

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 53

there is abundance ; and in the spring it affords 19,000 or 20,000 cubic feet per diem :
in the summer it has fallen as low as 3600, as in September last. Under these
circumstances it became necessary to seek for a larger supply. The town is situ-
ated on a tongue of land with the rivers Itchen and Test on each side discharging
their waters into the estuary called the Southampton Water. The inhabitants
would gladly have availed themselves of a supply from the waters of the Itchen,
but the late owner of that part of the river which would have been most suitable
for this purpose would not grant the supply but upon terms that were unsatis-
factory to the rate-payers. This mode of supply was therefore abandoned; and the
greater distance of the River Test being an objection on account of the expense it
would have entailed upon them, it was also given up; the commissioners were thus
thrown back upon their own resources, and determined to ascertain the practicabi-
lity of forming an Artesian Well. For this purpose an experimental boring was
made on the Common, asa preliminary step, in Nov. 1835, and was continued till
the chalk formation was reached, in January 1836, at the depth of 480 feet.

In this experiment the diluvial gravel and sand, and upper tertiary strata, over-
lying the London clay were found to be about 80 feet in thickness, the bed of London
clay about 300 feet, and the plastic dlay, resting on the chalk, another 100 feet ; the
boring was continued 50 feet further, when it having been reported that an ample
supply of water was to be found at that depth, an act of parliament was soon after
obtained for providing the means necessary ; and a plan having been fixed on, the
undertaking commenced by sinking an iron shield made in segments, which, bolted
together, formed as a whole a cylinder of 13 feet in diameter ; this shield the con-
tractor purposed sinking to the depth of 160 feet, and from that point to bore to
the depth of 400 feet, commencing with a hole of 30 inches, diminishing gradually,
and ending with one of 20 inches in the chalk formation.

The work began in July 1838. Two steam-engines were provided, each of
twenty-horses power. The estimate and contract for the performance of the work
was 10,180/., for which the contractor undertook to supply from the well 40,000
cubic feet of water per diem, and provided four gentlemen as securities for the due
performance of the work. <A spot of land, near where the experimental boring had
been made, was chosen for the purpose, being about 150 feet above the sea-level of
the town.

Soon after the commencment of the work a failure took place: in sinking the
- iron shield, or cylinder, more difficulty was found than had been anticipated.
Upon arriving at the depth of 60 feet it began to show alarming signs of weak-
- ness and unfitness for supporting the enormous pressure it had to sustain ; it
had, besides this, taken an oblique, instead of a vertical direction. The contractor
was therefore obliged to suspend his proceedings, and have recourse to other means
of sustaining the pressure on the cylinder by additional supports framed within it of
timber, and in this way preventing any sudden disruption by which the lives of the
men employed on the work might have been sacrificed. At this period the under-
taking was given up by the contractor, and the four gentlemen who had been
accepted as his securities were compelled to go on with the work. They began
by repairing the shield, which had been broken in several places, and having ren-
dered it secure, with great labour and expense, a cylinder of smaller dimensions was

_ framed within the old one, of 9 feet 10 inches in diameter, formed by eight tiers of

plates, or sections, each 5 feet in depth, and Zths of an inch in thickness, of cast iron.
| The old cylinder being first supported by strong chains, the new one was forced
_ down through the sand by heavy pressure till it was lowered to a sufficient depth,

' and rendered secure by resting on a dome of brickwork, built under it by under-

pinning, in sections of 3 feet at a time, gradually increasing in diameter till the
original diameter of the shaft was again attained. The shaft was then carried
down in solid 14 inch brickwork, set in Roman cement. At the depth of 85 feet
they passed through a solid mass of very hard stone full of black water-worn
_ pebbles, and loaded with shells of various kinds, characteristic of the London clay.
_ On the Ist of February 1840, the shaft was complete to the depth of 100 feet; the
quantity of water which now flowed into the well was kept under by two pumps,
and estimated at about 4000 cubic feet per diem. April 2, 160 feet of the shaft was

_ complete. A question now arose as to future proceedings: the original plan was

co

54 REPORT—1846,

to form a shaft of 13 feet in diameter to the depth of 160 feet, and then to commence
. boring, beginning with a bore hole of 30 inches, and ending with one of 20 inches
at the depth of 560 feet. The undertakers now proposed to continue the work by a
shaft of 7 feet in diameter, carried the whole way into the chalk, instead of boring
as originally intended. The commissioners acceded to this alteration, and agreed
to share the additional expense, provided the contractors would have a shaft of larger
dimensions than 7 feet. The contractors having agteed to this proposal, it was
continued onward with a shaft diminished in diameter from 14 feet to 11 feet 6 inches.
At this period of the work the candles could hardly be kept lighted in the well, and
they were obliged to have an air-tube constructed of zinc, with a pair of bellows
attached, worked by the steam-engine, for the purpose of ventilating the well.

The work was frequently impeded by large masses of stone, full of shells
and rounded pebbles, which had to be raised out of the shaft; and it was observed
at this time, on looking upwards from the bottom, that the shaft was filled with a
dense vapour like fog or steam, and it was thought that if the bellows and air-tube
had not been employed it would have been impossible to have proceeded with the
work.

Some of the beds of stone occupied a space of 6 feet in depth, particularly one
from 174 to 180 feet in the well. The work however still proceeded, and on the
10th of September the shaft was 214 feet. It was then reduced to 10 feet in
diameter. By October 31st 270 feet of the shaft was complete, and then reduced
to 8 feet 6 inches.

It was the custom of the excavators at this time to bore onwards several feet
before they began another section; by this means water was found at the depth of
312 feet in considerable quantity, in a bed of sand, which obliged them to discon-
tinue the shaft in brickwork and employ iton cylinders: by this means the influx
of water was got over, and the work advanced slowly till it had attained the depth
of 322 feet. The soil having again become more solid, the shaft was again resumed
in brickwork of 7 feet in diameter. At this depth the quantity of water raised by
the pumps amounted to 30,240 gallons in twenty-four hours. There appears to
have been no peculiar difficulty in proceeding with the shaft from this period.

On the 14th of August, 1841, a change of colour was perceived in the soil, and
it was found they had arrived at the surface of the plastic clay, being 380 feet from
the top of the well. The whole bed of plastic clay was then passed through with
no other difficulties than those which took place from accidents to the machinery :
very little sand and no water was found in that formation.

The shaft was continued onward in brickwork of 7 feet diameter till the chalk
was reached, on the 8th of November. The workmen were then employed in
finishing the brick shaft, which was carried down to the solid chalk, and rested 3
feet below its surface. The excavation was then continued onward, of the same
diameter, without brickwork, and the chalk kept fair with the inside face of the shaft.
On the 4th of December they had attained the depth of 520 feet, the work having
been carried on day and night. The quantity of water which now flowed into the
well from the chalk was ascertained to be about 3 gallons a minute.

The temperature of the water was now taken at the bottom of the well and found
to range between 61° and 62° of Fahrenheit; the temperature of water at the sur-
face was 44° ; the atmosphere of the well at 50 feet, was 54°; at 160 feet it was 60°;
at 543 feet it was 65°.

On the 22nd of December an accident happened to the machinery, and the work
was suspended to the 3rd of January, 1842: the shaft was now 550 feet deep.

On Friday, March 4, it was again measured, and found to be 5625 feet below
the surface of the earth. Atthis period, the pumping having been discontinued one
week, the water rose 400 feet in the shaft, which amounted in quantity to 21,578
cubic feet. ‘The well was now of the depth required, but the quantity of water was
not sufficient for the full performance of the contract.

The town being in great want of water, public meetings were held, and great
complaints of the scarcity were continually heard.

The contractors finding they had been deceived by the report that an abundant
supply of water was to be obtained from a depth much less than that to which they
had carried the work, thought it best that the shaft should be carried on still further,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 55

as being the best mode of obtaining the quantity of water required. They there-
fore made a proposal of this kind to the commissioners, which, if adopted, would in
all probability have been successful in obtaining the quantity of water required, or
have led to the plan of making lateral galleries or drift ways in the chalk, and fol-
lowing up any indications of water which might have been found, as was afterwards
suggested by Dr. Buckland. The commissioners, however, would not accede to the
proposed continuation of the shaft, and upon their refusal the contractors determined
to carry it no further, but commence boring. They therefore purchased the im-
plements necessary, at the cost of 1000/.; and the work was carried on from a stage
fixed about 40 feet below the surface of the well, from whence the boring-rod was
conducted to the bottom of the shaft by means of an iron tube fixed in the centre of
the well. By this means the operation of boring was carried on through the column
of water, and the enormous expense which they had hitherto sustained of pump-
ing day and night was saved. The commissioners seem not to have been prepared
for this expedient—expecting, perhaps, that the inhabitants would continue to re-
ceive the overflow of the well while the work was in progress as they had hitherto
done, free of expense ; finding, however, this was not to be the case, and a scarcity
of water being severely felt during every summer, they were obliged to come to terms
with the contractors for a supply of water from the well.

In the meantime the operation of boring, which commenced in March 1842, was
‘carried on with the greatest. labour and perseverance to March 1844, with a 7z inch
auger, and other tools necessary for breaking up flints, &c. The progress of the
work during this long period was at times very slow, from the numerous difficulties
and impediments encountered. It would be occupying too much time to relate all
the misfortunes they met with from the breaking of their boring-rods and other ma-
chinery, which appear to have been quite as many and as difficult to overcome as those
encountered by the fortunate and skilful constructors of that unrivalled work at

Grenelle, of which the French nation may well be proud. It will be sufficient

to say that all have been surmounted by the skill and ingenuity of Mr. Docura
and Mr. Joseph Hill, under whose management the boring was conducted, and
carried to the depth of 1260 feet. After the commencement and during the con-
tinuance of this operation, the quantity of water was found to increase progressively,
gradually rising in the shaft to much higher levels; and at the time the boring was
suspended in 1844 the water rose to within 40 feet of the surface, where it reached
the boring stage™*.

Previous to the commencement of the boring in 1842, 600,000 gallons of water
per month were raised from the well to supply the inhabitants when the scarcity
of water became very pressing. In 1844, after having made considerable progress
in the boring, the contractors entered into a further agreement to raise from the
shaft 1,200,000 gallons per month. In 1845, during upwards of four months’
daily pumping, the delivery of water was at the rate of upwards of 1,500,000 gal-
lons per month. Alterations were then made in the machinery for pumping,
which enabled the contractors to raise the water from a much greater depth in the
shaft, and the result was, that on a trial of eight successive days, the quantity of
water raised exceeded 725,000 gallons, being at a rate of upwards of 2,500,000 gallons
permonth. When the pumping was stopped in November 1845, it was found that
the water rose rapidly to ity former level, viz. 40 feet from the surface, at the fol-
lowing rate :—at 120 feet from the surface, the water rose 2 feet per hour; at 130
feet, 2 feet 4 inches; at 140 feet, 2 feet 7 inches; at 150 feet, 2 feet 10 inches.

In measuring the capacity of the shaft at these depths, it will be found that at
120 feet the water flows into the well at the rate of 277 cubic feet per hour; at
130 feet, at the rate of 310 cubic feet per hour; at 140 feet, at the rate of 343 cubic
feet per hour; at 150 feet, at the rate of 376 cubic feet per hour; and so on, in-
creasing 33 feet every 10 feet in descending the well.

* Memoranda recorded by Mr. Joseph Hill.—Previous to boring, the water-level in the
well was 57 fect from the surface ; since the boring the water has risen to 40 feet, being an in-
crease of 17 feet in the water-level of the well. On the 27th of July, 1845, after the pumping
was suspended, the water was found to have risen 68 feet in thirty-eight hours. 1846.—On

‘the 28th of August, the pumping having been stopped at the depth of 306 feet, in 13 hours

the water rose in the well to 225 feet, being 81 feet during that space of time,

56 REPORT—1846,

The quantity of water which the shaft will contain below the present water level
is as follows :—

120 feet at 13 feet 0 inches diameter...... 15,927 cubic feet.
50 feet at 11 feet 6 inches diameter ...... 5193 cubic feet.
50 feet at 10 feet 0 inches diameter ...... 3927 cubic feet.
50 feet at 8 feet 6 inches diameter...... 2837 cubic feet.

250 feet at 7 feet 0 inches diameter ...... 9621 cubic feet.

520 Totalii.t. 37,505

In conclusion, the question we have now to settle is, whether it is better to be
content with the well in its present condition, or continue the boring, for the chance
of obtaining a larger and less expensive ‘supply from the greensand formation.
The example of our neighbours on the other side of the channel certainly affords us
much encouragement to proceed with the work; but we have not sufficient confi-
dence in our own opinions to venture on such a step without the advice of those
whose scientific knowledge and better judgement we are most anxious to obtain.

On the Applicability of M. Fauvelle’s Mode of Boring Artesian Wells to the
Well at Southampton, and to other Wells, and to Sinkings for Coal, Salt and
other Mineral Beds. By the Very Rev. W. Bucxianpn, D.D., Dean of
Westminster, F.R.S.

Dr. Buckland recommended that the boring on Southampton Common should be
continued by M. Fauvelle’s method. He stated that there was probability of ob-
taining a more abundant supply of water by going deeper into the chalk; but that
it would rise no higher in the shaft than the level of the nearest outlet at Otter-
bourne, where the water of the chalk makes its escape. From the observations of
Mr. Clutterbuck, it appeared that the water stands gradually higher in the wells
on the line of railroad between Southampton and Basingstoke, at the rate of about
a foot higher for every mile.

The water in the greensand beds next below the chalk was derived from rain that
falls in districts where these sandy strata form the surface of the country; the nearest
of these surfaces being in the axis of the Isle of Wight, and in the Vale of Peters-
field, and the Vale of Pusey. From these three districts (unless where cut off by a
fault) there was probably a subterraneous passage for water through the interstices
of the upper greensand beds, beneath the whole of the Hampshire basin, this water
being upheld by subjacent impervious beds of gaulé clay. The height to which this
water could rise through a hole bored in the chalk, would depend on the levels at
which the springs from the greensand nearest to Southampton find their issue.
These levels should be ascertained, especially near Petersfield.

On the occurrence of Cypris in a part of the Tertiary Freshwater Strata of
the Isle of Wight. By Josrru Prestwicu, Jun., F.G.S. ,

Although aspecies of this small crustacean abounds in the tertiary lacustrine de-
posits of Auvergne, and is not uncommon in the upper beds of the Paris basin, whilst
lower in its strata M. D’Archiac quotes a new species in the ‘ Gres de Beauchamp,’
and the Cypris punctata from the plastic clay or lignite group, yet it is extremely rare
in the English tertiary series. In the London basin I believe that no freshwater form
of it has been found ; one species of the marine form, the Cytherina, has been met
with at Highgate. In the Hampshire basin, mention is made by Mr. Lyell, in the
third volume of the Transactions of the Geological Society, of the rare occurrence of
an undescribed, and, I think, a tuberculated species in the freshwater strata at Hordwell
Cliff. In the fine sections of Alum Bay, Headon Hill, and White Cliff Bay, in the Isle
of Wight, amongst the other abundant organic remains, I never detected any fossil
Cyprides. Having lately had an opportunity of making a hasty visit to Hampstead
Cliff, about 14 mile east of Yarmouth, I there found a species of Cypris in considerable
abundance. The cliff being composed chiefly of beds of clay and marl, forms a sur-
face easily acted on by the weather, and presents innumerable slips and prolonged

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 57

slopes covered with thick underwood, rendering good clean sections extremely scarce.
In fact, at present only two or three small openings, where the succession and order
of the strata are clearly exhibited, occur. The best one is near the brow of the cliff
at one of its highest points; it presents the following group :

Thickness
in feet.
GT oT ce
Rae ERAN sie To git ¥
10 a SR oa = Sandy flint gravel.
6 Greenish grey marl with a few Cyrena
a obovata.
2 =< =~ See Dark clay full of Cyrena obovata, Pota-
a —— = Teh mides and Melania.
Laminated dark grey and brown clay, with
8 large Septaria and shells in patches.
c Corbula common. Impressions of plants.
se a ge Clay full of Corbula.

3 e Dark grey clay with Paludina lenta, Unio,
Corbula, Melania and Natica.

2 SSS a Ey eS .
6 SS f= Band of Unis.

eu A comminuted mass of Cyrena, Melania,
and Potamides.

{SSS SSS Sse h— Bed of small Melania.

t Green and red marls; section imperfect;
probable thickness almost 25 feet; few
or no fossils.

Devesoesenne eererescssee Peewee eeneensensanees

About a 3 of a mile further west this last bed is seen to repose on
Laminated brown and grey clay with

1 j small Melania ; minute bones and teeth.

Brown clay, full of Cypris, small Mela-
a k nia, and seeds of plants.

This appears to repose on red and green marls, with few or no fossils, and at the
bottom of the cliff a thin band of ironstone full of Paludina lenta crops out.

We thus have in the lower part of this section a deposit containing essentially
freshwater Testacea, becoming more mixed as we ascend, with shells frequenting
estuaries. Impressions of plants are not uncommon, and seed vessels (of the same
species as those at Tolland’s Bay) are found in abundance in stratum k.

It is a singular feature in this group, which I believe to form the upper beds of the
freshwater formation of the Isle of Wight, that a large proportion of the species

occurring in it are new; thus the two characteristic fossils are a species of the Po-
tamides and one of Melania, neither of which do I find described. The Cypris also
is peculiar to this locality. It is distinctly different from the Cypris faba, neither is
it tuberculated. Some very small vertebre and bones are far from rare. Professor
Sedgwick, as far back as 1818, described in the ‘ Annals of Philosophy’ the peculiar
mixed freshwater and estuary character of the strata in this locality. Since then
they have not been much noticed. I hope that they will now be more closely ex-
amined, for I have little doubt but that, from the peculiarity of conditions, they
will yield an interesting series of organic remains. I have merely time to point

them out.

58 REPORT—1846.

In a note in the last number of the ‘ Journal of the Geological Society,’ I alluded
to the discovery by Mr. Pratt of impressions of plants ina stratum which I believed
to correspond with No. 17 in the Alum Bay section. This I can now cunfirm, and
testify to their great abundance and beautiful state of preservation, but from their
light colour (being nearly that of the clay) they were long overlooked.

With regard to Headon Hill, I regretted to find its cliffs so fallen down and its
fine sections comparatively so obscure ; still the interpolated marine beds, Nos. 56 to
60, can easily be traced at intervals. The fossils of these beds can now be best pro-
cured at the eastern extremity of the hill. At Colwell Bay however the section
continues extremely well exposed and full of interest.

On the Arrangement and Nomenclature of some of the Subcretaceous Strata.
By W. H. Firron, M.D., F.R.S.

This communication included a summary of the latest inquiries on the strata im-
mediately beneath the chalk in England; with a table of the fossils (connected with
a paper previously read before the Geological Society of London), from a new col-
lection made by the author in the cliffs near Atherfield, in the Isle of Wight, from
the gault down to the Weald clay. The specimens were named by Mr. Morris, and
compared with the series in the Geological Society’s Museum catalogued by Professor
Edward Forbes. This tabulated arrangement exhibits about 150 species, in their
true places; so that numerous results can be obtained from it, respecting their re-
lative positions and distribution in the series of strata. 1. The accumulation of
species in the lower part of the section is very remarkable ; about 130 of the total
number originating within 150 feet from the bottom, while not more than twenty
other species originate in the remaining portion; the thickness of the entire section
being 800 feet. The absolute numbers also of shells diminishes rapidly upwards, and
in the strata near the top of the section in this part of the Isle of Wight, even in-
dications of fossils are rare ; though near Shanklin, and near Folkstone in Kent, the
fossils of the corresponding beds are more numerous and distinct. 2. These and
other facts indicate the existence of only one series of fossils, throughout a period of
continuous but unequal deposition,—the gault, with its peculiar and characteristic
fossils, being immediately above,—a result which perfectly accords with the view
taken by Professor Forbes, in a paper published by himself and Captain Ibbetson,
in the ‘Geological Journal’ (vol. i.). 3. The upper and less fossiliferous portion of
the section here, is distinguished, if not separated, from the lower beds by the pre-
sence of a very remarkable group of ferruginous concretional bands, which occurs in
a corresponding place, at Horse-ledge, west of Shanklin Chine; at Parham Park, in
Sussex ; and at Sandgate, in Kent: including in all those places the same fossils,
Thetis, Gervillia, Trigonia, Rostellaria, &c. 4. From the general mode of distribution
of the species, as above described, and the great variation in the components and
proportion of the beds which form the sections of the lower greensand in different
places, it may be inferred that subdivisions, founded on the occurrence, or grouping
of the species, cannot be expected to be either generally prevalent or very precise.
5. The remarkable deposit of Neufchatel (Terrain Néocomien) appears to be the
equivalent of the lower part only of the section near Atherfield, the upper divisions
being wanting at the former place. In most of the published sections of the sub-
cretaceous groups in France and other places, an upper division or series of strata,
like this of the English coast, is likewise found, under the names of sables verts, sable
Serrugineux, jaune, &c. The Atherfield section, therefore, includes the Terrain Néo-
comien, with the addition of the group last mentioned, which at Blackgang Chine is
not less than 250 feet in thickness.

Captain Ibbetson and Prof. Forbes exhibited models and sections of various parts
of the Isle of Wight, and pointed out the localities and geological features most in-
teresting to visitors.

Sir R. I. Murchison presented, on the part of Dr. Mantell, a Geological Map of
the Isle of Wight, and the preliminary pages of a work devoted to the description of
the island.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 59

On certain Deviations of the Plumb-line from its Mean Direction, as observed
in the neighbourhood of Shanklin Down, in the Isle of Wight, during the
' progress of the Ordnance Survey. By W. Hopkins, F.R.S.

The difference of latitude between Greenwich and the station of the Ordnance sur-
veyors at Dunnose, on the north side of Shanklin Down, as determined by triangu-
lation, was greater by 2'22 seconds than as determined by zenith sector observations.
When, however, a new station was chosen on the south side of Shanklin Down, the
difference of latitude, as determined by triangulation, was less by 3°09 seconds than
it appeared to be when determined by the zenith sector. These discrepancies would
be accounted for, if the mass intervening between the stations at Shanklin Down
were sufficient to produce, by its attraction on the plumb-line, the observed devia-
tions. The requisite calculations for proving the adequacy of this cause had not
been made; the tendency, however, would necessarily be to produce effects of the
same nature as those observed ; and the author thought it probable that the intensity
of the attraction of the hill would be found sufficient to account for the pheno-
mena.

On Railway Sections made on the Line of the Great Western Railway, between
Bristol and Taunton. By W. Sanovers, F.G.S.

The general séction is made to the scale of 33 inches to the mile, or 1 to 1920;
extending over a length of 45 miles. The colours are those of the Ordnance Survey.

In four places the sections are enlarged fourfold, or 40 feet to the inch; and full
details are given on the scale of 4 feet to the inch. The colours of the Ordnance
Survey are taken as a basis, and others are introduced to describe local facts. The
railway passes first through the junction beds of red marl and lias; then for six
or seven miles through new red sandstone, interrupted only at one place, where
a tunnel, 324 feet in length, pierces the upper beds of the carboniferous limestone ;
then for about twelve miles chiefly over alluvial tracts, separated by cuttings of new
red sandstone’ beds, also touching the southern margin of the Nailsea coal-field.
At twenty-one miles occurs the Uphill cutting, passing through new red sandstone
and lias, and then carboniferous limestone, at the base of which is seen some masses
of trappean rock. The railway is then carried along an alluvial plain of seventeen
miles in length, interrupted only in one place, at three miles north of Bridgewater,
by a deep cutting through new red marls and lias at Puriton. From the termina-
tion of the alluvial tract to Taunton, the course is over a moderately level country
of new red sandstone, and little occurs to attract the attention of the geologist, ex-
cept the occasional appearance of diluvial gravel, which is seen to contain an in-
creasing proportion of the killas as the observer approaches Taunton. There are

_ four enlarged drawings.

It is desirable to notice first, that called the Ashton cutting, where the carboni-
ferous beds are displayed in three places. Over the two smaller masses and on the
sides of the larger one are seen the usual boulder conglomerate, consisting of large
and small fragments of limestone, partially water-worn, cemented by the ordinary
red clay. As the superincumbent strata are carried over the two small masses of
limestone, and apparently tend to ascend over the rock at the tunnel, it might be

_ supposed that a local elevation had taken place subsequent to the deposit of the new
red sandstones. This msy have been the case, but the inclination and curving of
the beds may have been original; and I incline to this opinion, since, on the pre-
sumption of the limestone having been elevated by violent force arising from igneous
action, the conglomerate adjoining the limestone would have been pierced and thrust
aside, and greater displacement manifested in the marly clays above.

At the Uphill section the evidence differs: here not only are violent dislocations
of the red marls and lias produced, so that the lias beds dip at an angle of 70° or
more towards the plane of intersection between the lias and the limestone, which
plane itself dips in the same direction ; but, in addition, the igneous rock appears in
full force ; and it clearly bears relation not only to the fault, which brings into juxta-
position the limestone and lias, but to an extensive fault in the limestone itself, by
which the whole series of beds on one side differs from that on the other.

On the nature of the trap rock and its metamorphic influence on the limestone,

60 REPORT—1846.

the Rev. D. Williams of Bleadon has sent to the Geological Society papers which
have been published in their volume of Proceedings; my own view differs very ma-
terially from that of Mr. Williams, and I prefer making no further remark on this
matter.

I pass on to the new red sandstone. The first section at Pylle-hill traverses the
upper part of the red and pale-blue marls. Here the stratum containing the stron-
tian nodules is displayed, and at this spot were found those beautiful crystallizations
of strontian, specimens of which may be seen in many mineralogical collections of
this country ; the crystals being not only remarkably large, but presenting modifi-
cations highly interesting to the crystallographer. The Ashton cutting does not
touch the red marls, but is limited entirely to the sandstones beneath the marls.
On the drawing the layers of stone are marked with dark-red lines, and the detailed
description also inserted. The Uphill and Puriton sections show the red and blue
marls; and the only remark at present necessary is, that in the Uphill section the
strontian and gypsum of other localities are here replaced by nodular cavernous con-
cretions of minute crystals of carbonate of lime.

I now proceed to the consideration of the lias strata: the lower divisions of the
lias are seen in three of the sections. The general features of the Pylle-hill and
Uphill sections are the same, and the organic remains usually accompanying these
beds are found in each. In the Puriton section the corresponding beds are ex-
panded to a much greater thickness than any other with which I am acquainted in
the Bristol district. Very few fossils have been obtained on this spot, and the shaly
clays intervening between the limestones are so thickened and are so uniform in
composition, that the symmetrical structure of the mass causes the face of the cliff
to present a series of very smooth divisional planes in two sets, the direction and dip
of which are set forth in the details of the section.

I am unwilling to close these remarks without adverting to the classification which
M. Agassiz has adopted for the position of the bone-bed of the Aust cliff. By this
naturalist, and by other eminent persons also, the Aust bone-bed is classed as a part
of the Triassic series, in consequence of the presence in each of the same species of
fishes. The facts I wish to state, bearing on this question, are these: the strata
of the lias, which are beneath the white lias limestones, of which lower division the
Cotham marble forms the upper bed and the bone-bed the lowest, were deemed by
Mr. Conybeare sufficiently characteristic as a group of sedimentary deposits, irre-
spective of its organic contents, to merit a distinguishing name—the lower marls.

This group then contains throughout its whole extent the same, or apparently
the same, fish-scales and fish-teeth as are preserved in the bone-bed. Besides the
occasional occurrence of such relics in the clays of this group, thereare in the Aust
cliff three calcareous layers above the bone-bed containing these remains abun-
dantly. In the Pylle-hill and Uphill strata occur the same number of such beds,
and the latter section affords but a poor equivalent of the bone-bed. In the Puriton
sections there is one, and probably more than one calcareous stratum yielding fish-
scales, and the bone-bed is very faintly exhibited. Further I am not aware of these
remains above the Cotham marble. There is also a Pecten peculiar to this group,
but I cannot state the species, as I believe it to be undescribed. Should any one be
disposed to connect the whole group of lower marls with the bone-bed and remove
them from the lias, there would arise this objection: the Cotham bed, the highest
limit of the lower marls, contains not only the fish-scales, but insects of the same spe-
cies as are found in the white limestones above, and the same likewise as were found
by Mr. Edmund Higgins of Clifton at Aust, at a distance of only ten feet above the
bone-bed. Moreover, Mr. Higgins has discovered the Cypris with plants in the
white limestones in association with the elytra of insects, anda few weeks ago I dis-
covered in the Pylle-hill cutting, in the midst of the lower marls, the Cypris with
the plant Naiadites lanceolata. 1 am therefore inclined to think that the whole
group of strata, including the Cotham marble above and the bone-bed at the base,
should be treated as a subordinate member of the lias formation, and that no portion
of the same should be considered as an equivalent of any part of the Triassic group.
The decision of the question must however depend upon a much closer examination
of the organic contents than I have been able to devote to them.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 61

On three Sections of the Oolitic Formations on the Great Western Railway, at
the West End of Sapperton Tunnel. By Captain Issetson, F.G.S.

The author presented a short communication to accompany three detailed sections,
surveyed by the author for the Geological Survey of Great Britain, for the purpose of
showing the continuation of strata described by Mr. Lonsdale, and in the ‘ Geology
of Cheltenham,’ by Sir R. I. Murchison, by Mr. Buckman and Mr. Strickland.

The section at the mouth of the tunnel shows the great oolite, fuller’s earth, and
the upper rag of the inferior oolite, which contain three remarkable strata; viz. a zone
two feet thick, consisting of a'mass of Trigonia costata, and another species of Tri-
gonia angulata, &c.; the second, composed of Gryphea cymbium, &c.; and the third
an immense quantity of Terebratula, particularly T. fimbria. The beds were noticed
by Mr. Lonsdale as being found at Witcombe Hill near Bath, and by Mr. Buckman
as occurring in the Lineover section. The only lithological difference between the
Sapperton sections and the Lineover section is, that the thin bed of fossiliferous
clay at Lineover is at Sapperton a very hard grit, crystalline, and a mass of com-
minuted fossils. The second section contains the upper rag of the inferior oolite,
with the three zones above-mentioned; and the third the upper and lower rags of
the inferior oolite, separated by a mass of soft freestone split obliquely, very cry-
stalline, and full of comminuted fossils.

On the Age of the Silurian Limestone of Hay Head, near Barr Beacon, in
Staffordshire. By James Buckman, F.G.S.

The limestone rocks and shale of Hay Head, celebrated as the original locality
from whence was obtained the Barr Trilobite (Bumastus barriensis), were referred
by Sir R. I. Murchison to the Wenlock series of the upper Silurian system. This
opinion having been doubted by Burmeister, who places the Barr Trilobite in the
lower Silurian division, Mr. Buckman commenced an examination of all the fossils
associated with that species at Hay Head. Of the fifty-six species there obtained,

fty-three belong exclusively to the upper Silurian beds, and have also been found in
the Wenlock series of Dudley ; whilst only one, and that a doubtful species, can be
referred to a lower bed. The author hence concludes that Sir R. I. Murchison’s
sections and notes upon this locality are correct ; though he considers it probable
that a seam of the coal measures occupies a small tract in the valley between Hay
Head and the town of Walsall. ge

Notice of the Discovery of a new Species of Hypanthocrinite in the Upper

Silurian Strata. By James Buckman, F.G.S.

The genus Hypanthocrinites of Phillips, of which a single species was known to
Sir R. 1. Murchison, and is figured in the ‘ Silurian System’ under the name of Hy-
panthocrinites decorus, pl. 17, f. 3, is in itself so remarkable, and presents such pecu-
liarities of structure, that any addition to the list of species cannot be considered
otherwise than interesting to the fossil zoologist. Through the kindness of Augus-
tus Lewis, Esq. of Wolverhampton, to whom the discovery is due, Mr. Buckman
is permitted to lay a beautiful and unique specimen of a new species before the
Geological Section of the Association.

From the specimen itself, and from an enlarged drawing which he has made of
it, as well as of the previously known species, there is no difficulty in making out
the following distinctive characters: Hypanthocrinites granulatus, Lewis’s MSS.
Head large, obtusely conical, apex surmounted by a small proboscis. Inter-digital
ribs square on their outer margins, which are dotted by minute granulations ; these
are terminated by smooth plates, concave on their outer surfaces. Fingers like those
of the H. decorus, but larger. Body and columns absent.

This species therefore differs from the H. decorus in being of a much larger size,
with a more obtuse apex; in its small proboscis, which is only about one-fourth
the size of that of the smaller species ; in its ribs being flat externally instead of
convex ; and in these again being granulated, whilst in the A. decorus they are smooth:
the ribs in the last-mentioned species are surmounted by large ¢ubercular plates,
whilst these are narrow and concave in the new specimen.

62 REPORT—1846.

The specimen described was discovered in the shale between Hay Head and
Walsall, which is now being cut through for a canal, and is the only example that
has yet been obtained of this very fine and remarkable fossil.

Mr. James Yates exhibited a series of specimens of Zamia Gigas (Lindley’s Fossil
Flora, iii. 165), from Runswick, near Whitby, and offered some observations on
the apparent structure and connection of the several parts of the plant.

On the Mushet Band, commonly called the Black-band Ironstone of the
Coal-field of Scotland. By Roserr Batp,

This band of ironstone was discovered, about forty years ago, by Mr. David
Mushet, of the Calder Iron-works, near Glasgow. It had been frequently passed
through, but was thrown away as rubbish till Mr. Mushet ascertained its value,
when extensive mines were opened for working it. Two bands of this ironstone are
found in the great coal-fields of Lanark,—one fourteen inches thick; the other,
which is seventy-three fathoms lower, is sixteen inches thick. The ironstone of
the Mushet band is much more easily reducible than the ordinary clay ironstone,
and requires less fuel. In Scotland it appears to be co-extensive with the coal for-
mation. In South Wales also it is found; but there is little of it in England or
Ireland. Fifty years ago there were only five iron-works in Scotland, comprising
about fifteen blast furnaces, which, together, produced 540 tons of iron per week.
There are now 100 blast furnaces in action, which produce 12,000 tons per week,
or 624,000 tons in the year, the value of which, at £3 per ton, is £1,872,000.
This great increase Mr. Bald attributed to the discovery of the Mushet ironstone,
and to the introduction of the hot-blast. He also mentioned that Mr. Mushet,
who is now in his seventieth year, has published a yolume on the manufacture of
iron, containing an analysis of every ironstone and ore he could obtain; and he
trusted his labours would, at least, be recognized in scientific societies, although the
pecuniary advantage arising from his discoveries had fallen into other hands. ‘

On the Extent of the Northwich Salt-field.
By G. Warzine Onmenon, 4.A,, F.G.S.

The prevailing direction of the faults in the coal-field of South Lancashire ap-
proaches to the magnetic north and south. Of those faults some extend to the new
red sandstone of Cheshire, under which they probably pass; others can be traced
across the new red’sandstone. Of the last, one passes in a magnetic north and
south direction through the coal-field of Lancashire, by the west of Wrightington
and Haydock-lodge, and Warrington. Here it enters on the new red sandstone of
Cheshire, and passes by the west of Hill Cliff and Northwich, forming the south-
western boundary of the Northwich salt-field. At Barnton and Hartford to the
west of this line of fault rock-salt has not been discoyered, though sunk for to the
depths of 300 and 400 feet respectively, At Northwich, to the eas¢ of the line, rock-

salt occurs, as shown in the following section,
Feet, Inches, Feet.

To upper Salt, ADOUt .......eeeeee ceeceee nesses eenecnes . 87

Upper salt, £501 —no.precpoccscopernsposescrvape caress we OD 0 ft 7a
Hard clay ...... Vepcs bac heeceee Senececeecesecantecreeecare 30° 9

Second salt, from .....esseeeeesseere a nageeteaebagere 96 Oto + 117
DIGUE | <secscon eshte Ss ELue op Sadanee Aap eee TEEEEERPOEEE 5's

Salt and clay .,...++.+- Sa nee nT

LTE TIT | il A Sa, Se SR PR pe re le

Stone with thin laminz of salt ............ cadens cease is. 9

Pale red salt ...,... ee Aner Teles: ae = ae

Stone with veins of salt.........+errecrereceee ouiae sce iit Aapege

Lowest bed of salt reached ......++++ Ra eaniys- ntl & iets!

SPOT a Pe eps nel Paap cepa Se PRN 77 a

Stone with detached crystals of salt .......... 44+ leew. Lapis |

Stone with salt between amine ..,...... Sens sean Cee

This fault is continued between Middlewich and Winsford. At Middlewich the

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 63

strata have been penetrated to 214 feet below sea-level without finding rock-salt.
The brine rises there to a height of about 130 feet above sea-level; whilst at Wins-
ford rock-salt beds, similar (as far as worked) to those at Northwich, occur at a
depth to the upper bed of from 90 to 120 feet below sea-level. The brine rises
there to a height of about twenty-five feet above sea-level. The line thence passes
into Staffordshire, near Whitmore.

A fault ranging from south-west to north-east, passes by the north-west of the
Peckforton hills across Delamere Forest, by the north-west of Northwich, dividing
that salt from the easterly ends of the Waterstone, or lower beds of the keuper, and
thence to the east of Timperley. The north-east boundary of the Northwich salt
was not determined. The south-east is formed by a line parallel to the north-west
side, about 1300 yards distant therefrom.

Within this area frequent subsidences of the land take place. From this cause
the locks on and the banks of the Weever have been here raised. The land where a
factory stood, near Northwich-bridge, has sunk so as to form a wharf. A few
years since, the subsidence near the junction of Whitton-brook and the Weever was
at the rate of three inches per week: at this point a lake is now rapidly forming,
The salt pans at the works by the Weéver have been frequently raised, and many
are now abandoned. The course of Whitton-brook, which in 1811 was made six
feet deep, now varies in depth from ten to thirty feet. About two miles to the
north of Northwich, near the north-western boundary fault, some fields are sinking.
In this area the brine stands at the same level, and varies simultaneously in all the
pits. That the rock-salt of Northwich does not extend beyond the above limits, is
further shown by the fact, that the neighbouring ground beyond the above boundary
lines does not sink, and the brine where found beyond the said boundary is reached
and stands at various levels—all differing from that at Northwich.

Minute descriptions of the salt, and the methods of working the same being given
in yarious well-known works, the same were not here noticed.

Notice of the Coal of India, being an Analysis of a Report communicated to the
Indian Government on this subject. By Prof. Anstrev, M.A., F.R.S. &c.

The coal districts of India may be considered as five in number,—three in Northern
India and one in Cutch, whilst the fifth includes the province of Arracan and the
coast of the Birman empire near Tenasserim. Of these the Cutch coal is certainly
not of the carboniferous epoch, and it appears to be of little importance at present
and unpromising,

The whole district, extending from the neighbourhood of Hoosungabad on the
Nerbudda river (lat. 23° N, long. 78° E.), on the left or south bank of the river, and
extending in a north-easterly direction for a distance of about 400 miles to Palamow,
thence eastward, for 250 miles, to Burdwan, near Calcutta, and running north-
ward, for 150 miles, to Rajmahal, exhibits, it would appear, at intervals by no means —
distant, a continually repeated outcrop of rocks, consisting of sandstones and shales,
with occasional limestone. Throughout this wide tract a number of beds of coal
have been recognised, of variable thickness and value, but all appearing to exhibit
evidence of the existence there of a great coal-district.

On the flanks of the Garrow Mountains, near the Burhampooter, and on both-
banks of that vast river, we find another, perhaps a continued outcrop of similar
beds, also containing coal, and reaching in a north-easterly direction for nearly 400
miles, The intermediate plains, whose breadth between Rajmahal and Jumalpore
is about 100 miles, are chiefly alluvial, and thus it is pogsible that there exists a vast
range of carboniferous strata, reaching for upwards of 1000 miles along the flanks
of the Himalaya Mountains, the distance from the mountain chain gradually in-
creasing as we advance westward, the mountains trending northwards and the out-
crop of the carboniferous bed southwards, until finally, the distance between them
being upwards of 500 miles, the relation is not easily recognised.

I. Commencing with the neighbourhood of Calcutta, we have first to consider
the Burdwan coal-district, with which I shall group the Adji and the Rajmahal
fields, all these being on the banks of either the Hooghley or Ganges, or on the tri-
butaries of these rivers, The Burdwan district has been Jong known, and a good

64 REPORT—1846.

deal worked. The workable beds of coal are nine and seven feet thick respectively.
They are associated with sandstone, shale, and a little clay-ironstone, and about’six
other thinner seams of coal, while other thick beds are mentioned, but their real ex-
istence as separate beds is doubtful. There are now thirteen spots at which this
coal is worked, but most of them are surface workings. The deepest sinking is 190
feet. The distance to Calcutta is about ninety miles, but the actual transit of coal
is nearly 200 miles. There would seem to be a continuous outcrop of the same kind
of rocks from Burdwan up the Adji river, and northwards to Rajmahal. On the Adji
river the coal has been worked in more than one spot, and is found to be of about
the same quality as that of Burdwan; but neither of them is considered of nearly so
good quality as the English coal. Further on, at Rajmahal, coal is known to exist,
but has not yet been much worked. The quality of that which has been obtained
does not appear good.

II. The Burdwan coal-field appears to be directly connected with a district at
Palamow, in which coal has been worked in no fewer than four places. The coal
here apparently reposes in a valley inclosed by hills of granite, and is associated
with a good deal of iron. There are several beds that are of workable size, but a
good deal of the coal is heavy and of inferior quality, and some of it appears to be
anthracitic. These coal-beds are not far from the Soane river, and about 100 miles
from its confluence with the Ganges, a little above Dinapoor and Patna; but the
Soane is not at present navigable. Tu the west of Palamow the carboniferous beds
are described as appearing along two irregular lines, the one towards the south-west
for 150 miles, reaching beyond Koorbah, and the other more westward, by Sohage-
poor, to the Nerbudda. These beds appear to connect themselves with the Burdwan
coal-field ; and near Ramgurh coal has been obtained in two or three places. This
coal is said to be of very good quality and of considerable thickness; but there can
be little doubt that a statement made in the report, of the bed of coal being 200
yards in thickness, must be owing to some misunderstanding of the account and
sketch originally communicated. It seems certain, however, from the extent of the
outcrop, that the seam must be one of considerable magnitude. Westwards, again,
from Palamow, and at a distance of about fifty miles, coal has been found in seve-
ral places in Singrowli, but the beds at present known are thin; and again, to the
south-west, the same mineral occurs at Sirgoojah, where fine coal has been seen,
but is not used at present. Between the Singrowli coal and Jubbulpore excellent
coal has been found in several places, indicating an-extensive coal-field; but the
nature and thickness of the beds are not stated.

The Nerbudda district, although from the drainage of the country it belongs to
the Bombay side of India, is manifestly more related, so far as the old rocks are
concerned, with the Bengal territory. The coal is about 350 miles from Bombay,
and the Nerbudda river is at present not navigable. There seem to be three districts
in the Nerbudda valley in which coal is found, but the most important of them is
that near Gurrawarra, about midway between Hoosungabad and Jubbulpore. The
coal here, indeed, appears to be perhaps the best hitherto found in India, and exists
in beds three in number, whose thickness respectively is said to be 20 feet, 40 feet,
and 253 feet. There are also other beds, one of which is four feet.

The discovery of this, the Benar coal-field, promises to be of great importance.
It is also very near another basin, where there are beds also of excellent quality, one
of them six feet in thickness. At Jubbulpore itself coal has been found at a depth
of seventy feet, one bed being nearly twelve feet thick.

III. Let us consider now the district east of Calcutta. We there find true car-
honiferous rocks on both flanks of the Garrow mountains, commencing near Jumal-
pore, and thence continuing north-eastwards, for a distance amounting on the whole .
to nearly 400 miles, through Lower and Upper Assam. The district nearest Cal-
cutta is Silhet, on the south flanks of the Garrow, where eleven beds of coal have
been determined, whose total thickness as already ascertained amounts to eighty-five
feet. This coal is of excellent quality, and can as readily be conveyed to the Upper
Ganges as the Burdwan coal. The most remarkable beds occur at Cherra Ponji;
but these appear irregular, although they are undoubtedly of great thickness in seve-
ral spots, amounting sometimes to nearly thirty feet. There are also other import-
ant beds. They have been known for more than ten years, but have not been

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 65

worked; and since their first discovery large quantities of iron have been smelted
with charcoal.

After passing the districts in which the coal has been thus clearly exhibited, we
proceed next to the Assam districts, also more or less continuous, and extending for
about 350 miles chiefly along the south side of the Burhampooter ; the whole being
divided into the two groups of Lower and Upper Assam, separated at Bishenath, 170
miles above Calcutta. Six coal-fields are enumerated in the Upper district, and three
in the Lower; but the latter, although it would seem not so promising, are looked
on as scarcely less important in consequence of their greater accessibility.

So far as details are concerned, the Lower Assam coal offers little positive informa-
tion ; the indications consisting rather of rolled fragments drifted, than of distinct and
well-marked beds. It is called lignite in a report from Lieut. Vetch; but both coal
and lignite are terms frequently used without reference to any peculiar character of
the mineral, or any geological position. Similar beds of coal or lignite to those found
in Lower Assam, south of the Burhampooter, are also mentioned as occurring on the
north in three of the streams flowing into that river from the Bootan range. The
Upper Assam coal is manifestly of great interest, and likely to prove very important.
It is associated with abundance of clay ironstone.

About eighty miles above Bishenath, other beds, stated to be six feet thick, have
been worked for the sake of trying the ceconomic value of the coal. It is described
by the commander of one of the Assam Company’s steamers, in a letter dated 24th
January, 1845, as far the best he ever had on board a steamer, and far superior to
any coal in Calcutta. From the growing importance of the tea-trade from Assam,
this is likely, therefore, to be of great value. Still further up the country there are
several important beds, dipping, it would appear, at so high an angle, and placed so
unfavourably with regard to present means of transport, that it would be difficult to
work them. The other beds that appear in this district are exposed to the same
difficulty; and the coal throughout Northern India appears to be in this respect un-
favourably placed.

, Passing on now to the other districts in India and the East, in which carboniferous
_ rocks and beds of coal have been met with, I have to enumerate two, the Tenasserim
- and the Arracan districts, which, from their vicinity to India and their geographical
position, are of considerable importance. The former has been known for some
_ years, and there are said to be four localities at which coal appears; but of these
_ only one seems likely to prove of ceconomic value. From the accounts given of this
coal there is every reason to conclude, that one of the beds is not of the carboni-
_ ferous period ; and although another (on the Thian Khan) has been the subject of a
far more favourable report, being called cannel coal, and stated by Mr. Prinsep to be
_ an admirable coal for gas, there is yet much probability of the whole being of the
tertiary period. ‘These beds have been described in the ‘Journal of the Asiatic So-
ciety’ for 1838.

In Arracan there are eleven beds of coal, but all of them are thin, and their posi-
tion nearly vertical. They are said to be associated with sandstones, limestones and
shales; but it is clear that they can at present be looked at only as indications, and
_ not of any practical importance.

_ Notices of some Fossil Mammalia of South America. By Prof. Owen, F.RS.

Since the publication of his descriptions of the fossil mammalia collected by Mr.
Darwin, the following additional species had come under observation. A new spe-
cies of the gliriform genus of Pachyderms called Toxodon, was founded on an entire
' lower jaw, with the intermaxillary part of the upper jaw of a specimen equalling the
Toxodon platensis in size, transmitted from Buenos Ayres. The new species, which
Prof. Owen proposed to call Toxodon angustidens, is distinguished by the nearly equal
size of the outer and inner incisors of the upper jaw, the transverse diameter of the
inner or median one being two inches; and by the narrower transverse diameter of
the inferior molars. Prof. Owen considered the characters of this second species of
‘Toxodon as confirming in every respect his ideas of the affinities of the genus ex-
pressed by the title, ‘ Description of the cranium of the Toxodon platensis, a gigantic
extinct mammiferous animal, referable to the order Pachydermata, but with affinities
_ to the Rodentia, Edentata, and herbivorous Cetacea,’ under which his original me-
1846. EF

66 REPORT—1846.

moir was published in 1838. M. Quatrefages, in his ‘ Considérations sur les Carac-
téres Zoologiques des Rongeurs,’ 4to, 1840, had corrected what he assumed to have
been Prof. Owen's allocation of the Toxodon to the Rodent order. M. Quatrefages
thought the so-called incisors of the Toxodon to be canines, affirming that their
roots extended to the maxillary bones above the first molars; and he regards the
Toxodon as having a nearer affinity to the Morse (Trichecus). Prof. Owen referred
to his ‘Odontography,’ p. 411, for a refutation of Geoffroy St. Hilaire’s ideas that
the scalpriform incisors of Rodents were canines; and alluded to the enamelled
complex molars of the Toxodon as opposing M. Quatrefages’ idea of its relationship
to Trichecus.

An almost entire skull of the Mastodon Andium had been transmitted to the British
Museum from the post-pleiocene beds of the Pampas of Buenos Ayres; its molar
dentition was described, and a distinctive character of its tusks, in a strip of enamel
two inches broad along their outer sides, was pointed out.

Macrauchenia. To this genus of tridactyle Pachyderms, which is nearly allied
to the Palzotherium by the structure of the feet, and to the Llamas (Auchenia) in
the structure of the neck, Prof. Owen had referred a molar tooth of the lower jaw
(No. 952, Mus. Coll. Chir), on account of its crown being composed of two upright
half cylinders of equal height, as in the Paleotherium. A left ramus of the lower
jaw, from the tertiary deposits of Buenos Ayres, has been received, containing six
molar teeth, three true and three false, the last four showing the same form or pattern
as the single fossil tooth from Patagonia, demonstrating the resemblance with the
lower molar teeth of the Paleothere, except in this difference, viz. the absence of the
third lobe in the last molar, by which the generic distinction of the South American
Pachyderm was established; and an approach made to the rhinoceros. The Ma-
crauchenia, to which Prof. Owen provisionally referred the fossil in question, differed
however, like the Palzothere, from the Rhinoceros, in the greater exterior convexity
and equal height of the two semi-cylindrical lobes of which the last premolar and
the three true molars were composed; and it further differed from both Paleothere
and Rhinoceros in the more simple form of the second and third premolars; the
enamel is smooth and the dentine compact, and the coronal cement forms a thin
layer. The longitudinal extent of the six molar teeth was nine inches.

Nesodon, n. g. A genus allied to the preceding, but resembling the Anoplothe-
rium, in the absence of any vacant interspace in the entire dental series, and in the
equal height of canines and incisors, was established on the anterior part of the lower
jaw and on two molar teeth of the upper jaw, discovered by Capt. Sulivan, R.N., in
an arenaceous tertiary deposit on the coast of Patagonia. ‘The incisors, canines, and
premolars of the lower jaw are not only in contact, but overlap each other like
scales or tiles, and the molar teeth of both upper and lower jaw are characterized by
islands of enamel, whence the generic name proposed. The incisors are six in num-
ber. The characters described by Prof. Owen show some resemblance to Toxodon,
in which also the large procumbent incisors overlap each other: the interval between
Toxodon and Macrauchenia is evidently partly filled by the present remarkable genus.
The extent of the sloping symphysis, the breadth of the lower jaw behind the sym-
physis, and the depth of the ramus at the beginning of the first true molar, were
severally two inches. The quadruped to which these fossils belonged must have
been about the sizeof the Llama. Prof. Owen proposed to call the species Nesodon
imbricatus, in allusion to the tile-like, overlapping arrangement of the anterior teeth.
A second larger species of Nesodon was indicated by four or five detached teeth of
the lower jaw from the same deposits. This species, of the size of the Zebra, it was
proposed to call Nesodon Sulivani.

As a check to the undue increase of so many large herbivorous species of the
Megatherioid and Pachydermal orders, the great Machairodus, discovered in the
caves of Brazil by Dr. Lund, who first supposed it a hyzena, was well-adapted. An
almost entire skull had been, thence, transmitted to Paris, and had been referred
by M. de Blainville to the genus Felis, who had published a figure of it. A speci-
men of the same, or a closely allied species, displaying some characters not pre-
served in the Parisian specimen, had been transmitted from the tertiary deposits
of Buenos Ayres. Prof. Owen pointed out several differences establishing the, at
least, subgeneric distinction of this remarkable carnivore, which equalled the
Bengal Tiger in size, and had upper canine teeth of thrice the length. As Prof,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 67

Owen could not determine any specific distinction in the present fossil from the
Hyena neogea or ‘ Smilodon” of Dr. Lund, he proposed to call the species “‘ Ma-
chairodus neogeus.” This, happily extinct, most formidable and destructive of the
carnivorous genera, had anciently an extensive geographical range through a great
extent of South America, in India, and throughout Europe; fossil remains of differ-
ent species having been found in old pleiocene deposits in Germany and France, in
the newer pleiocene of the Val d’Arno, and in the bone-caves of England. Our
* Own ancient Machairodus latidens of Devonshire, added to the other species, con-
firms the propriety of keeping the genus distinct from the typical Felis.

Of the gigantic extinct Armadilloes, Prof. Owen added to the former species, which
he had called Glyptodon clavipes, the following, viz. Glyptodon reticulatus, Glyptodon
ornatus, Glyptodon tuberculatus, and Glyptodon clavicaudatus. An enormous tail of
_ the latter, now in the British Museum, showed several of the ossicles of the dermos
_ skeletal sheath produced into huge tubercles, the whole resembling the club of the
_ giant Gog or Magog. Prof. Owen thought that the present knowledge of the co-exist-
_ ence with those large herbivorous Armadilloes of a gigantic carnivorous species like
Machairodus, gave some insight into their need of a complete and strong defence of
all the exposed parts of the body and the tail, since they had not the powerful claws

with which the Megatherioid quadrupeds might have waged war with the Machai-
_ rodus. With regard to the Megatherium, the remains recently transmitted confirmed
_ Prof. Owen’s ideas of its closer affinity to the Sloths than to the Ant-eaters or Arma-
_ dilloes; and had enabled him completely to reconstruct both the fore and hind ex-
tremities, and correct some errors in Cuvier’s descriptions.

¥ Mr. Edwards communicated a list of the fossils of Bracklestone Bay, Sussex. Of
_ the classes Conchifera, Brachiopoda, and Gasteropoda, there are 161 described spe-
cies, and seventy-nine undescribed; seventy-four of which are also found at Bar-
_ ton. Of the 161 described species, 106 are identified with French and fifty-five with

_ English species. Respecting Foraminifera, Corals, and Cephalopoda, the author
_ states that they are under examination.

Notice of some Tertiary Rocks in the Islands stretching from Java to Timor.
By J.B. Juxes, M.A., F.G.S.

Behind the town of Coupang, in the island of Timor, the land rises in gently
sloping hills to the height of 500 or 600 feet, the nature of which is exposed in a
_ Narrow precipitous valley. These cliffs and the shore itself are composed of a very
_ Fecent tertiary formation, which appears to be a raised coral reef, abounding in
_ Astrea, Meandrina and Porites, with shells of Strombus, Conus, Nerita, Arca, Pec«
_ ten, Venus and Lucina. On a ledge about 150 feet above the sea, Mr. Jukes found
_ a Tridacna two feet across, bedded in the rock, with closed valves, just as he had
often seen them in the barrier reefs. The thickness of this formation was proba-
' bly several hundred feet; and it seemed to spread far and wide over the country,
| wrapping round the central mountains, which were lofty, and probably volcanic,

_ peaks. Samou Island appeared to be wholly composed of this rock, often forming
| precipices 200 or 300 feet in height. Sandalwood Island presents a lofty coast of
cliffs and hills, rising 2000 feet above the sea, and attaining a still greater elevation
inland. All the coast cliffs were regularly stratified in thick horizontal beds ; white
when fresh broken, but weathering nearly black. The cliffs and precipices of Sum-
bawa are equally lofty, and exhibit the same regular bedding. The island of Lom-
bock slopes gradually from its southern shore to a great conical volcanic mass,
11,400 feet high, which towers from its north-east corner. The southern coast-
Cliffs, about 200 feet high, were composed of a white, horizontally-stratified rock,
~ covered by a considerable thickness of brown and yellow thin-bedded rocks. The
island of Madura was found to be composed of the same white, chalk-like strata ;
this island rises in one or two terraces into slightly undulating plains, with groups

68 REPORT—1846.

black, rugged and honeycombed surface, and white interior, sometimes crystalline,
at others earthy and powdery, and occasionally exhibiting a coralline structure.
Within the delta of the river Kediri, there are small island-like masses of the same
rock; and in one of these were nodules of chert and coarse earthy limestone, with
small bivalve shells (Venus, or Cyrena). Along the south coast of the eastern end
of Java are some great calcareous formations, containing fossils, which were noticed
by Dr. Horsfield in his geological map of Java. From all these particulars, the
author concludes that a great tertiary formation of very recent origin—and being, in
fact, but a raised fringing reef—clings to the flanks of all the volcanic islands from
the east end of Timor to the west end of Java; and that, narrow as these islands
are in proportion to their length, their actual volcanic portion is confined within
still narrower limits; and huge as are the piles of volcanic materials gradually accu-
mulated in some of the mountains, they owe a good part of these materials, and
their elevation also, to a comparatively recent period in the earth’s history, during
the existence of creatures now living on the earth.

Sketch of the Geological Structure of Australia.
By J.B. Juxes, M_A., F.G.S.

This document was chiefly drawn up from the author’s own observations during
four years, in which he had opportunity, as naturalist of H.M.S. Fly, of seeing the
greater part of the Australian coast. Along the eastern coast there is one con-
tinuous line of hills, extending from Bass’s Straits to Cape York in Torres Straits, a
distance of 2400 miles; beyond which it is prolonged in rocky islands up to the
coast of New Guinea. This chain has a granitic axis, flanked by metamorphic and
palzozoic rocks in the south, as described by Count Strzelecki. From Port Bowen,
in lat. 22° 30’, the author’s own observations commenced. The coast principally
consisted of schists, porphyries and basalts; at Cape Upstart granite occurred, and
was extensively developed on the coast to the northward, and far into the interior,
forming hills 4000 feet high. North of Cape Melville, the granite almost disap-
peared; and instead, great masses of porphyry with felspathic, quartzose and me-
tamorphic rocks composed all the headlands and islands. ~ This line of coast appears
to cut obliquely through a chain having granite for its axis, flanked by porphyries
and mietamorphic rocks.” On the south-east coast, the crest of the main chain lies
70 or 100 miles from the shore, leaving a considerable space, which is occupied by
stratified rocks, consisting of palzozoic shales, sandstones, &c. The same rocks are
found on the western flank of the chain, in the district of Port Phillip, and its coal-
beds exist at Western Port. West of the coast range granite shows itself in the bed
of the Bogan, just before it enters the Darling, and in the upper parts of the Gle-
nelg. South of the Murray, it forms the north and south ranges of the Pyrenees, -
the range of Mount Byng, &c. The great mass of the Grampians, more than 4000
feet high, is composed of sandstone similar to that of Sydney ; south of which are a
number of volcanic cones and vast sheets of lava. Over all the lower parts of the
country, from Port Phillip to the Murray, is spread a great tertiary formation,
abounding in shells, echinoderms, and corals. At Cape Jervis, South Australia,
the rocks consist of mica-slate, gneiss and clay-slate ; and at Adelaide of coarse
chlorite schist, and about Gawler Town, blue clay-slate prevails. Veins of copper
and lead abound in the various ranges. The interior appears to consist everywhere
of tertiary clays and sandstone; which also form the coast, for 600 miles, from
Streaky Bay on the east to Mount Ragged on the west of the Great Bight. About
Mount Ragged granite is again seen, and frequently forms hills to the west, whose
bases are concealed by the tertiary. From King George’s Sound, an elevated di-
strict runs northward at least 250 miles, consisting of granite, metamorphic rocks,
gneiss, &c. Between this district and the sea, is a low plain, twenty miles wide, of
recent tertiary rocks, which extend northward to the islands forming the western
boundary of Shark’s Bay, forming the whole western coast of the Swan River
Colony. Along the north-west coast from Shark’s Bay to Dampier’s Land is a vast
tract of flat country, scarcely raised above the sea level, and fronted by dunes of
sand. Between Collier’s Bay and Cambridge Gulf is a great promontory of strati-
fied sandstone like that of Sydney. The next portion of the coast described from
personal observation is that at Port Essington, which consists of a red or white fer-

st

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 69

ruginous sandstone, horizontally stratified. This formation seems also to extend
- round the whole Gulf of Carpentaria, and to the Victoria River. The sandstone

abounds in ferruginous concretions, which sometimes compose its entire mass,
which then looks like the refuse of an iron furnace, or part of alava stream. These
masses form the headlands and projecting points of the cliffs. On account of their
similarity to the tertiary sandstones of Port Phillip, the author infers their simi-
larity in age. In concluding, the author remarks the parallelism of all the known
mountain chains in Australia, the majority being N.N.E. and S.W., and none vary-
ing more than two points from north and south. He also cites the opinion of
Capt. Sturt, that one vast desert plain stretches from the great Australian Bight to
the Gulf of Carpentaria; and observes that the only great extent of country unac-
counted for, is on the north-west side, where the range between Cambridge Gulf
and Buccaneer’s Archipelago may rise into some importance in the interior.

Notes on Geological Phenomena in Africa. By J. Duncan.

Granite abounds in the Mahra country, which is a part of the King Mountains,
N.E. from Abomey. The mountains run in curved lines towards the N.W. and
SE. The lesser ranges, which border the King Mountains, are stratified, often
dipping east (15° to 20°), and farther offt he beds are horizontal. They are all of
the granitic or gneiss character.

On the mountain Kpalloko, the loftiest from its base in the Mahra country,
are several towns. The escarpment on the north is perpendicular. The rocks are
formed in curved beds.

About 100 miles beyond the mountains, in lat. 11° 30’ N., are calcareous and
ferruginous springs; and sulphur (Kao) is found abundantly in the mountains.
[This communication was presented to the Nat. Hist. Section. ]

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Note on Graphic Granite. By A. C. G. JoBert.

The inspection of several samples of graphic granite have led me to the conclusion,
—Ist, that there are cases where it can be successfully demonstrated that during the
process of the refrigeration of the granite, the crystals of quartz were formed first
in the middle of the felspathic melted matter.

_ 2ndly. That during the subsequent process of the consolidation of the felspar,
the quartz crystals remained for a time in a gelatinous state.

_8rdly. That the circumstances which have accompanied the production of graphic
granite, such as the movements of the mineral matter injected in veins, and lateral
pressure, have modified the crystals of quartz, so as to destroy, partially, the pris-
matic regular shape, in flattening them, and sometimes imprinting upon them forms
corresponding to the felspathic crystallization.

4thly. That it is to these modifications in the form of the prismatic crystals of
quartz that the particular aspect of the graphic granite is due.

These facts may lead to important deductions: for instance, if it is clearly de-
monstrated that in the granitic masses the crystals of quartz have existed in a ge-
latinous state, whilst the felspar passed from the liquid to the solid state, this cir-

_ cumstance will explain many accidents in the granitic envelope, such as the forma-
tion of quartz veins and dikes in natural contemporaneous fissures, through the
pressure of superincumbent masses, and even also the formation of felspathic dikes
in a granite where the quartz was predominant, if the fissure has been produced
in a yielding mass, when the felspathic elements were still in a liquid state.

_ Notices of Natural History Observations made since last Meeting bearing upon
Geology. By Professor E. Forses.

The principal facts communicated were the following :—1. The discovery, in a
_ living state, of several species of Mollusca hitherto known in this region only as
_ fossils. Leda pygmea, Arca raridentata, and Astarte Withami, were the instances,
all taken by Mr. M‘Andrew and Mr. Forbes in the British seas. They had also
- taken the Turbinolia Milletiana, till lately a characteristic miocene fossil, alive, off
_ the Land’s End, and had proved the animal to be scarcely different from Caryophyllia.
2. The dredging from deep sea at a distance from land, of several species known

70 REPORT—1846,

only as fossils in Europe, as Leda obtusa and truncata, and Pecten Islandicus. 3, The
observation that several rare species now living in our seas appear at a comparatively
recent period to have been much more abundant; and the inference that they are
now gradually dying out, which leads to the probable conjecture that many of the
late tertiary forms became extinct within the historic period, 4, The observations
of the existence of limited tracts, usually of considerable depth, at various points in
the British seas, the marine inhabitants of which are much more arctic in character
than those generally diffused through this region.

On the Physical Character of the Table-land of Abessinia. By CHar.zs T.
Bexe, Esq., Ph.D., F.S.A., F.R.G.S., Corresponding Member of the Geo-
graphical Society of Paris.

The object of this memoir is to show the true character of the high table-land of
Abessinia, in which the numerous head-streams of the Nile have their origin.

The opinion expressed by Professor Ritter in his Erdkunde, and generally enter-
tained on his authority, with respect to this table-land is, that it consists of a suc-
cession of terraces rising one above the other, the lowest being towards the Red Sea,
and the highest being in Enérea, where the line of separation between the waters
flowing into the Nile and those of the rivers having their course to the Indian
Ocean is considered to exist.

Dr. Riippell was the first to show that so far from the high land rising in ter-
races as it recedes from the coast, its summit line is towards the coast itself, and
that from thence it falls gradually towards the interior. And this view is entirely
corroborated by the two vertical sections of the Abessinian plateau, from north to
south, and from east to west, exhibited by Dr, Beke to the meeting*. These sec-
tions show that at Halai on the summit of Mount Taranta, twenty-three geographi-
cal miles from the Red Sea at Zilla (Adule), near Masséwah, the edge of the table-
land has an absolute elevation of 8625 feet, which gives a rise of 1 in 16°15—
equal to an angle of 3° 33'—to the eastern slope. On the other hand, at Khartim,
at the junction of the White and Blue Rivers, in nearly the same latitude as Halai,
and at a distance of 380 geographical miles from that place, the elevation of the
Nile is 1525 feet. The fall in that direction is therefore only 1in 324, which gives
rather more than ten minutes and a half of a degree, as the angle of the western
slope towards the interior of the continent. Consequently, on a line along the
fifteenth parallel of north latitude, the eastern slope of the Abessinian mountain-
chain towards the sea is to the western counter-slope towards the Nile as 20 to 1.

If the proportion of the two slopes, instead of being estimated on a direct east
and west line, be calculated on one in the general direction of the courses of the
principal rivers, namely from S.E. to N.W., the result is as follows. Khartim
lies very nearly to the north-west of Mélka-Kuyu, the ford over the Hawash on
the way from Tadjdrrah to Shoa, at which spot the absolute elevation of that river
is about 2200 feet. The height of the eastern edge of the table-land on the summit
of the Chakka mountains behind Ankdbar, the capital of Shoa—not far from the
direct line between the two extreme points—is about 9000 feet ; and as this locality
is thirty-eight geographical miles from Mélka-Kdyu, it gives a rise of 1 in 38°83 to
the eastern slope—equal to an angle of 1° 41’. On the other hand, the distance
from the summit of the Chakka to Kharttim being about 532 miles, the fall of the
counter-slope is 1 in 429, equal to an angle of 8'. These calculations make there-
fore the proportion of the two slopes to be as 12°6 to 1,

In this latter instance the eastern slope is taken, not from the level of the ocean,
but from that of the Hawash, which river is here the recipient of the waters of that

-slope, in the same way as the Nile itself is the recipient of those of the western
counter-slope. From the Hawash to the sea is about 200 miles, which gives a fall
of 1 in 550, equal to an angle of six and a quarter minutes of a degree, for the low
desert country inhabited by the Beduin Dankali tribes.

As a whole, the table-land of Abessinia may be described as a succession of ex-
tensive undulating plains, declining very gradually towards the west and north-
west, and being intersected by numerous streams; which streams, after a short

* These sections are given on the map in vol. xiv, part 1, of the Journal of the Royal
Geographical Society.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 7h

course on the level of the plateau, fall abruptly into deep-cut valleys, in which they
soon reach a depression of from 3000 to 4000 feet below the general level of the table-
land, The valleys of the larger streams are of considerable width—that of the
Abai to the south of the peninsula of Gédjam, is at least twenty-five miles from the
extreme points where it breaks from the table-land on either side. As the country
within the valleys is exceedingly wild and irregular, with all the characters of a
mountainous one, nothing is easier for a traveller, who has not first taken a com-
prehensive view of the entire region, and who, on crossing a river, finds himself
‘shut up within a mass of broken country rising around him on all sides to a relative
elevation of 3000 or 4000 feet or even more, than to suppose that, in ascending this
broken country on either side, he is crossing a mountain chain; whereas, on reach-
ing the summit, he has merely arrived upon the table-land. It is important to bear
this in mind in the perusal of the works of travellers in Abessinia, many of whom,
under the impression thus alluded to, place mountains, where mountains, in the ordi-
nary accéptation of the term, do not exist.

Where the rivers begin to break from the table-land, which they do by fissures
in the rocky surface, at first only a few yards in breadth, but gradually opening to
the extent of several miles, they at once form cataracts of 80 or 100 feet, or even
more, in height, and then continue down a succession of falls and rapids, so as to
descend several thousand feet in a course of a few miles. For example, the Abai,
in a distance of only twenty-five miles between the two bridges over it, in the north-
east of Gédjam, falls upwards of 2000 feet, or 80 feet per mile ; and in the next eighty
miles of its course it falls nearly 1000 feet more. So too, in a distance of 100 miles
between Angolalla, the Galla capital of Shoa, and the ford of the Dérra Gallas,
on the way to Gédjam, the difference of elevation between the head-streams of the
Djémma, a principal tributary of the Abdi, and the Abii itself is nearly 5600 feet ;
which gives a fall of 56 feet per mile.

~The uniformity of the surface of the table-land is further broken by higher
mountain masses, which, in some parts, as in Sdmien, Angot, Gddjam, Miécha,
Kaffa, &c., attain an absolute elevation of from 11,000 to 15,000 feet. These
greater elevations do not however appear to form parts of any regular system, but
to be distinct, isolated masses, unconnected either with each other or with the
general bearing of the entire plateau.
- A remarkable peculiarity of this table-land is, that many of its principal rivers
have a spiral course, so that after having formed a curve of greater or less extent—
mostly, as would appear, round these higher mountain masses,—they return upon
themselves at a comparatively short distance from their sources. As instances are
mentioned the Méreb, the Béllegas, the Abdi, the Gibbe, and the Gddjeb. This
latter river, of which the first accounts were given by Dr. Beke, is not the head of
the Jubb or Gowin, as has been imagined, but one of the principal arms of the Bahr-
el-Abyad or true Nile. :

All the streams of the western counter-slope of the Abessinian chain are affluents
of the Nile, and their easternmost branches take their rise at the extreme eastern
edge of the table-land, which is thus the limit of the basin of the Nile, and the
watershed between its affluents and those of the rivers flowing eastward and south-
ward towards the Indian Ocean, On the seaward side of this watershed, the de-
clivity being much more abrupt and its extent much more limited, the rivers must
necessarily be of secondary importance. Of these, the Hawash, the Haines’s River,
and the Jubb or Gowin (which latter river is apparently the lower course of the
Wabbi—the Oby of de Barros*), are mentioned as instances ; and the author infers
that to the south of the equator the watershed continues along southwards at a
comparatively short distance from the eastern coast, so that when once the south-
ern limits of the basin of the Nile are passed, the far greater mass of the immense
tropical rains find their way to the ocean by the rivers discharging themselves into
it on the western coast. ,

* Addition by the Author.—The Gowin or Jubb,—the pseudo-Gédjeb (Gochob) of Sir Wil-
liam C. Harris,—which river enters the sea at Juba near the equator, and which was ascended
by Mr. Arc Angelo in February 1844, is manifestly the ‘‘ Wébigi-weyna” of M. Antoine d’Ab-

_badie. As Wabbi (Wébi) is an appellative signifying “river,” this name should be read
“Wabbi-Giwéyna,” that is to say, the river Gowin. M. Rochet d’Hericourt places the source
of this river in the country of Korchassi, to the south of lake Zuwai.—12th March, 1847.

72 REPORT—1846.

Along the watershed, that is to say at the extreme eastern edge of the table-land,
several lakes of some magnitude are situate, namely, A’shangi, Haik and Zuwai;
and the great lake Zambézi, or Nyassi, lying further to the south, would appear to
be, in like manner, placed near the line along which the minor streams falling
into the Indian ocean are divided from those of larger size which flow towards the
Atlantic.

The memoir concludes with directing attention to an important practical result
which is to be arrived at from this brief survey of the physical character of the
Abessinian plateau. ‘It is, namely, that the eastern coast of Africa presents
facilities for the exploration of the interior of that continent very superior to those
afforded by the western coast. For, when the narrow belt of low land along the
coast of the Indian Ocean—which from its general dryness, arising from the
absence of large rivers, is far from unhealthy at most seasons of the year—is once
passed and the eastern edge of the elevated table-land is attained, a climate is met

_with which is not merely congenial to European constitutions, but is absolutely
more healthy than that of most countries. Here—that is to say, on the elevated
plateau, and not in the low desert country along the sea-coast—travellers might wait
in safety, and even with advantage to their health, till suitable opportunities should
present themselves for penetrating westward into the interior; and in the event of
their having to retrace their steps, they would only return upon a healthy and de-
lightful country. On the other hand, the climate of the western coast is notoriously
such, that a traveller is necessitated to press forwards, whatever may be the time of
the year, whatever the condition of the country, whatever even his state of health.
And should he, from sickness or any other unforeseen circumstance, be compelled
to abandon his journey, he must do so with the painful knowledge that the further
he retrogrades the more baleful are the districts which he has to traverse and the
less likelihood there is of his ever reaching the coast.” j

Synopsis of a proposal respecting a Physico-Geographical Survey of the British

Islands, particularly in relation to Agriculture. By W. DesBoroucH

Coorey, Esq. Communicated by Sir R. I. Murcuison, G.C.S., F.R.S.

1. Physical geography, or that branch of knowledge which treats of natural
phenomena and their laws collectively, as they are modified by geographical position,
furnishes some of the chief elements of agricultural science. It teaches the rela-
tions of comparative climate, without a knowledge of which the results of local
experience cannot be safely applied to any extent in agriculture.

2. It is well known that as climate depends fundamentally on the distribution of
land and water, on the winds, and is affected probably by other influences not so
easily recognised, its changes and gradations deviate widely from the simple rules
deducible from geographical position. The lines marking certain degrees of mean
temperature, of summer heat and of extreme cold, do not run in parallels of lati-
tude ; nor are they parallel to one another, but diverge as we proceed from W. to E.

3. The lines above described, and which are denominated respectively Isothermal,
Isotheral and Isocheimal, are, notwithstanding their apparent irregularity, the
fixed boundaries of very interesting natural domains ; for they mark out the several
zones of vegetable life, and the regions suited to the cultivation of different kinds
of plants.

i To the determination of these lines may be added observations of some other
phenomena which also contribute to ascertain the conditions of vegetation ; as rain,
its quantity at different seasons ; humidity without rain ; the temperature of the
earth ; its form, conducting and radiating properties, &c.

5. A knowledge of these particulars can only be derived from observations in
sufficient number systematically made, and referable to a common standard.

6. The phenomena of physical geography may be considered as determined in a
general way for the north ot Europe (Denmark), and for the south of Europe also
(Italy), by Schouw ; and for eastern Europe (Russia) by Baer and Kupffer. For
western Europe, or the British Islands, numerous observations of this kind are in-
deed on record ; yet they still want completeness, minuteness, and uniformity ; nor
has any attempt been made to arrange them systematically with a view to popular
use.

i Sint

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 73

7. The anomalies characteristic of the western or oceanic climate increase rapidly
towards its furthest limit. There is a wide difference, in respect of climate, between
the Isle of Thanet and Limerick or Clare; between Norfolk and Sligo. This is
clearly expressed by the changed aspect of indigenous vegetation as we go west-
wards towards the Atlantic. The exact registration of those differences would be
the means of developing and revealing the natural laws to which the labours of the
husbandman are unquestionably subject.

8. Where the constants of climate are fully ascertained, the vigorous growth of
every kind of plant will be found to be restricted within limits which depend on
obvious and assignable conditions, and the region suited to the cultivation of any
plant may be accurately defined. Or we may reverse the process and tell the ca-
pabilities of any region.

9. But in the absence of this kind of knowledge, agriculture is necessarily
founded to a great degree on imitation, without any reference to natural limits.
Examples, recommended by success, are followed in situations where similar suc-
cess is unattainable. Owing to the vague, indeterminate, uncollected and unar-
ranged condition in which the data whereon the agriculturist ought to found his
calculations at present lie, he must either practice empirically or imitate servilely ;
and he is constantly misled by examples, from want of the means of divesting them
of fallacy, by estimating accurately the local element of their character. Through-
out the British Isles the climate varies far more than the system of agriculture ; yet
the farmer may reasonably expect to find his labours more profitable the more
closely his system harmonizes with nature.

10. The steady progress of scientific agriculture must be preceded by the deter-
mination of the constants of climate. The discoveries of the chemist may then be
turned to account by the farmer, when we shall be able to state in a definite and
authentic manner, the natural conditions of every spot of land in the kingdom.

11. The time is now come when every country must, with a view to profit,
strenuously endeavour to confine itself to that kind of cultivation for which nature
has especially adapted it; otherwise it must be a loser in the general and free com-
petition. The loss of protection is the loss of an artificial and forced, and there-
fore, abstractedly speaking, a bad system. If this truth be understood and acted
on by the farmer, the result will be an increase of production more than counter-
balancing the supposed loss.

12. At the same time there has taken place an increase, in an almost miraculous
degree, of the facilities of internal communication, extremely favourable to that
more active system of interchange which must be expected to arise whenever agri-
culturists, quitting the trammels of a uniform routine, learn to take advantage of
every natural capability throughout the United Kingdom. It is now no longer
necessary or expedient that the farmer should be guided by the demands of the
market in his own locality. The east and west can now exchange produce without
delay or difficulty, and will, no doubt, frequently find their profit in so doing.

13. In setting forth the demarcations of climate within the British Islands, it
would be desirable to enumerate at the same time all the useful plants and objects
of culture, in different parts of the world, which seem capable of flourishing within
the limits described. This kind of knowledge has a tendency to correct the spirit of

~ routine and obstinately contracted views which render farmers at times so indocile.

14. The constants of climate, with all other physico-geographical data, and the
necessary collateral information carefully and clearly arranged, so as to be easily
and universally applicable, ought to be published in the cheapest possible form, and
given to the people.

On the Georama. By M. GuERin.

The author, acknowledging the invention of a Georama to be due to M. Langlard,
in 1825, stated the objects he had in view in attempting to execute this great re-
presentation of the globe, and the success which he had met with.

M. Guerin had established in Paris this method of teaching geography, by por-
traying on alarge scale the actual features of the land and sea, and offered reasons
in fayour of an effort to introduce the georama, and the system of instruction con-
nected with it, in London.

74 REPORT—1846.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.

General Observations on the Geographical Distribution of the Flora of India,
with Remarks on the Vegetation of its Lakes*. By Prof. Royie, M.D.

Tue author stated, that though the plains of India were generally considered to
support only tropical vegetation, yet this differed very much both in the different
parts of the country and at different seasons of the year. The plains, moreover,
might be distinguished into moist and dry; in the former, embankments were re-
quired to prevent inundation ; and in the latter, canals for irrigation. In the rainy
season, however, most parts supported a tropical vegetation, and rice could be suc-
cessfully cultivated. So in particular localities, covered with primeval forests, some
tropical plants extended even to some of the hot valleys in the neighbourhood of
Cashmere. In the cold weather, however, that is in the winter season, some Euro-
pean plants make their appearance in the plains, especially of North-west India ;
and wheat and barley are as successfully cultivated as in Europe. So in ascending
its mountains, especially the Himalayas, every variety of vegetation is met with,
almost as much as in proceeding from the equator to the poles, being perfectly tropical
at the base, European on the ascent, and polar at the summits of its lofty peaks.
The mountains however are also under the influence of the rainy season, and are,
indeed, fora great part of the season covered with a canopy of clouds in consequence
of the air heated and loaded with moisture in the valleys rising to an elevation
where the temperature is below the point of deposition or dew-point. Considerable
uniformity of temperature and moisture is produced, in consequence of there being
little cooling at night and but little heating during the day, from the sun being
unable to penetrate the cloudy canopy, and we therefore see some of the Balsams,
Scitamineze and Orchidez flourishing at elevations where they could not exist for a
day during the dry heat of summer or the piercing cold of winter.

In so extensive a territory and diversified a climate there is necessarily a numerous
and a varied flora, The-known species of the Indian flora are about 10,000 in
number, the majority of course characteristic species, but on the Himalaya of an
European type. The vegetation of the different parts of the Indian empire bears a
resemblance to that of different countries where there is a similarity of climate, and
about 250 species which are found in the plains and mountains of India, also occur
in other, some of them very distant parts of the world. The vegetation of different
tropical countries is very similar, and they are subjected to the influence of the same
physical states. The affinity is very perceptible between the botany of the southern
parts of India and that of the Indian Archipelago; the same thing occurs with the
flora of southern China ; this therefore resembles that of southern India, Mr. Brown
long since remarked that about 200 species of the Australian flora are also found in
the islands of the southern Pacific as well as in India. Dr. Jack cbserved at Sin-
gapore many remarkable points of coincidence between its productions and those of
continentai and western India on one hand, and the islands of the Eastern Ar-
chipelago on the other; while the prevalence of some Epacridez. connected it with
that of New Holland. The botany of a great part of the drier parts of India has
a great resemblance to that of the west coast of Africa, as originally remarked by
Mr. Brown, who ascertained that there were about 40 species common to those
distant regions. Dr. Royle in the same way remarks a correspondence between the
flora of Egypt and that of the drier parts of northern India, and also that some of
the characteristic forms of the Mediterranean flora approach its north-western
frontier.

The Himalaya mountains have a tropical vegetation at their base and in their
valleys. At elevations of 6000 and 7000 feet, the climate is temperate, and the flora
corresponds with that of European regions and of the Caucasus, both in its arboreous
and herbaceous vegetation, and in the prevalence of many of the same species which
are found here in our fields. Among them also are several genera, which, until the
last few years, were thought to be peculiar to China, and others to North America.

* This communication was made to the Association at Cambridge in 1845, and was acci-
dentally omitted in the Report for that year.

A

=

SP Pee

PO ee et eo

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 75

Several, indeed, of the species are identical with those found in these distant coun-
tries, separated on one hand by the cold and arid deserts of Tartary, and on the other
by the hot and equally arid plains of India and of Africa, as well as the sea. Some
of the peaks however, having the characteristics of polar climates, have also that of
the vegetation ; and it is curious to see all the families and many of the same genera
on these isolated peaks and the remote Melville Island, The northern face of the
Himalayas, or the Tibetan region, has, the closest resemblance in its genera, and even
many of its species, to that of the Atlas mountains and of Siberia, with a sprinkling
of the Mediterranean flora, The author, having taken this general view, remarked
on the correspondence between the vegetation of even distant countries wherever
there was a correspondence in climate, and called attention to the curious resem-
blance in the belts of vegetation at different elevations on the Himalayas with that
of different latitudes, as detailed in the author’s ‘ Illustrations of Himalayan Botany,’
Dr. Royle inquired with reference to some of the geological explanations of successive
elevations of mountain ranges—at what period the vegetation of the peaks, for in-
stance, came to resemble that of polar regions ?

Among the various subjects, Dr. Royle stated, to which he might draw the notice of
the Section, there was one, he thought, particularly worthy of the attention of those
favourably situated for making observations; and that was the thick vegetation which
clothes the surface of many of the lakes of India. Dr, Royle stated that he himself
having been chiefly in the north of India, had not seen this vegetation to the extent
in which it existed in the more southern parts of India; but even there it was suffi-
ciently substantial to support numbers of the smaller Gralla, and among them the
Chinese Jacana. But having on one occasion been detained on the banks of some
of these lakes on the north-west of Bengal, he had been much struck with the thick
and varied vegetation of the floating masses with which their surfaces were covered.
These consist of numerous stems, leaf and flower-stalks of a variety of plants closely
interlaced and matted together, the younger parts requiring both light and air for
the performance of their functions, finding their way to the surface; while the older
are pushed downwards, when the more herbaceous parts rot and decay. Among
these plants are most of the genera and some of the species even, which are found
in similar situations in Europe; but with them such plants as Avschynomene aspera
with its thick cellular stem, Convoluulus edulis, Herpestes Monniera, and Utricularia
stellaris, Marsilea quadrifolia, Trapa bispinosa and bicornis, with species of Polygonum
and Dysophylia verticillata, The last is particularly interesting from its long jointed
and striated stem with its whorls of leaves. Of most of them it may be observed that
they have little or no rvot ; the floating stems are long and slender, very cellular, with
the vascular bundles arranged round the circumference, with little or rather with no-
thing like bark. By Dr, Buchanan Hamilton these lakes have been seen of much greater
extent, and covered with a much more dense vegetation, so much so, indeed, that he
describes the floating masses to be sufficiently substantial for cattle to graze upon the
grasses with which they became covered, but that occasionally some fall through and
are lost. He describes, moreover, some bushes and trees as growing in the midst of
the water, and among them a Rose, a Barringtonia, and a Cephalanthus,

It is hardly possible to witness such vegetation, without calling to mind some of
the explanations given of the formation of coal in the ancient periods of the world,
and of the indications often presented to us in coal fields of a tropical vegetation, in
situations where no tropical plants could now grow. But without proceeding fur-
ther, it is interesting to compare the vegetation of these lakes with that of the Indian
coal-fields of Burdwan, which are in their immediate vicinity. The first thing that
will strike an observer is, that there is no remarkable difference between what was
the former flora of these localities, and what might take place at the present day.
One great difference is certainly observable in the Indian coal-fields, and that is the
immense mass of ferns of which they seem to be composed, while no ferns are at
present found in their neighbourhood. This however is owing to the country and
the plains of India generally being open, and therefore extremely hot and dry for
some months in the year. One fern, Asplenium radiatum, is found near Delhi, in the

_ sides of wells, in the peninsula of India, and also in Arabia. Cheilanthes dealbata and

Lygodium microphyllum occur in the neighbouring Rajmuhl hills. But in the same
latitude, and not very distant, where the country is covered with forests, producing

76 REPORT— 1846.

shade and moisture, numerous ferns, and even tree ferns are found, as in Silhet.
The strata of the Burdwan coal-basins of Ranigunge and Chinakooree yielded the
author abundant remains of the Ranigunge reed, Vertebraria indica, the marsileaceous
genus, Trizygia speciosa, and species of Pecopteris, Glossopteris, &e. G. Browniana
is interesting as having been found in these ceal-fields, and according to Brongniart,
in New Holland, in the coal of the Hawkesbury river, near Port Jackson. Zamia
Buchanani has also been found, and a palm which has been called Zeugophyllites
calamoites. With a little more moisture, or even the umbrageous covering of a
forest, these, and other similar plants, would grow with luxuriance in these localities.

Seeing therefore that heat, with moisture, is capable at the present day of sup-
porting a vegetation similar to that of coal-fields, it would in ancient times only have
required the presence of heat and moisture for the vegetation of coal-fields to have
flourished. If the mass of the earth was in ancient times of a higher temperature,
as is inferred from many geological and zoological phenomena, it is evident that,
water being present, copious evaporation would necessarily take place as it now does
in tropical countries. ‘ If the internal heat were uniform at different points of the
globe’s surface, then would the evaporation be uniform, and there would be an
absence of those upper and lower currents of the atmosphere which now carry the
heated and moisture-loaded air of the tropics to polar regions, and send the cold air
of the latter towards the equator. As.the air, loaded with moisture, ascended into
the atmosphere, it would at length reach an elevation where the reduction of tem-
perature would proceed beyond the point of deposition of moisture, and the whole
of what had been raised by the aid of heat and air would be constantly depositing in
the form of clouds and rain. Moisture would thus everywhere be preserved, and
the cloudiness from the steady action of the heat below and of the cold above would
necessarily also be constant. This would produce uniformity of temperature; for
radiation from tle surface would be obviated, and the solar rays would not penetrate
the cloudy canopy more than they do in rainy weather at the present time. In

such a climate, tropical plants would be able to grow equally well in any latitude, .

and there might be intermixed with them many others to which dryness was not
essential. In conclusion, the author remarked, such a cloudy canopy may be observed
to a partial extent, even in the present day. Humboldt has described it as occurring
on the Andes ; the author had himself observed it for days together on the Hima-
layas, and partially so during the whole of the rains; Dr. M‘Clelland and others
have described it as occurring for months together in the valley of Assam. If it ex-
isted in northern regions in early times, and the sources of heat were, as Dr. Royle
assumed, internal, then could tropical vegetation not only exist in polar regions
during the summer season, but it would not be destroyed in winter. Growth would
only be stopped, as in the present day, during the darkness of night. As the
internal heat diminished and receded from the surface, the cloudy canopy would by
degrees be at a lower and a lower elevation, until, like the snow-line of the present, it
would be at the surface of the earth in high latitudes. These regions would become
as they are now, and immediately under the influence of external cold, and thus
a glacial might succeed a tropical vegetation. In situations where a lofty peak
raised itself above the canopy of clouds, it would become exposed to the cooling
effects of radiation, and would, as in the present day, attract to itself and condense
much of the floating moisture of the atmosphere, and give origin to mighty and rapid
rivers, which would plough the mountain side and overspread the level plain.

A Synopsis of the Classification of the Genera of British Birds.
By Joun Hoce, MA. F.RS., PLS, Sc.

The author, having completed his classification of birds,which has been carried out
on the same principles as that portion published in the Report of the Fourteenth
Meeting of the British Association, although in some respects modified from it, gave
in this communication his arrangement of the genera of the birds hitherto met with
in the British Islands.

It will be seen that he has been compelled to increase the families, and that he
has not inserted the subfamilies, esteeming them unnecessary, and as too much
lengthening the classification. The author has been very careful in the choice of the

eres Al eee

j

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. rive

genera, and he trusts it will be found that he has only retained those which are really
distinct ; and whilst he has, after due consideration, thought it requisite to add to
the number of those which British ornithologists usually employ, he has at the same
time reduced those too numerous genera of certain authors, and especially of the
Prince of Canino. Likewise, with regard to subgenera, the use of which the author
must always maintain to be extremely disadvantageous to science, he has wholly

omitted all notice of them.

Class II. AVES.

Subclass I. Aves ConstRIcTIPEDES.
Division I. TERRESTRES.

Order I. Raprores.
Tribe ]. Planicerirostres,
Subtribe 1. Diurni,
Family 1. Sarcoramphide.
Genus Neophron.
Family 2. Vulturide.
Genus Gyps.
Family 3. Aquilide.
Genera Haliaétus, Aquila, Pan-
dion.
Family 4. Falconide.
Genera Falco, Accipiter, Astur,
Milvus, Nauclerus.
Family 5. Buteonide.
Genera Buteo, Pernis, Circus,
Strigiceps.
Tribe 2. Tecticerirostres.
Subtribe 2. Nocturni.
Family 1. Strigide.
Genera Surnia, Nyctea, Strix,
Syrnium, Athene.
Family 2. Bubonide.
Genera Bubo, Otus, Scops.

*Order IIT. Insessorzs.
Tribe 1. Curvirostres.
Subtribe 1. Scansores.
Family Cuculide.
Genera Cuculus, Oxylophus,
Coccyzus.
“Tribe 2. Cuneirostres.
Family 1. Picide.
Genera Dryotomus, Picus, Jynx.
Family 2. Sittide.
Genus Sitta.
Tribe 3. Conirostres.
Subtribe 2. Clamatores.
Family 1. Coraciadide.
Genus Coracias.
Family 2. Corvide.
Genera Garrulus, Pica, Nuci-
Fraga, Corvus, Fregilus.
Subtribe 3. Cantatores.
Family 3. Sturnida.
Genera Sturnus, Pastor, Age-
laius.

Family 4. Loviade.
Genera Lozia, Pyrrhula, Cory-
thus, Coccothraustes.
Family 5. Fringillide.
Genera Passer, Linota, Car-=
duelis, Fringilla.
Family 6. Emberizide.
Genera LEmberiza,
hanes.
Family 7. Alaudide.
Genera Phileremus, Alauda, Ga
lerida.

Plectro«

Tribe 4. Dentirostres. .

Family 1. Anthide.

Genus Anthus.

Family 2. Motacilliide.

Genera Budytes, Motacilla.

Family 3. Paride.

Genera Calamophilus, Mecis-

tura, Parus.
Family 4. Aedonide.

Genera Regulus, Melizophilus,
Sylvia, Curruca, Aedon, Sa-
licaria, Accentor.

Family 5. Sazicolide.

Genera Phenicura, Erithacus,

Sazicola, Vitiflora.
Family 6. Ampelidide.
Genus Bombycilla.

Family 7. Merulide.

Genera Oriolus, Hematornis,
Turdus, Petrocincla, Merula,
Cinelus.

Subtribe 4, Latrones.

Family 8. Laniade.
Genera Lanius, Collurio.

Family 9. Muscicapide.
Genus Muscicapa.

Tribe 5. Tenuirostres.
Subtribe 5. Anisodactyli.

Family 1. Certhiade.

Genera Troglodytes, Certhia.
Family 2. Upupide.

Genus Upupa.

Tribe 6. Fissirostres.
Subtribe 6. Syndactyli.

Family 1. Halcyonide.
Genus Alcedo.

Family 2. Meropide.
Genus Merops.

* The author’s Order II. Prekensores entirely consists of foreign birds, which belong to the
Genus Psittacus of Linnzus. His proposed divisions of this order are given in Jameson’s

Edinburgh Phil. Journal for July, 1846,

78

Subtribe 7. Allodactyli.
Family 3. Hirundinide.
Genera Cypselus, Progne, Hi-
rundo, Uhelidon.
Family 4. Caprimulgide.
Genus Caprimulgus.
Tribe 7. Cutinarirostres.
Subtribe 8. Gyratores.
Family Columbide.
Genera Columba, Turtur, Ecto-
pistes,

SubclassII. Aves NcoNsTRICTIPEDES.

Order IV. Rasores.
Tribe Convewirostres.

Subtribe 1. Podarcees.
Family 1. Phasianide.
Genus Phasianus.

Family 2. Tetraonide.
Genera Tetrao, Lagopus.
Family 3. Perdicide.
Genera Perdix, Ortyx,Coturnix.
Family 4. Hemipodiade.
Genus Hemipodius.
Subtribe 2. Podenemi.
Family 5. Otidide.
Genus Otis.

Division Il. AQUATICA.

Order V. GraLtaTores,
Tribe 1. Pressirostres.
Subtribe 1. Cursores.
Family 1. Charadriade.
Genera Gdicnemus, Cursorius,
Charadrius.
Family 2. Vanellide.
Genera ‘Squatarola, Vanellus,
Glareola, Sirepsilas.
Family 3. Hematopodide.
Genus Hematopus.
Tribe 2. Cultrirostres.
Subtribe 2. Ambulatores.
Family 1. Gruide.
Genus Grus.
Family 2. Ardeide.
Genera Ciconia, Ardea, Ardeola,
Erogas, Nycticorax.
Tribe 3. Spathulirostres.
Family Plataleide.
Genus Platalea.
Tribe 4. Longirostres.
Family 1. Tantalide.
Genus Ibis.
Family 2. Recurvirostride.
Genus Recurvirostra.
Family 3. Numeniade.
Genera Limosa. Numenius.
Family 4. Scolopacide.
Genera Totanus, Machetes, Rus-

REPORT—1846.

ticola, Scolopax, Macrorhaim-
phus, Tringa.
Family 5. Phalaropodide.
Genera Phalaropus, Lobipes,
Family 6. Calidride.
Genera Himantopus, Calidris,
Tribe 5. Diversirostres.
Subtribe 3. Macrodactyli.
Family Rallide.
Genera Rallus, Crea, Zapornia.
Tribe 6. Frontiscutirostres.
Family Fulicide.
Genera Gallinula, Porphyrio,
Fulica.

Order VI. Natatorss.
Tribe 1. Lamellirostres.
Subtribe 1. Simplicipollices.
Family 1. Anseride.

Genera Bernicla, Anser, Cygnus,

Plectropterus, Chenalopex.
Family 2. Anatide.

Genera Tadorna, Rhynchaspis,
Chauliodus, Dafila, Anas, Ma-
rect.

Subtribe 2. Membranipollices.
Family 3. Fuligulide.
Genera Clangula, Harelda, Fuli-
gula, idemia, Somateria.
Tribe 2. Serrirostres.
Family 1. Mergide.
Genera Mergus, Merganser.
Subtribe 3. Totipalme.
Family 2. Carbonide.
Genera Carbo, Sula.
Tribe 3. Tubinarirostres.
Subtribe 4, Longipennes.
Tlamily Procellariade.

Genera Proce laria, Puffinus,

Thalassidroma.
Tribe 4. Medionarirostres.
Family Laride.

Genera Cataracta, Lestris, La-

rus, Rissa, Xema.
Tribe 5. Subulirostres.
Family Sternide.
Genera Anous, Viralva, Ponto-
chelidon, Sterna.
Tribe 6. Cuspidirostres.
Subtribe 5. Brevipennes.
Family 1. Podicipide.
Genus Podiceps.
Family 2. Colymbide.
Genera Oolymbus, Uria.
Tribe 7. Sulcirostres.
Family 1. Mormonidé.

GeneraMergulus, Mormon, Uta-
mania.

Subtribe 6. Imperfectipennes,
Family 2. Alcide.
Genus Alea.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 79

List of the Names of Periodical Birds, and the dates of their appearance and

disappearance, at Llanrwst, in North Wales. By Joun BLACKWALL,
FILS. :

Mr. Gould exhibited several new species of humming-birds from the Andes.

On the Figures of Birds observed on a Tomb at Memphis. By J. Bonomi.

Since his last communication the author had received the following note from Mr.
Moreing :—* The gigantic nests to which you refer, were seen by me in the years
1829 and 1830, during the time I was attached to the Surveying Expedition in the
Red Sea. 1 do not remember having seen them to the south of Cossier, but to the
north of that town, and about the entrance to the Sea of Suez, I observed many.
They were always situated cn the small sandy spits and islands with which the Red
Sea abounds ; but you are mistaken if you suppose them to be entirely the work of
the birds which breed in them. They varied both in size and height, and were
evidently formed in the first instance by the wash of the sea heaving up pieces of,
broken coral, drift wood, and other rubbish on the extremity of a sand spit. ‘The
birds added to the mound thus formed; and placed their nests on the top, to pro=
tect themselves from the spray in rough weather. I am not clear as to the species
of bird which make use of these singular nests, but believe that more than one kind
of gull avail themselves of the security thus offered.”

On the Crania of two species of Crocodile from Sierra Leone.
By H. Fatconer, M.D. and W. THompson*.

Crocodilus cataphractus, Cuv. and C. vulgaris, Cuv. (var. C. Dumeril and Bibron),
were the species noticed; the cranium of the former, divested of its integuments,
being now for the first time described. The differences between the cranium of the
latter and that of allied species were noticed in detail in the paper, which was
illustrated by figures of the crania of the two forms from Sierra Leone, whence the
specimens were brought by Dr. M‘Cormac of Belfast, and presented by him to the
museum of that town.

Recollections of Researches into the Natural and Economie History of certain
Species of the Clupeade, Coregoni,and Salmonide. By R.Knox, M.D.

The author stated that his object was to bring before the Association, and after-
wards before the Academy of Sciences of Paris, a brief view of the inquiries made by
himself and his brother into the natural history of certain important gregarious
fishes. His discovery that the food of the Vendace or Vengis, of Lochmaben, con-
sisted exclusively of the minute, or rather microscopic Entomostraca inhabiting the
lakes of Lochmaben, was first communicated to the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
This discovery, which at the time appeared to the author and to a few others of the
highest importance in natural history science, had, in his opinion, been misunderstood
by the public, and by most naturalists to whom he had spoken; they adhering to
the old opinion, that certain fishes, to be afterwards spoken of, preyed on the Ento-
mostraca merely occasionally; at other times on small shell-fish, animalcules, minute
or smali fishes, &c., just as they could get them: which opinions the author endea-
voured to show were contrary to tle facts. After discovering that fishes so nume-
rous, so productive and of such a size as the Vendace, subsisted solely on one de~
scription of food, the Entomostraca,—a sort of food over which man can exercise
little control, especially in the ocean,—the author knowing that, up to his time, the
real food of the herring and of several other species of fish had never heen dis-
covered, prosecuted his inquiries into this important branch. The result was the
discovery that, whilst the Vendace lives exclusively on the Entomostraca, the same
may be said of the herring ; that is, of most of its varieties. The finer kinds of lake

_ trout, also the Char, live chiefly on the Entomostraca. Dr.Knox gave an outline of

_ * Published in full, accompanied by illustrations, in the Annals of Nat. Hist. for Dec. 1846,

80 REPORT—1846.

a superior kind of trout, which he thinks has not been described by naturalists: he
calls it the “ Estuary Trout,” brackish waters being the locality it prefers. Its food
differs from all others he has examined. Should it prove, on future inquiry, that the
brackish water is the limit to its usual, or natural range, it may furnish a means of de-
ciding on some difficult legal questions. As regards the celebrated questions raised
by the Drumlanrig experiments, to which his first memoir gave, as he believes, the
exciting cause, Dr. Knox thinks it not proved that the salmon smolt, that is the young
salmon, ever remains longer in the river than a few weeks after rising from the gravel ;
and thinks that the opinions founded on the Drumlanrig experiments are in this re-
spect erroneous. 2nd. As regards the question of the parr, no new fact was added
to its previous history by these experiments; the parr markings, which may be again
made visible on scraping off the scales of the smolt, was a fact well-known to anglers;
who at the close of the day found it difficult to say which were true parr and which
salmon smolts. Mr.Scrope first gave a beautiful drawing of this fact. 3d. For at least
a hundred years the opinion that the parr was the young of the salmon prevailed
universally in Annandale. 4th. Willoughby had proved that the salmon-egg may be
impregnated by the milt of the parr ; an experiment curious enough physiologically,
but otherwise of no practical importance. 5th. Mr. Hogg and a great many others had
marked the spring parr, and found that they returned to the rivers full-grown salmon.
Thus no new fact was added to the natural history of the salmon by the Drumlanrig
experiments. The author declined giving a decided opinion as to the real nature of
the true parr; but, so far as his observations had yet gone, he believes that there is
a fish which may be called the true parr, hitherto confounded with many other
species having parr markings ; and that this true parr may ultimately prove a hybrid
between the salmon or salmon trout and certain species of river trout.

On the Application of the Method, discovered by the late Dr. Thibert, of Model-
ling and Colouring after Nature all kinds of Fishes. By R. Knox, M.D.

These models were shown. They consisted of the Vendace, the mackerel, the
red-spotted trout of England, and the Lochmaben trout. This method of modelling
will ultimately be preferred to all others; even to that in wax.

On the Egg-purse and Embryo of a Species of Myliobatus.
By J. Coucu, F.L.S.

The author commenced by stating that the egg-purse was found in August 1845,
in the refuse of a trawl-boat by Mr. Peach; and was obtained a few miles south of
Fowey, in Cornwall. After mentioning how little is known of the egg-cases of the
rays and sharks, he minutely described it ; and showed the difference between it and
others, particularly dwelling on the structure of the surface, it being reticulated,
whereas all the other ege-purses are smooth. In the egg-purse was a living young
fish, which proves to belong to the genus Myliobatus of Cuvier, characterized by
having the pectoral expansion separated from the head. These, from the direction
of the wings, have been fancifully called sea-eagles. Ruysch, whose figures are for
the most part copies from preceding authors without being improvements on the
originals, but who, at plate 9. fig. 9, has given one tolerably characteristic,
remarks that it has been called “‘ Sea Toad,”’ from the form of the head resembling
that creature ; and the comparison seems appropriate, from the elevated head with
a protuberant and lateral eye. The same author says that this fish is viviparous ;
an assertion which the foregoing account shows to be incorrect.

On the Crustacea found by Prof. E. Forbes and Mr. M*Andrew in their
Cruises round the coast. By Prof. THomas Bett, F.R.S., PLS. ge.

Having been requested by my friends Prof. Forbes and Mr. M‘Andrew to com-
municate to the Section some observations on the contributions to carcinology made
by those gentlemen in their recent cruises, I gladly comply with their wish; and
although I have not to record many actual novelties in the species collected, yet

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 81

several interesting facts have been established which may be of future importance in
their collateral bearing upon matters of more general interest and importance than
the mere discovery of isolated species or forms. In regard however to one entirely
new form, there are some points of peculiar interest to which J shall presently take
an opportunity of referring.

I haye thought it best to consider the species procured under three heads. Of
the species found in the northern cruises of Mr. M‘Andrew, in the first instance
alone, and afterwards accompanied by Prof. Forbes, I will enumerate those found
_ in water under twenty fathoms; and secondly, those in water above that depth ;
and thirdly, those which have been found in the excursion which these gentlemen
__ have recently concluded along the south-western coast. The following is the list of
_ the more interesting species found principally in Loch Fyne, in water under twenty
_ fathoms. Of the natatorial type of the Brachyura we have only two species,
Portunus corrugatus and depurator; and amongst the Macrura, Pandalus annulicornis,

and a new species of Hippolyte, to which I propose to give the name of H. MacAndree.
In deeper water the forms are more interesting. In Loch Fyne we have Ebalia Pen-
nantii ; off Zetland Ebalia Cranchii, a species first discovered on the south-west coast ;
Eurynome aspera occurs off the Isle of Man; Atelecyclus heterodon, Lithodes arcticus
in Loch Fyne, off the Isle of Man, and off the coast of Zetland ; Galathea nexa and
its near ally Munida Rondeletii (G. rugosa of authors), both in deep water off Zetland
and in Loch Fyne; and here I would make a remark or two on these two species.
The localities in which they were found upon this occasion prove them both to be deep
sea species, which other observations have also shown. I would also remark that the
possession of a new species closely allied to our native species of Leach’s genus Munida,
procured by my friend Mr. Darwin in his voyage, clearly shows the propriety of Leach’s
having separated generically the Galathea rugosa from the other species of that
Fabrician genus; and as the latter is absolutely more rugose than the species origi-
nally so designated, I have thought it proper to assign to it a new specific appellation,
_ and have given it that of Rondeletii, after the first naturalist who distinguished and
- figured it. Of Galathea neva I have only to remark, that there is no one character
to indicate any difference in its habits from its immediate congeners, G. squamifera
and strigosa, and yet both the latter are shore species, where, as far as I know, G. nexa
is always found in deep water. On the latter species was found a parasite of the
- genus Bopyrus, which will probably prove to be a new species. Crangon Cata-
phractus (Pontophilus spinosus of Leach) was found off Zetland, and to these I have
to add Leachia lacertosa of Johnston. But by far the most interesting of all the ac-
quisitions of my friends in their northern cruises, is the discovery of an entirely new
genus of the fossorial type of the Macroura, belonging to the family of the Thalassi-
nidz, but differing in many important characters from all known genera of that
group. In the first place, instead of the monstrous and abnormal character of the
first pair of thoracic members, we find them here of nearly the normal construction
| of the higher and more typical macrourous forms. But the most remarkable cir-
| cumstance connected with this animal has yet to be mentioned. It was found in
| one instance at the depth of no less than 180 fathoms, and as at this great depth it
is also fossorial amongst sandy mud, we can scarcely imagine of what use any organs
- of vision could be to an animal so situated. I find accordingly, that although it
| possesses eyes, they are of no avail as organs of distinct vision, as they possess no pig-
_ ment, nor, as far as I have observed, have they cornez ; and I presume that the
_ other parts essential for high powers of sight are also wholly wanting. Amongst a
collection of the crustacea of the coasts of Ireland, formed by Mr. Thompson, and
which he has obligingly placed in my hands, I found a pair of peculiar claws of some
" species of crustacea with which I was wholly unacquainted; they were taken from
the stomach of some deep-water ground-feeding fish, and I now discover that they
belong to the species in question. Mr. M‘Andrew took it alive in Loch Fyne and
the Mull of Galloway, by the dredge; and that gentleman and Prof. Forbes after-
wards obtained it off Zetland.
_ The recent cruise of my friends round the western coast has been fruitful in the
acquisition of species of interest, although only one addition has been made by it to
| the list of English crustacea, The more usual species, Stenorhynchus tenuirostris,
| Atelecyclus heterodon, Portwnus depurator and pusillus, Gonoplox angulata, Eurynome

1846. G

82 REPORT—1846.

aspera, and Ebalia Pennantii, require only to be enumerated. Xantho rivulosa, re-
cently discovered to be a British species, is also included. In addition to Pagurus
Prideauzii, I find also two of the new species of Pagurus, which J have recently de-
scribed; of these two, P. /evis was first discovered by Mr. Thompson on the Irish
coast; the other was found off Plymouth by Mr. Cocles, and first described by me
under the name of P. Forbesii. Lithodes arctica, a northern form, is also in the
present collection ; but the most interesting amongst the fruits of this little expedi-
tion is a fine specimen of a species of the natatory type of the Brachyura, a Portunus
entirely new to our fauna, and which appears to me to be P. longipes of Risso, a
Mediterranean species. It differs from the only specimen I have in my collection
of the latter species, but this may arise from my Mediterranean specimen being very
young.

On the Structure of the Pycnogonidee. By Dr. CARPENTER.

The President exhibited a specimen of a beetle (Blaps mortisaga), which has been
found imbedded in some artificial concrete, where it must have been at least sixteen
years; and yet, when the animal was brought to him, it was alive, and lived for six
weeks after.

Dr. Carpenter gave an account of his researches on the microscopic character of
shells, and also the results of his attempts at representing natural history objects by
means of photography.

On the Dissimilarity in the Caleifying Functions of Mollusks, whose organi-
zation is in other respects similar. By L. Rerve, F.L.S. &e.

Each of the four shell-secreting kinds of Cephalopods—the Cuttle-fish, the Paper
Nautilus, the Pearly Nautilus, and the Spirule or Ram’s Horn—exhibits a different
method of forming its shell,(this shell differing in microscopic structure, and secreted
from different parts of the system,) although strictly allied in all those elements of ana-
tomical detail which constitute the soft parts or animal frame. Whilst the calcareous
portion of the Cuttle-fish is merely represented by an internal bony plate, consist-
ing mainly of carbonate of lime, the shell of the Pearly Nautilus constitutes a huge
mechanical apparatus, secreted from the mantle enveloping the visceral mass, and
consisting of two separate deposits—an outer crust, and an inner nacre—for the
purpose of buoying up its inhabitant under the different mutations of pressure to
which it is subjected in its deep region of habitation. The shell of the Paper
Nautilus, on the other hand, is a light elastic boat, transparent and permeable to
light, secreted only by the female for the purpose of oviposition ; and in this animal
the office of calcification is transferred, by some mysterious order, from the mantle to
the hinder pair of arms. The Spirule is again totally different, it being contained
within the mantle of an animal, far larger, in proportion, than that of the other Ce-
phalopods, under circumstances which are at present unknown. The drawing exhi-
bited was taken from a living specimen, recently collected at New Zealand, by Mr.
Earl, for the first time in perfect condition; but, as the proprietor is unwilling that
it should be dissected, Mr. Reeve could only state that it enclosed a problem in the
physiological history of the Cephalopods, which it was extremely desirable to solve.
The next point to which he directed the attention of the Section was the curious
difference which occurs in the growth of the Cowry and the Olive; but this he had
already more fully communicated to the Linnean Society.

On certain Peculiarities in the Anatomy of Limax Sowerbii.
By Prof. Attman, ILRLA.

The peculiarities of structure in this animal are chiefly to be found in the repro-
ductive system, which in several respects presents a remarkable similarity to that of
Helix. here are well-developed multifid vesicles, and an elongated sac containing
a singular organ in the form of a curved cylinder beset with numerous palmate spines,

.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 83

This sac, as well as the multifid vesicles, of which there are four sets, opens into the
common sac of generation.

Notices of some new and rare British species of naked Mollusca.
By Josuua ALvER and ALBANy Hancock.

The first species was a small mollusk belonging to the order Inferobranchiata,
This animal closely resembled the animals figured by M. de Quatrefages under the
generic names of Pelta and Chalides, and placed by him as the lowest forms of his
new order, Phlebenterata. This animal strongly resembles the Limapontia nigra of
Dr. Johnston ; but whether it be identical with that animal or not, the authors were
~ fully convinced that its characters had been imperfectly understood by M. de Qua-
trefages. The other naked moliusks found by the authors were a new species of
Eumenis, Eolis Drummondi, Eolis alba, and Goniodoris castanea.

On the Hybernation of Snails. By Rev. T. Ranxin, M.A.

From the author’s observations on the habits of Helix hortensis, he concluded,—
1. That snails hybernate. 2. That in their state of hybernation they undergo less
torpor than some other animals which hybernate. 3. That they are destructive to
trees as well as to plants.

Mr. Wollaston read a notice from Mr. William King of some new species of
animals found on the coast of Northumberland.

Mr. R. Patterson exhibited specimens of Ascidians which he had discovered in the
links of the chain of the floating bridge at Itchin, near Southampton,

A few Notes on the Land Mollusca, Zoophytes, and Alge of the Isle of Wight.
By W. Tuomprson.

The object of this communication was to inform naturalists visiting the island what
ete they might expect to find in the classes indicated, which are less known than
the other departments of its natural history: lists of these were given. Rare and in-

teresting species were noticed, and the localities where they had been obtained by the

author particularized. Freshwater Bay and the adjacent coast to the east of it, were

_ stated to be the best localities for the marine invertebrate animals and Alez. Of land

_ mollusca; the Pupa secale and Bulimus acutus were specially neticed. Of Zoophytes ;

the Anguinaria spatulata was found commonly investing the stems of various Alez

_ on the south coast of the island. Of Algz; the Griffithsia simplicifilum was obtained

Bersully at Freshwater Bay, in August 1841, by Mr. R. Ball and the author—the
rst pine of its being noticed elsewhere in the British island, than on the coast of

icklow,

_ Additions to the Fauna of Ireland, including Species new to that of Britain.
By W. Tuomrson*.

_These additions comprised about fifty species of vertebrate and invertebrate animals.
Those unrecorded in the British Fauna were the purple water-hen (Porphyrio
hyacinthinus), obtained in the county of Kerry by Richard Chute, Esq.; the Tellina
balaustina, and Pleurotoma striolata, both known as Mediterranean species—the
former procured by Mr. Barlee, the latter by Mr. M‘Andrew, on the western coast
of Ireland; Botrylloides albicans (Edw.), and B. rotifera (Edw.), collected on the
coast of Down, by the author; and Pontobdella levis (Blainville). A new Actinia of
the genus Corynactis (Allman) was noticed; and two new species of Amorphozoa
(Sponges), and a Daphnia, believed to be undescribed, were stated to have been
obtained. “ Dysidea? papillosa” (Johnston), whose place in the system had been
uncertain, was lately ascertained by the author to be a helianthoid zcophyte, of the
genus Zoanthus (Z. Couchii). ;

* Published in detail in the Annals of Natural History for Nov. and Dec. 1846 (vol. xviii.).
G2

84 REPORT—1846.

Zoology of Lough Neagh, compared with that of the Lake of Geneva.
By W. Tuompson ; the Insects by A. H. Haripay.

The respective areas of Lough Neagh and the lake of Geneva, and their physical,
&c. differences being first noticed, a comparison was given of as many portions of the
subject as the published memoirs on the zoology of the Swiss lake afforded data on,
including the birds, fishes, mollusca, and certain families of the insects. A brief no-
tice of the Crustacea and Annelida of Lough Neagh, and some remarks on the botany
of its shores and waters, concluded the paper.

Notes on the Natural History of Corfu. By Captain Porriock, RB.

On the Pulmograde Meduse of the British Seas. By Prof. E. Forses.

At the Birmingham Meeting, in 1839, the author, in conjunction with Prof. Good-
sir, brought forward a first essay towards an investigation of the British Acalephe,
selecting the ciliograde species for illustration. Since that time he has yearly availed
himself of every opportunity of pursuing the inquiry, but has abstained from publish-
ing, hoping to gain more complete knowledge of a difficult and much-confused branch
of zoology. Having now however examined more than twice the recorded number
of British Meduse and become acquainted with numerous new specific and several
new generic forms of great interest to the naturalist, he ventures to lay before the
Section an outline of the data in his possession. These data are in great part due to
the opportunities afforded him by his voyages round the coasts of Britain with his
friend, Mr. M‘Andrew. After pointing out the difficulties attending the study of
these animals, and giving a brief view of the present state of the subject generally,
Prof. Forbes insisted oa the necessity in future of naturalists abstaining from publish-
ing imperfect observations respecting them, and urged the adoption of the descrip-
tions of Milne-Edwards, Sars, and Will as models for those who were ready seriously
to engage in the study. He called attention to the important observations on their
development lately made by his friend Prof. Reid of St. Andrews, and expressed a
hope that ere long the return of the Arctic Expedition would bring a great mass of
new materials of the most accurate description through the observations of Mr. H.
Goodsir. In grouping the British species, Prof. Forbes calls attention to the mutual
correspondence of certain characters; viz. of the condition of the reproductive, di-
gestive, and sensitive systems. He proposes to group all the British Meduse under
such as have hooded and such as have naked ocelli. The first character is combined
with a conspicuous and comparatively complicated reproductive system, and a rami-
fied gastrovascular apparatus. All the Pulmograda with naked ocelli have simple
vessels, with one exception,—a new and most beautiful generic form, the type of a
subsection by itself. The remainder form three natural groups, as will be seen in
the following general table, exhibiting the arrangement of the British Pulmograde
Meduse : —
lst Secrion.—Hooded-eyed ; ramified gastrovascular system.

Ist Genus.— Rhizostoma (Cuvier). 1 species, R. Aldrovandi.

2nd Genus.—Cassiopea (Peron). 1 sp., C. lunulata.

3rd Genus.—Pelagia (Peron). 1 sp., P. cyanella, one of the most phospho-
rescent and beautiful of European Medusz, now first announced as British,
having been taken during the past month by Mr. M‘Andrew and Prof.
Forbes off the coast of Cornwall.

4th Genus.— Chrysaora (Peron). 1 sp., C. hysoscella.

5th Genus.—Cyanea (Peron). 2sp., C. capillata and C. Lamarckii, both com-
mon; very large, stinging Medusz.

6th Genus.— Medusa (Linnzeus, Eschscholtz—Aurelia, Peron). 2sp.,M.aurita
and M. cruciata (the latter is the Medusa so abundant in Southampton Har-
bour). It has white ocelli.

Many more spurious species of Cyanea, Medusa, and other genera are recorded
by Peron, Lesson, and others, and enumerated as inhabitants of the British Channel.
After careful consideration, they have been rejected as mere varieties from this

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 85

arrangement. Certain forms belonging to this section recorded by Pennant and
_ Templeton are also rejected as too imperfectly observed to be cf any service to
science.

2nd Section.—Pulmograda with naked ocelli.
Ist Family.—Vessels branched.
7th Genus.—Wilisia (new, sp. W. stellata founded on a beautiful little Medusa
with six starlike ovaries and branched vessels. It is abundant in the British
Channel and on the west coast of Scotland.
2nd Family.—Vessels simple ; ovaries convoluted and lining the pedunculated
stomach.
8th Genus.—Twurris (Lesson; Eirene, Eschscholtz), 2 sp., TZ. digitale of O.
Fabricius (Zetland) and 7’. neglecta, Lesson, the Cyanea coccinea of Davis;
British Channel. Very highly-organized Medusz, closely approaching Ac-
tinez.
9th Genus.—Saphenia(Eschscholtz). 1sp., S.dinema,Peron. Devon, Zetland.
10th Genus.—Oceania (Peron—Tiara, Lesson), 4 sp., one being the Geryonia
octona of Fleming; the other three are new.
3rd Family.—Vessels simple, ovaries in the course of the vessels, on the subum-
brella. j
a. With eight vessels.
11th Genus.—Aquorea (Peron), or perhaps deserving of a distinct appella-
tion; 1 sp., common on the Scotch coast; it is the “ Milicertum campanu-
latum” of Ehrenberg (not of Eschscholtz), “ Oceania octocostata’’ of Sars, and
“ Thaumantias Milleri” of Mr. Landsborough, and “ Aquorea octocostata”
of Lesson. It has long yellow ovaries.
12th Genus,—Circe (Mertens). Ovaries 8 minute. 1 sp., C. rosea. Zetland,
new.
6. With four vessels.
14th Genus.— Thaumantias (Eschscholtz) ; ovaries four, ovate, clavate or linear,
stomach short; 19 British species, of which 12 are new and undescribed.
All very distinct from each other.
15th Genus.—S/abberia (new), founded for a singular little Medusa remarkable
for its extremely linear ovaries, long proboscis, and the development of an
ocellated bulb at the end as well as at the base of each tentacle, S. halterata;
coast of Cornwall.
16th Genus.— Geryonia (Peron), 1 sp.,new, G. appendiculata. British Channel.
17th Genus.—Tima (Eschscholtz?)—T’. Bairdii of Johnston; common on the
east coast of Scotland.
4th Family.—Vessels simple; ovary in substance of peduncle. Gemmiparous.
A. Peduncle with lateral lobes; tentacula fasciculated.
18th Genus.—Bugainvillia (Lesson—Hippocrene Brandt), with 4 fascicles of
tentacles. 3 sp., 2 new.
19th Genus.—Lizzia (new, with 8 fascicles of tentacles and unequal lobes to
peduncle), founded for the Cytalis octopunctata of Sars, which, with two other
undescribed species, inhabits the Zetland seas.
B. Peduncles inflated; tentacula not fasciculated.
20th Genus.—Moodeeria (new). 1 sp. from the Hebrides.
C. Peduncle elongate; tentacula not fasciculated.
. With four tentacles.
2\st Genus.—Sarsia (Lesson). 4 British sp.
6. With one tentacle only developed.
22nd Genus.—Steenstrupia (new), 3 sp.

In all there are fifty species of British Pulmograda known to Prof. Forbes, excluding
doubtful forms and varieties. Of these, fifty-nine only had been previously recorded
as British, and of the remainder all but five are undescribed.
Prof. Forbes also exhibited some living specimens of the Lancelot (Amphiowus lan-
_ ceolatus of Yarrell), of a Holothuria, and of a Medusa found in the Southampton
Water.

86 REPORT—1846.
On the Marine Zoology of Cornwall. By C. W. Peacu.

The Author had added several new zoophytes to our Fauna—one Actinia new
to the British Islands, and named by Dr. Johnston Actinia chrysanthellum. It buries
itself in sand under stones in Fowey Harbour; and has twelve tentacula, Several
calcareous Corallines have been also observed, differing from all that are at present
figured. He exhibited, also, a beautiful series of the rare Echinus Flemingii; and a
magnificent specimen of Echinus sphera; also another large and fine specimen,
which, if not a new species, differs much from all others, and requires a careful
examination; he had noticed it in various stages of growth. After noticing the
Eolides and Annelides, he mentioned the circumstance of having got the Gymnolepas
Cuvieri from the bottom of a vessel which came into Fowey Harbour in January of
the present year; and after minutely describing it, showed that although exposed to
the full influence, for one month, of the freshwater which passed down the harbour
on the receding tide, it continued to thrive long after the whole of the common Bar-
nacle, which accompanied it, had ceased to exist.

A paper was read from Dr. Bell Salter, giving directions for the guidance of
botanists in their excursion to the Isle of Wight, and giving a list of flowering plants
of interest found in various parts of the island.

On the Embryogeny of Pulmogrades and Ciliogrades.
By Joun Price, M.A.

About the end of June 1845, a great number of the ova of Cyanea aurita and
Medusa capillata? (Stinger) were collected from domesticated specimens, and kept
in sea-water. After moving about for a few days, as ciliated pear-shaped germs,
they became more sedate ; assumed first a square, and then an octagon form ; gave
out tentacles from each angle; “produced” the convex surface into an adhesive
peduncle; and, being attached thereby to the glass, appeared ever after as whitish
Hydras. I was not then aware of the metamorphoses recorded by Sir I, Dalzel,
Sars, or others; but was soon informed of them by friends who saw these larve.
During eighteen weeks I looked earnestly (but sceptically) for the fissiparous or gem-
miparous reproduction alleged by others, but in vain. Subtraction was the only rule
worked in this “Infant School” of mine: of Addition, Multiplication or Division
they seemed to know nothing. By October 4 the countless host were reduced to
three ; which, though trebled in size, had not undergone the slightest change in form
from the zoanthoid type first assumed. I need not send figures of them, as several
scientific friends have pronounced my drawings evactly like those of previous ob-
servers, including now Steenstrup. However, about the same time, a single (much
larger) individual was discovered adhering to one of the other jars. Under a lens,
this had every appearance of being a compound zoophyte ; in time, five or six sepa-
rate individuals were found to have clustered round the original centre; and subse-
quently, some of these having apparently enlarged and separated, the number by
June 1846 amounted to more than thirty, all very near to the same spot. I say
“apparently”’ separated, as there was not sufficiently exact attention bestowed upon
the phenomena to remove, from a sceptic, all doubts whether the clusters were
more than parasitic adhesions (as in Actinia, or Tubularia indivisa), or whether the
new individuals might not have emerged from the sand and other rubbish in the jar,
during unobserved intervals. But I must confess I am all but satisfied that veritable
reproduction has repeatedly occurred. At this moment (about eleven months from
the discovery of the single larger Hydra) I am able, amidst much rubbish which I
am afraid to remove, to count thirty-five, after several losses. One is at least three
times the average size, and shows, if I mistake not, a six-sided mouth (an anomaly,
perhaps, portending an approaching change) with about thirty-two tentacles sur-
rounding, in single row, a considerable circum-oral area. Every one of them remains
as true a zoanth as ever. Some minute turbinates in the same jar are constantly
falling a prey to these “monsters of the deep,” and may be seen hanging in chains,
or engulfed in the stomach, whilst the floor is strewed with empty shells. I have

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 87

observed no difference between the embryos of the Cyanea and Med. capillata?
(Stinger) after they lost their respective colours (lilac and tawny) and became
digitate. Both alike make little cruises and rotate, before they fix themselves: both
affect the form of a fist with one or two fingers extended, and revert, by contraction,
to the octagon form, But in the Stinger alone have I seen the germs remaining, for
some time after exclusion, in the same mudberry clusters in which they had occupied
the sinuses of the plicate ovary. I have this year, 1846, collected the ova of a very
different Medusa. These were, at first sight, pyriform like the others; but after-
wards proved to be (what I have never discovered in any other species) much com-
pressed, and, from a swinging fashion in swimming, were often seen edgeways, and
looked like little Planarie, They are now as decided Hydre as the others, and can
just be discerned as such with the naked eye. I have only seen the ova of two
other Pulmogrades ; both very minute and of the Moorish-arch form: ail agree in
being pyriform, locomotive (ciliomotive ?) and peristaltic, which last habit I conceive
to be the means of steering.

Embryogeny of Ciliogrades—Of the true Berée I can say very little: I am pretty
sure I have had their ova two or three times, looking very like those of Cydippe
pileus, but never succeeded in hatching them. However small the Berde, and I
sometimes meet with them as small as a pin’s head, it differs in no respect but size
from the adult, having eight ciliamina (ciliary arches), But C. pileus (a much com-
moner animal at Birkenhead) has afforded me repeated opportunities of watching
the whole process, though with many interruptions, One first sees a little darkish
but reflecting spherule in the centre of a proportionably very large, transparent, and
scarcely visible pellicle: it very soon looks granular like boiled sago within and
without ; then shows a few obscure cilia—enlarges at one end, and becomes accu-
rately acorn-shaped, with only four arches of cilia, which are, towards the base (or
cup of the acorn), immensely large in proportion, much-curved, and move very slowly
in general. The mouth is /arge, and apparently dinear instead of the convolvulus
form of the adult, and seems to take in certain granular bodies which float within the
pellicle. The two very long trains are extended even in ovo, where there is ample
room for “little master” to play about (it is a nursery rather than a shell) ; the trains
are gathered into a knotty bunch instead of a cork-screw circus, appear to have no
side filaments, and certainly have no internal sheath for their reception. After
‘ escaping from the shell, they exhibit greater activity, with startling alternations of
extreme, crawling slowness during the extension of the trains, and the most fantastic
capers after suddenly retracting the latter. These creatures are just visible to the
naked eye, and as they are not easy to keep alive, I have never seen the next step
of their metamorphosis, but have often met with Cydippes of the size of hempseed in
the normal form, with convolvulus mouths, eight ciliamina, fringed trains retractile
into pockets, and all the airs and graces of the full-grown individuals.

On the Quasi-osseous System of Acalephe. By Joun Price, M.A.

The author described minutely the tessellated structure of the polygonal central
patch in the great brown Stinger (Medusa capillata?), and noticed the degree of
analogy which this structure may be thought to offer to the osseous arrangements in
higher grades of life. He offered suggestions as to the respiratory and nutritious
processes in Rhizostoma, and presented some ground for doubt regarding the true
nature of the supposed eyes of Acalephz.

The author appended notices regarding Berde (ovata?), especially its internal
contractions, and recommended the examination of the structure of this singular
Acaleph, by microscopic investigation of the process of natural decay, “which in
Acalephz is apt to take place symmetrically, so that the anatomy is laid bare bit by
bit, whilst vitality remains almost unimpaired in the very last shred of the frame.”

[In the letter to Professor Owen which accompanied these communications, other
interesting remarks and queries occur.]

On the Cultivation of Silk in England. By Mrs. Wurtsy.

A letter was received from Mrs. Whitby, of Newlands near Lymington, Hants,
wherein she stated to the Association the encouraging result of an experiment, begun

88 REPORT—1846.

ten years ago on her own estate ; and she exhibited specimens of raw and manufac-
tured silk with full details. She began by planting various sorts of mulberry-trees,
of which she finds the dwarf Philippine is by far the best, as producing more leaf, and
(from the facility with which its cuttings are struck) more easily propagated than any
other. Of the various races of the silk-worm, she finds that by procuring the eggs
of the large Italian sort, of four changes, she obtains as great a proportion, and as
good a quality of silk, as they do in Italy or France. The testimony of several emi-
nent manufacturers in* London, Manchester and Coventry attests this; and Mrs,
Whitby has had the satisfaction of presenting twenty yards of rich and brilliant da-
mask, manufactured from silk grown at Newlands, to Her Majesty Queen Victoria,
who was graciously pleased to accept of this indication of a new source of riches in
her dominions.

After making every allowance for occasional unfavourable seasons, and labour,
machinery, outlay of money, &c., it will be found that land laid out for furnishing
food for this valuable caterpillar, will yield at least £20 per annum.

The computation is briefly as follows :—one oz. of eggs produce 40,000 worms,
which require 1400lbs. of leaves; deducting 25 per cent. for accidents, there will re-
main 30,000 cocoons weighing 75 lbs., which at 10 Ibs. per ewt. of silk, will yield
75 \bs, of the best raw silk (besides refuse), equal, at 23s. per lb., to 87. 12s. 6d. One
acre of land bearing 1225 plants of six or eight years’ growth, yields 4900 lbs. of
leaves, and will consequently feed 330z. of eggs, which at 8/. 12s. 6d. nett per oz.
as above stated, yields 30/. 3s, 9d., and deducting 33 per cent. for labour, machinery,
&c., 10/., there will remain a final profit per acre on 330z. of eggs, 201.

On the Structure of Cristatella mucedo. By Prof. Attman, M.R.LA.

In this beautiful little Bryozoon, added to the Irish Fauna by Prof. Allman,
several interesting peculiarities of structure were detailed. Of these the author con-
sidered one of the most important to be the detection of a small roundish body,
situated at the upper end of the pharynx, and which he believed to be a nervous
ganglion. The author also dwelt upon the existence of a delicate calyciform mem-
brane which unites the bases of the tentaculz, and is of very general occurrence
among the freshwater Bryozoa. This structure he considered peculiarly interesting,
as it tended with other facts to homologize the tentacular system of the Bryozoa
with the branchial sac of the true Ascidia. Several peculiarities in the digestive
and muscular systems were also alluded to, the muscular fibre being shown to be
obscurely striated, and to exhibit a tendency to break itself into discs. The ova in
their young state are inclosed in a ciliated membrane, and the hooked spines with
which, in their more mature condition, they are furnished, are developed within the
ciliated investment, being of subsequent growth, but yet fully formed previously to
the ova quitting the parent. The facts detailed in the present communication were
assumed by the author as affording much additional evidence in favour of the mol-
Juscan nature of the Bryozoa.

Observations on the true Nature of the Tendril in the Cucumber.
By T. Bert Sauter, MD., PLS.

While it is now admitted that the tendril is a modification of some essential part
of the plant, it is in most plants sufficiently obvious what organ is so altered, as for
instance, the leaf or petiole in the leguminose plants, the peduncle in Passiflora,
,and the primary axis of the plant in the vine; in this family it is not so obvious.
In the monstrous state of a cucumber plant now shown, where all the parts appear
in a more elementary form than in its natural state, we have this question satisfac-
torily solved. While the female flower is resolved into an aggregation of thick
adherent leaves, and the staminate flowers into an aggregation of leaves not adherent,
we see the tendril as asimple slender leaf, and not abranch bearing any ageregation
of leaves, as it would be were it any modification of a branch, or any part of the in-
florescence. It would appear from this that the tendril in this genus and family
represents the leaf, while the developed leaf next to it is the first leaf of a sessile
axillary branch.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 89

On an undescribed Alga allied to Coleochete scutata. By Professor ALLMAN.

This paper contained a description of an alga discovered in certain subalpine streams
in Ireland. It presents the appearance of small perceptibly elevated discs of a dark
green colour, varying in size from about half a line to three lines in diameter, and
attached to the upper surface of stones in the most rapid part of the current. When
several plants grow upon the same stone they often become confluent, and form
patches of indefinite figure and extent. Each plant is of a firm, almost cartilaginous
consistence, and an ordinary lens shows it to be furnished with a margin divided into
rounded lobes. Under a higher magnifying power the structure is found to consist
of numerous disc-shaped laminz, placed one over the other with an imbricated
arrangement, the margin of each projecting beyond that of the superposed lamina.
The lowest lamina is always the youngest, and each consists of many dichotomously
branched series of nucleated cells, which radiate from a common centre, and are
united at their edges into a continuous frond. In no specimens, though examined
at various seasons and at different stages of development, were the sheathed seta of
Coleochete detected. From the only described species of Coleochete, therefore, the
present plant differs in its lobed outline, in its imbricated structure, in its firm con-
sistence, in its large size, in the absence of setz, and inits habitat. The author be-
lieves it to be generically distinct from all hitherto described forms, though standing
near to Coleochete or Phyllactidium; he proposes for it the name of Sorodiscus
rivularis.

On the means of obviating the ravages of the Potuto Disease, by raising fully-
grown healthy Potatoes from seed in one season. ByW.Hocan,M.R.LA.

4

The method was discovered by M. Zander of Boitzenburg, who has practised it
for six years with the greatest success *.

The following extracts are from M. Zander’s published letter :-—

“I first raised potatoes from seed six years ago. I sowed an eighth of an ounce,
and obtained nearly seven sacks of fully-grown, perfectly sound potatoes, although
in the same year almost all the potatoes in my neighbourhood were affected by
pock-mark and dry-rot. I have regularly raised potatoes from seed ever since,
_and they have remained sound during the whole time, and last year (1845), when
the disease had spread over all Europe, and attained the greatest virulence in this
neighbourhood, those potatoes which I had previously raised from seed, as well as
those of the preceding year, continued perfectly exempt from disease. I have given
potatoes raised from seed to my friends and acquaintances, and those have also
remained perfectly free from the universally prevailing disease. From an ounce
of seed you may raise upwards of fifty sacks of potatoes: the smallest crop I ever
had from half an cunce was twenty-four sacks.

“The seed is saved in the following manner :—the berries should be gathered in
autumn, before the frost sets in, and be preserved in a dry place, where frost cannot
reach them, until the end of January, when the berries should be broken by the
hand and placed in a tub or other vessel for six or eight days to ferment ; water should
then be thrown on them and well-stirred in order to separate the pulp and husks
from the seed, which should then be dried and cleaned, and kept in a warm dry
place until the middle of March.

“In the middle of March or beginning of April, the seed should be thinly sown ina
hot-bed, and by the middle of May there will be fine healthy plants which may be
put out into the field; care should be taken to put them out before they form tu-
bers, and the seed-bed sliould be kept moderately moist while they remain in it.
They should be planted out after rain, and be put at about the same distance from
one another as potatoes generally stand in the field.”

The foregoing extracts contain two most important statements :—one, that it is
possible to raise an abundance of fully-grown potatoes from seed in one season; and
the other, that such potatoes will resist and escape the generally prevailing disease,
for six years at least. Mr. Hogan then entered into a statement of his own observa-
tions on this mode of cultivation in two widely-separated lecalities in Germany,

* In a report made by M. Zander, he states that his plan was equally successful with the
crop of 1846.

90 REPORT—1846.

which perfectly confirmed M. Zander’s statement as to the first point, but sug-
gested that many experiments must be made in various places and under various
circumstances, before it can be certainly said, that potatoes raised in this way would
resist and escape the disease, though he expressed his hope and expectation that
they would.

On proposed Substitutes for the Potato.
By T. D. Morriss-Stiriine, F.RSLE.

The Jerusalem artichoke, Scorzonera, and plants containing starch in their roots,
were proposed; and as a means of improving the potato plant itself, it was suggested
that hybrid plants should be produced between the Solanum tuberosum and some
hardy species of Solanum, such as the Solanum nigrum.

Dr. Lankester exhibited the woody fibres of the Lavatera arborea which had been
sent to the Section by Capt. Peterson through Capt. Ibbetson; with the suggestion
that it might be of use in the arts and manufactures of the country. This plant
grows abundantly on some spots in the Isle of Wight, and could probably be easily
cultivated, ;

On the Development of Cells. By A. Henrrey, F.L.S.

The author believed that in all cases these were developed from a folding-in of
the primordial utricle. He was inclined to regard the evidence hitherto produced
of the production of cells from cytoblasts as inconclusive. He did not think that
the cytoblasts were the efficient cause of the development of the new cells; but
that their presence in certain cases of multiplication of cells by division had led
Muller, Schleiden and others to a misconception of their function. The cytoblast
is usually present at an early period of cell-life and of the full size; and cell-division
takes place, or commences, at an epoch when the cytoblast completely fills that
portion of the primordial utricle which is about to form a new cell. When the
utricle expands to form a cell, the cytoblast remains either on its walls or free in the
cavity. We have here an appearance simulating the development of membranes
from a cytoblast as described by Schleiden; and it is probable that these appearances
have given rise to Schleiden’s theory.

Comparison of the Periods of the Flowering of Plants in the early Spring of
1846, in the Botanic Garden of Belfust, and the Jardin des Plantes at
Paris. By W. THompson*.

The comparison showed that the same species flowered much earlier at Belfast
than at Paris; though at the latter locality the spring of 1846 was the earliest of the
last forty years. It was suggested that returns of this kind from the Botanic Gardens
of the United Kingdom, and these again compared with similar catalogues from the
public gardens on the continent, would possess much interest in various points of
view.

Notes on additions to the Flora of Ireland. By W. Tuompson.

A few species of phenogamic and cryptogamic plants were noticed as additions to
the flora of Ireland, and specimens exhibited. The phanogamic species were chiefly
collected by Mr. D. Orr, foreman in the Belfast Botanic Garden.

ns

Notice of the Shea Butter-Tree growing in Africa. By J. F. Duncan.

This tree was first discovered by Mungo Park. It produces from its seeds a
quantity of oily matter, which is used by the natives as butter. It is as hard as
tallow, and may be used for making it. Some candles made of the oily secretion

* Published in detail in the Annals of Natural History for April 1847.

TRANSAOTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 91

were exhibited to the Section and burnt; where they gave as good a light as those
from any other oleaginous compound used for this purpose.

Mr. J. F. Duncan forwarded a fruit in many respects resembling an orange which
he had observed to grow abundantly in Africa. When pulled from the tree in a
ripe state the interior substance is about the consistence of an orange, and is con-
sidered superior to anything manufactured in England, as soap.

On the Foliage and Inflorescence of the genera Phyllanthus and Xylophylia.
By B. Crarxe, F.L.S.

The leafy appendages from which the flowers in most of the species of these genera
spring have been described by authors in general, up to the present time, as branches.
The author, having examined their structure and relations closely, has come to the
conclusion that they are in almost all cases true leaves. Several species of the
genera Phyllanthus and Xylophylla were described, and the author’s views of their
structure explained by drawings. In conclusion, he suggested whether the additional
leaf-buds which are sometimes seen in the axils of leaves do not originate from the
base of the petiole. Such buds occur in the genus Rubus ; in some species of which
the additional bud is developed beneath the axillary bud instead of on one side of it.

The following letter from the Hon. F, Strangways was communicated by Sir R. I.
Murchison, G.S.St.S. :—In the neighbourhood of Alexandersbad, near Wunsiedel, a
few miles south of the road from Bayreuth to Eger, in the Fichtelgebirge, is a moun-
tain called now the Louisenberg—formerly the Luchsberg—which is much visited by
strangers on account of some of its natural peculiarities. It appears not to consist of
any mass of rock in situ, but to be an enormous heap of disconnected, but rounded
fragments of granite, thrown confusedly upon one another, leaving arches and pas-
sages and grottoes of various sizes wherever the interstices have not been filled up
with smaller pieces, together with granitic gravel. The whole is so overgrown with
wood, that, except where paths have been made, it is difficult to penetrate. The round-
ing of the blocks seems to be rather the effect of disintegration than of water. One of
the caverns or chambers, formed by a single flat table of granite resting horizcntally,
as a roof, upon other masses, is a tolerably exact circle of nearly sixty feet English in
diameter. Many that penetrate deeper into the mountain or mass of rocks are mere
crevices; but they present a remarkable phenomenon, which is not observable in the
more open ones. This phenomenon consists in a pale but beautiful greenish-yellow
phosphorescent light, which, as the observer proceeds into the cave, becomes stronger
and stronger, till it can be compared only to that of hundreds of glowworms lying
close tcgether on the ground; and it is singular that the light, however strong it
may be, does not assume the appearance of a sheet, but always seems to lie in spots,
though close together, On taking up some of the mould upon which this phospho-
rescence appears to rest and bringing it to daylight, its own light, as might be ex-
pected, is overcome, and disappears; nothing being seen in the hand but the black
earth, a little sand, some minute whitish cryptogamic powder (?) and a few fronds
of a very small filmy moss of a pale, transparent green colour. On taking the mould
back into the darkness, the phosphorescence re-appears, but so much dimmed that it
should seem as if the s!ightest disturbance had a tendency to dissipate it, and that it
required time and repose to form or collect it anew. The traditions of the country,
or rather the superstitions, have long pointed out this mountain both as the reposi-
tory of gcld and precious stones, and as the abode of evil spirits, or Kobolds, who
amuse themselves by tantalizing credulous mortals with the view of gems and riches
without end, which, when touched, are turned into dross or vanish from the sight.
The explanation given by this phenomenon to such a belief, current among a simple
and imaginative people, is evident. The original name of the mountain itself,
Luchsberg, i.e. Lynxberg, is somewhat expressive of this peculiarity.

92 ' REPORT—1846.

MEDICAL SCIENCE.
On the Physiology of the Encephalon. By W.B.Carventer, M.D.,F.R.S.

Tue object of this communication was to bring under consideration the inferences
to which we are led by the study of Comparative Anatomy, in regard to the functions
of different parts of the human encephalon. He first pointed out that our com-
parisons need not be restricted to vertebrated animals, since the ganglionic centres
of invertebrata may be shown to be analogous with certain portions of the cerebro-
spinal system of the vertebrata. He stated it to be a universal fact, that all organs
of special sense have distinct ganglionic centres, which must be regarded as the
instruments of their respective sensations and as the sources of motions directly
connected with those sensations; and that the whole cephalic mass of invertebrated
animals was composed of a collection of such ganglia, without any vestige (except
in the highest) of cerebrum or cerebellum. These organs make their first appear-
ance in fishes; and bear at first but a small proportion to the chain of sensory
ganglia, which forms the anterior termination of the spinal cord. In fishes we find
distinct olfactive, optic and auditory nervous ganglia, together with thalami optici
and corpora striata, the degree of development of which has no reference to that of
the cerebrum ; in fact, the bodies usually called the cerebral lobes of fishes are (ex-
cept in the sharks, &c., which have vestiges of cerebral hemispheres) almost entirely
composed of the homologues of the corpora striata. Hence Dr. Carpenter con-
sidered that these bodies, instead of being appendages to the cerebrum, really belong
to the group of sensorial ganglia, and are to be regarded as together making up the
ganglionic centres of common or tactile sensation, and of the movements prompted
or directed byit. This chain of ganglia, although comparatively small in man, with
reference to the bulk of the cerebral hemispheres, still exists in him, and must be
regarded as the instrument of the same operations as those to which it ministers in
the lower animals. Arguing from actions in the latter, and analogous phenomena
in man in health and in disease, the author attributes to the sensory ganglia the
formation of sensations, and the origination of respondent movements, which may
be distinguished as consensual. To this category the purely instinctive actions of the
lower animals, which seem executed without any idea of purpose, and in simple
respondence to the promptings of sensation, appear referrible ; together with a variety
of actions in man, such as that of yawning, from the sight or sound of the act in
another. Dr. Carpenter hence endeavoured to show that we must regard the
cerebrum as the instrument of the formation of ideas, of the memory of ideas and
sensations, and of the intellectual proeesses founded upon them, which terminate in
an act of the will; and he pointed out that zdeas may produce the same effect on
muscular movement as sensations themselves, as when the suggestion of the idea of
yawning induces the action. He also showed how the anatomical connexions of
the cerebrum with the sensory ganglia would cause its communicating fibres to exert
an influence on the latter, corresponding with that which is effected by the sensations
directly received from the organs of sense. With respect to the emotions, he endea-
voured to show that they may be regarded as compound states resulting from the
simple feelings of pleasure and pain associated with certain ideas, or elasses of
ideas: the feelings of pleasure or pain he would locate, with the sensations which
commonly excite them, in the sensorial ganglia; whilst the formation of the ideas,
which are essential parts of the emotions and propensities, is clearly a cerebral ope-
ration : and he showed, in conclusion, how this view of the functions of the principal
parts of the encephalon harmonizes with the known duplex action of the emotions,—
first in producing involuntary movements, and secondly in stimulating and influencing
the reasoning processes.

On the Relations of Sensation to the higher Mental Processes.
By R. Fowirr, M.D., FRS.
The author observed that man, when viewed as a whole, should be considered as
consisting of a body, constituting the instrument of the mind, as the telescope is of
the eye, adjustible but not adjusted: that its indications are perceived through the

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 93

medium of the muscular sense, as the images reflected, or refracted in telescopes are
the signs of external objects to the eye. Animals have adjustments ready-made :
man has to learn his. To see and to touch, as an artist, or even in the common
usages of life, a man just couched is as an infant; till he can adjust he sees, as we
do with an unadjusted telescope, merely a vague light. This gives rise to search.
To see with intelligence, we must look, that is, evert the combined adjustments : this
constitutes an appreciable distinction between sensation and perception. The unad-
justed impressions pass the mind as vague trains of thought, linked and associated
sequences, the machinery of reveries and dreams. That searching to obtain well-
defined perceptions is effected by adjustments, attention to our own working observa-
tion will afford abundant proof; but a more protracted attention is necessary to
prove, and to convince a man, that his memory and powers of conception equally
depend on the mind’s perception of a reiteration of the adjustments of sensation. But
that this is so we have proof, in the corporeal actions induced by conception being
like those produced by sensation in the presence of the objects. Thus conception of
savoury food excites secretion in the salivary glands—the conception of an insult
excites the feelings and gestures of anger, &c. In the power of forming and giving
fixity of tenure to conceptions men differ widely. It is to this power Dr. Johnson
alludes, when, in his Tour to the Hebrides, he says, that whatever can make the past,
the distant and the future prevail over the present, raises us in the scale of thinking
beings. Now Dr. Darwin and Sir David Brewster have shown that these concep-
tions are effected by adjustments of the body; in other words, that the “‘mind’s eye”’
is, in fact, the body’s eye. To have vivid conceptions disposable by our volition,
forms the orator, the poet, the sculptor and the painter. After numerous illustra-
tions of this faculty and allusions to it by the poets, the author stated that these
sensations, perceptions and conceptions do not exist in an insulated state; the ad-
justments by which they are affected are so linked and associated by retransmissions
through the brain to the other organs of sense, that they reciprocally call up each
other. This linked association of adjustments he took to be the machinery by which
the association of our ideas is effected, and that the propensity of our structure to these
functional adjustments constituted all we had of ideas which had been denominated
innate; and he considered that this reciprocating perception from different sources
of sensation (as the eye and ear) gave birth to the ideal theory of ‘ species, images
of forms and colour of things without their matter,” of the old metaphysicians. In
conclusion, the author contended that Mr. Hume’s opinion on the non-existence of
the idea of power, and of cause and effect (except as antecedent and consequent),
and the arguments and facts adduced against that opinion, receive an elucidation
from the consideration of the modes of action of the muscular sense, but of which
neither Mr. Hume nor his critics could at that time have been apprised, as the dis-
covery had not been completed.

Yet these impressions (our guides in all corporeal exertions) belong alike to men
and all inferior animals, and must have been at all times, and in all places where
muscular exertions have occurred. Yet such is the law of sensation, that the mind
passes this muscular feeling unnoticed, and attends solely to his perception of the
object by which the sensation was excited. Thus the attention of the seaman who
heaves the lead is directed only to the contact of the lead when it touches the bot-
tom. Every boy who throws a stone, every horse on its approach to a leap, estimates
its power by these feelings, although thinking at the time only of the distant object
of its aim. I think any man capable of making his sensations the subjects of his
thoughts, may satisfy himself that our ideas of cause and power have their source
in these and like evanescent muscular feelings or impressions.

Is it not, too, from similar feelings of muscular power, recognised from day to day
to be the same which we have felt from our earlier years, that we are assured of the
continuance of our personal identity?

On the Cause of the Blood’s Circulation through the Liver.
By Cuarwtes SEARLE, M.D.

After alluding to the powers which circulate the blood in the system generally, the
author declared it to be still a problem by what combined forces the portal circula-

94 REPORT—1846.

tion was carried on in the liver,—one cause of the general circulation being appa-
rently absent, namely, the oxygenation of the blood in the arterial system, in the
portal system the blood being deemed wholly venous. The solution of the problem
depended, he thought, on the fact that the stomach and bowels were (like the cuta-
neous) a respiratory surface, by which the portal blood becomes oxygenated to the
necessary degree. In support of this view he adduced the experiments of Majendie,
who found eleven per cent. of oxygen in the stomach of criminals examined after
decapitation, and carbonic acid and nitrogen in the intestines; the source of this
oxygen he believes to be the air swallowed with the food and saliva, and in combi-
nation with cold water. This oxygen he believes to be absorbed by the veins and
lacteals, and communicated as a source of power to the portal vessels. He deemed
the absorbing power of the gastric and mesenteric veins to be increased by the dimi-
nution of the quantity of blood in the vessels by the secretion of bile. In conclusion,
he thought the ruminant animals required an additional supply of oxygen to main-
tain the respiratory function over their large gastro-intestinal surface, and that this
was supplied from their peculiar function of rumination.

On some Diseases resulting from the immoderate Use of Tobacco.
By T. Laycock, M.D. °

The diseased action from the continuous and immoderate use of this poisonous
substance was observed to pervade the mucous membranes of the digestive and re-_
spiratory systems, producing congestive inflammation of the fauces and stomach,
and of the nares, frontal sinuses, larynx, and bronchial lining of the lungs. Gas-
tritis with the symptoms of aggravated indigestion and hemoptie were among the
worst results of these affections ; but it was found in many cases to produce disease
of the circulating organs and of the nervous system—weakening the force and regu-
larity of the heart’s action, and diminishing the intellectual and moral powers. In
conclusion, Dr. Laycock read a report from Dr. Wright confirming his own obser-
vations, and containing experiments demonstrating the physiological action of the
drug on animals.

Diagrams showing the Mortality of Diarrhea concurrently with progressive
increase of temperature in London. By T. Laycocx, M.D.

The lines representing temperature and mortality were seen to be persistently,
and even minutely regular; not coincident in point of time, but those indicating
the mortality following those of temperature by about a week’s interval. The tables
extended over five years, and the uniformity of elevation and depression continued
throughout.

On a peculiar form of Ulceration of the Cervix Uteri. By Dr. H. Bennet.

STATISTICS.

Statistics of Civil Justice in India for four years, from 1841 to 1844, both
inclusive. By Lieut.-Colonel Syxes, F.RS.

Tue present returns are supplementary to those published by the Statistical Society
of London, and are brought forward by the author as well to test the continued work-
ing of the system of administration, as to afford data for determining the effect of the
recent politic efforts to improve the intellectual standard of the native administrators,
by introducing into their body natives who have passed certain prescribed examina-
tions at the colleges and schools established by the East India Company in their ter-
ritoriesin India, The returns are decidedly satisfactory. Under the four governments
of India,—Bengal, Agra, Madras, and Bombay, the whole of the courts, both Euros

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 95

pean and native, with few exceptions, appear to have got through the current business
of each year; and to a greater or less extent to have diminished the arrears of former
ears.

: The administration by natives appears to have worked quite as well as before;
from ninety-seven to ninety-nine per cent. of the whole civil business having been
performed by them; and sufficiently well performed, if the amount of appeals, and
number of reversals of decisions, be the standards by which to judge. A decided
improvement has taken place in the shortening the average duration of suits in all
the courts under the Bengal and Agra governments; in the highest court of appeal,
(corresponding to Chancery) from one year seven months and eight days in 1841, to
one year and one month in 1844. The Zillah and city judges (European) shortened
the time of their average decisions from ten months and eleven days in 1841, to seven
months and seven days in 1844; the principal Sudder Ameens from seven months
and ten days, to five months and twenty-two days; the Sudder Ameens from eleven
months and fourteen days, to five months and five days; and the Moonsiffs from five
months and nineteen days, to four months and fourteen days, from 1841 to 1844 re-
spectively; the last three descriptions of judges being natives. The Agra judges
were a still shorter average time in their decisions than those of Bengal,—the Su-
preme Appellate Court reducing its time from seven months and thirteen and a half
days, to six months and eighteen days; the European Zillah judges from seven
months and three days, to four months and sixteen days; the principal Sudder Ameens
from three months and eleven days, to three months and seven days; and the Moon-
siffs from three months and one day, to two months and twenty-one days. ‘The Sud-
der Ameens had slightly increased their former average time.

The value of the litigated property before the tribunals in Bengal, varied from
7,845,178/. in 1841, to 3,006,154. in 1844; before those of Agra, for the same
petiods, from 1,637,941/. to 1,442,8612.

Colonel Sykes observes, that an opinion obtains in England, and even in India,
that the land-tax is oppressive to the cultivators or farmers; but under the Bombay
government for the years 1842, 1843, and 1844, the only farmers or cultivators in
jail at the instance of government for arrears of land-tax were nine, five, and two
only for the respective years; and as this was out of a population of between six and
seven millions of souls, it cannot be believed that the land-tax is of the oppressive
character represented.

Statistics of the Criminal Courts of India. By Lieut.-Colonel Syxzs, F.R.S,

The author submitted detailed tables of the operation of the various criminal
courts under the four governments of Bengal, Agra, Madras, and Bombay. The
want of a common form for the returns from the several courts under the respective
governments occasioned discrepancies in the amount of the information supplied;
a drawback upon the utility of the returns which can be easily remedied. In the
Bengal courts, out of 322,394 prisoners tried in the four years, from 1841 to 1844,
both inclusive, 112 offenders were condemned to death, being only 0-034 per cent. of
the whole offenders, or one in 2878 criminals. In the Madras courts 271,842
offenders were tried during the four half-years, commencing with the second half of
1842 and ending with the first half of 1844, both inclusive ; of this number eighty-
four were condemned to death, or 0-031 per cent., or one in 3286 criminals; a
singular approximation to the proportions under Bengal. In the Bombay courts, in
the years 1843 and 1844, there were tried 113,080 offenders, and of this number
forty were condemned to death ; being 0-035 per cent., or one in 2827 criminals;
a still closer approximation to the Bengal proportions than the Madras returns gave.

The criminal courts of Bengal, Agra and Bombay, permit of appeals against their
sentences to the Nizamut or Foujdary Adawlut, the supreme criminal court; and the
importance of this privilege is manifested by the fact, that the Nizamut Adawlut of Bom-
bay, in 1843, annulled ninety sentences and mitigated eighty-nine others out of 1021
appealed. Important modifications or revocations of sentences appear also to have
taken place under the Agra government. The Bengal returns do not show the
decisions in appeals; and, under the Madras government, the returns do not indicate
that appeals are permitted.

Under all the governments in India, transportation for life in lieu of imprisonment

96 REPORT—1846.

for life had been substituted, or was in progress of substitution; and very lengthened
imprisonments were discouraged.

Criminal jurisdiction in minor cases appears to be exercised by the superior native
judges under all the governments. .

The proportional sentences of death in India contrast very favourably with similar
sentences in England and Wales, in the corresponding years. In England and
Wales in the year

1841...... Prisoners......... 27,760 Sentences of death...... 80
Re CALLED cccns ade LAGOS. date eee AaB
WS tS ostts 7. OlttOjcrcssnvecse soo (iffOesescckaaxs Paar A SILh
1844....... ditto....... stega Boose, CIEEO Ss csp'estese asic senna ee eolll

Gta wescatavones illo. 202 Motel vs evcccoasezelle

which gives a per-centage of 0°258, or one sentence of death to every 388 prisoners;
the proportion in Bengal being one in 2878. The committals to the population in
England and Wales, in 1841, were one to 619 souls; and in Bengal, in the same
year, one to 620 souls.

Statistics of the Government Charitable Dispensaries of India.
By Lieut.-Colonel Syxrs, F.R.S.

The chief object of the author was to show the practical good resulting from the
education afforded in medicine and surgery to young natives of India, principally in
the Medical College of Calcutta. Young natives, having passed certain prescribed
examinations, were appointed to the charge of government charitable dispensaries
benevolently established by the government of India in Bengal and the north-west
provinces. The dispensaries, seventeen in number, were respectively in charge of
the native sub-assistant surgeons; but under the control of the civil surgeon of the
station, or that of the superintending surgeon of the district. Both the superintend-
ant and the native sub-assistant surgeons were directed to report haif-yearly, for the
information of government, to the medical board at Calcutta. These reports were
made in English, and several of the reports of the natives were not distinguishable
from those of the highly-educated European surgeons, whether in grammatical con-
struction, technical phraseology, perspicuity in expression, or rational observation.
Some of the reports embraced the writer’s views upon the drainage and sanatory con-
dition of towns; the influence of intramural or proximate burial-grounds (Mahome-
dan) upon public health; the meteorology of the seasons, as influencing disease; the
superstitions and prejudices of caste in the people, as debarring the people from de-
riving the full benefit of the dispensaries; upon the use of the dispensaries as schools
of instruction ;—these, and many other topics, are ably noticed in several of the re-
ports. All the sub-assistant surgeons use the knife with dexterity and success, am-
putating limbs, cutting for the stone, couching for cataract, &c.; and some of them
send drawings of the stones they extract ; others report upon the introduction and use
of new medicines (unknown to English pharmacy) ; and one of them (Itam Narraen
Dofs, of Cawnpoor) gives a botanical description, and sends a drawing of a plant (a
Convolvulus) producing a new medicine, a substitute for rhubarb; others give a che-
mical analysis of the new medicines they introduce, and sometimes re-analyse
medicines with metallic bases used by the hakeems or physicians of the country. In
all, 232 new medicines are brought to notice. The reports are accompanied by tabu-
lated returns of the diseases treated, arranged under fifty-eight heads, with a column
of ‘alii morbi,’ which, in spite of the fifty-eight diseases enumerated, is very compre-
hensive in its character. The returns from the majority of the dispensaries are for
six half-years, and these Colonel Sykes has arranged, added up, and analysed. The
results showed that the “‘ House List’ and the ‘‘ Out Patient” practice embraced
267,456 cases, of which 168,871 were cured, 2417 died, and 96,768 ceased to attend,
and the results were not known. Colonel Sykes treats in detail of local peculiarities
in the development of diseases. He concludes his paper with the following observa-
tions :—* In conclusion, it has been contemptuously said, and is still said, that in case
the Company’s government in India were swept away, not a monument of its existence
would remain to attest its former state and power. No doubt the governments that
have preceded the British in India left sufficient proofs of their existence. The early

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 97

_ Buddhist and Hindoo authorities have indeed left prodigious monuments of their wealth,
_. of their power, of their perseverance, and of their religious enthusiasm, in their mighty
cave-temples, and vast religious edifices. The Mahomedans, too, have studded the
lands with their magnificent mausolea, testifying rather to their pride than their piety.
And what have the British done? I say that we have raised greater and more lasting
monuments than all these. One small extract from a report of a native sub-assistant
surgeon shall justify my assertion. Chimman Loll, of Delhi, says—

‘1st August 1841.—One boy, about twelve years of age, who had been blind from
cataract in both eyes from the age of two years, was operated on by couch-
ing, and restored to sight.’

“ The faculty given to a single native to perform the godlike office of restoring the
blind of his countrymen to sight, is a more glorious monument than all the works of
art that human pride or human ambition have ever burthened the earth with; but
when we find scores of such individuals endued with such a faculty, and thousands,
nay tens of thousands possibly, the recipients of the blessing they can confer; when
we find the medical board of the Bengal government reporting to government on the
22d August 1843, ‘ We have every reason to believe that the benevolent intentions
of government in founding these institutions (the dispensaries) have been fully realized;
and we feel confident that future annual results will add to the intrinsic value of the
dispensaries, which are so well adapted, by their internal ceconomy, to obtain the con-
fidence of the native inhabitants. Many have had their sight restored, others have
been cured of hydrocele, and relieved when in the last stage of dropsy. Several also
have derived effectual relief from the successful operations for stone in the bladder;
a few have been saved from a miserable death by the amputation of diseased mem-
bers; and large tumours have been removed. Such operations could not have been
achieved by native practitioners without producing an impression on the minds of the
most apathetic natives; and they must tend to spread far and wide the value of the
government dispensaries.’ Then, I say, and with a thorough conviction of the truth
of my assertions, in case the seeds of knowledge we have thus sown fructify to a gene-
ral and luxuriant harvest, that we shall have left a monument, compared with which
those of Ashoca, Chandra Gupta and Shah Jehan, or of any other Indian potentate,
will sink into insignificance, and their names shall fall on men’s ears unheeded; while
those of Lord Auckland, as projector, and of Goodeve and Mouatt and others as zealous
promoters of scientific native medical education, shall remain embalmed in the me-
mory of a grateful Indian posterity.”

Colonel Sykes only cursorily noticed the charitable dispensaries under the Madras
and Bombay governments, in consequence of the absence of detailed reports.

On the Medical Relief to the Parochial Poor of Scotland under the
Old Poor Law. By Prof. Arison, M.D.
It was stated that as the objections made by Dr. Chalmers and others to establishing
a legal and adequate provision for the poor in Scotland did not apply to medical
relief, the efficiency of that relief, under the old Scottish law, would be a fair test
of the efficacy of the voluntary system of charity. An association of medical prac-

| titioners was formed at Edinburgh, in November 1845, to collect information on this

subject. It appeared that in Edinburgh there was no provision for medical relief

_ from the poor-funds, except for the indoor paupers in the charity workhouse. Previous

to 1815 no assistance was given by any institution to the sick poor at home; and though
since that period the duty had been gratuitously undertaken by the officers of several
dispensaries, it had not been effectually or regularly performed. In the Canongate, the
dispensary aid to the poor came to a sudden close in the midst of the late epidemic
fever, in consequence of the death of one of the medical officers who had acted as
' treasurer. By the recent Act ten duly qualified and paid officers have been appointed
- to take charge of the sick paupers in the different districts; but Dr. Alison lamented
that the provision had been abandoned which compelled the parishes to combine in

iving relief, as in Edinburgh the rich congregate at one extremity of the city and
_ the poor at the other. In Glasgow relief has been given by paid medical attendants
for some years.’ Returns were obtained from forty towns, exclusive of Edinburgh
and Glasgow ;—from which it appeared that in sixteen of these towns there was

1846. H

98 REPORT—1846.

absolutely no requited medical relief, either from the public authorities or from
voluntary subscriptions. In four, an occasional payment, never exceeding a few
shillings, had been made on special occasions. In Campbeltown 10/. was allowed to
the professional men during the epidemic fever. In Kirkintilloch a similar sum was
given, but by a private individual. In Dundee during the same fever 5/. each was
allowed to six dispensary surgeons. In some other places 2/. was given toa surgeon;
and in others a small allowance was made for drugs. In anticipation of the new
Poor Law, 10/. has been allowed annually for medical relief in Alloa. In Dunbar
6l. 6s., but this includes the supply of drugs. In Dunfermline 20/. a year, not
including drugs. In Greenock 25/. per annum has been paid to each of three
district surgeons. In Kiimarnock 10/. each to three surgeons. In Wick 15/. is
divided between two surgeons. In Dumfries 10/. to one surgeon. ‘The unrequited
medical labour is stated by twenty-five gentlemen, and ranges from 51. to 220/.
annually in value, giving an average of 40/. per annum. But this is not the only
tax levied on the charitable feelings of medical men ;—in ninety percent, of the
cases they had to furnish wine, food, &c. out of their own substance; and in
thirty-three of the forty towns brought under review, no change has been made in
this system. Passing over the returns of infirmaries and dispensaries supported by
voluntary contributions as rather imperfect, we come to the medical relief in the
rural districts. The number of returns made amounts to 325, Out of these, ninety-
four have received some remuneration, but only thirty-nine annually. Of these
thirty-nine, only thirteen have received sums above 5/.; twenty-six above 1J. and less
than 5/.; and nine 1/. or under. Ten are paid by the bounty of private individuals ;
and of these one is paid 60/. by a nobleman, and another 40/. by a landed proprietor;
both, however, have the charge of extensive districts, and as there is no fund on
which they can draw for drugs or necessaries, there are large drawbacks to be made
from the remuneration. ‘I'wenty-three have received gratuities for their services,
chiefly during the prevalence of epidemics. In one case this gratuity amounted to
20/., and in fourteen it was under 5/. ; in two cases it was only three shillings. In
one of these cases this three shillings was the only remuneration for twelve years’
attendance on paupers averaging seventy constant and thirteen occasional patients : in
the other, the three shillings was a remuneration for passing paupers of other parishes,
and nothing was allowed for twenty-one years of attendance on resident paupers,
averaging forty-four constant on the district roll. 211, or above sixty per cent.,
have never received any remifneration of any kind for their professional attendance
on the parochial poor, or for the drugs which they have deemed it necessary to supply
to them; and 208 add that they have had occasion to give wine, food, &c. from their
own limited funds, and that they had occasion to defray all travelling expenses when
they made distant visits. 136 have estimated the money value of the unrequited
labour which they have bestowed on the parochial poor :—it amounts to 34,4471.
annually, or an average of 253/. each. The complaints of inattention to sick paupers
by the parochial authorities are very general; and when applications were made
for the repayment of different outlays, they were almost invariably refused. It was
stated that since the abstract presented to the British Association had been compiled,
several additional returns had been obtained; but they in no degree tend to weaken
the general impression likely to be produced by the preceding statement, and it was
therefore deemed unnecessary to tabulate them.

Criminal and Miscellaneous Statistical Returns of the Manchester Police for
the year 1845. By Wm. NEILp.

Oxford University Statistics. By James Heywoop, F.R.S.

A remarkable proof of the interest felt by eminent statesmen in the ancient univer-
sities has been recently afforded in the preparation of a memorial to the Vice-Chan-
cellor and heads of houses at Oxford, for university extension. The memorialists
were Oxonians, and several of them had previously obtained the highest academical
honours of a double first class; but they had observed with regret the continuance of
a system of large expenditure among the junior members of the university, and they

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 99

were on that account desirous that the educational advantages of Oxford should be
rendered more accessible to the sons of parents with limited incomes. Their memo-
rial in favour of the extension of the universities was signed by many eminent persons.

“ Our university,” observed these memorialists, “take up education where our
schools leave it, yet no one can say that they have been strengthened or extended
whether for clergy or laity, in proportion. to the growing population of the country,
its increasing empire, or deepening responsibilities.”’

The author gave the following table of the Oxford degree examination during the
last six years, and commented on the general resv.ts :—

Total ber | Total ber | Total b Ordi
of Candidates. | didnot pass. | passed. | degrees. | Class Men.
1840. 424 117 307 210 97
184], 399 140 259 154 105
1842. 426 136 290 188 102
1843, 409 111 298 200 98
1844. 409 132 277 198 79
1845. 398 120 278 194 84
2465 756 1709 1144 565
Average |
per annum, 410 126 284 190 94

On the Duration of Life in the Members of the several Professions, founded
on the Obituary Lists of the Annual Register. By Dr. Guy.

The following table exhibits the average of such as had attained or outlived the
specified ages :—

S Ss *

g g | 8 Soh ee ee ene

: | 2ié./2,| 8 | 12 | 2g

: B 5 2 = a r s oO a8

Age. a Ee Ea 4 3 Fs 4 Ee ze | 8 ie 3 ZS

4 a 3 a i ba 3 areal vegies 3 Rete 8 a)

e | 2 |] | | ge) 3 | Bed B | ee

. 5 2 3 3 ae | & BS

s e |2 | 2 | é?| 6 |

SAI aie! sake he

26 & upwards | 65°27 | 67°63 | 6881 | 66-20 | 65°36 | 67:70 | 64:42 | 66-49 | 62°78 | 68:11] .... | .... | 58-00
31 _ 67°07 |{68°40 | 69°49 | 68°14 | 67°31 | 68°86 | 65°96 | 67°55 | 66°72} 68°74] .... | .... | 59°27
4. = 68°97 | 70°01 | 71°82 | 70°20 | 70°23 | 71°24 | 68°21 | 69°15 | 68°42] 71°01] .... | .... | 63°82
) 71°58 | 72°62 | 74:04 | 72°78 | 72°95 | 73°62 | 71°15 | 72°10 | 71°44 | 72°32 | 75°64 | 74°00 | 6821

If we confine our attention to the last line of the table, we shall see that the dura-
tion of life among the higher classes is shorter than that of the mass of the people of
England, and of the provident members of the labouring class. In every age the
navy possesses a very slight advantage over the army. The longevity of the clergy
is superior to that of any of the other learned professions. ‘The less favourable dura-
tion of medical life, in the tables published by Professor Casper of Berlin, is to be
attributed to his having included a lower grade of the professions than those whose
deaths are recorded in the Annual Register, probably such a class as the general body
of medical practitioners in England. Both, however, show that medical men encoun-
ter the most danger at the early part of their professional career, and this is more ap-

parent when the column of medical life is compared with that of law life. From his
H2

100 REPORT—1846.

own and other tables, Dr. Guy constructed the following summary of deaths at 51 and
upwards :—

English males... se tee vee 75°64

Clergy ate one eee ie oe =74:04 ,

‘Gentry uke se vee ae sve 974100
Medical men ao aay a «es, $0296
Lawyers... eee Wa esa wis 12S
Navy sue és eee wes we) (262
Trade and Commerce Ke te aa QB2
English Literature and Science... ove. @2°10
Aristocracy ... See =o te soe 71°69
Army ne se cue ae Pr MRE:
Foreign Literature and Science ... woo 00°44

Fine Arts, &c. aes 3a wat eee: (1G is"
Painters oe gis oie HEE oe eit 039G

Chemists... ese eee aes «« 69°51
English Literature (according to Chambers) 69:14
Members of Royal Houses (males) eee 68°54
Kings of England ... eee re «age n64212

On the Mortality of Children. By Mr. WicGLEswortTH.

It appeared that returns had been collected from 1987 families, in which the
number of children was 10,076, giving an average of more than five in a family.
The number of males was 5091, and of females 4985, which gives a proportion of
51 to 50. From these he constructed a table, showing the number out of which one
child would die in one year, according to the experience of families.

Age. Males and Females, Males. Females. {Age. Males and Females. Males: Females.
il 9:62 8:34 11°40 12 196°05 193°20 199-70
2 16°88 17°01 16°75 | 13 279°38 356°20 231:37
3 32°38 31°00 33°63 | 14 195°88 271°16 154°82
4 47°14 49°32 65°25 15 153°70 165:33 144-18
5 65°51 67°21 3°94 | 16 200°14 123°63 480°67
6 90°38 108°85 77°59 17 171°67 176'57 167°37
7 95°83 83°21, 11248 | 18 190°25 158-43 242-00
8 143°14 120°52 174°80 | 19 16215: 6 166°67 158°28
9 137°80 124°53 153°56 | 20 158:00 101:67' 3827-00

10 281°63 369°67 228°80 | 21 121-43 138'67 108°50

11 155°93 160°16 = 152-00

Taking the case of males and females conjointly, it will be seen that there is a gradual
decrease from the Ist to the 8th year, and that there is an increase over the previous
year in the 9th, 11th, 14th, 15th, 17th, 19th, 20th, and 21st years. In males these
fluctuations take place in the 7th, 11th, 14th, 15th, 17th, 19th, and 21st years. In
females there is a general decrease to the 8th year, and an increase in the 9th, 11th,
14th, 15th, 17th, and 21st years.—A table of diseases was then exhibited, from which
it appeared that moré males than females died of nervous diseases and from external
causes; but that more females than males die of epidemic disease, and diseases of
the respiratory organs. ‘These tables, from family returns, were then compared with
similar tables constructed from the statistics of the Foundling Hospital, and were
found to agree very closely in their results.

A Review of the Mines and Mining Industry of Belgium.
By R. Varry.

It was stated that, as a coal-producing country, Belgium ranked the second in Eu-
rope. The ratio of the coal district to the total area is

Acres. Tons annually.
Great Britain ... 34, or 2,930,000 producing... 34,000,000
Belgium ........- ss, or 335,000 ye 4,500,000
Brance 222cst¥er.4¢ stp or 630,000 si 3,783,000
Germanic Unionse. ccscreorsseresssecessrevevecsseesecers 3,000,000

i
/

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 101

In 1838 the total number of coal-mines in Belgium was 307, with 470 pits in work
and 172 in process of construction, employing 37,171 persons; being an increase of
8454, or twenty-eight per cent. on the number employed in 1829. The increase of
the quantity of coal raised was not accurately ascertained, but it appeared to be about
thirty-seven per cent. The average cost of production is 10s. 8d. per ton, and the
average price 23s. 1d. for first quality, and 16s. 63d. for the second quality of coal ;
the average rate of wages is 1s. 6;%d. per day. The establishments for preparing
other mineral productions for market in 1838 were—for iron, 221; copper, eight;
zine, seven; lead, two; the total number of furnaces was 189, of which forty-seven
used coke and ninety-two charcoal. The total number of accidents from 1821 to
1840 was 1352, which occasioned severe hurts to 882, and deaths to 1710, making
a total of 2592 sufferers.

On Plate Glass-making in England in 1846, contrasted with what it was in
1827. By H. Howarp.

The writer furnished carefully all the materials for establishing this comparison.
Amongst other results he stated, that in 1827 plate glass was sold for about 12s.
average per foot, to the extent of about 5000 feet per week; in 1835, for from 8s.
to 9s. per foot, to the extent of about 7000 feet; in 1844, for from 6s. to 7s. per foot,
reaching about 23,000 feet; andin 1846, for from 5s. to 6s.,—about 40,000 feet per
week, The sale is now about 45,000 feet weckly. He mentioned that, in 1829, a
plate glass manufactory ceased operations because of the small profit realized when
selling at 12s.; while, in 1846, a company, with a paid-up capital of 130,000/., realized
a net profit of 30,000/., selling at from 5s. to 6s. Looking at this extraordinary in-
crease, in spite of the seyerity of excise restrictions, the author asks, what would be
the probable demand if the price were reduced to 4s. or 3s. 6d, per foot, which,
free as the trade now is from excise interference, would yield an ample profit?

On the Statistics of Education in Gilasgow in 1846. By A. LippExt.

This enumeration was collected by the Statistical Committee of the Sunday School
Union of Glasgow. The returns show great disparity in the amount of instruction
in the different districts into which the city has been divided. In Glasgow, instruc~
tion in the common branches of education may be had at the lowest rates; and when
parents are so poor as to be unable to pay, it may be had gratis. The great amount
of ignorance that prevails arises therefore from the apathy of parents; and in many
cases, from their cupidity in sending their children to work at very tender years for
the produce of their labour. To counteract this evil, various acts of parliament have
been passed for the purpose of regulating the labour of children. The Factories Re-=
gulation Bill (Lord Ashley’s) restricts the labour of youths in the factories named to
about seven hours per day, thereby giving leisure for education and recreation; but
it has been found that unless the service of youths can be got for as many working
hours as that of an adult they cannot be profitably employed in these factories. No
record exists by which we can learn the exact number of children employed in Glas
gow prior to the passing of this Act, but there must have been several thousands;
‘whereas, in March last, only 53 were so employed; and in Aberdeen, where for-
merly there were about 1000, there were at the same date only 45. The Act 8 and
9 Vict. c. 29, which came into operation in the beginning of this year, seems to be
working more efficiently in promoting the education of the youths in the calico print
works, to which class of factories this Act is restricted. It provides that the children
shall have 150 hours’ instruction every six months, between the hours of 8 in the
morning and 6 in the evening. It is found that this enactment does not materially
interfere with the ceconomical working of this class of factories: consequently the
children are still continued in employment; and, as far as can be ascertained from
the few months’ operation of the Act, they are making much more rapid progress
than when receiving the same amount of instruction after work hours, which, being
optional, was in many cases neglected altogether. In Glasgow, lack of education is
much greater among the lower orders than in the country districts of Scotland; this
in part arises from the wretchedly low pittance hitherto allowed to paupers; which
compels many of them to resort to manufacturing towns for the purpose of obtaining

102 REPORT—1846.

employment for their children. It has been ascertained, from the Statistics of the
Night Asylum for the houseless and the police offices, that 46 per cent. of the paupers
are not natives of Glasgow. An amendment of the Poor Law of Scotland passed the
legislature last year, which, it is hoped, may in some respects remedy this evil.
Under the authority of this Act, the parochial boards in the cities of Glasgow and
Edinburgh have resolved on having industrial schools for the purpose of supporting
and educating poor children. These schools have been for some time in operation in
Aberdeen and Perth; and if generally adopted, may be expected to remedy the evil
complained of in some degree.

Statistics of Crime in England and Wales, for the years 1842, 1843, and
1844. By F.G. P. Netson, F.L.S.

The first point to which attention was directed, was the necessity of viewing age as
an element in every investigation into the amount and progress of crime. From an
arrangement of the criminal returns for the above three years, in relation to popula-
tion, it appeared that the tendency to crime among the male population, at different
terms of life, will be found to vary from ‘7702 per cent. to 1694 per cent., or, in
other words, the tendency to crime at one period of life is more than quadruple that
at another. Similar results will be found for the female population, but with a lower
specific intensity fo crime. It was further shown, that in the counties and districts
of England and Wales a different distribution of the population is found over the va-
rious terms of life. In Anglesea, Caermarthen, and Dorset, the proportion of the po-
pulation alive in the qninquennial term of life, 20-25, is under 8 per cent. of the
whole; while in Lancaster, Middlesex, and Monmouth, the proportion varies from 10
to upwards of 11 per cent.; and, since the tendency to crime at the same periods of
life is more than quadruple that at other periods, it follows that, although the tendency
to crime in those two groups were precisely the same at the respective terms of life,
there would still, in reference to the whole population, appear to be an excess of crime
in the three latter counties ; therefore any method of investigation in which the ele-
ment of age is omitted can never show the relative amount of crime. In illustration
of this principle, it was shown that during the years 1842, 1843 and 1844, the pro-
portion of criminals in England was 1 in every 336 of the male population ; but if the
population during those years had been under the same distribution in regard to age
as in the year 182], the proportion of criminals would have been only 1 in every
365 of the male population. Again, assuming the same tendency to crime at the
respective terms of life to prevail, the differences in the distribution of the popu-
lation would, for Glasgow, produce 1 criminal in every 304 of the male population ;
and in two districts of the metropolis the difference is so much as to give 1 in every 338
for Bethnal Green; while in St. George’s, Hanover-Square, the ratio would be as high
as 1 in 280 :—showing a difference, or rather an error, in any such method of inves-
tigation of 21 per cent. The results for England and Wales establish the same truth.
In Dorset, Anglesea, Cardigan, Caermarthen, Montgomery, Merioneth, and Pembroke,
the ratio of crime would be one in every 360; but in Lancaster, Middlesex, Mon-
mouth, and Glamorgan, the average would vary from 1 in 525 to 1 in 318 of the male
population. It was thus made evident, that calculations on the progress and amount
of crime in which the element of age is neglected cannot be relied on, as they would
lead to the fallacious conclusion, that districts in which the same ratio of crime pre-
vailed were at least 20 per cent. in excess of the average of the whole kingdom. A
series of tables were brought forward, pointing to the existence of an interesting law
in the development of crime. It was found that, in the male sex, from age 20, crime
in each successive term of life decreases at the rate of 333 per cent., and in the fe-
male sex at the rate of 25 per cent.; so that if two tables were formed,—one in
which the numbers resulting from such a law were given, and the other showing the
actual number of criminals,—the one table, particularly in reference to the female sex,
would be almost identical with the other. The paper went into an analysis of
the various causes generally believed to increase or lessen the amount of crime in va-
rious districts ; such as the prevalence of manufacturing, mining, and agricultural in-
terests, the greater or less amount of wealth, and the degree of education. In the
group of the manufacturing and mining districts, it was found that the actual
crime was less than the average of England and Wales by 2°3 per cent.; but in

Se ee

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 103

the agricultural group of counties there is an excess of 5°9 per cent. of crime. Again,
if the whole group of the manufacturing and mining counties be subdivided, it will
be seen that in the northern mining districts crime is 521 per cent. below the ave-
rage for the whole country; and in the cotton and woollen manufacturing districts
crime is 7°0 per cent. under the average; but, on the other hand, in the districts
where the silk and linen fabrics are manufactured there is an excess of 8*5 per
cent. of crime, and in the hardware, pottery, and glass manufacturing districts the
excess of crime is 33°5 per cent. above the average of England and Wales. It, how-
ever, appeared evident that there is something in the condition of the mining and
manufacturing population having an influence in regulating the amount of crime,—
one district showing an excess of 33-5 per cent., and another being under the ave-
rage by, at least, 52 per cent. This led to an inquiry into the supposed increase of
juvenile crime; and a series of tables were presented showing the relative amount of
crime at the younger and at the more matured periods of life, by which it appeared
that if the general result for any or all of the groups or districts, whether in con-
nexion with an increase or decrease of crime, be compared with the corresponding
feature at the juvenile ages, there will not be found a single instance in which the
character of that result is so strongly confirmed by the facts for the younger ages as
by those at the more advanced period. It follows that if any change be found to take
place in the criminal calendar of a given district, such fluctuation will be promoted,
not so much by juvenile crime, as by an increase or decrease among persons in mature
life, when the conduct and dispositions of individuals come more under the influence
of external circumstances. In order to obtain, as far as possible, districts in which
the manufacturing or agricultural feature decidedly prevailed, a variety of combina-
tions were made, in order to exclude foreign and disturbing elements. This was
done to determine the legitimate influence of each particular condition of the people
when unassociated, as far as may be, with other and different conditions; and the
following is an abstract of the results obtained :—

Difference per cent,

District.
Increase. |Decrease.
Greatest manufacturing ...........:ssesceeeseeee watewaaniededeeass| i Lone
Greatest agricultural ...........,...+4 Reet teaceatersats seseee{ 60
Manufacturing interest 333 per cent. above the average...| 10:8
Agricultural interest, 50 per cent. above the average ...... 4:2
Manufacturing and agricultural interests nearly equal ...| 4°5
Greatest wealth ..........00..06 Meese tae y acis'ed ese tlds <alsesidale Rchios dest 8-8
Least wealth ...........2..ce0ee Donene ah atehcccsskwarsiecornss'ys es ai] snes eueaaaa 11

It is thus evident that so far no very marked feature has appeared to connect itself
peculiarly with any individual group; and that therefore some further analysis is
required in order to discover that element which is so powerfully concerned in pro-
ducing the differences shown in some of the earlier combinations to which allusion
has been made. In England and Wales, 33 per cent. of the males married under
the Registration Act, signed their marriage registers by their marks, and taking this
as an index to the state of education, a series of results is obtained. ‘Taking the
counties in which the proportion signing the marriage register with their marks ex-
ceeded the general average by at least 334 per cent., and taking also the counties in
which the ratio so signing their names is at least 25 per cent. under the general
average, it is found that in the former, the amount of crime exceeds the proportion
for the whole kingdom by 13-2 per cent., while in the latter group crime is at least
30°7 per cent. below the average for England and Wales. By some it may be held,
that in the two groups now referred to, the difference may be owing to some other
element than simply education. It may be said, however, that the difference may
arise from the influence of some other element than education—such as the prevalence
of peculiar manufactures subject to fluctuations in prosperity, to increased wealth, to
difference of positions in society, and, in fact, to a variety of other causes not elimi-
nated. ‘To meet the force of this objection, each of the preceding districts or groups
was divided into two sections, so that one section differed from the other in the degree

104 REPORT—1846.

of education only which prevailed; a means being thus afforded of comparing two
sections of a community similarly circumstanced in regard to manufactures, in regard
to agriculture, or in regard to wealth as the case might be, in fact, differing only in
regard to one important element of the inquiry, namely education; and hence the
force of that element, if any, should appear. The following is a brief abstract of the
results arrived at in this manner :—

Difference per cent. |3, wo

in crime. gA Ss

Group. Be 68

Least Most |g 825

Education. | Education. |4 =

—_— Se ———.s | —
Greatest manufacturing ......ceereerseeeerereca renee davies +48°4 +16°2 32°0
Greatest agricultural ..........++0++ Shes sgesttscine seareaes ac + 84 + 9 ws
Manufacturing interest 333 per cent. above the average} -{-23°2 — 72 30°4
Agricultural interest 50 per cent. above the average ...| 10-4 — 26 130
Manufacturing and agricultural interests equal ......... +158 — 93 25°1
Greatest wealth ......... Sete eatedaa ores. cee meaner sk + 92 —29°4 38°6

Least wealth ,......... Micatn ee ynrane Dene tneuceaSameroeseneces* +113 —13°5 24°8

In the above, the sign + signifies that the ratio of crime in that particular section
is above the average for England and Wales; and the figures themselves point out
the ratio per cent. The sign — is intended to indicate that the amount of crime is
below the average. ‘The last column gives the difference per cent. in the same di-
strict, which appears from dividing it into two sections, in the one of which there is
the least degree of education, and in the other the highest. To the friends of edu-
cation, the above results must be gratifying; showing, as they do, the immense ad-
vantages resulting from even the most elementary and mechanical acquirements to-
wards education. There does not appear a single group in which there is not a
striking difference in favour of education. In fact, a proper analysis of all the com-
bined facts show, that following up the simple test here adopted, namely, the quali-
fication of individuals writing their own names, the mere inability to do that much,
is sufficient to account for, at Jeast, one-third of the whole amount of crime in England
and Wales.

On the Statistics of Sickness and Mortality in the City of York.
By T. Laycock, M.D.

A Chart of the Railway lines of England, compared with a Diagram illustrating
the principle of least mileage, was presented by Mr, Beaumont.

On the Annual Consumption of Coal and the probable duration of the Coal-
Fields. By E. R. J. KNowxes.

The author computed the annual consumption of coal at 38,000,000 tons as an
average increasing with the population, and classified it under the following heads :—

Coal for household uses averaging 1°1 ton each person ....... 22,000,000 tons.
Coal for manufacturing Operations .......-seeecessseceeesseeseeesee 12,500,000 ...
Coal for foreign exports ..eccsccssesecssessceerencereseresessesecezees 2,500,000 ...

Total... 37,000,000 tons.
Allowing for errors two and a half per cent. on above.......... 925,000 ...

Thus making the total amount annually consumed.............. 37,925,000 tons,

or nearly 38,000,000 tons for the present population, about 20,000,000. The extent
of the coal-fields of England were taken at 5200 square miles (including the coal
under the crop of the magnesian limestone, but not that under the new red sand-.
stone), allowing an average of 20,000,000 tons to the square mile ; and thence, after

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 105

e

making allowance for the coal worked out, and for the population being eventually
doubled, it was deduced that the coal-fields of England contain an ample supply for
at least 1500 years. Of the annual amount consumed for manufacturing operations,
it was stated that the proportion of coal consumed for the purposes of steam-navi-
gation (including the Royal Navy) most probably amounts to 1,075,000 tons, and
for railway locomotion on 3000 miles of railway, to about 300,000 tons. It was
remarked that 2840 miles in progress will probably consume about 275,000 tons of
coal in addition to the above; to which a proper allowance for the lines, for which
acts of parliament have recently been obtained, is to be added.

The above computations were offered only as an approximate calculation of an
annual average with the present amount of population, many of the items being
liable to great fluctuation, as in the case of coal consumed for the manufacture of
iron: but it is only from an average that the probable duration of the coal-fields can
be computed even approximately.

MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

On a new Method of Boring for Artesian Springs.
_ By M. Fauve te of Perpignan, in France.

(A paper furnished by M. Arago to Mr. Vignolles, for the purpose of being com-
municated to the Association, M. Arago himself being prevented by illness from
attending.)

The paper was an abridged translation of M. Fauvelle’s own account, in which he
says,—‘‘In 1833, I was present at the boring cf an artesian well at Rivesaltes; the
water was found, and spouted up abundantly. They proceeded to the tubing, and
for that purpose enlarged the bore-hole from the top downwards, I was struck by

observing that it was no longer necessary to draw the boring tools to get rid of the
material, and that the water, rising from the bottom, brought up with it, in a state
of solution, all the soil which the enlarging tools detached from the sides. I imme-
diately observed to my friend, M. Bassal, who was with me, ‘ This is a remarkable
fact, and one very easy to imitate ; if, through a hollow boring rod, water be sent
down into the bore-hole as it is sunk, the water, in coming up again, must bring
with it all the drilled particles.’’ On this principle [ started to establish a new me-~
thod of boring. The apparatus is composed of a hollow boring rod, formed of wrought
iron tubes screwed end to end : the lower end of the hollow rod is armed with a per=
forating tool, suited to the character of the strata which have to be encountered,
The diameter of the tool is larger than the diameter of the tubular rod, in order to
form around it an annular space through which the water and the excavated material
may rise up. The upper end of the hollow rod is connected with a force-pump by
jointed or flexible tubes, which will follow the descending movement of the boring
tube for an extent of some yards. This boring tube may be either worked by a ro=
tatory movement with a turning handle, or by percussion with a jumper. The

_. frame and tackle for lifting, lowering, and sustaining the boring tube, offer nothing

particular. When the boring tube is to be worked the pump must be first put in
motion. Through the interior of the tube acolumn of water issent down to the bottomof
the bore-holes, which water, rising in the annular space between the exterior of the
hollow boring rod and the sides of the bore-hole, creates an ascending current which
carries up the triturated soil : the horing tube is then worked like an ordinary boring
rod ; and as the material is acted upon by the tool at the lower end, itis immediately
carried up to the top of the bore-hole by the ascending current of water. Itis a
consequence of this operation that the cuttings being constantly carried up by the
water, there is no longer any occasion to draw up the boring tube to clear them
away, making a very great saving of time. Another important and certainly no less
advantage, is, that the boring tools never get clogged by the soil; they work con-
stantly (without meeting obstructions) through the strata to be penetrated, thus
getting rid at once of nine-tenths of the difficulties of boring, It addition, it should
be mentioned, that experience has shown there are no slips iu any ground which ore

106 REPORT—1846, 7

dinary boring-rods can penetrate ; that the boring tube works at 100 yards in depth
with as much facility as when only 10 yards down, and that from the very circum-
stance of its being a hollow rod, it presents more resistance to torsion than a solid
rod of equal thickness and quite as much resistance to traction: these are the prin-
cipal advantages of the new system of boring. Indeed these advantages have been
fully confirmed by the borings which I have just completed at Perpignan. This
boring was commenced on the Ist of July and was completed onthe 23rd, by finding
the artesian water at a depth of 170 métres (560 English feet). If from these twenty-
three days, each of ten hours’ work, are deducted three Sundays and six lost days,
there remain fourteen days or 140 hours of actual work; which is upwards of 1
métre per hour, that is, ten times the work of an ordinary boring rod. In the
method I have described, it will be perceived that the water is injected through
the interior of the boring rod. Experience has taught me that when gravel, or
stones of some size are likely to be met with, it is better to inject the water by the
bore-hole, and let it rise through the boring tube. The additional velocity which
may be thereby given to the water, and the greater accuracy of calibre of the tube,
allow the free ascent of all substances which may be found at the bottom of the bore-
hole, and which the former mode of working may not so readily accomplish. I have
brought up by this latter way stones of 6 centimétres long and 3 thick (2} by 13
English inches). The idea of making the water remount through the interior of the
boring tube suggests an easy mode of boring below a film (sheet) of flowing water :
it would be sufficient to close the orifice of the bore-hole hermetically, still, however,
so as to allow the boring tube to work, but yet so that the flowing water should be
always forced down to the bottom of the bore-hole to find its way to a vent : it would
thus draw up and carry away all the detritus. If, in addition to the above, we con-
sider the possibility of making the hoilow stem of the boring rod of wood, and of ba~-
lancing it so that it would weigh no more than the water in which it has to move, the
problem of boring to depths of ]000 métres (1100 yards) and upwards would appear
to be solved. Inthe square of St. Dominique, at Perpignan, a boring had been car-
ried on upon the old method for upwards of eleven months for the purpose of form-
ing an artesian well, and the water had not been found.” Fauvelle placed his new
tube alongside the old boring tackle, and soon got down to a depth of nearly 100
yards, when an accident occurred which would have required some days to remedy,
Fauvelle decided upon abandoning the bore-hole already sunk so deep, and com-
mencing a new one, satisfied that there would thereby bea savingintime, The rate
of sinking was equal to four English feet per hour of the time the hollow boring rod
was actually at work, the depth of 560 English feet having been obtained in 140
working hours, for a bore-hole of about six English inches in diameter. M. Arago,
who had seen the rods of Fauvelle at work, mentions how fully they answered, and
that the large powerful tools at the bottom of the hollow boring rod cut easily through
the hardest strata; he confirmed the fact of the large-sized stones and gravel coming
up with the ascending current, having himself watched them. He also mentioned
that such was the opinion of the people in the vicinity of Perpignan, and so much was
water wanted that orders for the sinking upwards of 200 artesian wells had been
given to Fauvelle. The introduction of this system into this country, especially if
combined with the Chinese or percussive system of boring as practised with bore-
holes of very large diameter at the Saarbruck mines, and at many other places on
the Continent, must be productive of great benefit, and would not merely effect a
saving of money and labour, but the paramount advantage of immediately solving
the question of the existence of coal, minerals, water, &e.

On Mechanical Apparatus employed for the purpose of preventing Incrusta-
tion of Steam Boilers. By Mr. Lams.

It may be defined as a self-acting blow-off apparatus. Mr. Lamb has a theory that
‘¢ blowing-off ” should take place near the top of a boiler rather than from the bottom.
He conceives that the carbonate of lime floats by means of small bubbles of steam
adhering to each particle of lime. His contrivance consists of a large copper float
closing the orifice of a blow-off pipe in the boiler. When the water has risen above
a certain height, the blow-off valve is opened by the float, and so delivers the boiler

—— oes?

a

es

Fr

ae

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 107

of its excess of water. This hot water passes through a cylindrical chamber round
the feed-water, so as to heat it on entering. The apparatus is simple, and is stated
to have worked perfectly well.

Experiments on the Tubular Bridge proposed by Mr. Stephenson for cross-
ing the Menai Straits. By W. FAIRBAIRN.

The experiments undertaken to ascertain the best form of
bridge for carrying the Chester and Holyhead Railway actoss
the Menai Straits have led to valuable and important results,
They have put us in possession of facts which will greatly in-
crease our knowledge of the properties of a material whose
powers of combination were but imperfectly understood ; for,
exclusive of the rapidly increasing use of wrought iron in the
construction of ships, boilers and other vessels, its application
to bridges of the tubular form is perfectly novel, and originated
with Mr. Robert Stephenson. Experiments of the most con-
clusive character were those made upon a model tube of a large
scale, containing nearly all the elements of the proposed bridge,
and the various conditions with regard to form and construction
which had been developed by the previous inquiries. At first
it occurred to Mr. Fairbairn that the strongest form would be
that wherein the top and bottom consisted of a series of pipes,
with riveted plates on their upper and lower sides. This form
of top would possess great rigidity, and is well-adapted to re-
sist the crushing forces to which it is subjected ; and the bot-
tom section appeared equally powerful to resist tension. Mr.
Fairbairn is inclined to think that this is the strongest form
that can be devised ; but practical difficulties present them-
selves in its construction, as an easy access to the different
parts for the purposes of painting, repairs, &c. is absolutely
necessary. The scale of the model tube is exactly one-sixth of
® the bridge across one of the spans of the Straits, 450 feet* ;
it is also one-sixth of the depth, one-sixth the width, and, as
near as possible, one-sixth the thickness of the plates. - With
these proportions and form, the experiments proceeded as fol-
lows :—In each of the experiments the weights were laid on
about a ton at atime; and the deflection was carefully taken,
as well as the defects of elasticity after the load was removed.

Rectangular model tube, 80 ft. long, 4 ft. 6 in. deep, 2 ft.
8 in. wide, and 75 ft. between the supports.— Thickness of the
plates: bottom,:156in.; sides, 099 in.; Ex ancepandTRANsVERSE
top, -147.—Sectional area of tne bot- Sperron, ehawine: a

.Q: . T10)
tm, Gin, andthe weight the tube stoop

First experiment. Breaking weight,
79,578 lbs. = 35} tons.— Ultimate de-
flection,4:375 inches.— Permanent set,
or defects of elasticity, with a weight of
67,842 lbs., :792inch.—With the above
weight, 352 tons, the bottom was torn
asunder direct across the solid plates at
a distance of 2 feet from the centre of
the shackle from which the load was
suspended. One of the principal ob-
jects of this inquiry was to determine
the ratio or proportion between the top

and bottom sides of the tube. Taking
the experiment immediately preceding, it was found that the area of the top to that of

{S

boro

SEE [1 gL

Elevation, showing a side view of the Tuler, the supports at the ends, and the weight W in the middle,

* The span has since been increased to 462 feet.

108 REPORT—1846.

the bottom, in a rectangular tube, should be as 5 to 3. These proportions were de-
duced from the experiments on the smaller description of tubes, or those having the
corrugated top, and thick plates on the upper sides. The plates forming the top of
the model tube were rather thicker than intended, and consequently gave (according
to the former experiments) a preponderating power of resistance to that part. To
obviate this disparity, two additional strips, 61 in. by 5-16ths in, thick, about 4 cwt.,
were riveted along the bottom to an extent of 20 ft. on each side of the shackle. This
increase raised the area of the bottom to nearly thirteen inches, being about the ratio
of 5 to 8 or 23°5 to 13. With these proportions, and having repaired the fractured
part by the introduction of some new plates, the experiment proceeded as before,

Second experiment. Breaking weight, 97,102 lbs.=43-3 tons.— Ultimate deflection,
4*11 inches.—Permanent set could not be taken. In this experiment the tube failed,
by one of the ends giving way, which caused the sides to collapse. The weak point
in this experiment was evidently a want of stiffness in the sides. To remedy this
evil, and keep them in form, a number of vertical ribs, composed of light angle iron,
were riveted along the interior of each side, at distances of 2 ft.; and having again
restored the injured parts, the tube was a third time subjected to the usual tests.

Third experiment. Breaking weight, 126,138lbs.—56°3 tons.— Ultimate deflection,
5-68 inches.—Permanent set, or defects of elasticity=1'96 in. After suspending a
weight of 12],443 lbs., the platform unfortunately gave way, causing an interruption
to the experiment. This was, however, speedily repaired, and the experiment con-
tinued, when the tube was ultimately torn asunder, through the bottom plates, by
a weight of 126,138 lbs. The above experiment was one of the most satisfactory
description, as, at the moment of fracture, the cellular top gave evident symptoms
of yielding to a crushing force, by the puckerings of each side, which were gra-
dually enlarged as the deflection increased. These appearances became more ap-
parent as the joints of the plates on the top side had cut a number of the rivets
in two, and the holes had slid over each other to an extent of nearly 3-10ths of
an inch, ‘The conclusive nature of the whole of the experiments on the model
tube is highly satisfactory: they exhibit extraordinary powers of resistance; and
considering that the weight of the whole material contained in the tube does not
exceed 5 tons; that the distance between the supports is 75 ft.; and the load in
the middle |1 times its own weight, or 22 times if equally distributed, it is probably
not over-rating its powers to state that hollow beams of wrought iron, constructed on
this principle, will be found (whether used for bridges or for buildings) about three
times stronger than any other description of girders.

Experiments on the Tubular Bridge proposed by Mr. Stephenson for cross-
ing the Menai Straits. By E. Hopexiyson, F.R.S.

Finding that a number of experiments had been made upon cylindrical and ellip-
tical tubes, and a few upon rectangular ones, Mr. Hodgkinson expressed a con-
viction that the tubes then tried and others proposed, would not be the best for the
intended purpose, though they would afford valuable introductory knowledge. He
urged that the tube, to bear the greatest weight, must be formed as a large beam
or girder, having its top and bottom equally capable of resistance, and with sides
strong and stiff enough to keep them at their proper distance; and as it was
found that the tube usually gave way at the top by buckling, and hence would
require additional metal, and might perhaps be very heavy, he suggested that
the top should be formed of cylindrical tubes, as he felt that these tubes, or some-
thing analogous to them, would best resist the strain to which the top would be
exposed. The following are some of the leading results; and, first, those from
the fracture of two similar tubes, as in the following table :—

Length | Weight |Distance| Depth | Breadth ; Breakin
of of |between| of of eee mneial weight
Tube. | Tube, |supports.| Tube. | Tube. | ? SOF att neh. | sta wanes
ft. in. cwt. qr. it, ft. ft, in. Top. Bottom, Side. “
Skee GO ea Vas 2 1 4/6 4 2) 261
47 OL OF SPOS 2° OT 9 6 “SY GBS

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 109

The ultimate deflexion of the former tube was about 22 in., and that of the latter
about 3 in. To ascertain the power of such a tube to bear a side strain—as from
the action of the wind—the smaller tube above, after being well-repaired, was laid
on its side, and broken, from a mean of two experiments, with 15:2 tons. Hence
its Jateral strength was 34 of its vertical nearly ; and in a narrower tube it would be
considerably less. A number of experiments were made to determine the resistance
of plates of wrought iron to a force of compression ; and from these considerable in-
formation has been obtained with respect to the laws of their resistance to flexure or
buckling. The following table contains the weights, external dimensions, and weights
of greatest resistance of some of the tubes 10 feet long, which were subjected to
a force of compression :—

CYLINDRICAL TUBE.

Weight of Tube. Exiemial Diameter of Wegus ct Srovteat
Ibs. OZ. inches, Ibs,
47 10 2:34 31,828
45 15 2:99 37,356
LA Ae 4:05 47,212
64 4 4:06 49,900

RECTANGULAR TUBE. ‘
43 142 41x41 19,646
65 8 85x41 23,289
82 0 81x41 43,673
OP suk 8:0 x 8:0 27,545

The rectangular tubes above are all of plates 3th of aninch thick, They were all
simple rectangles or squares, except the last but one, which had a Givision in it,
making it into two squares. The proposed tubular bridge has undergone altera-
tions in consequence of Mr. Hodgkinson's experiments and recommendations :—
Ist. In the thickness of the side to enable it better to resist the action of the wind.
2nd. In the top being made straight, instead of curved, to: allow the escape of the
steam. 3rd. In reducing the rectangular cells at the tcp. In this last instance,
however, since rectangular tubes are weaker than square ones to resist compression,
and these much weaker than cylindrical tubes, Mr. Hodgkinson hopes the latter will
be substituted for the former; as it would, according to the preceding experiments,
effect a saving of one-fourth of the metal in the top, leaving the strength the same,
This matter is of the more consequence, as the weight of the tubular bridge will bear
so large a proportion to the breaking weight.

Mr. Clarke, the resident engineer of the proposed Menai Bridge, read a statement
of the principles on which the model tubes for the tubular bridges, on the Holyhead
Railway, should be increased to larger dimensions.

On the Law which governs the Resistance to Motion of Railway Trains at
High Velocities. By J. Scort Russert, M.A. F.RS.B.

Having on former occasions communicated the results of experimental researches
concerning the resistance experienced by floating bodies moving along the surface of
water at high velocities, I have thought it not an inappropriate sequel to communicate
the general result of a long series of experiments, made partly by committees of this
Association, and partly by myself. The subject of the resistance which requires to
be overcome in order to give motion to trains at high velocities has been matter of
great uncertainty, some dispute, and the cause of several grave errors in practical
engineering. Some six years ago a committee of the Association was appointed to
make experiments on this subject, and these experiments were at the time a valuable
addition to our knowledge. They showed that the resistance at such velocities as 36

| - miles an hour was much greater than had been supposed—at least double, The

110 REPORT—1846.

committee, however, in concluding their labours, stated that they were not able to
deduce from them any law, or semblance of a law; that the resistance increased
with the velocity, but it did not appear to do so according to any simple function of
the velocity, neither as the velocity directly, nor as the square of the velocity. Since
that time the question has been a guestio vexata among practical men and mathema-
ticians. A paper read at the Royal Society last winter comes to the same conclusion
as the old committee of the British Association, viz. that no law is manifested in
the experiments, of which at high velocities the results are quite anomalous. The
consequences of errors on such a point have become now so serious, especially where
velocities of 50 or 60 miles an hour are attempted, that it has been thought desirable
that the question should be, if possible, thoroughly resolved. For this purpose I have
undertaken a series of practical experiments, on a large scale, with railway trains of
a great variety of size and weight, and at velocities as high as 61 miles an hour.
They were made on the South-Western, London and Brighton, South-Eastern, Shef-
field and Manchester, and Croydon Atmospheric Railways. I have combined with
these the experiments formerly made by the British Association, and some by Mr.
Harding on the broad gauge; and it is the result of this great variety of facts which
I wish to lay before the Section, The experiments themselves are arranged in the
following table :—

No. of | Uniform velocity Resistance Resistance
Expe- | maintainedin | in lbs. per ton by | in lbs. per ton by
riment. | miles per hour. Experiment. Formula.
1 10 8°40 9°30
2 14 12°60 13°90
3 14 12°60 13°90
4 29 16°50 15°70
5 31 23°30 25°40
6 31 18°20 16°30
fi 32 22°50 27°20
8 33 22°50 22°70
9 33 15°68 16°90
10 33 15°96 17°00
11 34 16°60 17°30
12 34 16°95 17°30
13 34 17°70 17°30
14 34 23°30 27°20
15 34 25°00 23°10
16 35 22°50 26°10
17 36 22°50 22°40
18 36 22°40 21°50
19 37 17°50 18°20
20 37 25°00 28°40
2] 39 30°00 31°00
22 41 22°99 19°60
23 41 26°78 19°60
24 45 21°70 21°00
25 46 23°10 21°30
26 46 30°31 31°00
27 47 33°70 33°10
28 50 32°90 36°30
29 51 26°40 23°00
30 53 41°70 42°10
31 61 52°60 54°80

These experiments show the great amount of resistance at high velocities ; but they
also show the apparent anomaly of the results. We have many higher velocities
than others with much lower resistances. These are the difficulties in the way of
any simple and apparent solution, The method of investigation I have adopted is
this—I have taken all the results of experiments, and removed from them, in the

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 111

first instance, all the questionable experiments, I found it necessary to discard all
the experiments made with accelerating velocities, and to retain only such as were
made on uniform velocities, in the same circumstances, over a large space; most of
my own experiments having a steady uniform velocity over from one mile to six. I
have also selected those which were most free from the action of wind—an element
of much importance. By thus weeding out the experiments, and taking only the
most unquestionable, I simplified the subject very materially. Those which remain
are given in the table. In this table the weight of each train in tons is shown, and
the number of pounds of force required to keep each ton weight of that train in mo-
tion at a given number of miles per hour, is shown by actual experiment. The
analysis of those experiments I made as follows :—I take the friction of the axles and
wheels as an ascertained quantity equal in the best-conditioned carriages to 6 lbs. per
tonof train, This I conceive we may consider to have been proved by all experiments
of friction, including those of Mr. Morin, the latest and best, to be a source of re-
sistance constant at all velocities. This I call friction proper, and I consider it as the
first element of resistance. Friction proper, the first element of resistance,—or

Ry SO mye af Seger agin. pew
where C = 6 lbs., and m = the mass of the train in tons weight. ~

The second element of resistance is the resistance of the air to the front of the train,
This has been variously estimated, and somewhat erroneously. Some persons have
taken for it Smeaton’s tables of the force of the wind. But such a table gives a
quantity quite in excess ; for these tables were made from the force of the wind upon
a thin plate, a case where the minus pressure behind is added to the plus pressure
before the plate; whereas, in the case of the railway train, there is a solid body,
whose third dimension extends the whole length of the train. I have therefore taken,
not the table of the force of the wind, but a table of the resistance of air calculated
from the height due to the velocity, which I have found to represent most accurately
the resistance of fluids to bodies passing through them; and I have taken this as the
second essential element in the resistance to railway trains. Resistance of the air,
the second element :—

Reecanput 8. ES 2 ees
where A = the area in square feet of the front of the train, and p = weight of a
column of air, whose basg¢ is a square foot, and whose length is the height due to the
velocity of one mile an hour; v being the velocity of the train.

After having deducted from the results of the experiments the sum of these two re-
sistances, 1 have found a large amount still unaccounted for ; and I find this quantity
to be not only large, but dependent also on the velocity. The question which I now
submit to the Section is the determination of the nature and cause of this third ele-
ment of resistance. The third element of resistance appears by the experiments to
increase very nearly as the velocity, simply; that is, it amounts at 10 miles an hour
to about 3 Ibs., at 30) miles an hour to 10 Ibs., and at 60 miles an hour to 20 lbs. per
ton. It is therefore proportioned to the mass or weight of the train and to the ve-
locity jointly. Other resistances due to velocity or third element :—

R, =Bmyv, iti opibeis 2 clley!
where 4 Ib., m the weight of the train in tons, and v its velocity in miles an hour,
Whence the total resistance (R) to any train of any weight moving with any velocity
is to be obtained from the formula

R=R,4+R,+R°=Apv?+Bmv+Cm .... « [4]
‘The results of this formula are shown in the last column of the table; and from the
close manner in which they follow the experiments through their various and ap-
parently anomalous results, they may be regarded as an approximation to the truth
sufficiently close for all practical purposes. The next question discussed was the
nature of this third element—resistance. The author attributed it mainly to the con-
cussions, oscillations, frictions and flexures to which all the portions both of the train
and permanent way are subject, at high velocity.

_—_

Modification of Dr. Whewell’s Anemometer for measuring the velocity of the
Wind. By the Rev. T. R. Rozrnson, D.D., MRLA.

The author explained briefly to the Section the nature of the various anemometers
which have hitherto been used. Most of them measure the pressure of the wind, and

118 REPORT—1846.

Osler has contrived an arrangement by which this is registered in connexion with the
time and the direction. Meteorologists however are chiefly interested about the ve-
locity, or rather the actual space traversed by atmospheric currents. The velocity at
any instant can be computed from the observed pressure ; but the mean velocity for a
given period cannot easily be derived from the mean pressure. But Whewell’s in-
strument gives the desired result immediately, recording the space itself. As con-
structed by him, however, it is liable to errors, which Mr. Snow Harris pointed out at
the Plymouth meeting ; at the same time producing a series of observations which
seemed so important to Dr. Robinson, that he endeavoured to contrive a machine which
should perform the same office more precisely, and whose indications should have an
invariable value. He was enabled to do this by the application of a fact which he
learned from the late Richard Lovell Edgeworth, Esq.: if hemispherical cups be car-
ried by horizontal arms attached to a vertical axis, with their diametral planes verti-
cal, they constitute an effective windmill, which Dr. Robinson has found revolves with
one-third of the wind's velocity. ‘To the bottom of the axis is attached wheelwork ac-
tuating a revolving disc, which rotates through a degree for every mile traversed by
the wind. A pencil moved in the direction of the radius by clockwork, at the rate of
half an inch pet hour, traces on paper fixed on this disc the curve of space and time.
A similar-dise connected with a powerful vane records the curve of direction and time ;
as however such vanes (especially in high winds) are in perpetual oscillation, there
is attached to it a regulator consisting of a small water-wheel revolving in a cistern,
with a speed five times that of the vane. This of course obeys any slow change of
direction without difficulty, but presents so great a resistance to any rapid shift, that
the eddies are past before it yields. This, though not absolutely, yet in a great mea-
sure, steadies the vane. The machine erected at the Armagh Observatory acts in a
very satisfactory manner, moving when no air of wind can be felt, yet acting with
perfect steadiness in severe gales, during one of which Lind’s gauge showed a pressure
of 23 inches of water. He then explained how the daily results were to be summed
up by resolving them according to axes of coordinates directed to the north and east,
and illustrated the method by exhibiting the process for the first six months of the
current year.

On the Sailing Powers of two Yachts, built on the Wave Principle.
By J. Purers, M.D.

The first was built for Dr. Corrigan, of Dublin, in 1844; a small open boat 24
feet by 6, of 33 tons, which did so well that she was able to beat everything near her
own size, and to sail with those which exceed it in some instances as far as four
times. She was dry in seas where they were wet, was very stiff, sure in stays, and
steered well at all times. The secondis a yacht of 45 tons, O.M., for Samuel Hodder,
Esq., of Ringabella; built from the drawing by Mr. Peasley, of Passage West, in
Cork. She appears to have the following qualities: a first-rate performance, at-
tained without sacrifice of any good quality, large accommodation, and high stability.
She is weatherly, steady and easy, dry in the worst weather, and pitches and ascends
less than any vessel I was ever in, She turns so sharply that no 10-ton yacht
can do it quicker, and steers so well, scudding in a gale of wind, that notwithstand-
ing an unbalanced state, from an injudicious shift of mast, she neither broaches to
nor is compelled to lay to, which a companion of larger size (60 tons), and of tried
sea qualities, was forced to do, and, in consequence, arrived from Cork to Dublin 14
hours after the Wave-built yacht. In arace at Kingstown for the Railway Cup of
100 guineas, in which she was matched against the best boats of the three countries,
in a time race, including one fine yacht of 100 tons, she won—and did the course
exactly in 4h. 22m, 58 s.—it being 46 nautic miles. Making no allowance for tack-
ing or starting from absolute rest, the rate of this is 10} knots per hour. This is a
great result for a principle yet in its infancy. The same vessel left Holyhead in a gale
of wind, with storm-sails, main-sail stowed, and everything made snug ; with a reefed
try-sail, a double-reefed fore-sail, and third jib. She lay in one stretch to the Irish
coast, where she tacked to the southward, beating down to the Arklow light in 1]
hours. Six persons on board, being separately questioned, agreed that the time from
Holyhead to the Irish coast was 43 hours. Making every reasonable allowance, less
than 50 nautic miles could not have been done; and this gives a velocity of 11 nautic

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. : 113

miles per hour, —an unrecorded speed forships of any size, clesehauled, but surprising
for a vessel of 45 tons, and in a very rough sea. It was, in fact, remarked on board,
that, as the wind freshened, her pace increased without limit. This agrees with the
fact stated by Capt. Fishbourne of the Flambeau steamer, on wave lines, that she
had a speed greatest in the worst weather, as compared with her rival. It is perhaps
possible to improve sailing vessels greatly, as compared with steamers. When so
improved, they might be used where sailing vessels nearly compete with steamers at
present. This may be further helped by the diminution of insurance and of the pre-
sent unnecessary waste of human life.

Mr. Bodmer communicated the result of experiments on long and short stroked
steam-engines.

Mr. Clarke exhibited the model of a new atmospheric tube, in which the sides
are elastic enough to close the slit and form a self-acting valve.

Dr. Bevan exhibited his mode of applying atmospheric air to propulsion.

Mr. Eyton exhibited the model of a compact form of vertical steam-engine, which
possessed the advantage of a long connecting-rod. The plan was not quite original,
but he had applied it with advantage.

On Vulcanized Caoutchouc. By W. Brocxevon, F.R.S.

Mr. Brockedon stated that the discovery in this country was due to Mr. Hancock
of the firm of C. Macintosh and Co., Manchester, and that he made it whilst experi-
menting to fuse caoutchouc and sulphur together. He found that though the sul-
phur was at 300°, the rubber, which alone would have melted at about 220° and
absorbed the sulphur, was thus protected from melting. A chemical union of a cer-
tain portion of the sulphur with the caoutchouc took place; and it was found that
this process might be carried far enough to carbonize the caoutchouc to the condition
of horn, but fever to melt it. Mr. Hancock then united sulphur mechanically with
rubber ; and also dissolved sulphur in the solvents of caoutchouc; and heating these
materials so prepared to the necessary degree, found that the change was effected
called vulcanized. The new properties which rubber thus acquires are most import-
ant in the hands of mechanical engineers, from the increased and permanent elasticity
of the vulcanized rubber; it is being brought into extensive application and use for
railways, lying between the rail or the chair and the sleeper; for the drag and buffer
springs and side springs of railway carriages, waggons and trucks ; for washers for
steam, gas, and water-pipes, being permanently elastic at low temperatures as well
as at very high; even for steam pipes at 50 and 60 lbs. to the inch, they have formed
a perfect joint. A Nasmyth steam-hammer of 5 tons weight has fallen 18 inches on
a piece 3 an inch thick and 2 inches square without any injury to the form of the
rubber. A cannon-ball resting on a piece of vulcanized rubber | inch thick has been
crushed and broken without leaving, except upon close examination, any trace of its
effects on the rubber, when a hole like a leech-bite might be found which had closed
after the blow. The layer of corrugated rubber, which had been placed between the
rail and the sleeper, after two years’ service on the Great Western Line, betrayed no
trace of injury or effect of pressure.

Upon this new material the solvents of common rubber have no longer the action
of solvents; the rubber slowly absorbs them but is not dissolved by them, and when
the essential oils are evaporated the vulcanized rubber regains all its strength and
elasticity. Its elasticity is permanent and invariable ; no cold of our climate has any
power to harden it, or the heat of any climate to injure it. These are properties which
cannot fail of bringing it extensively into use in the mechanical arts.

1846. I

:

114 REPORT—1846.

On a Machine for registering the Velocity of Railway Trains.
By M. Ricarpo.

The object of it is to furnish the railway companies with a record of the work done
by each train, and the measure in which it has been done. By this means they would
be often enabled, in case of any accident, to assign correctly the nature and cause of
the accident; and so prevent its recurrence. He also showed the work of a machine
for registering the resistance of trains.

On the Comparative Value of the different kinds of Gas Meters now in use.
By J. Suarp.

ETHNOLOGY.
Notice on the Aborigines of Newfoundland. By J. Berts Juxrs, M.A., F.G.S.

In this paper the author stated that, from all the information he procured in New-
foundland in the years 1839 and 1840, he believed the aborigines of that country to
be a branch of the Red Indians of North America, and that they had no affinity with
the Esquimaux; that they were acquainted with the Esquimaux, and despised them
for their dirty habits; that they were on friendly terms with the mountaineers of
Labrador, whom they called Shaunamunc; and that about twenty years ago the last
remnant of the Beeothics, or Aborigines of Newfoundland, were probably received by
the mountaineers and incorporated into their tribes.

Notes on the three Races of Men inhabiting the Islands of the Indian and Pacific
Oceans. By J. Beers Juxes, M.A., F.G.S.

In this paper the author stated his belief, derived from personal observation, that
in the islands included between the eastern coast of Africa and the western coast of
America, there were at least three races of men:—1st. ‘Lhe Malayo-Polynesian race,
2nd. The Papuan race. 3rd, The Australian race.

He believed that these three races would be found to differ one from the other,
physically, morally and intellectually, He then detailed some of these differences,
and showed that whichever class of characters were taken, the differences between
the races became equally strongly marked. As a good external physical mark, the
hair might be taken; when the first race might be called the straight-haired; the
second, the frizzle-haired; and the third, the curly-haired. The author entered some-
what at length into a comparison of the manners and customs of the two latter races,
as they had hitherto often been confounded together, and showed that there was as
strongly marked a distinction, whether the structure and aspect of the body, the dis-
position or powers of the mind, or the habits and customs, arts, implements, and weapons
of the people were taken as the standard of comparison, hetween the second race and
the third as between the second and the first. He stated that the third race, or
Australian, was strictly confined to the continent of Australia, and the islands im-
mediately adjacent to its shores. He described the second, or Papua race, as stretching
from Mangeray or Flores, through Timor, New Guinea, and the adjacent islands,
the Louisiade, the Solomon Archipelago, the New Hebrides, and New Caledonia, to
the Fejee Islands. Some outlying tribes of this race might be found, perhaps, in
islands to the west of Flores, and the inhabitants of the Andamans apparently be-
longed to them ; and even some of the hill tribes of the interior of India seemed to re-
semblethem. On the south-eastagain they seemed to have reached Van Diemen’s Land,
and mingled there with the Australian race. The first race, or the Malayo-Polynesian,
‘occupied all the other islands, namely, Madagascar, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes,
the Philippines, Carolines, Friendly Islands, New Zealand, and all the other islands
to the eastward over the whole Pacific Ocean. The principal object of the paper

2 aa

OSS

Oe con

a =

ee

eae:

—

ewe bey

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 115

was stated to be the separation of the Australian race from the Papuan ; the dif
ferences between them being quite as strongly marked as between the Papuan and
the Malayo-Polynesian.

——s:

On a Vocabulary of the Bethuck Indians of Newfoundland.
- By R.G. Latruam, M.D.

The evidence of language is in favour of the ethnographical affinities of the native

_ Indians of Newfoundland being with the Red Indian rather than the Esquimaux tribes.

On the Nekrasowzers of Bessarabia. By W. Twrnine, MD.

A small Cossack race, which chiefly supports itself by fishing, and after having
been engaged in hostility with all its neighbours, settled in Russia in 1830.

On the Natives of Timor and Macassar. By Mrs. Suorv.

The former are of dark complexions, of five feet six inches in height, and well-
proportioned. They are inclined to gambling, slaving, and drinking; they are in-
genious artificers and careful of the dead. They worship the devil, and are very
superstitious. Their dress is picturesque. The people of Macassar are superior
physically to the natives of Timor; their deportment is bold and independent, and
eye beautifully fierce. Great attention is paid by the females to the dressing of their
hair. They indulge in cock-fighting ; but ave industrious and take great pride in the
neatness of their houses and gardens. The tribe of the people of Macassar de-
signated Bugis, are a very commanding people, and ornament themselves with valuable
jewellery. They are very susceptible of insult and revengeful.

On the present state of Ethnological Philology. By R.G. Latuam, M.D.

ees

On certain Races of Siberia. By Professor Von MippENporFrF.

1. Ostiacks.—The most eastern branch of the Finnic stock. Between the Finns
and Mongols, as spread over continuous areas, the Yenisey is the boundary. East,
however, of the Yenisey, on the Kureika River, is found a small detached Ostiack
horde. A nomade tribe, still more to the east, although called Ostiack, is probably
Samoeide.

2. Samoeides.—According to physical conformation, the Samoeides are Mongol.
Two Samoeide languages, each falling into various dialects, are spoken on the Lower
Yenisey. The Samoeides of the White Sea are the type of the race. The Yuracks,
or Samoeides, on the west of the Yenisey, have a Finnic character. The Chatanga
River forms the eastern boundary on the Samoeides. .

3. Tungusians.—Three or four main dialects. ‘Three varieties of physical con-

formation.

4. Yakuts.—The antagonism between the evidence of language and the evi-
dence of physical conformation is here even stronger than in the case of the
Samoeides; the language being Turk, the physiognomy Mongol. ‘The Yakuts are
pre-eminent examples of the extent to which the habits and constitution accommo.
date themselves to change of locality and climate. Originally inhabitants of the
Central Asiatic Steppes, destitute of trees, their second habitation was the region
of woods, and their third the borders of the Polar sea. Their first domestic animal was
the horse, their second the rein-deer, and their third the dog. The Dolganen are an
outlying tribe of Yakuts, hitherto undescribed, on the Yenisey.

5. Yukagirs.—Only two individuals seen ; their physical characters those of the
Yuracks.

6. Ainos.—Locality, the left bank of the mouth of the Amur; name, Gilacken ;
physiognomy, Caucasian, sometimes Japanese. The two characters occasionally found
even in the same family.

7. Kachkhall.—On the south bank of the Amur. Known only from the descrip-

12

116 REPORT—1846.

tions of the Ainos. Stature, short; the lower extremities being disproportionately so.
The further investigation of these tribes is important ; inasmuch as they may represent
the Samoeide varieties of the Icy Sea, in a more southern and eastern locality.

On the Ethnographical Distribution of Round and Elongated Crania.
By Professor Rerzius.

The development of the occipital bone determines that character of the cranium
which may be called Dolichocephalic.

The oy i of the parietal bones determines that character of the cranium
which may be called Brachycephalic.

The Celtic nations are pre-eminently dolichocephalic, the Finnish brachycephalic.

Furthermore, nations with a perpendicular profile are orthognathic ; nations with
a retiring profile are prognathic. Of the former, the Greeks, Romans, Germans, &c.
are the type; of the latter, the Negro.

Hence the classification inte—

European.
1. Gentes dolichocephale orthognathe—The Scandinavians, Germans, Gaels, &c.
2. Gentes brachycephale orthognathe—Laps, Finns, Slaves, Turks, &c.
. AsIATIC.

1. Gentes dolichocephale orthognathe—Hindoos, Georgians, Arabians, &c.

2. Gentes brachycephale orthognathe—Samoeides, Yakuts, Buriats, &c.

3. Gentes dolichocephale prognathe—Chinese, Japanese.

4. Gentes brachycephale prognathe—Calmucks, Tartars (’), Malays, &e.

PoLyNESIAN.

1. Gentes brachycephale orthognathe—The Tagals of the Manillas.

2. Gentes dolichocephale prognathe—Australians, New Zealanders, &c.

3. Gentes brachycephale prognathe—Tahitians, Malays, Papuans,

AFRICAN.
1. Gentes dolichocephale orthognathe—Guanches, Berbers, Nubians, Abyssinians ;

transitional to the g. prognathe.
2. Gentes dolichocephale prognathe—Copts, Caffres, Hottentots, Negroes in general.

AMERICAN.

1. Gentes dolichocephale prognathe—Eskimos, Colooches, Cherokees, Iroquois,
Hurons, Chiccasaws, Cayugas, Algonkins,—Botocudos, Caribbs, Guaranis, Aymaras,
Patagonians.

2. Gentes brachycephale prognathe—Natchez, Creeks, Uchees, Clatsops, loways—
Charruas, Puelches, Araucanians, Modern Peruvians.
3. Gentes brachycephale orthognathe—Atzecks (?), Incas of Peru (?)

On the Comanche Indians. By W. Botuarrt.

These the author stated to be a Texian tribe of native Indians, who were divided
into three divisions:—1. The Comanche or Jetan. 2. The Lemparack. 3. The
Tenuha. ‘hey constituted the largest native tribe in Texas; they possessed few
traditions, and were unacquainted with agriculture ; consequently their habits were
migratory. During war, they acknowledged one chief; they had an idea of a future
state, but of a very gross nature, believing in the existence of evil spirits and witch-
craft. The author, in conclusion, gave some remarks on their mode of conducting
war, and on their treaties.

On the Indian Tribes of Texas. By W. Bo.iarErt.

This consisted of an enumeration of the distinct tribes which were now, or had been
known in Texas. They formed a catalogue of thirty-five tribes. Some of these were
derived from the Comanches—others were either wholly or nearly extinct. The
manners of a few of the most considerable were alluded to.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 117

On a Comanche Vocabulary. By R.G. Laruam, M.D.

From the evidence of two scanty vocabularies, the Comanche language appears to
be closely allied to that of the Shoshonie or Snake Indians.

On the Origin of the Modern Greeks. By G. Finuay.

On the Tasmanians. By H.B. Daviss.

On the Africans of the neighbourhood of Bonny. By Capt. Brian.

On the Inhabitants of Prince’s Island. By the Rev. J. FREEMAN.

On the Inhabitants of Port Essington. By Mrs. Suort.

On the Delta and Alluvial Deposits of the Mississippi, and other points in the
Geology of North America, observed in the years 1845-46. By CHARLEs
Lye.., W.A., F.R.S. and V.P.G.S.

(A Discourse delivered at the Evening Meeting, Monday, Sept. 14, 1846.)

The delta of the Mississippi may be defined as that part of the great alluvial plain
which lies below or to the south of the branching off of the highest arm of the river
called the Atchafalaya. This delta is about 14,000 square miles in area, and ele-
vated from a few inches to ten feet above the level of the sea. The greater part of
it protrudes into the Gulf of Mexico beyond the general coast-line. The level plain
to the north, as far as Cape Girardeau in the Missouri, above the junction of the
Ohio, is of the same character, including, according to Mr. Forshey, an area of about
16,000 square miles, and is therefore larger than the delta. It is very variable in
width from east to west, being near its northern extremity, or at the mouth of the
Ohio, 50 miles wide, at Memphis 30, at the mouth of the White River 80, and con-
tracting again further south, at Grand Gulf, to 33 miles. The delta and alluvial plain
rise by so gradual a slope from the sea as to attain at the junction of the Ohio (a
distance of 800 miles by the river).an elevation of only 200 feet above the Gulf of
Mexico.

Mr. Lyell first described the low mud-banks covered with reeds at the mouths of
the Mississippi and the pilot-station called the Balize; then passed to the quantity
of drift-wood choking up the bayons or channels intersecting the banks ; and, lastly,
enlarged on the long, narrow promontory formed by the great river and its banks
between New Orleans and the Balize. The advance of this singular tongue of land
has been generally supposed to have been very rapid; but Mr. Lyell, and Dr. Car-

_ penter who accompanied him, arrived at an opposite conclusion. After comparing

the present state of this region with the map published by Charlevoix 120 years ago,
they doubt whether the land has on the whole gained more than a mile in the course
of a century.

A large excavation eighteen feet deep, made for the gas-works at New Orleans, and
still in progress in March 1846, shows that much of the soil there consists of fine
clay or mud, containing innumerable stools of trees, buried at various levels in an
erect position, with their roots attached, implying the former existence there of fresh-
water swamps covered with trees, over which the sediment of the Mississippi was
spread during inundations, so as slowly to raise the level of the ground. As the site
_ of the excavation is now about nine feet above the sea, the lowest of these upright
trees imply that the region where they grew has sunk down about nine feet below the
sea-level. The exposure also in the vertical banks of the Mississippi at low water, for

118 REPORT—1846.

hundreds of miles above the head of the delta, of the stumps of trees buried with
their roots in their natural position, three tiers being occasionally seen one above the
other, shows that the river in its wanderings has opened a channel through ancient
morasses, where trees once grew, and where alluvial matter gradually accumulated.
The old deserted bed also of the river, with its banks raised fifteen feet above the
adjoining low ground, bears testimony to the frequent shifting of the place of the
main stream, and the like inference may be drawn from the occurrence here and
there of crescent-shaped lakes, each many miles in length, and half a mile or more
in breadth, which have once constituted great curves or bends of the river, but are
now often far distant from it.

The Mississippi, by the constant undermining of its banks, checks the rise of large
commercial towns on its borders, and causes a singular contrast between the wealth
and splendour of 800 or more fine steamers, some of which may truly be called
floating palaces, and the flat monotonous wilderness of uncleared land which ex-
tends for hundreds of miles on both sides of the great navigable stream.

Mr. Lyell visited, in March 1846, the region shaken for three months, in 1811-12,
by the earthquake of New Madrid. One portion of it, situated in the States of Mis-
souri and Arkansas, is now called ‘‘the sunk country.”’ It extends about seventy
miles north and south, and thirty east and west, and is for the most part submerged.
Many dead trees are still standing erect in the swamps; a far greater number lie
prostrate. Even on the dry ground in the vicinity, all the forest trees which are of
prior date to 1811 are leafless ; they are supposed to have been killed by the loosening
of their roots by the repeated shocks of 1811-12. Numerous rents are also observa-
ble in the ground where it opened in 1811, and many sink-holes or cavities, from ten
to thirty yards wide and twenty feet or more in depth, now interrupt the general level
of the plain, which were formed by the spouting out of large quantities of sand and
mud during the earthquake.

In attempting to compute the minimum of time required for the accumulation of
the alluvial matter in the delta and valley of the Mississippi, Mr. Lyell referred to a
series of experiments made by Dr. Riddell at New Orleans, showing that the mean
annual proportion of sediment in the river was to the water 775 in weight, or about
dso in volume. From the observations of the same gentleman and those of Dr.
Carpenter, and of Mr. Forshey, an eminent engineer of Louisiana, the average width,
depth and velocity of the Mississippi, and thence the mean annual discharge of water
are deduced.

In assuming 528 feet (or the tenth of a mile) as the probable thickness of the de-
posit of mud and sand in the delta, Mr. Lyell founds his conjecture on the depth of
the Gulf of Mexico, between the southern point of Florida and the Balize, which
equals on an average 100 fathoms. The area of the delta being about 14,000 square
statute miles, and the quantity of solid matter annually brought down by the river
3,702,758,400 cubic feet, it must have taken 67,000 years for the formation of the
whole; and if the alluvial matter of the plain above be 264 feet deep, or half that of
the delta, it has required 33,500 more years for its accumulation, even if its area be
estimated as only equal to that of the delta, whereas it is in fact larger. If some
deduction be made from the time here stated, in consequence of the effect of drift-
wood, which must have aided in filling up more rapidly the space above alluded to,

a far more important allowance must be made on the other hand for the loss of mat-
~ ter owing to the finer particles of mud not settling at the mouth of the river, but being
swept out far to sea, and even conveyed into the Atlantic by the gulf-stream. Yet
the whole period during which the Mississippi has transported its earthy burthen
to the ocean, though perhaps far exceeding 100,000 years, must be insignificant in a
geological point of view, since the bluffs or cliffs bounding the great valley (and there-
fore older in date), and which are from 50 to 250 feet in perpendicular height, con-
sist in great part of loam, containing land, fluviatile and lacustrine shells of species
still inhabiting the same country, These fossil shells, occurring in a deposit re-
sembling the loess of the Rhine, are associated with the bones of the mastodon, ele-
phant, tapir, mylodon, and other megatheroid animals; also a species of horse, ox,
and other mammalia, most of them of extinct species. The Joam rests at Vicksburg
and other places on eocene or lower tertiary strata, which in their turn repose on
cretaceous rocks. <A section from Vicksburg to Darier, through the States of Mis-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 119

sissippi, Alabama and Georgia, exhibits this superposition as well as that of the cre-
taceous strata on carboniferous rocks at Tuscaloosa. Mr. Lyell ascertained that the
huge fossil cetacean, named Zeuglodon by Owen, is confined to the eocene deposits.
In the cretaceous strata the remains of the mosasaurus and other reptiles occur
without any cetacea. The coal-fields of Alabama were next alluded to, from which
fossil plants have been procured by Professor Brumby and Mr. Lyell, of the genera
Sphenopteris, Neuropteris, Calamites, Lepidodendron, Sigillaria, Stigmaria and
others, most of them identical in species, as determined by Mr. Charles Bunbury, with
fossils of Northumberland. This fact is the more worthy of notice, because the
coal of Tuscaloosa, situated in latitude 33° 10’ north, is further south than any region
in which this ancient fossil flora had previously been studied, whether in Europe or
North America; and it affords therefore a new proof of the wide extension of a uni-
form flora in the carboniferous epoch. Mr. Lyell, adverting to the opinion recently
adopted by several able botanists, that the climate of the coal period was remarka-
ble for its moisture, equability and freedom from cold, rather than the intensity of
its tropical heat, stated that this conclusion, as well as the oscillations of tempera-
ture implied by the glacial period, is confirmatory of the theory first advanced by
him in 1830, to explain the ancient geological changes of climate by geographical re-
volutions in the position of land and sea.

The lapse of ages implied by the distinctness of the fossils of the eocene, creta-
ceous, carboniferous and other strata, is such, that were we to endeavour to give an
idea of it, we must estimate its duration, not by years, as in the case of the delta,
but by such units as would be constituted by the interval between the beginning of
the delta and our own times.

« Tt is now fifty years,” said Mr. Lyell, “since Playfair, after studying the rocks
in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, in company with Dr. Hutton and Sir James
Hall, was so struck with the evidence they afforded of the immensity of past time,
that he observed ‘how much farther reason may go than imagination can venture
to follow.’ These views were common to the most illustrious of his contemporaries,
and since that time have been adopted by all geologists, whether their minds have
been formed by the literature of France or of Germany, of Italy or Scandinavia, or
of England; all have arrived at the same conclusion respecting the great antiquity
of the globe, and that too in opposition to their earlier prepossessions, and to the
popular belief of their age. It must be confessed, that while this unanimity is. satis-
factory as a remarkable test of truth, it is somewhat melancholy to reflect that at the
end of half a century, when so many millions have passed through our schools and
colleges since Playfair wrote that eloquent passage, there is still so great a discord-
ance between the opinions of scientific men and the great mass of the community.
Had there been annual gatherings such as this, where they who are entitled to speak
with authority address themselves to a numerous assembly drawn from the higher
classes of society, who, by their cultivation and influence, must direct the education
and form the opinions of the many of humbler station, it is impossible that so un-
_ desirable and unsound a state of things should have now prevailed, as that there
should be one creed for the philosopher and another for the multitude. Had there
been meetings like this, even for a quarter of a century, we should already have
gained for geology the same victory that has been so triumphantly won by the astro-
nomer. The earth’s antiquity, together with the history of successive races of orga-
nic beings, would have been ere this as cheerfully and universally acknowledged as
the earth’s motion, or the number, magnitude and relative distances of the heavenly
bodies. I am sure it would be superfluous if I were to declare, in an assembly like
this, my deep conviction, which all of you share, that the further we extend our re«
searches into the wonders of creation in time and space, the more do we exalt, refine
and elevate our conceptions of the Divine Artificer of the universe.”

Mr. Lyell concluded this discourse by announcing his corroboration of the dis-
covery recently made by Dr. King at Greensburg, thirty miles from Pittsburg in
Pennsylvania, of the occurrence of fossil foot-prints of a large reptilian in the mid-
dle of the ancient coal measures. They project in relief from the lower surface of
slabs of sandstone, and are also found impressed on the subjacent layers of fine
unctuous clay. This is the first well-established example of a vertebrated animal,
_ more highly organized than fishes, being met with in a stratum of such high an-
_ tiquity.

INDEX I.

TO

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

OBJECTS and rules of the Association, v.

Places and times of meeting, with Presidents,
Vice-Presidents, and Local Secretaries from
commencement, viii.

Council from commencement, x.

Treasurer’s account, Xii.

Officers and council, 1846-7, xiv.

Officers of Sectional Committees, xv.

Corresponding members, xvi.

Report of the council to the general com-
mittee, xvi.

Recommendations adopted by the general
committee, involving applications to go-
vernment and public institutions, xix.

Recommendations for reports and researches
not involving grants of money, xix.

Recommendations of special researches in
science, involving grants of money, xx.

Synopsis of grants of money appropriated to
scientific objects, xxi.

General statement of sums which have been
paid on account of grants for scientific

_ purposes, xxii.

Extracts from resolutions of the general com-
mittee, xxvi.

Arrangement of general evening meetings,
XXvi.

Address by Sir Roderick Impey Murchison,

Actinograph, on the, 31.

Algebraical transcendents, 43.

America, quantity and value of iron, wrought
and unwrought, exported to the United
States of, from 1831 to 1844, 118.

Analysis, on the recent progress of, 34.

Anemometer, on Wheweil’s, 341.

—, on Osler’s, 343.

Anemometry, 340.

Archetype of the vertebrate skeleton, on the,
169.

Atmosphere, mechanical effects of the move-
ment of the, 340.

—, molecular effects of the movement of
the, 346.

Atmospheric waves, on, 119.

Barometer, examination of Mr. Brown’s paper
on the oscillations of the, by W. R. Birt,
132.

1846.

a Ag fall of the, Nov. 8 and 9, 1842,

Barometric observations, discussion of Mr.
Brown’s, 140.

Birt (W. R.), third report on atmospheric
waves, 119; addenda, 272.

—— on Mr. Brown’s paper on the oscilla-
tions of the barometer, 132.

—— discussion of Mr. Brown’s barometric
observations, 140.

Blake (J.) on the physiological action of me-
dicines, 27.

Bones, cranial and facial, on the arrange-
ment of the two primary classes of, 324.
Brown (W.) on his paper on the oscillations

of the barometer, by W. R. Birt, 132.
—— discussion of his barometric observa-
tions, 140.

Clyde, iron vessels being built in the, during
the spring of 1846, 117.

Constants, on the calculation of the Gaussian,
for 1829, 92.

Crocodile, on the arrangement of the skull
bones of the, 283.

Daubeny (Prof.) sixth report on the vitality
of seeds, 20.

Ellis (R. L.) on the recent progress of ana-
lysis (theory of the comparison of tran-
scendentals), 34.

England and Wales, manufacture of pig-iron
in, 1788, 114.

Erman (A.) on the calculation of the Gauss-
ian constants for 1829, 92.

Forchhammer (Prof.) on comparative ana-
lytical researches on sea-water, 90.

France, quantity and value of iron exported
to, from 1831 to 1844, 118.

Gaussian constants, on the calculation of the,
for 1829, 92.

Great Britain, on the progress, presentamount,
and probable future condition of the iron
manufacture in, 99.

—., manufacture of iron in 1796, 114.

——, production of iron in 1806, 1823, 1830,
115; in 1840, 116.

K

122

Great Britain, quantity of iron made in, in
1839, 116.

‘Head, synonyms of the bones of the, accord-
ing to their general homologies. See Table
Ill.

Henslow (Prof.), sixth report on the vitality
of seeds, 20.

Homology, special, 169.

, general, 240.

, serial, 332.

Hunt (Robert) on the actinograph, 31.

on the influence of light on the growth
of plants, 33.

Hydrodynamics, recent researches in, 1.

Jron manufacture in Great Britain, on the
progress, present amount, and probable
future condition of the, 99.

, manufacture of pig, in England and

Wales, in 1788, 114.

in Great Britain in 1796, nianufacture
of, 114.

—— —— 1806, 1523 and 1830, production
of, 115.

116.

—— —— in 1840, production of, 116.

—— in 1843 compared with 1840, make of,
118.

—, British, quantities of, exported, de-
clared value of same, and average value
of each ton exported from 1827 to 1845,
117.

»—, quantity and value of wrought and un-
wrought, exported to the U.S. of America
from 1831 to. 1844, 118.

>», exported to France from 1831 to 1844,
118.

++—, estiniated quantity of, required for the
construction and putting into operation
each mile of railway, 119.

in 1839, quantity of made in,

Jessop (William), production of iron in Great
Britain in 1840, as ascertained by, 116.

Light on the growth of plants, influence of,
33.

Lindley (Prof.) sixth report on the vitality of
seeds, 20.

Madder, on the colouring matters of, 24.

Man, on the bones of the skull of, 300.

Mastoid, on the, 197.

Medicines, on the physiological action of, 27.

Mushet (David), quantity of iron made in
Great Britain in 1839, as stated by, 116.

Orbitosphenoid, on the, 211.

Osler’s anemometer, on, 343.

Owen (Prof.) on the archetype and homolo-
gies of the vertebrate skeleton, 169; table
of synonyms of the bones of the head ‘of
vertebrata, according to their special ho-=
mologies ; of the elements of the typical
vertebrata; of the bones of the head, ac-

INDEX I.

cording to their general homologies. See

Tables I. I. and III.

Pachyderm, on the skull bones of a young,
297.

Percy (Dr. John) on the crystalline slags,
351.

Phillips (John) on anemometry, 340.

Plants, influence of light on the growth of, 33.

Porter (G. R.) on the progress, present
amount, and probable future condition of
the iron manufacture in Great Britain, 99.

Railway, estimated quantity of iron required
for the constructing and putting into ope-
ration each mile of, 119.

Schunck (Dr.) on the colouring matters of
madder, 24.

Sea-water, comparative analytical researches
on, 90.

Seeds, on the vitality of, 203; table of expe-
riments, 21.

Skeleton, on the archetype and homologies
of the vertebrate, 169.

Skull of the vertebrate series, on the con
formity of structure of the, 176.

Skull-bones, classification of, 307.

Slags, on the crystalline, 351.

Steam-vessels, iron, being built. in the Clyde
during the spring of 1846, 117.

Stokes (G. G.) on recent researches in hydro-
dynamics, 1.

Strickland (H. E.) sixth report on the vitality
of seeds, 20.

Tides, theory of river and ocean, 9.
Transcendents, on algebraical, 43.

Vertebra, synonyms of, the elements of the
typical. See Tadle II.

Vertebre, development of, 254. a

, general characters of the, of the trunk,

257.

, summary of modifications of corporal,
264.

— of the skull, 274.

—, objections to the cranial, considered,
309.

Vertebrata, synonyms of the bones of the
head of, according to their special homo-
logies, 176, and see Table Il. ,

Vertebrate skeleton, on the archetype and
homologies of the, 169.

Water, comparative analytical researches on
sea, 90.

Waves, theory of long, 4.

, oscillatory, 5.

, solitary, 8.

——,, atmospheric, 119. iy

——, recurrence of symmetrical, 121:

——., stations at which observations of the,
were made, 122, :

—+4, comparison of observations made at
Cambridge Heath from Oct. 1 to Noy. 21,

INDEX II.

- 1845, with those made at Leicester Square
from Sept. 14 to Nov. 25, 1842, 123.
Waves, review of the great symmetrical baro-
metric, as observed at Dublin, during the
Novembers of 1829 to 1845 inclusive, 126.
——, comparison of contemporaneous obser-
. vations of the return of the great, Nov.
1845, 130.

123

Wave, definition and phenomena of an atmo-
spheric, 134.

——,, barometric differences arising from
anterior and posterior slopes of crest, No. 2,
146.

——, symmetrical commenced at London,
150.
Whewell’s anemometer, on, 341.

INDEX II.

TO

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE
SECTIONS.

ABESSINIA, on the physical character of
' the table-land of, 70.

Acalephz, on the quasi-osseous system of, 87.

‘ Acid, on the production of nitric, 38,

, on the nature of lampic, 40.

on the action of oxalic, upon the dead
tissues of the animal body, 41.

Aden, abstracts of meteorological observations
_ made at, in 1845, 26.

Africa, on geological phenomena in, 69.

, on the Shea Butter-tree growing in, 90.

Agassiz (M.) on the fishes of the London clay,

ec on the rationale of certain prac-
“tices employed in, 42.

sccm a the extent, causes and remedies of

' fungi destructive in, 44.

, Synopsis of a proposal respecting a
_ physico-geographical survey of the British
islands, particularly in relation to, 72.

Air, on applying atmospheric, to propulsion,
113.

Alder (Joshua) on some new and rare British
species of naked Mollusca, 83.

Alga, allied to Coleochzte scutata, on an un-
described, 89.

Alge of the Isle of Wight, on the, 83.

Alison (Dr.) on the medical relief to the pa-
ee BORE of Scotland under the old jnagr
law, 9

Allman (Prof.) on certain peculiarities in the
anatomy of Limax Sowerbii, 82.
on the structure of Cristatella mucedo,

88.

on an undescribed Alga allied to Coleo-
chete scutata, 89.

Alten, meteorological observations made at,
in 1844 and 1845, 12.

, observations on the Aurora Borealis,
during the year 1845, 12.

America, on some fossil mammalia of South,
65.

on the geology of North, 117.

American mineral nemalite, analysis of the,
39.

Analyses, on the use of stating with the results
of, the nature of the methods employed, 42.

Analysis, on the principle of continuity in re-
ference to certain results of, 1.

, on a gas furnace for organic, 49.

Andes, on new species of humming birds from
the, 79.

Anemometer, on a new, 12.

for measuring the velocity of the wind,
modification of Dr. Whewell’s, 111.

Animal body, on the action of oxalic acid upon
the dead tissues of the, 41.

Animals, on an important chemical law in the
nutrition of, 41.

Ansted (Prof.) on the coal of India, 63.

K2

124

Aquatice, 78.

Artesian wells, on Southampton common, on
the, 52.

, on the applicability of M. Fauvelle’s
mode of boring, to the well at Southampton,
and to other wells, 56.

Artesian springs, on a new method of boring
for, 105.

Ascidians, specimens of, discovered in the
links of the chain of the floating bridge at
Itchin, near Southampton, 83.

Atmospheric tube, on a new, 113.

recorder, on an, 17.

Aurora Borealis, observations on the, during
the year 1845, at Alten, 12.

at Huggate, on, 15.

Australia, on the geological structure of, 68.

Aves constrictipedes, 77.

inconstrictipedes, 78.

Azimuth compass, on a new portable, 25.

Bald (Robert) on the Mushet band, commonly
called the black-band ironstone of the coal-
field of Scotland, 62.

Banks (Dr.) on a new anemometer, 12.

Barometer, on a self-registering, 17.

, on the relations of the semi-diurnal
movementsof the, tolandandsea breezes, 25.

Beetle, on a specimen of a, found imbedded
in some artificial concrete, 82.

Beke (C. T.) on the physical character of the
table-land of Abessinia, 70.

Belfast, comparison of the periods of the
flowering of plants in the early spring of
1846, in the Botanic Garden of, and the
Jardin des Plantes at Paris, 90.

Belgium, on the mines and mining industry
of, 101.

Bell (Prof.) on the crustacea found by Prof.
E. Forbes and Mr. M°Andrew in their
cruises round the coast, 80.

Bennet (Dr. H.) on a peculiar form of ulce-
ration of the cervix uteri, 94.

Bessarabia, on the Nekrasowzers of, 115.

Bethuck Indians of Newfoundland, on a vo-
cabulary of the, 115.

Bevan (Dr.) on applying atmospheric air to
propulsion, 113.

Birds, synopsis of the classification of the ge-
nera of British, 76.

, new species of humming, from the

Andes, 79.

, on the figures of, observed on a tomb

at Memphis, 79.

, list of the names of periodical, and the
dates of their appearance and disappear-
ance at Llanrwst, 79.

Birt (W. R.) on atmospheric waves, 35.

Blackwall (John), list of the names of perio-
dical birds, and the dates of their appear-
ance and disappearance, at Llanrwst, 79.

Blake (James) on the connexion between the
isomorphous relations of the elements and
their physiological action, 40.

Blaps mortisaga found imbedded in some
artificial concrete, 82.

INDEX II.

Blood’s circulation through the liver, on the
cause of the, 93.

Bodies, on the deviation of falling, from the
perpendicular, 2.

Bodmer (Mr.) on long and short stroked
steam-engines, 113.

Bollaert (W.) on the Comanche Indians, 116.

on the Indian tribes of Texas, 117.

Bombay, meteorological observations taken
at Fort George Barracks, in July, August
and September, 1845, 26.

Bonny, the Africans of the neighbourhood
of, 117.

Bonomi (J.) on the figures of birds observed
on a tomb at Memphis, 79.

Boring for Artesian springs, on a new method
of, 105.

Botanists, directions for the guidance of, in
their excursion to the Isle of Wight, 86.

Botany, 74.

Bracklestone Bay, on the fossils of, 67.

Brewster (Sir David) on a new property of
light exhibited in the action of chrysammate
of potash upon common and polarized light,
7

Brian (Capt.) on the Africans of the neigh-
bourhood of Bonny, 117.

Bridge, tubular, proposed by Mr. Stephenson
for crossing the Menai Straits, on the, 108.

Brisbane (General Sir T. M.) results of the
magnetic observations made at his obser-
vatory, 32.

Bristol and Taunton, on railway sections made
on the line of the Great Western railway,
between, 59.

British islands, synopsis of a proposal respect-
ing a physico-geographical survey of the,
particularly in relation to agriculture,
72.

seas, on the pulmograde meduse of the,
84.

Brockedon (Mr.) on vulcanized caoutchouc,
113.

Brooke (C.) on the construction of a self-re-
gistering barometer, thermometer, and psy-
chrometer, 17.

Broun (J. A.) on some results of the magnetic
observations made at General Sir T. M.
Brisbane’s observatory, 32.

Buckland (Rev. W.) on the applicability of
M. Fauvelle’s mode of boring artesian wells
to the well at Southampton, and to other
wells, and to sinkings for coal, salt, and
other mineral beds, 56. ;

Buckman (James) on the discovery of a new
species of Hypanthocrinite in the upper Si-
lurian strata, 61.

on the age of the Silurian limestone of
Hay Head, near Barr Beacon, in Stafford-
shire, 61.

Bullar (Dr. Joseph) on the identity of certain
electro-magnetic laws, 29.

Butter-tree, on the Shea, growing in Africa, 90.

Calcium, on the extent to which fluoride of,
is soluble n water at, 60° F., 38.

INDEX II.

»Candle, extraordinary appearance in the flame

of a common mould, 49.
Caoutchouc, on vulcanized, 113.

Carpenter (Dr.) on the microscopic character
of shells, and on representing natural hi-
story objects by means of photography, 82.

on the structure of the Pycnogonidez,

82.

on the physiology of the Encephalon, 92.

Causation, magnetic, 33.

Cavendish’s experiment respecting the pro-
duction of nitric acid, Dr. Daubeny on, 38.

Cells, on the development of, 90.

Cervix uteri, on a peculiar form of ulceration
of the, 94.

Chemistry, 37.

, organic, on the application of the prin-
ciples of a natural system of, to the expla-
nation of the phenomena occurring in the
diseased potato tuber, 44.

Childers (Capt. W. W.) meteorological obser-
vations made at St. Helier, Jersey, in the
years 1843 to. 1846, 13.

Children, on the mortality of, 100.

Christiana, meteorological observations made
at, in 1845, 12,

Ciliogrades, on the embryogeny of, 87.

Clarke (B.) on the foliage and inflorescence of

. the genera Phyllanthus and Xylophylla,
91.

Clarke (Mr.) on increasing to larger dimen-
sions the model tubes for the proposed
Menai bridge, 109.

on a new atmospheric tube, 113.

| Clay, on the fishes of the London, 52.

Clouds, on measuring the height of, 15.
»Clupeade, on the natural and economic hi-
. story of:certain species of the, 79.

Coal-field of Scotland, on the black-band iron-

stone of the, 62.

‘Coal, on the applicability of M. Fauvelle’s
mode to sinkings for, 56.

of India, on the, 63.

of Silesia, on the origin of the, 50.

.—— on the annual consumption of, and the
probable duration of the coal-fields, 105.

Cole (J. F.) meteorological observations made

at Alten, in 1844 and 1845, 12.
observations on the Aurora Borealis
during the year 1845, at Alten, 12.

Coleochzte scutata, on an, undescribed Alga

«allied to, 89.

Compass, on a new portable azimuth, 25.

Connell (Prof.), analysis of the American

mineral nemalite, 39.

on the nature of lampic acid, 40.

Comanche Indians, on the, 116.

“—— vocabulary, on a, 117.

-Condenser, on a new multiplying, 31.

Continuity, on the principle of, in reference

to certain results of analysis, L.

_ Cooley (W. Desborough) on: a physico-geo-
graphical survey of the British islands, par-
ticularly in relation to agriculture, 72.

_ Corfu, on the natural history of, 84.

Cornwall, on the marine zoology of, 86.

125

Couch (J.) on the ege purse and embryo of a
species of Myliobatus, 80.

Coregoni, on the natural and economic history
of certain species of the, 79.

Crania of two species of crocodile from Sierra
Leone, on the, 79.

, on the ethnographical distribution of
round and elongated, 116.

Crime, statistics of, in England and Wales,
for the years 1842, 1843 and 1844, 102.
Criminal courts of India, statistics of the, 95.
and miscellaneous statistical returns of

the Manchester police for the year 1845, 98.

Cristatella mucedo, on the structure of, 88.

Crocodile from Sierra Leone, on the crania of
two species of, 79.

Crowe (J. R.) meteorological observations for
1845, made at Christiana, 12.

Crustacea found by Prof. E. Forbes and Mr,
M° Andrew in their cruises round the coast,
on the, 80.

Crystallography, 46.

Cucumber, on the true nature of the tendril
in the, 88.

Cullen (M. General) on the fall of rain on the
coast of Travancore and table-land of
Uttree, 22.

Cumberland, on the fall of rain in the lake
districts of, in 1845, 18.

Cypris, on the occurrence of, in a part of the
tertiary freshwater strata of the Isle of
Wight, 56.

Dale (Mr.) on elliptic polarization, 5.
Daubeny (Dr.) on Cavendish’s experiment re-
specting the production of nitric acid, 38.
on the rationale of certain practices em-

ployed in agriculture, 42.

» new facts bearing on the chemical
theory of volcanoes, 45.

Davies (H. B.) on the Tasmanians, 117.

Dent (E. J.) on a new portable azimuth com-
pass, 25.

Diarrheea, diagrams showing the mortality of,
concurrently with progressive increase of
temperature in London, 94.

Dispensaries of India, statistics of the govern-
ment, 96.

Dollond (G.) on an atmospheric recorder, 17.

Duncan (J.) on geological phenomena in
Africa, 69.

Duncan (J. F.) on the Shea butter-tree grow.
ing in Africa, 90.

Education in Glasgow in 1846, on the statis-
tics of, 101.

Edwards (Mr.) on the fossils of Bracklestone
Bay, Sussex, 67.

Egg-purse of a species of Myliobatus, on the,
80.

Electricity of tension in the voltaic battery, 47.

Electrization of needles in different media, on
the, 46,

Electrodes of a voltameter, on the influence
which finely divided platina exerts on the,
46. re

126

Electro-magnetic laws, on the identity of cer-
tain, 29.

Electro-magnetism, 27.

Electro-physiology, summary of researches
in, 28.

Elements, on the connexion between the iso-
morphous relations of the, and their phy-
siological action, 40.

Embryo of a species of Myliobatus, on the, 80.

Encephalon, on the physiology of the, 92.

England, on the cultivation of silk in, 87.

, on plate-glass making in 1846, con-

trasted with that in 1827, 101.

, Statistics of crime in, for the years 1842,
1843, 1844, 102,

Essington, on the inhabitants of port, 117.

Ethnological philology, on the present state
of, 115.

Eye-piece, on the arrangement of a solar, 9.

Eyton (Mr.) on a vertical steam-engine, 113.

Fairy-rings of pastures, on the, 43.

Falconer (Dr.} on the crania of two species of
crocodile from Sierra Leone, 79.

Fauna of Ireland, additions to the, 83.

Fauvelle (M.) on the applicability of his
mode of boring Artesian wells to the well at
Southampton, and to other wells, 56.

on a new method of boring for Artesian
springs, 105.

Finlay (G.) on the origin of the modern
Greeks, 117.

Fishes, on the, of the London clay, 52.

, on the application of Dr. Thibert’s me-
thod of modelling and colouring after nature
all kinds of fishes, 80.

Fitton (Dr.) on the arrangement and nomen-
clature of some of the subcretaceous strata,
58.

Flame of a common mould candle, extraordi-
nary appearance in the, 49.

Flora, on the geographical distribution of the,
of India, 74.

of Ireland, on additions to the, 90.

Forbes (Prof.) on the localities and geological
features of the Isle of Wight, 58.

on natural history, observations made

since last meeting bearing upon geology, 69.

, Prof. Bell on the crustacea found by, in

cruising round the coast, 80.

on the pulmograde medusz of the Bri-
tish seas, 84.

Forchhammer (Prof.) on sea water and the
effects of variation in its currents, 51.

Fort George Barracks, Bombay, meteorologi-
cal observations taken at, in 1845, 26.

Fossil mammalia of South America, on some,
65.

Fossils of Bracklestone Bay, Sussex, on the,
67.

Fowler (Dr.) on the relations of sensation to
the higher mental processes, 92.

Freeman (Rev. J.) on the inhabitants of
Prince’s island, 117.

Fungi, on the extent, causes and remedies of,
destructive in agriculture, 44.

INDEX Il,

Gases, on the decomposition of water into its
constituent, by heat, 48.

Gas furnace for organic analysis, on a, 49.

meters now in use, on the comparative
value of the different kinds of, 114.

Gassiot (John P.) on the electricity of tension
in the voltaic battery, 47.

Geneva, zoology of Lough Neagh compared
with that of the lake of, 84,

Geography, physical, 50.

Geological structure of Australia, on the, 68.

phenomena in Africa, on, 69.

Geology, 50.

, notices of natural history observations.

made since last meeting bearing upon, 69.

of N. America, on the, 117.

Georama, on the, 73.

Glasgow, on the statistics of education in, in
1846, 101.

Glass-making, plate, in England in 1846 con-
trasted with that in 1827, 101.

Goniometer, on a new, 46.

Géppert (Prof.) on the origin of the coal of
Silesia, 50.

Gould (John) on new species of humming
birds from the Andes, 79.

Grallatores, 78.

Granite, graphic, 69,

Great Western Railway, on sections made on
the line of the, between Bristol and Taun-
ton, 59.

, on three sections of the oolitic forma-
tions on the, at Sapperton tunnel, 61.

Greeks, on the origin of the modern, 117.

Greene (Dr. R.) on a portable equatorial
stand for telescopes without polar axis, 8.

Grewe (J. H.) observations on the Aurora
Borealis during the year 1845, at Alten, 12.

» Meteorological observations made at
Alten in 1844 and 1845, 12.

Grove (W. R.) on the decomposition of water
into its constituent gases by heat, 48.

Guerin (M.) on the Georama, 73.

Guy (Dr.) on the duration of life in the mem-
bers of the several professions, founded on
the obituary lists of the annual register, 99.

Haliday (A.H.), zoology of Lough Neagh,
compared with that of the lake of Geneva,
84,

Halo at Huggate, on a, 15.

Hancock (Albany) on some new and rare
British species of naked Mollusca, 83.

Hay ‘Head, on the age of the Silurian lime-
stone of, 61.

Heat, on the decomposition of water into its
constituent gases by, 48.

Henfrey (A.) on the development of cells, 90.

Herschel (Sir John, Bart.) letter to, from
Prof. Oersted, on the deviation of falling
bodies from the perpendicular, 2.

Heywood (James), Oxford University ‘statis-
tics, 99.

Hodgkinson (E.) on the tubular bridge pro-
posed by Mr. Stephenson for crossing the
Menai Straits, 108.

INDEX II.

- Hogan (W.) on the meatis ‘of obviating the
ravages of the potato disease, by raising
fully grown healthy potatoes from seed in
one season, 89.

Hogg (John), synopsis of the classification of
the genera of British birds, 76.

Hopkins (Thomas) on the relations of the
semi-diurnal movements of the barometer
to land and sea breezes, 25.

Hopkins (W.) on certain deviations of the
plumb-line from its mean direction, in the
neighbourhood of Shanklin Down, Isle of
Wight, 59.

Howard (H.) on plate glass-making in En-
gland in 1846, contrasted with that in 1827,
101.

Huggate, on a halo at, 15.

Hypanthocrinite, on ‘the discovery of a new
species of, in the upper Silurian strata, 61.

Ibbetson (Capt.) on the localities and geolo-
gical features of the Isle of Wight, 58.

on three sections of the oolitic forma-
tions on the Great Western Railway, at the
west end of Sapperton tunnel, 61.

Incrustation of steam boilers, on preventing,
114.

India, on the coal of, 63.

, on the geographical distribution of the
flora of, with remarks on ‘the vegetation of
its lakes, 74.

— —-, statistics of civil justice in, from 1841
to 1844, 94.

, Statistics of the criminal courts of, 95.

——, statistics of the government charitable

' dispensaries of, 96.

“Indian and Pacific oceans, on the three races
of men inhabiting the islands of the, 114.

Indians, on a vocabulary of the Bethuck, of
Newfoundland, 115.

,, on the Comanche, 116.

-Insessores, 77.

Treland, additions to the fauna of, 83.

—~, —— flora of, 90.

Tronstone, on the black-band, of the’ coal-field
of Scotland, 62.

Isle of Wight, on the occurrence of Cypris in
a part of the’ tertiary freshwater, 56.

on the localities and geological ‘features

of the, 58.

, on certain deviations of the plumb-line

* from its'mean direction, in the neighbour-
hood of Shanklin Down in the, 59.

directions for the guidance of botanists

‘in their excursion to the, 86.

Java to Timor, on some tertiary rocks in the
islands stretching from, 67.
»Jobert (A.C. G.)\on graphic granite, 69.
Joule (J. P.) on the expansion of salts, 49.
Jukes (J. B.) on some tertiary rocks in the
islands stretching from Java to Timor,
67.
+—— on'the’geological structure of Australia,

——, on the three races of men inhabiting

127

the islands of the Indian -and Pacific
oceans, 114.

Jukes (J. B.) on the Aborigines of vind is
land, 114.

Justice in India, statistics of civil, 94.

Keele (J. R.) on the Artesian well on South-
ampton common, 52.

Kemp (Dr. G.) on the application of the prin-
ciples of a natural system of organic che-
mistry to the explanation of the phzno-
mena occurring in the diseased potato
tuber, 44.

Kew, on the meteorological observations at,
10.

King (William) on some new species of ani-
mals found on the coast of ‘Northumber-
land, 838.

Knowles (E.R. J.) on an extraordinary ap-
pearance in the flame of a common mould
candle, 49.

on the annual consumption of coal and
the probable duration of the coal-fields,
105.

Knox (Dr.) on the natural and economic hi-
story of certain species of the Clupeade,
Coregoni and Salmonide, 79.

on the application of the method, dis-

covered by the late Dr. Thibert, of model-

ling and colouring after nature all kinds of

fishes, 80.

Lamb (Mr.) on mechanical apparatus em-
ployed for the purpose of preventing in-
crustation of steam-boilers, 114.

Laming (Dr.) on the constitution ‘and’ forces
of the molecules of matter, 35.

Lankester (Dr.) on' the woody fibres of the La-
vatera arborea, and suggestion that it'might
be of use in the arts and’ manufactures~of
the country, 90.

Latham (Dr.) on the’present ‘state of ethiié-
logical philology, 115.

on a vocabulary of the Bethuck Indians

of Newfoundland, 115.

on a Comanche vocabulary, 117. .

Lavatera arborea, suggested to be of use in
the arts and manufactures of ‘the country,
90.

Lawson (Henry) on an ‘easy*method of ‘con-
tracting the aperture’ofa large telescope, 9.

on the arrangement of asolar eye-piece, 9.

Laycock (Dr.) diagrams showing’ the morta-
lity of diarrhcea concurrently with progres-
sive increase of temperature in’ London, 94,

on some diseases resulting from the im-

moderate use of tobacco, 94.

on ‘the statistics of sickness’ and~mor-
tality in the city of York, 104.

Lead, on the action of atmospheric air, un-
combined chlorine, and carbonicacid on, 42.

Lee (Dr.)* tables of meteorological: observa-
tions made at Christiana and Alten, pre-
sented by, 12.

Leeson (Dr. H. B.) on crystallography and-a
new goniometer, 46.

128

Letheby (H.).on the action of oxalic acid upon
the dead tissues of the animal body, 41.
on the difference in the physiological
actions of the yellow and red prussiates as
an evidence of their containing dissimilar

radicals, 41.

Liddell (A.) on the statistics of education in
Glasgow in 1846, 101.

Life, on the duration of, in the members of
the several professions, 99.

Light, en certain cases of elliptic polarization
of, by reflexion, 3.

, on a new property of, exhibited in the
action of chrysammate of potash upon
common and polarized light, 7.

Limax Sowerbii, on certain peculiarities in
the anatomy of, 82.

Limestone of Hay Head, on the age of the
Silurian, 61.

Liver, on the cause of the blood’s circulation
through the, 93.

Llanrwst, in N. Wales, list of names of perio-
dical birds, and the dates of their appear-
ance and disappearance at, 79.

London clay, on the fishes of the, 52.

Lough Neagh, zoology of, compared with that
of the Lake of Geneva, 84.

Louisenberg, on the natural peculiarities of
the mountain so called, 91.

Lyell (Charles) on the delta and alluvial de-
posits of the Mississippi, and other points in
the geology of North America, observed in
the years 1845-46, 117.

Macassar, on the natives of, 115.

Macrauchenia, 66.

Magnetic causation, 33.

condition, on the mode of developing

the, 35.

observations made at General Sir T. M.
Brisbane’s observatory, 32.

Magnets, on the process of manufacture to
produce, having the greatest fixity and ca-
pacity conjointly secured, 33.

Mammalia of South America, on some fossil,
65.

Manchester police, criminal and miscellaneous
statistical returns of the, for the year 1845,
98.

Manures, on certain principles which obtain
in the application of, 44.

Marine zoology of Cornwall, on the, 86.

Mathematics, 1.

Matter, on the constitution and forces of mo-
lecules of, 35.

Matteucci (Prof.) summary of researches in
electro-physiology, 28.

on the electrization of needles in differ-
ent media, 46.

Mayes (William), abstracts of meteorological
observations made at Aden in 1845, 26.

, meteorological observations taken at
Fort George Barracks, Bombay, in 1845,
26.

M° Andrew (Mr.), Prof. Bell on the crustacea
found by, in cruising round the coast, 80.

INDEX II.

Mechanical Science, 105. ;

Medical Science, 92. :

Meduse of the British seas, on the pulmo-
grade, 84.

Memphis, on the figures of birds observed on
a tomb at, 79.

Men, on the three races of, inhabiting the is-
lands of the Indian and Pacific oceans, 114.

Menai bridge, on increasing to larger dimen-
sions the model tubes for the proposed, 109.

Menai straits, on the tubular bridge proposed
by Mr. Stephenson for crossing the, 108.

Mercury, on the changes which it undergoes
in glass vessels hermetically sealed, 37.

Metal, on a second new, contained in the Ba-
varian tantalite, 37.

Meteorological observations, on the Kew, 10.

made at Alten, at the Kaafjord Obser-

vatory, in 1844 and 1845, 12.

at Christiana, in 1845, 12.

at St. Helier, Jersey, in the years 1843

to 1846, 13.

at Fort George Barracks, Bombay, in

1845, 26.

at Aden in 1845, abstracts of, 246.

Meteorological phenomena, on some, 11.

Middendorff (Prof. Von.) on certain races of
Siberia, 115.

Miller (J. F.) on the fall of rain in the lake
districts of Cumberland and Westmoreland,
&c. in the year 1845, 18.

, readings of mountain rain gauges, in
June, July and August, 1846, 21.

Mineral beds, on the applicability of M. Fau-
velle’s mode to sinkings for, 56.

Mines and mining industry of Belgium, 101.

Mississippi, on the delta and alluvial deposits
of the, 117.

Mollusca of the Isle of Wight, on the land, 83.

, on some new and rare British ‘species
of naked, 83. ‘

Mollusks, on the dissimilarity in the calcify-
ing functions of, 82.

Moon, on attempts to explain the apparent
projection of a star on the, 5.

Morriss-Stirling (T. D.) on proposed substi-
tutes for the potato, 90.

Mortality, on the statistics of, in the city of
York, 104.

Murchison (Sir R. I.) letter to, from the Hon.
F. Strangways on the natural peculiarities
of the mountain now called the Louisen-
berg, 91.

Mushet band, on the, 62.

Myliobatus, on the egg-purse and embryo of
a species of, 80.

Natatores, 78.

Natural history observations made since last
meeting bearing upon geology, notices of,
69.

Needles, electrization of, in different media,
46.

Neeld (Mr.) criminal and miscellaneous sta-
tistical returns of the Manchester police for
the year 1845, 98. -

INDEX II.

Neison (F. G. P.), statistics of crime in Eng-
land and Wales, for the years 1842, 1843,
and 1844, 102.

Nekrasowzers of Bessarabia, on the, 115.

Nemalite, analysis of the American mineral,
39.

Nesodon, new species, 66.

Newfoundland, on the aborigines of, 114.

, on a vocabulary of the Bethuck Indians
of, 115.

Northumberland, on some’ new species of ani-
mals found on the coast of, 83.

Northwich salt-field, on the extent of the, 62.

Oersted (Prof.) on the deviation of falling
bodies from the perpendicular, in a letter
to Sir John Herschel, Bart., 2.

on the changes which mercury some-
times suffers in glass vessels hermetically
sealed, 37.

Oolitic formations on the Great Western Rail-
way, on three sections of the, at the west
end of Sapperton tunnel, 61.

Ormerod (G. Wareing) on the extent of the
Northwich salt-field, 62.

Osborn (Henry) on the presence of atmo-
spheric air, uncombined chlorine, and car-
bonic acid found in the water of some of
the wells in the suburbs of Southampton,
and their action on lead, 42.

Owen (Prof.) on some fossil Mammalia of
South America, 65.

Oxford University statistics, 99.

Paraselene at Huggate, on a, 15.

Paris, comparison of the periods of the flower-
ing of plants in the early spring of 1846, in
the Botanic Gardens of Belfast, and the
Jardin des Plantes at, 90.

Pastures, on the fairy rings of, 43.

Patterson (R.) on specimens of Ascidians dis-
covered in the links of the chain of the
floating bridge at Itchin, near Southamp-
ton, 83.

Peach (C. W.) on the marine zoology of
Cornwall, 86.

Pelopium, on a second new metal contained
in the Bavarian tantalite, 37.

Percy (Dr. John) on a gas furnace for orga-
nic analysis, 49.

Perpendicular, on the deviation of falling
bodies from the, 2.

Petrie (W.) on the results of an extensive
series of magnetic investigations, including
most of the known varieties of steel, 33.

Philology, on the present state of ethnologi-
cal, 115.

Phipps (Dr. J.) on the sailing powers of two
yachts, built on the wave principle, 112.
Photographic self-registering apparatus at

Kew, account of the, 10.

Photography, on representing natural history
objects by means of, 82.

Phyllanthus, on the foliage and inflorescence

of the genus, 91.
Physico-geographical survey of the British

129

islands, particularly in relation to agricul-
ture, 72.

Physics, 1.

Polarization of light by reflexion, on certain
cases of elliptic, 3.

, elliptic, 5.

Poor law, on the medical relief to the paro-
chial poor of Scotland under the old, 97.
Portlock (Captain) on the natural history of -

Corfu, 84.

Potash, chrysammate of, on a new property of
light exhibited in the action of, upon com-
mon and polarized light, 7.

Potato, on the application of the principles of a
natural system of organic chemistry to the
explanation of the phenomena occurring
in the diseased tuber, 44.

, on the means of obviating the ravages

of the disease in the, 89.

, on proposed substitutes for the, 90.
Powell (Rev. Prof.) on certain cases of ellip-
tical polarization of light by reflexion, 3.
on the bands formed by partial inter-

ception of the prismatic spectrum, 4.

on attempts to explain the apparent
projection of a star on the moon, 5.

Plants, comparison of the periods of the flow-
ering of, in the spring of 1846, in the Bo-
tanic Garden of Belfast, and the Jardin des
Plantes at Paris, 90.

Platina, on the influence which finely divided,
exerts on the electrodes of a voltameter,
46.

Playfair (Dr. Lyon) on the expansion of salts,

49.

Plumb-line, on certain deviations of the, from
its mean direction, in the neighbourhood of
Shanklin Down, Isle of Wight, 59.

Prestwich (Joseph, Jun.) on the occurrence of
Cypris in a part of the tertiary freshwater
strata of the Isle of Wight, 56.

Price (John) on the embryogeny of Pulmo-
grades and Ciliogrades, 86.

on the quasi-osseous system of Acale-
phe, 87.

Prideaux (J.) on the extent, causes and re-
medies of fungi destructive in agriculture,
44, g

Princes’ Island, on the inhabitants of, 117.

Propulsion, on applying atmospheric air to,
113.

Prussiates, on the difference in the physio-
logical actions of the yellow and red, as an
evidence of their containing dissimilar ra-
dicals, 41.

Psychrometer, on a self-registering, 17.

Pulmogrades, on the embryogeny of, 86.

Pycnogonidez, on the structure of the, 82.

Radicals, on the difference in the physiologi-
cal actions of the yellow and red prussiates
as an evidence of their containing dissimi-
lar, 41.

Railway sections made on the line of the
Great Western Railway between Bristol
and Taunton, 59.

130

Railway trains, on the law which governs the
resistance to motion of, at high velocities,
109.

» on a machine for registering the velo-
city of, 114. ‘

Rain, on the fall of, in the lake districts of
Cumberland and Westmoreland, in 1845,
18.

» readings of mountain gauges in June,

July and August, 1846, 21.

, on the fall of, on the coast of Travan-
core and table land of Uttree, 22.

Rankin (Rev. T.) on a halo, paraselene, and
Aurora Borealis, seen at Huggate, in York-
shire, 15.

: on the hybernation of snails, 83.

Raptores, 77.

Rasores, 78.

Reade (Dr. J.) experiments in thermo-elec-
tricity, 46.

Reeve (Lovell) on the dissimilarity in the
calcifying functions of Mollusks, whose or-
ganization is in other respects similar, 82,

Retzius (Prof.) on the ethnographical distri-
bution of round and elongated crania, 116.

Ricardo (M.) on a machine for registering the
velocity of railway trains, 114.

Robinson {Rev. Dr.) on the influence which
finely divided platina exerts on the elec-
trodes of a voltameter, 46.

» modification of Dr. Whewell’s anemo-

'.meter for measuring the velocity of the
wind, 111.

Rocks, tertiary, in the islands stretching from
Java to Timor, 67.

Ronalds (F.) on the meteorological observa-~
tions at Kew, with an account of the pho-
tographic self-registering apparatus, 10.

Rose (Prof, H.) on a second new metal, Pelo-
pium, contained in the Bavarian tantalite,
37.

Royle (Prof.) on the geographical distribution
of the flora of India, with remarks on the

_ vegetation of its lakes, 74.

Russell (Scott) on the law which governs the

__ resistance to motion of railway trains at high

_ velocities, 109,

Salmonidz, on the natural and economic hi-
story of certain species of the, 79.

Salt, on the applicability of M. Fauvelle’s mode
to sinkings for, 56-

, on the extent of the Northwich field, 62.

Salter (Dr, Bell), directions for the guidance
of botanists in their excursion to the Isle of
Wight, and list of flowering plants of in-
terest in various parts of the island, 86.

on the true nature of the tendril in the

~ cucumber, 88.

Salts, on the expansion of, 49.

Sanders (W.) on railway sections made on the
line of the Great Western Railway, between
Bristol and Taunton, 59.

Sapperton tunnel, on three sections of the
oolitic formation on theGreat Western Rail-
way, at the west end of, 61.

INDEX Il.

Scoresby (Rev. W.) on the mode of develop-
ing the magnetic condition, 35.

Scotland, on the black-band ironstone of the
coal-field of, 62.

, on the medical relief to the parochial
poor of, under the poor law of, 97.

Searle (Dr.) on the cause of the blood’s cir-
culation through the liver, 93.

Sea-water, and the effects of variation in its
currents, 51.

Sensation, on the relation of, to the higher
mental processes, 92.

Sharp, (J.) on the comparative value of the
different kinds of gas meters now in use,
114,

Shea Butter-tree growing in Africa, on the, 90.

Shells, on the microscopic character of, 82.

Short (Mrs.). on the natives of Timor and
Maeassar, 115.

on the inhabitants of Port Essington,
117.

Shortrede (Capt. ) on the force of vapour, 16.

Siberia, on certain races of, 115.

Sickness, on the statistics of, in the city of
York, 104.

Sierra Leone, on the crania of two species of
crocodile from, 79.

Silesia, on the origin of the coal of, 50.

Silk, on the cultivation of it in England, 87.

Silurian limestone of Hay Head, on the age
of the, 61,

Silurian strata, on the discovery of a new spe-
cies of hypanthocrinite in the upper, 61.

Snails, on the hybernation of, 83.

Solar eye-piece, on the arrangement of a, 9.

Southampton, on the presence of atmospheric
air, uncombined chlorine, and carbonic acid
in the water of some of the wells in the
suburbs of, and their action on lead, 42.

, on the Artesian well on the common at,

52.

, on the applicability of M. Fauvelle’s
mode of boring Artesian wells to the well
at, 56.

Spectrum, on the bands formed by partial in-
terception of the prismatic, 4.

Spooner (William Charles) on certain prin-
ciples which obtain in the application of
manures, 44.

Springs, on a new method of boring for Arte-
sian, 105. 1

Star, on attempts to explain the apparent pro-
jection of a, on the moon, 5,

Statistics, 94.

Steam boilers, on preventing: incrustation of,
114.

Steam-engine, on long and short stroked, 113.

+ on a vertical, 113,

Steel, on the physical properties which it
should possess in the manufacture of mag-
nets, 34.

Stephenson’s (Mr.) tubular bridge proposed
for crossing the Menai Straits, K. Hodg-
kinson on the, 108, i

St. Helier, Jersey, meteorological observations
made at, in the years 1843 to 1846, 13.

INDEX II.

Strangways (Hon. F.) on the natural pecu-
liarities of the mountain now called the
Louisenberg, in a letter to Sir R. I. Mur-
chison, 91.

Strata of the Isle of Wight, on the occurrence
of Cypris in a part of the tertiary fresh-
water, 56.

, on the arrangement and nomenclature
of some of the subcretaceous, 58.

Svanberg (Prof. A. F.) on a new multiplying
condenser, 31. '

Sykes (Lt.-Col.) on the fall of rain on the
coast of Travancore and table land of Ut-
tree, 22.

——— statistics of civil justice in India for four
years, from 1841 to 1844, both inclusive, 94.

statistics of the government charitable

dispensaries of India, 96.

Tantalite, on a second new metal, Pelopium,
contained in the Bavarian, 37.

Tasmanians, on the, 117.

Taunton and Bristol. on railway sections made
on the line of the Great Western Railway
between, 59.

Telescepes, on a portable equatorial stand for,
without polar axis, 8.

» on an easy method of contracting the
aperture of large, 9.

Terrestres (Birds), 77.

Texas, on the Indian tribes of, 117.

Thermo-electricity, experiments in, 46.

Thermometer, on a self-registering, 17.

Thibert (Dr.) on the application of his method
to modelling and colouring after nature all
kinds of fishes, 80.

Thompson (W.) on the craniaof two species
of crocodile from Sierra Leone, 79.

additions to the Fauna of Ireland, in-

cluding species new to that of Britain, 83.

on the land mollusca, zoophytes and
alge of the Isle of Wight, 83.

-—, zoology of Lough Neagh, compared
with that of the Lake of Geneva, 84.

on additions to the flora of Ireland, 90.

, comparison of the periods of the flower-
ing of plants in the early spring of 1846, in
the Botanic Garden, Belfast, and the Jardin
des Plantes at Paris, 90.

Thomson (Dr. R. D.) on an important chemi-
cal law in the nutrition of animals, 41.

Timor, on some tertiary rocks in the islands
stretching from Java to, 67.

, on the natives of, 115.

Tobacco, on some diseases resulting from the
immoderate use of, 94.

Towler (G.), magnetic causation, 33.

Toxodon, new species, 65.

Travancore, fall of rain on the coast of, 22.

Twining (Dr.) on the Nekrasowzers of Bessa-
rabia, 115.

Uteri, on a peculiar form of ulceration of the
cervix, 94.

131

Uttree, fall of rain on the table land of, 22.

Valpy (R.) on the mines and mining industry
of Belgium, 101.

Vapour, on the force of, 16.

Volcanoes, new facts bearing on the chemical
theory of, 45.

Voltaic battery, on the electricity of tension
in the, 47.

Voltameter, influence which finely divided
platina exerts on the electrodes of a, 46.

Wales, statistics of crime in, for the years
1842, 1843, and 1844, 102.

Wartmann (Prof.) on some meteorological
phznomena, 11.

on electro-magnetism, 27.

Water, on the decomposition of, into its con-
stituent gases by heat, 48.

Wave principle, on the sailing powers of two
yachts built on the, 112.

Waves, atmospheric, 35.

Way (Prof. J. T.) on the fairy rings of pas-
tures, 43.

Well, on the Artesian, on Southampton com-
mon, 52.

, on the applicability of M. Fauvelle’s
mode of boring Artesian and others, 56.
Westmoreland, on the fall of rain in the lake

districts of, in 1845, 18.

West (W.) on the use of stating, with the re-
sults of analyses, the nature of the methods
employed, 42.

Whewell (Rev. W.) on measuring the height
of clouds, 15.

, Modification of his anemometer for mea-
suring the velocity of the wind, 111,

Whitby (Mrs.) on the cultivation of silk in
England, 87.

Wigglesworth (Mr.) on the mortality of chil-
dren, 100.

Wilson (Dr. George) on the extent to which
fluoride of calcium is soluble in water at
60° F., 38.

Wind, modification of Dr. Whewell’s anemo-~
meter for measuring the velocity of the,
111.

Xylophylla, on the foliage and inflorescence
of the genus, 91.

Yachts, on the sailing powers of two, built on
the wave principle, 112.

Yates (James) on Zamia gigas, 62.

York, on the statistics of sickness and mor-
tality in the city of, 104.

Young (Prof.) on the principle of continuity
in reference to certain results of analysis, 1.

Zamia gigas, 62.
Zoology, 74.
Zoophytes of the Isle of Wight, on the, 83.

THE END.

wa?

LONDON:

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RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.

List of those Members of the British Association for the Advancement
of Science to whom Copies of this Volume [for 1846] are supplied
gratuitously, in conformity with the Regulations adopted by the
General Committee. [See pp. v. & vi.|

HIONORARY MEMBER.
HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS, PRINCE ALBERT OF SAXE-COBURG AND GOTHA,

LIFE MEMBERS.

Astert, Joseph, Llanbedr Hall, Ruthin, Den-
bighshire.

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Ansted, David Thomas, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
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College, London; 28 Sackville Street, Lon-
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Bainbridge, Robert Walton, Middleton House
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Bayley, William, Stockton-upon-Tees.
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Beaufoy, Henry, F.R.S., F.L.S., South Lam-
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Birks, Thomas Rawson, Watton near Ware,
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Blake, William, Silver Street, Taunton.

Blakiston, Peyton, M.D., F.R.S., Birmingham.

Bland, Rev. Miles, D.D., F.R.S., F.S.A.,
F.R.A.S., Lilley Rectory, near Luton, Bed-
fordshire.

Blovd, Bindon, M.R.I.A., F.R.S.E., Cranaher,
Ennis, Co. Clare, Ireland. ;

Boddington, Benjamin, Burcher, Kington,
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Bodley, Thomas, F.G.S., Anlaby House, Pitts-
ville, Cheltenham.

Boileau, Sir John P., Bart., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
M.R.I., 20 Upper Brook Street, London ;
and Ketteringham Park, Wymondham,
Norfolk.

Bompas, George G., M.D., Fish Ponds near
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Bond, Walter M., The Argory, Moy, Ireland.

Boughton, Sir William Edward Rouse, Bart.,
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Bowerbank, J. Scott, F.R.S., F.G.S., 3 High-
bury Grove, London.

Brady, Antonio, Maryland Point, Stratford,
Essex.

Brakenridge, John, Bretton Lodge, Wakefield.

Brammall, Jonathan, Sheffield.

Briggs, Major-General John, E.1.C.S., F.R.S.,

‘ #.G.S., M.R.A.S., 3 Charles Street, St.
James’s, London.

Brisbane, Lieut.-General Sir Thomas Mak-
dougall, Bart., K.C.B., G.C.H., D.C.L.,
President of the Royal Society of Edin-
burgh, F.R.S., Hon. M.R.LA., F.LS.,
F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., Instit. Reg. Se. Paris.
Corresp.; Makerstoun, Kelso.

Brockedon, Philip N., 29 Devonshire Street,
Queen Square, London.

Brogden, John, jun., Ardwick Place, Man-
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Brooke, Charles, M.B., F.R.S., 29 Keppel
Street, Russell Square, London.

Brooks, Samuel, Market Street, Manchester.

Brooks, Thomas, (Messrs. Butterworth and
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Brown, William, Douglas, Isle of Man.

Bruce, Alexander Jehn, Kilmarnock.

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Brunel, Isambart Kingdom, F.R.S., F.G.S., 18
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Buck, George Watson, Manchester.

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Min. Imp. Petrop. et Ces. Nat. Cur. Mosc.,
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Burke, Francis, 5 Upper Rutland St., Dublin.

Burlington, William, Earl of, M.A., LL.D.,
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Campbell, Sir James, Glasgow.

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Cartmell, Rev. James, M.A., F.G.S., F.C.P.S.,
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House, Edinburgh.

Cayley, Sir George, Bart., Hon. M.C.P.S., 20
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Chiswell, Thomas, 150 Waterloo Place, Man-
chester.

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Sc. Petrop. Socius Honor.—Acad. Reg. Se.
Holm., Soc. Reg. Sc. Hafn., Acad. Reg. Sc.
Mut., Acad. Amer. Art. et Sc. Bost. Socius,
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Fox, Charles, Perran Arworthal near Truro.

Fox, Robert Barclay, Falmouth.

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Goff, William.

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Gotch, Thomas Henry, Kettering,

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Graham, Thomas, M.A., Professor of Chemis-
try in University College, London, F.R.S.
L. & E., F.G.S., Hon. Memb. National
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Berolin. et Monach. Corresp. ; 9 Torrington
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Graves, Rey. Charles, M.A., Professor of
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M.R.LA., 2 Trinity College, Dublin.

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ton.

Gray, John Edward, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.,
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Rome, Sc. Nat. Philad. et Hist. Nat. Bos-
ton., Socius ; British Museum.

Gray, William, jun. F.G.S. (Local Treasurer),
Minster Yard, York.

Greenaway, Edward, 9 River Terrace, City
Road, London.

Greswell, Rev. Rich., B.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.,
Beaumont Street, Oxford. :

Griffin, John Joseph, Glasgow.

Griffith, Richard, M.R.I.A., F.G.S., Fitzwil-
liam Place, Dublin.

Grooby, Rev. James, M.A., F.R.A.S., Swin-
don, Wilts.

Guinness, Rey. W. Smyth, Rathdrum, Co.
Wicklow. :

Gutch, John James, 88 Micklegate, York.

Habershon, Joseph, jun., The Holmes, Ro-
therham, Yorkshire.

Hailstone, Samuel, F.L.S., Horton Hall, near
Bradford, Yorkshire.

Hall, T. B., Coggeshall, Essex.

Hallam, Henry, M.A., Trust. Brit. Mus.,
F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S.,
Instit. Reg. Sc. Paris. Socius; 24 Wilton
Crescent, Knightsbridge, London.

Hamilton, Mathie, M.D., Peru.

Hamilton, Sir William Rowan, LL.D., Astro-
nomer Royal of Ireland, and Andrews’ Pro-
fessor of Astronomy in the University of
Dublin, M.R.I.A., F.R.A.S., Hon.M.C.P.S.,
Observatory, Dublin.

Hamilton, William John, M.P., Sec. G.S.,
F.R.G.S., 14 Chesham Place, Belgrave
Square, London.

Hamlin, Captain Thomas, Greenock.

Harcourt, Rev. William V. Vernon, M.A.,
F.R.S., Hon. M.R.1.A., F.G.S., Weldrake
near York.

Harding, Wyndham, 10 College, Doctors’
Commons, London.

Hare, Charles John, M.B., M.L., 9 Langham
Place, London.

Harley, John, Wain Worn, Pontypool.

Harris, Alfred, Manningham Lodge, near
Bradford, Yorkshire.

Harris, George William, 9 Charing Cross,
London.

Harris, Henry, Heaton Hall near Bradford.

Harter, William, Broughton, Manchester.

Hartley, Jesse, Trentham Street, Liverpool.

Harvey, Joseph C., Youghal, Co. Cork.

Hatton, James, Richmond House, Higher
Broughton, Manchester.

Haughton, William, 28 City Quay, Dublin.

Hawkins, John Isaac, 26 Judd Place West,
New Road, London.

Hawkins, Thomas, F.G.S., 15 Great Ormond
Street, London.

Hawkshaw, John, F.G.S., Islington House,
Salford, Manchester.

Haworth, George, Rochdale, Lancashire.

Hawthorn, Robert, C.E., Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Henry, Alexander, Portland St., Manchester.

Henry, William Charles, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
Haffield near Ledbury, Herefordshire.

Henslow, Rev. John Stevens, M.A., Professor
of Botany in the University of Cambridge,

SS

\ a

BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 5

and Examiner in Botany in the University
of London, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.C.P.S., Hit-
cham, Bildeston, Suffolk.

Herbert, Thomas, Nottingham.

Herbert, Very Rev. William, Dean of Man-
chester ; Manchester.

Heywood, Sir Benjamin, Bart., F.R.S., 9
Hyde Park Gardens, London; and Clare-
mont, Manchester.

Heywood, James, F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S., Acresfield, Manchester.

Heywood, Robert, Bolton.

Higson, Peter, Clifton near Bolton.

Hill, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G.S., (Local
Treasurer), Christ Church, Oxford.

Hill, Henry, 13 Orchard Street, Portman
Square, London.

Hill, Rowland, F.R.A.S., General Post Office,
London.

Hill, Thomas, Rose Cottage, Oughtrington,
Lymm near Warrington.

Hill, Thomas Wright, F.R.A.S., Bruce Castle,
Tottenham.

Hindmarsh, Luke, Alnwick, Northumberland.

Hoare, Rev. George Tooker, Godstone,
Surrey.

Hoblyn, Thomas, F.R.S., F.L.S., White Barnes,
Buntingford, Herts.

Hodgkin, Thomas, M.D., F.R.G.S., 9 Lower
Brook Street, London.

Hodgkinson, Eaton, F.R.S., F.G.S., 14 Cres-
cent, Salford, Manchester.

Hodgson, Adam, Everton, Liverpool.

Holden, Moses, 13 Jordan Street, Preston.

Holditch, Rev. Hamnett, M.A., F.C.P.S.,
Caius College, Cambridge.

Holland, P. H., 86 Grosvenor Street, Man-
chester.

Hollingsworth, John, University College,
London.

Hopkins, William, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
E.G.S., Sec.C.P.S., Cambridge.

Horner, Leonard, V.P.R.S., V.P.G.S.,
F.R.S.E., Soc. Se. Harlem. Socius ; 2 Bed-
ford Place, Russell Square, London.

Horsfield, George, Stanley Street, Red Bank,
Manchester.

Houldsworth, Henry, Newton St., Mnachester.

Hoyle, John, 10 Brown Street, Manchester.

Hudson, Henry, M.D., M.R.LA., 24 Ste-
phen’s Green, Dublin.

Hull, William Darley, F.G.S.,15 Hatch Street,
Dublin.

Hulse, Edward, All Souls’ College, Oxford.

Hunter, Adam, M.D., Leeds.

Hutchison, Graham, 16 Blythswood Square,
Glasgow.

Hutton, Robert, M.R.I.A., V.P.G.S., Putney
Park, Surrey.

Hutton, William, F.R.S., F.G.S. (Local Trea-
surer), Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

Ibbetson, Captain Levett Landen Boscawen,
K.R.E., F.G.S., Museum of Economic Geo-
logy, Craig’s Court, Charing Cross, London.

Inglis, James, M.D., Halifax, Yorkshire.

Jackson, James Eyre, Tullydory, Blackwater
Town, Armagh.

Jacob, John, M.D., Maryborough.

Jardine, Sir William, Bart., F.R.S.E., F.L.S.,
Jardine Hall, Applegarth, by Lockerby,
Dumfriesshire.

Jenkyns, Rev. Henry, D.D., Professor of Di-
vinity and Ecclesiastical History in the
University of Durham; Durham.

Jenyns, Rey. Leonard, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
F.C.P.S., Swaffham-Bulbeck, Cambridge-
shire.

Jerram, Rev. S. John, M.A., Witney, Oxford-
shire.

Jerrard, George Birch, B.A., Examiner in
Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in
the University of London; 1 Hereford
Road, Bayswater, London.

Johnson, Thomas, Mosley Street, Manchester.

Johnston, James F. W., M.A., Lecturer in
Chemistry and Mineralogy in the Univer-
sity of Durham, F.R.S. L. & E., F.G.S.,
Durham.

Johnstone, James, Alva near Alloa, Stirling-
shire.

Johnstone, Sir John Vanden Bempde, Bart.,
M.P., M.A., F.G.S., 27 Grosvenor Square,
London ; and Hackness Hall, Scarborough.

Jones, Christopher Hird, 2 Castle Street,
Liverpool.

Jones, Major Edward, Plympton near Ply-
mouth.

Jones, Josiah, 2 Castle Street, Liverpool.

Jones, Robert, 59 Pembroke Place, Liverpool.

Joule, Benjamin, jun., New Bailey Street,
Salford, Manchester.

Joule, James Prescott, Secretary to the Lite-
rary and Philosophical Society of Man-
chester ; New Bailey Street, Salford, Man-
chester.

Jubb, Abraham, Halifax.

Kay, John Robinson, Boss Lane House, Bury,
Lancashire, ;

Keleher, William, Cork Library, Cork.

Kelsall, Henry, Rochdale, Lancashire.

Kenrick, George S., West Bromwich near
Birmingham.

Kenrick, Samuel, Handsworth Hall near Bir-
mingham.

Kerr, Archibald, Glasgow.

Kerr, Robert, jun., Glasgow.

Knowles, Edward R. J., 23 George Street,
Ryde, Isle of Wight.

Knowles, William, 15 Park Place, Clifton,
Bristol.

Knox, G. James, at C. G. Knox’s, Esq., 26
Old Square, Lincoln’s Inn, London.

Lacy, HenryC., jun., Queen’s College, Oxford.

Laming, Richard, Paris.

Langton, William, Manchester.

Lansdowne, Henry, Marquis of, D.C.L., Trust.
Brit. Mus., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.H.S., F.R.A.S.,
52 Berkeley Square, London ; and Bowood
Park, Wiltshire.

6 MEMBERS TO WHOM

Larcom, Captain Thomas A., R.E., F.R.S.,
M.R.LA., F.R.G.S.

La Touche, David Charles, M.R.I.A., Castle
Street, Dublin.
Lawson, Andrew,

Yorkshire.

Leah, Henry, “Byerley Hall near Bradford,
Yorkshire.

Leatham, Charles Albert, Wakefield.

Leather, John Towlerton, Leyenthorpe Hall
near Leeds.

Lee, Rev. James Prince, M.A., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S., F.C.P.S., King Edward’s School,
Birmingham.

Lee, John, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S.,
F.R.G.S., 5 College, Doctors’ Commons,
London; and Hartwell House near Ayles-
bury, Buckinghamshire.

Leeson, H. B., M.A., M.D., F.C.P.S., M.R.L,
St. Thomas’s Hospital, and Greenwich.

Lefroy, Captain, R.A., Woolwich.

Legh, George Cornwall, M.P., F.G.S., High
Legh, Cheshire.

‘Leinster, Augustus Frederick, Duke of,
M.R.1.A., F.H.S., F.Z.S., 6 Carlton House
Terrace, London; and Carton House, May-
nooth.

Lemon, SirCharles, Bart., M.P.,F.R.S.,F.G.S.,
F.H.S., F.R.G.S., 46 Charles Street, Berke-
ley Square, London; and Carclew near
Falmouth.

Lewis, Captain Thomas Locke, R.E., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S., Ibsley Cottage near Exeter.

Liddell, Andrew, Glasgow.

Lindsay, Henry L., C.E., Armagh.

Lingard, John R., Stockport, Cheshire.

Lister, Joseph Jackson, F.R.S., 5 Tokenhouse
Yard, London; and Upton, Essex.

Lloyd, George, M.D., F.G.S., Stank Hill near
Warwick.

Lloyd, Rev. Humphrey, D.D., Trinity Col-
lege, Dublin, F.R.S., M.R.I.A., Dublin.
Lloyd, William Horton, F,S.A., F.LS.,
F.R.G.S., 1 Park Square West, Regent’s

Park, London.

Lockey, Rey. Francis, Swanswick near Bath.

Loftus, William Kennett, F.G.S., Newcastle-
upon-fyne.

Logan, William Edmond, F.G.S., C. K, Dyer,
Esq., 4 New Broad Street, London.

Lubbock, Sir John William, Bart., M.A.,
E.R.S., F.LS., F.R.A.S., 23 St. James’s
Place, London; and High Elms, Farn-
borough, Kent.

Lucas, William, The Mills near Sheffield.

Lutwidge, Charles, M.A., F.C.P.S., at R. W.S.
Lutwidge’s, Esq., Old Square, Lincoln’s
Inn, London.

Lyell, Charles, jun., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S.,

"E.G.S., F.R.G.S., 11 Harley Street, Caven-
dish Square, London.

McAll, Rev. Edward, Rector of Brighstone,
Newport, Isle of Wight.

McAndrew, Robert.

MacBrayne, Robert, Barony Glebe, Glasgow.

McConnel, James, Manchester.

M.P., Boroughbridge,

MacCullagh, James, D.C.L., Professor ot
Natural Philosophy in the University of

’ Dublin, F.R.S., M.R.LA., Trinity College,
Dublin.

M‘Culloch, George.

MacDonnell, Rev. Richard, D.D., Regius
Professor of Greek in the University of
Dublin, M.R,1L.A., Dublin.

M‘Ewan, John, Glasgow.

Mackenzie, Sir Francis A., Bart, Kinellan by
Dingwall, Scotland.

Malcolm, Frederick, 8 Leadenhall St., London.

Marshall, James Garth, M.A., F.G.S., Head-
ingley near Leeds,

Martineau, Rey. James, 12 Mason Street,
Edge Hill, Liverpool,

Mason, Thomas, York.

Mather,Daniel,58 Mount Pleasant, Liverpool.

Mather, John, 58 Mount Pleasant, Liverpool.

Maxwell, Robert Percival, Finnebrogue,
Downpatrick, Ireland.

Mayne, Rey. Charles, M.R.I.A., 22 Upper
Merrion Street, Dublin.

Meadows, James, Green Hill, Greenheys,
Manchester.

Meynell, Thomas, jun., F.L.S., Gillygate, York.

Miller, Patrick, M.D., Exeter.

Miller, William Allen, M.D., F.R.S., Professor
of Chemistry in King’s College, London.

Mills, John Robert, Bootham, York.

Milne, David, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Edin-
burgh.

Moore, John Carrick, F.G.S., 37 Hertford
Street, Mayfair, London.

More, John Shank, Professor of the Law of
Scotland in the University of Edinburgh,
F.R.S.E., Edinburgh.

Morris, Rey. Francis Orpen, B.A., Hafferton
Vicarage near Driffield, Yorkshire,

Murchison, Sir Roderick Impey, G.C.S.,M.A.,
F.R.S., Hon. M.R.LA. & RS.E., F.L.S.,
V.P.G.S., V.P.R.G.S., Hon.M.C.P.S., Acad.
Imp. Se. Petrop. Acad. Amer. Art. et Se.
Bost. Socius, Inst. Reg. Sc. Paris. et Acad.
Reg. Taurin. Corresp., et Soc. Imp. Se. Nat.
Hist. Mosq. Socius; (PResipENT), 16 Bel-
graye Square, London.

Murray, John, C.E., Pier House, Sunderland.

Murray, William, Polmaise, Stirling.

Muspratt, James Sheridan, Ph.D., Seaforth
Hall near Liverpool.

Napier, Lieut. Johnstone (74th Highlanders),
80 Pall Mall, London.

Newall, Robert Stirling, Gateshead-upon-
Tyne,

Newman, Francis William, 7 Park Village
East, Regent’s Park, London.

Newman, William, Darley Hall near Barns-
ley, Yorkshire.

Newman, William Lewin, F.R.A.S., St. He-
len’s Square, York.

Nicholls, John Ashton, Ancoat’s Crescent,
Manchester.

Nicholson, C., Stand Lodge near Manches-
ter.

BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 7

Nicholson, John A., M.D., M.R.LA., Balrath,
Kells, Co. Meath.

Northampton, Spencer Joshua Alwyne, Mar-
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Trust. Brit. Mus., F.S.A., Hon. M.R.L.A.,
F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Vice Patron
C.P.S., 145 Piccadilly, London ; and Castle
Ashby, Northamptonshire.

Norwich, Edward Stanley, D.D., Lord Bishop
of, President of the Linnean Society, F.R.S.,
Hon. M.R.I.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., 38 Lower
Brook Street, Grosvenor Square, London ;
and the Palace, Norwich.

O’Reardon, John, M.D., 35 York Street,
Dublin.

Orpen, Charles Edward H., M.D., M.R.LA.,
34 Hamilton Square, Woodside, Birken-
head, Cheshire.

Osler, A. Follett, Birmingham.

_ QOssalinski, Count, Pembroke Dock.

Outram, Benjamin Fouseca, M.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.,F.R.G.S., 1 Hanover Square,London.

Owen, Jeremiah, H. M. Dockyard, Ports-
mouth.

Oxford,Samuel Wilberforce,D.D.,Lord Bishop
Bs F.R.S., F.G.S., the Palace, Wheatley,

xon.

Palmer, William, St. Giles’s, Oxford.

Parker, Charles Stewart, Liverpool.

Pasley, Major-General Charles William, C.B.,
Royal Engineers, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., 12 Norfolk Crescent,
Hyde Park, London.

Patterson, Robert, 3 College Square North,
Belfast,

Pattinson, Hugh Lee, F.G.S., Millfield Ter-
race, Gateshead-upon-Tyne.

Pearsall, Thomas, John, Assistant Secretary
and Curator to the Literary and Philoso-
phical Society, Hull.

Peckover, Algernon, Wisbeach, Cambridge-
shire.

Peckover, Daniel, Woodhall-near Bradford,
Yorkshire.

Peckover, William, F.S.A., Wisbeach, Cam-
bridgeshire.

Pedler, Lieut.-Colonel Philip Warren, Mut-
ley House near Plymouth.

Peel, George, Higher Hardwick Lodge, Man-
chester.

Peile, Williamson, F.G.S., Lowther Street,
Whitehaven.

Perigal, Frederick, 33 Torrington Square,
London.

Peters, Edward,
ham.

Philips, Mark, M.P,, the Park near Manches-

: ter.

Phillips, John, F.R.S., F.G.S., M.R.L.A., Soe.
Ces. Nat. Cur. Mosq. Socius, &c. (Assist-
ANT GENERAL SECRETARY), St. Mary’s
Lodge, York.

Philpott, Rev. Henry, B.D., F.C.P.S., Master
of St. Catharine’s Hall, Cambridge.

Temple Row, Birming-

Pike, Ebenezer, Besborough, Cork.

Pitt,George,4 Great Portland Street, London.

Pollexfen, Rev. John Hutton, M.D.,4 Bedford
Place, Clapham Rise, London.

Pontey, Alexander, Plymouth.

Poppelwell, Matthew, Rosella Place, Tyne-
mouth.

Porter,.George Richardson, F.R.S., M.R.A.S.,
Instit. Reg. Sc. Paris. Corresp.; Board of
Trade, Whitehall, London.

Porter, Henry John, Tandragee Castle, Co.
Armagh.

Portlock, Captain Joseph Ellison, Royal En-
gineers, F.R.S., M.R.LA., F.G.S., F.R.AS.,
F.R.G.S.,

Powell, Rey. Baden, M.A., Savili
of Geometry in the University
F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S., Oxford.

Pratt, Samuel Peace, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
55 Lincoln’s Inn Fields, London; and
Lansdowne Place West, Bath.

Prestwich, Joseph, jun., F.G.8., 20 Mark
Lane, London.

Pretious, Thomas, Royal Dock yard, Pembroke.

Prince, Rev. John Charles, 63 St. Anne
Street, Liverpool.

Pritchard, Andrew, 162 Fleet Street, London.

Prower, Rev. J.M., M.A., Swindon, Wiltshire.

Pumphrey, Charles, New Town Row, Bir-
mingham.

rofessor
Oxford,

Radford, William, M.D., Sidmouth.

Ramsay, Sir James, Bart., Bamff House,
Perthshire.

Ramsay, William, M.A., F.S.S., Professor of
Humanity in the University of Glasgow
(Local Treasurer), The College, Glasgow.

Rance, Henry, Cambridge.

Rawlins, John, Birmingham.

Rawson, Thomas William, Saville Lodge,

Read, William Henry Rudston, M.A., F.L.S.,
F.H.S., Hayton near Pocklington, Yorkshire.

Reade, Rev. Joseph Bancroft, M.A., F.R.S.,
Stone Vicarage, Aylesbury.

Renny, H. L., M.R.LA.

Richardson, Sir John, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.,
F.R.G.S., Acad. Sc. Nat. Philad., Georg.
Paris. Corresp.—Soce. Hist. Nat. Montreal,
Lit. et Phil. Quebec, Hist. Nat. Boston,
Socius Honor.; Haslar Hospital, Gosport.

Riddell, Captain Charles J. B., R.A., F.R.S.,
Woolwich.

Roberts, Richard, Manchester.

Robinson, John, Shamrock Lodge, Athlone,
Treland.

Robson, Rev. John, D.D., Glasgow.

Rogers, Rey. Canon, M.A., Redruth, Cornwall.

Roget, Peter Mark, M.D., Sec.R.S., F.G.S.,
F.R.A.S., V.P.S.A., F.R.G.S., 18 Upper
Bedford Place, London.

Ross, Captain Sir James Clark, R.N., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.A.S., Soc. Reg. Se.
Hafn. Socius ; Aston House, Aston Abbots,
Aylesbury, :

Rothwell, Peter, Bolton.

8 MEMBERS TO WHOM

Roughton, William, jun., Kettering, North-
amptonshire.

Rowland, John, Hare Street, Romford.

Rowntree, Joseph, Pavement, York.

Rowntree, Joseph, Scarborough.

Royle, John Forbes, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.,
T.G.S.,Professor of Materia Medicaand The-
rapeutics in King’s College, London; 4 Bul-
strode Street, Manchester Square, London.

Rushout, Captain George (1st Life Guards),
F.G.S., Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall, London.

Russell, James,(LocalTreasurer), Birmingham.

Ryland, Arthur, Birmingham.

Sabine, Lieut.-Colonel Edward, Royal Artille-
ry, Foreign Secretary R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S.,
Acadd. Imp. Sc. Petrop., Reg. Sc. Taur.,
Brux., Norv. Phil. et Gicon. Siles. Socius :
Socc. Reg. Sc. Gotting., Mem. National Inst.
Washington U.S.,et Geogr. Paris., Corresp.
(GENERAL SecretTary), Woolwich.

Salter, Thomas Bell, M.D., F.L.S., Ryde, Isle
of Wight.

Sanders, William, F.G.S., (Local Treasurer),
Park Street, Bristol.
Satterthwaite, Michael,
Street, Manchester.
Schemman, J. C., Hamburgh, at L. Thorn-

ton’s, Esq., Camp Hill, Birmingham.

Schlick, Le Chevalier, Member of the Im-
perial Academies of Milan, Venice, &c., at
Rey. Charles Hassell’s, Fox Earth’s, near
Newcastle-under-Lyne, Staffordshire.

Schofield, Robert, Rochdale, Lancashire.

Scholes, T. Seddon, Bank, Cannon Street,
Manchester.

Scholfield, Edward, M.D., Doncaster.

. Scoresby, Rev. William, D.D., Vicar of Brad-
ford, F.R.S. L. & E., Corresponding Mem-
ber of the Institute of France, Member of
the Historical Society, New York; Brad-
ford, Yorkshire.

Sedgwick, Rev. Adam, M.A., Woodwardian
Professor of Geology in the University of
Cambridge, and Prebendary of Norwich,
F.R.S., Hon. M.R.LA., F.G.S., F.R.A.S.,
F.R.G.S., F.C.P.S., Trinity College, Cam-
bridge.

Semple, Robert, Richmond Lodge, Waver-
tree, Liverpool.

Shaen, William, Crix, Witham, Essex.

Shanks, James, C.E., 23 Garscube Place,
Glasgow.

Sharp, William, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.AS.,
Humber Bank House, Hull.

Sherrard, David Henry, 84 Upper Dorset
Street, Dublin.

Shortrede, Captain Robert, H.E.I.C.’s Service,
Bombay.

Sillar, Zechariah, M.D., Rainford near Liver-
pool.

Simpson, Samuel, Lancaster.

Simpson, Thomas, M.D., Minster Yard,
York.

Sirr, Rey. Joseph D’Arcy, D.D., M.R.I.A.,
Yoxford, Surrey.

M.D., Grosvenor

Slater, William, Princess Street, Manchester.

Sleeman, Philip, Windsor Terrace, Ply-
mouth.

Smales, R. H., Kingston-bottom.

Smethurst, Rey. Robert, Green Hill, Pilking-
ton near Manchester.

Smith, Rev. George Sidney, D.D., Professor
of Biblical Greek in the University of
Dublin, M.R.I.A., Trinity College, Dublin.

Smith, John, Welton Garth near Hull.

Smith, Rev. John Pye, D.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
Homerton, Middlesex.

Smith, Rey. Philip, B.A., Cheshunt College,
Herts.

Smith, Robert Mackay, Windsor Street, Edin-
burgh.

Solly, Edward, Professor of Chemistry to the
Horticultural Society of London, F.R.S.,
F.L.S., 38 Bedford Row, London.

Solly, Samuel Reynolds, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A.,
F.G.S., Surge Hill, King’s Langley, Herts.

Sopwith, Thomas, F.R.S., F.G.S., Allenheads,
Haydon Bridge, Northumberland.

Spence, Joseph, Pavement, York.

Spineto, the Marquis, Cambridge.

Spottiswoode, William, New Street, London.

Squire, Lovell, Falmouth.

Stanger, William, M.D., Cape of Good Hope.

Stratford, William Samuel, Lieut. R.N., Su-
perintendent of. the Nautical Almanac,
F.R.S., F.R.A.S., 6 Notting-Hill Square,
Kensington.

Strickland, Arthur, Bridlington Quay, York-
shire.

Strickland, Charles, Loughglyn, Ireland.

Sutcliffe, William, 4 Belmont, Bath.

Sykes, Lieut.-Colonel William Henry,
V.P.R.S., Hon. M.R.LA., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
M.R.A.S., 47 Albion Street, Hyde Park,
London.

Tayler, Rev. John James, B.A., Manchester.

Taylor, James, Todmorden Hall, Lancashire.

Taylor, John, Strensham Court, Worcester-
shire.

Taylor, John, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., (Genz-
RAL TREASURER), 2 Duke Street, Adel-
phi; and Sheftield House, Church Street,
Kensington, London.

Taylor, John, jun., F.G.S., 2 Duke Street,
Adelphi, and 15 Craven Hill, Bayswater.

Taylor, Richard, F.G.S., Penmear, Cornwall.

Taylor, Captain Joseph Needham, R.N., 61
Moorgate Street, London.

Taylor, Richard, F.S.A., Assist. Sec. L.S.,
M.R.A.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., 6
Charterhouse Square, London.

Tennant, James, Professor of Mineralogy in
King’s College, London, F.G.S., 149
Strand, London.

Thicknesse, Ralph, jun., Beech Hill, near
Wigan.

Thodey, Winwood, 4 Poultry, London.

Thompson, Corden, M.D., Sheffield.

Thompson, John, Little Stonegate, York.

Thomson, Edmund Peel, Manchester.

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ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 11

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ConTENTs :—Prof. Airy, on the Progress of Astronomy ;—J. W. Lubbock, Esq., on the
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PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRD MEETING at Cambridge, 1833, 8s.

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Rev. J. Challis, on Capillary Attraction ;—Prof. Lloyd, on Physical Optics ;—Mr. G. Rennie,
on Hydraulics, Part II.

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a

PROCEEDINGS or rue FIFTH MEETING, at Dublin, 1835, 9s.

ConTENTs :—Rev. W. Whewell, on the Recent Progress and present Condition of the
Mathematical Theories of Electricity, Magnetism, and Heat ;—M. A. Quetelet, Apercu de
VEtat actuel des Sciences Mathématiques chez les Belges ;—Captain Edward Sabine, on the
Phznomena of Terrestrial Magnetism.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Sir W. Hamilton’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHe SIXTH MEETING, at Bristol, 1836, 8s.

Contents :—Prof. Daubeny, on the Present State of our Knowledge with respect to Mine-
ral and Thermal Waters ;—Major Edward Sabine, on the Direction and Intensity of the Ter-
restrial Magnetic Force in Scotland ;—Mr. John Richardson, on North American Zoology ;—
Rev. J. Challis, on the Mathematical Theory of Fluids ;—Mr. J. T. Mackay, a Comparative
View of the more remarkable Plants which characterize the neighbourhood of Dublin and
Edinburgh, and the South-west of Scotland, &c.;—Mr. J. T. Mackay, Comparative Geogra-
phical Notices of the more remarkable Plants which characterize Scotland and Ireland ;—Re-
port of the London Sub-Committee of the Medical Section on the Motions and Sounds of the
Heart ;—Second Report ofthe Dublin Sub-Committee on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart ;
—Report of the Dublin Committee on the Pathology of the Brain and Nervous System ;—
J. W. Lubbock, Esq., Account of the Recent Discussions of Observations of the Tides ;—Rev.
Baden Powell, on determining the Refractive Indices for the Standard Rays of the Solar Spec-
trum in various media ;—Dr. Hodgkin, on the Communication between the Arteries and
Absorbents ;—Prof. Phillips, Report of Experiments on Subterranean Temperature ;—Prof.
Hamilton, on the Validity of a Method recently proposed by George B. Jerrard, Esq., for
Transforming and Resolving Equations of Elevated Degrees.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Daubeny’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees. ,

PROCEEDINGS or tue SEVENTH MEETING, at Liverpool, 1837, 11s.

ConTENTs :—Major Edward Sabine, on the Variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed _
at different points of the Earth’s Surface ;—Rev. William Taylor, on the various modes of
Printing for the use of the blind ;—J. W. Lubbock, Esq., on the Discussions of Observations
of the Tides which have been obtained by means of the grant of money which was placed at
the disposal of the Author for that purpose at the last Meeting of the Association ;—Prof.
Thomas Thomson, on the Difference between the Composition of Cast Iron produced by the
Cold and Hot Blast ;—Rev. T. R. Robinson, on the Determination of the Constant of Nutation
by the Greenwich Observations, made as commanded by the British Association ;—Robert
Were Fox, Esq., Experiments on the Electricity of Metallic Veins, and the Temperature of
Mines ;—Provisional Report of the Committee of the Medical Section of the British Associa-
tion, appointed to investigate the Composition of Secretions, and the organs producing them ;
—Dr. G. O. Rees, Report from the Committee for inquiring into the Analysis of the Glands,
&c. of the Human Body ;—Second Report of the London Sub-Committee of the British Asso-
ciation Medical Section, on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart;—Prof. Johnston, on the
Present State of our knowledge in regard to Dimorphous Bodies ;—Col. Sykes, on the Sta-
tistics of the Four Collectorates of Dukhun, under the British Government ;—Eaton Hodgkin-
son, Esq., on the relative Strength and other Mechanical Properties of Iron obtained from the
Hot and Cold Blast ;—William Fairbairn, Esq., on the Strength and other Properties of Iron
obtained from the Hot and Cold Blast ;—Sir John Robison, and John Scott Russell, Esq.,
Report of the Committee on Waves, appointed by the British Association at Bristol in 1836 ;
—Note by Major Sabine, being an Appendix to his Report on the Variations of the Magnetic
Intensity observed at different Points of the Earth’s Surface ;—James Yates, on the Growth
of Plants under glass, and without any free communication with the outward Air, on the Plan
of Mr. N. J. Ward, of London.

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tions of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or roe EIGHTH MEETING, at Newcastle, 1838,

10s.

ConTENTS :—Rev. W. Whewell, Account of a Level Line, measured from the Bristol Chan-
nel to the English Channel, by Mr. Bunt;—Report on the Discussions of Tides, prepared
under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell ;—W. Snow Harris, Esq., Account of the Progress
and State of the Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;—Major Edward Sabine, on the
Magnetic Isoclinal and Isodynamic Lines in the British Islands;—D. Lardner, LL.D., on the —
Determination of the Mean Numerical Values of Railway Constants ;—R. Mallet, Esq., First
Report upon Experiments upon the Action of Sea and River Water upon Cast and Wrought

Iron ;—R. Mallet, Esq., on the Action of a Heat of 212° Fahr., when long continued, on In-
organic and Organic Substances.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tut NINTH MEETING, at Birmingham, 1839, 9s.

ConTEnTs :—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of Re-
fractive Indices, for the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrnm in different media ;—Report on
the Application of the Sum assigned for Tide Circulations to Mr. Whewell, in a Letter from
T. G. Bunt, Esq. ;—H. L. Pattinson, Esq., on some galvanic Experiments to determine the
Existence or Non-Existence of Electrical Currents among Stratified Rocks, particularly those
of the Mountain Limestone formation, constituting the Lead Measures of Alston Moor ;—Sir
David Brewster, Reports respecting the two series of Hourly Meteorological Observations kept
in Scotland at the expense ofthe British Association ;—Report on the subject of aseries of Re-
solutions adopted by the British Association at their Meeting in August 1838, at Newcastle ;—
Richard Owen, Esq., Reporton British Fossil Reptiles ;—Edward Forbes, Esq., Report on the
Distribution of pulmoniferous Mollusca in the British Isles;—W. Snow Harris, Esq., Third
Report on the Progress of the Hourly Meteorological Register at the Plymouth Dockyard,
Devonport.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or true TENTH MEETING, at Glasgow, 1840, 10s.

Contents :—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on the recent Progress of discovery relative to
Radiant Heat, supplementary to a former Report on the same subject inserted in the first vo-
lume of the Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of Science ;—James D.
Forbes, Esq., Supplementary Report on Meteorology ;—W. Snow Harris, Esq., Report on
Professor Whewell’s Anemometer, now in operation at Plymouth ;—Report on “ The Motions
and Sounds of the Heart,” by the London Committee of the British Association, for 1839-40 ;
—Professor Schénbein, an Account ef Researches in Electro-Chemistry ;—Robert Mallet,
Esq., Second Report upon the Action of Air and Water, whether fresh or salt, clear or foul,
and at various temperatures, upon Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, and Steel ;—Robert Were Fox,
Esq., Report on some Observations on Subterranean Temperature ;—A. Follett Osler, Esq.,
Report on the Observations recorded during the years 1887, 1838, 1839 and 1840, by the
Self-registering Anemometer erected at the Philosophical Institution, Birmingham ;—Sir David
Brewster, Report respecting the two Series of Hourly Meteorological Observations kept at In-
verness and Kingussie, at the expense of the British Association, from Nov. Ist, 1835 to Nov.
Ist, 1889 ;—William Thompson, Esq., Report on the Fauna of Isiand: Div. Vertebrata ;—
Charles J. B. Williams, M.D., Report of Experiments on the Physiology of the Lungs and
Air-Tubes ;—Rev. J. 8. Henslow, Report of the Committee appointed to try Experiments on
the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison and Major Edward Sabine’s
Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHe ELEVENTH MEETING, at Plymouth,
1841, 9s.

Contents :—Rev. Philip Kelland, on the Present State of our Theoretical and Experi-
mental Knowledge of the Laws of Conduction of Heat ;—G. L. Roupell, M.D., Report on
Poisons ;—Mr. Bunt, Report on Discussions of Bristol Tides, under the direction of the Rev.
W. Whewell;—D. Ross, Report on the Discussions of Leith Tide Observations, under the di-
rection of the Rev. W. Whewell;—W. S. Harris, Esq., upon the working of Whewell’s Anes
mometer at Plymouth during the past year ;—Report of a Committee appointed for the pur«
pose of superintending the scientific co-operation of the British Association in the system of
Simultaneous Observations in Terrestrial Magnetism and Meteorology ;—Reports of Commit-
tees appointed to provide Meteorological Instruments for the use of M. Agassiz and Mr.
M‘Cord ;—Report of a Committee to superintend the reduction of Meteorological Observations ;
—Report of a Committee for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars ;—Report of a Committee
for obtaining Instruments and Registers to record Shocks of Earthquakes in Scotland and Tres
land ;—Report of a Committee for making experiments on the Preservation of Vegetative
Powers in Seeds ;—Dr. Hodgkin, on Inquiries into the Races of Man ;—Report of the Com-
mittee appointed to report how far the Desiderata in our knowledge of the Condition of the
Upper Strata of the Atmosphere may be supplied by means of Ascents in Balloons or other-
wise, to ascertain the probable expense of such Experiments, and to draw up Directions for
Observers in such circumstances ;—Richard Owen, Esq., Report on British Fossil Reptiles;— -
Reports on the Determination of the Mean Value of Railway Constants ;—Dionysius Lardner,
LL.D., Second and concluding Report on the Determination of the Mean Value of Railway

Constants ;—Edward Woods, Report on Railway Constants ;—Report of a Committee on the
Construction of a Constant Indicator for Steam-Engines.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Whewell’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees,

PROCEEDINGS or tue TWELFTH MEETING, at Manchester,
1842, 7s.

ConTENTs :—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the co-operation of the British
Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—
John Richardson, M.D., Report on the present State of the Ichthyology of New Zealand ;—
W. Snow Harris, Report on the Progress of Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;—
Second Report of a Committee appointed to make Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of
Seeds ;—C. Vignolles, Esq., Report of the Committee on Railway Sections ;—Report of the
Committee for the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances ;—Lyon Playfair, M.D.,
Abstract of Professor Liebig’s Report on ‘“‘ Organic Chemistry applied to Physiology and Pa-
thology ;’—Richard Owen, Esq., Report on the British Fossil Mammalia, Part I. ;—Robert
Hunt, Researches on the Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of
Plants ;—Louis Agassiz, Report on the Fossil Fishes of the Devonian System or Old Red Sand-
stone ;—William Fairbairn, Esq., Appendix to a Report on the Strength and other Properties
of Cast Iron obtained from the Hot and Cold Blast ;—David Milne, Esq., Report of the Com-
mittee appointed at the Meeting of the British Association held at Plymouth in 1841, for re-
gistering Shocks of Earthquakes in Great Britain ;—Report of a Committee appointed at the
Tenth Meeting of the Association for the Construction of a Constant Indicator for Steam-En-
gines, and for the determination of the Velocity of the Piston of the Self-acting Engine at
different periods of the Stroke ;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Committee on the Form of Ships ;
—Report of a Committee appointed “ to consider of the rules by which the Nomenclature of
Zoology may be established on a uniform and permanent basis” ;—Report of a Committee on
- the Vital Statistics of large Towns in Scotland ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress
in Special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Francis Egerton’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHe THIRTEENTH MEETING, at Cork,
1843, 8s.

ConTENTs:—Robert Mallet, Esq., Third Report upon the Action of Air and Water,
whether fresh or salt, clear or foul, and of Various Temperatures, upon Cast Iron, Wrought
Iron and Steel;—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the co-operation of the
British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observa-
tions ;—Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., Report of the Committee appointed for the Reduction
of Meteorological Observations ;—Report of the Committee appointed for Experiments on
Steam-engines ;—Report of the Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the
Vitality of Seeds ;—J. S. Russell, Esq., Report of a Series of Observations on the Tides of the
Frith of Forth and the East Coast of Scotland ;—J.S. Russell, Esq., Notice of a Report of the
Committee on the Form of Ships ;—J. Blake, Esq., Report on thie Physiological Action of Me-
dicines ;—Report of the Committee appointed to print and circulate a Report on Zoological
Nomenclature ;—Report of the Committee appointed in 1842, for Registering the Shocks of
Earthquakes, and making such Meteorological Observations as may appear to them desirable ;
—Report of the Committee for conducting Experiments with Captive Balloons ;—Professor
Wheatstone, Appendix to the Report;—Report of the Committee for the Translation and
Publication of Foreign Scientific Memoirs ;—C. W. Peach, on the Habits of the Marine Tes-
tacea ;—Edward Forbes, Esq., Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the Aigean Sea, and
on their distribution, considered as bearing on Geology ;—M. Agassiz, Synoptical Table of
British Fossil Fishes, arranged in the order of the Geological Formations ;—Richard Owen,
Esq., Report on the British Fossil Mammalia, Part II.;—E. W. Binney, Report on the ex-
cavation made at the junction of the Lower New Red Sandstone with the Coal Measures at
Collyhurst, near Manchester ;—W. Thompson, Esq., Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Diy.
Invertebrata ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special Researches entrusted
to Committees and Individuals.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Earl of Rosse’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or truz FOURTEENTH MEETING, at York, 1844,
13s. 4d.

Contents :—W.B. Carpenter, M.D.,F.R.S.,on the Microscopic Structure of Shells; —Joshua
Alder and Albany Hancock, Report on the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca ;—Robert Hunt,

_ ciation for Experiments on Steam-Engines ;—Report of the Committee to investigate the Va-

{ —Report of a Committee appointed by the British Association in 1840, for revising the No- |

(Researches on the Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants ;

menclature of the Stars ;—Lieut.-Colonel Edward Sabine, R.A., F.R.S., on the Meteorology }
of Toronto in Canada ;—John Blackwall, F.L.S., Report into some recent researches into the
Structure, Functions and CEconomy of the Araneidea made in Great Britain ;—the Earl of
Rosse, on the Construction of large Reflecting Telescopes ;—the Rev. William Vernon Har- |
court, F.R.S., Report on a Gas Furnace for Experiments on Vitrifaction and other Applica-
tions of High Heat in the Laboratory ;—Report of the Committee for Registering Earthquake
Shocks in Scotland ;—Report of a Committee appointed at the Tenth Meeting of the Asso-

rieties of the Human Race ;—Fourth Report of a Committee appointed to continue their
Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds ;—William Fairbairn, Esq., on the Consumption of Fuel
and the prevention of Smoke ;—Francis Ronalds, Esq., F.R.S., Report concerning the Observa-
tory of the British Association at Kew ;—Sixth Report of the Committee appointed to conduct
the Co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and
Meteorological Observations ;—Prof. Forchhammer, on the influence of Fucoidal Plants upon
the Formations of the Earth, on Metamorphism in general, and particularly the Metamorphosis
of the Scandinavian Alum Slate ;—H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.G.S., Report on the recent Pro-
gress and present State of Ornithology ;—T. Oldham, Esq., M.R.I.A., Report of Committee
appointed to conduct Observations on Subterranean Temperature in Ireland ;—Prof, Owen,
F.R.S., Report on the Extinct Mammals of Australia, with descriptions of certain Fossils
indicative of the former existence in that Continent of large Marsupial Representatives of
the Order Pachydermata ;—W. Snow Harris, Esq., F.R.S., Report on the working of Whewell
and Osler’s Anemometers at Plymouth, for the years 1841, 1842, 1843 ;—W. R. Birt, Report
on Atmospheric Waves ;—L. Agassiz, Rapport sur les Poissons Fossiles de I’Argile de Londres,
with translation ;—J. Scott Russell, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.E., Report on Waves ;---Provisional
Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special Researches entrusted to Committees and Indivi-
duals.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dean of Ely’s Address, and Recommenda-
tions of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue FIFTEENTH MEETING, at Cambridge,
1845, 8s.

ConTENTS.—Seventh Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the co-operation of
the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Obser-
vations ;—Lieut.-Col. Sabine, on some points in the Meteorology of Bombay ;—J. Blake, M.B.,
Report on the Physiological Action of Medicines ;—Dr. Von Boguslawski, on the comet of
1843 ;—R. Hunt, Esq., Report on the Actinograph ;—Prof. Schonbein, on Ozone ;—Prof.
Erman, on the influence of friction upon Thermo Electricity;—Baron Senftenberg, on the
Self-Registering Meteorological Instruments employed in the Observatory at Senftenberg ;—
W. R. Birt, Esq., Second Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—G. R. Porter, Esq., on the Pro-
gress and Present Extent of Savings’ Banks in the United-Kingdom ;—Prof. Bunsen, and Dr.
Playfair, Report on the Gases evolved from Iron Furnaces, with reference to the theory of
Smelting of Iron ;—Dr. Richardson, Report on the Ichthyology of the Seas of China and Japan;
—Report of the Committee on the Registration of Periodical Phenomena of Animals and
Vegetables ;—Fifth Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Appendix, &c.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir J. F. W. Herschel’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.

LITHOGRAPHED SIGNATURES of the MEMBERS who met at Cambridge in 1833,
with the Proceedings of the Public Meetings, 4to. Price 4s. (To Members, 3s.)

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