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REPORT

OF THE

TWENTY-SIXTH MEETING

BRITISH 1 Buch ETION

FOR THE

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE;

HELD AT CHELTENHAM IN AUGUST 1856.

—_—

LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET
1857.

PRINTED BY
RICHARD TAYLOR AND WILLIAM FRANCIS,

RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.

CONTENTS.

Page
Osysects and Rules of the Association ........sscscsesseeeceseeeeceeeeees XVii
Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement ..........0+0.000 XX

MMERMMREE ATSOCCOWNG 05205 sclyas sateen pares: saasasasc sCvspadvasvaeseassncencsese, SOI
Table of Council from commencement ............seeceeceseeeeeeseeceeres XXIV
Sree Fata UCIE Toto t cp aei<) ap « sennietnevnes <aanes nae cup Cadade senses’ gy KENT
Officers of Sectional Committees ............sccseceesccesscceccenecnecsees XXVIL
Corresponding Members............. keraape iss cienedes son lites MRNA
Report of the Council to the sl Gostaniciet, Rimedih ote eceee bat) ERVIN
Report of the Kew Committee .....6.....cccsceccceccecesccccceccseseseneee = XXX
Report of the Parliamentary Committee —.............0e eee see eee ees . XXXviii
Recommendations for Additional Reports and Ressiniches in Sticties XXXIX
Synopsis of Money Grants . Leah safe shaw clasts Mae meee dea ateinacaemscath 4 XU
General Statement of Sums aaa for Scientific Bupha: desis sacle ot KEM
Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee .................. Xlvi
Arrangement of the General Meetings ............cscssesceseeeesessesesee Xvi
RMSE LNG ECHO na cone ag one oan tincbw crc skaanedivasanhecdrintessasines EVAL

REPORTS OF Bia ek ata IN SCIENCE.

Report from the Committee depois by the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, at the Meeting in Liverpool, in September
1854, to investigate and report upon the effects produced upon the
Channels of the Mersey by the alterations which within the last fifty
years have been made in its Banks .................ccesccccesccneneseneeecs 1

Interim Report to the British Association, on Progress in Researches
on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards. By James
Tuomson, C.E. ........... TERROR nidec use nee Cen eReR eee Lao
Dredging Report.—Frith of Clyde. “1856 .. ween ae AT

Report on Observations of Luminous Watenra,, 1855—56. 8 eb Hee
Baven Powe tt, M.A., F.R.S. an Savilian Professor of bree
in the University of Oxford.. 53

Photochemical Researches. By Hector Buwanis of Heidelberg, und
Dr. Henry E. Roscor, of London

iv CONTENTS.

On the Trigonometry of the Parabola, and the Geometrical Origin of
Logarithms. By the Rev. JAMES Bootu, LL.D., F.R.S. &c..........

Report on the Marine Testaceous Mollusca of the North-east Atlantic
and neighbouring Seas, and the physical conditions affecting their
development. By Ropert MACANDREW, F.R.S. ......seeeeeeee eee ees

Report on the present state of our knowledge with regard to the
Mollusca of the West Coast of North America. By Puiip P.
CARPENTER. (With Four Plates) ....0...cssssescscsesseecneseeeee secon

Abstract of First Report on the Oyster Beds and Oysters of the British
Shores. By T. C. Eyron, F.L.S., EGS ccsancesescs eduesecen eee

Report on Cleavage and Foliation in Rocks, and on the Theoretical
Explanations of these Phanomena,—Part I. By Jonn Pui.utrs,
M.A., F.R.S., G.S., Reader in Geology in the University of Oxford...

On the Stratigraphical Distribution of the Oolitic Echinodermata. By
Tuomas Wricut, M.D., F.R.S.E. Be auis Bo nio'e sigue

On the Tensile Strength of Wrought Iron at various Temperatures.
By Wier Fampairn,; F.RS. &es Sie iiianeserstess en eng eee mance

Mercantile Steam Transport Economy. By Cartes ATHERTON,

Chief Engineer of Her Majesty’s Dockyard, Woolwich ...............
On the Vital Powers of the Spongiade. By J.S. Bowerzank, F.R.S.,
Report of a Committee, consisting of Sir W. Jarpine, Bart., Dr.

FLemine, and Mr, E. AsHwortu, upon the Experiments conducted
at Stormontfield, near Perth, for the artificial propagation of Salmon

Provisional Report on the progress of a Committee appointed at the
Meeting in Glasgow, September 1855, to consider the question of the
Measurement of Ships for Tonnage, consisting of the following
Gentlemen:—Mr. J. R. Napier, Mr. Joan Woop, Mr. ALLAN
Gitmore, Mr. Cuartes ATHERTON, Mr. JAMEs PEAKE, and Mr.
ANDREW HENDERSON (Reporter) ........ccscseeesceeecees

On Typical Forms of Minerals, Plants and Animals for Museums ......

Interim Report to the British Association on Progress in Researches
on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards. By JAmeEs
THOMSON, C.B 2,0... csnsancowcseasst gn <ae ese enmeeue Rabe. sneha tam Sa

On Observations with the Seismometer. By R. Mauer, C.E., M.R.LA.
On the Progress of Theoretical Dynamics. By A. Caytey, M.A,
Report of a Committee appointed by “The British Association for the
Advancement of Science,” to consider the formation of a Catalogue
of Philosophical Memoirs

Page

68

101

159

368 |

369

396

405

423

. 438

451

. 458

461

462
462

- 463

. 463

CONTENTS.

NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS

OF

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS.

MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

MaTHEMATICS.

Mr. J. T. Graves on the Polyhedron of Forces .......-.0+e+sereeersreres
on the Congruence nz==n4+1 (mod p) .----seserereres
Mr. H. M. Jzerrery’s Two Memoirs. —I. On a Theorem in Combinations.

Il. On a particular Class of Congruences......-.+--++-sererrrrrstttttt

Professor STEVELLY on a New Method of Treating the Doctrine of Parallel
[LSet oho Ree Rn RMR, TRDIG/ en ALAR ICUPPE IOP ER CaC REC OCU Git nan ann onan

Mr. H. R. Twrntne’s Models to illustrate 2 New Method of teaching
RE RMECAOGE PNciela tials fate ce sahasns alan os dian big g « wpaisseie, sla dig)e inn sie Che sae

Licut, Heat, Evectriciry, MAGNETISM.
Mr. A. CLavpEr on various Phenomena of Refraction through Semi-Lenses
producing Anomalies in the Ilusion of Stereoscopic Images ......-+++->

Dr. J. H. Grapsronz on some Dichromatic Phenomena among Solutions, and
the means of representing them. ..........-++sseee ree eerer tere nseeees

Mr. W. BR. Grove on the Stratified Appearance of the Electrical Discharge. .
Sir W. 8. Harris on the Law of Electrical and Magnetic Force.........---

Mr. J. C. Maxwetz on the Unequal Sensibility of the Foramen Centrale to

Light of different Colours .........--.. seer sees nese reece tenn e etree
on a Method of Drawing the Theoretical Forms of Faraday’s
Lines of Force without Calculation ............6- eee nese teeter eees
on the Theory of Compound Colours with reference to

Mixtures of Blue and Yellow Light..........-.. sees sect ee ence nee
Mr. James Nasmytu on the Form of Lightning .........-.-..- sees eres

af ee PoweExt on Fresnel’s Formule for Reflected and Refracted
DR Bate iceln jeans cid > Weim NRE + umabe cueie “peatetit Men ELE EO
Mr. W. Symons on a Modification of the Maynooth Cast Iron Battery .....-

Professor W1LL1aAM Tuomson on Dellman’s Method of observing Atmospheric
IN TOM oc ine <n ys nici 4 al a Sees Selb snes EE

Mr. E. Vivian on Printing Photographs, with suggestions for introducing
Clouds and Artistic Effects 0.0.0... . eee e eee ee eee eee nee

Mr. Witpman Wurrenovse on the Construction and Use of an Instrument
for determining the Value of Intermittent or Alternating Electric Currents
for purposes of Practical Telegraphy........-..0-eesereee reser ener eens

mae on the Law of the Squares—is it applicable or not
to the Transmission of Signals in Submarine Cireuits?..........-...5+5-

21

vi CONTENTS.

Astronomy, MEeTEors, WAVES.

Professor CHEVALLIER on the Tides of Nova Scotia ........ccceeeeueeeeee

Mr. RicHarD GREENE’S Working Model of a Machine for polishing Specula Sy

for Reflecting Telescopes and Lemses ........ccccevese reece ees eeeeees
Professor Hennessy on the Physical Structure of the Earth ..............

Dr. Epwarp Hivcxs on the Eclipse of the Sun mentioned in the First Book
GIPESAU OLS peice leet rs siete o(elere'e «| vesicle lovslats) vhs. ee leteie aan creas Meets

Mr. J. C. MaxwrEtt on an Instrument to illustrate Poinsdt’s Theory of
IRON tcc og ocones cs Gob Ito | pen th BOB OD mace aGG Go onto gr con 1: soc

Professor P1azzi1 Smyru on the Constancy of Solar Radiation ............

Professor G. JOHNSTONE Sroney on a Collimator for completing the Adjust-
riitrurcetoyed aretireangivead bel letcele) Yes} an § Da ARO Oe aE OOO Seo O SOM aU Of 2oC

Mr. J. Syxtons on Phzenomena recently discovered in the Moon............

Rey. W. WHEWELL on the reasons for describing the Moon’s Motion as a
yar BUGBLINOR ARIS rts cite lalla ces aie os ue oe ne wees wale ne gies # ne

METEOROLOGY.

Mr. THomas Dosson on the Causes of Great Inundations ...............-.

———_____—_——— on the Balaklava Tempest, and the Mode of Interpreting
BAromenccal eB NIC hUMLONS Haier een htc ett ot crels «co cieie one cage eee

Mr. WELSH on a Model of a Self-Registering Anemometer. Designed and
Constructed by R. Beckley, of Kew Observatory ............... 00.000

Mr. R. Garner on a remarkable Hail-Storm in North Staffordshire. With -

Some | Casts othe ckl A StONMeS xp. s,-.ossrs uote, av eie afore sb 2S susie eharedotelei alee eer
Professor Hennessy on Isothermal Lines .......... wees Cae peer eee

——__—_—————— 0n an Instrument for observing Vertical Currents in the
LNAI 11S) oI co CITA Bcd 0 £:04 SBS Olne an do Sai BO OOM TOS ott. or

Dr. Joun LEE on Negretti and Zambra’s Mercurial Minimum Thermometer. .

Mr. JoHN Puixires on a New Method of making Maximum Self-Registering
ol bl nteyti(0) C113) 72): Mae eA Reo. 4 Aaa Geico Birla) ole iciste: leis ovale slat phere dete

Mr. Henry Poorn’s Observations with the Aneroid Métallique and Thermo-
meter, during a Tour through Palestine, and along the shores of the Dead
Sea, October and ‘November. 1855.00... cicsissate:seietels h stoities voi Helen penin gies

Rey. C. PrircHarp on a Meteor seen at Cheltenham on Friday, August 8th. .

Rey. T. Rankry’s Continuation of Meteorological Observations for 1855, at
Puppates orkshiret Grin «i. semis Gitters-s. tate) yatole ratetsl ste. Stats iain otare erent

Mr. B. Srewart on a Thermometer for Measuring Fluctuations of Tempera-
ture. Communicated and described by Mr. WELSH .............-000005

Mr. E. Vivian on the Climate of Torquay and South Devon ..............

Mr. J. WeEtsu’s Instructions for the Graduation of Boiling-point Thermo-
meters, intended for the Measurement of Heights ............+s0eeeeee

Captain WoopDALt on Barometrical and Thermometrical Observations at Scar-
OLOUETED «oe og «agai etatanarey averet adeno ovate ein of eictictaner ob ois eial'e) st avel her diehict ie at att ae

CHEMISTRY.

Dr. Tuomas ANDERSON on the Composition of Paraffine from different sources

Professor BRopIE on a new combination of Carbon, Oxygen and Be ircies
formed by the Oxidation of Graphite; and on the Appearance of Carbon
under the Microscope

oe 0 8 0 ee oleh oie Bie) wa ele phe oa d.0 eho eie we Be sieelnye euehidtqhe ¢ eles

art

We ne

CONTENTS. vil

Professor F. CracE CaLveERrT on the Incrustations of Blast Furnaces .....- 50

Dr. J. H. Guapsrone on the Salts actually present in the Cheltenham and
other Mineral Waters...) 0c cdc e eee creer enter ena ene ees

on Nitroglycerine ...... esses e cere eee e eee ee nena 52
Mr. Joun Horstxy on the Conversion of Tannin into Gallic Acid.......--. 52
_ soon a New Method of instituting Post-mortem researches
PREPSGRVEDDIA 0. cy le cence tee ete ee hotter asses eer e cece rr ee satis 53
on Testing for Strychnia, Brucia, &c. ......+++-+++5: 53
on a New Method of extracting the Alkaloids Strychnia
and Brucia from Nux Vomica without Alcohol ..........+ sess seer rece 54
’s Experiments on Animals with Strychnia, and probable
Reasons for the Non-detection of the Poison in certain cases .....++-+++5 55
Mr. J. B. Lawes and Dr. Gizsert on the Products and Composition of
PAIRGAPARTAIN. cece cd os see esa cs sins noe sie o's sagsisjaladyayeitee by bh elk seit 55
Dr. Stevenson Macapam on the Detection of Strychnine ......+++.+++0+> 55
Rey. W. Mrrcuett and Prof, J. Tennant on a Series of Descriptive Labels
for Mineral Collections in Public Institutions. ........:seeeeeee re eeeee 57
Mr. Witt1am Opie on the Alkaline Emanations from Sewers and Cess-
PR Me inca hk cheery alg to eeurebry Sk berorti ii Asetes tro settee 57
on the Detection of Antimony for Medico-Legal
PGE MMSER LE. sfareceult: Fdmrmrldekroe As te eine el: he rigs teens 57
Mr. W. R. Pearson on the Compounds of Chromium and Bismuth ........ 58
Mr. Cuartes Poorzy on Engraving Collodion Photographs by means of
Fluoric Acid Gas oo... cee eee eee eee ee teen eee renee 58
Rev. C. PrrrcHarp on the Gases of the Grotto del Cane .........---+ 000: 58

Professor A. VorLcKER on the Corrosive Action of Smoke on Building Stones 58
on the Composition of American Phosphate of Lime. . 58

soon Basic Phosphates of Lime .....-+++s-+e+seese 58
Mr. W. Svxes Warp on Albuminized Collodion ..........+++seevereeees 58
Mr. P. J. Worstey on a New Process for Making and Melting Steel........ 59
Mr. Henry Wricut on the Use of the Gramme in Chemistry .......----- 60
GEOLOGY.
Lieutenant AyTon on Gold in India...........-.. cece etree rete et eees 60
Mr. Wriu14m H. Barty on Fossils from the Crane, Jeni es Porch deaieths 60
Mr. J. 8. BowErsanx on the Origin of Siliceous Deposits in the Chalk For-
Sra So ae nad Han. Seen motrin tear Tt fOr oar Wyane (so
Rey. P. B. Bropre on some New Species of Corals in the Lias of Gloucester-
shire, Worcestershire, and Warwickshire ........+++s-ssesreeercreees 64
—_____ on a New Species of Pollicipes in the Inferior Oolite near
Stroud, in Gloucestershire ......... cece eect eee eee teen eee eeeenee 64
Professor James Buckman on the Basement Beds of the Oolite.........-.- 64
on the Oolite Rocks of the Cotteswold Hills .... 65

Mr. R. Ernermes on the Igneous Rocks of Lundy and the Bristol District.. 65

Professor Harkness on some New Fossils from the ancient Sedimentary Rocks
of Ireland and Scotland ....... 0. cece cece etre teen eee teeta eens 65

on the Jointing of Roéks. 7)... 06. eee eee tee 65
on the Lignites of the Giant’s Causeway and the Isle of Mull 66

Vili CONTENTS.

Page

Professor Hennessy on the Relative Distribution of Land and Water as aflect-
ing Climate at different Geological Epochs ...........+.+-seeeeeeeeeees

Dr. H. B. HornBECK on some Minerals from the Isle of St. Thomas ........

Mr. Epwarp Hutz on the South-easterly Attenuation of the Oolitic, Liassic,
Triassic, and Permian Formations s.05in. > hisses ci miciats e+ rele «a ofekeds aieinye

Mr. J. Bertr Juxes on the Alteration of Clay-slate and Gritstone into Mica-
schist and Gneiss by the Granite of Wicklow, &.........::seeeseeeues

Mr. J. E. Lez on some Fossil Fishes from the Strata of the Moselle ........

on an Elephant’s Grinder from the Cerithium Limestone

Mr. M. MocerinGe on the Time required for the formation of “ Rolled Stones”

Mr. CHaritEs Moore on the Skin and Food of Ichthyosauri and Teleosauzi. .
on the Middle and Upper Lias of the West of England

Sir R. I. Murcutson on the Bone Beds of the Upper Ludlow Rock, and base
OtinesOld Red. Sandshonege cust eye serge acces uns sister's ichst saahmettee te een

Mr. Ropert MusHeT on an ancient Miner’s Axe recently discovered in the
Forest of Dean. In a letter to RicnHarp BEamisH, Hsq.................

Professor OWEN on the Dichodon cuspidatus, from the Upper Eocene of the
Isle of Wight and Hordwell, Hants .............0. 0c ccseu ec eeebe cease

on some Additional Evidence of the Fossil Musk-Ox (Bubalus
moschatus) from the Wiltshire Drift........... 0c cscs c eect eee eeeees

——_—_—_—_——— on a New Species of Anoplotherioid Mammal (Dichobune
Ovinum, Ow.) from the Upper Eocene of Hordwell, Hants, with Remarks
on the Genera Dichobune, Xiphodon, and Microtherium,..........+++++++

———_—_———- on a Fossil Mammal (Stereognathus Ooliticus) from the Stones-
HE GUS NOs tar cipaBoes Ome oo4 ODE tddndooratatine Mantag ne asta cr

———__———— on the Scelidotherium leptocephalum, a Megatherioid Qua-
Groped ona Naas) abe noo: </skabarsrcs sRenctenetere eget ove latarateyes cho’ lo) o\e eleueto aL tat Rnerer=

Mr. W. PenGELLY on the Beekites found in the Red Conglomerates of Torbay

Professor H. D. Rogers on the Correlation of the North American and British
Pal MOZOIC | SHEAEA foe oe le Oe Soe ne: 5 Disa lare cs Waka leteteeta ame

on the Origin of Saliferous Deposits ..............

Mr. J. W. SaLTER on the Great Pterygotus (Seraphim) of Scotland, and other
is] N02 eA od Gaon on 12 O paenoeboun tare oo Caica aacradscdh sa

MP OTWIS! | scare v0 ek nie he SMDROTENG vos. «tale ols cake Lave eeeeicc cence Canoe eae

Mr. H. C. Sorsy’s Description of a Working Model to illustrate the formation
of “ Drift-bedding”’ (a kind of false stratification) ................00++5-

——____—————. on the Magnesian Limestone having been formed by the
alteration of an ordinary calcareous deposit............... 00.0 cece ee eee

————__————— on the Microscopical Structure of Mica-Schist ..........
Rey. W. Symonps on some Phenomena in the Malvern District ..........
on the Rocks of Dean Forest ...........0.000e eee eees

Mr. E. Vrvran’s Researches in Kent’s Cavern, Torquay, with the original MS.
Memoir of its first opening, by the late Rev. J. MacEnrry (long supposed
to have been lost), and the Report of the Sub-Committee of the Torquay
Naturaldistery- Society 5...<2.i4) 0 ts steath omdewet sakl da deeaeestiens

Captain Woopaut on the Evidence of a Reef of Lower Lias Rock, extending

from Robin Hood’s Bay to the neighbourhood of Flamborough Head......

Dr. THomas Wricut on the Occurrence of Upper Lias Ammonites in the
(so-called) Basement Beds of the Inferior Oolite .......... 0... eee eee

69
69
70

74

75

80

80

CONTENTS.

BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY, inc.tupinc PHYSIOLOGY.

Botany.

Mr. C. C. BaBInGTON on a supposed Fossil Fucus found at Aust Cliff, Glou-
REALCISHIPOM ree s ciacla nies ison ctr cM ae Seele tte Cie aoe a's 4 o'alatece ath cial Tohniasares
Professor Buckman’s Notes on Experiments in the Botanical Garden of the

1x

Page

Royal Apricultural College .......... cece cece cece tect eestnesseees 83
Professor GREGoRY on New Forms of Diatomacee from the Firth of Clyde.. 83
Professor ARTHUR HENFREY on the Development of the Embryo of Flowering

ee lc a Rae at PAT ei ais a ay 8 Rca siete al a gS oUe cic e a0) 4 nc e'aysis aint 85
Rey. Professor HensLow on the Triticoidal Forms of Zgilops, and on the

Specific Identity of Centaurea nigra and C. nigrescens .......6seeeeeeees 87
Professor G. B. KNowxEs on the Movements of Oscillatorie .............. 88
Dr. W. Lauper Linnsay on the genus Abrothallus, De Nrs. ..........000+ 88
Dr. MicHEe sen on the Flora of the Crimea ......... cc cc eeceeeeeeeeeaes 90

on the Geography of BreadstuffS ......... 00 cc ec ce rece nee 90
Mr. Cuares W. Pracu on the Natural Printing of Sea-Weeds on the Rocks
in the vicinity of Stromness, Orlmey ......... cs cc cecncecennccesecees 90
ZooLoey.
Mr. JosHuA ALDER on some New Genera and Species of British Zoophytes 90
Mr. SPENCE Bate on a New Crustacean, Monimia Whiteana.............. 91
Professor J. H. Consett on the Acalephz, with respect to Organs of Cir-

culation and Respiration’ ©)... 00.0 vu eed due ebaseteeriereee ees 91
Mr. RopertT Garner on the Pearls of the Conway River, North Wales, with

some Observations on the Natural Productions of the neighbouring Coast... 92
Professor Goopsir on the Morphological Constitution of Limbs............ 93
———_—_———_ on the Morphological Constitution of the Skeleton of the

et RALCAR CA pesky Ae fale eerecs gy ho eeieitoactie ncdiile\ svnye sameness % ops'opavenctel ¢ 8 oI 93
——_——_—_——— on the Morphological Relations of the Nervous System in

the Annulose and Vertebrate Types of Organization ............. 0.0000, 93
Mr. Arpany Hancock on the Anatomy of the Brachiopoda .............. 94
Mr. W. E. C. Noursz’s Suggestions for ascertaining the Causes of Death in

REG AG CATHIMALS Crave Amel sie Ww ciettabsrey cele a\o1 sa Gales she anase 4:4") 0.0,¢ Greesyeiees 97

on the Medical Indications of Poisoning............ 97
Sir Toomas Puixrpps on an instance of Instinct in a Caterpillar.......... 97
Mr. B. W. Ricuarpson’s Recent Researches on the Cause of the Fluidity of

(= LD RAR te SBA aN ih SNORE ey Reh aR AER negra gla Nr 98
Mr. J. SamvEtson’s Experiments and Observations on the Development of-

pemmeaontal Neimialewled’ ). roe ee es» ris Sides oe u%s v vista ole eeaceng's Soleo, 98
Dr. SHaw’s Description of the Ajuh, a kind of Whale, found by Dr. Vogel in

the River Benué (Central Africa) in September 1855 ..............005 98
Dr. Avcustus WaLLER’s eee Researches on the Eye, and Obser-

vations on the Circulation of the Blood in the Vessels of the Conjunctiva,

of the Iris, of the Ciliary Ligament, and of the Choroid Membrane, during

life, as seen under the Compound Microscope .............sceeeeeeeeees 100
Dr. THomas Witu1ams on the Mechanism of Respiration in the Family of

PimEMideS faite eaitaevwntia. Le.G.iaitaid eee a Maan A oaiale vies Aste 2 101

on the Fluid System of the Nematoid Entozoa .,,. 101

x CONTENTS.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Rey. L, Jenyns on the Variation of Species

GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.

Mr. Ropert Avstin’s Report of an Expedition to explore the Interior of

Western (A: Wstialenaewt eee. cess iuets ore aidlc aise oh eletble ates seaca alone eueiele. coo Mapeamatehs 105
Dr. W. B. Barxre on recent Discovery in Central Africa, and the reasons

which exist for continued and renewed Research ..........00eeeeeeeees 105
Professor BuckMAN on some Antiques found at Cirencester as Evidence of the

Domeste Mannersiof the Romans 77005 voles ibs oP ive ves le eeitietnitls Be 108
The ArRcHDEACON of CARDIGAN on the Site of Echatana...............-4- 108

Mr. R. Cux1 on a more positive Knowledge of the Changes, both Physical ae
Mental, in Man, with a view to ascertain their Clauses ........0ceeeeeees

Dr. L. K. Daa on the Varanger Fiord 2.0.65... ccc t ete e ec eens sete weees a

on the Torenic System of the Ugrians (Finns), Albanians, et

OLb ORs D pula TONS ian Af apie vio vvchye sixes sottti nals cunts vice ojeies-iv' 4 +, «fal jsiereeegeyls
on the Relation of the Siberian and Armenian Languages .... te

Mr. J. Barnarp Davis on the Forms of the Crania of the Anglo-Saxons .... 108

Mr. A. G. Frypiay on some Volcanic Islets to the South-East of Japan, in-
cluding thes Bonindlslan detract, «:sratatostVeloveiel oles vie Osisters lays Mate alee etal 110

Mr. F. D. Hartianp on Vesuvius and its Eruptions; illustrated by a Col-
lection of Drawings by W. Baylis 11

on the most Ancient Map of the World, from the Propa-
111

oe ary a Oat eer tr cd Cer eC Or Ck oe WC We ee oe Cu ey

ee meme meee e reer erro ae ee ewer ee eaeernee

ganda, Rome

—___—_—_—_———_ on Vesuvius and its Hruptions............-.eseeeeee lil
Professor Hennessy on the Homolographical Maps of M. Babinet .......... 112
Captain IrminGER on the Arctic Current around Greenland .............. 112

Dr. E. K. Kanz’s Report on his Expedition up Smith’s Sound in Search of
SiziJohn Prandin: (01.1. v2 itil, Seatac ash. Oils + ica monte ctes concen

Colonel A. Laxe, an Original Letter from General Mouravieff.............. 113
Rey. Dr. D. Liviveston’s Return Journey across Southern Africa.......... 118
Mr. Joun Locke on a New Route to India—the Syro-Arabian Railway .... 114
Dr. D. Macprerson’s Researches in the Crimean Bosphorus, and on the site

of the Ancient Greek City of Panticapeeum (Kertch) ...............-.. 115
Mr. James Nasmyru on the Plastic Origin of the Cuneiform Characters, and

its Relation to our own Alphabet ... 00.06. 5 cece ee cece e cence accwens 118
Wr, JOHN EAE onsbhesbisq mia’ t1. s-lst.!ste)ofah- oletotelatafalstalatelaloNefel fate tei@an attest 119
Captain Sprarr on the Route between Kustenjeh and the Danube ........ 119
Captain CuarixEs Srurt on recent Discoveries in Australia ..........004+ 119
Mr. E. Vrv1An on the earliest traces of Human Remains in Kent’s Cavern.... 119

STATISTICS.

Lorp STANLEY’s Opening Address ..... 0.00000 ceeeeeeencecsceueen nes .. 122

Mr. T. Barwick Luoyp Baxer’s Statistics and Suggestions connected with
the Reformation of Juvenile Offenders ....... ee eee eee reer eenteereneees 128

A a ee

CONTENTS. x1

Page
Mr. Richarp BramisH’s Statistics of Cheltenham ...........s.sseeeeaee 129
Rey. C. H. Brompy’s Suggestions on the People’s Education.............. 130

Mr. Samvret Brown on the Advantages to Statistical Science of a Uniform
Decimal System of Measures, Weights, and Coins throughout the World.. 133

Mary Carrrenter (of Bristol) on the Position of Reformatory Schools
in reference to the State, and the General Principles of their Management,
especially as regards Female Reformatories..........000ceceeeeeveveees 184

Mr. Epwarp CxiIBBoRN on the Tendency of Kuropean Races to become extinct
BAO MItOM SEALES: 5 (<jaroj acclessveie ageanseie, a thaldl ohe oh. dH Pete olen ahha LifaubCsibVeht loyal atom 136

Mr. J. Towne Danson on the Diversity of Measures in the Corn-Markets of
Reremhrutved Mc SOL ones afehite ma cpeaenebetiie vb) Slopsbeyrhcae fi th els oyayq Syesedsnepstacn Fe ohchaxs 137

—________—_—— on the Connexion between Slavery in the United States
of America and the Cotton Manufacture in the United Kingdom........ 137

Dr. Lovts Kr. Daa’s Table of the Lapps and Finns in Norway, according to
the Census Returns of 1845 and 1855... 1... eee eee ee es 138

Mr. Vincent Scurty’s Table showing the Population of Ireland at different
intervals from 1603 to 1856, with Causes for Periodical Increase or Decrease 142

Mr. J. Towne Danson on the Wirral Peninsula, and the Growth of its Popu-
lation during the last fifty years in connexion with Liverpool and the Man-
PHENO UU MAILED argal\Sispaycitheieets «fetes ts bos eberdseitc ey. ct bhe ols caver. MOFE(SE 148

Mr. James Wii114M GiBaRt on the Family Principle in London Banking.. 143
Dr. W. Netson Hancocxk’s Definition of Income in Economic Science com-

pared with the existing Taxes on Income............ 0. ccc eee cece eeees 144
Mr. R. Toompson JopLine on the Mortality among Officers of the British

JS SAD pT) ELEGYa BEYSUP eta ae PTAC ORO at AGG 2a 6s SB PC CATR coe 144
Mr. R. G. Latuam on the Distribution of the Albanians, politically ........ 145

Mr. Wit11am Newmanrcu on the Former and Present Plans of disposing of
the Waste Lands in the Australian Colonies ............... ccc ceueees 146

nS MEGUGTIS TIT EDTTCER ete. choke vc ce ss srs coed bt we eb coo ¥écohokicce cite beens 146

Lieut.-General Sir C. W. Pastry’s Plan for Simplifying and Improving the
Measures, Weights, and Money of this Country, without materially altering
the present Standards 1

Dr. M. Rorn’s Aphoristic Notes on Sanitary Statistics of Workhouses and
Charitable Institutions

Ce

5, WOE, BD OO De 0 1 DORR Sees ACNE Ee Re aaa 149
Mx. H. W. Rumsey on the Territorial Distribution of the Population, for pur-
poses of Sanitary Inquiry and Social Economy ................eeeee eee 151
Dr. Jonn StRAnG on the Progress, Extent, and Value of the Porcelain, Earth-
enware, and Glass Manufacture of Glasgow............cccceceveveceves 153
———_—_———— on the Money-rate of Wages of Labour in Glasgow and the
RM COUT cist cca AMMEN a 6.6 Sawie as lone asa 6. 60"54 Fame.» again We aed 155
Mr. W. M. Tarrr on some Statistics bearing upon the Relations existing
Memeesee myerty. Wd! Orme ered «oc cies vos vinene on ek é anituiieeu adeates.. 159
Professor R. H. Waxsu’s Deduction from the Statistics of Crime for the last
Nr is a ner aio MBE RE Fn MTN a AA a Avail’ Bbyays ofigaeeinteee nye 159
on the Present Export of Silver to the East ........ 161

Mr, R. MoncxtTon Mixnes’s Concluding Address ..........0.cccecseeeveee 161

XVi CONTENTS.

MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

Page

Mr. H. Bessemer on the Manufacture of Iron and Steel without Fuel ...... 162

Mr. W. Cray on the Manufacture of the large Wrought-Iron Gun, and other
Masses of Iron made at the Mersey Iron Works, TAVERPOOL:.. cine eyes e x 162

Major V. Eyre on the Application of Corrugated Metal to Ships, Boats, and
ther. Floating Odes: .\cyecelex<laver.carey ther everele rere ieea rats Slane eta iere nilemersh else leyemmneeels 162

Dr. GREENE on a Method of uniting Iron with Iron or other Metals without
welding, invented by M. Sisco of Paris.............:eeceedeeeeneeenaes 162

———_—— on a New Railway Break, invented by M. Sisco of Paris...... 162

Professor HennEssy on the Inundation of Rivers ...........-..00 essen ues 162

Mr. F. M. Kettey’s Explorations through the Valley of the Atrato to the
Pacific in search of a Route for a Ship-camal ............. 0.00 e ee eens 162

Mr. W. A. Macxrie on the Patent Laws............0 see eee e tee e cette 164

Mr. R. MeTHvEN on the Management of Mercantile Vessels..............-. 164

Dr. SrpBap (Liverpool) on a New Plan for a Ship Communicator ........ 164

Mr. W. Smirx on Improved Mechanical Means for the Extraction of Oil, and
the Economical Manufacture of Manures from Fish and Fishy Matter .... 164

Mr. GrorGE RENNIE on the Quantity of Heat developed by Water when
violently agitated - 1: 0% semirted ahiiace deld-for Sail aetiea Saeed sateen Ae 165

—___—_—_———_’s Experiments to determine the Resistance of a Screw
when revolving in Water at different Depths and Velocities.............. 169

APPENDIX.

Mr. SamvreL HicHury on Crystallogenesis, and the Equivalent in the Mineral
Kingdom corresponding to Geographical Distribution in the Animal and
Viepetable Hamed Ome eer... Besse hs orezens wrale, sossmys aoes the opsld al ora@ayeyayo,cyoueeca ues 172

Mr. J. B. Lawes and Dr. J. H. GILBERT on some points connected with Agri-
Chitral OM eMmIsheyn anise spr. vara e ara sio es celetlsya/iisievsa0 *kene/ eaereyasaette te ene 172

a ————_ on the Composition of Wheat-Grain,
DGS PLOW CHS renaus cits. poke Sethe epeiciins Neve evePi ey als naaeew shale fount avon aioe 173

Mr. Henry Darwin Rogers on the Correlation of the North American and
British" Pale OZOweeLAbas ac aso siahs here's, s cies + 01s sce F.ccalecesuahart jonee doa cee 175

OBJECTS AND RULES

OF

THE ASSOCIATION.

———~_—-
OBJECTS.

Tue Association contemplates no interference with the ground occupied by
other Institutions. Its objects are,—To give a stronger impulse and a more
systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the intercourse of those
who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire, with one n-
other, and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a more general attention to
the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind
which impede its progress.

RULES.

ADMISSION OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES,

All Persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to be-
come Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to con-
form to its Rules.

The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical So-
cieties publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled, in
like manner, to become Members of the Association.

The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees, of
Philosophical Institutions, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem-
bers of the Association.

All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Council
or Managing Committee, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem-
bers of the Association.

Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the General
Committee or Council, to become Life Members of the Association, Annual
Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the approval of a General
“Meeting.

COMPOSITIONS, SUBSCRIPTIONS, AND PRIVILEGES.

Lire Memsrrs shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They
shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be pub-
lished after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the offices
of the Association. -

Annuat Suzscrisurs shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,
and in each following year the sum of One Pound. They shall receive
gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their
‘Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this Subscription in any particu-
lar year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and all
future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association gratis :
but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any sub-
sequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the sum of
One Pound. ‘They are eligible to all the Offices of the Association.

Assoctatss for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.

1856. b

xvi RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.

The Association consists of the following classes :—

1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.

2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on ad-
mission Ten Pounds as a composition.

3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to the
payment of One Pound annually. [May resume their Membership after in-
termission of Annual Payment. ]

4, Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the pay-
ment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each following
year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of Annual Pay-
ment. |

5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.

6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.

And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’) price,
according to the following specification, viz. :—

1. Gratis.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further
sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845, a
further sum of Five Pounds.

New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a com- ,
position.

Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.

2. At reduced or Members’ Prices, viz. two-thirds: of the Publication
Price.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a
composition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a
Book Subscription.

Annual Members, who have intermitted their Annual Subscrip-
tion.

Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for
that year only. ]

3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any
of the first seventeen volumes of Transactions of the Associa-
tion, and of which more than 100 copies remain, at one-third of
the Publication Price. Application to be made (by letter) to
Messrs. Taylor & Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet St., London.

Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.

MEETINGS.

The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The place
of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee at the pre-
vious Meeting; and the Arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Offi-
cers of the Association.

GENERAL COMMITTEE.

The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons :—

1. Presidents and Officers for the present and preceding years, with au-
thors of Reports in the Transacfions of the Association.

2. Members who have communicated any Paper to a Philosophical Society,
which has been printed in its Transactions, and which relates to such subjects
as are taken into consideration at the Sectional Meetings of the Association,

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. X1x

3. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, altogether, not exceed-
ing three in number, from any Philosophical Society publishing Transactions.

4. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, not exceeding three,
from Philosophical Institutions established in the place of Meeting, or mn any
place where the Association has formerly met.

5. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and who
are specially nominated in writing for the Meeting of the year by the Presi-
dent and General Secretaries.

6. The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the Sections are
ex-officio members of the General Committee for the time being.

SECTIONAL COMMITTEES,

The General Committee shall appoint, at each Meeting, Committees, con-
sisting severally of the Members most conversant with the several branches
of Science, to advise together for the advancement thereof.

The Committees shall report what subjects of investigation they would
particularly recommend to be prosecuted during the ensuing year, and
brought under consideration at the next Meeting.

The Committees shall recommend Reports on the state and progress of
particular Sciences, to be drawn up from time to time by competent persons,
for the information of the Annual Meetings.

COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS.

The General Committee shali appoint at each Meeting a Committee, which
shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Committees,
and report to the General Committee the measures which they would advise
to be adopted for the advancement of Science.

All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects, shall be submitted to the Com-
mittee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the General
Committee, unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recom-
mendations.

LOCAL COMMITTEES.

Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to
assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.

Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those
Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.

OFFICERS.
A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries, and a
Treasurer, shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.

; COUNCIL.

In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be
managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The Council
may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the
Meeting.

PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS.

The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve
his right of property therein.

ACCOUNTS.

The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors
appointed by the Meeting. ae

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Il. Table showing the Names of Members of the British Association who
have served on the Council in former years.

Acland, Sir Thomas D., Bart.,F.R.S.

Acland, Professor H. W., M.D., F.R.S.

Adams, J. Couch, M.A., F.R.S.

Adamson, John, Esq., F.L.S.

Ainslie, Rev. Gilbert, D.D., Master of Pein-
broke Hall, Cambridge.

Airy, G. B., D.C.L.,F.R.S., Astronomer Royal.

Alison, Professor W. P., M.D., F.R.S.E.

Ansted, Professor D. T., M.A., F.R.S.

Argyll, George Douglas, Duke of, F.R.S.

Arnott, Neil, M,D., F.R.S.

Ashburton, William Bingham, Lord, D.C.L.

Babbage, Charles, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.

Babington, C. C., Esq., M.A., F.R.S.

Baily, Francis, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased).

Baker, Thomas Barwick Lloyd, Esq.

Balfour, Professor John H., M.D., F.R.S.

Barker, George, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased).

Bell, Professor Thomas, Pres.L.S., F.R.S.

Beechey, Rear-Admiral, F.R.S. (deceased).

Bengough, George, Esq.

Bentham, George, Esq., F:L.S.

Bigge, Charles, Esq.

Blakiston, Peyton, M.D., F.R.S.

Boileau, Sir John P., Bart., F.R.S.

Boyle, Rt. Hon. D., Lord Justice-Gen!, (dec®),

Brand, William, Esq. “

Breadalbane, John, Marquis of, K.T., F.R.S.

Brewster, Sir David, K.H., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S., Principal of the United College of
St. Salvator and St. Leonard, St. Andrews,

Brisbane, General Sir Thomas M., Bart.,
K.C.B., G.C.H., D.C.L., F.R.S.

Brooke, Charles, B.A., F.R.S.

Brown, Robert, D.C.1., F.R.S.

Brunel, Sir M. I., F.R.S. (deceased.)
Buckland, Very Rev. William, D.D., F.R.S.,
Dean of Westminster. (deceased).

Burlington, William, Earl of, M.A., F.R.S.
Bute, John, Marquis of, K.T. (deceased).
Carlisle, George Will. Fred., Earl of, F.R.S.
Carson, Rev. Joseph, F.T.C.D.
Cathcart, Lt.-Gen., Earl of, K.C.B., F.R.S.E.
Chalmers, Rev. T., D.D., Professor of Di-
vinity, Edinburgh. (deceased),
Chance, James, Esq.
Chester, John Graham, D.D., Lord Bishop of.
Christie, Professor S. H., M.A., F.R.S.
Clare, Peter, Esq., F.R.A.S. (deceased).
Clark, Rev. Prof., M.D., F.R.S, (Cambridge).
Clark, Henry, M.D.
Clark, G. T., Esq.
Clear, William, Esq. (deceased).
Clerke, Maj. S., K.H.,R.E., F.R.S.(deceased),
Clift, William, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased).
Close, Very Rev. Francis, M.A., Dean ofCarlisle,
Cobbold, John Chevalier, Esq., M.P.
Colquhoun, J. C., Esq., M.P. (deceased).
Conybeare, Very Rev. W. D., Dean of Llandaff.
Corrie, John, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased),
Crum, Walter, Esq., F.R.S.
Currie, William Wallace, Esq. (deceased).
Dalton, John, D.C.L., F.R.S. (deceased).
Daniell, Professor J. F., F.R.S. (deceased).
Dartmouth, William, Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Darwin, Charles, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.
Daubeny, Professor CharlesG.B.,M.D., F.R.S.
DelaBeche, Sir Henry T., C.B., F.R.S., Di-
rector-General of the Geological Survey

of the United Kingdom. (deceased),

; Dillwyn, Lewis W., Esq., F.R.S. (deceased).

Drinkwater, J. E., Esq. (deceased).

Ducie, The Earl, F.R.S.

Dunraven, the Earl of, F.R.S.

Egerton, Sir P. de M. Grey, Bart., M.P., F.R.S.

Eliot, Lord, M.P.

Ellesmere, Francis, Earl of, F.G.S. (deceased).

Enniskillen, William, Ear] of, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Estcourt, I. G. B., D.C.L. (deceased).

Faraday, Professor, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Fitzwilliam, The Earl, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Fleming, W., M.D.

Fletcher, Bell, M.D.

Forbes, Charles, Esq. (deceased).

Forbes, Professor Edward, F.R.S. (deceased).

Forbes, Professor J. D., F.R.S., Sec. R.S.E.

Fox, Robert Were, Esq., F.R.S.

Frost, Charles, F.S.A.

Gassiot, John P., Esq., F.R.S.

Gilbert, Davies, D.C.L., F.R.S. (deceased),

Graham, T., M.A., F.R.S., Master of the Mint,

Gray, John E., Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S.

Gray, Jonathan, Esq. (deceased).

Gray, William, Esq., F.G.S.

Green, Professor Joseph Henry, F.R.S.

Greenough, G. B., Esq., F.R.S. (deceased),

Grove, W. R., Esq., M.A., F.R.S.

Hallam, Henry, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.

Hamilton, W. J., Esq., For. Sec. G.S.

Hamilton, Sir William R., LL.D., Astronomer
Royal of Ireland, M.R.I.A., F.R.A.S.

Harcourt, Rev. William Vernon, M.A., F.R.S.

Hardwicke, Charles Philip, Earl of, F.R.S.

Harford, J. S., D.C.L., F.R.S.

Harris, Sir W. Snow, F.R.S.

Harrowby, The Earl of, F.R.S.

Hatfeild, William, Esq., F.G.S. (deceased).

Henry, W. C., M.D., F.R.S.

Henry, Rev. P. S., D.D., President of Queen’s
College, Belfast.

Henslow, Rev. Professor, M.A., F.L.S.

Herbert, Hon. and Very Rev. William, LL.D.,
F.L.S., Dean of Manchester. (deceased).

Herschel, Sir John F. W., Bart., D.C.L., F.R.S.

Heywood, Sir Benjamin, Bart., F.R.S.

Heywood, James, Esq., F.R.S.

Hill, Rev. Edward, M.A,, F.G.S.

Hincks, Rev. Edward, D.D., M.R.I.A.(dec®),

Hinds, S., D.D., late Lord Bishop of Norwich.

Hodgkin, Thomas, M.D.

Hodgkinson, Professor Eaton, F,R.S,

Hodgson, Joseph, Esq., F.R.S.

Hooker, Sir William J., LL.D., F.R.S.

Hope, Rev. F. W., M.A., F.R.S.

Hopkins, William, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.

Horner, Leonard, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S.

Hovenden, V. F., Esq., M.A.

Hutton, Robert, Esq., F.G.S.

Hutton, William, Esq., F.G.S.

Ibbetson, Capt. L.L. Boscawen, K.R.E.,F.G.S.

Inglis,SirR.H.,Bart.,D.C.L.,M.P.,F.R.S,(dec.)

Jameson, Professor R., F.R.S. (deceased).

Jardine, Sir William, Bart., F.R.S.E.

Jeffreys, John Gwyn, Esq., F.R.S.

Jenyns, Rev. Leonard, F.L.S.

Jerrard, H. B., Esq.

Johnston, Right Hon. William, late Lord
Provost of Edinburgh.

Johnston, Prof. J. F. W., M.A., F.R.S. (dec).

Keleher, William, Esq. (deceased).

Kelland, Rev. Professor P., M.A.

Lankester, Edwin, M.D., F.R.S.

Lansdowne, Henry, Marquis of, D.C.L.,I.R.S.

Lardner, Rev. Dr.

Lassell, William, Esq., F.R.S. L. & E.

Latham, R. G., M.D., F.R.S.

Lee, Very Rev. John, D.D., F.R.S.E., Prin-
cipal of the University of Edinburgh.

Lee, Robert, M.D., F.R.S.

Lefevre, Right Hon. Charles Shaw, late
Speaker of the House of Commons.

Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., F.R.S.

Liddell, Andrew, Esq. (deceased).

Lindley, Professor John, Ph.D., F.R.S.

Listowel, The Earl of.

Lloyd, Rev. B., D.D., Provost of Trin. Coll.
Dublin. (deceased).

Lloyd, Rev. H., D.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.L. & E.
V.P.R.I.A., Trinity College, Dublin.

Londesborough, Lord, F.R.S.

Lubbock, Sir John W., Bart., M.A., F.R.S,

Luby, Rev. Thomas.

Lyell, Sir Charles, M.A., F.R.S.

MacCullagh, Prof., D.C.L., M.R.I.A. (dec®).

Macfarlane, The Very Rev. Principal.

MacLeay, William Sharp, Esq., F.L.S.

MacNeill, Professor Sir John, F.R.S.

Malcolm, Vice-Ad. Sir Charles, K.C.B. (dec®),

Maltby, Edward, D.D., F.R.S., late Lord
Bishop of Durham.

Manchester, J. P. Lee, D.D., Lord Bishop of.

Meynell, Thomas, Esq., F.L.S.

Middleton, Sir William F. F., Bart.

Miller, Professor W. A., M.D., F.R.S.

Miller, Professor W. H., M.A., F.R.S.

Moillet, J. D., Esq. (deceased),

Milnes, R. Monckton, Esq., M.P.

Moggridge, Matthew, Esq.

Moody, J. Sadleir, Esq.

Moody, T. H. C., Esq.

Moody, T. F., Esq.

Morley, The Earl of.

Moseley, Rev. Henry, M.A., F.R.S.

Mount-Edgecumbe, Ernest Augustus, Earl of.

Murchison, Sir Roderick I., G.C.St.S., F.R.S.

Neill, Patrick, M.D., F.R.S.E.

Nicol, D., M.D.

Nicol, Rev. J. P., LL.D.

Northampton, Spencer Joshua Alwyne, Mar-
quis of, V.P.R.S. (deceased).

Northumberland, Hugh, Duke of, K.G., M.A.,
F.R.S. (deceased).

Ormerod, G. W., Esq., M.A., F.G.S.

Orpen, Thomas Herbert, M.D. (deceased).

Orpen, John H., LL.D.

Osler, Follett, Esq., F.R.S.

Owen, Professor Richard, M.D., F.R.S,

Oxford, Samuel Wilberforce, D.D.,
Bishop of, F.R.S., F.G.S.

Palmerston, Viscount, G.C.B., M.P.

Peacock, VeryRev.G.,D.D.,DeanofEly,I'.R.S.

Peel,Rt.Hon.Sir R.,Bart.,M.P.,D.C.L. (dec),

Pendarves, E., Esq., F.R.S.

Phillips, Professor John, M.A., F.R.S.

Porter, G. R., Esq. (deceased).

Powell, Rev. Professor, M.A., F.R.S.

Prichard, J. C., M.D., F.R.S. (deceased).

Ramsay, Professor William, M.A.

Reid, Maj.-General SirW.,K.C.B.,R.E.,F.R.S.

Rendlesham, Rt. Hon. Lord, M.P.

Rennie, George, Esq., F.R.S.

Rennie, Sir John, F.R.S.

Richardson, Sir John, M.D., C.B., F.R,S.

Lord

Ritchie, Rev. Prof., LL.D., F.R.S. (deceased).
Robinson, Rev. J., D.D.

Robinson, Rev. T. R., D.D., F.R.A.S.
Robison, Sir Jghn, Sec.R.S.Edin, (deceased).
Roche, James, Esq.

Roget, Peter Mark, M.D., F.R.S.

Ronalds, Francis, F.R.S.

Rosse, William, Earl of, M.A.,F.R.S.,

Royle, Professor John F., M.D., F.R.S.

Russell, James, Esq. (deceased).

Russell, J. Scott, Esq., F.R.S.

Sabine, Maj.-General, R.A.,Treas. & V.P.R.S.

Sanders, William, Esq., F.G.S.

Scoresby, Rev. W., D.D., F.R.S. (deceased).

Sedgwick, Rev. Professor Adam, M.A.,F.R.S.

Selby, Prideaux John, Esq., F.R.S.E.

Sharpey, Professor, M.D., Sec.R.S.

Smith, Lieut.-Colonel C. Hamilton, F.R.S.

Smith, James, F.R.S. L. & E.

Spence, William, Esq., F.R.S.

Stanley, Edward, D.D., F.R.S., late Lord
Bishop of Norwich. (deceased).

Staunton, Sir G. T., Bt., M.P., D.C.L., F.R.S.

St. David’s, C. Thirlwall, D.D., Lord Bishop of.

Stevelly, Professor John, LL.D.

Stokes, Professor G. G., Sec.R.S.

Strang, John, Esq., LL.D.

Strickland, Hugh E., Esq., F.R.S. (deceased).

Sykes, Colonel W. H., M.P., F.R.S.

Symonds, B. P., D.D., Vice-Chancellor of
the University of Oxford.

Talbot, W. H. Fox, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.

Tayler, Rev. John James, B.A.

Taylor, John, Esq., F.R.S.

Taylor, Richard, Esq., F.G.S.

Thompson, William, Esq., F.L.S. (deceased).

Thomson, Professor William, M.A., F.R.S.

Tindal, Captain, R.N.

Tite, William, Esq., M.P., F.R.S. “

Tod, James, Esq., F.R.S.E.

Tooke, Thomas, F.R.S.

Traill, J. S., M.D. (deceased).

Turner, Edward, M.D., F.R.S. (deceased).

Turner, Samuel, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S. (dec4.)

Turner, Rev. W.

Tyndail, Professor, F.R.S.

Vigors, N. A., D.C.L., F.L.S. (deceased).

Vivian, J. H., M.P., F.R.S. (deceased).

Walker, James, Esq., F.R.S.

Walker, Joseph N., Esq., F.G.S.

Walker, Rev. Professor Robert, M.A., F.R.S.

Warburton, Henry, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.

Washington, Captain, R.N., F.R.S.

Webster, Thomas, M.A,, F.R.S.

West, William, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased).

Western, Thomas Burch, Esq.

Wharncliffe, John Stuart, Lord, F.R.S.

Wheatstone, Professor Charles, F.R.S.

Whewell, Rev. William, D.D., F.R.S., Master
of Trinity College, Cambridge.

Williams, Professor Charles J.B., M.D., F.R.S.

Willis, Rev. Professor Robert, M.A., F.R.S.

Wills, William, Esq., F.G.S.

Winchester, John, Marquis of.

Woollcombe, Henry, Esq., F.S.A. (deceased).

Wrottesley, John, Lord, M.A., Pres. R.S.

Yarborough, The Earl of, D.C.L.

Yarrell, William, Esq., F.L.S. (deceased).

Yates, James, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.

Yates, J. B., Esq., F.S.A., F.R.G.S,(deceased).

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1856-57.

TRUSTEES (PERMANENT). 5!
Sir Roperick I.Murcuison,G.C.St.S.,F.R.S. The Very Rev.Gzoree Peacock,D.D,, Dean
Joun Tarxor, Esq., F.R.S. * of Ely, F.R.S.
PRESIDENT.
CHARLES G. B. DAUBENY, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Hon. M.R.LA.,
Regius Professor of Botany in the University of Oxford.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.
The Eart Duciz, F.R.S., F.G.S. Soc., Director-General of the Geological
Sir Roperick I. Murcuison, G.C.St.S., Survey of the United Kingdom.
D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S.,F.L.S.,V.P.R.Geogr. THomas Barwick Lioyp Baker, Esq.
The Rey. Francis Cros, M.A.

PRESIDENT ELECT.
The REV. HUMPHREY LLOYD, D.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. L. & E., V.P.R.LA.,
Trinity College, Dublin.
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
The Rt. Hon. the Lorv Mayor of Dublin. Sir Wrzx1am R. Hamitton, LL.D., F.R.A.S.,

The Provost of Trinity College, Dublin. Astronomer Royal of Ireland.

The Marauis oF KiLpARE. Lt.-Colonel Larcom, R.E., LL.D., F.R.S.
The Lorp TaLzor DE MALAHIDE. Ricuarp J. Grirrirn, LL.D., M.R.LA,,
The Lorn Crier Baron, Dublin. F.R.S.E., F.G.S.

LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT DUBLIN.
Lunpy E. Foore, Esq., Secretary to Royal Dublin Society.
Rev. Professor JELLETT, Secretary to Royal Irish Academy.
W. Nerison Hancock, LL.D., Secretary to Statistical Society, Dublin.
LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT DUBLIN.
Joun H. Orpen, LL.D.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
Bett, Prof., Pres.L.S., F.R.S. Lyx, Sir C., D.C.L., F.R.S. Suarpry, Professor, Sec. B.S.
Darwin, Cuartes, F.R.S. Mirver, Prof. W. A., M.D., Sranuey, Lord.

Gassiot, Joun P., F.R.S. F.R.S. Stroxes, Professor, F.R.S.
Gray, J. E., Ph.D., F.R.S. Owen, Professor, F.R.S. Tirs, W., M.P., F.S.A.,F.R.S.
Grove, Witit1amM R., F.R.S. Price, Rev. Prof., F.R.S. Waker, Rey. Prof., F.R.S.
Heywoop, Jams, Esq. Raw inson,ColonelSirH.C., Wessrer, THomas, F.R.S.
Hurron, Rozert, F.G.S. K.C.B., F.R.S. Wrorresey,Lord,Pres.R.S.
Latuam, R. G., M.D., F.R.S. Rennie, Georee, F.R.S. Yates, James, F.R.S.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

The President and President Elect, the Vice-Presidents and Vice-Presidents Elect, the Ge-
neral and Assistant-General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and the Presi-
dents of former years, viz. The Earl Fitzwilliam. Rev. Professor Sedgwick. Sir Thomas M.
Brisbane. The Marquis of Lansdowne. The Earl of Burlington. Rev. W. V. Harcourt.
The Marquis of Breadalbane. Rev. Dr. Whewell. The Earl of Ellesmere. The Earl of
Rosse. The Dean of Ely. Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. Sir Roderick I. Murchison. The
Rey. Dr. Robinson. Sir David Brewster. G. B. Airy, Esq., the Astronomer Royal. General
Sabine. William Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S. The Earl of Harrowby. The Duke of Argyll.

GENERAL SECRETARY.
Masor-GENERAL Epwarp SABINg, R.A., Treas. & V.P.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
13 Ashley Place, Westminster.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.

Joun Purtuies, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Reader in Geology in the University of
Oxford ; Magdalen Bridge, Oxford.

GENERAL TREASURER.
Joun Taytor, Esq., F.R.S., 6 Queen Street Place, Upper Thames Street, London.

LOCAL TREASURERS.

William Gray, Esq., F.G.S., York. Professor Ramsay, M.A., Glasgow.

C.C. Babington, Esq.,M.A.,F.R.S.,Cambridge. Robert P. Greg, Esq., F.G.S., Manchester.

William Brand, Esq., Edinburgh. John Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq., F.R.S., Swansea.

John H. Orpen, LL.D., Dudlin. J. B. Alexander, Esq., Jyswich.

William Sanders, Esq., F.G.S., Bristol. Robert Patterson, Hsq., M.R.1.A., Belfast,

Robert M‘Andrew, Esq., F.R.S., Liverpool. Edmund Smith, Esq., Auli.

W. RB, Wills, Esq., Birmingham. James Agg Gardner, Esq., Cheltenham.
AUDITORS.

William Tite, Esq., M.P. Edwin Lankester, M.D. James Yates, Esq.

:

;

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. XXVii-

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE
CHELTENHAM MEETING. ae
SECTION A.-—-MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

President.—Rev. R. Walker, M.A., F.R.S., Reader in Experimental Philosophy,
Oxford.

Vice-Presidents.—Sir William Snow Harris, F.R.S.; Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D.,
F.R.S., M.R.I.A.; Rev. B. Price, M.A., Sedleian Professor of Natural Philosophy,
Oxford; Rev. W. Whewell, D.D., F.R.S., Master of Trinity College, Cambridge;
Lord Wrottesley, M.A., President of the Royal Society.

Secretaries.—Prof. Stevelly, LL.D. ; C. Brooke, B.A., F.R.S.; Rev. T. A. South-
wood, M.A., F.R.A.S., Head Master of Civil and Military Department, Cheltenham
College; Rev. J.C. Turnbull, M.A., Head Mathematical Master, Cheltenham College. »

SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY, INCLUDING THEIR APPLICATIONS
TO AGRICULTUREAND THE ANTS.

President.—B. C. Brodie, F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry, Oxford.

Vice- Presidents.—N. S. Maskelyne, F.G.S., Reader in Mineralogy, Oxford; W.
Gregory, F.R.S.E.; Thomas Graham, F.R.S., the Master of the Mint; Thomas
Anderson, M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow.

Secretaries.—Philip J. Worsley, B.A.; Professor Voelcker, Royal Agricultural
College, Cirencester; J. Horsley, Esq.

SECTION C.—GLEOLOGY.

President.—Professor A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S., and Local Director of the Geological
Survey of Great Britain. .

Vice-Presidenis.—Rev. Adam Sedgwick, M.A., F.R.S., Woodwardian Professor
of Geology in the University of Cambridge; J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S., Local
Director of the Geological Survey of Ireland; The Earl Ducie, F.R.S.

Secretaries.—Rev. P. B. Brodie, M.A., F.G.S.; Thomas Wright, M.D., F.R.S.E.;
J. Scougall, F.E.1.S., M.C.P., Master, Modern Department of the Cheltenham
Grammar School; Edward Hull, F.G.S.; Rev. R. Hepworth, B.A.

SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY.
President.—Thomas Bell, F.R.S., President of the Linnean Society.
Vice-Presidents.— Rey. L. Jenyns, M.A., F.L.S.; Robert Ball, LL.D., Treasurer

of the Royal Irish Academy, Director of the Museum in University of Dublin; J. E.
Gray, Ph.D., F.R.S.; John H. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany
in the University of Edinburgh ; Rev. J.S. Henslow, M.A., Prof. of Botany in Uni-
versity of Cambridge; George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Comparative
Anatomy and Physiology to the Royal College of Surgeons of England.
Secretaries.—E. Lankester, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.; J. Buckman, F.L.S., F.G.S.,
Professor of Botany, Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ; J. Abercrombie, M.D.
SECTION E.— GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.
President.—Colonel Sir H. C. Rawlinson, K.C.B., F.R.S. &c.
Vice-Presidents.—Sir John F. Davis, Bart., F.R.S.; Sir Roderick Impey Mur-
chison, F.R.S., Director-General of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom;
Sir Thomas Phillipps, Bart., M.A., F.R.S.; General Sir George Pollock, Bart.,
G.C.B., F.R.G.S.; Colonel Philip Yorke, F.R.S.
Secretaries.—Norton Shaw, M.D., Sec. Roy. Geogr. Soc. ; R. Cull, F.S.A., Hon,
Sec. Ethnol. Soc.; F. b. Hartland, F.S.A., F.R.G.S.; W.H. Rumsey, F.R.C.S.

SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

President.—Lord Stanley, M.P.

Vice-Presidents.—T. Tooke, F.R.S.; John Strang, LL.D. ; W. Tite, M.P., F RAS. ;
J. Towne Danson, F.S.S.; James Heywood, F.R.S.; W. Farr, M.D., F.R.S.

Secrefaries.—William Newmarch, Hon. Sec. Statistical Society, London; W.
Neilson Hancock, LL.D. ; Edward Cheshire, F.R.G.S.; Rev. C. H. Bromby, M.A,;
W. M. Tartt, M.S.A.

SECTION G.—-MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

President.—George Rennie, F.R.S. 3

Vice-Presidents.—John Taylor, F.R.S. ; Andrew Henderson, Esq.; J. G. Appold,
F.R.S.; James Nasmyth, C.E.; William Fairbairn, F.R.S.

Secretaries. —Charles Atherton, C,E.; B, Jones, Jun.; H. M. Jeffery, M.A,

XXVIil

REPORT—1856.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Professor Agassiz,
chusetts.

M. Babinet, Paris.

Dr. A. D. Bache, Washington.

Prince Charies Bonaparte, Paris.

Mr. P. G. Bond, Cambridge, U.S.

M. Boutigny (d’Evreux).

Professor Braschmann, Moscow.

Chevalier Bunsen, Heidelberg.

Dr. Ferdinand Cohn, Breslau.

M. De la Rive, Geneva.

Professor Dove, Berlin.

Professor Dumas, Paris.

Dr. J. Milne-Edwards, Paris.

Professor Ehrenberg, Berlin.

Dr. Eisenlohr, Carlsruhe.

Professor Encke, Berlin.

Dr. A. Erman, Berlin.

Professor Esmark, Christiania.

Cambridge, Massa-

Professor G. Forchhammer, Copenhagen.

M. Léon Foucault, Paris.

Prof. E. Fremy, Paris.

M. Frisiani, Milan.

Professor Asa Gray, Cambridge, U.S.
Professor Henry, Washington, U.S.
Baron Alexander von Humboldt, Berlin.
M. Jacobi, St. Petersburg.

Prof. A. Kélliker, Wurzburg.

Prof. De Koninck, Liege.

Professor Kreil, Vienna.

Dr. A. Kupffer, St. Petersburg.

Dr. Lamont, Munich.

Prof. F. Lanza, Spoleto.

M. Le Verrier, Paris.

Baron von Liebig, Munich.

Baron de Selys-Longchamps, Liege.

Professor Gustav Magnus, Berlin.

Professor Matteucci, Pisa.

Professor von Middendorff, St. Petersburg.

M. l’Abbé Moigno, Paris.

M. Morren, Liége.

Professor Nilsson, Sweden.

Dr. N. Nordengsciold, Finland.

M. E. Peligot, Paris.

Chevalier Plana, Turin.

Professor Pliicker, Bonn.

M. Constant Prévost, Paris.

M. Quetelet, Brussels.

Prof. Retzius, Stockholm.

Professor C. Ritter, Berlin.

Professor H. D. Rogers, Boston, U.S.

Professor W. B. Rogers, Boston, U.S.

Professor H. Rose, Berlin.

Baron Senftenberg, Bohemia.

Dr. Siljestrom, Stockholm.

M. Struvé, Pulkowa.

Dr. Svanberg, Stockholm.

M. Pierre Tchihatchef.

Dr. Van der Hoeven, Leyden.

Baron Sartorius von Waltershausen,
Gottingen.

Professor Wartmann, Geneva.

Report OF THE COUNCIL OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION AS PRESENTED
TO THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT CHELTENHAM, AUGUST 6TH, 1856.

a. The Council have the satisfaction of reporting the continued efficiency
and progress toward higher usefulness of the Observatory at Kew, which,
while it fulfils the original object of its foundation, and readily takes up
original research, is now a point of reference for Standard Instruments in
meteorology, and auxiliary to the national service.

6. In conducting this establishment, the Council have in previous years
had the great benefit of the cooperation of the Royal Society, and the Re-
port of the Committee of the Observatory, which is now laid on the table,
will show that this highly valued cooperation is continued. The Members
will learn from the Report the final result of the Correspondence between
the Committee of the Observatory and the Authorities of the Board of
Public Works, concerning the repairs of the building and the laying-on of
gas. The disadvantages which might have resulted from the unexpected
issue of this correspondence have been removed by the prompt liberality of
the Council of the Royal Society, who have advanced the necessary funds
for immediately supplying the Observatory with gas.

c. The Council suggest to the General Committee to tender its cordial
thanks to the Royal Society for the effective assistance thus given to an In-
stitution in which both the Royal Society and the British Association recog-
nize a powerful instrument of philosophical research.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. XXiX

d. The Council have the pleasure to forward another Report from the
vigilant Committee which asserts the interests of Science in Parliament.
By what means of a public nature the Progress of Science can be accelerated
and assured ;—the Benefits of Science applied and extended ;—the Position
of the Cultivators of Science amended ;—these questions must strongly interest
the Association, which, at the outset, declared its purpose to strive for the
removal of all impediments of a public nature by which Science is retarded.
Recommending this Report of the Parliamentary Committee to the approba-
tion of the General Committee, and the important subjects which it opens
to the serious deliberation of the Members, the Council beg to express their
readiness to be instrumental in maturing and putting into action any mea-
sure which the Association may deem suitable, and in obtaining the coope-
ration of other scientific bodies to bring it to a good issue.

e. The Council may congratulate the Association on the progress made
toward the fulfilment of the 7th Recommendation in the Report of their
Parliamentary Committee for 1854-5—“ That an appropriate building, in
some central situation in London, should be provided, at the expense of the
nation, in which the principal scientific societies may be located together :”—
Burlington House is now devoted to the use of the Royal, Linnean, and
Chemical Societies—a result due in a great degree to the prudent and per-
severing efforts of the Royal Society.

Jf: The General Committee will learn with satisfaction that, according to
the Report of the General Treasurer, the Funds belonging to the Associa-
tion, and invested in the names of the Trustees, amount to £5000. The
Council suggest that it is desirable, for many reasons, to maintain a reserve
of this kind, sufficient to meet unexpected contingencies, which may arise in
consequence of efforts for the advancement of science.

g- The Council have added to the List of Corresponding Members the
following Foreign men of Science :-—

Dr. F. Cohn, Breslau.

Prof. E. Fremy, Paris.

Prof. A. Kolliker, Wurzburg.
Prof. F. Lanza, Spoleto.

M. Morren, Liége.

M. E. Peligot, Paris.

Prof. Retzius, Stockholm.

h. The Council have received Letters of Invitation to the Association to
hold its next Meeting in Dublin; from

The Board of Trinity College, Dublin;

The Royal Dublin Society ;

The Royal Irish Academy ;

The King and Queen’s College of Physicians in Ireland ;
The Geological Society of Dublin ;

The Lord Mayor and Municipal Council of Dublin.

_ 1. The Council has this day received Letters of Invitation to the Associa-
tion to hold its next Meeting in Manchester; from

The Manchester Geological Society ;
The Statistical Society of Manchester ;
The Manchester Athenzum ;

The Town Clerk of Manchester.

XXX -REPORT—1856,

kh. It was resolved—

That the cordial thanks of the Council be tendered to the Lord Wrottesley
and the Officers and Council of the Royal Society, for the promptitude
with which they have responded to the request of the British Associa-
tion, in granting the sum of £250 for the purpose of lighting the Kew
Observatory with gas.

Report of the Kew Committee, presented to the Council of the British
Association, August 6, 1856.

The Committee beg to submit the following Report of their proceedings
since the meeting of the British Association at Glasgow :-—

The instruments and apparatus sent by the Committee to the Paris Exhi-
bition were returned to the Observatory in December last. The total expense
incurred by the Committee in connexion with the Exhibition amounted to
£202: 7s. 11d., exceeding by £62: 7s. 11d. the sum of £140 granted by the
Board of Trade. ‘This balance has since been repaid by the Board.

At the last Meeting of the Association, your Committee presented a Special
Report, relative to their application to Her Majesty’s Government for the use
of two acres of land contiguous to the Observatory, and the lighting of the
building with gas,—such applications having been made in consequence of
the recommendation of the General Committee at the Liverpool Meeting.
The Association is still compelled to pay the high rent of ten guineas per
acre for the land. The Committee fully expected that this year they should
have been enabled to. report that the expense of lighting the Observatory
with gas would have been defrayed by the Government. The President of
the Board of Works at first intimated to the Committee that the subject
would receive consideration, and subsequently that he would consider the
propriety of including the amount in the estimates for the present year. On
further application, however, this has been refused. A copy of the corre-
spondence is annexed to this Report.

Your Committee have, however, the gratification of reporting, that on a
representation of the circumstances being submitted by the Council of the
Association to the President and Council of the Royal Society, the sum of
£250 from the Wollaston Fund was immediately placed at the disposai of
the Committee, in order that no further delay from the want of funds should
take place in effecting the long-desired object.

Much as the Committee may regret the refusal of the Board of Works to
grant their request, they gladly avail themselves of this opportunity to express
to Lord Wrottesley and the Council of the Royal Society their thanks for
the prompt manner in which the intimation was made to them that the money _
had been voted. It affords another proof how ready the Royal Society has
ever been to forward and assist scientific investigations.

Mr. De la Rue has made a preliminary examination of one of the Huy-
genian object-glasses, namely, that of 122 feet focal length, and, so far as
he has hitherto been enabled to judge, it would appear that this object-glass
defines with tolerable precision; but he is not yet able to say whether it
will be desirable to go to the expense of erecting the tower for celestial
observations.

A paper by Mr. Welsh, descriptive of the Kew Standard Barometer, and
of the apparatus and processes employed in the verification of barometers,
has been communicated to the Royal Society by the Chairman, and is now
being printed in the Transactions of the Society.

+
¥

5

i
at

ae

REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XXxi

‘The following statement shows the number of meteorological instruments
which have been verified at Kew during the past year :—

Thermo- Baro- Hydro-
meters. meters. meters.

For the Admiralty and Board of Trade.... 360 90 100

For the Portuguese Government ........ 12
For Opticians and others .............- 170 35
Oba) ages get wuss rin ais Sb a ON 100

On February 5, the Committee resolved,—‘“ That, in consideration of the
number of Barometers already verified at Kew having been sufficient to
defray the preliminary expense of apparatus, the charge for verification shall
in future be reduced to five shillings each instrument.”

Arrangements have been made with Messrs. Adie, Casella, and Negretti
and Zambra, to have on hand a constant supply of verified marine meteoro-
logical instruments, and the Public may be supplied through any respectable
Optician in London or the country at the following prices :—

Since the last Report, the Committee have disposed of 60 standard ther-

mometers, graduated at the Observatory. Of these, 14 have been made for
Mr. Hopkins, to be employed in his experiments on the effect of pressure
upon the melting-points of solids. The charge on account of the graduation
and distribution of these thermometers is arranged with the Government
Grant Committee of the Royal Society, and consequently does not appear in
the financial accounts of the Kew Committee.
_ A self-recording Anemometer, for measuring the velocity of the wind on
the plan of Dr. Robinson, has been completed at the Observatory by Mr.
Beckley: it is erected upon the dome, and has been in regular operation since
the Ist of January. Its performance is most satisfactory, the delicacy of its
indications being so great, that during the last six months the whole period
of “calm,” as shown by the registrations, has been only fowr hours. It has
not yet been possible to erect an apparatus for registering the direction of
the wind, on account of difficulties arising from the anticipated use of the
dome for the solar photographic telescope. The direction of the wind has,
however, been observed tive times daily from an ordinary vane.

Mr. Beckley has since submitted to the Committee a model of a new
arrangement for a self-recording Anemometer, in which the registration of
both the direction and velocity of the wind (and also the fall of rain if
desired) is obtained upona single sheet of paper. This arrangement is much
more compact in its design and less costly in construction than any other
with which the Committee are acquainted. Mr. Beckley’s model will be
exhibited, and a description of it communicated to this Meeting.

A series of monthly determinations of the absolute horizontal force and
of the magnetic dip was commenced in January, with instruments provided
by General Sabine from his department at Woolwich. Some difficulties
have been experienced by Mr. Welsh in the observations of the absolute
horizontal force, owing to imperfections in the usual mode of suspension of
the magnets during the observations of vibration. These difficulties he
hopes soon to overcome by employing reversible collimator magnets, and by
an improved mode of suspension.

XXXil REPORT—1856,

A convenient apparatus has been constructed at the Observatory for the
determination of the effect of temperature on magnets: with this apparatus
the temperature coefficients of the magnets employed at the Toronto Obser-
vatoty have been obtained. The scale of the unifilar, and the dimensions
and weights of the inertia rings employed at the same Observatory, have
been determined with reference to the Kew standards of length and weight.

Two dip circles, one for M. Hansteen of Christiania, and the other for
Dr. Pegado of the Meteorological Observatory of Lisbon, have been ex-
amined and compared with the Kew instrument before being sent to those
gentlemen. A 30-inch transit instrument, lent by General Sabine’s depart-
ment, has been erected in the south window of the old transit room. A
clock by Shelton, the property of the Royal Society, is used with it.

Owing to alterations required in the dome in order to adapt it to the use
of the solar photographic telescope, it has been necessary to remove the large
electrical apparatus of Mr. Ronalds. An apparatus of smaller size, but on
the same plan, has been erected on the side of the dome, by which atmo-
spheric electrical phenomena can be determined in the same manner as
heretofore. A new vane has also been constructed, having an indicating dial
within the dome.

Dr. Halleur, who had for about six months assisted Mr. Welsh in the
Observatory, having been appointed to a professorship in the New College
of Engineering at Calcutta, left the Observatory in September last.

In February, the Committee, on the recommendation of Professor J. D.
Forbes, engaged Mr. Balfour Stewart of the Edinburgh University, as
Assistant Observer, at a yearly salary of £80, with residence in the Obser-
vatory. Mr. Stewart commenced his duties on March 1. The Committee
regret having to report that the Observatory will shortly lose the services
of this gentieman, who has recently been appointed an assistant to Pro-
fessor Forbes: he will leave the Observatory on October 1, previous to
which the Committee hope to be able to appoint a successor.

The Committee refer with pleasure to an ingenious thermometer devised
by Mr. Stewart, in which advantage has been taken of the difference of ca-
pillary force and friction in two tubes of different capacity connected with the
same bulb, to measure the sum of the fluctuations of temperature. The in-
strument has been made at the expense of the Committee ; a description of it
has been communicated by Mr. Stewart to the Royal Society, and is printed
in its “ Proceedings.”

Mr. Welsh reports most favourably as to the general attention evinced by
Mr. Beckley and Mr. Macgrath in the discharge of their respective duties.
Mr. Beckley’s talent as a mechanical engineer renders his services of great
value in an establishment where instances constantly occur of work requiring
the highest skill being promptly and correctly executed: the assiduity of
Mr. Macgrath has been such as to merit the entire approbation of Mr. Welsh.

Your Committee cannot close this Report without again recording their
high opinion of the unremitting care and attention, as well as of the ability
which has ever been displayed by Mr. Welsh, as the Superintendent of the
Observatory ; during the past year he was compelled for upwards of six weeks
to be in Paris, in order to arrange the delivery of the valuable scientifie appa-
ratus forwarded at the request of Her Majesty’s Government by the Committee
to the Paris Exhibition; but his arrangements were such, that the general
business of the Observatory was not in any way suspended during his absence.

Your Committee have finally to report, that the total expenses of the Ob-
servatory during the past year amount to £557 : 1s. 9d. In consequence of
the Committee having received during the year the sum of £221 : 7s. 8d. for

REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XXxill

the verification of meteorological instruments, they have in hand a balance
amounting to £260: 4s. 6d.; they do not consider it therefore necessary
to apply to the Association for a larger sum than £350, to enable them to
meet the expenses of the ensuing year.
By order of the Committee,
Joun P. Gassiot, Chairman,
22 July, 1856.
Correspondence.
“Clapham Common, December 18th, 1855.

“ Srr,—In the interview with which you favoured the deputation from the
British Association this day, you kindly explained that you had no power to
order the Works such as we required to be executed for the Observatory in
the Old Deer Park, Richmond, without the sanction of the Lords of the
Treasury, and you suggested the advisability of my briefly explaining to you
by letter the position in which the Association stands as regards the Building,
as also of defining the exact object of our application previously to your
submitting the same to their Lordships.

“ The Building was placed at the disposition of the British Association
by Her Majesty in 1842 for scientific purposes ; it has ever since been used
for those objects, the entire expense of the Establishment being paid by the
Association, without receiving any assistance, pecuniary or otherwise, from
Government.

“The Committee has obtained permission from the Hon. Charles Gore,
Chief Commissioner of Woods and Forests and Land Revenues Department,
to have gas-pipes laid along the pathway through the Park to the Observatory
without any cost or indemnification being required by his department, pro-
vided the work is done in the winter months ; and the more immediate object
of the application of Colonel Sabine and myself was to request you would
order at the present time the gas-pipes to be laid on to the Observatory in
order that the Building may be properly lighted, such lighting being indis-
pensable for the carrying out various scientific investigations, and thus
enabling the Committee to fulfil with greater efficacy the purposes for which
the Building was originally granted by Her Majesty to the Association.

‘I may add, that the funds of the British Association consist of the con-
tributions of its members; from these limited means the Council have most
liberally expended of late years an annual sum of £500 for the Observatory,
but it being unable to meet this increased expenditure, which would net ex-
ceed £250 (the estimate is £200), the Committee has been induced to make
this application, which we hope will not be refused.

“In respect. to the repairs alluded to by us, we merely desired to explain
that some repairs were indispensable to preserve the Building, which, if
promptly attended to, would probably save a much larger outlay at a future
period.

“ The Building could perhaps remain in its present state for a short period,

but a trifling outlay, the extent of which could be easily ascertained by the

Government Surveyor, would be all that at present is required. The Com-
mittee considered it their duty to point this out for your consideration.
“T have the honour to be, Sir,
“ Your obedient Servant,
(Signed) “J. P. Gassior,
Chairman of the Kew Committee,

British Association.”
— The Right Hon. Sir Benjamin Hall, Bart., M.P.,
Chief Commissioner of Works, Public Buildings, &c. &c.”’
1856. c

xxxiv “REPORT—1856.

Pere oe “Office of Works, &c., Dec. 20, 1855,”

“ Str,—I am directed by the Chief Commissioner of Her Majesty’s Works,
&c., to acknowledge the receipt of your letter, dated the 18th inst., relative
to certain works considered to be necessary by the British Association at the
Observatory at Kew, and to inform you that the subject will receive consi-

deration. “T am, Sir,
“Your most obedient Servant,
(Signed) “ ALFRED AusTIN, Secretary.”

‘J. Gassiot, Esq.”

“ Office of Works, &c., Jan. 5, 1856. -

“ Srr,—With reference to your letter dated the 1 8th December last, request-
ing on behalf of the Kew Committee of the British Association that gas-pipes
may be laid on to the Observatory at Kew, and that certain repairs may be
also done to that Building at the expense of this Department, I am directed
by the Chief Commissioner of Her Majesty’s Works, &c., to acquaint you
that he has caused an estimate to be made of the cost of the Works required
by the Society, which amounts to a large sum, and that there are not any
funds voted by Parliament out of which such cost can be defrayed. ;

“Tam however directed to add, that the Chief Commissioner will consider
the propriety of including the amount in the estimates of the ensuing year.

“T am, Sir,
“ Your most obedient Servant,
* (Signed) “ ALFRED Austin, Secretary.”

“J. Gassiot, Esq.”

“Clapham Common, May 19th, 1856.

“ Srr,—I duly received the communication from your office, of 5th of last
January, stating that you had caused an estimate to be made of the cost of
the Works required at the Observatory in the Old Deer Park, Richmond,
and that you would consider the propriety of including the amount in the
annual estimates.

“T have been informed that the usual estimates have been voted by the
House of Commons :—may I therefore beg the favour of your acquainting
me, for the information of the Kew Committee of the British Association,
whether it is arranged that the laying on of the gas to the Building, and
effecting the necessary repairs should now be commenced ?

“ Permit me also to explain that it would be very advisable, in order to
prevent additional outlay, that no further time should elapse as to the repairs
of the Building. “JT have the honour to remain, Sir,

“ Your obedient Servant,
(Signed) “J. P. Gassior,
Chairman of the Kew Committee.”
“ The Right Hon. Sir Benjamin Hall, Bart., M.P.,
Chief Commissioner of Parks, Palaces, &c. &c.”
Office of Works, &c., May 27, 1856.

“ Srr,-—I am directed by the First Commissioner of Her Majesty’s Works,
&c., to acknowledge the receipt of your letter, dated the 19th inst., request-
ing that you may be informed whether it is arranged that the works for
laying on gas at the Observatory at Kew, and for the necessary repairs,
should now be commenced.

“In reply, I am directed to call your attention to a letter addressed to you
by this Board on the 2nd of June last, to the effect that there would be no
objection to the use of gas at the Observatory, but that the whole of the work

REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. “KXXV

connected therewith must be done by, and at the expense of, the Kew Com-
mittee of the British Association, and to the satisfaction of this Board’s
Officer in charge of the district.

“J am to add, that this communication was made to you before the First
Commissioner came to this Office, and that he was not made aware of it
when he gave directions for the letter of the 5th January last to be written
to you, in which he informed you that he would consider the propriety of
including the cost attending the laying on gas and performing the repairs
therein referred to, in the Estimates of the ensuing year. His attention
having now been directed to that communication of the 2nd June last, he
is of opinion that the decision of the Board thereby conveyed must be ad-
hered ‘to, and that he is unable consequently to undertake the laying on gas
at the Observatory, or to incur any portion of the expense attending it.

“With regard to the repairs referred to in your letter, the First Com-
missioner desires me to state that he will shortly communicate with you upon
the subject. “Tam, Sir,

( «< Your most obedient Servant,
«“ AtFRED AUSTIN, Secretary.”
_ J, Gassiot, Esq.”

‘Clapham Common, June 3; 1856.

«My Lorp Duxr,—At the suggestion of Col. Sabine, I forward your
Grace a copy of a correspondence I have recently had with the Board of
Works relative to the lighting of Kew Observatory with gas.

_ The letter alluded to of 2nd June 1855, and a copy of which I enclose,
is printed in the Report of the Kew Committee. I may also state that
in an interview with Sir B. Hall, on 18th last December, both Colonel Sabine
and myself explained the particulars of my former correspondence with the
Board of Works; this has possibly escaped Sir B. Hall’s recollection, for we
left him with the impression that he would grant our request ; and this was
further confirmed by a letter received from Mr. Austin, on January 5th, who
in reference to our application says, ‘the Chief Commissioner will consider
the propriety of including the amount in the Estimates of the ensuing year.’

“JT cannot therefore but feel much disappointed at the result, which, if
confirmed, will prevent the Committee from carrying out those scientific
researches they have in contemplation.

“ Hoping your Grace may induce Sir B. Hall to reconsider the applica-
‘tion, “I have the honour to be, My Lord Duke,

“Your obedient Servant,
“J. P. GASSIOT,

. “His Grace the Duke of Argyll, Chairman of the Kew Committee.”
President of the British Association.”

“ Clapham Common, July 17, 1856.

“ Sir,—I duly received your reply to my last letter of 19th May, and
chaving communicated to the President and Council of the British Association
your final determination not to incur any portion of the expense of laying on
gas to the Observatory, I have now the pleasure of informing you that the
Royal Society has, from a small fund bequeathed for scientific purposes,

‘most liberally placed the sum of £250 at the disposal of the Kew Committee,
in order that the work may be no longer delayed. :

“TJ have respectfully to request you will be pleased to give the necessary
directions to the Officer in charge of the district, referred to in Mr. Austin’s
letter of 27th May (but whose name, designation, or address I have no

e2

XXXV1 -REPORT—1856.

means of ascertaining), in order that the Committee may be informed by
him in what manner the work must be done to his satisfaction.

“ From what took place at the interview with which you favoured General
Sabine, Mr. Welsh, and myself on 18th of last December, as well as from
the tenor of the letter addressed to me by Mr. Austin on 5th last January,
the Committee fully relied on the necessary amount for the proposed work
being included in the Estimates; they regret that any circumstance should
have arisen to prevent your carrying your intentions into effect, for although
the amount may appear trifling, in comparison to many sums voted on such
occasions, it is nevertheless a large item in the income of any scientific
Society supported entirely by voluntary subscriptions ; and considering that
the British Association already devotes the large sum of £500 per annum
for the support of the Observatory, the Committee could not anticipate that
the cost of laying on gas to a building the property of the Crown, would
have been refused by your Board.

“T have only to add, that, although nearly two months have elapsed since
the date of Mr. Austin’s last letter, and upwards of sixteen months since the
subject was first communicated to your Board, I have not received any com-
munication relative to the repairs, some of which are absolutely necessary
for the preservation of the building.

“Regretting that you should have been troubled with so long a corre-
spondence on this subject, “T have the honour to be, Sir,

“Your most obedient Servant,
“ J. P. GAssiot,
Chairman of the Kew Committee,
British Association.”

“The Right Hon. Sir Benjamin Hall, Bart., M.P.,
First Commissioner of Public Works, &c. &c.”

“ Office of Works, &c., 25th July, 1856.

‘“‘ Sir,—I am directed by the First Commissioner of Her Majesty’s Works,
&c., to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 17th instant, stating that
the British Association will, out of a grant of money made to them by the
Royal Society, lay on gas to the Observatory at Kew, and requesting that
the necessary orders may be given to the proper officer of this department
on the subject, and also calling attention to the state of repair of the Building ;
and I am to inform you, in regard to the laying on of the gas, that the Board
request that the Committee of the Association will, as soon as they shall be
prepared to commence the works, communicate with Mr. Starie, the Officer
of this Department, who has the charge of the Kew District, and who is in-
structed to attend from time to time to see that the works are performed to
his satisfaction.

*‘ With regard to the repairs I am directed to state that, upon further con-
sideration, a question has arisen which renders it necessary for the First
Commissioner to submit that subject to the Treasury, and that upon recei-
ving their reply, the First Commissioner will communicate further with the
Committee.

“Tam, Sir,
“Your most obedient Servant,

j ‘“‘ ALFRED AUSTIN, Secretary.”
“J. P. Gassiot, Esq.”

XXXVI

REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE.

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XXXVIil REPORT—1856. 1

Report of the Parliamentary Committee of the British Association to
the Meeting at Cheltenham in August 1856.

The Parliamentary Committee have the honour to report as follows :—

We have the pleasure of announcing that one very important subject to
which our labours have been directed has been materially advanced since
the date of our last Report; we allude to the juxtaposition of the Scientific
Societies of London in a convenient and central locality.

The main building at Burlington House has been placed by the Govern-
ment at the disposal of the Royal Society, on the understanding that they
accommodate the Linnean and Chemical Societies with rooms therein; and the
West Wing will be converted into a capacious Hall, which is to be occu-
pied by the Royal Society at all times when it is not required for the
examinations and public meetings of the University of London.

We trust that the period is not far distant in which permanent accommo-
dation will be afforded to all the principal Scientific Societies in buildings to
be erected near the same site, and in pursuance of some general plan.

Your Committee, however, anticipate most important advantages to Science
from the present partial adoption by the Government of the principle of
juxtaposition ; and our Chairman has in his address to the Royal Society on
the occasion of their last Anniversary, alluded to the benefits likely to accrue
from this salutary measure.

In the same Address also will be found a Summary of our labours since
our complete organization in 1851, a perusal of which will show to what
extent the proceedings of cur Committee have justified the anticipations of
those who promoted its formation.

During the past year two subjects have been referred to us, viz.: —

Ist. The question of the expenses incurred by Scientific Institutions not
incorporated in appointing new trustees of their property, when vacancies
occur. And, 2ndly. We were requested by your Council in January last
to support an application to Parliament, in reference to lighting Kew Ob-
servatory with gas, when made by the Chief Commissioner of Woods.

The first subject above adverted to has been considered by us, and we
shall resume its discussion when an opportunity offers for remedying the
evil.

With respect to the second, we must refer to the Report of the Kew
Committee for an explanation of the reasons which have made it impossible
for us to render that species of assistance, which was contemplated at th
time when the reference was made to us.

The most important subject of our last Report, viz. the question “ whether
any measures could be adopted by the Government or Parliament that would
improve the position of Science or its Cultivators?” has since its discussion
at Glasgow been again considered by us; and during the last Session of
Parliament it was brought before the House of Commons by Mr. Heywood,
as an individual Member of the House, and not as representing your
Committee.

The discussion of our Report by the Committee of Recommendations at
Glasgow in September last, the result of the debate which took place in
the House of Commons on the occasion last referred to, and subsequent
communications with Members of the Legislature, have combined to
convince us—

1st. That men of science have as yet formed no definite opinion
on the important question raised in the Report.

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. xxXxix

And 2ndly. That until such a result be attained, it is improbable
that any important improvement will be effected in the position of
Science or its Cultivators either through the agency of the Government
or Parliament.

It is desirable therefore that some measures should be adopted, which
may be instrumental in inducing scientific men generally to apply their minds
to the consideration of these questions, and to agree upon some definite
proposals :—We therefore recommend that the subject should be again
brought before the Committee of Recommendations. Meanwhile the General
Committee will be gratified on learning that the importance of the question
has been recognized by the Council of the Royal Society, who have referred
its consideration to the Government Grant Committee. That Committee
have appointed a Sub-Committee, consisting of the President and Officers
of the Royal Society and seven other Members, who will meet on the 7th
of October for the purpose of discussing the subject prior to the reassembling
of the Society after the recess.

_ Your Committee recommend for the consideration of the General Com-
mittee, whether it would be expedient to relax the rule by which vacancies
in our Committee must be filled up exclusively from Members of the British
Association, so far as to admit Members of either House of Parliament, who
have advanced the interests of Science.

- Your Committee also recommend that two vacancies in our body, caused
by the non-attendance of the Earl Cathcart and Sir J. V. Bb. Johnstone,
Bart., during two consecutive years, be filled by the election of the Earl of
Burlington and Lord Stanley, Member of Parliament for King’s Lynn.

25 July, 1856. WrotresLey, Chairman.

RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL CoMMITTEE AT THE
CHELTENHAM MEETING 1n Aucust 1856.

[When Committees are appointed, the Member first named is regarded as the Secretary of
the Committee, except there be a specific nomination.]

Involving Grants of Money.

- That the sum of £350 be placed at the disposal of the Council for main-
taining the Establishment and providing for the continuance of Special Re-
searches at Kew.

That Mr. F. Osler be requested to continue his reduction of Anemome-
trical Observations ; with £20 at his disposal for the purpose.

That Mr. R. W. Fox be requested to make further Experiments on the
Temperature of deep Mines in Cornwall; with £10 at his disposal for the
purpose.

That Professor N. S. Maskelyne, T. F. Hardwich, and Mr. J. D. Lle-
wellyn, be a Committee, with power to add to their number, for the purpose
of drawing up a Report on the chemical nature of the image formed in pho-
tographic processes ; with £10 at their disposal.

_ That Professor Anderson be requested to complete his Report on the com-
pounds of Platinum and the allied metals with Ammonia; with £10 at his
disposal for the purpose.

hat Mr. Mallet be requested to continue his Investigations on Earth-
quake Waves; with £50 at his disposal for the purpose.

That Professor Phillips and Professor Ramsay be requested to construct a
Vertical Column of British Strata, to accompany the Map which has been
prepared for the ets an Section; with£15 at their disposal for the purpose.

hat Mr. Patterson, Professor Dickie, and Mr. Hyndman, be a Committee,

xl REPORT—1856.

with power to add to their number, for the purpose of Dredging in the
neighbourhood of Belfast; with £10 at their disposal.

That the Rev. C. P. Miles, Professor Balfour, Dr. Greville, and Mr. C.
Eyton, be a Committee to report on the Dredging of the West Coast of Scot-
land; with £25 at their disposal for the purpose.

That Dr. Williams, Professor Bell, and Dr. Lankester, be a Committee
for the purpose of completing a Report on the British Annelida, with £25 at
their disposal.

‘That Mr. Archer and Dr. Dickinson be requested to report on the Vege-
table Imports of Liverpool; with £10 at their disposal for the purpose.

That Mr. W. Keddie and Mr. Michael Connal be requested to report on
the Vegetable Imports of Liverpool; with £10 at their disposal for the purpose.

That Professor Henslow, Professor Phillips, Sir W. Jardine, Mr. C. C.
Babington, Professor Balfour, Professor Owen, Dr, Hooker, Mr. J. S. Bower-
bank, Rev. M. J. Berkeley, Professor Huxley, and Dr. Lankester, be a Com-
mittee to report on the best manner of selecting and arranging a series of
Typical Objects illustrative of the three Kingdoms of Nature, for Provincial
Museums; with £10 at their disposal for the purpose.

That Sir W. Jardine, Bart., and Mr. Ashworth, be requested to continue
their observations on the Growth of Salmon; with £10 at their disposal for
the purpose.

That the Rev. P. Carpenter, Dr. Gray, and Mr. C. C. Babington, be a
Committee to complete the Report on the Mollusca of California; with £10
at their disposal for the purpose.

That Madame Ida Pfeiffer be requested to report on the Natural History
of Madagascar; with £20 at her disposal for the purpose.

That Mr. G. Rennie be requested to continue his experiments on the pro-
duction of Heat by motion in fluids ; with £20 at his disposal for the purpose.

That a Committee, consisting of Mr. A. Henderson, Mr. A. Anderson,
Captain Sir E. Belcher, Mr. J. R. Napier, Mr. J. Thomson, C.E., Mr. W.
Ramsay, C.E., Captain J. O. Owen, and Sir W. Jardine, Bart., be requested
to continue the investigation as to the statistics and condition of Life-Boats
and Fishing-Boats; as to the principles on which such boats should be con-
structed; the essential conditions of their successful use; and the manner of
establishing them round the coasts ; with £5 at their disposal for the purpose.

Not Involving Grants of Money.
Parliamentary Committee.

That copies of the two last Reports of the Parliamentary Committee be
transmitted to each Member of the General Committee, with a request that
opinions may be expressed as to the important subject “whether any
measures could be adopted by the Government or Parliament that would
improve the position of Science and its Cultivators,” and that such opinion be
forwarded for the consideration of the Council before the 20th of September.

That the Rule by which vacancies in the Parliamentary Committee must
be filled up exclusively from Members of the British Association, be so far
relaxed, as to admit Members of either House of Parliament who have
advanced the interests of Science.

That two vacancies in the Parliamentary Committee, caused by the non-
attendance of the Earl Cathcart and Sir J. V. B. Johnstone, Bart., during

two consecutive years, be filled by the election of the Earl of Burlington,
and Lord Stanley, M.P. for King’s Lynn.

Title of Section F.

That the ‘ Section of Statistics’ shall in future be entitled ‘ The Section of
Economic Science and Statistics.’

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. xli

Involving Applications to Government or Public Institutions.

That the application to Government for an Expedition to complete our
knowledge of the Tides be renewed.

That the application which was made to the Government in September
1852, concerning the great Southern Telescope, be renewed.

That a deputation, consisting of Sir R. I. Murchison, Sir H. Rawlinson,
General Sabine, Professor Owen, Professor Bell, Dr. Gray, Mr. Macgregor
Laird, Dr. R. Latham, and Dr. N. Shaw, be requested to wait upon Her
Majesty’s Secretary for Foreign Affairs, to urge the desirableness of sending
out an annual expedition to the Niger, at the period of the rising waters of
that river (which has been proved to be the most healthy season), as proposed
by Dr. Baikie, supported by the Royal Geographical Society, and advocated
by persons deeply interested in establishing a regular commercial intercourse
with the inhabitants of that portion of Africa.

That a Memorial be presented to the Admiralty, praying for the publica-
tion in a simple, uniform and complete shape, tabular and descriptive, of the
results of the Trials of Her Majesty’s Steam Ships.

That the Committee, consisting of Mr. Andrew Henderson, Mr. John Scott
Russell, Mr. James R. Napier, and Mr. Charles Atherton, appointed to con-
sider the question of the Measurement of Ships for Tonnage, be requested
to continue their investigations; that the following names be added to the
Committee, The Right Hon. the Earl of Hardwicke, Mr. Arthur Anderson,
Rev. Dr. Woolley, Mr. Wm. Mann, Mr. George Frederic Young, Captain
J. O. Owen, Professor Woodcroft, and Mr. James Perry; and that they be
requested to inquire into the defects of the present methods, and to frame
more perfect rules for the measurement and registration of ships; and also
as to the adoption of a standard unit for estimating the working power of
engines, instead of the present nominal horse-power, in order that a correct
and uniform principle of estimating the actual carrying capacity and working
power of steam-ships may be adopted in their future registration.

(N.B. In this Recommendation the Committees of Section F. and Section
G. concurred.) ;

That the Earl of Harrowby, Lord Stanley, Mr. William Fairbairn,
Mr. Thomas Graham (Master of the Mint), Mr. James Heywood, Mr.
Commissioner Hill, General Sabine, and Mr. Thomas Webster, be a Com-
mittee for the purpose of taking such steps as may be necessary to render
the Patent system of this country, and the funds derived from inventors, more
efficient and available for the reward of meritorious inventors, and the ad-
vancement of practical science.

Applications for Reports and Researches.

That Mr. Cayley be requested to complete his Report on the Progress of
Theoretical Dynamics.

That a Committee, consisting of General Sabine, Professor Phillips, Sir
James C. Ross, Mr. Robert W. Fox, and Rev. Dr. Lloyd, be requested to
undertake the repetition of the Magnetic Survey of the British Islands,

That Dr. Miller be requested to complete his Report on Electro-chemistry.

That Dr. Price be requested to complete his Report on Commercial
Varieties of Iron.

That Professor Buckman and Professor Voelcker be requested to continue
their researches into the Effects of External Agents in the Growth of Plants.

That Mr. Rennie be requested to prosecute his experiments on the Velo-
city of the Screw-propeller, and report on them next year.

xlii REPORT—1856.

That Mr. Wm. Fairbairn, C.E., be requested to continue his Report on
Boiler Explosions.

That a Committee, consisting of Mr. James Thomson, C.E., and Mr. Wil-
liam Fairbairn, C.E., F.R.S., be requested to continue their investigations on.
the Friction of Discs in water and on Centrifugal Pumps.

That Mr. James Thomson, C.E., be requested to report further on the
Measurement of Water by Weir Boards.

Communications to be printed entire among the Reports.

That Dr. Booth’s Memoir on the Geometrical origin of Logarithms be
printed entire in the Reports of the Association.

That Mr. Etheridge’s List of the Fossils from the Lias Bone Bed be
printed entire in the Report of the Association’s Proceedings.

That the Communication of Dr. Wright, on the Echinodermata of the
Oolite, be printed entire iu the Reports of the British Association.

That Professor Goodsir’s Paper on the Morphological Constitution of the
Skeleton of the Vertebrate Head be printed entire in the Reports of the
Association, with such Illustrations as may be necessary.

Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Objects by the
General Committee at the Cheltenham Meeting in Aug. 1856, with the
name of the Member, who alone, or us the First of a Committee, is
entitled to draw for the Money.

Kew Observatory. Boa ds

At the disposal of the Council for defraying expenses ...... 350 0 O
Mathematics and Physics.

Oster, F.—Reduction of Anemometrical Observations...... 20 0 O

Fox, R. W.—Observations on Subterranean Temperature.... 10 O O

Chemical Science.
MaskELyneE, Prof.—Chemical Nature of Photographic Image 10 0 0
ANDERSON, Prof.—Compounds of Platinum and other metals

With AmmioniA .......ceeresssereee 10 0.0
Geology.
Ma.vet, R.—Earthquake Wave Experiments ............ 50 0 0
Puittirs, Prof.—Section of British Strata ..........0..65- 15.0.0
Zoology and Botany.
Parrerson, R.—Dredging near Belfast . 10 0 0O
Mites, Rev. C. P.—Dredging on the West Coast of Scotland. 25 0 0
Wituiams, Dr.—British Annelida ........ 25 0 0
Arcuer, T. C.—Natural Products imported into Liverpool . 10-620
Kepp1£e, W.—Natural Products imported into Glasgow...... 10 0 O
Henstow, Prof.—Typical Forms for Museums ............ 10 0 0
JARDINE, Sir W.—Propagation of Salmon................ 10 0 0
CarpENTER, Rev. P.—Mollusca of California ............ 10 0 O
Preirrer, Madame Ida.—Natural History of Madagascar .. 20 0 0
Mechanics.

Rennigz, G.—Production of Heat in Fluids ............. re EE
Henperson, Andrew.—Life-Boats .......... Path a> clare 5.0 0

Grants,... £620

—_——_e ee eee

GENERAL STATEMENT.

xliii

General Statement of Sums which have been paid on Account of Grants for

Scientific Purposes.
£ s. d. £ s. d.
1834, Meteorology and Subterranean
Tide Discussions .........+..+- 20 0 0 Temperature ......... Riveseenete ea Lie OU
Vitrification Experiments......... 9 4 7
4 i ; vidi 0 Cast Iron Experiments............ 100 0 0
Fide Dasqussions sssarersssssserses 62 0 Railway Constants ....... edsee sei cite gle
British Fossil Ichthyology... 105 9 0) rang and Sea Level ..........0..., 274 1 4
£167 0 0] Steam-vessels’ Engines ........+... 100 0 0
Stars in Histoire Céleste ....... . d01 18 6
1836. 163 0 0 Stars in Lacaille ...........eeeee0e 11 0 0
Tide Discussions ...s.ssssssseseees Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue......... 616 6
British Fossil Ichthyology . sven 105 0.) 0 Animal Secrétions........0....... « 1010 0
Thermometric Gbscrvationss &c. 50 0 0 Steam-engines i tin Cornwall. ae 50 0 0
Experiments on a apliee vith Atmospheric Air .........ssseeeeee 16 1 0
Heat sree 17 1 0 Cast and Wrought Iron...,...... 40 0 0
Bain Gauges... og les Mey ery bie sl Heat on Organic Bodies ......... 3 0 O
peeon La gr ase RS Bes 150 | Gases on Solar Spectrum......... 22 0 0
Lunar Nutation.....+..0..sssssee a , 4 Hourly Meteorological Observa-
Thermometers ee = ats tions, Inverness anid! Kirigussie 19 7 8
ossil Reptiles ....... eauiaaeisienise .
1837. Mining Statistics .........00.. _ 7 ;
Tide Discussions ........sesesseeee 284 1 0
Chemical Constants ........ seoee 2413 6
Lunar Nutation.......ss0csceees ao 20.0 Of | ? 1840.
Observations on Waves......s..ss» 100 12 0 | Bristol Tides.............. sscceesse 100 0 O
Tides at Bristol.ssssecsssssseecesees 150 0 0 | Subterranean Temperature ...... 13 13 6
Meteorology and Subterranean Heart Experiments... 18 19 0
Temperature ...ssseseseereereseee 89 5 3 | Lungs Experiments ......0..0. 8 13 0
Vitrification Experiments......... 150 0 0 | Tide Discussions .............0. 50 0 0
Heart Experiments ........ veces 8 4 6 | Land and Sea Level.w............ 6 11 1
Barometric Observations .......... 30 0 0 | Stars (Histoire part ssseseeee 242 10 0
Barometers . ..sssesssseseeeseeees « 11 18 6 | Stars (Lacaille) ....... trttsessreseee 415 0
£918 146 | Stars (Catalogue) . eicvettarss covers 264 0 0
Atmospheric Air .........s00.00. 1515 0
1838. Water on Iron ...... sossecessecsees 10 0 O
Tide Discussions s..s....s006.. 29 0 0 | Heat on Organic Bodies ........ 7 0. 0
British Fossil Fishes ...... suse. 100 Q 0 | Meteorological Observations...... 5217 6
’ Meteorological Observations and Foreign Scientific Memoirs ...,., 112 1 6
Anemometer (construction) ... 100 0 0 | Working Population............... 100 0 0
Cast Iron (Strength of) ..s...468 60 0 0 | School Statistics.................. - 50 0 0
Animal and Vegetable Substances Forms of Vessels seeeeeneesenceees . 184 7 0
(Preservation of) .ss..sss6..0666 19 1 10 | Chemical and Electrical Pheeno-
Railway Constants sintptihicniiisaeb 41 12 10 mena seeceeeescases tee eeeteenns » 40 0 0
Bristol Tides......... eaeieoctiiasse .. 50 0 0 | Meteorological Observations at
Growth of Plants ........ tomersseen, choy OW 10 Plymouth ..... setseseseeseeeere 80 0 0
Mud in Rivers .....sscsseseeesceees 3 6 6 | Magnetical Observations ......... 185.13 9
Education Committee ......... sews 30) 0) 0 £1546 16 4
Heart Experiments ..... sdgusktnss 5 3 (0 :
Land and Sea Level............+6 - 267 8 7 1841,
Subterranean Temperature ...... 8 6 0 | Observations on Waves..,......... 80 0 0
Steam-vessels..........005 oeanest «ss 100 0 OJ Meteorology and Subterranean :
Meteorological Committee ..... oa co Temperature ..,.......00. tetensee = BO
Thermometers ......ccereecseee 16 4 0] Actinometers.c...icscccsesseerreeass 10 0 0
£956 12 2 | Earthquake Shocks ...... sersccosee Lf 7. 0
Acrid Poisons...........6668 Wissecwes 6 0 0
1839. Veins and Absorbents ...........- 3.0 0
Fossil Ichthyology. sesecesseeseeese 110 0 0 | Mudin Rivers ..........ccc000ee 5 0 0
Meteorological Observations at Marine Vanlouy «onssatasascanoncocee 15 12 8
Plymouth 4.0000 seeceeseeeeeese 63 10 0 | Skeleton Maps .......s0.seseeeeeere 20 0 0
Mechanism of Waves ..........., 144 2. 0 | Mountain Barometers J... 618 6
Bristol Tides ......s.eecesseesesee 35 18 6} Stars (Histoire Céleste).,.0000 185 0 0

xliv REPORT—1856.
£ s, d. Gi 8.>.d.
Stars (Lacaille) ...cccsssssessseeesee 79 5 0 | Meteorological Observations, Os-
Stars (Nomenclature ides beseweuss 1719.6 ler’s Anemometer at Plymouth 20 0 0
Stars (Catalogue of) ........s00206. 40 0 0 | Reduction of Meteorological Ob-
Water on Iron .........eeee, 50 0 0 SETVAtiONS .....ccccescseceeesssses GU O O
Meteorological Observations at Meteorological Instruments and
TMVerness:’ ..s.ce.sesceesense eee 20 0 0 Gratuities ....cs.ccccccessssocecns ud 6 0
Meteorological Observations (re- Construction of Anemometer at
Auction Of) ..cccccccscsseroncere 29 0 O Inverness ....ccccscccccsrsseveeess 06 12 2
Fossil Reptiles .....ssecaseeeseseeee 50 © 0 | Magnetic Co-operation ............ 10 8 10
Foreign Memoirs ......+++-sss00008 62 0 0 | Meteorological Recorder for Kew
Railway Sections ......sseesessses eee. Oo Observatory .ce..tcccccccrseerese 30 O O
Forms of Vessels ......seeeeess08-. 193 12 0 | Action of Gases on Light......... 18 16 1
Meteorological Observations at Establishment at Kew Observa-
Plymouth .....ccceseeeees Sender De OO tory, Wages, Repairs, Furni-
Magnetical Observations ........ a fol 18S ture and Sundries.........0... 138 4 7
Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone 100 0 0] Experiments by Captive Balloons 81 8 0
Tides at Leith .......60...00e Spence 50 0 0] Oxidation ofthe Rails of Railways 20 0 0
Anemometer at Edinburgh ...... 69 1 10] Publication of Report on Fossil
Tabulating Observations ..,..... 9 6 3&8 Reptiles...... senceuae dcecseocesee - 40 0 0
Races of Men ssscsscseecereeeeesee 5 0 0] Coloured cae call of Railway
Radiate Animals ...........0-- 2 0 0 Sections ...ccccccccccccsesseeaccoes 140 18.09
£1235 10 11 Registration ‘of “Earthquake
—-—- Shocks ...... vevcaccccccccccnses «. °-30, 0-0
1842. Report on Zoological Nomencla-
Dynamometric Instruments ...... 113 11 2 TUTE veeseeees steeee wee 10 0 0
Anoplura Britanniz ..,............ 52 12 0 Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
Tides at Bristol............s0e0--. 59 8 O stone near Manchester... 4 4 6
Gases on Light ..........s000 seuss 30 14 7 | Vegetative Power of Seeds «4. 5 3 8
Chronometers ......+0+0+ eaavecea=s 26 17 6 | Marine Testacea (Habits of ) 10 0 0
Marine Zoology.........+0+00+ eee 1 5 0 | Marine Zoology..........+. seesseee 10 0 0
British Fossil Mammalia .....0... 100 0 0 | Marine Zoology.....-.csesesereeee 2 14 11
Statistics of Education .......... .. 20 0 0 | Preparation of Report on British
Marine Steam-vessels’ Engines... 28 0 0 Fossil Mammalia seeeeneeecovens 100 0 0
Stars (Histoire Céleste)........... 59 0 0 | Physiological Operations of Me-
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of) ...... 110 0 0 dicinal Agents co susgecepsccenven MOOIONREE
Railway Sections .........+ sesseeee 161 10 0 | Vital Statistics ..cessessrrroeee 36 5 8
British Belemnites......+0+..+.0++8 50 0 0 | Additional Experiments on the
Fossil Reptiles (publication of Forms of Vessels pidedes ccnusceameini Oe Cusne
RREpOrt) ..cc-cconccsevcacescaposeae 210 0 0 Additional Experiments on the
Forms of Vessels ssssseeeeeeees .... 180 0 | _ Forms of Vessels «..+0+...414.. 100 0 0
Galvanic Experiments on Rocks 5 6 | Reduction of Experiments on the
Meteorological Experiments at Forms of Vessels ....seseseeeeee 100 0 0
Plymouth "cists.cscceccencceeepsea) 08 0 0 Morin’s Instrument and Constant
Constant Indicator and Dynamo- Indicator *.vevsicc.sssecesasesaess OD L4AQ
metric Instruments ........e. 90 0 0 | Experiments on the Strength of
Force of Wid wsessccssesseesseeeee 10 0 0 | Materials ...cocesssersereeererere 60 0 0
Light on Growth of Seeds ...... 8 O 0 £1565 10 2
Vital Statistics ....... siecneencassnmys (DNL. Oveuil =
Vegetative Power of Seeds ...... 8 1 11 1844,
Questions on Human Race ......__7 9 | Meteorological Observations at
£1449 17 8 Kingussie and Inverness....... 12 0 0Q
————= | Completing Observations at Ply-
1843, DOOMED, ecrasascoxecatecevssessscces ma), Olan
Revision of the Nomenclature of Magnetic and Meteorological Co-
EATS iepsasebepescasaccaphsvensnreca, uu UL 0 OPETAtlON c.ccecccevaceeoece soovee 20 § 4
Reduction of Stars, British Asso- Publication of the British Asso-
ciation Catalogue ....+e..sses0ee 25 0:0 ciation Catalogue of Stars.....,. 35 0 0
Anomalous Tides, Frith of Forth 120 0 0] Observations on Tides on the
Hourly Meteorological Observa- East coast of Scotland ..,,..... . 100 0 0
tionsat KingussieandInverness 77 12 8 | Revision of the Nomenclature of
Meteorological Observations at Stars .eccsccccsevssceccseennedG42 2 9 6
Plymouth ..e.sececssseeessesseeee 5D 0 0} Maintaining the Establishment in
Whewell’s Meteorological Ane- Kew Observatory .seossseeseose 117 17 3
mometer at Plymouth .,....... 10 0 0 Instruments for Kew Obserwatory 56 7 3

GENERAL STATEMENT.

ry : £s. a.
Influence of Light on Plants...... 10 0 0
Subterraneous Temperature in

Treland c.cscccsssssssececcseereee, 5 0 0
Coloured Drawings of Railway

eeieann <5. scavesdasunctsnepstens, 20 10: 6
Investigation of Fossil Fishes of

the Lower Tertiary Strata ... 100 0 0
Registering the Shocks of Earth-

Quakes ....ssoorssrrseseeeee L842 23 11 10
Structure of Fossil Shells......... 20 0 0
Radiata and Mollusca of the

#egean and Red Seas.....1842 100 0 0
Geographical Distributions of

Marine Zoology.....+...+++ 1842 010 0
Marine Zoology of Devon and

Cornwall ....ssececeeeeseevees ww 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Corfu......... 10 0 0
Experiments on the Vitality of

Rede istesiesctscteheestoswe |) Olas
Experiments on the Vitality of

eb ERM RES ered TS RII ee
Exotic Anoplura ...sceeeeee 15 0 0
Strength of Materials ......+ss+0 100 0 0
Completing Experiments on the

Forms of Ships ....sssseeeeeeeeee 100 0 0
Inquiries into Asphyxia .....+. 10 0 0
Investigations on the Internal

Constitution of Metals ..... w. 50 0 0
Constant Indicator and Morin’s

Instrument, 1842 ..ccccrereonees 10 3 6

£981 12 8
1845.
Publication of the British Associa-

tion Catalogue of Stars......... 851 14 6
Meteorological Observations at

Inverness ..covcrecescenssers we» =80 18 11
Magnetic and Meteorological Co-

OPCTAtiON ssesessesceecersereeener 1616 8
Meteorological Instruments at

Edinburgh .......sesssccossesseeees 18 11 9
Reduction of Anemometrical Ob-

servations at Plymouth.......-. 25 0 0
Electrical Experiments at Kew

Observatory vescccrercesssceeeeee 43 17 ‘8
Maintaining the Establishment in

Kew Observatory ...sscssseereee 149 15 0
For Kreil’s Barometrograph...... 25 0 0
Gases from Iron Furnaces ...... 50 0 0
The Actinograph ss. 15 0 0
Microscopic Structure of Shells... 20 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ..-.....++--1843 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds.......++....+.1843 2 0 7
Vitality of Seeds ......+0...1844 7 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medicines 20 0 0
Statistics of Sickness and Mor-

tality in York ...cceseceessesere 20 0 O
Earthquake Shocks .,.......1843 15 14 8

£830 9 9

1846.

British Association Catalogue of

Stars Ser easenataaverentveneni Ora 211 15 0

xiv

£5. d.
Fossil Fishes of the London Clay 100 0 0

Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1839... 50 0 0

Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory «sssesesssseeee 146 16 7
Strength of Materials.. ...........- 60 0 0
Researches in Asphyxiass.e 6 16 2
Examination of Fossil Shells...... 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds .......s00061844 2 15 10
Vitality of Seeds .......++..1845 712 3
Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Britain ...... 10 0 0
Exotic Anoplura .........++:1844 25 0 0
Expenses attending Anemometers 11 7 6
Anemometers’ Repairs... 2 3 6
Atmospheric Waves ....... Pears i eet
Captive Balloons ............1844 819 3

Varieties of the Human Race

1844 7 6 38

Statistics of Sickness and Mor-
tality in York wssseereeeeereee 12 0 0
£685 16 0

SS
—————

1847.
Computation of the Gaussian

Constants for 1839 ,...0..... 50 0 0
Habits of Marine Animals ...... 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medicines 20 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall ... 10 0 0
Atmospheric Waves .se.ccccreseere 6 9 8
Vitality of Seeds .....-..04 viieek TAN im, e
Maintaining the Establishment at

Kew Observatory ssssssseereee 107 8 6

£208 5 4
1848.
Maintaining the Establishment at

Kew Observatory ...s+sssseeee » 171 15 11
Atmospheric Waves ..... setnitenienrt on LUnL
Vitality of Seeds ...... Seistesaiss sles 915 0
Completion of Catalogues of Stars 70 0 0
On Colouring Matters ....0.... 5 0 0
On Growth of Plants........0.....- 15 0 0

£275 1 8
1849.
Electrical Observations at Kew

Observatory sasecccrsrseerrereee 50 0 0
Maintaining Establishment at

GittO ...cecseececseeeescessceces - 76 2 5
Vitality of Seeds wescesrrreereee 5 8 1
On Growth of Plants.........sss00e 5 0 0
Registration of Periodical Phe-

NOMENA 22. .eeseeeee secesee Sembee 10 0 0
Bill on account of Anemometrical

Observations .eessseceesseeserreee 13 9 0

£159 19 6

1850.
Maintaining the Establishment at

Kew Observatory ..sscesssereeee 255 18 0
50 0 0

Transit of Earthquake Waves...

xlvi -- REPORT—I856, ~

a

G3. d. | a etecoes
Periodical Phenomena........... 15 0 0 1854.
Meteorological Instrument, Maintaining the Establishment at
Azores .e.,,.+6 disdeditervegdeatts BOenOr 0 Kew Observatory (including
£345 18 0 balance of former grant) ...... 8330 15 4
Investigations on Flax ............ 11 0 0
1851. Effects of Temperature on
Maintaining the Establishment at Wrought Iron ........... saoscey RaimU a0
Kew Observatory (includes part Registration of Periodical Phe-
of grant in 1849) ...... Peostgese CUS RU SD ae nomena ...... tr eT kee Oe
Theory of Heat ....cccccccssseeeeeee 20 1 17) British Annelida ......... eaasenniam: 110) aie
Periodical Phenomena of Animals Vitality of Seeds ...cccccreserseee 5 2 38
apd Plants vat eetsesesscesss orwee - 5& QO 0} Conduction of Heat ,....000... 4 2 0
Vitality of Seeds .....s, Seeceeaeeset) OO te $330 19 7
Influence of Solar Radiation,..... 30 0 0 ee
Ethnological Inquiries ............ 12 0 0 1855.
Researches on Annelida ......... 10 0 0 Maintaining the Establishment at
£391 9 7 Kew Observatory cervsssssreeere 425 0 0
Earthquake Movements ...., saves LUO
1852. Physical Aspect of the Moon...... IL 8 5
Maintaining the Establishment at Vitality of Seeds ...........seeee Sree ie ye sy!
Kew Observatory (including Map of the World......... wos tguses, cp ool 10
balance of grant for 1850) ... 233 17 8 | Ethnological Queries .,,.,....... 5 0 0
Experiments on the Conduction Dredging near Belfast .,,..-..,.... 4 0 0-
OL Heat, ...cdescccensgevasoneresces 5; «2: 9 £480 16 4
Influence of Solar Radiations ... 20 0 0
Geological Map of Ireland ...... 15 0 0 1856.
Researches on the British Anne- Maintaining the Establishment at
Vida. fize se ciwacginctetres-Seesenes cern OrGO) WO Kew Observatory :-—
Vitality of Seeds ......ccccceceeeee 10 6 2 1854,...0.£ 75 0 0
Strength of Boiler Plates ..... sch OncOig/0 1855......£500 0 ie 575 0 0
£304 6 7 | Strickland’s Ornithological Syno-
nyMs ...... SosisaveadheegasseanessesttlU0) © Oma
1853. Dredging and Dredging Forms, veo VM BOD
Maintaining the Establishment at Chemical Action of Light......... 20 0 0
Kew Observatory ......s.sseeees 165 0 0] Strength of Iron Plates.,.......... 10 0 0
Experiments on the Influence of Registration of Periodical Phzeno-
Solar Radiation ....e.cccccrcee 15 0 0 MENA seeee aos Sacdssvvecasetucescssin BQUDUEED
Researches on the British Anne- Propagation of Salmon weeerseess 10 0 O
didavoduleveclse'scccqanesats saanteas oeiMOlianO. sb) £734 13 9
Dredging on the East Coast of ———
NCOtlAndsyacassevacacenagvasens eine LOO, 20
Ethnological Queries... 5 0 0
£205 0 0

Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee.

Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money for scientific pur-
poses have been entrusted, are required to present to each following meeting
of the Association a Report of the progress which has been made; with a
statement of the sums which have been expended, and the balance which re-
mains disposable on each grant.

Grants of pecuniary aid for scientific purposes from the funds of the Asso-
ciation expire at the ensuing meeting, unless it shall appear by a Report that
the Recommendations have been acted on, or a continuation of them be
ordered by the General Committee.

In each Committee, the Member first named is the person entitled to call
on the Treasurer, John Taylor, Esq., 6 Queen Street Place, Upper Thames
Street, London, for such portion of the sum granted as may from time to
time be required.

—

GENERAL MEETINGS. xlvii

_ In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contemplate
the payment of personal expenses to the Members.

In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua-
tion of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named shall be
deemed to include, as a part of the amount, the specified balance which may
remain unpaid on the former grant for the same object.

General Meetings.

On Wednesday, Aug. 6th, at 8 p.m., in the College, the Duke of Argyll
resigned the office of President to C. G. B. Daubeny, M.D., F.R.S., Professor
of Botany in the University of Oxford, who took the Chair at the General
_ Meeting, and delivered an Address, for which see p. xlviii.

On Thursday Evening, Aug. 7th, a Conversazione and Musical Promenade
took place at the Pittville Spa.

On Friday, Aug. 8th, at 84 P.M. in the College, Col. Sir H. Rawlinson,
F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on Recent Discovéries in Assyria and Baby-
lonia, with the results of Cuneiform Research up to the present time.

On Saturday Evening, Aug. 9th, a Conversazione was held in the College.

On Monday, Aug. 11th, at 83 p.m., in the College, W. R. Grove, Esq.,
M.A., F.R.S,, delivered a Discourse on the Correlation of Physical Forces,

On Tuesday, Aug. 12th, at 54 p.m., the Members dined together in the
Music Hall of the Royal Old Well, the President, Prof, Daubeny, in the
Chair.

On Wednesday, Aug. 18th, at 3 p.m., the concluding General Meeting
took place in the College, when the Proceedings of the General Committee,
and the Grants of Money for scientific purposes, were explained to the
Menibers.

The Meeting was then adjourned to Dublin*.

* The Meeting is appointed to take place on Wednesday, the 26th of August, 1857.

ADDRESS

BY

CHARLES DAUBENY, M.D., F.R.S.,

Proressor oF BoTANY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OxFoRD,

GENTLEMEN OF THE BritTiIsH ASSOCIATION,

ExactLy twenty years have elapsed since the time when, as one of the Local
Secretaries of this Institution, at the Meeting held in Bristol, it became my-
province to lay before the Members present a Report on the progress of
Physical Science, more especially with reference to the subjects that had
been treated of in the last volume of our Transactions.

And it was with uo assumed feeling of humility that I expressed on that

occasion my lively sense of the responsibility of the task imposed upon me,
and of my own feeble qualifications for its execution.
_ It is, however, with a much more pervading consciousness of my defi-
ciencies that I appear at the present time, when, addressing you as the Pre-
sident of this great Body, I see before me similar duties committed to me to
discharge.

On the former occasion, indeed, I was at least encouraged by the reflection,
that however eminent those who had preceded me in the drawing up of such
reports might have been,—and doubtless there were amongst them some of
our most valued associates,—still, as the task had up to that time been con-
fided to the Local Secretaries, it was one to which persons of humbler preten-
sions might aspire; nor was the general Body likely itself to be compromised
by any remarks that emanated from one of its subordinate Officers.

But I now stand before you in quite a different capacity, following as I do
in the wake of a long train of distinguished individuals, several of whom,
indeed, as was the case with my own immediate predecessor, added to the
recommendation of extensive scientific and literary attainments, the prestige
of exalted rank and eminent social position; whilst of the remainder many
had been peculiarly marked out for such a post, either on the ground of
their own contributions to Science, or on that of the depth and range of
their information in some of its highest departments. a:

In my own case, on the contrary, I cannot but feel, that this important
office has been imposed upon me, chiefly on account of my position as the
Senior amongst the Professors of Physical Science in a neighbouring Uni-

ADDRESS. xlix

versity, which doubtless deserves the gratitude of this Association, for the
support rendered to it, when such fostering care was most needed, in the
infancy of its existence.

And if other reasons for the selection are sought for, I would refer it also
to the accident of my birth, and to the partiality of my friends in the County
where we are now assembled, to whom I flatter myself it may be a matter
of satisfaction, to see thus distinguished, an individual whom they regard
as one of themselves, and one too who owes his position in life, and his capa-
bility of indulging in those studies which here engage us, mainly to the good
fortune of attaining, in the University alluded to, a Gloucestershire Fellow-
ship.

With respect indeed to any personal claims I have to prefer for occupying
so distinguished a post, the most that could be alleged in my behalf is the
having from the commencement of this Association done what I could to pro-
mote its success, and to enlist others in its service; persuaded, as I have ever
been, that it could not fail to prove a most efficient instrument for the further-
ance of scientific objects, not only through the direct influence of its Meetings
in promoting a friendly intercourse and a free interchange of opinions amongst
those devoted to kindred pursuits, but also indirectly, by engaging the Public
in various useful undertakings, which Science indeed might have suggested,
but which the Nation alone was capable of carrying into effect.

And that these anticipations have been borne out by the result, would
now seem to be generally admitted from the fact, that other Societies, since
organized in this country with a view to similar objects, have been uniformly
framed after its model, and conducted upon principles which they have
borrowed from this Institution.

It is indeed rather remarkable, that the first idea of an Association of such
a kind should have suggested itself only a year after death had deprived us of
our three most distinguished philosophers,—for who had we then left to com-
pare, with Davy for the brilliancy and importance of his discoveries ; with
Young for the singular union of almost universal acquirements with ad-
mirable powers of invention; and with Wollaston for an acuteness of mental
vision, which gave him the same advantage in the pursuits of science, which
the Naturalist armed with a microscope has over the unassisted observer ?
Just as in the animal ceconomy the vis medicatrix nature sometimes makes
an extraordinary effort to repair the damage inflicted by injury or disease ;
so it would seem, as if Science, conscious of the loss she had sustained in the
almost simultaneous extinction of her three brightest luminaries, endeavoured
to make good the deficiency, by concentrating into one focus those that yet
remained, to light her onwards on her path.

At any rate, the progress which the Natural Sciences have made since
that period, although doubtless attributable to several concurrent causes, is
a fact which must not be overlooked in estimating the services rendered
by this Association to the cause of human advancement; nor can I in
any better manner point out its value, than by bringing before your notice
some of the additions to our knowledge which have been made since I last
addressed you, especially considering, that not a few of the discoveries to
which I shall allude were either first announced, or have been made the
subjects of discussion, at our several Meetings.

Beginning then with Chemistry, as the subject with which I am most
familiar, let me remind you, that at a period not much more remote than
the one alluded to, all of it that could be quoted as really worthy the name
of a Science was comprehended within the limits of the mineral kingdom.

1856.

1 REPORT=*1856.

Here at least the outline had been traced out with sufficient precision—
the general laws established on a firm basis—the nomenclature framed with
logical exactness—the facts consistent with each other, and presented in a
scientific and luminous form. Thus a philosopher, like Sir Humphry Davy,
who had contributed in so eminent a degree to bring the science into this
satisfactory condition, might, at the close of his career, have despaired of
adding anything worthy of his name to the domain of chemistry, and have
sighed for other worlds to subdue.

But there was a World almost as little known to the chemists of that
period as was the Western Hemisphere to the Mavedonian Conqueror,—
one comprising an infinite variety of important products, called into exist-
ence by the mysterious operation of the vital principle, and therefore placed,
as was imagined, almost beyond the reach of experimental research.

This is the new World of Chemistry, which the continental philosophers in
the first instance, and subsequently those of our own country, have during the
last twenty years been busy in exploring, and by so doing have not only
bridged over the gulf which had before separated by an impassable barrier
the kingdoms of inorganic and of organic nature, but also have added pro-
vinces as extensive and as fertile as those we were in possession of before, to
the patrimony of Science.

It is indeed singular, that whilst the supposed elements of mineral bodies
are very numerous, the combinations between them should be comparatively
few; whereas amongst those of vegetable and animal origin, where the ulti-
mate elements are so limited in point of number, the combinations which
they form appear almost infinite. Carbon and hydrogen, for instance, con-
stitute, as it were, the keystone of every organic fabric; whilst oxygen, nitro-
gen, and less frequently sulphur and phosphorus, serve almost alone to build
up their superstructure.

And yet what an infinity of products is brought about by ringing the
changes upon this scanty alphabet! Even one series of bodies alone, that
known by the name of the Fatty Acids, comprises several hundred well-
ascertained combinations, founded however upon a single class of hydro-
carbons or compound radicals, in which the carbon and hydrogen stand to
each other in equal atomic proportions, and are in each case acidified by
the same number of equivalents of oxygen.

These acids are all monobasic, or combine with only one proportion of
base; but add to any one of them two equivalents of carbonic acid, and
you obtain a member of a second series, which is bibasic, or is capable of
forming two classes of salts.

The above therefore constitute a double series, as it were, of organic acids,
the members of which are mutually related in the manner pointed out, and
differ from each other in their mode of combining according to the relation
between their respective elements. But already, by the labours of Hofmann
and of other chemists, two other double series of acids, the one monobasic
the other bibasic, mutually related exactly in the same manner as those above,
have been brought to light ; each series no doubt characterized by an equally
numerous appendage of alcohols, of ethers, and of aldehydes, to say nothing
of the secondary compounds resulting from the union of each of these bodies
with others.

Hence the more insight we obtain into the chemistry of organic substances,
the more we become bewildered with their complexity, and in investigating
these phenomena, find ourselves in the condition of the explorer of a new
continent, who, although he might see the same sun over his head, the
same ocean rolling. at his feet, the same geological structure in the rocks

+

: ADDRESS. li
that were piled around him, and was thus assured that he still continued a
denizen of his own planet, and subject to those physical laws to which he
had been before amenable, yet at every step he took was met by some
novel object, and startled with some strange and portentous production of
Nature’s fecundity.

Even so the chemist of the present day, whilst he recognizes in the world
of organic life the same general laws which prevail throughout the mineral
kingdom, is nevertheless astonished and perplexed by the multiplicity of new
bodies that present themselves, the wondrous changes in them resulting from
slight differences in molecular arrangement, and the simple nature of the
machinery by which such complicated effects are brought about.

And as the New World might never have been discovered, or, at all events,
would not have been brought under our subjection, without those improve-
ments in naval architecture which had taken place prior to the age of
Columbus, so the secrets of organic chemistry would have long remained
unelicited, but for the facilities in the methods of analysis which were
introduced by Liebig.

Before his time the determination of the component elements of an organic
substance was a task of so much skill as well as labour, that only the most
accomplished analysts—such men, for instance, as my lamented friend Dr.
Prout in this country, or as the great Berzelius in Sweden—could be de-
pended upon for such a work; and hence the data upon which we could rely
for deducing any general conclusions went on accumulating with extreme
slowness. :

But the new methods of analysis invented by Liebig have so simplified
and so facilitated the processes, that a student, after a few months’ practical
instruction in a laboratory, can, in many instances, arrive at results sufficiently
precise to be made the basis of calculation, and thus to enable the master
mind, which is capable of availing itself of the facts before it, to breathe life
into these dry numerical details,—just as the sculptor, by a few finishing
strokes, brings out the expression of the statue, which has been prepared for
him by the laborious chiseling of a number of subordinate workmen.

And as the established laws and institutions of the Old World have been
modified—may I not say in some instances rectified ?—by the insensible influ-
ence of those of the New, so have the principles that had been deduced from
the phenomena of the mineral kingdom undergone in many instances a cor-
rection from the new discoveries made in the chemistry of the animal and
vegetable creation.

It was a great step indeed in the progress of the Science, when Lavoisier
set the example of an appeal to the balance in all our experimental re-
searches, and the Atomic Theory of Dalton may be regarded as the necessary,
although somewhat tardy, result of the greater numerical precision thus in-
troduced.

But no less important was the advance achieved, when structure and

_ polarity were recognized as influencing the condition of matter, and when

the nature of a body*was felt to be determined, not only by the proportions of
its component elements, but also by their mutual arrangement and colloca-
tion—a principle, which, first illustrated amongst the products of organic
life, has since been found to extend alike to all chemical substances what-
soever.

Formerly it had been the rule to set down the bodies which form the con-
stituents of the substances we analysed, and which had never yet under our
hands undergone decomposition, as elementary; but the discovery of
cyanogen in the first instance, and the recognition of several other com-

d2

li : REPORT—1856.

pound radicals in organic chemistry more lately, naturally suggest the idea,
that many of the so-called elements of inorganic matter may likewise be
compounds, differing from the organic radicals above mentioned merely in
their constituents being bound together by a closer affinity.

And this conjecture is confirmed by the curious numerical relations sub-
sisting between the atomic weights of several of these supposed elements ;
as, for example, between chlorine, bromine and iodine; an extension of the
grand generalization of Dalton, which, although it was unforeseen by the
Founder of the system, and therefore, like Gay-Lussac’s theory of volumes,
might very possibly have been repudiated by him, had it been proposed for
his acceptance, will be regarded by others as establishing, in a manner more
conclusive than before, the soundness of his antecedent deductions.

What, indeed, can be a greater triumph for the theorist, than to find that
a law of nature which he has had the glory of establishing by a long and
painful process of induction, not only accommodates itself to all the new
facts which the progress of discovery has since brought to light, but is itself
the consequence of a still more general and comprehensive principle, which
philosophers, even at this distance of time, are still engaged in unfolding ?

It is also curious to reflect, that whilst the bold speculations of Democritus
have been realized by the Manchester philosopher, the reveries of the
alchemists derive something like solid support from the minute investigations
of his successors.

We may remark indeed as not a little remarkable, how frequently the
discoveries of modern days have served to redeem the fancies of medieval
times from the charge of absurdity.

If the direction of a bit of steel suspended near the earth can, as General
Sabine has proved, be influenced by the position of a body like the moon,
situated at a distance from it of more than 200,000 miles, who shall say that
there was anything preposterously extravagant in the conception, however
little support it may derive from experience, that the stars might exert an
influence over the destinies of man? and when we observe a series of bodies,
exhibiting, as it would seem, a gradation of properties, and, although as yet
undecompounded, possessing a common numerical relation one to the other,
who will deny the probability, that they are composed of the same consti-
tuents, however little approach we may have as yet made towards the art of
resolving them into their elements, or of forming them anew ?

Organic chemistry has also considerably modified our views with respect
to chemical affinity.

According to one view, indeed, which has been supported of late with con-
siderable talent and ingenuity, the law of elective attraction, to which we
have been in the habit of referring all the changes that are brought about
by chemical means, is a mere figment of the imagination ; and decomposition
may be accounted for, without the interference of any such force, by re-
garding it simply as the result of that constant interchange which is supposed
to be going on between the particles of matter,—the atoms even of a solid
body being, according to this hypothesis, in a state of irfcessant motion.

But passing over these and other speculations which have not as yet re-
ceived the general assent of chemists, let me advert to others of an older date,
possessing, as I conceive, the strongest internal evidence in their favour, which
the case admits, from the harmony they tend to introduce into the chaos of
facts which the late discoveries in organic chemistry have brought to light.

Amongst these, one of the most generally received, and at the same time
one of the most universal application, is that which represents the several
combinations resulting from organic forces, as being put together according:

ADDRESS. li

to a particular model or type, which impresses upon the aggregate formed
certain common properties, and also causes it to undergo change most
readily, through the substitution of some other element in the place of one of
those which already enters into its constitution.

And this principle, having been established with regard to one class of
bodies, has since been extended to the rest; for it now begins to be main-
tained, that in every case of chemical decomposition a new element is intro-
duced in the place of one of those which constituted a part of the original
compound, so that the addition of a fresh ingredient is necessarily accom-
panied by the elimination of an old one.

The same doctrine, too, has even been extended to the case of combination
with a body regarded as elementary, for here also the particles are considered
as being in a state of binary combination one with the other, owing perhaps
to their existing in opposite electrical conditions, and therefore possessing for
each other a certain degree of chemical affinity.

Thus, when we unite hydrogen with oxygen, we substitute an atom of the
latter for one of the former, previously combined with the same element.
The type therefore remains, although the constituents are different.

When, in the formation of alcohol, we combine the oxide of the compound
radical zthyle with water, there is still only a substitution of the former for
one of the atoms of water previously united together, two and two; and
when we form ether, we eliminate the second atom of water, and replace it
by another atom of the same compound radical. Thus the type of water
still remains, although none of the materials of the original fabric continue ;
or, if I may adopt the metaphor of a building, although the original bricks
which composed the structure may have been all replaced by other materials,
the latter, however differing in their nature, always correspond, in point of
shape, dimensions, and number, with the parts of the edifice which have been
removed to make way for them.

It is on this principle that Professor Williamson has propounded a new
theory of ztherification, regarding the process as resulting from the alternate
replacement of hydrogen by ethyle, and of ethyle by hydrogen, in the
sulphuric acid concerned,—a view, which best harmonises with the composi-
tion of the new ether he hit upon in the course of his investigations.

The same principle may even be extended to bodies of the same type as
ammonia; for inasmuch as this body is made up of a union of an atom of
nitrogen with three of hydrogen, it is easy to conceive that a variety of
different compounds might be formed by the substitution of one, two, or three
atoms of other radicals for the same number of atoms of the original
hydrogen. How beautifully this idea has been carried out in the recent
researches of Hofmann, and how happily it serves to elucidate the formation
of the various vegetable alkaloids, which, from their energetic action upon
the animal ceconomy, have of late excited so much interest in the public
mind, is sufficiently known to those who are chemists, and could not be
rendered intelligible to those who are not, without entering into details which
would be out of place on the present occasion.

I must not, however, pass over this part of the subject without remarking,
that the adoption of Professor Williamson’s othyle theory would establish a
still nearer analogy between the constitution of organic and of mineral com-
pounds than is at present recognized, since in that case alcohol and ether
would stand in the same relation one to the other, and belong to the same
class or series, as the acids and their salts.

These views, however, and others having reference to the same subject,
are now under discussion, and I hope in progress of being worked out by

.

liv REPORT—1856.

the able chemist above alluded to, whose promised Report on this subject,
had it been ready for this Meeting, would have superseded the necessity of
the above Remarks, They have also engaged the attention of my distin-
guished successor in the chair of Chemistry at Oxford, who has published
some elaborate researches bearing upon the questions here mooted, whilst on
the Continent they have been taken up by several of the most eminent
chemists of the day, such as Gerhardt, Wurtz, and Cahours.

Should they ultimately win their way to general reception, they must tend
to bring about an entire remodeling of our views, both with respect to
organic and inorganic compounds, and render that reform in our nomen-
clature which I pressed upon the attention of the Chemical Section at our
meeting in Ipswich, more than ever a matter of urgent necessity.

Many, however, perhaps of my present audience may not have advanced be-
yond that initial stage of all speculation, which contemplates external objects
solely as they affect themselves, and not abstractedly in their relations to
each other; and to such it may be more interesting to consider those
practical results bearing upon the arts of life, which have either been actually
deduced, or may be anticipated as likely to accrue, from the discoveries in
question.

OF these perhaps the most important is the possibility of forming by art
those compounds, which had been formerly supposed to be only producible
by natural processes, under the influence of the vital principle. The last
two years have added materially to the catalogue of such bodies artificially
produced, as in the formation of several species of alcohol from coal gas by
Berthelot, that of oil of mustard by the same chemist, and the generation of
taurine, a principle elaborated in the liver, by Strecker.

And if the above discoveries should strike you at first sight rather as
curious than practically useful, I would remark, that they afford reasonable
ground for hope, that the production of some of those principles of high
medicinal or ceconomical value, which nature has sparingly provided, or at
least limited to certain districts or climates, may lie within the compass of
the chemist’s skill.

If Quinine, for instance, to which the Peruvian bark owes its efficacy, be,
as would appear from recent researches, a modified condition of ammonia,
why may not a Hofmann be able to produce it for-us from its elements, as
he has already done so many other alkaloids of similar constitution ?

And thus, whilst the progress of civilization, and the development of the
chemical arts, are accelerating the consumption of those articles, which
kind Nature has either been storing up for the uses of man during a vast
succession of antecedent ages, or else is at present elaborating for us in that
limited area, within which alone the conditions would seem to be such as to
admit of their production, we are encouraged to hope that Science may
make good the loss she has contributed to create, by herself inventing arti-
ficial modes of obtaining these necessary materials,

In this case We need not so much regard the exhaustion of our collieries,
although Nature appears to have provided no means for replenishing them ;
nor even be concerned at the rapid destruction of the trees which yield the
Peruvian bark, limited though they be to a very narrow zone, and to a
certain definite elevation on either side of the equator,

Already, indeed, chemistry has given token of her powers, by threatening
to alter the course of commerce, and to reverse the tide of human industry.

Thus she has discovered, it is said, a substitute for the cochineal insect,
in a beautiful dye producible from guano. __

*

ADDRESS. lv

She has shown, that our supply of animal food might be obtained at a
cheaper rate from the Antipodes, by simply boiling down the juices of the
flesh of cattle now wasted and thrown aside in those countries, and importing
the extract in ‘a state of concentration.

She has pointed out, that one of the earths which constitute the principal
material of our globe contains a metal, as light as glass, as malleable and
ductile as copper, and as little liable to rust as silver; thus possessing pro-
perties so valuable, that when means have been found of separating it ceco-
nomically from its ore, it will be capable of superseding the metals in com-
mon use, and thus of rendering metallurgy an employment, not of certain
districts only, but of every part of the earth to which Science and Civilization
have penetrated.

And may I not also say, that she has contributed materially towards the
advancement of those arts in which an agricultural county like this is espe-
cially interested ?

Who has not heard of the work of Baron Liebig, which, at the time of its
first appearance, made such a sensation throughout the country; and stirred
up the dormant energies of the agricultural public, not less thoroughly, than
the subsoil plough, of which he explained the advantages, elicited the latent
treasures of the land?

It is not often that the same individual has reaped a high reputation, at
once by establishing general principles in Science, and by rendering popular
their application to practice.

Oersted, the father of the science of Electro-chemistry, and our own
Faraday, who has done so much to develope its principles, left to Wheatstone
the invention of the telegraph; Dalton, the propounder of the Atomic Theory,
did nothing to improve the manufactures of the city in which he resided ;
and the contrivances which have rendered the steam-engine generally appli-
cable to practice required a combination of the distinct talents of a Black
and a Watt, the one to explain the theory of latent heat, the other to apply
it to the ceconomical generation of steam.

But Baron Liebig stands equally distinguished for his ingenuity in de-
vising new methods of analysis, for his originality in propounding great
theoretical principles in Science, and for his happy talent in applying these
principles to purposes of practical utility.

Like his countrymaa Goethe, his mind seems to have passed through
three phases ; for his ingenious methods of analysis were appreciated, before
his views on the relation between organic substances, his doctrine of com-
pound radicals, and the consequences flowing from his researches in vege-
table chemistry, came to be generally admitted ; and the latter had already
taken root in the minds of chemists, and had established for hima very high
reputation among his fellow-labourers in Science, before his attempts to
apply his principles to agriculture and to physiology made his name so
celebrated, as it has since been, amongst the public in general.

It is well known, that a controversy has been going on for some time past
between this distinguished foreigner, and certain experimental agriculturists
of our own country, with regard to the principles upon which the manuring
of our land ought to be regulated. In this dispute, however, you will not
expect me to take part; for it would be obviously improper on the present
occasion, that I should avail myself of a little brief authority to influence the
public on either side of a much-debated question ; and, indeed, on any other,
it might be deemed an act of presumption in an individual, Who can prefer
no claim either to the extensive practical experience of the one, or to the high
scientific eminence of the other, to take upon himself to adjudicate between
two such conflicting parties.

lvi REPORT—1856.

But I may be permitted to remark, that whilst some points of difference
between them still remain open for further investigation, a much nearer
correspondence of opinion exists with respect to others, than the public in
general, or even perhaps the disputants themselves, are inclined to allow.

In so far, indeed, as concerns the relative advantages of mineral and
ammoniacal manures, I presume there is little room for controversy; for
although most soils may contain a sufficiency of the inorganic constituents
required by the crop, it by no means follows that the latter are always in an
available condition; and hence it may well happen that in most cases in
which land has been long under cultivation, the former class of manures
becomes, as Baron Liebig asserts, a matter of paramount necessity. Now
that the same necessity exists for the addition of ammoniacal manures can
hardly be contended, when we reflect, that at the first commencement of
vegetable life, every existing species of plant must have obtained its nourish-
ment, solely from the gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, and from the
mineral contents of the rock in which it vegetated.

The only divergence of opinion therefore that can arise, relates to the
degree of their respective utility in the existing state of our agriculture, and
to the soundness of Baron Liebig’s position, that a plant rooted in a soil well-
charged with all the requisite mineral ingredients, and in all other respects
in a condition calculated to allow of healthy vegetation, may sooner or later
be able to draw from the atmosphere whatever else is required for its full
development.

And does not, I would ask, this latter position derive some support from
the luxuriant vegetation of the tropics, where art certainly contributes nothing
towards the result? and is it not also favoured by such experiments as those
carried on at Lois Weedon in Northamptonshire, where the most luxuriant
wheat crops have been obtained for a number of consecutive years without
manure of any kind, simply by following out the Tullian system of stirring
up and pulverizing the soil ? ‘

How, too, are we to explain that capacity of subsisting without any artificial
supply of ammonia, which Mr. Lawes is led by his experiments to attribute
to turnips, and other plants of similar organization, unless we assume that
the power residing in the leaves of absorbing ammonia from the air may
render plants, in some cases at least, independent of any extraneous aid ?

Be this, however, as it may, there is at least a wide distinction between
this opinion, and the one attributed to Baron Liebig by many, who would
seem to imagine, that according to his views, ammonia, if derived from arti-
ficial sources, was in a manner useless to vegetation.

As if it could be a matter of any moment, whether the substance which
in both cases afforded the supply of nitrogen, and which in both cases also
was primarily derived from the decomposition of organic substances, had
been assimilated by plants directly upon its being thus generated, or had
been received into their system at a later period, after having been diffused
through the atmosphere! To suppose that Baron Liebig should have attached
any moment to this distinction seems inconsistent with many passages in
his work, in which, although the paramount importance of mineral manures
may be insisted upon, and the success which had in certain cases attended
the use of one compounded only of mineral ingredients may be put forward
as a motive for further trials, the utility of ammoniacal substances in all their
several forms is at the same time distinctly admitted.

Still the practical question remains, whether, admitting the theoretical
truth of Baron Liebig’s position, a larger expenditure of capital will not be
required for bringing a given farm into a condition to dispense with ammo-
niacal manures, than for procuring those materials which contain that ingre-

ADDRESS. lvii

dient ready for-use. And here experimental researches, such as those con-
ducted on so extended and liberal a scale by Mr. Lawes and Dr. Gilbert,
come in aid of theory. They stand, as it were, midway between the abstract
principles which Science points out to the farmer, and the traditional usages
with respect to his art, which have been handed down to him from one gene-
ration to another. They bear the same relation to the farmer, which the
records of the clinical practice in a large infirmary do, to the general princi-
ples of medicine expounded by the modern physiologist.

It is true, that the experience of a particular hospital may not at all times
coincide with the anticipations which science holds out; but this discrepancy
only suggests to us the imperfection of our present knowledge, and is not
allowed to disturb the confidence of the physician in principles already esta-
blished on incontrovertible evidence. On the contrary, whilst he modifies
his practice from time to time by the experience he has gained by actual ob-
servation, he feels at the same time the fullest conviction, that these results
will be found eventually reconcileable with the general principles, which a
still more extended series of induction may have established.

I need not occupy your time by applying the same method of proceeding
to the recent researches alluded to, but I will carry the analogy between the
science of Agriculture and of Therapeutics one step further. You may recol-
lect, that in a Report on the progress of husbandry, drawn up some years ago
by one of the most enlightened and zealous promoters of the agricultural
interest in Great Britain, now, alas! deceased, it was asserted, that chemistry
had done nothing for the farmer, except in teaching him to use sulphuric
acid with his bones, and to take advantage of the refuse flax liquor, formerly
thrown away and wasted.

Now a statement of this kind, although it might be literally true in the
narrow sense in which the author doubtless intended it, namely, as referring
merely to the introduction of new specifics or recipes into farming, was
calculated, when put forth on such high authority, to foster that tendency in
the human mind to which we are all more or less prone, that of sparing our-
selves the trouble of thought and reflection in shaping the course of our con-
duct, by leaning blindly upon certain rigid and unvarying rules already
chalked out to us by others.

It was this propensity exercised upon moral subjects which has encumbered
our libraries with those vast tomes on casuistry, in which the conduct to be
pursued in each imaginable case of conscience was attempted to be pre-
scribed ; it was this which has driven many a patient to fly from the regular
practitioner into the arms of the homceopathist, who professes to have a glo-
bule ready to meet every possible symptom.

Grant that Science has as yet supplied us with only two infallible receipts
for the improvement of our land, the agricultural chemist may derive courage
from the reflection, that medicine too, since the days of Hippocrates, has
lighted only upon two or three specifics for the cure of disease; and that the
most enlightened physicians of the present day, in the spirit which we would
fain see actuating the leaders of the agricultural body, depend not upon the
efficacy of nostrums, but upon their sagacity in referring the varying condi-
tions of each case which comes before them to those principles of physiology
which modern Science has established.

And has not Science also unfolded principles which may be called in to
aid and direct the practical labours of the agriculturist ?

I need not go further than the works of Baron Liebig for an answer to
this question. I may appeal, for instance, to the extensive employment of
guano at the present time, first introduced in England in consequence of his

lviii REPORT—1856.

suggestions: I may refer to the substitution of mineral phosphates for bones,
founded upon his explanation of the sources from which the latter substance
derives its efficacy as a manure: and 1 may allude more especially to his
refutation of the humus theory, to which even the great Saussure gave his
adhesion, and the reception of which was calculated to vitiate, not a few pro-
cesses only, but the entire system of our husbandry.

But whilst we do justice to those comprehensive views on agricultural
science which have shed a new lustre upon the name of Liebig, Jet us not
forget the practical researches which have been earried on in our own
country ; and especially those conducted under the auspices of the Highland
Society by Dr. Anderson; at our own Agricultural College by Prof. Voelcker;
and, through the aid of the Royal Agricultural Society, by their consulting
chemist, Mr. Way. And, although in alluding to the labours of the latter, we
may be bound to confess, that in one of the latest and probably the most
important investigations undertaken by him, that namely on the absorptive
qualities of clay with reference to ammoniacal salts, he had been anticipated,
so far as the principle goes, by the German Professor, who announced the
fact many years before in his work ‘ On Chemistry applied to Agriculture*,’
yet experience has often shown that a principle may lie dormant long after
it was enunciated, until its truth is rendered palpable to the senses by a
series of practical researches expressly directed with a view to demonstrate
its general applicability.

Baron Liebig has himself remarked, that as a plant, in order to thrive,
must receive its food, not in a concentrated form, but reduced to a certain
state of tenuity by being diffused through water; so an abstract truth only
makes an impression upon the mind and feelings, when presented to it
properly diluted, turned, as it were, inside out, examined under every
aspect, and decked out with all the accompaniments of dress, ornament, and
colour.

Then, indeed, as the seed, when implanted in the ground and taken root,
is able to cleave asunder the hardest rocks, and that, as the old proverb says,
all without noise ; so likewise the truth will at length in its own good time
begin to germinate, and gradually conquering all obstacles, establish for itself
a footing in the mind of the public. Let us not therefore withhold our meed
of approbation from those who have worked out for us any useful scientific
principle, even though the germ may be traceable to some other quarter ;
conscious that it is to its being brought thus prominently forward, and, as
it were, forced upon the attention of the public, that we owe its general
reception and its reduction to practice.

But it is time to hasten on to certain other departments of Natural Science.

In Botany and Vegetable Physiology it cannot perhaps be said, that whole
provinces have been added to the domain of the Science since the period
alluded to, as we have seen to be the case in our review of the progress of
chemistry.

Even so long ago as the year 1832, the elder DeCandolle, who, if not the
most original or the most profound of the botanists of his day, was at least
the most conspicuous for the wide range of his information, and for his
happy talent of imparting it to others, published that admirable work on
vegetable physiology, which even at the present time is capable of serving
as a most useful guide in many branches of the subject.

And yet what a mass of important information has been brought together
since that period !

* P, 57, Eng. Trans.

ADDRESS. lix

The improvements in the microscope which have since taken place, render
us familiar with particulars relating to the structure and functions of the
vegetable creation, which the ruder methods of investigation before resorted
to would never have revealed to us.

We owe to them the interesting discoveries of Brown and Adolphe Brong-
niart, as to the mode in which the pollen is brought into immediate contact
with the ovules, by means of the tubes which it protrudes by a prolongation
of the innermost of its two investing membranes. Thus much at least appears
to be fully ascertained; but in alluding to the observations of others who
have endeavoured to push their scrutiny still further, it becomes me to speak
with more diffidence, inasmuch as the office which the pollen discharges in
the act of fecundation is still a matter of dispute, between such men as
Schleiden and Schacht on the one side, and Hofmeister, Moll, &c. on the other.

Whilst, however, this controversy continues, it is something at least to
know, that the vivifying principle, whatever it may be, is actually transmitted
to the part where its influence is to be exerted, and not kept apart from it,
as we were formerly compelled to assume, by that long intervening plexus
of fibres or tubes which constitutes the style.

To the microscope also we owe all that is as yet known with respect to the
reproductive process in cryptogamous plants, which are now shown to possess
a structure analogous to that of flowering ones in respect to their organs of
reproduction ; not, indeed, as Hedwig supposed, that parts corresponding to
stamens and pistils in appearance and structure can be discovered in them,
but that, as the primary distinction of sexes seems to run throughout the
vegetable kingdom, new parts are superadded to a structure common to all
as we ascend in the scale of creation, until from the simple cell, which, in
consequence of some differences of structure to our eyes inappreciable, ap-
pears to exercise in one case the function of the male, in another of the female,
as is found the case in certain of the Conferve, we arrive at length at the com-
plicated machinery exhibited in flowering plants, in which the cell containing
the fecundating principle is first matured in the stamen, and afterwards trans-
mitted through an elaborate apparatus to the cells of the ovule, which is in
like manner enveloped in its matrix, and protected by the series of investing
membranes which constitutes the seed-vessel. Thus, as Goethe long ago
observed, and as modern Physiologists have since shown to be the case, the
more imperfect a being is, the more its individual parts resemble each other
—the progress of development, both in the animal and vegetable kingdom,
always proceeding from the like to the unlike, from the general to the
particular.

_ But whilst the researches of Brown and others have proved, that there is no
abrupt line of division in the vegetable kingdom, and that one common struc-
ture pervades the whole; the later inquiries of Suminski, Hofmeister, Unger,
Griffith, and Henfrey, have pointed out several curious and unlooked-for

analogies between plants and animals.

. I may mention, in the first place, as an instance of this analogy, the ex-

_istence of moving molecules or phytosperms in the antheridia of Ferns and

:

other Cryptogams, borne out, as it has been in so remarkable a manner, by
the almost simultaneous observations of Bischoff and Meissner on the egg,
confirmatory of those formerly announced by Barry and Newport; and by
the researches of Suminski, Thuret, and Pringsheim, with respect to the
ovule of plants. I may refer you also to a paper read at the last Meeting of
the Association, by Dr. Colin of Breslau, who, in bringing this subject before

_ the Natural History Section, adduced instances of a distinction of sexes which

had come under his observation in the lower Alge.

Ix. REPORT—1856.

In like manner a curious correspondence has been traced between the
lower tribes of animals and plants, in the circumstance of both being subject
to the law of what is called alternate generation. This consists in a sort of
cycle of changes from one kind of being to another, which was first detected
in some of the lower tribes of animals, a pair of insects, for example, producing
a progeny differing from themselves in outward appearance and internal
structure, and these reproducing their kind without any renewed sexual union,
the progeny in these cases consisting of females only. At length, after a
succession of such generations, the offspring reverts to its primeval type, and
pairs of male and female insects of the original form are reproduced, which
complete the cycle, by giving rise in their turn to a breed presenting the
same characters as those which belong to their own progenitors.

An ingenious comparison had been instituted by Owen and others between
this alternation of generations in the animal, and the alternate production of
leaves and blossoms in the plant; but the researches to which I especially
allude have rendered this no longer a matter of mere speculation or inference,
inasmuch as they have shown the same thing to occur in Ferns, in Lyco-
podia, in Mosses, nay, even in the Confervee.

We are indebted to Professor Henfrey for a valuable contribution to our
Transactions in 1851 on these subjects, given in the form of a Report on
the Higher Cryptogamous Plants; from which it at least appears, that the
proofs of sexuality in the Cryptogamia rank in the same scale as to com-
pleteness, as those regarding flowering plants did before the access of the
pollen tubes to the ovule had been demonstrated. Indeed, if the observations
of Pringsheim with respect to certain of the Algz are to be relied upon,
the analogy between the reproductive process in plants and animals is even
more clearly made out in these lower tribes, than it is in those of higher
organization.

It also appears, that the production in Ferns and other Acrogens of
what has been called a pro-embryo; the evolution of antheridia and arche-
gonia, or of male and female organs, from the former; and the generation
from the archegonia of a frond bearing spores upon its under surface, is
analogous to what takes place in flowering plants in general; where the seed,
when it germinates, produces stem, roots and leaves ; the stem for many gene-
rations gives rise to nothing but shoots like itself; until at length a flower
springs from it, which contains within itself for the most part the organs of
both sexes united, and therefore occasions the reproduction of the same seed
with which the chain of phenomena commenced. This is the principle
which a learned Professor at Berlin has rather obscurely shadowed out in
his Treatise on the Rejuvenescence of Plants, and which may perhaps be re-
garded as one at least of the means, by which Nature provides for the stabi-
lity of the forms of organic life she has created, by imparting to each plant a
tendency to revert to the primeval type.

To the elder DeCandolle we are also indebted for some of our most philo-
sophical views with respect to the laws which regulate the distribution of
plants over the globe,—views which have been developed and extended, but
by no means subverted, by the investigations of subsequent writers ; amongst
whom Sir Charles Lyell, in his ‘ Principles of Geology,’ and the younger
DeCandolle, a worthy inheritor of his father’s reputation, in his recently
published work on Botanical Geography, have especially signalized them-
selves. But it is to the late Professor Edward Forbes, and to Dr. Joseph
Hooker, that we have principally to attribute the removal of those anomalies,
which threw a certain degree of doubt upon the principles laid down by

————— eS

ell ed

ADDRESS. ‘lxi

DeCandolle in 1820, in his celebrated article on the Geography of Plants,
contained in the ‘ Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles,’-where the derivation
of each species from an individual, or a pair of individuals, created in one
particular locality, was made the starting-point of all our inquiries.

These anomalies were of two different kinds, and pointed in two opposite
directions: for we had in some cases to explain the occurrence of a peculiar
flora in islands cut off from the rest of the world, except through the medium
of a wide intervening ocean; and in other cases to reconcile the fact of the
same or of allied species being diffused over vast areas, the several portions of
which are at the present time separated from each other in such a manner, as
to prevent the possibility of the migration of plants from one to the other.
Indeed, after making due allowances for those curious contrivances by which
Nature has in many instances provided for the transmission of species
over different parts of the same continent, and even across the ocean, and
which are so well pointed out in DeCandolle’s original essay, we are com-
pelled to admit the apparent inefficiency of existing causes to account for the
distribution of the larger number of species; and must confess that the
explanation fails us often where it is most needed; for the Composite, in
spite of those feathery appendages they possess, which are so favourable to
the wide dissemination of their seeds, might be inferred, by their general
absence from the fossil flora, to have diffused themselves in a less degree than
many other families have done. And on the other hand, it is found, that
under existing circumstances, those Composite, which are disseminated
throughout the area of the Great Pacific, belong in many cases to species
destitute of these auxiliaries to transmission.

But here Geology comes to our aid; for by pointing out the probability of
the submergence of continents on the one hand, and the elevation of tracts
of land on the other, it enables us to explain, the occurrence of the same
plants in some islands or continents now wholly unconnected, and the exist-
ence of a distinct flora in others too isolated to obtain it under present cir-
cumstances from without. In the one case we may suppose the plants to
have been distributed over the whole area before its several parts became
disunited by the catastrophes which supervened; in the other, we may re-
gard the peculiar flora now existing as merely the wreck, as it were, of one
which once overspread a large tract of land, of which all but the little patch
upon which it is now found had since been submerged.

Upon this subject, however, our opinions may in some measure be swayed
by the nature of the conclusions we arrive at with respect to the length of
time during which seeds are capable of maintaining their vitality ; for if after
remaining for an indefinite period in the earth they were capable of germi-
nating, it would doubtless be easier to understand the revival, under favour-
able circumstances, of plants which had existed before the severance of a
tract of land from the continent in which they are indigenous. An inquiry
has accordingly been carried on for the last fifteen years under the auspices of,
and with the aid of funds supplied by, this Association, the results of which,
it is but fair to say, by no means corroborate the reports that had been
from time to time given us with respect to the extreme longevity of certain
seeds, exemplified, as it was said, in the case of the mummy-wheat and other
somewhat dubious instances; inasmuch as they tend to show, that none of
the seeds which were tested, although they had been placed under the most
favourable artificial conditions that could be devised, vegetated beyond a
period of forty-nine years; that only twenty out of 288 species did so after
twenty years; whilst by far the larger number had lost their germinating
power in the course of ten. .

lxii REPORT—1856,

These results, indeed, being merely negative, ought not to outweigh such
positive statements on the contrary side as come before us recommended by
respectable authority, such, for instance, as that respecting a Nelumbium
seed, which germinated after having been preserved in Sir Hans Sloane’s
Herbarium for 150 years; still, however, they throw suspicion as to the
existence in seeds of that capacity of preserving their vitality almost indefi-
nitely, which alone would warrant us in calling to our aid this principle in
explaining the wide geographical range which certain species of plants affect.

Let us then be content to appeal to those ingenious views which were first
put forth at one of our meetings by the late Professor Forbes, and which
have since been promulgated in a more detailed and systematic form by the
same distinguished naturalist. By the aid of the principles therein laid down,
he was enabled to trace the flora of Great Britain principally to four distinct
sources, owing to the geological connexion of these islands at one period or
other with Scandinavia, with Germany, with France, and with Spain! And
it was by a similar assumption that Dr. Joseph Hooker explained the dis-
tribution of the same species throughout the islands of the Great Pacific,
and the contiguous continents, tracts which, as Darwin had shown, were
formerly united. Nor is this mode of explanation limited to the case of the
above regions ; for in the ‘ Flora Indica,’ which important work I regret to find
has been suspended after the appearance of the first volume, Dr. Hooker, in
conjunction with his fellow traveller, Dr. Thomson, has diseussed the same
problem with regard to the whole of India, extending from Affghanistan to
the Malayan peninsula.

And amongst the many services rendered to the Natural Sciences by these
indefatigable botanists, one of the greatest I conceive to be, that they have
not only protested against that undue multiplication of species, which had
taken place by exalting minute points of difference into grounds of radical
and primary distinction, but that they have also practically illustrated their
views with respect to the natural families which have been described by
them in the volume alluded to. They have thus contributed materially to
remove another difficulty which stood in the way of the adoption of the
theory of specific centres,—I mean the replacement of forms of vegetation in
adjoining countries by others, not identical, but only as it should seem allied ;
for it follows from the principles laid down by these authors, that such ap-
parently distinct species may after all have been only varieties, produced by
the operation of external causes acting upon the same species during long
periods of time.

But if this be allowed, what limits, it may be asked, are we to assign to
the changes which a plant is capable of undergoing, and in what way can we
oppose the principle of the transmutation of species, which has of late ex-
cited so much attention, and the admission of which is considered to involve
such startling consequences ?

I must refer you to the writings of modern physiologists for a full discus-
sion of this question, and may appeal in particular to the lecture delivered
before this Association by Dr. Carpenter at our last meeting. All that [
shall venture to remark on the subject is, that had not Nature herself assigned
certain boundaries to the changes which plants are capable of undergoing,
there would seem no reason why any species at all should be restricted within
a definite area, since the unlimited power of adaptation to external conditions
which it would then possess might enable it to diffuse itself throughout the
world, as easily as it has done over that portion of space within which it is
actually circumscribed.

ADDRESS. — lsiii

‘Dr. Hooker instances certain species of Coprosma, of Celmisia, and a kind
of Australian Fern, the Lomaria procera, which have undergone such striking
‘changes in their passage from one portion of the Great Pacific to another,
that they are scarcely recognizable as the same, and have actually been re-
‘garded by preceding botanists as distinct species. But he does not state
that any of these plants have ever been seen beyond the above-mentioned
precinets; and yet if Nature had not imposed some limits to their suscepti-
bility of change, one does not see why they might not have spread over a
much larger portion of the earth, in a form more or less modified by external
‘circumstances.

The younger DeCandolle, in his late admirable treatise already referred
to, has enumerated about 117 species of plants which have been thus dif-
fused over at least a third of the surface of the globe; but these apparently
owed their power of transmigration to their insusceptibility of change, for
it does not appear that they have been much modified by the effect of climate
or locality, notwithstanding the extreme difference in the external conditions
to which they were subjected.

On the other hand, it seems to be a general law, that plants, whose organi-
zation is more easily affected by external agencies, become, from that very
cause, more circumscribed in their range of distribution ; simply because a
greater difference in the circumstances under which they would be placed
brought with it an amount of change in their structure, which exceeded the
limits prescribed to it by Nature.

In short, without pretending to do more than to divine the character of
those impediments, which appear ever to prevent the changes of which a
plant is susceptible from proceeding beyond a certain limit, we seem to catch
a glimpse of a general law of Nature, not limited to one of her kingdoms, but
extending everywhere throughout her jurisdiction,—a law, the aim of which
may be inferred to be, that of maintaining the existing order of the universe,

without any material or permanent alteration, throughout all time, until the

fiat of Omnipotence has gone forth for its destruction.

The will, which confines the variations in the vegetable structure within a
certain range, lest the order of creation should be disturbed by the introduc-
tion of an indefinite number of intermediate forms, is apparently the same in
its motive, as that which brings back the celestial Luminaries to their ori-
ginal orbits, after the completion of a cycle of changes induced by their
mutual perturbations; it is the same which says to the Ocean, Thus far
shalt thou go, and no further; and to the Winds, Your violence, however

_ apparently capricious and abnormal, shall nevertheless be constrained within

ee

certain prescribed limits—

Ni faciat, maria et terras coelumque profundum,
Quippe ferant rapidi secum, verrantque per auras.

The whole indeed resolves itself into, or at least is intimately connected
with, that law of symmetry to which Nature seems ever striving to confirm,
and which possesses the same significance in the organic world, which the law
of definite proportions does in the inorganic.

It is the principle which the prophetic genius of Goethe had divined, long
before it had been proved by the labours of physiologists to be a reality, and
to which the poet attached such importance, that the celebrated discussion

-as to its merits which took place in 1820 between Cuvier and Geoffroy St.

Hilaire so engrossed his mind, as to deprive him, as his biographer informs
us*, of all interest in one of the mostportentous politicalevents of modern days

* Lewes’ Life of Goethe, vol. ii.

Ixiv ; REPORT—1856.
which was enacting at the very same epoch,—I mean the subversion of the
Bourbon dynasty.

It is indeed not less calculated to subserve to the gratification of our
sense of the beautiful, than to provide against too wide a departure from
that order of creation which its great Author has from the beginning in-
stituted; and, as two learned Professors of a sister kingdom have pointed
out in memoirs laid before this Association, and have since embodied in a
distinct treatise*, manifests itself not less in the geometrical adjustment of
the branches of a plant, and of the scales of a fir-apple—nay even, as they
have wished to prove, in the correspondence between the form of the fruit
and that of the tree on which it grows—than in the frequent juxtaposition of
the complementary rays of the spectrum, by which that harmony of colour
is produced in Nature, which we are always striving, however unsuccessfully,
to imitate in Art.

The law, indeed, seems to be nothing else than a direct consequence of that
unity of design pervading the universe, which so bespeaks a common Creator—
of the existence in the mind of the Deity of a sort of archetype, to which His
various works have all to a certain extent been accommodated ; so that the
earlier forms of life may be regarded as types of those of later creation, and
the more complex ones but as developments of rudimentary parts existing in
the more simple. Here too we may perhaps trace an analogy with His dealings
with mankind, as unfolded in His Revealed Word ; from which we find, that
the earlier events recorded are often typical of those more modern, and that
Christianity itself is in some sense a development of the Jewish dispensation
which preceded it.

I should apologize for dwelling so long upon the two departments of natu-
ral knowledge to which I have hitherto confined myself, were it not that
other sciences of a still higher rank than those treated of had been discussed
so fully in the Discourses of former Presidents.

Whilst indeed this is the first occasion, save one, in which a Chemist has
had the honour of occupying the Chair of the British Association, it has on
no former occasion fallen to the lot of a professed Botanist to be thus distin-
guished. I have therefore consulted alike my own ease, and what was due to
the Sciences themselves, in making Chemistry and Botany the principal themes
of my discourse. Leaving, then, to the gifted friend who will discourse
before you next Monday evening “On the Correlation of Physical Forces,”
the task of connecting with those Powers of Nature that manifest themselves
in the phenomena of chemical attraction or of cell-development, the im-
ponderable agents which form the proper subjects of branches of Physics not
here dwelt upon, and thus establishing the existence of that common brother-
hood among the Sciences, which furnishes the best plea for such Meetings
as the present, I will only further detain you by noticing one other field
of inquiry, in which I have ever felt a lively interest, although it has only
been in my power to bestow on it a casual attention, or to cultivate one
limited portion of the wide range which it embraces.

Indeed Geology, the Science to which I now allude, has, during the last
twenty years, made such rapid strides, that those who endeavoured from an
early period of life to follow at a humble distance the footsteps of the great
leaders in that Science, obeying the impulse of such zealous and ardent
spirits, as the one—now, alas! by the inscrutable decrees of Providence, lost
to his friends and to Science,—who constituted the Head of what was once

* Typical Forms, by M‘Cosh and Dickie.

ADDRESS. Ixv

called, I hope not too grandiloquently, the Oxford School of Geology, —have,
if I may judge of others by myself, been often distanced in the race, and
when they endeavoured to make good their lost ground, found themselves
transported into a new, and to them an almost unknown region.

Thus the thorough exploration which has taken place of the Silurian and
Cambrian systems, through the exertions of two of our oldest and most
valued Associates, has added a new province—ought I not rather to say, a
new kingdom ?—to the domain of Geology, and has earried back the records of
the creation to a period previously as much unknown to us as were the annals
of the Assyrian dynasties before the discoveries of Sir Henry Rawlinson.

I might also be disposed to claim for the recent investigations of Botanists
some share in fixing the relative antiquity of particular portions of the globe,
for, from the floras they have given us of different islands in the Great Pacific,
it would appear, that the families of plants which characterize some groups
are of a more complicated organization than those of another. Thus whilst
Otaheite chiefly contains Orchids, Apocynez, Asclepiadez and Urticez ; the
Sandwich, Islands possess Lobeliaceze and Goodenovie; and the Galapagos
Islands, New Zealand and Juan Fernandez, Composite, the highest form
perhaps of dicotyledonous plants.

In deducing this consequence, however, 1 am proceeding upon a principle
which has lately met with opposition, although it was formerly regarded as
one of the axioms in geology.

Amongst these, indeed, there was none whieh a few years ago seemed so
little likely to be disputed, as that the classes of animals and vegetables which
possessed the most complicated structure were preceded by others of a more
simple one; and that when we traced back the succession of beings to the
lowest and the earliest of the sedimentary formations, we arrived at length
at a class of rocks, the deposition of which must be inferred, from the
almost entire absence of organic remains, to have followed very soon after
the first dawn of creation. But the recognition of the footsteps and remains
of reptiles in beds of an earlier date than was before assigned to them,
tended to corroborate the inferences which had been previously deduced
from the discovery, in a few rare instances, in rocks of the secondary age, of
mammalian remains ; and thus has induced certain eminent geologists boldly
to dispute, whether from the earliest to the latest period of the earth’s history
any gradation of beings can in reality be detected.

Into this controversy I shall only enter at present, so far as to point out
an easy method of determining the fact, that organic’ remains never can
have existed in a particular rock, even although it may have been subjected
to such metamorphic action as would have obliterated all traces of their pre-
sence. This is simply to ascertain, that the material in question is utterly
destitute of phosphoric acid; for inasmuch as every form of life appears to
be essentially associated with this principle, and as no amount of heat would
be sufficient to dissipate it when in a state of combination, whatever quantity
of phosphoric acid had in this manner been introduced into the rock, must
have continued there till the end of time, notwithstanding any igneous ope-
rations which the materials might have afterwards undergone. But as the
discovery of very minute traces of phosphoric acid, when mixed with the
other ingredients of a rock, is a problem of no small difficulty, an indireet
method of ascertaining its presence suggested itself to me in some experi-

ments of the kind which I have instituted, namely, that of sowing some kind
-of seed, such for instance as barley, in a sample of the pulverized rock, and

determining whether the crop obtained yielded more phosphoric acid than
1856. e

Ixvi REPORT—1856.

was present in the grain, it being evident that any excess must have been
derived from the rock from which it drew its nourishment.

Should it appear by an extensive induction of particulars, that none of
the rocks lying at the base of the Silurian formation, which have come before
us, contain more phosphoric acid than the minute quantity I detected in the
slates of Bangor and Llanberris, which were tested in the above manner, it
might perhaps be warrantable hereafter to infer, that we had really touched
upon those formations that had been deposited at a time when organic beings
were only just beginning to start into existence, and to which, therefore, the
term Azoic, assigned to these rocks by some of the most eminent of our geo-
logists, might not be inappropriate.

The proofs of the former extension of glaciers in the northern hemisphere,
far beyond their actual limits, tend also to complicate the question which has
at all times so much engaged the attention of cosmogonists with respect to
the ancient temperature of the earth’s surface ; compelling us to admit, that
at least during the later of its epochs, oscillations of heat and cold must have
occurred, to interfere with the progress of refrigeration which was taking
place in the crust.

On the other hand, facts of an opposite tendency, such as the discovery
announced at our last Meeting by Captain Belcher, of the skeleton of an
Ichthyosaurus in lat. 77°, have been multiplying upon us within the same
period; inasmuch as they appear to imply, that a much higher temperature.
in former times pervaded the Arctic regions than can be referred to local
causes, and therefore force upon us the admission, that the internal heat of
the nucleus of our globe must at one time have influenced in a more marked
manner than at present the temperature of its crust.

On the causes of this increased temperature, whether local or cosmical,
much elaborate research has been brought to bear, by Sir Charles Lyell in
his celebrated ‘ Principles of Geology,’ and by Mr. Hopkins in his Address to
the Geological Society.

The most extensive collection of facts, however, having reference to this
subject, is contained in the Reports on Earthquake Phznomena, published
by Mr. Mallet in our Transactions, supplying, as they do, data of the highest
importance to the full elucidation of the subject. For although the evidence
I have myself brought together in my work on Volcanos might be sufficient
to establish in a general way the connexion of earthquakes with that deep-
seated cause which gives rise to the eruptions of a volcano, yet our interest
is thereby only the more awakened in the phenomena they present,—just as
Dr. Whewell’s inquiries into the local variations of the Tides were valued all
the more in consequence of the persuasion already felt, that lunar attraction
was their principal cause.

But if earthquakes bring under our notice chiefly the dynamical effects of
this hidden cause of movement and of change, those of volcanos serve to
reveal to us more especially their chemical ones; and it is only by com-
bining the information obtained from these two sources, together with those
from hot springs, especially as regards the gaseous products of each, that we
can ever hope to penetrate the veil which shrouds the operations of this
mysterious agent; so as to pronounce, with any confidence, whether the
effects we witness are due, simply to that incandescent state in which our
planet was first launched into space, or to the exertion of those elective at-
tractions which operate between its component elements,—attractions which
might be supposed to have given rise, in the first instance, to a more ener-
getic action and consequently to a greater evolution of heat, than is taking

Eee

ADDRESS. lxvii

place at present, when their mutual affinities are in a greater measure
assuaged.

Within the last twenty years much has been done towards the elucidation
of this problem, through the united investigations of Boussingault, of Deville,
and above all of Bunsen, with respect to the gases and other bodies evolved
from volcanos in their various phases of activity; the results of which, how-
ever, do not appear to me to present anything irreconcileable with that view
of their causes which was put forth many years ago in the work I published.

Whilst, however, the latter is offered as nothing more than as a conjectural
explanation of the phenomena in question, I may remind those, who prefer the
contrary hypothesis on the ground that the oblate figure of the earth is in
itself a sufficient proof of its primzeval fluidity, that this condition of things
could only have been brought about in such materials by heat of an intensity,
sufficient, whilst it lasted, to annul all those combinations amongst the
elements which chemical affinity would have a tendency to induce, and thus
to render those actions. to which I have ascribed the phenomena, not only
eonceivable, but even necessary consequences, of the cooling down of our
planet from its original melted condition.

In the nearly allied Science of Geography, several important undertakings
have been set on foot, and some interesting discoveries made since the period
of our last Meeting.

1. Dr. Kane has extended Arctic discovery, through Smith Strait, at the
head of Baffin Bay, to about 3 degrees nearer the Pole.

2. Mr. Kelley has announced the result of several independent surveying
expeditions despatched by him to the Valley of the Atrato, with a view to the
formation of a great navigable channel through Central America, between the
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. When Humboldt directed attention to this region
fifty years since, he had only uncertain reports to guide his anticipations ; and
these surveys have been the first to throw actual light upon this region.

3. An expedition has been despatched to North Australia, for the purpose
of exploring the interior and tracing the extent of the northern watershed.
Its arrival at the mouth of the Victoria River has already been announced.

4. It is proposed, by the Geographical Society, to despatch an expedition
to Eastern Africa, to explore the extent of the inland waters known to exist
_ there, and if possible to discover the long-sought sources of the Nile.

5. Explorations have been undertaken in the Rocky Mountains, by several
parties in South America, in the Pacific, and elsewhere: these, however, are
far too numerous to be particularly alluded to.

Such are a few of the additions to our knowledge which have been made
“in the course of the last twenty years in those sciences with which I am
most familiar. ;

Whilst, however, the actual progress whieh has taken place in them is in
itself so satisfactory, the change which the sentiments of the public have
undergone, with respect to their claims to respect, affords no less room for
congratulation.

If our attention is turned to the metropolis, we see rising up around us
establishments for the advancement of Physical Science, of which our ances-
tors would scarcely have dreamed the possibility.

I may instance the School of Mines, first placed under the management of
our late Associate, Sir Henry De la Beche, and now presided over by Sir
Roderick Murchison, as a convincing proof of the improved feeling ou such
subjects entertained by the Government of this country.

e2

lxvili REPORT—1856.

I may mention also another proof of a greater appreciation of the claims
of Science, in their having departed from the practice which had prevailed
ever since the death of Sir Isaac Newton, of regarding the Mastership of Her
Majesty’s Mint a purely political appointment, and in conferring it, as they
have done on the two last occasions, as a reward for scientific eminence. ;

[t is also gratifying to find, that the attention of the Legislature has at
length been seriously called to consider what measures of a public nature
might be adopted for improving the position of Science and its cultivators,
and that the Royal Society has appointed a Body of its Members to receive
suggestions on that subject, and to report upon it, in order that a matured
plan may be presented to Parliament to meet this object at its next Session.

Nor, if we extend our glance to the Provinces, need I go further than
the neighbourhood of our present place of meeting, in order to point out as
many as four active clubs of naturalists, who sustain as well as diffuse an
interest in our pursuits, by frequent meetings, and by investigating, in com-
mon, the physical peculiarities of their respective neighbourhoods.

In this very county, too, we have lately witnessed the first example of an
Institution founded for the express purpose of communicating to the rising
generation of farmers, that scientific as well as practical instruction, the union
of which is admitted by every enlightened agriculturist to be essential, for the
purpose of deriving the fullest advantage from the natural resources of our
soil. Nor can I help feeling an honest pride when I reflect, that this Esta-
blishment, which has since risen to such imporiance, and is celebrated
throughout the land as the best training school for youths destined to hus-
bandry which England affords, should have emanated from the members of
a little club existing in a neighbouring county-town, endeared to me by
long associations, from its near proximity to the place of my birth, and the
home of my earliest years.

Turning, too, to the University to which I belong, in which a few years ago
our pursuits were hardly regarded as integral parts of academical instruction,
we now find in it at least a recognition of their importance to have taken place,
and Classical Literature no longer disdaining to own as her Sisters, the Studies
which engross so large a part of the attention of the public in general.

Nay, the Academic Body has lately devoted no small portion of its
revenues towards the erection of a Museum, intended to comprehend under
one roof all the appliances for research, as well as all the means of instruction
which can be required in the several branches of Natural Philosophy.

The extension, indeed, which is now given to the name in the language of
naturalists, and even by the public at large, is in itself an indication of
correcter views than were formerly entertained with regard to the uses of
such Establishments.

Few, for instance, have such a notion of a Museum as Horace Walpole
eave utterance to at the close of the last century*, when he defined it “a
“hospital for everything that is singular—whether the thing has acquired
“ singularity from baving escaped the rage of time—from any natural oddness,
«__or from being so insignificant that nobedy thought it worth while to pro-
“ duce any more of the same.”

Nor will it be possible to ridicule these Institutions, as an eminent member
of my own University, even within my recollection, was tempted to do, in
alluding to the little Institutions of the kind set up in some of our pro-
vincial towns f.

‘ The stuffed ducks, the skeleton in the mahogany case, the starved cat and

* Fugitive Pieces. + Sewell’s Letter to a Dissenter, 1834.

:
.
:

a

aA.

ADDRESS. Ixxi

“rat which were found behind a wainscot, the broken potsherd from an old
“ barrow, the tattooed head of the New Zealand chief, the very unpleasant-
* looking lizards and snakes coiled up in the spirits of wine, the flint-stones
“and cockle shells,” &c., will no longer be seen jumbled together in hetero-

_ geneous confusion, as might have been the case at the period alluded to.

The Ipswich Museum has set an example, which I have no doubt will be
generally followed, of selecting for such Institutions a series of types illus-
trative of the mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms; and a Committee of
this Association is now employed in the useful undertaking of preparing a
list of objects calculated to illustrate the different forms in nature, and thus
rendering our provincial Museums no longer mere rareeshows, but places
where the masses may receive instruction in all branches of Natural History.

But the Oxford Museum aims at much more than is usually understood
by that title. Its central area, indeed, may be regarded as the Sanctuary of
the Temple of Science, intended to include all those wonderful contrivances
by which the Author of the Universe manifests himself to His creatures;
whilst the apartments which surround it, dedicated as they will be to lectures
and researches connected with all branches of Physical Science, may repre-
sent the chambers of the ministering Priests, engaged in worshiping at her
altar, and in expounding her mysteries.

In turning too to this Association, the reception with which it is now
greeted in the course of its migrations through the various portions of the
United Kingdom, is not less encouraging as an augury of the future pro-
spects of Science.

Our Body, irdeed, may now be said to have passed unscathed through
that ordeal to which all infant undertakings are exposed, and which even its
great prototype, the Royal Society of London, at its commencement, did not
altogether escape. And the best proof that such is the case, will be found in
the different manner in which it is received by the public in general.

Twenty years ago the invitations sent us proceeded, either from places like
the Universities expressly dedicated to learning, and: therefore peculiarly
called upon to lend a helping hand to Science ; or else from Cities, in which
the predominant occupations brought the mass of the population into im-
mediate and constant connexion with scientific processes.

Now, on the contrary, we have seen the two principal Certres of fashion-
able resort—the favourite retreats of the wealthy and noble of the land—
vieing with each other in their eagerness to receive us; and an almost purely
agricultural County greeting us with the same hearty welcome as that which we
had heretofore received from the commercial and manufacturing Communities.

Twenty years ago it was thought necessary to explain at our meetings the
character and objects of this Association, and to vindicate it from the denun-
ciations fulminated against it by individuals, and even by parties of men,
who held it up as dangerous to religion, and subversive of sound principles
in theology.

Now, so marked is the change in public feeling, that we are solicited by
the clergy, no less than by the laity, to hold our meetings within their pre-
cinets ; and have never received a heartier welcome than in the city in which
we are now assembled, which values itself so especially, and with such good

~ reason, on the extent and excellence of its educational establishments.

It begins, indeed, to be generally felt, that amongst the faculties of mind,
upon the development of which in youth success in after life mainly depends,
there are some which are best improved through the cultivation of the
Physical Sciences, and that the rudiments of those Sciences are most easily
acquired at an early period of life.

eee a ee ay i.
]xx REPORT—1856.

That power of minute observation—those habits of method and arrange-
ment—that aptitude for patient and laborious inquiry—that tact and sagacity
in deducing inferences from evidence short of demonstiation, which the
Natural Sciences more particularly promote, are the fruits of early education,
and acquired with difficulty at a later period.

It is during childhood, also, that the memory is most fresh and retentive ;
and that the nomenclature of the sciences, which, from its erabbedness and
technicality, often repels us at a more advanced age, is acquired almost
without an effort.

Although, therefore, it can hardly be expected, that the great schools in
the country will assign to the Natural Sciences any important place in their
systems of instruction, until the Universities for which they are the seminaries
set them the example, yet 1 cannot doubt, but that the signal once given, both
masters and scholars will eagerly embrace a change so congenial to the tastes
of youth, and so favourable to the development of their intellectual faculties.

And has not, it may be asked, the signal been given by the admission of
the Physical Sciences into the curriculum of our academical education ?

I trust that this question may be auswered in the affirmative, if we are
entitled to assume, that the recognition of them which has already taken
place will be consistently followed up, by according to them some such sub-
stantial encouragement, as that which has been afforded hitherto almost
exclusively to classical literature.

Our ability to accomplish this, with the means and appliances at our com-
mand, does not, I think, admit of dispute.

Happily for this country, the conservative feeling which has ever prevailed
amongst us, and the immunity we have enjoyed from such political con-
vulsions as have affected most other European nations, maintain in their
integrity those Academical Establishments, which, as Monsieur Montalembert
has remarked, are, like our Government and our other Institutions, a magni-
ficent specimen of the social condition of the middle ages, as it at one time
existed throughout the whole of Western Europe.

They are Institutions, indeed, which foreigners may well look upon with
envy, but which when once destroyed, it is hopeless to expect that Govern-
ments, engrossed as they are with the interests and politics of the day, will
ever think of restoring.

Thanks to their existence, it rarely happens, that a student, in Oxford at
least, who has distinguished himself in his classical examinations, fails to obtain
some reward for his past exertions, and, if he require it, some assistance to
enable him to continue them in future.

And this, too, be it observed, has been the case, even whilst the natural,
although perhaps mistaken partiality of our founders, for their native counties,
. for the parishes in which their estates lay, or for their own collateral descend-
ants, greatly curtailed the number of fellowships which could be bestowed
on merit.

All, therefore, that seems wanted, now that local preferences seem on the
point of being removed, is, on the one hand, a more equal distribution of the
existing emoluments between the several professions, and, on the other, the
admission of the claims of the sciences received into our educational system,
to share in the emoluments which, up to this time, have been monopolized
by the Classics.

And as it is far from my wish to curtail the older studies of the University
of their proper share of support—for who that has passed through a
course of them can be insensible of the advantages he has derived from
that early discipline of the mind which flows from their cultivation ?—I

—_ \)

ADDRESS. Ixxi

rejoice to think, that when the Legislature shall have completed the removal
of those restrictions which have hitherto prevented us in many instances
from consulting the claims of merit in the distribution of our emolu-
ments, there will be ample means afforded for giving all needful encourage-
ment to the newly recognized studies, without trenching unduly upon that
amount of pecuniary aid which has been hitherto accorded to the Classics.
In anticipation of which change, I look forward with confidence to the day,
when the requirements at Oxford, in the department of Physical Science, will
become so general and so pressing, that no Institution which professes to
prepare the youth it instructs for academical competition will venture to risk
its reputation by declining to admit these branches of study into its educa-
tional courses.

Indeed the example has already been set in many, as I understand to be
the case with the noble Seminary within whose walls we are now assembled,

‘as well as with that older Establishment, which, under the energetic manage-
ment of its present head master, has become its worthy rival as a training
school for the Universities.

At any rate, I trust the time has now passed away, when studies such as
‘those we recommend lie under the imputation of fostering sentiments
inimical to religion.

In countries, and in an age in which men of Letters were generally tinc-
tured with infidelity, it is not to be supposed that Natural Philosophy would
altogether escape the contagion ; but the contemplation of the works of crea-
tion is surely in itself far more calculated to induce the humility that paves
the way to belief, than the presumption which disdains to lean upon the
supernatural.

It is not, indeed, without an excusable feeling of exultation that in sur-
veying the triumphs of modern science, we see

“ An intellectual mastery exercised
_ O’er the blind elements ; a purpose given ;

A perseverance fed; almost a soul
Imparted to brute matter ;”

or that we repeat to ourselves the words in which the poet apostrophizes the
_ philosopher,—
“ Go, wondrous creature! mount where Science guides,—
Go, measure earth, weigh air, and state the tides ;
Instruct the planets in what orbs to run,
Correct old Time, and regulate the Sun.”

Nevertheless, if we pursue the line of thought in which the same author
indulges, we shall be compelled to ask ourselves, not without a deep sentiment
_ of humiliation, even whilst contemplating the highest order of intellect which
the human race has ever exhibited,—

eit Mallia

“ Could he, whose rules the rapid Comet bind,
Describe or fix one movement of the mind?
Who saw its fires here rise, and there descend,
Explain his own beginning, or his end ?”

When indeed we reflect within what a narrow area our researches are
of necessity circumscribed, when we perceive that we are bounded in space
almost to the surface of the planet in which we reside,—itself merely a speck
in the universe, one of innumerable worlds invisible from the nearest of the
fixed stars—when we recollect, too, that we are limited in point of time to a
few short years of life and activity—that our records of the past history of
the globe and of its inhabitants are comprised within a minute portion of the

xxii REPGRT—1856.

latest of the many epochs which the earth has gone through—and that with
regard to the future, the most durable monuments we can raise to hand
down our names to posterity are liable at any time to be overthrown by an-
earthquake, and would be obliterated, as if they had never been, by any of
those processes of metamorphic action which geology tells us form a part of
the cycle of changes which the globe is destined to undergo,—the more lost
in wonder we may beat the vast fecundity of Nature, which within so narrow
a sphere can crowd together phenomena so various and so imposing, the
more sensible shall we become of the small proportion, which our highest
powers and their happiest results bear, not only to the Cause of all causation,
but even to other created beings, higher in the scale than ourselves, which
we may conceive to exist.
“Think thou this world of hopes and fears

Could find no statelier than his peers

In yonder hundred million spheres?”

It is believed, that every one of the molecules which make up the mass of
a compound body is an aggregate of a number of atoms, which, by their
arrangement and mutual relation, impart to the whole its peculiar properties ;
and, according to another speculation which has been already alluded to,
these atoms are not absolutely motionless, but are ever shifting their position
within certain limits, so as to induce corresponding changes in the properties
of the mass.

Indeed it has been imagined, that the production of different compounds
from the same elements united in the same proportions, may be one of the
consequences resulting from the different arrangement of particles thereby
induced.

If this hypothesis have any foundation in fact, what an example does it
set before us of great effects brought about by movements which, to our
senses, are too minute to be appreciable: and what an illustration does it
afford us of the limited powers inherent in the human race, which are never-
theless capable of bringing about effects so varied, and to us so important ;
although, as compared with the universe, so insignificant !

We also are atoms, chained down to the little globe in which our lot is
cast; allowed asmall field of action, and confined within definite limits, both
as to space and as to time.

We, too, can only bring about such changes in nature, as are the resultants
of those few laws which it lies within the compass of our powers to investigate
and to take advantage of.

We, too, can only run through a certain round of operations, as limited in
their extent, in comparison with those which lie within the bounds of our
conception, as the movements of the atoms, which serve to make up a com-
pound molecule of any of the substances around us, are to the revolutions of
the heavenly Luminaries.

And as, according to Professor Owen, the conceivable modifications of
the vertebral archetype are very far from being exhausted by any of the
forms which now inhabit the earth, or that are known to have existed here
at any former period; so likewise the properties of matter with which we are
permitted to become cognizant, may form but a small portion of those of
which it is susceptible, or with which the Creator may have endowed it in
other portions of the Universe.

We are told, that in a future and a higher state of existence, the chiéf
occupation of the blessed is that of praising and worshiping the Almighty.
But is not the contemplation of the works of the Creator, and the study of
the ordinances of the Great Lawgiver of the universe, in itself an act of

ADDRESS. Ixxili

praise and adoration; and, if so, may not one at least of the sources of
happiness which we are promised in a future state of existence, one of the
rewards for a single-minded and reverential pursuit after truth in our present
state of trial, consist in a development of our faculties, and in the power of
comprehending those laws and provisions of Nature with which our finite
reason prevents us at present from becoming cognizant ?

Such are a few of the reflections which the study of Physical Science, cul-
tivated in a right spirit, naturally suggests; and I ask you, whether they are
not more calculated to inspire humility than to induce conceit; to render
us more deeply conscious how much of the vast field of knowledge must ever
lie concealed from our view—how small a portion of the veil of Isis it is
given us to lift up—and therefore to dispose us to accept, with a more
unhesitating faith, the knowledge vouchsafed from on high, on subjects
which our own unassisted reason is incapable of fathoming.

“Let us not, therefore,” to use the language of a living prelate, “think
scorn of the pleasant land. That land is the field of antient and modern
Literature—of Philosophy in almost all its Departments—of the Arts of
Reasoning and Persuasion. Every part of it may be cultivated with advan-
tage, as the Land of Canaan when bestowed upon God’s peculiar people.
They were not commanded to let it lie waste, as incurably polluted by the
abominations of its first inhabitants; but to cultivate it and to dwell in it,
living in obedience to the Divine laws, and dedicating its choicest fruits to
the Lord their God.”

1856. f

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REPORTS

ON

THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Late es
ee os
a4

REPORTS

ON

THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Report from the Committee appointed by the British Association for
the Advancement of Science, at the Meeting in Liverpool, in Sep-
tember 1854, to investigate and report upon the effects produced
upon the Channels of the Mersey by the alterations which within the
last fifty years have been made in its Banks.

Your Committee have to report, that for the purpose of securing a satis-
factory solution of the questions submitted to their investigation, they deemed
it expedient to refer different portions of the inquiry to individual members
of their body, in the following manner :—~

1. Mr. George Rennie, to trace historically the important projections into
the river, and reclamation of large areas of land which would exclude the
entry of water.

2. Mr. Joseph Boult, to show important changes in the bottom, including
the channels and outlets of the river, so dividing the work that it may illus-
trate the effects of the above-named encroachments.

3. Mr. Henderson, to compare the tides of the present period with the
tides registered by Mr. Rendell.

It has been thought desirable to present the reports of these gentlemen to
the Association unabridged, as affording the best solution of the subject
which has yet been prepared, and your Committee will therefore only refer
to the more salient points of the inquiry, and to the conclusions to be drawn
from the information laid before them.

Mr. Rennie’s report is accompanied by copies of the following valuable
documents :—

1. Report of Messrs. Wilkin relative to. the navigation and conservancy of
the River Mersey, 28th April 1840.

2. Area and content of water in the River Mersey, from Blackrock to
Woolston Weir, above Warrington, at certain tides, below and above Liver-
pool Old Dock sill, by George Rennie, 18th May 1838.

3. Index of the engineers’ and surveyors’ reports who have reported on the
estuary and River Mersey.

4. First and second Memorial of the Mayor, Aldermen and Burgesses of
the Borough of Liverpool, April and September 1839.

5. Letter from H. M. Denham, R.N., to the Corporation of Liverpool,
27th September 1836.

6. Statement of the Town-clerk as to the rights of the Mayor, Aldermen,
and Burgesses of Liverpool to the lordship of Liverpool, comprising the
River Mersey up to the bridges and strand at Liverpool, Toxteth Park, Bir-
kenhead, and Wallasey.

1856. B

2 REPORT—1856.

7. Letter from William Lord, R.N., to the Chairman of the Conservancy
Committee, 23rd March 1840.

8. Letter from William Lord, R.N., to R. Radcliffe, Esq., 3rd April 1840.

The history of the Mersey is well detailed by Messrs. Wilkin down to the
date of their inquiry. From their report it appears that until 1818 there
was no check or control exercised by any authority over encroachments upon
the tidal area of the river. In that year the Corporation of Liverpool, whose

jurisdiction extended from Hoylake to Hesketh Bank on the Ribble, and all
over the River Mersey to Warrington and Frodsham Bridges, and who had
authority to remove any obstructions to the navigation, “ be it the ground
or soil of the King’s most excellent Majesty, or any other person or persons,
bodies politic or corporate whatsoever,” called in Mr. Whidbey, of Plymouth
Break water, to examine the encroachments which had been made onthe estuary
at different parts, and to lay down some general principles as to its future
preservation. Subsequently Mr. Rennie, Sen., and Messrs. Chapman, Giles,
Walker, Mylne, Stevenson, and George and vohn Rennie, reported in con-
firmation of the general principles laid down by Mr. Whidbey. They may
be briefly stated as follows :—“ That tide harbours are deep or otherwise in
proportion to the quantity of water which flows and ebbs through their
channels, and that to embank portions of the tidal area is to diminish that
quantity of water and consequently to injure the harbour.” So completely
had these principles been contravened in former days, that it appears from
Mr. Rennie’s calculation of the area and content of water in the River
Mersey (No. 2), that the origiial tidal area was 36,500 acres, of which
13,440 acres were then (1838) lost to the tideway, being enclosed marshes.
The very elaborate survey of the Mersey, from the Blackrock to Woolston
Weir, which was prepared about thirty years since by the late Mr. Giles,
C.E., for the Corporation of Liverpool, is an invaluable and unique docu-
ment. As it is plotted to an adequate scale, and furnishes data for determining
the extent of any changes, either in the area or depth of the river, since that
date. As, howéver, the survey has not yet been repeated, your Committee
have been unable to investigate the changes in that part of the Mersey:
there is reason to believe that some of them have important relations to the
well-being of the river, and the great interests in either shore. Amongst
others, the mutations in the Devil and Pluckington Banks, and the waste of
various portions of the shore are the most remarkable.

Unfortunately, Mr. Giles’s survey did not include the outer estuary or.
Liverpool Bay ; of this frequent and excellent surveys have been made
during the last twenty-three years by Capt. Denham, and his successor Lieut.
Lord, who, as marine surveyors to the port, exercised unceasing vigilance on
the changes within the sphere of their observations. Mr. Boult’s attention
has been especially directed to the alterations recorded by these surveys,
and to the influence which may have been exercised upon those alterations
by the dock-works of Liverpool and Birkenhead, and by meteorological phe-.
nomena. The changes in the areas and positions of the several banks have
been laid down in coloured outlines, upon the accompanying charts* A, B,
and C, and the alterations in their cubieal contents and in the average areas
of the sea channels, as far as they can be approximately ascertained from the
surveys, are recorded in the tables D, E, F, and G.

From these it appears that there has been a progressive, though irregular,
~ * Of these charts it has been found desirable to publish Chart A. only; as the scale to
which the illustrations are necessarily restricted is too small to permit distinetness in the.
several contours.

THE RIVER MERSEY. 8

increase in the sizes of the banks, the growth having been both lateral and
vertical; some of the fluctuations are very remarkable; that the average
area of the northern channel remains very stationary, though in places the
mutations have been considerable ; and that there has been a diminution of
average area in the Rock Channel, arising from a deposit of silt at the
eastern end. This channel is the oldest known entrance into the Mersey ;
it is laid down by Captain Collins in his survey of 1689, who says of the
northern channel (by way of Crosby and Formby) that it is not buoyed or
beaconed, and so not known. ‘There appear to be grounds for serious ap-
prehensions that the Rock Channel may be irrecoverably lost, if due pre-
cautions are not adopted in good time.

There have been extraordinary fluctuations in the seaward entrance of the

‘northern channel within the period embraced in this inquiry, and at this

present time another great change is being accomplished, namely, the sub-
stitution of the Queen's Channel for the Victoria Channel, intermediate
between the latter and the Zebra Channel.

There is reason to believe that the growth of the banks and the silting up
of part of the Rock Channel have been much promoted by the abstraction
of area which has taken place for dock purposes; nor is this surprising when
we find the extent of this abstraction, and the important part of the river,
especially in relation to the Rock Channel, where it has been made.

Between 1846 and 1852, or in six years, it seems that as much as 500
acres have been enclosed for the dock-works of Liverpoel and Birkenhead,
and the result apparently confirms the correctness of the principle laid down
by Mr. Whidbey and other eminent engineers who have reported upon the
river, as indicating the consequence of diminishing the scouring power of
the last of the flood and the first of the ebb, the situations of the abstractions
referred to being in parts of the river which are occupied by those portions

of the tidal waters.

It appears from Mr. Boult’s researches, that the change of direction in the
channels is not so much the result of the direction of the dock walls as of
alterations in the size and position of the sand-banks ; alterations which seem
to be due to the permanent loss of scouring power, by abstraction of tidal
area; to the temporary increase of that loss from drought; to the temporary
accession of scouring power from freshes; and to the drifts of sand by the .
winds to which the bay is peculiarly exposed, and which are the prevailing

winds on this part of the coast. The extent of this sand-drift is so great,

that, sinee Collins’s survey, the eastern shore of the estuary appears to have
advanced westward as much as one-half the width of the northern channel,
or about 1000 yards.

It is possible that the deterioration of the Rock Channel is to be ascribed,
in part, to the erection of the new north wall at Liverpool. It is built on
the Bootle shore, almost immediately opposite the junction of that channel
with the northern channel, and directly across the direction of the tidal

‘stream in the Rock Channel. Therefore, the flood-stream entering the river
by that channel is suddenly checked by this upright wall, and is deprived of

the space formerly allowed by the sloping Bootle shore for gradually changing
its direction into that of the main course of the river and the northern
channel.

It was observed by Messrs. Whidbey, Chapman, and Rennie, in their

Report to the Corporation of Liverpool in 1822, that “all channels through

which water flows must be of a magnitude proportionate to the quantity

which passes them, and any increase or diminution of that quantity will

BQ

4 _ REPORT—1856.

enlarge or diminish the channel, unless when formed of materials so hard that
the strength of the current is not able to remove them.” The truth of this
observation is strikingly confirmed by the remarkable waste of the clay cliffs
of the Cheshire shore of the river at Seacombe and Egremont. This has
been observed for many years past; but, according to the evidence which
accompanies the report of Mr. Walker, C.E., printed by order of the House
of Commons, 23rd June 1856, it has greatly increased within the last ten
years, or since so much of the tideway on the opposite shore has been
abstracted for the north dock-works.

The result of the inquiry, so far as your Committee have been able to
prosecute it, shows the vital importance of a strict conservancy of the River
Mersey in all its tidal area, in order that it may be preserved for the vast
commerce centered on its shores. There is no doubt that injury—to a great
extent irremediable—has been already inflicted, not only upon some of the
owners of property on its margin, but also upon the river itself, more espe-
cially upon its approaches. Your Committee conceive that the nature and
extent of this injury should be determined as accurately and as speedily as
possible ; that the trade on this river is vastly too important in its relation to
the national prosperity, for the subject of this inquiry to be left to a committee,
however zealous, which is unendowed with pecuniary resources, and dependent
for information upon the researches of gentlemen actively engaged in official
and professional occupations; and that the result of such an investigation
would be highly beneficial to the science of harbour engineering. The
scientific value of the information so acquired would be greatly enhanced
were the phenomena of all our tidal harbours subjected to similar research.
It is not unreasonable to expect that the ultimate result would give greater
certainty as to the influence of projected works upon the well-being of the
harbours with which they are associated ; and relieve the Legislature from
the responsibility of sanctioning undertakings the destructive or conservative
effects of which, at present, are often very speculative.

Harrowsy, Chairman. GrorcE RENNIE.

P. M. Grey Ecerron. ANDREW HENDERSON.

R. I. Murcutson. JosErH Boutt, Secretary.
F. W. Brecuey.

Report on the past and present state of the Estuary of the Mersey within the
last seventy years, as derived from historical records, and according to the
maps, charts, and reports of different Engineers, and which have been laid
before the Committee appointed by the British Association at its meeting at
Liverpool, September 1854, to investigate and report upon the same. By
GerorceE Renniz, F.R.S.

The early history of the Mersey, previous to the beginning of the present
century, is confined to the uncertain statements of topographical writers such
as Leland, Gough, King, Ormerod, Mortimer, and others; and the charts of
Captain Collins in 1689, and by M‘Kenzie in 1760.

According to the original constitution of the charters and grants made
from time to time to the borough of Liverpool, the boundaries of that port
were adopted by a commission issued 19th July, 32 Charles II., which recited
an Act passed in the 14th year of the then king’s reign, tor ‘‘ preventing
frauds and regulating abuses in the Customs ;” and also an Act of the Ist of
Elizabeth, It was settled in November 1680, that the boundaries of the port

Pe

THE RIVER MERSEY. 5

of Liverpool should be “from the Red Stones on the point of Wirrall south-
erly, to the foot of the Ribble water in a direct line northerly, and so upon
the south side of the said river to Hesketh Bank easterly.” These limits
were adopted in the Dock Act of Anne, and subsequent dock acts, as the
limits of the crown revenues, and have been adhered to down to the present
time. ‘The limits of the old borough and parish of Liverpool bordering on
the Mersey are thus defined, viz.—‘“‘ The western boundary commences at
low-water mark of the River Mersey, where a brook, called Beacon’s Gutter,
enters the river, and continues thence southward along the low-water mark
of the said river, to the centre of a certain slip or basin called Etna Slip.
The southern boundary commences from the centre of Etna Slip, and runs
from thence to the eastward, across the southernmost end of the Queen’s
Dock. The northern boundary returns along the Beacon’s Gutter, to the
beforementioned low-water mark of the river.” The 8th of Anne, 1709,
defined the limits of the port of Liverpool to extend as far as “a certain place
in Hoylake called the Red Stones, and from thence all over the River Mersey
to Warrington and Frodsham Bridges.” These boundaries and rights of the

- Mayor, Aldermen, and Burgesses to the lordships of Liverpool, comprising the

River Mersey up to the bridges and to the strand at Liverpool, Toxteth Park,
Birkenhead, and Wallasey, are fully explained in the accompanying statement,
No. 6, as also in the second memorial of the Liverpool Corporation to the
Admiralty, No. 4. According to a statement made by Mr. Rollet, surveyor
of Wallasey embankment, at the fifth meeting of the Architectural and
Archeological Society of Liverpool, in 1854, the sea had formerly effected
a direct entrance into the valley of the Mersey through its present channel,
from which, he believed, it had been separated previously by a diluvial deposit
of clay, boulders, and sand, and that after it had so effected its entrance, its
progress, in forming a deep channel, would be gradual. In proof of which
he cited the authority of Captain Collins, “That great ships belonging to
Liverpool put out at Hyle, or Hoylake, part of their lading until they are
light enough to sail over the flats of Liverpool.”

' The charts of Collins and M‘Kenzie, although valuable as records, can
scarcely be depended upon. ‘The first authentic survey of the port of Liver-
pool, by Captain George Thomas, in 1813, and published in 1815, and the
subsequent and more accurate surveys of Denham, in 1833 and 1837, and of
Lord, in 1840, 1841 and 1852, are proofs of the anxiety evinced by the
Corporation of Liverpool to employ officers of the Admiralty in recording
accurately the actual state of the banks and channels, and the changes which
have taken place between those periods. ‘These are very fully detailed in
the accompanying report of Mr. Boult, who has taken more than usual pains
to compare the different plans with one another and with Captain Thomas's,
and has shown in contour and coloured lines the remarkable changes which
have taken place in the sea banks and channels at the entrance of the Mersey.
These changes show the necessity of causing annual surveys to be made, as
set forth in the report of Messrs. Mylne and Rennie, in 1837.

- The history of the Mersey is also well detailed in the accompanying report
of Messrs. John and George Wilkin. Those gentlemen show that, in 1818,
Mr. Whidbey, of Plymouth, was the first whose assistance was called in by
the Mayor and Corporation to examine the encroachments which had been

_ made on the estuary in different parts, and to lay down some general princi-
ples as to its future preservation. Subsequently, Mr. Rennie, sen., Messrs.
_ Chapman, Giles, Walker, Mylne, Stevenson, and George and John Rennie,
-Yeported in confirmation. Extracts from the reports of some of these engi-

6 REPORT—1856,

neers will show how their predictions have been corroborated, and how
necessary it was to frame and constitute a Commission of Conservancy. This
was done upon the principles laid down by Messrs. W. C. Mylne and George
Rennie, in their report of 1837, as also from the assistance of the marine
surveyor, Lieutenant Lord.

The general principles laid down by Messrs. Whidbey, Chapman and
Rennie, in their report of 1822, to the Corporation of Liverpool, were—

« That all channels through which water flows must be of a magnitude
proportional to the quantity which passes them; and any increase or dimi-
nution of that quantity will enlarge or diminish the channel, unless where
formed of material so hard that the strength of the current is not able to
remove them.”

Mr. Whidbey says, in his report of 1818, “Tide harbours are deep or
otherwise, in proportion to the quantity of water that flows into them from
the esa, and the fresh water that comes down from the interior. The greater
the quantity of water, the greater will be the depth, from the effect which
the increased body of water will have in scouring the bottom at the time of
the ebb tide, and carrying out the sullage.”

Again, with reference to embankments, Mr. Whidbey says,—

“It is evident that if a certain portion of either side of a river or harbour
be embanked, and the tide be prevented from flowing over it in its usual
way, a diminished quantity of water will flow in from the sea equal to the
cubic contents of what has been embanked, and consequently there will be a
less quantity to ebb out; and the scouring effect being thereby lessened, it
will be rendered incapable of carrying out to sea the sullage and alluvious
matter washed down from the country, with the same force as before the
embankment was made.”

The same principle was advocated by Messrs. Chapman, Rennie, Walker,
Giles and Stevenson, in all their subsequent reports relative to encroachments,
and to obstructions made to the free flow of the tide by piers and jetties.

The very accurate survey and maps of the estuary made by Mr. Giles for
the Corporation, by the recommendation of the late Mr. Rennie, is one of
the most valuable records of any harbour in existence. It forms, in fact, the
standard for all future surveys, with reference to any changes which may
take place.

The annexed is a catalogue of the reports which have been made by the
engineers and surveyors of the Mersey. The calculation of the area and
contents of the estuary of the Mersey between the Blackrock at entrance,
and Woolston Weir above Warrington, as shown by the annexed tables,
No. 2, are taken from Mr. G. Rennie’s report of 1838.

Captain Denham, the surveyor to the port, in his report of 1836, gives his
opinions on the causes of variations of the Devil and Pluckington Banks, and
expresses considerable doubt how far their removal could be effected by
jetties projected from the Cheshire shore.

Lieutenant Lord, who succeeded him as surveyor, in his report of 3rd April,
1840, proposed a similar remedy. The question had been previously dis-
cussed, and remedies proposed, by former engineers. Lieutenant Lord’s
report of the 23rd March, 1840, entirely coincides with the opinion of former
engineers in the necessity of preserving the whole of the estuary and its
tributary streams from encroachments, and the necessity of guarding the
shores from the action of the winds and waves by defences of stone, and that
the limits of high-water margin should be accurately defined. j
. As regards the tides, these have been accurately defined for a long period:

}

THE RIVER MERSEY, Z

by Mr. Giles, in his great survey ; and the very valuable observations on the
rise and fall of the tides in the Mersey, from Formby Point to Warrington
Bridge, taken during the years 1840, 1841, 1842, and 1843, by Mr. Rendell—
as shown by the diagrams in the first and second volumes of Mr. Thomas
Webster’s work, 1848, 1853—leave, nothing to be desired in point of
excellence.

With such records, the Commissioners of Conservancy have only to
impress upon their surveyors the necessity of making frequent inspec-
tions of the whole of the estuary, and annual surveys of its banks and
channels, so that this invaluable port shall be maintained, in future, in its
full integrity.

Mr. Boult’s report, which accompanies this, enters most fully into the
details of the changes which have taken place in the direction and depths of
the sea channels. The increase or diminution of the sand-banks, from the
first publication of Captain George Thomas’s map, in 1815, down to 1854,
accompanied by an elaborate table, showing the average cubical contents of
the Great Burbo, Brazil, and North Bank, and the banks of Formby, Taylor,
Jordan, Mud-wharf, Middle, Little Burbo, and Outlying, and East Hoyle,
from which it will be seen that in 1840 there is a slight decrease from 1837 ;
for the years 1846 and 1852 a considerable increase ; and a slight diminution
in 1854. These tables are analysed with great minuteness by Mr. Boult ;
and the accompanying charts, in colours, illustrate distinctly the variations*.
The valuable meteorological and historical information which Mr. Boult has
brought forward, entitle him to the best thanks of the Committee.

London, July 18, 1856. GEORGE RENNIE.

No. 1.—Report of the Messrs. Wilkin relative to the Navigation and Con-
servancy of the River Mersey.
‘ Spring Gardens, 28th April, 1840.

Sir,—We have the honour of referring to our letter of the 18th April,
1839, in which we observed, that much more information than we at that
time possessed would be wanting to enable us to make a final report on the
state of the River Mersey, and for recommending such measures for the
improvement of the navigation, and for preventing further encroachments on
its shores.

This inquiry has caused much labour and aitention on our parts,
Mr. George Wilkin having been almost entirely occupied in this business
from the beginning of the month of March 1839, and having spent nearly
three months in Liverpool for the purpose of communicating with those
most competent to render us assistance. We were unable to proceed without
a regular survey, and for that purpose, at our recommendation, the Corpora-
tion employed Mr. Eyes to make an accurate report and survey of the shore

: within the port of Liverpool (No. 1+), which contains the description and
_ customs in each township, showing whether the same is a manor, or reputed

manor, and whether courts are held, and whether any, and what, claims are
made to the shore, or any privileges exercised therein. The names of the
proprietors of land adjoining the beach, the encroachments made thereon,
and the enclosures of marshes over which the tide formerly flowed in the
upper part of the river, which exceed 13,000 acres. :

We beg leave to represent, that the obstructions to the navigation of the

* See note, page 2. : }
* The figures in Messrs. Whidbey’s report refer to documents which are not printed

~7?

s

8 REPORT—1856.

Mersey having of late years been the subject of much complaint, attracted
the attention of the Corporation of Liverpool, who have, from the year 1818
to the present time, in their anxiety to improve the navigation of the river,
expended large sums of money in consulting the most eminent engineers,
and in obtaining their reports, opinions and surveys on the state of the river;
viz. in the year 1818, the late Mr. Whidbey, the contractor of the Break-
water at Plymouth ; in 1832, a second report from him, in conjunction with
Messrs. Chapman and John Rennie; in 1823, by Mr. Chapman; in 1826, by
Mr. Whidbey, and Messrs. George Rennie and Giles; in 1826, a second
report from Mr. Giles; in 1827, by Mr. Robert Stevenson, also by Messrs.
Walker and Mylne; in 1826, by Captain Denham, R.N., and in 1837, by
Messrs. Mylne and G. Rennie. The late Mr. Telford, Messrs. Nimmo and
Fowls have also been consulted by the Corporation and reported thereon
No. 2).

: It ed from the evidence (No.3) taken before a committee of the
House of Commons in the session of 1838, on a bill of the Grand Junction
Railway Company, in which they proposed to erect a bridge over the
Mersey at Runcorn, and to take a branch of the railway over it (which was
rejected), that the area of the Mersey from Black Rock at the Mouth to
Woolston Weir above Warrington Bridge (where the tide ceases), is 23,062
acres, over which, at a 29-feet tide, 736,945,215 tons of water flow, and
that no less than 13,440 acres of marshes have been abstracted from the
tideway, equal to about 25 millions of tons of water, calculated at the same
tide.

For the purpose of more clearly showing the want of a proper authority to
control and improve the navigation of the Mersey, we have thought it de-
sirable to make extracts from the Reports of the engineers; all of whom
are of opinion that the principal causes for obstructing the navigation of the
river are the embankments made for enclosing large tracts of marsh lands
over which the tide formerly flowed ; the numerous piers, jetties and che-
vrons which impede the flux and reflux of the tide, and decrease the water
space. They observe, that all the channels through which water flows must
be of a magnitude proportional to the quantity passing through them; that
if a certain portion of cither side of a river or harbour be embanked, and the
tide be prevented from flowing over it in its usual way, a diminished quan-
tity of water will flow in from the sea equal to the cubic contents of what
has been embanked, consequently there will be a less quantity to ebb out,
thereby decreasing the scouring effect, and preventing the sullage and allu-
vial matter being washed down with sufficient force to prevent the old chan-
nels becoming choked up.

They further state, that the preservation and improvement of navigable
channels depend entirely upon the flux and reflux of the tide and the dis-
charge of fresh waters, which cause an effectual scour. That in no case can
there be too much backwater, it being well known that a number of rivers
and harbours have been ruined from the want of preserving the backwater.
Two harbours are noticed by Mr. Whidbey, viz. Portsmouth, as having
been seriously injured, and Rye, as having been entirely ruined by encroach-
ments on the mud land.

Report dated 17th July, 1818 (No.2).—Mr. Whidbey says, the Mersey is
an inlet of the sea, rather than a river, being kept open entirely by the
quantity of water that flows into it, and not by the trifling streams which it
receives at Warrington and Frodsham Bridges; that tidal harbours are deep
or otherwise in proportion to the quantity of water that flows into them from

THE RIVER MERSEY. 9

the sea, and the fresh water that comes down from the interior ; the greater
the quantity of water, the greater will be the depth from the effect which
the increased body of water will have in scouring the bottom at the time of
the ebb tide in carrying out the sullage.

He observes, that if all the mud lands above and below Ince, and above
and below Runcorn, were embanked, leaving a channel only for the waters
that come from the country to discharge themselves, the total ruin of Liver-
pool would be the consequence. The backwater would be so much dimi-
nished that the scouring effect would be destroyed, and the sand driven in
towards the entrance of the Mersey by the violence of the north-west and
western gales, would in time accumulate beyond the possibility of removal.

He alludes to an Act passed in the 46 Geo. III. cap. 153, for protecting
harbours and navigable rivers, but considers it does not go far enough, and
thinks the Corporation should lose no time in obtaining an Act giving them
the necessary powers for the preservation of the harbour of Liverpool, re-
serving to the Mersey and Irwell Company all powers granted to them
under their Acts.

He further observes, that it is a prevailing opinion, that if water-courses
be narrowed, the channels through which the water has to run will become
deeper ; which would be the case if the water always ran one way, being pro-
duced from springs in the country ; it must be discharged into the sea some-
where, therefore the more it is confined the deeper will be the channel
through which it runs, but the contrary will be the case where the tide runs
in and out every twelve hours.

Report dated 25th May, 1822 (No. 2).—Messrs. Whidbey, Chapman and
John Rennie state, that on a careful examination between Runcorn and
Fidler’s Ferry at high and low water they found large tracts of marsh land
without the present line of banks, and serving as important receptacles for
backwater. On the banks and shores they observed numerous jetties, erected
for the protection of the land against the violence of the current, extending
in many instances much further than necessary, and for the most part ope-
rating as injurious impediments to the tideway, which, by obstructing its
course, diminish its velocity, and allow time for the alluvial matter with
which it is impregnated to be deposited and form banks and shoals highly
injurious to the navigation, particularly mentioning one at Halton, and
another near the old Quay Canal entrance. The Ince Ferry Quay has also
an injurious effect, but they do not recommend its removal, on account of its
absolute necessity for the purposes of commerce, but that openings should
be made through it in various places, and arching them over. Several other
jetties are detrimental, and should be removed.

They also recommend that no time should be lost in obtaining sufficient

powers to enable the Corporation to have the complete conservatorship or
control of the river Mersey and all its branches, to the end that when any
encroachments are making by jetties, embankments or otherwise, they may
have full power to cause them to be removed.
In obtaining the powers here recommended, they*conceive there can be
little or no difficulty, for all the leading interests of the country are combined
in the necessity of maintaining and improving the navigation of the port of
Liverpool, and none more so than the adjacent landholders, the value of
whose estates must necessarily rise and fall with the population of this great
commercial emporium, which is certainly of far greater importance to them
than any advantage that can be derived from the acquisition of any land
over which the tide flows.

10 REPORT—1856. |

Report dated 26th June, 1826 (No. 2).—Messrs. Whidbey, G. Rennie and
Giles make strong observations on the jetties, piers and chevrons from Fid-
ler’s Ferry to Halton Point, which they think should be removed. They
also notice the land embanked by Sir R. Brooke, and the encroachments
made by the Mersey and Irwell Company, also at Ince Quay, Tranmere Bay,
Wallasey Pool, and Seacombe.

They recommend that a quay or other boundary-line along the whole of
the shores of the river Mersey and its inlets within the influence of the tide,
should be accurately defined upon plans confirmed by Parliament. In order
also that this important object may be effected in the most conciliatory and
equitable manner, it should as far as possible be concerted with the land-
owners upon the principle of compensation for such lands as may be required
for that purpose. :

Report dated 4th October, 1826 (No. 2).—Mr. Giles is of opinion, that by
the means of a shore and river:wall such a uniformity of flood and ebb cur-
rent will be established up and down the river as to produce the best scouring
effect of the tide and land waters, and particularly upon the ebb tide, which
will be directed more forcibly upon the south-east end of the Liverpool
shore than at present, so as not only to prevent a further accumulation of
bank, but most probably to lessen the present extent and height of it. That
the further result of forming such uniform lines of shore and river-wall will
equalize and distribute the currents more over the river above Liverpool in
particular, so as to prevent in a great degree the accumulation of mud and
other sediment under the river-walls, and at the entrance to the docks gene-
rally, and at the same time render the navigation of vessels more direct and
easy than can be the case through the various partial forces of currents and
eddies of the present tideway.

Report dated December 1826 (No. 2).—Messrs. Rennie and Giles have
given particular consideration to the sea channels, and to the river from Black
Rock to Runcorn, and from thence to Woolston Weir, where the tide ceases.
They say it is admitted by all intelligent and impartial men, that the pre-
servation and improvement of the navigable channels of a river depend en-
tirely upon the flux and reflux of the tidal waters, and the discharge of
fresh waters, and that these have the most powerful effect during high spring
tides and rainy seasons in scouring and deepening the channels through
which such waters must flow. It is scarcely possible that a case can exist
where a port or river can have too much backwater. ‘There is a material
tendency of the flood tide to drive in from the sea portions of sand, and a
similar tendency of the inland waters to bring down sand and alluvial matter,
and these find upon some parts of the shore of a river places and eddies
where certain depusitions of them will take place, and thus diminish the
capacity of the river to that degree as will nearly balance or bring into
equilibrium the content of water in the river with the power or force of
currents which that content will produce both in its howing into and ebbing
out of the river. Taking it therefore as an axiom that no such thing can
occur as a harbour having too much backwater, except what may be pro-
duced occasionally by mountain torrents, but not by the reflow of tidal waters,
the general principle that the tide of a river, particularly in the upper parts
of it, should be carefully protected by all possible means, is applicable in its
fullest extent in the case of the Mersey, the fact of there being no excess
of backwater in the Mersey having been fully ascertained.
_ It is too obvious to need argument, that water ebbing from the higher
parts of the Mersey is infinitely more valuable than from the lower parts for

THE RIVER MERSEY. ll

the purpose of effecting a scour; the water from the highest parts having
to run through the greatest length of the navigable channels in its passage
to Liverpool, and afterwards through the sea channels at a period when the
tidal waters have considerably ebbed, and when those channels are narrowed
within the banks that enclose them.

The centre of Liverpool is about three and a half miles above the mouth
of the river, while Runcorn is nearly twenty miles; the value, therefore, of
the tide at Runcorn compared with that at Liverpool (taking it only at the
relative distance between those places), is nearly as 5 to 1; but it is also
beneficial in a manifold degree in consequence of its operating so much
more powerfully to scour the bed of the channels at Liverpool and the sea
channels than any water can do which is discharged from situations nearer
the mouth of the river in the early parts of the ebb tide. Another circum.
stance may be cited in favour of preserving the tidal waters at Runcorn,
and particularly upon the flat stones near to the level of high water. The
fact has been proved by Mr. Giles, that the spring tides actually rise one“ foot
and a half higher at Runcorn than at Liverpool, consequently any enclosure
of such shores at Runcorn must be exceedingly injurious.

Too much vigilance therefore cannot be exercised in preserving the tidal
waters at Runcorn, and also in having it discharged by the natural ebb of
the tide.

Report dated 30th January, 1827 (No. 2).—Mr. R. Stevenson states, as a
principle which ought to regulate all operations upon the banks of rivers,
that backwaters, are essential to the preservation of such rivers in a navi-
gable state; and with regard to the Mersey, he is of opinion that the great
influx and reflux of tides into this estuary every twelve hours is what alone
preserves the Horse and Formby Channels in their present navigable state.
To the preservation of these channels all the arguments relating to the back-
water resolve themselves. An alteration in the depth or direction of these
channels might be attended with consequences most serious to Liverpool,
encumbered as its entrance is with sand-banks of a great extent.

He also recommends that the jurisdiction of the conservators should
follow the high-water mark in all its gambols, though trenching sometimes
upon one side of the estuary and sometimes upon the other, and that they
should take the most prompt cognizance of all works undertaken upon the
ebb, or between the points of high and low water. He conceives that a
distinction should be made between works intended for the legitimate pur-
pose of navigation, and those which have for their object the acquirement
of firm ground at the expense of the backwaters of the river.

Report dated 31st January, 1827 (No. 2).—Messrs. Walker and Mylne
state that the Mersey is only deeper at Liverpool than at Warrington, be-
cause the greater quantity of water at Liverpool requires a greater area to
passit. If the tide was excluded, the Mersey at Liverpool would by the de-
- posit of matter brought down from the interior soon diminish to the same size
as at Warrington, and the entrance from the sea would soon sand up, leaving
space sufficient only to pass the water of the river in this diminished state.

Report dated 27th September, 1836 (No. 2*).—Captain Denham says, the
progress of Pluckington Bank, since 1828, has been a horizontal increase
of 210 yards abreast of Brunswick Basin, abreast of King’s Dock 123 yards,
and abreast of Duke’s Dock only 40 yards. Its respective elevations he
- cannot quote between these dates, but since 1834 he finds it grown up one.
foot off Brunswick Dock, two feet off Brunswick Basin, three feet off Duke’s

* Reprinted at length in No. 5 herewith,

12 REPORT—1856.

Dock, and one foot off Canning Dock, during which its low-water margin
has yielded 50 yards directly off Brunswick Basin. Simultaneous with this
two years’ fluctuation, the Devil’s Bank has warped 143 yards towards the
eastern shore, lowered in altitude four feet, but elongated towards Plucking-
ton Shelf 250 yards, so that the spit of the Devil’s Bank and Pluckington
Shelf is within one-fourth of a mile of uniting with each other,—an event to
be feared, seeing that the Devil’s Spit has elongated two-thirds of a mile in
eight years, but which should be averted with all anxiety, for in the space
between them being shoaled up to a bar of six feet instead of fifteen, the
Garston branch of the Mersey will scour its way through the Swatchway
just above Otter’s Pool, dividing the Devil’s Bank from Eastham Sands, and
join the main column of ebb stream down the Cheshire side of the river.

Report dated March 1837 (No. 2).—Messrs. Mylne and G. Rennie state,
that from a rough estimate of the quantity of land which has been em-
banked out of the river above Runcorn, and which is still under the level
of ordinary spring tides (or 22 feet on the Old Dock Sill), the present water
surface only amounts to one-fifth of the whole. Below Runcorn the marshes
of Widness, Ditton, Frodsham, Stanlow, and Wallasey, amount to nearly
one-half the whole; or in other words, the total quantity of land embanked
out of the Mersey exceeds the total quantity of water surface. In laying
down quay lines in the Mersey, the following principles should be ad-
hered to :—

Ist. To preserve to the fullest extent the receptacles for the tide water.

2nd. To designate the boundaries by mere stones placed at intervals.

3rd. To have power to excavate and improve the bed of the river.

4th. To prevent encroachments, whether by embanking lands or accumu-
lating matter by means of jetties.

5th. To prevent jetties, or other open or solid works of any kind, from
being projected into the river without the consent of the Conservators.

6th. To prevent ballast or other soiid matter from being thrown into the
river,

7th. To raise and remove wrecks or other obstructions.

8th. To cut off or remove projecting points of rocks, without prejudice to
existing interests, buildings or jetties which may tend to obstruct the
free effect of the current of the tides; and to erect quay walls or other
works which may assist the operation or diversion of the tide for the
general benefit of the port.

They conclude by recommending a Commission of Conservancy, not only
for the benefit of the port, but the public in general.

For the remedy of the evils mentioned in their reports, the engineers all
recommend that the conservancy should be vested in the Corporation of
Liverpool by Act of Parliament, with powers to remedy these evils, and to
render the navigation as perfect as circumstances will admit.

We have been induced to make these copious extracts from the reports,
as they so clearly point out the difficulties attending the navigation of the
river, and the probability of the most serious consequences following, if
powers are not given to the Corporation by Act of Parliament, to improve
the navigation. We have personally inspected the state of the river, and
are perfectly satisfied with the correctness of their reports and observations
thereon, and are convinced that the navigation is yearly becoming more
difficult, and that the obstructions will continue to increase if Parliamentary
“ite is not made for its improvement, perhaps to the ultimate ruin of
the port.

eS Py Greer

THE RIVER MERSEY. 13

The Corporation of Liverpool brought the state of the river under the
special consideration of the late Mr. Huskisson in the year 1828; that emi-
nent statesman gave the subject his most serious consideration: he viewed
with alarm the numerous encroachments making, which he considered would,
if allowed to go on, at no very remote period in all probability prove highly
prejudicial to the navigation, and was persuaded that a Commission of Con-
servancy should be without delay appointed, consisting of not more than
three Commissioners, including the Mayor of Liverpool, to be constituted
by Act of Parliament, or by the Crown, reserving to His Majesty the power
of appointing additional Commissioners if it should hereafter be found ne-
cessary. That his suggestions were fully approved by Lord Lowther, then
Chief Commissioner of Woods and Forests, and by Mr. Arbuthnot, the
Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, appears from the Correspondence
(No. 4). His melancholy death occurred before the business was finally
arranged. And by the reform of corporate bodies, and from other causes,
no effectual measure was taken till the session of the year 1837, when a bill
was brought into Parliament by the Corporation of Liverpool, which was
objected to by Government in consequence of the extensive powers sought
for, and was consequently withdrawn on the understanding that the subject
should be hereafter taken up by the Board of Trade.

The public bodies most materially interested in the navigation of the
Mersey, are the Mersey and Irwell Navigation, the Duke of Bridgewater’s
Canal, the River Weaver Navigation, the Ellesmere Canal, and the Sankey
Canal Companies. We have understood that objections have been raised
by some of these companies to the Corporation of Liverpool having a pre-
vailing interest in the conservancy. For the purpose of meeting the wishes
of these most important and highly respectable bodies, and also those
of the influential, commercial, and agricultural interests connected with the
Port of Liverpool, or the River Mersey, we have personally waited on the
Mayor of Manchester and the town authorities of Warrington, and the
gentlemen taking the most prominent part in the management of the Canal
and Navigation Companies. We have also seen the Earl of Sefton, the

- auditor of the Earl of Derby’s estates (both of these noble lords having

considerable estates adjoining the river), Mr. Potts of Chester, on the part
of several landowners on the Cheshire shore, as well as for the Ellesmere
Canal Company, for whom he acts, and other landed proprietors having
property adjoining the Mersey. We think it proper to annex notes of the
observations made (No. 5), from which it will appear that they all concur
in the propriety of an effective Conservancy being appointed, but some of
them express a strong feeling against the Corporation of Liverpool being
invested with more power than what is given to other public bodies, and the
Mersey and Irwell Company only seemed inclined to contribute to the ex-
pense of the Conservancy.

It is our desire to pay every respect to the opinions of these highly re-
spectable and important companies, and to meet their wishes if possible;
but we cannot lose sight of the correct view taken by the late Mr. Huskis-
son, that if the Conservancy was teo numerous it would probably be ineffec-
tive; and we cannot therefore recommend that the Commission should, in
the first instance, exceed four, though we should much prefer its being
limited to three only, viz. the Mayor of Liverpool for the time being, with
power to nominate one of the Aldermen to act for him in case his public
duties should engage too much of his time; one of the Dock Trustees,
and one on the part of the public conversant with the state of the river;

14 . REPORT—1856.

to communicate with the Board of Trade on all points affecting the
navigation.

If it should be considered advisable, a fourth Commissioner may be
appointed,—the Canal and Navigation Companies to make this appoint-
ment from one of their body.

The Corporation of Liverpool propose to bear two-thirds of the expense,
and the Dock Trustees the other third. The Conservancy can, in our
opinion, only be efficiently formed by a public Act, in which powers may
be given to the Board of Trade for increasing the number of Commissioners,
if hereafter found necessary ;—or to commence by a Commission from the
Crown, as suggested by Lord Lowther to Mr. Huskisson, obtaining when
necessary increased powers from Parliament.

The Conservancy of the River Thames appears to have been first ap-
pointed by charter in the third year of the reign of James I., and after-
wards extended by several Acts of Parliament from the reign of George III.
We would take the liberty of recommending that the powers of the Con-
servators of the Mersey should assimilate, as nearly as circumstances will
admit, to those of the Thames; and that the shore of the river or of the
sea within the Port of Liverpool should not be vested in them, but should
remain in the Crown, or in other persons legally holding the same, and
should not be taken or used by the Conservators without permission or
purchase. Nor should the Conservators be authorized to interfere with the
extensive enclosures of the marshes above Runcorn, or in the River Weaver,
which are of a very ancient date; nor with the numerous jetties, chevrons
(unless they are longer than necessary, and obstruct the navigation of the
river), or other encroachments; but that their operations should, in the
. first instance, be confined entirely to the bed of the river, in scouring the
same with proper machinery, and in making new channels and removing
obstructions.

It is not for Liverpool alone that a Conservancy is wanting, nor for the
Navigation Companies connected with the Mersey : it is of equal importance
to Manchester, and all the other manufacturing towns in Lancashire,
Cheshire, Yorkshire and Staffordshire, and to the general commercial and
shipping interests of the kiugdom. If the measure is properly carried into
effect, it will be beneficial to the interests of the community at large.

We have thought it advisable to request the Corporation of Liverpool to
state their views as to the plan of operations in the event of Conservancy
being granted.

The Town Clerk has favoured us with two letters from Lieutenant Lord,
R.N. (No.2)*, the marine surveyor of the port, to the chairman of the Con-
servancy Committee. He recommends that the lines of high water should
be accurately marked and defined, and that no future encroachments should
be allowed without authority. That the edges of the banks, which in the
upper part of the river are composed of earthy sward, should be protected
by a facing of stone or other suitable material, to prevent any part from
_ being carried away by the tide. This, he says, would render permanent a
scouring force of water, which would maintain the sea-approaches in an
effective state, and it would then remain to watch the changes that might
arise in the sand-banks in the river and its approaches, and to adopt such
timely remedies as might be necessary. He refers particularly to the dredg-
ing operations which were so successfully carried on for a period of ten
months during the last year, by which means a most valuable channel was

* Nos. 7 and 8 herewith.

ad

pet

THE RIVER MERSEY. . ~ 15

opened at a small expense ;—that its success depended entirely on the
column of water running out of the Mersey on the ebb tide, and to a mi-
nute attention to what was taking place in that region.

He considers the natural formation of the Mersey admirably adapted for
scouring and keeping open the sea-channels, if encroachments are not
allowed to be made on its banks; but he doubts the propriety of scarping
or removing rocks.

We cannot venture to give an opinion as to the most practicable mode of
improving the navigation. The Conservators wili (if appointed), as a matter
of course, consult the most eminent engineers as to the best means of
proceeding ; but we think the navigation would be much improved if the
plan of dredging with machinery, so successfully adopted in the Victoria
Channel, was followed up in the river. It is most desirable to make it ap-
parent to the Navigation Companies, to the landowners, and to all other
parties interested, that in appointing a Conservancy the public good only is
looked to, and that there is no intention whatever to interfere with private
interests, which will be duly preserved and protected.

If the President: and Lords of the Board of Trade be pleased to approve
of a Conservancy being established by Act’of Parliament, we will prepare
a bill founded on the practice in the River Thames for their Lordships’
approval, making special provisions for preserving the rights of the Mersey
and Irwell Company, and those of all other Companies connected with the
River Mersey.

We also beg to send a statement delivered to us by the Town Clerk of
Liverpool, with a map of the river (Nos. 6 and 7), showing the rights of the
Mayor, Aldermen, and Burgesses to the Lordship of Liverpool, comprising
the River Mersey up to Warrington and Frodsham Bridges, and the Strand
at Liverpool, Toxteth Park, Birkenhead, and Wallasey, which the Corpora-
tion wish to be noticed in our Report; from which it appears that the
18th Section of the Act of the 2nd George III. cap. 86, authorizes them as
Trustees of the Docks, by authority from twenty-five of their body, to re-
move such nuisances as may be necessary for improving, scouring, and
keeping open the navigation from the sea as far southwards as the Lordship
extends; and by the Dock Acts of the 39th George III. cap. 59. sec. 29,
and 57 George III. cap. 143. sec. 80, their water-bailiff and harbour-master

_ have special powers over vessels, wrecks, and obstructions. It would there-

fore seem that Parliament intended to give powers to the Corporation
which are not considered sufficient to constitute an efficient Conservancy.
We have the honour to be, Sir,
Your most obedient Servants,
, (Signed) Joun Wirxin.
Dennis Le Marchant, Esq. GEORGE WILKIN.

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THE RIVER MERSEY. 17

No. 3.-—Index of the Engineers’ and Surveyors’ Reports who have reported
on the Estuary and River Mersey.

Extract of Mr. Rennie’s report as to any one dock, 1809.

Mr. Whidbey, ditto, 1818.

Late Mr. Rennie’s ditto, on Ditton Embankment, 11th October, 1819.

Ditto, Messrs. Whidbey, Chapman and Rennie, upon the lines of wharf
walls at the south and north ends of the docks upon Pluckington Bank, 1822.

Mr. Telford on Mersey and Irwell Works, 29th January, 1823.

Messrs. Telford and Nimmo on same subject, 1823,

Ditto, on Mersey and Irwell Navigation, June 1823.

Mr. John Rennie, jun., in reply to above Report, July 26, 1823.

Mr. Whidbey on ditto, July 14, 1823.

Mr. Chapman on ditto, July 18, 1823.

Messrs. Whidbey, Rennie and Giles, 1826.

Mr. Giles proposed Conservancy line, 1826.

Messrs. Rennie and Giles on Conservancy of River generally, 1826.

Messrs. Whidbey and Giles, afterwards J. Walker, on Embankments,
14th August, 1826.

Messrs. Stevenson, ditto, ditto, 1827.

Messrs. Walker and Mylne, ditto, 1827. es

Messrs. G. Rennie, James Walker, R. Stevenson, F. Giles, and W. C.
Mylne on Viner’s Embankment and Ince’s Quay, 1827.

Messrs. Telford, Stevenson and Nimmo, on new sea-ports in Rivers Dee
and Mersey, with a ship channel, 1828.

Mr. Chapman’s Report on the effect on the navigation of River likely to
result from works, 1823.

Mr. George Rennie on the effect of New Brighton Pier, 8th December,
1834.

Captain Denham on Mr. Lace’s projection, and Pluckington Bank and
Devil’s projection, and proposing a river wall, 1836.

Report of Messrs. Mylne and Rennie on Mersey, 1837.

Letter from Lieut. Lord, recommending mode in which the Conservancy
should be effected, 1840.

Second letter ditto, 1840.

Captain Evans on River Mersey, May 29, 1844.

Mr. George Rennie on Seacombe Pier and Pluckington Bank, 17th No-
vember, 1844.

No. 4.—Conservancy. First and Second Memorial.
To the Right Honourable the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, and to
the Right Honourable the Lords Commissioners for the Affairs of Trade.

The Memorial of the Mayor, Aldermen, and Burgesses of the Borough

of Liverpool,

Sheweth,—That your Memorialists, as representing the town and being
the owners of the Lordship of Liverpool, comprising the Port, are most
materially interested in the maintenance, preservation, and improvement. of
havigation of the River Mersey. :

That the entrance to the River Mersey is by three principal channels,
formed in the midst of numerous sand-banks and shoals, frequently shifting
and increasing.

_ That in other parts of the river there are dangerous banks and shoals,
and that in particular extensive banks have formed opposite the entrance of

sf ag threatening the most dangerous consequences.
. Cc

18 REPORT—1856.

That for years past the general state of the river has been most critical
and alarming.

That the principal causes of this state of the river are, as your Memorialists
believe, the impediments offered to the flux and reflux of the tidal waters
and the diminution of water space above the town, by the enclosure from the
river of large tracts of land.

That your Memorialists have for many years vainly endeavoured to obtain
some efficient protection for their own and the public interests in the vesting
of the conservancy of the river in commissioners with adequate powers, your
Memorialists fearing that unless vigorous measures were adopted, the Mersey
would become, like the Dee, the Lune, the Exe, and many other rivers, no
longer navigable for vessels of burden.

That your Memorialists, from the year 1818 to the present time, have, at a
very heavy expense, caused frequent surveys and reports upon the state of
the river to be made, namely, in 1818 by the late Mr. Whidbey, the con~-
structor of the breakwater at Plymouth (whose Report contains a concise
and clear view of the then state of the river, and of the deterioration to be
anticipated from the causes before mentioned); in 1822 by the same gen-
tleman in conjunction with the late Messrs. Chapman and John Rennie; in
1823 by Messrs. Telford, Nimmo, Whidbey, Chapman, Rennie, and Fowler;
in 1826 by Mr. Whidbey and Messrs. George Rennie and Giles; in 1827 by
Messrs. George Rennie and Giles, and afterwards by Messrs. James Walker
and W. C. Mylne; in 1828 by Messrs. Telford, Stevenson, and Nimmo; in
1835 by Mr. George Rennie ; in 1836 by Commander Denham, R.N.; and
in 1837 by Messrs. Mylne and George Rennie and Walker.

That these Reports prove in the most unquestionable manner the
absolute necessity for active and incessant superintendence, and they also
incontestably prove the changeable character of the river and its ap-
proaches.

That in the beginning of the Session of last year a Bill was brought into
the House of Commons to empower the proprietors of the Grand Junction
Railway to amend their present line, by forming a new line of railway by
crossing the River Mersey three to four miles below the town of Warrington,
by a bridge at a place called Fidler’s Ferry.

That your Memorialists, fully sensible of the importance of the proposed
measure, were with great reluctance compelled to offer to it all the oppo-
sition in their power, inasmuch as the proposed bridge would have been
injurious to the trade and navigation on the river, and would have interfered
with the flux and reflux of the tide.

That this Bill was rejected in committee so far as related to the intended
bridge.

That your Memorialists on this occasion offered evidence as to the past
and present state of the river.

That from the evidence thus given, your Memorialists have extracted
portions comprising part of the Reports already referred to, which they lay
before your Lordships, and to which they earnestly and respectfully solicit
your attention.

That one statement in particular proved before the committee was as
follows :— :

“The present area of the River Mersey, from the Black Rock at the mouth
to Woolston Weir above Warrington Bridge, is 23,062 acres, over which, at
a 22-feet tide, 736,945,215 tons of water flow, and that no less than 13,440
acres of marshes have been abstracted from the tideway, equal to about
25,000,000 tons of water, calculated at the same tide. That the remaining

THE RIVER MERSEY. 19

salt marshes were, about the year 1822, only 1897 acres, from which further
abstractions have since been made.”

That in further corroboration of your Memorialists’ representation, they
lay before your Lordships the following Report of Lieutenant Lord, R.N.,
the Marine Surveyor of the Dock Trustees :—

“ Marine Surveyor’s Office, February 1839.

“My attention having been called to the fluctuations going on from time
to time on the banks and shores of the Mersey and its embouchure, I beg to
state that all those conversant with the navigable channels of the river are
aware that frequent and sometimes very sudden changes take place in'the
sand-banks and navigable waters of the same. That such fluctuations are
going on continually is strongly evidenced by the Marine Surveyor’s Report
in 1836, by which it appears that between the years 1828 and 1836 the -
horizontal increase of Pluckington Bank was 210 yards abreast of Brunswick
Basin, 123 abreast of King’s Dock, and 40 abreast of Duke’s Dock; and that
between the years 1834 and 1836 it had grown up one foot at Brunswick
Dock, two feet off Brunswick Basin, three feet off King’s Dock, three feet
off Duke’s Dock, and one foot off Canning Dock; whilst its lower water
margin yielded 50 yards during the same period. Thus threatening to be-
gyme a serious obstruction to the entrance of Brunswick, King’s, and Duke’s

ock.

“Tt also appears from the same statements, that the Devil’s Bank and Spit
had considerably elongated during the above period.

_ “In a remoter region, namely, the sand-banks at the entrance of the port,
such as the Great and Little Burbo, Jordan Flats, &c., the changes have been
still greater, as was fully evinced in the survey carried on last summer, as
compared with that of 1835.

“Tn no part is this more strongly exemplified than in the Half-tide Swash-
way and the New Channel.

“ In the former the Old Channel has filled, leaving a dry bank at low water,
and another channel has scoured itself where we had formerly a dry bank;
whilst in the New Channel there has been a gradual warping and filling
up for the last four years, leaving now a navigable channel of only 130
fathoms wide, with 11 feet at low water, where we formerly had a channel
half a mile wide with 12 and 13 feet.

** Taylor's Bank has also considerably spread to the north-west during the
above interval, and various other alterations have taken place in the contour
and altitude of the banks. ;

“In conclusion, I would state it to be my conviction that the encroachment
on the bed of the river, by the reclaiming of land, &c. at its upper part, cannot
_be too strongly deprecated, as it must evidently diminish the backwater, on

the scouring effects of which the very vitality of the entrances to the port
depends, besides altering and diverting the stream of the river into new and

often injurious channels.

ee

‘“T have the honour, &c., “W.Lorp.” |

That your Memorialists, in the language of their late lamented representa-
tive the Right Honourable William Huskisson, “ feel convinced, from facts
and personal observation, that if the system of encroachment and nuisance
which has prevailed for many years in the Mersey is not effectually checked,
80 as to give full scope for the natural flux and reflux of the tidal waters,
the Port of Liverpool will, in the course of no very long time, be as much
‘choked up as those of Chester and Lancaster now are.”

~ Your Memorialists therefore, in conclusion, earnestly urge on the attention

c2

20 REPORT—1856.

of your Lordships the necessity for immediate measures for the future pro-
tection of the navigation of the River Mersey, an object of increasing and

anxious interest to your Memorialists, and one in which the eountry at large
is deeply concerned.

And your Memorialists will ever pray, &c.
Liverpool, April 1839.

Second Memorial, September 1839.

To the Honourable the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, and to the
Right Honourable the Lords Commissioners for the Affairs of Trade.

The Memorial of the Mayor, Aldermen, and Burgesses of the Borough
of Liverpool,

Sheweth,—That your Memorialists presented in May last, through the
members of the borough, a Memorial to your Lordships, setting forth the dan-
gerous state of the River Mersey, from the numerous and shifting banks and
shoals, the causes for this state, the endeavours hitherto ineffectually made to
obtain efficient protection, the necessity for incessant superintendence, the
immense area already abstracted from the tideway, and other grounds, as
inducements for the interference of your Lordships, in order to the establish-
ment of a Commission of Conservancy ; which Memorial was accompanied by
extracts of evidence taken before a Committee of the House of Commons in
the session of 1838, in the Grand Junction Railway Bill, as to the past and
present state of the river.

That your Memorialists are anxious to receive the opinion of your Lord-
ships upon the prayer of their Memorial, and (venturing to assume that a
Bill to be brought into Parliament in the ensuing session will be directed or
sanctioned by your Lordships) more particularly as to the preliminary ques-
tion, whether such Bill ought to be public or private, inasmuch as in case
the latter be deemed by your Lordships to be preferable, the necessary notices
must be forthwith given, and other parliamentary proceedings be taken in
conformity to the standing orders; and, as whatever course of proceeding
your Lordships may recommend, immediate meetings with parties concerned,
proprietors along the banks of the river, ought to be held, in order as much
as possible to remove misunderstanding and consequent hostility on their

arts.

‘ That your Memorialists would respectfully urge on your Lordships’ con-
sideration, that the plan of a public bill would be the preferable course ; for
even the notice of a private bill, and the deposit of maps showing a line of
causeway along, or, as many would suppose, over estates on the banks of the
Mersey, creates such alarm in the minds of the proprietors interested, as to
make it exceedingly difficult and almost impossible afterwards to explain
that the proposed measure is one for the public good, and for the benefit
rather than to the injury of individuals.

That your Memorialists have, through their officers, lately had the advan-
tage of conferences with Mr. Wilkin, one of the officers of the Woods and
Forests, and with Mr. Wilkin, junior, both lately dispatched by that Board
to Liverpool, at the instance of your Lordships, to take preliminary steps on
the subject of the Conservancy; and your Memorialists believe that these
gentlemen, who have given considerable attention to the subject, and have
taken great interest therein, concur in opinion with your Memorialists and
their officers, that a public bill is the proper measure to be recommended,
but that, however that point may be determined, another session ought not

THE RIVER MERSEY. 91

to pass over without a bill, public or private, being brought into Par-
liament.

Your Memorialists therefore pray the immediate consideration and direc-
tion of your Lordships on the matters submitted.

(Copy-)
No. 5.—Letter from H. M. Denham, R.N., to the Corporation of Liverpool,
27th September, 1836.

Marine Surveyor’s Office, Liverpool, Sept. 27, 1836.

Srr,—Pursuant to a request to the following effect,—-“‘ That I would
furnish a plan of that part of the river opposite the property of Mr. Lace
and others, and a report and statement of the variation in Pluckington
Bank and the adjacent parts,’—I took every opportunity afforded by the
tides and weather to produce the results set forth in this report and the ac-
companying plans, which will evidence how necessarily the question involved
an actual re-survey of the whole region between the Rock Lighthouse and
where the river ceases to be navigable at low water, viz. Garston and
Eastham ; for on no less datum than the most recent tests as to the causes
and effects of the river’s deflection could I presume to give an opinion, which,
on the one hand, might involve capital already embarked in projections, or,
on the other, incite the sanction of its conservators as respects those projec-
tions. I can, however, now assert, that so distant is the primary cause and
impetus of the river’s deflection(on its eastern margin) from those projections
between Knott’s Hole or Dingle Point and the southern extremity of the
Dock Estate, as to entirely absolve the works of Messrs. Lace and others
from any ill effects.

Provided, that it be a sine gud non such jetties shall be subject to a
boundary-line on the strand, laterally with the low-water margin as deline-

ated on the Plan, such line to constitute the face of all projections, and
_ (until connected with the shelving rocks at Dingle Point) to have 100 yards

of face wall always at right angles to the southward of the southernmost
offset.

In this stipulation it will appear that I admit the deflecting effect of any
offsets upon the ebb stream, although north of Dingle Point. So Ido; but
it is so slight, in comparison with the position and continuous diversion of
that point, that if we abstain from interrupting the downset of the recover-
ing water-level (feeble as it is) after rounding Dingle Point, by direct off-
sets, then we shall direct that feeble portion of stream fairly and beneficially
down the face of the docks.

Thus much, Sir, applies to the question of Mr. Lace’s projection, or any
others in the limits quoted.

I now beg to report on the nature of Pluckington and Devil’s Banks ; to
elucidate which, I submit a plan of the features of the river between the
Rock Lighthouse and Garston, upon four inches to the mile, whereon the

course and velocity of the flood and ebb stream are portrayed, the former

in red and the latter in blue ink, showing that Pluckington owes nothing to
the flood-tide deposit, but that on the course of the eastern column of the
ebb does that deposit depend, and that course depends on Dingle Point; for
by practical tests on each half-hour of ebb from high to low water, we

_ perceive its inclination to follow the trend of shore until within 100 yards

of Dingle Point, which becomes so decidedly the point of deflection, as to
hurry it into the deep-water column with such impetus as to blend with it,

and divert the whole obliquely towards Birkenhead, whereby the tidal stream

22 REPORT—1856.

off the southern portion of docks, especially King’s, Queen’s, and Brunswick
“Docks, becomes so weakened as to permit the sand held in solution to deposit
thereat, besides being too weak to bear away the silt driven forth from the
several dock sluices. The first effect of this diversion manifests itself in
the formation of a shelf of sand varying from three to ten feet under water,
that springs from abreast of the rocks under Mr. Lawrence’s wall one-third
of a mile southward of the Potteries, trending obliquely towards Birkenhead
until abreast of the southern extremity of the Dock Estate, where it forms an
elbow one-third of a mile towards the centre of the river, and then trends
to St. George’s Dock. This shelf, therefore, narrows the river capacity at
low water to nearly one-half what it appears to be at Rock Ferry and
Brunswick Dock, and then the visible Pluckington springing obliquely from
the southern extremity of the Dock Estate, and forming an entrance off
Brunswick off-tide entrance at an offset of 270 yards into the river, whence
it trends into St. George’s Dock, lateral to and within thirty yards of the
‘margin of the shelf.

This bank outlays King’s Dock Basin also 270 yards, varying from six
feet to one foot in height above low-water level. Its highest part is off
Duke’s Dock, where it outlays fifty yards less, but drives up ten feet; off
Canning Dock it outlays above 120 yards, and drives up to six feet four
inches, then gradually narrows at an elevation of two feet, until uniting with
the base of George’s Pier-head.

Taking the progress of this bank since 1828, whieh is marked by a green
shade on Plan, we have a horizontal increase of 210 yards abreast of Bruns-
wick Basin, abreast of King’s Dock 123 yards, and abreast of Duke’s Dock
only 40 yards. Its respective elevations I cannot quote between those dates,
but since 1834, I find it grown up one foot off Brunswick Dock, two feet
off Brunswick Basin, three feet off King’s Dock, three feet off Duke’s Dock,
and one foot off Canning Dock, during which its low-water margin has
yielded fifty yards directly off Brunswick Basin. Simultaneous with this
two years’ fluctuation, I find the Devil’s Bank to have warped 143 yards
towards the eastern shore, lowered in altitude four feet, but elongated
towards Pluckington Shelf 250 yards, so that the spit of Devil’s Bank and
Pluckington Shelf are within a quarter of a mile of uniting with each other,—
an event to be feared, seeing that the Devil’s Spit has elongated two-thirds of
a mile in eight years, but which should be averted with all anxiety ; for on
the space between them being shoaled up to a bar of six feet instead of
fifteen, the Garston branch of the Mersey will scour its way through the
Swatchway just above Otterspool, dividing the Devil’s Bank from Eastham
Sands, and join the main column of ebb stream down the Cheshire side of
the river. I therefore earnestly propose, that, with reference to the curvi-
lineal boundary set forth for the future projections between the Dock Estate
and Dingle Point, a river-wall should be extended in connexion from forty
yards within the low-water edge of the Knott’s Hole rocks, scraping the
edge of those rocks, and preserving a gentle concave along the low-water
‘margin of the shore. This wall would produce a most sensible effect on
the first 400 yards’ advance, by presenting a cutwater edge to the down
stream, instead of allowing the whole body of water to drive against the
north cliffs and rocks of Dingle Point, and then jerked off with an impo-
verished impetus at nearly right angles to its wonted and natural course.

Its further extension might be subject of convenience of funds, &c., under-
standing that as it progressed south-eastward, more decided guidance and
impetus on the ebb stream would ‘be afforded, the destructive undermining
of the cliffs and consequent dissemination thereof on the banks obviated,

THE RIVER MERSEY. 93

aQq much valuable frontage redeemed; for, supposing it carried up to
Otterspool, an area of 616 acres would be produced; and if up to Garston,
1590 acres.

The filling up would not concern our tidal object; on the contrary, the
circulation of water within would avoid the displacement of 2,702,018 cubic
yards of tidal water in first enclosure to Otterspool, and 72,000,000 in the
whole enclosure. The contemplated enclosure between the Dock Estate and
Dingle Point will embrace 346 acres area, and 11,024,444 cubic yards of
water, for the total of which displacement I should not be tenacious of per-
mitting of a close wall and filling up the strand within it, notwithstanding
the assumed obvious advantage to property.

I will conclude this Report, Sir, by begging it may go hand in hand with
the local and general Plans herewith submitted for elucidation to the mind’s
eye of those gentlemen concerned in the conservation of the Mersey and
Dock approaches. Of the latter it need only be said, that, whilst placing
dock sills between four and nine feet of low-water level, a bank should be
contemplated with much jealousy that not only precludes taking up early
anchorage near the Southern Docks, but that threatens to elevate itself
above the level of those sills, except in the guttering course of the gate
sluices.

I ought to add, that we need not wait the connexion of a boundary wall
from the Docks to Dingle Point before striking out the ewfwater wall south-
ward, but act independently and effectively by Dingle Point, by first project-
ing on the rocks 100 yards in a south-west direction, and then vigorously
working towards Otterspool.

I have the honour to be, Sir,
Your obedient Servant,
H. M. Denna, R.N.,
Marine Surveyor to the Dock Trustees

To the Worshipful the Mayor of Liverpool.

No. 6.—Statement of the Town Clerk as to the Rights of the Mayor,
Aldermen, and Burgesses of Liverpool to the Lordship of Liverpool, com-

_ prising the River Mersey up tu the Bridges and to the Strand at Liver-
pool, Toxteth Park, Birkenhead, and Wallasey.

1. The title of the Corporation to the Lordship of Liverpool, comprising
the River Mersey up to the Bridges.

The Corporation, as purchasers from the grantees of King Charles the
First, are seized in fee of the town and lordship of Liverpool, and all the
customs, anchorage, and key or keel towl of the water of the Mersey, of
which over the whole of the river up to the Warrington and Frodsham
Bridges the Corporation are, and ever since their purchase have been, in the
receipt and enjoyment. The lordship comprises the river up to the bridges.
' By the Liverpool Dock Act, 2 Geo. III. ¢. 86. s.18, the Corporation, as
i “ the Trustees of the Liverpool Docks,” have the following express powers :—

«‘ And be it further enacted by the authority aforesaid, that it shall and
may be lawful to and for the said trustees, their agents, servants or work-
men, when and as often as occasion shall require, well and sufficiently to
cleanse, scour, open, deepen, widen or straighten, rake up or cut through

any banks, shoals, flats, shallows, dock sluices or guts in the said harbour of

Liverpool, or leading into the same from. the sea, as the same trustees, or
* any twenty-five or more of them, shall think proper and necessary for the

94 REPORF—1856.

better securing, maintaining, and preserving a free, open and perfect navi-
gation into and through the said harbour of Liverpool, and to dig, cut, re-
move and take away any sand, gravel, rocks, stones, anchors, cables, timber
and other things, wrecks of ships, or other vessels, or any other obstructions
or impediments to the navigation leading into and being within the said
harbour of Liverpool from the sea or mouth of the said harbour, and so far
southwards as the liberties or lordship of the Corporation of Liverpool ex-
tend, be it the ground or soil of the King’s Most Excellent Majesty or any
other person or persons, bodies politic or corporate, whatsoever.”

2. The property of the Corporation in the Strand at Liverpool and part of
Toxteth Park.

The Corporation of Liverpool are the owners of the freehold of the whole
of the strand, forming the river front of the ancient borough, such owner-
ship so far as respects the docks now standing vested in them in their
capacity of “the Trustees of the Liverpool Docks,” by virtue of appropria-
tions under the Dock Acts. As to the small deck of the Trustees of the late
Duke of Bridgewater, that property, with certain limited privileges over the
strand, is leasehold for lives, with a right of perpetual renewal on payment
of a small fixed fine, the Cerporation still owning the freehold in reversion.
Of the title of the Corporation there is, from 1670 downwards, the strongest
proofs, by grants, leases, and various other acts of ownership, as in 1828
was fully admitted by the Duchy of Lancaster, Mr. Wyndham then being the
Duchy Solicitor. Upon this occasion exiracts from the Corporation Records,
with three explanatory maps, were laid before the Duchy.

Of the strand in Toxteth Park, so far as the Liverpool Docks extend into
that township or extra-parochial place, the Corporation, principally in their
capacity of “the Trustees of the Liverpool Docks,” are also the owners of
the freehold by purchases from Lord Sefton and others under the Dock
Acts.

The docks of the trustees and the river-walls were all made under acts of
Parliament.

3. The property of the Corporation in Birkenhead and Wallasey.

The Corporation by purchases are entitled to their land at Birkenhead
and Wallasey in fee, with the rights of the lords of the manors to the shore
of the Mersey. The only erections (called by Mr. Eyes encroachments)
made since the purchases of the Corporation are parts of the public road,
viz. where that road crosses Gill Brook, and where it crosses Bridge End,
and one other erection, the unauthorized act of a tenant. All the other
erections on the shore were made by prior owners.

(Copy)
No. 7.—Letter from Lieut. Wm. Lord to the Chairman of the Conservancy
Committee.
Marine Surveyor’s Office, Liverpool,
March 23rd, 1840.

Sir,—Referring to those points to which it is most desirable the attention
of the Conservative Commissioners of the River Mersey should be primarily
directed in the event of conservative powers being obtained from Parlia-
ment, I would premise, that the existence and maintenance of the sea chan-
nels leading to the port, vitally depend on the preservation of the back-
water which the Mersey and its tributary streams afford; that this body of

—_-

THE RIVER MERSEY. 25

water is liable to daily diminution by various encroachments, and, if not
protected, will be materially lessened, the effect of which would undoubtedly
be, the sanding and filling up of the sea channels, leading ultimately to the
ruin of the port.

The first object therefore worthy the attention of the conservators, would,
in my opinion, be the preservation of the backwater as it at present exists,
and to take care that for the future it was not trenched on or diminished.

To effect this object, it would, I think, be desirable that the limits of the
high-water margin of the river should be accurately marked and defined,
and that no subsequent encroachment should be allowed on the bed of the
river, either in the shape of reclaiming land from its banks, or by allow-
ing any projections into the stream of the river without the sanction of the
Commissioners.

It is a well-known fact, that considerable encroachments have in former
times been made on the bed of the Mersey by the reclaiming of land in the
upper part of the river, and such operations cannot, in my opinion, be too
strongly deprecated ; and I may here add, that it is to this very cause, viz.
the enclosure of land in its upper part, that the filling up of the channels in
the estuary of the Dee is very generally attributed.

Having defined the high-water limits, it would, I think, be very desirable
that the edges of the banks (which in the upper part of the river are com-
posed of an earthy sward) should be protected by a facing of stone or other
suitable material; the destructive fretting away and undermining of their
margins and consequent dissemination thereof on the banks in the river, and
its embouchure, would thus be obviated.

Having thus secured and rendered permanent a scouring force of water
equal to that we now possess, and which there is every reason to believe is
capable of maintaining the sea-approaches of the port in as effective a state
as they now exist, it would only remain to carefully and vigilantly watch the
changes that might arise from time to time in the sand-banks in the river and
its approaches, and should circumstances render it necessary, adopt. such
timely remedial measures as the urgency of the case or the operations of
nature might suggest. I may here remark, that the dredging operations
which were so successfully carried on during a period of ten months last
year in the Victoria Channel, and by means of which a most valuable chan-
nel was opened to the port, depended for their success entirely on the column
of water running out of the Mersey on the ebb tide, and a minute attention
to the changes which were naturally taking place in that region; and should
any future fluctuations take place in that or other quarters, it may again
become requisite to adopt artificial measures to improve or preserve the
approaches to the port.

The natural formation of the River Mersey is, I think, admirably adapted
for the purpose of scouring and keeping open the sea channels, provided
that formation is not altered and distorted by encroachments on its banks.
The upper part of the river, between the Dingle Point and Weston Point,
forms as it were an immense inland lake of eleven miles long by two and a
half broad, the latter being the average width between Eastham and Garston,

~and Dungeon Point and the Cheshire shore. At the Dingle Point the river
contracts, and between the Cheshire shore and Liverpool, from the south to
the north end of the docks, it constitutes a narrow gorge of only half a mile
width and considerable depth, through which the calculated waters of the
upper lake are disgorged with a velocity of as much as seven miles per hour
on the ebb tide; and though it is true that this impetus is materially dimi-
nished by the time it reaches the sea at the outer bars of the shallows, still

26 REPORT—1856.

if we can preserve the same column of water and strength of current which
we now possess, I see no reason to apprehend the outer approaches of the
port sanding or filling up.

The scarping, or removal of rocks, in the river should not, I think, be
undertaken without due consideration of the effects likely to be produced
by so doing, and should, in my opinion, be avoided as much as possible.

In conclusion, I would beg to remark, that I think the new dock proposed
to be formed to the westward of the Salthouse Dock, and the carrying out
of the river-wall in that quarter, so as to form a continuous line with the
other docks, will be a great and decided improvement to the navigation of
the river.

: I am, Sir, your obedient Servant,
(Signed) Ws. Lorp,
Marine Surveyor to the Port.

To the Chairman of the Conservancy Committee.

(Copy-)
No. 8.—Letter from Lieut. Wm. Lord to R. Radcliffe, Esq.
‘ Marine Surveyor’s Office, April 3, 1840.

Dear Srr,—Since I last wrote to you on the Conservancy affairs, it has
occurred to me that two or three piers judiciously run out between Garston
and the Dingle Point, might produce a good effect in preventing the great
offset of the tide from the Dingle Point, and conducting it along the line
of the docks, by which some portion of Pluckington Bank would doubtless
be got rid of.

Having had some conversation with the Dock Surveyor on the subject,
I may add that he fully concurs with me on this matter, which may be
worthy the attention of the Conservancy Commissioners, should such be
appointed.

The expense of the erection of such piers would not, I apprehend, be
very great.

I am, dear Sir,
Yours very truly,
(Signed) Wo. Lorp.
R. Radcliffe, Esq., Town Hall.

Report upon the changes in the Sea Channels of the Mersey, as recorded by
the Surveys taken and published within the last fifty years ; and which
surveys have been laid before the Committee appointed to investigate and
report upon the same, by the British Association for the Advancement of
Science, at its meeting in Liverpool, September 1854. By Joseru Boutr.

The charts of the Mersey having been usually prepared when important
changes had taken place in the channels, the investigations of those changes
could not be arranged by epochs of time, and therefore the periods which
the charts themselves prescribe have been adopted.

For the purpose of this inquiry it may be conveniently assumed that the
true mouths of the river are at the outward extremities of the sea channels.
The streams of tide running inland through these sea channels unite into one
great stream between the north dock-works of Liverpool and New Brighton.
After passing the towns of Liverpool and Birkenhead, through a narrow
gorge—which in places is as much as 10 or 12 fathoms deep, at low water

as, ee

a a aD ee

THE RIVER MERSEY. 27

of ordinary spring tides—the river rapidly widens into a very extensive reach
or reservoir, sometimes called the upper estuary ; from which the tide, after
sending an offshoot into the Weaver, passes into the upper reaches of the
river through the smaller gorge of Runcorn-gap. After traversing a series
of reaches and gorges of less and less importance, and surmounting a low
weir at Howley-locks (Warrington), its further progress is finally barred by
the Woolston-weir of the Mersey and Irwell navigation. This weir is about
four miles above Warrington ; twenty-two miles above the Rock Point, New
Brighton ; and thirty-four miles above the bar of the Victoria Channel.

In the first instance, the pheenomena of the upper estuary, and those of the

ter estuary or Liverpool Bay, may be most conveniently considered apart ;
the results of their investigation can afterwards be combined.

' Liverpool Bay.—The earliest authentic survey of Liverpool Bay, published
within the period assigned to this inquiry, is that of Captain George Thomas,
R.N., which was taken in 1813, and published in May 1815. The next
authentic survey is that of Captain H. M. Denham, R.N., in 1833. Both
these surveys were made by order of the Admiralty, in consequence of the
great anxiety and alarm experienced by the local authorities, arising from
the important changes which took place in the channels prior to each of the
above dates.

The changes of the later period continuing,—they were in fact the precur-
sors of the substitution of new outlets for the old ones,—the surveys were
repeated by Captain Denham, in 1835 and 1837.

North Channel—On comparing the charts of 1813 and 1838, it appears
that at the former date the Northern Channel, which was previously divided
into two portions, called the Crosby and the Formby Channels, maintained
an even course until it had passed Crosby Point, where it separated into two
outlets; one over a bar, with from one to eight feet of water, into the old
Formby Channel, in which were from one and three-quarters to six fathoms ;
and thence over another bar seaward with from one to eight feet of water.
The other-outlet, called the South Channel, was to the southward and west-
ward, and passed between the Jordan and Great Burbo Banks, having from
two to six fathoms, diminishing on a seaward bar to 7 feet. In this survey
Formby Bank is insulated and covered at four hours’ flood.

_ Formby Bank.—In 1833, twenty years later, Formby Bank had attached
itself to the main shore; and the old Formby Channel was almost land-locked,
and had no communication with the Crosby Channel, except over a 6-foot
bar, between Jordan and Formby Banks. The depth of water on the seaward
bar of this channel had creased in places to 13 feet.

. New Channel—The South Channel of Thomas's survey appears to have
shifted upwards of a mile to the southward, and acquired nearly a true east
and west bearing; and had a bar with 10 or 11 feet of water. It was called
by Denham the New Channel.

Zebra Channel.—Between the Formby Channel and the New Channel
another outlet was opened, having a minimum depth of 2 feet, and called the
Half-tide Swatchway, or Zebra Channel.

_ Mad Wharf.—Mad Wharf, a large bank adjoining Formby Point to the
northward, had elongated upwards of 2200 yards in that direction, and its
area considerably enlarged.

. Many changes took place in the position and magnitude of the minor
banks adjoining the seaward entrance of the Northern Channel; some of
which, as the “middle patch,” nearly disappeared; whilst others enlarged
their area, or sprang altogether into existence.

.° Vietoria Channel.—Between the survey of 1833 and those of 1835 and

98 REPORT—1856.

1837, the differences chiefly consist of the changes which accompanied the
partly natural and partly artificial formation or readjustment of the new
channels; they found their issue in the formation of that which is known as
the Victoria Channel.

West Channel.—A similar examination of the Western Channel, divided
into two portions called the Rock and the Horse Channels, will show the
following changes.

Rock Channel.—In the above-named period of twenty years the banks
north of the Rock Channel were enlarged and consolidated ; the Brazil Bank
and Burbo Sand were united to the Great Burbo Bank, and the patch, which
at the earlier date divided the Rock Channel at its junction with the river
into two portions, was itself divided, and one piece added to Burbo Sand, the
other to the main shore.

At the western extremity of the Rock Channel, near its junction with the
Horse Channel, its width has been contracted about 400 yards ; the accretions
are partially on Dove Spit, but chiefly on the western point of Great Burbo,
now called the North Spit. At the bar of the Rock Channel, Thomas gives
soundings of one-third fathom (or 2 feet) seaward, and of one and two-third
fathom (or 10 feet) on the Liverpool side. In 1833 Denham gives 2 feet
on the bar, and 3 feet on the Liverpool side, showing a diminution of 7 feet
in the latter.

Denham’s soundings are unaltered in 1837.

Hoylake.—In 1689, the date of Captain Collins's survey, the big ships put
out part of their lading in Hoylake, that they might sail over the flats into
Liverpool ; at that time the depth of water in the lake ranged from two and
a half fathoms to seven fathoms, and William III. was able to embark his
army for Ireland. 124 years afterwards, Thomas records the range as reduced
from one fathom to four fathoms; and twenty years later it appears upon
Denham’s first chart as closed by a bar, the pools on either side of the bar
having been reduced in width to about one-half of that of the lake in
1813.

Hoylake joined the Western Channel at the junction of the Horse and
Rock Channels.

Horse Channel.—Whilst these changes have taken place, the direction of
the Horse Channel has been slightly varied by additions to the north-eastern
extremity of East Hoyle Bank.

Dock Extensions. 1803 to 1836.—According to information obligingly
furnished by Mr. J.B. Hartley, one of the engineers to the Committee of the
Liverpool Docks, the works constructed between 1803 and 1836 comprised
the Prince’s Dock and Basin; the Waterloo, Victoria, and Trafalgar Docks ;
the Clarence Dock; the Clarence Graving Dock and Clarence Half-tide
Dock, and the Salisbury Dock, northwardly ; the widening of the George's
and King’s Piers, and the construction of the Manchester Basin, Canning
Half-tide Dock, and Albert Dock, centrally ; and the widening of the Queen’s
Pier and the construction of the Eagle Basin and river craft dock, the Union,
Coburg, and Brunswick Docks, the Brunswick Graving Docks, the Brunswick
Half-tide Dock, and the Dockyard, southwardly ; and the space abstracted
from the river by these works comprised an area of about 156 acres.

These works have been almost entirely constructed since 1813.

Meteorological Phenomena.—There are no reliable meteorological obser-
vations of the period 1813 to 1837. The following notices of storms of
wind and rain are compiled from the annals appended to Gore’s Directory
of Liverpool :—

1802.—A dreadful hurricane; considerable damage done by sea and land ;

THE RIVER MERSEY. 29

the tide rose 6 feet higher than the calculation in the time-table. Sefton
Church lost about 5 feet of its spire. January 21.

There appears to be a lapse in this portion of the chronicle, as the next
record is in
_ 1818.—A continuance of stormy and boisterous weather during February
and March.

1821.—A most dreadful storm experienced in the town. November 30.

1822.—The pilot-boat No. 4 lost on Salisbury Bank (in the Dee estuary),
in a dreadful storm. December 5.

1823.—A very violent hurricane ; several chimneys blown down ; several
vessels blown on shore in Bootle Bay and other parts of the river. Decem-
ber 3rd. More serious accidents happened from this storm than from any
other since the memorable one in the year 1560.

1824.—The equinoctial gales set in with such violence that many of the
steam-boats from the opposite ferries, which usually cross in six or seven
minutes, were more than two hours on their passage. March 4.

A dreadful storm; much damage done in the Prince’s Dock by the vessels
driving against each other. October 26.

1829.—A dreadful storm of thunder and lightning and rain; continue
from 3 pm.to8pm. July 24.

A very violent storm of wind and rain, which flooded Whitechapel and
the neighbourhood (the site of the old pool) to a much greater extent than
had been experienced for many years. The sewer in the Old Dock burst,
and carried several yards of wall into the dock. August.

1830.— Alarming thunder-storm, with heavy rain; much damage in White-
chapel, &c.; many houses in the higher parts of the town flooded. July 30.

1831.—Liverpool visited with one of the most tremendous falls of rain
recorded in its annals. The consequences were very disastrous.

1832.—Tremendous storm of wind; several vessels were wrecked, and
many lives lost. October 8.

1833.—Dreadful storm of wind and rain for two days, which produced
great mischief on shore, and a very melancholy loss of life at sea.
November 29.

A storm more severe than that of November 29th, much more property
being destroyed. The tide rose fromthe proper height of 17 feet 5 inches
to 26 feet; the piers and wharves were overflowed, and much damage was
done to the public works, north and south. December 31.

1834.—Violent gale on the night of Sunday, December 7.

1835.—A very violent storm, in which many vessels were driven on shore
and wrecked. February 22.

1836.—The ‘John Welsh,’ Captain Woodhouse, from Savanilla, lost in a
hurricane, on West Hoyle, July 29.

During a severe gale, the ‘Heyes,’ for Barbadoes, and the ‘Febo,’ for
Palermo, were lost; and the ‘Sandbach’ and several other vessels got on
shore; several pilots were taken to sea. December 22nd and 23rd.

Since 1837 the surveys of Liverpool Bay have been conducted by Lieu-
tenant Lord, R.N., lately marine surveyor to the Dock Committee; they
were published in the years 1840, 1846, 1849, 1852, 1853, and 1854.

Northern Channel. 1840.—On comparing the survey of 1840 with that
of its immediate predecessor of 1837, it will be seen that the Northern
Channel had undergone important changes. They were as follows :—

Crosby Channel.—The length and direction of that portion of the Crosby
Channel which lies between the Rock Lighthouse and the Crosby Light-
vessel had been very slightly altered ; and its area had remained very much

30 » REPORT—1856.

the same as in 1837; but the average depth had been reduced from 31 feet
to 30 feet.

Between the Crosby and Formby Light-vessels the direction of the channel
had undergone considerable alteration, the Formby vessel, in 1840, having
been moved nearly 600 yards westward ; the area and depth increased, the
former from 15,600 yards to 17,500 yards, and the latter from 26} feet to
27 feet. The average of the whole channel from the Rock Lighthouse to
Formby Light-vessel being an area slightly increased, and a depth sta-
tionar

Victoria Channel.—The change in the direction of this channel had ice
very great; the Bell Buoy, which indicates its entrance from the sea, having
been moved, in 1840, nearly 2000 yards to the north of its position in 1837.
The depth of water on the bar had been reduced from 12 feet and 13 feet
to 10 feet and 11 feet.

Zebra Channel.—This channel had been advanced to the westward of its
former position, and had increased its minimum depth from 2 feet to 3 feet
on the fairway track.

Formby Bank.—This bank had been slightly moved to the eastward, and
considerably elongated to the northward, the elevation of its surface much
more varied, some portions having been considerably higher and others
lower than they were in 1837; the elongated portion may be specially noted
as having been entirely “ wash.” On the whole, however, the volume of the
bank appears to have been diminished nearly one-third ; the cubic contents
of the bank, in 1837, having been nearly 10,000,000 yards, and in 1840
rather more than 6,500,000 yards.

Mad Wharf:—In this bank there had been little change.

Great Burbo.—The area of this bank had been enlarged, and its volume
increased from about 58,500,000 yards to about 62,000,000 yards.

Western Channel——The eastern portion of this channel, called the Rock
Channel, had been reduced in length about 500 yards, and in average depth
1 foot; its area had been reduced about 580 yards, making the average loss
on the three years equal to 6 per cent. per annum.

The depth of water on the bar reduced from 2 feet to 1 foot; and the first
sounding on the Liverpool side of the bar from 3 fect to 2 feet.

The sailing direction of the Horse*Channel remained unaltered ; but the
North-west Light-vessel at the seaward entrance of the channel had been
removed in 1840 about 250 yards north of its position in 1837.

East Hoyle—The bar in Hoylake, forming part of this bank, had in-
creased in area, and grown up to 2 feet and 3 feet above low-water level ;

‘but, notwithstanding this accession, the area and altitude of this bank had
been diminished; and its volume reduced from nearly 81,250,000 yards
to rather more than 73,500,000 yards.

Dock Extension—No works of importance were constructed during the
period under investigation.

Meteorological Phenomena.—In the continued absence of recorded sci-
entific observations, reference is again made to the precarious information
in ‘ Gore’s Annals,’ from which the following notices are compiled :—

1838.—The British ship ‘ Athabaska,’ bound to Quebec, totally lost on
West Hoyle during a gale; all on board perished. April 17.

1839.—A terrific and most destructive hurricane visited Liverpool on the
evening of January 6, and continued with little intermission till the following
afternoon. The destruction of life and property was very great; and there
was scarcely a part of the town in which some fatal accident did not occur.
The loss of life amongst the shipping was awful. The North-west Lightship

THE RIVER MERSEY. 3I

was driven from her moorings and brought into port. Two New York
packets, outward bound, were lost apes the North Bank (part of the Great
Burbo, in the Rock Channel). The ‘ Brighton,’ from Bewsiey was wrecked
near the Middle Patch Buoy, in the same channel. The ‘ Harvest Home,’
from St. Thomas, was lost on Mad Wharf.

Northern Channel. 1846.—Between the years 1840 and 1846 consider-
able changes had occurred, though, on the whole, less remarkable than those
which took place between the years 1837 and 1840.

Crosby Channel.—That portion between the Rock Lighthouse and the
Crosby Light-vessel had not undergone much change ; its direction had been
altered by removing the light-vessel nearly 200 yards to the eastward; the
average depth had remained nearly stationary at 30 feet. The average area
had slightly increased from 18,000 yards in 1840 to 18,840 yards in 1846.

That portion between the light-vessels had undergone greater change.
Its length had been increased about 400 yards, the average depth reduced
to 26 feet; the average area increased about 1000 yards.

Notwithstanding the change in the position of the Crosby Light-vessel
above-mentioned, and the removal of the Formby Light-vessel nearly 400
yards to the northward, the direction of the channel in 1846 was parallel to
its direction in 1840.

The average of the whole channel from the Rock Lighthouse to Formby
Light-vessel is a depth diminished from 29 feet to 284 feet, and an area in-
creased nearly 700 yards.

Victoria Channel_—The direction of this channel had been altered by the
change in the position of the Formby Light-vessel above-mentioned, and by
removing the Bell Buoy about 500 yards westward. The average depth of
water on the bar had slightly increased, the various soundings having been
10 feet, 11 feet, and 12 feet.

Zebra Channel.—The minimum depth on the fairway track through this
chanrel had been increased from 3 feet to 6 feet.

Formby Bank.—The area of this bank had been slightly enlarged, and
the elevation very considerably increased, the volume having been nearly
13,000,000 yards in 1846, against rather more than 6,500,000 yards in 1840.
The position had been nearly stationary ; there had been a slight elongation
northwards and a slight movement eastwards.

Mad Wharf.—This bank had sustained considerable loss of area by
abrasion on the north-western margin ; but this loss had been partially com-
pensated by increase of elevation, the change in which had been very great.
The volume in 1846 had been nearly 5,750,000 yards, against 6,500,000
yards in 1840.

Great Burbo.—The area of this bank appears to have been unaltered,
taken as a whole, though there had been considerable local changes. The
elevation had been a good deal reduced, and, consequently, the volume ; the
difference is represented by 59,750,000 yards in 1846, instead of 62,000,000
yards in 1840.

Western Channel.—The eastern portion, or Rock Channel, had recovered
300 yards of its length in 1837; the average depth had been stationary, and
the average area slightly increased. The soundings at the bar had been un-
altered. In the Horse Channel East Hoyle Bank had advanced towards the
_ north-east, and the North-west Light-vessel had been moored about 300
yards to the westward.

East Hoyle.—In area this bank had remained pretty stationary, but the
loss in elevation had reduced the volume from upwards of 73 — yards

to under 72,000,000 yards.

32 REPORT—1856.

Liverpooi Dock Extension—These dock-works comprehended the Nelson,
Bramley-Moore, and Wellington Docks; the Wellington Half-tide Dock, the
Sandon Dock, the Sandon Graving Dock, and the Sandon Basin ; altogether
a tidal area of about 117 acres.

Meteorological Phenomena.—From observations recorded in the War-
rington Museum and Library, for the use of which the Committee is indebted
to Mr. Glazebrook Rylands of that town, it appears that the fall of rain in
1844 (the earliest year perfectly recorded) was 23°73 inches; in 1845, 30°12
inches ; and in 1846, the year of the survey, 30°29 inches.

In ‘Gore’s Annals’ the following facts are noted :—

1841.—Terrifiec thunder-storm. The spires of the churches of St. Michael’s
and St. Martin’s-in-the-Pields struck. August 24.

1843.—A great storm during the night of January 13. Houses and
buildings were unroofed. The damage done to the shipping in the river
and outside the harbour was very great, and many lives were lost.

1844..—The dock receipts for the last week were much greater than were
ever received in any one week, and considerably more than double the
receipts of the corresponding week of last year. The long prevalence of
easterly winds in some measure contributed to produce so large an item.
June 13.

Northern Channel. 1849.—The survey of 1849 does not exhibit any
marked changes beyond the consolidation of some of the outlying banks
near the junction of the Victoria and Zebra Channels; as, for example, that
of the Taylor's Bank and Jordan Flats. It appears to have been prepared
to show an alteration in the fairway track through the Victoria Channel, in
consequence of a shift westward of Little Burbo Bank. The positions of the
Bell Buoy and of the Formby and Crosby Light-vessels remained unaltered.

The average depth of water on the Victoria Bar had been slightly re-
duced.

Dock Extension.—The Huskisson Dock, the most northernly of the
Liverpool Docks, and the Birkenhead Docks, had made considerable progress
since the survey of 1846.

Meteorological Phenomena.—The Warrington tables record the rain-fall
during the interval between the two surveys, as follows :—In 1346, 30°29
inches; in 1847, 36°71 inches; in 1848, 33°75 inches; and in 1849, 33°98
inches.

In Swineshaw Brook, a feeder of the Tame, which is a branch of the
Mersey, the rain-fall recorded by Messrs. Peter Clark, F.R.A.S., and J. F.
Bateman, F.G.S., Mem. Inst. C.E. (Memoirs of the Literary and Philoso-
phical Society of Manchester, page 17, vol. ix. second series), was as
follows :—1845, 59°8 inches, “ possibly registered too high; in other places
the fall just an average;” 1846, 42°6 inches, “and this year was consider-
ably below the average;” 1847, 49°35 inches, “this year was about the
average, in some places above.”

Survey, 1852.—The chart of 1852 shows that considerable and important
changes had taken place since the survey of 1846, with which that of 1849
may be considered in the main identical. The re-survey of the bay at the
latter period, as before observed, seems to have been confined to the imme-
diate vicinity of the Victoria Channel.

The following comparison, therefore, is instituted between the surveys of
1846 and 1852, a period of six years.

Northern Channel— Crosby Channel.—The principal changes which had
taken place in that portion of the Crosby Chanuel between the Rock Light-
house and the Crosby Light-vessel, were its elongation, and the consequent

— =

THE RIVER MERSEY. 33

‘removal of the Light-vessel about 2000 yards north-west wardly of its position
in 1846; the diminution of its average depth from 30 feet to 29 feet; and
the diminution of its average area from 18,840 yards to 17,500 yards.

The direction of this portion of the channel had been slightly altered, as
indicated by the change in the position of the Light-vessel.

_In that portion of this channel between the two Light-vessels, the changes
had consisted of the removal of the Formby Light-vessel about 750 yards
north-westwardly ; an increase of the average depth from 26 feet, in 1846,
to 28 feet in 1852; and a diminution of the average area from 18,600 yards,
in 1845, to 16,450 yards in 1852. I

In its whole length, the Crosby Channel during this period had been
elongated about 500 yards; its average area diminished from 18,443 yards to
17,126 yards; and its average depth nearly stationary, but slightly increased.

The change in the position of the Crosby Light-vessel appears to have been
occasioned by the growth of a large elbow upon Great Burbo. The Formby
vessel appears to have been moved partly for the same reason, and partly
from a change in the position of Little Burbo, on the northern side of the
Victoria Channel.

Victoria Channel.—The position of this channel had again undergone
very great change, the Bell Buoy having been removed about 1000 yards to
the southward, or nearly midway between its positions in 1840 and 1837.
The average depth of water on the bar had been very much the same in
1852 as in 1849, that is, rather less than in 1846.

Zebra Channel_—The minimum depth of water in this channel had
increased from 6 feet, in 1846, to 7 feet in 1852; in other respects it had
remained without material alteration.

Formby Bank.—This bank had been enlarged by the accession of the
Jordan Bank, and by its own increased elevation: in 1846 the volume of
Formby Bank was nearly 13,000,000 yards; and that of Jordan Bank
1,500,000 yards, making a total of 14,500,000 yards; in 1852 these quantities
were respectively 11,000,000 yards and 4,750,000 yards, oratotal of 15,750,000
yards. Its position had been stationary.

Mad Wharf.—This bank had sustained a slight loss of elevation; but this

had been compensated in volume by an extension westward, the entire con-
tents having been nearly 6,500,000 yards in 1852, against nearly 5,750,000
yards in 1846, the former quantity being very nearly identical with that of the
same bank in 1840.
Taylor Bank.—Taylor Bank and Jordan Flats, the former of which in
1833 had no existence, and the latter at that date of very minor importance,
- had not only united in 1849, but in 1852 had largely increased in volume ;
and in the same period had moved into close proximity with the united
Formby and Jordan Banks. During the period since 1833, Little Burbo, the
Middle, the West Middle, and other outlying banks had either been depressed
below low-water level, or had disappeared altogether.

Great Burbo.—-This bank had undergone material alterations since 1846,
one of which was the extraordinary growth of the north-east angle in Crosby
Channel before-mentioned; other important changes of outline may be
_ noticed on inspection of the charts; perhaps the most remarkable alteration
is the increase of bulk, arising partially from enlarged area, but principally
_ from increased elevation ; and it is to be observed that this additional eleva-
tion is generally diffused over the whole bank. In 1846 the volume of this
bank had been calculated to be about 59,750,000 yards; in 1852 it had in-
creased to 69,500,000 yards.

Western Channel.—In 1852 the Rock Channel had again undergone a
1856. D

84 REPORT—1856.

slight elongation; the average depth had been reduced to 13 feet instead of
14 feet, as in 1846; but the average area had been nearly stationary. The
entrance from the Horse Channel had been slightly contracted. The sailing
direction for the Horse Channel had been altered a quarter of a point,
in consequence of a movement of East Hoyle Bank towards the north-
east.

East Hoyle.—This bank had also acquired a considerable increase of bulk,
arising from additional elevation. Its volume in 1846 had been nearly
72,000,000 yards, in 1852 about 84,500,000 yards,

Dock Extension.—Since 1846 the Huskisson Dock, Liverpool, had been
completed, and the north wall so far advanced as practically to exclude the »
tidal water; by these combined works about 355 acres have been abstracted
from the river.

In the same period the works at Birkenhead had made great progress;
and the stank or dam across the Great Float, and the walls of the north and
south reserves constructed; by these an additional area of 150 acres had been
taken from the tidal area of the river,—making a total abstraction of
upwards of 500 acres.

Waste of River Margin.—On the Cheshire side of the river, between
Seacombe Point and Sea Bank (Liscard), the waters of the river within
eight years have encroached upon the land to an extent, estimated by Mr.
Macpherson, the late surveyor to the Wallasey Board of Health, now of
Edinburgh, at 11,350,810 cubic feet; which, at an average height of 40 feet,
represent 63 acres.

Meteorological Phenomena.—From the Warrington tables, it appears that
the rain-fall, between 1846 and 1852, was as follows :—

1846=30°29 inches. 1850=27°79 inches.
1847=36°71 __—i,, 1851=31°48 a,
1848=33°75 4, 1852=41°46 =,

1849=33°98__,,

In ‘Gore’s Annals’ the following only are recorded :—

1846.—Dreadful storm in the town and neighbourhood, great damage
done. November 20.

1850.—Ship ‘ Providence,’ bound for Africa, lost in the channel during a
severe gale of wind. October 7.

Survey, 1853.—This survey appears to have been confined to the imme-
diate vicinity of the Victoria Channel, to show the alterations in the fairway
track, occasioned by changes intermediate between the surveys of 1852 and
1854.

Survey, 1854.—Northern Channel.—The survey of 1854, like those of
1849 and 1853, appears to have been very partial, and has been confined
to the vicinities of the Victoria Channel and of the Rock Channel; the
leading line through the former had become more tortuous, though the posi-
tion of the Bell Buoy and the Formby Light-vessel had been unaltered. The
depths of water on the bar had slightly increased, the soundings being
11 feet, 12 feet, and 13 feet.

The average area and average depth of the Crosby and Formby Channels
had not undergone any important change.

Zebra Channel.—The direction of the Zebra Channel had been slightly
altered, having acquired a more westwardly bearing, and the average depth
of water considerably reduced ; the minimum sounding was 6 feet in 1854,
against 7 feet in 1852.

New Channel.—A new swatchway, now known as the Queen’s Channel,

THE RIVER MERSEY. 35

had been opened through the shoals, intermediate between the Zebra and
Victoria Channels, having a minimum depth of 9 feet.

The Banks.—No material change had taken place in any of the banks,
except that Little Burbo had been sunk below low-water level, with sound-
ings of from 2 feet to 5 feet, and that the bulk of Taylor’s Bank and Jordan
Flats had been slightly reduced.

Western Channel.—The eastern portion of the Rock Channel had been a
good deal contracted, principally by enlargement of the foreshore at New
Brighton. The average area in 1854 had been reduced 200 yards, or about
four percent. perannum. The average depth had remained pretty stationary.

Meteorological Phenomena.—From the Warrington tables, it appears that
the rain-fall at Warrington had been—

In 1852=41°46 inches.
1853=28:25_ ,,
1854=927°18 ,,

From the tables printed with Mr. Osler’s paper “On the Self-registering
Anemometer and Rain-Gauge in the Liverpool Observatory,” published in
the Reports of the Association for 1855, p. 128, it appears that the rain-fall
at Liverpool had been—

In 1852=31°53 inches.
1853=2242 ,,
1853=2211 ,,

It will be observed that there is a very great difference between the
records for Liverpool and Warrington, the proportionate difference for each
year being very similar; and it is to be noted that it is the fall in the up-
country which is most likely to produce changes in the channels of the river,
through the agency of freshes.

The Liverpool tables for the first time furnish definite information upon

the phenomena of wind. From them it appears that the point out of the
whole sixteen from which the wind blows for the greatest number of days
throughout the year is S.S.E., and therefore it has been said by Mr. Osler
that in Liverpool the prevailing winds are from that point. In the absence
of explanation, or without very careful explanation of the tables, this state-
ment is likely to convey an erroneous impression: if, instead of comparing
point with point, we take the five points from N. to W. both included, we
find that in 1854 the winds from this quadrant blew for as much as half
the year, or for as many days as the winds from all the other points taken
together. In the other years there is a preponderance of the same points,
though not to the same extent. The relative hourly velocity for the winds
_ from this quadrant is also greater than for those from other points.
_ If reference be made to the table (p. 142, vol. 1855) which exhibits the ex-
treme pressure of the wind in pounds per square foot, and the greatest horizontal
motion of the air between any one hour and the next following hour, for all
the gales during the four years of which observations are recorded, in which
the pressure has reached 15 pounds per square foot, it will be observed that
in thirteen cases in which the velocity has exceeded fifty miles per hour, four
of them were from S. of W., attaining velocities respectively of 71, 70, 53,
and 51 miles per hour; the remainder being from W. to N.W., having
velocities varying from 51 to 56 miles per hour. It may also be observed
_ that of eighteen cases in which the pressure exceeded twenty pounds on the
square foot, four of them were from the §. of W., the pressure being respect-
ively 42 lbs., 42 lbs., 23 lbs., and 22 lbs.; the remainder ranged from W: to
_N.W., and had pressures varying from 21 Ibs. to 43 lbs. :
D2

36 REPORT—1856,

On reference to ‘ Gore’s Annals,’ we find in 1852 the town and neighbour-
hood visited by a severe storm. December 25th.

1854.—Violent hurricane visited Liverpool Feb. 7th and 8th. On refer-
ring to the last-mentioned table we find that the “ severe storm,” December
25th, 1852, was from W.S.W., the greatest velocity seventy miles per hour,
and the extreme pressure 42 lbs. per square foot; and that it was repeated
on the 27th of the same month, blowing from S8.W., the greatest velocity
seventy-one miles, and the extreme pressure 42 lbs. We also find that the
“violent hurricane,” Feb. 17th and 18th, 1854, was, on the first day, from
N.W., the velocity fifty-six miles, the pressure 27 lbs.; on the 18th, from
W.N.W.., the velocity also fifty-six miles, the pressure 31 lbs. The same
table shows that during the years 1852 to 1854 there were several other
storms, of which ‘ Gore’s Annals’ have no mention; as, for example, Feb.
26th, 1853, from N.N.W., the velocity sixty miles, the pressure 33 lbs.;
and Jan. 26th, 1854, from W., the velocity fifty-three miles, the pressure
43 lbs.

In estimating the influence of the wind in producing changes in the sea
channels, it must be recollected that Liverpool Bay is peculiarly exposed to
winds ranging from W. to N., and sheltered from all other winds.

It is not intended in this Report to lay down any precise theory for the
solution of all the observed phenomena of Liverpool Bay ; the collection of
the facts recorded in the preceding portion of this Report, and in the charts
and tables by which it is accompanied, has been so recently completed as
entirely to preclude their satisfactory digest into any such hypothesis. In-
deed these researches, so far from furnishing a complete analysis of the data
upon which any trustworthy theory can be founded, give occasion to regret
that the various changes-which the estuary has undergone were not more
fully recorded than they have been prior to 1833; and it is especially to be
regretted that the phenomena of meteorology should have been so much
neglected in this district. The valuable records of the Liverpool Obser-
vatory, as well as those of the Warrington Museum and Library, it is to be
hoped, will supply the requisite information to future inquirers.

In recording the previous observations on the changes in the bay, the
earliest survey within the period of inquiry has been assumed as the starting-
point, and succeeding phenomena are noted in chronological sequence ; it is
now proposed to retrace the inquiry, in order, as far as practicable, to reduce
effects to their proximate causes, important facilities being derived from the
less imperfect data of the more recent periods.

On comparing the surveys of 1854 and 1852, it was observed that the
changes were aimost entirely confined to the increased tortuousness of the
Victoria Channel, the continued silting up of the Zebra Channel, the opening
of the Queen’s Channel, intermediate between the Zebra and the Victoria,
and the contraction of the eastern portion of the Rock Channel with a con-
sequent diminution of its average area. During this period there was no
abstraction of tidal water space for dock purposes, and consequently no re-
duction from ¢haé cause of the scour. In 1852 the rain-fall was about 50 per
cent. above the average. In 1853 and 1854 the fall was about an average
in each year. In the latter year, 1854, the wind was more than usually in
the range from W. to N.

It may be observed that as the influence of freshes in a tidal river is
greatest when the ebb tide is low, their effects in the Mersey will be more
apparent in the northera channel and its branches than in the western chan-
nel, because the direction of the latter is almost at right angles to the course
of the river, whilst that of the former is continuous; the bar which crosses

a

&
:
i

i
ly

4

THE RIVER MERSEY. 37

the western channel at its junction with the river will also tend to weaken
the scour of the water when the tide is low.

It appears then that the freshes of 1852, in passing down the northern
channel, were deflected by the bank called Taylor’s Bank and Jordan Flats,
on to the N.E. elbow of Great Burbo, itself of recent formation; after
passing that elbow the ebb took the direction due to the impetus down
Crosby Channel, moditied by the influence of Taylor-Jordan Bank combined
with Great Burbo, passed over the shoals between the Zebra and Victoria
Channels, and opened up the swatchway now known as the Queen’s Channel.
The channel thus initiated by the freshes of 1852 was deepened by the con- °
tinued action of the ebb tide throughout that year and the following, until
in 1854 we find the Queen’s Channel formed, the Zebra silting up from the
loss of the water which then passed by the new channel. On the Victoria
Bar, again, these freshes had won a slightly increased depth of water.

The contraction of the Rock Channel may be due to the drift of sand
promoted by the N.W. wind.

* The most remarkable gales of the period 1852 and 1854 are those of De-
cember 25 and 27, 1852, from the W.S.W. and S.W., from denudation by
which the Cheshire land would protect the sand-banks; February 26, 1853,
from N.N.W.; January 26, 1854, from W.; and February 17 and 18 of the
same year, from N.W. and W.N.W.

Very important changes have been recorded as having taken place between
the years 1846 and 1852. They may be briefly described as consisting of
the enlargement and consolidation of all the banks, with the bare exception
of Mad Wharf, the increased size being in great measure due to increased
elevation; the elongation of the Crosby Channel, chiefly in that part between
the Rock Light and the Crosby Light-vessel; and the diminution of the
average depth and area of this portion of the channel, accompanied by a
slight alteration in its direction; in that part of this channel, between the
Crosby and Formby Light-vessels, the depth was considerably increased, but
the area diminished; the changes in the channel were occasioned by the
growth of the north-east elbow of Great Burbo, and an accretion on the
western side of the Taylor-Jordan Bank, both of which had taken place
principally after the 1849 survey.

On reference to the Warrington tables, we find that, in 1846, the rain-fall
was slightly, but very slightly, below the average of twelve years; in the
three following years it was above the same average, particularly in 1847,
when the excess was about 16 per cent.; in 1850 the fall was 10 per cent.
below the average, and in 1851 slightly above. It appears then, that during
the years 1848 and 1849, and particularly in 1850, the banks had grown in
directions to produce, in 1851, those changes which rendered necessary the
survey of 1852. The increased depth of the channel between the lightships
above mentioned, seems due to the contracted width of that part, consequent
upon the enlargement of the banks.

We have no record of the phenomena of wind during this period, and
therefore can only conjecture that the horizontal and vertical growth of the
banks are effects to which the prevailing winds may have been accessory,
assisted by the loss of scour caused by the extensive dock-works of Liver-
pool and Birkenhead.

_ The change in the positions of the light-vessels and of the Bell Buoy was
made after 1849. The depth of water on the Victoria Bar remained sta-
tionary.

In the Zebra Channel the depth of water had increased between 1846 and
1849, when the rain-fall was rather above the average; and between 1849
and 1852 the depth had diminished again.

:

38 REPORT—1856.

In the Rock Channel the average depth had been diminished, and the
average area stationary.

As it was during this period that the greatest amount of tidal area taken
between two surveys was abstracted, the occasion is favourable for consider-
ing the influence of works of that kind upon the sea channels. According
to the evidence of Mr. Rendel, C.E., House of Commons, 1844 (see ‘ Ports
and Docks of Birkenhead,’ by Thomas Webster, M.A., F.R.S., Barrister-at-
Law, 1848, p. 77), high water of an 18-foot tide is 1" 25™ later at Warring-
ton Bridge than it is at the Prince’s Pier, Liverpool, where it is 35™ later
than at the Formby Light-vessel. And from Mr. Joseph Bouit’s observa-
tions at Woolston Weir, four miles above Warrington, that on 8th March
last, in a 21-foot tide, high water was 1” 50™ later than was recorded by the
tide-gauge at George’s Pier, Liverpool. It follows, therefore, that the water
which formerly covered the space now enclosed must have passed out to sea
on the top of the ebb tide, whilst the flood tide was yet rising in the upper
reaches of the river.

The loss of depth in the Rock Channel appears to indicate that the abs-
traction of the tidal area has been prejudicial. The surveys since 1833
indicate a progressive, though irregular, tendency towards the silting up of
this channel; and there are facts which render it probable that the effects of
diminished scour should first be manifested here.

The tidal establishment is earlier at the North-west Lightship, or entrance of
the western channel, than it is at the Bell Buoy, or entrance of the northern
channel ; though the difference is very slight, it is sufficient to give a bias to
the stream of tide, as is shown by the experience of bathers on the shore just
above the junction of the Rock Channel with the river, who find that with
a young flood there is a current out again to sea by the northern channel.

The same also appears from the experiments of Mr. Enfield Fletcher, C.E.,
and others with floats. These were liberated at Wallasey Pool, on the ebb
tide, for the purpose of ascertaining in what time the water from the pool
would reach the Victoria Bar; but all the floats, without exception, went
down the Rock Channel and grounded upon Dove Spit.

This result may, in part, be due to the attraction of the Cheshire shore.
The bias with the ebb would, however, be confined to the upper stratum of
the water; the impetus of the current to sea naturally giving to the main
bulk the more direct course by the northern channel, in preference to the
almost right-angled deflection down the western channel.

Whilst the Rock Channel has been losing depth, the depth of water in the
northern channel, considered in its whole length from the Rock Lighthouse
to the Bell Buoy, is almost undiminished since 1833. The loss on the Vic-
toria Bar may be due to the diversion to the part of the stream formerly by
the Zebra, now by the Queen’s Channel. But for the elevation of the banks
and of the bottom of the Rock Channel, and of the south part of the Crosby

Channel, it is difficult to assign any other cause than the loss of scour at the ~

first of the ebb, and the influence of the prevailing winds in drifting sand
from the coast.

As respects the Rock Channel, the influence of the new north wall in
Bootle Bay is very likely to aggravate the tendency to silt up, as it tends to
impede the advance of the flood tide through that channel by substituting
for a shelving shore a nearly perpendicular face almost at right angles to the
course of the flood.

The influence which the direction of the enclosure walls may have upon
the course of tide has yet to be considered.

It appears that between 1846 and 1849, during which these works were
in progress, there was no alteration in the direction of any of the channels;

See ee

THE RIVER MERSEY. 39

and that between 1849 and 1852, these works being still in progress, the
direction of the Victoria Channel was so altered that the Bell Buoy was
removed about 1000 yards westward of its position in‘ 1846; and that in the
upper or southern portion of the northern channel there had been no
changes in the fairway track beyond those consequent upon the elongation
of the part between the Rock Lighthouse and Crosby Light-vessel.

The change in the Victoria Channel is probably due to the lengthening of
the Crosby Channel, which has been attributed to the growth of the sand-
banks; and it does not appear that the extension of the dock walls had yet
been productive of much effect on the direction of the sea channels.

Between 1840 and 1846 the most remarkable of the recorded changes are,
a large increase in the size of the Formby Bank; a slight diminution in those
of Great Burbo and East Hoyle, principally in elevation; and a slight dimi-
nution in the depth of the Crosby Channel, principally in its northern part.

There was a remarkable drought in 1844, the rain-fall at Warrington
having been about 33 per cent. below the average of twelve years. There
was also an extraordinary continuance of easterly winds in this year. No
remarkable meteorological phenomena are recorded for the preceding year.
The large increase in the size of Formby Bank, and the loss of elevation in
East Hoyle and Great Burbo, are possibly to be ascribed to the influence of
the wind. ;

In 1840 to 1846 the Liverpool dock-works abstracted about 117 acres of
tidal area in northern works.

Between 1837 and 1840 the most remarkable change in the northern
channel is in the direction of the Victoria Channel, as indicated by the
removal of the Bell Buoy about 2000 yards northwards, accompanied by a
loss of 2 feet of water on the bar. According to a letter of Lieut. Lord’s
of October 8th, 1839%, the dredging operations had deepened the water on
the Victoria Bar to 15 feet. On the survey of 1840, that depth was reduced
to 10 feet and 11 feet. In the period of 1837 to 1840 there had been a loss
of depth in the southern portion of the Crosby Channel, and a similar gain
in the northern part of the same; a considerable reduction in the size of
Formby Bank, equal to 30 per cent. ; an increase in the Great Burbo; a loss
of half the depth on the bar of the Rock Channel, and a loss of average
area in the same channel equal to 6 per cent. per annum; and a diminution
in the area and elevation of East Hoyle.

There were no important dock-works during this period.

There are no meteorological observations which throw light upon the
cause of these changes beyond,—lIst, the fact that there were great floods
in 1839 in various parts of Great Britain, by which much injury was ocea-
sioned to the hay and other crops; and though the local ‘ Mercury’ of the
date has no record of floods in the Mersey, there may have been freshets ;
and, 2nd, the vivid recollection of the terrific and destructive hurricane from
the S.W., which visited the town and port on the 6th and 7th of January,
1839, during which the North-west Lightship and many of the buoys in the
channel were washed from their moorings, and several vessels were wrecked.

The following curious sequence is deduced from the foregoing obser-

vations :— Phenomena and _— Praductive Date of
date thereof. interval. survey.

Gale, January.... 1839 ...... A830 V)esvis 1840
Drought"... .. DSA ee racars 1845 ...... 1846

Freshes ........ 1847 ...... 1848 ...... 1849

Drought 1.4.6... 1850 134..::5 1851 ....0. 1852

Freshes 5.1. ta wt) 1852) 2 .)a8s 1853 ..see- 1854

* Tn the ‘ Liverpool Mercury’ of that month,

40 REPORT—1856.

Between 1833 and 1837 was perfected that remarkable change in the
northern outlet of the Mersey, of which Capt. Denham has recorded so many
important particulars in his ‘ Sailing Directions,’ and in communications to the
Association. But there is such a complete dearth of observations upon the
changes which preceded the opening of this new outlet in 1833, and upon
the meteorological phenomena by which they were preceded, or accom-
panied, that the result of any detailed inquiry must necessarily be extremely
precarious. The same observations apply to periods immediately subse-
quent and precedent to Capt. Thomas’s survey in 1813. The general
features of the consolidation and enlargement of the principal sand-banks,
and also of the eastern shore of the estuary, may be observed upon this
survey, and also upon all the authentic surveys since that of Capt. Collins in
1689. It is also remarkable that the low-water margin of the eastern shore
appears to have advanced westward to an extent fully equal to one-half the
width of the northern channel as laid down by Collins, or 1000 yards.

From a report of Mr. George Rennie, C.E., to the Corporation of Liver-
pool, in 1838, it appears that at that time upwards of 13,000 acres had been
abstracted from the tidal area of the river, the original extent of which is
estimated at about 35,000 acres, and these abstractions were principally in
the upper part of the river. Since then no important abstractions have been
made without the sanction of Parliament.

The tidal area appropriated to the dock purposes of Liverpool alone since
1650 amounts to 784 acres, exclusive of the open basins; of these, 470 acres
have been appropriated within the last fifteen years.

From the foregoing remarks it appears that the changes in Liverpool Bay
are to be attributed principally to the influence of freshes, droughts, wind,
and the reduction of tidal area; and that remedial measures adopted for the
maintenance or improvement of the appreaches should be specially designed
to cooperate with these forces.

It may perhaps be thought that sufficient consideration has not been given
to the very large amount of silt, which, according to Capt. Denham, in his
paper in the ‘Reports’ of the Association (1837), is being constantly
washed down by the river and deposited in the bay.

The attention of the Committee has so far been confined principally to the
phenomena of the bay. Captain Denham supposed the silt to be derived
from the shores of the upper part of the river, where there is no doubt that
the tidal water continues to encroach upon the land. From the geological
formation of this land, a large proportion of the silt must consist of clay and
mud, with but avery small proportion of sand. The former, from its levity,
is mostly conveyed away by the ebb tide, a thin deposit being only temporarily
left upon the sandy shores and banks of the upper and lower estuaries, which
is either dried up and dissipated by the wind, or removed by those neap tides
which are too low to be able to continue the encroachments of the spring tides.

Two local changes seem to require special notice before concluding this
Report :—

Ist. The waste of the clay cliffs in Cheshire, from Seacombe Pvint to
North Egremont, which has now been going on to a considerable extent and
for some years. This, there can be little doubt, is a consequence of the North
Dock-works of Liverpool, by which the river has had its channel much con-
tracted, and has naturally sought its equivalent from the opposite and weaker
side.

2nd. The waste on the Cheshire shore, adjacent to Leasowe Castle, west-
wardly. According to Mr. Rollett, the acting-surveyor of the Wallasey Em-
bankment, under the surveyor to the Corporation of Liverpool, this waste has
averaged 6 yards per annum for nearly thirty years past. It is, however, con-

————————

a

THE RIVER MERSEY. As

fined to a small lineal extent of the coast, about two miles. The situation is
one that is now very much exposed to the flood tide through the Horse Chan-
nel, especially in N.W. winds. The geological formation is entirely alluvial,
consisting of sand, peat, and clay. It is, in fact, the site of part of the so-
called submarine forest of Wirral.
_ When Hoyle Lake was in existence, the flood tide advancing in two
streams—one through the lake, the other through the Horse Channel—met
at this place, and their united stream ran up the Rock Channel. It may be
assumed that the influence on the beach of the stream through the Horse
‘Channel was mitigated by the stream through Hoyle Lake, by which it
was deflected into the Rock Channel. As the lake was silted up the influ-
ence of the stream was gradually weakened, until it was entirely lost by the
closing up of the lake. The enlargement of the west spit of Great Burbo
has also assisted to give to the stream through the Horse Channel, a more
direct set upon the beach. About thirty years ago the late Mr. Giles, C.E.,
constructed an embankment upwards of 100 yards above high water spring
tides. The seaward slope is now submerged every tide; and as it was not
designed for such a situation, it has been occasionally broken through, almost
entirely reconstructed and considerably raised.

Great watchfulness is exercised by those who have charge of the embank-
ment; for if the sea were to make good its entrance through any breach,
a large tract of meadow country, nearly 3000 statute acres, would be sub-
merged in their whole extent to the docks at Birkenhead.

These meadows are part of the tidal area which had been reclaimed, and
was formerly submerged through Wallasey Pool.

Liverpool, August 1856. JosEPH Bout.

[With respect to the tables D, E, F, and G, by which this Report is ac-
companied, it should, perhaps, be observed that they are to be regarded as
only approximations to the truth, and not as representing the absolute areas
of the channels, or volumes of the banks; and they are merely intended as
gauges for comparing the growth or decline of the various features included
in them. The truth of the observation would be apparent to all who had
inspected the surveys; it is recorded here for those who have not had the
opportunity of doing so. ]

The Report was illustrated by the following charts and tables :—

A.—Plate I. Admiralty Chart of Liverpool Bay, corrected to 1847, with
Contours from Surveys by Collins, 1689; Eyes and Fearon, 1756 ; Thomas,
1813.

B.—A Chart of the Approaches to Liverpool, by Lieut. Lord, R.N., 1852,
with Contours from Denham, 1837; Lord, 1840; and Lord, 1846.

C.—A Chart of the Approaches to Liverpool, by Lieut. Lord, R.N., 1854 ;
with Contours from Lord, 1852.

D, E, F.—Tables, showing the average depth below low water of ordi-
nary Spring Tides, and the average sectional Area of the Crosby and Rock
Channels, computed from the Surveys of 1837, 1840, 1846, 1852, and 1854.

G.—A Table, showing the average Volume of the Banks above Low
_ Water of ordinary Spring Tides, computed from the Surveys of 1837, 1840,
1846, 1852, and 1854.

H.—A Plan exhibiting the space abstracted by the Corporation of Liver-
pool from the Tidal Water of the River Mersey during five successive
Periods, comprised between the years 1650 and 1843, compiled from authen-
tic Documents and actual Survey.

J.—Sections of Part of Great Burbo Bank, on Planes parallel to a Plane
passing through the Leasowe and Formby Lighthouses.

REPORT—1856.

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44 REPORT—1856.

Report upon the effects produced upon the Channels of the Mersey by the
alterations which, during the last fifty years, have been made in its Banks,
on the Tides of the present period compared with the Tides registered by
Mr. Rendel in June 1844. By AnvRew HENDERSON. ;
It may be premised that the discussion on the subject, in June 1844, was

with reference to the proposed bill for establishing docks at Birkenhead ; it was

urged by Liverpool authorities that this would reduce the level of the river
by abstracting so large an area as 150 acres. The state of the river, then,
may be based on the tidal observations of Mr. Rendel at six stations, giving
diagrams of height of tide from Victoria Bar to Warrington Bridge, as
follows :—

TIME AND HEIGHT OF HIGH WATER.
Datum, Prince’s Dock Sill (six feet below the Old Dock Sill), taken from Mr. Rendel's

Diagrams.
Spring Tide, June 3, 1846. June 10, 1844, Neap Tide.

Time. Height. Time. Height.

h m ft. in. hm ft. in. No.
1. Formby Point...... 12.20... 28.0 & ice 6 50 o> AT By he
9. New Brighton .... 12 30... 23 O. 7 S08. 287 mates 32.
S-ePrince s Docks.) -:a.. 2,00, ... “23'9 8 |. 1 AOr aS. Zee aoe
A ovillesmeare ont... BO .e 2g oT AO oe Ee eee ee
5.ehuncom 4.2. u.8. 9 12s 2 oA... 8" Ori. a9 02-5.
6. Fidler’s Ferry...... 1G os WED | cee 38 DG 18 105. 4.6.
7. Warrington Bridge.. 2 30.. 25 10. 9 40 18 Bom) We

These observations were taken simultaneously ; and it may be seen that,
at the Prince’s Pier, which is in the narrowest gorge of the estuary, the tide
heaps up 8 inches and 7 inches in the two miles from New Brighton. The
velocity of the flood tide at Seacombe is recorded as 7211 feet per second,
the width of the Mersey being there reduced to 3060 feet, and the sectional
area 184,622 feet, it being altogether a gorge at that point defined by the
Prince’s Dock wall on the one side, and the natural rock of Seacombe on
the other.

This has been aptly designated the neck of the bottle, extending one mile
from Egremont Ferry to Seacombe Ferry, where the Mersey is half a mile -
broad to Prince’s Pier, extending about one mile to the old fort before the
Stanley Dock was begun in 1844, at which time the mouth of the Mersey
bottle was between Egremont and the old fort, from whence a curved wall
half a mile east to Beacon’s Gutter was built in 1833, the north shore to
Rimrose Brook (some three and a half miles) forming with the shore from
Seacombe to New Brighton what may be termed the funnel for filling the
bottle of the Mersey.

These positions are exhibited on the map appended to the Report of Mr.
James Walker, C.E., to the conservators of the River Mersey, on the effects
of the new north river-line of the Liverpool docks on the Cheshire shore,
published June 1856, pp. 306, with abstract notes of evidence.

As these documents contain much valuable information bearing on the
effects produced on the channels of the Mersey by the alteration made in
its banks, the following extracts are given, premising that the complaint was
the waste of the Cheshire shore about Egremont. The Report states, there
is no reason to doubt that an increase of damage has taken place and is con-
tinuing, and that the Liverpool dock walls are the principal cause.

“ One thing is certain, that the Liverpool dock trustees have acquired since
1844 an area of not less than 500 acres of land from the river; upon this
they have made splendid docks, and are now proceeding to add to them for
the benefit of the country, on a greater scale than they have hitherto done.

THE RIVER MERSEY. 45

“‘ That the proper remedy for the prevention of further waste is a river
wall or other similar protection, from Seacombe to New Brighton; and that
the dock trustees, in consideration of the damage done and of their having
already occupied 500 acres of the Mersey, and proposing to occupy in a few
years 150 acres more, which will increase the waste on the Cheshire shore,
may be reasonably expected to take the protection into their consideration.

“That the effect which dock walls on the Liverpool side have had, or
are likely to have, in deepening the navigation of the Mersey or its entrance
channels, does not amount to much more than a tendency.”

The evidence of Capt. Cook, Superintendent of Pilots, states, “ There are
now four channels, viz. the Rock or Horse, Victoria, Queen's, Zebra or
Eastern Channels. Large vessels enter by the Victoria Channei. The
Queen’s improves, but not yet log-lined. Not very important to have very
deep entrances into Liverpool, as ; the heavy ships enter the docks.

ft. in.
Depth on Victoria Bar at lowest tide...... 10 0
PR witOn areas. Lapis Ox eehys, NG ie Sita eat atadey Only
High water, spring tide ....... 0.1.2.2... 41 0
Depth of water anon ie iN tide Sa. 22 18: 9G
Orie kee a RA), at noe
Depth on the Bar, high water neaps ...... 33 6

West wind raises the tide 5 or 6 feet, east wind cuts the tide as much. As
regards the effects of the dock walls already built upon the navigation of
the river, Mr. J. Hartley, Lieut. Lord, and the dock-masters assert that
there has been no perceptible difference in the height of the tides for many
years, the old tables of depth upon the sills of the docks being still found to
be the correct guide, and the velocity, so far as they can observe, being un-
altered.”

Some witnesses considered that the tides rose vertically 2 feet higher at Sea-
combe, but no gauge having been kept, the impression may have arisen from

. the greater effect, or in “consequence of the lash of the waves upon the

Cheshire side being heavier,” since the last built portion of the “dock wall
is placed so as to meet the waves that are brought by the westerly gales
through the Rock Channel.”

This is shown on the Plan attached to the Report; and the Report states,
“It is also to be expected that the rebound will be increased when the gap
which at present leaves a portion of Bootle Bay open to receive the seas, shall
be filled up by a wall, as I presume is intended.”

A reference to the Plan will show that the filling up of this gap would
not only greatly increase the evils complained of at Seacombe, but cause the
Rock Channel to silt up in a few years, as Hoylake has done; and should
the wall be extended to Rimrose Brook, as proposed in 1858, enclosing
150 acres, it will greatly reduce the flow of water into the Mersey by con-
tracting the entrance between the fort on the Rock Point and high water
at Bootle Bay, distant 14 mile or 2700 yards. The map shows the present
end of wall to extend 900 yards across the entrance to a river wall of 250
yards towards a gap of 700 yards, thus reducing the entrance between the
river wall and the Fort on Rock Point to 1800 yards, with a bulb between
Seacombe and New Brighton, where the sea and tide through the Rock
Channel deflected from the Liverpool wall are wasting the shore. The only
remedy for this being, as stated in the Report, “ the “construction of a wail
4000 yards long from Seacombe to New Brighton.”

46 REPORT—1856.

From opposite Seacombe the Liverpool dock wall extends 4000 yards to
the gap in Bootle Bay: by ending it there, only a curved line, similar to that
in 1833, shown in the Plan, with a sloping sea-wall, would allow the sea to
expend itself in Bootle Bay as heretofore, and act as the eastern side of the
funnel of the Mersey, the Rock Channel forming the western.

The effects these alterations may have had on the levels of the tides in
the Mersey, since they were recorded by Mr. Rendel in 1844, we have no
means of comparing, as it will be seen by the before-mentioned table; they
only relate to two tides of that year, which are so much affected by the
wind as to form no criterion, it requiring the average of a long period to
establish any change in the mean height and flow of the tide.

We are indebted to Lieut. Lord for the only reliable results derived from
the observations of the self-registering tide-gauge at George’s Pier, Liver-
pool. The discussion of two years of these tidal observations, 1854—55, by
Mr. Burdwood, of the Hydrographer’s Office, Admiralty, gives the following
mean :—

Datum, Old Dock Sill. Establishment (High Water, full and change)
112 35™ Greenwich time.

High water :— ft, Jin,
Springs.—Average height above the sill.... 18 0
DAN Rs snot! <8 Meek 2 Satiok sh Neg aise. Stu Ate 12 2

Low water :—
Springs.—Average height below the sill.... 8 O
GAPS vrai acs!testhcrdnaclad tiwwadinrls ewhd. hes 2 4
Admiralty, 2nd June 1856, J. BuRDWoop.

Lieut. Lord’s diagrams furnish the levels of high and low water, direction
and force of the wind, and height of the barometer every day in the year, as
well as an intermediate line indicating the ordinary sea-level as averaging
6 feet above the old dock sill.

As these observations are to be continued at several stations on the Mersey,
we may look upon them as the basis of future observations on the changes
in the level and flow of the tides in that river.

Mr. Rendel’s diagrams are very useful, as recordi::g the tidal wave in 1844
as well as the relative time of high water at the Bar, New Brighton, Prince’s
Dock, Runcorn, Fidler’s Ferry, and Warrington Bridge.

From information obligingly furnished to the Committee by Mr. Fereday
Smith, Mr. R. Skay, and Mr. Edward Johnes and other sources, we may
confidently contemplate the establishinent of a record of the tides of the
Mersey, both at Ellesmere and other points, with reliable data and informa-
tion on the important subject.

Cheltenham, 12th August 1856. ANDREW HENDERSON.

Interim Report to the British Association, on Progress in Researches
on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards. By James
Tuomson, C.E.

Belfast, August 6, 1856.

Havine at last year’s meeting of the Association read in the Mechanical

Section a short paper on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards, and

having been requested by the General Committee to prepare a Report on

the same subject, I beg now to state that I have in the meantime been col-

han ea

WEIR BOARDS.—FRITH OF CLYDE. 47

lecting information for the purposes of that Report. My professional en-
gagements have occupied me necessarily so much as to oblige me to defer
for this year the detailed prosecution of the subject and the preparation of
the Report in full. I have, however, the gratification of stating, that, with
special reference to the researches entrusted to me by the Association, the
President of the Athenzeum of Boston, United States, Mr. Thomas G. Cary,
has generously sent to me, with the request that it be presented to the
British Association on his behalf, a valuable book, containing accounts of
experiments recently carried out on a very grand scale in America on the
measurement of large bodies of flowing water by means of Weir boards and
by other methods.

The work is entitled ‘Lowell Hydraulic Experiments,’ by James B. Francis.
In reference to the experiments, Mr. Cary, the donor of the book, states in
his letter to me, ‘‘ These experiments, made under the direction and at the
expense of the associated companies of Lowell, near Boston, who employ
Mr. Francis as the engineer for their cotton and woollen factories, have cost
about £4000 sterling ; and they make part in a series of investigations which
have cost those companies £15,000.”

In the Report which I hope to submit to the British Association, I shall
have much occasion for reference to these important experiments, and for
this purpose I think it right to retain the book in my hands at present.

As the expenses incurred in reference to the researches have been but
small, and chiefly for the procuring of books, I do not desire to draw for
them on the fund of £10 liberally placed at my disposal by the Association ;
and as my intention is, not to conduct experiments on the subject myself,
but chiefly to give a review of the most important experiments and deduc-
tions which have been made by others, I do not think it necessary to ask
for a renewal of the grant.

Dredging Report.—Frith of Clyde. 1856.
Ar the last meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science, held in Glasgow, the following resolution was adopted :—

“ That a Committee, consisting of the Rev. C. P. Miles, M.D., Professor
Balfour, Dr. Greville, and Mr. Eyton, be requested to report on the
dredging of the West coast of Scotland, and that the sum of £10 be
placed at their disposal for the purpose.”

Of the Committee only two members have been able to devote any

time to the object contemplated, viz. Dr. Greville, and the Rev. C. P. Miles.
The latter, having engaged a residence on Holy Island, Lamlash Bay, was
joined by the former on June 9th, when both were prepared to commence a
systematic course of dredging, and to give up their whole time, for several
weeks, to the work. They had provided themselves with the Government
charts, and with such books on the different departments of marine zoology
as were likely to be of service; they had also everything requisite for the
preservation of specimens ; and they had at their command a small yacht*,
and a stout four-oared cutter}. So far, therefore, as material was concerned,
the Committee had armed themselves for a vigorous campaign.

In the arrangement for their plan of proceeding, the Committee took into

* This vessel was lent to the Rev. Mr. Miles (on the condition of his paying the expenses
of fitting her out) by Alexander Melville, Esq., Glasgow.
+ The property of Dr. Carpenter, Holy Island, Arran.

48 REPORT—1856.

consideration the terms of their instructions; and they came to the conclusion
that it would be impossible to draw up a satisfactory Report in the course
ofa single season. They do not regard a mere enumeration of the forms of
animal life, as observed from time to time by different individuals, as the
object contemplated by the Association, but rather some account of the
distribution of those forms in the estuary and Lochs of the Clyde, coupled
with some efforts to render our knowledge of the Fauna more complete. It
appeared to them that the most proper course would be for the Committee,
not to aim too suddenly at issuing a general Report, but rather to present,
for some time to come, an annual statement of their labours. By a judicious
change of head-quarters, they would be enabled, in successive seasons, to
pursue their investigations in a way best calculated to promote the ultimate
views of the Association.

The naturalist’s dredge has been used in the Clyde for some years by
various persons, but, as far as is ascertained, without any special plan ; and
although in many instances notes have been preserved, the existing materials
for a full Report are utterly insufficient. Of the different localities, Lamlash
Bay has, perhaps, acquired the greatest reputation. It occurred therefore
to the Committee that it would be peculiarly desirable to ascertain, with
some precision, the extent and distribution of the forms existing in this sec-
tion of the Clyde—stating whether they are rare or frequent in these parts.
They hoped to accomplish this end with comparatively little trouble, as they
had repeatedly dredged over portions of the same ground on former oceca-
sions ; and, further, they had the experience of Major Martin and of the late
Rev. Dr. Landsborough to assist them. Other places in the vicinity of
Lamlash Bay were marked out for examination, with special reference to
Kilbrennan Sound, on the west side of Arran, which, it is believed, has been
unexplored by the scientific dredger.

To their exceeding regret the Committee have to state that they had
scarcely made their arrangements before the weather became adverse. Rain
and wind—the latter often rising to a gale—set in, and continued, with a
few exceptional days, throughout the months of June and July, that is, from
the moment they were prepared to commence operatiors until the last day
at their disposal previous to the Meeting of the Association. The precarious
position of the dredger could not be more forcibly illustrated. During the
first month scarcely more than one day in each week would admit of the
dredge being used, and, altogether, there were only jifteen days available for
the prosecution of the work, which was sometimes attempted when the seve-
rity of the weather made it all but impracticable to sail the yacht, and when
the employment of the four-oared cutter would have been impossible. The
intended visit to the west of Arran has consequently been postponed ; and,
under these disastrous circumstances, the unfortunate Committee found
occupation, in spite of rain and wind, in searching the pools and coast at low
tide, and in collecting the littoral nudibranchs, echinoderms, crustaceans, &c.

The ground explored by the dredge embraces, as marked in the accom-
panying map* (Plate II.), the following well-defined localities :—The south
side of Brodick Bay, from Invercloy to Corriegills, in depths varying from 7
to 25 fathoms; the entire area of Lamlash Bay, from Clachland Point to the
north end of Holy Island, and from the south end of Holy Island to Kings-
cross Point ; the eastern, or outer side of Holy Island, from Hamilton’s Rock,
near Clachland Point, to the most southern point of the island, in from 30 to
6 fathoms ; and from Fullarton’s Rock to Whiting Bay.

The subjoined Tables give the results of the labours of the Committee :—

* The map is an exact copy of the Government Chart,

DREDGING.—FRITH OF CLYDE. 49

TABLE I.—Mollusca.

Species. Station. Remarks.
Acmea testudinalis........ Littoral—Holy Island, &c.... Abundant.
WITBINER) w\5 o= occ cine Laminarian zone.
Anomia ephippium........ Generally diffused. .
Aplysia hybrida .......... Rock-pools, Holy Island, &c. Not uncommon.

Aporrhais pes-pelecani ....

Astarte sulcata
Buccinum undatum
Cardium edule........
— echinatum
— Norvegicum

ween ae

Cerithium reticulatum
Chiton asellus
— ruber

Corbula nucleus
Crania anomala
Cylichna cylindracea

Cypreea Europxa..........

Cyprina Islandica
Dentalium entalis

Emarginula reticulata...

Eulima polita

== 0 eee
Fissurella reticulata.....

Fusus antiquus
Islandicus

Kellia rnbra...........
— suborbicularis.....

Lamellaria —— ?
Lima hians
— Loscombii

— littoralis
— littorea

Littorina Neritoides i
Lyonsia Norvegica

subtruncata
Mangelia Leufroyi \
—— linearis

— rufa, var. Ulideana

Mactra solida }

Modiola Modiolus
Montacuta substriata

Mytilus edulis
Nassa incrassata.
— reticulata

er
seen ee
sees

eee eee
es
eo
Cr acy
ay
eae
or

ee eee

eee tee eee

eeeee

subauriculata.....

er

ey

seen ee

ee

Generally diffused—Deep
water.

Only dead shells obtained.

Lamlash sands.

Lamlash Bay.

Deep water between Holy Is-
land and Clachland Point.

Generally diffused.

Ditto.

Ditto.

Between Holy Island and
Clachland Point.

Adult specimems rare.

Ditto.

Dittousial iePh So siete ata Not uncommon.
... Ditto

Ditto.

Lamlash Bay ..........-- Only dead shells.

Between Holy Island and Common.
Clachland Point.

.». Ditto Near the north end of Holy
ae DHT Sa eeAsceeaar ocr Island in from 10 to 30
Ditto fathoms.
--. Ditto. :
Near Fullarton’s Rock, in
Lae about 20 fathoms.
SP MGIELOEML? sc wie w/elaia sis opbitata Attached to Lichina pygmea.
ese Liamlash Bay ..\2.... (esc Found inside dead shells of
Artemis exoleta.
.-. Littoral—Holy Island.

North end of Holy Island in The nests of Z. hians in this
about 10 and 15 fathoms. locality are very abundant.
Near Fullarton’s Rock...... Only single valves found.

Holy Island, &e.

Between Holy Island and

Clachland Point.
Lamlash Bay and off Holy
ines Island.
Between Holy Island and Scarce.
Clachland Point.

Between Fullarton’sRockand Only one specimen obtained.
King’s Cross Point.

Between Holy Island and Three specimens obtained in
Clachland Point. from 15 to 25 fathoms.

Lamlash Bay.

North end of Holy Island .. On the spines of Spatangus
purpureus.

Round the coast Immature and scarce.

eters eeee

Generally diffused.

Natica Alleri Between Holy Island and N. monilifera scarce.
—— monilifera >} ...... eo. Clachland Point E
—— Montagui } :
Ostrea edulis ............ Lamlash Bay by Holy Island.
Patella athletica 2
— pellucida } seeeeeee Holy Island, &c, ~
—— vulgata
1856, E

50

Species.
Pecten maximus ....-.-+--

— opercularis ..-...-- we
striatus
tigrinus }
Pectunculus glycimeris -...-
Philine aperta
Pholas crispata
Pileopsis Hungarica
Pleurobranchus
Pilidium fulvum
Psammobia Ferroensis >... -

ea

Puncturella Noachina
Purpura lapillus
Rissoa striata
Scaphander lignarius
Tapes decussata
Tellina donacina .........-

er rd

Terebratula caput-serpentis .

Teredo Norvegica
Thracia phaseolina
Trichotropis borealis

Trochus alabastrum. .

Polycera quadrilineata
Triopa claviger Bor

Species.
Carcinus Mznas

Cr

REPORT—1 856.

TaBLe I. (continued.)

Station. Remarks.

North endof HolyIsland; also Scarce.

near Fullarton’s Rock.
Throughout the district ....
Between Holy Island and

Clachland Point.
North end of Holy Island.
Throughout Lamlash Bay -.
Near Lamlash Pier.
North end of Holy Island.
Holy Island at low water -.

Abundant in certain localities.
Scarce; dead shells of P.
tigrinus not uncommon.

Not uncommon in any part.

Found four individuals under
stones: probably they are

North end of Holy Island. P. membranaceus.

Littoral. Holy Island, &e.

Generally diffused.

North end of Holy Island.

Holy Island, &c.

North end of Holy Island.

Ditto.

Holy Island

North end of Holy Island.

Between Holy Island and
Clachland Point.

Lamlash Bay

Fine specimens of the tubes
obtained from the wreck of
the old pier.

ee es

ed

Dredged by Mr. Eyton.

Lamlash shore.

Tasce IITI.—Crustacea.

cinerarius .........- North end of Holy Island.
sme Magus. .-.2cceee ve se Near the pier, Holy Island.
—— millegranus........ .- North end of Holy Island.
—— tumidus ........+.-.. Ditto.
=——=— THMDILCAENS ta siay eis) « Holy Island, &c., littoral T. umbilicatus is the common
shell of these shores.
ZIZYPDIDUS) 6) 210. <\=. «10 w= North end of Holy Island .. 7. zizyphinus is scarce. .
Turritella communis ...... Ditto.
Venus casina 9.2 26.556 sa.5 Ditto |
fascidtan. sinus. Wises Ditto |
OVata OFFes 5 tame... Ditto .
—-— striatula ............ Ditto .
TasLe IJ.—Nudibranchiate Mollusca.
Species. Remarks.
Doris aaa eae under stones at low water on Holy
taberculatay|iccisie dactmae! woe ne Island, &c. Common.
Eolis Drummondi -.........50.0.e5-+s<- Ditto. Not uncommon. .
Goniodoris nodosa ....°....-. hss. -se0te Ditto. One exatple found on Holy Island.
Dredged (probably a new species) in about 15
Lomanotus Di Va slodsae teres waite Sey af fathoms between Macdonald’s Hotel, In-
vercloy, and Corriegills.

Cancer Pagurus

Ebalia Pennantii
Eurynome aspera
Galathea
Hippolyte varians
Homarus vulgaris
Hyas araneus
Inachus Dorsettensis
Pagurus Bernhardus ......
— Prideauxii

a

een n eee
sg 8 6 0 00, 9.0.0.8, 5 0
ee ewww ee
rs

we enee
Ce et

Palzmon Squilla
Pandalus annulicornis......

Station. Remarks.
Holy Island, &c. .......... Abundant round these shores.
BVIELO Sv oseis. 0 nae lopatt ae eliort Ditto.
North end of Holy Island .. Not very uncommon.
LDH eG aminocoao onic teac 3 or 4 specimens obtained.
Generally diffused ........ All immature examples.

Lamlash Bay.
Everywhereround shore... .

Tolerably abundant.
Generally diffused.

Ditto.

Ditto

Ditto...+..... seeeseeeees Always accompanied by
Adamsia palliata.

Rock Pools .....e-.«.
Lamlash Bay.

Common round the coast.

DREDGING.—FRITH OF CLYDE, 51

Tas_e II. (continued.)

Species. Station. Remarks. .
Porcellana longicornis..... . North end of Holy Island.
— platycheles.......... Littoral. Holy Island, &c... Abundant round the coast.

Stenorhynchus Phalangium.. Generally diffused ........ Not common.
Tasie [V.—Echinodermata.

Amphidotus cordatus ...... Generally diffused ........ Common.

Asterias aurantiaca..... -.- Near Fullarton’s Rock...... Only two specimens obtained.

Asterina gibbosa .........- Littoral. North end of Holy Under stones in a pool.
Island.

Chirodota digitata ........ Near the Pier (south side), Infrom 15 to about 6fathoms.
Holy Island.

Comatula rosacea ........ Pier, Holy Island, and Fullar- Abundant in about8tol5fms.
ton’s Rock.

Cribella oculata .......... North end, Holy Island.

—— TOSEA we ee ee ieee eens DDTitOle Heat ee este ete whee Rare.

Echinocyamus pusillus .... Generally diffused.

Echinus miliaris .......... Ditto.

—— sphera ....-.es00e Ditto.

Goniaster Templetoni...... Ditto.

Luidia fragillissima........ Ditto.

Ophiocoma bellis .......... Ditto.

—— granulata .......... Ditto.

—— rosula ......ceereees Ditto.

Ophiura texturata ........ Ditto

Palmipes membranaceus.... Between Holy Island and Rare.
Clachland Point in 25 fms.

ee eta « fiantersi 3% Lamlash Bay.
patangus purpureus
Soin te Ba } --.. North end, Holy Island.
eevneae } Ay: OR 2 Generally diffused.
TasLEe V.—Zoophyta.
Species. Remarks.
Actinia bellis, ig he Common in the pools and round the whole
RECO LIRC ES i a ies Liebe se ace al beay 5 coast.
—— crassicornis................00000: Dredged in about 25 fathoms north of Holy
Island.

— mesembryanthemum .............. Common everywhere.
Adamsia palliata ..........00.. eee eeee Frequent—always with Pagurus Prideauxit.
Anthea cereus ............ sag Mecok te waite On Zostera marina, Lamlash Bay.
Antennularia antennina ................ Near Fullarton’s Rock.
Cellepora pumicosa The corals are generally diffused in deep wa-

ramulosa } Serigeind Toco aeKae ter (from about 20 fathoms) outside of
— Skenei Lamlash Bay. .

Campanularia dumosa.
Flustra foliacea.
Halecium halecinum.

Laomedea geniculata ...........+..-..- On stones and dead shells.

Lepralia annulata ....-......eeeeeeees Ditto.

—— hyalina ...........0..200020-0+- Ditto.

eM AATUISIT 2 gi ale icizts p\ wie aveth-p wip taste’ a> Ditto.

— Peachii ............ rs a ain, os ated Ditto.

——— HFISPINOSA oo ecco csc ees cc cscecs Ditto.

— violacea, var. cruenta............-- On stones and dead shells in deep water, be-

tween Holy Island and Clachland Point.
Also between the south end of Holy Island
and Fullarton’s Rock : several specimens.
Plumularia pinnata ..........-....05. ...-Lamlash Bay.
Salicornaria farciminoides .........-.....- Common, outside of Lamlash Bay.
Sertularia tamarisca.
The Committee have deemed it advisable, for the present, to omit the
- following classes—Cirripedia, Annelida, Acalepha, and Poriphora ; also the
Sessile-eyed Crustaceans; nor have they even attempted to search for the
microscopic forms included in the Infusoria and Rhizopoda.
E:2

52 REPORT—1856.

Among the Nudibranchiata, a species of rare beauty was obtained when
dredging in Brodick Bay, between Invercloy and Corriegills, in from 10 to
15 fathoms. As it could not be identified by the Committee, a sketch taken
by Dr. Greville was forwarded to Mr. Alder, who replied,—* The beautiful
Nudibranch you have found is a Lomanotus, and probably new; but of this
we could not be certain without a careful examination, and I shall therefore
be glad to avail myself of your kind offer to send the animalalive. I dredged
a minute Lomanotus (only quarter of an inch long) in Lamlash Bay in 1846,
which is figured in the 6th Part of our Monograph, under the name of
L. flavidus. I think it can scarcely be the young of this large species*.
Since the completion of our work, we have received from Mr. Thompson of
Weymouth, a somewhat similar Lomanotus, white, with orange processes,
and about an inch long. Yours differs from them in the length of the vela-
filaments and the expansion at the posterior extremity, and also from the
latter in the large size of the tentacular sheaths. The only British specimens
of this new genus we have yet seen have been in a sickly state, and only one
of each kind, so that any additional information concerning them is desirable.
Perhaps if you should be dredging again in Lamlash Bay after the receipt
of this you will be so good as to keep a look out for the small LZ. flavidus.
It was dredged in shallow water among scallops, very near to the Holy
Island. The only specimen of Doris planata yet found I also got there.”

The Committee have to add, with deep regret, that this apparently new
form of Lomanotus, having been placed for safety in the vivarium, has disap-
peared, and, although the tank was emptied for a thorough search, no trace
whatever could be found. Two unsuccessful attempts have since been made
to secure another specimen by dredging in Brodick Bay.

To conclude :—The result, in a general point of view, of the Committee’s
present and previous researches, added to those of other parties, as far as they
are known, is, that although Lamlash Bay contains many interesting forms, most
of the rarer ones are so exceedingly scarce as to cause considerable disappoint-
ment to the collector. The naturalist who wishes to secure a series of cabinet
specimens, especially of shells, and to obtain a store of duplicates in return
for his expenditure of time and money, must seek other localities. For
example, with regard to the more interesting Mollusca inhabiting the Lami-
narian zone and deeper water, Lima hians, with its curious nests, can alone
be pronounced abundant. It may be obtained in any quantity. Pecten
tigrinus comes next in order, but an entire day’s dredging, in the most
favourable ground, would scarcely produce more than half-a-dozen good
full-sized specimens. In the course of several days’ dredging this season,
single specimens only of Lyonsia Norvegica and Pilidium fulvum were
secured ; of the Eulimz, only two of Hudima polita and a solitary specimen
of E. distorta; of Chemnitzia none; of Trichotropis borealis one; of Odos-
tomié none; of Rissoe only the common species; of Mangelie, one of
HM. Leufroyi, three of the rare M. teres, a few of the common M. linearis,
and one of M. rufa, var. Ulideana; of Cylichne none, except two or three
poor specimens of C. eylindracea ; of Philine none, except P. aperta. It is
remarkable that species, which usually are not accounted at all scarce, are
represented sparingly in this part of the Clyde district. Mr. Barlee, well
known as one of the most practical conchologists and indefatigable dredgers
in Great Britain, visited the Committee, and, having dredged over the best
ground} for two days, came to the conclusion that Lamlash Bay is remark-
ably deficient both in Molluscan forms generally and in the number of indi-

* The species dredged by the Committee was 2 inches in length.

tT That is, from Hamilton’s Rock, near Clachland Point, to the North and N.E. end of

Holy Island, in from 35 to 15 fathoms. Also in the vicinity of Fullarton’s Rock.

a

ee

———— — C,CU CC

ee ee

DREDGING.—FRITH OF CLYDE. 53

viduals which actually exist there. Among the Echinodermata, the only
species of any interest that is really abundant, in certain defined localities,
is Comatula rosacea. Nor is Goniaster Templetoni unfrequent, that is, half-
a-dozen examples may be procured in a successful day’s dredging. The
same may be said of Uraster glacialis. More rarely brought up is Luidia
Fragillissima, especially of full size. Professor Allman and his party did
not succeed in finding more than one adult individual during two days’
dredging with the Committee. At the same time specimens measuring from
4 to 6 inches across are often seen at low water both at Lamlash and in
Holy Island. Only one specimen of Palmipes membranaceus (immature) has
been taken this season. And of the Holothuriade not ene has occurred
except Chirodota digitata, of which two examples came up in the dredge,
in from 15 to 6 fathoms, near the house on Holy Island. With respect
to the Crustaceans, the rarer forms of Podophthalma are poorly repre-
sented. Nor is there much to report of Zoophytes, for both Anthozoa and
Polyzoa are remarkably deficient with the exception of a few of the com-
monest kinds, and even some of those most generally distributed appear to
be wanting altogether.

In closing this necessarily meagre Report, the Committee take the oppor-
tunity to make some observations on the expenditure connected with dredg-
ing operations. Boats must of course be hired, with crews, according to
circumstances. In some localities, a stout boat, with a couple of men, may
get through some work in fine weather, and with a depth of water not ex-
ceeding 10 or 12 fathoms. But if the dredge be constantly down the labour
is severe, and the occasional assistance of the gentlemen, whose time ought
to be otherwise employed, will be required. Four men are not too many,
and, in some states of the weather, they are necessary. The charge for a
boat and two men cannot be set down at less than from 5s. tc 6s. a day.
At Lamlash the usual charge is 7s. 6d. For deep-sea dredging, and indeed
for the examination generally of the more exposed parts of the Clyde,
whether in shore or at a distance, a small sailing craft is indispensable—such
as a common herring boat—with a crew of four men, the cost of which
would be about £4 a week. This, Mr. Barlee—the Committee could not
quote higher authority—has found to be quite efficient. With such a vessel
having a boat in tow, dredging may be carried on when oars would be use-
less. From the above statement of the absolute outlay inseparable from
dredging operations when conducted on a useful scale (omitting altogether
the cost of material, its wear and tear, and various contingent expenses), it
will be evident that a grant of £10 will go but a short way in the hands of
_an active Committee.

On behalf of the Committee,
CHARLES PopHam MILEs
(Incumbent of St. Jude’s English Church,

Holy Island, Lamlash Bay. Arran, N.B. Glasgow).
August Ist, 1856.

Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1855-56. By the Rey.
Bavrn Powsrtt, M.A., F.R.S. &c., Savilian Professor of Geometry
in the University of Oxford.

Sixce my last report to the British Association I have received but a very

small number of communications of meteor observations, but among these

will be found one or two of remarkable interest as presenting very peculiar

features.
I am chiefly indebted, as hitherto, to Mr. E. J. Lowe.

REPORT—1856.

Velocity of

Appearance and
duration.

magnitude.

Brightness
and colour.

Date. Hour. Train or sparks.

—!

1853. | h m
Sept. 30/11 15 ......
(G.M.T.)
distance. 3
11 15 ....../Pear-shaped, =2 of|Lustre — like}....s-.seseeeseceversreeceneeees

moon. Afterwards| quicksilver.
burst at the lower
part into a number
of fragments which
disappeared.

1855.

Feb. 21/10 15 p.m.|About double of ¢.|White .........|None observed ............

(G.M.T.) Form doubtful.

Aug. 11/11 30 p.m.|A bright light behind Rays proceed-|.
the hills preceded] ing from it
therisingofabright| on all sides,
body like the full} not shooting
moon. Gradually} out but stati-
diminished to aj] onary. More
small star. red than ?.

Dec. 11] 8 10 p.m.|Round, well-defined, Intensely mE Disappeared very
(Commence-| diam.=30’. bright, pale suddenly after 4
ment not ob- i secs.

1856.
Jan.

ground.)
7| 4 55 p.m.|Clear round disk,
somewhat less than
the moon.
AGS Pill. c.c-ccenwececcencncscseves|ascsossccnvesemsse A bright vertical line emit-|After 5 minutes
ting sparks brighter than} curved and wavin
4, for 10 minutes,
then _ horizont
and yanished.

see eeseeneeee seeeeeee

Left behind a “ column of;
vapour.”

seeeeeneee teeeeeseeee

4 55 p.m. Exploded at the end of a
long slanting fiery train,
which remained, length
5°.

455 p.m.|A ball of fire, burst/With a flash|A small white cloud, re-
without noise. like light-| mained about 3 hour,
ning. then vanished.

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 55

-
2
Direction or altitude. General remarks. Place. Observer. Reference.

—<—$«s — |

Moving rapidly upwards to-|Atmosphere clear,/Balgrummo,near|/W. Swan, Esq. ..|Proceedings of the

_ wards zenith. daytime. Leven, Fife- Royal Society of
shire. Edinburgh, Mar.

hs P 5, 1854.

from N.E. to S.W. Altitude|No sound or explo-|Ditto ............ Mr. D. Wallace ./Ibid.

azimuth determined after-| sion. lat.56°13/5/N.,

_ wards. long. 12" 2°6 W.

“Meteor | APParent zenith) Azimuth.

Appeared...) 70°37’ N. | 20°59’ E.

Burst ...... 57° 40’ 7° 48’

Disappeared! 47° 30’ 10° 49’

kt middle of course azimuth S,|Atmosphere heavy,|Near Bellahous-|W. J. Macquorn|MS. communica-
Alt. 45° (estimated by eye).| so as to conceal] ton, 23 miles} Rankine. tion.
Course E. to W., nearly ho-| stars, and give] S.S.W from
rizontal, wavering about 15°.| the meteorsane-| Observatory,

bulous aspect. Glasgow.
ow altitude, nearly S.W....... Many shooting|Tillington, near|Mrs. Ayling, and|MS. letter to Lord
, stars during the] Petworth. friends. Wrottesley.
time.

3

I. 20°. W. alt. 30°. Moving/Air calm. Below/1 mile S. of Edin-|Professor C.|MS. communica-
| almost horizontally from E.| the clouds. See] burgh. Piazzi Smyth.| tion.

_to W., slightly descending in-| App. No. 1. See Appendix, No.
‘clination about 7°, for about 1.

15°.

A

;
ro B22 tO!D0 4) DW OL 'S.e.e] occxcanseacvesasedbo ess Redhill, Reigate Mr. Carrington|Letter from Mr.
is and Mr. Good.| Carrington.

m mediately under h.........45- Sky very clear...... St. Thomas’s Hill/Mr. Masters .../Kentish Gazette.
ie near Canter- See Appendix,

bury. No. 2.
Tout 30° .....s.sseeeeee seatuanoe [Ditto esemcaenseeees Stone near Ayles-|/Mrs. Smyth....,.|MS. See Appendix, |
* bury. No. 4.

adder vessserereererecee cess Seeveat|ccudecpeie sesveseveeeees(BONChurch ...... Miss Sewell......|MS.

id

haga. ~

56 REPORT—1856.
: Appearance Brightness : Velocity or

Date. Hour. and magnitude. end ealour ges duration.

1856. | h m
Jan. 7| 4 55p.m. |A ball of fire darted|/Extremely Leaving a brilliant fiery|..........0.. ccoccen dil
down and suddenly, _ brilliant. train, gradually became
disappeared. faint, and expanded in
5 minutes; appeared like
a thin fleecy white cloud
4 55 p.m. |Shot downward a lit-|............0000e Left a bandoflightchanged|Through about 8°
tle obliquely and through various forms] of space. ;
exploded. (see diagram, Appendix,
No. 3.) for 10 minutes.
Also a progressive mo- ]
tion through about 4°
towards E. .
1
Luminous Meteors observed in 1855-56, |
1855.
Sept. 4] 8 30 p.m.|=I1st mag.*.........+6 Red: coe cecaspans MD ALIE Ny dcy escanetekeceattecn es Rapid, duration 0°-2f
SuO2 wateees == STON PA. Wiesranse ss Colourless ...|Streak ....00s.csccseseseeesses Instantaneous ....«0
8 50 ......)/=Ist mag.*....... seman COLOMPICRS go. | LEAL ten coat wee tas seb = spmertaer Instantaneous eo
7
MoO MSc ases For first half path =|Red ............ Atl bstaaeevacaves dest aasseeesse Slowly, duration 1
3rdmag.*, then gra- sec. 7
dually increased till
=2nd mag.*
OCH idl 67 05) sacwes Nd MAG oe. deesseee Wellow:. «dices: MBEAN Ui cctecsesieeoeene clontee Rapid’ ..ccesc.saeen ff
TE We Bed eee About four times ap-|Bluish ......... Narrow streak, visible after|Motion rather slow,
parent size of 4, meteor vanished. The} duration 3 secs.
oval in form. streak was visible both
sides, the break at the
same time.
4d
< re

Noy. 8] 8 53 ......|2nd mag.* wi. seo YELLOW ...00000. A rainiiprss awsneseaeccs cocevoee[RADIG .cecsscoocnedl

30] 6 56 ...... Very large, somewhat! Aslight as day,|.....s.sssseeseeeesnees coraaatinde Lingered 2 secs. ...
like a flash of light-| long sha- :
ning dows cast.

Dec. 6) 5 35 p.m.|=% .rrrecesesesseeeeeees Colourless, in-|Leaving a long streak of|Very rapid, dura
creased in| light. tion 0°5 see
brightness
as it pro-
gressed.

19] G13 am.J=—C ..rscccseversseoreeee Light as noon-|Streak left for a consider-|Duration fully 10
day. able time. minutes.

21| 4 50 ...... 4 times size of 4...... BITC hspodht ixoss A single ball with well-de-/Slow, duration 4
fined edges, no stream-| secs. |

ers. d

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 57

irection or altitude. General remarks. Place. Observer. Reference.

i... Betas Monccbsccewcecnaves In daylight, sky|Hartley Rectory,/Rev. J. T. Plum-|MS. letter to Mrs.

clear. Hants. mer. Bell.
little W. of S., point of ex-|....c:.seeeeeseee svee[OXford ......0.208- A friend of Mr.|Letter from Mr.
plosion about 22° alt. G. A. Rowell. | Rowell. See Ap-

pendix, No. 3.

y E. J. Lowe, Esq., F.R.A.S., F.G.S.

|
pm Polaris perpendic. down .|...... Saas neueeoeesnee obser”, Beeston |E. J. Lowe, Esq. Mr. Lowe’s MS.
ted on W. edge of Galaxy,|....0c,.seerseeseseeeees PGs. teeters caeessn Wee asee eeeee kee Ibid.
ing perpendic. down from
° below the altitude of Atair.
H ee. Gown from CeN-]...c00..seseceseeeneeees Thid.......... scavellG. senccane Caeeees Ibid.
e of Ursa Major.

farted S. of Galaxy, 15° below].........seeceeees Ddesse Hbids. Sabre eS einen Idi pesesesuerses Ibid.
Atair, moved downwards,

through the Pleiades ...|.......-+...ssesseseeee Obser’, Beeston |E. J. Lowe, Esq.|Ibid.
dat altitude of 80°, fall-/Star-like on the Nottingham Fo-|F. E. Swann, Esq.|Ibid.
ig perpendic. down to with-| edges, when it) rest.

in 10° of W.S.W. horizon. passed over half

; its track, it sud-

denly disappear-

ed, and almost

immediately re-

appeared 03°

lower. This break

was devoid of the

streak, which re-

mained after the

meteor had va-

ro nished.
om below Polaris towards the}......... Pee Bee qanrsa|UIGsnsscacensecarasfhGs | ccasperscesssse Ibid.
ast, downwards at an angle
4
ll downwards, bursting duel....... cccacsense see |[DId....eeeceeees .|An assistant to/Ibid.
E. at an altitude of 45°. E. J. Lowe.
Be Andromede, passing NS ree oulee'sWapdtenae << Obser’, Beeston jId. ........... .+.{Lbid.
vy y Pegasi, vanished in-
Rencouly.
MEEMU sess caecvcsscesesscssccecens|resceescavencevacceseces Highfield House|E. J. Lowe, Esq.|/Ibid. See Appendix,
q Observatery. No. 5.
down in N.W. from an al-|Very bright......... Bulwell ......... G. Allcock, Jun.,|Ibid.

ltude of 40°. Esq.

58 - REPORT—1856.
Appearance and Brightness ‘ Velocity or |
Dries pour. magnitude. and colour. a duration. |
1855. | hm
Dec. 5)A large met|eor seen. f 4
6) 5 40 p.m. |=2nd mag.* ......... Bluish ......+0. Streaks. ..ccsvereseeease Rapid .......e000
11 p.m. till |Several small with |Colourless .../Train .......sses+...seseseeee Rapid ......000 e |
11 30
12|Many meteors .........ceeccecceseeccn[ececesesrenesaccer|teeettecscnensesteeeeccrsccssseas|seeeesseeaease tans one
11 22 pra Pndimagt......602 Colourless .../Long streak...............40. Rapid ........ ool
13/12 40a.m. |=2nd mag.* ......... Colourless ...j/Long streak ................0. Rapid ....... toes tl
12 45am: |=2nd mag.* ......... Colourless .../Long streak ......0.....00000. Rapid .........eefit
1856. >
CEO 7A OI ICE 07 Gl enn Bes ene eS COOSEROCOReE: Honhel Cosocenceetac-oce cascada. ccseec| bi sarosetacs veocsmal |
7|A large metleor seen at Chelmsfor]d, cloudy here.|.........-+seeeseseeesecssseenee|aneeneccee tonnes vol
11) 7 15 p.m. [Small ......... Fepecnes Colourledyy (cc\se.ceesesciceescecgaes+seonceneas Rapid ........ ool
12|11 16 p.m. |=2ndmag.* ......... Red 4ittivas: Streake-vsssnsevtie eee. Slowly, duratio 7
secs.
27| °F Puts Ell |. cecsseesnsaene ses poss snsac|oanessccccvaoacsns|seessnecensonssadspeveveseonteuess|arcieeevnceseaane + oon
9 p.m. : |
\12) S.acm. |=Ist mag-*...}.....02- Richi scarlet. 2. |(UVai” sc .sossepececessecedaes 2 secs., slowly...
Feb. 2) 7 45 p.m. |=2nd mag.* ......... Colourléss: ».::|Train: sss hte eet Rapid <2... s¢eem E
=3rd mag.* '
3|7 55 p.m. |A splendid meteor ...|......... BAY Sigg) Hoc aoa acer depaber ae dnviscercpseyeccemteee Pree
7 55 p.m. |4 size of moon......... Green, (Oratipeiinesce: «04s Veer esudeseccenccustee Duration 2 secs’
andred, very rapid.
brilliant.
7
13j\l- 7 30 + |=2nd mag.* |........ Blue......<sse0. WGRCAlos rath aotes cca dcenesons Instantaneous ...,
a.m.
Mar. 8/12 60am. |=3rd mag.* ......... Colourlesy %..|Streak)..2....-aasesnespo see Hapid’)secc=s caces
April 3] 1 23am. |=Ist mag.*............ Yellow «...--... Sikealerncsces.<teccgesucesnes Duration 1 sec.
1 27 am. |=8ud mage 2....:... BlnCs.oscssectss icealke)f.scscerquoestusercsees Duration 1 sec.
May 30)12 51am. |=3rd mag.*

--|Bluish ...... tvs | No train: vce ee ks Rapid, duration 0%

sec.

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 59

tion or altitude. General remarks. Place. Observer. Reference.

E. J. Lowe, Esq.|Mr. Lowe’s MS.
OTS AN asa ec Ibid.

Ale. vasene sain app 1 Be eee cecr ooach Ibid.

é
PR Pe eden ate tewereseeseserse eee! SOEraseeeeetanaasesesee®

m Castor down towards EH. .|........:.:scsseeerereee UGS eA aoe WS Maecisse ssc cehen Ibid.
pendic. down from f Cygni tite boost PDIGs- 28 esters -asops Uh i Gacae epee Ibid.
pendic. down from Dragon’s)..........:1.sseeseeeeee Mie secse ches, Lbs SyacecnResgaeee Ibid.
ead.

Pisevsssssessesssseseeeesssssseeeee{A loud report in S.l[bid........-sessse- Pelee ots Ibid.

NX somewhat differ-
ent to thunder:

.
PREER eee ede seeeeresseeeeteresssesrleneeeee Pe eee were ee eeeene

pendic. down to 1° abovel......se.... socecseseee
Saturn.

Mepeaechrtcesas Td. cescs..ss0a8e sid
2°, and to N. of @ Arietis.
Mens on nesces po cusses oe Manysmall meteors|Ibid........... shrenilAlpn sweyeneesysseet Ibid.
pm No. 28 to No. 5 in Mo-)............00ee000 pes MDiGcsenc+ecamenes ss 113 aoe PRR RB eee Ibid
1oceros,
ved through Pacing LO Zhe a} seldeoe Sacro Tbids.....2...5 Dados (Teh. Mi PR RENANG «ce Ibid
bai the zodiacallight (which
as brilliant), near y Pegasi,
fading near the edge of zo-
diacal light; on bursting sud-
denly increased considerably
m size but not in brightness.
semen Ua ea Tde poseras>ospene] SIC
wards at an ‘angle OLGA Nea crecete tc We acener ees MBGees Neecas ss. 55% Wenitctererscces re Ibid.
sed 5° S. of Orion’s belt.
s meteor, when first seen,
green, then changed to
nge, and then to red.
ese changes took place
denly without altering the
of the meteor.
d through Saturn, felll........... Batis cihes SLAs shock eae 1G Hear Peon cenee Ibid
lown at an angle of 50° to-
wards W.
ndic. down in Cassiopeia.|.......2ssssessceseeeees Os PRBS oceeeee LGA racic Seeesne se [bid
ontally towards N., passe).........sseeeseseeeeees TIDYleesascccepeasto: ASS Sec ccctscesnese [bid
ough @& Cygni.
towards N.W., passed].............0 Pecans U]orG LP aneseee areas QENS. canes s oases Ibid
ough Gemini.
m « Corone, passing 5° be-|..........sseeeeerseeees Tbid........0+..0... MGS ocnastea ease tbid

w Arcturus. Like a spark.
Ap acety very low.

60 : REPORT—1856.

APPENDIX.

No. i.—Extract from Prof. C. P. Smyth’s communication. (Meteor, Dec.
11, 1855.)

“Tt was apparently below the clouds, for they were thick and compact
cirrostrati in all that part of the sky, shutting out all the stars and reflecting
the glare of distant iron-works; and the meteor showed no symptoms of shining
through the cloudy medium, for it was well-defined. The clouds were such
as have an altitude of four to five miles attributed to them, and have a very
scattering effect-on rays of light passing through them, and must have been
composed of frozen particles ; one or two stars were hazily seen through the
clouds in the S. and S.W.”

No. 2.—Meteor, Jan. 7, 1856.

“ To the Editor of the Kentish Gazette.

« Srr,—This evening, at a quarter before five o'clock, being at St. Thomas’s
Hill, near Canterbury, I was struck by what appeared a rocket in brilliancy,
but with sparks more compacted than usual. I ran to a position where no
trees intercepted my sight, and was astonished to find a bright vertical line—
[to appearance about 6 ft. long and 2 in. wide ] *—in the south, immediately
under Saturn.

«“ There was no cloud near it, or indeed, on the whole hemisphere at the
time. Its brilliancy exceeded that of the planet, and it seemed to emit light
in the manner of a gilded snake.

“Tt continued about five minutes with this aspect, when its form began to
change, and showed a bold curve in its centre, with a deflection at each ex-
tremity ; at this time, a bright, waving, thread-like tail became visible, and
very soon after a similar vermiform appearance in the opposite direction was
to be seen at the top. As the body, so to speak, curved, so it appeared to
become broader, and in about 10 minutes the general direction was changed,
for it had lost its vertical direction, and was just acquiring a horizontal one.

“ Tt was not till this time that its nature could be defined; but now it
showed that it was a thin cloud, and it finally passed away without leaving
a trace behind.

“Tam, Sir, yours truly,
7th January, 1856. “ Wititiam Masters.”

No. 3.—Diagram of meteor, January 7, 1855, accompanying Mr, Rowell’s
letter.

No. 4.— Extract of a letter from Mrs. Smyth.

“ January 1855.

“ On Monday the 7th instant, as I was returning homeward from the
northward with a friend about a quarter before five o’clock p.m., my friend
suddenly exclaimed, ‘ There is a rocket!’ pointing to the southward in the di-
rection of the Chiltern Hills. She saw it explode at the lower end of a long
and rather slanting fiery train. Be

* The part in brackets is given as communicated.

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 61

__ “ The sky being very clear, it was still bright day-light. Supposing it only
a rocket, although a gigantic one, we resumed our conversation, but the sta-
~ tionary character of the train again attracted our attention, though we ascribed
it chiefly to the stillness of the air, or not quite so oblique. After

upwards of five minutes it gradually became less dense, as if the

t fiery flakes or atoms receded from each other. Thenit gradually
assumed the appearance of a series of very bright small clouds
at sun-set, only the brightest side was turned to the eastward.

_ Elevation of the phenomenon above the horizon at first about p
_ 35°. Length of the train about 5°. When the train became dis- r
_ membered it seemed to have risen higher in the atmosphere, by t?)
~ some 10°. , o

Hf I regret much from the wrong impression, tHat I did not take

more accurate notes of this very bright meteor, as it proved to be.

No. 5.—Extract of a note from Mr. Lowe.

“J beg to enclose you sketches and description of the remarkable meteor
(No. 10 of the foregoing Catalogue) which was seen here on the 19th of De-
cember 1855, at 6° 13™ a.m.

. Cy
‘ “ The meteor was first seen in N.N.W., moving towards the W. Fig. 1
represents the appearance when at the brightest, at which time it more closely
resembled a brilliant flash of lightning than a meteor ; the light, for the mo-
_ ment it lasted, equaling that of day. When first seen it was not far distant
_ from the position of H 17 Camelopardi, and moving downwards to midway be-
tween Capella and py Persei. The size was about that of the apparent diameter
' of the moon. There was no noise of explosion heard. After the meteor
_ itself had vanished, a belt of light, similar to that of a comet’s tail, was visible
along the whole path of the meteor; this gradually became less bright, and
after a short time the lower portion was curved towards the east. Fig.2
_ shows its first appearance, and fig. 3 when curved; later it assumed the form
of fig. 4, and afterwards of fig. 5; when it nearly approached that of a cir-
_ cular band ; the upper portion never moved its position in the heavens. Fi-
nally, on breaking up the base of the circle disappeared first. It was visible
fully ten minutes. A falling star of about the Ist magnitude crossed over
the band horizontally from W. to E., starting near Capella and moving
towards e Cassiopeiz.
“The night was cloudless with a cutting E.S.E. wind.
“E, J. Lowe.”

F
fc

No. 6.—Extract of a note from Mr. Lowe.
“ Observatory, Beeston near Nottingham,
July 25, 1856.
*« From the appearances presented in the several large meteors seen at the
_ end of last and at the beginning of this year, it appears evident to me that

62 REPORT—1856.

these bodies are not se/f-luminous. The light seems to be owing to the me-

teor, instead of the light of the meteor ; probably the great speed causes a pe-

culiar property of the upper regions to ignite, at the instant of ignition being ~
an intense blaze, and then subsiding into a phosphorescent fame, which may
linger for a length of time and be wafted along by currents of air, as was the
case in several instances. In the case of the meteor of Dec. 19, 1855, it moved
over 183° in less than a second of time; it cannot therefore be supposed that
the meteor itself could be within 5° of this path 10 minutes afterwards. Now
if we suppose the meteor burst at this point (which to me seems improbable),
it must have burst in a medium where light could shine, and if so it is as easy
to suppose some substance should be ignited, as the meteor itself should blaze.
The intense brightness is too great for reflected light. “EJ. Lows”

Fig. 5.

Photochemical Researches. By Professor Bunsen, of Heidelberg,
and Dr. Henry E. Roscos, of London.

We had the honour of laying before the Chemical Section of the British
Association at the Glasgow Meeting, a short account of a series of experi-
ments which we had undertaken with the view of becoming more nearl
acquainted with the laws which regulate the chemical action of light, and of
obtaining, if possible, a measure for this action.

_ These experiments, the continuation of which las been assisted by a
grant from the Association, have been extended during the present summer
months, and we beg to lay before the meeting, in a short report, the chief
results as yet obtained.

The method employed by us for measuring the chemical action of light is
founded upon the well-known fact that chlorine and hydrogen combine when
exposed to light. The employment of this reaction as a measure of the
chemical action of light was proposed and practically carried out by Dr.
Draper of New York in 1844, to whom belongs the great credit of first
having attempted to obtain a measure for this action. A number of experi-
ments instituted for the purpose of testing the accuracy of the instrument
proposed by Draper, assured us, however, that not only for observations
extending over a considerable period of time, but even for those of short
duration the indications of the instrument were not reliable. ‘The possibility
of obtaining exact photometrical results with a mixture of chlorine and hy-
drogen, depends upon the fulfilment of various conditions which in Draper’s
tithonometer have not been regarded. Of these conditions the two most
essential are—

1. The constant composition and purity of the gaseous mixture.

2. Constant pressure exerted upon the gas.

It is easy to show from the laws of gas absorption that the method em-

PHOTOCHEMICAL RESEARCHES. 63

_ ployed by Draper for evolving the sensitive gas never could have furnished
it of constant composition.

__ Draper's instrument consists of a siphon tube, of which one limb is short
and closed, and the other longer, narrow and open at top. The long limb is
furnished with a scale, the shorter one has two platinum wires melted into
the glass near the bend. The whole of the short, and part of the long limb,
is filled with hydrochloric acid saturated with chlorine, and by means of an
electric current the acid can be decomposed and the gases collected in the
short limb. According to Draper no gaseous chlorine is evolved during the
electrolysis of hydrochloric acid; the hydrogen, however, set free at the
negative pole passing through the liquid displaces some of the chlorine held
in solution, and thus a sensitive gas is obtained and collected in the shorter
siphon limb. The composition of this gas cannot, however, be constant, for
according to the law of gas absorption, when a mixture of gases is collected
over water, the free gas cannot possess a fixed composition before a certain
relation between the volumes of the dissolved gases has been attained. Until
this equilibrium has ensued, a continuous interchange between the volumes
of free and dissolved gases must take place, and in the case of the tithono-
meter this equilibrium is not even approached. Another more considerable
source of error in Draper’s instrument lies in the difference of pressure to
which the gas is subjected during the experiments, arising from the gradual
fall of the liquid in the longer limb in proportion as the sensitive gas is

acted upon by the light.

Having assured ourselves that the indications of the tithonometer cannot be
relied on, the necessity of obtaining an instrument in which the foregoing
and many other essential conditions are fulfilled; beeame apparent. The
first object therefore was to obtain a gas consisting of equal volumes of
chlorine and hydrogen of constant composition. This object we attained
(contrary to Draper's express statement) by the electrolysis of aqueous
hydrochloric acid. Exact volumetric analysis convinced us that as soon as
the acid is saturated with the two gases, in accordance with the laws of ab-
sorption, the evolved gas consists exactly of equal volumes of chlorine and
_ hydrogen, unaccompanied by oxides of chlorine, or hydrogen or other im-
purities. After many fruitless attempts, we have at length constructed an
apparatus in which the second, and all other required conditions are satisfied,
_ and by means of which we have been enabled not only to obtain a relative,
_ but even an absolute measure for the chemical action of light.

_. This apparatus, represented in Pl. III., is constructed entirely of glass,

and consists essentially of four parts: firstly, a tube (a) containing carbon
or platinum poles fastened on platinum wires melted through the glass,
serving for the electrolytic decomposition of the aqueous hydrochloric acid ;

_ secondly, a set of bulbs for washing the gas, furnished with a glass stopcock

for shutting off the supply of gas; thirdly, a small flattened giass bulb (c)

_ containing water, in which the gas is exposed to the action of the light; and

fourthly, a capillary tube (d) furnished with a millimetre scale, on which the

_ diminution of volume caused by the absorption of the hydrochloric acid is

- accurately observed by the advancing column of water. Each of these

pieces is fitted air-tight into its place by ground-glass joints, so that no

_ caoutchouc or other organic substance comes in contact with the sensitive gas.

In this arrangement the pressure is rendered constant throughout the
whole apparatus by raising or depressing the exit tube dipping into the
bottle (e) filled with water, and by means of the horizontal absorption tube
(d) the pressures before and after the experiment do not differ by two milli-
_ metres of water.

64 REPORT—1856.

A series of experiments conducted with lamp-light for the purpose of
testing the accuracy of the instrument, gave the following results :—

As soon as the atmospheric air has been completely expelled from the ap-
paratus by the electrolytic gas, and the equilibrium between the amounts of
gas absorbed by the water, and the free gas established, an action is observed
on exposing the gas to the light. This action, however, does not commence
immediately on exposure to the light ; a short time elapses before the absorp-
tion of the water in the tube (d) begins, but this soon takes place, showing
that the combination effected by the light in the vessel (¢) has commenced.
This absorption becomes gradually quicker until a certain rapidity is at-
tained, after which the action continues regular as long as the source of
light remains constant. This peculiar phenomenon, to which we have given
the name of Photochemical Induction, is one of great interest and import-
ance, and as the study of this branch of the subject has occupied our par-
ticular attention, the results obtained will be subsequently detailed.

On passing more gas through the apparatus and again isolating the
mixture, the same phenomenon is observed, with the difference, that the
constant action is larger than in the former case, that is, the gaseous mixture
has become more sensitive. In this way, by continuing to lead the gas
evolved from successive portions of hydrochloric acid through the apparatus,
the action brought about by a gas flame of the same dimensions increases
regularly, until, after having continued the operation for several (from 12 to
18) hours, the amount of action effected by the flame remains constant.
The apparatus has then attained its maximum degree of sensibility, and, as
we shall show, always gives comparable results. Before this maximum
action is attained, upwards of 5000 cub. cent. of gas must be passed through
the apparatus, which contains only about 2 cub. cent. of water requiring
saturation. Observations made with the apparatus thus prepared, showed
that the light from a gas lamp concentrated by a lens produced always
exactly the same amount of action on various days and with fresh gaseous
mixtures evolved from different portions of acid. These experiments sutficed
to show that our apparatus was capable of producing reliable and accurate
results. We next determined the limits of concentration between which the
hydrochloric acid can be used, and experiment showed that the amount of an-
hydrous acid contained in solution must not diminish to 20 per cent., as the gas
evolved from an acid of that concentration nolonger gives the maximum action.

Having assured ourselves that the apparatus gave, under these circum-
stances, comparable results, it became necessary to examine whether the
heat evolved from the combination of the gases, and more especially the
heat radiated from the source of light, had any appreciable effect upon the
indications. By comparing the relative volumes of the vessel, in which the
insolation takes place, and the absorption tube, it was found that a rise of
less than 0°-04 Cent. in the mass of the gas would cause an expansion of
1 millimetre on the absorption tube. Hence the apparatus is not only a
photometer, but also a very delicate air-thermometer. In order to prevent
any of the rays of radiant heat from expanding the gas, the insolation-vessel
was placed behind a double metallic screen furnished with a metallic cap

fitting over the vessel. The rays of light fell on the gas through an opening °

in the screen filled by a layer of water contained between two plate-glass
surfaces. By filling the apparatus with atmospheric air, it was proved that
with this arrangement the source of light may be placed within a few inches
of the gaseous mixture, without the radiant heat interfering in the least with
the indications. ‘The sources of exterior error arising from radiant heat
having been thus removed, it only remained to determine whether the heat

eee? a>

PHOTOCHEMICAL RESEARCHES. 65

evolved from the slow combustion of the chlorine and hydrogen exerted any
perceptible action upon the instrument.
On suddenly cutting off the light from the sensitive gas, the action is

found not to cease immediately. This absorption, after the exclusion of the
light, may be owing to three causes.

1. The combination of the gases may continue for a short time after the
removal of the light.

2. The hydrochloric acid formed may not be instantaneously removed by
solution in the water.

3. The decrease of volume may be produced from the whole gas cooling
down, owing to the heat of combustion no longer being added to it.

Experiments undertaken to determine which of these three suppositions
was true, showed that this contraction could be almost completely accounted
for, from the decrease of temperature of the gas, proving therefore that the
first two assumptions were groundless. This contraction is so small that it
does not in the least degree interfere with the accuracy of the observation.

In order still more fully to test our apparatus, an arrangement was made
by means of which a small jet of coal-gas could be brought within different
measured distances of the sensitive mixture, and the amount of the decom-
position effected measured. The results thus obtained showed most exactly
that the chemical action varied inversely as the square of the distance from
the source of light, proving that the chemical rays obey the same general
law as the visible rays, and affording another evidence of the accuracy of
the results obtained by this instrument. Observations made with this ar-
rangement also showed that exactly the same action was effected by the
flame, placed at the same distance, at different times extending over a period
of one month. The amounts of action effected by the same flame on various
days from the 12th to the 26th of June, were 13:99, 13°83, 13°76, 13°84.

Photochemical Induction.

Chemical affinity, or the force which causes different bodies to unite and
form chemical compounds, is in every particular case a certain definitive,
unalterable quantity, which like all other forces (and matter itself) can
neither be created nor destroyed. Hence it is incorrect to say that, under
certain circumstances, a body attains an affinity which under other circum-
stances it loses. All that can be said in such a case is, that the body at one
time follows the chemical attraction, and at another time is retarded by
forces acting in an opposite direction. This opposite action may be con-
ceived to be a resistance similar to that occurring in friction, or in the
passage of’ electricity through conductors. This resistance is overcome
when we facilitate the formation of a precipitate by agitation, or when che-
mical action is brought about by increase of temperature, catalytic action,
or insolation. The existence of such a resistance presupposes a certain com-
bining power, which may be measured by the amount of combination caused
by the unit of force in the unit space of time.

The act by which this resistance is overcome, and the state reached in
which combination takes place, we have called Chemical Induction. The
laws which regulate the action of chemical affinity, when this resistance is
fully eliminated, are as yet entirely unknown to us; and although the solution
of this, the most important problem in our science, appears at present so far
removed, it is at least desirable that facts should be found which may form
starting-points in this new field of research. The interesting relations in
which the phenomena of photochemical induction stand to these questions,
have induced us to examine this part of the subject with particular attention.

1856. F

66 REPORT—1856.

The circumstance that the combination of chlorine and hydrogen does
not take place immediately on exposure to the light, was observed by Draper
in 1844. This was explained by him on the supposition that the chlorine,
by exposure to the light, was transformed into a permanent allotropic modi-
fication which differed from ordinary chlorine by possessing greater com-
bining power. We have convinced ourselves that this explanation of the
phenomenon is incorrect, and have proved that it is connected with actions
of a very peculiar nature which may be classed together under the term of
Chemical Induction.

A number of experiments made with both diffuse solar and lamp-light,
with different mixtures and various masses of sensitive gas for the purpose
of determining the inductive action, showed that the times which elapse until
the action begins, and until the maximum action is attained, are very different.
We therefore next proceeded to examine the various causes which might
influence the amount of the induction. First, the relation between the
inductive action and the mass of the gas; secondly, the effect produced on
the inductive action by variation of the amount of light, with a constant
volume of gas; thirdly, the effect produced on the inductive action by
allowing the gas to remain in the dark; and fourthly, the action of small
quantities of foreign gases upon the induction.

Experiments carried on with the view of answering the first of these
questions, showed that the inductive action, or the transition of the gas from
the inactive to the active state, was retarded by increase of the mass of gas.
A larger volume of gas had to be insolated for a longer time than a smaller
volume before the maximum action ensued.

The influence of the amount of light on the rate of the inductive action
was proved to be very great. The time required for induction diminished
with increase of the amount of light, and in a quicker proportion than the
increase of light.

On allowing a sensitive mixture, which had already been insolated, and
had attained its maximum action, to stand for some time in the dark, it was
found that upon readmission of light the action did not begin again immedi-
ately, but a new induction was necessary before the maximum action was
attained. Hence the change effected upon the gas by the light is not a per-
manent one, for after the light is withdrawn, the gas returns to its original
inactive state, and requires as long an insolation before the maximum action
is again reached as in the case with the original gas. This fact is of itself
sufficient to disprove Draper's statement that this active condition of the gas
when once brought about by the action of light is permanent. We have
also convinced ourselves by experiment, that the supposition of a non-per-
manent allotropic modification of either gas as an explanation of this phe-
nomenon is untenable. ‘The gases evolved by the electrolysis of hydrochloric
acid were collected separately, and after each gas had separately traversed a
tube which could be exposed to direct solar rays, the gases were allowed to
mix, and were then passed into the apparatus. On examining the action of
lamp-light on the mixture, no difference in the rapidity of the action could
be perceived between the sensitive gas, the constituents of which had been
separately exposed to direct sunlight, and that which had not been previously
insolated. From these experiments it is seen that the explanation of the
phenomenon of photochemical induction is not to be sought in any
allotropic modification of either gas.

The effect produced by the presence of small traces of foreign gases upon
the induction is very remarkable. We have found that the sensibility of
the gaseous mixture depends entirely upon the absence of every trace of

=

i ee

PHOTOCHEMICAL RESEARCHES. 67

foreign gas. The retarding action of oxygen upon the. mixture is the most
marked ; the addition of one per cent. of this gas to the chlorine and hydro-
gen mixture reduced the amount of action to 25th; and the presence of a
mere trace of this gas (probably not more than ,,,;th per cent.) diminished
the action to one half of the normal amount. Excess of either chlorine or
hydrogen was found to act in the same manner, but not to sucha remarkable
extent. ‘This retarding action of oxygen accounts for the very great length
of time which it is necessary to lead the gas through the apparatus before
the maximum action is attained.

The diminution of the sensibility of the chlorine and hydrogen mixture
when foreign gases are present, gives a very accurate measure of the cata-

lytic action effected by such gases.

The simple relations which exist between the amount of hydrochloric acid
formed by the action of the light and the time of exposure, and amount of
light, were first observed by Draper. We have confirmed his results in this
respect, and have proved that both laws hold good for diffuse solar as well
as for lamp-light. The relations are the following :—

1. The amount of chemical action effected by a constant source of light
is directly proportional to the time of exposure.

2. The amount of chemical action effected by the light in equal times, is
directly proportional to the amount of light.

These laws are of course only applicable when the phenomena of induction
have been fully eliminated.) A third relation which we have established is,
that the amount of chemical action varies inversely as the square of the di-
stance between the source of light and the sensitive mixture.

The experimental difficulties which accompany the examination of the
relations existing between the amount of action and the mass of the gas, are
of so peculiar and considerable a nature, that although we have been occu-
pied for more than a month upon this branch of the subject, we have not as
yet succeeded in arriving at the law which regulates the action. We have,
however, already proved that after the light has passed through a certain
depth of the gas, it is no longer capable of causing a combination to take
place ; and we have further proved that the depth at which the light ceases
to act upon the mixture is very different for light from various sources.
Differences in this respect have not only been found in light from different
sources, but the diffuse solar light reflected from a perfectly cloudless sky is
found to differ, not only in the quantity, but also in the quality of the chemi-
cal rays according to the sun’s altitude. These interesting observations are
not complete, but the results as yet obtained give promise of further import-
ant relations being established between the nature and amount of the
chemical rays falling upon the earth’s surface at various periods of the day.

Reduction of the Chemical Action of Light to an Absolute Measure.

The difficulty of obtaining any constant terrestrial source of light threw
great obstacles in the way of reducing the chemical action of light to an
absolute measure. The normal source of light which we have chosen for
the calibration of our instrument (fig. 1), is a flame of pure carbonic oxide gas
streaming from a large (3 millims in diameter) platinum burner, and issuing
under a constant pressure of half a millimetre of water. By measuring the
volumes of gas burned by different-sized flames and observing the chemical
action produced, it was found that even with the homogenous flame of carbonic
oxide, the chemical action increases in a greater ratio than the volume of
gas burned. This relation between the action produced and the volume of

F2

68 REPORT—1856.

gas burned, we have determined by accurate experiment, so that between
certain limits we can calculate the amount of action produced by burning
the unit volume of gas issuing at a given rate. We call the unit amount of
action for any instrument that produced by burning a cubic millimetre of
carbonic oxide at the distance of one millimetre from the sensitive gas, issuing
under the above-mentioned circumstances.

The interesting relations of the reflexion, absorption, and polarization of
the chemical rays, we hope to have the honour of laying before the Section
on a future occasion.

Heidelberg, August 5th, 1856.

On the Trigonometry of the Parabola, and the Geometrical Origin of
Logarithms. By the Rev. James Boorn, LL.D., F.R.S. &c.

{A Communication ordered to be printed among the Reports. ]

WHEN engaged, some years ago, in researches on the geometrical properties
of elliptic integrals, the results of which appeared in two memoirs printed in
the Philosophical Transactions for 1852 and 1854, I was led to discuss a par-
ticular case of a cardinal theorem in the theory of elliptic integrals. Cer-
tainly no discovery was anticipated in matters so long known and thoroughly
investigated as the theory of logarithms and the properties of the parabola.
The propositions I now bring before the Section are, I believe, entirely new;
and as they open a field of research in a department of geometrical science
studied by every mathematician in the course of his reading, I thought the
discussion of them might not prove unacceptable to the Mathematical Section
of the British Association.

SEcTION I.

I. Let the angles w, ¢, and y, which we shall call conjugate amplitudes, be
connected by the equation

tanw=tangsecx+tanysecg?. . . . . « « (1)
Hence w is such a function of ¢ and x as will render
tan[¢, x]=tan psec y+ tan x sec 9.

We must adopt some appropriate notation to represent this function. Let
the function [¢, x] be written ¢+x, so that

tan (¢+ x)= tan ¢ sec x + tan x sec d.

This equation must be taken as the definition of the function ¢+ x.
. In like manner we may represent by tan (¢--x) the expression

tan @ sec y— tan x sec @.
From (1) we obtain

sec w=sec($+y)=sec psecy+tangtany. . . . » (2)
If we now differentiate the equation

tan w= tan ¢sec y+ tan x sec ¢,
we shall have

diy - sec a= q sec g sec y+ dx tang tan x |

cos w cos @ cos x
pas. 4, ie Pakage eve ke
—— tan ¢ tan sec ¢ sec
i cos’ Rie cos x Pi

DEO Shr ~« mete.
a

ON THE TRIGONOMETRY OF THE PARABOLA. 69

Adding these expressions together, and introducing the relation established

in (2), we find
dw do dx
—SS=] — ————_ ——. . . . e . 5
COS w cos g * cos x (5)
This is the differential equation which connects the amplitudes w, ¢, and x.
As w, ¢, and x are supposed to vanish together, we shall have by integration,

dw _ | do dy |.
{= =(26+4 26: a. Oa

or in the more compact notation,
fsec w du={ sec g dp+f sec x dy. Parr Oe ae feel fF so

Hence if w, ¢, and y are connected by the relation assumed in (1), we shall
have the simple relation between the integrals expressed in (5).

II. If in (1) we make the following imaginary substitutions, that is to
say, put Vv¥—J sing for tang, “—1sin@ for tany, 7 —] sin y for tan w,
cos @ for sec ¢, cos B for sec x, cos y for secw, and change + into + and +
into —, we shall have sin y= sin (a+/()=sin a cos 6+ sin G cos a, the well-
known expression for the sine of the sum of two arcs of a circle.

We shall show presently that an arc of a parabola measured from the

vertex may be expressed by the integral fseco dd, @ being the angle which the

normal to the are at its other extremity makes with the axis, or the angle
between the normals drawn to the arc at its extremities.
+ and + may be called logarithmic plus and minus. As examples of the

analogy which exists between the trigonometry of the parabola and that of

the circle, the following expressions in parallel columns are given ; premising
that the formule marked by corresponding letters may be derived singly,
one from the other, by the help of the preceding imaginary transformations.

In applying the imaginary transformations, or while tan ¢ is changed into
4 —1 sin ¢, sec ¢ into cos ¢, and cot ¢ into — /—1 cosec ¢, + must be
changed into +, and + into —; as also fsec gd ¢ into ¢V —1t.

The reader who has not proceeded beyond the elements of trigonometry
may assume the fundamental formula as proved. He will find little else that
requires more than a knowledge of plane trigonometry.

* The relation between the conjugate amplitudes w, , and y, was originally obtained in
this way. In the theory of elliptic integrals, any three conjugate amplitudes are connected
by the equation
: cos w= cos cos y— singsiny V1—#sin?o .....
zis called the modulus. When we make i=0, we get

cos w= cos ¢cosy—singsiny or w=¢+y in the trigonometry of
the circle. When we take the complement of 0, or make <=1, we get
: sec w= sec @ sec y-++ tan ¢ tan y or w=9o+y
in the trigonometry of the parabola. Whence, as above,
tan w= tan¢ sec y+ tan yx sec ¢.

+ I hardly need to remind the advanced reader, that this is the imaginary transformation
by which we are enabled, in elliptic functions of the third order, to pass from the circular
form to the Togarithmic forma, or to pass from the properties of a curve described on the sur-
face of a sphere to its analogue described on the surface of a paraboloid of revolution. See
the author’s paper “‘ On the Geometrical Properties of Elliptic Integrals,” in the Philosphical
Transactions for 1852, pp. 362, 368, and for 1854, p. 53. :

REPORT—1856.

70

e

. . . .

X us —$ us =(X—¢) us (X+ 4) urs
X—¢ pue X+¢ aq sopnyzydue ay} yorT
6g 800 + [=$¢ S00 G

Pea ot ses | hd DE tee
(ob us + $ 800) =9z us + T

. . . . . . .

° (i—)/z La 2 32 we ee oe
1-6-9 1-9? = uis =) o-9+ yp ja 2800
p uey —I
bug =¢z ur}

‘ wis —¢ .s09 =$z 809

> ‘hsoo ¢ us Z=%z UIs

X=$ yo]
X avy $ uey + J

A ae Ape acing =(X—$) ur}
X wey > uey—

Pre joe Samer <omgtn eae =(X+¢) ue}

‘X urs ¢ us +X soa 6 soo =(X +6) soo
-$ soo X us —X soo $ us = (X—$) urs
- +6 soo X urs +X soo ¢ us =(X +4) urs

aly) ayn Jo hgawouobrs, 7

(4) ° 5 ee 8 # X wey —¢ uy =(X+ ¢) wey (X--4) oey
X+o pue X-- > aq sapnyydure oy} 40"

fat foes aoe paper! fi
we * [1—(¢+¢) v0s=¢ ,0R} g

(v) Set ie {fo ue} [— +6 rast =(¢+-¢) ary Ey at
pees. =buy——3 = a0s
dp doas ee teal” op do0s f-9 + op 000s f?
b.uis + T
() see eee WG See ee SD eee, ! ipo Gt ees aaa =($-+$%) UIs

(qe st ee ace Be BE ate oes
eae 2 Sc “eee:

“p ,uvy + 008 =($-- >) das
“boas > ur} G=(9-+ 4%) uey

X= oT
Xarts $ us — |

Owes. a koe San oaee ee ee
X us uls + [

(2) «Ja Ta ee eee ee “ag Eo ute. =(X+¢) uls

‘X ue $ uey FX oas 6 008 =(X+ F) o08
-$ aas X uvy —X oas ¢ uey =(X-—+¢) urey
-h aas X ue, +X oas 6 uey = (XG) wey

‘II
“mjoqoing ayy fo hujamouobrs 7

pavieile:

s ON THE TRIGONOMETRY OF THE PARABOLA. 71
;

Since sec(¢-+-¢)=sec’¢+ tan’ ¢, and tan (¢+¢)=2 tan ¢ sec ¢,
sec (+4) + tan (¢-+o)=(sec ¢-+ tan ¢).

sec (p--g-+4)=sec (¢+9) sec p+ tan (p+) tan @,

tan (p+ ¢+¢)=tan ($9) sec p+ sec (#9) tan ¢,
it follows that
sec (p+ 9+4)-+ tan (p-+9-+4)=(see p+ tan 9)’,
and so on to any number of angles. Hence
sec (d--o-+¢... to mG) +tan(~+9o+¢... to nd)=(secpt tang)”. (6)
Introduce into the last expression the imaginary transformation
tan ¢= W=1 sing,

Again, as

and

and we get Demoivre’s imaginary theorem for the circle,
cos no + / —1 sinnd= {cos 6+ WV —1 sin g}”.
This is a particular case of the more general theorem
sec (a@+B+y+d+ &.)+tan(a+B+y+s+ &e.)
=(sec a+ tan a)(sec B+ tan B)(sec y+ tan y)(sec 6+ tan 0) &c.*
In the circle, ae ,
an i
isan a PESTA OS PO NOE
Accordingly, in the parabola,

ka Meanie py ae Melee g) "| (aa)
1—/ Ising _ 1—7 —1 tan(¢+4¢)

2sin 2p—sin 4 |

Fein 99-+sin 4g PENT 82. . ED

2tan (¢-+¢)+tan (¢+o+¢+¢) (66)

cos 26=cos‘g—sin*g, . - - « + « « (ce)

Tn the circle,
tan’ ¢ =
hence in the parabola,
sin’¢=
In the circle,

hence in the parabola,

sec(¢+¢)=sec*g—tan*g@. . . - « «= (yy)

In the circle, ( jain ( )
2 tan? a —- Si(gtx) sin (=x) . :
tan? ¢—tan? y = ae doteb 2 - (dd)
therefore in parabolic trigonometry,
=k Mae tees Bs (g+x) tan ($+)
sin o—sin’? yx = dec aiee" encase 7"
Tn the circle,

dei 1—cos 26
tan ¢ = coy Shh oe ore
? 1+ cos 2¢ (ee)

* Hence cos (w+B+y+d+ &c.)+ / —1 sin (2+B+y+6+ &c.)
=(cos «++ »/ =I sin «)(cos B+ “—1 sin B)(cos y+ / —1 sin y)(cosd-+-4/ —I1 sin 0) &ce

92 REPORT—1856.

Accordingly, in the trigonometry of the parabola,

see (pg) +1 (ee)

sing =

If

sin ¢ __ sin (—x) (fe ids ke ae oe Ce
tan sin(yx—W)’

it is easily shown that tan ¢, tan x, and tan y are in harmonic progression.

Hence it follows in parabolic trigonometry, that if

tan p __ tan(+x) 0 ge Se
a Sel

sin , sin x, and sin y are in harmonic progression.

Let © be conjugate to ~ and w, while w, as before, is conjugate to
and xy. Then we shall have

tana=tan(¢+y+y),
or
tan (¢+yx+y)=tan ¢ sec x sec y+ tan x sec psec ¢
+tanysecgsecy+tangtanytanb . . « « « « (@)
sec (++ y)=sec ¢ sec x sec p+ sec ¢ tan x tan p
+secytanwtand+secwtangtany. . ... +. + (p)
and

‘ Ercan — sing+siny+sin y+ sin ¢ sin y sin p :
a ay ¥) 1+sinx sin + sin Wsin 6+sing siny’ i 7

whence in the trigonometry of the circle,
sin (¢+x+wW)=sin ¢ cos y cos p+ sin y cos f cos p
+sin cos¢cosy—singsinysiny. . . . . « « + (p)
cos (++ )= cos ¢ cos x cos P— cos ¢ sin y sin
—cos x sinsing—cosysingsiny. »« . . - « « (r)

1). tan p+ tan x + tan ~—tan ¢ tan y tan 2
tan (p+x+¥) ]—tany tany— tan yp tang— tang tany (s)

We have here a remarkable illustration of that fertile principle of duality
which may be developed to such an extent in every department of pure ma-
thematical science.

The angle ¢+@ may be called the duplicate of the angle ¢, the angle
o+¢+¢ the triplicate, and the angle (¢-+-¢@ to n terms) the n-plicate of the
angle ¢.

The reader will observe that in this paper the signs + and + connect the
angular magnitudes of the parabola, while numerical quantities are connected
by+and—. Thus in the circle, we have ¢+y and a+ indifferently, while
in the parabola we must use the notation ¢+y or ¢+yx, but a+b or a—b,
as in the circle.

—_—

» ON THE TRIGONOMETRY OF THE PARABOLA. 73

Section II.

IV. An expression for the length of a curve in terms of a perpendicular p
let fall from a fixed point on a tangent to it, and making the angle @ with a line
passing through the given point or pole, is found in most elementary works,
namely s=(pdd +t. In the following figure,

p=ST, 9=VST, ¢=PT.

Fig. 1.

Let II(m.6) denote the length of the arc of a parabola whose parameter
is 4m, measured from the vertex to a point at which the tangent to the are
is inclined to the ordinate of that point to the axis by the angle 6. When
m=1, the symbol becomes II(6).

In the parabola whose equation is y’=4z, the focus S is taken as the
pole, and therefore p=m sec 0: while PT, or =m sec 6 tan 0.

The are of a parabola, measured from the vertex, may therefore be ex-
pressed by the formula

: II(m . 0)=m sec 0 tan 0+m {sec 0 d6.

- The difference between the are and its subtangent ¢ may be called the
tangential difference.

For brevity, and for a reason which will presently be shown, the distance
between the focus and the vertex of a parabola will be called its modulus.
Hence the parameter of a parabola is equal to four times its modulus.

V. Let I(m.w), M(m.@), I(m.x) denote three parabolic ares VD, VB
VC, measured from the vertex V of the parabola. Let, moreover, w, ¢, and
x be conjugate amplitudes. Then

II(m.w)=m tan w sec w-+m{ see wdw

ee eS ee ee

I1(m .¢) =m tan $ see p-+mJ sec g dp ( ay ea 7)
1(m.x)=m tan x sex +m) sce x dy |

Whence, since fsec w dw = [sec odo + {sec xx, because w, ¢, and x are
conjugate amplitudes, we get, after some reductions,
TI(m .o)—T(m .¢)—I(m.x)=2m tan wtangtany. . . (8)

74 oe REPORT—1856. :

It is not difficult to show that
tan w sec w— tan ¢ sec @— tan y sec y= 2 tan w tan ¢ tan y.

Substitute for tanw, secw, their values given in (1) and (2). Write
(sec? ¢—tan* @) and (sec? x— tan’) for 1, the coefficient of tan ¢ sec o and
tan ap hee x in the preceding expression, and we shall obtain the foregoing
result.

VI. Let y, y', y" be the ordinates on the axis of the parabola of the ex-
tremities of the arcs I(m.w), I(m.@), and I(m.x). Then y=2m tan ow,

'

!,,!
y'=2mtan¢, y!=2mtany. Therefore 2m tan w tan ¢ tan y = wt.
m

We have therefore the following theorem :—

The algebraic sum of the three conjugate arcs of a parabola, measured
Srom the vertex, is equal to the product of the ordinates of their extremities
divided by the square of the semiparamefer.

To exemplify the preceding theorem. Let

] 5
tan w=2, tan ¢=>> tan y= a

V5

h 3
i secw= V5, Be ie var” sag Sake

and these values satisfy the fundamental equation of condition,
tan w= tan ¢ sec y+ tan y sec ¢.

Now 2 x

TI(m .w)=m2” 5+mlog (2+ V5)

11 (m.9) = m+ mlog( 1+ vs)

4 2
_ I(n.y)=m 3V5 + mlog(® J .

Hence, since log (2+ “5)=log (iad + log & ay, we shall have

II(m.w)—Il(m.¢)—U(m.x)=mV5; .. +» ~ (9)

and mV 5=2m tan w tan p tan x.

VII. If we call an arc measured from the vertex of a parabola an apsidal
are, to distinguish it from an are taken anywhere along the parabola, the pre-
ceding theorem will enable us to express an are of a parabola, taken any-
where along the curve, as the sum or difference of an apsidal are and a right
line.

Thus, let VCD be a parabola, S its focus, and V its vertex. Let

f,,it
VB=[(m.¢), VC=0(m.x), VD=(m.w), and let 274 =h. Then (8)

shows that the parabolic are (VC + VB)=are VD—A;; and the parabolic are
VD—VB=BD=VC +A.
VIII. When the ares U(m . ¢) and II (m.x) together constitute a focal are,

or an are whose chord passes through the focus, ¢+y= zs and h is the ordi-

nate of the are VD. Accordingly we derive the following theorem :—
Any focal are of a parabola is equal to the difference between the conjugate
apsidal arc and its ordinate.

itp oe

fo FRE

BE RS a OS OO

ON THE TRIGONOMETRY OF THE PARABOLA. 75,

Fig. 2.

The relation between the amplitudes 0=(§ = and w in this case is

given by the equation sin ogas S008 ®-, Thus when the focal chord makes

— COS w

an angle of 30° with the axis, we get cosw=4, or y= 10m. Here, therefore,
the ordinate of the conjugate arc is ten times the modulus.
IX. When $= x; (8) is changed into

Il(m.w)—21(m.¢)=2mtanwtan’d; . + + + (10)
or as tan w=2 tan ¢ sec ¢, see (n) of IIL,
I(m.w)—21(m.g)=4m tan? psecg. + + + + (11)

Let ¢=45, then m(m.=) is the arc of the parabola intercepted between

the vertex and the focal ordinate; and as sec w=sec (¢+9)=see"¢ + tan’¢,
we shall have, since tan¢=1 and sec ¢= V2, secw=3; therefore

II(m .sec~!. 3)—on(m.") =4am V2.

Now as sec w=3, tan w=2 WG, and the ordinate Y=4m W2, we may there-
fore conclude that the parabolic arc, whose ordinate is 4m /2, diminished by
this ordinate, is equal to the arcs of the parabola between the focal ordinate
produced both ways, and the vertex.

X. It is easy to give an independent proof of this particular case without
the help of the preceding theory.

The length of the parabolic are whose amplitude is 45° will be found by
the usual formula to be

n(m.F) =mV2+mlog (1+ ¥2)5

76 REPORT—1856.
and twice this arc is
om(m.=-) =m2V2+mlog (3+2V2); since (1+ V2)?=34+2V2,
The parabolie are whose amplitude is sec—! 3, is found in like manner to be
II(m.sec-!3)=m3 .2V2 + mlog (3+ ¥2).

Subtracting the former equation from the latter,
I(m. seo"13)—211(m. =) —AmW 2.
Now the ordinate Y of the parabolic are whose amplitude is sec—!3 is equal to
Qn 2V9=4mV 2,
Hheretore Il(m .sec—!3)—2II (m =) =Y.

It is easily shown that 4m 2 is the radius of curvature of the extremity of
the arc whose amplitude is 45°.

XI. To find a parabolic are which shall differ from twice another parabolic
arc by an algebraic quantity, may be thus exemplified.

Let tan ¢=2, tanw=4 5,
sec o= V5, secw=9,
then II(m .sec-! 9) =m36 WV 5+mlog (9+ 45)

211 (m tan-! 2)=2m 275+mlog (2+ V5).
Consequently, since (2+ V5y=9+4V 5,
II(m . sec—! 9) —21I(m. tan-!2)=m32 VW 5=2m tan wtan?¢. . (12)

XII. We may in all cases represent by a simple geometrical construction the
ordinates of the conjugate parabolic ares, whose amplitudes are ¢, x, and w.
Let BC be a parabola whose focus is S and whose vertex is V. Let

Fig. 3. D

een

B

\

VS=m; moreover, let VB be the are whose amplitude is ¢, and VC the are

ON THE TRIGONOMETRY OF THE PARABOLA. q7

whose amplitude is x. At the points V, B, C draw tangents to the parabola;
they will form a triangle circumscribing the parabola, whose sides represent
the semi-ordinates of the conjugate ares VB, VC, VD.

XIII. We know that the circle circumscribing this triangle passes through
the focus of the parabola. Now

VT=mtan¢, VWT'=mtany, T'A=mtangsecy, TA=m tan xsec¢;
hence
T'A+TA=m<(tan ¢ sec y+ tan x sec 9),
therefore
mtanw=T'A+TA.

When VB, VC together constitute a focal arc, the angle TAT! is a right
angle.

The diameter of this circle is m sec ¢ sec x.

The demonstration of these properties follows obviously from the figure.

XIV. It may be convenient, by a simple geometrical illustration, to show
the magnitude of the functions sec (6+) and tan (¢+ x).
- Let SV=m, ASV=y, BSV=4, the line AB being at right angles to SV.
Through the three points ABS describe a circle. Draw the diameter SC,
and join the point C with A and B. Let fall the perpendicular CT.

Fig. 4.

Then msec (6+ ,)=SC+CT, and m tan (6+ y)=AC+CB.
Moreover also it follows, since sec (¢+)+ tan (¢+y)=(sec¢+ tan ¢)
(sec x + tanx), as has been established in (6) of (IIL.), that

m(SC+CT+AC+CB)=(SB+BV)(AS+AV). . . (13)

Of this theorem it is easy to give an independent geometrical demonstration.
We have manifestly also

CT(SC-+m+SA+SB)=(AC+AT)(BC+BT). . . (14)

XV. Let © be the conjugate amplitude of w and yf, while w is the conjugate
amplitude, as before, of ¢ and xy. Then as

fsec @ da=Jsee w dw +fsec Wd, and Ssec w dw={ sec odo +f see x, dx,

78 REPORT—1856.

we shall have

fsecwda=f sec $ dp+(sec x dy+{sec pad; eh elk bey!
and if II(m.), O(m.@), I(m.x), and I(m.w) are four conjugate para-

bolic arcs,
I(m.o) —(m.¢)—(m.x) —T(m Wp) =
2mtan(p+x)tan(~+yp)tan(x+y),. - + . (16)
which gives a simple relation between four conjugate parabolic arcs*.

When there are five parabolic ares, whose normal angles ¢, x, , v, Q are
related as above, namely

o=gty, O=alp=gryty, N=Pryt bey
we may proceed to obtain in like manner a formula which will connect five
parabolic arcs, whose amplitudes are connected by the given law.

XVI. To exemplify the foregoing formula. Let us assume the following
arithmetical values for the angles w, ¢, x, ~:—

-_ 10+4V5 1 V5 4:

tan o= ee’, tan ¢= tan x= ; taney 3

sec os v5 sec p= US, sec y= > sec p= a
Hence

n(m -tan~" 5) = m™ 5.4 mlog (C22)
2 4 2

(m.tan%5) = m3 5 + mlog(3+¥5) (17) -

H(m.tan-"2) = mom log 3.

J
* This latter theorem may be proved as follows :—Since @ is conjugate to w and w, we
shall have by (8),
Il(m.6)—I(m. w) —TI(m.i)=2 m tan o tan w tan p ;
and since w is conjugate to @ and x,
Il(m.w)—IIl(m.p)—I1(m. x) =2 mtan w tan ¢ tan y.
Hence, adding these equations, II(m.w) will disappear, and
I(m.6)—I(m.¢)—T(m. x) — I (m. VW) =2m tan w[tan o tan W-+ tan ¢ tan y].

Now tan ©= tan (w+). )
Therefore tan o = tan w sec p+ tan wW sec w.
But tan w= tan ¢ sec y+ tan x sec ¢.

Substituting this value in the preceding equation, and multiplying by tan y,
tan @ tan P= tan ¢ sec y sec Ptan p+ tan x sec ¢ sec W tan p
+ sec ¢ sec y tan? P+ tan ¢ tan y tan? yp,

~—s—

and '
tan ¢ tan y= sec? tan ¢ tan y—tan? yf tan ¢ tan x.
Consequently
tan & tan y+ tan ¢ tan y= (sec p tan $+ sec ¢ tan W)(sec x tan p+ sec yp tan x)
= tan (¢+y) tan (x+y), and w=9+x,

a oe

be
5
*
8
v

ON THE TRIGONOMETRY OF THE PARABOLA. 79

Now adding the three latter equations together, and subtracting the sum from
the former, the logarithms disappear, for

log (14.72) + 10 alae) a8 seca bats pee >) |

SES. IP Sie Se Aen ORE am Emory ere 0)
consequently
I(m.w)—I(m.¢)—I(m.%)—(m. p)
— m(160+73V5\ —9m.9. (St4Y5\(1245 V5).
mn (OEY S) = 2m (Here (He); cas)
cbs

since tan(@+y)=2, tan(g+p)= , and tan (y+y~)= l ae v5

XVII. Let, in the preceding formula Cissy ¢=x=¥, and we shall have
II(m.@)—3I1(m .¢)=2m tan*(¢+ ~)=16m tan’ ¢ sec* ¢.
We are thus enabled to assign the difference between an arc of a parabola
whose amplitude is w=(¢-+¢--@) and three times another are.
If in (@) (III.) we make g=y=vV,
tano=4tan?¢+3tang. . ... . - (20)
Introduce into this expression the imaginary transformation
tan ¢= / —1 sin 0, change + into +,
and we shall get sin 30=—4 sin*0+3sin 0, which is the known formula for
the trisection of a circular are. (20) may therefore be taken as the formula
which gives the trisection of an are of a parabola.
XVUI. The following illustration of the triplication of the are of a para-
bola may be given :—
Take the ares whose ordinates Y and y are 4m and m respectively. Let
@ and ¢ be the amplitudes which correspond to these ordinates ; then as
Y=2mtano=4m, tano=2, secco=V5;
and as l aie
y=2m tan =m, tan P= g? sec g= 5

Now these values of tan w and tan ¢ satisfy the equation of condition (20),
namely

4 tan’ ¢+3 tan ¢=tan wo.
But

II(m. tan—! 2)=m2 V5 +mlog (2+ V5),
and 1 15 14/75
II -1—)—,y—-" 2? sea EC
(m. tan 5 =m5 a +m.log( 2 )
and three times this arc is

ait(m -tan-! 2) = m= V5 +mlog(2+ V5),

si PNG ee
i (445) 04 v5.

Subtracting this latter equation from the former, the logarithms disappear,
and we get

II(m.tan-12)—3I1 (m. tan-} 1) = = m5 7S —16m tan’ sec’ ¢. . (21)

80 REPORT—1856.

Now as the radius of curvature R is equal to the cube of the normal divided
ma 5
4

by the square of the semiparameter, R= » since N= 2msecw. We

have therefore the following theorem :

The are of the parabola whose ordinate is equal to 4m, or to the abscissa,
diminished by the radius of curvature of its extremity, is equal to three times
the are whose ordinate is m, or one-fourth that of the former are.

It is evident that the chord of the greater arc is inclined by an angle of 45
to the axis, or the ordinate is equal to the abscissa, while in the lesser arc the
ordinate is four times the abscissa.

This is the point on the parabola up to which the ordinate is greater than
the abscissa; beyond this point it is less than the abscissa.

XIX. Another example of the triplication of the are of a parabola, or of
finding an are, which, diminished by an algebraic quantity, shall be equal to
three times another are, may be given.

Let

3 .
tan ¢= oe tan w=18,

sec o=

W138 es Ia
> sec o=5V 13.
These values satisfy the equation of condition,

4 tan* +3 tan @=tan o.
Hence stad =
I(m.tan-!.18)=m90. V13+m log (18+5” 13)

11(m.tan-3 3) =n ivi +m oa

and three times this are is

W183 =
3m(m.tan-15) =" i +mlog (18+5”13),

since

(8+"18)_is+5vi8.

Therefore subtracting the latter equation from the former,
: wy. od WIS. lees >
TI(m. tan '18)—sm1(m. tan S)= mS51V15 —16m(5 =H . (22)

XX. To find the are of a parabola which shall differ from m times a given
arc by an algebraic quantity, may be thus investigated :—

Let be the amplitude of the given arc, then
Tl(m.¢)=m sec ¢ tan +m log (sec ¢+tan 6),
and times this are is
nil(m.¢)=nm sec > tan o+m log (sec + tan )”.
Let ¢+9¢+9+¢ to m terms=®, then
Il(m.&)=msec & tan +m log (sec ®+tan ©).

a

DED ie wa

ON THE TRIGONOMETRY OF THE PARABOLA. 81

Now sec & + tan b=(sec $+ tan ¢)", as shown in (6). Hence
I(m.&)—nII(m .¢)=m[sec & tan 6—n sec ¢ tan ¢].
Let sec ¢+tan ¢=A, then sec d+ tan =)", and

-1 —}-—l1
sec g= At ) tan g= > x .
: n - Soke ye
We have also sec ®= “ tan d= ae Hence

II(m.&)—nII(m.¢)=m oe » » (23)
3 5
Let n=3, tan 1=> sec ae A=2. Then

I(m.&)—3II(m. o=2 (2 =).

When n=4,
5 «38.457 |

gio”
and so may be taken any other integral number.

II(m.&)—41I(m.¢)= m

XXI. The equation (20) affords a very simple mode of expressing the real
root of a cubic equation.
Let the cubic equation under the giey form be 2°+pe=q.

tan
4:

Let the parabolic equation tan® o+2 tan w= be written

3m? m3
tan? ~— tan w= — tanQ
| w+ re w rh 9
hence

3
p= im’, q= "7 tan.

Now since the value of # found by the ordinary methods is

=/t4./Z 4 o ey a OR: = /P4£

we shall have
2a=m /secOQ+ tanQ—m V/secQ—tanQ, . . . (24)

m2 \/®: mons Ly /3.
= P

When the sign of p is negative, the solution must be sought in the trigo-
nometry of the circle.

and

4 Section III. On the Geometrical Oriyin of Logarithms.

5 XXII. In the trigonometry of the circle we find the formula

* 3 5

i Stn $— S08 4 BES _tan'd + Be. tear AE ro ay 9

1856. G

82 cuabwenlasG.

And if we develope by common division the expression

= oot ae 5 es 6(1+ sin? 6+ sin* 6+ sin°@+ &c.),

and integrate,
ane hie ee
ue ={sccado=sin g.sin Be sin’ 0 — 9 we, bec mtb)

cos 3 5 if

If we now inquire what, in the circle, is the magnitude of the érigonome-
trical tangent of the are which differs from its subtangent, by the distance
between the vertex and its focus; or, as the subtangent is O in the circle, and
the focus is the centre, the question may be changed into this other, what is
the trigonometrical tangent of the are of a circle which is equal in length
to the radius? This question would be answered by putting 1 for $ in (a),
and reverting the series ;

1= tan (1)— ol) ag ae ay + OG. Ts, ates Ce)
3 5 7
By this process we should get, in functions of the numbers of Bernoulli, the
value cf tan (1), as is shown in most treatises on trigonometry.

Let us now make a like inquiry in the case of the parabola, and ask what
is the value of the subtangent of the amplitude which will give the difference
between the are of the parabola and this subtangent equal to the distance
between the focus and the vertex of the parabola. Now if 0 be this angle,
we must have (m.@)—msec@tand=m. But in general, as shown in IV.,

[I(m .6)—m sec 6 tan =m { sec 6 dd.
We must therefore have, in this case, fsec @dd=1. If we now revert the
series (b), putting 1 for fsec 0 d0, we shall get from this particular value of

; iy ae oe
the series, namely f= siniaat sin? @ sin’ é m sin’ 0 +£ Res ee tas
3 5 7
1 =
an arithmetical value for sin @*. This we shall find to be sin 0=© =§ i e

e+e

being the number called the base of the Napierian logarithms. Hence
sec 0+ tan0=€;; or if we write e for this particular value of 6 to distinguish
it from every other,
sece + tan e=€=2'718281828, &c.. . . . . (25)

We are thus (for the first time, it is believed) put in possession of the
geometrical origin of that quantity so familiarly known to mathematicians—
the Napierian base. From the above equations we may derive

1 -1 —p-
seve =E TE st oda eee A

or tan e= 1175201192, whence e=*8657606,
or e=49° 36! 49".

* As l+a\ _ x Le i!
tog (72) <2 (et 4+ 54545 8):
w= sin, then :
Te 'sin 6\ 5 /_- sins@ sin'@ = sin70_— sin? “y
log (Ee) =2(sin + = + : jeg &e.) 2

(5) =e, or (* =m mel e, Hence see +tan 0e&e,

1— sin9 cos

:
{

nn ald

i
‘
3
4
P
:

to TS. This line will touch the para-

ON THE TRIGONOMETRY OF THE PARABOLA. 83

The corresponding are of the parabola will be given by the following series :-—

nl By 1 9} 98 gQ° &
e —y4 — —__— —————_ WC.
Bee) m| + j93 + ja3a5 + 1934607 }

since the subtangent in this case is equal to m sece tan e= es (e?—e-?).

XXIII. If we now extend this inquiry, and ask what is the magnitude of the
amplitude of the are of the parabola which shall render the difference between
this parabolic are and its subtangent equal to z times the distance between
the focus and the vertex, we shall have, as before, by the terms of the question,

II(m .6)—m sec 6 tan 06=nm.
But, in general, Il(m .0)—m sec 6 tan 6=m {sec 6dé;
hence we must have :
n= fsec 6 d8= log (sec 0+ tan 6), or sec 6+ tan 0=e”.

Now we may solve this equation in two ways; either by making 7 a given
number, and then determine the value of sec @+ tan @, which may be called
the base; or we may assign an arbitrary value to sec@+tan@, and then
derive the value of x. Taking the latter course, let, for example,
sec 04+ tan 6=10, then n=log 10;

or putting d for this angle, see3+tand=10. . ... . + (27)

Hence as every number whose logarithm is to be exhibited must be put
under the form sec 6+ tan 0, which is of the form 1+2a, since the limiting
value of see @ is 1, we discover the reason why in developing the logarithm
of a number, the number itself must be put under the form 1+2, and not
simply under that of 2.

XXIV. Given a number to find its logarithm, may be exhibited by the fol-
lowing geometrical construction :— Fig. 5.

Let SVP be a parabola. Through.
the focus S draw the perpendicular SQ
to the axis VS. Through V let a tan-
gent of indefinite length be drawn,
which may be called the scalar. On this
tangent take the line VN to represent
the given number. Join NS, and make
the angle NST always equal to the
angle NSQ. Draw TP at right angles

bola in the point P, and the are of the
parabola VP diminished by the sub-
tangent PT, or the éangential difference
for the are VP, will be the logarithm
of VN.

The line SN makes the angle (F+5)

with the axis of the parabola. ;

When SN'=VS= the unit m, the angle N’SQ is equal to half a right
angle. Hence the point T in this case will coincide with V. The parabolic
are therefore vanishes, or the logarithm of | is 0. When sec 6+ tan@=1,

- 6=0.

When the number is less than 1, the point N will fall below N’ in the
position x. Hence nSQ is greater than half a right angle. Therefore T
will fall below the axis in the point T’; and if we draw through T’ a tangent

i G2

R4 REPORT—1856.

T'p, it will give the negative are of the parabola T’p, corresponding to the
number Vz. Fractional numbers, or numbers between +1 and 0, must
therefore be represented by the expression m(sec@—tan@), since tan 0
changes its sign.

When the number is 0, 2 coincides with V, and the angle NSQ in this
case is a right angle. Therefore the point T’ will be the intersection of VT’
and SQ. Hence T’ is at an infinite distance below the axis, and therefore
the logarithm of +0 is —o.

Hence the tangential difference due to the amplitude 0, is the logarithm of
the number sec 0 + tan 6.

Consequently it follows that negative numbers have no logarithms, at least
no real ones; and imaginary ones can only be educed by the transformation
so often referred to, and this leads us to seek them among the properties of
the circle. For as 6 always lies between O and a right angle, or between 0
and the half of +7, sec 0+ tan 0 is always positive; therefore negative num-
bers can have no real or parabolic logarithms, but they may have imaginary
or circular logarithms ; for in the expression

log feos $+ /—IsinS}=S$V—1, . . . « + (28)

we may make $=(2n+1)z, and we shall get log(—1)=(2n+1)rV —1.
Hence also, as the length of the parabolic are TP, without reference to
the sign, depends solely on the amplitude 9, it follows that the logarithm of ,
sec @— tan @ is equal to the logarithm of sec@+tan@. We may accordingly
infer that the logarithm of any number is equal to the logarithm of its reci-
procal, with the sign changed, since (sec + tan @) (sec @—tan0)=1.
When @ is very large, sec 0+ tan 0=2 tan @ nearly. It follows, therefore,
if we represent a large number by an ordinate of a parabola whose focal
distance to the vertex is 1, the difference between the corresponding are and
its subtangent will represent its logarithm.

Sinee VT + TP = arc VP, therefore
VT > are VP—TP > log VN.

Hence VT or tan 6 is always greater than the logarithm of (sec @+tan @) in
the Napierian system of logarithms. This may be shown on other principles :
thus

——__——-- =.

awe sin? ® + cos? 2. +2sin$ cos S 1+tang
sec 0+ tan 0= 7 om 2 é 9 a). tae ag
sed cos? 8 — sin? 2 1-— tan?
2 2 2 |
6 |
Let tang =u. Then
3 5 vf
log (sec 0+ tan 0)=log (7 **) =2( w+ ~ te = = = &e, ),
2 tan 2.
and tan @=———_=2(u+u+w>+u'+ &c.).
1 —tan’—
) 2
Hence tan 6 > log (sec 0 + tan 0),

—n-} P
or = is always greater than the logarithm of x.

ON THE TRIGONOMETRY OF THE PARABOLA. 85

XXV. Let {sec 9 dp=p, Sseex dx= 9; then as
{sec w dw ={ sec dp+{ sec y dy, see (5),
fsecwdu=p+q, and w=9¢+ x.

Hence if ¢ be the amplitude which gives the tangential difference =p, and
x the amplitude which gives the tangential difference =g, ¢+x is the am-
plitude which will give the tangential difference =p+g. In the same way
we might show, that if ~ be the angle which gives this difference =r,
(¢+ +1) is the angie which will give this difference =p+q+r.

Let @ be the amplitude of the number A, and p its logarithm; / the
amplitude of the number B, and g its logarithm; 7 the amplitude of the
number C, and ¢ its logarithm. Then

A=seca+tana, B=secfh+tanf, C=secy+tany,
and log A=p, log B=q, log C=r, or
ptqtr= log A+log B+log C.
We have also
ABC=(sec a+ tan a)(sec + tan B)(sec y+ tan y)
=sec(a+/j+y)+tan(atPp-+y).
Now as p is the logarithm of seca+ tana, g the logarithm of sec 8+ tan 6,
r the logarithm of sec y+ tan y,
pt+q+tr is the log of sec(a+6+y)+ tan(a+f+y), or of ABC,

as shown above. We may therefore conclude that

log (ABC)=log A+log B+logC.. . . «. + (29)

XXVI. If e be the angle which gives the difference between the parabolic
are and its subtangent equal to m, (e+e) is the angle which will give this
difference equal to 2m, (e+e+e) is the angle which will give this difference
equal to 3m, and so on to any number of angles. Hence, in the circle, if 3
be the angle which gives the circular are equal to the radius, 25 is the angle
which will give an are equal to twice the radius, and so on for any number
of angles. This is of course self-evident in the case of the circle, but it is
instructive to point out the complete analogy which holds in the trigonome-
tries of the circle and of the parabola.

‘Hence the amplitude which gives the difference between the parabolic are
and its subtangent equal to the semiparameter is given by the simple equation

Recep tae eC SIE Le ry, eo)

And more generally, if e” be the amplitude which gives the difference between
the parabolic are and its subtangent equal to 2 times the modulus, we shall

haye ReGics+ tania 67s, bs Say Lr SS (SR)
In the same way it may be shown that if «, be the angle which gives the
difference between the parabolic are and its subtangent equal to “th part the

modulus, we shall have L
sece,+tane,=e€". . . . + - « + (32)
Let the difference be equal to one-half the modulus, then n=2, and
sec e,+ tan ee.

86 REPORT—1856. :

This is easily shown.
Let e,te,=e. Then sec(e,+e,)=sec e=sec’e,+ tan’e,, and
tan (e,e,)= tan e=2 sec ¢, tan e,.

Therefore sec (e,e,)+ tan (e,+e,)=sec e+ tane=e=
sec” e,+ tan” e,+ 2 sec e, tan e,=(sec e,+ tan e,)”.
Hence BEN Bc ohn. te set a ae (ie. ga ee
; a | 1 —1
Since fanem@ © secem CHE” ,
2 p12 2 —2
tan(e+e)=€ ta » sec (e+e)= ore,

et+e-3 ‘
“9 ?

e’—e-3
tan(etete)= iil sec(etete)=

sens

nm n —n
tan (ee to m terms)= oe cue

sec (e+e to m terms)=

Therefore 2 sec c tane=tan (e+e)

2sec (e+e) tan (e+e)=tan (e+e+e+e),
and generally -
2sec(e+e+ tom terms) tan(e+e-— to nm terms)=
tan (e+e+e+e+ to 2n terms).

Now 2sec(e+e-+ to m terms) tan(e+e+ to m terms) is the portion of the
tangent to the curve intercepted between the axis of the parabola and the
point of contact whose amplitude, or the angle it makes with the ordinate is
(e+e to m terms), while tan(e+e+e+e+ to 2n terms) is half the ordi-
nate of that point of the curve whose amplitude is (e+¢e+e-+e to 2 terms).
Hence we derive this very general theorem :—

That if two points be taken on a parabola such that the intercept of the
tangent to the one between the point of contact and the axis shall be equal to
one-half the ordinate to the other, the amplitudes of the two points will be

(e+e+ to m terms) and (e+e+e+e to 2n terms) respectively.

This theorem suggests a simple method of graphically finding a parabolic
are whose amplitude shall be the duplicate of the amplitude of a given are.
Let P be the point on the parabola whose amplitude is given. Draw the
tangent PQ meeting the axis inQ. Erect VT at the vertex =PQ. Through
T draw the tangent TP’, the amplitude of the are VP’ will be the duplicate
of the amplitude of the are VP, or (06+ to m terms) and (0+6-+ to 2n
terms) will be the amplitudes of VP and VP’ respectively. We may there-
fore conclude that in the circle

2 cos(0+6+4 to z terms) sin(0+6+ to 2 terms)=
sin(0+0+0+6 to 2n terms).

XXVII. In the trigonometry of the circle, the sine of the are, which is z
times the radius, is given by the formula
3

se

x e a

*— 10 + Tosa ~ 1934567
and the cosine of the same are by the formula

rg a ag

12 + 1934 — 193456

sin 2=a2— &e.,

cos x=1—

|
|

ON THE TRIGONOMETRY OF THE PARABOLA. 87

This suggests the analogous theorem, that if £ be the angle or amplitude
which gives the difference between the parabolic are and its subtangent, or
the tangential difference equal to x times the modulus, or the distance of the
focus from the vertex, we shall have

2 2 x’

t = = me abet, is
anb=a«-+ 753 + 19346 + jasase7 ©
and
le” a
Bue i ug ial eae 34,
sees=1 +75 + 934 + jasase “°

But (Lacroix, ‘ Traité du Calcul Différentiel et du Calcul Intégral,’ vol. iii.
p- 442) the first of these two series is equivalent to

- r r “2 xz
o(i+F)(1+ze)(1+ ga) (14 wee) &
and the latter to
4a? 4a? 42”
je = }{ 1 +. —s, }, &e.
( F a hetse ( +e)
ifence

bay 2 2 2 a
tanE=e (: i =)(1+ as)(1+ 55)(1+ rm) :

2 2 2
sec e=(1 4: =) +. 5a)(1+ a=: , &.

When 2 is small, tané=z. Let the angle & be divided into an indefinitely

v&
large number ~ of parts, so that = = 1< a ee ee Then
n

sis

2 2
sec— =], tan-—-=-;
n n
and as
sec (a+a+a+ ton terms)+ tan (a+a+a-+ ton terms)=(seca+tan a)”

see £+ tané= (1 + a but sec §+ tan =e".

Hence when z is indefinitely large,

x n
(: + a) =e’.
(-i)me-
nr

These theorems, given in Price’s ‘ Treatise on the Infinitesimal Calculus,’
iy 5 p. 32, are the limiting cases of the very general theorem established
in (6).

XXVIII. To represent the decimal or any other system of logarithms by
parabola.

_ The parabola which is to give the Napierian system of logarithms being.
drawn, whose vertical focal distance m is assumed as the arithmetical unit,
let another confocal parabola be described having its axis coincident with the
former, and such that its vertical focal distance shall be m'. The numbers
being set off, as before, on the scalar, which is a tangent to the Napierian
parabola at its vertex, the differences between the similar parabolic arcs and

fn like manner,

88 REPORT—1856.

their subtangents in the two parabolas will give the logarithms in the two
systems, of the same number drawn upon the scalar ; for as all parabolas, like
circles, are similar figures, and these are confocal and similarly placed, any
line drawn through their common focus will cut the curves in the same angle,
and cut off proportional segments. Hence the two triangles SPT and Sar
are similar, and the tangential differences PV —PT and a@v—qr are propor-
tional to 4m and 4m', the parameters of the parabolas.

Fig. 6.
pe

Let log denote the Napierian logarithm, and Log the decimal logarithm of
the same number.

Draw the line ST, making the angle e with the axis such that sece + tan e=€.
Then as PV—PT: av—azr::m:m', and PY—PT=m= 1, since € is the
base of the Napierian system; and wv—ar=Log € on the decimal parabola,
therefore

m:Logé::m:m!, or m'=Log e.

We may therefore conclude that the modulus of the decimal system is the
decimal logarithm of the Napierian base e.

Draw the line ST/ making with the axis an angle 0,suchthatsecé+tand=10.
Now
PV—PT!: w'v—a'e!::m:m':
but

P'V—PT'=m log 10, hence a'v—a'r'=m' log 10.
Now in order that 10 may be a base, or in other words, in order that its loga-
rithm may be unity, we must have a!v—a'r'=m! log 10=m; or if m=1, we

must have m! log 10=1, or m/= that is, the parameter of the Deci-

1
log 10 :

mal parabola must be reduced compared with that of the Napierian parabola

‘

ee

—

ON THE FRIGONOMETRY OF THE PARABOLA. 89

in the ratio of log 10:1. Hence, as is well known, the modulus m! of the

decimal system is the reciprocal of the Napierian logarithm of 10.

It is therefore obvious, that as any number of systems of logarithms may be
represented by the differences between the similar arcs and their subtangents
of as many confocal parabolas, the logarithms of the same number in these
different systems will be to one another simply as the magnitudes of the para-
bolas whose arcs represent them, that is, as the parameters of these parabolas.
Accordingly the moduli of these several systems are represented by the halves
of the semiparameters of the several parabolas.

The Napierian parabola differs from the decimal and other parabolas in
this, that the focal distance of its vertex is taken as the arithmetical unit, and
that the scalar line on which the numbers are set off is a tangent to it at its
vertex.

Hence if m, the vertical focal distance of the Napierian parabola, be taken
as 1, the vertical focal distance m! of the decimal parabola is .4342 &c., or
if m=1, m= . 4342 &e.

XXIX. In every system of logarithms whatever, the logarithm of 1 is 0.

For when the point T coincides with V, the corresponding point 7 will coin-
cide with v, whatever be the magnitude of its modulus m!. It is obvious that
the circle whose radius is unity is analogous to the parabola whose vertical
focal distance is unity, and that the Napierian logarithms have the same
analogy to trigonometrical lines computed from a radius equal to unity, which
any other system of logarithms has to trigonometrical lines computed from a
radius 7. As we may represent different systems of trigonometry by a series
of concentric circles whose radii are 1, 7, 7! &c., so we may in like manner
exhibit as many systems of logarithms by a series of confocal parabolas
whose focal distances or moduli are 1, m!, m'' &c. The modulus in the
trigonometry of the parabola corresponds with the radius in the trigonometry

‘of the circle. But while the base in the trigonometry of the parabola is real,

in the circle it is imaginary. In the parabola, the angle of the base is given
by the equation sec@+tan@=e. In the circle, cos0+ /—1 sin6=¢9v-1;
and making 0=1, we get

eos (1)+ /—Tsin(1)=ev. 2 2S... (85)
Hence, while e' is the parabolic base, ev— is the circular base. Or as
[sec e+ tan e] is the Napierian base; [cos(1)+ /—1 sin(1)] is the circular
or imaginary base. Thus

[eos (1) + “”—1 sin (1)]9=cos $+ /—1 sin.

We may therefore infer, speaking more precisely, that imaginary numbers
have real logarithms, but an imaginary base. We may always pass from the
real logarithms of the parabola to the imaginary logarithms of the circle by
changing tan 6 into /—Tsin §, sec @ into cos 9, and e! into ev—.

As in the parabola the angle @ is non-periodie, its limit being 37, while in
the circle 3 has ro limit, it follows that while a number can have only one
real or parabolic logarithm, it may have innumerable imaginary or circular
logarithms.

Along the scalar, which is a tangent to the Napierian parabola at its vertex,
as in the preceding figure, draw, measured from the vertex, a series of lines
in geometrical progression,

m(secO+tan 6), m(secO+tan 6)’, m(sec@+ tan 0)*....m(sec 0+ tan 0)”,

Join N, the general representative of the extremities of these right lines, with
the focus S. Erect the perpendicular SQ, and make the angle NST always

90 ; REPORT—1856.

equal to the angle NSQ. The line ST will be =m see 6, the line ST,
=m sec (0+6), the line ST,, =msec (6+0+0), &c., and we shall likewise
have

VT=mtan6, VT,;=mtan(0+0), VT,=mtan(0+6+6), &e.

This follows immediately from (6) of III.; for any integral power of
(secO+tan@) may be exhibited as a linear function of sec @+ tan 9,
writing © for 0+0+46.,.. &c., since

sec (0+0+0+6 &. to n9)+tan(d+0+6+0 &e. to n@)=(sec 0+ tan 0)”.
Hence the parabola enables us to give a graphical construction for the angle
(8+0-+06 &c,) as the circle does for the angle (0+6+6 &c.).

. XXX. The analogous theorem in the circle may be developed as fol-
lows: In the circle-‘SBA take the ares

AB=BB,=B,B,,=B,, By, ... &e. =28.
Let the diameter be D; then
SB=Dcos$, SB,=Decos23, SB,=Dcos39 .., &c.,

and
AB=Dsin3, AB,=Dsin28, AB,=Dsin39.,, &c.

Now as the lines in the second group are always at right angles to those
in the first, and as such a change is denoted by the symbol “—1, we get

SB+BA=Dj{cos 3+ ¥—isin 9},

SB,+B,A=D{cos 23+ /—Tsin 25}=D{eos $+ /—I[sin $};

SB, +B,A=D{cos 39+ V—1 sin 39} =Df eos $+ V—1sin9}° &e.

SB,+B,A=D[cosa$+ “J sin n¥]=D[cos $+ 7 —1 sin 3)”
When the points B!, B!' fall below the line SA, the angle 6 becomes negative,
and we get

SB!—B'A=cos3— V —1sin$
SB! —B" A= cos 28— W —1 sin 29= [cos $— VW —1 sin $]*.

Therefore waits ar
log (SB+ BA)=log (cos $+ Vv —] sin3)=3V —1. se Benes)

Let $=1, then oii Oe
log [eos (1) + VW —1 sin (1)]= 1 th

Hence generally 3” —1 is the logarithm of the bent line whose extremities
are at S and A, and which meets the circle in the point B, ASB=3.

It is singular that the imaginary formule in trigonometry have long been
discovered, while the corresponding real expressions have escaped notice.
Indeed it was long ago observed by Bernoulli, Lambert, and by others—the
remark has been repeated in almost every treatise on the subject since—
that the ordinates of an equilateral hyperbola might be expressed by real
exponentials, whose exponents are sectors of the hyperbola; but the analogy,
being illusory, never led to any useful results. And the analogy was illusory
from this; that it so happens the length and area of a circle are expressed
by the same function, while the area of an equilateral hyperbola is a function
of an are of a parabola, as will be shown further on. The true analogue of
the circle is the parabola.

hr.

nate
fs

a;

bs
E

ao

ON THE TRIGONOMETRY OF THE PARABOLA. 91

Fig. 7.

XXXI. There are some curious analogies between the parabola and the
circle, considered under this point of view.
In the parabola, the points Ee, Tp which divide the lines

m(sec 0+ tan 6), m[sec(@+6)+ tan (0+6)]

into their component parts, are upon tangents to the parabola. The corre-
sponding points B, B,, B,, in the circle are on the circumference of the circle.

In the parabola, the extremities of the lines (sec 0+ tan 0) are on a right
line VT; in the circle, the extremities of the bent lines are all in the point A.
- The analogy between the expressions for parabolic and circular ares will
be seen by putting the expressions under the following forms :—

Parabolic are — log (sec 0+ tan 0) — subtangent =O,
Circular are + log (cos 8+ / —1 sin 0)”-1— subtangent =0. . (37)

The locus of the point T, the intersections of the tangents to the parabola
with the perpendiculars from the focus, is a right line ; or in other words,
while one end of a subtangent rests on the parabola, the other end rests on a
right line. So in the circle; while one end of the subtangent rests on the
circle, the other end rests on a cardioide, whose diameter is equal to that of
the circle, and whose cusp is at S. SPA is the cardioide.

The length of the tangent VN to any point N is m(sec 0+ tan 0)=2m tan6,
when 0 is very large. ‘The length of the cardioide is 2D sin 3.

- XXXII. The radius vector of a circle whose radius is 7, drawn from any point
on the circumference, and making the angle @ with a diameter drawn through
this point, is given by the equation p=2r cos @, and since the coinciding per-
pendicular from this point as focus on a tangent to a parabola is p=m sec 0,
it follows that pp=2mr, a constant quantity. Hence the curves are polar
reciprocals one of the other. The circumference of the circle passes through
the focus of the parabola.

- The centre of the circle is the pole of the directrix of the parabola.

_ As the extremities N of all the numbers measured along the sealar are on
a right line VN, the reciprocals of these points will all pass through the
point A, the pole of the scalar VN.

92 * REPORT—1856.

The point @ on the circle is the pole of the tangent PT to the parabola,
and the point P on the parabola is the pole of the tangent ar to the circle.

As the parabolic are VP—PT is the logarithm of the number VN, so the
circular are Aq is the logarithm of the bent line Aa+as.

Fig. 8.

The locus of the point 7, the foot of the perpendicular from S on the tan-
gent to the circle at a, is a cardioide whose cusp is at S, and whose diameter
is that of the circle.

While the circle is the polar reciprocal of the parabola, the cardioide is its
inverse curve; for the cusp polar equation of the cardioide isp=2r(1+ cos@),

2m

1+ cos 9°

Since the parabola and the circle are reciprocal polars one of the other, the
circumference of the circle passing through the focus of the parabola, we
have been able by the help of this reciprocal circle to give geometrical repre-
sentations, as in XII. and XIV., of the properties of the trigonometry of the
parabola.

There is this further analogy between the properties of the circle and tite
of the parabola,—that as the are which is equal to the radius subtends no
exact submultiple of any number of right angles, however large, so in the
parabola the angle or amplitude which gives the tangential difference or
logarithm equal to the modulus is incommensurable with any number of right
angles. In the former there are 206265 seconds, in the latter there are
178575 seconds*.

The theorem given above, that a parabola is the reciprocal polar of a circle
whose circumference passes through its focus, suggests a transformation
which will exhibit a much closer analogy between the formule for the recti-
fication of the parabola and the circle, than when the centre of the latter
curve is taken as the origin.

XXXIII. Let SBA bea semicircle ; let the origin be placed at S; let the angle

* Tt is worthy of investigation to ascertain whether any relation can be found between
the angle or arc (1), and the angle e which gives the tangential difference equal to the mo-
dulus in the parabola.

while the focal equation of the parabola is p= hence pp,= 4.

—
i” A.

‘ON THE TRIGONOMETRY OF THE PARABOLA. 93

‘ASB=8; and let D, as before, be the diameter of the circle. Through B
draw the tangent BP; let fall on this tangent the perpendicular SP=p, and
let BP, the subtangent, be equal to ¢.

Now as p=D cos’ $, and ¢=D sin $ cos 4, as also the angle ASP=28, if
we apply to the circle the formula for rectification in IV., we shall have
the arc

AB=s=2Dfcos’Sd3—DsinSeoss. . . . - (88)

The subtangent to the circle, which is exhibited in this formula, disappears
in the actual process of integration; while in the parabola, the subtangent
which is involved in the differential is evolved by the process of integration.

As in the parabola, the perpendicular from the focus on the tangent bisects
the angle between the radius vector and the axis of the curve; so in the
circle, the radius vector SB drawn from the extremity of the diameter, bisects
the angle between the perpendicular SP and the diameter SA.

It is easily seen that while the line SB makes the angle @ with the axis, the
line SP makes the angle 26, and the perpendicular SR on the tangent to the
cardioide makes the angle 36 with the axis.

Hence if we take the reciprocal polar of the cardioide, the line drawn per-
pendicular to the tangent at any point on the curve trisects the angle between
the axis and this radius vector. Consequently the polar reciprocal of the
cardioide is a curve, such that if a point be taken anywhere on the curve,
and a perpendicular be drawn to the tangent at this point, it will trisect
the angle between the axis and the radius vector drawn to the point of con-
tact. Hence the reciprocal polar of the cardioide enables us to trisect an
angle, in the same way as a parabola gives us the means to bisect it.

XXXIV. To determine the tangential equation* of the reciprocal polar of the
cardioide. The radius vector u of the cardioide being connected with the
polar angle 6 by the equation «=r(1+ cos 0), and p being the perpendicular

on the tangent of its polar reciprocal, we shall have =F (1 + cos @).

1 20 See
Let p= = then as cos 02=pé and ; =VWP+77, andy being the tangential

coordinates of the curve, we shafl have
pe eee i Re whl

Consequently (+?) —pEP—P(P+v)=0. . » . - « - (39)

is the tangential equation of the reciprocal polar of the cardioide. ‘The
common equation of the cardioide, the cusp being the pole, is
[(e+y)—re)?—r'(a?+y*)=0. . . . . . (40)

The reader will observe, that the equation between the coordinates 2 and
y of the cardioide is exactly the same as the equation between the tangential
coordinates & and v of the reciprocal polar of the cardioide.

XXXV. The quadrature of the hyperbola depends on the rectification of
the parabola.

Through a point P on the parabola draw a line PQ parallel to the axis
and terminated in the vertical tangent to the parabola at R. Take the line
RQ always equal to the normal at P, the locus of Q is an equilateral hyper-
bola. For z=2m sec g, and as before y=2m tan ¢, therefore

r—yY= 4m’, > ee ° ° e é . (41 )
* Tangential coordinates, p. 70.

94 REPORT—1856,

the equation of an equilateral-hyperbola whose centre is at V, the vertex of
the parabola, and whose transverse axis is the parameter of the parabola.

The area of this curve, the elements being taken parallel to the axis, or
the area between the curve and the vertical axis passing through V, is
found by integrating the value of ady.

Now

x=2m sec ¢, and y=2m tan ¢,
therefore
Sady= 4m? \sec® pdp=2Qm [ m sec ¢ tan ptm {sec ) d¢ |.

But it has been shown in IV. that
II(m .)=m sec @ tan ptm {sec ¢ do.

Hence the hyperbolic area VAQR=2mII(m.@). . « « + + (42)

Therefore as the hyperbolic area is equal to a constant multiplied into the
corresponding are of the parabola, the evaluation of the hyperbolic area
depends on the properties of logarithms.

It also follows, from what Fie. 9
has been established in the pre- ee
ceding part of this paper, that
hyperbolic areas may be multi-
plied and compared according
to the laws which regulate pa-
rabolic ares.

Let ¢ and 6 be the angles in
which the normals to the cor-
responding points of the para-
bola and the hyperbola cut the
axis, then if @ and 6 be these
angles, it is easily shown, since
VQ = normal at Q, that

tand=sing. . . (43)

This expression will enable
us to express the hyperbolic
area in terms of the angle which
the normal to the hyperbola
makes with the axis instead of
the parabolic amplitude; for as the parabolic amplitude @ is related to the
normal angle of the hyperbola 6 by the equation tan 6=sin ¢,

2 tan 0
Qt ay Sa ay
an # sec @ err tan 20,
and
seco+tang= 7 sec20+tan20.. . . . . (44)
Now

II(m .¢)=m sec ¢ tan ¢+m log(sec d+tan @),
or, substituting for the preceding values of ¢,
QI (m . ¢)=m tan 20+ m log (sec 20+ tan 26);

but taking the amplitude 20,
II (m . 20)=m sec 20 tan 20+ m log (sec 20+ tan 20).

Tesi es eo ee ee. ee ee

a REECE

ON THE TRIGONOMETRY OF THE PARABOLA. 95

Hence, subtracting the former from the latter,
II(m . 20)—211(m . ¢)=m tan 20(sec 20—1).
Accordingly,

the hyperbolic area = mII(m . 20)—m? tan 20 (sec2@—1). - (45)
Since
2tan 26=2tan ¢ sec ¢,
we have mer
Bie isc a ye og
Hence the normal angles 6 and ¢ of the corresponding points of the para-
bola and hyperbola are so related that

2=$-+ 4,
whence we might at once have inferred the relation established in (44),
namely
(sec $+ tan @)*=sec 20+ tan 26.

The points P and Q on the parabola and hyperbola respectively may be
called conjugate points. They are always found in a line parallel to the
axis.

If through the points P and Q on the parabola and hyperbola we draw

diameters to these curves, they will make angles with the normals to them at
these points, one of which is the duplicate of the other.

For these angles are 26 and ¢ respectively,
but 20=9+9.

XXXVI. Let P,, P,, P., P,, Py. « + Pn—1, Pn be perpendiculars let fall
from the focus on the x sides of a polygon circumscribing a parabola, and
making with the axis the angles 0, 0, 0+ 0, 0+6+6,0+0+6+6, . .. to
n terms respectively.

Let

sec 0+ tan =z,

sec(0+0) +tan (0+0)=w%, b
sec (0-+-0+6)+tan (6+0+6)=x3 arn (7);

then

sec(O+6+ . . . tom terms)+tan(6+6~ to terms)=w".
Hence as 2Po=m(u+u-°)
2P,=m(ul+u-!)

2P,=m(u?+u-?) ely?

+ (48)
2P,=m(u"-+u-"),
we shall have
2.2. Py.P,=m?(u®+u-") (uu!)
=m{ (unt f+ u-M+N) + (yr=1 4 u-(m—1)) |p
or

OPA. P,=m(Pr+it Pri) >

; but

P,=m sec 8, |

96 REPORT—1856.

therefore ae ee
or any perpendicular multiplied by the secant of the first amplitude, is an
arithmetical mean between the perpendiculars immediately preceding and
following it. Thus, for example. P,=m, P,=m sec 0, P,=m sec (0+ 8), or

m-+m sec(0--0)
Pe ey oak .
but -

sec (0+6)=sec’ 6+tan’ 0; p

sec6 P, =

sec 0 msec 0=

>. =a

hence the proposition is manifest.

Again, as hence
2P,.=m(u+u"), 2.2.P,) Py=m'(u' +u-+u'+u-}).
2P .=m(u+u-"), 2.2.P, P=m( +u-3 + +u-"). -. (50)
2P,=m(u?+u-*), 2.2.P, P=m7(v+u-5+u'+u-"),

2P,=m(u?+u-3), 2.2.P, Py=m"(u' +7 +e +4u-).

2P,=m(u"+u-"), 2.2. Pa—1 Pa=m7(u"—1 + w—@n—-1) 4 yt + u-!),
We have, therefore, adding the preceding expressions, /
:
9 PsP, PP; BR Pe Psa PeEaie: ow ols asthe (51) é
m[ +P,+P,+P,+P, . ~~ + Ponit(n)P, |; ;
or twice the sum of all the products of the perpendiculars taken two by two up
to the nth, is equal to the sum of all the odd perpendiculars up to the (2n—1)th
+n times the first perpendicular.
Thus, taking the first three perpendiculars,
P,=m, P,=m sec 0, P,=m sec (0+6)=m(sec’ 6+ tan 6),
P,=m sec (0--0+0)=m(4 sec* 0—83 sec 8) ;
then the truth of the proposition may be shown in this particular case for
Q[P, Pit P, P2]=4m’ sec’ 0=m(P,+P5+2P,).. .
Again, since
2Pon=m(u2" + u-2”),
and
4P2=m(u"+2+u-2),
we shall have
OPA avr, se st ee ;

Thus, for example, éwice the square of the perpendicular on the fifth side of
the polygon diminished by the square of the modulus, is equal to the tenth
perpendicular multiplied by the modulus. $

In the same way we may show that

4P3 —3m?P,=m?7P3n.

i
Let x=5 and m=1, then four times the cube of the fifth perpendicular, ,
diminished by three times the same perpendicular, is equal to the fifteenth per-
pendicular, or to the perpendicular on the fifteenth side of the polygon. /

ON THE TRIGONOMETRY OF THE PARABOLA. 97

XXXVII. Since
log u=u—u-!—F(w —u-?) + 1(w— u-3) —1 (ut —u-4), &e.,
and as
u—u—=2tan 0, w’—u-2=2 tan (0+6),
u"—u-"=2 tan (0-+0+6-+ to m terms),
while
u=sec 0+ tan 0.

We have therefore
PV—PT
2

We may convert this into an expression for the are of a circle by
changing + into +, tan into / —Isin, and the parabolic arc into the circular
are multiplied by VW —1.

Hence, since PT in the circle is equal to 0,

log u= =tan 0—} tan (0--6)+4 tan (0100, &e.). (53)

3 = sin 0—}sin 20+4sin 30—+sin 46,
a formula given in Lacroix, ‘Traité du Calcul Différentiel et du Calcul
Intégral,’ tom. i. p. 94.

XXXVIII. In the trigonometry of the circle, the sines and cosines of
multiple ares may be expressed in terms of powers of the sines and cosines of
the simple ares. Thus

cos 20= 2cos’?0—1 >)
cos 30= 4 cos? @— 3cosé

cos 40= 8cos*@— 8 cos*0+1

cos 50=16 cos’ 02—20 cos? 6+ 5 cos 0

cos 60= 32 cos’ @—48 cos*@+18 cos? 0—1 |

(54)
sin 20=sin 0 (2 cos 8)
sin 36=sin 6 (4 cos? @—1)
sin 40=sin 6 (8 cos* @—4: cos 6)
sin 50=sin 6 (16 cos* @—12 cos’6+1)
sin 69=sin 0 (32 cos’ @—32 cos* 0+ 6 cos 6).
Hence in the trigonometry of the parabola,
sec (0+6)=2 sec? 0—1
sec (0+0+6)=4 sec’ @—3 sec 0
sec (0-+-0+0+6)=8 sec’ 0—8 sec’ 0+1
sec (0+0+0+6+6)=16 sec’ 6—20 sec* 0+5 sec 0
ards 32 sec’ 0—48 sec* 0+ 18 sec? @—1
ee (0-+6)= isis 6 (2 sec 6) (55)
tan (06+ 6)=tan 0 (4 sec? @—1)
tan (6+61.6+6)=tan 6 (8 sec? 0—4 sec 0)
tan (0+0+60+6+6)=tan 6 (16 sec! @—12 sec? 0+1)
tan (0+0+6+6+6+6)=tan 0 (32 sec’ 9—32 sec? +6 sec 8)
: . . . ° oe: : . ° . J

ce preceding formule may easily be verified.

98 REPORT—1856.

If we add in the above series any two corresponding secants and tangents,
the sum will be an integral power of sec 0+tan 0.

Thus sec (0-0) +tan (6+ 0)=(sec 0+ tan @)’.
Again, since in the circle
cos 0=cos 6 7

2. cos? 0=cos 26+1
4. cos® 0=cos 30+3 cos 6
8 cos? @6=cos 46-+-4 cos 26+1

. and + (56)
sin 9=sin 0
2 sin? €2=—cos 20+ 1
4. sin? 6= —sin 30+ 3 sin 0
8 sint 0=cos 40—4 cos 20+3. J
Hence in parabolic trigonometry, 7
sec O=sec 6 |
2 sec? 6=sec (0+0)+1
4 sec? O=sec (0+0+0)+ sec 30
8 sect @=sec (0+ 0+0+6)+4sec(0+0)+1 (57)

tan 6=tan 0
2 tan? @=sec (0+0)—1
4. tan @=tan (0+6-+ 6)—3 tan 6 |
8 tan‘ d=sec (0+0+6+0)—4 sec (0+0)+3. J
XXXIX. The roots of the expression
gin Ldap teas OP SO. eae (58)

may be represented under the form cos A+ / —1sin A, when a is less than 1.
This has long been known. It is not difficult to show that when a is greater
than 1, the roots may be exhibited under the form

ade Ae tae Al) sritetog gh 9a9 Bree (59)

Since a is greater than 1, let a=see 0, and let 6 be diyided into x angles ¢,
connected by the relation

¢ +¢ +9 +6 &=0; - 2 se es (60)
and it has been shown in (6) that
sec(d+o+o+¢ to np) +tan (p+oto*?# to no)=(sec p+ tan 9)”.
Let sec ¢+tan ¢=w, then 2 see g=u'+u-},
and therefore 2secO=2sec (¢+9+o+to ng)=u"+u-”,
Substitute this value of 2 see 6 in (58), and we shall have
zm (u"4+u-")e" +1=0,

(4 * 1) (21-1) =0. 3 toute Seca gm

or resolving into factors,

Se ee AF

ON THE TRIGONOMETRY OF THE PARABOLA. 99

Now finding the roots of these binomial factors by the ordinary methods,
we shall haye, since u=sec ¢+tan q,

2=(sec @+tan ¢) (multiplied successively into the » roots of unity) i (62)
and (see ¢—tan ) (multiplied successively into the roots of unity).
We are thus enabled to exhibit the 27 roots when a>1.
Thus, let n=3, then the equation becomes

2°—2 sec0z°+1=0,

and
a ad al
consequently the six roots are
—1+ /—3
(sec @+tan (1, a)
and oon » «0 (68)

(sec ¢—tan (1, alive),

By the same method we may exhibit the reots when a is less than 1, or
a=cos 0.

XL. We might pursue this subject very much further, but enough has
been done to show the analogy which exists between the trigonometry of the
circle and that of the parabola. As the calculus of angular magnitude has
always been referred to the circle as its type, so the calculus of logarithms
may in precisely the same way be referred to the parabola as its type.

The cbscurities which hitherto have hung over the geometrical theory
of logarithms are, it is hoped, now removed. It is possible to represent
logarithms, as elliptic integrals usually have been represented, by curves de-
vised to exhibit some special property only ; and accordingly such curves,
while they place before us the properties they have been devised to represent,
fail generally to carry us any further. The close analogies which connect
the theory of logarithms with the properties of the circle will no longer appear
inexplicable.

To devise a curve that shall represent one condition of a theory, or one
truth of many, is easy enough. Thus, if we had first obtained by pure ana-
lysis all the properties of the circle without any previous conception of its
form, and then proceeded to find a geometrical figure which should satisfy
all the conditions developed in the theory, we might hit upon several geome-
trical curves that would satisfy some of the established conditions, though
not all. That all lines passing through a fixed point and terminated both
ways by the curve shall be bisected in that point, would be satisfied as well
by an ellipse or an hyperbola as by a circle. That all the lines passing
through this point and terminated both ways by the curve shall be equal,
would be satisfied as well by the cusp of a cardioide as by the centre of a
circle; but no curve but the circle will fulfil all the analytical conditions of
the theory of the circle.

In the same way, no curve but the parabola will satisfy all the conditions
of the arithmetical theory of logarithms.

The equilateral hyperbola gives a false analogy and leads into error, because
to base the properties of logarithms on those of the equilateral hyperbola
leads to the conclusion that negative numbers have real logarithms.

H2

100 REPORT—1856.

Tite foregoing theory decides a controversy long ¢arried on between
Leibnitz and J. Bernoulli on the subject of the logarithms of negative num-
bers. Leibnitz insisted they were.imaginary, while Bernoulli argued they
were real, and the same as the logarithms of equal positive numbers. Euler
espoused the side of the former, while D’Alembert coincided with the views
of Bernoulli. Indeed, if we derive the theory of logarithms from the pro-
perties of the hyperbola (as geometers always have done), it will not be easy
satisfactorily to answer the argument of Bernoulli—that as an hyperbolic
area represents the logarithm of a positive number, denoted by the positive
abscissa+, so a negative number, according to conventional usage, being
represented by the negative abscissa—a, the corresponding hyperbolic area
should denote its logarithm also. And this is the more remarkable, because
by Van Huraet’s method the quadrature of the hyperbola itself depends on
the rectification of the parabola, as shown in XXXV._ All this obscurity is
cleared up by the theory developed in the text, which completely establishes
the correctness of the views of Leibnitz and Euler.

It is somewhat remarkable in the history of mathematical science, that
although the arithmetical properties of logarithms have been familiarly known
to every geometer since the time of Napier, their inventor, or rather dis-
coverer, no mathematician has hitherto divined their true geometrical origin.
And this is the more singular, because the properties of the logarithms of
imaginary numbers are intimately connected with those of the circle. No
satisfactory reason has been shown why this should be so. The logarithmic
curve which has been devised to represent one well-known property of loga-
rithms, is a transcendental curve, and has no connexion with the circle.
Neither has any attempt been made to show how the Napierian base €, an
abstract isolated incommensurable number, may be connected with our
known geometrical knowledge. Had the circle never been made a geome-
trical conception, the same obscurity might probably have hung over the
signification of z, which has hitherto concealed from us the real interpreta-
tion of the Napierian base e.

This affords another instance, were any needed, to show how thin the veil
may be which is sufficient to conceal from us the knowledge of apparently
the simplest truths, the clue to whose discovery is even already in our hands.
The geometrical origin of logarithms and the trigonometry of the parabola
ought, in logical sequence, to have been developed by Napier, or by one of
his immediate successors. They had many indications to direct them aright
in their investigations. So true it is that men, in the contemplation of remote
truths, often overlook those that are lying before their feet!

I have shown in this memoir that the theory of logarithms is a result of the
solution of the geometrical problem to find and compare the lengths of ares
of a parabola, just as plane trigonometry is nothing but the development of
the same problem for the circle. I have shown, too, elsewhere*, that elliptic
integrals of the three orders do in all cases represent the lengths of curves which
are the symmetrical intersections of the surfaces of a sphere or a paraboloid
by ruled surfaces. These functions divide themselves into two distinct groups,
representing spherical and paraboloidal curves, and by no rational trans-
formation can we pass from the one group to the other. ‘The transition is
always made by the help of imaginary transformations, as when we pass from
the real logarithms of the parabola to the imaginary logarithms of the circle.
When we take plane sections of those surfaces, that is to say, a circle and a

* «Researches on the Geometrical Properties of Elliptic Integrals,’ Philosophical
Transactions for 1852, p. 316.

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC, ETC. 101

parabola, the theory of elliptic integrals becomes simply common trigono-
metry, or parabolic trigonometry with the theory of logarithms.

These views will suggest to us the reflection, how very small is the field
of that vast region, the Integral Calculus, which has hitherto been cultivated
or even explored! When we find that the highest and most abstruse of
known functions, not only circular functions and logarithms, but also elliptic
integrals of the three orders, are exhausted, “used up,” in representing the
symmetrical intersections of surfaces of the second order, who shall exhibit
and tabulate the integrals of those functions which represent the unsymme-
trical sections of surfaces of the second order, or generally those curves of
double curvature in which surfaces of the third and higher orders intersect ?
Considerations such as these but add fresh evidence to the truth, how small
even in mathematics is the proportion which the known bears to the
unknown!

Cheltenham, August 8, 1856.

—

In revising this memoir for publication among the Reports of the British
Association, I have supplied several numerical examples to illustrate the theory.
I have added some new theorems, such as the curious properties of the
polygon of x sides circumscribing the parabola, p.95; the theorem which
connects the corresponding points of the parabola and the equilateral hyper-
bola, p. 94; a new trigonometrical form for the roots of a cubic equation,
p- 81; and the geometrical expressions for the 2n roots of a trinomial equa-
tion, in the excepted case, by the help of parabolic trigonometry, p. 99.
I have also made a few other additions, and several corrections.—J. B.

The Vicarage, Wandsworth, Nov. 10, 1856.

Report on the Marine Testaceous Mollusca of the North-east Atlantic
and neighbouring Seas, and the physical conditions affecting their
development. By Ropert MacAnpvrew, F.R.S.

In the following Report, prepared in compliance with a wish expressed by
the Committee of the Natural History Section of the British Association at
the Glasgow Meeting last year, I have endeavoured to embody the results
of personal research, obtained principally by means of the dredge, at various
intervals during the past twelve years.

The field of my labours has extended from the Canary Islands to the North
Cape (about 43 degrees of latitude), and with reference to the following
Tables, it should be explained that when a species is stated to extend north-
wards to the latter, or southwards to the former of these limits, it is not to be
inferred that it does not range further; and this it is more important to bear
in mind, because alarge proportion of the Mollusca inhabiting the coasts of
Finmark are known to be widely distributed in the Arctic Seas, while a con-
siderable number of the Canary species extend to, and in some cases attain
their maximum of development in, the tropical region.

It is hardly necessary to add, that even within the district to which my
observations have been confined, many species of mollusca are recorded to
have been obtained which it has not been my good fortune to meet with or
identify, and that of all such I have taken no note.

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103

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIO, ETC.

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*eumordiz9.1 |

REPORT—1856.

104

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pn

105

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC, ETC.

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*[@00] see ** pues seoree *-e8ureyyl see STOYyRT 9 04 a10ys teeeeecooecorsssseTpOUVIIIMpI IN Foesecsennes rT a) vaorund

*Teooyy"""""""* ** pues|"***" UvaUuPLIOpIpaT| Peep “(suey C1) aLOYs| UvsuvIIE}IpsT, pue yesnyi0g|""* sees SUNT ‘eqeuryd.

‘ayeropoul peeeeeesevetens puts “es TeIUBILOUPITA ar0ys see eeeeeeens Jopesow eSnq10g PONCREE a ORO 77% ‘24809

“suonbay teeeeeeesseoees NTRS! eT trees eS RTE TAL . “+ 910ys seteeeesreeseeres -UBQURLIONPO| TS MDT ‘erjaypornd

*a1e1|"** pnw pue puvs|"** ¢ Spuv[sy Areuen|"*****SuLoyyey OF 0F OZ} SPULTST Ayeweg 0} OSTA, ** 2ya00Lg “CYCLES

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0} + uLeeULLLOIPET seeeeeeseooeeneng Ty “24.104SIp

she we meer eneeeseee

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*“SUOT IEF

quonba.y|"** pnd pue pues|0T 0} F ‘sBas oto1y\"*"""* SMLOYILS OP 0} fF)" ssseseyreuaUTy ‘UreqIg| "77" UMoceT ‘eumrxoid

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*svas OOTY JO vUIA7, 83\""°

-suanbady . oe pues on ees UTBIG *-SulOUyey ZIT 0} ax0ys ste eeeeeenUBIPION 04 Jopesoy

“yuonbary ences aesessecs pues sneeeeeee urej1g0un ene eeeeeessssonsse aaoys see Urey 0} VeIUIION PIT

“quanbaay|sserseeees++* pues| ses uredg Jo ynog|"***** suroyyEy OT 07 g|** UTegTAG 09 SpULIsy Areueg
“STOP EJ

*[B00] Poe errenerevere pursiOL 0} y ‘Kauyj1O) eeeeee SULOYIL] GF 01 ¢

seseeeeee KauyIO “TICIA aden
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pUe JOT[VUUs SoOTIVA UBIUATTO}IPI]A|******"**TeooT|****pnut pue pues *“sxa1S[y ‘vaso[suy|"*"** SMOTIEF OZ 0} FiUBoURMIO;TPIT, PUB VALOPEIN
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*TeIULITOIIPI TA
94} Ul JOU ynq ‘rexTeIqID JO YINOS
pue yy10U punoj satoads ouospuey e)-******* BOOT} tet *etes tees UBS reser” OLE Wes desis eee wee rT OLOUN|: a
*quanbaag|"********+ee*** pues|qqeFO [OF F “UTepAg|"*""** SULOYZEF OB OFZ)"
‘sopngiye] UIIyINOS "eILapeyAL
ur nyaujar ‘gq JO avd oy} soyey|'** guonboay|serreeeees++*** puvs|pue UeoueLIapIpayM|****** STUOT}LF OY OF Bi** ULI TE ‘emapeyy ‘soreaeD
"STONES : 3 Ape =

*[e00] eee eeroostesene pues aoe ureds jo yynog eeveeerttoaneeeres a104s Lic lsphicn tay 0} UvIUeLISzIpI TN

ee eeeees Iopesoyw ‘oreq
** pue[pPAON 07 SalIvUeD

* sniaououy ‘eTnqey
seereeeeses* 99809 0 ‘smuo4
sewer eeeseee urT ‘eyeurwour

eee eeeenreee

myd ‘eeuskd ©

eo eecceseeee ‘urT ‘euloeuop
sere eeeessee ‘WT ‘eurjsne[eq
guouuag “esseto

‘wT “eUTTeL

sevenresseotens oor STTIBRIT
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RhisietaCanwee haquogy "6424800

sesereess sqayy ‘SISUBOLIOT

seeeeeees UODMNT, ‘eyelnqsoo ‘

alesnnpmoat O TPAUPRIIAUDITIN | eett* MT “eaUtTTe i

REPORT—1856.

6

10

*su10q}
“BJ OP 0} TeIO}RI[qQns|"**somteuLT 0} ULIUBLIE} pI)
“spurs
“smoy} eatapeyy pur ‘sazozy ‘spurl
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*94219pOUl seeeeeeeeenvons pnu +> TBIUBLIONPITNY Ba seosisnne ORI ‘eueljouea

eee eee ee eeeres UurT ‘QuoTyo
‘wnT “ea1ayyhg

*passard
| -u100 ox0ut ‘AjoLIvA UvoMeIIE3IpayA|"** quanbaay| street pues] steerer uTegTIg|* SMO FEF OY 0} BOYS)” ULIUBATO} pI OF PUL|PION
ieOOF }

Io} apy Mo, ye dn Snp ost, ye} yuepunqelsssssss***""** pues reseeeeneeeewnenOBtal* SULOTIET (1% 0} BOYS!" ULUBLIAITpay 0} PUe[PION

eee eeseceene fauaqng ‘eq0uT]

pewesionasinnes 0% Hem ‘eya]Oxe
“og ‘stuia3ry
seesseees gupuuad “eyepun
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sees fing “TyUEpneg
see eeteneeee “UDT ‘epliog.
seeres ery eoryde1s003
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mprefiunn ‘sete,
nee eeseererreeseee "WT ‘sndL
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as eeetneereee

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*yeBnj10

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| ‘meoueItayIp
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| Gg Wor aayeA au0 Ajuo agueuey, yy|"** quonboxy|*** pnor pue pues|***-"-uvaueTIeTpayy|********* To} MOT[EYS|"** SpUeTST Arvewe 0} UreyIg
“quonba.j|"** put pue pues|sssss*s*s* ¢ ULeZLIG|" SULOTYZeT YE 0} atoys|**" Spuesy Areuey 0} WreyLIg

seeeeeearese ‘wT ‘tan103]N4s

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‘UT ‘VIZORTN

+(panuzzuoa) Bpeydeoy

a

*quourdopaaop Tedio
utd jo Aqrpeo0'T

“SyIVOUOY ‘ouonbory *punory *asUBI [VOTO A. aSued Teoryders0ay “sotoadg

7

10

ETC.

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC,

=

“Surpsooid

wo soeds younsrp e Atqeqord|++******* oxea|"** pues pue pnua|""* ¢ eqTeyA)"**“SULOTIVS OF 0F OF/TBITeIQIO pus UeouLLToTpIT

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setae eereserees

*ysog *eosny

‘ayeropotul' ttt pues| rs ssorueueg|'** StOyzey OZ 0} OT\-S] AreueD 07 UBoUBAIOJIpoy|""""** 2yaTOWg “ByesseToUT

*IeqyeIqry Jo yseq ‘uUveues194
“Pa UI TILA Jour you ‘suOyyeF
¢ ‘punog tuoy WW yuepunqe ysou|'’: ynenbary

“quanba.y

“TeyTeIGLD
jo yseq ‘UeouRAAozTpoy 93 UL yOu!’ yuepunqe

~yuanbay]"

91D MASTO 4OU ynq ‘sepLIq
-OF] OY} Ul OATS yt Woye} OAV JI" OAeI

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‘yuepunqe
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‘mINASN TY Ys "OIRI
“lig Ut ‘saaTeA Moz’e paureyqo ATUo)*** ater ATA

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-md Areurjnd 10} poutoojsa yonut|*:*yuepunqe

‘quepunge|'*t'******* pues

*reyeAqiy Jo yseq ‘ueoueL
~JO}IPIT Ul paurejqo you ‘paanoy

-09 AMFANVaG suauMtoads UrOYINOS|*** ywonbaaglss*******+*+* pues

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vereereereeseoomepsizO SISBOD WlaysoA\|""*""* SMLOTILT OG 0} Gl" spurysy AreueD 07 puryyoz,
“exou TTT, "sumOyy
pue pn “puvs|-eF OT 0F¢ ‘Remaon|""**"* SULOYIRT OG 07 G] er UEP 07 yareuruyy

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sreteeeeeess ToamaB|teeeeteees* IpaTeIqng|""* SUONJeT GF 03 GqT|*** uvaueAIONpPeTH

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guoys|***UvaUeAIAyIpoyy| Teo A | ‘SoVUeD 0} UvoUeILazIpey

see eeeseeree

POSEN 0} ga ee eeeeeeneee ¢ esvyeyy eeerereeesee sumoyyey 0g weer eeere Iopesoyy 04 eave

ssseeeeereeees pueg|seeeeeere uM] see SuIOTTey gl" sree BABIOIO
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pue Joavrs ‘pues ss ureyTIg|*** STLOYILT OOL 0} F|'* UouAIopIpoy] 07 3remUTy
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pue joaris ‘pues
Ssteeeeearenees DUDS

whens eudsesaeoe Eda “°** smOysET OZ OF Fl'''* AeIeAqny 07 wIeyIWOI
aah 1) (3 1 "** SUIOYIV] F OF V.1OYS

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sreeeeeeeoee tiTeqIgoUN|"***** SMLOYIEE QP 0} gipue soliwuey 0} UMLEYZUOIG
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ones

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teteeeens sonore “essordutod

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if PSS La 73119 ‘BoYyOIe

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seeeeererensees Yd ‘stq100
we * ‘hnag ‘eyeotns
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tee reeeeenerene ‘ueT “erzadery

seeeeeee

saeserens “hnag “eyetno Teo
‘auammbnag “eqtpxeg

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ee tene “pout ‘ds

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seeeerersons aupuuad ‘240

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seseeeeeeveeee see TI BOUB IIOP eaaeen ees eerene UT “euyyes
ttrecoeeeseseeeripattg (SULOUIEL QOL OF [el0}gU]"**""'*** TOpeSoyy 07 YxvUMUT])"******** waouog “e[nyeLys
i

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ayy ‘padeys-exjovpy, ‘possordoroo|*** oxer Axoa|ssertsees***+* pues] *eeeseereees raUAUM| "steers"? STMONET OE)" VpLOUTT, Jo wae

*poyertis ed

OTA 4nq ‘ULIOZ UI 4se_ Surq

poseocees OTN,

quis: cider:

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oe pum pue pues| eoarerneogee Te;TCIGE oo SmOTyey 09 09 1 ue ATeUeD 0} WBONLIE}Ipa

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RRA AAA MNS A SRA SA DRONE STE *ds

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uo Ajjeuorsea900 AeMAON ut pue
‘snaund.ind snbunjody yo saweds uo}'** yuanbaay|*** pnur pur pues|smoyyeyOT ‘puepjaz|*** SMIOILT OOT 0} OT|Weourrtoztpoy[ 0} WIOZUOTG|*****""** “puopy ‘eqyeIySqns
*pouren AqITVoo] OY} UT U0JMNT, ‘VINIBIUOT|,
aut Aq pasparp sT[eys T[eus su0s :
Suoure Aoque fy “TN kq poqoajap|****area A104 seeeseeeseeeseentipgiessseeeesees TMOUHUN| ee8"**""* SULOUIEF GT | rereseseseeee sees keg Ayueg streseeee samp “UINXOATOO
“aeqerqry +e
raaed|esteetssees ee pus|sserses sss TIeITOOUN/aIOYS ‘SULOYILI ZI 0} QI] ***** AVIPVAGID 0} BAS YSLAT|"***** -yuopy ‘cAnsouenbs
“uoquny, ‘uo4dary

REPORT—1856.

"MUU T ‘(prop ‘su0y9ey OC) “UROURIIO}
jo 8}001 pue *sa10}8 JO soorAero Ut steeeseoe DTpyreetseecccceres oor SOS CGI TT uredg [e107 41;qus pue [e10341] “Ipe 0} puepsuq jo TJNOG] sss eeeees figquamog m0} T,
uopany, “eWULOaTeX)
*quanbodj|*** pau pue pues|****s**'** puepJOOS|***** SMLOTIRE QE OF Gir 8" ATLOG OF YACUUUT]s*eeeeeeee ssw] “VoIpUeTST
‘unt ‘eudig
*ertap “Spurysy
*yuonboag}"************** pues|-eyy ‘UvoUBIIo}Ipapy|"**'** SULOTIBT OG 03 glArvUeD 0} PULTJOIG Jo 4ySoA\| ***ee"** “guopT SeUUTUTUL
“uayoDUnyag ‘dII
“payeorns ‘[peums}***rarer Araal ees teteeess* pues} eee MOMUN] s**t ee*** suTOTIeT Ge}"** (stung, jo 7g) VIJOAQUIIT| *eeereeeeseeerseeeeee QUT ‘ds
‘akg Jo punog ou} Ur romex Aroa|*e*"**s******** pues!” *UIeJIIOUN|******8**** STUOTIVT GEl*** VIALTToyUR ‘stun, Jo F[NH]** ss yg eyyacediq
pespaip suounoads jrssoy a1} Jo qtionbag|pnut 3 atodtyMN| "+t" pUeTPION|***"** SUMOYILE OT 09 Pl YawuTULy 07 opATQ] ss -wmoug ‘eondyya
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“moy ‘ayIeysy

*(panuzzuos) epeydeoy

a i a

—

‘yaauadoyaAop [edo
-uid jo AjyyeooT

“syeUayyT -ouanbary “punor “BUI [O19 ‘g8ueL peordessoary *soroadg

108

D
4 “spueysy eilep
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eyegq Ul eeu uo 4uepunqe|"** yuanbaag}-s+sr+++++**** pues|tqyeZQT0}p‘purpjaz|"**"** SULONIeS OQ OF Pl se YVUIUTY 07 UTEATIG|"******** wozuny, “wMsopou
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‘quanbaayl**ssssee**+** pralednjaog pue uredg}***** suoygey QT 0} p["** uvouvsrogtpopy PUL OBIA|******+*+++"+* eewagr ‘aauTIO
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‘quanbaay|*** pnur pue pues|********"** xeqfeaqry|'**'** suoyyey QE 0} FI***** UvouITOpapy 09 OSTA ere et + -wer7 ‘sypeNSIp
‘soroods yua00d @ SB MoU|"** oYeIApOUl|"*+ pnul pue pues|***** ULePLOOUN|""* SUIOYI QT OF Zs OAZOTAOUUT| 88 VET “USTOASUEAT

aaralenalilce ree bs Pees * suuT “eqjaquanjoo
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pue puepyoog ut suowmroads ysodavj|‘** yuonbasy|-*: pnut pue purs|-axy ‘puepjoog ysoaa|"*****SUIONZR Og 07 ZT\SoLIeUeD 0} UIOyIUOICE YONI" “pUopy “erosturds
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auambnig ‘eULon'y

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1

111

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC, ETC.

“Stas TLIO
“"DINuaUl DIpLOspy
JO oUeM UL pappaquit Ayjeraues|"** quonbey|jaxv13 pue pnw|**puepyoog Jo3s9\\

“pneu

"quonbasypue ‘poo ‘yoo esses YLVCMUTY| SULIT QO] 0} O10Ys|"***++++"+*+--reUTUTT UIE {Ig

‘a10d

“yuanba.y, “TT[ON PUG SOTIO4S|******etrs Areued) ***SULOY}e} YG 0} V10YS|pue ‘sored ‘avauRAlayIpay, ay
*soroads oyu Blre* aqerlapoul peo sessacemeceeanaTT soorsvcceese wMouyun Fee aeartteee SWIOYIy: eg Tenneees seasons censeea sor TOULUB ET

UIC} Ul 91e.1)*** quonboay COCRURECCUR CED i ihasi lec at Ts

“quonbely siege een eeeee erTTU -TMON pue fearon “STON ey OSI 04 G fe reccene

“o7g ‘ZIpeg|"***** smOTIS OF 0} F|-Ipayy 07 purlsug Jo yyNog

YTVULULY OF PULPODG| 888" Ay “errr

"SHLONILF OOT 0} a10Ys|"*spuvysy AreULD oF YreUMUTA|***"****soguog “eIEIOMAICUR

eee eesescccases UnT ‘S1OOSIP
‘umoung “eTfeUIIQ

“* qyaonag ‘eudeyag

ethest sti stosneasge oma ‘ds

“elope

‘lopedoyy, pue weawer1a4
Pac eereesseeses ‘UT “eyeqreq

“quanbeaj}"** pnu pue pues|sqyey eg ‘pue[pzoN|'** sMONARE OCT 07 OS" ULUZLIGY OF YAVUMUTA|******s*+ “zeyeT “euTToaseyd

‘soleuey pue ‘uearer,

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*ureqTa0un “ds ‘aATeA OUO|*** terse gTeT| sect sstteeeeesteteee|eeeeeeeneeee UMoUyuN|' ++ +++ scmoNseT ce
*a10YS WO SoATBA|**********oreA|"*
. romea|***"++++0+++-purgs|teseeeess=s MOUTMM|' "++ SULOT IRE OF
CTR] esesesereeseseneneeelseesoeeeoes UMOMTUM] eters QZONS
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ame)" **rsse+=*=* samogs|***+***++ uneqzaoun|****-sULOUIeT OP 0} CT
‘weaueL |
‘yuonbay|souoys pue s[jays|-r19}Ipayy pue zipeo|****-sul0T ye; OZ 04 OT
‘ayerepoul| ***********" pam|***+++*9=*"" reqperquy|*****-sMMOTIeE CF 09 Ge
“quonbasyferesssste+* gypoafssses grpeg| tess pexoygTTQns

oer esasere

“raze daap ut ATTeraues|**: yuonboayl*******++*** somogs|*****+****** wregzaoun “SULOYIL] OG 07 or0ys
*so[deNy 48 OYE OY} UL PfOs|"** yuanbasy|-ss--re-* syooa|s+****** -O2p ‘saqdeny Trot eeeeseeees STUOUIED Z

“OZIS BIL] ATOA JO ATLA B[****7*** QTUT|seereeeeereeerenenees|seseeeesseee WUBATQOUN| "tees seneteneess az0ys
“URaUeLIAy

“POTN, OY} UL ILIA aur Lagu aawy]|-** guonbosyls++++++++++e+-- pues|s*eee+++++++ uLeAI9DUM]-*++--sUOMIEZ OS 04 OZ
*"sralsTy

y@ eToys 94} UO saruENb ysea ull"** yuBpUNgElsss*s**sss*++*+pnu|"** sroSTy “eSereyy|*-*--***-suoNsIeT g 0} F

oP comers one Dicatace| 04 YACULUT I sett tts Uvy ‘sn[orpour
“UDT “eOIPOT\,
’ e4401qQUII7 Pete eee ee sere setts sanensens ‘ds
oor Cece TT eerie zIpeg Ses eeoeesee éUny ‘TanqIp
eyliouey, pue ‘ewes ‘eqyeyy| brig ‘eye oLiquit
“" WeeueleyIpeyy pue zipeg|:** ‘bnog ‘stvepowAeu
‘UvaURLIayIpoy pue reyperqry seceeeeeseseeeeunay 7 Cenbiqo

eee e eter eeceseretses

vreesse* TUIBLGI) OF YIVUUTT|**** poo “g “eyeyuOprIer
eeeevenesses TUIayWOTCT WON seressees eee aaOT ‘esojnpou
*Spurysy
Areueg 0} puepsugq jo yynog PCR CCGTn ‘eoqoey
““epMouay, “eqyey ‘“reyeaqro|:+***:yog ‘eres “eqenbryae
eet ewesescce a) ‘sorden “2mpe9 Cece escccccsces UT ‘eqeqaeq
“eIIopeyy pue ‘soneueg
‘URoURIIOppeyyY 03 pueyaz|**** yop euoseaqe9
“+ ZIpeg pue WRIUBLIO VPI ptoneaanesecaqneme 71 Ery ‘BON

“wy “Bory
“UBOURITOUPIP PUL Teyperqng)*****t*e8""**** ewwry ‘snsopid

verrrereees sonrpuRD ‘exapRyy| tt aaaagr ‘snqnotg

Treeereoesssooeee IBQUBLIOMpATN] **°''""* UT ‘SUOSELOIA

“ellopeyy ‘ueouer

“BITOpeyM 2p soLIeUD UT azIs [jeMIs Jo|"** yuepUNgel*****""** ATOAR seeeeeereesseooupaTTerl****<*STIOUsey OF 04 OT 1agIpey, ‘solreueg ‘urezLig|************ “WT ‘srram1a4]3

*a7R1 psacauaes pues

nee SUMOYIEF OST 0% 0, Si suey pue DUR PAC

Ni Ge yg “eomaid '

REPORT—1856.

112

eT et ee. Se

~~ — - ae “SABA ye

Panes a j

“OVI JV ‘IVA Jopeos|*** qUBpUNgE|"[aAvAd pue puEs| re E UTEILIG}“SULOY ALT 0Z 0} BLOYS|"** UVIUVIIOJIpayy OF UrepIAg|**re*ere***eeer* "eT ‘snes
‘snsskq [[eus @ Aq soraype Man “7 OQ “u9409g
“nr tp Aq So ‘Butaty woupoads auolreesss"** oaeal sseeees** SouUOgS|**teeree*** ACMTON|"** STLOZL OST 0} OG|[TeUIUTT 0} mATaYyIUOIG YIION|"**suzd24gnT “9 “7 “e{VAvOXE
‘oyetopOua|*********"** SIUOJS|**** URIULLIDITpIT|[eLOPTI[GNs pur [e10}}T[|"** UvIUeILE}IpoyY PUB ZIpLD se" DT “eq{eyUt
*[esny10g ‘(peap) smoyey “*BILOPCIN
[pur uredg Jo syseoo a3 WO punog you|"** ayerapoua**s***ss"+** saUO|S|*etteseeUTVZAZBOUNING 07 ‘Surat ‘Texoyy|‘soureueg ‘ApoIg pue egyeyy} tt *'** wyT ‘esouenbs
‘snolredei3 jou pur ‘13}4;ey *spuvysy] Sar0zy
‘JaTeUs Suraq ur ysey wtoay sxayip}*** oyeropom|: “sees pays) reeeesseeeeen cipdal*suLOyyEy OE 07 10Ys|pue AreULD 03 uIVdg Jo YON] *********** 2yaoDay ‘sITLSvay
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*a4vAOpOUU|*[AAvIS puL pULs (ULL JOS] )UTePLIG|"*****SUMONIL] OG 0} GT|*** Weoueroppayy ‘pUe[PION]|********* "MOG “TIqUIOOSOTT
*oavdl"[OAvIZ puv puus|s**eststs AVATON|*** SULONILT OST 02 OST tt AVMTON 62 UIeyIIG st) uaaoTy ‘snpnoyns
*yeoo]|"** pues puw pnuul sss ss** ULeITIg]*** SMLOMILE QZ 0} GTI" *puLlpAON ‘satteueD|****** “zuopy “eye[NoLMEqns
auambnig “eUvy

*suatmtoads “VILOpeyY pues ‘sate

Ystytag pourezqo ATpeuosisd you savy J|*** guonbeay\""* pues pue puwj'*****uvourtopyipayy|"°°**" suloyyey Eg OF gl-eULD ‘uvaUeIIO}IPIT ‘OSA uy ‘eutuarey,
“squo}s pur “bnag “eotay

SIO 07 SULLA pPR‘19jV MO] FV Suray| sets" oealfaavaSs puw syoor| ss *ss****** urepLOOUN|TeI0gITIGNS PUL [VIO IT]| "78888" SoLIVULD ‘eITopRyy| TT wT “stTpnI

*[BoO]|"[OAvIS puv puRs|"** ¢ UVIURLIOIIPOT|"**SMLOTZLJ OE OF BTOYS|***s*s8 eee UBAUIBAOpIPayy|*- YO “VPBOTNUL
*pur[ary

‘TeooT| ttt TOAVAS! ¢ pURTAIT JO YNog|"**'** suMOTILZ OG 0} FIJO NOG puL pouULYD Ys UAT ‘eyourjood
"wT ‘euUtg

“eSuyeyy Jo ysvo punoy youl"? quanbaay}tstte* syooaltsessse+ ureqrooun| este essseesees groys|esteeteetts JOpeBopy “VBepeyy| sree ste 7aesy ‘1aFV

*SIOISTV qe OZIs aie] ‘punqe Aroalisstsstteses sy04 “RIRIN ‘euaseyyAe9 seereeneeeeeeeeees Qyoygiererssseesetese BQUBIIOIIPITA|"** 10d ‘SHUTULUL

e@ sure sypiowaosd op *xreA\punge AIOAl*********'** SQUO4S|"SqIVJ PF 07 Q ‘UTePIIG|*StONZeT OF 0} 10Ys ** JOPVSOJ[ 0} YAVUMUTg| UAT eee:
“WT “SOTA

taqetopounlsstsstttses SyOOT|ssst tot UTeZAQOUN| tee 8e TOV MOT|"[eSNIIOg pue uredg JO YON} ******* “AOS ‘snaeSipneo

*O2p ‘SIOIS[Y 42 JONAVOL 9G} Ur ppos|*** auanboaz] sss +e* SyOOA|++* ++ TVAUBILOPIPAT\| [VAOAITTPGUS PUL [L109II]|""* UVoMVLIa}Ipayy PUL zIpEp| ss" ***wa2anD ‘sn Ajoep
*da1ang ‘SnMOpoy wT

*purpjaz ‘punog vyyeg ut *punog
quepunge ysour ‘AemaAoN Ur azis taSaey|"** guonbaay|s 8 puesleqeg pus yawurury| ***sesuLOy yey QOL 0} Gl yAVUIUT 07 PULTJOIG Jo4sayy|"**"****** “UOT “ByEssnoap
“Mes SI ‘9}90190UeT

“sopnyye, ULayyNos ‘rreseeeeeeeeee nuresl TqVIGeUIBIIIGUIAZ|"****SULOUILI QF OF SII" a10Le0UeT 07 YNOUIAaAA\|"*"******fajayLag “vaquoyt
UI svoosp +9 aoefdex 0} savedde|"*: oyetapoul|** pnux pue pues|"**"*** ‘o2p ‘uredg|*** SUIOYYRJ G 0} aTOYS|*TOpeDoyy 07 purjsugq joyynog|******"***** osszay “VyB[NYSOO
“URIURIIO}

‘OVeIOPOUU} eee see NTA" TBATBATOJIPO TA "****SULOTILE OF 0} OZ|-TPIPl pue ILI[LAIGUD JO SPIVIyS BOCQSOGOREOGEG CrP IPs) “Bq S0A

unorg “e]|auaIg
*(panuyuos) BTeydey

*yueudoyeAap yed1o
-utid jo Ayeoory

ot

“SIRI *Aouianbat *punor *aBURI [BOT}.10 *aduer [voryders005 *sotoadg
of P 9 TROT}IO A i

113

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC, ETC.

‘quonbosy|"pues pue souoys| s**t ess** UEyIA|"*"'* SUIOIILT YG 0} P|" UoURIMEIPIPY 0} PUL[PION]********* “ee “stuLLOFTTayed
‘pues | ‘uredg jo [AON "R.llopeyy pur
‘quanbosy|pue ‘pnur ‘feaeaS|‘purjary Jo YNog|SMONIwy OQT 0} atoys|uvoURAIoNpoyY 07 Yrvouuy|***ereerseere7T ‘cantddiyda
‘uy ‘emouy
“spury
‘quanbaiy|'sou0ys pue yoo.|'***UvoUVATO}pIT{|"SWOTIVJ 9 07 aA0YS|-s; AreUeD ‘UBaUBITOJIPOy]*********** "UT ‘sndorepas
‘mT ‘snjkpuodg
‘ayeropounl** *tttttstess pues} sess urezt99UN|"****STIOYIRF OG 07 ZI] "SPULIS] eILopey pure Areuey|"*****9v9 q ‘saploury[eroo

‘gama trees pus] ets UMOUUN|'* SLOTS OGT 07 OG|'"** YLeUUTY pue pur[proN|" paut ‘ds
raaea| tsetse pues" UMOUUN|""* STOTIL; YET OF OG” YaVUMUTT pur pueppron| tees pour “ds
“BUrATT uoultoads guol'** area AIOA eee e-uRS eeatcvcveese ureqzg0un ee eaeseceees SmOyyey OL ccccervccsce 099 “4ey ‘pue[pION seme ewes erent taeeres “pour ‘ds
‘gaed| ttre us| sts" Bag O1yOTY|"** SULOTJEJ OST 0F OG) YaeUUT pur purpson|'***'* “mag ‘snopuejua1y
: Rc) ) *RAlap
‘oral testes pues|-vyy ‘UeauBtayTpayl| *** SMOYILT OG 0} GT |-epy‘sorVULD ‘uvaURTIdyTpayy| ett g WAT ‘snqqIs
(peop) "OTT

ramen ATOAl Steet pues} OTeITOOUN|SMMOYJeF QE 0} 910TS]-9U9J, ‘arouetioppoyy ‘zIpegs ts wT ‘stpay-sad
¢ 9ngiags “gq JO ‘aeal'** ayerapoum| sss puRs| "st *O2p ‘eqeqy| * SULOTTyRy 0G OF qgl tt uBaueTeypa yyy * nog 24804
*ayelopouly'***'********** pues SOC A RIRIN “+=-sulOUyey ZT 0} OT" sees TBIUBIIOJIPI IN] ° sence UT ‘requis
*yeooy re pues “URALRTIOpay|"***** STIOYILJ OP OF Ql ts SIOISLY “eyeP] et wT Ssuqeorns
*pareajsva vues
“RERleyy IO Tej~eaqry ye punoy youl'** guonbaay}ertss 8+ pu] '** ATlorg pus Vypey]"*"** swO|Iy g OF Q|-eyWeD UOT ‘UBOUBATAZIPAT]" "°°" OT ‘snurpeAy

*JaAeIS *vilopeyy pue
‘quonboy|pue ‘pnut ‘pues|reqperqry pute zipep|'**'** suoyzeF OF 0} g|‘UvouerroyIpoy “ZIpep‘uogsry)"**""* uuoug ‘snydaoudjod
“STON IL
quonbaay|*****8t* "ts pues 02 9} OL ‘KEMION|*** SULOYyey 00L 91¢ Sete e eter eeesereneresees A@MION tereeeses CONT ‘snotpueysy
*SULONIUI QO 38 SpurLysT *ealap

Areueg ut uounoeds [ems auo Aquo|"** quonboayls pues} er uregtg|*** smOYIeZ OOT 07 Gl-epy pue AreueD 07 puefpION |" wT ‘sraeno1ado
“paeaisea spurys]

*satoads ‘yuanbasyj|“pues pug JaavaS|"*****uvouerroypoyy|'** sulogyey ¢{ 07 Z[JoMvayeg woay ‘ueouRstoytpayy|"*********** “wPT “sneeqooes
gxou Aq poovyder st 4t otoyM *ellap
‘uvoueLIayIpayy Uloyseq ayy ut youl'ss quonbasz| ss ttt JoAwaG|*resereeeeeere areqEEg|***t** sMONIET OE 0} G|-eTL PUL soTIeURD 0} Kouyig| tt wT ‘snumrxeul
‘oars *ellapeyy pure

*[BooT|pue ‘pnul ‘pues seeeeeees ESOPLIQoH|"** SUUOTIV, OO 03 OT UBVIURLIIIpPIF, OF yale uur Pebee oo haysvT ‘SITTUUIS

[eso] | "pu pus years sorewosree’’ Ulej190UN|*** STOT}R} OOT 99 02 puepyjoog jo SIA 04 yreuury|** * "mayy ‘snorted

“quonbeaaz ae aes yeari3 ***{BMION ‘puryj0og “** SULOUILFE OOL 97 OL)” veeeees TBIVIGI OF yaremaly secscoesers LONW ‘snuLtsty
"ony ‘ULI ;

*quonbaaz -BULOeT ‘Sau0}s *kUMION ‘puryj00g seers" STUOUJEF OG 03 ¢ ““ UpIUellop pay 0} YAVUUTY otal Salat Haun ‘snqelqys
"SULOTIRJ CT 03 ZL “RITApe yy pue ‘so10ZV

-juonbaay|souoys pur foava3|‘(uepjoojsy)ureytg|“suOyyey OG 07 BxOYs|‘SoLeUeD “UMTEyFUONC, YMON|************ zumuag ‘orsnd

“RLTeU anni mer she” rumielcc 4

} « uonbe. -TUeT PUB soTlO: 1 aaa meant:

oan ee? so

- ,
PT 12 s[eevseeeseses 4

‘ oo

nnn ee rEereneenrn aE annESEEIERER CREE GEEnEIREEIR IERIE!

~

REPORT—1856.

114

quepunqe * uMmouyun|'*****soreUed
quepunqe ‘om fUBaUBIIA}IP2 JN | veesees GMOURUN|'**** SolIVUBD ‘MRIUeLIE91P9 IN
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, “sqre Ula yy -Sousnboay -uud Jo Aq1R00'T

*punoiy ‘osued [BOo A “Suri jeorydessoay ‘sotoadg

115

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC, ETC.

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> TAT 89.4 tssa w=) -F

REPORT—1856.

116

I aes ¥ - — a... htt
ee ene de | 54 Tipe Sips = ETS x

a be i A el et Se ee Ss
saa i a i :

eer es re a Z

RS

O79 ‘n0qod azts ut AzorIVA e913 ' ‘sorozy pue wropeyy | f *"umoug ‘suedarostp

0} yoalqns ‘1opeSoy 38 ezts ysodrey\*** quonbaay|s]poys pus syooa)**es****** UIVAIaOUN|** *sULOTIe} QF 0} aL0Ys|‘spue[sy AreueD 0} UleflIg) |**''* ‘we7 ‘strepnorosey
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8 cepaut ds |
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‘uaaoT ‘erdydsiqdury
‘(panuzzu09) BPOdO1d4SBx)

————

‘yuamdopaaop yedio
-utid jo Aq1yR00'T

[UE Una ID ISSIR

*syIVULOyy] -Aouonbarg *puno1y *aSURI [RI4IOA. ‘aBuet [eo1yders00yH ‘soloadg

117

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC, ETC.

a a RR A A DO A AA NE LSE ET PL FO, A I CRIS SE I ETE EE |
‘uvaULLIO}IpI| Ut

preaqsea orex AIOA ynq ‘reqTeIqEy ye\"** yuonbaaz|***"* *o2p ‘sT[aYS
“yuonbarj|sou0js pues SyaoI|"*****'** Seas DOIW|"*“suLOTZeJ QT 0} a10Ys|"*"odey YIAON 07 UePY Jo oIST|"*

seereneee ¢ DUBTIOZ]"*‘SUIOTIET gc 01 o10Ns sere8e+* TODeSONN 0} pueppiony ss waynpy ‘eourSr1A
* vay ‘siyeurpn4ysey

*zqjoyasyasy ‘exwoy
*9red|"** pul pue pues| sss UTeZTaOUM] 8 STOVE ZT/* spuepsy Aremeg}ss ss" gs Anup Sraze
torpa|serseressee*** pues|sset **a1ejza0un -(peap) *sqIeI OL 04 gi" ‘ow ‘sialsty ‘sojden|** ++ uling “youreg

*Apwg ‘erarpes
“‘mueaueLIO}Ip ¢eSeE

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‘aummg ‘“eweuoydig

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‘ayeqapoul|"****""*"*"* sauoys weccccececes KeMI0N “9+ SUIOMIET OZ 0} Fl etree YVUUIy 04 puep00g SEE LEIS SINT 777 ‘snqie
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‘QU0Z ULLIEULMe] ; : r |
*auenbaay sveneseccece som038 ‘£@MION xR puepyez “+ SuTOT yey 0z 03 a104s uIe}yig seeseroocesnns i

"STTIOUS NUP SATOIS!PIARTINARIG WaTOATIs** oma UIMATICT L222? *

Lnife nn

REPORT—1856.

118

"IoT[eus ae suatatosds u1IqNOS

*‘snonj per @ uodn

‘adeg YHION

*BULMOT

*syIBUIO

“++ gaeropoul|***trsttt't*

asoy} ‘Surat, suauitoads Aueur youl""’

jo 4sva pourejyqo suauitoads 4sad.e]|--

-[OJ jo Aqorrea poyunys @ Ayquqoad tereeeees Qapalt s]jays PUB pUBS|'*********** UTeZTa0UN|"**

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ron —_ > as -_

Die eit Roe rors

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raaeay tees sguogs| "setts ouAT YOO)" sMOqIes OF 07 O[|uteyjuorq oy Avg uoAreuIeD|***'*****
*[ROOT|S[[aYS PUL souogs|************ ULeZIGOUNI"'**** SMOTIL; YZ 0} 9] OSTA puL pur[suq Jo yng

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*spurysy ‘uvT ens Uy

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tweens teneweneee

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| ——_. —-—.

‘soroadg

o> a.

119

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC, ETO.

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1856.

REPORT

120

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———————

*QBUBT [LOI A ‘aSurr yeorydersoay ‘satoadg

EAST ATLANTIC, ETC.

ORTH

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE N

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“peguuoptr

REPORT—1856.

122

*[200]
‘III
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124

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REPORT—1856.

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——_

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132

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134 REPORT—1856.

Additional Odservations which could not be conveniently embodied in the
foregoing Table.

Saxicava arctica, Zin.—Absent from no district within the range of my re-
searches, but is much more frequent and larger in the northern than in
the southern latitudes. The large solid variety, now living only in the
Arctic seas, is found dead (fossil?) in deep water on the coasts of
Scotland.

Gastrochena modiolina, Zam.; Gastrochzena cuneiformis, Zam.—Not ha-
ving been able to detect any specifie difference between the British spe-
‘cimens and those from the south of Europe, I treat them as identical.
In the Canaries the specimens are smaller and inhabit greater depths
than in other localities.

Ceratisolen legumen, Zin.—Is of much smaller size in southern localities ;
frequent at Malaga, but not eastward in the Mediterranean.

Donax anatinus, Zam.—I have dredged abundantly from 15 fathoms on the
Dogger Bank, a remarkable exception from its ordinary habitat.

Donax venustus, Poli.—Is closely allied to Donax anatinus, of which it
takes the place at Lisbon, Mogador and in the Mediterranean ; in latter
associated with D. trunculus.

Tellina solidula, Pulteney.—Is reported to be frequent in the Mediterranean,
but I have never met with it south of Britain.

Mactra subtruncata, Da Costa.—There are two distinct varieties (? species),
the one larger, solid and strongly rudely striated concentrically, is sub-
littoral, and most abundant on some of the Scottish shores; the other,
small, smooth and thin, is more generally distributed, both as regards
depth and climate.

Venus striatula, Don.—On the Mediterranean coasts of Spain and to the
southward, it is comparatively rare and confined to deep water; in the
British seas it frequents all the zones of depth.

Astarte arctica, Gray.—A valve obtained from west of Zetland, 50 fathoms,
by Prof. E. Forbes and myself, and recorded in the ‘ British Mollusca,’
is in my possession, and I have every reason to believe it to be fossil.
The reasons which induce me to believe that this species is not an actual
inhabitant of the British seas are, that it is a shallow-water species,
very gregarious, and not met with on the coast of Norway, south of
the Arctic Circle.

Astarte compressa, Mont.—Subject to great variety in form, size, &e. I be-
lieve A. Banksti to be only a variety of this species.

Kellia suborbicularis, Mont.—I incline to think that there are tWo species in-

- cluded under this name, if not, they are well«marked varieties ; the one
smaller, more orbicular and more pellucid; the other much larger, more
elliptical and, when fully grown, less transparent. It is the last which
is found imbedded in very fine mud contained iu dead bivalves.

Cardium edule, Ziz.—Varies greatly in size, form, number of ribs, &e.
Near Tunis a narrow neck of land divides the bay from a shallow salt-
water lake, at the head of which the city of Tunis is situated ; on the one
side of this neck of land (that facing the bay) all the specimens of Car-
dium edule were strong, triangular, and with few ribs, while on the side
towarils the lake, they were thinner, wider and much more numerously
ribbed. The northern varieties attain the largest size. :

Modiola Petagnee, Seaccht.—In shallow water in the harbour of Carthagena,

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC, ETC, 135

free. In the Canary Islands, at 12 to 15 fathoms, small and distorted,
imbedded in Nullipore.

Crenella discors, Zin.—The largest British specimens I have obtained were
on the north coast of the Isle of Man, 10 fathoms. At Southampton
the pale green variety is frequent about low-water mark, adhering to the
leaves of Zostera marina. Near Tromsoe in Finmark it is most abundant
in beds covering the under surfaces of ledges of rock. Though reported
to be found in the Mediterranean I have not met with it south of the
British Channel, and believe it to have been confounded with C. costu-
lata by Mediterranean authors.

Lithodomus caudigerus, Sow.—The authors of the ‘ British Mollusca’ state
that this is a South American species. It is frequent on the coast of
Asturias, Bay of Biscay, also at Faro in the south of Portugal, at low
water burrowed in limestone rocks, but not found in the south of Spain
or Mediterranean, where its place is occupied by Z. dactylus.. I have
never obtained them together in any locality.

Pecten Jacobzeus, Zin.—Notwithstanding that this species is named after the
Saint of Compostella, I have not been able to detect it on the coasts of
Galicia, or the north of Spain.

Pecten Danicus, Chem.—This species would appear to have been formerly
much more abundant on the west coasts of Scotland than it is at pre-
sent, as the number of dead valves bears no proportion to that of living
specimens. It is met with throughout the Hebrides, but is most fre-
quent in Loch Fyne, the normal form in mud at about 70 fathoms, the
smaller and strongly striated variety upon hard ground at about 40
fathoms. It is extremely rare in Finmark, and I only met with small
dead specimens north of Drontheim.

Pecten Islandicus, Miller —tIs doubtless extinct in the British seas, though
dead valves are frequent in the Firth of Clyde, Hebrides, Zetland,
Murray Frith and North Sea. In Norway, north of Drontheim, it is by
far the most abundant species of Pecten. =

Anomia ephippium, Zin.— Unlike most testaceous molluséa, which only re-
quire to be better known to be esteemed as delicacies for the table, the
Anomia is not to be eaten with impunity. On one occasion, having
sent my yacht round from a neighbouring port to that of Villaviciosa in
Asturias, where I purposed joining her after an excursion inland, my
crew, having been told that there were oysters in the harbour, determined
to dredge on their own account in miy absence, and procured abundance
of thé Anoniia in large agglomerated masses. Seeing by the complexion
of the animals that they wee not conimion oysters, only oe of the men
would venture upon eating them, and he suffered in consequence severe
Voiiliting, &é@., with swelling of the abdomen, from which he did not

The most beautiful yellow and purple varieties are found in the sunny
seas of the Mediterranean.
Ostrea edulis, Zin. —Subject to much variation, which has occasioned the
- making of one or two questionable species, and rendered uncertain the
limits of its distribution. The common English or Welsh oyster is, how-
ever, certainly abundant and of excellent quality at Redoiidela, situated at
the head of Vigo Bay ; and I have likewise dredged it off Cape Trafalgar
in sand, and off Malaga in mud, but have not noticed it further eastward
in the Mediterranean.

j entirely recover for two or three days.

§ Chiton fascicularis, Zin.; Chiton discrepans, Brown.—I must acknowledge

my inability to discriminate satisfactorily between these species.

136 REPORT—1856,

Chiton cancellatus, Sav.—ls more nearly allied to C. Rissot of the Mediter-
ranean than to C. asellus, of which it has been supposed to be a variety.

Chiton fulvus, WWood.—This fine species differs as much in its habits as in
appearance from its European congeners. It enjoys greater powers of
locomotion than any other Chiton of my acquaintance, creeping freely
in the sand between tide marks in Vigo Bay, where it is very abundant,
and where several were found adhering to the chain cable every time
it was raised from our anchorage abreast of the town of Vigo. It is,
nevertheless, extremely local, not recorded to be obtained in any locality
but those I have named, unless from Patagonia, whence there are spe-
cimens in the British Museum under another name, but in no way to be
distinguished from the present species.

Chiton Cajetanus, Poli.—Inhabits the Mediterranean and Bay of Biseay, but
has not been detected in any intermediate locality, nor on the south
coasts of Spain.

Patella vulgata, Zin.—Becomes a local species on the northern coasts of
Norway, and J did not meet with it in Finmark.

Patella pellucida, Zin.—The distribution of this species is regulated by that
of the Laminaria, on which it feeds. It is not unfrequent in the north
of Spain; is absent from the south of Spain and Mediterranean, but
unexpectedly appears again in the harbour of Mogador, where it is of
small size. In high northern latitudes it is much paler in colour.

Patella Gussonii, PAil—Among some hundreds of dead specimens I only
took one or two living, and these were upon a deep-water red fucus.

Calyptrea Sinensis, Zin.—I have never obtained British specimens in less
than 8 or 10 fathoms, whereas on the coasts of Spain it is generally
found about the sea margin, and in shallow water.

Trochus crenulatus, Phil.—I believe to be specifically distinct from 7. ea?-
guus, is subject to great variation in colour; the grey variety is more
common to the eastward.

Trochus millegranus, Phil—Of this species there are two very distinct
varieties, of which the smaller and more conical inhabits the Mediterra-
nean and south coast. of England and Wales, while the larger is common
to the north-west coasts of Britain and Norway.

Rissoa abyssicola, Forbes.—A specimen received from Captain Spratt,
dredged by him in 350 fathoms, about 40 miles from Malta.

Turritella communis, Aisso—The ordinary British form is wider in propor-
tion and possesses fewer volutions than that of the Mediterranean. A
large variety with numerous volutions is found in Cork Harbour and in
Bressa Sound, always in shallow water, while the ordinary variety in-
habits all the zones of depth. I have taken white specimens of both
the forms, consequently absence of colour is not always the consequence
of great depth.

Conus Mediterraneus, Brug.—lIs very frequent at Lancerotte, but does not
extend westward to Teneriffe or to the Salvage or Madeira Islands.
Purpura lapillus, Zi2.— Though generally littoral, inhabits the depth of 8 or

10 fathoms in certain localities, and in these cases undergoes consider-
able ‘modification of form; from deep water and mud, it is large and
fusiform, from 8 fathoms and rough ground the specimens are beauti-

fully imbricated.

Ringicula auriculata, Wenke—At Vigo, the northern limit of its range, it
attains the greatest dimensions and is very abundant, but not striated as
in the Mediterranean and Madeira. ,

Nassa trifasciata, A. ddams.—Most abundant at Vigo, but smaller than in

——. =

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC, ETC. . 137

the Mediterranean ; in latter district it undergoes considerable variation
in colour.

Fusus gracilis, Da Costa.—Notwithstanding the opinion of Middendorf,
adopted by Forbes and Hanley, that this is only a variety of L’. Islandicus
of Chemnitz, I am quite satisfied of the contrary after obtaining the
true Fusus Islandicus in the neighbourhood of the North Cape. It
was from about 100 fathoms, and measured 43 inches in length, while
adult specimens of Fusus gracilis from the same locality did not measure
more than 2,4, inches in length.

Spirula Peronii, Zam.—This shell, possessing a peculiar aptitude for floating
on the surface of the sea when dead, is liable to be drifted to localities
very remote from its native habitat. A chance specimen has occasion-
ally been picked up on the shores of Britain ; on the south coast of the
Bay of Biscay it is still rare, is more frequent at Gibraltar and Malaga,
and abundant in the Canary Islands. I am not aware of its having been
found in the eastera Mediterranean.

The following Table will be of assistance in a comparison of the Geographi-
cal range of the species and the number obtained in each of the districts.

Species.

| Northern Scandinavia
(Finmarkand Nordland).
Drontheim.
Scotland.
British Channel.
North of Spain.
Portugal.
South of Spain and
Mediterranean.
Mogador.
Canary Islands.
Madeira.
Azores

Acephala.
Xylophaga, Z'urton.
dorsalis, Turton...cccsseeeeese
Pholas, Lin.
Cactylus, Lin.....cseccssecereeee|eccees
parva, Lam....... dgaectacabnd tap |seatreoltine ats <lewerdsts * * *

Candida, Lin. ...seecssccereeess |e Soft Wegtea|| See
Pholadidea, Leach.
papyracea, Solander ......+0+\seeee
Clavagella, Lam.
sp. ined....... BegnesResaen seaerc
Gastrochzna, Spengler.
modiolina, Zam...... Seowoe
cuneiformis, Lam....,..++.
Pandora, Lin.
TOStrata, LAM. ...cersocecsecevelereaee Petaincl|baeeis's|6
Obtusa, Leach......s0crseeceser|eveees
Lyonsia, Turton.

weeeee|soceeelssscee

arenosa, M6ller .........0++ Foe
Thracia, Leach.

phaseolina, Lam. ..,....-000

villosiuscula, Macgill. ......

pubescens, Pulleney ........

Convexa, Wood ........s0008-

distorta, Mont. .......+ eoeeee

Species.

Acephala (continued).
Periploma, Schum.

preetenuis, Pulieney .....1...
Saxicava, F. de Bellevue.

ATCHGA, LAM, .oc00...ssevereccs0s

Northern Scandinavia
(Finmark and Nordland)

Drontheim.

Scotland.

Canary Islands.

Madeira.

Azores.

TUGOSA, LiN......seeeveeeereseee|steers

Panopwa, Menard de la Groye.
Aldrovandi, Menard .........
Poromya, Fordes.
granulata, Nyst and Westen-
dorp
Korenii (Embla), Lovén......
Newra, Gray.
cuspidata, Olivi s.........
costellata, Desh........
abbreviata, Desh. «.:. r
obesa, Loven .......sseetecees
Corbula, Bruguiére.
nucleus, Zam.
robea, Brown ..1....sseseteeee.
Sphenia, Turton:

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Binghami, TWrto7 .sscisteess.|soruse

Mya; Lin.
truncata, Lins.....cccisistecee.
arenaria, Lins.....
Solen, Lin.
siliqua, Lin. .s.....seseeeetooees
CDRS, Dts. ..8.02208k eecechevoe
marginatus, Pulteney :.....
pellucidus, Pennané ...i.....
Ceratisolen, Forbes.
legumen, Lin......-+eesseiseres
Solecurtus, Blainville.

Seheeres

coarctatus, Gmel. .....si..00|ie-

cahdidus, Renievi ......1..+++ hose
strigilatus, Lin. .....+s..teeees|seee
Syndosmya, Recluz.
alba, Wo0d......s0ssseeestereee|
prismatica, Mont. ......1.....| ¥
intermedia, Thompson s.....| *
Reénieri, Brown ....ss.ctecses|seetee
teftuis, Montas...0.:scccssiseees [ieee
Serobicularia, Schumacher.
piperata, Gmiel. .....sseeierces|sernee

Cottardi, Payr ..cceccsetseees
Donax, Lin.
anatinus, LOM. sec.eccseteeeee
trincults, Lin. ..iceececteeeee
venustus, Poli ..i.cseeeteees
politus, Poli .....s.s00
Ervilia, Turton.
castanea, Mont. .......0ssee0ee
nitens ?, Mont. ..scceceets

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ON MOLLUSCA OF THE NORTH-EAST

Species.

Acephala (continued).
Mesodesma, Desh.

donacilla, Desh. .:..0...:.s.06
Psammobia, Lam.

vespertina, Chem, .....5......

tellinella, Zam. ......

costulata, Turton .......03...Jeseees

Ferroensis, Chem, .....5.5...

costata, Hanley .i::::.
Gastrana, Schumacher.

fragilis, Lin. ievceccsceiseeee
Tellina, Lin.

crassa, Pennant .......0i.sse0-

balaustina, Lin. ........8..s005 i

donacina, Lin. ........:..5...
pygmaa, Phil..........08
incarnata, Lins .isiisseeecs. 3
tenuis, Da Costa .....sse0055
fabula, Gronovius ......
solidula, Pulteney .....i..5:5.
proxima, Brown

distorta, Poli ........... iehsess
serrata, Brocchi........ssss63:

eeecesccee

Coste, Phil, ..sciccscccsececesdecscccles

planata, Lin.
punicea ?, Lin....
sp. ined..........
SP. INU. ......000085 05050830058
Lutraria, Lam.
elliptica, Lam.
oblonga, Chemis ii......ss0885.
Mactra, Lin.
rugosa, Chem.
SOlida, Lin.....sceseccerchesceee
elliptica, Brown
subtruncata, Da Costa «3...
stultorum, Lin. ........1...005
helvacea, Chemi.......0s..5...
Petricola, Lam.
lithophaga, Retzius ..1......
Venerupis, Lam.

eb eee

eater eens eeeeee

werensbeeene

AVUS, LANs vcs usacessdecsceetsteevels ot

Tapes, Muhifeldt.
decussata, Lin. .i.secsevsceaes
pullastra, Wood...........
virginea, Gmel. .......0...
aurea, Gmel. ...........5
niteiis, Scacchi .........
geographica, Lin.

florida, Lam. ............ “vad 4

a). Beudantii, Payr: .:...:..:...
| Lucinopsis, Fordes.

see eeeeebeceeeel,

via

(Finmark and Nordland).
Drontheim.
Scotland.

| Northern Scandina

*

SEX HHKR HK

tl eeeeee

peceee|
* *
any ok
eee] OF

British Channel.

* Xe

ebb eeele

*

North. of Spain.

*

ATLANTIC, ETC,

Portugal.

South of Spain and
Mediterranean.

|
|

* x

Mogador.

Canary Islands.

serene

3 a
=

mB =
3/8
s <x

139

140

Species.

Acephala, (continued).
Artemis, Poli.
EXOLEGA GLAM jeeve dacs wctwesess
lincta, Pulteney .e....0secseeee
Cytherea, Lam,
chione, Zin.
Venetiana, Lam.
sp. ined. .,.++-
SP. ined. .....0002..
Venus, Lin.
VErrucosa, Lin. ..scovsssecevee
CARINA, LAicbesssocentotegncsace
NULMAtMIa; WOON. cccdscapestestene
gallina, Lin. ....cccccseceveees
fasciata, Da Costa..... Pic rar
ovata, Pennant ..... oe

—_— +

a eee ee eaenee

BPC Hsigacesesronscesgsnse cress

REPORT—1856.

| Northern Scandinavia
(Finmark and Nordland)

oasege
*

seeeee

SYNCH <u. Weve saeeaecigt onteedscn|s ones

Cardita, Brug.
calyculata, Brug......ceesee

HMAPOZIA PMs nes cdvesosessedaes|>s0si6| =e
squamosa, Lam.......sersereeelees

sulcata, Brug.....csceeees
COLDIS RE Vili wosecncckiconekaons
Isocardia, Lam.

Gael) Meeacsepcacenoc Jectacy HC Noe

Astarte, Sow.
AVctica, Gray ...ccccecressecree
sulcata, Da Costa ...++0-.4...
compressa, Mont. .....+..000
triangularis, Mont...
incrassata, Brocchi .......+-
fusca, Desh. ......
crebricostata, Fordes.........
elliptica, Brown........ss000+-
bipartita, PHil. ..0....cseceees
sp. ined.
Circe, Schumacher.
Minima, Mont. ...ccccsseccoes
Cyprina, Lam.
Tslandica; LAN. sccccessensaees
Galeomma, Turton.
MATEO p WOW i.cusecsesnes «cases
Lepton, Jurton.

squamosum, Mont. .....4...|.+

convexum, Alder ........000-
Montacuta, Turton.
substriata, Mont.
ferruginosa, Mont...
bidentata, Mont. ........005.
Kellia, Turton.
suborbicularis, Mont.
corbuloides, Phil. .....+..
complanata, Phil. .......

Drontheim.

ote eee

*
*
*
*

feb eee

*

weeeee

*

Scotland.

*

British Channel.

eeaeee
weeeee
seteee
serene

*

teseeeles

seeeee

seeeee
sees
eeenee

*

North of Spain.

*

*

scence
seeeee
seeeee

se eeee

seenee

eeeeee

*

Portugal.

seeeee

South of Spain and
Mediterranean.

a
: | 3
~ .
i>) Ss is] .
gia] a] s
iJ = oO a
ee
s|/|/Si¢4
2a/|s/ie
cs
i)

Kx * *

* *

seceee

*
*

7 i ‘
. ON MOLLUSCA OF THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC, ETC. 141
ta
=i 3
as| 3|4 ag| | 4
Beles ig! es) ease] elal-.
S24) Se a|2)/G\asia|/al a] s
: ao| S18 io || Ss eB) Ss ie io | &
Species. el Ad fol ey ieee | Be es SY eee
Pel ele) a leSielsaisa|sisi3
a 5 A = 3 ~ |
£8 a |4 ae 3)
og s
A Fe
a
Acephala, (continued).
Kellia, Turton.
TUDra, Monts ..ccorsrccarecsece[oseserfeccevel 2K | % lesesesfrcseccfeceseeleceees! ok | ¥
Pythina, Hinds.
NPIMCO ste ceeds cateessaracteceees|rcneen|ceoter|ssenes|sacnee|() Bo NLT lneeteel|)
Ungulina, Daudin. Q
Oblonga ?, Daudin...cecrseree|ectersleceeee|sccce[seeteelenssselesseee| 2%
Diplodonta, Brown.
Totundata, Mont. ....cecccceeleecseslacccoelecrees| F [evvase| eae reea *
APICAIIC, ORG... scncevacnvercsen|ovenselsevass|cscesn|ectinae|sosbeo[ssnsbel AE lweunree|e ae) [hook
Lucina, Bruguiére.
[ABECANNY E27%. wevecscencdensecs| F(R | OX | R olscecdelensese] BN | AE
spinifera, Mont. ....c...ceseeee|eeoeee] KF | & | # | R | ow | oe | oe | & | x
divaricata, Lin. .. edie Niele astetvel Semicett cer eouleceicealte sk Fe ssa hae *
flexuosa, Mont. ....0scee..se0e| * * * Se CL (es *
Teucoma, Turton ......ceesscfecessrlecseesleceees| 2 * * * ok *
Sarsii ?, Phil..secsccccesceveeee] *
ferruginosa, Forbes .........) * | * | *
TUETTARALECHE!” Scleosdeascecnie|sevceelsccscslecaagclessevalsasee=|scaces||
Columbella, Lam. .ccccscesres|svsees/ecesse|,crves|seeses[ooesrelseveec|ecceesloovieas|’ oF
DUAVISVELSA, Liles ns sevcse ss dtas|s> 05]. 0c8ce|, cena |evheenlsnsaelysveeelsedduclobestel” oe
digitalis, Lin......0... seeeeelere aabiewe|| Re 1 ake
pecten, Lam, ......cccccseeverslerseeslevceee|sesccsleccees| KF |eeveae] 2 fovseee) | 3K
ST SEE Ae a Bee ee ind cee Moueod nosed acecoc besece badecd pe sced Cloned Goosen *
RMRIMEM Reh. acdaceccrcee teed: heb sda|etestec| sens suloetoeciityssslewsseelveases aoe eeel Me nee f ieee
SP. INEM. ? ....ccssscecveceseees|
: Cardium, Lin.
‘ evinaceum, Lamm. ......coeces[ecees|ccscesleevacs[ecesce[ecteeslenvens| 2K
aculeatum, Lin. ...cosscssvsass[eeeses[evececlecsecs| 2% feeeeee] oo | 3%

echinatum, Lin.... ea) dR oY okas Ic ofens | See Wray cow soe st a sate] hak
Tusticum, Lin. ..rcccsececeess[eeeeee|ceveveleceeee] * Hh +)| RP | tatatorer!| OK
Ciliare, Penn. ...ccc..cceceeceeeler cctsleeoenal Ke es cemel
Odile, Lin. .svcccesecssencsscens * oa x | * | *
nodosum, Turton —....s.00 * *
fasciatum, Mont. ... ceemy ie 8 lh “Sep SRR Seb SRE vet + es te] a Se
ee poke oe
*

*

*

Peleeeeerles

pygmzum, Don. ...
Suecicum, Reeve ....ce..000-| * | *
Norvegicum, Spengler ......|sesessleccese| 2 | 2K |ecesesleweeee
MAPWOSUM, Pole \...ceseccve:|scoeeslasasecleveccalecsdns| FP] &

punctatum, Brocchi seness|ecsaiea|cocesfecsens|ocsace|enaees
minimum ?, Phil. ...... retie's| aateie| oes os] etteiosl|-..c os 5) eee
*
*

* *
* *
*

A a Pe
*
*

Tite Hoek Bacee een cac ee

Chama, Lin.
BTV PHOIGER; Aves $2 Ao. cctvivs|eeorvaleateeslevwass|cavaeeloavaeelcoages|’ oe Peale
Solemya, Lam.
Mediterranea, L070. ....c.000|--cascleccsselsceses|esnacs|ecsseslcccass| oF levees] 3X
j Yoldia, Méller.
pygmza, Munster .........-| * | * | *
lucida, Bland.......
limatula, Say ......sssccsesseee
Leda, Schumacher.
caudata, Don. ......

142 REPORT—1856.

)
/

Northern Scandinavia
Finmarkand Nordland

Species.

Mogador.

Portugal.
South of Spain and

Drontheim.
Scotland.
British Channel.
Mediterranean.
Canary Islands.
Madeira.

North of Spain.

¢
\

ns a aS. Es aS aS es
Acephala (continued).
Leda, Schum.
Emarginata, Lars serreceersasleceess|screerlernres[esesszlennsee]
Sit YOCTIN eee SRB RSE | RB eed SOP BAr Aaraee samaiedbuewenet cosas
Nucula, Zam.
HHCICUM TCT sancccessangscercae oF | oe f ok ok
TUNG, WOW) caccuss ngocsuapvestereces|eatsss|.. * * *
*
*

I

% *

MAGIA LAIICY. .a.cccccteosseafoceraslecesecfooees
GECUBRAGAy SOW. sss ccpercsedenclisansslenees|
tenuis, Monté...,,...eseceasese| * * *
corticata, MGller .....,.00...) *
Limopsis, Sassi.
Pygmea, PHIL. cccsecsceseneee| ¥
Pectunculus, Lam.
glycimeris, Lim. ..rcccacersrecelreeree|eesere] * * * eR *
violascens, Lam. :
Siculus, Reeve .. sa Sie tacalecan cate ca take ec
DMOSUST LOM. Cearccsasgaresog{nessoctnosesale<gaestcapes|asdse= (renal eck
Arca, Lin.
INTE SE AOR arene CREE OPERA eer or] COE Genre op RAr a Horn eer”
tetragona, Poli 2 AREA eR ete tae * * * % lesgaate *
Darbata, L270, s-.cscgse;: aeas|tacaadleseaxslnavaxhlasasectvanactlcch
antiquata, var.?, Poli .
MACHER, MH Aieccaccscdasaniers
nodulosa, Lovén.......
raridentata, S. Woo
obliqua, Pil..........
navicularis, Brug, .,...,. revere tnasaealeuaves (alts
Wpbricgta, ArUg. <apeeqeegece|oscresls+ares|ees waa tacaves lasave@lanvecslock
CURT Fy EO ose ces ss teusss.|s*ercincgpve}scd Beelseuves[ess Fechaneent eck
STOSMESARE SERS PROSE? ABP CB Re) eyed oer oe ae costa sdeulsaauselnourarlck
Modiola, Lam.
MOdiolus, Lin. ....ccecgeereee] ¥ * * *
tulipa, Lam. ....ccsoersyscseesfooeeselecevos| * * leecnse| ¥ [eresee] *
phaseolina, Phil. .,...,.0....| * | * | *
Darbats, Lite ccesencansvarcua sels coasattsensits<eassls ck. Teacpealece lca. |,
Petagnse, Scacchi .....,c0eee|ereeecleoeenelece serlereeecleseeelersene| KF fesenesp | %
BU. CMs sacspascseossapeassecsne} ot
Crenella, Brown.
OWCONS Lins scvesecapeescesssat o£. bee. Le
marmorata, Forbes ..,......| * * * * * * lleeeasah Oh
TUCTA TAY, casccoccs=sjeesssel F | * ff %
vestita, Phil, ............ BR. dvenidecrcatuses Ort ECOBaR Sorensen. eel MAREE mee
costulata, Riss0.......eepseeees :
rhombea, Berkeley.,,.+++++++:
decussata, Mont. :....+....+.
Lithodomus, Cuvier,
ABCEYIMS IC HIBCrE Wevetedice soa tiunoceecserafecnaecloeskselaaanar(esyees| OF
CAUGIZErUS, SOW. .ccssgeccver|ececeeleorceclacercclecgeee| HF |
Mytilus, Lin.
CANIS, Lie) caveghvercegzesn 51) * * * * * * *
THNUNYS Wak) meade ma dectasatsssccs|escanclaseces|noovesle
Afer, Gmel. | scaadeeucanpsccesstesse=s]e.gees|saypoe

* xX & *

seeeee se eeeele

Ttleeeeee

bc |

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC, ETC.

Species.

Northern Scandinavia
(Finmark and Nordland).

= a etn

Acephala, (continued).
Pinna, Lin.

Pectinata, Lin. sescscccccecsecleceess

muricata, Poli ......seseesees
rudis, Lin. ..... aahvsgeseenekase
Avicula, Brug.
Tarentina, Lam..,....sesscseeeloee
Lima, Brug.
subauriculata, Mont. ......
sulculus, Lovén ......... * Bebe
Loscombii, Sow.......seseee.0-
hians, Gmel, ....,....+0.
fragilis, Scacchi .,.......
squamosa, Lam..........
Thflata, LAM, ...05-...0speesere
excavata, J. C. Fab. ....+....
Pecten, O. F. Miiller.
WAMIUS, Lin. ceyeecdenpocsees
NIVEUS, MaCY.....,.c0reeresseee|
pusio, Pennant ......sepeeeeee
Striatus, Miiller .........s0006.
tigrinus, Miiller .,.......
Danicus, Chem. .,.....
similis, Laskey .,.....
maximus, Lin. ..... Sa
Jacobzeus, Lin. ....cc.c,eecees
opercularis, Lin..,...-++5......
Islandicus, Miiller....
polymorphus, Bronn..,......
hyalinus, Poli ........,ee0eee

sulcatus, Zam. ....... sgossecal eres

glaber, Lin. ....
teste, Bivon .... hase
pes-felis, Zin............ :
gibbus ?, Lin.........ceegssoeee
Greenlandicus, Sow. ..,...00.
corallinoides, D’Ord..........
SBAIMEM es rcapooncsasaysayseccns
sp. ined.....,.....
Sp. ined.,,..........
Spondylus, Lin.
gedaropus, Lin,........,...04-
Anomia, Lin.
ephippium, Lin................
patelliformis, Lin. ............

eee eres

Seeeegeeecen

Striata, LOVEN.....0.ycceysececcleeeees

aculeata, Miiller ............
sine, Lan. 2. esse. cecugeocesades
CMS, Li... ccacsupsesscgesecse|se

Drontheim.

plicatula ?, Phil. ......, RoC! cepa OD

Crania, Retzius.
anomala, Miiller..,...cec..0.05
Rhynchonella, Fischer.
psittacea, Chem. ...cccccrees

‘

Scotland.

British Channel.

North of Spain.

so
-
aia
a “=
S\|a8
B |an'e
aks
8 os
& |a'3
a
2a
i¢7)

seeeee

wsceee] *
soceee] OF

Reo ry

Mogador.
Canary Islands.

seeeee

Madeira.

*

me *

* *

143

Azores.

144 REPORT—1856. |

sD
BE ES 2 =. }
Biri! |. oie te 3
Bele |g |e 12 EE ie er
sAZ|\o|e|] Ss | 2 as|8lal]8] 3 .
Oro! a| ae] S| aw nel Se |S ica] & }
Species aelel/e|o|s a Olmeoaliee. fers |S |
. ae oS = o a ces is} 5 s <
an A als! ag ailsia
ag = 3 es &
52 cal G
a
a
» Acephala (continued).
Argane, E. Deslongchamps.
decollata, Chem. ...... Raeeerlsvoves BOSD pork PALES recrice eueee
Neapolitan, SCCM say. cccas]~<acss|.cooes|esescs|sssees|csvveelsacess
cuneata, Risso «se... Seeelncwees| vee Weal eels sicofesawas| ce peelltc's eve
cistellula, Searles Wood ...|.. Res Mercer
Megerlia, King.
TEUNCALA, AN. <cecccconees easl covees
Terebratulina, D’ Orb. Sebtcndee
caput-serpentis, Lin. ........ |) oe
Waldheimia, King.
cranium, Gimel. .....sseccceee|
Pteropoda.
Spirialis, Hydoux § Souleyet.
Flemingii, Forbes ...+.0.s0.0+}scenee|ecee Re
Macandrei, Forbes & FH. ++], ..40.|...c0e|eceees
Sflope=stssctre paceeats earcatsceseslaetsee cece oe
Cuvieria, Rang.
Colummella 2, RANG. ...eveeecee|ececeelescoee|seaccslereeee|scecce|escese|secees|sowens
Creseis, Rang.
TECtA; LESUCUN .fes.cooosesec|e arpcclccavercectes| seecealt sects aie
SUPRA LALOVU) ects sooctescwer| cocseay-vesec|scezea| sess Sune
subulata, Quoy § Gaimard .)...s0.\ceeceelece es[eeeees
Hyalea, Lam.
VETO LS TUR IOT a BARARe ocden EECSaS baccee Bemeee Abpace douane) hacer
trispinosa, Lesweur .....+++. mPraA He Ceaclacssccfuccses|nceses
vaginella, Cantraine .........|... sual veceec|cauaies seewes]= ssc
SFDU) cde Sosana dation gon siesspees|sasese|carors|scotes|sreate|eusicee uotciladeeccdluece et :
gibbosa, RANG eds vsecseecen =
Atlanta, Peron.
Peronii, Lesweur ..... Gscunee|cceses|sencecle
Oxygyrus.
WGTAMUTEMUN veccaressennsss-+elsecceclice Salteheee Beers Bee Ree ere Meera seen:
Gasteropoda.
Umbrella, Chem.
ME cILeEr ANCA CLMrHt. wade cece: |Seasee| doceac|ueceve| cchescloccasa|sedooe
Tylodina, Rafinesque.
GUANA sequen suecerssscsernteeds caleceecs|ecccca|sccese|csvcas|serces|essuee :
Aplysia, Gmel. ....++. “nor eeeeboe
hybrida, Sow.......seessereee see ||) Sane EE lecases|tweces|sanees
Pattersoni .....+..-.. “eer oas6od besaca Benes baesas bostec
PENAL tpennsc cub accevesccot)-cas+clors Fao Hebbed beatae Hecsad eessed poaceo) Heacoc
Philine, Ascanius.
APEUEA, ELAN, ivsccsbanecasecseselo saveal) 3
quadrata, Searles Wood eect ck.« Pace
scabra, O. Miiller .........+.- BE? lt ack
catena, Mont........+. CMP BS Revalacsiene [atest
punctata, Clark..... Geacbiccwes|aevecs|ressen|acvene
PIUiNOSA,, CHALK <c0c.cecwcssee|iceessfervess
Smaragdinella, 4. ddams.
Algira, Hanley ...ccs..seeeeesfeces ealwetivew esa ses Seaers|osesec|ewscss

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC, ETC. 145

Species.

Northern Scandinavia
(Finmark and Nordland).
Drontheim.
Scotland.
British Channel.
North of Spain.
Portugal.
South of Spain and
Mediterranean.
Mogador.
Canary Islands.
Madeira,
Azores.

ee | , a

Gasteropoda (continued).
Scaphander, Montfort.
lignarius, Zin. ............ Ag octiee Feel | ce cal fone. oa | fae a eed ja 2
librarius, Zovén ............ swell see cll)
Amphisphyra, Lovén.
PMG AS PUY COs dus doxcaddada| > Re ser He [eh Hy | [scboas|esesed|tacece|eewwselcadeen|™ HUN
Cylichna, Lovén.
cylindracea, Pen. ............ * | # | | KR | KF [eel HH | KR | KR | ®
truncata, Mont..............06 eee lh aeees|| OF + * * * * *
Obtusa, Mont. ........seecscs[eceveleceees| 2 |

umbilicata, Mont. ..........0. * * * * Hh lesevse *
fragilis, Jeffreys.......... dsebaleacuat aedsdeleccdac|ecomedleeoscalsaceealth eadlescedde mr
alba, Loven.......cscescsceseoes * | x

Akera, O. F. Miiller.

Flanleyi, 4.40. ..sssccccocecselroeveclacscccl
Bulla, Lin.
AIG Peis << sheowsadsccsdals-nenc|accsactesvsen|) 3% * * *

MEEPHUIMEI SN aetex bes otceuis sti daside [eee aaallsacsnalens ssa lacsmaalasdaes[caseonfiececseceutalle

RULE PAR. deeac sac vcesedaldadceclecdse| as sedlvdseaelecsevalsveeuel stcxealeedeee| (rR
Tornatella, Lam.
fasciata, Lam....ccc.scccseeeeee| | * * * * * *
Auricula, Lam.
alba, Jeffreys ..cscercccscecseeelecceceleceees] EA lwacvwalwvsewe|sasceslvccucelansecs|atecasth oF

Ferminii, Payr......sssecseeee[ee deal aca] fodtae| eaesten|pcmrcefeceeee|sccess|eneceal 3
Pedipes, 4danson.
BEetisesswontst'ssaseanevepossecea|tecdes|te-sPdlcadess|ccevaclercwen|sapeee|cacocelecsscs| We Iececedlh ok
Chiton, Lin.
fascicularis, Lin. .s..00...
discrepans, Brown......... f |"
Hanleyi, Bean .........006 wee] 8
ruber, Lin....... negeneeee Saaaeia| eae
Cinereus, Lin..........0. vstceega| wok
PUDUR; PA, ...sccvccvvcacsessces|
asellus, Chem. .ceccccscecesee|
Cancellatus, Sow. .....ceee.e[ecee
levis, Pen. .....c..0000. eporesstbe
marmecreus, O. Fab. .....0...
BME SIV COG. «ane cencnvovesa|povess|eoctacloortee|s sates * | *
Cajetanus, Poli ..........5- Bey ee eee Ae EADS) HOACO || isesaell (cee ks
BESROI LAUT) bs. adustssaveevde lessee este eeects ewssesfees'veu|seoee|
Siculus, Gray.....c..eeee cvceeeleceees seeceeleeceeelsecens[seeseeloceees|
ay Poli, Phil. ......... Badosehces Saisaciuulnovwas|sactes|bacwex|eessen|usveeeh. °K
| Canariensis, Webb & Berth. |...00.Jccocsefeccees|ecceee|eeeeee|ecsons] dierelveecadl *
alveolus, Sars....cccescesvereee| | OK

146

Species.

Gasteropoda (continued).
Dentalium, Lin.
entalis, Lin. ...sesccissseee
tarentinum, Lam.

rubescens, Desh.

BY. WEG. cecdsovess Bosra. sveNne Pe.

BPs MME. ds. dhs ts ectsclessceases
Siphonaria, Poli.

Algesirh, Quoy, <.i....ssveo0>.|s rae

Gadinia, Gray.

Garnoti, Payr. ..1..4s..0ce00-}s

ATED 2S AGRAY no casickss@se Neate
Acmea, Eschscholtz.

testudinalis, Miiller .........

virginea, Miiller...coscsesseae
Lepeta, Gray.

aricyloides, Forbes.........++.

Ceca, Muller ...cibscases.sencs
Pilidium, Forbes.

fulvum, Miiller .....c...0c000
Patella, Lin.

Villgatia, Lats ..ccsdscsncsboness

cerulea, Lam.

athletica, Bean .....6...4.- Pra eeeae ae ancl} BE
crenata; D’ Ord....i.0-.0.% Fiend | tes enlba cane
guttata, D’Ord......... Geewes|boease
aspera, Lam. .es.sscossees vesteclboctes
Lowei, D’ Ord. .... cose|ieesnele
scutellaris, Lam. . be etes

Candei, D’ Orb. ....
tenuis, Dillwynn .
Gussonii, Costa ......

nigropunctata, Lam. .........].

pellucida, Litt. .scsccccctoeces
Pileopsis, Lam.

Hungarica, Lin............0065
Crepidula, Lam.

unguiformis, Lam

gibbosa, Defr. ........sbeeees|..

Calyptrea, Lam.
Sihensi8, Litt.s....écecesctessee
Emarginula, Lam.
reticulata, Sow. ......scesseees
rosea, Bell ......
crassa, J. Sow. ..

elongata, Costa ....s..s6..0000|>

pileolus, Michaud ......4.....

SPP AMCCsiocee-wovcesosehtales ==:
Puncturella, Lowe.

Noachitia,..Z4M. v.ivcscvstesces
Fissurella, Lam.

} eo OF
dentalis, Zin. ...... Thee Ses Seer

seeeeeraeterle

REPORT—1856.

Northern Scandinavia
(Finmark and Nordland).
Drontheim.

*

* *

ete eleesbes

weehee

reticulata, Dbnscideccccstccece|bass sel ieeees

rosea, Lam. ...

Scotland.

British Channel.

*

thw eel eenene
Pree eee
seeneelece

weeeee

*

sleereee

North of Spain.

sleeeeee

k

sveeslece
* .
sesces
sesteeleweeee
seeseels ee
esteelees

seebee

*

beeeee

ao]
a.
as
. ao
alee
ol as
5S img
He lw 2
eee
33
=)
nN

eee

eeel

Mogador.

seeeeeleetaee

* eae le
Dussae| aki

aleee

*

*

slesseee

sleeeeee

* *

Sovvecleeeese|

eeeee

aeeeee

eet lewetee

sebeee

Canary Islands.
Madeira.

*?

x ¥ %

*

sevees{eveees| OF *

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC, ETC. 147

Species.

Scotland.

Mogador.

Madeira.
Azores

Portugal.
South of Spain and

Northern Scandinavia
(Finmarkand Nordland).
Drontheim.
British Channel.
North of Spain.
Mediterranean.
Canary Islands.

Gasteropoda (continued).
issurella, Lam.

PADRE HEED) Ver save lave dsvanee|osres«|sethes/scakss|seesa« x | | x lesen] oF

Tanthina, Lam.
COMMuNIS, Lam. ..rsecseseeelsccece|enseeeleaes nalkogagelhcacailbaaaee|eopaelaness Joe | oe |x
PTolongata, Blainv. ..-....c.[eccece[eceses|ececee|seeeeelacesceleceees KE feweeeelecees |
exigua, MRITAs stack vchwedsiapiels sase|ees salesmen’ Nancas ees evaleasncals ey a One *# * *
RPE MOCC NCES Bec Wes (00 oc Pop usta Sdnwesk| bacnceleqndealeceses *

Scissurella, D Ore.
crispata, Flem. ....ceeecce.| % | |

Bertheloti, D’Ord....... Pee vale cerca Ganieuprosne <I osacele senscfose See / eae lao gM
angulata, LOVEN ..s..scec.eees *
Haliotis, Lin.
tiberculata, Lin. ........c0cslecescsleneeee ee oe ee oe ee es ee ee eo te toe eg
ped PAV As rcib ick cute Oraal os ote a|ls's's Obl eae Soa] pease «| tie ssh same aack
REFS Minas ct ysivia sees oe Froeelovtanleactasthacten les asec edit ecestolee sop lavecna *
Adeorbis, Searles Wood. _
subcarinatus, Mont. .........Js.00ee{ees esl beset = 0g an | ee Sener *
Margarita, Leach.
helicina, O. Fab. ........00ee eb oR [oe
undulata, Sow. ..:.cccccee] & | OK |
alabastrum, Beck ...........- bie Rina
cinerea, Couthouy ...+0+.:006 a oe
Trochus, Lin.
Zizyphinus, Lin.......sssceceeclecesee[eoeeee] | * | * | * | # | RP] we | we |
GOUT UT Fay 2 i oe See Hite veawalbecesn [tse dass ams * [eesensh AFL Je
granulatus, Born. ......seceee]eccees|eeeee[eeeeee Een eee eciaal Becky eco we * | *
BOMAUEIS ATA «cst seun sep cocvalesetia|ssave-[oeseee eo a Pe eo ie eal in eee dR
Montagui, Gray ..........0.fecesse[eceees See ee a oe
millegranus, Phil. .........++ SRR | Bea ee sent ae el Gara o| *
exiguus, Puléemey .......0...[eeeces|eeeees|ecsees (A Wa foe ees ee a
crenulatus, Phil. .........0++{++ Sic saeeclscevtalsaas ey leeacas Foxe nies ae ee ey (aed pa
tumidus, Mont. ............655 Rig EE) eae all) Ka Ie
Cinerarius, Lin. .....seesee0ee- Cae. Serge (Ee (OE aR UNE =
umbilicatus, Mont. ......... sevncslpawbes Pull ee he ee beora laces: *
magus, Lin........+.. inh desea eadtwaslten THES * * PA AE deal Rpocn ve *
lineatus, Costa .........++ caninum elton PEAS AE ee Pan ae Eee le 2
Canaliculatus, Phil. ...cecces|ecsess[eceeeeler Reealsces wal teres * |e
fanulum, Gimel. ....c.ceescsees|eeeesceenees|ee Resets shea ccumcnd seas *
Ffragaroides, Lam. ....1....s0s{esvees|eonees|enuees[eeeees|eceees|eceeee 2k. |seenynl Nie
indecorus, Pail...... OE NRE ee | Ses Geer eee Pee gn Pee) bees |e
Sauleyi, Webb & Berth. ...)...csslecseeefecseee|ececes[eceeeelserece[eeeece|oevans|
Richardi, Payr. ......s00.e.Jeene selesgaaete stbcalt seseclbeny Relaswens| bod
ie Payr. .cv.cav0e a'urtafosnwualeumeesfumesactesceetion, | |) stb ate leepekelnepwayeliee
acces ab ctaseecceee}e Fopissbeseeshlacbecstbexcesh eee
Vieiliotti, Je UES ee Ee Pee ee 57) SA SARS RRR Ss Beco bes
Jussieui, Payr. .........00.0+]+ cereal mates Soe aS Sasusteacsnchl Be soll
articulatus, Lam. ............ Hinmcochescdas|encessfessensfecnves], *
Givaricatus, Lin. ...cscccccselececee|seoeee|ees ete Meite -ceenltaaks 48>
dubius?, Phil. ............006]- PRY ERS ERAS RE as ee *
Sanguineus, Lin. ..ccsscesess{eoveveleceees see ee SR SS *
MANCUS, PHIL... cbs. csvqcsvacs|eoen cote epee aca ay Hes een O ee BE

Bertheloti (Monodonta), |......Jsesss[eoeses[ecccee[eceseelecsece[eceeee{enmeen| KF [| oF
D’ Orb.

148 .REPORT—1856.

Species.

Northern Scandinavia
(Finmarkand Nordland)
Drontheim.
Scotland.
British Channel.
North of Spain.
Portugal.

South of Spain and
Mediterranean.
Mogador.
Canary Islands.
Madeira.
Azores.

Gasteropoda (continued).
Phasianella, Lam.

PULLS EAR: Mrdecdeese theses as +|dacts «tcl suee|ia * * * * * * * *

intermedia, Scacchi ......00.|..0..

Vieux, Payrssiecsoseusbevsees
Turbo, Lin.

PUPOSUB, LAI. scaaca soe sou seeces|vveee|seeseu|ewesselesdeee|! 2 || cae J avaees |lecay | Mean mee le te

SPINE. .....cs00
Neritina, Lam.
Truncatella, Lowe.

truncatula, Drap. ..
Skenea, Flem.

planorbis, O. Fab. ......c0000.) * | | x

BPs "ccnecesscevicerecresecstriews'e'y) Mick +] / Pak

BPs sccecesseveceseavoessceccorese[esoese|ececes|ecsscc|srsevelovcess|eccescleecvesleccoos| | oF

Rissoa, Frem.
striatula, Mont. ......,..e0000e|...
MACLEOD, OM ECh mete scviewesbenseeltvaas:|Motswclhecdes Renigeol fr ll baaeeal Oe a erts
Hetlandica: Mont. \, ccaestecsee|ssaacel ace.
crenulata, Mich. ...ssecsesss|oecees
Beanii, Hanley ....,...ceeseee|eeeeee
abyssicola, Forbes ........00eseeesee [eee
calathus, Forbes & Hanley...|...... anod pcr
PTANMALA PEt. wesdetereercess|iyeeel
BCU tay PAI, saves odeesswevaes|\elove
punctura, Mont. ......:6606-
costata, Adams .......c0se00ee|.
striata, Mont...... * * |
parva, Costa ....... ia ety |e <
interrupta, ddams.........

sJececcelecceee|

sleceecclevsees|

Costulata, Alder ........cecevesleesees|as *
rufilabrum, Alder ............ balsas |emaeaal) oe *
‘labiosa, Mont. ....ecsceeeeeeele *
Semistriata, Mont..........e.eJeeeee|
rubra, Alder ...... wedecew eae
cingillus, Mont.

HB |vcceee| Fo 'fececsef ue

Beats |bsatticalcs Bee liste Cecong) acrnae parade bree |e

seeveeleccerclesecesleceees!|

violacea, Desm.....
monodonta, Bivon..
Bruguieri, Payr.

auriscalpium, Lin. .
Montagui, Payr. .....
Desmarestii, Forbes ........-
Canariensis, Webb & Berth.

Ce eed *

Ble ACU te crecteodiaeeeesnesiesetes| te

Spy. IMeWewanasescsenteattssoses Mlcstewal ee

8/5 ede eesccse <a aes Bone SAec0| Bpsbodl Ae
Lacuna, Zurton.

pallidula, Costa ............00e/...08e| & | & |

puteolus, Turton! vivisccces|eovsss\cccses| * *

vincta, Mont. ......... ti ccocee Mies * * *

s

| Vermetus, Adanson.

| trachea, Mont. ......essesesse
| glabrum, Mont................

| gigas, Bivon .....cscccessceees
: glomeratus, Zin. .......

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC, ETC.

149

Species.

Drontheim.
Scotland.
British Channel.
North of Spain.

Northern Scandinavia
(Finmark and Nordland).

Gasteropoda (continued).

Lacuna, Turton.
labiosa, Loven ....csesseeeees
crassior, Mont. .......ses000--
Solarium, Lam.
Tuteum, Lam. ....cccccssceeeces[essees *
stramineum, Gmel. .........|... *
pseudoperspectivum, Brocc.|... asd
Bifrontia, Desh.
zancleea, Phil.....csscecereeess badtes Ae Cee
Fossarus, Philippi.
Adansoni, Phil. .......0008. dadene
Littorina, Fér.
neritoides, Lin. ... 3 * *
littorea, Lin. .....000 eck *
littoralis, Zin.... * | * *
rudis, Don......... a * * *
tenebrosa, Mont. ......s000. * * *
saxatilis, Johnston.........00. * * *
patula, Jeffreys .... ae * | x *
Syriaca, Phil...... Adiece *

RUPIR Ed wncs swasvecaessssoceesestus
Scalaria, Zam.

Turtonis, Turton .....sse0008 *
communis, Lam. *
clathratula, Mont ... *
Grcenlandica, Chem.

Lovéni, 4. Ad. ...... b

Trevelliana, Leach... we lBacnie=|s wees

Creniata, Lars .....c.ccecessscve|eseccelece ‘ totes

pseudoscalaris, Brocchi......
cochlea, Sow. Jun........
Webbii, D’Ord. ........ ;
Macandrei, Forbes, MSS. ......
BEMATC Cee sense saners eases cca of
APU COs a pesewascscesesssseacnes
5] TEGILG Gees pnodecee Gee eEe Sees

COMNEUS, LOPES ..scceceseeneee|s
Cxcum, Fleming.

} elegantissimum, Carpenter...

| _ Searles- Woodii, Carpenter...

‘| vitreum, Carpenter ......... Gewaus
| Aclis, Lovén.

— ascaris, Turton ...cocccsccccesle *
‘| supranitida, Searles Wood... *
MMMR Pe INE. ....0cscccevecessocsnees seeees
‘| ? Genus uncertain.

BEEP NCO. ......csccccececcescsaee sepens

BPS TMEG. osu ses.csscccescaaseeere|s seeds

Portugal.

aa)
ad a
ae as
leo hays =|
od (a) s
as a
| so a
ne ao
ws O 60 -
y= °o B
3| Ss Ss
a8 E
ae o)
i>)
mM

seet eel eeceeei eet te *
seer] HF Jecceee|
oe] OF

seeeee

seeeee

seeeee

seeeee

eeeeee

eooeee

sleceees| 7% *

*
K lecesceleceece
*
* * *

tarts

seeecelseeteelscnaes

Madeira.

*

HK

*

Azores.

150 ; REPORT—1856.

Species.

Northern Scandinavia
(Finmark and Nordland):
Drontheim.
Scotland.
British Channel.
North of Spain.
Portugal.

South of Spain and
Mediterranean.
Mogador.
Canary Islands.
Madeira.
Azores.

|
|

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

Gasteropoda (continued).
Turritella, Zam.
communis, Risso ..........., * | * | * | * | * | & | we | &
triplicata, Brocchi ....
Mesalia, Gray.
IRC VIALS UP ira cs an scotia a cy Ls Sica fapenaafenceds|sasvaefoondea), vx the ain heels
striata, 4.44. ...6..0c0+s
Aporrhais, Aldrovandus.
pes-pelecani, Zin. ............ * | * ] * | * | * | e |
pes-carbonis, Brongniart .,.) %* |.e-...|
Triforis, Deshayes.
AGYGLOR, (OL OME si cohen. acdaanazalacanasfanpannl’-cde-\f aide. lvooordl epeseataidecelswottel eatee meee eek
perversa, Brug. ........ Raateubecrsvefadcess|pescosp * * * * *
Macandrei, 4. Ad.....2....0..| * | ®
Cerithiopsis, Forbes. 4
tubercularis,: Monk: goca..aiasleedeecslecvsssh WP. feces
Cerithium, Brug.
reticulatum, Costfa....... redvech oe we SR deo ee es tl fk hall ds, cel VRE
metula, Lovén ......... x | ars

slecccccleceeesleceresleeevee! % leeeeee| Fo leccevs]

seceenleceteslegeccclrereeelecccee| KK leceses|seeece|

LaCteUnh, CPA ge sonnei deoneac[eseguclisagecbecdticofeesMeclts ects venta: a

AUGUSEINUM, FOKGES ....er0...f-osaecfasaccofuasaasleceeesfoesere|ooeens}. ¥ oe] * |
vulgatum, Brug........ annaagannsfadansetnedcadranccnp sis: cies ip eceee inna
fuscatum, Costa....... i cas scl Benamsafoe® aestecescdprccsatiuesscs| Ff fecsenc| seam

Stylina, Flem.
Pe isereess--sqn=s ea qnecgacanaanuafresanfosstssIacngueluoaccs},enwwe{ouesst iasendls nett aee
Eulima, Risso.
POlita, Lin.........cocceerseef * | * | # | | *
GIRGOTEE DESI 6s seeet cceenssbvoanche<sesch’ GE MH Foc Seclacessch pees ee * *
subulata, Donovan....cccce.s.fecceecfeceeecfeceeee] & | & | ok | om
bilineata, dider ........0.ccc0.) ¥ * *
MAME AS PGI.) wanlat- cans danuanabcncsasiescasdacsaed
SPle ELCs. ns quoisaag sos 05. <ungaansfoasaapicanne|aowanelewwayeltwateos |e uewak| cess Moree amen RemmeeTTe
Chemnitzia, D’ Ord.
elegantissima, Mont. ......... sere] RH | | oe | oR | ok
AMI ee Alar « dor ven as cds coe sannabendensioacensfsaanas ascucle coke * | OK beeeees] # *
FOWMOR DSL soa ge van cae accel Reccenstioniacs Weasacc bh 3 *
fenestrata, Forbes & Jeff. ...jec.ccfeccocefeceses| & |
*
*

seceeelecvoceleeccee! leeesee) * *

*
*
*

fulvocincta, Thompson ......|...00e|s..00.| *& |

BCHIAIIN CE Err. won ecaes otha casoedaticere-piedemall ak

rufescens, Forbes .......ccccelecccael & | *

indistincta, Mont. .... Rananstacntack Ab Siw Mr lguwens| +¥0 bag eee Oe

SPe INEM, «.ccaccoesegssscsascsese]

AU INC yess eGenissanansine dite: (s<aees
Eulimella, Forbes.

CICUA EM cc. eves nace lta nnaclamanal *

AENIG, (PAL. sessnasncs acal, Hy poe

Sense /igl wns nescscensncessnsafisanns}’, %..1 %: leveecaliaesvatccccadh= kin Ren EE aes
Odostomia, Flem.

conoidea, Brocchi ......ceseesecease[eceeee] |

ROWGA MP Poteetocaswaeckgestaamadtessestiecdscfecncahts

Spiralis, Mont.......ccecccccrcalerseesfeeseen} |

interstincta, Mont...

conspicua, Alder ..ccsecccrerle aancefeccacefacceesteccsect

plicata, Mont. seesveaneneeane| Sa a Cae aa RR "Ne a ee

peeeteleeeeelpenecelpennee| MOK

seeseeleeeres! OF

% *

*
covcee]

ae eneeleeneee

* xX *% %

secees| OF *

seeleeeeceleceees| HF fgecevelgecsee

ON MOLLUSGA OF THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC, ETC. 151

<—
eS ‘ 3
a= aig ag 4
Stigi4|s/8/l#8lel2!.
g2/'s|2/8|/2| 8/88/83) a/8]| 2
B ATI S/S/Ole] FI@e] sl] ia B
Species. SEIS ilalS/8 eS! Pl elsels
ae| 2 S af/s S |Se) g a S$ |<
oe A aniw3 Be |S = Se es
as DI iS) =) 3
Eda ala 2a )
os n
Ae
ss
Gasteropoda (continued).
Odostomia, Flem.
Obliqua, Alder ..,....s..0000 Sgan ual gawaas| identolsas tagvesaleasinns paavee| wasaee *
glabrata, Mufhlfeldt ......... Sustesiansbactanxose]/eScbifuapvactaedens|tvn pealsecsae *
unidentata, Mont. ........ v daslaavacteanees a, Pinus ieenanslucesaslenobyslacaneulis abt «lai
GRIGINCHA, JEP... .sapsescederocetfecsscefresesalocsens SASS Accor] epee al Berecs eaten
Velutina, Flem,
leavigata, Lin...cssvccvcesgessas| KH | | ¥. 1 #4] *
flexilis, Mont......,...... suave] odie Peddie |). ak
Lamellaria, Mont.
tentaculata, Mont, .......ccereleceserlecseeslecs sacha |eceeee] *
BIGTSPICH A; L472.) <r, .concwarsselsercosonncce| &. | AH. [ncnoes|seeces| MP lvoedwal HE |)
prodita, Loven ..+....... eevee]
Sp. ined. ....4...... paehcsape Gasiasgucs|cenadelpnavaalaatess|apeasuiaesans|psasne| scvnestinak
Sigaretus, Lam. i
PAUGTMCIA, FAT. oy. cgenccesycslaazaec|nncccatnexeas|abave<[ensacy| 1% [oa
Natica, Lam.
monilifera, Zam..,....... a lisiteas Saatecstbes ee *
nitida, Don..,....... shaders * C2 |e * £AMowsewe *
BERT E VPs dco cnseldssave espouse nastace sas en ih cote cgi toraaniee *
helicoides, Johnston .........| * | * | *
pusilla, Gould.....,.csecesceeee| * * | *
Montagui, Forbes .........006) * | * | *
Clausa, SOW. ..esseseseesesenees|
aperta, LOvEn....0,..ssceseeeee *
MURMTCAUA DIME. stay sas none cdi: |sxas»sfrwenis[y aceahfaroasal'yess Pel mie: oF |hseces| cocgualeamensliee
textilis, Reeve.....,....ceeeeces|oeceee|oe wife steweMan anaes classes ewes nalar
Olla, M, De Serres ........cces|ereees[ecesee|ecevectees en[sacesclavwers *
millepunctata, Lam. .......0.[s.cees|eceses[eceens[eeeeestees pes |enes % fewsere| 3

Guilleminii, Pay7,.........++:|.+. Bee) re hed Sede pated Nea * | *
macilenta, Phil. ..,...ceere-...[eecevelere Pee Ber Ag ee Os. [en abestasebs ¢
porcellana, Webb & Berth,,.|......|sesreelescecs[eseeer|eccsee[eerece|ersens|eceaee] | oR
Sagrana, D’Ord. ...... ng snow takafa cet valaaees afar sase [as cage pa be a Fee *

Gyi uit Bose Reeoee M ameiacaciewe st lincos dial nas Piecccctacapes|saueealey gasalvesene|sbcnee *

sp. ined. .........6+ paseo shican fecae ta fdawaria| lb eaBon|ne ohen|senrenlsecinpe|ennsboleess | * | #
Ovulum, Zam.

patulum, Pen,...++,.0000+ pamphel coamantsuneectewat's « *

spelta, Lim.ecrrerereeseees nmbaval onegdals scans estes « |Pemnsn lao opalsesane|in athe teas ce *

carneum, Lim..,..,....0. nnasnel gw cue tnaseiatll Racenelevceselinadaipeliten death ich

Pacuminatum, Brug......soer|eccrefeceeee * Fpl Pescsmalepep celeste
Erato, Risso.

levis, Don......... jeseenapcdvovicengacbcmeectt * ae ARean Sinai kak

Cyprza, Lin.
Europea, Mont, .....ccesseseesferenes] F | * | ¥ | K | KY] *

pulex, Solander ......... SERN RY © “ok S| RR eR ere
candidula, Gaskoin ..... aantllencadstunnmanlicscne|dacaketiecmaelscasseloseweal su<> as * | *
spurca, Lin......... eee ianakal earaa vanaealpuassels sroveferenee[errene] 2% levenee]
pyrum, Zin...... aoe sone anens|senes|ecorssleoeccr[rascsalapceps[essece] ¥. |ascsee]
moneta, Lin, sete eeeeeeeer earl eee eeeleeeses seemarlreneerlsceenr|seeee *? secs *?
lurida, Lin......... chao cht a Pee eM teen a lcgagen |sapasli te
Marginella, Lam.
RTLIACCH . -LAN3:\ dup scapsepapasslansabs|peavertocassolasaseslcsnsae|sseess| © * *

Clandestina, Brocchi ,,,..+09+|eccees|eceves[ennsee|renere|eeseee| sarees
guancha, ED Ov li vixespaagvenna sapenalemanesisccensleassesiccenns|sesneslsorens | eeeeee

152

am
oo
Sa
a
23) 3
a,5| 2
az| S
Speci eS
pecies. af 8
Beat) o
On
Alle
os
Ag
~

Gasteropoda, (continued).
Marginella, Lam.

secalina ?, Phil. ......cecsesees

glabella, Lin. ....sseseeeeeeeves

SP. INEM. .0...-scscreevecesecsnce
Mitra, Lam.

columbellaria, Scacchi ......|.

ebeneus, Lam. ......000.+.

Savignii, Pay7. ..sssesesesseee|eccee

fusca, Swains.

lutescens, Lam. ......sss.s000e

sleseee

seeeee

ee toeeeeeeetace slaeetee

Zebrina, D! OD. ....cceevsceese|eerces|s.osee
SV sMMCC- vesecnsabecd=-c escorts +|heseselsrcens

Cymba, Brod.
olla, Lin.

Lachesis, Risso.
Minima, Mont. vecseeresoevees|secveelecsees

Defrancia, Millet.
pyramidalis, Strom. ......+«
linearis, Mont. ....
purpurea, Mont. .........00
Phileberti, Michaud..........
Lefroyii, Mich. .........s000+
reticulata, Brown ...+++...++«

Bela, Leach.
turricula, Mont.....00..seece
Trevelliana, Turton .........
mitrula, Loven .......sseecess
YOSCA, SAS... .seceeeereeeeeeees
Lufa, Mont.....c.ccccccsseeccers
septangularis, Mont. .....+...

Mangelia, Leach.

?Holbollii, Moller .....+...+6-
Pnana, LOven .00..ccersvsceeess
teres, FOrbes ...cccscseccvcsees
gracilis, Mont. .......0+.s00+
TLE DUA LGN bamaiss esses stein
laevigata, Phil. .....sscseceeee
brachystoma, Phil. ....,...-
striolata, Scacchi .........++-
COBLALA ME el: secccrtadsecen cece
attenuata, Mont. .........00.
elegans, Scacchi.......+s..0++
Vauquelina, Payr...
secalina, Phil. .........
graua, Phil. ......
rugulosa, Phil. ...
nana, Scacchi......
crispata, Cristof.
rudis, Phil........
SP. Weds.c.as0csteae

*

Peeeselecseee

KK

*

*
*

seeeee
see eeeleceene
Sees oo
oe

seaeeeleseeee

Seo
CU es

slewewee

see eeeleseeee

BP. NEG. :.sesvedseees atve's| sles
BP. UNED......cocesesscreresensseleeveseloevees

REPORT—1856.

Scotland.
British Channel.
North of Spain.

Portugal.

South of Spain and
Mediterranean.

Mogador.
Canary Islands.

Madeira.

CO res ee

seh earleeeeerlsetens

OO ee

eee eeel seeeeleceeee

serene l ereeeleseens

seeeesleeeeeslesencsleceees|eetens
seccec|roveccleccees|eveves|
seeeeslsceveslecveeelessserlseeees
seeeecleccoes

seeeee

nooner

Coon

rrr or

socconleccces|
* F |ecevccleceeee|
Risiere'erell wivieraiotura'etelnw |pleceiwere'||<
* * % lessee]
pasesell * *

eeeeee

seeeee

Ps es herr

Seeeerleeeeetlesesee

Sees ees Pere

* *¥ XX KX X * *

Beraeeleseeerleeeeeslesases

seneesleeteerleceeeclenseee|
ed CP ed Pe Pe
eeeeeelteeeerleee

Azores.

t
*
4
* x
.
4
‘

30

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC, ETC. 153

rm

rae
ai) red
Be : : A -
eines oe | 8 ae! 3S
ase 5 a 3S aa fe S
SN TS Fg ES = eV = a = a 2 :
=A Cs wn Ss 1a,5| 2 Le uy n
(3) a a Ga ite) S| co & — o
. av visa |S|/O)/s)s Ez gs 3 | 6
Species s\a/% Sle s| |) >| se] as
Pp De a =| =} 62 3 N
Sel On| or fina | stil oS Si/Jilai|/s|<
2/4) 7) S| 8.1" sa) | 8
. os
£8 fac] aA oe ie)
Se! A ‘
Ae

Gasteropoda (continued).
Mangelia, Leach.
SP. INEd.........eeeeeee
nivalis, Lovén.....0..0+ .
balteata, Beck .....cseeceeees|s
Conus, Lin.
Mediterraneus, Brug. ...... :
papilionaceus, Brug. ......++.|.
Columbella, Zam.
rustica, Lin. ......s.005 seoeets
scripta, Lin. ......scessseeeeess
Minor, Scacchi ......ceeeseeee
CYibraria, Lin. .....seeesseees
Broderipii, Sow. .........+0+]-
BPO IMCO..ccasacuesrcascraccesera|e
S70) Goadnar Ade aoSecOnOn ee ad ba
Dolium, Lam.
galea, Lin. ...cersescesesceseess
Cassidaria, Lam.
echinophora, Lin. ...se..sse0
Cassis, Lam.
SulCOSA, LAM....ccccccvessvecslecosce [eres aleaeantal decal lsaeenfes sices
Saburon, Lam. ...cocccsseveoels
Purpura, Lam.
Japillus, Zin. ......sesesesteens
heemastoma, Lin. .........65+
viveratoides, Webb & Berth.
Ringicula, Desh.
auriculata, Mont. ...ccccessesJeseess
. Nassa, Lam.
reticulata, Lin. ....scccseeeess
incrassata, Miller .
pygmea, Lam. ....
variabilis, Phil. .....
prismatica, Brocchi
: mutabilis, Lin. .....
neritea, Lin. ...
grana, Lam. ...
trifasciata, 4. Ad. ..
glaberrima, Gmel.. :
corniculum, Olivi. .......ss00e
Terebra, Lam.
eer sstotesisnasvascssnevesuones
Buccinum, Lin.
undatum, Lin. ...cccocessceee
Dalei, J. Sow. ...cecceesssees
Humpbhreysianum, Bennet ..
fusiforme, Brod. .........08.
cyaneum, Miiller ............
SP- INE. coerseceessseeeeseeneers|evevee
Fusus, Lam.
Islandicus, Chem. ....00..0...| ¥
Bracilis, COStA sseccovecsereee|
propinquus, Alder ........00-Jeseeee

DOOUOg nnn nn nos OCOUGs nny

vseseslecdesslecdeus| *

Roe Goud Coen Gorin

seavcelectses| *

ele eneslerovenleercceleseseaiescece

a[eceeeslsececelescene| 7K leseeee

seeeesleceeeelecresslsccesaiessenn{eeere rls

Pe ees Cd ed rd is

vecees| *

154 REPORT—1856.

gs
ee : z
2s 3| 4 a¢ #4
S'2| g a | 3 agi .|%
= S| & cs a i srs 8] # 3s
aeZzil ev S s Ss AE S |
5 a ee || eee eS Zh sie
j me) sea. | St o | s la Bl is
Species. a § S/Slalea]8 fsSi P| Fe
° io) =
sz/5 [2/2 5 GleSia| a
ad = S 3
fg a | 3 o
Se a
Ar
~~

Gasteropoda (continned).
Fusus, Lam.

Berniciensis, King.
antiquus, Lam. ...,
Norvegicus, Chem..
contrarius, Zam. . Meu oe
SYTACUSENUS) WAN isccissbente|esnccs|s<-
corneus, Zin. ........
polehelins; (PR. © gs<c2-ees0s| 0060]. ite mee
WOMUTAEDS,, QUE asig<- Ovcshs cbs | vocace| soases|secess ail dcannalonanes
craticulatus, Phil. ......... a)
moroccanus

Trophon, De Montfort.
Clathratus, Lim...csecccsersss
muricatus, Mont. .....seceee-|eeseee| eae
Barvicensis, Johnston ......
Gunneri, Loven .........ss0e0
craticulatus, Fab. ......00.0..

Trichotropis, Brod.
borealis; Sot. .....).ss<vepvene

Cancellaria, Lam.
cancellata, Lam. .....sss0.00|+s

assimilis, Sow. ...,..sescescesfaee
sp, ined....... Peano teoassstrees| =
SP AME: ode. os eeees..8t8e sos

viridula (Admete), O’ Faé....
Triton, Lam.

NOMiferus, LAW1....secsessecove|ecosss

Corrugatus, LAM. v.0..0.0se0e|-o0c0.foue

Cutaceus, Lam. o..ccerveveecee|eoe
olaarius?, PAK. “.,,¢..tescvevte|es.

eeeeee

pilearis, Laine. .....5..t00.ssees|oscere] ass
tuberosus, Lam.,........
Ranella, Lam.
TeVipata, Lambe .5.6s.desesosen|acens=lenecse] os
Pisania, Biron.
D’Orbignii, Payr. ......
maculosa, Lam. ............
Typhis, Monty.
Sowerbii, Brod...........0000+
Murex, Lin.
GLMAGCUS, PAM, Mectestocdewnesleseues| socee’
PYODCOLUS, Psi Sy eecces Gee sce|socecs|vesowele
brandaris, Lis wsijpsveccdees.s|seecs:|. HACE | Oop Me Si et, il oe
corallinus, Scacchi.........+.. oe
Edwardsil, P@yr. veocsccessesfecoves ‘
CTIRCALUN EAUCIN Secsev toes <c| SoSass|dbesese|deeonelveceee
TOFOSUS, DMI. .vecsccenetsecse|cveyee woul Sopa s|Recseal Proneelbmas colnet
BPs MEU) .oeaedeer sche cures ees Weenies) gemcnel nes easalavaneclees

Cephalopoda.
Spirula, Lam.
Peronii, Lams ssssascsnyenece

Hee eee teeter eseeee

Number of species enumerated :—
Acephala, 275; Pteropoda, 14; Gasteropoda, 460: Total 750.

Number of species obtained,in the most northern district (Finmark and Nordland) :—
88 Acephala, 100 Gasteropoda ; total 188 species, of which

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC, ETC. 155

2 Acephala, 88 Gusteropoda = Baty were found as far south as North Drontheim.
7

1] 7 = ¥ id Scotland.
43 “6 = a % i British Channel.
36 - = 73 sf op North of Spain.

25 Ay = 60 if 39 Portugal.
24 y = 59 ay As S. of Spain & Mediterranean.
15 or = 34 a9 pA Mogador. ;
8 “ = 16 rr rs Canary Islands.

4 = 10 ie vi Madeira.

Of 83 Acephala and 93 Gasteropoda=176 species from the coast of North Drontheim—

i Acephala and = Gasteropoda=157 found as far south as Scotland.
=111

rt
41
41
23
16
10
69

13
30
29
18
1l

8
82

oi tod pd
=

British Channel.
North of Spain.
Portugal.
Mediterranean.
Mogador,
Canary Islands.
Madeira,

», north as Nordland and Finmark.

Of 117 Acephala, 1 Pteropod, and 142 Gasteropoda=260 species found on the coasts of

Scotland—

al Acephala, 103 Gasteropoda=200, real south to the British Channel.
86

76
76
47
36
26
70
59

69
65
46
36
25
83
72

”

=167

Toit tl Wt
~I
)

North of Spain.
Portugal.
Mediterranean.
Mogador.
Canary Islands.
Madeira.

153 extend as ‘far north as Drontheim.

=138

”

Nordland and Finmark.

Of 122 Acephala, 136 Gasteropoda=258 species from the south coast of England—
ro Acephala, 114 Gasteropoda =227, are found as far south as the North of Spain.
94

98
59
A5
30
91
51
46

90
59
48
33
99
49
42

”

=192 oh oe Portugal.

=188 3 cy Mediterranean.

=118 a a Mogador.

= UF “ - Canary Islands.

= 63 AS Pc Madeira.

=190 5 north as Scotland.

=107 oF ‘5 Drontheim.

= 88 3 =p Nordland and Finmark.

Of 94 Acephala, 123 Gasteropoda=217 from the north coast of Spain, including Vigo—
88 Acephala, " Gasteropoda =183, are found as far south as Portugal.

86

a}
46
34
91
66
38
33

”

=171 i er Mediterranean.

=110 1 7 Mogador.

= 81 is es Canary Islands.

= 56 a e Madeira.

=172 ” north as South of England.
=128 rf “4 Scotland.

= 76 + ss North Drontheim.

= 63 a ~ Nordland and Finmark.

156 | REPORT—1856.

Of 90 Acephala, 74 Gasteropoda=164 species of Mollusca from the coast of Portugal—
88 Acephala, 65 Gasteropoda =153, extend to the S. of Spain and Mediterranean.

54 bs 47 ch =101 ch as far south as Mogador.

37 $y 40 = = 7 if 7 Canary Islands.

24 7 27 3 —sol aa 5 Madeira.

75 is 54 a =129 “ as far north as North of Spain.

67 95 38 5 =105 s + South of England.

45 =n 27 “5 = 7/74 rs - Scotland.

28 Pr 14 = = 42 a es North Drontheim.

21 “- il -- = 6y a * Nordland and Finmark.

Of 184 Acephala, 7 Pteropoda, 233 Gasteropoda, 1 Cephalopod=425 species from south
of Spain and Mediterranean—

91 Acephala, 6 Pteropoda, 116 Gasteropoda, 1 Cephalopod = 214, extend S.to Mogador.

69 “5 6 7) 100 “A 1 s =176 _ Canary Islands.
46 5 6 = 64 = 1 + Sl oy Madeira.

122 ety iets a 120 sy 1 3 =243 », N. to Portugal.

109 ie “r 103 * 1 “= =2Z13 *s North of Spain.
99 He hog “A 82 = we “e =181 “Fy 8. of England.
73 ena of 57 3 ae 7 =130 oF Scotland.

42 RAs “5 26 XK Ss i 61 » North Drontheim.

33 eaten * 20 + F Oe 5 = 53 » Nordland & Finmark.

Of 44 Acephala, 64 Gasteropoda=108 species obtained at Mogador—
20 Acephala, 38 Gasteropoda =58 extend southward to the Canary Islands.

10 oe 27 re =37 are found in Madeira.

43 23 45 - =80 extend North to the Mediterranean.

36 5 34 “4 =70 74 Portugal.

31 “s 32 7 =63 “ North of Spain.

27 - 24 - =iL + South of England.

21 as 16 Fr = 3] “ Scotland.

14 1 7 a —2 Ay North Drontheim.

ll a 5 “5 =16 Nordland and Finmark.

Of 78 Acephala, 9 Pteropoda, 179 Gasteropoda, and 1 Cephalapod=267 species of Mol-
lusca obtained in the Canary Islands—

48 Acephala, 5 Pteropoda, 86 Gasteropoda=139, were found in Madeira.
6

73 4 33 LOB », 1 Cephalapod=188 reach Nwd. to Mogador.

73 4s 6 By eed Pye! 5 =184 = Mediterranean,

53 . 5c * 67 spr 5 — en + Portugal.

49 * No 5 60 syn sy =110 SS North of Spain.

45 = ah os 46 PRloc oe = + South of England.
33 . a5 + 32 ee oy = 65 * Scotland.

16 . Rie + 13 aod 3 —aoo x North Drontheim.
10 RY - 9 Pe = 53 = 19 os Nordland & Finmark.

Of 56 Acephala, 6 Pteropoda, 107 Gasteropoda=169 species from Madeira—
48 Acephala, 5 Pteropoda, 86 Gasteropoda= 139, are found in the Canary Islands.

10 55 Se 27 i = 37 ~ Mogador.

46 ” 6 = 64 oe =116 7 Mediterranean.

24 55 ae Bs 27 es SS! 7 Portugal.

22 “ oe - 34 + = 5G North of Spain.

30 A fe a 33 - = 63 + South of England.
26 s ae * 25 op S51 os Scotland.

10 + as “ 8 o ie =F North Drontheim.

6 o of = 4 as SL “1 Nordland and Finmark.

To judge of the marine Mollusca of the Azores from the few species
received from thence, they appear to be generally identical with those of the
Mediterranean, except a very few species not identified, and several littoral
species, such as Lettorina striata, Mitra fusca, Mitra zebrina, Pedipes, which
are not European, but common to Madeira and the Canary Islands.

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC, ETC. 157

Concluding Observations.

The acephalous or bivalve Mollusca possess generally a capacity to exist
through a greater bathymetrical range than univalves, several species of the
former being to be found in all the zones of depth from the margin of the
sea to a hundred or more fathoms, and it is these same species which are most
widely distributed geographically, as might indeed be reasonably inferred, it
being evident that the depths of the ocean can be comparatively but slightly
affected by changes of temperature and of climate, and that, consequently, a
species removed to a distance northward or southward from its most congenial
habitat, would encounter less change in climatal conditions by seeking a
greater depth.

Those species which inhabit a great vertical range, such as Saxicava arctica,
Venus striatula, Venus ovata, Lucina borealis, &c., have generally their max-
imum of development and attain their greatest dimensions in shallow water ;
and I call the attentioa of geologists to this fact as it may occasionally be of
service in determining the depth at which strata have been deposited. An-
other important point, deserving attention on account of its bearing on geology,

~is the modifications of growth, incident to all the individuals taken from a great
depth, as compared with individuals of the same species taken from a moderate
depth. Some of these vary in different species, but the general characteristics
of deep-water specimens are deficiency of colour and of solidity, and small-
ness of size.

Northern species generally diminish greatly in size as they approach
southern latitudes ; but the converse of the rule cannot be so generally applied
to southern species, for while some of these are smaller, others increase in
dimensions as they approach the northern limit of their range. As examples
of the latter, 1 may mention Ringicula auriculata and Mactra rugosa, which
attain their maximum size in Vigo Bay, Haliotis tuberculata in Guernsey, and
Tellina balaustina in the West of Ireland and the Hebrides.

To give an idea of the comparatively small number of species existing in
high northern latitudes, I may mention that I obtained 50 per cent. more of
species in the Canary Islands than in the northern provinces of Norway,
although I bestowed at least thrice the amount of time and labour in dredging
the latter, under more favourable circumstances, and through a greater range
of latitude.

The correct division of the marine Mollusca into provinces, or as they are
called “ Faunas,” is a subject deserving consideration, as it may be of assist-
ance to us in our endeavours to become acquainted with the laws regulating
the distribution of species.

The Arctic and Tropical faunas are tolerably well defined by the zones
after which they are named, except that the former, on the European side of
the Atlantic, recedes a few degrees within the Arctic Circle, in consequence
. of the current which sets northward along the coast of Norway. It is the
division of the temperate zone into the Boreal, Celtic, and Lusitanian or
Mediterranean provinces, which offers some difficulty, and I take the liberty
of submitting the following suggestions with reference to it.

Two sets of Mollusca of very different type advance from the sub-arctic
and sub-tropical regions towards each other. In the course of their progress
each loses by the way many of its most characteristic members, which one
after another become extinct, so that when they reach their point of contact,
the species are comparatively few in number, and not the most characteristic
of their northern or southern origin. In order to remedy this state of things
and to accomplish an equable distribution of Mollusca throughout the tem-
perate zone, it is necessary that there should exist an intermediate fauna,
pervading more or less the ground occupied by both the others, and having

158 , REPORT—1856.

its principal development at their point of meeting, and this I believe to be
neither more nor less than what actually occurs. The point at which the north
temperate or boreal, and the south temperate faunas meet, I conceive to be
about lat. 50°, or at the British Channel, which marks the limit of some of
the most characteristic northern forms, viz. Buccinum undatum, Fusus
antiquus, Cyprina Islandica, &c., as well as of the genera Haliotis, La-
chesis, Calyptrea, Venerupis, Gastrochana, Auricula, and numerous species
of southern type. Supposing my view to be correct, it is at once seen why
there can be no peculiar species in the Celtic (or as I would rather call it),
the English or intermediate fauna. It is difficult to lay down an exact line
of division between one animal province and another, the transition being
gradual; but I would consider the “intermediate” fauna to be contained
between the 45th and 55th parallels of latitude, which will include the larger
portion of the Bay of Biscay and a considerable part of the North Sea. All
species which attain their maximum of development within these limits I
would consider legitimately to belong to it, and among the most characteristic
of these may be mentioned Purpura lapillus, Natica monilifera and N. nitida,
Trochus zizyphinus, Lacuna puteolus, L. pallidula, all the British Pholades,
Mactra solida, Tellina crassa, Pecten opercularis, P. pusio, and Venus stri-«
atula.

Although, as already stated, the transition from one fauna to another takes
place gradually, the change is much greater at certain geographical points
than at others, and the neighbourhood of Cape St. Vincent is remarkable as
the northern limit on the Atlantic coast of about a hundred southern species,
including the following genera :—

Solemya. Siphonaria. Ranella. Conus and

Cardita. Sigaretus. Mitra. Cyprea (except the
Chama. Crepidula. Columbella. sub-genus Zrivia).
Spondylus. Cancellaria. Pollia.

Though Cardita and Mitra reappear in the Polar seas represented each by
a single species, and Cancellaria under the form Admete. Cymba extends
to the neighbourhood of the rock of Lisbon; Ringicula to Vigo; Triton,
Turbo, Cassis, and Lithodomus to Asturias ; Adeorbis, Haliotis, Calyptrea,
Lachesis, Gastrochena, Venerupis, Galeomma, ani Avicula to the south
coast of England.

The circumstance of so many characteristic forms disappearing at Cape St.
Vincent, may perhaps be accounted for by the change which there takes place
in the direction of the coast and consequent set of the current. It will be
noticed that the disappearance of species is all in one direction, and that the
point in question is not known to form the southern limit of a single species ;
also that nearly all the genera enumerated as not passing it are to be found
six or seven degrees further north in the Mediterranean.

A circumstance analogous to what occurs at Cape St. Vincent takes place
about the South of Scotland with reference to northern forms of Mollusca,
Of 135 Norwegian species which extend to Scotland, no less than 42 are
absent from the South of England; and this fact is, I conceive, to be explained
by the change in the nature of the sea-bottom, which may also account for
the circumstance that many species, and among them the peculiarly northern
forms of Jrichotropis, Cemoria, and Pilidium, are common to the coast of
Norway and the Hebrides, and even extend as far south as the Clyde,
while they are altogether absent from, or but very rarely found upon the east
coast of Scotland.

The Mediterranean fauna may be considered a branch of the north tem-
perate Atlantic, agreeing with it in its general character, though possessing
some peculiarities, a natural result of its isolated condition.

SS

———

a eS ee

Island.

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 159

Report on the present state of our knowledge with regard to the
Mollusca of the West Coast of North America. By Puiuir P.
CARPENTER. KA

1. Tue duty of preparing a Report “On the present state of our know-
ledge of the Mollusca of California,” was entrusted to the writer simply in
consequence of an opportunity which accident had thrown in his way, of
obtaining accurate information on the Mollusca of one spot only on the
Pacific shores of N. América. Almost entirely destitute of technical know-
ledge, and living at a distance from collections and libraries, he would not
have ventured to undertake it but for the promised aid of one, whose early
death, just as he was entering on that field which seemed of all others most
adapted to develop his peculiar powers, still leaves a most deeply-felt void
in Malacological and Geological Science. This spot is neither politically
nor conchologically in California, strictly so called, but belongs in its fauna
to the province which culminates in the Bay of Panama and extends south-
wards to Peru; while many shells of the real Californian fauna extend north-
wards towards Behring’s Straits, and are found on the Asiatic coasts in the
Okhotsk Sea. This Report will therefore take cognizance of all that is known
of the Mollusca of the West Coast of North America, from the Boreal shores
to Panama.

Before results can be obtained of permanent value, and general deductions
drawn from them that shall bear on the great questions of the condition of
our globe in this and previous ages, it is necessary that the foundations
should be laid by patient and accurate examination of every minute point in
our inquiries: else, as the wrong measurement of a degree nearly prevented
Newton’s elimination of the great law of gravitation, so the deficiency or
hasty examination of details respecting particular species and their abodes,
may lead the great master-minds of science to erroneous conclusions, which,
through their well-earned influence, retard rather than stimulate the progress
of future research. It is proposed therefore—(1) to state the physical con-
ditions, and the cautions to be observed in the inquiry ; (2) to present the
different sources of information in historical order; and (3), after tabulating
these geographically and zoologically, to draw such inferences as the present
state of our knowledge may warrant*.

* On receiving the request of the Association, I issued a circular seeking information as to—
1, What species are found on the north-east shores of the Pacific, especially at Vancouver’s

2. What near the mouth of the Columbia river, and in the Oregon territory.
8. What near San Francisco and Monterey.
4, What near San Diego.
5. What along the Pacific shores of the peninsula to Cape St. Lucas.
6. What at La Paz, Guaymas, and other stations iz the Gulf of California.
7. What at Acapulco and other stations along the coast towards Panama.
8. What species of land and freshwater shells are found in different parts of Oregon,
California, and West Mexico.
_ And, in order to compare with these, as to—
9. What species are found on the eustern (Atlantic) shores of Mexico.
10. What at the Galapagos,
i s What at the Sandwich Islands (distinguishing what are brought there from other
places).
12. What in Polynesia.
_ 13, What fossil species are found in the Tertiary deposits of the United States, which
may throw light on the existing Pacific species.
__ This circular was sent to every accessible station on the West N. American coast, and to
naturalists in this and foreign countries. The replies are on most points extremely meagre:
but I have pleasure in recording great obligations to Hugh Cuming, Esq., for the most liberal

160 REPORT—1856.

2. Perhaps no region in the world is so well adapted for the study of the
geographical distribution of Mollusca as the W. coast of N. and S. America.
Shut out from the vast Indo-Pacific province which reaches to the Sandwich
and Marquesas Islands by an uninterrupted body of water almost equal in
extent to the whole Atlantic Ocean, on the other side barred against all
admixture with the Caribbean Sea by the mighty bulwark of Central Ame-
rica and Darien, it presents the least indented line of coast that the world
can show, from the frozen ocean of the north to a southern promontory 20°
south of the lowest extremity of the old world. Even the land fauna is sepa-
rated from that of the bulk of the continent by the great chain of the Andes
and the Rocky Mountains, and by the arid climate which prevails over a
large portion of its extent. Here then we enter upon a new type of marine
life, almost entirely distinct from those with which we have been familiar in
the Atlantic, Indian and Polynesian waters; in which we can pass, on each
side of the equator, from tropical to boreal conditions, with the most satis-
factory regularity. All that we miss is the presence of more oceanic islands ;
the solitary group of the Galapagos presenting data of unusual interest, to
be noticed afterwards.

3. The tropical region of marine life extends much further north than
south of the equator. This is accounted for by the direction of the equato-
rial current, which, striking upon the swelling coast of Peru, sweeps round
the great Bay of Panama and Central America, and following the north-
westerly direction of the coast, is naturally driven up the narrow Gulf of
California, where, even at Guaymas, in lat. 27°, are found the conditions of
equatorial climate (Gould). The long promontory of Lower California, from
lat. 23°-32°, offers a natural impediment to the further northward passage
of mollusks; while the current which flows southwards, parallel to the
shores of temperate America, seems to convey many boreal species below
the latitude at which we should have expected them. ‘The zoological tem-
perate zone therefore is curtailed in the northern and extended in the
southern hemisphere.

4. The following are recorded as the physical conditions of places which
have been made the special seats of observation—,PaNnama. At the head
of an extensive bay, with a reef consisting of “ledges of trachytic rocks,
with flat and concave surfaces, and gently sloping, precipitous, or shelving
sides.” Each has its appropriate species, as have also the loose pieces of
rock, according to their size, distance from each other, and amount of inser-
tion in the sand. On the fine sand beaches, Oliva, Tellina, Donax and
Dosinia abound. On trees a little above half-tide level are found Pur-
pure and Littorine; with numerous Veneride, Columbelle, Neritina picta
and Arca grandis among the sticks and moss-like algze beneath. On ledges
of smooth basaltic rocks abound Littorine, Fissurelle, and Siphonariea. In
a mangrove thicket at high-water mark occur Cerithidee, Cyrena, Arce,
Potamomye, Melampi, and “ over head, Littorina pulchra, almost as rare as
beautiful.” The ordinary tides are 16-20 feet, very rarely 28 feet, leaving
many square miles of sea-bed exposed at the ebb. The bay contains several

and unrestricted use of his unrivalled collections, and the benefit of his experience and judg-
ment; to Dr. A. A. Gould, of Boston, U. S., for the transmission of the whole of his valuable
materials, including lists and collections; to R. M‘Andrew, Esq., F.R.S., for the use of his
collections and library; to R. D. Darbishire, Esq., B.A., of Manchester, and Sylvanus Han-
ley, Esq., B.A., for aid in the identification of species; to Dr. J. E. Gray, Dr. Baird, and
S. P. Woodward, Esq., of the British Museum, for their assistance throughout; to Prof, Dr.
Dunker for special help in the Mytilide, W. Clark, Esq., in the Cecide, and L. Reeve, Esq.,
in the Patellide; and generally to friends and naturalists who have freely contributed mate-
rials at their disposal.

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 161

steep islands, of which the best known is Taboga (C. B. Adams, Pan. Shells,
pp- 19-21).—Mazatrian. On the north side of the bay is a “long neck of
narrow hills, [of primitive rock, | their sides exhibiting projecting crags and
deep indentations which the ocean has been lashing for ages. On the south
are rocky islands, but towards the south-west the harbour is open to the
broad Pacific, whence at times the sea rolls in with great fury ” (Bartlett).
The harbour is in some places choked with shoals of large Pinne, whose
sharp edges cut the boats (Belcher). Station has often much more to do
with the distribution of species than mere latitude: e.g. Venus gnidia is
found in muddy places from Peru to the Gulf of California, but is not
found on the prolific sandy floor of Acapulco harbour, where it is replaced
by the sand-loving V. neglecta. In some sandy situations, the dredge may
be used for hours without the smallest success; while in others, where the
floor is varied, a short search will procure more than fifty species (Hinds).
—Catirornia. Along the coast of Upper California are primitive rocks,
chiefly granite and syenite. Near Santa Barbara are cliffs of shell limestone,
perhaps 200 feet high ; but their contents have not been recorded. Brooks
with hot springs issue from the primitive rocks, and there are abundant
traces of huge geological convulsions (Vuétall). The peninsula is of vol-
canic rock, and exhibits great diversity of climate. When, near Cape St.
Lucas, the thermometer stands between 60° and 70°, it may be found, near
the northern extremity, at the freezing point. The muddy marshes near
San Diego, &c., appear to be very prolific in bivalves; as are the rocks in
Acmee, which seem to culminate on this coast, whence they were first de-
scribed by Eschscholtz. “ Observations on some points in the Physical Geo-
graphy of Oregon and Upper California, by Jas. D. Dana,” will be found in
*Silliman’s American Journal of Science and Art,’ series 2, no. 21, May 1849,
p- 376.

5. The Gulf of California (often, even in books of-great pretension,
strangely called a bay) was discovered by a vessel detached from the expe-
dition of Cortez in 1533 (Dana), (1534, teste Hibbert). It was the Sea of
Cortez, and the Vermilion Sea of the early Spaniards. It is about 700 miles
long and from 40-120 wide. About the year 1697* it was colonized by a
party of Spanish Jesuits, who founded Loreto, La Paz, and San Jose on its

_ shores. The earliest shell known from its waters was the pearl oyster (Mar-

garitiphora fimbriata, Dkr.),to obtain which, about the seventeenth century,
the Spaniards employed from 600 to 800 divers; the value of the pearls ob-
tained annually being estimated at 60,000 dollars. So exhausting was this
traffic, that the fishery is now almost entirely abandoned. Occasionally,
however, a ship-load of pearl shell is sent to Liverpool, and sold for manu-
facturing purposes. Among the sweepings from one of these loads was found
the finest specimen known of Placunanomia pernoides, remarkable for its
reappearance on the Gambia coast. There appears to have been a treaty
with Spain as far back as 1786, allowing of some trade between this country

and the Mexican shores; but there is no trace of much intercourse before

the Declaration of Independence in 1821. In 1826 a direct treaty was
formed between England and Mexico, and from that time the Californian
and W. Mexican coast has ceased to be a ¢erra incognita to English natu-
ralists. Still, however, our knowledge of the shores and deep waters of the
Gulf (especially of its northern extremity), and of the peninsula of Cali-
fornia, is most fragmentary. The present Report contains the first account
at all verging towards accuracy and completeness, of the fauna at its mouth.
The 117 species collected on the shores of Upper California by our country-
* Hibbert: 1642, Blackie, Imp. Gaz.
1856. M

162 REPORT—1856.

man Mr, Nuttall, incomplete as it is, remains the best list of that interesting
district ; and in spite of the old-established English settlement near the
Columbia River, it was left to the United States’ Exploring Expedition to
make us even moderately acquainted with the shells of the Oregon district.
Of the abyssopelagic species in Oregon and California, we have only the
very limited collections of Belcher and Hinds; and of the minuter forms,
which in the British fauna are 31 per cent., in the Panama fauna 13 p.c., and
in the Mazatlan fauna no less than 39 p. c. of the whole number of species,
we cannot reckon more than half-a-dozen names.

6. It might be thought that, in order to obtain suitable lists of the Mol-
lusea inhabiting particular localities, all that was necessary would be that
shells should be brought from that locality, and then described. But such
is far from being the case. A few of the principal causes of error, both as
regards habitat and description, will be noticed, in order that suitable cau-
tion may be observed in judging of the materials to be presented.

7. Errors respecting habitat.—A \arge part of the shells in collections have
been brought from the seats of trade. Either persons at home, in their com-
munications with friends at sea-ports, request that shells may be sent back ;
or sailors bring them as an article of commerce. In both cases, the greatest
number of specimens is collected from all sources, and no dependence what-
ever can be placed on the results. Thus, well-known East Indian, Philip-
pine, and Polynesian shells have been sent from Acapulco and Mazatlan ;
and coast shells from various latitudes, including the Sandwich Islands,
occur in the Oregon collection of Lady K. Douglas. It is well if sailors and
captains do not add to the confusion by mixing together shells picked up at
different places on the voyage. Nor do the errors end here. When they
pass into the hands of dealers, it is rarely that the least attention is paid to
their locality. They are mixed in drawers in every possible confusion, and
instances have not been rare of traders coining habitats to suit the supposed
taste of their customers, Even when they have their eyes open to the im-
portance of accuracy, such are the circumstances of confusion attendant on
the management of their business, that correctness is rarely to be ex-
pected.

8. But even if collections have been made on a single spot by a traveller
of ordinary and even of conchological attainments, errors may arise from
shells imported in ballast, &e., and dropped on the shore. Adhering and
burrowing littoral shells may thus be found alive in places foreign to their
native seas. This may account for a specimen of Acmea pelta, abundant at
Oregon, being found with the Mazatlan Limpets; and for Littorina aspera
being given by Prof. Forbes in his zoological map as the characteristic spe-
cies of the Oregon instead of the Mexican fauna, specimens having probably
reached the northern collectors in the same way. As an aid to detect these
errors, it is very desirable that shells should be retained without being sub-
jected to the usual acid treatment, as the accretions, or the minute shells
among the dirt, will often decide a point that the shell itself will not deter-
mine. Thus,a small specimen of Fissurella Barbadensis was separated from
a boxful of F. virescens (a variety of which in the young state it closely
resembles) by a minute Spiroglyphus and coral which seem peculiar to the
Atlantic Seas. Thus also specimens of Ostrea iridescens with their Placu-
nanomie were confirmed in their African habitat, from the minute shells
between the lamine, which agreed with the African and differed from the
Panamic types. How many of these ballast species have found their way
into the well-searched British shores, is patent to the readers of Forbes and
Hanley’s Hist. Brit. Moll. It is said that even the great Mediterranean

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 163

Triton has been dredged with the animal in, off the coast of Guernsey*.
It is therefore very desirable that collectors should have a general acquaint-
ance with the shells of a variety of distinct provinces, in order that they
may be prepared to detect errors when they arise. For this purpose also
the formation of local collections in public museums is very greatly to be
recommended fF.

9. It might be thought that all sources of error would be avoided, when
competent naturalists themselves collect shells in their original haunts. But
when different, places are visited, it is not always possible, in the confinement
of a ship, or amid the confusions of land travelling, to pack and tabulate
accurately the results of each branch of inquiry: or, supposing these errors
guarded against, intermixings may still take place in the unpacking and dis-
tribution of specimens, Moreover, when shells are left loose in cabinets,
and the information is supplied by ticket only, a variety of interchanges may
very unexpectedly take place. Such errors are most serious when they take
place in the collections of naturalists deservedly noted for their accuracy;
because whatever appears in their cabinets is naturally regarded as of un-
questionable authority. Thus, a Ceylon shell ran an imminent risk of being
described as from Mazatlan ; and specimens were found bearing one locality
on the ticket affixed to them, and another on a ticket within. Thus, also,
Prof. Adams notes{ having received a Pleurotoma zonulata from Mr.
Cuming, as from the Philippines. Indeed, after the vast collections made
by that gentleman in so fruitful a locality, it was natural that shells should
be often assigned to this habitat, unless a contrary were known. The “China
Seas” or “ Eastern Seas” of Lieut. Belcher are also supposed to have in-
cluded many chance acquirements ; among others, Dosinia Dunkeri from the
Panamic, and Semele rubro-lineata (= simplex) from the Californian fauna.

10. All these errors, from whatever source derived, find their way into
the monographs, sometimes with additions by the writers themselves, and so
become perpetuated. Some authors, even in our own country as well as in
France, are not strict in regard to geographical boundaries. ‘ Central
America” and “ West Columbia” are used generally for the tropical portions
of the W. American coast, and “ California” for any stations north of Aca-
pulco, either in the Panamie or the San Franciscan province. Mr. Reeve,
indeed (under Patella venosa, pl. 10. f. 18), extends W. Columbia south-
wards to include the Isle of Chiloé, in lat. 43°, just as Valenciennes and
Kiener extend Peru northwards to include Acapulco. By mistake, Mr. Sow-
erby, jun., refers a Panama shell to Jamaica, when he cites Prof. Adams's
Cerithium validum, and gives as the habitat of Ranella nana and albofasciata,
P. Z. 8S, 1841, p. 52, “ad tnsulam Panama, Philippinarum.”

11. Another class of errors arises from confounding places which bear
the same name. Thus St. Vincent’s may be either the island in the West
Indies or on the Guinea coast, according as it is used by Guilding or Tams.
San Blas may be either the near neighbour of Mazatlan in the Gulf district,
or it may be D’Orbigny’s locality in Patagonia. And San Juan may be
either the bay on the Gulf side of the Peninsula of California, in lat. 27°, or
the Straits of San Juan de Fuea (or Fuaco), near Vancouver’s Island. It is
believed that in Kellett and Wood’s collections, the words de Fuca have

* Some may attribute a solitary specimen of Trochus conulus found by Mr. Bean at Scar-
borough to a like importation.

t Prof. E. Forbes had been collecting materials for a series of such collections at the University
of Edinburgh. It is hoped that they may yet be made available for the purposes for which
they were designed.

{ Pan. Shells, p. 144; so also Omphalius Californicus, ticketed Moreton Bay,” Mus. Cum,

M2

164 REPORT—1856.

been added to papers from the former place; e.g. in Cyprea arabicula,
(Bristol Mus.) and Planazis nigritella, both of which belong to the Gulf
fauna. In Mr. Reeve’s account of Hinnites giganteus, Gray, the shell is
quoted from “ California and the Straits of Juan Fernandez,” pl. 1. sp. 2.

12. The errors of one collection, or of the author, are not confined to
books, but are continually repeated in public and private collections. It is
important, therefore, when shells are named from the monographs, that the
copied locality should be distinguished, say by marks of quotation. When
the locality of the actual specimen is known on authority, this may be under-
lined ; and, where practicable, the authority should always be added.

13. Errors of nomenclature.—But supposing that the original materials
have been collected with perfect accuracy (and for the reasons above stated,
those collections are the most reliable which have been made by competent
observers on single spots or unmixed districts), a vast variety of errors will
probably arise before their nomenclature is suitably established.

First, the works in which shells are described are inaccessible to ordinary
students. ‘This arises in part from their being so expensive, that even pub-
lic museums are often unable to procure them; and in part from species.
being described in local journals or loose tracts, which either do not find
their way at all into general scientific literature, or do so with such tardiness
that their effect is simply to introduce the confusion of synonymy, and, by
appealing to an earlier date, to upset the labours of those who would most
thankfully have been spared the responsibility of description. This almost
limits the satisfactory production of original works to those who have frequent
access to the capital.

14. Or, supposing the books obtained, the materials are found in so ill-
assorted a state, that the student’s time is frittered away in finding out where
to look. It is customary with some writers to describe new species from any
genera or any localities, without the least regard to order. ‘Thus every stu-
dent at work on the shells of any district is obliged to wade through the
“centuries” of new shells described by Philippi in the ‘Zeit. f. Mal.’ for
fear of overlooking an already published species. Or even when the genera
are monographed, the species are generally arranged either by accident or to
suit the supposed elegance of the plate; instead of either grouping them
zoologically, so as to exhibit allied species side by side, or else geographi-
cally so as to bring the species from each district together. For want of
some such help, whole hours, which might have been spent in advancing
science, may be wasted in hunting for a single Conus, a Voluta, a Helix, or
a Mitra. Asa help to the determination of species, the more minute divi-
sion of large genera is by no means to be opposed; the Lamarckian genera
being to our present knowledge of species and animals what the Linnean
groups were in the times of Lamarck. It is greatly to be regretted that:
many of the divisions proposed of late years have been named in utter
defiance of the principles of nomenclature which the British Association:
recommend, and which are generally received by the naturalists of this and:
other countries.

15. But supposing the materials found, it then appears that most of them
are in so unsatisfactory a state that allied species cannot be discriminated.
Some writers recommend short descriptions to save time; but much more:
time is lost in the end by the errors to which they give rise. If any one
will study the synonymy of the Calyptreide in the British Museum Mazatlan
Catalogue, they will be able to form some idea, though a very partial one,
of the labour that has been thus entailed. The consequence is that the
same name is often quoted by differeut writers for very different shells,

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 165

which is a much greater evil than the giving of several names to one species.
Until, therefore, existing species are tabulated in such a way as to be recog-
nizable by students, it would appear a less evil in a doubtful case to de-
scribe a fresh species, than to run a probable risk of affiliating a different
shell to a species already constituted.

16. Those identifications therefore are by far the most satisfactory which
are made by a comparison of types. But even here the student must exer-
cise caution. For if any one had searched last year for the types of Brode-
rip’s Calyptreide (so obscure to the many who have not access to the plates
in the ‘Transactions’), he would have found not only two of those species
nameless, and in imminent peril of re-description, and that too as from dif-
ferent localities from those recorded in the ‘Proceedings’; but he might have
observed the same name of Broderip given to two distinct species, neither of
which was the shell figured in the ‘ Transactions,’ which still appears under
another name. On searching also for the types of shells described in the

_* Proceedings,’ within a few weeks after they had been communicated, the

names indeed were found, but fastened to very different shells from what the
author had intended. All these errors had arisen from the number-tickets
with the shells referring to the catalogues having been misplaced.

17. As human life is so short, and those who have the inclination for
scientific pursuits have generally so little leisure, it is a serious evil when so
large a proportion of that little has to be devoted to the labour of making
out the errors of predecessors. We therefore venture to suggest some points
which may be worthy of the consideration of the leaders in science. First,
whether the Government, which often spends large sums in the production
of important and expensive works, might not spend a portion of that sum in
presenting copies, or selling them at a reduced rate, to the various free mu-
seums and libraries in the country. Secondly, whether the British Associa-
tion (which has already catalogued the stars), or some other public body,
might not undertake the work of cataloguing the existing species in different
departments of natural history*. And thirdly, whether: a general registry
office could be agreed upon by naturalists of all nations, which might have
branch stations in the various capitals, and to which Latin copies of all de-
scriptions of new species should be sent, by every naturalist who wished to
retain the rights of priority; to be accompanied by information where the
type specimen was to be found.

18. But the foundation-point of all our inquiries must be the discrimi-
nation of species themselves as they exist in nature. And here those labour
under great disadvantage who can only consult the “espéces de cabinet,” in
which, for the sake of saving room, single or very few specimens are exhi-
bited; since, in the case of variable species, it is quite easy to pick out
several extreme forms which shall apparentiy be even more distinct than
those which all allow to be separate species. Every description therefore
which is founded on single or extremely few specimens must be regarded as
only provisional, till their circumstances of variation are known. And
he, perhaps, is doing more useful work, who has obtained materials by
which a full knowledge of the variable powers of mollusks may be attained,
than he who only describes a number of single independent forms. Those

* Or if this should be regarded as too great a work, the preparation of cheap digests of
species like Mr. Hanley’s admirable ‘Recent Bivalve Shells,’ and figures intermediate
between those of Wood and the Monographs, are greatly to be desired. Now that Mr. Wood-
ward’s text-book is making the study of Mollusks so popular, the need for such books of species
is becoming extensively felt. The publication also of cheap abstracts of expensive books, such
as are given in the ‘ Zeit. f. Mal.,’ would be of great service to students.

166 REPORT—1856.

who would study species in a comprehensive manner might advantageously
consult the canons given in Dr. W. B. Carpenter’s Researches on Orbitolites,
‘Trans. Roy. Soc.’ 1855, pp. 226-230. It must not be expected, however,
that creatures (comparatively speaking) so highly organized as mollusks,
should assume such abnormal forms as the lower animals and plants. Often
indeed one species will greatly vary, while another, closely allied, is constant
in its characters; or differences will be found between the shells of a single
species, which in another tribe would justly entitle them to generic separa-
tion. No general rules therefore can be given to guide the student. But it
is required of him that he should faithfully use all the materials at his com-
mand ; not being satisfied with an examination of particular forms, but care-
fully working through those shells especially which many would cast aside
simply because they were puzzling, or were not fine specimens. Those
whose work lies mainly among picked collectors’ shells are recommended to
study the series of fossils arranged by Prof. E. Forbes in the Museum of
Practical Geology, and the large suites illustrating particular species in the
British Museum Mazatlan Collection.

19. It is, however, by no means recominended that we should abstain
from describing new forms, because it may afterwards be discovered that
they are conspecific with others previously found. The great point is, that
we should be guided in those matters that are least known by the experience
gained by studying carefully ascertained species in their varied develop-
ments; and that we should not desire the maintenance of species simply
because they have once been published, when further light assigns to them
a subordinate place. Those writers are therefore not to be blamed who
have multiplied species simply from a want of sufficient materials. Thus
when C. B. Adams described as five distinct species the Cecum pygmeum,
diminutum, monstrosum, eburneum, and firmatum, which seem only stages in
the development of the same shell, he did carefully, aceording to the then
state of knowledge, what a naturalist of less accuracy would have passed
over as one shell, simply from not having found out the differences. But
when the further discovery of many hundreds of individuals proves that they
are identical, a higher point of knowledge is reached, according to which all
examinations in the same group may be henceforth interpreted till some yet
higher generalization is attained.

20. But when species are constituted or disregarded, simply in obedience
to a theory, injury is done to the progress of science. Thus a recent author
on the British Fauna appears unwilling to believe in the existence of species
other than what oecur on the South Devon coast; and accordingly unites
together many which have been constituted by the most accurate naturalists,
but which, from their northern station, he had not an opportunity of study-
ing. And on the other hand, the principal American conchologists, having
assumed a theory that no species can be found in two distinet provinces
unless we can see a way by which they may have moved from one to the
other, forthwith proceed to describe as new everything which makes its ap-
pearance on an unexpected side of the coast. Undoubtedly it is by far the
most easy way of studying a fauna merely to consult those works which
apply to that fauna, and to describe as new whatever is not found therein;
but we must beware lest we be forcing Nature into our own form. Now,
just as we give a species already constituted the benefit of a doubt, till we
be fairly able to prove its identity with another, so we may suppose shells
different from opposite coasts, till we can prove them the same. But, in the
language of the late Dr. Binney*, “until the question of the identity of

* Terrestrial and Air-breathing Molluscs of the United States, edited by Dr. Gould, Boston,
1851, vol. i. chap. 3.

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 167

these closely allied species has been decided by their anatomy, we believe
it to be perfectly safe to adopt this axiom,—that species, whencesoever

_ derived, possessing the same characters, are identical. We view this to be a

more rational course than to consider them to be the analogues of each
other; a convenient but very indefinite mode of expression, which may be
used to cover every degree of similitude, from a general analogy to a close
affinity hardly admitting of distinction*.” ;

21. As far as facts already ascertained justify us in drawing any conclu-
sions, it would appear that while the shells in each of the great provinces
throughout the world are in the main remarkably distinct from each other,
there are in each fauna (1) many shells which are parallel with those from
other seas ; (2) some which are nearly ubiquitous, and often extend far
back in geological age ; and (3) others which, though by no means widely
diffused, reappear very unexpectedly in far-distant seas. Thus Philippi and
Hanley quote shells common to the Mediterranean and Australia; Mr.
Cuming finds the British Lucina borealis and Nassa incrassata at the Philip-
pines ; a.c 2ven Mr. Hinds can trace no difference between a Neera of the
China Seas and the European J. costellata. As to the line of demarcation
between species and varieties, that must remain in many cases a matter of
individual opinion. Those who, with Prof. Adams, can speak of the different
species of Man (Conch. Contr. p. 87; a view more congenial to the “ pe-
culiar institution” of the stripe-Hagged United States than to the readers of
Pritchard’s Physical History), may be expected to constitute species of
shells on characters which to others will appear of secondary importance;
while those who have been in the habit of examining large multitudes of
specimens will take a larger view of the probable extent of specific variation.
These differences will be taken into account in comparing the works of one
naturalist with another.

22. Having thus shown the grounds of caution in using the materials by
which a knowledge of local faunz is to be derived, we proceed to examine,
one by one, the sources of information which have been discovered with
regard to the Mollusca of the two great divisions of the West N. American
fauna. The localities to which they principally refer may be arranged as
follows :—

I. Borgau Fauna. a. Cirewmpolar. Icy Cape, lat.t 70°5°. Behring’s Straits, on
the Arctic circle. ‘“ Behring Sea.”

B. Asiatic. Sea of Okhotsk, with the Schantar Is., 55°. Kurule Is., from Japan
to Kamtschatka. Petropaulovski, 52°5°. Cape Lopatka, 51°: from which
the Aleutian Is. extend to

c. American. Prom. Aliaska. Those most explored are, Is. Kodiak, 57°; Oona-
lashka, 54°; Atcha, 53°. Norfolk Sound in King George’s Archipelago. Sitcha,
58°, in the parallel of the Hebrides.

Il, Temperate Fauna. A. Oregon. (Parallel of France.) Vancouver’s Is. 49°-51°,
with Nootka Is. and Sound; separated on the south from the mainland (of
which the extreme point is Cape Classet) by the Straits of San Juan de Fuaco,
at the S. end of which is Ft. Nisqually, 47°. At the mouth of Columbia River
are Townsend and Discovery Harbour, 46°. Up the river is Ft. Walla Walla.
R. Willamette flows upwards into the R. Columbia, near Ft. Vancouver, 46°.

B. Upper California. (Parallel of the Mediterranean.) ‘“ Colonie Russe,” or Bo-
degas, 38°. San Francisco and R. Sacramento, 37°5°. Monterey, 36°5°. Sta
Barbara, 34°. Is. Catalina, 34°t.

* Vide Prof. Agassiz on the “Geographical Distribution of Animals,” in the Christian
Wxaminer,’ Boston, March and July 1850,

+ The degrees are only given approximately.

{ Another Is. Catalina is in the Gulf.

168 —. REPORT—1856.

c. Peninsula of Old or Lower California, 23-32°, Pacific Shores. (Parallel of the
Canaries.) San Pedro, near Is. Catalina. San Diego, 33°*. Bay of Magda-
lena, with Is. Margarita, 24°5°. Cape St. Lucas, 23°.

Ill. Troprcat Fauna. A. Gulf District. (Tropic —? 32°). a. Californian Coast.
Cape Palmat, 23°5°. La Paz, 24°. Is. and Cape San Jose, 25°f. Loretto and
Bay of San Juan, 26°5°.§ Gulf San Miguel, 29°||. 6. Mexican Coast. Guay-
mas, 28°. Lobos Is. 27°. Mazatlan, 23° (with the Is. Crestin, Ciervo, Per-
mano, Venado, &e.). Is. Tres Marias, 22°. Isabella Is., between these and
San Blas, 21°5°.

B. Mexican and Central American District. (Parallel of Senegambia.) Revillagi-
gedos Is. 18°. not yet searched, perhaps connected with the Gulf fauna. Aca-
puleo, 17°. Gulf Tehuantepec, 16°. Sonsonati and Guacomayo (or Guaya-
moco), 14°. Gulf of Fonseca or Conchagua, 14°. Realejo or Real Llejos, 13°.
Gulf of Papagayo, 11°. Gulf of Nicoya, 10°, with Punta Arenas within the
Gulf, and Cape Blanco at the entrance. Gulf of Dulce**, or Bay of Costa Rica,
with Is. of Cafia and Pueblo Nuovo, 9°. Bay of Montijo and Bay of Honda, 8°,

_ Is. of Quibo, 7°.

c. Panama District. (Parallel of Liberia.) The town is in lat. 8° 49’, and in the
Bay are the Is. of Taboga, Rey, Perico, San Jose, and Sabogatf.

D. Ecuador District. Atacamas, with Cape San Franciscot}, 1° N. Bay of Ca-
raceas, °5°S. Is. Plata, 1°. Gulf of Guayaquil, with Punta St. Elena, Punta
Arenas and Is. Puna, 2°. Payta, 5°.

E. Galapagos or Tortoise Is., on the equator in long. 90°, consisting of six large
and seven small islands; those most quoted are, Charles Is., James Is., Albe-
marle Is., Chatham Is., and Hood’s Is.§§

23. Searcely any mention is made of W. American shells by Linnzus,
Chemnitz, and the older conchologists generally. A very few handsome
species from the Panama province, such as Oliva porphyria, &c., had found
their way into European collections and books, perhaps through the pearl
oyster trade; or even, it may be, introduced indirectly through East Indian
commerce. But our first direct acquaintance with the shells of the Panama

* The shells of this place rank somewhat better with Lower than with Upper California,
with which it is locally and politically connected. It was the first settlement on the coast,
having been founded by the Jesuits in 1769. There is another San Diego in the Gulf of
Tehuantepec.

+ Not to be confounded with Cape Palmar, on the equator, in long. 80°; nor with Cape
Palmas on the Guinea coast, where are islands (St. Thomas and St. Vincent) liable to be
associated with the Antilles.

t There is also a San Jose between the two capes at the end of the promontory, and
another in the harbour of San Francisco. An island of the same name is in the Bay of
Panama.

§ Besides this station and the Straits of De Fuca, there is aSan Juan on the opposite shore
near Guaymas; another near San Blas; a Point on the coast near Lake Nicaragua; and a little
island between Is. Catalina and San Diego.

|| There is another San Miguel near the Bay of Fonseca, in long. 88°5°; also a port in the
Bay of Panama, lat. §° 10’; and an island outside Sta Barbara.

{ Not to be confounded with Lobos Is., Peru.

** Another Gulf of Dulce opens out of the Bay of Honduras.

tf This is quoted by Prof. Adams as a corruption of Taboga. It is, however, marked in
the charts as a very small island, N.W. of San Jose and one-third of the distance between
that and Taboga. A river Chiriqui is also quoted as in the Bay of Panama. Perhaps it is
near the town of the same name in Veragua. There is another Chiriqui between Greytown
and Chagres.

tt There is a Bay of San Francisco in Lower California on the Pacific side, in lat. 30°, and
another near San Miguel within the Gulf. Also a Bar of the same name in the Gulf of Tehu-
antepec.

§§ Another Hood’s Is. is in lat. 21°S., long. 135° W. Which of these is the ‘‘ Lord Hood’s
Is.” often quoted in Mr. Cuming’s Coll., is not known. It is possible that some species be-
longing to the Galapagos fauna have been passed over, from their being assigned to the Poly-
nesian station,

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 169

province is due to the French botanist, Joseph Dombey. He arrived in
Peru in 1778, and brought home several shells, of which eight species are
described by Lamarck*. (C. B. Adams.)

24.. The earliest authentic collections, however, made on the Pacific shores
of N. America were obtained by the celebrated Baron Humboldt and his
companion M. Bonpland. In 1803 they reached Peru, whence they sailed
to Acapulco. It is to be regretted that they did not-themselves describe the
shells they brought. They were seen, indeed, by Lamarck, who described
eleven species from them; but the detailed account was entrusted to M. Va-
lenciennes, and was not published till 1833, the descriptions having been
written in Nov. 1831+. In vol. ii. of “ Recueil d’Observations de Zoologie et
d’Anatomie Comparée, faites dans Océan Atlantique, dans I'Intérieur du
Nouveau Continent, et dans la Mer du Sud pendant les années 1799-1803,

* An important aid in the understanding of the Lamarckian species was given by M. De-
lessert, who published a magnificent volume of plates entitled “ Recueil de Coquilles décrites
par Lamarck dans son Hist. Nat. des An. s. Vert. et non encore figurées. Paris, 1841.” A
copy may be seen in the library of the Linn. Soc.; and a list of species is given by Menke in
his § Zeit. f. Mal.’ June 1844, pp. 83-95. ;

+ The following Table may aid the student in deciding questions of priority: the lists
being given in the approximate order of collection; the order of publication being very
different.

es galt
Es ¢ | ES] 88
2 Bal: 8 =|
Ee Ba) 8 |2clee

1} 1778 Lam. A.s.V. Lies Dombey oo. c..cc.ccc.ccuseos.

2 Do.

9 } 1803 { Voy. 1833 } aa Humboldt and Bonpland.. —

3} 1822-1825} 1826-1830 | Coquille |Lesson.......... Bvssteduaneuch

5) 1823-1826) 1829-1833 Rots EschscholtZ......cesceseeeees —

4) | 1825-08 | J 1820 Z. J. Blossom |Beechey and Belcher ——|—_|—_

11 SSO Voy ls Se eee | PC Oee Sy

12} 1826-1836] 1839 { ae } Capts. King and Darwin

18] 1826-1833 1847 D’Orbigny ...seecseseseosees

8} 1827-1830) 1832-56 ces CUMIN Pie. seetcccveasexcsexs

BED wesivace's 1832 Blainy.

eae 1833 Duclos \ Botta! .c.wscsencsace-scds ras —
10} 1834-1835) 1836, 37 A INUtpal ee eis se casttenweiiess vere —_|—_
21| 1836-1837) 1847-51 Bonite |Eydoux and Souleyet......
13 1836-39 Desh..1839—40 Vv DuPetitThouars,Chiron, || ___
16 Voy. 1846 tig { La Perouse ...... tosees aera ea
14] 1836-1842 {¥ a Pe \ Sulphur |Belcher and Hinds ..........|——|——
17| 1839-1842] 1846— { U a | Witkes, Couthouy .......—_|——
20) 1843-1844) 1847-51 ask Middendorf€ ........s00000- —_—|—_
Seer WB4Gees | Siesstes (Philippi)......sescsseeceeeees —
25) 1846-1848] 1851-56 | Mexic. war |Jewett, Green, and Rich... —|——_
MEE Saevacses 1847 BB: Melcher ........scsccescnvees ———
24| 1848-1849) 1850-51 Py Melcher .........cesssssceees =S==
RH sec scsee 1850 Pandora |Kellett and Wood ......... ——|———
30} 1848-1850 1856 So6 IRGIPEM arcasectcnsst dons sas ce on ————
| * 4850 ae IWTISON). 0... .a0-sabeeetietese —_
26 1850 1852 cB C. B. Adams ....... papnaete
29) 1854 1856 ee Salon yi tccce seer escetsces bee —
Baler iszcctzsce 1855 am Blake and Webb............ ———_|——_—

28] 1856 1856 one Bridges ..sssseoeeeeses evenee

170

par Al. de Humboldt et A. Bonpland; Paris, 1833,” will be found the
« Mollusques, décrites par A. Valenciennes,” pp. 217-339. Several of the
shells are from the East Indies; and of those assigned to Acapulco, many
appear to have crossed the Pacific by the agency of man. ‘The list of Aca-
pulco shells, however, as it appears, is as follows :—

Page
222
221

219
236

245
247

267
273
263
264

275
276
277

278
278
279

282
252

271
334
334
334
307
308
336
336
337
338

269
269

270
265

. Plate,
48
50

48
50

REPORT—1856.

Fig.

2a,b. Tellina petalum, Val. Acapulco. Almost exactly like T. solidula.

3a,b,c,4. Donax radiata, Val. Pacifie shores of equatorial America.
This appears to be either D. punctatostriatus, Hanl. var., or
D. Conradi, Desh., probably the latter; but the description
is not sufficiently accurate to claim priority.

la,b,c. Venus succincta, Val. Acapulco. Probably = Anomalocardia
subimbricata, Sow. or V. neglecta, Gray.

Oe Anodonta glauca, Val. Acapulco. Appears exactly to accord
with Anodon ciconia, Gould, except that it is said to be white
within. Perhaps described from a single specimen.

la, b. Bulimus undatus, Lam. Mexico. =Orthalicus zebra, Mull.

la, b. Bulimus Meaicanus, Lam. Mexico. The shell described in B, M.
Maz. Cat. p. 177. no. 234, may be the young of this species.

«.. Haliotis Californiana, Val. California.
«s Turbo pellis-serpentis, [quasi] Val. Acapulco, =Tegula p., Mawe.
.. Nerita textilis, Limn., Lam. Acapulco.

Nerita papilionacea, Val. Acapulco. Differs from the last in
having fewer ribs, and granulations on the lip. Lat. *83.

Turritella gonostoma, Val. Acapulco, { Jun.].

Turritella leucostoma, Val. Acapulco.

Cerithium musica, Val. Acapulco. Described from one sp. long.
1:25: said to resemble C. literatum, Brug. (not Born and Gualt.).

Cerithium granosum, Val. Acapulco. Probably a Cerithidea.

Cerithium stercus-muscarum, Val.* Acapulco.

Cerithium fragaria, Val.* “One sp. fished at Acapulco,” plaited
like Fasciolaria, resembles C. lima, long. 1: +. Comp. Vertagus
gemmatus, Hds. jun. :

..« Cerithium varicosum, [quasi] Val. Probably Cerithidea varicosa,
Sow.T

56 2a,b. Paludina carinata, Val. ‘‘ Mexico :” on which side of the moun-

tains is not stated.
Tectarius coronatus, Val. Acapulco.
Cyprea radians, Lam. Acapulco.
Cyprea arabicula, Lam. Acapulco.
Cyprea Lamarcku, Ducl. Acapulco.
... Strombus troglodytes, Lam. Acapulco.
4a,b. Strombus cancellatus, Lam. Acapulco.
..» Conus regius, Brug. & Lam. Acapulco. =C. princeps, Linn.
«-s Conus lineolatus, Val. Acapulco. Like the last.
1 Conus cinctus, Val. Acapulco. Like C. hyena.
Conus scalaris, Val. Acapulco. The recent analogue of C. de-
perditus, Lam.
... Solarium granulatum, Lam. Acapulco.
... Solarium granosum, Val. Acapulco. “The living analogue of the
Italian fossil, S. millegranum.”
Solarium bicanaliculatum. Val. Acapulco,

57 3 ajd. Natica Bonplandi, Val. Acapulco. =N. patula, Sow. teste Val. ;

but probably a distinct species, as it is described “callo sub-
diviso.”’

* These species are not noticed by Sow. jun. in his recent Monograph. His “C. granosum,
Kien.” is an Australian species, like C. corallium; and his “ C. musicum, nob.” is like C. vulga-
tum, but from the Cape de Verd Islands.

+ C. Humboldti, Val.=C. Paciicum, Sow. teste Jay.

«v4 ae rere

oa Se

Ee ae

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 171
Page. Plate. Fig. :
332... ... Mitra babea, Val. Acapulco. Resembles.M. Vulpecula, &c.

286... ... Fasciolaria canaliculata, Val. Acapulco. Resembles F. tulipa.
Long. 2°33.

286... .. Fasciolaria rugosa, Val. Acapulco. Long.:42. Probably a young
Latyrus.

283... ... Turbinella ardeola, Val. Acapulco. =T. cestus, Brod. Accord-
mg to Val. the Leucozonia (Monoceros) cingulata was not
brought by Bonpland, as Lam. supposed.

334... ... Oliva testacea, Lam. Acapulco.

334... ... Oliva volutella, Lam. Acapulco.

334.4. ... Oliva zonalis, Lam. Acapulco.

310 ... «. Cassis centiquadrata, Val. Acapulco.

311... 4. Cassis doliata, Val. Acapulco.

312... .. Cassis testiculus, Linn. Acapulco. (W. Indian.)

313... «.. Cassis coarctata, Wood. ‘‘ West shores of South America, near
Acapulco.” In p. 338, the author again refers to Acapulco as
in South America. [= Levenia c., Gray. ]

323... ... Harpa scriba, Val. Acapulco.

325... 4. Malea* (atilabris, Val. Acapulco. “ =Buccinum ringens, Wood.”

327... .... Malea crassilabris, Val. Acapulco. Described from a single sp.,
and probably a var. of Malea ringens.
328... .... Buccinum leiocheilos, Val. Acapulco.

329... ... Columbella, allied to rustica. Acapulco. Doubtless C.fuscata, Sow.

SoU... aca Columbella strombiformis, Lam. Acapulco.

331... ... Columbella gibbosa, Val. Acapulco. “= C. strombiformis, pars,

; Sow. Gen. f. 1.” Appears to be a variety of the last, and not
C. major, as it is described with a yellow border to the aper-
ture, and white spots on the back.

331... ... Columbella costata, Val. Acapulco. Possibly = Anachis coro-
nata, Sow.

314... ... Purpura patula, Linn. Three individuals were labelled “ South
Sea”’ by Bonpland: Val. confesses that no difference can be
traced between these and the W. Indian shells.

LD vss -.. Purpura undata, Lam. Acapulco. =P. biserialis, Blainv. Val. says
that he has compared this shell with the Lamarckian type, but
confesses that his description (according to him, by a lapsus
calami) does not agree. Kiener figures the P. wndata, Lam.
for a different W. Indian shell, and is probably right.

316... ... Purpura speciosa, Val. Acapulco. =P. centiquadra, Val. MS.
= P. triserialis, Blainv.

316... 4.4 Purpura canaliculata, Val. Acapulco. Long. ‘66.

317... ... Purpura semi-imbricata, Lam. Acapulco.

318... .... Purpura (Monoceros) crassilabrum, Lam. Acapulco.

287 ... .... Fusus turris, Val. Acapulco. Like F. colus. Long. 6°.

288 ... ... Fusus cancellatus, Val. Acapulco. Like Trophon fenestratus.
Long. 1°42.

290 4... 1. Fusus lfagellanicus, Gmel., Lam. (‘Trophon). “= T. Jimbriatum,
Mart. 8. America and Acapulco.” [?]

291... ... Pyrula patula, Brod. Acapulco.

292... ... Pyrula vespertilio, Gmel. (Murex). =P. carnaria, Enc. Acapulco,

294... ... Pyrula (Ficula) reticulata, Lam. “S. America.”

295... .s. Pyrula (Ficula) ficoides, Lam. “ With the preceding at Acapulco.”

296... ... Pyrula spirata, Lam. Acapulco (Bonpland).

304... ... Tritoniwm hemastoma, Val. Acapulco. Very like pileare, Linn.

305... .... Tritonium macrodon, Val. Acapulco. Like the last.

306... «.. Tritoniwm decussatum, Val. Acapulco. Like Distortio anus.

297 ... ..» Ranella crumenoides, Blainy. “ =R. crumena, Brod. Zool. Journ.
Suppl. pl. 11. fig. 2.”

* * Although this genus is properly defined in Latin, Messrs. H. and A. Adams (Gen. vol. i.
p- 196) lay it aside in order to introduce an unknown name, Cadium, previously given by Link,

172 REPORT—1856.

Page. Plate. Fig.
298... « Ranella granifera, Lam. Acapulco.

ot

299... ... Murex radix, Gmel. Acapulco.

300... .... Murex tricolor, Val. = M. regius, Swains. (recte).

301... .... Murex bicolor, Val. = M. regius, Schub. & Wagn. (male). “ With
the last at Acapulco.”

302... ... Murex erinaceoides, Val. Acapulco.

This list, being the largest known from Acapulco, would have been ex-
tremely valuable, could it have been depended on for accuracy. But (1) the
presence of several well-known E. Indian and other foreign shells (supposed
by Prof. Adams to have been obtained from the inhabitants, the relics of
former trade with the Philippines) endangers the authenticity of others,
unless there be further confirmation. And (2) the description of the species,
although set forth with not a little display, is performed in so loose a man-
ner, that it is impossible to speak of them with confidence without an inspec-
tion of the types. It will be seen that the author adopts a course, too com-
mon among French naturalists, of changing the specific when he alters the
generic name, appending his own authority for the species; and that when
two authors have used the same name for a shell, instead of preserving the
right and re-naming the wrong, he has given his own names to both species.

25. In the “ Voyage autour du Monde sur la Coquille, pendant les années
1822-5, par L. I. Duperrey, Paris, 1826” (plates only), the following are the
only two species connected with this province :—

“Moll. pl. 11. f. 1, 1', Natica glauca, Humb. Peru:” = N. patula, Sow.

Moll. pl. 15. f. 2, 2A, Calyptrea Adolphe, Less.,” has the animal vepwesented
in the reversed position : = Crepidula dilatata, Lam.

From the text (not seen) are quoted, among others—

P. 421. No. 198 (1830), Patella scurra, Less.
P, 419, Patella clypeaster, Less.

26. The earliest known collector on the North-west shores of America
was the justly celebrated Dr. Johann Friedr. Eschscholtz, Professor and
Director of the Zoological Museums in the University of Dorpat. He ac-
companied an expedition in the Russian ship Predpriaetié, commanded by
Capt. Kotzebue, during the years 1823-6, which, after sailing round Cape
Horn, and visiting the Bay of Conception in Chili, proceeded by the Sand-
wich Islands to Kamtschatka, reaching Petropaulovski June 22, 1824.
Thence they proceeded along the north-west coast of America to Sitcha, and
in October and November to San Francisco and the Rio Sacramento. In
the following year they again sailed by the Sandwich Islands to Norfolk
Sound, Sitcha; thence to Manilla; and returned vid St. Helena. During
this time Eschscholtz collected 2400 species belonging to all divisions of the
animal kingdom; including 10 sp. of Cephalopoda, 172 Gasteropoda, 45
Lamellibranchiata, and 28 Tunicata*. The description of the new species
was commenced by Eschscholtz in the “ Zoologischer Atlas, enthaltend Abbil-
dungen und Beschreibungen neuer Thierarten, Berlin, May 1829 ;” but he
died of nervous fever, May 7, 1831, at the early age of 37 years. The work
was brought to a conclusion in the year 1833 (from the author's MSS.) by
Dr. Mariin Heinrich Rathke, who appears to have succeeded him in the
chair at Dorpat+. The following is the brief list of the species bearing on

* The plants collected during the expedition appear to have been described by Eschscholtz
immediately after his return, in the Mémoires de l’Acad. de St. Pétersbourg, vol. x. p. 281—
292 (1826), “ Descriptiones plantarum nove Californiz, adjectis florum exoticorum analysibus.”

t+ An analysis of the Mollusca in this work is given by Menke in the Zeit. f. Mal. May 1844,
pp: 70-76.

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 173

our present inquiry. The descriptions are in Latin, the localities accurately
recorded, and the work illustrated with plates which are tolerably charac-
teristic.

Part. Page. Plate. Fig.

2 10 9 1. Murex monodon, Esch. Sitcha. = M. foliatus, Gmel. teste Rve.
=WM. tripterus, Lam. teste Sow.=WM. alata, Chemn. teste Sow.

2 10 9 2. Murex ferrugineus, Esch. Sitcha. = M. lactuca, var. (Midd.).

2 11 9 3. Murex lactuca, Esch. Sitcha.

2 11 9 4. Murex multicostatus, Esch. Sitcha. =Trophon clathratus, Linn.
teste Midd.

3 16 15 1. Pleuropus pellucidus, Esch. South Sea (Pacific), near Equator.

3 17 15 5. Creseis cornucopie, Esch. South Sea, near the “niedern Inseln.”

3 18 15 6. Creseis caligula, Esch. South Sea, near Equator.

4 14 19 1. Kolidia pinnata, Esch. Sitcha.

4 15 19 2. Cavolina crassicornis, Esch. Sitcha.

4 15 19 3. Cavolina subrosacea, Esch. Sitcha, on Fuci.

4 16 19 4. Glaucus Pacificus, Esch. Intertropical Pacific.

4 16 19 5. Glaucus draco, Esch. Equatorial Pacific.

4 17 19 6. Phylliroé Lichtensteinti, Esch. Pacific, west of Sandwich Islands.

5 16 Acmea. Animal and shell described.

5 18 23 4. Acmea mitra, Esch. = Patella scurra, Less. = Scurria mitra,

Gray, Gen. =? Lottia pallida, Gray, Zool. Beech. Voy. Sitcha.
This shell is very abundant on the coasts of Chili (Cuming),
and is also common near Monterey (Nuttall), but is not found
in tropical America.

5 18 ... ...Aemea mammillata, Esch. Sitcha. = Scurria mitra, var. teste
Phil., Midd.

5 19 ... ... Aemea marmorea, Esch. Sitcha. =Scurria mitra, var. teste Midd.

5 19 24 3. Acmea cassis, Esch. Sitcha. The northern analogue of P.
deaurata, Gmel., from the Magellan Straits. Probably = P.
exarata, (Nutt. MS.) Rve. Conch. Ic. pl. 19. sp. 47: var. pl. 24.
f. 62a,6. Oregon, Lieut. Baskerville. ? =P. Mazatlandica,
Gray.

5 19 ... ... Aemea pelta, Esch. Sitcha. = P. leucophea, (Nutt. MS.) Rve.
Conch. Ic. 34. 101.+P.monticola, Nutt. MS. (= P. monticolor,
Jay, Cat. 2844)+ P. strigillata, (Nutt. MS.) Jay, Cat. 2881.

5 19 23 1-3. Acmea scutum, Esch. Sitcha. (Chili, Bolivia, Peru, D’Orb.),
= A. patina, var. teste Phil., Midd.

5 19 24 7,8. Acmea patina, Esch. Sitcha. =P.mammillata (Nutt. MS. non
Esch.), Rve. Conch. Ic. 42. 140. + P. tessellata, (Nutt. MS.)
Jay’s Cat. 2885.+ P. fenestrata, (Nutt. MS.) Rve. C. I. 38. 121.
+P. verriculata, Rve. C. I. 31. 87. California.t P. cinis, Rve.
C. I. 24. 60. Monterey, Hartweg. ?+ P. Nuttalliana, Rve. C. I.
30. 81. Oregon. +P. Cumingii, Rve. C. I. 16. 37. Valparaiso,
Cuming, teste Rve.: ‘never took it,” Cuming, teste selpso.
Monterey, Hartweg, teste Mus. Cuming. ?+ P. diaphana (Nutt.
MS.) Jay, Cat. 28. 3, non Rve.-+ Lottia pintadina, pars, Gould,
Exp. Sp. p. 9: v. B.M. Maz. Cat. p. 207. no. 265.*

* The above extensive citation of synonyms is the result of (1) the study of Eschscholtz’s
‘diagnoses :—(2) The judgment of them by Philippi, after seeing the types, as recorded in
Zeit. f. Mal. 1846, p. 106-8 :—(3) The fully recorded judgment of Middendorff in the Mal. Ross.
and Sib. Reise, in locis:—(4) The careful and repeated examination of Mr. Nuttall’s shells,
(a) in his own collection, aided by his recollection, and with the full concurrence of his judgment;
in Dr. Jay’s catalogue; (c) in Mr. Cuming’s collection, as received from Nuttall, through
Jay, and figured by Reeve :—(5) The comparison with these of Dr. Gould’s specimens, col-
lected on the same coast by the officers of the United States’ Exploring Expedition and of the
Mexican war :—(6) The examination of the types of Mr. Reeve’s species in the Cumingian
collection i—(7) The interpretation of all the above by the experience derived from the
repeated and most careful examination of many thousand (at least 15,000) Limpets in the
' Mazatlan collection. It is offered as an approximation to the truth. It is a subject of great

174 _ - REPORT—1856.

Part. Page. Plate. Fig.
5 20 ... ... Aemea radiata, Esch. Sitcha. =A. persona, jun, teste Midd., non
Phil.
5 20 24 1,2 Acmea persona, Esch. Sitcha. = P. Oregona, (Nutt. MS.) Rve.
Conch. Ic. pl. 36. sp. 112. + P. umbonata, (Nutt. MS.) Rve.
C. I. 35. 107. + P. pileata, (Nutt. MS.) Jay, Cat. 2861.
?= Lottia punctata, Gray : teste Midd. (non Quoy & Gaim.)
5 20 24 4,6 Acmea ancylus, Esch. Sitcha. = A, persona, teste Midd., non
Phil:*
5 20 23 7,8 Acmea digitalis, Esch.t
5 21 23 5 Fissurella aspera, Esch. Sitcha. ?= F. densiclathrata, Reeve.

Besides these, Philippi in Zeit. f. Mal, 1847, p. 113, describes Modiola
Californiensis, Esch. from a specimen brought by Eschscholtz, and by an
accident inscribed by him Pholas Californiensis in the Dorpat Museum. It
is intermediate between Lithophagus dactylus, &c., and L. cinnamomeus.

27. The ‘‘Catalogue of the Shells contained in the Collection of the late
Earl of Tankerville, with Appendix containing descriptions of many new
species, by G. B. Sowerby, Lond. 1825,” is a very interesting document, both
as showing how few shells from the West N. American coast were then known,
and also how early some of the most remarkable, as Crepidula adunea,
Lucapina crenulata, and others, had found their way to this country. The
following shells belong to our present subject of inquiry; those having page-
references being properly described in the appendix.

Page. No. Page. No,
iv. 226. Donaz transversus. rare species, as we have never
ii. 116. Mactra elegans (figured). met with another specimen.”
», 208. Lucina punctata. Mart. iii. pl. 66. f. 733.
», 284. Cythereaaurantia(SouthSeas). xvi. 1786. Strombus granulatus.
vi. 796. Fissurella crenulata. xx. 1792. Strombus gracilior.
» 808. Siphonaria gigas (Panama). xxi. 1826. Cassis coarctata. “ We believe
» 814. Calyptrea extinctorium [non it to be a New Zealand shell.”
Lam. ]. xxi. 1824. Cassis ringens. “ Formsa good
s 815, Calyptrea spinosa. genus, nearer in natural affini-
vii. 828. Crepidula adunca. ty to Dolium, to which D. po-
5, 1213. Haliotis Cracherodii. mumalso should be referred.”
», 1214. Haliotis Californiensis, and ,, 1843. Purpura columellaris.
others, 3, 1844. Purpura bicostalis.
xii. 1418. Planawxis planicostatus (Gala- ,, 1888. Monoceros cymatum.
pagos). s, 2002. Columbella strombiformis.
», 1401. Turbo bicarinatus (figured). », 2253. Cyprea pustulata,
xvi, 1553. Fasciolaria princeps. », 2263. Cyprea radians.
5, 1672. Murex brassica. », 2290. Oliva porphyria.
xix. 1703. Murex monodon, Mart. iii. pl. ,, 2295. Oliva angulata.
105, f. 980, 987. xxill. 1984. Terebra strigata. “It is ex-
5, 1673. Murex regius. tremely rare, only a few spe-
» 1675. Murex radia. cimens having been brought
xvi. 1614. Pyrula ventricosa. “We be- from the Panama.”

lieve it to be an extremely

regret that Mr. Reeve, in describing the Limpets of the West N. American coast, did not avail
himself of the previous labours of Eschscholtz, Middendorff and Menke in the same direction.
If an author professes that he cannot understand the labours of his predecessors, he is not
bound to add to them; but if he builds on their foundation, without making that foundation
his own, he cannot expect the stability of his edifice. f

* Philippi regards 4. radiata+ancylus as forming quite a distinct species from 4. persona.
He thinks that the locality-tickets have become misplaced, and that it is really from Chili.
He affiliates, from type, 4. punctata, D’Orb., which does not appear in the B.M. Cat., and
was not seen in his collection. There is no reason why the species should not reappear on
the Chili coast, as 4. patina and S. mitra seem to do. Middendorff confirms the northern
localities.

{ Judging from the figures and descriptions of this shell, I should have regarded it as the

a Pe

¢

RO an AD

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 175

28. The next expedition furnishing results belonging to our present sub-
ject of inquiry was the “ Voyage to the Pacific and Belring’s Straits, per-
formed in H.M.S. Blossom, under the command of Capt. F. W. Beechey,
R.N., F.R.S. &c., in the years 1825-28.” Capt. Beechey was principally
assistedSin the collection of Mollusca by Lieut. Belcher. Unfortunately it
was not at that time thought necessary to mark the locality of specimens;
and for a large proportion we have to depend on general notes or the me-
mory of the collectors. Of several very interesting species, however, the
locality was carefully preserved. A series of specimens having been pre-
sented to the Zoological Society, the new species were described at the
request of the Society by Messrs. Broderip and Sowerby in the Zoological
Journal, vol. iv. 1829, pp. 359-379, with Latin diagnoses and a plate. As
this list is valuable, both from its not being mixed with other collections and
from the known accuracy of the writers, it is here presented entire.

Page.

359. Nucula arctica; a few sp. in Vatcha Bay, Kamtschatka. PI. 9. f, 1.

360. Mactra pallida, San Blas.

», Mactra subglobosa.

361. Corbula rostrata. ’
», Corbula gibbosa; 1 sp. Icy Cape. Page. Pl. Fig,
s, Solen acutidens, Chinese Sea (Loo Choo)..........+++: Z.B.V. 153 43 2
», Solen tenuis, Northern Ocean.

362. Solen altus, Northern Ocean.

» Tellina Burneti, Mazatlan. PI, 9. f. 2.

363, Tellina edentula, Behring’s Straits....... 6.44. vss ening, Wide 2
» Lellina alternidentata, Icy Cape ........... 00. ecco ee » 1538 44 5
», Lellina inconspicua, Icy Cape. 2 Sp.......... esse eens » 103 Al 6

= T. Grenlandica, Beck, MS.
» Tellinides purpureus, Pacific. (Real Llejos, Cuming.).... ,, 153 42 2

364. Cytherea rosea, San Blas.......... cep cece ee eeeees -peiPeamesey ate it i igetners 8
PRMCUUS OWI SAM TASS. Ss css nc tele: os tts eee ccs se 2 eapeltl fo ier 9B Ns
» Cyrena Mexicana, Mazatlan. “In Mr. Sowerby’s Coll.”

The type appears to have been lost.

365. Astarte crassidens, Icey Cape. 1 sp.
pee Astarie (acted, Wey Cape icin. «c once cscs cs oe ste eng » 152 44 12
», Arca grandis.
eAnCH Gradatds Mazatlan seas ese a siein esc. ss cuer cle + te cis » ~ 152 438 1

366. Cardium Belcheri; 3 sp. taken north of Isabella Is, in the

entrance of the Gulf of California, 15 fm. Pl. 9. f. 3.
», Cardium radula (resembling C. muricatum).
s, Cardium punctulatum. 1 sp.

367. Cardium Dioneum, Is. in S. Pacific.......... 0.0 0c cee es s 152 42 6
» Cardium graniferum, Mazatlan: 6 inches in mud.

3, Cardium biangulatum 1... 0... ccc cece ee cee ens » 152 42 5

368. Cardium boreale, Icy Cape.

3» Chiton albolineatus, Mazatlan ..........e cece eee eeees » 149 40 4
» Chiton Loochooanus, Loo Choo.
Chiton vestitus, Arctic Ocean .......0,.0eccceeeceeecs >» 150 41 14

33
369, Vermetus pellucidus. Probably the young of V. eburneus, Rve.
> Patella Mexicana, Mazatlan. Long. 9 in.
», Dentalium semipolitum. (Like D. nebulosum.)
», Bulla calyculata, Pitcairn’s Island.
370. Crepidula ineurvata, Kamtschatka.
» Fissurella hians, Valparaiso.
» Hmarginula crenulata.

young of 4. persona, which is sometimes deeply ribbed, sometimes nearly smooth. Both
Philippi and Middendorff, however, regard it as a well-distinguished species,

176 REPORT—1856. A

Page. Page. Pl. Fig.
370. Littorina squalida, Northern Ocean. Resembles L. littoreus. .
371. Margarita umbilicalis, Northern Ocean. :
5, Margarita striata, Northern Ocean .........+.. ......Z.B.V.143 34 11
» Sigaretus coriaceus, Northern Ocean : Cape Lisbon Bay.
Neritina alata, Taheite.

372, Natica pallida, ley Cape........s.ceecceseecseeseees » 136 34 15
3 Natica otis, Mazatlan. Comp. N. Galapagosa......... » 136 ee ys
» Natica clausa, North Sea, Sabine.........+.+045 mA Par » 136 {37

,, Mitra crassidens.
373. Harpa gracilis.
374. Trichotropis bicarinata, 10-15 fms. Between Cape Lisbon
Bay and Icy Cape. PI. 9. f. 4-8. :
375. Trichotropis borealis, Melville Is.: 1 sp. Lieut. Belcher, ley
Cape.
ss Buccinum boreale, Kamtschatka.

376. Columbella costellata. “Panama and Coast of Africa,” Gray. ,, 129 36 9
» Nassa luteostoma = N. Xanthostoma, Gray ............ i eeIOO oO
», Ricinula elegans. (Very like R. arachnoidea.)
>» Ranella nana,

377. Murex ducalis, near Mazatlan. = M. brassica, Lam. .... ,, 108 33 1
» Pyrula patula, Pacific (=T. melongena, var. n. 1611, Tank. 115 { 34 10
CORES ODS) Cemtesetiass anaes since eerily soa alapopeusraomtele 2 { 35 1,3

378. Fusus lapillus, Pacific. = Buccinum subrostratum, Gray,
Wood Suppl. = Pyrula s., Gray, Z. B.V.... 0... eee » 115 3615

», Fusus pallidus, Mazatlan. “A Fusus from the Calcaire
grossiére near Paris presents no observable marks of

GMETENGEs: o. occpkce sc + civ. 6 efveje sae om) anata a ieks gaara cio. n » 117 3614
», Pleurotoma tuberculifera, North of Isabella Is., entrance of
Gulf of California.
379. Conus arcuatus, near Mazatlan. ? =C. regularis, var..... oo LED 36,22 *
5, Conus interruptus, near Mazatlan. Resembles C. purpu-
ATT PO AIT RT ah oO UD on amen e ak um 2
gape CUCONQT CUES, te toics «cio s/ole este: 109 Siniel slp lajalel aia adi sous iptniels Voge » 130 36 21

In a continuation of this paper (Zool. Journ. vol. v. pp. 46-51) are found
the following species :—
Pages
46. Chelyosoma MacLeayanum. Arctic Seas, on stones.
New genus (Twnicata), described.
48. Cytherea planulata. Near Mazatlan............+eeee- Z.B.V.151 43 6
49, Venus decorata. Hab.? Mus. Sow. Brought home in
the ‘ Blossom.’ Pl. Suppl. 40. f. 3.

The duty of describing the Mollusca of the ‘ Blossom’ was undertaken by
Mr. (now Dr.) J. E. Gray, who considered it a suitable occasion not only
for introducing descriptions of Mollusca collected in the Pacific Ocean about
the same time by Capt. Lord Byron, Mr. Fryer, and the Rev. — Hennah,
and presented by them to the British Museum; but also for giving a com-
plete account (so far as materials then served) of the animals of the various
genera. This course delayed the completion of the work for nine years;
and it was at last only by entrusting the revisal and completion of the MS.
to Mr. Sowerby, that Capt. Beechey was enabled to publish the work in
July, 1839. For the reasons above stated, the “ Zoology of Captain Beechey’s
Voyage: Molluscous Animals and their Shells, by J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.,
London 1839,” is more valuable as a contribution to general conchological
and malacological knowledge than to the furtherance of geographical studies.

~

|

,

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 177

The following is a list of the additional species described, so far as they may
be supposed to belong to the West N. American province ; the references to
the species already described by Brod. and Sow. being appended to the
former list. The diagnoses are in English; the plates beautiful and accu-
rate, sometimes, however, too highly coloured.

Page. Plate. Fig.

108 33 4,6. Murex vitulinus [? non Lam.]=Vitularia salebrosa, King, Zool. Journ.

v. 347.

109... .... Murew acanthopterus, “ Lam. 165 = M. monodon, Esch. =M. phyllo-
pterus, Sow. Gen. non Lam.=M. foliatus, Wood =M. purpura
alata, Chemn. Pacific, N. Zealand, &c. [!] + M. trigonularis, Cab.
Lam. (filed down).”’

109 ... ... Murex monodon, Sow. Tank. Cat. no. 1703.

109... .4. Murex regius, Panama.

109... ... Murex radix, Panama.

109... ... Murex radix, “ wide-variced var. further north.’=M. nigritus, Phil.
+M. ambiguus, Rve.

109 j 33° 1. Murex brassica, Lam. “ Further north still.”

110... ... Tritoniwm Chemnitzit. “ =Mureer argus, var. Chemn.”
112... ... Pollia hemastoma. =Pisania sanguinolenta, Ducl.
=o Turlinella rigida, Gray in Wood Suppl.

114... +... Turbinella castanea, Pacific.

114... ... Turbinella cerata, Gray in Wood Suppl.

+. «ee Fusus angulatus, North Sea.

117... ... Fusus Sabini, North Sea.

117... ... Fusus ventricosus.

see eae Fusus glacialis, Arctic Ocean.

117... ... Fusus fornicatus, Gmel., Iey Cape.

118 36 13. Fusus lamellosus, Icy Cape.

118... ... Fusus multicostatus, Esch. . Northern Ocean.

119... ... Conus Ximenes, Panama.

122 34 5. Harpa rosea crenata. = H. crenata, Swains., Pacitic.

124... ... Monoceros grande, Pacific.

124... ... Monoceros punctatum, Pacific.

124... ... Monoceros lugubre, Sow. Gen. f. 3. = M. cymatum, (Soland.) Sow.
Tank. Cat. = Buccinum denticulatum,+B. amatum, Wood Suppl.
Pacific. (California, on rocks, teste Reeve.)

125... ... Monoceros maculatum=Buccinum brevidentatum, Gray in Wood Suppl.
= Purpura cornigera, Blainv. Pacific. [Mr. Gray assigns no
reason for changing his own previous name. |

127 36 6. Buccinum angulosum, Icy Cape.

128... ... Buccinum polaris, Icy Cape.

128 36 19. Buccinum tenue, Icy Cape.

129... ... Columbella cribraria, Lam.=C. mitriformis, Brod. and King.

131 36 25. Oliva zonalis, Lam.

131 36 23, 27. Oliva undatella, Lam.

131... ... Oliva lineolata, Gray. =Voluta Dama, Wood Suppl. 4; 37. ?Peru.

131... ... Oliva volutella, Lam.

132... ... Aragonia hiatula, (Gray, not] Lam.= Oliva testacea, Lam. S. Amer.

136 37 2. Natica horealis, North Sea, Sabine.

136 37 4. Natica suturalis, North Sea, Sabine and Beechey.

139 ... ... Litiorina fasciata, ? Pacific.

143* 34 14. Trochiscus Norrisii, Sow., Mag. Nat. Hist. 2nd series.

147 39 1. ?Lottia pallida, Pacific. = Acmea mitra, Esch.t

* From this page to the end, the work is edited by Mr. G. B. Sowerby, principally from

_ Mr. Gray’s MS.

tT As Mr. Gray quoted the Zool. Atl. in the earlier part of this work, it is remarkable that
he did not adopt Eschscholtz’s genus 4emea, instead of Lottia, which, with others in the

Same work, appear only one step removed from the nonsense names of Adanson.

6. N

—
—
(sy)

—_
—_
“I

—
—_
NI

178 REPORT—1856. - » ¥O

Page. Plate. Fig. =

148 39 12. Patella Mazatlandica, Mazatlan. This species did not occur among
the myriads of limpets lately sent from the same place. It closely
resembles Acmea cassis, Esch., and may really have come from the
North.

150 41 15. Chiton tunicatus, Wood. Sitcha (teste Reeve).

150 41 16. Chiton articulatus, Sow. Proc. Zool. Soc.1832. San Blas, under stones.

150 41 17. Chiton setosus, Sow. P.Z.S. 1832. Guacomayo.

150 43 9. Chama echinata, Brod. Trans. Zool. Soc. vol. i. p, 306. pl. 39. f. 5-7.
The specimen figured in these books, and in Chén. Conch. IIl., as a
very old individual of Ch. echinata, is proved by the series in the
B.M. Mazatlan Coll, to be a comparatively young shell of Chama
frondosa, var. Mexicana. V. Cat, p. 87. no. 121.

151 41 8. Venus neglecta. Central America, in sandy mud.

151 43 5. Venus biradiata. Found abundantly at San Blas and Mazatlan. = C.
squalida, Sow. = C. Chionea, Mke.

152 44 10, Astarte Banksii, Northern Seas.

152 44 9. Astarte ? striata, Northern Seas.

152 42 4. Cardita crassa, Acapulco.

152 42 7. Cardiwm Panamense, Sow. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1833, p.85. Sandy mud

at Panama. The specimen here figured can hardly be distinguished
from the young of C. procerum.

152 42 3. Pectunculus inequalis, Sow. Proe. Zool. Soc. 1832, p. 196. Sandy
mud at Panama and Real Llejos, This is not the shell usually
known by this name, and is accordingly quoted by Krauss for a
S. African species.

154 44 4. Tellina proxima, Brown, MS. Arctie Ocean.

154 44 8. Mactra similis, Gray, MS. Northern Seas.

The following species are added on the authority of Mr, Reeve, in his
Conch. Icon. :—
Plate. Spec.
9 62. Fissurella Lincolni, Gray, Conch. Ill, p. 7. no. 62. f.40. Monterey, Belcher,
6 27. Turritella sanguinea, Rve. California, Mus. Belcher.
11 42. Murex imperialis, Swains. Zool. Ill, series 2. vol. ii. pl. 67, Mud banks,
Isabella Is., Cal., Belcher.

29. In the “Supplement to the Index Testaceologicus, by W. Wood,
F.R.S. &¢., London, May 1828,” are figured several shells (principally with-
out habitats) which belong to the West N. American fauna, and which were
probably collected by Capt. Lord Byron, Rev. — Hennah, &c. Those
which are recognized are as follow :—

Plate. Fig.

1. Donazx scalpellum, B.M.

6. Venus subrugosa, Mawe, Panama.

11. Arca pectiniformis, B.M. Closely resembling Pectunculus inequalis.
6. Conus gradatus, Mawe. California.

7. Cyprea arabicula, (Mawe) Lam. South Seas.

3. Bulla decussata, Mawe. Panama. (Ficula.)

26. Voluta harpa, Mawe.

36. Voluta cerulea, Mawe. = Oliva volutella, Lam.

. Voluta Dama, Mawe. S. Sea. = O, lineolata, Gray.

1. Buccinum ringens, B.M. = Malea crassilabris, Val.

5. Buccinum coarctatum, Mawe. (Cassis.)

6. Buccinum Rudolphi, Mawe. = Purpura columellaris, Lam.

10. Buccinum brevidentatum, Mawe. (Monoceros.)

12. Buecinum armatum, Mawe. ?2= Monoceros lugubre.

13. Buccinum tectum, Mawe. (Cuma.)

15. Buccinum Planazis, Mawe. =Planazis laticostata, Sow.

18, Buccinum strombiforme, B.M, = Columbella strombiformis, Lam.

AA DP PP APP AIR CoO 09 G2 bo tO tS
i)
ie

+ 4
=

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 179

23. Buccinum roseum, B.M. = Harpa rosea.

24, Buccinum minus, B.M. = Harpa minor.

1. Strombus gracilior, B.M.

13. Strombus galea, B.M.

14. Strombus galea, jun.

21. Strombus granulatus, B.M.

3. Murex rigidus, B.M. (Lathirus.)

13, Murex regius, Swains. South Seas.

15. Murex ceratus, Mawe. (Lathirus.)

19. Murex aculeatus, Mawe. = M. dubius.

1. Trochus undosus, Mawe. California. (Pomaulaz.)

. Trochus unguis, Mawe. California. (Uvaniila.)

3. Trochus olivaceus, Mawe. S. Sea. (Uvanilla.)

4. Trochus pellis-serpentis, Mawe. Panama. (Tegula.)

17. Trochus Byronianus, B.M. Sandwich Is. [?] (Omphalius.)
23. Trochus filosus, B.M.

44. Turbo fluctuosus, Mawe. (Callopoma.)

45. Turbo saxosus, Mawe. (Callopoma.)

2. Nerita patula, B.M. (Natica.) S. America.

4, Nerita ornata, B.M. 8. America. = N. scabricosta, Lam.
2. Patella poculum, B.M.= Trochita radians, Lam.

3. Patella Peziza, B.M. = Crucibulum spinosum, Sow.

4. Patella scutellata, B.M. = Crucibulum imbricatum, Sow.

DODDDARMNANNONE Oo pA AA
to

30. In the Voyage of the Astrolabe to the Australian and East Indian
Seas during the years 1826-1829, of which the “ Zoology” was published by
MM. Quoy and Gaimard, Paris, 1830-35, there does not appear to have
been a single species collected identical with any from N. America. A list
of the Mollusea is given by Menke in the Zevt. f. Mal. for March 1844,
pp: 38-48. The same result appears in East Indian and Polynesian voyages
generally, which therefore have not been collated.

31. In the “ Description of the Cirrhipeda, Conchifera, and Mollusca in
a Collection formed by the Officers of H.M.S. Adventure and Beagle, em-
ployed between the years 1826-1830 in surveying the southern coasts of-
S. America, including the Straits of Magalhaens and the coast of Tierra del
Fuego, by Capt. Philip P. King, R.N., F.R.S., assisted by W. J. Broderip,
Esq., F.R.S.,” given in the Zool. Journ. vol. v. 1832, pp. 332-349, occur
very unexpectedly descriptions of the following species :—

No. 44, Ampullaria Cumingii. Is. Sabago, Bay of Panama, in a small hill stream.
Received from Mr. Cumig. Mus. Brit., King, Brod.
» 57. Murex salebrosus. Hab.? Mus. King, Sow.
»» 60. Triton scaber. Fished up with the anchor in Valparaiso Bay. Mus. King.

| _ 82. The most comprehensive and accurate materials for the knowledge of
__ the tropical Pacific fauna, are to be found in the collections made by Hugh
_ Cuming, Esq. In the year 1827 that gentleman set out on his first great
_ conchological voyage, and remained till 1830, exploring the West coast of
_ America, at various stations from Chili to the Gulf of Fonseca or Conchagua,
in lat. about 13° N. He also visited various of the Pacific Islands, and
_ especially the Galapagos group. Mr. Cuming is the first collector on record
_ who took notes, as accurate as was thought necessary, of the results of his
dredgings. It is cause for the greatest regret that a systematic account of
this expedition has never been published. The new shells brought home
have indeed been to a great extent. described in the Proc. Zool. Soc. and

_ figured in the Monographs of Sowerby and Reeve. Of these the particulars
_ Of station and habitat have been recorded. But not only has the student to

n2

Ps

180 REPORT—1856.

wade through a number of works, at the risk of overlooking what belongs to
his purpose: he has also to find that many of the genera have never yet
been examined; and that, while new species are tabulated, the localities of
those before known are not given. If materials are yet accessible by which
lists could be published of all the shells found by Mr. Cuming at different
places, separately, with particulars as to their frequency, as well as station,
such a work would be among the most valuable contributions to geographic
zoology yet given to the world. All notes of habitat recorded in the Proc.
Zool. Soc. 1832-1836, may be considered as very authentic*. After the
interruption caused by the second and great expedition of Mr. Cuming to
the Philippines, there is of course a possibility of error from the accidental
interchange of tickets belonging to different species. It is right to state that
the services rendered to malacological science by the researches of Mr.Cuming
are only equalled by the urbanity and readiness with which he allows the use
of them to scientific inquirerst, and to which the author is under very
peculiar obligations.

The following are the species observed in the Proc. Zool. Soc. Wherever
the localities or stations given in the illustrated Monographs differ from these,
the statements in the Proceedings must be regarded as of most authority.

1832. Depth
Page. Proc. Zoou. Soc.—Cuming. Station. in fms. Locality.

§ te jun.ju. s. & rock-ledges| 1. w. |James Island, Gallapagos.
Zo/Chitont Goodall, Brod. ee exposed sioatiog eee Ditto dittor
25|—— Stokesii, Brod. .......0008. on stones l. w. |Panama, St. Elena.
26|——_ limaciformis, Sow. .........| .. Spaiaemtcaacs esses | ee» |Guacom., Inner Lobos Is.
27\——— Elenensis, Sow. ....... sess} under stones l. w. |Pan., St. Elen.

27 setosus, Sow. ........+++.../exposed situations) ... |Guacomayo.

28 scabriculus, Sow. ........006. under stones +» |Guac., Puerto Portrero.
28|\_—- retusus, Sow......... afiext add tvmecchts oseh ta secees) chess, Ditto, ddittos
29|Placunanomia Cumingii,Brod. { Anmond, one }u Gulf of Dulce.
29\Dentalium tesseragonum, Sow...| sandy mud 10-16 |G. Nocoiyo, P.Port., Xipix.
30\Carocolla quadridentata, Brod... woods +. |G. Dulce.

* It is necessary, however, to use even these with caution; as, in the papers purporting to
describe shells collected by Mr. Cuming, species are introduced from places which he never
visited. All shells quoted from the Gulf of California, Acapulco, and stations north of the Bay
of Fonseca, are of this class. These were obtained, but not collected, by Mr. Cuming, and are
therefore liable to the errors of his informants. A remarkable instance of the way in which
mistakes arise will be found in P. Z. 8. 1833, p.36, where Mr. Sowerby, in describing “ shells
collected by Mr. Cuming,” states that “ detached valves were picked up on the sands at Real
Llejos and Mazatlan.” In Mr. Reeve’s Monograph, which is supposed to be of perfect accu-
racy in all matters relating to the Cumingian Museum, we read that ‘a few odd valves of
this species were found by Mr. Cuming on the sands at Real Llejos and Mazatlan.”

{ Mr. Broderip, in commencing the description of the shells collected by Mr. Cuming in
his great expedition to the Philippines, 1836-40, deservedly writes (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1840,
p. 84),—‘‘ Mr. C., by his accurate notes, and the open publication of the places where every
one of the multitudinous species and varieties collected by him was found, has mainly assisted
in making a complete revolution in this department of the science, and has done more towards
giving us data for the geographical distribution of the testaceous Mollusca than any person
who has yet lived.”

t Perhaps the first notice of Mr. Cuming’s labours occurs in a “ Description of several new
species of Chitones found on the coast of Chili in 1825, with a few remarks on the method of
taking and preserving them, by John Frembley, R.N.” (Zool. Journ. vol. iii. 1828, pp. 193-
205). Among others, the author describes Chiton Cumingsii, “after his friend Mr. Cumings
of Valparaiso, whose zeal in the pursuit of this interesting science will, he is persuaded, soon
make a large addition to our present stock.” In connexion with this paper should be read
another, by the Rev. Lansdown Guilding, B.A., in the Zool. Journ. vol. v. pp. 25-35, ‘ Ob-
servations on the Chitonide: St, Vincent, May, 1829,” In this paper, the genus Acanthopleura
is properly characterized.

ee

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 181

1832.

Page. Proc. Zoou. Soc.—Cuming. Station. in ins. Locality.
31/Bulinus translucens, Brod. on trees .. |[s. King & Saboga, B. Pan.
32|Fasciolaria granosa, Brod......... mud banks «. |Pan.
33/Voluta Cumingii, Brod.,.....1 SP.| seccsscecseessseeenes 9 |Gulf of Fonseca.
50/Cancellaria solida, Sow. ......... sand 8-10 |Real Llejos, St. Elena.

51 Dullata, Sow. ...scecscseesee mud 12 |Payta, G. Nocoiya.
51|—— mitriformis, Sow. ......1 sp. sandy mud .. |Pan.

51|/——- goniostoma, Sow.......1 sp. sand 8 |Conchagua, San Salvador.
52|/—— clavatula, Sow. ............. ..| sandy mud 7 |Pan., Pay.

52|———- obesa, Sow. .....-- SCOR ERA WabGeuU Sac eee «| 15 |G. Dulce, P. Port.
53|——- cassidiformis, Sow. ......... saridy ‘aud 16 |Pan.

53) —— acuminata, Sow. .........00 sandy mud 12 |Guacom.

54/—— buccinoides, Sow..........+ -| sandy mud 7-15 |RI.L}j., Iqui., Callao, P.Port.
54 Indentatas SOwW....c0scocososes| ssavencecacccs ccoeene tke ean.

54|/—— heemastoma, Sow.s......se00s sand 10-16 |Gal.

54 chrysostoma, Sow. ......... sand 8-10 |Pan., St. Elen.

55|—— gemmulata, Sow. .........+6 sandy mud +. |G. Nocoiya.

55|—— decussata, Sow.......ss.eesee sandy mud 10-13 |Pan., P. Port.

55 bulbulus, Sow. ...2 sp. jun. sand 8-10 |Real Llejos.

55/Scalaria diadema, Soin... Tee CEA ie épcdacnaunsochter® . |... {James Is., Gal.

55/Cardita Cuvieri, Brod. ...... 1 sp. sandy aan 11 |G. Fonseca,

56 varia, Brod. ....scecccsecseeee fine sand 6 |Gal.

58/Chiton dispar, Sow. ..........44 --| under stones | shore |Is. Saboga.

58|—— Columbiensis, Sow. ......... under stones l. w. |Pan.

59|—— hirundiformis, Sow. ......... under stones |1. w. Neranies ta. Tews DEEL

60|Stilifer Astericola, Brod. .........\in Asterias solaris! ... |Ld. Hood’s Is., Gal.

105|Bulinus vexillum, Brod. [= al- frag of large } Is. King and Saboga
sa E ga.

ternans, Beck, teste Jay] ...... trees
105 Panamensis, Brod. ......... ditto ... |Ditto ditto
113/Columbella pulcherrima,Sow.Isp,|_ sandy mud 10 |G. Dulce.
113 harpiformis, Sow. -.........| on dead shells 10 |Pan.
113|—— bicanalifera, Sow.......... | - Sandy mud 10 |Gal.
114|—— coronata, Sow...,............] under stones w= [Pan.
114|—— lyrata, Sow. ......... RE under stones ... |Pan., Chiriqui.
114|—— elegans, Sow............0e8...| sandy mud ... |Guacom.
115|—— turrita, Sow........++.0.......|coarse grav.&s.m.| 10 |B. Mont., St. El.

415|—— fulva, Sow. ........eeee6se+5.| under stones ... =|Pan.

.

115|—— rugosa, Sow....... .-».| under stones ... |Pan., Xipix.
115|—— fluctuata, Sow. ......s0ce.seee under stones ... |G. Nocoiyo.
116|/—— lanceolata, Sow. ............| fine coral sand 6-8 |Gal.
116|—— maculosa, Sow......seeecesees sandy mud ... |Guacom.
116|—— heemastoma, Sow............| under stones ... |Gal., Pan.
116 varia, Sow. core ....| under stones ... |Pan.
116|—— scalarina, Sow................| under stones ... |Pan., Chiriqui.
116)?—— pyrostoma, Sow. ............] under stones ... |Pan., Gal.
117)? Maura, SOW. ...e.se000s..| Under stones ... |Pan., Gal.
117|?—— livida, Sow. ...........see.+..| under stones her [halle
117 fuscata, Sow. ....... under stones .. |Pan., St. Elen., M. Xti.
118|—— costellata, Sow....... ast sp. Pnareesaheneres: eerie 2G, "|baln,
118 guttata, Sow. ‘“ Long well
known, but not aware that hi-
therto described.” = Buccinum under stones ve (Pan.
cribrarium, Lam. aaa
118|—— varians, Sow. “First brought ie , s
by Capt. Cook, in Endeavour.”| f cts] ses Galapagos (Hood’s Is.).
118 angularis, SOW.......ssecceees| coscestenseescencs &o | ees, [Pane
118;—— castanea, WOW encticccceaserel netconceuces ..| se. |Keal Llej.
| 119} —— major, Sow. ......scecsceeeees under stones ... |Ls. Muerte.
119 procera, SowWs.ssscese So BPs] veccecteenens ». |Pan.

119) —— pygmea, Sow. .ecreserevsees ‘Jon dead sh. , sdy m. 10 |St. El.
119 UNICOLOL, SOW. sr.seeceeveecee| cesecsssssssessseeese| ave [ Gal. (Hood’s Is.).”

125|Bulinus nux, Brod. .recscersssaes “on bushes ... |Charles Is., Gal.

182 REPORT—1856.

a ; Proc. Zoou. Soc.—Cuming. Station. Dee
173|Cancellaria uniplicata, Sow. 2sp. sand 10
173|Ovulum avena, Sow....... euest ness Sukie gel Sets ys ves toil anne
173 inflexum, Sow. ......... MR ielters chesvaccascase-h scat "ee
174|— eequale, Sow,......... Bec pecs] vedcbuyeuese'ssodecpan at
174|Murex recurvirostris, Brod....... sandy mud 9
174 erosus, Brod. ....ce.ss.00+ --| under stones "
175 pumilus, Brod.............++5 under stones a
175 nucleus, Brod.....- Wer aiagene fine coral sand 8
175 vibex, Brad. ....0-.cessceeeess sandy mud 6-12
176 oxyacantha, Brod. .......+. sandy mud 8
176|—— nitidus, Brod. ,........ lsp.| cleft of rock Se
176 horridus, Brod. =M. Boi-

vinii, Kien. ...... * ABER as SE sandy mud 8-12
177 lappa, Brod.......s++++.+08++ rocky bed 12
179/Ranella muriciformis, Brod....... loose gravel 7
M7 Ol —— erp a ctgtOd, cagewasanes ers: under stones AN
185|Cypreea Pacifica, Gray.........+...|| under stones .
185 rubescens, Gray. ,...+++ +»...| under stones Pr
185|—— Maugeri, Gray. ......+++.+- under stones 289
194/Ranella pyramidalis, Brod. Oh tveefs ke
sand 6-12
muddy sand 6-12
sandy mud 6-12
sandy mud 10
196 assimilis, Sow. .,....- ate cece sandy mud & grav.) 8-12
196|Capsa altior, Sow.....,.-+++++.++ ++-| coarse gravel 12
196 MINED ebnats spovetibep chess thin mud 5
198|Nucula polita, Sow. ......... lsp. sand vA
198 costellata, SOW....++...0+0++- sandy mud 10
198|——_ gibbosa, Sow...... caus «so5 00s soft mud 5
198}——_ 5 Maeve bapae Bienes ee ens mud 12
199|Amphidesma rupium, Sow...... { coarse gray. in co- 4 oe
199|—— ——,, Var. ...secceeeeeseee +» ||ralreefs, &in rocks} f ...
200 punctatum, Sow...... (5) Uy | ee ae S5
200|Neritina latissima, Brod. ......... on rocks in river] ...
201 globosa, Brod. = N. inter-
media, var. teste Rve.+-N. tri- in river
tonensis, Guil. teste Sow.
. : on stonesin moun-
201 intermedia, Sow ......+++ { ote creed ide
20.)\——— 9p VAT ae scnesgpcccccsccescss in rivulet a
mud bank partially
201|——- picta, Sow...... Spriseraced 4 overflowed with fr.| +...
water ; abundant
88%4|Spondylus dubius? =S. pri
ondylus dubius? =S. prin-
fem WANs MOGs. pcepscsceses on shells 10
5|Triton lignarius, Brod. ............ sandy mud 7-12
5|—- tigrinus, Brod.......+.+++. +-| Sandy mud 11
6 lineatus, Brod..o...cccscesees coral sand 6
7|—— gibbosus, Brod.,.......+++..- coarse sand 7
7|\—— scalariformis, Brod.......... coarse sand 10
7\Turbinella tuberculata, Brod. ...| under stones ne
7|—— armata, Brod. ..........00... on coral reef aK
52\Conus tiaratus, Brod. =C. mi- | | on sand in small
nimus, Linn. var. teste Rve. { |ponds of sea water } a
54 TUK, ee Poaghhedacssscdsss-| engecst Pt es ae Bia
54 Archon, Brad. .00.2..0sse.00. sandy mud 12
54 purpurascens, Brod....... sandy mud in
55|—— gladiator, B70d,.......+06+ clefts of rocks.
55|—— Orion, Brod...........+. «sese.(SOft Sand in ditto] ...

Locality.

Pan.
Conchagua.
G. Dulce.
Pan,

G. Nicoiyo.
Pan.

Gal.

Gal.

St. Elen., Pan.
Real Lleijos.
Real Lleijos.

St. Elen., Pan.
St. Elen.

B. Mont.

Pan.

Gal.

Gal.

Gal.

Pan., Ulitea.

RI. Llej., Pan., St.E].,Guac.
Pan., Salango.

B. Mont., G. Nocoiya.
Pan., Real Llej.

B. Guayaq., P. Port.
G. Nocoiyo.

Tumbez.

Pan.

Pan.

Tumbez.

G. Nocoiyo.

Ld. Hood’s Is.

Gal.

Gal.

Real Llej.

Chiriqui (Nicoya, Sow.).

Is. Lions, Bay Mont.
San Lucas, Gulf Nocoiya.

Pan.

Gulf of Tehuantepec.

Guacomayo.

Galapagos.

Panama and Monte Xti.
Bay of Montijo.
Galapagos.

Elizabeth Is,

Galapagos.

Galapagos.
Bay of Montija.

Panama.
Real Llejos.

Porto Protrero & Panama.

a ee

ee ee ere

a ee

——

Sa ae

>»
q

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 183
ag Proc. Zoou. Soc.—Cuming. Station. ean Locality.
: soft mud in rocks} ... |Panama,

55/Conus princeps ....... PERERA g sandy mud in ditto St. Elena and Monte Xti.

82/Cardium Cumingii, Brod.......... sandy mud 12 |Gulf of Dulce.

83 procerum, Sow,........++0.5. coarse sand 4-6 |Real Llejos.

83 planicostatum, Sow...... Ri fine sand 13. |Guacomayo.

85;—— Panamense, Sow.........+++5 sandy mud 10 |Panama, _
124/Orbicula Cumingii, Brod....... { stl oe oh Lae } Payta, St. Elena, Pan.

18/Byssoarca illota, Sow. ..........4+ under stones Gulf of Nocoiyo.

19 truncata, Sow. ....s..s.e.20es on st. & Avicule Galapagos, Ld. Hood’s Is.

19/Arca tuberculosa, Sow. ..........+. rootsofmangroves| 1. w. |Real Llejos. ,

20/—— concinna, Sow. .....s...+00... coarse sand 12 yee of Nocoiyo.

; tacamas, Real Llej., Xip.,

20/—— emarginata, Sow. ...ccc...ccc] ccsceeesesesseeseeees Ke { Pisaea ahd Dol a Gahe

20|—— formosa, Sow. .......... atta) Uda Was dthersedabachs ... |Gulf of Tehuantepec.

21|—— multicostata, Sow............| «+ than artictns 3ets 5 12 | Ditto.

22 quadrilatera, Sow. [ =gran-

GIS JUNG)? canciganpiihcishht-0s ds pen sandy mud 8 {Real Llejos.

21/—— labiata, Sow....,....,,00-0008 .| sandy mud 7 |Tumbez and Real Llejos.

34/Cumingia lamellosa, Sow....... {in hard clay { qe partite

35/Corbula nuciformis, Sow. ......... sandy mud 6{ eee Beha fossil

35 Dicarinata, Sow............+0 sandy mud 7-17 |Pan., RI.Llej., Carac., St.El.

35|—— biradiata, Sow............006 mud and sand . pee adh,

35 nasuta, Sow....... jesveseeeeee| Sandy mud 10 |Xipix. Jun. G. Nocoiyo.

35|—— ovulata, SowW.ssseecceseecccees sandy mud 7-17 |Xip.,B.Mont.,Carac.,R1.Lj.

36 tenuis, Sow. ........06 Pe sandy mud 12 |Bay Montijo.

36|Bulinus rugiferus, Sow............. under scorie ... |James Is., Gal.

37 unifasciatus, Sow.......s.00. under lava ... {Charles Is., Gal.

37 corneus, Sow. ....4.........,Und. decayed grass}... |Real Llejos.

71)Triton reticulatus, Sow............ under stones .. {Gal

72|Bulinus discrepans, Sow. ......... under bark Conchagua.

72 Calvus, SOW. ...s..cseeeeeee ...,on dry grass-tufts | ... |James Is., Gal.

72|/—— _ustulatus, Sow.........0...... on pieces oflava| ... /Charles Is., Gal.

73|—— unicolor, Sow, ......+. ‘oe on dead leaves ... |Is. Perico, Pan,

74 Jacobi, S0w........c0see0ee ...| under scoriz ..» |James Is., Gal.
134/Pleurotoma unimaculata, Sow....| sandy mud 8-16 |Monte Xti, Guac., Salango
134 Clavulus, SOW. s....sseeseree sandy mud 17 ‘|B. Montija.

135 oxytropis, Sow............| Sandy mud 13-20 |Pan., Port. Portrero.
135|—— albicostata, Sow. .......+0.5. fine coral sand 6 |Gal.
135|—— bicolor, Sow.............«....| | under stones ... {Pan,
135|—— sand 8 |Gal.
135|—— splendidula, Sow..,.......... fine coral sand 6 |Gal.
136|—— bicanalifera, Sow........6.... sandy mud 10 |B. Montija.
136 rugifera, Sow. .e......0+ «-...| fine coral sand 6 |Galap.
137 aterrima, Sow.* ....,....... under stones ... |Monte Christi.
137 Nigerrima, Sow. ......00. sandy mud 6-10 |Pan.
137 corrugata, Sow, .,...,... muddy sand 10 |B. Mont., Port, Portrero.
138 excentrica, Sow. ......+« coral sand 6 |Galap.
138]—— incrassata, Sow. ............ sandy mud 6-10 |Pan., Mte Xti.
138 duplicata, Sow........ tesseeee| Sandy mud 10 |Port. Portr., B, Mont.
138 unicolor, Sow. .......ceseeee sandy mud 6-10 |Pan. ‘
139|—— granulosa, Sow...........s08 sand 8 |B. Mont., Pan.
139 variculosa, Sow. ............| sandy mud 10 |B. Mont.
139/—— nitida, Sow. ..scesecseseerees sandy mud 10 |B. Mont,
139|——- hexagona, Sow......... lsp.| sandy mud 13 |Guacomayo.
1834,
7|Eulima interrupta, Sow...... seeees] COarse sand 11-13 |G. Nocoiyo.

a

*'N.B:

acuta, SOW. seccceceue

coarse sand 13 |B.-Montiji.

Oe eeneee

Pl, rustica, Sow.=thiarella, Val. teste Jay.

184 REPORT—1856.

1834.

Page. Proc. Zoou. Soc.—Cuming. ; Station.

Locality.

18\Conus Luzonicus, var. ...........+ clefts of rocks l. w. |Gal.

18 brunneus, Wood .........++- clefts of rocks ..» |Gal., Puert. Portr., Pan.
19|—— diadema, Sow........... «ese-| Clefts of rocks | 1. w. |Gal.
19) regalitatis, Sow. ......00+... sandy mud in do.| ... [Real Llejos.
21 Gastrochzena ovata, Sow. ...... { Re A Z 7 S aa
21 truncata, Sow. .......seseeees on Spondyli «e- |Is. Perico.
21/—— brevis, Sow. .......scesssesee in pearl oysters | 3-7 |Galap., Lord Hood’s.
22 rugulosa, Sow. ....... erect in pearl oysters | 3-7 |Galap., Lord Hood’s.
22 hyalina, Sow. ............+ with the last 3-7 |Lord Hood’s Is.
35 Calyptraea rudis, Brod. ...... cscs) sescenceccesceteceees .. |Pan.; Real Llej.
35 corrugata, Brod. ......+04+ ..| under stones 14 |Guacom.
35|—— varia, Brod. ........seeeceseee| cee eecre sesseesee | eee |Gal.,Ld.Hd’sls.,Is.Muerte.
OT Brad Bod ee cnnat fom sti sandy m,) 6-10 [Pan.
36 (——) lignaria, Brod.......| under stones ... {Real Llejos.
36|—— (—_) Vaile canepss se on’ on shells in s. m. 4 |Chiloe.
36, (——) tenuis, Brod. ....../onliy.shellsinm.s.| 9 |Samanco Bay.
37|—— ( ) serrata, Brod. .....jon dead shls., mud) 6-11 |Real Llejos, Is. Muerte.
37 Wein aeenien. f on stones, sand | 12 |Pan.
39|—— (Crepidula) unguiformis, { |inside dead shells, ;
LGM. vervenveesscncrcssececeence . sandy mud } 4-20 Pane
40|—— aan excavata, [ae ee Vie ese ... |Real Llejos.
40|—_ (——_) arenata, Brod. ...... on sh. sandy mud| 6-8 |St. Elena.
40|——- (—_) marginalis, Brod..../stones & shls.s.m.} 6-10 |Pan., Is. Muerte.
40 ) squama, Brod ...... under stones .. |Pan.
47\Petricola robusta, Sow........ ROMER in rocks 6-11 |Pan., Is. Muerte.
47 amygdalina, Sow........ .....| In pearl oysters | 3-6 |Gal., Lord Hood’s Is.
soft sandstone | }-tide |Is. Puna, Guayaq.
69|Pholas cruciger, S0w....0+.....006 1 soft stone l. w. |Bay Caraccas.
hard clay "4 G. Nocoiyo.
69|—— calva, Gray, MS. adult} .......... pteeporiecd 5. | bls Raa
J o"*") jun.} hard stones ans 7
70|/—— Pyar Nala) \sceceese ca hard stones 1. w. |Pan.
70|\——- acuminata, Sow. .........0.- limestone 1. w. |Pan.
F1——$ _curta, SOW. ..cocsoreresrseecs soft stone 1. w. |[s. Lions, Veragua.
72 COTNEA, SOWs...... 000s eeeevens trunk of tree | 1. w. |Chiriqui, Veragua. ;
88\Lyonsia picta, Sow. ........000 { eee } 11 {Is. Muerte.
125|Fissurella obscura, Sow...........- under stones shore |Galap.
125 virescens, Sow. [non F. vi-
rescens, Guild. =Barbadensis,| > exposed situat. | 1. w. |Pan.
var. teste Sow.]....+.... cecenseas
125 Nigropunctata, SOW .......0.| sececessseeeesereners ..» |Galap., Lobos Is.
125|—— macrotrema, Sow........ ....| under stones | shore |Gal., Lambeyeque, Lob. Is.
125|\——- microtrema, Sow...... seeeeee] under stones ... {Real Llejos.
126 ineequalis, Sow.......++ Deasiets under stones | shore |Gal., Guacom.
126|—— pica, Sow. ....... Se sieseneasice = dead shells 6-8 |St. Elena, Galap.
127 Panamensis, Sow............ dead shells 6-10 |Panama.
128 crenifera, Sow..........+0e...| under stones | shore |Real Llejos.
148|Chama frondosa, Brod....... «s...-| On Coral rock 17 _‘{Is. Plata.
148|—— pelle sacs secs ssrdaocoagd on pearl oyst.s.m.} 10 (|G. Tehuantepec.
149|\——- imbricata, Brod. ............ on pearl oysters | 3-7 (Ld. Hood’s Is., Pearl Is.
150|\——_ » VAL. Aeeesssseoeseeeeeee-| FOCKS and stones | 1. w. |Galap.
150 producta, Brod........+....4. on stones, s.mud) 10 |G. Tehuan.
150 corrugata, Brod. ...0+...... stones 1. w. |Real Llej.
150|—— echinata, Brod.* ............ ou rocks 1. w. |Puert. Portr. \
1835.
5|Hipponyx radiata, Gray (non } .
Desh.) =H. Grayanus, Mike. on rocks ..» |Pan., Galap.

* The old sp. spoken of are the young of Ch. frondosa, var, The young are Ch, coralloides,Rve.

Se ee

al

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 185

Pin Proc. Zoou. Soc.— Cuming. Station, ah ones Locality.
6|Mouretia stellata, Sow. [comp. 2
Gadinia pentegoniostoma] ... i meee 1. way |ealile},
6|Siphonaria costata, Sow. ...... Sue otisatioas }. w. |Guacom.
7 MaUra, SOW. ...ssecesessseeees on rocks e. |Pan.
21/Venus Columbiensis, Sow......... coarse sand l. w. |St. Elena.
21 subimbricata, Sow. ......... fine sand 13 |P.Portr.,Acap.[Calif.,Sow. |
22|—— multicostata, Sow..........+. coarse sand 1. w. |G. Pan.
23|Cytherea unicolor, Sow............ coarse sand 6 |Real Llej. [Xipix., Sow.]
2 Concinna, SOW...........sc00s fine sand 10 |Pan.
41|Venus histrionica, Sow...........- muddy sand 1. w. |Real Llej., St. Elena.
41 fuscolineata, Sow........0... sandy mud 13 |Guacom.
42). discors, SOW.....s.sseesseeees sandy mud 6-9 |Guacom., St. Elena.
43 crenifera, Sow....... sceiggeab sand 1. w. |Payta, St. Elena.
44|___ prnatissima, Brod. ...1 sp.) sandy mud 10 |Pan.
ae iat a ae wae. } sandy mud 3 |Chiriqui and Tumaco.
45|Cytherea tortuosa, Brod. ......... sandy mud 6 |Pan., Xipix.
45|—— affinis, Brod............cseeeee sandy mud 10 |Xipix.
46 Dione, var. .=C. lupinaria soft mud 5 |Tumbez.
46|—— vulnerata, Brod. ............ sandy mud 6 |Real Llej.
46 argentina, SOW........+0...00 sand-banks 1. w. |G. Nocoiyo.
84/Pinna rugosa, Sow. ...............| | Sand-banks w |Is. Rey, B. Pan,
84|——— maura, SOwW.....ssceesseseeees muddy banks Ste lean.
84) tuberculosa, Sow.............) muddy banks ... |Pan.
93|Pandora brevifrons, Sow.......... sand 10 /|Pan.
94/Buccinum modestum, Powis ...) muddy gravel | 7-17 |B. Mont.
95|Nassa nodifera, Pow..........0++0 coral sand 6-10 |Gal., Pan.
95|— festiva, Pow. ..secccccoseeee sandy mud 6-10 |Pan., St. Elen.
96|—— pallida, Pow......... aot Haeen sandy mud 6 |Pan. -
96|—— scabriuscula, Pow. ......... sandy mud 12 |Bay Mont.
var.8.| sandy mud fe Is. Plata.
700 Feeten salandsa aos soe y-| and coral sand Hisdd { Git Tehuant.
‘ Isp. 6 |Galap.
109|——. magnificus, Sowd vary: coral sand 17 |Is. Plata.
109|—— tumidus, Sow. ......000.. sandy mud 6-10 |St. Elena, Salango.
194/Mitra tristis, Swains.............., Sandy mud 6-10 |St. Elena, Galap,
oF —— effusa, Swains..........00000: sandy mud 12 |Guacom., Galap.
194/Tiara foraminata, Swains. = Vo- pears mud and } as
luta lens, Wobne sae eds. gravel 6 ie St. Elena, Is. Plata, Pan.
4|——. muricata, Swains.............,| Sandy mud 6 |Galap.
1840.
139|/Murex plicatus, Sow. jun..........| coarse sand 12 |G. Nocoyo.
1841.
. 51)Ranella nana, Sow. jun. .........] coarse sand 7 |Panama. [“Ins. Philip.”’]
52|—— albofasciata, Sow. jun....... coarse sand 10 |Panama, Ditto.
1842.
49|Siphonaria characteristica, Rve..| .... snasinsy bs vseepaes . |Pan.
197\Vermetus eburneus, Rve..........| «+ Rewage te scnttechiae ste A
1843,
23/Lima angulata, Sow. jun.........., Sandy mud 12-20 |Pan.
208|Natica Panamaénsis, Réel. ...... fine sand 10 |Pan.
210|/——- uberina, Val. in Humb...... muddy sand 5 |Casma, Peru.
aly Note RTE Réel. [?— Nay coral sand ... {Albemarle Is., Gal.
185|Pleurotoma cedo-nulli, Rve...... sandy mud 10 |Pan.
30)Cyclostoma giganteum, Sow...... woods ... |Panama.
154\Terebra aspera, Hinds.............| | sandy mud 6-10 |Pan., Mte Xti., St. Elen.
156|—— elata, Hinds..................., Coarse sand 15 |Bay Mont.
160;,——- ornata, Gray (P.Z.S. 1834,| f[ coral sand 5-7 |Gal.
| G2 )ircccdsesacssoneeenseaee tee (mud 7 |Panama, Hinds.)

166

p-
Te, aciculata, Hds. (quasi Lam.)

Xipix. (Acapulco, Sonso-
nati, Hds.)

186 REPORT—1856. —
Pics Proc. Zoou. Soc.—Cuming, Station. Prag
17|Lithodomus plumula, Hazl....... in Spondyli
59|Tellina Cumingii, Hani. ......... coral sand
60 rubescens, Han. ............ sandy mud oy
61|—— regia, Han. ...............0«.|coarse sandy mud} 7
; soft sandy mud 5
61|—— laceridens, Hani.......... { sandy mud 3
€2|——- princeps, Hanl...... yoridias, soft sandy mud 5
70|—— insculpta, Hanl. ...... lsp.| sandy mud 3
71|—— felix, Hanl. .......:.eeeceeee sandy mud 6-10
142) —— gubernaculum, Hani. .. sandy mud 7
144|—— elongata, Haml........0+0+00. sand 3
144|—— Domhei, Hanl...........00.4- sandy mud 12
147|—— plebeia, Hamil. ............... sandy mud 7
147|—— aurora, Hanl. ..........+....| soft sandy mud 10
148|—— hiberna, Hanl.............++ sandy mud €-11
121)Triton pagodus, Rve. ......... swalliasdiseatenas stots teat a
121}—— pictus, Rve. .......s6s.eeee ee under stones 1. w.
12|Scalaria mitraeformis, Sow. Jun. | secseesseecrseceeeees =a
51/Columbella rugulosa, Sow. ....0| ...scesecereeceetere
SI] —— atramentaria, SOW. sesses:| cecncccsevecsesecsors
52/—— nigricans, SowW.....es.se.se000] e+e sana S Aagae asta ss
1845.
1]|Artemis simplex, Hanl. [=Do- }
sinia Dunkeri, Phil.].........+6+ Pea gee
11|—— subquadrata, Hal. ....,..0.| cescscserecseeseeees
15|Donax navicula, FAG, csyaccsteces| wscacegascecscanctese
15|—— gracilis, Hanl..s.+, 4 Var. 0.) ...cscsccseescsscneee
VAL (Cibo tp i aeRanancsessiss ns
17 assimilis, Hanl. ....... bees: lkceuees PS Ae a
107/Ostrea Columbiensis, /Zanl..,.. rocks 4-tide
42/Glandina obtusa, P7/r. .......,....| leaves of bushes rae
129)Helix spirulata, P/r...........,..+-| trunks of trees qos
130|—— Nystiana, P/r. ...... daubiess| aabhiboneabe csitan ches Pe ee
139|Littorina aspera, PHA. ...5...pe¢0+| vesvicceteet a0
139| —— porcata, Phil. ....+....+ acer high exposed rocks race
142|}?—— aberrans, Phil....... ag ahowe's rocks 4-tide
53|Mitra gratiosa, Rveé. ....1..eseee coral sand
59|—— gausapata, Rve. mise so litesaepsadananaceessail| FLO
1846,
117|Chama Panamensis, Rvé.....,..++ on stones
119|—— Janus, Rve. .......0.006. .-.-.| on large Avicule
1848,

41|\Planorbis Panamensis, Df. .,.... in streams

97\Cyprea pulla, Gask. (described

TBAO; Pr 22) cscs. wade o-c¢ pes free cs are CE Saale

49/Turbo saxosus, Jve....... Sams Peise.e| to vs\sciesobise wees ate bee
1849.
116/Anomia fidenas, Gray ....... eee on Pinne lw.
117|—— adamas, Gray .......... sees] On AV. marg. 9
134|Tornatellina Cumingiana, Pfr. | ......... canes pase
1850.
154/Phos turritus, 4. Ad.......000s000 coral sand 6-10
1851.
109|Nassa angulifera, 4.4d. ....4.001] seceeecssscaccssecees 10
110) —— nodicincta, 4. Ad...,........| cccecee Peapapsece ase 7
1855.
173|Scintilla Cumingii, Desh.......002| .....ccceseceees Bre beer
183)/Erycina dubia, Desh.......... diccelisssascssqenesas<sbors Pic

Locality,

Pan.

Guacom.

Pan., Tumbez.

Real Llej.

Tumbez.

Chiriqui.

Tumbez.

Chiriqui.

Pan,

Real Llej. [ Thes.)
Chiquiqui (Chiriqui, Sow.
Pan., var, Tumbez.
Real Llej.

Pan.

Pan., Guayaq.

Bay Montija.
Galap.

Guacom.

Galap.

Chatham [s., Galap.
Galap.

Pan., St. Elen.

St. Elena.
Gulf Nicoya.
Bay Guayaq.
Chiriqui.
Caraceas.
Pan,

St. Elena.
Real Llej.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Conchagua.
Galap.

Pan.

Gal.

Gal.

Pan.

Gal.

Pan.

Gal., Guay.
W. Columb.
Pan.

Gal., Lord Hood’s Is.
Real Lle}.

Pan.

Gal.
Gal.

Panama.
Ts. Muerte, Guayaq.

4
a

- {Plate.

Te le

_ ees eed Be

anf, 9

1
7
8
9

u
6
8

i 17

2

ee

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 187

The following species occur in Reeve’s Conchologia Iconica, from places
visited by Mr. Cuming, and were probably collected by that gentleman.

Sp.
2
33

Depth

Name. Station. finn faith, Locality,
Lucina punctata ....0..sseseeeesseeee paegneseo| had te aeesewcaty l.w. |Panama.
6 |St. Elena.
fibula ..... SRA Sr eco notice GomNce fences sandy mud { lew. {Philippines:
———= EDULE AN He vd prcenssoecdetb ides esses es sandy mud 11 |Pan., St. Elen,
cornea [Mysia, H. § A. PAI Wantses coarse sand |10-13)G. Nicoya.
— calculus ........, Pata ce tebe cays ee coarse sand |10-13)G. Nicoya.
Cardium biangulatum [=magnificum, | coral sand 17 {Is. Plata, St. Elena.
Desh.|
—— graniferum.....,...... Hopachiogdep ongnee sdaaedaccenearnen |palament G. Nicoya, Xipix.
CONSOFS ,.......+6 dri, Se Ree ee sandy raid 6-11 |St. Elena, Guacom.
Fig. a, 5. Pecten ventricosus, Sow. Thes. ties PegewR ied St. Elen.,&c., Philippines.
=P. tumidus, Sow. P. Z.8., non Turt.
Helix uncigera, Petit, Guér. Mag. Zool.| ....... ateeuee Alea Panama.
1838, pl. 113.
Fig. a, b. Patella diaphana, Rve. .........] ... Re aboapberee tt aesny Cent. Amer. (Cum., Kell.)
Fig. a, b. —— striata, Rve. [as of Quoy] ............... | acces Galapagos.

& Gaim., but quite distinct from their
species, which is given afterwards
under the same name. ]

Fig. a, 6. Patella stipulata, Rve........ WESH UIT ed eer ceh, N|caatniod Panama.
Turbo squamiger, Rve. ....c0..sccecseseeeee| seceescececeecs 7 |Gal.
Strombus galeatus=S. crenatus, Sow. ... reefs l.w. |G. Nicoy.
granulatus ....., FHES Pag ANabhiecetth nosy en sandy mud | 6-8 |St. Helena and Gal,
—— gracilior .......... peste oer eer en sandy mud | 6-12 |St. Elena and Pan.
Chiton sulcatus ............ Fee eaawee under stones |below|Ld. Hood’s & Jas.1I.,Gal.
lew.
—— crenulatus ......... Been Laat Corre ess] under stones | ditto |Pan.
Chiton hirundiniformis ......... Serre casa ealih«decbans susan celsacncee Korean Archip., Beleher;

teste Rve., Gal.; and
Peru, teste Cum.

Turritella nodulosa, King, Z. J. v.347,| sandy mud | 6-10 /Gulf Dulce.
=T. papillosa, Kien,

—— fascialis, Rve..........- bobs Sete ostea ees-| COarse sand 7 |B. Mont.

—— rubescens, Rve, ...........00+- don eden coarse sand 7 |B. Mont, j

Cypreea-fusca, Gray ...... Bhededseepegabecs|. <haetsceeab- caavil\ireaes Gal. (also B. Guayaquil,

—— nigropunctata, Gray, Z. J. iv. 11,| under stones | ...... |Gal. [teste Sow.)|
=C. irina, Kien.

Conus varius, Linn. 1170. [Rve. pl. 12,] ......... iiartiie*h|laves ds Philippines.

non 13, sp. 58.]
Var. B. = C. pulchellus, Sow. notjclefts of rocks) 1.w. |Gal.
Swains. = C. interruptus, Wood,
Suppl.
Pleurotoma cincta, Rve.=modesta, Sow.| sandy mud 8 |Real Llej. and Is. Annaa.
Fig. a, b. Natica unifasciata, Rve. [? not} mud banks | 1.w. |Pan.
Lam.)
Purpura Carolensis, ve. [=triangularis,| under stones | 1, w. |Charles Is., Gal.
Blainv. |

—— columellaris, Lam,............se0000. ..| exposed rocks | l. w. |Gal.
—— planospira, Lam. .......... enreatacee exposed rocks | ...... James Is., Gal.
alveolata, Rue. .........4. Buenas ANE ss under stones |...... Pan.
—— undata, Rve. [=biserialis, Blainy.| under stones | |. w. |St. Elena.
non Rve., var. Non undata, Lam. =fas-
ciata, Rve. pl. 9. f. 45.]
Ricinula heptagonalis, Rve. P. Z. 8. 1846) under stones | I. w. |Pan.

[? ubi].
alveolata, Kien. [comp. Purp. alv.]| ........+... “somites Pan.

—— contracta, Rve. ...........05 Pee ana | Saocsateees ees Pan., St. Elen.
Zonata, RVE. .....s.eeeeceeceeseeeeeeee-| UNCer Stones | 1. w. |Charles Is., Gal.

188
Plate.| Sp.
6 | 13
6 | 14
LN S55:
9 | 62
10 | 71
10 | 73
11 | 80
11 | 84
11 | 89
2] 6
3/11
11 | 37
16 | 65
17 | 72
16 |124
22 1176
1 3
6 | 40
8 | 56
9} 15
11 | 17
14 | 29
20 | 49
2] 6
5 | 27
3| 7
32 |157

REPORT—1856.

Name. Station, inne Locality.
Cassis tenuis, Gray, in Wood, pl. 8. f. 4,) sandy mud 6 |Gal.
=C. Massenzx, Kien.
coarctata, Sow., Wood, f. 5 .........| crev. of rocks | ...... Gal.
Oniscia tuberculosa, Sow. Gen. p. 2......\clefts of rocks) 1. w. |Gal.
Buccinum Coromandelianum, Lam. ......| «+» WE vcencceew lta .... Coromandel, Panama.
—— biliratum, Ave. ....... seiessnssyeverses SMesakocecetes. laeeees Gal.
—— nigrocostatum, Rve. ....0.000...+ «....| under stones | 1. w. |Pan.
=~ pulchrum, RUC. ..esecccsseseersreeereee| erereeterserees | eeeee . |Gal.
— cinis, Rve. .......4 axvasewes meieebedevs under stones | ...... |Gal.
Pastinaca, Rve. .....sccesecscsevecveoee| seevesees vee .... |B. Mont.
Monoceros grande, Gray, Z. B. V. p. 12 4, crey. of rocks L w. |James Is., Gal.
= Purpura Grayii, Kien.
cingulatum, Lam. = Bue. pseudodon,|clefts of rocks} 1. w. |Pan.
Burrows. “Quite inseparable from the
present group :” [except by the Lathy-
roid plaits, and the Turbinelloid opercu-
lum, which Kien. had already described. |
Triton Chemnitzii = Cassidaria setosa,| sandy mud 6 |Pan.
Has. [? ubi].
— Sowerbii=T. lineatus, Sow....... ...| sandy mud 6 |Gal.
—— reticulatus ? = Murex reticulatus,| ......seseeeee. 6 |Mediterranean, Gal. &e.
Dillw.=T. turriculatus, Desh. =Trito-
nium intertextum, Pfr.=T. reticulatus
Mediterraneus, Sow.
Mitra attenuata, Swains.....cccccsccsesesees rocky bottom} 28 |Is. Cafia, Centr. Am.
sulcata, SWains........0+ eteasheusst ...(fine black sand} 4 |Mouth of Chiriqui, Ve-
Voluta harpa ......ccsccssssveeseceveeveeveeee| Sandy mud 8 |St. Elen. [ragua.
Fissurella Mexicana ....scccoccscssesesceees| soseceeecceees seseee [Real Llej.
——— YUZOSA secessrecseseeeecsere Sere under stones | l. w. |Gal.
Oliva Julieta ...... Bea deaucseta etd stowacwass sandy mud 6 |Real Llej.
—— splendidula ...... iuseesdsacucas ssseees{ Sandy mud | 1.w. |Is. Tobago, B. Pan.
—— polpasta, DUcl. ..e.sscccoeesereees «| Sandy mud | 13 |B. Mont., Veragua.
— kaleontina ........-..6.. nacht Sanicu ss [actress taccdess 6-12 |B. Guay., Gal.
Turbinella varicosa....0....seccseseeseeeceses crev. of rocks } ..... . |Gal.
— nodata, Mart.=Murex rigidus, Wd.| ............... | lw. |Pan.
Fasciolaria salmo, Wood [Pyrula, Gray],| .....-sss000 se | eeveee (REAL Lie].

=F. Valenciennesii, Kien.
Fig. 157, 163. Murex alveatus, Kien.) under stones | 1. w.
p. 24. pl. 46. f. 2

Pan.

No.

7

The following species, to which is appended the authority of Mr. Cuming,
are figured in Sowerby’s Conchological Illustrations.

——$$—$——$ he OOO

Fig. Name. Locality.
17 \Fissurella gibberula, EQN, covase 5 soeateueeeel ieiassaas 2 sesso senseee| DANala.

Bulinus princeps, Brod. Z. P. 1832 [? ubi. =zebra, var]. ..|Conchagua.
—— eschariferus, Sow. .....-... iaaeeensesenss Rea seacnseane wsesdeve --.|Galapagos.
—— ugulosus, SOW. ..eccsceccstseseeersseececcsaeveeescsseeeesseeeses| Qalapagos.

A5 |—— Jacobi, Sow. ......seresseerergeeceeseeneerereessenes esaeceeesicsiens Galapagos.

42 |—— ustulatus, “ih Serene se AA ea aten on ee 354 tseeeeereeeee|Galapagos.

23 \Murex dubius, Sow.=M. euleabus, TEGO ino vennghsivas tonneenee Panama.

41 |Cypreea suffusa, Gray [=C. armadina, Duel. teste Kien. ]....--|Galapagos.
Ovulum equate, SOW. ....0.s.eescscescseersserseecsccscaneseecasenccees Panama.

Conus tornatus, Brod. [Xipixapi, teste Brod. P. Z. 8. 1833,
p. 53.]

Panama.

2 |Amphidesma pulchrum, Sow. [B. Caraccas, teste Sow. P. Z. S.|St, Elena: var. Panama.

1832, p. 57.]

59 Neritina ar atiras OM) ee ARiAaE Lec ekecesheicsieisctsesieusesseassesness | AuRIioe
——— ee EIEIIEEEERAERREEEe Ieee ae

tetas sof Ge

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 189

The following species occur in Sowerby’s Thesaurus Conchyliorum, on
the authority of Mr. Cuming.

No. |Page.| Plate. | Fig. Name. Station. ra Locality,

39, 40\Lima angulata, Sow. ...secseeccssesseeeeeees . |Panama.
’
41, 42) —— arcurata, Sow, ....scsescsvecsceenseees { Ld. Hood's: Is,

. |Panama.
112-13/Columbella cribraria, Zam .s. |... |/Pan., very common.
Terebra frigata, Hds.=T. gracilis, Gray .|cor. sd.| 6 |Galap.

Tellina virgo, Hanl. P. Z. 8. 1844, p. 143 ... |Chiriqui, W. Col.
Marginella cerulescens, Lam.=M. pru- --. Panama.
num, Gmei. [not M. sapotilla, Hds.]
Ovulum gibbosum, Lam. ...........se0008 ... |Panama.
Neritina Michaudii, Reel. Rev. Zool.
1841, p. 315. ao [aan
Bulla Quoyii, Gray, MS. .......cececeeeeee cor. sd./6—8}Galap.
—— rufolabris, 4. Ad. .....c.cccceccecveees fine sd.| 6 |Galap.
punctata, A. AG. ...viccscnsscacecesss sdy. m.| 10 |Panama.
Cytherea undulata, Sow. jun.=C. planu-|sdy. m.| 9 |Salango.
lata, var., Sow. sen.
59, 77|Cerithium ocellatum, Sow. [not Brug.] _ |... {Gulf Cal., Galap.
=C. irroratum [non] interruptum, Gd.
60 |— nebulosum, Sow. ..........scceeeenees ... |Galapagos,
=C. maculosum, Kien.
48 |—— adustum, Sow. non Kien. .....sssceee| seseen | «+ [(Galapagos.
?=C. maculosum, var.
155-6 |—— Gallapaginis, 4. Ad. .......... nAGece ar ... (Galapagos.
?=interruptum, Mie.
280-2 |—— varicosum, Sow........00... CREE Sey? . |.» |Real Liejos, at roots
of mangroves.

33. At the very time that Mr. Cuming was prosecuting his researches on
the West Coast of South America, the Chevalier Alcide D’Orbigny was
engaged in a similar exploration of the continent generally, from the years
1826-1833. In July 1833, he reached the Pacific coast at Arica, whence he
proceeded to Callao, stopping at Cobijo, Islay, and Arequipa. Thence he
returned to Europe vid Valparaiso. The result of his labours is described
in the “Voyage dans l Amérique Méridionale, le Brésil, la République
Orientale d’Uruguay, la République Argentine, la Patagonie, la République
du Chili, la République de Bolivia, la République de Perou, exécuté pen-
dant les années 1826-1833, par Alcide D’Orhigny. Mollusca, Paris, 1847.”
Among the services rendered to malacological science by Dr. Gray*, it is
not the least that he has obtained the type specimens described in this work
for the British Museum, where they may be seen by students on application.
The sea-shells are frequently by no means in good condition, in which re-
spect they contrast most unfavourably with the magnificent specimens brought
in such abundance by Mr. Cuming; nor is the identification of species always
to be relied on. In the Calyptreide especially, M. D’Orbigny has added to
the confusion which was before characteristic of the nomenclature in that
interesting but unfortunate family. Both the specimens and the work, how-
ever, are extremely valuable, especially from the materials afforded for a
comparison of the faune of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts; and the publi-
cation of a cheap catalogue of them by Dr. Gray, Oct. 1854, enables ordi-

a te

* Perhaps the attention now given to the animals of Mollusca, and the reform of systems
founded on the shells alone, are due to the labours of Dr. Gray more than to any other man
living. It is a source of unfailing regret that the benefit of his works is very much overlooked,
in consequence of his not conforming to the principles of nomenclature published under the
auspices of the British Association (Reports, 1842, pp. 105-121).

190 REPORT—1856. ©

nary students to make use of the information they afford. But in the part
of South America to which our present inquiries are directed, which is mainly
from Panama to the Bay of Guayaquil, it does not appear that M. D’Orbigny
himself traveled. The shells quoted from this coast were principally col-
lected by M. Fontaine, or copied from the descriptions of Mr. Cuming’s
stores. Those which are connected with the West North American pro-
vince are as follow. The numbers refer to the “ List of the Shells of South
America in the Collection of the British Museum. 18547’ Some notes are
added on doubtful species, from a study of the specimens.
No.
279. Turritella Broderipiana, D’Orb. Peru, Payta.
= T. goniostoma, Val.
301. Natica glauca, Val. = N. patula, Sow. Peru, Payta.
320. Cypreea nigropunctata, Gray. Payta.
345. Columbella lanceolata, Sow. Peru, Payta.
356. Purpura hemastoma, Lam. Brazils.
These specimens are of the P. Floridana type, punctured like-the Mazatlan
P. biserialis, but with the tubercles not developed. Some of the shells
appear to be the true P. undata, Lam.

359, sealariformis, Blainv. Guayaquil.
= Cuma kiosquiformis, var.
365. bicostalis, Lam. Brazils.

Very like No. 364, which is probably the true P. undata of Lam., not of
Val. and C. B. Ad. Whether the Lamarckian P. bicostalis be this shell,
or an E. Indian species, as supposed by Blainv., is not known. Reeve
assigns the name to the Mazatlan shell.
373. Cerithium varicosum, Sow. Guayaquil.
374, Montagnei, D’Orb. Guayaquil.
(Quite distinct from Cerithidea varicosa.)
407. Calyptraa (Calypeopsis) quiriquina, D’Orb. Chili; Conception.
=(Tablet 555) C. rugosa, Desh., var. Probably a form of Crucibulum spi-
nosum.
408. —— ( ) rugosa, Desh. Chili.
= C. lignaria, Brod., non C. rugosa, Less. Tablet 558 is the extreme form,
lignaria; 557, intermediate between that and 555.
409. —— ( ) imbricata, Sow. Peru; Payta.
=C. rugosa, Less., not Desh. Tablets 559, 560 are the true Crucibulum
imbricatum: 561, ?do. var. Broderipii; 556, ??do. var. Cumingii,
410. -—— (——) auriculata, D’Orb. Peru; Payta.
=Crucibulum spinosum, Sow., not P. auriculata, Chemn.
411. —— (Trochatella) trochiformis, D’Orb.=T. radians, Lam. Chili and Peru.
412, —— (——) mammillaris, D’Orb. Peru; Payta—Guayaquil.
= Galerus unguis, Brod., not G. mammillaris, Brod.
415. Crepidula aculeata, Gmel. Brazils; Patagonia.

416. Patagonica, D’Orb. Patagonia.
Probably = C. dilatata, var. Some species are perhaps C, nivea, var.
417. protea, D’Orb. East coast; Patagonia; Brazils.
Tablet 573, probably dead specimens of C. incurva, or ony, or both.
bel ta! = i C. nivea.
419. foliacea, Brod. Bolivia.
Possibly a var. of C. dilatata; like C. Lessonii of C. nivea.
420. arcuata, Brod. Peru; Payta.

Probably = C. dilatata, vay.
440, Acmzea scurra, Less. Chili, Arica (on Fucus).
= Scurria mitra, Gray, from Less. and Esch.
scutum, Esch. Chili; Bolivia; Peru.
=A. patina, var.
449, Patella maxima, D’Orb. Peru; Payta.
=P. Mevicana.

441.

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA, I9]F

No. ;
482, Pholas curta, Sow. “ Ecuador; Isle de los Leones.”
This island is in Veragua, teste Cuming. The shell is probably copied.
545. Donax radiata, Val.[?] Peru; Arica.
587. Venus planulata, Sow. Chili; Coquimbo.
607. —— Solangensis, D’Orb. Ecuador; Xipixapi.
= Cytherea radiata, Sow.
608, —— Paytensis, D’Orb. Peru; Payta.
=Cytherea affinis, Brod.
610. —— neglecta, Gray. Peru; Payta.
611*. Californiensis, Brod. (non Conr.) Peru; Payta (Fontaine).
776, Ostrea equatorialis, D’Orb. Ecuador; Guayaquil; Is. de la Luna.

34. M. Paul Emile Botta, who has since acquired such deserved reputation
for his Assyrian researches, appears to have been a naval surgeon in early
life, and is quoted by French writers for several shells belonging to the W.
American faunas. ‘The habitats assigned are in some instances correct, but
error has evidently crept into others.

Pyrula bezoar, Lam. China. “California, Botta.’ Blainy. Ann. Nouv. du Mus.
p- 234 No. 68

Purpura chocolatta. [S.America.] California, Bofta............+... 240 80
— cornigera [= Mon. brevidentatum, Gray]. Mazatlan, Botta,
(fragment) ...... mv awa eGame-Wapivabs +c cacuausuanedsmastagedaendeecaas Ue 28
fusiformis. N. Guinea, Lesson §& Garnot. Mazatlan, Botta. 229 61
M. Botta’s shell, if from Mazatlan, is probably the allied
Fusus pallidus.
—— triangularis, Mazatlan, 1 sp............. ceauccsaattabes sesceeserese 223 466
triserialis. California, ] sp. .......2004. isoeathe? <aalaeais Si strecash 226 53
—— spirata: Sandwich Islands..........cccsceccneeeeeeceiseaeceeenes ws. 252 = 105
—— Columellaris. Chijlicss...ssesecsscscssssecssecees pre tess Sdadeateuewal AU 40
t=——— costata, Mazatlan, 1 sp. cescccseesee cssceesneercecnsas Addi nada 231 63
Pleurotoma maura. Mazatlan ....... wccmesads can deadae shia ds « Kiener 59 37
Beattce,” * Maptlam i higpia ‘svssabVeeses... s.0oeecs sani “Poe Kiener 26 33

35. M. Blainville, in his Monograph of Purpura, “ Nouvelles Annales du
Muséum,” 1832, vol. i. pp. 189-263, besides the species brought by M. Botta,
describes the two following, of which one, probably both, are from the West
N. American coast. This accurate work, which does not seem to have been
fully understood by recent English authors, or allowed priority by writers in
his own country, contains a very interesting analysis of the geographical
distribution of the tribe.

Page. No. Pl. Fig.

238 75 11 11. Purpura biserialis = bicostalis, Rve.; not P. bicostalis, Lam.

teste Blainv.

232 65 11 9. —— eostularis, Lam. closely resembles Murex nux, Rve.

. 86. In Guérin’s Magasin de Zoologie for May 1833, appear figures and
descriptions of the following shells, by M. Duclos.
‘Pl. Fig.
22 1. Purpura sanguinolenta, Ducl. =Pollia hemastoma, Gray.
22 2. —— truncata, Ducl. =Monoceros muricatum. Chili. ‘[!]
(Voy. Ven. pl. 9. f. 2, 2a.)
a 3. —— nympha, Pee Blainv.|

5. —— kiosquiformis, N. Holland. [!]
1 6. —— angulifera. [=Cuma tectum.]
2 8, —— centiquadra, Val. MS.= speciosa, Val. Voy. Ven.=triserialis, Blainv.

20 Oliva polpaster, Ducl. (?=Cumingii, Rve. var.] Panama.

T This plate and the next are marked “ Ann. Sc. Nat. vol. 26.” The writer says that
they are from the vol, for May 1832,

192 REPORT—1856.

37. In the “Journal of Researches into the Geology and Natural History
of the various countries visited by H.M.S. Beagle, under the command of
Capt. Fitzroy, R.N., 1832-1836: by Ch. Darwin, M.A., F.R.S., London,
1839,” chap. 19, pp. 453-478, is an extremely interesting account of the
zoology of the Galapagos (which were visited in Sept. 1835), particularly of
the reptiles; but no lists are given of the shells collected. The list of the
Galapagos Mollusca, drawn out by Mr. Darwin with the assistance of Mr.
Cuming, was unfortunately not preserved; and the collections were distri-
buted without any catalogue having been made of them.

38. Perhaps the earliest specimens of U. Californian shells seen in this
country were those sent from Oregon by Lady Katherine Douglas (now Lady
K. Wigram). It would appear that that lady procured shells wherever she
could, as some are well known to be from the Sandwich Islands, and many
belong to the Gulf Fauna. The collection therefore needs careful sifting
before it can be regarded as of any geographical authority. It contains,
however, several very interesting and new shells, which have not even yet

been found again by subsequent travelers.

that have been observed.

Lutraria maxima, Mid. Calif. and Co-
lumbia R. =Tresus maximus, Gray.
=Mactra maxima, Rve. C. I. 1; 4.

Tellina nasuta, Conr. R. Col.

Tellina inquinata, Desh.

Tellina, like Dombeyi. R. Col.

Saxidomus squalidus, Desh. Cal. and R.
Col. “ Copiapo, Chili,” Desh. m B.
M. Ven. Cat. p. 188. no. 5.

Saxidomus Nuttalli, R. Col.

Chione neglecta, Gray. Cal. and R. Col.

Chione ruderata, Desh. Cal.

Trigona mactroides [? radiata, jun.}. Cal.

Mactra similis, Gray.

Cardium Nutiallianum. Fort Simpson.

Mytilus ? edulis. Cal. and R. Col.

Mytilus Californianus, Cony. [?}.

Pectunculus Californicus.

Pectunculus, like maculatus.

Spondylus ?

Placunanomia cepio, Gray, Cat. Anom.
B.M.p.11.no.6. “ California, Lady
Katherine Wigram.”

Placunanomia alope, Gray, Cat. Anom.
B. M.p.12.no.7. “ California, Lady
Katherine Wigram.”

Anomia lampe, Gray, Cat. Anom. B. M.

19. no. 14. “California, Lady
Katherine Wigram.”

Chiton Sitkensis, Rve. (non Mid. = Stel-
leri, Mid.) Cal.

Katherina Douglasie, Gray = Chiton tu-
nicatus, Sow. Cal.

Haliotis rufescens (and others).

The following are the species

Ziziphinus filosus.

Turbo fluctuatus.

Nerita ? scabriuscula.

Neritina picta.

Hipponyz, sp. ind.

Turritella goniostoma.

Cerithium maculosum.

Trivia suffusa. R. Col.

Trivia Solandri.

Torinia areola, Desh. [?]:=T. variegata,
Maz. Cat. p. 407.

Natica bifasciata, Gray.

Natica, like maroccana.

Neverita, sp. ind.

Cancellaria reticulata, Lam. (appears a
worn C. urceolata).

Oliva ? venulata.

Olwella lineolata.

Mitra, like tristis.

Columbella, like fuscata.

Columbella hemastoma, Sow. Cal.

Columbella strombiformis. Sandw. Is. [?]

Columbella castanea.

Columbella pygmea.

Purpura crispata, resembles lapillus.

Purpura crispata, varieties. Cal.& R.Col.

Purpura Conradi, Nutt. R. Col.

Purpura, u.s. (smooth, like Buecinum).
Cal. The same species appears as
“W. Coast America, Hinds.”

Nassa tiarula, Kien. =tegula, Rve.

Fusus carinatus. “ Labrador.”

Fusus Dupetithouarsii.

Murex trialatus, Sow.

39. During the years 1834—5, Thomas Nuttall, Esq., for many years Pro-

fessor.of Natural History at Harvard University, Cambridge, U.S., visited
the then almost unsearched shores of California, by a journey across the

Rocky Mountains under the escort of a trading company. Although his’

~ eeeees te

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 193

object was principally botanical, his love of natural science induced him to
collect all the shells he could meet with; and with such good success, that
many of his species have net to this day been again discovered. ‘The pecu-
liar interest attaching to his researches is, that he did not visit any part of
the coast north of Oregon or south of San Diego. There is no danger,
therefore, of any admixture with the shells of the Gulf district; and his
collections may be regarded as the type of the Californian fauna strictly so
called. Leaving the American shores, Mr. Nuttall visited the Sandwich
Islands, whence he only brought. one species belonging to the American
~ fauna, viz. Hipponyx Grayanus, on a Pinna. On his return to the United
States, vid Cape Horn, the description of the marine shells was undertaken
by Mr. T. A. Conrad, and of the land and freshwater species by Mr. Lea.
The latter gentleman communicated his paper to the American Philosophi-
eal Society, where it will be found in the ‘ Transactions,’ vol. vi.; Mr. Conrad
read his paper before the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, in
Jan. and Feb. 1837. It is published in the second part of the ‘ Journal’ of
the Society, vol. vii. pp. 227-268*. Although headed “ Descriptions of New
Marine Shells, from Upper California, collected by Thomas Nuttall, Esq.,”’
it also contains not only descriptions of several of Mr. Nuttall’s Sandwich
Island shells and Hinnita Nuttalli, from Fayalt+, but also shells from places
never visited by him, as Lyonsia inflata, Guayaquil, Dr. Burrough ; Vulsella
Nuttalli, from the Friendly Islands ; and Tellina lintea, a fossil from Mobile
Point, Alabama. The work bears the appearance of undue haste; the genera
are grouped together without the least regard to arrangement; a large pro~
portion of the species are named either Californicus or Nuttalli; the diffi-
cult genera, such as Acmea and Chiton, are not touched; the localities
cannot always be depended on, as e.g. when Perna Californica is said to
inhabit the Sandwich Islands ; and the descriptions being in English would
not have been entitled to claim precedence were it not that they are accom-
panied by tolerably recognizable figures. The characteristic names and very
elegant and accurate descriptions of plants from the pen of Mr. Nuttall in
the same volume, make us greatly regret that he performed his conchological
work by proxy. But the confusion does not end here. Mr. Nuttall, having
reserved a small part of his collections for his own use, transferred the bulk
of them to Dr. Jay, accompanied by MS. names for the shells passed over by
Conrad. These have been printed in Jay’s Catalogue, but without descrip-
tions, with the addition of some not in the least remembered by Mr. Nuttall.
Under these names they were sent to Mr. Cuming and others, and have
taken their chance of admission into the monographst. Meanwhile Mr.
Nuttall returned to England (where he now resides'on his estate, Nut Grove,
Rainhill, near Liverpool), and continued to distribute the shells under MS.
hames; but not having access to Conrad’s work, the names of that author
were often lost, and others substituted in their place. So little is Conrad’s
paper known, that M. Deshayes redescribed several of the most character-
istic species; Dr. Dunker complained that he had never been able to see it ;

* Part i. of the same volume bears date 1834, :

7 It is generally supposed that the Hinnites Poulsoni, which is described and figured by
Conrad in the same volume of the Journal, and is the H. giganteus, Gray, is assigned to Fayal.
The two species have been confounded, as the locality of H. Poulsoni was not known.

"i Of the species only existing in Dr. Jay’s Catalogue, and which therefore have no claim
to priority, I am unable to give any information. I have requested that celebrated concholo-
_ gist (through Dr. Gould) to furnish the public with either figures or descriptions of them, but
have not yet received areply. From the redescription of several of them by Dr. Gould, the
would appear not to be well known even by the naturalists of his own country. ,

1856. Ce)

194

REPORT—1856.

and Philippi states that it is not to be found even in the Royal libraries at.

Berlin or Gottingen,

Having fortunately obtained access to a copy of the,

paper, and compared it with Mr. Nuttall’s own shells*, and at the same time
with those brought by the officers of the Mexican war, I offer the following
as the best statement that present circumstances will permit. It should be
premised that Mr. Conrad, in the ‘ Journal’ for 1849, made several emenda-

tions of his paper which have been here incorporated.

described in the ‘ Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856, pp. 209-229.

The new species are

Name.

Parapholast Californica, Conr. ...........000+
= Pholas C.,Conr. apr. mau.; Sow. Thes.
= Pholas Janellii, Desh. Rev.1839, p.357;
Guer. pl, 14-16; Chen. pl. 3. f. 5;
Jay’s Cat. No. 162.—Mus. Nutt., Cum.,
Brit.
———f penita, Cons.’ ......<0....00. aap esas oe
=Pholas p., Conr. a pr. man.
= Pholas concamerata, Desh. Rev. 1839,
p- 357; Guer. pl.17; Chen. pl. 3.f.4;
Jay’s Cat. 186.—Mus. Gould.
Platyodon t¢ cancellata, Conr., Jay’s Cat. 265.
—Mus. Nutt., Brit.
Cryptodon § Nuttallii, Conr. ........ MEN
?=Cypricia Nuttallii, quasi Conr.—B.M.
Non Mactra Nuttallii, Rve. Conch. Ic.
pl. 21. sp. 125.—Mus. Nutt., Brit.

Spheenia Californica, Conr. ...........006 oc

= Cryptomya. Californica, Cour. Journ.
1849, p. 208; Jay’s Cat, 467.—Mus.
Nutt.

Thracia curta, Conr.—Mus, Nutt....... dyone?

No. é 2 Fig.
1/236/18]5, 6
2)237/18) 7
3/236/18} 2
4)235)18) 1
5/234/17] 11
6|248/19] 8
7|247/19) 5
8}248|19| 20
9/238/18) 8

Mytilimeria§] Nuttalli, Conr., Jay’s Cat.
2221.—Mus. Brit.

Eons Californica, Conr. ....... seeds WUEsESE
=L. hyalina, Conr. This shell, which
seems to have been lost, probably re-
appears as L. nitida, Gould: v. infra.

Periploma argentaria, Conr. ...sc0..ssee0e sees

=P. planiuscula, Sow.1834,teste Gld. non
Cum.; Jay’s Cat.330.—Mus.Cum.Gld.

Locality,

Sta. Barbara.

Sta. Barbara.

Sta. Barbara,

Sta. Barbara.

Sta. Barbara.

Sta. Barbara.

California,

Sta. Barbara.

San Diego.

10/228)17) 1)Pandora punctata, Conr.—Mus. Cum., Nutt.) Sta. Barbara.

Station.

SER Eeetemeeeteemeee

clay rocks,

clay rocks.

muddy marshes and
soft rocks.

salt marshes, bare at
low w.

salt marshes ; rare.

one fine pair.

in sponge, and thrown
up attached to roots
of fuci, in deep w.

muddy marshes of
sea~coast.

single valves.

* Mr. Nuttall’s silvery locks have not lessened his interest in Natural Science. His
memory is singularly clear on all matters relating to his own collections ; and has been allowed
to turn the scale on doubtful points, in the few instances where no MS, had remained.

{ It is difficult to know what Conrad means by this genus, which is described in Journ,

1849, p. 214.

He afterwards calls P, acuminata, which is clearly congeneric, Penitella Wil-

sonié ; while he applies the name Parapholas to Pholadidea melanura. It is here used accord-

ing to the interpretation of Woodw. (Man. Moll. p. 329) for the Pholadidee with tripartite

valves, persis

tent cups, and large plates.

} Platyodon is described as a subgenus of Mya, with four testaceous valves on the ends of

the tubes.

§ Cryptodon is described as a subgenus of Lutraria, with two corneous valves, which close

the orifices o

f the tubes,

§] Mytilimeria, as appears from type valves in the Brit. Mus., received from Conrad, is a
subgenus of Zyonsia (not a synonym for it) with spiral umbos, regular rounded form, and
very slight ligamental pit.

| 13/233]17| 1
| 14j233|18

| i5leailis
| 161230

| 17231
| 18

| 21|234

7

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA.

11/231|17| 8

12)232)17

©

i=)

oo

13

—_
~
(=r)

19/239 11

20/239

17) 1

iw)

22/258

23

24/258

25/257

26
27|254/19) 21

Name.

Solecurtus lucidus, Conr. .........+ eleenieeis
= 8. radiatus, Gld. non Linn. (teste Conr,
1849).
= Siliqua lucida, Conr. Journ. Aug. 1849.
Machera lucida, Jay ,238.—Mus.Nutt.,Br.
Solecurtus Nuttallii, Conv.
= Siligua Nuttallii, Conr. Aug, 1849.
= Solen splendens, Chen. teste Conr,
=Machera maxima, Gould, Jay’s Cat.
239; non Wood, teste Conr.—Mus.
Nutt.
Cultellus subteres, Conr. [Subg. described. ]
Solecurtus subteres, Jay, 236.— Mus.
Nutt., Brit.
—— Californianus, Conr. ............+ eatrenes
Solecurtus Californianus, Jay, 221.—Mus.
Nutt., Brit.
Psammobia Pacifica, Conr., Jay, 500 (Co-

ee ee eee en eeeteene

lumbiaR.).[Sanguinolaria. |—Mus.Br.
Sanguinolaria Nuttallii, Conr., Jay,488,489.
—Mus. Nutt., Cum.
= Psammobia decora, Hds.
—— Californiana, Conr, .....sccssceserseeees
Var. A. ‘‘ May prove distinct.” —Mus. Nutt.
—— rubro-radiata, Conr., Nutt. MS.—Mus.
Nutt. Appears to have been over-
looked. Allied to Psammodia.
Amphidesma rubrolineata, Conr. ..... yrs
=Semele simplex, A. Ad, ?ubi.— Mus.
Gld., Cuming.
—— decisa, Conr. ......+0 ane auees dagudeeaan
=A, roseum, Gld. [? non Brod. & Sow.);
Jay, 443.—Mus. Nutt., Brit., Cum.
Cumingia Californica, Conr., Jay,457.—Mus.
Cum., Brit.
Tellina alta, Conr., Jay, 520 ........sssssseeee

?=?Scrobicularia biangulata, Cpr.*—Mus.
Nutt. P.Z.S. 1855, p. 230.

—— edentula, Brod. & Sow. —Mus. Nutt.,

Cum, &c.

—— nasuta, Conr., Jay, 592. Columbia
River. Jay’s habitat is likely to be
more correct than Conrad’s, as this is
one of the Okotsk species.

Tellina secta, Cons tf .p..cccecssescserecssneeees

=T. ligamentina, Desh. in Guer. Mag.
1843, pl. 81; Jay, 633.—Mus. Nutt.

Strigilla carnaria, Limn.f cssecccseveeeeeeesees

Donax Californica, Conr., Jay, 699.—Mus,
Nutt., Brit., Cum. &c.

=Donazx obesa, Phil. Zeit. f, Mal. 1851,

p- 75. no. 2. (non Desh.)

Locality,

Sta. Barbara.

Columbia R,

Sta. Barbara.

Sta. Barbara.

San Diego.
San Diego.

Columbia R.
California,

San Diego.

San Diego.

Sta. Barbara,

Sta. Barbara,

Columbia R.

San Diego.

San Diego.

California.
Sta. Barbara,

195

Station.

rare.

salt marshes, near
Pt. Adams.

muddy salt marshes :
common.

deepish water, sandy
bottom.
marshes.

muddy marshes, brack-
ish.

deep water.

deep water.

rare.

“Grows very large, and

is eaten by the Chin-

hooks.” —Nuté,

muddy marshes.

not uncommon.
sand.

* The T. aléa is lost in this country. There is no figure in Conrad, In genera that are
loosely defined, there is a danger of species reappearing under two heads, as in the case of

Psammobia decora, Hds., which however was figured.

f. alta makes the ?Scrobicularia suspected.
T There is a Tellina Californica, as of Conr., in the Brit. Mus., which is probably identical
with one of these published species.

{ This species has been overlooked in the Monograph, P. Z. S.

in loco.

The biangulate character assigned to

Vide Br. Mus. Maz. Cat.

o2

196 REPORT—1856.

o

Sin:
No. 2 a Fig. Name.

Locality. Station.

27 |254|19| 21 |Donax Californica (continued).
=D. obesus, Gld., quasi nov. sp.
Non D. Californicus, Desh. in Mus. Cum.
=D. Conradi, var. jun.
28/240/18| 12|Mactra Californica, Conr.—Mus. Gould ...
29/240 —— planulata, Conv. (Appears to be lost.)
30}256|20| 9|PetricolaCalifornica, Conr. Journ. Aug.1849 ;
Desh. Cat. Ven. p. 208. no. 3.
Saxicava C., Conr. & prim. man.; Jay’s
Cat. 460.—Mus. Gould, Cum.
=Petricola arcuata, Desh. Rey. Cuv.
Dec. 1839, p. 358.
carditoides, Conr. Journ. Aug. 1849.
Saxicava c., Conr.apr. man.—Mus. Nutt.,
Gld.
Non Venerupis carditoides, Lam. An. s.
Vert. vol. vi. p.164. no. 7; Desh. B.M.
Cat. Ven. p. 192. no. 7.
=P. Californica, var. teste Nutt.
Comp. Petricola cylindracea, Desh. Rev.
Cuy. 1839, p. 358; B.M. Cat. Ven.
p- 208. no. 5.
Comp. Petricola gibba, Mid. Mal. Ross.
p. 57. pl. 18. £. 5-7.
31/251/19] 19/Venus lamellifera, Con. [Rupellaria.] ......
=Venerupis Cordieri, var. 8, Desh. Cat.
Ven. p. 191. no. 1.
=Petricola Cordieri, Desh. Rev. Cuv.
1839, p. 358.—Mus. Cum., Nutt.,

Sta. Barbara. | |muddy marshes bare
Sta. Barbara. at low water: rare.
Sta. Barbara &

San Diego.

302)/255/20| 8 Sta. Barbara. jone valve.

San Diego. jone valve.

Gld.
32 ? Tapes tumida, Conrs........seeeees sehbeeheeniy Sta. Barbara. jone sp.
Mysia tumida, Conr. teste Nutt. MS.—
Mus. Nutt.
33/250|19| 14/Venus staminea, Conr....... Eee Sort ioe Sta. Barbara &
Tapes straminea, Sow. Thes. Conch. p.699,| San Diego.

pl. 151. f. 151.
=Venus dispar, Gld. MS.—Mus. Brit.,
Nutt., Cum.

34/249|19| 12\Saxidomus Nuttalli, Conr. [Genus de-
scribed. ] Desh. Cat. Ven. p. 188. no. 4.

=Venerupis gigantea, Desh. Rev. Cuv.
1839, p. 359, teste Jay.

=Pullastra gigantea, Catl. Conch. Nom.
p. 41.

=Saxidomus giganteus, Desh. Cat. Ven.
p. 187. no. 2.

Comp. Saxidomus Petiti, Desh. Cat. Ven.
p- 189. no. 7; Jay, 481.—Mus. Nutt.,
Cum. [The species described from the
Californian Saxidomi are unsatisfac-
torily made out; depending on dif-
ferences in sculpture which appear

; variable. ]

35/253|19| 17|Trigonella crassatelloides, Conr........ counties

Subgenus indicated: described Journ.
1849, p. 213.

Trigona crassatelloides, Desh. Cat. Ven.
p. 46. no. 1.

= Cytherea solidissima, Phil.Z.f.M. 1851,
p- 74. no. 100.

Cytherea crassatelloides, Jay, 847. Mus.
Nutt., Gld., Brit., Cum.

(non 15)

“ California and| buirowing into soft
San Diego.”’ | claystone.””

San Diego and |1 foot deep in the
Sta. Barbara.| sand, common.

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 197

2
| &| Fig. Name. Locality. Station. ~

36/252 Cytherea callosa, Conr. [Dosinia.].........
Non Chione callosa, Desh. Cat. Ven.p.135.
no. 48.
Non Venus Stuchburyi, Jay’s Cat. 1080.
—Mus. Nutt.
37/250)19) 15)/Venus Nuttalli, Conr., Jay, 1037.—Mus.|Sta. Barbara &
x Brit., Nutt., Cum. San Diego.
Chione Nuttallii, Desh. Cat. Ven. p. 135.
no. 47.
+ Chione callosa, Desh. no. 48, pars.
—— Californiana, Conr. [quasi Sow.] ......
= Venus Californiensis, Brod. P.Z.S.1838.
Chione Californiensis, Desh. no. 44.
= Venus leucodon, Sow. teste Desh.—Mus.
Brit., Cum., Nutt.
—— simillima, Sow., Desh. Cat. Ven. p. 133.
no. 43.—Mus. Nutt.
—— (Chione) excavata, Cyr.—Mus. Nutt.| San Diego. |one sp.
A1|236/18| 4)Cypricardia Californica, Conr.* ......++++++..- San Diego andjsoft clay rocks, bare
=C. Duperryi, Desh. Rey. Cuv. 1839,| Sta. Barbara. | at low water.
p. 359. teste Gld.—Mus. Nutt.
421256 Chama exogyra, Conr., Jay 2110.—Mus.|Sta. Barbara & jon rocks.
Nutt., Cum., Brit., Gld. San Diego.
——? frondosa, var. Mexicana. — Mus.| Sta. Barbara. |one young sp.
Nutt.
et ICY dee sans duis ab tes arte naa de pcaeeies Sta. Barbara. jone very fine sp.
3/Cardium Nuttallii, Conr., Jay, 1177.—Mus.|Sp. San Juan dijmuddy marshes.
Nutt., Brit. Fuca.
4|—— Californianum, Conr........... Javcbastaee Sta. Barbara, |single valves, rare.
= C. Nuttallii, var. teste Midd. Mus.——?
Non C. Californiense, Desh. teste Midd.
5|—— quadragenarium, Conr., Jay, 1197-98.) Sta. Barbara. jrare.
(Not known in England.)
Comp. C. xanthocheilum=luteolabrum,

Sta. Barbara. |comnm:on: broken by
gulls.

38/251)19 San Diego. j|muddy marshes.

(non 15) (non 14

California. jone sp.

-Gld.
2|—— substriatum, Conr., Jay, 1222.—Mus.| San Diego. |muddy marshes, bare
Nutt. at low water.
1]|Lucina bella, Conr...........cseecseesecsecceee ..| San Diego. [muddy marshes, bare
=L. pecten, var. teste Jay [?] Cat. 682. at l. w.: common.
1;—— Californica, Conr., Jay, 662 ............ San Diego. |ditto: rare.
2|—— Nuttalli, Conr., Jay, 680.—Mus. Nutt.| San Diego. |muddy marshes, &c.
Diplodonta orbella, Gd. .........cseseeseeees Sta. Barbara. |muddy estuary, 1 sp.
sa semiaspera, var. — Mus. Nutt.,
Anodon Nuttalliana, Zea, Trans. Am. Phil.| Wahlamat R.,
Soc. vol. vi. pl. 20. f. 62; Jay, 2059.} Oregon.
—Mus. Nutt.
— Oregonensis, Zea, Trans. Am. Phil. Soc.} Wahlamat R.,
vol. vi. pl. 21. f. 67; Jay, 2061. Oregon.
—— Wahlamatensis, Zea, Trans. Am. Phil.| Wahlamat R.,
Soc. vol. vi. pl. 20. f. 64; Jay, 2084. Oregon.
Modiola capax, Conr., Jay, 2153.—Mus.| Sta. Barbara. |marshes and muddy
Cum., Gld., Brit. shores.
1) —— recta, Conr.—Mus. G]d......cceesseseees Sta. Barbara. |rare.

Mytilus edulis, Zinn., (a) normalis, (4) pel-| U. California.
j lucidus, (c) latissimus.—Mus. Nutt.
| 58/242/18] 15/Mytilus Californianus, Conr., Jay, 2185.—

Mus. Gld.

Sta. Barbara, jon rocks.
Monterey,
San Diego.

_ * Mr. Hanley thinks that this shell may be the C. Guiniaca of Lamarck. This is extremely
unlikely, ag there is no evidence that Lam, was acquainted with a single strictly Californian
Species,

198 REPORT—1856. y
313 3
No. E = Fig Name. Locality. Station,

—

59/241|18) 14|Mytilus bifurcatus, Conr., Jay, 2184.........
No knowledge of the locality of this shell

exists, except the statement of Conrad,

which alone is not binding, and its

shells, the collectors of which brought
home nothing from the Sandwich
Islands.

Perna costellata, Conr,, Jay, 2267.—Mus.
Nutt. “ Sta. Barbara.”

Conrad, who rightly assigns his P. Cali-
fornica to the Sandwich Islands,
appears to have made an error in
assigning the Californian species to
the same place.

61/238)18) 9|Pecten latiauratus, Conr., Jay, 2364.—Mus.

60/246

Nutt., Cum.
614/238/18| 10/——— Monotimeris, Conr......... Naiweuste des
=P. latiauratus, var. teste Nutt.; Jay,
2374.

62
63

Ostrea conchaphila, B.M. Maz. Cat. no. 214.
—Mus. Nutt. &c,

Bulla nebulosa, Gid.—Mus. Gould, Cumiug,
Nutt., Brit.

Helix Californiensis, Zea, Trans. Am. Phil.
Soc. vol. vi. p. 99. pl. 23. f. 79, 84.

-+H. Nickliniana, Lea, teste Jay, 3452.

— Columbiana, Lea, Trans. Am. Phil. Soc.

vol. vi. p. 89. pl. 23.f. 75; Jay, 3552.

64

65

66 —— Nuttalliana, Zea, Trans. Am. Phil. Soc.
vol. vi. p. 89. pl. 23. f. 74,
=H. fidelis, Gray, P.Z.S. 1834, p. 67;
Jay, 3668.
—— Oregonensis, Lea, Trans. Am. Phil.
Soc. vol. vi. p. 89. pl. 23. f. 85; Jay,
4095.

67

appearance among the Mexican War

“ Sandwich Is.”’|‘‘on rocks, bare at low
water.”’—Conr.

“ Sandwich Is.”|“ under stones.”’ Conr.

San Diego and|below efflux of tide.
Sta. Barbara.

68 — Vancouverensis, Zea, Trans. Am. Phil.
Soc. vol. vi. p. 87. pl. 23. 1.72; Jay,
4524.—Mus. Nutt.

—— Townsendiana, Zea, Trans. Am. Phil.
Soc. vol. vi. p. 99. pl. 23. f. 80.—Mus.
Gld., Cum.

Succinea Oregonensis, Lea, Trans. &c. 1841,
p- 32; Jay, 5734.

Limneza Nuttalliana, Zea, Trans. &c., 1841,
p. 9; Jay, 6316.

Physa, sp. ind.—Mus. Nutt. ......sseseeessees

Planorbis subcrenatus, Cyr.—Mus. Nutt....

ChitonNuttalli, G@r.*—Mus.Nutt.,Cum.,?Br,

acutus, Cyr.*—Mus, Nutt. ....s..000

ornatus, Nutt. MS.—Mus. Nutt. ......
?=Ch. armatus, Nutt. in Jay’s Cat. 2678 :
= Ch. muscosus, Gld.
Acmea patina, Hsch.— Mus. Nutt.,Cum.,Br.,
Gld. &c.

=Patella fenestrata, Nutt. in Jay’s Cat.
2815.

+P. mamillata, Nutt. inJay’s Cat. 2839.

* In the Brit. Mus. appears an undescribed ‘ Chiton consimilis, Nutt.”
one of these species, which were described from Mr. Nuttall’s own specimens.
Chiton Californicus, Nuttall, MS., in Rve. Conch. Ic. pl, 16. fig. 89.

San Diego and|below efflux of tide.
Sta. Barbara.| Young attached to
Fuci by byssus.
Oreg., S. Diego.

Sta. Barbara.
Columbia River.
Columbia River,

Ft. Vancouver,

Nootka Sd.
Ft. Vancouver,

Nootka Sd.

Oregon.

Oregon.
Oregon.
Oregon.

Oregon.
Oregon.

Oregon.
Oregon.
Monterey.
Sta. Barbara.
San Diego.

1 sp.

U. California,

It is probably
There is also a,

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 199

Name. Locality. _ Station.

77 Acmeea patina (continued).
+ P. tessellata, Nutt. in Jay’s Cat. 2885.
?-++ P. diaphana, Nutt. in Jay’s Cat. 2813
(? non P. diaphana, Rve.*),
78 —— pelta, Hsch.—Mus. Nutt., Cum. Brit.,| U. California.
Gld. &c.
; =Patella leucophea, Nutt. MS.; Rve.
Conch. Ic. pl. 34. sp. 101; non P.
leucophea, Gmel., Jay’s Cat. 2827.
?+ P. monticola, Nutt. MS.=P. monti-
color, Jay’s Cat. 2844.
+P. strigillata, Nutt. MS.; Jay, 2881.
79 persona, Esch.—Mus. Nutt., Cum., Br., Oregon.
Gld. &c.
G = Patella Oregona, Nutt. MS.=P. Ore-
; gana, Jay’s Cat. 2852.
+P. umbonata, Nutt. MS. ; Jay, 2887.
+ P. pileata, Nutt. MS.; Jay, 2861.
80 —— scabra, Nutt. MS.—Mus. Nutt., Cum.,| San Diego, &c.
Brit., Gld. &c.
Lottia scabra, Jay’s Cat. 2907.
Patella scabra, Rve. Conch. Ic. pl. 37.
f. 119 a, 6.
Non P. L. scabra, Gld. Exp. Shells, p. 10.
81 —— spectrum, Nutt.MS.—Mus.Nutt.,Cum.,| California.
Brit., Gld. &c.
Patella spectrum, Jay, 2877 ; Rve. Conch.
Ie. pl. 29. £. 76 a, b.
=P. L. scabra, Gld., non Nutt.t
82 Scurria mitra, Esch. & Less.—Mus. Nutt., Monterey. |common.
Cum., Brit. Gld., &c. 7
= Patella scurra, Less. Voy. Coq. 1830,
= j p. 421. no. 198.
S | = Acmeamitra+mammillata [non Nutt. }
4 -+marmorea, Esch.
i =? Lottia pallida, Gray, Z. B. V. p. 147.
$ pl. 39. £. 1.
» 483 Fissurella ornata, Nutt. MS.—Mus. Nutt.,| U. California. ’
| Brit. Jay, 3003 (St. Helena, err.)
84 Glyphis aspera, Esch. ........c00eccssccevesevees Sta. Barbara.
! =Fissurella densiclathrata, Rve. teste
Cum.—Mus. Nutt., Cum.
=F. exarata, Nutt. MS.
=F, cratitia, Gld.
85 Lucapina crenulata, Sow. Conch. Ill. no. 19.) San Diego.
Bs f. 31, 38; Tank. Cat. App. p. vi; Rve.
Conch. Ic. pl. 3. sp. 18.—Mus. Jay,
a Nutt., Cum.
| 86 Haliotis Californiensis, Swains. Zool. Ill.| San Diego.
i vol. ii. pl. 80.
| 87 Cracherodii, Leach, Rve.Conch.Ic.pl. 7.| San Diego.
si f. 23.—Mus. Jay, Nutt.
=H. glaber, Schub, and Wagn. pl. 224.
f. 3086-7.
| 88 —— splendens, ve. Conch. Ie. pl. 3. £/9...] San Diego.
89 Pomaulax undosus, Wood. .........s00.ssseeees Monterey.

= Trochus Californianus,Nutt.MS.—Mus.
Nutt., Cum., Brit.
~ -* For other references to this species, v. supra, p. 173.
T Of Patella levigata, Nutt. MS. in Jay’s Cat. 2825, Mr. Nuttall can give no information.
_ It is probably one of the many forms of J. patina. The above arrangement is satisfactory to
% Mr. Nuttall, after a re-examination of his shells in connexion with the collections of Dr. Gouid.

200 . REPORT—1856. © - tug

Name. Locality. Station.

-|——

90 Trochiscus NOWisnspSdten cose. csc.co0s 00s ycdaee Monterey.
= Turbo rotelliformis, Jay—Mus. Nutt.,
Brit., Cum.
91 Trochus filosus, Wood, Suppl. pl. 5. f. 23) Monterey.
(male).
= T. castaneus, Nutt. MS.; Forbes, P.Z.S.
1850.

=T. ligatus, Gould, Exp. Sh. p. 55.

Var. = T. doliarius,Gld. MS. ? nonChemn.

? Var. = T. virgineus, Gld.MS,?nonChemn.

=Ziziphinus annulatus, A. Ad. ? non
Mart.in Lam. An.s. Vert.ix.144.no.51.
—Mus. Nutt., Gld., Cum., Brit.

92 Omphalius ater, Zess—Mus. Nutt., Cum.,| California.
Brit. &ce.
? Var. = Trochus gallina, Forbes.
93 TASCESCENS, PHU.) Go. 80. (Weoterededee «sh Sta. Barbara.
= Trochus luridus,Nutt.MS.—Mus.Nutt.,
Brit., Cum.

94 —— marginatus, Nutt. MS., in P. Z. S.| U. California.
1851, p.181. no. 11*.—Mus. Nutt.,
Brit., Cum.

es aureotinctus, TP ORUOS \. Mag easbiecseusvesees

?=Trochus pallidus, Nutt. MS Mus.
Nutt., Brit., Cum., Gld.
= cateniferus, Patiez, teste Gld.

Crepidula rugosa, Nutt. MS.; Jay, 3036.) U. California.

—Mus. Nutt., Cum.

=C. onyx, var. teste Jay [?].

——, sp. ind.—Mus. Nutt., Jay. .........005

= Crepidula navicelloides, Nutt. MS.

? Jun.=Cr. minuta, Mid. Mal. Ros. p. 101.
pl Ud 6,7.

? Var.=Cr. nummaria, Gld., Exp. Sh.
p- 15; Jay, 3035.—Mus. Cum., Gld.

U. California.

96

97 U. California.

98 eaplanata, GI dst te do sasen de cas on Mentuss U. California.
= Crepidula exuviata, Nutt. in Jay’s Cat.
3027.
= Cr. perforans, Val.—Mus. Jay, Cum.,
Gld.
?= Cr. navicelloides, var.
99 —— aculeata, var. ......... cesseensinas beta gsc Sta. Barbara. |common.

= Crepidula Californica, Nutt. MS.—Mus.
Nutt., Brit., Warrington, &c.

100 Crucibulum spinosum, Sow.—Mus. Nutt....| Monterey. |very rare.
10] Hipponyx Grayanus, Mze. ....... Se pedcaaseases California. [very rare.
=I. radiatus, Gray.—Mus. Nutt.
102 Spiroglyphus, sp. ind.—Mus. Nutt. ......... Sta. Barbara. |] young sp. On Crep.
aculeata.

Aletes squamigerus, Cpr.— Mus. Nutt.,| Sta. Barbara.

Gld.

104 Petaloconchus macrophragma, Cyr.—Mus.| San Diego. {on Euraphia Hembeli.
Nutt.

105 METIGMOGAISACKAGA,, Gldira anne cones ssccveseveusee Monterey, Sta.jin estuaries.

= Pirena Californica, Nutt. MS. —Mus.| Barbara, &c.
Nnuitt., Brit., Gld.

Litorina planaxis, IP TAL aoe noe Bb actoce. anes

=Liltorina tenebrata, Gld.—Mus. Nutt.,

Brit., Cum,

California.

* Mr. Adams in his Monograph of the family has omitted to describe this species, It
may, however, be the Turbo marginatus of Rve. Conch, Ic. pl. 12, f. 57.

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA, 201

S| 3 :
é | el Fis. Name. Loeality. Station,
107 Natica ?maroccana, var. Californica*.—Mus.| U. California.
: Nutt., Brit.
108 Ranella triquetra, Rve. Conch. Ie. pl. 7, f.41.} San Diego.
—Mus. Nutt., Cum.
Extremely likea young /ztularia salebrosa.
Also resembles 2. muriciformis.

109 Mitra maura, teste Nutt. MS.—Mus. Nutt.| U. California.

110 Olivella glandinaria, Nu¢z.—Mus. Nutt. California.

111 “BuecinumPoulsoni,”’ Nutt. MS.—Mus.Nutt.| U. California.

N.B. The Purpura dumosa, Conr. p. 267.
pl. 20. f. 20=porphyrostoma, Rve.
teste Jay, is not from California, as
given by Jay, Cat. 8781, (Conrad being
silent), but from Wahoo, Sandw. Is.
teste Nutt.

112)267 Purpura macrostoma, Conr. ......sesseseseees Sta, Barbara.

=P. aperta, Blainv. var., teste Jay’s Cat.
8942 :—Museo suo.

113/266)20| 25|—— harpa, Conr.—Mus. Nutt. Jay,8980...| Sta. Barbara.

114 —— emarginata, Desh. ....cccccrcocecseseeeeee California.

=P. Conradi, Nutt. MS. teste Jay’s Cat.
8972.—Mus. Brit., Cum.
115|264|20} 17|/Monoceros engonatum, Conr.......... nee Sta. Barbara.
' = M. unicarinatum, Rve. Conch. [c. sp. 1;
non pl, 1.f. 1, nec syn. plur.: non Sow.
nec Desh.

Comp. Purpura spirata, Blainy. Nouv.

Ann. Mus. i. 1832, pl. 12. f. 8. p. 252.

no. 105; Kien. Ic. Conch. p. 121.

no. 76. pl. 38. f. 90.=M. unicarina-

tum, pars, Desh. in Lam. An. s. Vert.

x. p. 124. no. 10, syn. Angl. exci.—

Mus. Nutt., Brit., Jay, 9067.

Drevidens, Cons ........-seescseeccscsecece Sta. Barbara.

=M. unicarinatum, Sow. Conch. IIl.
no. 14. p. 4. f. 5, non Rve. nee Desh.

= Monoceros, pl. 1. f. 2 (non sp. 2), Rve.
Conch. Ic. Non M. brevidentatum,
Gray = M. maculatum,Gray = Purpura
cornigera, Blainy. Jay, 9045.—Mus.
Nutt., Cum.

18|—— lapilloides, Nutt. .........cssseessssesese Sta. Barbara.

= M. punctulatum, Sow. Conch. Ill. p. 4.
no. 13. f. 3.

=M. punctatum, Gray, Z. B. V. 1839,

p. 124 :—Rve. Conch. Ic. sp. 2. pl. 1.
f. 1 (non f. 2).—Mus. Jay 9065, Nutt.,
Brit., Cum. Possibly these three
species are varieties of the same.

}118}264/20| 22|Murex (Cerostoma) Nuttalli, Conr. [s.g.de-| Sta. Barbara.
scribed]. Jay, 8298.—Mus. Nutt.

?= Murex monoceros, Sow. jun. P. Z. 8S.

1840, p. 143; Rve. pl. 2. f. 7.

ALL

eekes

_ 40. In the “ Voyage autour du Monde, pendant les années 1836-37, sur
_ la Bonite: Zoologie, par MM. Eydoux et Souleyet;” published without date
_ at Paris between the years 1847 and 1851, are to be found beautiful illustra-
tions of Cephalopoda and Pteropoda, and various plates of shells without

_ * Mr, Reeve figures a “ Natica plicatula, Nutt,” pl. 23, f, 107, without locality. It closely
resembles No, 107, but has a straight umbilicus.

902 - REPORT—1856.

descriptions. The original types of most of these are deposited separately in
the British Museum ; of which the Trustees published a Catalogue in January
1855. The following are all that have been observed which enter the West
N. American province; having been collected probably on the W. coast of
S. America, as far north as Guayaquil, whence the vessel sailed for the Sand-
wich Islands.

Plate. Fig.
35 1-3. Natica glauca, Humb. =N. patula, Sow.
35 4,5. Natica Chemnitzii, Récl. (non N. Chemnitzii, Pfr. =N. maroccana,
Chemn. var.)
36 1-5.

37 25-31. } Modulus trochiformis, Eyd. & Soul. =M. disculus, Phil.

39 17-19. Purpura undata, Lam. var. This is not the West Indian shell, which
is probably the true P. undata. It is doubtful whether it is a variety
of the Pacific species, P. biserialis, Blaimv.

In the British Museum Collection there also appear—

Tablet 195. Scurria mitra, Less. & Esch.
> 248. Cytherea ?petichialis, Touranne.
» 395. “ Purpura hemastoma,” punctured like the P. biserialis, and probably
identical with it. (? =P. undata, figured as above.)

41. In the year 1836, the Venus sailed from France under the command
of M. du Petit Thouars, on a voyage of discovery round the world. The
second in command was M. Chiron, who, aided by his friend M. de La Perouse,
collected a large number of shells. The ship visited Callao, Payta, the Gala-
pagos, the Bay of Magdalena, Mazatlan, San Blas, and various stations north-
wards as far as Kamtschatka.

After the return of the expedition in 1839, M. Chiron furnished M. Des-
hayes with a large number of specimens, who makes this characteristic an-
nouncement. ‘ MM. les officiers de marine, qui ont le désir d’étre utiles a
Vhistoire naturelle, reconnaitront qu’en mettant les riches matériaux qu’ils
rapportent entre les mains de naturalistes vraiment travailleurs, ils en font pro-
fiter de suite la science; ce gui n'a jamais lieu lorsqu’ils les donnent, sans
discernement et en totalité, 4 des établissemens publics.” In this country we
should desire to reverse the recommendation; and consider that collectors
were showing their discernment by giving the first choice of their materials,
en totalité, to public museums where they can be consulted by students.

In the “ Revue Zoologique par la Société Cuvierienne, Paris, Decembre
1839,” pp. 356-361, appear Latin diagnoses of 30 ‘ Nouvelles Espéces de
Mollusques, provenant des cétes de la Californie, du Mexique, du Kamt-
schatka, et de la Nouvelle Zélande, décrites par M. Deshayes.” As several
of the species figured by Conrad are redescribed, it is to be presumed that
he wrote in ignorance of his labours. The following are the shells belonging
to the West N. American faunas, with the habitats when recorded.

P. 357. Chironia Laperousii. [ Monterey, pl. 21. Probably a deformed A.

Hartweg.| Mag. Zool. 1840, tuberculosa. -

1, 12s P, 358. Cytherea equilatera, California.

Pholas Janellii, California. =P. =Trigona argentina, Sow. M.
Californica, Cour. M. Z. pl. Z. pl. 22.

14-16. Sazicava pholadis, Lam. An. s.

Pholas concamerata, California. Vert. iv. 152. no. 3. Kamt-
=P. penita, Cour. M.Z. pl. 17. schatka.

P. 358.. Arca trapezia, “Semblas au Saxicava legumen, California. M.

Mexique.” ?San Blas. M. Z. Z. pl. 29, Probably the long

- ee Ne

— — =

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 203

form of the common species:
also found at Mazatlan.

P. 358. Petricola Cordieri, California.

= Venus lamellifera, Conr. M.
Z. pl. 18.

Petricola arcuata, California. M.
Z. pl. 19.

Petricola cylindracea, California.

P. 360. Cardium Californiense, Califor-

nia. M.Z.pl.47. =C. Nut-
tallii, Conr.: not C. Califor-
nianum, Conr.

Siphonaria scutellum, “le Cha-
tam.” ? Galapagos.

Purpura Freycinetii, Kamtschat-
ka. M. Z. pl. 26. Much more

(Probably P. arcuata, var.) M.
Z. pl. 20.
P, 359. Venerupis gigantea, California.
=Sazidomus Nuttalli, Conr.
Venerupis Petiti, California.
= Tapes diversa, Sow. jun.
Anomia macrochisma, Kamt-
schatka. M. Z. pl. 34. =Pla-

like P. Japillus than Midden-
dorff’s figures.

Murex macropterus.

Helix Dupetithouarsi, Monterey.
M. Z. pl. 30, as “...... rst.”

P. 361. Velutina Mulleri, Kamtschatka.

Turbo digitatus, Acapulco.

= Uvanilla unguis, Wood. M.

cunanomia m., Gray. Z. pl. 36.

Cypricardia Duperreyi, Califor- Natica Recluziana, California.
nia. M. Z. pl. 27. M. Z. pl. 37.

Modiola cultellus, Kamtschatka. Natica ianthostoma, Kam-

P. 360. Cardium Laperousii, California*. tschatka.
M.Z. pl. 48. Natica sanguinolenta,

To the above must probably be added Purpura emarginata, p. 360, M. Z.
pl. 25, described by Deshayes as from New Zealand, but quoted in Jay’s Cat.
no. 8972, =P. Conradi, Nutt. MS., from California; and from the same
locality in Mus. Cuming, on the authority of Mr. Hartweg. Many of these
shells were figured in the following year in Guérin’s Magasin de Zoologie,
between plates 14 and 48, of which references are given above. In the same
works are described, Lucina cristata, Recl. Rev. Cuv. 1842, p. 270, Guér.
Mag. pl. 60, found “sur le banc de Campéche” by M. J. Cosmao, Commander
of the Naval Station of Mexico, = TVellina Burneti, Brod. & Sow.: and Lucina
corrugata, Desh., Guér. Mag. pl. 82, as from California, which Mr. Cuming
found himself at Singapore.

The official description of the shells of the Venus, however, was intrusted
to M. Valenciennes, under whose auspices was published “ Voyage autour du
Monde sur la Vénus, pendant les années 1836-39, par M. du Petit Thouars.
Paris, 1846.” Of this work plates only have been seen, of which the following
are species connected with the West N. American coast.

Bas.

ph ae

\ Plate. Fig.
: We, Helix vincta, Val.. (California, Rye.)
‘ 24 4, 44a Pholas rostrata, Val. Almost certainly the young of one of the
following species.
24 1,14a,6. Penitella Conradi, Val. ‘(Pholadidea, with long, inflated cup,
without divisions.)
24 Penitella xilophaga, Val. (Pholadidea, with long, narrow cup.)

2.
24 3, 3.a,6,c. Penitella tubigera, Val. Probably a variety of the last; the tube
being simply the lining of the old cavity, as in P. calva.

9 IE NE TPM A OLE LIE I

24 7a,b. Bornia {nscale Val. (Closely approaches Chironia Laperousii,
Desh.
94 8, 8a. Sazicava clava, Val, (Probably S. legumen, Desh.)
' 16° 2; 2a, Venus perdiz, Val. 2? = Chione neglecta, Sow., represented with-
ef out pallial smus.
°16 3, 3a. Venus pectunculoides, Val. = Tapes histrionica, Sow. :
2.2; 2a. Trochus amictus, Val. = Uvanilia unguis, Mawe. = Turbo digi-

tatus, Desh.

~ *® Described from a single shell which appears worn. It has much the aspect of a Tellina,
with concentric ridges and no internal crenations; but is figured without pallial sinus, 3

204 REPORT—1856.

Plate, Fig.
2 3,3a-c. Trochus brevispinosus, Val. = Uvanilla olivacea, Mawe.
3 1,la-e. Trochus balenarum, Val. ?2=Pomaulax undosus, Mawe, var. Vide
B. M. Maz. Cat. p. 230, note.

14 1 Calyptrea rugosa (? cujus). = Crucibulum imbricatum, Sow.

14 2. Calyptrea tubifera, Less. = Cr. spinosum, Sow.

15 2. Calyptrea gemmacea, Val. Shell as figured, not recognized: it
may be a worn and stunted Cr. imbricatum.

15 3. Calyptrea amygdalus, Val. = Crepidula onyx, Sow.

24 9,9a,b. Calyptrea perforans, Val. = Crepidula explanata, Gould. (The

* prior name of Val. must be abandoned, as representing an un-
truth. The form of the shell is due to its inhabiting the burrows
of Lithophagi, &c.)
11 1,la,la,bis. Vermetus centiquadrus, Val. (Subg. Aletes.)

ll 3,32. Vermetus Peronii, on Strombus galea. A variety of V.centiquadrus.
11 2. Vermetus margaritarum, Val.

5 1a,b. Fusus Petit-thouarsii. = F. Dupetit-Thouarsii, Kien.

6 1l,la-c. Buccinum Janelii, Val. = Pisania sanguinolenta, Ducl,

6 2,2a-c. Buccinum mutabile, Val. = Pisania insignis, Rye.

6 2e,f. Buceinum mutabile, jun. = Pisania gemmata, Rve.

6 24,8. Buccinum mutabile, operculum. (Extremely incorrectly drawn.)

8 4,4a. Purpura saxicola, Val. Resembles P. lapillus and Freycinetii.

8 3,34. Purpura hematura, Val. ? =P. biserialis, Blainv. var.

9 3,3a-c. Purpura Grayii, Kien. = Monoceros grande, Gray.

It will be observed that the author has, in several instances, not only over-
looked the writings of English naturalists, but even disregarded the descriptions
by Deshayes of the shells of this very expedition.

42. During the period that Mr. Cuming was absent on his Philippine
expedition, explorations of great value were being made by a gentleman,
whose few published writings only show how much science has lost by his
early death. In the year 1836, the ‘Sulphur,’ under Lieut. Com. Kellett,
visited Callao and Payta in Peru, and explored the coast from the Bay of
Guayaquil to Panama. Here Commander (now Capt. Sir E.) Belcher took
the first place, a gentleman whose conchological labours during the voyage
of the ‘ Blossom’ have already been recorded. Mr. Hinds, the surgeon of
the expedition, not only showed the greatest industry in dredging and other-
wise collecting specimens, but made the products of his labours tenfold more
valuable by the accurate notes which he took of their localities and stations,
guided by a comprehensive view of the subjects which it was his endeavour
to illustrate. The west coast of Central America and Mexico was searched
as far as San Blas, and afterwards explorations were made from Acapulco to
Cerro Azul. On the return of Messrs. Hinds and Cuming from their respect-
ive expeditions, they compared their collections and notes together. Here
were abundant materials for geographical and stational lists of the very
greatest value; but, most unfortunately, the usual plan was followed of only
publishing the new species. This was done by Mr. Hinds in several most
accurate and valuable papers communicated to the Zool. Soc. and to the
Annals of Nat. Hist.; and, in a collective form, in the “ Zoology of the
Voyage of H.M.S. Sulphur, commanded by Capt. Sir E. Belcher, during the
years 1836-1842; by Richard Brinsley Hinds, Esq., Surgeon R.N. London,
Smith, Elder and Co., 1844. Vol. ii. Mollusca.” The preface to this work
contains a masterly digest of the results of his experience on the distribution
of Mollusea, especially on those of the W. American coast as compared with
the Pacific Islands; the influence of station, depth, temperature, and other
causes, both on genera and on particular species; and the comparative effect

; ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 205.

of similar differences on the flora and distribution of land shells in the same
latitudes. The work therefore is extremely disappointing from its very ex-
cellence, as it shows how prepared the author was to fill up the gaps which
are to us the most perplexing ; but which his early death has left to be sup-
plied by other, we fear less trustworthy hands.

Several valuable donations of shells, with the localities added by Mr. Hinds,
are preserved in the British Museum. The new species described are as
follow, so far as relates to the fauna of West N. America. The pages and
numbers, with the plates and figures, refer to the Zool. Sulph.; but the
references are also added to the Proc. Zool. Soc. and the Ann. Nat. Hist.

o
‘ = = Name, Station. verte Locality.
7 1] 1,2/Conus Patricius, Hds, A.N.H. xi. 256] sandy mud 7 |G. Nicoya.
\7 .. |—— celebs, Has. no”
\ =C. terebellum, jun., teste Rve.
7 1} 3-5] —— Californicus, Hds. ........s.sseeeseeees sand 7 |B. Magdalena,
8 2| 1-3/Murex Belcheri, Hds. P.Z.S. 1843, 127 { mud-bank at \ Sait Der)
; = Pyrula B., Rve. head of harbr.| f *** 59-
(8 3| 7, 8|—— centrifuga, Hds. a » 126 sand 52 |W. C. Veragua.
8 3] 9, 10|— Californicus, Hds. ,, \, SMB SNe ek eeceeee Laws 4 \Californias
8 3}11, 12;—— hamatus, Hds. 9 ines mud 21 |B. Guayaquil.
= Cerastoma, Conr.
9 3}13, 14 festivus, Hds. _ », 127 sand 7 |B. Magdalena.
9 3|15, 16\— foveolatus, Hds. _,, sp D2 sand 7 |B. Magdalena.
9 3|21, 22|—- radicatus, Hds. _,, » 128 mud 11 |San Blas.
9 3/23, 24|— peritus, Hds. % » 129 sand 7 |B. Magdalena.
3] 3,4)/Typhis quadratus, Hds. ,, 18 mud 7-18 |G. Nicoya, B. Guayaq.
4) 1, 2/Triton vestitus, Hds. 3 1844, 21 rocks shore |RI.Lj., G. Nic., B. Honda
4|13, 14 — anomalus, Hds. " »»| sandy shore | 1. w. |Is. Quibo, Veragua.
4)15, 16|— lignarius, Brod. 5 1833, '5 sandy mud 7 |Monte Christi.
2| 4,5/Ranella Californica, Hds. A.N.H. Xi.]......ccceseeeee Titel eae .. |San Diego.
255
4 = PECINALA, HAH: ..-sansassasatvecice eves mud 7 |San Blas.
1 Trophon muricatus, Hds. [The name mud 19 |Panama.
being preoccupied by Montagu, this
species may be called Troph. Hindsii. |
1,2 Pleurotoma nobilis, Hds. P.Z.S. 1843, 37 mud 7 |San Blas.
4|—_ pemmata, Hds. Fe iinet mud 7 \Gulf Magdalena.
7|—— inermis, /ds. 3 oH mud 7 |Gulf Magdalena.
10|Clavatula militaris, Hds. _,, » 38 mud 8-30 |Veragua.
15|—— ericea, Hds. 5 » 39 mud 26 |Magnetic Is., Veragua.
7 sculpta, Hds. 5) » »| ° ~ mud 7 |Panama.
18|——. rava, Hds. ;: Tat, mud 18 |G. Nicoya.
4|—— luctuosa, Hds. is MALO Ascisevte ssseseeeeee| 5-22 |G. Magdal., B. Guayaq.
7, 8| —— aspera, Has. a Peer mud 5 |B. Guayaquil.
5|—— quisqualis, Hds. * » 44 mud 8-14 |G. Papagayo.
9|—— plumbea, Hds. as yy All seb sueudwaees seeeseee| 5 |B. Magdalena.
10/——- occata, Hds. b Sik, apileinaeaayecves 075 woune] abelee Magnetic Is., Veragua.
He eb eas He { mud 30 |W. C. Veragua.
: f 1 a mud 8-14 |G. Papagayo.
1], 12; pudica, Hds. ” Ver mud 8-14 |G. Papagayo,
14/—— neglecta, Hds. a3 », 45} . under stones | 1. w. |G. Nicoya.

18|—— candida, Hds. 5 Wh WIAD te ddatdocect «..ceeaneal ease! Magnetic Is., Veragua.
20|—— merita, Hds. ff » 9| Under stones | 1. w. |G. Nicoya.
23, 24/—— impressa, Hds. Ff) » 44 mud 8-14 |G. Papagayo.
1j—— pardalis, Hus. * », 42) under stones | 1. w. |G. Nicoya. .
6|—— celata, Hds. mud 20 |G. Fonseca.
11/—— micans, Hds. mud 14 |G. Papagayo.
S| ===" Tig idly, LASeM MeN Ay Miata ADI, sovay vodeks«sdaeses| Soseke Panama.
20|Daphnella casta, Hds. mud 23 |G. Nicoya.

5, 6|Cerithium gemmatum, Hds. .......... sandy mud |2-7-++-|Panama. ~

. |Terebra robusta, Hds. P.Z.S. 1843, p.149

3 varicosa, fds.
+». |—— lingualis, Hds.
—— armillata, Hds.

”
”
”

. |—— tuberculosa, Hds. 155
—— specillata, Hds. =
The Pacific analogue of 7, textilis,
from Str. Macassar, No. 142,

if —— luctuosa, Has. P.Z.S. 1843, p. 157

” ”

1, 2}Phos crassus, Hds.
37|158}10}13, 14) —— Veraguensis, Hds. __,, ‘i
Pacific analogue of Ph. senticosus.
7, 8|—— articulatus, Hds

”

39/166/11 u, 12|Trichotropis cancellata, Hds, P.Z. S. 1843,
p. 17.
40/167) 11 re 14|—— inermis, Hds. _ P,Z.S. 1843, p.18
1, 2)Mitra Belcheri, Hds. A.N,H. xi. 255
41/170)12/11, 12 Cancellaria ventricosa, Hds. P.Z.S. 1843,
DeiAM Pieoep vases. adeavgh sss <sndpeiberae

”

—— cremata, Hds. 3. raat
(=f. 9. Conch. Ill., as C. indentata.)
1, 2|—— corrugata, Has. P.Z.S. 1843, p. 48

”

”
funiculata, Hds. is

45{185(13|10, 11|Marginella sapotilla, Hds.” ,, 1844, p. 74
Pacific analogue of M, prunum,

Scalaria Diane, Has. P.Z.S, 1843, p. 125

—— vulpina, Hds, “0 = 126

The temperature below being 58°, and
at the surface 82°.

5, 6|Solarium placentale, Hds, P.Z.S,1844, 22

7, 8|—— quadriceps, Hds. os eee

... |Patella incessa, Hds, A.N.H. x. p. 82

Patelloida depicta, Hds.

ee ”

7, 8|Crepidula solida, Hds
=C, adunca, Sow.

1\Chiton Magdalensis, Hds, ......:1+-.+s0++++
5|Melania occata, Hds. A.N.H. xiv. p.9
22|Paludina seminalis, Hds.__,, Pe eten ES
soo JAnodon angulatus ...cccccccscssssereeeeseres

REPORT—1856.

Station,

mud
sandy mud

mud
sandy mud

weet eeeeeseeeee oo

sandy mud

coral sand

mud, gregarious

u. stones with C.
pygmea, com.

sand

sand
mud

sandy mud {

se = Locality,
few |W. C. Veragua.
4-18 |8°57’-21° 32’. Pan.
S. Blas, G. Papag.,G.Nic.
23 |G. Papagayo.
10-17|G. Papagayo, B.Montijo.
5-13 |Abundant in various lo-'
calities between Pan.
and B. Magd., also im-
bedded in fossiliferous
cliffs which surround
part of the Bay of M,.
4-11 |Pan., San Blas, G, Papag
7 |San Blas.

G. Nicoya, P. Portr.
B. Magdalena.
8-14 |G. Papagayo.

A.N.H. xi. p. 257} mud, solitary | 3-14|Pan., G. Fonseca,

26 |Pueblo Nueva, W. CJ

13 |G. Tehuantepec.
24 |Veragua.
.... |((Most prob. American.

| Bodegas, San Diego. |

7 and
under

beach] G. Nicoya.

5-7 |Sitka Harbour.

5-7 |Sitka Harbour,
17 |G. Papagayo, G. Nicoya,
7 |G. Magdalena ‘-
60-70|RI. Lj., San Bl. f 24° 38%)
8-14 |G, Papagayo 12° 2/— |
7 |San Blas 21° 32', |
7-23 |B. Guayaq., Pan., Verag

sandy mud a
sandy mud

sand
mud
mud

sand
mud
on sea-weed
on surface of a
Zostera, common
on dead & living
shells & on each
other.

onrocks,common

Seaenseee eeenereeas

abundant

2° 47’S,-9° 55’ N.
4-10 |Pan.

7 |B. Guayaquil.

30 |Pan., 1 sp,

7 |G. Magd., 1 sp.
5-13 |Pan.

7. |B. Magdalena.
36 |G, Nicoya.
30 |Is. Quibo, Veragua.

7 |B. Magdalena.
5 |Pan.
San Diego.

. |San Diego,

6-10 |Bodegas. _

B, Magdalena.
. |River Sacramento, Calif.

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 207

Name. Station. ier cri Locality.
Aesth es we [Paludina nuclea, Led....ccocccsimessscessscns[esssscescescerseceee! seveee [Neighbouring locality.”
-1}Pecten sericeus, Ads. ....... mud 53 |B. Panama,
Gi—— floridus, Hds.........0020ces.cesveeereee mud 5 |San Diego.
5|—— rubidus, Hds.........ccesesecseves Ueeepaneporsce aigeeKa 33 |Alashka, N. W. A.
2|\—— digitatus, Hds. ....,.-...ssee0s Pease tile mud 23 |B. Guayaquil.
4|—— fasciculatus, Hds. ..........s0.ssseee0e sandy mud 17 |W. Veragua.
5|Nucula castrensis, Hds. P.Z.S.1843, p.98} 1 sp., sand 7 |Sitka.
Resembles the fossil V. Cobboldia, andi
N. divaricata, China Sea, 84 fms. [Barb. 38° 18-34 °24’,
13|-——— celata, Hds. P.Z.S. 1843, p, 99] .eeceesecenee soreees| 6-10 |Bodegas, San Franc., Sta
excavata, Hds. 7 » 100 mud 30 |Pan.
12|—— lyrata, Hds. Fs 5 sis lees veddsaas< Goh oak 30 |Pan.
14/——— crispa, Hds. a Ma oe. gis deanaan stated pus cena 36 |G. Nicoya.
5/Venus Kellettii, Ads.'..........s.cseeeeene { ened | 30-34/Is. Quibo, W. C. Veragua.
1\Cytherea (Trigonella) crassatelloides, |mud-bank in the] ...... San Diego.
Conr. harbour.
ZlLucina fenestrata, Hds. ..,.0....ssesensesees|oorseeeeeeseceess .»..| 2-14 |Monte Christi, San Blas.
66|276)19} 6, 7|Psammobia decora, Hds. A.N,H. x. 81 Taser ckssrecsencne|f-txase San Diego.
=Sanguinolaria Nuttallii, Conr.
AlTellina fucata, Hds. ...ceccecscsenesenscecss|ers paanen “@Dauee ttl we .... |B. Magdalena.
2}. Bodegensis, Hds. ..,.....ssreseeseeee sand 7 |Bodegas.
11|Corbula fragilis, Hds. P.Z.S. 1843, p. 56 mud 18 |W. Veragua.
12|——- obesa, Has. ns sstaeeealdl mud 22-33/Pan., Verag., San Blas.
98/286/20) 7, 8|—— speciosa, Hds. mud _| 6 |Pan,, G. Nicoya. |
(=C. radiata, Sow. P. Zz. ‘Ss. 1833, p. 36,
non Desh.)
marmorata, Hds. ,, 1843, p.58 mud 26 |W. Veragua.
19|/Nezra didvma, Hds. 5 an 78 mud 26 |W. Veragua.
COSLALA NR enswecteensisinesesSsaccucsusace ce mud 26 |W. Veragua,
"4 Lingula albida, Hs. cerssessesscesesereeeens sandy mud 7 |B. Magdalena,

Besides these, the following are recorded in the Proc. Zool. Soc. as having
been collected by Mr. Hinds :—

1843. Name. Station. Locality.
P- 32/Pleurotoma arcuata, RVC. csisccssacresscscsectcccasclenserceeees Veragua.
F2| aa BECK) sau). qcedaaabdothdabneeensosoeceses|snogeh diese Pan., San Blas, G. Nicoya’
77\Nezera costata (Anatina c., Sow., P.Z.S. 1834,]...000ceeees St. Elen, 6 fm. sandy mud
p- 87), Hds. Magnetic Is., 22 fm.
Veragua, 26 ‘fm, + mud.
125)/Scalaria aciculina, Hds. ..........ccceeccseeesreccceslec rere W.C, intertropical Amer.
160/Terebra strigata, Sow. Tank. Cat........sscsceseees common |Pan., Hds.

=T. elongata, Wood, Ind. Suppl.
=T. flammea, Less. Jil. Zool.
=T. zebra, Kien.

160|—— ornata, Gray...... ageljacpweutline, » Hds.7 fm.) mud_ |Pan.
1844, [ Cum, 5-7 fm.|coralsand|Galapagos. |
~181)Mitra Hindsii, Rve......0..,sscceeecenee Hds.i7 fm.| mud _ |Gulf Nicoya.

_In Mr, Cuming’s collection appears Corbula obesa, Hinds, San Blas.

208 . REPORT—1856. y AS >

The following shells occur in Reeve’s Conchologia Iconica, as having been —
collected by Mr. Hinds.

Plate.| Sp. Name. Station. en Locality,
1 | 3 |Natica Recluziana ............se008 ehouaaap “Wercaesage eval oearan California.
24 | 61 |Fig.a,d. Patella diaphana, Rve.=Ac-| .......s000 | cece Central America.
mea mesoleuca, Mike.
5 | 24 iCardita Ctivyiert,Br0ds ieb.scsccsscscucss| sescaveccees’ | edeces Acapulco.
8 | 44 |Pectunculus pectenoides, Desh., Cuv.| soft mud 7 |Panama.
R. A. pl. 87. f. 8.
1 | 4 JArca grandis, Brod. § Sow. ....ccccceos| scsecevescee | cvreee Real Llej., B. Guayqu.
(Cuming & Hinds).
21 |165 |Mitra Hindsii, Rve. ...cseseccsessceevees mud 17 |G. Nicoya.
4 DaIBISSUTELAVOICAHO CUE. ssccesccscsecccave| scovscoccees | octeet Sta. Barbara.
7 | 33 |Chiton lineatus, WV00d ......s0e.csseeees ceeta cesses gieeeee Sitka.
227 Onl ———" INSIENIS VAUEn mt ne stents cs<tecenenss|| seo-ccorsoes:||eesons Sitka.
3 | 15 /Pleurotoma arcuata, Rve. ....cccecccees| setesescceee | ceeves Veragua.
| LG |=—=._ piCtia, MeChissctvererssecessccseacasnss ABE DDC SEETIE | Waone. Pan.,San Blas, G.Nic.

4 | 27 |——olivacea, Sow.(comp. P.funiculata) MUG | eee Pan., W. Mex., G. Nic.
(Also Salango, and
St. Elena, Cum.)

7 | 55 | —— militaris, Hinds ....csccecssoveeeeese mud 18 /|Veragua.

9 | 71 |—— stromboides, Sow. ....s+.seceeee aust mud 7 |B. Panama.

6 | 35 |Conus Archon, Brod.... sandy mud |12-18)G. ‘Nicoya.
20 | 48 |Oliva biplicata, Sow. .......ccseseeeseeees sands 1. w. |Monterey.

Specimens of the following shells appear in the Brit. Mus. as having been
presented by Mr. Hinds; and were doubtless collected by him during the
Voyage of the Sulphur.

Tellina rufescens. Guayaquil. Litorina conspersa. Real Llejos.
Donazx carinatus. Tumaco. ?fasciata. San Pedro.

Venus neglecta (? crenifera). Acapulco. Helix levis. California.

Mactra exoleta. Guayaquil. areolata, Sow., Pfr. Z. f. M. 1845,

Kellia suborbicularis. Panama. p- 154. California, near Columbia R.

Pectunculus maculatus, Brod.=giganteus, Neverita helicoides (=patula). Acapulco.
Rve. W. Columbia. Natica (like canrena). Acapulco.

Pinna lanceolata. Guayaquil. Ranella nana. San Blas.

Perna flecuosa. Conchagua. Fusus pallidus. Callao.

Chama spinosa, Acapulco. Dupetithouarsii (with opere.).

Anomia lampe. Guayaquil. Acapulco.

Chiton lineatus. Sitcha Sound. Murex incisus, Brod. Acapulco.

Simpsonii, Gray. San Francisco. oxyacantha, Brod. Acapulco.

Bulla nebulosa. San Pedro. —— humilis, Brod. Bay Guayaquil.
Siphonaria lecanium. St. Elena, Guayaq. hamatus, Brod. Bay Guayaquil.
Cerithidea varicosa. Real Llejos, San Blas.

43. During the years 1838-1842, the United States Exploring Expedition
was engaged in its cireumnavigation of the globe. In 1839 it touched at
Callao, where 30 species of shells were collected; but it did not visit any
other part of the Panama province. In 1841, however, the Vincennes and
Porpoise were early on the coast of Oregon. The Peacock and Flying Fish
arrived there in July ; but the Peacock was lost on the bar of the Columbia
River. The Expedition proceeded as far as San Francisco, and left in No-
vember of the same year. The conchologist to the Expedition was Mr. J. P.
Couthouy, who, assisted by his companions, collected about 2000 species of
shells (of which about 250 were considered new), and made drawings of the

* 99. 149 (text) 148 (fig.).

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 209

animals of about 500. The description of the collections was entrusted to
Dr. A. A. Gould of Boston, the well-known author of the ‘Report of the
Tavertebrata of Massachusetts. In 1846 the descriptions of part of the
species were issued in a pamphlet form, to which additions have been made
from time to time, as they have appeared in the ‘ Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist.
In this work are the following descriptions of species from the Californian
and Oregon districts,

Page Page

3. Chiton lignosus, Gld., Puget Sound. | 46. Melania bulbosa, G., Columbia River,

(= C. lignarius, G. MS.) 49. Natica Lewisii, G., Puget Sound

. Chiton dentiens, G., Puget Sound. . __and Columbia River.

»» Chiton muscosus, G., Puget Sound. | 50. Natica caurina, G., Straits of De
7. Patella fimbriata, G., Straits of De Fuca, “Nearly the same as N.

Fuca. impervia, Phil., from Cape Horn.”
9. Patella instabilis, G., Puget Sound. | 52. Lacuna carinata, G., Puget Sound.

’

v7

Patella conica, G., Puget Sound. | ,, Littorina patula, G., San Francisco.
= Seurria mitra, Esch. = L. planazis, Phil.

»» Lottia pintadina, G., Straits of De | ,, Littorina lepida, G., Puget Sound.
Fuca, Puget Sound, and Columbia 53. Littorina seutulata,G., PugetSound.
River (San Francisco). »» Littorina plena, G., San Francisco.
Max. pars = A. patina, var.: | 55. Trochus ligatus, G., Puget Sound.
pars = A. mesoleuca, var.: = T. filosus, Wood. -
teste sp. typ. 60. Cerithium (Potamis) sacratum, G.,
10. Patella (2 Lottia) textilis, G., Straits Sacramento River. = Pirena Cali-
of De Fuca and Killimook. fornica, Nutt. MS.
» Patella (2 Lottia) scabra, G., San | 61. Cerithium trroraium, Gould. Hab. 2
Francisco, “ Perhaps a variety of [It is difficult to say how this got
P. textilis.” =P, Spectrum, Nutt., among the Expedition shells, as it
Rve., not P. scabra, Nutt., Rve. belongs to the Mazatlan, not the
13. Fissurella cratitia, G., Puget Sound. Californian fauna. It may have
? = F. aspera, Esch. been procured at Callao, or by the
14. Rimula cucullata, G., Puget Sound. accidents of ballast.] =-C. stercus-
(? Puncturella.) muscarum, Val.
» Rimula galeata, G. (Classet), Puget | 62. Cerithium filosum, G., Puget Sound.
Sound. (2 Puncturella.) 64. Fusus fidicula, G., Puget Sound.
» Crepidula rostriformis, G., Straits of Closely resembles F. turricula.
De Fuca. = C. adunca, Sow. 65. Fusus orpheus, G., Puget Sound.
15. Crepidula lingulata,G., Puget Sound. Resembles F. Bamfius.
“Like C. Capensis, Quoy,” 1 sp. | 67. Buccinum fossatum,G., Puget Sound
» Crepidula nummaria, G., Classet. and mouth of Columbia River.
[Probably a var. of C. lingulata.] (San Diego.) (= Nassa fossata,
» Calyptrea fastigiata, G., Puget G., postea.) Of the same group as
Sound. [Galerus.] N. trivittata, Say.
16. Helix labiosa, G., Astoria, Oregon. | 70. Nassa mendica, G., Puget Sound,
17. Helie loricata, G., California (Sa- Nisqually, &e. Pacific analogue
cramento River). of N. trivittata, Say.
» Helix devia, G., ? Oregon. 74. Solen sicarius, G., Straits of De
18. Helix strigosa,G., interior of Oregon. Fuca, Oregon.
» Helix sportella, G., Puget Sound. 75. Panopea generosa, G.., Puget Sound,
31. Succinea rusticana, G., Oregon. Oregon. Like P. Aldrovandi.
41. Limnea lepida, G., Lake Vancouver, | _,, Mya precisa, G., Puget Sound.
Oregon. Like M. truncata.
42. Planorbis opercularis, G., Rio Sa- | 76. Mactra falcata, G., Puget Sound.
cramento, U. Cal. - » Lutraria capaz, G., Puget Sound.
» Planorbis vermicularis, G., interior (Afterwards changed to L. maxima,
of Oregon. Midd.) :
43. Physa virginea, G., Rio Sacramento. 77. Osteodesma bracteata, G., Puget Sd.
46. Melania silicula, G., Nisqually, Ore- “Closely resembles O. hyalina.”
oie (= M, siliqua, G, MS.) 83, Cardita ventricosa, G., Puget Sound.
a. 6. re

210

REPORT—1856.

Page _ Page P oJ pe
83. Cardium blandum, G., Puget Sound. | 93. Mytilus (Modiola) flabellatus, G.

85. Venus rigida, G., Puget Sound,
Straits of De Fuca.

86: Cyclas patella, G., Oregon. Re-

sembles C. cornea,

« Anodon feminalis; G., Oregon.

» Anodon cognata, G., Nisqually and

Fort Vancouver.

», Alasmodon falcata, G., Wallawalla,
Oregon ; Sacramento River. = A.
margaritifera, var. teste Lea and
others.

Unio famelicus,
Oregon.

88. G., Wallawalla,

Puget Sound, Oregon (Townsen
Harbour, San Francisco, and spe-
cies from G. Calif.). Apparently
= Modiola Brasiliensis:

94; Mytilus trossulus, G., Killimook,
Puget Sound; Oregon. Appears
a var. of M. edulis.

95. Pecten caurinus, G., Port Townsend,
Admiralty Inlet, Oregon.

», Pecten hericeus, G., Straits of De
Fuca, Oregon.

The localities included in the ( ) are added from the standard work, for
which that above quoted was but a preparation, entitled “United States
Exploring Expedition during the years 1835-42, under the command of

Charles Wilks, U.S.N. Philadelphia 1852— .”
Besides the species already enumerated, are

their way to this country.
found the following :—

2. Arion foliolatus, G., Puget Sound.

3. Limax Columbianus, G., Puget Sd.
and Oregon.

. Helix Vancouverensis, Lea, Oregon.

: Helix Nuttalliana, Lea, Puget Sd.
and Oregon.

3s Helix Townsendiana, Lea, Oregon.

. Helix germana, G., Oregon.

. Planorbis corpulentus, G., Oregon.

. Lymnea apicina, G., Oregon.

> Lymnea umbrosa, Say (Astoria),
Oregon, and Sacramento River.

: Melania plicifera, G., Oregon.

» Lottia viridula. “Myr. Nuttall
brought home several specimens,
which he described under the
name of monticula”’ [monticola].

. Anodonta angulata, G., Sacramento

River.
206, Scalaria ? australis, Puget Sound.
This species is from the opposite

In the Preface to this work, Dr. Gould'states his views as to the

The plates have not yet found

side of the equator from S. au-
stralis. Dr. Gould thinks it will
prove distinct, but cannot yet see
any differences. :

. Natica algida, G., Oregon.

. Trichotropis cancellata,Hinds, Ore-
gon.

. Triton Oregonense, Jay, Oregon.=
Fusus Oregonensis + cancellatus,
Rve.

. Purpura ostrina, G., Oregon.

. Columbella gausapata,G.*, Oregon.

. Chiton interstinctus, G., Oregon.

. Chiton vespertinus, G., Oregon.

. Saxidomus Nuttalli, Conr., Oregon.

. Terebratula pulvinata, G., Oregon.

. Terebratula caurina, G., Oregon.

And the following Nudibranchs :—
Chiorera leonina, G.; 310. ? Den
dronotus ; 311. 2? Goniodoris; 29.
? Doris; ? Molis.

eogra-

phical distribution of species, and gives the following interesting lists of

parallel species from different seas :—

OREGON District.
Mya precisa.
Osteodesma bracteatum.
Cardita ventricosa.
Cardium blandum.
Venus calcarea.

ATLANTIC COAST.

M. truneata.
O. hyalinum.
C. borealis.

C. Icelandicum.
V. mercenaria.

* Dr. Gould remarks (p. 270), that “there is a minute operculum to Mitra, while there is
none to Columbella.”’ Of the shells called Columbelle, the typical species, C. strombiformis,
major, and fuscata, have a broad oval operculum, with the apex at the anterior end of the
outside margin; Nitidella cribraria has a distinctly Purpuroid operculum; and Anachis
costellata, &c, have a Pisanoid ungulate operculum. Vide BM. Maz. Cat. in loco,

rae

iM ‘
ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 211

OreEGon DisrTRIcT, ATLANTIC COAST.

Alasmodonta falcata. A. arcuata.
Helix Vancowverensis. H. concava.
Helix loricata. H. inflecta.

Heliz germana. H. fraterna.

Planorbis vermicularis.
Planorbis opercularis.

Pl. deflectus.
Pl. exacutus.

Lacuna carinata. L. vincta.
Natica Lewisii. N. heros. :
Trichotropis cancetlata. Tr. borealis.

Fusus fidicula.
Lottia pintadina.

F. turricula.
L. testudinalis, &e.

To which we may add (from California),—

Solecurtus lucidus. S. radiatus.

The following are quoted as parallel types between the Gulf of California
_ and the Caribbzean Sea:

CARIBBZAN SEA.

LL. canaliculata.
M. Brasiliana,
LL. carinata.
C. Chione.

N. maroccana.

GuLF oF CALIFORNIA,

Lutraria undulata.
Mactra nasuta.
Lutraria ventricosa [Mactra exoleta].
Cytherea biradiata. } .
Natica Chemnitzii, Pfr. Mediterranean.

The following species have also been examined and determined by Dr.
Gould, from the same collection :—

Helix tudiculata, Binney, Oregon.

Acmea cribraria, G., Columbia River,
San Francisco, De Fuca.

Modiola elongata, G., Puget Sound.

Solen maximus, Mouth of Columbia R.

Tellina nasuta, Conr., Mouth of Colum-
bia River.

Tellina secta, Conr., De Fuca.

Tellina Californica, Conr., De Fuca.

Melania plicata, Lea, Oregon.

Melania Wahlamatensis, Lea, Sacra-
mento River.

(Cryptomya) Sphenia Californica, Conr.,
Sacramento River. .

Melania occata, Hds., Sacramento River.

Triton tigrinum, Brod., Puget Sound.

Modiola discrepans, Mont., Puget 8. [!!]

Modiola ? vulgaris, Puget Sound.

Tellina Bodegensis, Hinds, Classet.

Anodonta Nutialliana, Lea, Wallawalla,
San Francisco.

Buccinum corrugatum, Rve., Puget Sound.

Purpura septentrionalis, Rve., Puget Sd.

Pecten Fabricii, Phil., Puget Sound.

Fusus cancellinus, Phil., De Fuea.

Pholas (concamerata, Desh. =) penita,
Conr., San Francisco.

Paludina seminalis, Hds., Sacramento.

_ _ In the MS. list of the shells collected in the Oregon and Californian
_ district during the U.S. Exploring Expedition, sent by Dr. Gould, and in-
cluding the above, there appear 70 species from Oregon, a district before so
little known, that only 23 of them have been identified with previous names,
the rest having been described by Dr. Gould.

Through the great kindness of Dr. Gould, who showed his desire to make
the materials for this Report as complete as possible, by copying out all the
valuable information which was in his possession, we are enabled to present
_the materials from which the foregoing lists were drawn up, in the shape in
which they first made their appearance. They are the only documents
approaching the authority of “dredging papers,” which have been made
‘public, in the whole history. of the coast, from Behring’s Straits to Panama.
They are the memoranda made by Dr. Charles Pickering of the U.S. Expl.
Exp.; the specific names having been for the most part added by Dr. Gould
on identification.

PQ

212

Box I. Orecon Tour.

Anodon cognata, G., Lake near Nis-
qually.

Alasmodon falcata, G., Columbia, Spo-
kan, common.

Anodon feminalis, G., Wallawalla.

Heliz strigosa, G., Interior of Oregon.

Lymnea (long spire).

Succinea (spreading mantle).

Box IV. Pucretr Sounp.

Venus (perhaps a fourth species), Classet.

Tellina (middle size, smooth, not po-
lished, smaller, and a little deflected),
common, sandy places.

Tellina secta, Conr. (or allied: larger,
truncate at one end; ligament narrow,
but elongate), common, sandy places.

Mytilus (size of edulis, with a few large
cost); [probably M. Californianus,
Conr. ;] among rocks, low-water mark,
Classet.

Fissurella cratitia, G., Classet.

Cardium blandum, G., dredged at Dunge-
ness.

Acmea ? mitra, Esch., Classet.

Acmea instabilis, G., Classet.

Acmea (costate and tuberculate), com-
mon,

Acmea (larger, apex more medial),
Classet.

Acmea (finely striate), rocks, Classet.

Pecten hericeus, G., Classet.

Pecten (young, costz smooth), Classet.

Scalaria 2? borealis, Classet.

Scalaria (large, much elongated, solid),
Classet.

Tellina (elongate,
Classet.

Oliva, Classet, dead.

Haliotis (fragment of large species),
Classet.

Modiola (one valve, young).

Triton tigrinum.

Crepiduia_ (Capuloid); [probably C.
adunca. |

Crepidula nummaria, G., Classet.

2 Anomia, Classet, dead.

Mytilus (common, like edulis).

? Saxicava (very short and ventricose),
Classet.

Natica algida, G., Classet.

' Nassa mendica, G., Classet.

Purpura lagena, G., Classet.

Cerithium filosum, G., Classet.

Calyptrea ? pileiformis.

Mya (very small), Dungeness.

Cardium, Dungeness (dredged).

concentric — striz),

REPORT—1856.

Box V. Pucet Sounp.

Cardium (largest, used for food).
Pecten hericeus, G., Dungeness.
Purpura septentrionalis, Dungeness.

Box VI. Pucret Sounp.

Solen sicarius, G., Dungeness (dredged).
Solen maximus, Classet.

Helix Vancouverensis, Lea.

Helix labiosa, G.

Box VIII. San FRANCISCO.

Cardium ? Californianum (same as Ore-
gon).

Mytilus (very large, a few shallow ribs,
like Classet).

Mytilus trossulus, G. (see M. edulis, De
Fuca).

Tellina secta, Cony.

Mactra (a thin Mya-shaped species: per-
haps Lutraria).

Mya (Sphenia, $ in. ; see Straits of De
Fuca).

Tellina (small, like balthica).

Fissurella ? cratitia (like Classet).

Acmea (nearly smooth).

Helix Nickliniana, Lea.

Purpura emarginata, Ducl.

Trochus mestus.

Littorina planazis, Nutt. (= L. patula).

Acmea (angulated), Yerba Buena.

Box IX. San Francisco.

Pholas (small, enlarged, rounded end).

Pholas (smaller, obliquely truncate).

Ostrea (small), Carquiiez.

Amanicola, Sacramento.

Helix Californiensis, Lea.

Planorbis (form of campanulatus), Sa-
cramento.

Box X. San FRANCISCO.

Anodon (winged), Sacramento. J

Alasmodon falcata, G., Upper Sacra-
mento.

Purpura emarginata, Ducl.

Anodon cognata, G., near the Presidio.

Jar 184. SAcRAMENTO TRIP.

Tellina (small, roundish), Carquifiez.

Mytilus glomeratus, G.

Helix Nickliniana, Lea.

Cerithium (Potamis) Californianum.

Anodon angulatum, Lea.

Planorbis (like campanulatus), up Sacra- —
mento.

Planorbis (like trivolvis), up Sacramento.

Acmea (smoothish), mouth of harbour,

Acmea (smaller, more pointed).

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA.

Jar 185. San FRANcIsco.

Physa virginea, G.
Purpura emarginata.
Littorina patula, G.
Acmea scabra, G. (ridged and nodulate)

[= A. spectrum, Nutt. ]
Trochus (like Puget Sound).
Physa (with truncate spire).
Physa (elongate), from behind Presidio.
Nassa (small, like Puget Sound).
Planorbis (flat and rather fine).
Succinea (small).
Littorina plena, G.

OrEGOoN, By DRAYTON.

Tellina secta, Conr., below mouth of
Columbia.

Anodon feminalis, G., Wallawalla.

Anodon Oregonensis, Lea, Wallawalla.

Alasmodon falcata, G., Wallawalla.

Melania plicifera, Lea, mill-dam above
Vancouver.

Tellina, F. George, stomach of sturgeon.

Limnea (small), Lake at Vancouver.

Solen sicarius, G.

Melania, Chester River.

Unio famelicus, G., Wallawalla.

Helix labiosa.

Pecten, dredged at Baker’s Bay.

Limaz Columbianus, G., Nisqually.

Natica Lewisii, G., Puget Sound.

Modiola flabellata, G., Port Discovery.

Pecten Townsendi, Nisqually.

Panopea generosa, Nisqually.

Orecon Tour.

Helix strigosa, G.

Planorbis vermiculatus, G., Wallawalla.
Helix Townsendiana, Lea.

Heliz devia, G.

Jar 166. Dr Fuca To NisquaLLy.

_ Lymnea (elongated).
Physa (decollate).

Pucet Sounp.
Fusus fidicula, G.
Pecten (young).
Calyptrea (bis).
Fusus (or Columbella, small, smooth).
Venus (very small and smooth).
> Chiton (very small).
Modiola (like discors).
Trochus virgineus, Wood.
Cardita ventricosa, G.
Fusus Orpheus, G.
Cardium Californianum, Conr.
Trichotropis cancellata, Hds.
Goniodoris.

Bulleoid [species].

213

Crepidula (small, white, on young Pur-
pura).

Doris (like).

Terebratula pulvilla, G.

Terebratula (septentrionalis-like),

Natica caurina, G.

Oliva (small).

BRouGHT UP ON ANCHOR.

Chiton (very small and narrow).

Rimula cucullata, G.

Lacuna carinata, G.

Acmea mitra.

Litiorina scutellata, G.

Acmeaa textilina, G.

Solen maximus, (mouth of Columbia).

Helix Vancouverensis, Lea.

Limnea (much like Paludina), Columbia
River.

Physa (bis).

JAR, GOING up TO PuGET SounpD.

Limaz Columbianus, G.
Limaz foliolatus, G.

DreEepcep AT Port TOWNSEND.

Chiorera leonina, G.
Trochus (bis).
Acmea (smooth, with Balanus).

Jar 1881. OrEGON.

Planorbis corpulentus, Say, Fort George.
Limnea (ventricosa), near Fort George.
Helix Vancouverensis, Lea.

Helix Townsendiana, Lea.

Unio famelicus, Wallawalla.

Cyclas egregia, Vancouver.

Bulla (small, very thin), ‘Puget Sound.
Littorina lepida, Classet.

Buccinum.

Discovery HArgour.

Helix, 5 or 6 species.

Cardium blandum, G.

Lutraria capaz, G.

Venus ampliata, G.

Mytilus trossulus.

Chiton (shell not appearing externally).

TownsEND HARBourR.

Solen sicarius, G.
Mytilus trossulus, G.
Modiola flabellata, G.
Cardium Nuttallii, Conr.
Natica Lewisii, G.
Bulleoid [species].
Trochus.

Columbella.

Purpura.

Calyptrea.

214 REPORT—1856.

44, All existing information with regard to the Mollusca of the Boreal
districts of North America and the corresponding portion of North-Eastern
Asia, will be found embodied in the two following works :—* Beitrage zu
einer Malacozoologia Rossica, von Dr. A. Th. von Middendorff. St. Peters-
burg, 1847:” and “Reise in den Aussersten Norden und Osten Sibiriens,
wihrend der Jahre 1843 und 1844, von Dr. A. Th. v, Middendorff. Band II.
Zoologie. Theil I. Wirbellose Thiere, St. Petersburg, 1851. Mollusken,
pp- 163-464." The author not only describes the results of his own travels,
but arranges the discoveries of Eschscholtz (to whose specimens he had
access), Mertens, Wosnessenski, and others. The descriptions are very
minute and complex, the remarks extremely diffuse, and the references
tabulated with consummate learning. Unfortunately, in his comparisons
with the British Fauna, he had no better manual than Thorpe’s Marine
Conchology ; the invaluable work of Messrs. Forbes and Hanley not having
been then completed. ‘The first part of the ‘ Malacozoologia Rossica,’ entitled
“Beschreibung und Anatomie ganz neuer, oder fiir Russland never Cut-
TONEN,” containing 151 quarto pages, with 14 plates, consists of an account of
21 species, of which 17 inhabit the Pacific shores. To an account of the prin-
cipal form, Chiton Stelleri, 59 pages are devoted, All who study or deseribe
species in this very interesting and difficult group, will do well to consult as
much as their time allows of this comprehensive treatise. It is to be regretted
that in the principles which have directed his classification, he has confined
his attention to so limited a number of types; and, however burdensome to
the memory may be the very numerous genera of modern writers, the sub-
genera, sections, subsections and divisions found necessary to accommodate
only twenty-one out of the many hundreds of known species, by no means
lessen the inconvenience. Thus to descend from genus Chiton to species
Pallasii, the Middendorffian student has to master the following phraseology :
“« Chiton-Phznochiton-Dichachiton-Symmetrogephyrus (B. Apori) Pallasii.”
The following are the Pacific species; the synonyms being those of Midden-
dorff, unless enclosed in [ ].

Part I.
Page. $ Plate, | Fig. Manes ae = —
37 be Ar Chiton Stelleri, Midd. Bull. 4c. Sc. Stj\Abundant near Petropaulowski
OS Sisal ae oe Petersburg, vii. 8. p. 116. and the promontory of Lo-

=C, amiculatus, Sow. Conch, Ill. f. 80.| patka. The Kamtschatkians
= C. Sitkensis, Rve. Conch. Ic. pl. 10.| call it Keru, and eat it.—

sp. 55. Steller,
?=C. ehlamys, Rve. Conch. Ic. pl. 11.
sp, 60.
OG eel ceccoowlbaneces - amiculatus, Pallas, Nov. Act. Acad.\Kurule Is.

Petrop. ii. 235-7. pl. 7. f. 26-30.
98 | 3] segese | severe | —-— Pallasii, Midd. Bull. Ac. St. Pet. vi.\Tugurbusen, Ochotsk Sea,

117.
98 | 4| ....46 | eeesee [--—-== submarmoreus, Midd. Ditto, and Schantar Is.
98 | 5} 10 1-5 |——tunicatus, Wood ..,...aeesssseecegeys Sitcha, Kadjak, Atcha.
101 | 6} Il 1,2 |—— Wosnessenskii, Midd. Bull. Ac. St.|N. California, Sitcha, Atcha.
Pet. vi. 119.

Comp. Ch. setiger, King [Southern ana-
logue]. Comp. Ch. setosus, Sow.
109 | 8} 12 8,9 |—— lineatus, Wood .........ssseceeceeeenes N. Calif., Sitcha, Unalaschka,
?= Ch. insignis, Rve,. Conch. Ic. pl. 22.
sp. 149. f, 148,
112 | 9} 13 1,2 |—— Sitkensis, Midd, Bull. St. Pet. vi. 121)Sitcha,
{non Rve,].
114 |10} 11 4 |---— Eschscholtzii, Midd..,, ,, ,, 118|Sitcha.

a Oi

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 215

Name.

Locality.

6 |Chiton Merckii, Midd. Bull. St. Pet. vi. 20|Sitcha.

11 5

13 | 3,4 |—~ lividus, Midd. pdt! 2.020 Sttehe:

14 1-3 |—— Mertensii, Midd. 7 9 9, 118/Colonie Russ. = Bodejas, Cal.
14 4,5 |—— scrobiculatus, Midd. ,, ,, ,, 121)Colonie Russ.=Bodejas, Cal,

cesses | veeeee | ——— Brandtii, Midd. » » 1 117\S. coast, Ochotsk; large Schan-
tar Is.
Buco lp ‘decwaccies giganteus, Tilesius, Mem. Ae. St.\? Kamtschatka.
aed vol. ix. 1824, p. 473. pl. 16. f. 1, 2.
‘ pl. 17. f. 3 dis, 8
Sanne seceee [PP— setosus, Tilesius, Mem. Ae. St. Pet.|? Kamtschatka.
vol. ix. 1824, p. 484.
cesses | seeeee [2?-—— muricatus, Tilesius, Mem. Ac. St.|? Kamtschatka and Kurule Is.
Pet. vol. ix. 1824, p. 483. pl. 16. f. 3.

The last three are quoted on the authority of Tilesius. The second and
third Parts bear date 1849, and contain the general descriptions of shells,
The following are from the Pacific.

Part II.

2 | All: scores suas Patella (Acmza) ceca, v. Reisewerk
32 | 5]... TE cassis, Esch. (Represents P.|Sitcha.
deaurata, Gmel. Str. of Magellan.)
Bn WD) beceey | caezee — patina, Esch., v. Reise.
7] ea | 6 = |——— —— scurra, Less. .....ccerseerperseere
= Aemea seurrg, D’Orb.
. =A, mitra, Esch.
+4. mammillata, Esch. [not Nutt.]
+A. marmorea, Esch,
=? Lottia pallida, Gray, Beech. ame
35 | 8] woes seoeee | —— —— digitalis, Esch. ..5...,.cesseee00 Si
36) 9) 1 3. |— persona, Esch. ....,.sesereseeee
+4. radiata, Esch.
+A. ancylus, Esch.
+A. seutum, D’Orb. (syn. excl.)
?=Lottia punctata, Gray: non Pafel-
loidea punctata, Quoy and Gaim.
er Astr. pl. 71. f. 40, 42.
37 |10) 1 2 |—— ?—— personoides, Midd. Preanvueuear
Ae ancyloides, Midd. Bull. St. Peters.
vi. 20, non Forbes.

Sitcha.

Kenai Bay.

38 }1l; 1 1 |=? ‘zeruginosa, Midd. seeieovsres’ Bodejas.
38 |12)} 1 4 |—— ?—— pileolus, Midd, ... ....|Sitcha.
| 39 {13) «1 5 |—— Asmi, Midd. .0+.....ssescesseee ,-|Sitcha.
1 39} 1 ...... | ....-. |Fissurella violacea, Esch. ‘1829 = latimar- ?Sitcha,
ginata, Sow. 1834.
This well-known S. American species
was found by Eschscholtz in the
Bay of Conception: Wosnessenski’s
quotation from Sitcha is probably
incorrect.
AD | 2) weccee | ceeeee —— aspera, Esch. ...ssecececsesees seeseseeee(?itcha, Mertens; Norfolk Sd.,

Esch.
7S | ee eee ++ |Paludinella stagnalis, Linn., v. Reise...... Ochotsk, Black Sea, Caspian.
oo a ee —— aculeus, Gould .....ccecsssccseersevece Ochotsk, Lapland.
47 | 3} 10 | 11-15 |—— castanea, MGll. .....,.cccesseseceeoenre Ochotsk, Lapland.
EB | A) vcceee | cccoes cingulata, Midd., y. Reise, ace eee Schantar Is.
oo. || (3) a Lacuna glacialis, MGI]. .............++.+»»..|Ochotsk, Sitcha.
MOMRING | cepeoe’,| eerree Littorina grandis, Midd., v. Reise. ...... Ochotsk, Schantar, Kamtsch.
| G4 | G6] ,..046 | ++e25- |= subtenebrosa, Midd. .......++200..+.,.{L8]. Urup, Sea Ochotsk.
G4 | 7) posse | seeees [—— Kurila, Midd,..,,.,..,..20+00e+ee0e0+-{L8] Urup, Schantar, Kenai.

216 REPORT—1856.

Page. s Plate. | Fig. Name. Locality.

64} 8} 8 13-15 |Littorina Sitchana, Phil. ..........cseeeees Sitcha, New Albion, Kenai.

Cr SV ee ene sees —— modesta, Phil. .....sceccscereceves ....{Sitcha, New Albion.

66 |10) ...... pete SPER EVEL. sins scee ane on aee ea anioe: Sitcha, [?]New Albion, Barclay.

68} 1) ll 1 /Turritella Eschrichtii, Midd. ...........0.0. Sitcha.

69 | 1| ...... | ...... |Margarita arctica, Leach, var. major......|Sitcha, Ochotsk, Schantar.
+M. vulgaris, Leach.

?= Turbo margarita, Lowe.
=M, Grenlandica, Beck.
= WM. helicina, MOll., Fabr.
“Bay ote 45-6 |—— sulcata, Sow. ...ccsccscccccccccsccevsces Unalaschka.
TAN CAIN, cSece a] \cves' —— striata, Brod. & SOW. .s.sesssseeeee ...|(Sitcha, Lapland.
= Turbo carneus, Lowe.
= T. cinereus, Couth.
= Margarita sordida, Hancock.
83 | 8| ...06. | sees. |Trochus ater, Less., Phil. Abbild. p. 188./Sitcha, Wosn.
no. 3. pl. 5, 8. f. 6.

BANNED atevos |t eacvas — euryomphalus, Jonas, Abbild. p. 15.|Sitcha, Esch.
no. 4. pl. 6. f. 4.

84 [10] ...... | «..... |—— meestus, Jon. Abbild. p. 15. no. 5.pl.6.|/Sitcha, Wosn.
f.5; Mke. in Zeit. f. Mal. 1844, p.113.

85 |11} 10 | 16-18 |—— modestus, Midd. cccecaseses Boek denacnes Sitcha, Wosn.

217g IP esse seseee | —— Schantaricus, Midd., v. Reise. ......

SGi|1S| ices Mikeemete —— (Turbo) Fokkesii, Jonas a etoeay seas Sitcha, Wosn.

Ol slipZisnatees dllwecestes Natica aperta, Zov.......... Beeeevtins ees eee Ochotsk, Schantar.

OP ial cecteen|| savace clausa, Brod. & Sow..........00.006 ../Sitcha, Ochotsk, Schantar, Kad-
=N. consolidata, Couth. & Phil. jak, Kamtsch., Lapland, N.
= NV. septentrionalis, Beck, Moll. Zembl.
=N. ianthostoma, Desh., Guér. Mag.

1841.

93 | 4] cesses | eeeeee [——— pallida, Br. & Sow. ...cscsseeeeeeeees.| White Sea, Ochotsk.
= N. borealis, Gray, Beech. pl. 37. f. 2.
=WN. Gouldii, Phil. Zeit. f. Mal. 1845,

p. 77, from type.
= NV. suturalis, Gray, Beech. Voy. p.136,
pl. 37. f. 4.
94 | 5] .ee.0. | eeeeee [—— flava, Gld. Am. Jl. Sc. Art, vol. 38.|N.Zembla, [s. Panl in Behr. Sea.
1840, p. 196.
= NV. lactea, Lov., Phil.
= N.Grenlandica,Beck,M6ll.&Thorpe.
?=W. suturalis, Gray.
=N. pusilla, Say, teste Phil.
OBA iol casscett ee wees | —— hereuleea, Midd..........+0. sevesseeeees| DOCEjaS.
?=N. Lewesii, Gld.

97 | 1| «e+... | «sees. |[Scalaria Groenlandica, Chemn., Sow., Gld.|Behring Straits.
= 8. planicosta, Kien.
= §. subulata, Couth., De Kay.

98 | 2] «..... | s-se0» |——— Ochotensis, Midd., v. Reise........../5- coast Ochotsk.

99 | 1| ..... | «++... |Pilidium commodum, Midd., v. Reise. ...|Schantar Is.

TOR eli texesee Pll sscse Crepidula solida, Hds. ...csecsecseceees ...| Bodegas.
100 | 2} 11 3-5 Sitchana, Midd........... a Sitcha, Wosn.
101} 3) 11 6,7 |—— minuta, Midd. ..... siseottcecdeewasee Sitcha, Wosn
101 | 4| Ll 8-10 |—— grandis, Midd. .........+0+seeee0es0ees|L8. Paul, Behring Sea.
TO) lal oeetacall|| Peastcos Haliotis Kamtschatkana, Jonas, Z. f. M.|Kamtsch., Unalaschka.
1845, p. 168.
104) |i ieewaie seceee [—— aquatilis, Rve......ee0rsee seveceeeceeree(Kurule Is., Rve. 4
LO | Sl ecete: |Peseces Velutina haliotoidea, O. Fabr. ......+.....|Lapl., Midd.; Kamtsch.,Chiron,} —
= V. levigata, L., Gld., Rve., Donov. Desh. +
= Bulla velutina, Mill. :
=V, Miilleri, Desh., Guér. Mag. 1841.
=?Sigaretus coriaceus, Br. & Sow.
106 | 3] cecece | esceee J——— coriacea, Pallas ....eccscocesececeeereee|urile, Pallas ; Kamt., Steller. |
106a| 4] ...... | «see |——=+ eryptospira, Midd., v. Reise..........,Schantar Is,, Ochotsk.

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 217

Page. 5 Plate. | Fig. Name. Locality.

SS a Trichotropis bicarinata, Sow.....60.....ee. Behring, Schantar Is., Ochotsk.
107 | 2} 10-| 7-9 |—— imsignis, Midd. ........cccccceceveeeees Behring.

UBS] veces || scares —— borealis, Br. & Sow. ...ccsssseesseeees Sitcha, Wosn., Has,

=T'. costellatus, Couth.
=T. Atlantica, Beck.
=T. cancellata, Hds.

= TI. umbilicatus, Macgil.

109 | 4} .secce | seeoee [——— imermis, Ads. .........ccesseseeves seees-(Sitcha, Ads.
DLO} Dp eeses.) | ceeees Cancellaria (Tritonium (a) viridula, O.|Lapl., Behring Sea.
Fabr.

= Admete crispa, Moll.
= Cane. Couthoyi, Jay.
=C. buceinoides, Couth.
=C. costellifera, Hanc.

PZ || veces || sceeee ?>—— arctica, Midd. ..... sWinawanieaetsioaiseire cs Behr. Str., Wosn.

EL eves: ||) voaves Purpura lapillus, Linn. ....cececcssesseeeees Sitcha & Urup, Ochot., WhiteS.
+imbricata+ bizonalis, Lam.

116 |2} 9 1-3 decemcostata, Midd. ........00.» “nos Behr. Straits.

EZ S| veces | seecee —— Freycinetii, Desh., v. Reise. ......... Sitch.,Och., Kamt., Behr., Aleut.

EP Al cscene || ccevse —— septentrionalis, Roe, dosh ccmemaeaines Sitcha.

118 | 2/ ...... eee... |PleurotomaSchantaricum, Midd.,v. Reise.|\Ochotsk, Schantar.

DUD | 3) ccceee |) cecees simplex, Midd. .......cseececssesseeees Ochotsk.

I A fecease’ || cei Murex monodon, Esch. ......secsesssesccees Sitcha.

120 | 2 7 1,2 lactuca, Esch......ccsseeceees accents --|Sitcha, Kadjak.

+. ferrugineus, Esch.
125 | 2) ...... | ...... |Tritonium (Trophon) clathratum, Linn...|Sitcha, Lapland.
=T. Gunneri, Lov., Rve.
= Fusus lamellosus, Gray, Z.B. V.pl.36.
f. 13.
=F, scalariformis, Gld.
= Murex multicostatus, Esch.
= WM. clathratus, Phil. Z. f. M. 1845,

p- 78.
= Trophon Bamfii, Fabr.
BABING|) cesses | sadess —— (Fusus) antiquum, Linn. (non Lam.)|Kamt., Behr., Schan., Ochotsk,
+T. canaliculatum, Pallas. Lapl., N. Zembl.
+F. fornicatus, Gray, Z. B. V. p.117;
Rve. f. 63.
138 | 5) ...... | ....«. | ——- —— decemcostatum, Say, Gld. ...|Kadj., Kenai.
140 } 6 ...... Aseeea —— —— contrarium, Linn.....0....+ +s...(Lapl., Ochotsk.
ARB ZI ccesee || cos'ves —— —— deforme, Roe, ieiaeatensandacees Behr. Sea.
IAL | Bh e..ce | caeess —— —— Islandicum, Chem. ....... .-...[Behr. Sea, Lapl.

=F. pygmeus, Gld., Phil.
?=F. Holboellii, Moll.
=Trit. gracile, Da Cost., Lov.
= Murex corneus, Donov.
4 = Fusus Sabini, Hanc.
Mts | 9] wcesee) | ceseee [——— Sabinii, Gray (nec auet.)......|Kenai, Lapl.
; = Buccinum S.,Gray, Parry’s Voy.p. 240.
=F, Berniciensis, King, 1846.
=F. Sabinii, Gray, Z. B. V. p. 117.

1146 |10} ...... | os — Schantaricum, Midd., v. Reise.|Schant., Is. Paul.
J147 {11} ...006 | ..00. |-—-——- ———_ Norvegicum, Chemn........06+. Tugur B., Ochotsk.
1147 {12} «3 5,6 |——- —— Behringii, Midd. .........+0.... Behr. Sea.
4148 /13) +6 7,8 |—— —— Baerii, Midd. ........ceeeseseee Behr. Sea.
149 |14| 2 | 5-8 |———— Sitchense, Midd. .........sc00 Sitcha.
MESO (15) 4 | 4,5 |—— luridum, Midd. ....c.cccccssesssseoeees Sitcha.
151 16) ...... seeeee | —— (Buccinum) undatum, Linn. ...... Lapland.
MILD |u| ..c0e | ceecse [———venes ema. ts sees. Yar. Schantarica/Schantar Is.
FLS7 17) ...... | coeeee tenebrosum, Hance. ......0000+- Sitcha, Lapl.

=B, cyaneum, Moll.
+8. undulatum, Hane.

218 - -REPORT—1856.

Page. z Plate. | Fig. Name. Locality.

157 {17| ...... | ...... |Tritonium (Buccinum) tenebrosum, Hane.
(continued.)
+B. sericatum, Hane. An. N. H, 1846,
p. 328.
+B. hydrophanum, Hane.
= B. boreale, Br. & Sow.
NGS ATS cet eee ses —— simplex, Midd., v. Reise.......|Schant.
163 | YO) esse) vests . |-—— —— Ochotense, Midd., v. Reise....|Ochotsk. 2
164 |21 3 1-4 |-—— cancellatum, Lam. .........++-|Unalaschka, Kadjak, Kamtsech,
. = Triton c., A.s. V.ix. 638.
+ FF. Oregonensis, Rve.
NGF) V22| face ace Ml seevere (Pollia) scabrum, King* ...... Kadjak, Wosn.; [S.Am., King.]
Pollia scabra, Gray, Z. B.V. pl. 36. f.16.
glaciale, Linn. ....++++++9++++.--|Liapl., Ochotsk, Kamtsch.
=B. Grenlandieum, Hane.
?=B. polaris, Gray, Z. B. V. p. 128.
174 |26 {6 mati Ovum, Trt. .....eceeeeeeseeeee++|Lapl., Behr,
=B. ventricosum, Kr.

168 |23) 4 11

?+-B. fusiforme, Kr. )
=Tr. ciliatum, O. Fabr. .
175127) cece ooides, Midd., v. Reise. ......|Tugur, Ochotsk,
AUIS U haere atilees Bullia ampullacea, Midd. ........:s+ss0+00 Sitcha, Schantar.
Ba) POU oewesa [now .... |Limacina arctica, Fadr., v. Reise. ......... Schantar.
184 | 1] 10 | 19-22 |Tritonia [Dendronotus |jarberescens, Miill.|Sitcha, Ochotsk, Lapl., N. Zem.
=T. Reynoldsii, Couth.
186 | 1} 12 1-6 |Onychotheutis Kamtschatica, Midd.......|Kurile.
MSZ HZ cone |) encoun Hercil Zacks, sctsttespeseserss =e -+..../Behr. Sea.
187 |...] asec soscas |[POCtOPOS; BPs, cevcgeeesepeesesec's Ceti h Behr. Sea.
Part III.
1/1} 11 |11-17|Terebratula psittacea, Gmel. ..... seeeseeeee/Sitcha, Lapl.
2|2| ..,,.. | -e:5, | —— frontalis, Midd., v. Reise. ........ ....,Ochotsk.
[ial hc: 4 ee etal seseey |[Placun-]Anomia patelliformis, Linn. .../Sitcha, Esch.
Dileoleescssen parece —— macrochisma, Desh., v, Reise. ...... '‘Aleut., Kamt., Ochotsk.
10; 2} 12 7,8 |Pecten Islandicus, Chemn. ......++5,.++,+-++/N. Zemb., Lapl., ? Behr., ? Kamt,
=P. Fabricii, Phil.
12 |9,10 =P, Pealii, Conr.
12/3 a shi do rubidus, HAS. eserssegrevrerersynnenes Sitcha, Wosn.; Aljaska, Hds,
17 | 2| ..1... | seeeee [Modiolaria nigra, Gray ..-..+:+sese+eere+ee» Ochotsk, Lapl., N. Zem,
= M. levigata, Loy., Hane.
= M. levis, Beck.
= M.discors, Beck, Gld., Fabr., Chemn.,
Phil., Rve.
20 | 3 ae Hhivesices —— vernicosa, Midd., v, Reise. ...+,+,...\Ochotsk, Is. Kadj.
21 | 1| 2.2... | .seeee [Modiola modiolus, Linn. ...+++see+r¢+0e+./Sitcha, Lapl., Behr,
+ Mytilus barbatus, Linn,
+ Mod. papuana, Lam.
+WM. Gibdsii, Leach.
+M. grandis, Phil.

* This shell is introduced under the title “ Tritonium (Buccinum, Subg. Pollia, Gray)
scabrum, King et Broderip,” which reminds us of the pre-Linnzan times, and almost de-
stroys the good of binomial nomenclature. Dr. Middendorff may show his philosgphical
knowledge by uniting Lrophon, Chrysodomus, Buccinum, Pisania and Nassa into one genus;
but he has scarcely a right to compel us to use six words (besides the authority for the
specific name) in citing his shell. Its presence in the N. Boreal fauna is extraordinary. It
is generally regarded as one of the characteristic species of temperate or even tropical South
America. It has occurred, however, in pseudo- Mazatlan collections, and was brought by Kellett
and Wood. It has the aspect of a deep-water shell, and may therefore have a wide range.

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 219

Page. z Plate, | Fig. Name. . Locality.
25 | 3 ora 20> fyi Mytilus edulis, Linn. .....008+ Deaaaah era teee-[Sitcha, Ochotsk, Kamt., Laat
+ M. borealis, abbreviatus, retusus, in-| Is. Paul, Kadj., Kenai, Behr.
curvatus, Lam,

+. pellucidus, Penn.
+WM. notatus, De Kay.
+ M. subsavatilis, Williamson.

las | scbince Nucula castrensis, Hds, ....++.++-+:seseeey+-|pitcha, Hds.

ail ca5stell Ancece aretica, Br. & Sow.....++++, seesregneee{Kamtsch., Beechey.

| SESE |e Cardita borealis, Conr. ......+s+++++¢+,+1+-,|Ochotsk,

9} 16 1-5 |Cardium Nuttallii, Cor. ..sseess+sseer9+-(5itcha, Kenai B,, Is. Paul.
+C. Californianum, Conr,
Californiense, Desh,, y, Reise, ....-.|Sitcha, Ochot., Unal.,Behr. Sea.

1 e nee | Astarte Scotica, Mat. ep Weta Ochotsk, N. Zem., Lapl,
= Saree | eee —— corrugata, Brown .....es++09+ -,|Aljaska, Behy,, N. Zem., Lapl,
=A, semisulcata, Hance,
=A. borealis, Phil., Forbes,
=A. lactea, Br. & Sow. Z. B. V, p. 152,
: = Tellina atra, Pallas.

51] 2} 17 | 11-13|Venerupis Petitii, Desh.......+esege+s-sere+e |Sitcha, Behr. Sea.

52] 3) 18 1-3 gigantea, Desh. ....se.see1+ repens Sitcha, Kamtsch.

56 | 5] ...... | ,.,.,, ]Venus astartoides, Beck, v. Reise. . ../Ochotsk, Behr.

56] 1) 18 4 |Petricola cylindracea, Desh. sais .,|Sitcha.

57 | 2} 18 5-7 gibba, Midd. ....... seaspeeepsacssacsers (SatCha, Asch.

OD GL Sea Saxicava pheladis, Linn. .....-++.. sesenee(itc.,Och.,Kamt., N.Zem,, Lapl,

APG) < 50. sosree |Lellina solidula, Pult........+ gaan cadt acausn Tugurb,, Ochotsk, Behr., Kamt.,

N, Zem,, Lapl., Black Sea,

ePe ed lrcass cs | ccc ees ——— nasuta, COnr. seorerserrereoeres .,|Sitcha, Behr., Ochotsk.

62] 8! 17 | 8-10 |—— lata, Gmel., y. Reise. . nae .,|Behr., Ochotsk, Tugurb,, Lapl,

CGO | feccecs. |cscsece —— lutea, Gray, y. ag pte aibad Behr., Schant., St. Paul.

62 |10) ,..50. | «+-, |—=—— edentula, Br, & Sow., y. Reise....,,, Ochotsk, Unal,, Behr.

OPER ccccts, | ccnase —— Bodegensis, Hds. wersssecerseeeneseres Bodegas,

66 | 2] ..... » | eseeee |(Mactra ovalis, Gld,, vy. Reise, »++++s+20129;-,,0chotsk, Behr,, Kenai.

66} 1) 19 1-4 |Lutraria maxima, Midd,.,....., sepeteeererss(Sitcha, Wosn,

: [?=L, capax, Gld.]
| 67) 1) 21 1-3 |Pectunculus septentrionalis, Midd. ...,,. Is, Ukamok, N.W. coast,
Bell scosce | sccees Lyonsia Norwegica, Chemn., v. Reise. ,,.|Ochotsk,
69 | 1) 19 |13-15 |Mya truncata, Linn. ......+eeeessereeeneeer: Ochotsk, Lapl., Kamt.

[?=M. precisa, Gld.]
70 | 2) 20 1-3 |—— arenaria, Linn. ..,.0.serseseeeeeseeee92|9itcha, Ochotsk, Lapl., N. Zem.
78 | 1) 21 | 4-10 |Machera ab Say, V. Reis...++544++,|Sitcha, Ochotsk, Behr., Kamt.

In the Sibiriens pee additional catia are given with regard to the
following species.

‘f163 | 1 Ga ; ray Gkitan Ballast. Mega. od, ay opemoe Tugur.
“4174 | 2] 15 | 1-6 |—— Brandtii, Midd, ..,,...,,s0060++)+++2++-|Sitcha, Tugur, Schantar,

178 | 3 = i, : — submarmoreus, Midd,,........ess0000: Sitcha, Tugur, Schantar,
1183 | 4| 16 | 6a-e |Patella (Cryptobranchia) ceca, Mill. ,,,|Tugur, Schantar,
+P. cerea, Moll.
-+C. eandida, Couth. Some yarieties
a rae resemble 4emea ceatudinal
1186 | 5 16 {|% 4: —— (Acmea) pelta, Esch. .,.,..:++.,++1;|/Sitcha, Tugur, Schantar, Una-

pe laschka.
4187 | 6} 16 ied} —— —— patina, FSch..,.ccccorsseccssevees Sitcha, Tugur, Schantar, Una-
i 3 +4. seutum, Esch. laschka, Aleut., Kenai,

+ A.scutum, D’Orb.p.479, excl. f. 8-10.
A white var. from the Ochotsk Sea.

192 ||) ses
193 Joo] ass
193 Jove} ove
194 | 7} 25
TORTS) eacee
196 | 9} 25
197 |10) 10
198 11) 11
201 12] 11
202 |13) 11
203 |14) 17
204 |15; 18
206 |16} 11
208 |17] ......
210 |18) .....
213 {19} 12
214 |20) 17
216 |21| 25
218 |22) ......
219 |23) 12
222 |24) 12
223 |25) 12
223 |26) 12
224 127) ....4.
10
229 |28) ......
230 |29) 10
231 {30 ......

REPORT—1856.
Fig. Name. Locality.
veeees {Paludinella stagnalis, Linn. ......se0seres. S. coast Ochotsk Sea, on .dige.

= Paludina stagnalis,Mke. Z.f. M. Jan.
1845, p. 37.
=P. muriatica+- thermaiis, Phil. Sic.
seeoee |A. forma normalis ....... sershcaseees ss tenses
= Turbo ulve, Pen.
= Paludina ulve, Lov.
=P. pusilla, Eichwald.
=Cingula levis, De Kay.
eseoee |A!, forma elatior.
= Paludina octona, Nilsson.
=P. stagnalis, var. b, Mke.
=Cyclostoma acutum, Drap.
= Turbo ventrosus, Mont. [?]
= Rissoa saxatilis, Moll.
3,4 |A2. forma ventricosior.
= Paludina balthica, Nilss., Lov.
= Cyclostoma anatinum, Drap.
= Turbo muriaticus, Beudant.
=Cingula minuta, Gld., De Kay.
= Rissoa glabra, Alder.
= Paludina ? ulva, Lyell.
eeovee |Paludinella aculeus, Gld. .....secscseesceee
= Cingula striata, Thorpe.
=?Rissoa arctica, Lov. ,
5-7 |— cingulata, Midd. ......... “ascectPouee
10, 11 |Lacuna glacialis, MGI. ...-essecseseeeeeees
4-10 |Littorina grandis, Midd. Bull. Class. Phys.
Math. Ac. St. Petersd. vii. no. 16.
Kurila, Midd. Bull. Class. Phys.Math.
Ac. St. Petersb. vii. no. 16.
11, 12 |}«—— subtenebrosa, Midd. Bull. Class. Phys.
Math. Ac. St. Petersb. vii. no. 16.
13-16 |Margarita arctica, Leach, var. major, Midd.

1-7 |Trochus Schantaricus, Midd. .......++... Schan., S. Ochotsk.
1-3 |Natica aperta, Lov.,...s.sceseceees Saiceactmas Schan., 8S. Ochotsk, Jakshina.
are ees — clausa, Br. & Sow. .+0...+e++0+s04+--)9chan., S, Ochotsk.

=N. consolidata, Couth., Phil.
=N. septentrionalis, Beck, Mall.
sees (——— pallida, Br. & Sow. ..secescccecseeeee
=N. borealis, Gray, Z.B.V. pl. 37. f. 2.
= N. Gouldii, Phil. Z. f. M. 1845, p. 77.
12-14 |Scalaria Ochotensis, Midd. [This most
remarkable shell has the appearance
of an enormous Chemnitzia; and
reminds one of the Oolitic forms
which go by that name. ]

4—]1 |Pilidium commodum, Midd. ...........00+
8-10 |Velutina cryptospira, Midd. ......008++...
Paecbo Trichotropis bicarinata, Br. § Sow. ......
+T. Sowerbiensis, Less.
1-9 |Purpura Freycinettii, Desh. ......cseeeee
+P. attenuata, Rve.
10, 11 Tapillus, Linn. ..0..cseccsoscecosseress
17-19 |Pleurotoma Schantaricum, Midd..........
15, 16 RUMPIGR, SUMIAM. s.02-scnvasccrsectcenses
..... |Tritonium (Fusus) antiquum, Linn.
3 Var. 1. Behringiana ...s.ccercsceeessueee
Var. 2. communis,+-fornicatus, Rye.
oseeee — contrarium, Linn. wer.sceceeee
7-9 |—— Schantaricum, Midd.......... yecanenel
cabeve (Fusus) Norvegicum, Chemn......0

Ochotsk Sea.

S. coast Ochotsk.

Schan.

Schan., §. Ochotsk.
Schan., 8. Ochotsk.
Schan., S. Ochotsk, Kurile.
S. Ochotsk (Is. Segneka).

Schan., 8. Ochotsk.

Schan., S. Ochotsk.

S. Ochotsk (Bay. Nichta).

S. Ochotsk.
Schan.
Schan., 8. Ochotsk, Tugur.

S. Ochotsk.
S. Ochotsk.

Schan., S. Ochotsk.
8. Ochotsk.

Behring Sea. -

S. Ochotsk, Tugur.
Schan.
Tugur.

b apes

+ oS PSS RP

> tae,

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE ie, OF NORTH AMERICA. 221

Name.

Tritonium (Buccinum) undatum, var. |Schan.
Schantarica.
. |———— simplex, Midd. Bull.&c.vii.no.16|Schan.

— — Ochotense, Midd.......do......

—— —— ovoides, Midd. ...102...d0...00.
—— tenebrosum, Hanc. [pl. 9, err. typ. ]
Bullia ampullacea, Midd. [pl. 17. fig. 1-3,|Schan., Tugur.
err. typ.]

Limacina arctica, Fabr. ......... malen saceaisice

=T. helicialis, Lam., Rve.
Terebratula frontalis, Midd.
Anomia macroschisma, Desh
Modiolaria vernicosa, Midd. ..

. [Mytilus edulis, Lim. ....ccscsscscecerseevees
Cardita borealis, Conr.

? Cardita spurca, Sow.
Cardium Californiense, Desh. (nec Conr.)|Schan., S. Ochotsk, Tugur.
Astarte Scotica, Maton & Rack.........0 S. Ochotsk.

=A. semisulcata, Lov., Phil., Mll.

=A. Garensis, ?var. Lyell.

=A. lactea, Gld.

= Venus sulcata, Mont.

Venus Astartoides, Beck, u. sp..... ROOTES
Saxicava pholadis, Linm........sssecveeeee ie
=8. gallicana, Lam.

=8. rugosa, Lam.

= Mytilus rugosus, Penn.

=. Grenlandica, Pot. & Mich.

=8. distorta, Say, Gld.

= Mya byssifera, Fabr.

=Solen minutus, Wood.

+ Hiatella oblonga, Tutt.

Tellina nasuta, Cons. ....sccscsescecssscseees

—— lata, Gmel. (nec Quoy & Gaim.)....
=T. calearea, Hanl., Lyell, Moll.
+T. proxima, Bronn, Hanl., Gray.
=T. triangularis, Lyell.

=T. sordida, Couth. = Sanguinolaria

s., Gould.

= Macroma tenera, Leach.

——* lutea, Gray c.cccccessccverscees Saas
= T. alternidentata, Br. & Sow.

=T. Guildfordie, Gray.

— edentula, Br. & Sow.......seccsereeees
—— solidula, Pult., Hanl., Wood, Lam.,
Kryn.
=Loripes roseus, Andrj.
= T. carnaria, Penn., not Linn,
= T, balthica, Phil., Lyell.
=T. grenlandica, Lyell.
=T. fusca, Say = Psammobia f. = San-
guinolaria f.
=T. frigida, Hanl.
=T7. Fabricii, Hanl.
= T. inconspica, Br. & Sow.
[Comp.Sanguinolaria Californica,Conr.]
Mactra ovalis, Gid. [p. 263, err. typ.] .../S. Ochotsk, Tugur.
= M. ponderosa, Phil.
=M. similis, Gray, Z. B. V. p. 154.
pl. 44. f. 8.

S. Ochotsk, Tugur,
S. Ochotsk.

Schantar Is.

S. Ochotsk, Tugur.
S. Ochotsk.

222 REPORT—1856.

Page. Z| Plate. Fig. Name. Locality.

264 |56] 24 | 8-11 |Lyonsia Norvegica, Chemn. ...s00.cssece0e Schant., S, Ochotsk, Tugur.
=L. striata, Turt. (Mya str., Mont.)
=. gibbosa, Hane.
= Mya hyalina, Conr. teste Couth.
= Pandorina arenosa, MOll.
- = Amphidesma corbuloides, Lam.
= Osteodesma corbuloides, Desh.
= 0. hyalina, Couth., Gld., De Kay.

266 \57| 25 | 11=14 |Mya truncata, Linn. ........c.ccccesseseeses S. Ochotsk.
+M. Uddevalensis, Hanc.

GB [DS]: aveceek| 'eceees ——— arénaria, Linn. .cssecsesvidecs Wea ieatee S. Ochotsk.

209 199|\osonen ll) cance « |Panopza Norvegica, Spengler .......0060 S. Ochotsk, Tugur,

ZOO TIGO) ceowena til varara Macheera Costata, Say is....ssaccceveoesee S$. Ochotsk (Lebashja).
=Solecurtus Nuttallii, Conr.
=Solen nitidus, Chen. :

=8S. splendens, Chen.
=. Americanus, Chen.
=S. medius, Gray, Z. B. V. p. 153.
pl. 44. f, 2.
=S. maximus, Wood (nec Chemn.)
p- 129. pl. 31. f. 3.
?=8S, tenuis, Brod. & Sow.
?=8, altus, Brod. & Sow.

The freshwater and land shells described in this work, pp. 273-308, appear
to belong exclusively, either to the general North temperate fauna of the old
world, or to the local fauna of the district. They are distributed by Mid-
dendorff under three heads, pp. 389 et seg. (1) Circumpolar Fauna: Unio
margaritifera, Pianorbis albus, Limnzeus stagnalis and palustris, Physa hyp-
norum, Succinea putris, Helix pulchella, pura and fulva, Achatina lubrica, |
Vitrina pellucida. (2) Boreal Fauna: Unio pictorum and batavus, Anodonta
cellensis and anatina, Pisidium obliquum, Cyclas cornea and calyculata,
Planorbis corneus, complanatus, contortus, leucostoma and vortex, Limnzus
auricularius, truncatulus, leucostomus, Physa fontinalis, Paludina Kikxii and
tentaculata, Valvata piscinalis, Helix ruderata, Schrenkii, carthusiana and
hispida, and Bulimus obscurus. (3) Central Asiatic Fuuna: Unio Dahuricus
and Mongolicus, Anodonta herculea, and Limnzus Gebleri.

The author enters at considerable length, pp. 351+389, into the influence
of Zones, Depths, Temperature and Saltness on the distribution and. changes
of mollusks; and gives full details of the peculiarities of several specific and
generic forms, pp. 330-342. In pp. 309=463, the author distributes the
Russian shells into their various Zoological provinces. With the Aral-Kas-
pian, the Black Sea* and the very limited Baltic faunas, we have now no
concern. The Polar fauna (p. 318 e¢ seg.) is divided into three sections :—
A. The Atlantic species, 30 in number. B. Those of the Behring Sea, 26 ;
and C. the Circumpolar species, 54. To this list are added 50 species, which
have not yet been found in the Russian dominions.

* Middendorff gives the following species as common to the temperate latitudes on both sides
of the Atlantic :—Littorina rudis, Fusus muricatus, Crepidula ungutformis, Dentalium dentalis,
Anomia ephippium, Solen ensis, Pecten varius, Lima squamosa. Also the following as common
to the Mediterranean and the West Indies:—Conus Mediterraneus, Columbella mercatoria,
Nassa crenulata, Littorina muricata and neritoides, Cerithium lima, Tellina carnaria, and
Rotella lineata. Pp. 346-7.

i ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA.

223

B. Polar Fauna of the Behring Sea.

Chiton submarmoreus, tunicatus and
vestitus.

Patella patina, pelta.

Paludinella ? cingulata.

Littorina subtenebrosa, Sitchana, grandis.

Margarita sulcata.
Scalaria Ochotensis.

- Crepidula grandis.

__ Trichotropis insignis.

Cancellaria arctica.

Purpura Freycinetii, decemeostata,
Pleurotoma Schantaricum, simplex.
Tritonium (Fusus) Behringii, Baerii,
Bullia ampullacea.
[Placun-]Anomia macrochisma.
Modiola vernicosa.

Nucula arctica.

Tellina edentula, lutea.

: C. Cireumpolar Species, p. 319.

Patella czeca.

Paludinella stagnalis, aculeus.

Lacuna glacialis.

Margarita striata, arctica.

Natica pallida, clausa, aperta, flava, heli-
coides.

Scalaria groenlandica.

Velutina haliotoidea.

Trichotropis borealis, bicarinata.

Purpura lapillus.

Tritonium (Trophon) clathratum.

T. (Fusus) antiquum, contrarium, Is-
landicum, Sabinii, Norvegicum, 10-cos-
tatum,

T. (Buccinum) undatum, tenebrosum,

ovum.

Limacina arctica.

Onychotheutis Bergii, Kamtschatica.

Terebratula psittacea,

- Chiton Pallasii and amiculatus.
Trochus Schantaricus.
Pilidium commodum.

Pacific :—

_ Chiton Stelleri, Brandtii, lineatus.
Littorina Kurila.

Velutina coriacea, spongiosa.
Haliotis Kamtschatkana, aquatilis.

[Placun-] Anomia patelliformis.

Pecten Islandicus.

Modiola modiolus, nigra.

Mytilus edulis.

Nucula pygmea.

Cardita borealis.

sara Nuttallii. [Probably belongs
to B.

Astarte Danmoniensis, Scotica, corrugata,
compressa.

Venus Astartoides.

Saxicava pholadis.

Tellina solidula, lata.

Mactra ovalis.

Lyonsia Norvegica.

Mya truncata, arenaria.

Panopza Norvegica.

Machera costata.

An analysis of the species belonging to the Pacific waters is given in pp: 349
et seg. The following are as yet only known from the Asiatic coast :—

Tritonium Schantaricum, simplex, Ocho-
tense, ooides, cancellatum.
Terebratula frontalis,

The following have been found both on the east and west sides of the

Modiola cultellus.

Cardium Nuttallii, Californiense.
Venerupis gigantea, Petitii.
Tellina nasuta.

Turritella Eschrichtii.

‘Crepidula Sitchana, minuta.

Of the species (so far as we yet know) peculiar to the American shores,
the following are recorded by Middendorff as not having been found below

Sitcha; the list, however, will have to be materially modified :—

Chiton Sitchensis, lividus, Eschscholzii, Trichotropis insignis.
Merckii. Purpura septentrionalis. -

Patella digitalis, persona, personoides, Tritonium Sitchense, luridum.
_pileolus, Asmi. Murex lactuca, monodon.

Pecten rubidus.

Petricola gibba.

Nucula castrensis. _

Pectunculus septentrionalis,

Trochus modestus.
Dentalium politum.

224 REPORT—1856.

The following list of species common to Sitcha and California will have
to be considerably extended :—

Fissurella violacea, aspera. Tritonium scabrum.
Patella scurra. Petricola cylindracea.
Littorina modesta and aspera. Lutraria maxima.
Trochus ater, moestus, Fokkesii, euryom-

phalus.

The following are regarded by Middendorff as peculiar to the Californian
province :—
Chiton Mertensii, scrobiculatus. Crepidula solida.
Patella zeruginosa. Tellina Bodegensis.
Natica herculza.

The very abnormal appearance of the tropical Létorina aspera and Callo-
poma fluctuosum, in these Northern lists, awaits confirmation. The L. aspera
of Barclay may be founded on ballast specimens ; or it may be a misnorher for
the L. planavis of Nutt., as ordinary coarse specimens of the two might easily
be mistaken. The Callopoma, which appears to extend along the Califor-
nian coast, may also have reached Sitcha through human instrumentality.
Another circumstance pointed out by Middendorff is remarkable: that two
of the largest species of Crepidule known, are found on the northern shores
of America; one on the Pacific, the other on the Atlantic side.

45. In the years 1843-46, H.M.S. Samarang sailed under the command of
Capt. Sir E. Belcher to the East Indies. Although the expedition did not
touch upon the western coast of America, there appear in the “ Zoology :
Mollusca, by A. Adams and L. Reeve; London 1850,” the two following
species :—

“P, 70. pl. 9. f. 7 a,b. Calyptrea trigonalis. China Sea.” This scarcely differs in
any essential particular from Crucibulum lignarium, Brod., and its varieties from
South America. The trigonal form may be an accident of growth.

*P, 78. pl. 21. f. 17. Artemis Dunkeri, Phil. Eastern Seas.” This is the abundant
and characteristic species of the Mazatlan district, extending along the coast of
Peru. The habitat is probably erroneous.

In all other respects, as might be expected, the species described in this

beautiful and most instructive work are entirely distinct from those of the
W. American coast.

46. In the “ Zeitschrift fiir Malakozoologie, von Dr. Karl Theodor Menke
und Dr. Louis Pfeiffer, Cassel, 1846,” pp. 19-21, 51-55, Dr. R. A. Philippi
describes the following species from Mazatlan, on the authority of one of his
own family :— 2

Page. No,

19 1. Corbula alba, Phil. Resembles the Italian fossil C. carinata. Perhaps —

it is the C. bicarinata, Sow.

19 2. Tellina cicercula, Phil. Perhaps=Strigilla carnaria, jun. Vide B. M. Maz.
Cat. p. 41. no. 66.

19 3. T. lenticula, Phil. (Strigilia).

20 4. T. dichotoma, Phil. (Strigilla).

20 «5. T.ervilia, Phil. (Strigilla). In his Abbild. &. Aug. 1846, p. 24, he quotes
Tellina (Strigilla) pisiformis and Diplodonta semiaspera, as common
to Mazatlan and the Caribbzean Sea.

20 . Diplodonta obliqua, Phil.

6
21 7. Lucina cancellaris, Phil.
21 8, Patella pediculus, Phil.

Peace ee adit cn

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 225

18. Siphonaria Lecanium, Phil.

51 19. Trochus disculus, Phil. (Modulus).

52 20. Buccinum nucleolus, Phil. 2 An Anachis. Described as a miniature edition
of B. prismaticum. Comp. B. Antoni, Dkv., Zeit. f. Mal. 1847, p. 61.
no. 6, “ Mexico, Hegewisch,” described as resembling the same shell.

53 23. Terebra fulgurata, Phil.

53 24. Columbella pallida, Phil. Resembles Anachis azora, Ducl.

54 25. C. spadicea, Phil. ?Resembles A. costulata, Brod. & Sow.

54 26. C. teniata, Phil.

55 27. Dentalium hyalinum, Phil.

47, The Mexican War, carried on by the United States, 1846-1848,
against their sister republic*, ending in the extension of slavery, was
indirectly the means of adding to our knowledge of the Californian and
Mexican faunas. Three of the officers, viz. Col. E. Jewett (of Utica, N.Y.)
and Major William Rich (of Washington) of the army, and Lieut. T. P. Green
of the navy, made collections at different stations from Panama to San
Francisco, the whole of which have passed through the hands of Dr. Gould
for examination. The number of species collected by Col. Jewett was about
221; by Major Rich, 130; by Lieut. Green, about 172; in all, perhaps 440
species. Many of them were collected alive, and of a large part the localities.
were noted at the time. It is too much to expect that gentlemen engaged
in so fearful and exciting a trade should be able to exercise the calm, patient
accuracy needed for scientific pursuits. On doubtful points, therefore, the
evidence may need confirmation: still it speaks much for the care and
interest for science which these gentlemen manifested, that the supposed
errors are few and comparatively unimportant. Several species thought to
be new were described by Dr. Gould in the ‘ Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist.’
Noy. 1851; and have been since reprinted, with additional descriptions and
three plates, under the title ‘“ Descriptions of Shells from the Gulf of Cali-
fornia and the Pacific Coasts of Mexico and California, by Augustus A.
Gould, M.D.” There is no date, but the work was received last year in this
country. In order to promote harmony of nomenclature between the
writers in England and America, Dr. Gould ventured to entrust the whole of
his valuable collections from the west coast of N. America to the writer,
although unknown to him; by whom they were carefully collated with the
specimens in the British Museum and the cabinets of Mr. Cuming and
Mr. Nuttali+. The result, so far as the new species are concerned, is em-
bodied in a paper laid before the Zoological Society last June; and, so far
as relates to the identification of previous species, in the following lists. Of

_ many, however, the specimens had only been lent to Dr. Gould for examina-
_ tion, and have therefore not been seen in this country. When the identifica-

tions of species are erroneous, according to English interpretations, the name
assigned by Dr. Gould is retained as his own, with the supposed correct one
added ; in order that the meaning of the species as used by that author may
be understood in his other writings. The very interesting locality-notes of
Messrs. Jewett and Green contain several entirely. unexpected statements,
Panama and Mazatlan species being quoted from Sta. Barbara, and vice versd.
Some few well-known W. Indian forms also appear from Acapulco and
Panama; which it is more natural to regard as importations than as “ repre-
sentative species.’ The same may be said of the remarkable appearance of
Livona pica at Sta. Barbara. When we remember the errors that have

_ * Vide A. A. Livermore’s War with Mexico Reviewed. Boston, 1850.
+ A large part of the shells in the following lists, however, were not sent to this country ;

having probably only passed through Dr. Gould’s hands for examination,
1856. Q

226 REPORT—1856.

crept into the works of the most experienced writers, it is not passing the
least reflection on the statements of these scientific officers, when we claim
liberty to suspend our judgment till the unexpected results have been
verified. The principal value of Major Rich’s collection (as of those made
by Capt. Kellett and Lieut. Wood), appears to be the accumulation of rare
and interesting specimens: for geographical purposes, as most of the habitats
are simply divided between Upper and Lower California, it cannot be

regarded as of much authority.

Of the following species, sent with the others, the name of the collector is

not given.

Sanguinolaria Nuttallii, Conr. =decora, | Helix sportella (384, young shell). ?—

Hds. San Diego.

Donaz bella, Desh.. Lower California.

sulcatus, Phil. Zeit. f. Mal. 1847,
p- 76. no. 12, 2—

Dione chionea, Mke. 2?—

Mytilus bifurcatus, Cony. “ Calif. coast
somewhere.” Sandw. Is., teste Conr.

Crenella coarctata, Dkr.

Arca ?lurida (or vespertilio). ?Mazatlan.

solida, Sow. California.:

Ostrea Columbiensis, Hanl.,
grandis. Lower California.

rufa. Of two specimens thus named,
the larger appears =O. Virginica, jun.;
the smaller may be the young of the
elongated form of O. iridescens. Calif.

Helix Nuttalliana, Lea, =fidelis, Gray.
Oregon.

Townsendiana, Lea. Oregon.

— devia,Gld.=Baskervillii, Pfr. Oreg.

— Nickliniana, Lea, =vineta, Val. (not
=Californica, Rve.) Upper California.

eruginosa, Gld. =Townsendiana,

var. Pfr. San Francisco.

on Arca

Haliotis ?Kamtschatkana: dead.

Hipponyz serratus, Cpr. ?—

mitrula, Lam. 2?—

Modulus dorsuosus, Gld. =duplicatus,
var. A. Ad. =disculus, Phil. ?—

Modulus ?lenticularis, Chemn. Acapulco.
[Probably the W. Indian sp. imported.]

Cerithium interruptum, Mke. ?—

Ovulum secale. ?—

<6 2 avena, Sow. =simile, Rve. =va-
riabilis, C. B. Ad.” 2?—

Pleurotoma funiculata, Sow. Lower Calif,

Drillia albovallosa, Cpr. ?—

Terebra albocincta, Cpr. (three dead sp.).

Marginella imbricata, Hds. Sta. Barbara.

Oliva gracilis, Brod. & Sow. ?Panama.
[This appears exactly the W. I. species. }

“ Columbella terpsichore and pygmea, Ja-
maica.”

Pisania 2articulata, =P. pusio, W. I.
teste Cuming. ?Panama.

Trophon crassilabrum, Gray. ?Jamaica,

Murex armatus [not hexagonus], Ad. ?—

Pees

The following is a list of the new species described by Dr, Gould in the
“ Mexican and Californian Shells,” and by the writer in the ‘ Proceedings of
the Zoological Society,’ July 8th, 1856; the numbers referring to the latter—
the page, plate and figure to the former.

Name.

non C. B. Ad.

=P. robusta, Sow.=P. sinuosa, Conr.
.|...|««-|Corbula polychroma, Cpr. ..,.0...ceseseeees Srawascaauay 485
4/17/15) 6\Osteodesma nitidum, Gid..........

Probably = Lyonsia Californica, Conr. jun.
cesfece Amphidesma flavescens, Gid.......
= Semele proxima, B. M. Maz. Cat. p. 28. no. 40,

Reet e ee ee ee en erase trees

PPereeeeererre ree re tires

6/24/16] 1|Tellina miniata, Gld. Proc. B. N. H. S. Nov. 1851...
=Sanguinolaria purpurea, Desh. P. Z. 8. 1854,

p. 346. no. 137 ; B. M. Maz. Cat. p. 31. no. 46.
7\25|16| 2|—— tersa, Gld. .....cccceoeceee aac

Locality.
San Diego, Green.
Guaymas, Green.

Sta. Barbara, Jewett; Gulf
Calif., Lieut. Shipley.

San Diego, Lieut. Green.

San Juan, Lieut. Green.

Panama, Col. Jewett.

Sta. Barbara, Lieut. Green.) —

.

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 227

Name.

Tellina pura, Gld. ...ccccccccseecseececeereeecseeeseeeeeess(Panama, Col. Jewett, teste
Gld. Imp., San Diego &
Mazatlan, Lieut. Green,
teste Gld. MS.

San Juan, Lieut. Green.

Mazatlan, Col. Jewett.

9/26)16| 5|—— gemma, Gd. ........cceesecneesennee eta secevecccassues

10/26)16) 4) —— (Strigilla) fucata, Gid. Proc.B.S.N.H.1851,p. 91.

= Strigilla carnaria, B. M. Maz. Cat. p. 39. no. 66.

8|/Donax flexuosus, Gld. ....cccccccceccccecccccssecceecves aa

9|-—— obesus, Gid. Proc. B. S. N. H. 1851, . '90..

=D. Californicus, Conr., non Desh.

= D. levigatus, Desh.

4|Mactra mendica, Gid. Proc. B. 8. N. H. 1851, p. 88.

= Gnathodon trigona, Petit, B. M. Maz. Cat. p. 52.
no. 81.

ee ie Lutraria ventricosa, Gid. Proc. B.S, N. H. 1851, p. 89.

= Mactra exoleta, Gray.

7|/—— undulata, Gid. Proc. B. S. N. H. 1851, p. 89...

Probably = Mactra elegans, Sow. Tank. Cat. App.

a aera Tapes gracilis, G/d. MS.,...+sssseessssesssseeesssreneeenees San Pedro, W. P. Blake.

—— tenerrima, Cpr. ........ssseceesssceee rerteccrtr er ee Panama, Col. Jewett.

18)33 15 10|Venus tantilla, Gld. [Trigona] ........cscceceesscecescees Sta. Barbara, Col. Jewett.

19/23)15| 2)Arthemis saccata, Gid. Proc. B. S. N. H. 1851, p. ‘Ql. Mazatlan, Lieut. Green.

= Cyclina subquadrata, Hanl.

aa Be Cardium luteolabrum, Gid. Proc. B.S.N. H. 1851, p.91|San Diego, Lieut. Green.

Sta. Barbara, Col. Jewett.
«(San Diego, Lieut. Green.

Mazatlan, Lieut. Green.

Mazatlan, Lieut. Green.

La Paz, Lieut. Green.

o=€, nanthocheilum, Gld. MS. Cat.
soseee{ese|-—— Cruentatum, Gld. MS. ......cceccsesecevscesece ....-|San Pedro, W. P. Blake.
Betlenalere Lucina Artemidis, Cpr. ......cesesesccsseccceesceeeeeoeeeee{? ACapulco.—Mus. Gld.

orbella, Gid. Proc. B. 8. N. H. 1851, p.90.....

.|San Diego, Lieut. Green;
?= Diplodonta semiaspera, var.

Sta. Barbara, Col. Jewett,
and Nuttall.
? Mazatlan, Col. Jewett.

5/Cyrena altilis, Gld..........sccceeee dacccpeaseeune fa ozaae Pare:
= Cyrena Mexicana, var.

Reniires IANOGON: CicOnia, Gld. . 27:.0<<0+socceceugausasavacdabosteaud
= Anodon glauca, Val.

8|Mytilus glomeratus, Gld.Proc. B.S. N. H. 1851, p. 92|San Francisco, Maj. Rich.
Bra haamtee’ Modiola nitens, Cpr. ......cescsssesesecoenesesereesceeseees| California.

9|Lithodomus falcatus, Gld. Brac. B.S.N. H. 1851, p. 92|Monterey, Maj. Rich. In
=Lithophagus Gruneri, Phil. (N. Zeal. Mus. Cum -)*| hard marly clay.
-}.0.|ByssOarca Pernoides, Cpr. ...cscceccecsscecetecccncsceeecer San Diego, Webb.
7\|Avicula sterna, Gld. Proc. B. S. N. H. 1851, p. 93.../Panama, C. B. dd.; ?Ma-
=A. Atlantica, Mke. not Lam, zatlan, Lieut. Green.
6\Lima tetrica, Gid. Proc. B. S. N. H. 1851, p. 93......|La Paz, Maj. Rich.
2\Bulimus vegetus, Gid....... pieaais Gaaiuanaaeeonae sesevseeee(an Juan, Lieut. Green.
=B. pallidior, Sow. teste Cum.
1|—— vesicalis, Gid....... “BRAS Ra FARRAR e fer re ee cene ae Lower Calif., Maj. Rich.
Ee OXCCISUS,, Gidducscadunenaddads cese cvsccdWecescanckvesecess California, Maj. Rich.

: .|LowerCalifornia, Maj. Rich.
Sta. Barbara, Col. Jewett.
Sta. Barbara, Col. Jewett.
San Diego, teste Gid.

San Diego, W. P. Blake.
Sta. Barbara, Col. Jewett.
On kelp or Zoophytes.

Monterey, Lieut. Green.

? Mexico, Lieut. Green.

9|——_ Mondiale cerealis, Gld eas ceusadens scanaenuavesea=

Reuhi whenltay GUE MSPs ia cdeds deswscetetlve accede

Becises|..: —— (Haminea) vesicula, GId. .......c0..sseeecceeceneees

5j|Acmeea paleacea, Gld. ..s.cccsecceseecees hae amapere he ane

= Nacella depicta, Hds.

141) 8)14)11)Trochus marcidus, Gd. ........csccssceseeescnscees oie vane

= Omphalius Pfeifferi, Phil. teste Cum.

= Chlorostoma maculosum, A. Ad.

Dr. Gould’s shell is perhaps that of Adams; while
his 7. Montereyi, Rve., appears to be the O.
Pfeifferi, Phil,

* This appears absolutely identical with the [?] New Zealand shell. It has no incrustation
Outside the epidermis. One of Mr, Cuming’s species has an internal hinge-lamina.

e2

3 ie REPORT—1856.

2} 8).
A é 2\ 2 Name. Locality,
42| 9)...1... Trochus (Monodonta) pyriformis, Gld................++.|San Diego, Lieut. Green.
= Osilinus gallina, Forbes, var.
43} 8}...}... —— picoides, Gid............. ee ee seseseeeseeeeeeee[Sta. Barbara, Col. Jewett ;
=Livona pica, teste Cuming, &c. 5 sp. (part living).
44), --|Phasianella compta, Gld. MS. ...secsereseovecsvececeeees Sta. Barbara, Col. Jewett;
San Diego, Dr. Webb, &
W. P. Blake.
45)...|...|...|Cracibulum Jewettii, Cpr....ccccccssseccsresscees seeeeese-| Mazatlan, Col. Jewett, 1 sp.
46) 4)14) 7\Crepidula explanata, Gid. ....... ee Ar bake sens seeeeeeeee|Monterey, Lieut. Green;

= C. exuviata, Nutt. Jay’s Cat. 3027. Lower Cal., Maj. Rich,
=C. perforans, Val.
47/10\14/12)/Modulus dorsuosus, Gld......sscceecssseeceeeceeeseseeseee/ Acapulco, Col. Jewett.
48) 7|14/1OiNarica ovoidea; Ga: soi... .deecvsseccevsccccscccctocevece ..| Purchased at Mazatlan,”
This shell belongs to Zsapis, H. & A. Ad., which] Col. Jewett.
is a Fossarus, with a columellar callosity, like
Purpura columellaris.

49)...|...|...|?Lacuna unifasciata, Cpr. ........ ide demeewe cece. toy ...|Sta. Barbara, Col. Jewett.

50}...|...|...|Cerithidea albonodosa, Cpr. ......... Bee aetaeesh seccre ..\San Diego, Dr. Webb.

51]...]...|...,——— fuscata, Gld. MS. ......0c0.08 iebesrecksscosseedsoeees(Nall Dieto, WV. Pa blakes
Probably = C. sacrata, var.

52/13/14/20|/ Erato leucopheea, Gid. ......eccsceeeeee paece Gee iwasede .++./Sta. Barbara, Col. Jewett.
=(probably) £. columbelia, Mke.

53] 7/14|19|/Terebra arguta, Gld. ...... Renee nets aextees oe seoseceeeess(an Juan, Lieut. Green.
=T. fulgurata, Phil.

D4 TS L421 Comms rays; Ga» cceccsecs aos ettecesdeteeddriee attaert teal Sta. Barbara, Col. Jewett.

Eo ROE 23 OM PES OUD ines acacaoeseecsvasdtaccossissucdecenavee Sta. Barbara, Col. Jewett.
= C. purpurascens, jun., rubbed, teste Cuming.
=6. achatinus, Mke. non Chemn.

56)15}14/22)-——. pusillus, G@ld.........c.cecceeee eee ceccecedcccscverseees| Mazatlan, Col. Jewett.

57|12)14)13|Odostomia achates, Gid. [Obeliscus] .........secee000- Mazatlan, Col. Jewett.
Comp. O. clavulus, A. Ad.

98/11}14)14|—— gravida, Gld. ..........cceceeeeees Ecoodesoud Pe ogscicodcs Sta. Barbara, Col. Jewett.
Closely resembles O. conoidea.

59)10/14/15|/Chemnitzia tenuicula, Gid.......... wean aeceolld Beat .+...(9ta. Barbara, Col. Jewett.

69)11/14/16|—— torquata, Gld. ..ccecsececescsececascenees Peadaceeaee “Obtained at Sta. Barb.”

61] 6/14/17|Sigaretus debilis, Gld............cceccceseeeseeeee seeseveee|La Paz, Lieut. Green.

(32) ae S| Fasciolaria’bistridta; Cpr) is..dsce.ves eocsleevesuseeenesee Panama, teste Gld.

Glee: leew Olivella intorta, Cpr. ...ccscesceesees PR eS Ty Sone San Juan, Lieut. Green.

G4) cca] coluee Marginella Jewettii, Cpr. .......00..05 eeacbaseeehe nets ../Sta. Barbara, Col. Jewett.

65}.-.|2..|.0. Columbella Santa-Barbarensis, Cpr....... seneveres cesses Sta. Barbara, Col. Jewett.

66}...}...]... ?Nitidella Gouldii, Cpr. .........sesceseeeeee Sea pecan tecc Sta. Barbara, Col. Jewett.

67|12/14/18)/Fusus ambustus, Gid.......... Uvbivesesteaseeds sestteton sees Mazatlan, Lieut. Green.

68/33}...]... Purpura pansa, Gld............ SeFateoctevedecteccisvederdec W. coast America.

= Purpura patula, auct.

Collected by Col. Jewett.

N.B.—The Numbers refer to Dr. Gould’s MS. lists. The habitats in italics claim most

authority.

Pholas concamerata, Desh. 85. Mon-| Corbula tenuis, Sow. “?=alba, Phil.” 79.
terey. _|. Mazatlan.

Osteodesma nitida, Gld. (San Blas: Mus. | Sanguinolaria grandis, Gmel., Hds. 211.
Cum.) 181. Sta. Barbara. . |. San Francisco.

Corbula bicarinata, Sow. (dead valves). | Amphidesma roseum, Gld. (not Sow.) =
9. Sta. Barbara. decisa, Conr.. 3. Sta. Barbara.

— polychroma, Sow. [Gulf Calif. Lieut. | Tellina tersa, Gld. 71*. Panama (“ not
Shipley.] 8. Sta. Barbara. Maz.”’).

ovulata, Gld. =nasuta, Sow. 10.| “ Strigilla fucata, Gld. =Tellina feliz,

Sta. Barbara. (Dead valves.) .. | Ad.’ (=S. carnaria.). 194, Panama.

at er he

eae

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA.

Donax navicula, Hanl. 74, Panama.

. rostratus, C. B. Ad. = culminatus,
B.M. Cat. 37. Sta. Barbara, “ very

. plentiful.” [?] Non Nutt.

Californicus, Conr. 37*. Sta.Barb.

—— gracilis, Hanl. 183. Sta. Barbara.

flexuosus, Gld. Sta. Barbara.

Mactra Californica, Conr. 71*. Pan. [?]

: angulata, Gray. 109. Panama,

Petricola lamellifera, Cony. = Cordiert,
Desh. 88, 107.: Monterey (do. Hart-
weg). (Young shell has radiating ribs
like Venus gnidia, &c.)

— lamellifera, var. = Cordieri, Desh.
88. Monterey.

— carditoides, Conr. ?= cylindracea,
Desh. 84. Monterey, with Bryozoon.
2+ P. Californica, Conr. = arcuata,
Desh.

Venus discors, Sow. 228, 229. Panama.

, Gld. =grata, Say. 28. Guay-

mas.
amathusia, Phil. 231. Panama.
— gnidia, Sow. 227. Panama.
Anomalocardia subrugosa, Sow. 230. Pan.
Tapes tenerrima, Cpr. 187. Panama.
Cytherea lupinaria, Less. 117. Mazatlan.
-—— affinis, Gld. =tortuosa, Brod. 111.
Panama.
aurantia, Hanl. 124. Mazatlan.
Sta. Barbara. [?]
Trigona crassatelloides, Conr. 2.
Barbara.

—_—

Sta.

- 113. Mazatlan. [2]

— ?radiata, var. Hindsii, but more
resembles the Tr. mactroides. Dead
valves. 189. Acapulco.

— planulata, Sow. 94. Mazatlan.

— tantillus, Gld. 14. Sta. Barbara.

Dosinia Dunkeri, Phil. 112. Panama.

Cardita volucris, Gld. =affinis, Rve. ?

Cardium biangulatum, Sow. 78. Panama.

obovale, Sow. 184. Panama.

—— graniferum, Brod.& Sow. 191. Maz.

gemmatum, 55.

maculosum, Kien. 153. “ Panama”

@ prima manu, and probably correct ;

afterwards altered to “‘ San Francisco.”

_ Lueina orbella, Gld. ? = Diplodonta semi-

aspera, var. 83. Sta. Barbara.
Modiola recta, Conr. 87. Sta. Barbara.

Lithophagus falcatus, Gld. =L.Gruneri,

Phil. 86. Monterey.

_ Area gradata, Brod. & Sow. 84. ? Ma-

zatlan.

» Brod. & Sow. 8. Monterey.

-—— concinna, Gld. = similis, C. B. Ad.

=tuberculosa, var. 82. ? Mazatlan.

_ — tuberculosa, Sow. 236. Lower Cal.

— grandis, Sow. 186, Panama.

229

Arca nux, Sow. 186 bis. Panama.
Pacifica, Sow. Panama.
alternata, Sow, 81. ? Mazatlan.

, sp. ind. Dead valves. 185. ?
Pectunculus nequalis, Gld. = assimilis,

teste Cum. 4. Sta. Barbara. [?]

——- ?tessellatus. (Dead valves.) 190.
? Mazatlan.

-——- parcipictus, Sow. 77. Mazatlan.

Nucula polita. 223, Sta. Barbara.
Avicula sterna, Gld. 93. Panama.
Lima angulata, Sow. 180. Acapulco.
Pecten monotimeris, Cony. + latiauritus,

teste Nutt. 179. Sta. Barbara.

Bulla cerealis, Gld. 20. Sta. Barbara.

punctulata, A. Ad. 56. Acapulco.
culcitella, Gld. 62. Sta. Barbara.

Stphonaria gigantea. 206. Acapulco.
Chiton ornatus, Nutt. 197. Sta. Barbara.

lineatus, Wood. 198. Panama.

“muscosus, G. == Collei, Rve.” =
Hindsii, Sow. 199. Panama.

—— Stokesii, Brod. 200. San Francisco.

Californicus, Gld. = scaber, Rve.
201. Sta. Barbara.

— Sitkensis, Rve. = Stelleri,- Midd.
202. Monterey [?].

Acmea paliacea, Gld. =Nacella depicta,
Hds. 8. Sta. Barbara.

Nacella incessa, Hds. (from kelp). 6.
Sta. Barbara.

Acmea patina, var. Esch. (= tessellata,
Nutt.) 7. Sta. Barbara.

— gigantea, = Kochii, Phil.
Monterey.

pintadina, Gld. = verriculata, Rve.

= patina, var. Esch. 207. San Frane.

scabra, Gld. = spectrum, Nutt.
210. San Francisco.

—— scabra, Nutt. 209. Monterey.

, Nutt. 211. Sta. Barbara.

persona, Esch. = Oregona, Nutt.

211 dis.

mesoleuca, var. 214. Acapulco.

Haliotis Cracherodii, Leach. 183. Mon-
terey. :

rufescens, Swains. 182. Monterey.

Trochus picoides, Gld. 203. “? Sta. Bar-
bara.”

Buschii, Phil. ? =inermis, Gmel.
115. Panama.

——, sp.ind. 216. Mazatlan.

—— (Omphalius dentatus, Gmel.) 216 bis.
Acapulco. This appears to be the com-
mon small smooth W. Indian species ;
probably imported.

Panamensis, Phil. 217. Panama.

reticulatus, Gld. =Omphalius viri-

dulus, Gmel, =Byronianus, Gray. 219,

Mazatlan, ,

98.

230

Trochus Antonii, var.
from kelp.

mestus. 129. Sta. Barbara.

ligatus, Gld. =filosus, Nutt. (closely

resembles dolarius). 11. Monterey.

dolarius. 10, Sta. Barbara.

Norrisii, Sow. 120. Sta. Barbara.

ater, Less. = gallina, Forbes. 116.
Monterey.

Turbo saxosus, Wood. 226. Panama.

pustulatus, Gld. (may be tessellatus

or saxosus, jun. Cum.) 46. Acapulco.

squamigera, Rve. (Galapagos, Cum.)
218. Panama.

Phasianella compta, Gld. 12,25. S.Barb.

Nerita elegans (probably scabricosta,var.).
234, Panama.

“Neritina harpeformis ;”’ probably a lap-
sus for Columbella h. Taboga.

Capulus. 213. Sta, Barbara,

Hipponyx Grayanus, Mke. = radiatus,
Gray. 205, Panama.

—,sp.ind. 203. Taboga.

2 subrufa, Sow. (white, rubbed).
213. ?Sta. Barbara.

Calyptrea regularis, C.B.Ad. =Galerus
mammillaris, Brod. 148. Sta. Barbara.

mammillaris, Brod. 215. Acapulco.

. Sp.ind. ?—

Crucibulum spinosum, Sow. (dead). 148
bis. Sta. Barbara.

Jewettii, 150. Mazatlan.

2? imbricatum, Sow. 212. Acapulco.

Crepidula excavata, Brod. 225. Sta, Barb.

(like squama; apex gone), 151.

Sta. Barbara.

(2 hepatica =) onyx, Sow. Mazatlan

[teste list, probably correct: Sta. Bar-

bara, ticket].

rostriformis, Gld. = adunca, Sow.

149. Sta. Barbara.

= incurva, Brod. 149. Sta

9. Sta. Barbara,

Barbara.

Turritella goniostoma, Val. 235. Panama.

Modulus dorsuosus, Gld, =disculus, Phil.
47. Acapulco.

catenulatus, Phil. 48. Acapulco.

Narica ovoidea, Gld. =Isapis o,, H. and
A. Ad. 17. Mazatlan.

Lacuna. 47. Sta. Barbara.

Litorina (?Lacuna) wunifasciata, Cpr.
23,172. Sta. Barbara.

puncticulata, Phil. =conspersa, vay.

174. 2? Panama.

? pusillus, Phil. 50. Panama.

planaxis, Nutt., Phil. = tenebrata,
Nutt. 100. San Francisco.

—— aspera, Phil. 173. Panama.

Rissoina ambigua, Gld. 14, “ Valpai-
reiso, Mex.”

REPORT— 1856,

Planaxis planicostata (called sulcata,
Lam.). 53,58. Panama.
Vertagus gemmatus, Hds. 55. ?—
Cerithium maculosum, Kien. 153. Pan.
(a pr. man. bene, postea San Francisco).
Cerithidea sacrata, Gld. = Pirena Cali-
fornica, Nutt. 102. San Francisco.
Montagnei, D’Orb. 13. Panama.
— solida, Gld. = valida, C. B. Ad. =
varicosa, Sow. 68. Panama.
Bittium (rubbed). 31. Sta. Barbara.
Ovulum variabile, C.B.Ad. = Californi-
cum, Mus. Cum. No.34 on kelp thrown
up after storm. 32-34. Sta. Barbara.
Erato scabriuscula, Gray. 26. ? Mazatlan.
leucophea, Gld. [Mazatlan, Rev. —
Steele.] 28, Sta. Barbara.

ae . Comp. £. columbella, Mke.
27*, 30. 2 Mazatlan.
2 Jewettii, Cpr. 30. Sta. Barbara.

Cyprea radians, Lam. 136, Panama.
spadicea, Swains. 118. Sta. Barb.
punctulata, Gray. 108. Panama.
—— pustulata, Lam. 130. Panama.
—— pediculus, Linn. (dead). 131. Aca-
pulco [? imported].
Pacifica, Gray. 131*. Acapulco,
suffusa, Gray. 132, Acapulco.
— Californica, Gray. 133. Sta. Barb.
sanguinea, Sow. 134, Panama.
—— Solandri, Gray. 135. Panama.
Cancellaria brevis, Sow. Acapulco.
clavatula, Sow. 4. Taboga.
Strombus granulatus, Sow. 47,70. Pan.
Terebra, sp. ind. 17, Sta. Barbara.
robusta, Hds. 119. Panama.
Defrancia bella, Hds. 18, Sta. Barbara,
on zoophytes.
? Mangelia. [Perhaps this is the Drilla
albovallosa.| 223. Panama.
Conus ravus, Gld. 5. Sta. Barbara.
160. Acapulco.
—— comptus,Gld. =worn purpurascens,
jun., teste Cuming. 121. Sta. Bard.[?]
pusillus, Gld. 122. Mazatlan.
(young, worn). 29, Sta. Barbara.
Odostomia achates, Gld. =Obeliscus. 17.
Mazatlan.
gravida, Gld. 24. Sta. Barbara.
Chemnitzia tenuicola, Gld. 19. Sta. Barb.
torquata, Gld. 22. Sta. Barbara,
Scalaria statuminata, Sow. (very fine).
240. Taboga.
Scalaria (like venosa, W.I.). ? Panama.
Natica Souleyetana, Recl. 166. Panama.
maroccana, jun. 165. Panama.
unifasciata (= maroccana, var.).
163. Panama.
Haneti, Recl. 169, Panama.
——, sp. ind. (rubbed). 167, Panama.

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA.

Natica zonaria, Lam. (Acapulco, on the
sands, Mus. Cum.) 167 pars. Panama.

»sp.ind. 164. 2—

— uber, Val.=300 +302, C.B.Ad. Pan.
Shells, teste Gld. 168. 2?—

Ficula decussata, Wood. 178. Taboga.

Dolium ringens, Swains. 204. Panama.

Voluta harpa, Barnes. 154. Mazatlan.

Marginella sapotilla, Hds. 110. Panama.

> sp.ind. 27. ? Mazatlan.

Mitra lens, Wood, =foraminata, Swains.
=Dupontii, Kien. 61,69. Panama.
—— “auriculoides?” Probably = pica,

Rye. 42. Panama.
Fasciolaria bistriata, Cpr. 175. Panama.
Leucozonia cingulata, Lam. 90. Panama.
Triton, sp.ind. Taboga.
constrictus, Gld. = Persona ridens,
- Rve. (St. John’s, Hartweg.) 176.
Acapulco.
? Ranella convoluta, Brod. 6. Taboga.
nitida, Brod. 89. Panama.
celata, Brod. 91. Panama.
Oliva ? eburnea. 159. ? Panama.
petiolita, Gld., ?=rufifasciata, teste
Cum. 15. Sta. Barbara (dead).
plumbea=testacea, Lam. 99. Pan.
angulata, Wood. 107. Taboga.
— biplicata, Sow. 157. Sta. Barbara.
volutella, Lam. 158,161,162. Pan.
Nassa luteostoma, Brod. 52. Panama.
— versicolor, C. B. Ad. 117. Acapulco.
complanata, Powys. 44. Panama.
collaria, Gld. 49. Panama.
; corpulenta,C.B. Ad. 51. Panama.
perpinguis, Hds. 114. Sta. Barbara.
Tritonidea pagodus, Rve. 95. Panama.
Purpura columellaris, Lam. 65. Acapulco.
- emarginata, Desh.=Conradi, Nutt.
104. San Francisco.
— “undata (2 bicostalis)”’=biserialis,
Blainv. 238. Panama.
, sp.ind. 104. ? Mazatlan.

231

Purpura sanguinolenta, Desh. = Pisania
hemastoma, Gray. 224. Panama.
kiosquiformis, Ducl. 105. Panama.
septentrionalis (appears =lapillus,

var.). 97. San Francisco (also Nutt.).
- melones, Ducl. 106. Panama.
Ricinula ? carbonaria. 67. Panama.
Monoceros punctatum, Sow.=lapilloides,
Conr. 101. San Francisco.
brevidentatum, Brod. [?]. 103. San
Francisco.
unicarinatum. 101. San Francisco.
Columbella gibberula, Sow. (on anchor).
Sta. Barbara.
gibberula, Sow. 16. Taboga.
— carinata, Hds. 35. Sta. Barbara.
— Gouldii, Cpr. 36, Sta. Barbara.
Santa-Barbarensis,Cpr. 172. Sta.
Barbara.
bicanalifera, Sow. 38. Taboga.
nigricans, Sow. 39, 40. Taboga.
guttata, Sow. (Apr.man.=cribraria,
Lam.) 43. Mazatlan.
(worn). 49*. Acapulco.
festiva, Rve. - 281. Acapulco,
major, Sow. 54. Panama.
102. Mazatlan.
— hemastoma, Sow. 57, 155. ? Pan.
rugosa, and var. 221, Panama.
harpeformis, Sow. Taboga.
— ?parva, Sow. 96. ? Panama.
maculosa, Sow. ?—
Truncaria modesta, Pow. 152. Panama.
72. Sta. Barbara [?].
Engina ferruginosa. 41. [2 W. I. im-
ported. ]

i ead

crocostoma, Rve. 67. Panama.
[Galap. Cuming.]
Concholepas Peruviana, Lam. 139. Pa-

nama | surely imported].
Fusus, sp. ind. 175. Panama.
Cyrtulus distortus, Gray. 75, Panama.
Murex Nuttalli, Conr. 92, Panama [?].

Collected by Lieut. Green.

Pholas ovoidea, Gld. 181. San Diego.
Californica, Conr.=Janellii, Desh.
182. San Diego.

penita, Conr. 184. San Diego.

Platyodon cancellata, Conr. 162. San
Diego.

Osteodesma Californica, Conr. 192. San
Diego.

“ Anatina argentaria, Cour.=Periploma
planiuscula, Sow.”’=Periploma Leana,
teste Cuming. 27. Guaymas.

Thracia granulosa, Gld.=plicata, Desh.
10. La Paz.

Solen maximus, Wood=Nuttalli, Conr.
21. San Francisco.

Solecurtus Californianus, Gld.=subteres,
Conr. 188, 189. San Diego.

“ Sanguinolaria miniata,”’ Gld. = pur-
purea, Desh. 37. San Juan.

Psammobia decora, Hds.=Sanguinolaria
Nuttalli, Conr. 140. San Diego.

Cumingia Californica, Conr. 171, 195,
196. San Diego.

Semele decisa, Conr. 134. San Diego.

flavicans, Gld.=S. proxima, B. M.

Cat., not C. B. Ad. 191. San Diego.

232

Semele rubrolineata, Cony. = S. simplex,
A. Ad. teste Cum.* 141. San Diego.

Tellina [resembling Suénsoni, Moreh,
Brazil, and T. ealearea). 142. San Diego.

—— gemma, Gld. 198. San Juan.

pura, Gld. 197. San Diego.

. 57, Mazatlan.

— secta, Conr. 139. San Diego.

nasuta, Cony. 147. San Diego.

vicina, C. B. Ad. 130. ? Mazatlan.

, C. B. Ad. 188. Acapulco.

regia, Hanl. 52. Mazatlan.

Dona punctatostriatus, Hanl. 55. Ma-
zatlan.

carinatus, Hanl. 93. Mazatlan.

Californicus, Conr. = levigatus,

Desh. 159. San Diego.

abruptus, Gld.=Californicus, Conr.
var. 160. San Diego.

— Californicus, Conr. var. 161, San
Diego.

——

, var. 199. San Juan.
Mactra (Lutraria) nasuta, Gld. [?=fal-
cata]. 49. ? Mazatlan; San Pedro.
Californica, Conr. 100. ? Mazatlan.
Lutraria ventricosa, Gld.=Mactra exo-
leta, Gray. 50. ? Mazatlan.

undulata, Gld. 9. La Paz.

Gnathodon mendicus, Gla. = Rangia tri-
gona, Petit. 95. ? Mazatlan.

“Saxidomus Nuttalli, Conr. = Venerupis
Petitii, Desh.” = Tapes maxima, Phil.

. 156. Monterey.

Sawicava carditoides, Conv.
2 Monterey.

Cordieri, Desh.= Venus lamellifera,
Conr. 107. Monterey.

——, sp. ind. ll. La Paz.

pholadis (Desh., Guér. Mag. 1841,
pl. 40). 29. San Diego.

Petricola bulbosa, Gld.=robusta, Sow.
31. Guaymas.

dactylus, Sow. (very rare). 11. La
Paz.

Venus, sp. ind. 124. ? Mazatlan.

amathusia, Pbil. 83,59. Mazatlan.

. 53. Mazatlan.

- Columbiensis. 85,87. Guaymas.

gnidia, Sow. 63. Mazatlan.

straminea, Conr. 22. Guaymas.

reticulata. 17. La Paz.

— simillima, Sow. 172. San Diego.

— Californiensis, Brod. (not Conr.),
Mus. Cum. 146. San Diego.

LOPE

REPORT—1856. LO

Venus Petitii, var.=straminea, var. teste
Nutt. 185. San Diego.

— Californicus, jun., Conr.=compta,:
Mus. Cum. 171. San Diego.

, = compta, Mus. Cum. 61.

Mazatlan.

flctifraga, Gla. =Nutialli, Comr-
(non Desh.)+. 145. San Diego.

Anomalocardia subrugosa, Sow. 58. Maz.

Dione circinata(Mazatlan, Rev.—Steele).
73. 2? Mazatlan.

— rosea. 62. Mazatlan.

dione, Gld.=lupinaria, Less. 129.

Ts. 3 Marias.

biradiata, Gray=D. Chionea. 7.
La Paz.

Dosinia Dunkeri, Phil. 56. ?Mazatlan.

gigantea, Sow. 19. La Paz.

saccata,Gld.= Cyclinasubquadrata,
Hanl. 99. Mazatlan.

Trigona crassatelloides, Conr. 153. San
Diego.

—_——

. 94. Mazatlan. [2]

corbicula, Gld. =radiata, Sow. 122.
? Mazatlan.

Chama Pacifica, Gld.=C. frondosa, var.
Mexicana. On Vermetus. 24. Guaym.

exogyra, Conr. San Pedro.

, with C. venosa. 150. San

Diego.

— pellucida. 176. San Diego.

Cardita affinis, Gid. = Californica, Desh.
26. Guaymas.

Cardium Panamense, Sow. 84. ?Maz.

—— wanthocheilum, Gld.=luteolabrum,
Gld. 132. San Diego.

-— Nuttalli, Conr. = Californiense,
Desh. 138. San Diego.

substriatum, Conr. 158. San Diego.

elatum, Sow. 194. San Diego.

Diplodonta orbella, Gld. [do.Nutt.] 137,
138. San Diego.

Lucina punctata, Linn. 16. La Paz.

, Linn. 136. San Diego.

Cyrena altilis, Gld.=Meaicana, var. TEE
? Mazatlan.

Anodon ciconia, Gld. 48. ?Mexico.

Mytilus, sp. ind. 47. San Francisco.

Modiola, sp.ind. 20. San Francisco.

— capaz, jun. 173. San Diego.

, Conr., very large valve. 4.
La Paz.

Lithophagus falcatus, Gld. = Gruneri,
Phil. 117. Monterey.

* The locality given to S. simplex by Lieut. Belcher is “ China Seas;” but, as in the case
of Dosinia simplea, is almost certainly erroneous. :

+ This is the /. callosa (quasi Conr.) of Deshayes. The specimen is marked “? Stutchburyi;”
which is a closely allied species from the Pacific Islands, with differently shaped teeth, no
posterior crenations, and displaying a few Cardium-like intercalations at the margin,

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA.

Lithophagus attenuatus, Desh. 180. San
Diego.

, sp. ind. 183. San Diego.
Pectunculus giganteus, Rve. 32. Guaymas.
-— assimilis, Sow. 86. ? Mazatlan.
Avicula sterna, Gld. 60. ? Mazatlan.
Meleagrina, sp. 80. ?Mazatlan.
Perna flexuosa, Sow. = Chemnitziana,
D’Orb. 81. Mazatlan.
»== Chemnitziana. 103. La Paz.
Pecten ? purpuratus = ventricosus, Sow.,
with Bivonia indentata. 144. ? San
Diego.
latiauritus, Conr. + monotimeris,
. teste Nutt. 131. San Diego.
nodosus. 3. La Paz.
dentatus, Sow. 6. La Paz.
Hinnites gigantea, Gray =H. Poulsoni,
Conr. 1834. 149. San Diego.
Spondylus “varians, Sow.” 1. La Paz.
“pictorum, Chem.= crassisquama,
Lam.” 2. La Paz.
Ostrea Cumingiana, Dkr. 5. La Paz.
palmula, Cpr. 147. San Diego.
conchaphila, Cpr., 1°5 in. long ; very
thin; (Oregon, San Diego, Nutt.), no
tendency to crenations ; striped. 174.
_ San Diego.
Bulla nebulosa, Gld. 175. San Diego.
Bulimus vegetus, Gld.=pallidior, Sow.
San Juan.
Helix tudiculata, Binney. 151. San Diego.
Kellettii, Forbes. 152. San Diego.
Melampus olivaceus, Cpr. 193. San Diego.
Chiton articulatus, Br. 74. Mazatlan.
Blainvillei, Br. 133. San Diego.
Magdalenensis,Hds. 72. Mazatlan.
Patella Mewicana, Lam. 67. Mazatlan.
——- discors, Phil. 125. Mazatlan.
Acmea? 125. ? Mazatlan.
gigantea=Kochii, Phil. 166. San
Diego.
pintadina, Gld.=verriculata, Rve.
=patina, var. 66. Mazatlan [?].
,==mesoleuca, Mke. 65. Ma-

zatlan.

, = leucophea, Nutt.= pelia,

Esch, 75. Mazatlan [2].

—— , =fascicularis, Mke. 164,
177. San Inego.

—— —? 167. San Diego.

, =scabra, Nutt., var. 168,178.
San Diego.

— 5 =Oregona, var. Nutt. =per-

f sona, Esch. 169. San Diego.

— scabra, Gld. = spectrum, Nutt.
179. San Diego.

2? spectrum, var. [M ay be an arau-

cana, D’Orb., imported from Valpa-

raiso].; 64. Mazatlan [?].

233

Acmea patina, var. cinis, Rve. 116. Mont,

, var. tessellata, Nutt. 165.
San Diego.
?Fissurella. 163. San Diego.

virescens, Sow. 70. Mazatlan.

volcano, Sow. 163. San Diego,

Turbo fluctuosus, Wood= Fokkesii, Jonas.
148. San Diego.

120. Mazatlan.

Trochus unguis, Wood =digitatus. 108,
? Mazatlan.

—— filosus. 157. San Diego.

dolarius. 115. Monterey.

virgineus. 114. Monterey.

— olivaceus, Wd. 92. ? Mazatlan. (A
specimen, no. 388, marked ‘ Sandwich
Is.’ must have been imported there.)

Montereyi, Kien. = Pfeifferi, Phil.
113. Monterey.

— (Omphalius) fuscescens, Phil. 123.
2? Mazatlan. (The O. Californicus, A.
Ad., appears to be only a flattened var.
of this shell.)

“ qureotinctus, Fbs. = cateniferus,
Pot.” 186. San Diego.

— striatulus, Kien.=brunneus, Phil.
Mus. Cum. 187. San Diego.

-— pyriformis, Gld.=gallina, var. M.
Cum. 155. San Diego.

Nerita multijugis, Mke. = scabricosta,
Lam. 118. Panama.

Bernhardi, Recl. Guaymas.

Neritina picta, Sow. 126. St. Michael.

Calyptrea regularis, C. B. Ad.=Galerus
mamillaris, Brod. 51. Mazatlan.

Crucibulum spinosum, Sow. 190. S. Diego.

Crepidula explanata, Gld. = exuviata,
Nutt.=perforans, Val. 112. Monterey.

Aletes squamigerus, Cpr. San Pedro.

Modulus “? disculus, Phil.’’ (perhaps ca-
tenulatus, Phil.). 82. Mazatlan. °

Cerithium irroratum, Gld.=stercusmus-
carum, Val. 78. Mazatlan.

Cerithidea fuscata, Gld.= sacrata, var.
teste Nutt. San Diego.

Potamis Hegewischii, Gld. = Cerithi-
dea varicosa, var. Mazatlanica. 71.
Mazatlan.

Ovulum variabile, C. B. Ad. =Californi-
cum, Mus. Cum. 36. San Juan.

Cyprea radians, Lam. 68. Mazatlan.

Cancellaria goniostoma, Sow, 56. Ma-
zatlan.

Strombus gracilior, Sow. 8. La Paz.

Terebra arguta, Gld. = fulgurata, Phil.
35*. San Juan.

Conus regularis, Sow. 23,25. Guaymas.

princeps, Linn. 90. San Juan.

, sp. ind. 33. Guaymas.

——,sp.ind. 35, Guaymas.

234

Solarium ? quadriceps, Hds. (dead). 106.
Mazatlan.

Natica patula, Sow. 77. Mazatlan.

— maroccana=Pritchardi, Forbes. 96.
?Guaymas. Specimens exactly like,
are in Mus. Cum. from Soe. Is.

— bifasciata. 97. 2? Guaymas.

Recluziana. 154. San Diego.

Sigaretus debilis, Gld. 98. La Paz.

Ficula ventricosa, Sow.—decussata. 121.
2 Mazatlan.

Cassis coarctata (dead). 89. San Juan.

Oniscia tuberculosa, Sow. 38. San Juan.

Oliva porphyria, Lim. 14. La Paz.

?eburnea. 34. San Juan.

—,sp.ind. 41. San Juan.

— tergina, Ducl. 42, 43. San Juan.

intorta. 44. San Juan.

splendidula, Sow. 104. La Paz.

REPORT—1856.

Purpura patula, Linn. 40. La Pax (list).
San Juan (ticket).

emarginata. 12. La Pax.

biserialis, Blamv. 101. La Paz.

kiosquiformis, Ducl. 88. La Paz.

,sp.ind. 13. La Paz.

Monoceros muricatum, Brod. ? St. Juan.

tuberculatum, Gray. 39,91. S.Juan.

Columbella (gibbosa =) strombiformis,
Lam. 102. Mazatlan.

Buccinum? 33*. San Juan.

Fusus ambustus, Gld. [exactly resembles
the Mediterranean sp.] 128. ? Mazatl.

pallidus, Gray. 119. Guaymas.

Pyrula patula, Br.& Sow. 69. Mazatlan.

lignaria, Gray. 119. Guaymas.

Murex bicolor, Val. 15. La Paz.

brassica, Lam. 76. Mazatlan.

—— plicatus, Sow. 109. ?San Juan.

Collected by Major Rich.

Pholas ovoidea, Gid. Upper Cal.

Californica, Conr. Upper Cal.

Sanguinolaria Nuttalli,Cour. San Pedro.

Solecurtus subteres, Conr. Monterey.

Tellina secta, Conr. Monterey.

nasuta, Conr. Lower Cal.

Cumingii, Sow. 2—

Bodegensis, Hds. Monterey.

Tellidora Burneti, Brod. Lower Cal.

Cumingia Californica, Cour. Monterey.

Lutraria? Lower Cal.

Platyodon cancellata, Conr. Upper Cal.

Saxidomus Nuttalli, Conr. ?—

Saxicava carditoides, Conr. Lower Cal.

lamellifera, Cony. Upper Cal.

Petricola robusta, Sow. ?—

Dosinia gigantea, Sow. Gulf Calif.

Dione chionea, Mke. Lower Cal.

rosea, Brod.=Jepida, Chen. Lower
California.

Trigona planulata, Sow. Lower Cal.

crassatelloides, Conr. Lower Cal.

corbicula, Gld. = radiata, Sow.

Lower Calif.

argentina, Sow. Upper California[? ].

Venus amathusia, Phil. Lower Cal.

gnidia, Brod. Lower Cal.

—— straminea, Conr. Lower Cal.

— Californiensis, Brod., not Conr.
Lower Cal. & San Pedro.

Chama rugosa. Lower Cal.

echinata. Lower Cal.

Cardita affinis, Gld.=Californica, Desh.
Lower Cal.

Cardium Panamense, Sow. Lower Cal.‘

Californiense, Conr. Upper Cal.

consors, Br. & Low. Lower Cal.

Lucina ‘? bella (see tigrina).”” LowerCal.

Californica, Lower Cal.

Alasmodon falcata, Gid. Upper Cal.

Mytilus Californianus, Conr. Upper Cal.

glomeratus, Gld. San Francisco.

Modiola flabellum, Gld. ?—

divaricata, Gld.? =Crenella coarc-
tata, Dkr. Upper Cal. [?]

Lithophagus faleatus, Gld. Upper Cal.

?cinnamomea. ?—

Arca grandis, Sow. Lower Cal.

formosa. Lower Cal.

— tuberculosa, Sow. Lower Cal.

multicostata, Sow. Lower Cal.

reversa, Gray=hemicardium, Koch.

Lower Cal.

(large rhomboid), probably grandis,
var. Gulf Cal.

Perna? Californica, Conr. Lower Cal. [?]

Pecten ventricosus, Sow. Lower Cal.

latiauritus, Cony. + monotimeris,

Conr. Upper Cal.

nodosus. Lower Cal.

Lima tetrica, Gld. Lower Cal.

Spondylus “‘ pictorum, Chem.” Lower
Cal.

Placunanomia macroschisma, Desh.
Monterey.

Bulla nebulosa, Gld. Lower Cal.

Bulimus vesicalis, Gld. (probably young,
Cuming). Lower Cal.

excelsus, Gld. Lower Cal.

Helix Californiensis, Lea. Upper Cal.

Scurria mitra, Esch. & Less. Upper Cal.

Fissurella virescens, Sow. Upper Cal. [?]

crenulata, Sow. Monterey.

Pomaulax undosus, Wood. Upper Cal.

Trochus mestus. Lower Cal.

filosus. Upper Cal.

dolarius. Upper Cal.

—— virgineus. Upper Cal.

ON MOLLUSCA Of THE .WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA, 235

Trochus ater, Less. [?=] gallina Up. Cal.

Trochiscus Norrisii, Sow. Upper Cal.

Uvanilla olivacea, Wood. Lower Cal.

Neritina picta, Sow. Lower Cal.

Crucibulum spinosum, Sow. San Pedro,
Lower Cal.

tenue, Brod.=spinosum, var. Lower

Cal.

rude, Brod. Lower Cal.

dentatum, Mke. Lower Cal.

— imbricatum [? cujus|. ?—

Calyptrea (like equestris), probably ce-

_ pacea. Lower Cal.

Galerus conicus, Brod. ?—

- mammillaris, Brod. ?—

Crepidula onyx, Sow. Lower Cal.

excavata, Brod. Lower Cal.

— aculeata (teste Gld.). Lower Cal.

— (like) dilatata. Lower Cal.

2 squama. Lower Cal.

Litorina planaxis, Nutt. Upper Cal.

Planaxis planicostata. ?—

Cyprea spadicea, Gray. Monterey.

zonata, Gray = Sowerbyi, Rve.

Lower Cal.

arabicula. Lower Cal.

Cancellaria obesa, Sow., ? =urceolata,
Hds. La Paz.

— solida, Sow. La Paz.

cassidiformis, Sow. La Paz.

candida, Sow. Gulf Cal.

goniostoma, Sow. Gulf Cal,

Strombus gracilior, Sow. Lower Cal.

granulatus, Sow. Lower Cal.

Terebra variegata, Gray. (Guaymas, Mus.
Cum.) Lower Cal.

Pleurotoma maculosa, Sow. Lower Cal.

Conus trochulus, Rve. Upper Cal.

interruptus, Brod. & Sow. Lower
California.

Solarium quadriceps, Hds. Lower Cal.

Natica Chemnitz, Phil. Lower Cal.

bifasciata. Lower Cal.

Mitra lens, Wood. Lower Cal.

imermis. ?—

Cassis coarctata, Sow. Lower Cal.

Leucozonia cingulata, Sow. Lower Cal.

Ranella ventricosa, ?—

Triton Chemnitzii, Gld. (lapsu) = sipho-
natus, Rve. Lower Cal.

Tritonidea pagodus, Rve. Lower Cal.

Nassa luteostoma, Brod. Lower Cal.

Oliva splendidula, Sow. Lower Cal.

testacea, Lam. Lower Cal.

—— biplicata, Sow. Lower Cal.

volutella, Lam. Lower Cal.

?tigrina. Lower Cal.

Columbella fuscata, Sow. ower Cal.

coniformis. Lower Cal.

Purpura columellaris, Lam. Lower Cal,

biserialis, Blainv. Lower Cal.

emarginata, Desh. Lower Cal.

kiosquiformis, Ducl. ?—

muricata, Gray. Lower Cal.

Monoceros punctatum, Sow. Upper Cal.

brevidentatum, Wood. ?—

— cymatum, Sow. ?—

erassilabrum, Sow. Upper Cal. [?]

unicarinatum. ?—

globulus, [?cujus|. 2?—

Vitularia salebrosa, King=vitulina,Gray.
Lower Cal.

Murex bicolor, Val. Lower Cal.

foliatus=pinniger, Brod. ?—

48. The first important contribution to the local fauna of the Gulf of

California was made by Dr. Menke; who, having received from his friend
M. Heinrich Melchers, of Bremen, a number of shells which he had himself
collected at Mazatlan, proceeded to catalogue and describe them in the
“ Zeitschrift fiir Malacozoologie,” Dec. 1847, pp. 177-191. Here, for the
first time in the history of West N. American Mollusca, we have an attempt
to present a complete geographical list, of known as well as supposed new
species, collected in a particular district. For the example thus set, and for
the record of the labours of M. Melchers, Dr. Menke deserves well of
science; but it does not appear that his identification of species is always
‘sound ; nor is it in every case easy to make out his descriptions of new
forms. The paper is entitled “ Verzeichniss einer Sendung von Conchylien
von Mazatlan, mit einigen Kritischen Bemerkungen,” and contains notes on
the following species :-—

No.

1. Siphonaria lecanium, Phil.

2. Litorina aspera, Phil.

3. Turritella imbricata, [Mke. quasi]
Lam.=T. tigrina, Kien.

No.

4. Vermetus glomeratus, [Mke. quasi]
(Rouss.), Linn. ?=Bivoniacontorta.

5. Natica iostoma, Mke. “ Resembles
N. canrena.” ?=N.wmaroccana,var.

236 REPORT—1856.

No. No.
6. Natica maroccana,Chemn.(Koch)= | 35. Calyptrea dentata, Mke. “=C. ru-
N. Chemniizit, Pfr. gosa, Less. in Guér. Mag. non Desh.
7. Nerita multijugis, Mke.=N. scabri- =C. extinctorium, Sow. non Lam.”
costa, Lam., teste Mke. postea. = Crucibulum imbricatum, var,
8. Turbo fluctuosus, Wood. B. M. Maz. Cat. p. 287. no. 343,
9. Solarium granulatum, [Mke. quasi] | 36. imbricata, Sow.
Lam. 37. —— Lamarckii, Desh. (Australia).

10. Cerithium ocellatum, [Mke. quasi] | 38. Hipponyx australis, [Mke. quasi]
Brug.=C. stercusmuscarum, Val. Lam.=H. serratus.

11. Buccinum sanguinolentum, Ducl.= | 39. Fissurella pica, Sow.

Pollia kemastoma, Gray. 40. chlorotrema, Mke.=F. rugosa,

12; gemmulatum, Rye. non Lam. Sow.
nec Kien.=Pisania gemmata. 41. humilis, Mke.=F. rugosa, var.

13, giloum, Mke. Appears to bean | 42. gemmata, Mke. 2=F. alba, jun.
Anachis, possibly coronata. 43. Acmea mitella, Mke.

14. Terebra fulgurata, Phil. 44, Pecten adspersus, Sow. (Tumbez,

15. Purpura hemastoma, [Mke. quasi] Peru.)

Lam.=P. biserialis, Blainv. var. 45. Avicula Atlantica, [Mke. quasi] Lam.

16. bicostalis, Rve.=P. biserialis, =A. sterna, Gld.

Blainv. 46. Arca ? ovata, Rve.

Wwe atromarginata, “Blainv., Desh. | 47. Mytilus = M. spatula, Mke. im Zeit.
=P. cancellata, Kien.” (New f. Mal. 1848, p. 2. Possibly = Mo-
Hebrides.) diola capaz, jun.

18. Columbella strombiformis, Lam. 48. Modiola=M. semilevis, Mke. in Zeit,

19 major, Sow. f. Mal. 1848, p. 5.

20 harpeformis, Sow. 49. Cardita afinis, |Mke. quasi] Sow.=

21. Murex brassica, Lam.=M. ducalis, C. Californica.

Brod. 50. Cardium muricatum, [Mke. quasi]

22. Ficula decussata=Pyrula ventricosa, Linn. ?2=C. radula, Brod. & Sow.
Sow. 51. procerum, Sow.

23. Conus achatinus, [Mke.quasi] Brug. | 52. Donax ? compressus, [Mke. quasi]
=C. purpureus or regalitatis. Lam. ?=D. assimilis, Hanl.

24, Oliva tergina, Ducl. 53. Tellina cicercula, Phil.

25. - zonalis, Lam. 54. Cytherea corbicula[Mke. quasi] Lam,

26. Erato columbella, Mke. =Trigona radiata.

27. Cyprea arabicula, Lam. 55. argentina, Sow.

28 Sowerbyi, “ Rve.= C. zonata, | 56. semifulva, Mke. ?2= Trigona
Gray, not Chemn.” radiata, var.

29 sanguinea, Gray. 57. ——chionea, Mke.=Dionesqualida,

30 Solandri, Gray. Sow. + biradiata, Gray. ? + D. ele-

31 pustulata, Lam. gans, Koch.

32. Crepidula costata, [Mke. quasi] Sow. | 58. Venus cancellata, [Mke. quasi] Linn,
=C. aculeata, var. 2=Chione amathusia: but v. B. M.

33 hepatica, [Mke. quasi] Desh. Maz. Cat. p. 80. no. 113.
=C.incurva, Brod.,not C. hepatica, | 59. Corbula ?ustulata, Rve. One rubbed
C. B. Ad. valve.

34. uncata, Mke.=C. adunca, Sow.

Of the 45 species here quoted from other authors, the following 15 do
not belong to the fauna:—Nos. 3, 4, 9, 10, 15, 17, 23, 32, 37, 38, 45, 50,
52, 54, 58. It is fair to suppose, either that the writer has erred in his
diagnoses, or that shells have been imported. In most cases, as very similar
species really are found at Mazatlan, it is natural to adopt the former
alternative. In other cases, as in nos. 20 and 44, the species inhabit the
coast, but their presence at Mazatlan wants the confirmation of the Reigen
collection. Of the shells intended by nos. 17, 28, 37, 46, 48, & 59, no
information can be given. Of the entire 59 species, accepting the altered
nomenclature, which would reduce the number to 55, 40 are certainly, and

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 237

five probably, members of the fauna: of the remaining ten, it is unsafe to
hazard a conjecture.

The above analysis has been attempted, partly in order to show the diffi-
culties attendant upon all inquiries ofthis kind. Here is a collection made
on a single spot by a competent gentleman*, and described by a concholo-
gist of acknowledged superiority, the editor of one of the very few strictly
Conchological Journals; and yet only 32 can be accepted in the state in
which they are presented, the remaining 27 containing errors either of col-
lection or of description. If such is the work of a master, the readers of
this Report will accept with due caution the labours of a mere student.

49. But if there is so much doubt attaching to Menke’s first list, there is
still more in the principal list which follows. In the Zeit. f. Mal. 1850, no. 11,
Dr. Menke informs us that since his last paper, M. Melchers had again
visited Mazatlan, and had investigated the shells of that region with great
zeal and perseverance, and no little sacrifice of money. He returned to
Bremen in the summer of 1849, and generously presented Dr. Menke with
a selection in the autumn of 1850. So far all is extremely satisfactory; but
he goes on to state that he received at the same time, from the same ship,
a box obtained at Mazatlan by purchase. This fact invalidates the soundness
of all that follows; except in those few instances in which we are informed
that M. Melchers collected the shells himself. The following list there-
fore must be received with great caution, except where the shells are con-
firmed by other authority. Occasionally Dr. Menke gives particulars as to
the number of individuals from which he describes; as when he tells us,
p- 188, that, as he has had an opportunity of examining no fewer than eight
specimens of Murex ambiguus, Rve., he can speak with authority as to its
being distinct from M. nigritus, Phil. If he had examined the many
hundreds in the Reigen collection, he would probably have come to a different
conclusion. The second (mixed) list is as follows :—

1850, pp. 161-173. has not been found. ?=Bivonia
1. Bulla Adamsi, Mke. contorta, var.
Ze nebulosa, Gld. 14. Vamass glomeratus,|Mke.q. |Rous.
3. —— (Tornatina) gracilis, [Mke. ?=Bivonia contorta, Cpr.
quasi] A. Ad. = ?B. infrequens, | 15. Natica Récluziana, Desh.
C, B. Ad. -| 16. glauca, [?] Humb.=N. patula,
4. Bulimus zebra, Desh. Sow.
5. Planorbis tenagophilus, [Mke. q.] | 17. maroccana, (Chemn.) Koch.
D’Orb. =P. tumens, Cpr. 18. ovum, Mke.
6. Physa Peruviana, [Mke. q.] Gray, | 19. Neritina cassiculum, Sow.
=Ph. aurantia, Cpr. 20. picta, Sow,
7. Litorina fasciata, Gray. 21. Nerita ornata, Sow. “ =N. multi-
8. aspera, Phil. jugis, Mke.” =N. scabriuscula,
9. —— modesta, [Mke. q.] Phil. ?= Lam.
L. conspersa, Phil. var. 22. funiculata, Mke. = N. Bern=
10. Turritella tigrina, Kien. “=No. 3 hardi, Récl.
of first list.” 23. Planazis acutus, Mke. =P. nigri-
11. goniostoma, Val. tella, Forbes.
12 Hookeri, [ Mke. q.] Rve. 24, obsoletus, Mke. =P. nigri-
13. Vermetus Panamensis, Rouss. The tella, var.

figure quoted represents Le Ver- | 25. Turbo fluctuosus, Wood.
met of Adanson. .The name | 26. Solarium granulatum,[Mke.q.]Lam.

* As M. Melchers is quoted for a shell from Vera Cruz, on the Gulf of Mexico, Zeit. f. Mal.
1848, p. 3, it speaks much for his accuracy as a collector that no W. Indian species are
quoted in ‘Menke’ s lists, except such as have analogues on the Pacific coast, for which they
have probably been mistaken.

238

27. Euomphalus radiatus, Mke. =Tro-
chus perspectiviunculus variega-
tus, Chemn., ?=Torinia v. Lam.

28. Trochus (Calcar) olivaceus, Wood.

29. — Melchersi, Mke.

30. —— stellaris, [Mke. q.| Lam.
31. —— ? minutus, Chemn.

32. versicolor, Mke.

33. —— (Monodonta) catenulatus, Phil.
34, ligulatus, Mke.
35. —— glomus, [Mke. q.] Phil.

1850, pp. 177-190.
36. Scalaria crassilabris, Sow.
37.
38.

Rissoa stricta, Mke.
Cerithium (Potamides) Montagnet,
D’Orb.

39. —— maculosum, Kien.

40. ocellatum, [Mke. q.| Brug.=
C. stercusmuscarum, Val t

41. interruptum, Mke.

42, Buccinum gemmatum, Rye. “ =30

gemmulatum, first list, No. 12.”

43. —— pristis, Desh.=serratum, Dufr.
44, —— (Nassa) luteostoma, Kien.
45. Monoceros muricatus, Brod.

46 eingulatus, Lam.

47. Purpura patula, Lam.

48, —— consul, [Mke. q.] Lam. =P.

biserialis, var.

_ —— biserialis, Blainv.

. — bicostalis, [Mke. q.?] Lam.=
P. biserialis, var.

51. Cancellaria ovata, [Mke. q.] Sow.
2=C. urceolata, Hds.
52, cassidiformis, Sow.

53. —— goniostoma, Lam.
54, Dolium dentatum, Barnes, = Malea
ringens, Swains.
55. —— crassilabre, (Mke.) Val. = M.
ringens, var.
=Cassis ringens, Swains.,
Cat. App. p. 4. 1822.
=—Dolium dentatum, Barnes,
Lye, N. Y. 1824.
=Buccinum ringens, Wood, Suppl.
1828.
=Dolium personatum, Mke. Syn.
p- 62. 1830.

An.

—Malea latilabris, + crassilabris,

Val. 1833.

—Doliwm latilabre, Kien. 1835.

=D. plicosum, Mke. Zeit. f. M.
p- 138. 1845.

=D. ringens, Rve. 1848.

=Cadium dentatum + C. ringens,
H. & A. Ad. Gen. i. 197.

56. Hope crenata,Gray,=H.Rivoliana,

ess.

57. Cassis coarctata, Wood.

Bligh

58.

REPORT—1856.

Cassis inflata, (Shaw) Rve.=C. gra-
nosa, Lam.
abbreviata, Lam.

. Columbella harpeformis, Sow.=C.

citharula, Ducl.
fuscata, Sow.

. — nasuta, Mke.
. — fulva, Sow.

Terpsichore, [Mke. q.] Sow.

. Murex messorius, [Mke. q.| Sow.

unidentatus, [Mke. q.] Sow.
ternispina, [Mke. aa Lam.
salebrosus, King.

brassica, Lam. = M. ducalis,
Brod

, —— bicolor, Val.=M .erythrostoma,

Swains.

. —— lappa, Brod.
_ — dubius, Sow. = M. aculeatus,

Wood, not Lam.

. — nigrita, Phil.
. — ambiguus, Rye. =nigritus, vax.
. Ranella nana, Sow.

muriciformis, Brod.
anceps, Lam.=R. pyramidalis,
Brod.

_ Tritonium nodosum, (Chemn.) Mke.

79.
80.

=Triton Chemnitzii, Gray.
—— lignarium, Brod.
scalariforme, Brod.

1851, pp. 17-25.
81. Turbinella cestus, Brod.

. Fasciolaria princeps, Sow.
. Ficula decussata, Rve.
. Pyrula patula, Brod. & Sow.

subrostrata, Gray, = Fusus
lapillus, Brod. & Sow.
anomala, Rve.

. Fusus rheuma, Mart.=F. torheuma,

Desh.

. Pleurotoma funiculata, Val.

maculosa, Sow.
incrassata, Sow. = P. Botte,

Val.
_ —— Melchersi, Mke.
. Strombus galeatus, Swains.

granulatus, Wood.
lentiginosus, Linn.

95. —— gracilior, Sow.
96. Conus princeps, Linn.
97. regularis, Sow.
98 puncticulatus, Hwass.
99, omaria, Hwass.
100. Oliva porphyrea, Lam.
101 angulata, Lam.
102 Julieta, Ducl.=0O. Pantherina,
Phil.
103. —— venulata, Lam.
104, —— Melchersi, Mke.

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 239

105. Oliva undatella, Lam. 123. Crepidula striolata,Mke.—=C.nivea,

10 anazore, Ducl. var.

107. tergina, Ducl. 124. ——Goreensis, Desh.?= C.nivea,var.

108. testacea, Lam. 125. Calyptrea (Trochatella) Lamarckii,

[Mke. q.] Desh.

1851, pp. 33-38. 126. —— conica, Brod.

109. Ovula emarginata, Sow. 127. —— (Dyspotea) spinosa, Sow.

110. deflexa, Sow. 128. cepacea, Brod.

111. Cyprea Arabica, Linn. 129. Hipponyx foliaceus, [Mke. q.| Quoy

112. arabicula, Lam. & Gaim. 2=H. serratus.

113. —— (Trivia) pustulata, Lam. 130. Fissurella virescens, Sow.

114. —— sanguinea, Gray. 131. viminea, [Mke. q.] Rve. ?=F.

115. —— fusca, Gray. rugosa, var. é

116. subrostrata, Gray. 132. Patella Mexicana, Brod. & Sow.

117. Terebra variegata, Gray. 133. Acmea mutabilis, Mke. ? =fascicu-

118. armillata, [Mke. q.] Hinds. laris+-mesoleuca, pars.

119. luctuosa, Hinds. 134, fascicularis, Mke.

120. Mitra lens, Wood, = M. Duponitii, | 135. mesoleuca, Mke.=Patella dia-
Kien. phana, Rve. not Nutt.

121. Crepidula contorta, [Mke. q.| Quoy | 136. Siphonaria denticulata, [Mke. q.]
& Gaim. Quoy & Gaim. Probably S. /e-

122. —— costata, [Mke. q.] Sow. canium, var.

50. Among the many wasted opportunities of obtaining very valuable
information on geographical distribution, must unfortunately be recorded the
Surveying Voyages of the ‘ Herald’ and ‘ Pandora,’ by Capt. Kellett, R.N.,
C.B., and Lieut. Wood, R.N. The former of these gentlemen commanded
the ‘ Starling’ during the Sulphur Expedition. Their zeal for science is
shown not only by the large number of fine and valuable shells which they
brought back, but especially by the extreme liberality with which they have
presented them to public museums wherever they thought that they could
be made useful. The shells were deposited in the Museum of Practical
Geology in Jermyn Street, London, then presided over by Prof. E. Forbes.
He writes that “they were chiefly collected on the coast of Southern Cali-
fornia, from San Diego to Magdalena, and the shores of Mazatlan.” This is
precisely the very district of all others on which we are in want of accurate
information. San Diego belongs mainly to the Californian Province, Ma-
zatlan to that of Panama; the question yet to be settled is, ? where and how
do they separate. Here was an exploration in competent hands on the very
terra incognita itself; and yet, alas! Prof. E. Forbes further states that_
‘unfortunately the precise locality of many of the individual specimens had
not been noted at the time; and a quantity of Polynesian shells mingled
with them, have tended to render the value of the collection, as illustrative
of distribution, less exact than it might have been.” Such information as
was accessible at the time was embodied by Prof. E. Forbes in two com-
munications to the Zoological Society, 1850; the first on the Land Shells,
collected during the Expedition, Proc. pp. 53-56 ; the second on the Marine
“Mollusca, pp. 270-274. The following abstract includes what may be sup-
posed to relate to our present subject of inquiry.

From Oregon, Helix Townsendiana, H. Nuttalliana, and H. Columbiana.
Helix Pandore, Forbes, p. 55. pl. 9. f. 3,6. Sta, Barbara, as per box label: San

Juan del Fuaco, teste Forbes.

Kellettii, Fbs. p, 55. pl. 9. f.2a,4, Allied to H. Californiensis, Lea. Same
locality.

labyrinthus, var. sipunculata, p. 53. pl. 9. f.4 a,b. Panama.

— vellicata, Forbes, p. 55. pl. 9. f. 1 a,b,c. 2? Panama.”

—— aspersa, marked Sta. Barbara; probably imported, p. 53.

240 REPORT—1856,

Bulimus nux, B. calvus, B. eschariferus, B. uwnifasciatus, and B. rugulosus, from
Chatham Is., Gelepagos, p. 54. Also, from the same island,

— Chemnitzioides, Forbes, p. 55. pl. 9. f. 64,0: and

— Achatinellinus, Forbes, p. 56. pl. 9. f. 5a,b. (In text Achatellinus, err. typ.)

— fimbriatus, Forbes, p. 56. pl. 9. f. 7 a,b. Box labeled Panama.

alternatus, Panama, p. 54.

Succinea cingulata, Forbes, p. 56. pl. 9. f. 8a, b, “said to come from Mazatlan.”

“ Out of 307 species of shells collected by the voyagers, 217 are marine
Gasteropoda, 1 is a Cephalopod, and 58 marine bivalves. The new species
are all from the American shores. There are no products of deep-sea
dredging. A few specimens of considerable interest were taken by the
‘Herald’ at Cape Krusenstern.” The following species are described by
Prof. Forbes :—

Page. Plate. Fig.

271 11 1a,b. Trochita spirata, Forbes. Massaniello, Gulf of California.

271 i 9 Trochus castaneus, Nutt. MS. Sta. Barbara, &c. Nuttall.

271 11 8a,8. (Monodonta) gallina, Forbes. ‘‘ Probably from the Ma-
zatlan coast.” San Diego, Lieut. Green.

Blo | fay: aureotinctus, Forbes. ‘‘ Withthe last.” San Diego,
Lieut. Green.=T. cateniferus, Potiez, teste Gould.

272 11 1la,b. —— (Margarita) purpuratus, Forbes, “? W. coast of N. A.”

O72 Al 104; 6; Hillii, Forbes. ‘2? .N.W. coast of N. A.”

272 11 -~=«~2a,b,¢. Natica Pritchardi, Forbes. Mazatlan, abundant.=N. Chemnitzit,
Pfr. non Recl.=N. maroceana, var. teste Koch.

29 elon] Gaede 3 Planazis nigritella, Forbes. ‘ Straits of San Juan del Fuaco.”

i =P. acuta+P. obsoleta, Mke. As this species is found in

extreme profusion at Mazatlan, and was not found by Mr.
Nuttall, it is in the highest degree improbable that it should
occur in abundance so far north in Oregon. It was probably
from San Juan in the Gulf of California.

273 11 12 Purpura analoga, Forbes. Probably from the Oregon district.

274 ows decemcostata, Midd., var. approaching P. Freycinetit,

yaa fone fen planospira, columellaris, and Carolensis; ‘“ probably from
the Galapagos.”’ The two latter oceur also at Mazatlan.

274° 9 10 Fusus Kelletui, Forbes. One sp. from the Californian coast.

CE al te Ce Oregonensis. Californian coast.

DiAr a salebrosus. Mazatlan.

The types of the described species, «nd numerous most beautiful and
interesting specimens have been presented to the British Museum, The
remainder may be seen by students in the drawers of the Mus. Pract. Geol.:
but the condition of the labels is not such that any dependence can be
placed on them unless confirmed from other sources. In the only list that
remains, it is said that there were the following shells from the Galapagos :
18. Eight species of small shells; 19. Nerita ; 20-22. Purpure ; 23-25.
Buceina; 26. Arce; 27. Bulimus. Of the bulk of the collection, 95
species are known from other sources to occur at Mazatlan, and 35 species
have been taken in other parts of the province between Mazatlan and
Panama. Of the remainder, several are known to belong to Ecuador and
Peru, and some, as Pomaulax undosus and Acmea Oregona, to the Cali-
fornian coast. But so large a number, even of those placed with the
Mazatlan shells, and perhaps obtained by commerce from that spot, are
known to be inhabitants of the Pacific Islands and the East Indies, that a
list of them would be entirely useless for our present object.

Among the specimens collected by Messrs. Kellett and Wood during their
voyage, which have been by them presented to the British Museum, have
been observed the following species :—

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 241

Cardium Nuttalli. California. Fissurella ornata.

Trigonia radiata, var. Hindsii. Haliotis Cracherodii, Leach.

Modiola capax. “S. America.” [2] Purpura Carolensis. Is. Plata.
Pinna rudis. Gulf of California. Murex foliatus. San Juan de Fuaco.

51. But the largest collection ever brought to Europe from one locality
(with the single exception of Mr. Cuming’s stores) was made at Mazatlan
during the years 1848-50 by a Belgian gentleman of the name of Frederick
Reigen. He did not live to enjoy the fruits of his almost unparalleled
labours; and after his death in 1850, the collection was sent for sale, partly
to Messrs. F. de Lizardi and Co. at Liverpool, and partly to Havre. The
Liverpool portion measured about 14 tons of 40 cubic feet each. It was

- bought by Mr. G. Hulse, wholesale naturalist in Dale Street; but before it

passed into his hands, it received such an examination as time allowed from
Mr. F. Archer, in whose collection, and in that of the Royal Institution, the
first unmixed fruits will be found. Unfortunately the geographical value of
these selections is greatly injured by trusting to memory and loose tickets ; and
the localities of the Institution specimens have simply been added from the
monographs, as ‘Galapagos,’ ‘ Panama,’ ‘ St. Elena,’ &c. Mr. Hulse fortunately
deposited the bulk of the collection under lock and key in a chamber by
itself ; but to save room, he immediately disposed of most of the large shells,
such as Spondylus calcifer, Patella Mexicana, Strombus galea, and the
Pinne, to a publican near Manchester, where they may be seen in his
“Museum.” Circumstances enabled me to make a searching examination
of Mr. Hulse’s stores, and to form a geographical collection from their con-
tents*. Finding that in a small manufacturing town this could not be made
available for the purposes of science, I acceded to the request of Dr. Gray that
it should be deposited in the British Museum; it being stipulated (1) that I
should be allowed to arrange it in its permanent abode, where it should re-
main intact as a separate collection; and (2) that a descriptive catalogue
should be published of its contents. The duty of preparing this was en-
trusted to me by Dr. Gray. The work is already written, and most of it
printed. When completed, it will be found to contain descriptions of 222

_ new species; in addition to several which had been previously described

from the same collection in the ‘ Proc. Zool. Soc.’ and other works. Numerous
details are added on species already known, especially on the variations of
growth, geographical range, frequency, and synonymy.

Being desirous of making the permanent collection of the British Museum
as complete as possible, and finding that the original stores were in danger
of being dispersed, and so rendered useless for science, I obtained possession

‘of the remainder of the vast collection, and subjected it to a renewed and

more rigid scrutiny. There will, therefore, be preserved in the B.M. drawers,

~ not only the type specimens of the described species; but what will perhaps
_ be of more service to inland students, because less often accessible, large series

illustrating particular species, and displaying both their normal and their abnor-

mal variations. Thus, of Donax punctatostriatus will be found 192; of D.

Conradi [+ culter, Hanl. + contusus, Rve. + Californicus, Desh.], 292 ; of
Anomalocardia subrugosa, 130; of Venus gnidia, 59; of Anomia lampe, 97 ;
of Neritina picta, 607 ; and of Aemea mesoleuca, 301 specimens ; every one
of which exhibits an appreciable difference from its neighbours. ‘The latter

* Of this collection, amounting then to 440 species, an account was laid before the British
Association at Liverpool: v. Reports, 1854, p.107. The list was examined by Prof. Forbes,
and much assistance obtained from his experience. That assistance was promised during the
course of the present inquiry, and would have prevented many of the errors attendant on it;
but within a week after he had written to recommend the transfer of the collection to the
British Museum, he had passed to the scenes where human aid is no longer needed, and where
human errors find no place.

1856. R

249 REPORT—1856. > 100i We

series was obtained. by repeated processes of elimination, from the examina-
tion of about 11,000 specimens. The whole number of shells passed under
review probably exceeded 100,000. The following was found to be the most
satisfactory plan for the determination of specific limits :—(1) to spread out
the entire mass in somewhat of order before the view, in order that the gene-
ral idea of the species (so to speak) might be received by the mind; (2) to
examine the specimens one by one, in comparison with an ordinary shell
selected as a standard, putting to one side all that for any cause attracted
attention; (3) from the hundreds thus selected out of the thousands, or the
scores out of the hundreds, to arrange series according to observed differences;
(4) to subject these to a rigid scrutiny with each other and with neighbour-
ing species; (5) to make a selection that should exhibit not extremes only,
but intermediate grades ; and (6) to write the description while the result
of the previous processes was fresh in the recollection. No observations,
indeed, can compare for accuracy with those made on living animals in their
native haunts; but the next best process is the examination of large num-
bers of specimens, such as the almost exhaustive diligence of M. Reigen has
placed at our disposal. The process may require considerable time and no
small amount of patience; but results thus obtained are far more satisfactory
than the plan too often followed, of picking out a few specimens of leading
forms, which alone are available to naturalists for description. So marvelous
indeed are the variations of growth thus traced to the same specific source,
that we may well accept with doubt species that are constituted from very
limited materials. This caution is by no means to be overlooked in using
the very catalogue in question; as the only materials for a knowledge of the
small species (which amount to no fewer than 314 out of 691) were the dirt
obtained from the washings of the shells, which had most fortunately been
sent “in the rough ;” and the fragments obtained in ransacking the backs
of a few Spondyli, which were most obligingly placed at my disposal by
R. D. Darbishire, Esq., of Manchester, who had succeeded in rescuing them
from the publican’s “ museum.” *

It would of course have been far more satisfactory, for the purposes of
science, had the collection never passed through a dealer’s hands. The
fortunate circumstance, however, of its size and value requiring a room to
be emptied and kept locked for its custody, has prevented the chances of
error which would otherwise--have crept in. No species are inserted in the
catalogue but what were obtained from the boxes in this room, and from the
large shells about the parasites of which there can be no mistake; except
Ficula decussata, of which Mr. Hanley distinctly remembers the appearance
of a very few specimens in the Havre collection. This, which, though com-
paratively small, filled twenty-eight boxes, after lying some time in France
without a purchaser, was in the main sent to London, and disposed of in lots
at the auctions, mixed with other shells, and without any knowledge being
communicated as to their history. They have been freely distributed as
though from Panama ; and several of them appear in the British Museum,
labelled ‘“ Australia, presented by — Metcalf, Esq.” Several freshwater

shells, Cyrene and Ampullaria, are believed ‘to have come from this source; __

but there was no trace of them in the Liverpool collection. In general, the
two sets so far agreed as to make it probable that the species were divided.
Messrs. Lizardi received a list, in which the exact localities of all the shells

* IT am under the greatest obligations to Mr, Darbishire for his valuable aid from the com-
mencement of the work. We alone were admitted by Mr. Hulse into his secret chamber, filled

with the unmixed spoils of the Mazatlan waters; nor should I have ventured to pursue this

inquiry, which would have been conducted far better under his auspices, had not professional _
engagements entirely prevented his devoting the time necessary for such a purpose,

io

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 243

were recorded; this invaluable document, however, was thrown to. one side
as useless, and has not since been found.

The best evidence of the authenticity of the collection is in the shells them-
selves. These were, with very few exceptions, taken alive, and treated with
evident care. Every single bivalve was separately wrapped up and ticketed ;
the mouths of the univalves were papered to preserve the opercula; and in
many of the smaller species the animal was not extracted. The absence,
from so vast a collection, of attractive shells known to be found in neigh-
bouring places, such as Oliva porphyria, Terebra variegata, Malea ringens,
Cassis coarctata, Pectens and Pectunculi, generally seen in collections from
“that coast,” shows that M. Reigen made little use even of the facilities of the
coasting trade to extend his stores. Nor are there to be seen the Pacific
Strombs, Cowries, Terebre, &c., some of which even Menke allows to appear
in his catalogue. In one respect a town of limited trade is more favourably
situated for scientific purposes than a port of extensive commerce. Singa-
pore, the Sandwich Is., Acapulco, &c., to say nothing of places on our own
coast, are well known to be “ hotbeds of spurious species.” But among the
many myriads in the Liverpool collection, not a dozen individual shells were
found which can fairly be set down as strangers. The principal of these are— °

Arca fusca (living), which is quoted from the West Indies, and may linger in the
Gulf Seas ; or it may have come from the East Indies on a ship bottom.
Conus arenatus. One very rubbed specimen ; probably from ballast.
Crepidula Peruviana. Two worn specimens; probably from ballast.
Fissurella Barbadensis. One young fresh sp.; probably brought over on a pebble.
With regard to Lucina tigerrina and Mactra fragilis, of each of which one
fresh specimen was sent papered and ticketed with nearly related shells, we
have no right to deny their authenticity merely because they oppose our
theories; as unexpected facts are continually making their appearance, to
the confusion of the mere systematizer and the corresponding delight of
searchers after truth. All shells of this class are included in the list, in order
that persons may see the bad as well as the good, and judge of its authority
accordingly. No attempt has been made (except with the small shells) to
state the number of specimens, because of the abstractions which had pre-
viously been made by purchasers; but the following notes will give a tole-
rably correct idea of their comparative frequency, after these abstractions
had been deducted.

e.r. extremely rare; under a score. ¢. common; up to 400 or 500.
v.7. very rare; under a hundred. a. abundant ; 600 or 700.
r. rare; under two hundred. e.c. extremely common; 1000.
n.c. not common; or e.a. extremely abundant; more than 1000.
n.U. Not uncommon ; } onder eee ;

List of the Reigen Collection of Mazatlan Mollusca.

Name. Freq. Other Localities.

Class BRYOZOA.

Membraniporide.
Membranipora denticulata, Bush, 0.8. ....c.000| Ye

Gothica, Rylands, MS., n.8.....00...s0000: r. |? Persian Gulf.
Lepralia atrofusca, Rylands, MS., n. 8. ..-...... Yr.
—— trispinosa, Johns?. ...... Reacasdccosncesnscess lsp. |Britain.
—— Mazatlanica, Busk, n.s. ; meal ke
—— rostrata, Bush, 0.8. .cccssssscsevees

Other Localities.

Fossil tertiary, Vienna.

Chiloe, 96 fms., Darwin.

244 REPORT—1856.
No. Name, Freq:
7 |Lepralia marginipora, Rewss ........ceseceeseeees] Te
8 |—— hippocrepis, Bush, n.s........ foueieekasas «cel hats
9 humilis, Busk, n.s. ......+ mecants ce eseyee iT.
10 FMI Busk wo... Rmeseatkass de ods x coos] De Ue
677 |——, sp. ind. atkals eaneniese ¢ Rvasecas SaeE Tae VAD
‘Coleeds
11 |Cellepora papilleeformis, Bush, n.s. .......c0006{ Te
12 |—— cyclostoma, Bush, n.s........ eedgetenshre T.
678 |Cellepora, sp. ind. , resembling pumicosa, Linn| v. Yr.
Discoporide.
13 |Defrancia intricata, Bush, n. s. Sercdesacenrel asks
B/D A UDRMNOMA GHD. INU 55ciiscdschohsasceokssop -nsaeeses) . Vols

14

Class TUNICATA.

Unknown.

Cl. Gee a ee

Discina Cumingii, Brod.....0....s00..seseseeeeeeee] Te |Payta and St. Elena; Panama.
Class AMET L ER ARGHI ATE.
Pholadide.
Pholadidea melanura, Sow........ Secdesseaveeseses| €.1. |Monte Christi.
PICHIEER;USOWs, eseesscasetooenes uOt shoaeacas --.| 2sp. |Veragua.
Parapholas calva, Gray, MS...........05 seseoeese{ TU. |Panama.
acuminata, Sow......sesecceees spotbeeeseent ..| n.u. |Panama.
Martesia intercalata, n.s. ....... Ranastenecoeeenes 2 sp.
(Fragment) somewhat resembling Panopeea. 1
Perhaps Corbula tenuis.
Gastrochenide.
Gastrochzena truncata, Sow. .......sssecseeseeee4] TU. |Panama, West Indies.
OvAtA, SOW.....sssssserstecsceeecessescesseeeee| Ve I. |Pan., Is, Perico, West Indies.
Saxicavide.
Saxicava arctica, Linn. ........ ee sieass cieeceorts v.r. |ubiquitous, p. 17; Fossil, Crag.
Petricolide.
Petricola robusta, Sow. . ssecceseessssecseeeee] DeU. |Panama, Island of Muerte,
=P. bulbosa, Gld. =r sinuosa, Conr.
?=Choristodon typicum, Jonas ....... padepede|seeeeoine .|West Indies.
—— ventricosa, Desh. .........000. desceasetiaces e.v. |Gulf of California.
2?=P. denticulata, SOW. orcscccesecescoscasceses|sceeeeess/POTU,
PSP HUNG sh scans -ave edalpnetterse at puanasesadse =
Rupellaria lingua-felis, n.$..........csesceeeseeeee ver
EXar ala, Nias cdtrseeek ioecandeacces Anos hatesed
siSDANG casera ka swaeees vias pian di
?Naranio scobina, 0. 8. ....e.....eeees
7 SP Ind. ..0.%- suereabaveeseecssessel
Myla,
?Mya, sp. ind. . Routnepcceteserancienccaneeese eed.
Corbulide. ;
Corbula bicarinata, Sow, “2 ae Ses eee e.r, |Pan., R. Lejos, Carac., St.Elena.
?=C. alba, Phil.
biradiata, Sow. .......645 at rer aera 1 |Panama, Chiriqui, Caraccas.
—— pustulosa, n.s. ...... TEES eer 2 |Panama, St. Blas, 33 fms,
———- OVE AUATOSTUL eae ch cohen sescescscedec sence 1 |Panama, Xipix., Montijo, Carac.
——-, sp. ind. a. (allied to C. scaphoides, Hds.)} 2
———, Sp. ind. B. .3,s.000¢ Sagnenert apneeneaagnees voy}
Spheenia fragilis, 0. S.....00...e,0008 Lesaneccazeases| MeOnUs
i Brice wees was Ac BES sepanverwels ak F
emoomgi Ao WD lssernaprasman@atkarseastedeccnccres ete ]

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA.

Name.

Pandoride.

Tyleria fragilis, H. & A. Ad. ..,.00..ec0eess eee
Lyonsia picta, Sow.......... JSoodhtaes Soecsede vows

Solecurtide.

Solecurtus affinis, C. B, Ad. ......
—— politus, n.s.
——, sp. ind. .........

Tellinide.
Semele flavescens, Gid. ..... Aneaakeoddae Cau pOKIEE
=8. proxima, [quasi] C. B. Ad.
4) |—— ?venusta, 4. dd. ...... aoranoe eocaocogoht ke
42 |Cumingia lamellosa, Sow. ......cescceseessenenens
424|——_ y PVAL. COATCHATA...ceseeecseseee Urreceas
43 |—— trigonularis, Sow. .....-sssssseeseees easeens
44 |\—— Californica, Conr. ..........00« Pra Gece
45 |——, sp. ind. (like C. striata) ............ dsrincs
46 |Sanguinolaria miniata, Gld. ......ccecesssseeeees
=8S. purpurea, Desh.
Tellina rufescens, Chem. ...cercscccccscreseneees
= T. operculata, Gmel.
— Broderipii, Desh. .
—— ??Mazatlanica, Desh....
—— Dombei, Hanl. ........:.....000s Roaeinasetirs
—— felix, Hanl.......... aed in aec tos dv ave hn cine os
—— straminea, Desh.
— donacilla, n.s.
» SPs NG. (C) ccc... cemres
’ punicea, Born. ........+ orcee
= Donax Martinicensis, Lam. teste Gray.
= Tellina alternata, Sow. teste Gray.
=T. angulosa, Gmel. teste Desh.
=T. simulans, C. B. Ad.
— Cumingii, Haml............ fg icdcon: oe
—— Peburnea, Hanl.............65 Renprcoosbistaey
P—— regularis, N.S. .cccccsesiscscsseececeseccoes
—— lamellata, 1. S...seecescssesceesrese Seotse=tos
—— ??puella, C. B. Ad.
—— ?? delicatula, Desh.
eS reaatositis Deghe. cies iodusisoece eeceneseass
Pdenticulata, Desh. ......cecseessseee Pabece
——, sp. ind. (a)
——, sp. ind. (6) .....eeseeeee Fan Maceences waaee
Tellidora Burneti, Brod. 8 Sow. seecsccsssevee
= Lueina eristata, Récl.
Strigilla carnaria, Linn. .....sscccesreseseeeeeeveee
=Lucina carnaria, Lam.
= Strigilla miniata, Gld.=S. fucata, Gld.
=—— lenticula, Pil. ...0.0.ccesesscccssesercsseses
2?Psammabia, Sp. ind....sccscecseseesecscrscsseenss

eeeee eveseecens
Cee me rerese eas eeeenseeerse® eenee

eee etoueeee Pee eernaseeetenes

Come ee eee ssesee eereseves

Donacide.
Tphigenia altior, Sow......cssscesessscsscesseeesens
leevigata, ? ......... ReSanendsseshenes sees aces
Donax carinatus, Hanl. ........sseeccscocseseerees
—— rostratus, C. B. Ad. ......
=D. carinatus, var. Hanl.
=D. culminatus, Cat. Prov.
transversus, SOW. ..cccscecseccsrccessscseees
74 |—— assimilis, Hanl. ......cecccscocecscecscseececs

Other Localities,

245

Is. Muerte, Vancouver’s Island.

Panama.

San Diego.

W. Columbia.
?Panama, Payta.
Panama, Caraccas.
Panama, St. Elena.
Monterey, &c.

San Juan.

Tumbez, West Indies.

Panama.
Panama.

Pan., Guayaquil, W. I., Xipix.

Panama, Guacomayo.
Tumbez.

Panama.

Central America.

Salango, St. Elena.

W. I., ? Medit., Sta. Barbara.

Gulf Nicoya, Tumbez, Panama.

San Blas, Tumaco.
Sta. Barbara, Panama.

246 REPORT—1856.

No. Name. Freq. Other Localities.
75 |\Donax punctatostriatus, Hanl. ......ccereeseeees| Ce Ce

75b|—— ?punctatostriatus, var. czlatus........ Sexe|| veld

76 |\—— Conradi, Desh. sc... cqcoscdssesenyecssosos ..| © |Acapulco.

+D. culter, Hanl.

+D. Californicus, Desh. non Conr.
+D. contusus, Rye.
?+ D. radiata, Val.
—— navicula, Hanl. ...ccccsccerssscorcsceseseaces

Mactride.

Mactra exoleta, Gray........s.ssceeeeeeeeseeeneees] De Ue |Panama, Guayaquil.
=Lutraria ventricosa, Gld.
= Mulinia ventricosa, C. B. Ad.
—— fragilis, Chemmn. ...cssseesesrersceees vaxensues
= WM. ovalina, Lam. teste Gray.
= M. Braziliana, Lam. teste Desh.
= M. oblonga, Say, teste Rve.
—— (Mulinia) angulata, Gray.......... seeeones
?=M. donaciformis, C. B. Ad.
Gnathodon mendicus, Gld. .secccccecssveeeveees
= Rangia trigona, Petit.

n.u. |Gulf of Nicoya, Panama.

1 |West Indies.

80 e.r. |S.W. Mexico, Panama.

81

Venerida.

?Clementia gracillima, N.S. .ssccsesecescsseeeees
Trigona radiata, SOW. ......s-ssecesseesseseee paaces

= Venus Solangensis, D’Orb.

= Trigona Byronensis, Gray.

= Cytherea corbicula, Mke. (non Lam.)

+C. semifulva, Mke.

+C. gracilior, Sow.

+. Hindsii, Hanl.
?+(C. intermedia, Sow.
———= humilis, Te S. .eeresecccsesscccsccscvccgcsnonce

82
83

eT.
y.c. |Salango, Xipix., Guayaq., Pan.

84°

85° y.r. |Gulf of Nicoya.

86 .|—— 2? crassatelloides, jun...... metaecesseectes ...|2 valy. |Upper California.
87 |—— planulata, Brod. & Sow. ....0....se0eeee-| eC. |Pan., Salango: Chili, Coquimbo,
+ Cytherea undulata, Sow. D' Orb,
=Donax Lessoni, Desh.
= Cytherea mactroides, Lam. teste Desh.
88 |Dosinia ponderosa, Gray ..s.csccseeserreeeeceees 1 |Payta.
= Cytherea gigantea, Phil.
= Venus cycloides, D’Orb.
89 |\—— Anne, Dard. ....0+.... on ren Basa yacns cesses iu Vale
90 |—— Dunkeri, Phil. ..... edtodsseatressrcecnscoas y.c. |Panama, St. Elena, “ Eastern
= Artemis simplex, Hanl. Seas,” dd. & Rve.
= Cytherea Pacifica, Trosch.
91 |Cyclina subquadrata, Hanl. ......sccee-| 3 |St. Hlena, Panama.

= Artemis saccata, Gld.
Mone aurantia, HAN. ccccersecccccceusvksegeracaen
= Cytherea aurantiaca, Sow.
—— chionea, Mike. .......+. qoecakvocke see os ease
+ Cytherea squalida, Sow. i
+C. biradiata, Gray.

92
93

n.c, |S.W.Mex.,Gulf Nicoya, Taboga.

c. |San Blas, 8S. W. Mexico, La Paz,
Taboga, St.Elena, ?Philip-
pines, Swan River,

?+C, elegans, Koch.
94 rosea, Brod. & Sow. .ss.secsseseceseeeeeeee} Ce |San Blas, Panama.
= Cytherea lepida, Chen.
95 |—— lupinaria, Less. ....seeesssssevsessseeeseeses] @6Ce (San Blas, Salango, Tumbez,
=D. lupanaria, Gray. Payta.

= Cytherea Dione, var. Brod.
= C. semilamellosa, Gaud.

—— ? vulnerata, Brod. sssseresscorscecssveeecesee} 2 [Real Llejos.

ual.

100
101
102

103
104
|105

106
107
108
109

110

111
112

113

114
115
116
117
118

119
120

121

122
123

124
125

126

127
128
129
130
131
132
133
687

Dione brevispinosa, Sow.
circinata, Born. ........++ po schaxe ret

Name.

Venus Guineensis, Gmel.
Cytherea alternata, Brod.

eee e een eeeeeesene

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST.COAST OF NORTH AMERICA.

eeeeeee

sereree

———— CONCINIA, SOW. sereeersscsecceerecrrereneeees
?-++ Cytherea affinis, Brod.
?+C. tortuosa, Brod.

Cytherea petechialis, Lam.......s++..seseees Arecos

Venus (Chione) gnidia, Brod. & Sow. ......+.. e. e

—— amathusia, Phil.

= Chione gnidia, var. Desh.

, Sp. ind. (a)

feneeee

—— —— distans, Phil........veceeseecosccccecers
——— —— crenifera, Sow. ..+,...-seeeseseeeeeeees
=V. Portesiana, D’Orb.

Tapes histrionica, Brod. & Sow.

—— Columbiensis, Sow. ...
, Sp. ind. (4)

= Chione histrionica, Desh.

grata, Say

= Venus tricolor, Sow. teste Desh.
=V. discors, Sow. teste Jay.

?=

Anomalocardia subrugosa, Sow.

V. neglecta, Phil. (non Gray).
squamosa, 0. Ss.

= Cytherea subsulcata, Mke.
—— subimbricata, Sow........ dpcsebacencnmns see

Circe margarita, 0.8. ....sesscecseeerecneeneeneees ver.

Astartide.

Pundatella, Sow......seessseeeee

eee b erases tepeeseres

Preeeee Tre Teer rere

er eereerery

eeenee

stoners

teeeeee

—— subtrigona, D. S.....sceeeeesecesececeenesevens
Gouldia Pacifica, C. B. Ad........c.sccseeeeceeeres

varians, 0. Ss.

eee eter eseneeseessesseees

Cardita Californica, Desh. ....0...csseceseeseeseee
=C. affinis, Mke. non Sow.

Venericardia, sp. ind..........seseeeeeeseers

Trapezium, sp. Ind..........ceesesecseesseses

Chama frondosa, var. Mexicana

Chamide.

+Chama echinata, fig. pars.
1214;——
?=C. Buddiana, C. B. Ad.

?frondosa, var. fornicata ...+e....+-

eeeeeee

SPINOSA, SOW. ......cescseceeecescenscecessees
—— EXOQyra, CONT. .....secereeeee Penaceccsccevar
Cardiade.

Cardium (Levicardium) elatum, Sow. .........
procerum, Sow. ......++++ wasacgasacsessenncs

?+C. laticostatum, Sow.
—— Psenticosum, Sow.........sseeceeseees
=C. rastrum, Rve.
?=C. muricatum, Mke.

, 8p. ind. (a) (like C. punctulatum)
’ (2) (like C. triangulatum) ..
+ —— (ce) (like C. pseudofossile) ..

Seeeees

seneee

eeeteee

—— alabastrum, 1.5. ssssscscscessecseeeesenee®
—— rotundatum, 1. S. .sesseeseoes

247
Other Localities.

West Indies, Monte Christi.

Panama.

Japan.
Payta, Panama, San Blas,
S.W. Mexico, Panama.

Panama.
St. Elena, Payta.

Island 3 Marias, G. of Calif.
St. Elena, S.W. Mexico.

Real Llejos, St. Elena.

S.W. Mex., Pan., St. Elena and
Guacomayo, Puerto Portrero,
Guaymas.

S.W. Mexico, Panama, Peru.

Acapulco, Puerto Portrero.

Panama.

Gulf of Tehuantepec.

Lord Hood’s Island.
San Diego.

. |Guaymas, San Diego.

S.W. Mexico, Panama, Payta,
Real Llejos.
Taboga, St. Elena.

248 REPORT—1856, -
No. Name. Freq. Other Localities.
134 |Cardium graniferum, Brod. §& Sow. .........+0 e.r. |Pan., Gulf Nicoya and Xipix.

135 |-——, sp. ind. (g), (lucinoides, nom. prov.) ...

Lucinide.

136 |Lucina (Codakia) tigerina, Linn. ws... =
137 2? PUNCtAatA, UNI. cvees-s.cccvessecceeeees
138 annulata, Rve....... * Shoeeeece epee Seoese
139 |—— ? muricata, Chemn. ....ecceseeeseceeee hate
140 CECHVAUAs Me Susromescccctsetcees Riahitatoets vecdees
141 |——,, sp. ind. (@) wicseesccseeceecseeeeeens Beetle
142 | —— pectinata, 1.5. ..sscscoeccssessesceececoeees
143 Caticellaris, PAtl. wee. qiseetecses Meslewiele cee
144 |—— Mazatlanica, 0.8. cecsesssseseneceees eoaadec
145 |—— prolongata, N. S.ce..-.ssssseercsvcesceeeerees
LAG 0) ———— ROD annI (0) vscavesteeaiuecaveesccsssssoscsesdes
147-|=—~ ? eburnea, Rue. “ss... .s0ssseoees Raeea'lsleWelews
148 |—— sp. ind. (c)........c.006 saveon ose cstneie ba
LAD HORI Mb LIA SPW aseane sensors at's doses vsweese eee
150 |Diplodonta semiaspera ......seccsseeecseeeeeerens

?= Lucina celata, Rve.

?=J. semireticulata, D’Orb.

Comp. L. orbella, Gld. .......s0000 Sovaassdeeh

1502; —— y VAT. GISCTEPANS..+....ccsceeecese eecees
151 |———~ obliqua, Phil........... SEE ORCDROSEE =ponuELS
152 |?—— serricata, Rve. ...cecccscsscscsecseveaceecees

Kelliade.
153 |Kellia suborbicularis, Mont. ........+.. radocs oon
L54 i asea'? TUDLA MOM aesresdsssvarsetivessates sesce
~}155 |—— trigonalis, n.s. .........008 seapaveeseassenes
156 |}? —— oblonga, 1. S......scceeeeeesenee paisa tena
688 SSP-and. coven gailepperes 6 Gaviiiseiais'a's sevens
157 |Lepton Clementinum, n.s........ sadusseseveesenes
158 Dionzeum, n. S. sesseceseees Sab daaeoce ae
9) |-————-) WMNOMAMIIN NGS; lexeessesteurieceescreestace
NGO |Pythina sUbleevissisi8. Uenshessdsocscecsescesoncssn
161 |Montacuta elliptica, 0.8. ...secssccseseeesseecsss
162 |? SUbqUAdrata, 1.8. .ss.sserecserceseceeeeees
163 |——, sp. ind. ...... GyesdiseapenvenesWeavassasciersec
Cycladide.
164 |Cyrena olivacea, 1.8. .scseeeesseseseaseess teaseraes
= C. Fontainei, Desh. non D’Orb.
165 |—— Mexicana, Brod. & Sow. ...cccssesereveese

Comp. C. Floridana, Cony.
Var.=C. altilis, Gld.

Unionide.

166 |Anodon ciconia, GId. .....cccscseseeeseecserevasens
Comp. 4. glauca, Val.

Mytilide.
167 |Mytilus palliopunctatus, Dkr. ......secseesssees
168 |—— miultiformis, 0.8. ......ccccesccessceeseueess
169 |Septifer Cumingianus, Reel. ..... Suetdeeaede canes
170 |Modiola capax, Conr...... bp svewetece Senssessdesens
171 |—— Braziliensis, Chemn....,...... Macedeceocsecs

=M. Guyanensis, Lam.

= M. semifusca, Sow. (not Lam.)
171) , var. mutabilis .......... pertuneseudecs
172 |Crenella coarctata, Diri...s.ccessoccsssesssveecens
173 |Lithophagus attenuatus, Desh. ......... sestevees

1

1 |S.W. Mexico, West Indies.
2 |Panama.

1 |Panama, St. Elena.
y.r. |West Indies.

... |San Diego.

Atlantic: Britain, — Canaries :
Fossil Crag ; Panama.
e.r. |Atlantic: ? ubiquitous.
eat.

m0 CO HR DO DD ee

n.u.

ce. |S.W. Mexico.

e.r. |Panama.
r. |S. Diego, La Paz, Gal., S.W.Mex.
r. |Guiana, Venezuela, Bay Guaya-
quil, Panama.

n.c. |? New Zealand.
e.r. |Galapagos.
e.r. |Peru, ?Chili.

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 249

No. Name. Freq. Other Localities,
174 |Lithophagus calyculatus, n.8......cssceeceseness 1
175 |—— plumula, Ham. ......cecscccsscvescseseceeees r. |Panama.
176 |—— aristatus, Sol. ........ccsccscsssoveccesecsenece c. |Senegal, West Indies.
= Modiola caudigera, Lam.
= Mytilus ropan, Desh.
176b|—— ——, var. pracilior .....s....cce0ees saaericap Bye
176 cl _—— ——, var. tumidior ........scsseeees ieee er. - :
auritius, Philippines, Cuba,
177 |—— cinnamomeus, Chemn. ........c0serceaceees 1 { Venezuela, Central America,
178 |Leiosolenus spatiosus, . S.......sessesceeceeseeess e. r.
179 |——-, sp. ind. ...... peeatioans weiss aslcettecuents anon iies
Arcade.
180 Arca grandis, Brod. & Sow. ..... Sp Spee apoacecoce v.c. |Pan., Real Llejos, Bay Guayaq.
181 |—— multicostata, Sow...... npcondundsnendeneonone 2 |Gulf "Tehuantepec.
182 |—— Plabiata, Sow. ....ccc.escscscesecceces veoves| 2 ~. |Real Llejos, Tumbez, W. Indies.
?= A. labiosa, Sow.
?= A. incongrua, Say.
183 |—— bifrons, n.s. ......... SRO ROCEBCULECE | Or
184 |—— tuberculosa, Sow. .......ssseecseee seoveseoee] VeC. |Panama, Real Llejos.
?-+.A. trapezia, Desh.
+4. similis, C. B. Ad.
185 |—— reversa, Gray......cccsccscseeeeees sveseseseee| 2 |Panama, Tumbez.
=A. hemicardium, Koch.
186 |—— ? brevifrons, Sow. ......... eaaeeiseeits aust 1 |Tumbez.
187 |—— emarginata, Sow. ...cccsscsececoccsscesceees e.r. |Atacamas, RI. Llej., Xipix., Pan.
188 |——, Sp. ind. ()......coccescscseccscesesvenes “reeA| ee
689 |—, (ibertesocene ee eters | Scoctioneabonec 1
189 |Byssoarca Pacifica, WSOIDE, Sta neencees cewsvenseeents r. |St. Elena, Bijooga Island.
190 |—— mutabilis, Sow. ......ccecccecececececscvecees r. {Island of Plata, Panama.
Comp. Arca Americana, D’Orb.= imbricata,
Brug.
191 fusca, Brug. ....00.8. Rualudesieedsessuseetacers 1~ |East and West Indies.
192 |—— vespertilio, n. S..rccccccececcscecesccceccseses 1
BOS) |\ "Ml Ota, SOW. esc secs cesvvaccececevecsevecevees e.r. |Gulf Nicoya.
Comp. A. Tabogensis, C. B. Ad
194 |—— gradata, Brod. & Sow. ....cccssceseseuscoes v.r. |St. Elena, Taboga, West Indies,
?=4.squamosa,Lam. =.4.Domingensis, Lam, and Fossil.
= Arca clathrata, Deft.
Comp. B. divaricata, Sow.
Comp. B. pusilla, Sow.
Comp. 4. donaciformis, Rve.
195 | —— solida, Sow. ...ceccsessees tsesvoccecseseseeee] DU. |Panama, Payta.
196 |Pectunculus inzequalis, Sow. (non Gray) ...... 3 |Panama, Real Llejos, Puerto
=P. pectiniformis, Wood (non Lam. Portrero, Guayaquil.
?+P. assimilis, Sow.
197 |—— ? multicostatus, Sow.,......sssseseseeeseeese| 1 (Ecuador, Guayaquil.
Nuculide.
198 |Nucula exigua, Sow. ....sscssssessseseereseeee| 1 |Panama, Bay of Caraccas.
199 |Leda Elenensis, Sow. ....... svdasduemiddddsetesndar 2. |Panama, St. Elena.
Aviculide.
200 |Pinna maura, Sow. ....s..eccssessceeeees seceesseees| COMM. |Panama.
201 |—— lanceolata, Sow.... teesevececscveesess| MN. U. |Puerto Portrero.
202 |—— ? rugosa, Sow........000 eedecceeaes etesatadtens v.r. |Panama.
203 itvicula sterna, Gid. seeccosccccectecesscesvese| De U. |Panama.
=A. Atlantica, Mke..
204 |Margaritiphora Mazatlanica, Hani. .........008| Ve Ie

=A. fimbriata, Dkr.
Isognomon Chemnitzianum, ae Ore catveceenses
= Perna flexuosa, Sow.

n.u. /Panama, W. Indies, Conchagua.

250 REPORT—1856.

No. Name. Freq.
206 |Isognomon Janus, N.S. «..secsessssepecesseerevers er
Pectinide.

207 |Pecten circularis, Sow. ....seceeseee qocvsseuseeves 2
690 |——, sp. ind. (a) ...sereeees eaaduess Fesceassesapns e. ¥.
691 =F Sp. ind. (2) steeee POCO E SHES ede eeEeerebsees 1
Spondylide.

208 |Spondylus calcifer, n.s......s0++e0 -EPRECEROTEE nu.

= 8S. Lamarckii, Hanl. MS.
209 |? y SP: ING. oserce.cccevenscoees Eicsafemesuavasanae
210 |Plicatula penicillata, n.s. ......... eparmactarnssss er.
=P. dubia, var. Sow. MS.
Ostreade.
211 |Ostrea iridescens, Gray .+e..ssceccersrssereeeeeses| Vs Te
?= 0. spathulata, Lam.
?= 0. margaritacea, Lam.
?= 0. eguatorialis, D’Orb.
?=0. rufa, pars, Gld.
212 |\—— Virginica, Gimel......cersesssseseeressees eceatl avs
?=O. rufa, pars, Gld.
213 |—— Columbiensis, Ham. .......:sseseeseessecee| Ve Is
214 |—— conchaphila, n.S. ......s+eeees Acebocenes | i ioue
2145|—— (??. » Var.) PAlMULA ..5...+resccesceseeee e. r.
Comp. O. Cumingiana,
215 |——, sp. ind. ....0000-. soseeqecvenes Spain sosscocee| VoT
Anomiade.
216 |Placunanomia pernoides, Gray.......++ POR nory er
= Tedinia pernoides, Gray. i
217 |\——foliata, Brod. .......s..00« SROCED COME Sal 2
+P. pectinata, teste Gray.
+P. echinata, teste Gray.

218 |—— claviculata, n. 8....... gscdicy Ue ecdanakbasab eon 2
219 |Anomia lampe, Gray...... Gees ecssssgnecsssacevsen C.
Class PTEROPODA.

Unknown.

Class GASTEROPODA.

Subclass OpISTHOBRANCHIATA.

Order Tectibranchiata.

Cylichnide.

221 |Cylichna luticola, C. B. Ad. .....ccceesereceveees 2
222 |Tornatina infrequens, C. B. Ad. ..rccsssseesees v.r

_ ?= Bulla gracilis, Mke.
223 |—— Carinata, NT. Srrsrosveceecereteccerseccnscceesee| Ve I
Bullide.
224 |Bulla Adamsi, Mike. ..scsreee Fre OC COPERe COPTER n. ¢
225 ?nebulosa, Gid...... che ciseipecessansasaccaas er.
226 Quoyii, Gray...... avevcepeesecces aia cceraceatl Male
227 |\—— exarata, D. S, ssseeee Faas kb yeh cana gannasiaealiauter
228 |——, sp. ind. ....... cavatecepecsece spasidewe wines eco]. Lb
229 |Haminea cymbiformis, 0. S. ..sseseseres aaaexeane 1
Philinide.
692 1

Smaragdinella thecaphora, (Nutt.) n.s. «+...

am |

: Sta, Barb., San Diego, Guaymas.

Other Localities.

Guaymas.

Panama.

Bay of Fonseca. .

Senegal, Panama, Guacomayo,

Atlantic, Panama.
St. Elena.

S.Diego,S. W.Mex., Pan., W.Afr.
Upper California, S.W. Mexico.

San Diego, Panama,

Senegal, Panama.

S.W. Mexico, Island of Muerte,
Guayaquil, West Indies.

Monterey, La Paz, Pan., Guayaq.

Panama.
Panama.

Galapagos.

;'s

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 25]

No. Name. Freq. Other Localities.

Subclass PuLMONATA.
Order Geophila.

t Testacellide.

230 |Glandina Albersi, Pfr. ....cseessesconeceseeneses| Cr To

231 |—— turris ..........ssc0ees Miceagees Ninesaases an beg?
Helicida.

232 |Orthalicus zebra, Miill. ....ceceocsscssevseeesesses
= Bulimus undatus, Lam.
+B. melanocheilus, Val.
+ Orthalicus livens, Beck.
+B. zigzag, Lam.
+B. princeps, Brod.
233 |—— Ziegleri, PfY.......06 Rev euarca esses any pieoe
234 |—— ? Mexicanus, Lam..isccccecsscocescscececcces

ce. |Brazils, Peru, Columbia, West
Indies, Conchagua,

Order Limnophila.

Auriculide.

235 |Melampus olivaceus, 1. S. .sossecssssceescees trees] Ue |San Diego.

Limnide.
236 |Physa aurantia, 0.8. .sccoccesssssecssvvecnee radens
=P. Perwviana, Mke. (non Gray).
2a4 |—— eClata, Gld. sacccvcsscnescccces Oey aauaaneaasenes

238 |Planorbis tumens, 1. 8. ..eccscecesssscsceceeccee ae
=P. tenagophilus, Mke. non D’Oxb.

Order Thalassophila.

Siphonariade.

239 |Siphonaria Lecanium, Phil. ..... dooeduoserys “cle
» Var. Lind gs cokes hos ewacanaea asunder
240 |—— cequilirata, 1. 8. .....scecccscsersssecsssscecss
241 |——, sp. ind. ......000. recede cedbooccugtccnacenanans

c. |St. Elena, Guayaquil.

2. —

Subclass PRosoBRANCHIATA.
Order Heteropoda.

Lanthinide.
242 |Tanthina striulata, n.s. ....sscccceseseeccccsceaeee
242 5 Var. CONtOLtA reeves Naa bavanae
243 |—— decollata, nom. prov.....scccsesssesecesseees
Comp. f. globosa, Swains., and J. prolon-
gata, D’Orb.

Sandwich Islands, Nuttalt.

29s
RRO

Order Lateribranchiata.

Dentaliade.
244 |Dentalium liratum, n. s.. PEEP PEPE REPED
245 |—— hyalinum, Phil, ....... >
246 COFTULATUM, Ne Se cogesctissocceavccescecscces
247 |—— pretiosum, Nutt. ....... teeeeesensecenesvens

Order Scutibranchiata.

Chitonide.
248 |Lophyrus articulatus, Sow.,,,.ssscccsesssecseesace

ce. |San Blas.

252 REPORT—1856.
Sts ele Sd eh ee a eee
No. Name. Freq. Other Localities.
249 |Lophyrus albolineatus, Brod. & Sow.....+...... We
250 StriatO-SqUAMOSUS, I. S.....csececeeeeeaes ec) ie |
251 |Tonicia Forbesii, n. s..........- RSuAUancassets cece’ 2
252 |Lepidopleurus sanguineus, Rve......0.ss.cseeeeee| Ve De
Comp. Ch. limaciformis, Sow.
253 |—— clathratus, n.s........ Desccees aacceceese weve
204 t-——— DUALS, MsSaloscadevsvesdiecess cubsitscssssets 2
254b|——— ——,, var. calciferus .......00.se.s000: eassseie ck
255 |?—— MacAndree, 0. 8....sececsecsseseeceeecseese] 2
206!) ———-" Beant My Se eetstcestectacecospascececcacseed) 2
257 |Chiton flavescens, N.S. ......csseseeeecseees gensae} "0
258 |Acanthochites Arragonites, n.S. s.s..sseceeeee] eo Te
Patellide.
259 |Patella Mexicana, Brod. & Sow. ...cssc0es00e0| ¢. |Payta.
=P. maxima, D’Orb.
260 |—— pediculus, Phil. .....ccescsscsseseveeveeveeees| Mu. |ACapulco.
=P. corrugata, Rve.
POU H\———-\GISGOES, (PViilsetess cseestssvseetes sonsosessses vy. c. |S.W. Mexico.
ROZmNacellay RD. 1NCegrrccaseorsuesscnedsnsesessscose. | aoe
Acmeida.
263 |Acmea mesoleuca, Mie......s.sseees cnevesel“@s1Ae
= Patella diaphana, Rve. pI .. |Central America.
= Lottia ? patina, C. B. Ad. (non Esch.) sees... (Panama.
?+?4, personoides, Midd. 2 a8 c.cteewsevecnase| eee (Reena bays
?+?4. eruginosa, Midd. . stseeseseseceee| ase | BOdegas.
+P. striata, Rve. non Quoy..... ssecsesesesee! ae |Galapagos,
+4. mutabdilis, Mke. pars.
264 |—— fascicularis, Mie. ....ssessseeee sessssseeeee] DU. [San Diego.
+A. mutabilis, Mke. pars.
265 |—— patina, Esch. (for syn. v. supra) .........| 2 |N. & S. temperate America.
266 |—— persona, Esch. ....scsseeseeee sesesseseeveves! 1 |Sitka—San Diego.
267 |—— scabra, Nutt., Rve., Jay .s0..s.s0s.see0e| 1 {Monterey &c., S.W. Me xico.
Non P. scabra, Gld.
268 |—— mitella, Mhe.....cccccccsesssceseseveesecseces| Te Us
=P. navicula, Rve.
269 |Scutellina navicelloides, n. S..cesessecveseeeeeeses| 1
Gadiniade.
270 |Gadinia pentegoniostoma, Sow.....ccceerereeeee| Te Co
Fissurellide.
271 |Fissurella virescens, Sow. .......scsseceeseseeseee| Ve @. |Panama.
[272 Barbadensis, Gmel.]...... 1 {West Indies.
273 TUPOSA, SOWe caascacegeseeeene ress n.u. |Galapagos.
+F. chlorotrema, Mke.
+f. humilis, Mke.
+ F. viminea, Mke.
274 |—— nigrocincta, 0.8. cecssseovssvecsssesceveeees| Gs Te
ALU t———es NSN. ancyevecergeaadedcrs ceveeicesescesseccn | neal
ZAG =A, MS canveceasseacs csedereresectcesevess| | Cs
?+F. gemmata, Mke. (jun.)
BUT | Soe Perivianiaiiias. ostccssgseces crsteccsecescs 1 ae Lobos, Iquiqui, Is. Mexil-
ones, Valparaiso.
278 |—— SPONGIOSA, N.S. rscecessesssesecevececesevens
279 |Glyphis inzequalis, Sow. ..+....ss0esseeeeereeees| MC. [Guacomayo, Galap., St. Elena,
+ Fissurella pica, Sow. Monte Christi.
+F. mus, Rve.
280 |\—— alta, C. B. Ad. ceccceccscesecsscesesoeescsese] @ Fr. (Panama.
281 |Rimula Mazatlanica, n.s. .essscecessseevsssseeeee| Ce Te

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA,

253

No. Name.

Trochide.

282 |Callopoma fluctuosum, Mawe ...sscsesseserreee
= Turbo Fokkesii, Jonas.
= T. fluctuatus, Rve.

283 |Phasianella perforata, Phil.

2834;—— , var. striulata

284 |\—— compta, GI. .......ccrcrcecccsseseeccssceees

285 |Bankivia varians, jun., Beck ...... CE CCCECLEELCEC

286 |Uvanilla olivacea, Mawe .......... qaereteas aaa
. = Trochus brevispinosus, Val.
=T. erythrophthalmus, Phil.

?=T. Melchersi, Mke.

——— inermis, Gmel. .......... Ghccsvabiagese oebear
= Trochus olivaceus, Phil. (not Wood).
=U. variegatus, Gray in B.M.

unguis, Mawe
= Turbo digitatus, Desh.
= Trochus amictus, Val.
=T. stellaris, Mke.

Trochus versicolor, Mke....... Rivcagebeeenaresaaue

?= Ziziphinus Californicus, A. Ad.
= T. eximius, Rve.
i—— MacAndree, n.s. ...... wanaedtanenne Wpatenen
?=T7. minutus, Mke.

pee SINE. ee aseraen scat edeadanctssdes te civasnccas

Omphalius ? rugosus, var. rufotinctus

—— viridulus, Grmel.........scecccvseceseees eauae
= Phorcus variegatus, A. Ad.
=Trochus Brazilianus, Mke. teste Ad.
+T. Byronianus, Wood.
+T. reticulatus, Gld. MS.

—— ligulatus, Mie. .......scseececcseresecenees
?=Phorcus Californicus, A. Ad.

—— globulus, n.s.

?= Trochus glomus, Mke.

Vitrinella Panamensis, C. B. Ad. ...cecsecceseee

—— parva, C. B. Ad. wsssccsceeee

?— decussata, 1. S....ssssessseee

Ee INEIEs My Gry cane cdacstn de tiedtacecsseeucsas's'es

———-VINONMIELAy Ns Ne secesndadevacosspacaes Aeendec

PRU Aide WS Sa. eases Seaucededeabaustese dew edeees

—— subquadrata, 0. 8. ..scsscosssscvesevcvceoes

Miata, Tit S. .sckccecattepeo's Cadeeseendesveets

F———-(DUONGia, Ts Sa. wel sat ccaccaccaedvesecssecus’

Perparva, Var. NOGOSA .......seeeeeveeees ee

Oxia, Co Be AG, <csserenscccdcavv=ccceccase

coronata, 0. s.

?—— annulata, 1.8. .....cececeeecees eeesane Srere

CINCH, a Sincneve sceceorcastperamie oss ed ceanes

CALINUIALA, TS. cncschscedecaspacessnceavece

Be——— HACICOUGS, Ika Sscaveseg sevedees tivevsvevcees =e

?——— planospirata, 0.8. «.....056+

Bee NOEDINS M: Srdto rs cc ccsccecut eae

BPAOtIA CATINALE, Ws Silecdecstsacdedsespesepevecess spe

P——— striulata, 0.8. ....cccccscsccscecceeassees ae

??2—— C-B-Adamsii, n. 8. ......-0e00s vodessvacse

316 |? » SP. IN....0.c2e.sc000 Pacesdeus chines Seeusendes

?Globulus tumens, N.S. ....cceeseceeerers panties

Ethalia pyricallosa, 0. S.......ssessseceesseeveesees

— lirulata,n.s. ......... CAE

—— pallidula, n.s. ...... econ Madsecdarese sees

eeeecsecee SPeeeeereeeeee

287

288

a teeceseee Peeveeeceereeesrrees

eeseeees

Se eenseseee eeeeesee te eerteeees

Cc.

Other Localities.

St. Elena, San Diego, Sitka.[?]

Payta, Panama.

San Diego, Sta. Barbara.
Australia, S. Africa.

“1S.W. Mexico.

S.W. Mexico.

Payana.

Panama.

? China.
San Diego.

Panama.
Panama.

Panama.
Panama.

REPORT—1856.

Name.

Ethalia carinata, n. S.......6 oe Rseeeacss sees

amplectans, ? 1. S. ........
Teinostoma amplectans, D, S..ss......seeeceseeees
—— substriatum, n.s. ........ Rovalesesissenceste

Neritide.
Nerita scabricosta, Lam........scsccecsessesssvecs
= WN. ornata, Sow.
+N. Deshayesii, Récl.
+N. multijugis, Mke.
— Bernhardi, Récl.
=N. funiculata, Mke.
Neritina cassiculum, Sow.
—— picta, Sow. ....ccccsecseees vec tisangrasepents

Order Pectinibranchiata.

Suborder RostRiFERA,
Naricide.
Vanicoro cryptophila, n. s. (=Narica cr.)...... r.

Calyptreide.
Trochita ventricosa, n. s.
Galerus conicus, Brod.
—— mammillaris, Brod, .ec.is.ccsccssceeveneees
+C. regularis, C. B. Ad.
= C. Lamarckii, Mke.
2+ C. Lichen, Brod.
Crepidula aculeata, Gel. ......+ sabunss< Sebedas c.
+C. echinus, Brod.
+C. hystrix, Brod.
+C. costata, Mke.
+0. Californica, Nutt.
— dilatata, Lam.
+C. Peruviana, Lam.
+. depressa, Desh.
+C. patula, Desh.
+C. Adolphei, Less.
+(C. nautiloides, Less.
+C. strigata, Brod.
+C. arcuata, D’Orb. teste Gray.
??-+--C. pallida, Brod.
?+C. foliacea, Brod.
?+-C. Patagonica, D’Orb. (pars).
—— dorsata, Brod., var. bilobata...... “pages er.
——— excavata, Brod. ...sccssceeescssersscccceseees 3
PUUNCA NOs ecessacestescaassertsesnsecucsess er.
=C. solida, Hds.
=C. rostriformis, Gld.
=C. rostrata, C.B. Ad.
=C. uncata, Mke.
= Garnotia solida, Gray.
incurva, Brod.
= C. hepatica, Mke. non Desh., nec C. B. Ad.
nec Krauss.
—— OLX, SOW .cereeerererveceesenseeseens vennees
=C. ?hepatica, C. B. Ad. non Mke.
=C. amygdalus, Val.
?=C. contorta, Mke.
+C. cerithicola, C. B. Ad.
+C. Patagonica+-protea, D’Orb. pars.

v.t.

Freq.

n.u.

Other Localities.

. Is. Timor, Real Llejos, Panama,

S.W. Mexico.

. |Peru, Panama, S.W. Mexico.

San Miguel.
Panama.

Pan.,S. W. Mex., Xip.& Salango.
Is. Muerte, Panama, Acap., Sta.
Barbara, Payta—Guayaquil.

W. I., E. and W.S. Am., Africa,
E. I., Australia, N. Zealand.

W. Coast S. America passim,
? Mauritius.

Real Llejos, Panama.
Bodegas, Da Fuca Str., Sta. Bar-
bara, Panama.

San Blas., Pan., Payta, St. ssietsah
Xipixapi.

Panama, ?S. and W. Africa.

beat

a
cre?
}

‘ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA.

No.

—

341 |Crepidula nivea, C. B. Ad....scscecccens

342

343

344

352

Name.

+C. squama, Brod.

+. striolata, Mke.

+. Lessonii, Brod.

+C. unguiculus, var. Brod.
+ C. protea, D’Orb. pars.

Comp. C. explanata, Gld. = C. perforans,

Val.=C. exuviata, Nutt.

Patella crepidula, Linn.
+C. Italica, Defr.
+C. plana, Say.

+P. goreensis, Gmel.

Crucibulum imbricatum, Sow. .....

=C. scutellatum, Gray.
=C. rugosa, Less. non Desh.

unguiformis, Lam........ Fab -sxn

weeeettees eee

Ooeeeccsonnee

+-C. extinctorium, Sow. (non Lam.) = C.

dentata, Mke.

——— SPINOSU, SOW. sscsssveerseceens

= C. peziza, Wood.
+C. hispida, Brod.
+C. maculata, Brod.
+C. tenuis, Brod.
=C. tubifera, Less.

?-+C. rugosa, Desh.= C. lignaria, Brod. +C.
guiriquina,D’Orb.=C. Saradense Gray.

Calyptrzea cepacea, Brod. .......+.0.

Capulide.

Hipponyx serratus, 1. S...eseesseseeee

?=H. foliaceus, Mke.

—— antiquatus, Linn. ......000...0+

= Pileopsis mitrula, Lam.

Pe ereeteroces

Poececeseteee

= Hipponyx Panamensis, C. B. Ad.

—— plamatus, 1.Se..sscccssecesssceces

barbatus, Sow.
?=H. australis, Mke.

eee seseeresssenes

Grayanus, Mike. ...cccncssseseees

aeeeoreseeene

ee weresscseee

=H. radiata, Gray (non Quoy nec Desh.)

Capulus, sp. ind. (like C. militaris)

Vermetide.

sees eeoesees

Aletes centiquadrus, Val. .....ccoccecsssessesenes

+ Vermetus Peronii, Val.

38525, —— , var. imbricatus .. cdasbadensnee

353 |—— margaritarum, Val. ......ceecscccescceseees

304 |Vermetus eburneus, Rve.....e...ssee0s Wicseree ah
?Jun.= V/V. pellucidus, Brod. & Sow.

305 |?Bivonia contorta, 0. S. ....scsseceeceeecceeecceecs

?= Vermetus glomeratus, Mke.,C. B. Ad., non

Phil. nec Linn.

Comp. V. Panamensis, C. B. Ad.

555} ——. , var. indentata ......+. Kpmbunvesce osead
os —— albida, 1. 8....sccccscsessceetees ERE
8 ae @) svenepees Boner tice 3
ae ; : vamensileod eink
359 ae Macrophragma, N.S. ..seeesssaes
Caecide.
360 |Czcum (Elephantulum) insculptum, n. s......
361 |—— —— subspirale, n.s. ........ mahcykasaqany
_ {862 |—— —— abnormale, 0. 8. ..,..sssseeeeeee neg
63. | ———. —— obtusum, 0. 8. scccccscececescecs

255
Freq. Other Localities.
y.c, |Panama, Is. Muerte, S. America,
? Vancouver’s Strait.
e.r. |Atlantic, both coasts; Panama,
Singapore.
n.u. |W.CoastAmerica, Panama,Peru.
n.u. |W. Coast, Panama, Peru, Sta.
Barbara.
1 {Is. Muerte, Panama.
r.
3 | West Indies, Senegal, Lobos Is.,
Panama.
4 |Panama.
v.r. |Society Islands, Panama.
1 |Galapagos, Sandwich Islands,
Panama,S.W.Mexico,Guinea,
3
n.u. |S.W. Mexico, Panama.
2
3
v.r. |S. America, W. Columbia.
r.
ver.
3
2
1
n.u. |Panama.
2
12
2
6

256 REPORT—1856. t uO

Name. fs Other Localities.

364 |Czcum (Elephantulum) liratocinctum, n. s....
+var. tenuiliratum.
-+var. subobsoletum.
-+var. subconicum.
— heptagonum, DN. Srrcerssssceeseeceeees
(Anellum) elongatum, n. 8. ....ssceceseeee
?+-var. semileve.
— SUDIMPFESSUM), N.S. svevsecseceeceee oom
—— — firmatum, C. B. Ad. ....ccecececeeeess
+C. diminutum, C. B. Ad,
+C. pygmeum, C. B. Ad.
-+-C. monstrosum, C. B. Ad.
+C. firmatum, C. B. Ad.
— = clathratum,’N. S. .ssecesecseesesserees
———. —— quadratum, 0. 8. sscccccssecsscceesece
-+-var. compactum.
— MINAS MiSs) coer eceaveencevasceets
?+C. parvum, C.B. Ad. ver.sscressseeesceees Panama.
—— (Fartulum) leve, C. B. dd, ......00 Panama.
—— —— farcimen, 1.8. ....ccccecseees aoe eee
—— —— glabriforme, 1. S. .......sseceseeseeees
—— — corrugulatum, n.s. .........
—— —— dextroversum, n.s. .....
— TEVETSUM, MS. p.ecaceseccscers
——. —— TETES, T. S....ceececeneeee evcccens

Turritellide.
Turritella goniostoma, Val. ....sccsceenee cece Acap., S.W. Mex., Pan., Payta,
=T. Broderipiana, D’Orb. Salango, Guacomayo.
+ T. lentiginosa, Rve.

?47. Hookeri, Mke. (non Rve.)
?+T. Banksii, Rve.
—— tigrina, Kien.. seccsceecsseeecssseeees| @. Te - |Conchagua.
=T. imbricata, Mke. (non Lam. ‘
?+T. Cumingii, Rve.
?+-T. leucostoma, Val.

Cerithiade.
Cerithium maculosum, Kien......0scseeeeees Acap., Gal., S.W. Mex., Taboga.
=C, adustum, C. B. Ad.
=C. nebulosum, Sow.
?var.=C. adustum, Sow. (non Kien.)
—— ?famelicum, C. B. Ad., var. medioleyve.,. . |Panama, S.W. Mexico.
oe umbonatum, Sow.—Mus. Cum.
Comp. C. musica, Val.
Puncinatum, Gmel. ....eseeees aces .r. |Panama, 8.W. Mexico.
=C. famelicum, C. B. Ad: pars, t teste Sow.
——, BP. Ind. (2) ses.sssssveeeeee
—— alboliratum, n.s. .......eceeeee seeesonedeecs
pees RDS ATC i) eee ceo snes
—— stercus-muscarum, Val.,........... a oceean Acap., 8.W. Mex., Pan., Galap. |
=C. irroratum, Gld.
= C. ocellatum, Mke. (?non Brug.)
——— nterrapium, MKE....)..cccnecesevesesesevees Panama, Galapagos.
?=C. Gallapaginis, Sow.
Vertagus gemmatus, Hds. ....cccceseeseseeeeeeese| C. |Panama.
PRP Uo wcsnsvetdeteenesscteettess Watua's ca ween
Triforis alternatus, C. B. Ad... sesactectccen Panama.
—— inconspicuus, C. B, Ad.........0006 oe Panama.
—— ?infrequens, C. B. dd. .., : Panama.
Cerithidea Montagnei, D’ Ord. .......cseenessees . |Guayaquil, Panama.
= Cerithium Reevianum, C. B. Ad.
Comp. C. pulchrum, C. B, Ad.

a’

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 257

No, Name, Freq. Other Localities.
395 |Cerithidea ? varicosa, var. Mazatlanica.........| n.¢. |Guayaquil, Panama.
= Cerithium validum, C. B. Ad.
Litorinide. 3
396 |Litorina conspersa, Phil. ...ssecssseceeesseccoase e.c, |Real Llejos, Panama.

+L. punciticulata, Phil.
=L. modesta, Mke. non Phil.

397 ASPeray PAI, s.nc. peste denn codensnenensevshes n.u. |Sitka, Mexico,S. Salvador, Pan.
398 |—— Philippii, n.s. ....sscessceeeeeeeesceeeeeees C.
cea = DTH saesene haa dh hen be ssenadacanmacannsa 3
400 |—— fasciata, Gray ......cseccececsececesceasenas y.r. |Tumbez, Panama.
401 |Modulus catenulatus, Phil. .....cccceecceeccones n.u. |Taboga, S. America.
=M. trochiformis, Eyd. & Soul.
Pot SIG oth, as Bye chien bie ss otiaescimanaais soncanens 1
403 |—— disculus, Phil. .....cc0ecseeee Ee snicnonlet 3 |Acapulco.
= WM. duplicatus, var., A, Ad.
= WM. dorsuosus, Gld.
404 |Fossarus tuberosus, ni. S....seecseceesecsssseeseeees 3
405 angulatus, N.S. ....2..006 Baeeep-neneserassean 2
406 |—— (Isapis) maculosa, 1. S........ceeseeseeeeeee e. TY.
Sie —— 2 ——— 15), ING eae a sadeusnaisvvesnsssneonnass= 1
Rissoide.
408 |Rissoina stricta, Mie........ccsssscscseneeeceee ene 1
409 |——, sp. ind. ......... ehoncdeessocsesuenees Aacorcar 2
410 |—— Woodwardii, n. 8. ....cccsscseescseeserececes Yr.
411 |Barleeia lirata, n. s.* .......cccsccccsccsescecsences 9
412 |Alvania excurvata, 1. S. ..csccscsscessceesscseeees Ie
413 EffUSa, T. Seeeeseeeee PemeR rer ccna tescdacveceaees 1
414 |—— tumida, 0.8. wcscsccseeseseesceee ace eecsanae 2
BE IRS TE once st os pcaniesaaains..caecnss cdeascons seven 1
416 }?Cingula, sp. ind..........cesceseeees Bi Secareseaners 1
417 |Hydrobia ulvee, Penn........0.sseseccesecnaneeeees 4. jEurope, Caspian, United States,
= Paludinella stagnalis, Midd. Ochotsk Sea.
{418 }?—, sp. ind....eecseeccreeee Braatenss coeeernestc. ner)!
Jeffreysiade.
419 |Jeffreysia bifasciata, n.S. ...esceessesesseeetenes 90
420 Alderi, 0.8. ....s.0s0 Be ACERS REEL 3
PAE nes HITITLECNIS, Wo. Sac esncnsnssesssevacvsncessascecous 13
eM ——— IRs WMGLs, wou cpocespunccisesanduescsiocecusascceess 2
iad Truncatellide.
423 |Truncatella, sp. ind. ......esccvecssseeseeceeseezes]! 2
Planaxide.
424 |Planaxis nigritella, Morbes ......seesssssseee seovee| Goa. (San Juan.
=P, acutus, Mke.
+P. obsoletus, Mke.
425 |Alaba supralirata, 1.8. .......sesceeoeecseerseeees 50
4 Comp. Cingula tervaricosa, C. B. Ad. ......|..ceeeess Jamaica.
426 |—— violacea, n.&.......... SOoosdnt sc reoocsBaseeees 1
_|427 |—— terebralis, n.s. 1
|428 | —— alabastrites, 1. S.......cescesececeeceseseeees 1
MERI —— SCalata, Te 8. ccsvecsasocssccnccensaivonsescons 1
SMe ———= COMICA, Th. 8. cecccccevcecsecsecsccncccceccscce 4
431 |?—— mutans, nom. prov. ..sreesecececccacsceeees 1
4432 |(?—— laguncula, nom. prov. ..+....sseeseeecseeee 1
SEE, SP. IN. (2): .0....cecpsovegeracvocavtcancanes 1
1434 PpP—, CD) i aaservexaceuu dss anscccseen ieee sees 1

* The absence of typical Rissoe among so many species of small shells is deserany or
Notice,

1856. é, s

258 REPORT——1856,
No. Name. Freq. Other Localities,
Ovulide.
435 |Radius variabilis, C.B. Ad. ...cce..sceceeeeees ..| x. |{Pan., San Juan, Sta. Barbara.
= 0. Californica, Sow-
Cypreide.
436 |Cyprea exanthema, Linn. ......s00..-008 seeeeeeee| 1.0. |West Indies, Pacific Islands.
?-+C. cervus, Linn. =cervina, Lam.
+C. cervinetta, Kien. ‘
437 |Luponia ? spurca, Linn. .......sccccesseerenses «| 1 |Atlantic.
438 |Aricia arabicula, Zam. ..,......... panies eu cee e.c. |S.W. Mex., Pan., St. Elena and
?+ 4. punctulata, Gray. Real Llejos. [Lat. 1-10°,
439 |Trivia pustulata, Lam. ......ccscscssscseeeserees c. |S.W. Mexico, Panama, Is. Plata.
440 TAGIANIS LAMB ic dendvcqecsetssss pukicwaectasaeeh r. |St. Elena, Panama, Acapulco,
A41 |—— Solandri, Gray .........c0ccceccseerecceseers ver
442 |—— sanguinea, Gray ........4 POscnornnrer oc ..| ¢. |St. Elena, Panama.
+T. fusca, Gray.
?+C. lathyrus, Dufresne.
443 |—— pulla, Gash. ..ccccccccssecsscseeeeens seseeeee| 1 |Galapagos, Bay Guayaquil.
444 |—— subrostrata, Gray.e........200s SSE seas eibi 1
Cancellariade.
445 |Cancellaria urceolata, Hinds ....... seseseeveseeee| Ver. |Gulf Papagayo, San Blas.
446 —— Goniostoma, Sow. es.seseecesserrerecerere ..| nou. |Conchagua, San Salv., Taboga.
Strombide. .
447 |Strombus galeatus, Swains. ....-....0seseessees ce. |Gulf Nicoya, Taboga,S.W. Mex.
=. galea, Wood.
=. crenatus, Sow.
448 |—— granulatus, Swains. ....secccserscseeeserers e.r. |St.Elena, Gal., Pan., S.W. Mex.
449 |—— gracilior, Sow. ....++.. Wes\esuweces sass arse y.r. |St. Elena, Panama, La Paz.
Suborder Toxirera.
Terebride.
450 |Terebra (Myurella) albocincta, n.s. ..........+.| 0. ¢
?=T. armillata, Mke. (non Hinds).
451 |—— TINGS ees lens gemax-2-.caeaenee 6
452 |—— —— subnodosa, ?n.s. ....... “Pte sueee| > Se
453 TOFOCINEVEA, Nl: S.icgussyorcceseesedens 2
454 |Subula luctuosa, Hds......ccccspccceccseccsrcccece ce. |Gulf Nicoya, Puerto Portrero.
455 |Euryta fulgurata, Phil. ............ Me cncetcn essere ce. East Africa.
=Terebra arguta, Gld. .
456 |—— aciculata, (? Lam.) Hinds .......s0eeseeee 2 Acapulco, Xipixapi.
Pleurotomide.
457 |Pleurotoma funiculata, Val. .........cesceesseees v.r. |San Blas, 8. W.Mex., G. Nicoya.
=P. olivacea, var. Rve. a pr. man.
458 | —— maculosa, Sow. ..ccccerssececccscecacscvesace n.u. |W. Columbia.
A459) || Drilliavincrassata; SOs, Svcs as cass occcacocsesctees 1 |Panama, Monte Xti.
= Pleurotoma Botte, Kien.
460 J— rudis, S0W........ccccseceeeee ea aess estes cic e.r. |Monte Xti.
461 |—— aterrima, var. Melchersi ...........s.s0008 n.c. |Monte Xti, Panama.
?= Pleurotoma maura, Val.
?+ P. atrior, C. B. Ad.
?- P. discors, Sow.
462 |?—— cerithoidea, N.S. ....secccesseeseseeee ae 3
463 |— zonulata, Rve. .....0...sccssceeveeeeeeeseees 1 {Monte Xti, Xipixapi, Panama.
= Pleurotoma cincta, Sow. non Lam.
464 |—— monilifera, n.s............ aadectiene one ABsasca|! esi
465 |—— albovallosa, n.s...... Meavamiaciedslech aise sce wee 1
466 AETONOGORA Ma Rc fies sees ercsasss aces oe 3
467 |—— luctuosa, Hinds (1843), non D’ Orb. n.u, |Bay Guayaq., Gulf Magdalena.

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST-COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 259

Name. Freq. Other Localities.

Drillia Hanleyi, n.s. .....cscesaseceee SR RAaann naire 1
——, SP. ind. (A) cecsecccccoensrceesasvnenenensrer 2
—, (NR ciec nee occ cen: Shiba hee eee 2
Clathurella raya, Hinds= ~Defrancia r., Hds,.,| 2 |Gulf Nicoya.

AUTEA, Te S. vesereeee “LORE Bee eer 1
Mangelia ? acuticostata, var. + subangulata.... 1
Cithara, sp. ind. .,......- bee Conn Reeee eer TT] eee

Conide. :
Conus regularis, S02W....ces.ssepessepeeseesersssees n.c, |Gulf Nicoya, Pan., Guaymas.
Comp. C. arcuatus, Br. & Sow. in Z. B. Voy.,

non Rve.

—— purpurascens, Brod. ......000seseee0es vesee.| 1. |Panama, San Blas,Is.Annaa[?],

+C. comptus, Gld. S.W. Mexico.

Comp. C. interruptus, Brod. & Sow.

regalitatis, Sow. ......++-6 es ae aeren e.x. |Real Llejos, Pan., S.W. Mexico.
?=C. purpurascens, var.
?=C. achatinus, Mke.
—— arenatus, Brug. .......s000 muledecauavaavaenes 1 |East Indies.
—— puncticulatus, Hwass. .0r...s.sseerereeees Nn. ¢.
—— gladiator, Brod........-ssessesecessereqeceees r, |Panama, S.W. Mexico.
BNE R EOD Romer weve ih ae dh sca eecespussucnas e.r. |Galapagos, Taboga.
Femmes SCRIATICNII, Cla. cccacennacsbicedtecsanaccitaces 1
ees ING 3 (GB) paayeecmepresas os *> ssensestseean 1
Suborder PRoposciDIFERA.
Solariade.
Torinia ?variegata, Lam. .....ccecsecsscesseeeees 5 |Panama, West Indies.
=EHuomphalus radiatus, Mke.:
—— ? gramosa, Val. ......,..cescecseoeveneconones 1 |Acapulco.
?= Solarium fenestratum, Hds.
Pyramidellide.
Obeliscus ? conicus, C. B. Adses.....cseesseveeees 1 |Panama.
Odostomia sublirulata, n.s, .........seeeeesseeee 1
——, sp. ind. ........ Astrhc | Baek Gen deeBeeec cates 1
Fae ATH ETI AGA, Tn Sav edecdi penn gece des <ccnantacesss 4
—— subsulcata, 0. S.....0c5-cceescccneccccceessses 4
aa AEH De Sc. vacnvscavpessehsiacnvecdacasesets 10
—— Mamillata, 0.8. ..seccscccesescceccencsseecens 1
=I LENIN, He Secaanncapatacssscavaccthacnesscecuses 2
— (Auriculina), sp. ind. (GS iasetenwcccco ss 3
SS 9 SS OR EEC Bheawestens 2
—_— — (G) eewenspantcn cee feces es eco i
Parthenia scalariformis, 1. S. .....s......eeeeeeee Z
—— qUinquecincta, N.S. .....s.ceeseseesecseeeee 2
ee NACUNALA, Me Siiscsccvcenscedbsccgae TE CREEL fa
et ATITIAG A Te Sa: cvwaeduicapscedhescdaatedsateccaes 12
PT OMAT AGA Me Ss) svenecsaataardvenagereieddatccses 2
ZIZIPWina, N.S. veeresececeeeeves addddeds cies 1
Chrysallida ovata, 1.8. ...,.cscesssesecssteeseeees 12
Ea NOMOSAy We Sajicsosvnseesdvescesacwddvarsduscess 5
—— rotundata, N.S. cccsecssesseee atdeeeee dons 10
— oblonga, n.s....... enor Poinceanoe “C658. osc8n 5
—— communis, C. B. Ad.s....ccecscccscceeonees
—— telescopium, N.S. ......seeeee.ss

(REIGENT, WIS. ....crcccgecondess<ps
BPN INAy Ts Beccanc. Cs ceane nenadecs an “Rededncaod
fasciata; Yio Sd van sserve daca deccnaenacamantecucs 20
Ovulum, N.S. .....00e Oke coe eusreeaaeease’ 70
—— Clathratula, 1. S.eescccscssessssevenevenscevees 1 |Panama.

s2

REPORT—1856.
Name, Freq:
Chrysallida ConVeXa, 1. S. ..sesesecsvenesenreneens
——— PHotis, 0. 8. ..cccocedecsceesescevccvevrecrens
? indentata, Nl. S. .....+.. eeNwacestbbevenvenees

2? cClauSilifOrmMiS, 1. S. cocsecsccssessesescceces
Chemnitzia ? Panamensis, C. B. Ad. ....00...00:
—— C-B-AdamSi, 1. 8. csocsscscscescnvcesecsscces
—— ?similis, C. B. Ad....-ceccsceees syoneee tease
———— I ACMICHS NCR eEEEL etal oc cseccescccscscocecses
—— muricata, N.S. ......ssseeeeee Tecctsareebecrs
eee We AIMS UE. Ade Ge scsceieeccessseacees AYE
—— prolongata, 1. S....sersseeesceeeeee: Sendonour
—— gibbosa, 1. 8. veereeseeeues Gekaneesveneasnacs ss
PIED LNGT(@) Suave veaviescacscesscssaceteess oe

Peden ete wetness eteaeee Sa eeteeneneee

—— gracillima, 0. S. ......+4- seaeaeeeeeeneses cer
—— undata, N.S. ..cccssceseovere antaeaun iene ce
—— flaVeSCen8, N.S. ..ceceeesceeeee svecdseees cocEn
——=_ ferebralis, N.S. scccsereccedscsccessossccrsoes
—— tenuilirata, n. 8..........+ Senate Sdadaeccse
——MIMISAN CHULA Ie Bette baes «. becet ove eeetddes wd
—— (Dunkeria) paucilirata, 0. S..........0000-
subangulata, nl. S.......+ padccnarceoecs
—— _ —— cancellata, 0. S.rscccrssesevees Arrtcoas:
intermedia, n.S. ....... Bese sacnece Pe;
? Eulimella obsoleta, n. 8. ...cecs.seeeseesceseees
——, sp. ind. (@) sssseeeee Pacovgecent onsiessne ie

?— ee ee eee meee eee tenn
Aclis fusiformis, 1. S. .sssssssesevcees bi stadentnesies
ATIMOTN Sie Aemasistaianes sass seaee.s

Eulima ? hastata, Sow.

+ Sp. ae (GP oSepooabacracenceag Sencneteers
AO) ctoustenseces-coohes peecnee oeteease

Leiostraca ? as Cc. B. ‘Ad. . oA FACE PRODIODS sey:
per iota Oe Biba: secpam cece vets vctcceen

Has GUN. oceans Suitesesbecste asancoerone
PIOtA, VAT. TECEKtA 2... cceccnccepeccseccvas “cc
H——— ? CistOrta, VAT. YOU ...coesseseesesvereorees

Cerithiopside.
Cerithiopsis tuberculoides, 1. S......seeesereeeees
siVaT se aLDONOGOSA .c5. once scecsses Penn
CEPEASS, seneeasccisns nantes om cecancene eekane
pupifcrmis, 1. S.......+6. aBeaat Woccnease apinees
—— SOFeX, N. S.eeecseeeee eaateeeis Ber eOCeICCO Oe
———= CORVERA, Ms Seve orsssessece Bibs ssbnsteccse Bee
PLECUSSALANN IAs iwaceds baewadscccuecscssss.csos
—— assimilata, C. B. Ad. ......00000s geveenecsers
Scalariade.

Scalaria hexagona, DUiienadovevetsscecanvveas’ sts
—— suprastriata, 1. 8. sessessesee dousessas woceees
——, sp. ind. ys Dareatetaesastcoscetcersseseesss
raricostata, Matsa peredadetstet scence aoaeeee anes

—— (Cirsotrema) funiculata, Elie keskecedeyss

UO) iaeedaxcanerensuseesec bene BEDotiboc ‘

Other Localities,

a

?Panama.

?Panama.
Panama.

?Panama.

? Java.
St. Elena.

Panama.
Panama.

?Panama.

West Indies, Atlantic, Britain.

Panama.

Acapulco, Panama.

Panama.

mgt

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA.

261

No.

Naticide.

570 |Natica maroccana, Chemn..........s.eeeesesceeees
= Nerita marochiensis, Gmel. (non Lam.)
+Natica lurida, Phil.
+N. unifasciata, Lam. pars (non nonnull.).
+N. Chemniizii, Pfr. non Récl.=N. Prit-

chardi, Forbes.
2+. iostoma, Mke.
Comp. J. tessellata, Phil.

571 SPIN Giy2i.ceecesinns oe Re nce Raeenstedes

572 |Lunatia tenuilirata, n.s......... Ge tees teehee

573 |——, sp. ind. (a) ...... da ceedstasiedeekesrnsnhe

574 |——, DB) yaatapeae Saodscccdos Ravdsweiiecraed =

575 - 2) Wesson ber enctasies sete omatcesececte or

576 |Polinices uber, Val......cseseeee Se wasenauns Saale
+N. alabaster, Rve.

?= NV. ovum, Mke.
Comp. NV. rapulum, Rve.
Lamellariade.
577 |Lamellaria, sp. ind. (a) ....... Bic gyaecen Ranh A:
578 |?——, —— (d) ....... atceia burs evens e@inapa's aesGatd
Ficulide.

579 |Ficula ventricosa, Sow. ........e.s008+ weneaneeesen

= Bulla decussata, Wood.
Tritonide.
580 |Triton (Argobuccinum) nodosum, Chemn. ...

= Triton Chemnitzii, Gray.
= Fusus Wiegmanni, Anton.
= Cassidaria setosa, Hinds.
= Triton perforatus, Conr.

Turbinellide.

Turbinella czstus, Brod.
=T. ardeola, Val.

581

eee ee senses ee eeeteseens

Fasciolariade.
Lathirus ceratus, Gray ......... Acece Gs Smnnccon
Leucozonia cingulata, Lam. .........+ 2S reseed
Fasciolaria princeps, Sow. ....0.......sse0e sonaet
=F. aurantiaca, Sow. (non Lam.)
Mitra lens, Wood ........0..00008 SPC OCCOSCERER EP
= Tiara foraminata, Swains.
= Mitra Dupontii, Kien.
Strigatella tristis, Brod........ Ce eee season enseteees

Volutide.
Marginella minor, C. B. dd. ...
—— polita, n.s.....
—— margaritula, Dn Bitdvesmsncildaenaeie yes sscis
Comp. M. ovuliformis, D’Orb.

Olivide.
Oliva angulata, Lam............ ennanesecsnecanas
= Voluta incrassata, Dillw.

—— Melchersi, Mie.......see.scscceesccesceeses
intertincta, ? N.S. ......6 aemaead Sacseaearees
? venulata, Lam... veoeutes ceed

+0. araneosa, C. B. ‘Ad.

= 0. reticularis, var., Rve.
094 |—— Duclosi, PN Wee |

582
583
584

585

586

587
588
589

See eseesenesccsces

590

591
592
593

Freq.

n. C.

Other Localities,

Guaymas, Panama,S.W. Mexico,
Demerara, Philippines, Aus-
tralia, E. and W. Africa, Red
Sea, Pacific Islands.

Acapulco, ? Panama, Peru.

Acapulco, S.W. Mexico, Panama
(Havre Col. only),

. |Panama.

Bay Caraccas, Taboga.

. |Galapagos, Panama, S.W. Mex.

W. Mexico, Panama.
Peru.

Pan.,St. Elena, Is. Plata, La Paz.

St. Elena, Galapagos, Panama.

Panama.

West Indies.

Pan., G. Nicoya, B. Magdalena.

Panama,

a? Tere

262 LA ; _» REPORT—1856.

Name.

Olivella undatella, Zam........ acd Cee See
= Voluta tenebrosa, Wood.
—— tergina, Ducl..i...ev0... Godibecscetscedsseces
———- amaz0ra, Duch, ....scrceccecececcsssces Ha ctv
—— ?petiolita, var. aureocincta ............06
—— inconspicua, C. B. Ad. ..... Sdeastecdiveres :
— dama, Mawe ..... Menai ceresceutererstst vices
= 0. lineolata, Gray = O. gracilis, Ducl.
= 0. purpurata, Swains.
—— zonalis, Zam.......... PAB wandee sreveeeterrs
Aragonia testacea, Lam.......cssseseecsecsseseoee
= Oliva hiatula, Ducl. pars fe non Lam. Sei

Purpuride.
Purpura patula, Linnie.....c.cscseeeee raansien sass ea
=P. pansa, Gld.
— columellaris, Zam. .......... Me sivsicesintisine's
I. MUTICata, GAY cov.ccscerccescsreseecsrere ane
=P. cassidiformis, D’Orb.= P. truncata,
Ducl.
—— biserialis, Blainv. ....... mpascebesecuca sia ane
=P. bicostalis, Rve. (? non Lam. ef
=P. hemastoma, Mke. (? non Linn.)
=P. undata, Val., C. B. Ad. (non Lam.)
+P. consul, Mke. (non Lam.)
?-+P. hematura, Val.
Comp. P. Floridana, Cony. ......00..sseeeeee
—— triserialis, Blainv. ..........006 Ros vanes one ace
=P. speciosa, Val.
=P. centiquadra, Val.
—— triangularis, Blainv. ......cesessecccavevcess
=P. Carolensis, Rve.
Cuma kiosquiformis, Ducl.........ceeeccseeeeees es
+ Purpura scalariformis.
—— costata, Blainv, .....cceccccececcceeees onaeens
Comp. Purpura diadema, Rve.
Rapana (Rhizocheilus) nux, Rve. ............008
?-+Rh. Californicus, A. Ad.
Vitularia salebrosa, King ...cee..ceceecceeees mee
= Murex vitulinus, Gray (non Lam. )
Nitidella cribraria, Zam............ bateecenst?. che
=Columbella mitriformis, King ? >= Voluta
ocelata,Gmel. = Buccinum parvulum,Dkr.
+C. guttata, C. B. Ad.

aes, SP. ING. ...caccscccccosess eUrecerdsvercsasccars
Buccinide.
Columbella major, Sow........ his tas dea saansacse

=C. strombiformis, var. Kien.
?=C. gibbosa, Val. ?=C. paytalida, Kien.
—— strombiformis, Lam. ........cccccccscessese
—— fuscata, Sow. ....0...sccccesesesetcece meceares
=C. meleagris, Kien.

eeeeeenee

Oreo cece er errr rer

Nassa luteostoma, Brod. § Sow. .........0068 ai
=N. wxanthostoma, Gray.
—— tegula, Rve. ...... Beadiscecsecsdescverestsare

= Buecinum tiarula, (Kien.) B. M.

Other Localities.

c. |Acapulco, Panama,

e.c. |Conchagua.
3 |Xipixapi.

v.r. |? West Indies.
20 |? West Indies.

e.r. |Acapulco.
c. |Acapulco, Real Llejos, Panama.

n.u. |Senegal, W. Indies, Philippines.

n.u. |Galapagos.
e.r. |Acapulco, Monte Xti, Panama.

West Indies.
r. |Acapulco.

r. |Galapagos, Taboga.

v.r. |Panama, La Paz.

n.u. |Panama.

t. |WestIndies, Panama, Ascension
Island, Africa, Java.

e.c. |Panama, S.W. Mex., Is. Muerte.

n.u. |Is. Muerte, Panama, Payta.
c. |Pan., San Blas, Acap., Mte Xti,
St. Elena.

e.c. jAcapulco, Real Llejos, Panama.

2° 9 terties

wage”

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 263

No. Name. Freq. Other Localities,
6240|Nassa tegula, var. nodulifera, Phil. ......... eo.| Gore
625 ACUtA, TL. S.cserseceeesee Radi fedddunancecs size 4
G26) |——, Sp. 1nd. (G), -.....csceiessonscaduassscaccerees 2
627 |—, 6) i Jcamusiecanemeccafts wadvedetcaneeoaey 1
=e e alia 2 CE Snes aie
G29 |\——, —— () eerccsesersoeee Raed reaah sovecess cio Mle
630 |——, —— (€) eccecsesesscneeees C LECpCr eee Ruaees 1
631 ?gemmulosa, C..B. Ad. .....c00eeceseeee0e4, 5 |?Panama.
632 |—— ?versicolor, C. B. Ad....... DLL CERDCCO SECRET e.r. |?Panama.
633 crebristriata, TipiNcrewebes dense Bie sues ita ccens|| lk
634 |——, sp. ind. (f) ...... AS Rca: wo batdecetstes 1
635 |——, —— (9) ssereeeeevees Lally thas 2
G36 |——, —=— (A) cecdssecersersccesscccceccoes Preece 2
3 dp =O) wes ceawedecchnctices 0. adbies mevic deseae wslly. of
Pyrulide.
638 |Pyrula patula, Brod. & Sow. ...... sessevesesseeee? C. |Acapulco, Bay Caraccas, Pan.
=P. melongena, var., Sow.
Muricide.
639 |Fusus pallidus, Brod. & Sow. ......c.sssse0es «| er. |Cailao, Hds.
=Pyrula lignaria, Rve.
var.= Pyrula turbinelloides, Rve.
Comp. P. anomala, Rve.= Neptunea anceps,
A. Ad.: also P. lactea, Rve.
640 |—— tumens, N.S. ......00+..05 da 0Tb ae a ode Fad8p! LOD
641 |—— apertus, N.S. ........0.068 Eatseuasbascacdevens 6
G42 |—, SP. ind. (@) csscsscovscesesscsesesseseeecsene] 1
643 Si (D))h donaccigesipass eprdieteyeatpe sence 1
644 |?Cominella, sp.ind. ....... Peiiiccoaboammssemepselhe iD
645 |Anachis scalarina, Sow. .........+ eisovescesearace 3 |Panama, Chiriqui.
646 costellata, Brod. & Sow. ......scseseeeess.| Ver. |Panama.
6462|—— ?—, var. pachyderma .s...cssseeseeeeee v.T.
646¢ Sans (VAT cs conn evaseiee Bess séieses dn 4h
647 |—— coronata, Sow. .......sc.see0e scacerened seas] @. 7. |Acap., Quibo, S.W. Mex., Pan.
?+Columbella costata, Val.
?= Columébella terpsichore, Mke. (non Sow.)
Comp. Buccinum giluum, Mke.
648 |—— ?fulva, Sow. ..... Leber dtidvvertevsbsvecusoees 1 |S.W. Mexico, Panama.
649 |—— nigrofusca, n.s....... dosecens sesecsssaseees..| 6
650 |—— serrata, N.S. .cescscscctsrececescscesecssoees 12
651 |—— pygmea, Sow. ......csseeeeeesceees ee REE e.r. |St. Elena, Panama, ?W. Indies.
?+ Columbella costulata, C. B. Ad....... Besa West Indies.
652 |—— Gaskoignei, 1.8. sscsssdecssscessseeesseeeee] 1 |Callao.
653 |—— rufotincta, 0. 8. ...seccssscrsees FUHCU eL EeEee 15
654 |?>—— albonodosa, 1. 8. .+0...04. eat aaa sotces coal
G55 |P———y, SP. INA. (@) ..oscrccescccncceerccetroccssacee 2
656 )??}—, (ence tes. .ceemeeetes Bevcases assim 2
657 |—— (Strombina) maculosa, Sow. ............ 2 |Guacomayo.
G58 |—— ?—,, Sp. indeee....cseeeseeseeeenens See 2
659 |Pisania insignis, Rve.......... Merveirseterss v.c. |St. Elena, Panama.
= Buccinum mutabile, Val. ‘pars ‘(aon Linn.)
660 |—— eequilirata, n.s....... PPURMRR INSEL ooeess Solees il!

661 |—— gemmata, Rve. .....ssescsseeesesseseeesseeee] C, [Monte Xti.
= Buccinum gemmulatum, “Mke.
=B. undosum, fem., Kien. (non Linn.)
=B. mutabile, pars, Val.
662 |—— sanguinolenta, Ducl...........0++ essesseeeee| Ye |Panama.
= Pollia hemastoma, Gray.
= Buccinum Janelii, Val.
= Tritonium verrucosum, Mke. MS.
663: | —— ringens, Rve. ...cccsscovessecsssscssseesvecses) O |Panama,
664 |Murex plicatus, SOW. ...ss.ssesesceeseseeeseseeesee] 1 (Gulf Nicoya.

264 REPORT—1856.
No. Name. Freq. Other Localities.
665 |Murex ?recurvirostris, var. lividus ............ n.c. |Guif Nicoya, Panama.
= WM. messorius, Mke. non Sow. =
Comp. M. nigrescens, Sow.
666 |—— (Phyllonotus) nigritus, Mensch. ......... G
+M. ambiguus, Rve.
667 |\—— —— nitidus, Brod. ...cccccccscsereeseneees 1 {Real Llejos, Guacomayo.
668 |—— DDYBSSIGA, PIGIe ceccchscccccvvdesdeeeslee n.u.
= WM. ducalis, Brod. & Sow.
669 | —— —— bicolor, Val. ......sesccseceserenseeens e.r. |Acapulco.
= M. erythrostomus, Swains.
= WM. regius, Sch. & Wagn. (non Swains.)
Var.= M. hippocastanum, Phil.
670 |—— TEGIUS, SWAINS...+.ecsecseevreneeeeens c. |Acapulco, S.W. Mex., Panama.
= M. tricolor, Val.
671 |—— —— princeps, Brod........:scsserevecssenes r. |Puerto Portrero.
672 |—— (Muricidea) ?lappa, Brod, ....++.....00e- 1 |St. Elena, San Blas.
Comp. MM. radicatus, Hds.
673 |—— —— dubia, Swains. ....screreeecsssersesees 3 |Panama.
674 |—— ?erinaceoides, var. indentatus ...... 3 |Acapulco.
Gf ——— ———— = BP Hanae oeet bas coe sche setivenscs'ess 2
676 |—— —— pauxillus, 4. Ad. .....csseseceeeecsees fs
Analysis of Species.
BRYOZOA.. Simic NEP ra. sc chkgeaernens oeeeae : 16
PALLIOBRANCHIATA .. pone eineielbentd bsiovdesadeneisaieviesenindenseame ct esecameee 1
Freshwater 4
LAMELLIBRANCHIATA { Morne ott ae cciean agree 218
GASTEROPODA: Opisthobranchiata.........ccccsesesvereeeees 10

Weaind acess ces
Freshwater ...
CE ees

Pulmonata :

\ ae 12

Prosobranchiata: Heteropoda ........- 2
Lateribranchiata 4
Scutibranchiata...... 82
Pectinibranchiata :—
Rostrifera ... 120
Toxifera ...... 34
Proboscidifera 193 2
347
a
— 457

Ota Fares corcasct dass toatten eens

TNS — Fa YO2ZON 1, one vnsdoessecasepanqen 16
LECT TRIS 7d Re eee 5
Freshwater Shells Th
Sea Shells . 664

Total... . 692

52. In January 1850, Conrad published in the Journ. Ac. Nat. Se. Phi-
ladelphia, a list of new and interesting shells from the coasts of Lower
California and Peru, presented to the Academy by Dr. B. Wilson.” It is not

Perea

ON MOLLUSCA OF THB WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 265

stated in which of these two widely separated localities each species was

found.

They are as follow :—

Solecardia [genus described] ebwrnea, Conr.
Petricola sinuosa, Conr.=P. robusta, Sow.

Pholadopsis pectinata.

the Triomphalia of Sow. ]
Parapholas hisulcata, Conr.=Pholadidea melanura, Sow.
Penitella Wilsonii, Conr.=Parapholas acuminata, Sow.
Triton perforatus, Conr.=Triton Chemnitzii, Gray.
Oliva propatula, Conr.=O. testacea, Lam.

53. The following are extracted from the fourth edition of the Catalogue
of the Collection of Dr. Jay, New York, 1850*.

No,
1421.
2057.

_ 2494,
2610.

3346,

3737.

4419,

3437,
3808.

3852.

3919,

(The genus here described is the Jowannetia of Desm.,

No.
Pectunculus pectinoides, Desh. 4204. Helix plicata, Born. Guér. Mag.

Cuv. Régn. An. pl.87.f.8. Pa-
nama.

Anodon Montezuma, Lea, Trans.
Am. Ph. Soe. vi. pl. 23. f. 55.
Central America.

Spondylus pictorium, Chenu. W.
Mexico.

Terebratula uva, Brod. Kiist.
Conch. Cab, pl. 25. f. 8-10.
Gulf Tehuantepec.

Helix areolata,Sow. Kiist. Conch.
Cab, pl. 36. f. 10-12. Pfr. no.
393. Columbia River.

Helix griseola, Pfr. Kiist. Conch.
Cab. pl. 60. f. 17, 18. Pfr. no.
885 = cicercula, Fér.= splendi-
dula, Anton. Mexico.

Heliz spirulata, Pfr. Kiist.Conch.
Cab. pl. 30. f. 11-14. Pfr. no.
56. Real Llejos.

Helix Buffoniana, Pfr. Phil. Icon.
pl. 9. f. 2. Pfr. no. 507.

Helix imperator, Montf. Fér. pl.
52. f.4: 52 B. 1-3. Pfr. no. 789.
Central America.

Helix labyrinthus, Chemn. vol. xi.
pl. 208. f. 2048. Pfr. no. 1035.
Central America.

Helix lucubrata, Say, Descr. New
Shells, p. 13. Pfr. no. 245.
Mexico.

8816.

. Cyclostoma Meaicanum,

Zool. 1838, pl. 10. Pfr. no. 1036.
=Carocolla labyrinthus, Lam.
=C. Ilaydiana, Lea. Panama,
Porto Cabello.

6. Bulimus punctalissimus, Less. var.

Voy. Coq. p. 329. pl. 15. f. 3.
Pfr. no. 215. Mexico.

. Bulimus Schiedeanus, Pfr.=zan-

thostomus, Wiegin. Pfr. no, 505.
Phil. Ie. pl. 1. f. 12. Mexico.
Mke.,
Thes. Conch. pl. 25. f. 93. Pfr.
no. 10. Mexico.

. Lymnea ferruginea, Hald. Mon.

pl. 13. f. 19, 20. Oregon.

. Physa osculans, Hald. Mon. pl. 2.

f. 11, 12. Mexico.

. Melania Largillierti, Phil. Ie. pl.

2.f.10. Central America.

. Melania subnodosa, Phil. Ic. pl. 4.

f. 18. Central America.

. Trochus mestus, Jonas, Phil. Ie.

pl. 6. f. 5. California.

. Cancellaria bifasciata, Desh.Lam.

A. s. V. p. 413=C. oblonga,
Kien. Panama.

Columbella Boivinii, Kien. Ie. p.
47. pl. 11. f. 1. Gulf Nicoya.

10,078. Cyprea eglantina, Ducl. Guér.

Mag. Zool. 1833, pl.28=C.Ara-
bica, teste Jay. California [?].

54. During the winter of 1850-51, Prof. C. B. Adams of Amherst College,
Massachusetts, visited Panama for the express purpose of making collections
for the College Museum, and obtaining exact information on points connected
_ with habitat and station. Although he only remained thirty-eight days on
' the spot, he collected—

Gasteropoda ........ 88,920 specimens of 376 species.

Lamellibranchiata 2,860 i 139 yy
Palliobranchiata .... 50 oy Te rs,
41,830 516

om The localities in this Catalogue, unless confirmed from other sources, must be received
with great caution. The work is, however, very useful, if only for the list of species, and
references to an extensive library.

266 REPORT—1856.

Prof. Adams had before collected about the same number of marine species
at Jamaica; and, holding the theory that no species could be common to the
two oceans, he was well qualified to detect any sources of error which might
have militated against his own hypothesis. The very minute discrimination
also to which he had accustomed himself in his researches among the land
shells of Jamaica, would at once prevent him from confounding similar
species. And as he visited no other spot than the shores of Panama, and
the neighbouring island of Taboga, there is no danger of the admixture of
specimens from different localities. The results of the expedition were “read
before the Lyceum of Natural History, May 10th, 1852,” and published in
their Annals, vol. v. They also appear under a separate form as a “ Cata-
logue of Shells collected at Panama, with Notes on their Synonymy, Station,
and Geographical Distribution, by C. B. Adams, Professor of Zoology, &c.
New York, 1852, pp. 334, 8vo.” The author gives all his references from
personal research: quotes every assigned habitat, with authorities (discri-
minating original testimony by the mark!); and, in addition to his own
remarks, Bees the number of specimens from which he writes. He was not
able to dredge, nor to make observations on the animals: but for the shore
shells, including the minute species, there is scarcely anything left to be
desired. The author describes 157 as new species: of the value of many of
these there will be two opinions. Prof. Adams in his work on Jamaica shells,
“Contributions to Conchology,” pp. 84 et seg., gives up the common opinion
that species are natural groups, while genera, &c. are artificial: and as he
believes that there are different species as well as varieties of mankind, it is
natural that he should distinguish as species of shells what others might con-
sider varieties, and as varieties what may be accidents of growth. To the
discerning reader, however, this does not interfere with the extreme value of
the work. Ina branch of inquiry so overburdened with carelessly observed
or recorded faets, the freedom from the usual sources of error is a matter of
the first importance. Where a species has originated in a mere theory, as
in the case of common types from the two oceans, the student is at once on
his guard. Where it arises from deficiency of materials, as in the C@ea,
additional knowledge will soon set the error right. And in the present state
of our ignorance, to designate forms as species which will hereafter have to
be united, is much more pardonable than to overlook differences, all of which
should be carefully noted before we can obtain a Natural history of any
single species*. There appear to be three stages in our progress towards
truth. In the first, objects are united, simply because their differences are
not appreciated : as when Dione lupinaria was considered a variety of Venus
dione, Linn., simply because they were each spiny. In the second, minute
differences are appreciated, while their harmonies are overlooked. Such is
the present ordinary condition of conchological science, as represented in
the Achatinelle, Cylindrelie, Anomiade, &e. In the third, species are re-
united, with a full perception of the differences among them, from a greater
knowledge of the range of variation of which living creatures are susceptible.
This third stage, when faithfully perfor med on sufficient evidence, should not
be spoken of as “ confounding species,” and is one of the greatest pieces of

* In the “ Researches on the Foraminifera,” Trans. Roy. Soc. 1855, p. 228, Dr. W. B. Car-
penter states, that “ multitudes of species” will be shown in the present Report to “have been
instituted in various genera of Californian sliells by the late Mr. C. B. Adams, whose identity
is established by a more extended comparison of individuals.’ This sentence appears simply
to embody the impression left by conversation, and not to do justice to the Professor. As I
am answerable for the impression I made, I have to request that those who possess the
Transactions will make the following corrections :—For “ multitudes of species” read “ several
species,’ and for “ Californian shells” read “shells of Jamaica and Panama.” . cae"

_ ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 267

service that can be rendered to science: when carelessly wrought, as when
an author herds together the species of his neighbour, simply because he has
not been able to examine them himself, it truly makes “ confusion worse con-
founded.” For the first great requirement in a scientific writer, patient and
laborious accuracy, this, the last work of Prof. Adams (for he died in 1853)
stands in the very foremost rank. The following is an analysis of its con-
tents, for comparison with the fauna of the Gulf of California. It will be
observed that the species are arranged in alphabetical order, which may
sometimes prevent their affinities from being noted. The new species are
described in Latin, with measurements, and with an accuracy which often
makes it safer to identify shells from them alone, than from the showy plates
and loose diagnoses of some works of the greatest pretensions.

Prof. C. B. Adams’s Panama List.

N.B. True and falsely assigned habitats are both quoted: the reader will thus judge of
the present state of the science. Original authorities are cited in italics. Added synonyms

are enclosed in brackets [ ].

Name. Station.
1Ovula avena, Sow..........+ ++.e.2-./00 Small Gorgonia, l.s.*
2)——. emarginata, Sow. ............| «+ Brra aco coucr Ce CcREC uC TAOe
3|—— neglecta, n. 8............ fete with O. avena.
4 variabilis, 0. S. ....seeese0e0s on Gorgoniz: coloured

accordingly, |. s.

BPN aha: vSees Bae cnGhs aspasmianqash ices cseemesai an tes capes Seen
(2? =0. variabilis, var.]
6\Cyprza arabicula, Lam. ......... u. stones, 8=20 in. 1. n.

7|—— cervinetta, Kien. ............{u. stones, 15=20 in. 1. s.

==exanthema, var., Hinds.
8|—— punctulata, Gray ............| with C. arabicula.
[?=C. arabicula, var. ]
pustulata, Lam. oe... sess. under large stones, 1. s.

0) radians, Zam. ......... ace diliee Bass ceteaabaetet este ease
‘| =C. oniscus, Wood, err. typ.

1j— rubescens, Gray ........0...| seeseeenee Sais enuatagu spaces
Pees SANPUINGR, GAY .....0...002| ecdseasscoschecsdeccn cuss
3/Erato scabriuscula, Gray ......... under stones, 1. w.
= Marg. cypreola, Sow.
=WM. granum, Kien.
4\Marginella minor, 0.8, .ss...cs0...] «: teahit tas geteresstas Peed
5|—— sapotilla, Hinds ............ Moving quickly on li-
f quid mud, above l.w.
Mitra funiculata, Rve. ......... nce

7/- lens, Wood .....6.4: ahaa
8}—— nucleola, Lam. ............+6
—— solitaria, .8.......cecceesescee under stones, 1. w.
H——— tristis, Brod........sc.cisceeis under stones, |. w.
1/Terebra elata, Hinds..............| .. Aevacdanetne auc eee

2 larveeformis, Hds.............| + PRA OSE Peon en

i—— robusta, Hds. .........s0000+| + Perce a ebervatee’ shies
—— specillata, Hds.............00.] .. ionbatece seer hae tes

Other Localities.

Conchagua, Cum.; Sta. Barbara, Jewett.
St. Elena, Cum.

St. Juan, Green; Sta. Barbara, Jewett.

Acapulco, Humb.; Brazil, Ravenel; St,
Elena & Real Llej., Cum.

fAntilles & Senegal, Kien.; Ind. Oc., Jay.

Peru and N. Holland, Kien.

China, Humphrey; Acapulco, Humé.;
Isl. Plata, Cum.

Adriatic, Wood; Acapulco, Humb. ; Chili,
Ravenei; St. Elena, under stones,
Cum:

Galap., under stones, Cum.

St. Elena, u. s., Cum.; Mexico, Sow.

Mazatlan, Jewett; Acapulco, Sloat; St.
Elena; Cum.

Is. Plata, in coral sand, 14 fm., Cum:

Red Sea, Kien.; La Paz, Rich.

Java, Kien.

Panama, Bridges.

St. Elena and Gal., Cum.

Montija, 15 fm. coarse sand, Hds.

St. Elena & Mte. Xti, 6-15 fm. sandy
mud, Hds.

8° 57’—21° 32’, Has.

San Blas, Hds.

* The following abbreviations are used :—/. w. low water; 3. spring tides; m. neap tides;
4. high water; 4-¢. half-tide; + above; — below; wu. 6: under stones; &c.

No. Name,

REPORT—1856.

Station.

Other Localities.

Papagayo, San Blas, Hds.

26 varicosa, Hds. .....s.sseeeees| « san aLiaeot sobodondéabetcigad Papagayo, Hds.

27|\——, like specillata ...... Bes fans caliorodacnes + 888030 2p eee

28|——-, slender brown.......+.+++ denfieecuces cee eeaseh see eceaieas 5

29|——, smallolivaceous, white band] .........e+sesseeereceeees 1

30|——, small and delicate ......+.:| ... Deemer a sige swe sias 7

31) —, Spree cereeceee ceepeccnces Scanned), coasted mesetaee's sudeseest oe

32|Oliva angulata, Lam.......s.s..+0e.| « RNAs he ekthcrarcedoes aa Nicoya, Cum.; Peru, Desh.
33/—— araneosa, Lam....cccceecerees| saeees outa howdaecodaak Magdalena, Ducl.

[?= 0. venulata, var. ]
34

[? = 0. nivea, D’Orb. ]

36 porphyria, Linn. ....... x

C. B. A. cites 42 references

for this well-known species.

37/—— semistriata, Gray ...... wana
38/—— testacea, Lam. .....ssse00e
39|——-. undatella, Zam............
= Voluta tenebrosa, Wood.
40) —— venulata, Lam. .......s0000-
= (0). reticularis, var. "Rve.
41/—— volutella, Lam.........604+

= V. cerulea, Wood.

42\Planaxis planicostata, Sow. ......
= Buecinum planaxis, Wood.

= Plan. canaliculata, Duv.

43|Nassa CaNeSCENS, D. S...+eeeseeee
44|—— collaria, Gould, MS..........
45|—— corpulenta, 1. Sseeceseeeseneen| seeeees fenesva peeciane sas S-c| ly

?=festiva, Powis.

46|,——. gemmulosa, 1. S. ...+-+... rel Ws -soeecnc. sissy emia sais irae ee
47|—— glauca, 1.8. ..ceereeseeeeecnne| cccaeeresrreeteccnerescetes 32
48|———. luteostoma, Brod. & Sow..

49|_—. nodifera, Pws. ......... ition be aebeeaee cesateescsee read ye

50|-——. pagodus, Rve.......++..00

= Buccinum decussatum, Kien.

(nec Linn. nec Lam.)
= Triton pagodus, Rve.
51 Panamensis, N.S. .....005
52|—— proxima, N. S..0esseeseeeee
[?=N. versicolor, var. |
53|—— scabriuscula, Pws. .....
54 RITIATA. SH. Ash owsweccipe esse
55 VETSICOLOM, Ne S..sseee sees 4
56|——._ Wilsoni, n.5.........+ {phos
57|\Buccinum crassum, fds. .....
= Phos crassus, Hds.

58|—— distortum, Bligh .........++.

= Pollia distorta, Gray.
= Columbella triumphalis,

Duel.
59 insigne, Rve.......e00 vesesses| UNder stones in sand | 140 |St. Elena, Cum.
=mutabile, Val. [pars. ]
60|——— lugubre, ns. .......+. veseeeees| Under stones, lw. | 175

61)—— pagodus, Rve. secssssereeeers

62|———- prristis, Desh. .....s000.
= B. serratum, Kien, ....

INCONSPICUA, N.S. seeseeseeee

!

HG jenecnnoneds osbopagnennecces jal!
Perl! Fes Seedacqovasccssvesssses 3

Brazil, Linn.; Panama, Lam.; La Paz,
Green; sandy mud at low water, Cum.

sessscsescsesesseesseseess| 1/79 |Salango, rapidly moving by hundreds in|
wet sand, Cum
NonlWetinoasae sb teseeanies aboore Real Llejos, sandy mud, 6 fm., Cum.

Sand and mud banks, l. w., Cum.

see] saeee Ameen eee ee erenreeeeee

La Paz, Green.

eee enka ease eeee neste tans

invastnumbers,quickly| 4500
crawling on wet sand.
under stones, h.w.--3t.| 1200

Mexico, California, Duel.

Galapagos, Cum.

jon sand, in run. water,| 330
between tide-marks.

Senegal, Kien.; Real Llejos jean

Lesson.
Galapagos, coral sand, 6-10 fm., Cums
B. Montija, Cum.; W. Africa, Kien, 5}
Peru, Petit.

seme l>salsiaes Boor becnone ecaced| len 2a?

u. stones, above l. w. | 1500
Sauk oeeacen'y ahincaesnn Feat. 2

Panama, Bridges.

eens

as in WN. luteostoma. | 380 |Montija, sandy mud, 12 fm., Cum.

Perales EF cidddbecesssaneescusaslaus
Eocalvens Motceshsdens coaencrtaas OU
BN Petecicaipeittdegihdetevore® ssc 5
prdlecwelchidenccac coca tes ee nes 1 |G. Fonseca, Hds.

N. Holland, Kien.; Chili, Desh.;
Elena, Cum.

erevices of rocks be-| 95
tween l.w.s. & l.w.n.

under stones, |. w. 18
1. w. 6
under stones, l.w.n.| 275

San Blas, Burtt; California, Desh.;
St. Elena, Cum.

oe

,
“4 -

Station.

64|—— sanguinolentum, Diiel.......) under stones, 1. w.
= Pollia hemastoma, Gray.
=B. Janellii, Val.

65|—— Stimpsonianum, n.s.........
| 66|Dolium ringens, Swains. .........
= Malea latilabris +- crassila-
# bris, Val. vy. Syn.
| 67\Monoceros brevidentatum, Wood.

under stones, 1. w.
under& between stones
extreme low water.

on and between rocks,

= Purp. cornigera, Blainv. $-t. +
| +P. ocellata, Kien.
+P. maculata, Gray.
68 cingulatum, Wood .........| clefts of rocks, l. w.

under stones and in
crevices of rock, l. w.
under stones, |. w.

| 69|Purpura Carolensis, Rve. .........

| [=P. triangularis, Blainy.]

} 70|\—— foveolata, n.s. ........cccce0s

(?=P. biserialis, jun].

| 71; —— kiosquiformis, Duc/. ......| on rocks and trees,

$-t. to h.w. n.

| 72|\——, sp. ind......sseeccesees Le uk casa dees
[=P. kiosquiformis, var.
=P. scalariformis, Ducl.]

73\——- melo, Desh. .......
=P. crassa, Blainv.
=P. melones, Ducl.

74|—— osculans, 0. S........e0eeee

[?=Rhizocheilus nux.]

| 75|\—— tecta, Wood ........c.sceeeves

=P. callosa, Sow.

=P. angulifera, Ducl.

= Cuma suleata, Swains.

= Turbinella callosa, Less.

76/—— undata, [quasi Zam.] .....

[=P. biserialis, Blainv. |

| 77\Columbella atramentaria, Sow....| under stones, l. w.

78|\—— bicanalifera, Sow. ............| -seeeseeeeees bre Secrest

79\—— Boivinii, Kien................| pools in rocks, 3—3

| 80|—— conspicua, n. s. (? Anachis).) .......--. Popeeisdéaq chase

| 81|—— costellata, Brod. § Sow. .,.) under stones, |. w.

| 82|\—— diminuta, n.s. (Anachis),..) under stones, 1. w.

$3|—— dorsata, Sow. ......ses.se00s

i

rocks,4—# tide.

soos] Cheeeenesecseneneseneseeees

crevices of rock,
l.w.n.—l. w. s.

.| under stones, 1. w. n.

63|Buccinumringens, 2ve.(not Phi/.)| under stones, 1. w. n.

seseeevess.(SideS and crevices of;

| 84 fluctuata, Sow. ....e..cseeeees under stones, 1. w. n.
| =C. suturalis, Griff.

185|—— fulva, Sow. ......... ee under stones, 1. w.+

‘86|—— fuscata, Sow....... gah ee ..| under stones, 1]. w.+
| =C. meleagris, Kien.

B7|—— gibberula, Sow............. ry [ioe soee Sevevccscascscenece
i—— gracilis, n.s. (? Anachis) ...| .--c.+... mass escnsonedscscs
9|—— guttata, Sow. (prim. non| under stones, 1. w.+

postea. )
[= Nitidella cribraria, Lam.
=Buccinum parvulum, Dkr.]
)}——- haemastoma, Sow...... Seal con cosManelntncce swegeedscn
harpiformis; Sow,....... wes.| under stones, }. w.
‘| =C. citharula, Ducl.
§2/—— labiosa, Sow..........secseeeee under stones, 1. w.
lyrata, Sow. .oo...sse.seeseeee under stones, 1]. w.
major, Sow. .....6..s..s0seee.] under stones, ]. w.
=C. gibbosa, Val.

| =C. strombiformis, var., Kien.

|
:
®

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA.

No. of
Speci-
mens.

275
16

“TI

150

269

Other Localities.

9by7in., Barnes. Adult, 2°3 in.,C.B.Ad.;
Quito Is., Guayaquil, Don Pedro Aba-
dea ; Peru, Capt. Skiddy ; Payta, Cum.
Peru, Chili, Kien.; Payta, Fontaine;
Xipixapi & Mte Xti, Cum.; Monte-
rey, Rich; San Francisco, Jewett.

W. Mexico, Humboldt.
Charles Island, Galapagos, Cum.

N. Holland, Duel.; La Paz, Green.

Mte Xti, under stones, low water, Cum.

Chili, Kien.; Real Llejos, Less.; Pana-
ma, 10 fm. sandy mud, Cum.

Mte Xti, Cum.; Acapulco, Humd.

Chatham Island, Galapagos, Cum.
sandy mud, 10 fm., Galapagos, Cum.
Nicoya, Hinds,

Panama and Africa, Gray.

Is. Muerte, Guayaquil, Cum.
Nicoya, Cum.; Peru, Kien.

Panama, St. Elena, Mte Xti, Cum.; San
Blas, Kien. ; Acapulco, Less.

Bay Carac. and P. Portr., sandy mud,
11 fm., Cum.; Chili, Kien.

East Indies, Ascension, Gorea, Kien.;
Java, Leschenault ; West Indies.

Pan. & Gal., u.s., Cum. ; Calif., Kien.

Pan., on dead shells, 10 fm., Cum.; Ma-
zatlan, Mke.

St. Elena, Cum.

Panama & Chiriqui, Cum.

Is. Muerte, Cum.

270 REPORT—1856.
No. of
No. Name. Station. Speci-
mens.
95)Columbella modesta, Powis ......]...c,csecsesceoseceseees ceauin RO

= Buccinum m., Pow.
= Truncaria m, H. & Ad.
96|—— meesta, n.s. (? Anachis) .
97|—— nigricans, Sow. .......... noe
OB wre JATVA; SOW. ssuseneitesaceters|frescseesss ansaneseens apes
99|——. pulchrior, n. s. C Nitidella)} “under stones, 1. w.
100|—— pygmzea, Sow. .. under stones, 1. w.

../Sticks & stones, 3-t. +
u. S., o-t. — 1. w.

Peete e eee eee

101) —— rugosa, Sow. .......seseeeseeee
=C. Sowerbyi, Ducl.
= C. bicolor, Kien.
102/—— strombiformis, Zam....... Re
103|/—— tesselata, n. s. (Anachis)...
104)-——— turrita, Sow..............0006 we
105 varia, Sow. [non varians,
Sow. ]
HQG| ———srSDigaks avs candante’> steddcanke«| {ees eaegasseessnuvedes oath
107|Ricinula ?carbonaria, Rve. ...... under stones, |. w.
108 jugosa, n. 8. (ENgina) ...0..|sscescegessseaeesencs sapses
109|——— Reeviana, C. B. Ad.......... ‘under stones, l. w.
= Buccinum pulchrum, Rve.
110/Cassis abbreviata, Blainv........c).cccceececceecees eecaschiae
=C. lactea, Kien.
111)/—— coarctata, Sow...

u. stones, 3-t.—l.w.n.

‘under stones, l. w.

Bete eweeeee teeta eeeeees

under stones, 1. w.

PO oer nee ee tleneneeeeeseeneeeee eeeeeeene

112/Oniscia tuberculosa, Rve..,....+.

Oe eee ener er ee ence te teeeees

113/Conus brunneus, Wood ....... --| clefts of rocks, l. w.
114;——- gladiator, Brod. ... u. 8. with sand, 1. w.
115; —— mahogani, Rve. ..... ieseese crawling on very wet s.,

1, w. —}-tide.

116 MENEX AMO bus chanvdsce¥s ees
117; —— princeps, Linn...,....... sees

=C. regius, Chemn., Lam.

= C. lineolatus, Val.
118)——— purpurascens, Brod...... -.-| under stones, l. w.
119 regalitatis, Sow. ....++......| under stones, l. w.
120|——- regularis, Sow....... saseecceelces Heer Pacnoccre anatase “FP

eeereeone

under stones, l. w.

121) —— vittatus, Lam. .......0.ce00e

122/Strombus galea, Wood aeeeeets coccelenepecccacecenccosccencesss
= 8S. galeatus, Gray.

123} ——- gracilior, Sow. ...... eee es

24 —— granulatus, Swains..,......... Gpasesaeeasers wousesasens

see eeeteeleetenere eeeene

125|—— Peruvianus, Swains.
126|Triton Chemnitzii, Gray .........
= Argob. nodosum, Chemn.
127/—— constrictus, Brod....... eeu aA ewsisiseaccwepeacs Sseaeeans
?= 7. decussatum, Val.
128 TUROIMER GDB: es ecvevedses sos \>e PPOs a ak ee ces cce cae
129|——— gibbosus, Brod.
130}—— lignarius, Brod.

sandy beach, |. w.
under stones, l. w.

Oe eeeeee Peel eee noes Pete ema eeeeneee seer

seeeeees we vaeeeee Poe eeseeeenee seeee

131) —— vestitus, Hds. .......,.. adiasl aes CCE SEE sages cua
9 WANs BEMIOLE y< cesaasaay
132|Ranella celata, Brod, ......+02...
=R. semigranosa, Kien. non

Lam.

U. S., Ass His), Na Be

58
620
1
5
185

1500

1
27
1
380
1
70
1
110
7

1

2
4

70
17

12

9, 3 in.

1

. |Nicoya, reefs, 1, w.; Cumns Peru, Gray.} i

Other Localities,

Montija, muddy gravel, 7-17 {m., Cum. ;
Sta. Barbara, Jewett.

Galapagos, Cum.
Mte Xti, under stones, Cum.
St. Elena, on dead shells, sandy mud,

10 fm., Cum.
Pan. & Xipix., Cum.; Real Llej., Mérch.

Is. Muerte, Cum.; Payta, Font. ..
Montija & St. El., s.m., 10 fm., Cum.

Philippines, Jay.
Galapagos, Cum.
Portugal, Bonanni; Acapulco, Rve.

?N. Zealand, Sow.; Shores of Peru, at} |

Acapulco, Kien. ; Gal. in crevices of} |
rocks, Cum.; San Juan, Green. (
Gal., clefts of rocks, l. w., Cum.; Au- f
stralia, Jay; San Juan, Green. ;
Gal., P. Portr., Pan., Cum.

Salango, Cum.
Galapagos, Cum.

Asia, Dillw.; Philippines, Jay; San
Juan, Green; Mte Xti, & St. El., Cum.}

Annaa, Sow. ; San Blas, Hds.

Real Llejos, Cum. ; Peru, Kien.
Nicoya & Peru, soft mud, 7 & 23 fm.,| |
Has.; ; Philippines, Kien.; Guaymas, Gr.) ;
Pan. & Mont., coarse sd., 7-11 fm.,Cum.)

Calif. & Tahiti, Jay ; La Paz, Green.
India, Kien.; St. El. & Gal., sandy mud,}
6-8 fm., Cum.; La Paz, Green. }
Caraccas, on reefs, Cum.; Peru & ?Red]

[Sea, Due! i)
Mte Xti & Xipix., sandy mud, 7-10 fm., |
[Cum. ; Acap. i? Has.

Pan. & Mte Xti, coarse sand, 7fm., Cum,
P. Portr. & Pan., sandy mud, 7-12 fm,,
Cum.; Mte Xti., Hds.
Real Llejos, Nicoya & Honda, among
[rocks on shore, da

|
|
|

Station.

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA.

No. of
Speci-
mens.

271

Other Localities.

133/Ranella nana, Brod. & Sow.......
134|/—— nitida, Brod...........ceeceee
135) —— plicata, Rve..........scecese
)136/Murex dubius, Sow. ............005
= M. aculeatus,Wd., non Lam.
137|— erosus, Brod. ...... ssseeeee} under stones, 1. w.
138)—— radix, Schroet........-.......| about stones, with
q =melanomathos, Dillw. pars. sandy mud, l. w.
i [Non M. ambiguus, Rve. ]
'139|—— rectirostris, Sow. ............Jeeesees

‘under stones, i W.

under stones, 1. w.

a eereeeees

crevices of rocks,
1. w. n.—l. Ww. s.

under stones, 1. w.
under stones.

145|Pyrula oan Buge. Se SOWss as’ lbp. wails «acanaapedes ss eda

1146|Ficula ventricosa, Sow............. eee Shee eee
=Bulla jose Wood.

“47 Fusus bellus, n. s.. feels

148|Fasciolaria granosa, MatNs. ca emened oe in nmud, ‘L w.

9'Turbinella czestus, Brod. ......... sand beach, L w.

encore eeneoee

Beta Soo. y ciaaiia Sol aaah |e edaenaasssadeeph acainas is
lise I—— decussata, Sow. ......ses00.[+ Vee desivaayctacieaen tie
|157|——- goniostoma, Sow........ Aer etlecdsepoe eee posi vastoaricaais<
1158|—— mitriformis, Sow.............|+ Be cheats uateae ols Nats isis
+C. uniplicata, Sow. .......0.|..seesreecevese osten cence
159|—— pulchra, Sow. .......... gor|Ai be cjlde scab Oremenaewe asst
60|—— pygmea, n.s. ...
161}—— solida, Sow. ........0...csscselecsssceeeees

163|Pleurotoma aterrima, Sow. ......
(64, ———- atrior, n.s. ...
[?=P.aterrima,var. Melchersi. ]
165|—— bicanalifera, Sow............{.0« dem see SEE mene
166|/——. collaris, Sow.

oreo saceserncsl scares Peder ere eeeeseneeee

corrugata, Sow. Munassewsces| Sea eum eiee sass ae
+P. turricula, Sow.
69|—— discors, Sow. ..........s000s[0. qesteeae tapesvacesys aT
(2+. aterrima, Sow.]
70|—- duplicata, Sow.
1 ?excentrica, Sow a
exigua, Nl. S........... Srccsod Peprces Seo eee Eee
gemmulosa, n.8......,. ip apaltsle sayaiiersgpae sca vehaae
grandimaculata, n.s. ......|...
_| =P. zonulata, teste Cum.
/9|———. incrassata, Sow. .
: =P. Botte, Kien.
nigerrima, Sow.
+P. cornuta, Sow.
77\- obeliscus, Rve......... csedanle ston aebeswenvenntane eee
(Bi —— Olivacea, Sow. ........s.cecselecnccscnscecsccetees eaaees
| (Comp. P. funiculata, Sow.]
Pallida, Sow.......sesseecveaee

eeeeee

74|—

eee ee wees eslsaee eet etnee sen eeeereeeeces

COe eee tee eeeeen ress yesent

2
300
6
72

2
100
54 in.

1
1
2
14
1

1
4

1
3
5
1

1
1

1
2

1
3

1
8

12

Is. Panama, Phil., Sow.
Caraccas, Cum.

Caraccas, Cum.; Acapulco, Humd.

Xipix., sandy mud, 11 fm., Cum,
Nicoya, sandy mud, 9 fm., Cum,
Peru, Bligh; Acap., Humé.

Southern coast of S. A., Sow.

St. Elena, sandy mud, 6-12 fm,, Cum.
I. Muerte, sandy mud, 11 fm., Cum.
Caraccas, mud banks, Cum.

San Blas, Kien. ; India & China, Desh.

Peru, Kien.
Caraccas, mud in rocks, Cum,

Maz., Kien.; Galapagos, Cum.

Pan. & Payta, sandy mud, 7 fm., Cum.
Pan., Puert. Por.,s.m. 10-13 fm., Cum.
Conchagua, S. Salvador,sd., 8fm., Cum.
1 sp., sandy mud, Cum.

2 sp. sand, 10 fm., Cum.

Sand, 8-10 fm., St. Elena, Cum.

R. Llej. & St. Elena, 8-10 fm., sd., Cum.

Carac., St. El., Xip., s.m, 7-10fm., Cum,
Mte Xti, Cum.

Montija, sandy mud, 10 fm., Cum.
Caraccas, muddy sand, 8 fm., Cum.
Mont.& P. Portr., sdy.md., 10 fm.,Cum,
I. Plata, coral sand, 17 fm., Cum. »
P. Portr. & Mont., sdy. md., 10fm., Cwm.
Coral sand, 6 fm,; Galap., Cum.
Philippines, Cum. MS,

Pan. & Mte Xti,sdy.md.,6-10fm., Cum.
Carac., sandy mud, 6-10 fm., Cum,
Salango, St. Elena, sdy. md., 5-12 fm,,

Cum. ; mud, 4-7 fm., Nicoya, Hds,
P. Portr., sandy mud, 13 fm., Cum.

272 REPORT—1856.
No, of
No. Name. Station. Speci-
mens.
180/Pleurotoma rigida, Hds. .........Je0+ eens det bnaskaeeb is 20
181] — rudis, Sow. .....cceeceeseseee aeeresentanass ts Ceaeeeeced 2
182/—— rustica, Sow. ....... BAR CODS: under stones, l. w. 10
=P. thiarella, Kien.
183|\———HWTOSAN Ne. weawececseereerses|Pepstceseeeeccceecdessasse[UUle
184|—— zonulata, Rve. ............064]- shosmunekcesiscosesvaecescs 2
=P. cincta, Sow., non Lam.
B85) ———— Satis eee ese nceer scat esictencssa|ess Seastde vases cent Seer a
V8G6|—@—y SP. sen scnsccecnccsecccceserece|oons Diets daicigsiso'ene'heraiuie. 1
187|Mangelia, Sp...........ccncocecosscce|nssscesvaecerceveecencssses 1
188) ——, SP. cecssseeessreceee Peeeeeeelcaiuedsesesskcraatesesegecs 1
189] ——, SP. seveercsees eosbonatic Betect tara cdest terns Mace oaicebe 1
190 |=———, SP) Sess ccenstscueces Sovestrealadaass cgi > soenecAECb Belly ‘alk
197} —— neglecta, 0: 8: -.62...2..cccee|ssecesevsececessestecsscees 4
192} —— Psulcosa ........sececseees ...| under stones, lLw.n.—| 170
2= Columbella sulcosa, SOW. ...|-.cceessesssscvecerersoeces Sereeoe
193|Cerithium adustum, Kien. (plate)|wet sand, u. s., h tide. 206
=C. maculosum, Kien. text.
194|—— assimilatum, n. 8............. u. s., sponges, l. w., 8
marine plants, &c.
195|—— bimarginatum, n. s...... An) pocebecar so recone ne 2
196 famelicum; Ty Ss) st. sccesesse| ese site ssdeeeates aetsoeg| LY
N.B. The description does
not agree with'the type sp. in
Mus. Cum., and accords better
with C. ? uneinatum, Gmel.,
also found at Mazatlan.
197, —— gemmatum, Hds......seeesssferersereeceees auvideneenees|iy Lo
198|—— ? interruptum, Mke. Badeoe on & under rks. & st.,} 1100
[=C. Gallapaginis, Sow.: non| — 4-tide—1. w. n.
C. interruptum, Sow. quasi
Gould.]
199|——, sp. ind........c.sece-eeeeeee 13 PocRoon aac" pukfenccs coves} 30
=C. interruptum, var. :
200|—— irroratum, Gould ......... rock-pools, 3-tide+ | 820
= C. stercusmuscarum, Val. .
201|—— neglectum, n.S. «es...00...| US. in dead shells &| 33
sponges, l. w.
202|\——-. Pacificum, Sow. ...sec.seses[ereeres Beets Serpe aac feed
=C. Humboldti, Val.
203} —— pauperculum, N.S. ...scese|eceeeees pdeeincone 2
204|—— pulchrum, 1. 8....ceeeeeenes IDuried i in nmuddy sd.| 125
under bushes at h. w.
205|/—— Reevianum, 0. S. ........05- ditto ditto 190
[ = CerithideaMontagnei,D’ Orb. |
206] —— validum, n.s. ......... weecsale ditto ditto 250
[= Cerithidea varicosa, Sow.]
207|Triphoris alternatus, n.s......+...}- oetrtrseeestcateatne anes 5
208|—— inconspicuus, n.s. .........| under stones, 1. w. 16
209|—— infrequens, 1. 8. .......eceeefeeenceeenseeeecaseeneenenee 2
210|Turritella Banksii, Rve. ......... among & under st., in} 350
[?=tigrina, Kien. ] calc. sd.,l.w.n.—1.w.s.
211\Ceecum Ciminutum, U.S. sevccsses[eceeeeeeeeeeeees canwerkerse| Ma
[=firmatum, jun.]
92191 —— eburneum, D.8. cocsccrcscer|seevcesersves Suedenaeeee oy fee
[=firmatum, var.]
213|/—— firmatum, 0. S.....+.00+ Seate| keeetas ss Subic seesetisdaser| OD
214|—— leeve, N. S......0.0eeeeee eerily Seeavensnes aasneeneransens 2
215|—— laqueatum, N.S. «eeeeeeeee ce |cone maealieelded Asaeseceseis 2
21 GI —_ MOnstrosuM, 1.8. ccecceseslecoeccterreveceecees Seaeect hd,
[=firmatum, adol.]

~

Other Localities.

Mte Xti, under stones, Cum.
Xipixapi, Cum.

Mte Xti & Xipix., sand and gravel,

7 fm., Cum.

..../Annaa, & Ld. Hood’s Is., Cum.

Indian Ocean, Red Sea, Kiener.

Cumana, Humb.

Sandy mud, 10 fm., Cum.

No. of
Name, Station. Speci-
mens
17|\Ceecum parvum, N.S. .........ccefesseeecereneres eeaceitos nee 1
| [?=C. undatum, jun. ]
| haa —— PpygMxum, DLS. ....eeeee ailaae cae eiabe seepesiine peeve race
[=C. firmatum, jun. |
'219\Chemnitzia aculeus, n. S. ..0....s.|eseeeseeececens saewesestey 4
\2 220|——acuminata,n.s. (?Chrysallida) cenccsteeceecceees sginesenbe 1
1)—— affinis, n. 8. .........e0008+ aval seaate Reaslesneecees Sheeurut ae
2|——clathratula,n.s.(Chrysallida)]......sss.sseseseeesseveees 10
3|—— communis, n.s.(Chrysallida) under stones, l.w. 90
224 —— gracilior, 1.8. .....sesesereee|errs cee eneveneeeetsoeaeees 2
}DJ——_ MAJOL, N.S. ...ceeseseeseececeleerecs RaawAaastbeseattecste| tank
226|—— marginata,n.s.(Chrysallida)|...ccsssssessecssesesseeees| 2
7|—— Panamensis, n. s......- ees..| Sand, 3-t.—h. w. ll
128} ——- similis, n.s........ pba aealabeses ones Gbiiscisie eee ie nns wails ie
9} —— striosa, 1. S.......eeee00e whewel chs scuaweanes Chcatiasees, Peay a
30 ROUT AGAS «(By isso cabcceacas-cfoes ade Seavcucettonnetoedeecl, Wha
1)?Littorina angiostoma, n. 8. (?Fos- as ese seaswenaees 3
sarus.)
2|—— aspera, Phil..............00+ ledges or large pieces
of rock, h. w.+
32|—— SEVAT a ba ssine ee mpie| Be weisiinich wish Fate aeoeiias sa 33
3|—— atrata, n.S. ..... Fiess dees eeia in or near cavities of | 3300

rocks, 3-tide—h. w.
large piecesof rk.,h. w.

conspersa, Phil. ..

excavata, N.S. (FOSSAruS) .|...-++..sseeeseesseeseeeees 1
fasciata, Gray ........ were on trks. & brs. of small} 160
trees, 3-t.—h. w.

ee reat, Th. 8. (SBOSSATUS) si [b.-..04e0+stwesccsnenscnees 2

megasoma, 0.8. (?FOSSaTUS)|.+....s+0ssssesseeeeeeeeees 1
—— ?parvula, Phil., var. dubiosa.|cav. of rough ledge of} 600

[Comp. L. Philippii.] rocks, h. w.-++

24(0|——-. pulchra, Sow. .....-...04. --.| On mangroves, grow-| 11

ing from mud, h. w. —

241; — puncticulata, Phil. .........Jon pieces of rk., h. w.

= ere, var.]

242) VaTid....e00e+...e00ee maaan on trunks & branches} 300
of trees, $-t.—h. w.

Rissoa clandestina, n. 8. .........{++ PS Sen ee webs OSE 2
4|———. firmata, 0. S......-...+6+ cevopalacrsessccnessssesenssencaas 1
5|——_ fortis, TA) eee under stones, l. w. 31
inconspicua, n.s. Gad seneneaee Ho EERE CEN | Po!

—— infrequens, N.S. ..,...s00s..Jeee open deems oocecs 1
48\——- Janus, nS. ....-+..008 sodoasuleeed Sessacs es ctasa nt 2
9} notabilis, n.s. ..... RO ete dePrancas~ adapeess 1
ScalarifOrmis, 1.8. .........Jessseeeesees piinasa<seea Fe (ite
TH, SP. eeesseaee Seanscenenseccoces|yanen 1
Beomenla i Inconspicua, N.S. ......Jeeceeseseees 3
3|—— paupercula, 0. S. ............ - 4
za terebellum, n.S........ 1
Db)? —— turrita, Nl. S......... BePoacod HhABpe cH he) Reson an ates 1
'Litiopa saxicola, n. s. (Cingula) under stones, 1. w. 7
Adeorbis abjecta, n.s. Ses pae dy Meeseee Reet sipcseseranss 40

8) Vitrinella concinna, n. s. sl dieaonemeeagaaienstuosasescy nh
ag Me RR ee Bea a
}—— Janus, THSe: cassnsvecsasecea a snenia ce ane abies sd Si ee
miputa, n.s. (Teinostoma) |. pone ueeresscactraereascess| ae
SMIGMeSta, 1.8. .........c0c0e]ecvcscecece Seosass say Say ae!
BEAMANICNINIS, I; Soc cnwesoreaal schebadanvatans eencareeenes | 24

PAEVGs Wi, Se cocccoscsecncossecfacnaees ses deveqracseshensal) ale
BEEMAN, Tl. Gy, cceccvsevesdsen| cchercsbhesssceocresas Seed ies"
regularis, n.S. ......... <seues| cqsicansssacusascasesesspr= 1

1856.

' ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA,

2400 |“ Sitcha, San Salvador, Mex.,” Phil.

320 |Real Llejos.

80 {Real Llejos.

273

Other Localities,

“Pan., Guay., Cusma, Peru,’’ Phil.;
Chiloe, Petit.

274

No. Name.

267|Vitrinella seminuda, 1. S...ccesscclecesseseeccctereeees

268|—— tricarinata, n.s. ....

269|— valvatoides, n. s. Rect AP Mecechases

270|Solarium, sp. (like granulatum)..
271|—, sp. (like guadriceps) ......

272|——, sp. (?= Torinia variegata)
273|Trochus catenulatus, Phil. (Mo-
dulus.)
274|— coronulatus, n.s. (? Om-
phalius.)
275|—— Leanns, 0. S....cceseceeseerees
276|—— lima, Phil.......00.e0scescenes
277| — lividus, Pil. (Modulus)...
[=eitherdisculus, Phil. or dor-
suosus, Gld., teste types. ]
278|_—- Panamensis, P/il........+...
279|—— pellis-serpentis, Wood......
=T. strigilatus, Phil.

280|—— reticulatus
[?=viridulus, Gmel. }

eee ee ee eeee titers

REPORT—1856.
No. of
Station. Speci- Other Localities.

mens.
1
1
3
aaae wanna 3
ade cdaseae ceedswace pee) 3
5 SRE pesssscceseesvecna 6
Derecencentanacseee ser MEENC 23
Pededdesaces sedeceseteuass 2
under stones, 1. w. 7

u.s., 1. w. n.—l. w. s.

seaeeene Stee eeeeeeeener eens

under stones, l. w.
on or under large st.
or rks., }-tide. Most

active at twilight.
under stones, 1. w. n.

281/Turbo Buschii, PAil.........00+. ..| On or under stones,
[= Uvanilla inermis, Kien.] 1. w. n.—1. w. s.
282|?— phasianella, ?n.s. ......... iscatenesscocsocesescoesess
?= Litorina phasianella, Phil.
283 rutilus, Nl. S......e00e suaceki scl aneenerce so eta Poncrceroncne
284|—— saxosus, Wo0d .....0+2+...00+ rocks, l. w. n.
285)Scalaria hexagona, Sow. ....++-..|seeeeeee sonceesercssanscens
236 obtusa, Sow.....s..0«. aeetecalsesceee comvases ages use =
287 Rls ee sepavescrsctesecencovsiaitledeos piserucsveresed “ore
2BBl|——, SP. cevecsececsctereeesereees os|ecceccccereses aetirestde kee
289|——, sp. ceesseeee Nolsccvseasarester qrandenasceenmbieadh cea
290|Eulima iota, n. S. ....seceeeeene oot leseessne oes
291 TECCA, De SB. secssccceseerecsve|ecccens Basstcehce aectasee 3
292|—— solitaria, N. S. ...+e++eeee cess on Holothuria.

293|Pyramidella, Sp...ceeeeesseeeesseeee lees

294| —— COMICA .eo..seeeeeeeeeseesees FS
295|Natica Chemnitzii,P/r.(non Mie.)
[=maroccana, Chemn. ]

soft mud, 1. Ww.

= Ae
296|—— ? lurida, Phil. ......+4++ saves| f Seng beach Sburies
: in sand, 4-t.—. The
297 nae otis, Br. & Sow. ..-....0000 horny opercula were
[? = Gallapagosa, Récl.] eaten by rats?’ off
Cape Horn.
298|—— ? Salangonensis, Réel. ...... sdy. mud, 4-t.—1. w.
299] — Souleyetiana, Recl. .....0.4:|seeee0e eeea Reena rea nscer
300|\——._ ? virginea, Récl. (=? Uber,|....00..cevereereereees coed
Val. teste Mus. Gld.)
301] —, Sp. ..eseeeeeee Aaehodan eee wet sand, 3-t.—l. w.
302|——, sp. (=wber, Val.) ......... wet sand.
303|——, sp. like Haneti......... Betees RGkieusannes ceases scenery

304|Nerita scabricosta, Lam. (non De-|rocks, especially cre-

lessert =costata).
=ornata, Sow.
+ Deshayesii, Récl.
305|——, sp. = Bernhardi, Récl.......
306|Neritina Guayaquilensis, Sow. ...
+-intermedia, Sow. teste Récl.

vices, h. w.—#-t.
young, above h. w.

rks. & st., 3-t. —l.w.n.

above highest tides,
among sticks and
leaves, in muddy
places overflowed by
fresh water.

75 |Sta. Barbara, Jewett.
3 |Acapulco, Jewett.

Acap., Moffat.

Se ee Oe

60 |Guaymas, Green.
| 8
11

10
4
40

2 |Callao, Petit.

Is. Timor, Récl.

2800
90 |Real Llejos, Guayaquil, Cum.

Acapulco, Humb.; California, Phil.

St. Elena, sandy mud, 6 fm., Cum.

Real Llejos, Sow.; California, Phil.

Saree

¢

OF CONCINNA, N.S. ...seeseseeeeee

ol ele ee
\Vermetus glomeratus, (quasi)

‘9 omatella inflata (? cole

Comp. Pileopsis pilosus, Desh.

—— Conica, Brod. .....cseeeeee08

' °
Name.

of extraordinary size, are pro

bably NV. ‘etd ah Perel

MS.

infrequens, N.S. ..aceeeeees

+ papillifera, Kiist.
Tabogensis, n. 8. ......1000.

Bulla (Tornatina) infrequens, n.s.
—— (Cylichna) luticola, n. s.

=punctata, Ad.

Lam. pars.
| [=Aletes ? centiquadrus, Val.
Panamensis, Rouss. .........

onyx, sp. (? subrufa) .......
?barbata ......... Sendcneg 606

Guér. Mag. 1832, pl. 19.
Panamensis, nom. prov. ..

Pedipes angulata, n. s..........00.
/Auricula acuta, D’ Orbs 8n ee
=Marinula Recluziana, Cum.

Panamensis, N.S. ...seeeeeeee

stagnalis, D’Oré.......... a3

...| on liquid mud, 1. w.
punctulata, dd. ....ecsseeee[ee Se aviee asics Sstectes aed?

Station.

7| Neritina picta, Sow.(nonHening.)|strictly marine: sticks
[N.B. Lieut.Green’s specimens,| and stones in grove,
quoted from San Miguel as} 4-t.: dirty places

-| on rocks, $-t. —.

under stones, h. w.
under stones, h. w.

on short mangrove
| suckers, h. w.
under stones, h. w.
u.s., h.w., or crawling
over wet stones.
under heap of stones,
above h. w.

.(on and under stones

and rocks, h. w.

trilineata, 1. S......cceecsceee|eveees LIS Se Enea es ae

| SISPall =emseaseseensss clas asda ote under stones, h. w.
1 runcatella Bairdiana, n.s. ...... under heap of stones,
| h. w. s.

?—— dubiosa, n. s.(?Assiminea)|under heap of stones,

h. w. s.

Seen eee eres eae seeeeneseenes

rocks Be stones, 1. a n.
attached by end of
spiral portion.

rocks & stones, l.w.n.

~ [stones and shells, 1. w.

./Sstones and shells, 1. w.

=antiguatus, Linn. |
radiata, Sow. (non Quoy,
nec Lam.)

=Grayanus, Mke.]

yptreea aberrans, n. s.

2= Crep. unguiformis, ‘var.]
(Syphopatella) aspersa, n.s.
{=Galerus.]

— cepacea, Brod. ......s00....4

Il

dentata, Mike. .....cscececes
=rugosa, Rve. non Desh.

rucibulum imbricatum, var. |
oe) hispida, Brod.
= Crue. spinosum, pars. ]

— —— imbricata, Brod.......
Ys - maculata, Brod. (non Quoy)
= Crue. spinosum, pars. ]

= planulata, n.s. ...s00...00e en
=Yradiata, Brod. .......s0.0000e

stones, l. w.

ole ee Pe ee re eee tt Oe eoeresecrene

under stones, 1. w.

dead shells, 1. w.

under stones, 1. w.

eee eete ee recess eceeseeeees

Pree ee eer errr errr

on oyster, ue md

Pee eee eCereeserettesscecees

No. of
Speci- Other Localities.
mens.

290 |Pan., on mud-bank partially overflowed

28
25

with fresh water, Cum.

Guayaq., near brackish water, Fontaine.

Guayaquil, marsh and even fresh water,
Font.; 1. Tumaca, Cum. MS.

Acap., Jewett; sandy mud, 10 fm., Cum.

attached by one side of all the whirls.
Coral reefs, Toubouai, Soc. Is., Cum.

Lobos Is., on stones in coarse sand,
17 fm., Cum.
Panama, Galapagos, on rocks, Cum.

sandy mud, 11 fm., Is. Muerte, Cum.
Xipix., Sal., on shells, deep water, Cum.

Is. Muerte, on dead shells, sandy mud,
12 fm., Cum. [D’ Ord.
on st., sdy. md., 6-10 fm., Cum.; Payta,
Is. Muerte, on dead shells, in sandy
mud, 11 fm., Cum.

Caraccas, sdy. mud on dead shells, 7-14
fm., Cum.

Ty,

276 REPORT—1856.
No. of
No. Name. Station. Speci-
mens.
340|Calyptreea (Syphopatella) regue)............eseeeereeeeeeees 3
laris, n. Ss.
[= Galerus mammillaris, Brod. ]
341|/—— umbrella, Desh. ....... Arco Soe Baeewats postecsucsPeige< 1
=Crucibulum rude, Brod.
342|—— ??unguis, Brod......... Bewensp|socdscsussesccecessccewsesies 1
343/Crepidula cerithicola, n. s. ....-.| on Cerith. stercus- 45
[=C. onyz, jun.] muscarum.
344|——- echinus, Brod. ........+.++ .».| under stones, 1. w. 18
[=C. aculeata, var.]
345 |= — GXCAVAtA, EPUU. ..cccccesvccess|ecasesvaccesceccesesarcsness 1
346|-—— ? hepatica, Desh. ...... ..+e--(on Sfrombus, Conus, &| 28
[=C. onyx, Sow. | Cuma, &e.
347|— incurva, Brod. .......00.-.+++ living shells, l. w.+ | 120
348|——— Lessonii, Brod.......... eee..-| under stones, |. w. 80
[=C. nivea, var.}
349|—— squama, Brod. ......... +-.e-| u. S., & in Shells, lw. | 35
350|—— unguiformis, Zam. .........\in dead shells, near 3-t.|_ ...
= C. Italica, Defr. level.
= C. plana, Say.
= C. calceolina, Desh.
[Perhaps=C. nivea, var.: but
y. B. M. Maz. Cat. p. 284.]
Fossil in Italy, Sicily, Bor-
deaux, Dax, Touraine.
351] ——. NIVEAN. S..0ccce.s-cseceeeeeess under stones, l. w. 45
[4+0C. sguama +C. Lessonit +
C. striolata. | -
352|—— osculans, 0.8. .....seeeeeeees aba, baad 1
353 Tostrata, 1. S...0....0s00. ales. dost ee eee ® teh
=C. adunca, Sow.= C. solida,
Hds.=C. rostriformis, Gld.
=C. uncata, Mke.
354|Fissurella zequalis, Sow......-....--]-+ Raper AP GAEDE oC 5
355|—— alta, 0.8. ..cccecceceserceeeceelsceesecece seneeeree| O26:
356|—— macrotrema, Sow........- 5000) ene creereee FRESCO 5
357|—— microtrema, Sow....s....seee|seccseeeeeeee Pree oe 10
[?=F. rugosa, var]
358|—— mus, Rve. ....0.--000+ Er epienitecliged RonvameeaedeWclan'cls aaah oe 8
359|—— nigropunctata, Sow.......... on rocks, 3-t.— 95
360) —— ostrina, Rve......c..seeeeeeseelee cate aatanedesses cad Fle ec:
361|/—— virescens, Sow..........+++« --|ledge of smooth, ex-| 142
posed rocks,3-t. —l.w.
362|Siphonaria characteristica, Rve. on rocks, 4-t.++ 70
[=S. gigas, var. ] is
363|—— costata, Sow.........s00« Rae acess Deca Besta gseeat Beek dads 1
364|—— gigas, Sow. ...-ssssseeeeeaeee on rocks, 3-t. - 220
365|—— maura, Sow. ...........-0.00es ledges of rocks, 4-t.+| 200
366|—— ? pica, Sow. ........ Beveenecms soko cvacnsste setae sda Bee |, es
367|Lottia ? patina, Esch................ on&under stones,l.w.n.| 34
[?=4emea mesoleuca, var. ]
368|——, sp......cssseeceeee seeseseeeeeeee| UNGer stones, }-tide | 45
369|——., sp....... Bites ies alewee ates cate under stones, 4-tide | 20
370 SSDitzchenobaees Satie y oa PGSM: |nded= esas cies snsmssspacas 1l
371)? Patella, sp. ......-+++ Py rec rocks, 3-t. 16
372\Chiton clathratus, Rve............. under stones, l. w. 12
373|—— dispar, Sow. ....sececsecessees under stones, l.w. n.| 100
374|—— ? luridus, Sow. ....cesceveoss: under stones, 1. w. 3

Guacomayo, on exposed rocks, I.w., €

| de all

Other Localities.

Pan. and Real Llej., under stones, Cu
Guayaq,., Jay.

Lobos Is., Cum.

Real Llej., Cum. ; Chili, Desh.
C. G. Hope, Krauss.

St. Elena and Xipix., on dead shells, ¢
10 fm., Cum.
I. Muerte, Cum.

Mediterranean, Desh.; Tunis & Algie
M’Andr.; Senegal, Potiez; Mai
Migheis ; Carolina, &c., Say; Jamaii
C.B.Ad. ; Is. Chiloe, Cum. ; Mazatle
Liverpool Col.

;
St. Elena, on dead shells, 6-10 fm., Ci
Gal., Real Llej., Lobos Is. Lambeyeq

under stones on shore, Cum.
Real Llej., under stones, 1. w., Cum. |

Gal. and Lobos Is., under stones, C

4

*
®

Gal. Is., Jay; Peru, Voy. Venus.

Acapulco, Sow., on exposed rocks,

Is. Saboga, Cum.
St. Elena, on stones, 5 fm., Sow. —

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 277

Name. Station. Other Localities.

mens.

$75|Chiton pulchellus, Gray ......... under stones, 3 buried) 80 |Arica, Hennah; Islay, 30 fm.+, D’Ord.
4 in sand, near |. w. n.

76|—— Stokesii, Brod......... Pandges under stones, ]. w. n.| 40+ |St. Elena, Cum.; Arica & Islay, D’ Ord.
177|/Anomia lampe, Gray.......+...+.4+ 1. w. 1 |La Paz; and Monterey, 60 fm., Rich.
78|—— tenuis, 1.8. ........se0eee jan 1. w. 3

rocks, }-t.
rocks, 4-t.

=o. tridescens, Gray. 1 :
DI——, SP. (C) .rrceereceeeeeeers see
[? sat O. Columbiensis, Hanl.
= 0. conchaphila. |

Me PISDal (2). scvevascscnrasensecn saan
[?= O. Virginica.]

I——, SP. (€) seerseeaes eevee setae
} small, plicated: animal bitter.
85|Spondylus ?Lamarckii(non Sow.)
[=S. = lig
G|——) SPv-sseveseseeeseessreees aot. [se Re Gieane tasd on oct omRen coed
ecten inca, D'Oro. . ndaeaaoal taantees

|[=P. tumidus, Sow., ‘non mn Turt.
[=P. ventricosus, ’Sow.]
38|——._ Tumbezensis, D’ Orb. .....
| =P. aspersus, Sow., non Lam.

.| rocks, shells, &c., 3-t.

in clusters.

rocks & stones, $—2 t.

.| com. |La Paz, Green.

8v. |St. Elena, Salango, sandy mud, 6-10
fm., Cum.; Calapan, Philippines, Sow.

2v. {soft mud, 5 fm., Tumbez, Cum.

ima angulata, Sow. ............ BECP dao wntaesessia sesssesee| 4 |Carac., sandy mud, 12-20 fm., Cum.
(0|—— Pacifica, D’ Ord. ........64.. on reef. 3 {Lord Hood’s Island, under coral rocks ;
=L. arcuata,Sow., not Geinitz. Panama, sandy mud; Guayaquil;
)1Avicula ? margaritifera. sae aPRRURENEA ICES oacitel scdnens nccisils wesses] 2 Guacomayo, under stones, Cum.

[?=Margaritiphora fimbriata. 7

a sterna, Gould on Gorgonia, 1. w. s.
Perna, sp.(a)(=Chemnitzianum)|u.s., & in crev.rks., ].w.

IH, SP. (0)....cccseseeee Recah ame U.S. sa Belo .W.

130 |La Paz, Green.

1 jmuddy banks, Cum.
4 (muddy banks, Cum,

inthick shells,3t. —1. w.

seeeneese Core eveseree Sesetes

hodomus, sp. (@) ......sesereeee

flodiola ?semifusca, Sow. (non
Lam. teste Hani.).

=M. Braziliensis, Lam.

=Mytilus Guiaénsis, Kist.

Modiola, sp. (2) ......eessseseeeee

BD) os .ssessene meer

crey. of rks., 4-t.-l. w.
crev. of rks., 4-t.-l. w.

5\Chz ma Buddiana, n. S.......... eee
[The specimenin Dr. Gould’s
| Ccol., supposed to be the above,
))) is C.?frondosa, var <anipomce ih
? corrugata, Brod. .........
echinata, Brod.

Guaymas, Green.

2v. |Real Llej., on stones, 1. w., Cum.
15 |Puert. Port., Cum.

St. Elena, sandy mud, 6fm., Cum.
Caraccas, sandy mud, 9 fm., Cum.
Sand, 7 fm., Cum.

Puert.Port., sdy.m. & grv.,8—12fm., Cum.
Puert. Port., fine gravel, 11 fm., Cum.
Ecuador, on st., 12 fm.,Cum.; Maz., Jew.
St. Elena, 10 fm., mud, Cum.

eee receerecconses coeseccnes

rocks, near |. w.

Real Llejos, Atac., Xipix., sandy mud,
6-8 fm., Cum.; Gulf Cal., Sow.

278 REPORT—1856.

Name. Station.

416|Arca gradata, Brod. & Sow.......| under stones, l. w. 3
417 grandis, Brod. & Sow......./;-buried inm. & small} 13
One valve weighed 23 lb. alge, u. trees, 3-t.
418|—— mutabilis, Sow...............- u. s., & crev. rks.,]l.w.| 70
419|—(Byssoarca)pholadiformis,n.s.| in soft stones, l. w. 2
420|/——— Reeveana, D’ Ord............ under stones, |. w. 9
= A. Helblingii, Rve.non Brug.|......... aeacsncmaniatdes coos
421|—— reversa, SOW. .....ccsceeesee|ecerenscnteeccsceres wane eee 4v.
=A. hemicardium, Koch.
422 similis, n. s. eeeeataaesues|secee avadwonsceecatecs 10
[?=24. tuberculosa, ' var. i
423|/—— solida, Sow. ......+0. under stones, 1. w. 60
424, —( Byssoarca) Tabogensis, n. s.| under stones, 1]. w. 60
[?=A. illota, var. ]
425 tuberculosa, S0wW.......se000e thin mud, under man-| 147
groves, near h. w.
426 | Cee ae easvassae conee | PREP e re eG ce 2
427 Cardita affinis, Sow. .....ecccseeees “boring” in stones} 70
=modulosa, Val., ?=nodulosa,, and rocks, §-t.—
Lam., not nodulosa, Rve.
428|—— laticostata, Sow. ........ .../partly buried in cale.| 150
sand and gravel, un-
der stones, 1. w.s.
429|—— radiata, Sow. ......cessee00 l. w. 20
430|Cardium graniferum, Brod. & Sow.|.....-... acetedanesaaee mes @.
431|—— obovale, Brod. §& Sow.......|.....++ aes Somose “eros|| Sto
432|—— planicostatum, Sow..........|escseeseceseeeees sa celawnsine lw.
[?=C. procerum, var. ]
433 PLOCGERNM, SOD. sec csnorees|seosst ean aaee see mes oweeel n Gien
434 senticosum, Sow. ....... pee cplnec seks dacsente cia Bene Save 5
=C. rastrum, Rve.
435|Venus ? amathusia, Phil. .........]..0+ dabveesaceds asccteetnee 2
436|—— ?discors, Sow. .......++++e00+ coarse sand among} 146
[?= Tapes grata, Say.] stones, 3—}-t.
437 PMA, LEFOd. GOW. -..cc-|vccccsees. cate sno -sbeeaes 4
438|—— multicostata, Sow. .s.......Jeeescecsecseseeeccecerreees 5
= V. Thouarsi, Val
439|—— pectunculoides, Val. ...... coarse sand, under 172
[= Tapes histrionica, Sow. } mangroves, 3—3-t.
440 subrugosa, Sow. .......00... partly buried in coarse] 33
= V. subsulcata, Mke. sd. amg. st. or u. tr.,3-t.
441 PNB itdaaeeinaies ccusesevac cence stall wise wins Mens ere neni pisie Saleuctece 12».
BAD ——— SDs Paces otegseececseecacacoces coarse sand 14
AASIGYUDETED ALUNIS, SOW. socscves<ssalecarnetooseaceeves addeseued 10
444 aurantiaca, Sow. .........++-|« Banos te cav eases eaeseete 3
= C. aurantia, Hanl.
445 CONSANGUINEA, N.S. ......0..[eeeeeeeee Semeaswaaweneeence 8
446|—— radiata, Sow. ...cecccsseceeeleccscccecccccececce Seaaeves 2
447 squalida, Sow. ........sses.0.|+ Bade waenen peice somsal eae
448| Artemis Dunkeri, Phil...... pecomeb esse St BaRd Sma ssenaee oe | 36
=A. Pacifica, Trosch.
[=A. simplex, Hanl.]
449/——- saccata, Gd. ..........000e Waevechyrsscesaseseneasine 2
[ = Cyclina subguadrata, Hanl.]
450|Gouldia Pacifica, n.s. .......... 5) ARR Susannunevesmas) pun Ok
451|Cyrena maritima, n.s............./im impalpable mud,| 9
under bushes, where
a small stream emp-
tied, h.w. Balani
sometimes attached.

Other Localities.

St. Elena, Cum.; Sta. Barbara, Jens ‘
Real Llej., Guayaq. -, Cum.

Is. Plata, Cum.
St. Elena, Monte Christi, Cum.

Philippines, Reeve.
Tumbez, soft mud, 7 fm., Cum.

Payta, Cum.
Real Llejos, 1. w., Cum.

B. Montija & Nicoya, sdy. m., 6-12 fm,
Cum. Guaymas, Green [?]. B

Guacomayo, St. Elena, Pan., Real Llej,
sand, 6-12 fm., Cum. t. Sow. *
Ditto, coarse and & mud, 10-12 fm,
Cum. teste Rve.

Salango, muddy sand, 6-12 fm., Cum }
Gulf Nicoya, Xipix., Curie: }
Xipix., sandy mud, 11 fm., Cum.
Guacomayo, fine sand, 13 fm., Cum.
Real Llej., coarse sand, 4—6 fm., Cum.
St. Elena, sandy mud, 6-12 fm., Cum

Mazatl., Green. é

St. Elen.and Guac., sandy mud, 6-9 fm
Cum.; Guaymas, Green.

Payta, Fontaine.

Pan., coarse sand, l. w., Cum.; La P
Green.

Cea

Xipix., 10 fm., sandy mud, Cum.
G. Nicoya, Jay.

eae eee ee

Salang., Xipix., sandy mud, 9 fm.,Cu
St. Elena, sandy mud, 6 fm., Cum,
St. Elena, Cum.

oo Esa

—

Name. Station.

452|Lucina tellinoides, Rve. ........
453|Capsa altior, Sow........++.+.

eee ee cress erences eresesse

"buried i in . sand, 1. w.

eeetee

\4é 350
J455|—— gracilis, Ham. ......scseeree-|ecovrecesvescsseersesees 20
56|—— navicula, Hanl. ......e00ss-]eseeee eae centeldatelse oO 3
5 7|\—__ POstratus, N.S. ..ccccccesssvcs|secceees Rabnalsire’ 1
58iTellina ? aurora, Han. ..........s.|ececcscscevencssers . 3
J459|—— cogmata, 1. S.°......seeseveee|senssrenecssseeserser sevens lw.
One valve, “closely allied to
the Caribbzan 7. similis.”
50\———. Columbiensis, Hanl. ....+-|secssscessscesscecsceeees 2
61] —— concinna, N.S. ......ssseeeeee bddtracsceaceer eters 3
lw.
2
12
—— felix, Hanl. i... — Sadtcmasaeneen se covceesss| BOD

[Prof.Adams’ shell is said by
_ | Dr.Gld.tobehisStrigillafucata.]
56|/—— laceridens, Hanl.............|.. ededcuees eT ste 7

—— prora, Hanl.........eerereeeee| seer ARABS ost eeccosnanen lv.
—— puella, 0.8. ....secccsessesese|erees shorence dcvecosames| Laits
—— rubescens, Han. ..ssssesseceevseeeces seasvesetee antwall oe
SUl1QUA, N.S. .rereeseececccever|eccccccreces Bee an fecnee 1
fl; —— simulans, 0. 8. ...+0+...+0+40]- se seseers sevvesccccesseses| LB
[=T7. punicea, Hanl. Species
constituted from a single
valve to include the Pacific
specimens of the W. Indian
form. ]
] Sincera, Hand. .....cscocccceeleccesccecsccscessccecscecss| 15
73|\—— Vicina, 0. S. ...e000e aitecesetanane 10
i—, sp. @, like elongata.....s...|..ceeseseeeesees ndeven ee wes| lees
i——, sp. b.. candstaskaeretes cata Lis
= SP. Cacserersccnccncccnscscscsceliscccrscecceecers Gausersacs|> Ol te
Petricola cognata, n. S....... Pen cats acceceke Seeecees 1
; ?=P. pholadiformis, Gld. MS. 1 Eis cadecsostscdeaessatoe male tds
78|Saxicava ? tenuis, Sow............| soft stone, 3-t 1
bl [?=S. pholadis, Linn. var.]
79\Cumingia coarctata, Sow. 4
—— trigonularis, Sow 3
4
1
, Sp. c lv.

34}. Mle wctscnsctesasannsenssecon|se. shendegRecianawewsesasc|iiue IE
j | Prof. Adamsregardsthe above
} as “ probably new species: but
| as their characters are probably
} somewhat variable,” prudently
| forebore from describing them
| without more specimens. They
| are probably varieties; as Cu-
| mingie, like other nestlers, are
| most variable in form and
| sculpture.
mphidesma bicolor, n.s. ..-.....
? ellipticum, SGWrsssascs scans
i proximum, n.s. .... wes
=Semele proxima,M. Cum. pars:
| pars=S. proxima, B.M. Maz.
Cat. p.28, = S.flavicans, Gld. |

18

| ie
ki
*
%

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA.

. |sandy mud, 6-10 fm., Cum.

lv.
20 |Monte Christi, 9 fm., sandy mud, Cum.

279

Other Localities.

Is. Muerte, sandy mud, 11 fm. Cum.
G. Nicoya, coarse gravel, 12 fm., Cum.
Var., mud, 5 fm., Tumbez, Cum.

Mazatlan, Green.

B. Caraccas, Guay., Chiriqui, Cum.

Nicoya, Cum.

Maz., Green; Sta. Barb., Jewett.

soft sandym.,10 fm., Cum. ; ; Rio Janeiro,
[Jay.

Monte Christi, sandy mud, 12 fm.,Cum.
St. Elena, Hani.

Guacomayo, coral sand, Cum.
sandy mud, 12 fm., Cum.

sdy.m.,3—5 fm., Tumbez&Chiriqui,Cum.
sdy.m.,6—9 fm.,St.Elen. &Salango,Cum.

sandy mud, Tumbez, Cum.

* Closely allied to 7. Jimaculata.”

Guaymas.
Pascomayo and Lambeyeque, Cum.

Caraccas, sandy mud, 7 fm., Cum,
St. Elena, stones, deep water, Cum.

280

No. Name. Station.

488|Amphidesma pulchrum, Sow. ...|...seccsccecssereeeeseeees

489|—— striosum, N.S. .......005 Oa de oS eae Se Saaaie s'de.e nt
490| —— tortuosum, 0. S.........000- ed aaa deaaes «eis hbeotic
491|—— ventricosum, n. s. (? Kellia)}........0......006 *
492\Crassatella gibbosa, Sow. .........
493|Mulinia donaciformis, Hanl.[?}
[?=M. angulata, Gray.]
494|—— ventricosa, Gld. ............|..6 Bebchaereeseccnweresnee
[=Mactra exoleta, Gray. |
495)Lutraria elegans, Sow. (Mactra).|.........cesesessseeee ceded
Not ZL. undulata, Gld. teste
C. B. Ad.
496|Mactra velata, Phil. ...... dea sdedc shine swept Bapate sec necmeecs
497|Anatina alta ....... Pageanwe apr pedweelbeoestenccseswer vee s mawee
(? Thracia or Periploma.)
498/Pandora cornuta, n.s. dlikns dacheectees Pee eee Hen
499|Potamomya eequalis, n. s.......... soft mud, under man-
groves, near h.w. &
outlet of small stream,

tleeeereee Pewee ete eesesaeeees

with Arca tuberculosa.

500|—— inflata, n. s. .......... eancemes r - “

501/—— trigonalis, n. S........0...s008 rr, 5 “4
502|Corbula bicarinata, Sow. ......... u.s., deep in sd.,l.w.-++
503|—— biradiata, Sow. ......see.csseslerecessecesceees Siisiswacanes
504|—— obesa, Hds. ....... Salts araeneneckinetabecatensemactne sce
505|—— ovulata, Sow. ......ccccecesc|ececceseescrcsccscessceccess
506|—— rubra, n.s. ......... aasepeenal toe sca paswadeapisabis seb ait
FO ditt COMIN SOU ai cis aweicitawe ses ee cul anebedeselnedeseceasenceecc
508/——,, sp. a, like Taheitensis ...|....-+..sesesscseneceeeeees
509 Mis Da taccacacesnteidssiacsaostancuele ebsiatadeenian eas Seleemueniaee
510|Solecurtus affinis, n.s........... Sl Sipe dudescdueass's eee [ Lew.
511/Solen rudis, n.s. ...........2000e- coarse sd. among st.,
5]2/Pholas crucigera, Sow. ....00.....-|..ee0s gas «Sew se gcanaesties

=crucifera, Sow. = cruciger,
Mill.

513| —— tubifera, Sow. ........ Spaces pepe swhevadianass sinaseaeca
514|—— xylophaga, Val. (non Desh.)|filling the bottomof an
old ‘‘dug-out,” h. w.
515|—— sp. a, like lanceolata ......|......ceccecsceceseeceseees
516 5 BDO echowty sceswerteoae mappa Menezes eae descesseeaad
517\Orbicula Cumingii, Brod.......... underside of st., 1. w.

REPORT—1856.

Other Localities.

Carac., Cum. teste Sow. in P. Z.S.; St.
Elena and Pan., Cum, teste Sow. in}
LConch. Ill.

St. Elena & Xipix.,sdy.m.,11fm., Cum.;}
[Payta, Fontaine.

“The Atlantic analogue is L. canali-
culata, Say.”

Rl. Llej., Carac., St. Elen., sdy. mud,’
Chiriqui & Carac.,s. &m.,3—7 fm., Cum,
8° 57/-21° 32’, 22-33 fm., Hds. :

Bay Montijo, sandy m., 12 fm., Cum.
. [Maz., Jew.

Is. Puna, B. Carac., Nicoya, soft sand-|)
stone, %-t.; soft stone, l.w.; hard
clay, 13 fm., Cum. ,

Carac., in decayed wood, 10 fm., Cum. ;
[Payta, Fontaine,

“ Like S. Caribeus.”

$f
%

Payta, St. Elena, 1. w.—6 fm., Cum.;

Chili and Peru, Desh.

If this list of species be estimated according to the standard of judgment
followed in the Mazatlan Catalogue, which is necessary for a fair comparison
between the two, the following numbers will not be needed :—

Univalves: 5, 33, 52, '70, 72, 164, 174, 199, 211, 212, 216, 218, 241, 330,

334, 337, 343, 348, 349, 362,=20.
Bivalves: 422, 432, 482, 483, 484,=5.

The names given to 459 and 471 are also not required.

Others may be discovered on a comparison of specimens or figures (which
it is to be hoped the Trustees of Amherst College, who possess the types,
will cause shortly to be published), though they are not recognized from the
The discovery of a large number of deep-water species
was due to the hermit crabs. Certain observed differences of station between
Messrs. Cuming and Adams are very interesting; in a few there may be
error; from others we learn what great latitude is allowed to some of the

descriptions alone.

=o
i ‘ ~

pe.

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 281

species: e.g. Corbula bicarinata is quoted alive from low water to 17 fm.;
while Anomia lampe, quoted from low-water mark, was found by Major
Rich as far north as Monterey in 60 fm. water!

Of the 157 species described as new, 5 had already appeared under other
names, and 15 are believed to be only varieties. Fifteen are named from
their doubtful characters or similarity to other forms; 8 are designated from
their habitat or station; 23 receive names expressive of their small size;
5 are designated according to the number of specimens found; and 6 would
probably not have been constituted, had the same shells appeared in the
Caribbean waters.

The following is a comparison of the above collection with that of M.
Reigen from Mazatlan, excluding from the latter the land and freshwater
shells and the Bryozoa; and bringing down the number of species in Prof.
Adams’s Catalogue to the standard adopted in the latter.

Pan. Maz, Common.

136 | 215 38=28 per cent. Bivalves.
356 449 77=21°6 per cent. | Univalves.

492 | 664 | 115=23'4 percent.| Total.

a a at eb Le ae [synonyms.

12 | 104 Old species united: not including
139 | 209 New species described.
61 | 108 Indeterminate species.

2
73 | 298 25=34 per cent. Minute species.

55. The following are extracted from the British Museum Catalogue of
the Veneride, &c. by M. Deshayes. The minute division of species in this
and in his recent articles in the Proc. Zool. Soc. contrasts somewhat strangely
with the opposite tendency displayed in his extremely valuable edition of
Lamarck’s Animaux sans Vertébres, a work which has been employed
throughout, but not quoted, simply as not containing original authorities
on our present inquiry.

Page. No.

13 25 Dosinia turgida, Rve. = Artemis tenuis, Sow. jun. Central America,
Sale.
76 70 Dione brevispinata, Desh.= Cytherea brevispina, Sow. jun. California.

135 48 Chione callosa, Desh.—Ch. Nuttallit, var. Non Dosinia callosa, Cony.

California : not Sandw. Is.
192. 8 Venerupis foliacea, Desh. Mazatlan. :

207 1 Petricola mirabilis, Desh. [Monterey, Hartweg, teste Sow.| California.

253 37 Cyrena Fontainii, Desh.=olivacea, Cpr. Non C. Fontawii, D’Orb.

Mazatlan.
254 39 Cyrena solida, Phil. Abbild. Conch. p. 78. pl. 1. f.9. Nicaragua.
257 49 Cyrena Floridana, Conr. Mazatlan and Florida.
The Mazatlan specimens are C. Mexicana, jun.

56. The collection of which the following is a list, came into my possession

_ exactly as it was received from a sailor; who brought it from a single port on
_ the west coast of North America. The purchaser, judging, from the preva-
_ lence of Mazatlan shells in it, that it came from that place, did not make
_ exact inquiries at the time, and the sailor could not be traced afterwards.
_ Though consisting mainly of shore shells, the collection was so remarkably
_ free from imported specimens, that it derives some value as a geographical
authority. The general accordance of the species with what we know of

282

REPORT—1856.

the local-fauna of Acapulco, makes it probable that it came from that place ;
but it is cited in the B. M. Mazatlan Catalogue as “ S.W. Mexico.”

1. Solecurtus violascens, n.s. B.M. Maz.
Cat. p. 27, note. 1 pair.
2. Tellina princeps. Fine: 1 aigtiee *
3. Tellina rubescens. | pr... so)
4. Mactra elegans. | py........ bate P.
5. Mactra angulata. 1 pr. ......P. M.
6. Dosinia Dunkeri. 1 pr. ..-...P. M.
7. Dione aurantiaca. | val.,fine...P. M.
8. Dione chionea. ly. .........P. M.
9. Venus amathusia. 1 pr. Sores M.
10. Venus Columbiensis. 1 aa! ..P. M.
11. Tapes grata. 1 pr. ......eere P. M.

12. Anomalocardia subrugosa. lv. P.M.
13. Anomalocardia subimbricata. Valves,

COMMOD.......... Bacbcoundas see Ss. M.
14. Cardita affinis. 1 pr.ese...eeeee rockge
15. Chama frondosa. Lv. scsceesesee: ie
16. Cardium procerum. Rare. ...P. M.
17. Cardiumconsors. ly. (Guatemala). S.
18. Cardium maculatum. 1 V.......++- Ss.
19. Lucina tigerrina. 1 fresh val....M.
20. Modiola capar. 1. «s-s..0 M. C.
21. Mytilus palliopunctatus. Rare....M.
22. Arca Pacifica. 1 pair ......... P.M.
23. Pinna ?rudis. Htremiels thick and

large valves .e2.s.ssescoseors P.M.

. Pecten ventricosus.

. Pecten 2 senatorius.

. Margaritiphorafimbriata. Common.
P.M

(Colouring ex-
tremely variable.) Valiesy com-
28; B.
(China Seas.
Perhaps an allied sp.) 2 fresh pairs.

. Ostrea conchaphila. Valves. P.M.C.
. Ostrea palmula.

lpairaeses: M. C.

. Placunanomia foliata. 1 fresh valve.
. Bulla Adamsi. Rare...........0++- M.
. Siphonaria gigas + characteristica.
Common ....... *cuiotioandectios Sancti ae
. Patella discors. Common ...... M.
- Acmea scabra, 1 sp. ..-....-. M. C.

. Acmea grandis, Gray. Common. C.
. Fissurella nigropunctata.
. Uvanilla olivacea,
. Uvanilla unguis.

. Pomaulaxundosus. Fresh opercula.C.
. Callopoma saxosum. Rare......... re

Com...P.
Rare
Common....... M.

. Tegula pellis-serpentis = strigilatus,
Anton. Not uncommon ...... P.
. Nerita scabriuscula. Large and
COTIMON .0¢..cecescorssvescssess .M.

. Nerita Bernhardt. Abundant. P.M.
. Crepidula aculeata.
. Crepidula 2unguiformis. 1sp. P.M.

Isp. S. P.M.

* §. South America. P. Panama.

45.
46.
47.

Crepidula arenata. 1 sp. Scat
Galerus conicus. 1 sp...... ‘S. P. M.
Galerusmammillaris.. 1 sp....S.P.M.

48. Crucibulum umbrella, Desh. =ru-

M. Mazatlan.

. Aletes Peronii.
. Turritella goniostoma.
. Cerithium maculosum.

. Cerithium famelicum.
. Cerithium uncinatum. Rare...
. Cyprea exanthema, var. cervinetta.

M.

. Cyprea arabicula.

. Trivia pustulata. Rare..
. Trivia radians.
. Strombus galea.

. Strombus gracilior.
. Terebra robusta.
. Pleurotoma funiculata.
. Drillia rudis.

. Conus Mahogani.
. Conus gladiator.
. Natica maroccana and vars.

. Natica excavata.

. Polinices uber.

. Polinices(Galapagosa?=) otis. Very
2

. Ficula decussata.
. Marginella prunum}. Very rare. P.
. Oniscia tuberculata.
. Cassis coarctata.
. Malea ringens.

. Oliva porphyria.
. Oliva cruenta (Tahiti. ? imported).

dis, Brod. Common, fine, and ~~
variable

. Crucibulum spinosum. Isp. 8.P.M. é.
. Hipponyx Grayanus.

On Pinne.

1 sp.

. Cerithium stercus-muscarum. Rare.

P. M.
lsp....P. M.
P.M.

COMMON «| c.cccsrescdescsasanentrs
Very common.

Ss. P. M.
Ar Secon
1 sp. oS. P. M.
1 Sp. ecccesoes P.M.

Strombus granulatus, Common. S.

Rare...S. P. M.
L sp. deecee savedatlys
lsp. ...M.
1 sp. .cceeeese S. P. M.
Conus regalitatis. Veryrare. P. M.
Uy oeaen Geos cuales
Uisereemenees P.M.
Abun-

Avis .cscottesesenaceaetteaetes P.M.
Very rare...... P.
Rare ...... S. P. M.

rare

Peete eee e reece ersesesseeeeseene

Rare ses.cs P. M.

Rares-csenc PR:
Wearerasbeeosseees Es
Lisp:...- seeder ee

Pesp., dine 210. P.

1 dead shell.

. Olivella volutella. Very common. P.
. Aragonia testacea. Common. P. M.
. Latyrus concentricus, Rve. Rare. P.
. Latyrus castaneus, Rve.
. Latyrus tuberculatus, Brod. Rare. P.
. Cuma tectum.
. Vitularia

Rare. P.

lsp
ei ded (fresh, with
Lispivereseseee es Pe ME

tee e ee eeeeeeees

opere.).
C. California.

+ Both this species and M. sapotilla, Hds., are quoted from the West Coast.

aul

7

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 283
88. Purpura patula. Rare ......0..---M. 94. Columbella labiosa. Rare......S. P.
89. Purpura biserialis. 1sp....S.P.M. 95. Anachis rugosa. 1 sp. .....+0.8. P.
90. Purpura triserialis. 1 sp......-++ M. 96. Anachis fulva. 1 sp. s...000 P. M.
91. Purpura melones. Rare......00 8. P. 97. Pisania ringens. Rare ......++ P.M.
92. Monoceros brevidentatum,Gray. lsp. 98. Murex radix. Rare...... SyBaciedaancs P.
S. P. 99. Murex regius. Common......P. M.

93. Columbella fuscata. Rare...S. P.M.

This collection, containing 99 species, of which only one is certainly and
another perhaps imported, shows what a common sailor may do, simply by
keeping his shells from being mixed. One species is new; 46 are common
to both Mazatlan and Panama; 29 are found at Panama, but not at Mazatlan;
6, though not yet quoted from Panama, are southern types; 14 are found at
Mazatlan, and not at Panama; 6 are northern types, being found in Lower
California, and of these, two (viz. Acmea grandis and Pomaulax undosus
[operc.]) were not found at Mazatlan.

57. In the Proceedings of the Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. for Feb. 1855, Dr.
A. A. Gould described the following land and freshwater shells from the
western part of N. America :—

P. 127. Helix eruginosa, San P. 129. Planorbis ammon, Gld. Colo-
rado Low Desert, Dr. T. H. Webb,

Gld.
Francisco, Dr. Bigelow.

P. 127. Helix infirmata, Gld. San Fran-
cisco, Dr. Bigelow.

P. 128. Physa bullata, Gld.
Dr. J. G. Cooper.

P. 128. Physa humerosa, Gld. Colorado
Desert, Dr. Th. H. Webb; Pecos River,
Mr. W. P. Blake.

P. 128. Physa virgata, Gld. River
Gila and near San Diego, Dr. Th. H.
Webb.

Oregon,

Mr: W. P. Blake.

P. 129. Planorbis gracilentus, Gld.
Great Colorado Desert, low lands,
Dr. T. H. Webb.

P. 129. Amnicola protea, Gld. Colorado
Desert, Dr. T. H. Webb, Mr. W. P.
Blake.= Melania exigua, Conr. (read
Feb. 13th).

P. 130. Amnicola longinqua, Gld. Co-
lorado Desert, Mr. W. P. Blake.

The same gentlemen appear to have made collections on the coast; of
which the following lists have been obligingly sent by Dr. Gould.

Collected by Dr. Thomas H. Webb.

AT GUAYMAS.
Acmea eruginosa [=A. mesoleuca, var. ].
Neritina picta.
Nerita “? precognita, C. B. Ad.?=
Bernhardi, Réel.
Chlorostoma rugosum, var.

Ar San Disco.
Tellina nasuta.
Donaz.
Venus dispar.
Venus, sp.
Cardium Californiense.
Arca pernoides. 1 valve. “‘ Lieut.Webb.”
Pectunculus (dead, rubbed).
Pecten (dead valve).

Ostrea.

Fissurella crenulata (very young).

Halhotis ? Kamtschatkana.

Trochus viridulus (very red var.). ‘ Lieut.
Webb.”

Phasianella compta.

Calyptrea hispida,=Cruc. spinosum.

Cerithium irroratum, Gld.

Potamis pullatus, Gld.

Cerithidea albonodosa.

Natica ?uber.

Ranella muriciformis.

Oliva splendidula.

Nassa luteostoma.

Nassa tegula, Rve., dead.

Purpura emarginata.

It is probable that some of the above shells, as Ranella muriciformis, Oliva
splendidula, Nassa luteostoma, Natica uber, had found their way northwards
by the accidents of commerce. None of them were seen by Mr. Nuttall, who

spent some time at the place.

284

REPORT— 1856.

Collected by Dr. Bigelow at San Francisco.

Venus rigida, Gld.
Cardium Nuttallit.
Mytilus Californianus, Cony.

2=Tapes diversa.

Lottia scabra, Gld. (=spectrum, Nutt.’
Natica Lewis, Gld. (opereulum only).
Purpura Conradi, Nutt.

Collected by Mr. William P. Blake.

At San FRrRAncIisco.
Mytilus edulis, or allied.
Lottia scabra, Gld.(=spectrum, Nutt.)

At San Pepro.
Semele rubrotincta, Conr.
Tellina secta, Cony.
~ Tapes gracilis, Gld.
Venus discors, Sow.“ =grata, Say=sta-
minea, Conr.”’
Venus Nuttallit, Cony.
Venus fluctifraga.
Lucina orbella, Gld.
Lottia patina, Esch.
Lottia scabra, Gld.
Scurria pallida, Gray=mitra, Brod.
Trochus mestus, Brod.
Calyptrea hispida, Brod.
Crepidula incurva, Brod.
Oliva biplicata.

At San Disco.
Sphenia Californica, Cony.
Tellina vicina, C. B. Ad.
Tellina secta, Conr.
Solecurtus Californianus, Cony.
Petricola carditoides,Conr.=cylindracea,
Desh.
Venus fluctifraga, Sow.
Cardium cruentatum, Gld.*
Modiola capaz, Conv.
Pecten ? purpuratus.
Pecten monotimeris, Conv.
Bulla nebulosa, Gld.
Bulla virescens, Gld.
Bulla longinqua, Gld.*
Bulla vesicula, Gld.*
Melampus olivaceus.
Phasianella compta, Gld.*
Potamis pullatus, Gld.
* “Not yet from the press.’’ Gould in litt.

58. The latest conchological traveller who has visited the West N. American
province is Mr. T. Bridges+; who, in the spring of the present year, has
brought a collection from the Bay of Panama. Although he had no dredge,
and the district had been well explored, he succeeded in finding 24 new

species, besides others new to the fauna of the place.

The new species are

described in the ‘ Proc. Zool. Soc.’ June 10th, 1856, pp. 159-166 ; and, with
a few others, interesting for their locality, are as follow :—

Corbula ventricosa, Rve.

2 Scrobicularia produeta, Cpr.

2 viridotincta, n. s.

Tellina rhodora, Hanl.

fausta.

Deshayesii, n. s.

Strigilla disjuncta, nu. s.

Semele obliqua, Wood.

planata, n.s.

Cumingia trigonularis, var.

Lyonsia diaphana, Cpr.

Mactra (Mactrelia) lacinata, nu. s.

elegans, jun.

Cyclina producta, nu. s.

Lima angulata, Sow.

Melampus Bridgesii, u.s.

Umbrella ovalis, u.s. Mouth of the River
Chiriqui. Also found exactly in the
same place by a French naturalist.

Pyrgula quadricostata, n.s.

Erato ? Maugerie, var. Panamensis.

Trochus (Ziziphinus) MacAndree [B. M.
Maz. Cat. no. 290].

Hipponyz planatus[B.M.Maz.Cat.no.348 ].

Cithara sinuata, n. s.

Mangelia acuticostata, n. s.

? striosa, C. B. Ad.

2 rigida, var. fuscoligata.

Clathurella intercalaris, n. s.

serrata, 0. 8.

Drillia punctatostriata, n. s.

? Pleurotoma gracillima, n. s.

Scalaria regularis, u. 8.

tiara, n.s.

subnodosa, ui. s.

Cumingii, n. s.

Hindsii, n. s.

Cirsotrema funiculata |B. M. Maz. Cat.
no. 569]

Natica excavata, n.s.

Polinices Gallapagosa, Rve. ?=ovum.

Mitra solitaria, C. B. Ad.

? Triton crebristriatus, n. s.

Phos biplicatus, n. s.°

Latyrus tumens, n.s.

Triton eximius, Rve.=parvus, C. B. Ad.

Anachis pygmea,var., exactly resembling
the W. Indian Col. costulata, C. B. Ad.

+ The Mammals and Birds brought by Mr. Bridges are described in Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856,

pp. 138-143.

7 SP ene

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 285

59. Having now presented the results of all known expeditions on the coast,
we have further to bring together species collected from stray quarters. The
following are described in the ‘ Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1832-56. Most of the Gulf
shells were collected by Lieut. Shipley, and of those from California by

Mr. Hartweg.
*

Page. Proc. Zoou. Soc.

1832.
57|Marginella cypreola, Sow. [? Erato]...
59|Chiton lavigatus, Sow. .........+.+5 eee

1833.

1834.

1835.

43

leucodon, Sow. ..c.cessseseseeeecees

= V..Californiensis,var. testeSow.jun.
43|—— Californiensis, Brod. (non V. Ca-
lifornica, Cour.)

pinaria.)
* 50|Monoceros cymatum, Sow.......s00..000.
4 = WM. lugubre, Sow.
5 50 unicarinatum, Sow..... Neagiew nant oF
ig = M. brevidens, Conr.
109|Pecten subnodosus, Sow. var. @...... pe
110 circularis, SOW. ...scse0e satastastuls s'la/s

= C. approximans, Beck.
1842. =C. olorina, Ducl.
199|Buccinum elegans, Rve. ....0...scssceeeee
1843.
5|Donax punctatostriata, Hanl....... Reuse
5|——- carinata, Hani. ..-.....+5 Siam ease sa
33|Pectunculus giganteus, Rve. .........++-
79|\—— bicolor, Rue. .......sceeeeseeee hee
=P. inequalis, Gray, non Sow.
166/Terebra aciculata, Hds. (?Lam.) ......
1844,

29), ——_ hexagona, Sow. jun. ....seevesecess
| .76|Marginella imbricata, Hds....0ee.cs0eee
\a 139/Ranella triquetra, Rve. ........++ 55.008
|} =| 1845.
% ot culter, Hanl. ...... seeenasasenens
*

Locality.

Acapulco, St. Elena.
Guaymas, Mr. Ealing of
H.M.S. ‘ Sapphire.’

San Blas.
Acapulco.
Gulf of California.
Guaymas.
Is. 3 Marias (Gulf Calif.).

“ Gulf Calif. & Js. Guaym.”
(No loc.) but ».P.Z.5.1843,
p-164,no.67,whereHinds
gives it, on the authority
of Mr.Cuming, as “ Guay-
mas, 10-12 fms., sandy
mud.”
Acapulco,
Acapulco.
Is. 3 Marias.
Guaymas.

Guaymas.
San Blas.
California.
(no locality)
Gulf of California.
Guaymas.
“ Mexico.”
California.
(no locality
(no locality
Guaymas, Babd, R. N.
Gulf of California.

Acapulco.

27|Scalaria indistincta, Sow. jum.........-+ “S.Blas, Hon. Mr. Harris.”

Acapulco, Col. Moffat.
Acapulco, Col. Moffat.
San Diego, Nutt.

var. a. “* Matzellan.”
var. 6. Acapulco.

Cruz.—Mus. Cum.

Station.

under stones & sand.
under stones at low
water.

on the sands.

1 sp. on sands.

on sands.—Mus.Cum.
in sandy mud, I. w.
on the sands.

on rocks in exp.situat.

coarse sand, |. water.
sandy mud, low water.

sandy mud, 7 fms.

sandy mud, 7 fms.

q
286 REPORT—1856. |
Page. Proc. Zoou. Soc. Locality. Station.
1845.
75/Glandina nigricans, “hs pembuea reece t ede Vera Cruz.—Mus. Cum.
75|—— monilifera, Pfr..........ss0..s+e+.--/Mountain of Coban, Vera
: Cruz.—Mus. Cum. a
131)Helix ventrosula, Pfr.........e0eee+s+++0.| Mexico(Hds.) Texas(Sow.)
132; —— Hindsi, Pfr. ....... Gaaneeecenansh eds Mexico(Hds.) Texas( Sow.)
139|Littorina aspera, Phil............ sessseeee(Nitka, Barc.; Mex. Hegew.|rocks at low water.
140|—— Sitkana, Phil.......... Soctsvcexee as ws Sitka, Barclay. rocks, 3-t.
141|—— modesta, Phil. ......sesee0...e002+.Sitka, Barclay; Mauritius,|rocks, 4-t.
1846. Capt. Caldwell.
24\Cypreea pulla, Gash. ....ccccscsessceeveee ?
29|Bulimus fenestratus, Pfr. ......-0+.ss008 Mexico.
29 Darwini, Pf?........00000 sereiesbens Galap., Darwin. on bushes.
29) —— sculpturatus, Pf7. ....cccceseeesenee Galap., Darwin. on bushes.
30 Gruneri, P/r.......... Retics@rars'as se Mexico.
31|Achatina cylindracea, Pfr. .........4. .| Tortilla, Centr. Am. {damp places.
32|/— (Glandina) Sowerbyana, Pfr. ...|Totontepec[?Tehuantepec]|decayed veget. matter.
32|/—— ex Isabellina, Pfr..........00+ Mexico. dec. trunks of trees.
32)/—— (——) Tortillana, Pfr......... Coe Tortilla. damp places.
54|Haliotis splendens, Rve.......... Saatcruen California.
58|—— aquatilis, et Rane Kurile Is.
113/Bulimus Moricandi, Pfr. ....... "|Mt. Coban, C. A., Lattre.
1849.
117|Anomia lampe, Gray ....s..sss.seeeseeeee California, Lady Wigram.
121|Placunanomia macrochisma, Desh...... Kamtschatka, Deshayes.
=P. Broderipii, Gray, MS. Onolaski, Mus. Cum.
121) —— cepio, Gray .seecerseseee ceashaceest California, Lady Wigram.
122 alope, Gray .....ss.006 ABSA seeee«| California, Lady Wigram.
130|Helix Baskervillei, P/fr...........02ss000. Vancouver’sI., Baskerville.
170|Sanguinolaria tellinoides, 4. Ad. pl.6.f.6 Gulf of California.
1850.
187|Melania maxima, Lea ....eerssceesssees Copan, C. A.
195|—— polygonata, Led..,.......sseeeees ote Copan, C. A.
203)« Modulus Carchedonicus, Lam. cially « Atooi, California, Nutt.,”
= Monodonta Sayii, Nutt.” Atooi teste 4. dd.
is in the Sandwich Is., not in :
California. Mr. N. found no
Modulus in California. M. car-
chedonica, Lam. is the W. Indian
1851. species, teste D’Orb. Coll. :
12|Columbella Californiana, Gasé....... ose Sandeago. :
153|Infundibulum Californicum, 4. dd. ... California. ;
157|Phorcus Californicus, 4. dd.......... ea California. y
164|Ziziphinus annulatus, Martyn .......... Monterey, Hartweg.
= Trochus virgineus, Gmel.
165|—— filosus, Wood, Ind. Suppl. pl. 5.| Str. San Juan de Fuco. :
f. 23. a
?= Trochus castaneus, Nutt. $
= T. ligatus, Gld. -
168 Californicus, 4. Ad. ..... ee eieweaten! California.
?= Trochus versicolor, Mke.
190|Margarita calostoma, 4. Ad. ............ Juan de Fuco.
197\Tedinia pernoides, Gray ....+..++.+.+++ ? California.
=Placunanomia pernoides, B. M.
Maz, Cat. =
225|Velutina Sitkensis, 4. 4d, ....0+..0.000+- Sitka.
233|Natica intemerata, Phil.....+...sseeceeeee Gulf Calif., Rev. — Steel.
260|Helix annulifera, Pf7......2...:.eseeeneees Panama, Kellett & Wood.
=H. labyrinthus, var. sipunculata,
Forbes, P. Z. S. 1850, p. 53. pl. 9. ”
f. 4.
272|Lagena Californica, 4. Ad.......+0++.+++. California—Mus. Cum. i

nnn eee UUEEEEInSEEEE EES SSnSSEnEnEEEEEESEEEENE

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA.

Proc. Zoou. Soc.

287

Locality. Station.

60|Bulimus nucula, Pfr. .e....scscssceeseeees

82|Orbicula Evansii, Dav., pl. 14. f. 32-34.
100|Cardita Californica, Desh. ......+2s.s+.0+
157|—— incrassatus, Pf1.....seccsecseeeveess
1353.

70|\Typhis fimbriatus, 4. Ad. ....0ccccreseee

71|Murex pauxillus, 4. Ad.....0+....

71|—— fimbriatus, 4. Ad. .....0.04+

71|—— armatus, 4. Ad. ....cecccececcesceeee

96|Semele Californica, 4. Ad.......se0s.000+
174|Morum xanthostoma, 4. Ad. ........005+

= Oniseia tuberculata, var. a, Rve.

185|Pseudoliva Kellettii, 4. dd............ aAe
1854.

20|Cyrena (Anomala) insignis, Desh. ......

21 subquadrata, Desh. ....seeeseeees

22|—- (Anomala) noe pee Desh. ...

23|—— Inflata, Desh.......seeeeessevee

eeeeeereerecses

42|Typhis grandis, 4. dd.
67|Mactra angusta, Desh.

feaseeccocae

342)\Corbicula convexa, Desh.
351|Donax bella, Desh. ..

Pe eeercecrsscesees

Galapagos.
Bodegas.
Gulf of California.
Galapagos.

Gulf of California.
Gulf of California.
Gulf of California.
Gulf of California.
Gulf of California.
Galapagos.

bably Lower California. |
Bay of California.
California.
Central America.
Panama.
California.
Panama.
Gulf of California.
California.
Gulf of California.
Gulf of California.
California.
California.
Central America.
Acapulco.

351

Conradi, Desh. ......scssseseeoseeee
Jun.=D. culter, Hanl.
+D. contusus, Rve.
+ D.Californica,Desh. MS.nonConr.
?+D. radiatus, Val.
352| —— obesula, Desh. ....scscessseeseeeeee
=D. Californica, Conr. non Desh.

352|—— ovalina, Desh. ....... seen 68"
359/Tellina Mazatlanica, Desh............0+++
362|—— brevirostris, Desh... bebe

363 —— delicatula, Desh. .......sssessseeee

i 100| Achatina (Glandina) conularis, Pfr...
} 116|Bulimus verrucosus, Pfr. .........000.
} 121)Rhizochilus (Coralliophila) Californica,
| A. Ad.[ =Murex nuz, Rye.]
| 183|Erycina papyracea, Desh. we
; 224\Dosinia simplex, 4. 4d. [not “Artemis
q simplex, Haul. = D. Dunkeri,Phil. ]
| 228|Pandora claviculata, Cpr. ....ces.ssss00
| 228|Lyonsia (Osteodesma) (aasihans, hci
| 229|Periploma excurvata, cae Sak csmcoemaat
} 229|— papyracea, Cpr...

California.

Central America.

Central America.
Mazatlan.

+--+] C. America & California.

Mazatlan.
Bay of California.

Mexico, Sallé.
Galapagos.
Gulf of California.

West Columbia.
Singapore.

Mazatlan, Lieut. Shipley.
Mazatlan, Lieut. Shipley.
Mazatlan (Gruner).
Mazatlan (Mus. Cum.).

| 229\Thracia squamosa, Cpr. ........sseseneee ‘| Mazatlan, Lieut. Shipley.

| 230
| 230 Donax semistriatus, Cpr. [non Poli]...
=(Donaz) Serrula Carpenteri, H. &
_ A, Ad. Gen. ii. 405.
230|Diplodonta subquadrata, Cpr. .......+.
231|Chiton Montereyensis, eee devesasnaene
231|—— Hartwegii, Cpr..........
232) —— regularis, Cpr. .......

eerecteceeess

?Scrobicularia producta, Cpr. ........- Gulf Calif., Lieut. Shipley.

Gulf Calif. (Mus. Cum.)

Mazatlan (Mus. Cum.).
Monterey, Hartweg.
Monterey, Hartweg.
Monterey, Hartweg.

on exposed rocks.
on exposed rocks.
under stones.

288 REPORT—1856.

Page. Proc. Zoou. Soc. Locality. Station.

1855.

233|Patella ?toreuma, Rve., var. tenuilirata) Monterey, Hartweg.

233)/Galerus ?Sinensis, var. fuscus............ “G, Calif.” (Mus. Cum.)
(Probably from another source, by

error of ticket.)

233|—— subreflexus, Cpr. .......c.cesesess “ G. Calif.” (Mus. Cum.)

234|Fissurella nigrocincta, Cpr.........++.... Mazatlan (Mus. Cum.). |
(The locality is omitted by accident }

in the Proceedings.) |

234 Callopoma ?fluctuatum, var. depressum| California (Mus. Cum.). |

(=Turbo funiculosus, Kien. pl. 30.

f. 1. Diagn. postea visa.) |

234|Litiopa divisa, Cpr.........cccssecsessceees CapeS.Francisco*, Hds.Str.

Sunda, among small drift-

ed canes, Mus. Archer.

235)Scalaria reflexa, Cpr. ........cssessceveeee San Blas, Capt. Donnell. |1 sp.
1856.
41|Fusus pallidus (animal deser. by Gray)! Guaymas.
41|Pisania elegans > ~ Panama. |
41|Triumphis distorta 5 Be Panama.
43|Malea ringens as i
44 Imperator, ? n.s. x ay Panama.
44|Callopoma saxosum 6 ES ) Panama.
44/Tegula pellis-serpentis ,, Panama.
167|Crucibulum spinosum, var. compresso- California (Mus. Cum.).
conicum. |
167|—— ?? imbricatum var. Cumingii ...| Callao, Valparaiso. —_|
168|—— ? imbricatum, var. Broderipii ...| ? Peru (Mus. Cum.).
Trichotropist Gouldii, 4. 4d. ......... / Chiriqui, Bridges.

60. The following species and localities are extracted from the “ Concho-
logical Illustrations, by G. B. Sowerby,” a small but exceedingly valuable
work, remarkable for the excellence of the figures, but the disappointing
brevity of its information.

No.
2 SG. Cardium Indicum, Lam. N.W. Coast of America.
76 11,35. Chiton fastigiatus, Gray. California.
152. tunicatus, Sow. = Katherina Douglasie, Gray. California.
54 Bulinus unifasciatus = Bulinulus undulatus, Guild. St. Vincent’s.
115 32. Cyprea sanguinea, Gray. Panama and Mexico.

61. The following are taken from the “Thesaurus Conchyliorum,” by —
G. B. Sowerby, continued by G. B. Sowerby, Jun. The illustrations are
excellent; but some of the later numbers do not equal the earlier portions.
Several of the Monographs are very carefully drawn out by Messrs. Hanley,
Hinds, and A. Adams. There are the same geographical errors as in other
similar works.

No. Page. Pl. Fig.
46 15 101. Pecten laqueatus. N.W. America, Capt. Dixon (California, Rve.).
48 96 25 141. Scalaria indistincta, Sow. jun. San Blas, Hon. — Harris.
13.115 36 20,27. Columbella festiva. “ Brought from Acapulco by H. Cuming,”
[who never was there].
64 173 43 63. Terebra variegata, Gray=T. africana, Gray, Griff. Cuy. “ Gany-
: mas, 10-12 fm., sandy mud, Cuming.”

* Probably in Ecuador ; not in Upper California, as supposed when described. s
+ This shell, described as “ differing from the typical genus in the canal of the aperture

being almost obsolete,” i is regarded by several eminent conchologists as a dead Melania. It
was found near the mouth of a river.

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 289

No. Page. Pl. Fig.

18 352 70 50-2. Terebratula Californica, Kist. ‘Abounds on the coast of
California.”

91 534 116 249-51. Neritina Listeri, Pfr. Cuba and St. John’s Riv., Nicaragua.

55 578 123 79,80. Bulla nebulosa, Gould. Sand, 12 inch. Guaymas.

12 615 128 35. Cytherea intermedia, Sow. jun. “ California, Chraiag

59 628 132 98. chione, Linn. “Mr. Cuming’s specimens are from Mazatlan.”

65 631 132104-6. circinata, Born. =Venus rubra, Gmel. ?+C. alternata,
Brod. Mazatlan, Capt. Donnel, R.N.

71 632 132 109. brevispinosa, Sow. jun. 1 sp. California.

3 656 140 2. Artemis ponderosa, Gray, Anal. 1838, p. 309. =Cytherea gigantea,

(Sow. MS.) Phil. Abbild. pl. 7. fh Sandy mud, low water.
Gulf of California.

65 697 146 41. Tapes diversa, Sow. jun. Monterey, Hartweg.

16 708 153 17,18.Venus simillima, Sow. jun. California.

18 709 144 26,27.—— amathusia, Phil. Abbild. pl. 11.f.4. =V. encausta, ? cujus.
California.

24 769 165 30. Venerupis paupercula, Desh. P.Z.S. 1853, p. 5. [N. Zealand,
Mus. Cum. et Brit. teste Desh. | “Mazatlan, Cuming,” teste Sow.

25 811 171 33. Obeliscus clavulus, A. Ad. Onthesands. Acapulco, Col. Moffat.

143 881 184 246. Cerithium assimilatum, C. B. Ad. “ Shells of Jamaica. A darkly
coloured Jamaican shell, like C. trilineatum,’’ Phil. Medit.
[=C. assimilatum,C.B.Ad.,Pan.Shells, no. 194. C. terebellum,
C. B. Ad. Contr. Conch. is the Jamaican species. ]

62. The following species* are extracted from Mr. Reeve’s ‘ Conchologia
Iconica’; a work, the principal advantage of which is, that it figures the
specimens in the Cumingian collection. The species are often very minutely
subdivided: for this indeed the author may not always be answerable. It
is to be regretted that there is sometimes a want of precision in the statement
of localities}.

Station. fj : Locality.
Amphidesma Californica, 4. 4d. ......... eessseree | esses (Gulf of California.
= Semele C., A. Ad. P. Z.S. July 1853.
proxima, [Ave. quasi] C. B. Ad. ... seeees [Panama [?]
[=Semele flavicans, Gld.: v. antea,
p. 279. no. 487.]
Donax contusa, Rve. ...ccccscesessrcsseseees Beach ssees (Mazatlan.
[=D. Conradi, adol.: ‘v. B. M. Maz.
Cat. p. 47.]
Mactra angulata, Gray, MS. ....ssssseereee| seoes Gulf of California.
—— elegans, Sow. Tank. Cat. .........06 ‘ Florida, Mus. Cum. [?]
—— angusta, Desh. P. Z. 8. 1854......... ereees Panama, Cum.
——— Californica, Desh. ,, Beiiascasasss California, Mus. Cum.
Lucina annulata, Rve....., HER Ae “cannpeneee ? California.
Arca Brasiliana, Lam. ......secseeseeeeeses (ON ‘the sands . coves |f San Blas, Bay of Califor.
=A, cardiiformis, Sow. nia, Cum.”[!] Rio Ja-
neiro, Lam.
Pectunculus giganteus, Rve. ....... sesseeee| Sandy mud| 7 |Guaymas, Badd.
inequalis, Sow. P. Z.S. 1832 ......) sandy mud| 10 |Bay Panama, Real Llejos,
= Arca pectiniformis,Wd.,S.pl.2.f.11. Cum.

* See also pp. 187, 208, where many of the species now quoted would have been arranged,
had I been able to refer to the Conch. Ic. whenever occasion required.
tT When Mr. Cuming is given as the authority for depths and stations in places which he
Neyer visited, the more correct phrase (now generally adopted) would perhaps have been
“Museum Cuming.” The following instance will show the need of caution. Under Mactra
‘carinulata, Desh. pl. 10. sp. 38, we read ‘‘ Gulf of California: from the same locality as Mf
| donaciformis.”’ On turning to the latter, we find its locality given as New Zealand.

1856. U

290 |: REPORT—1856.

Pl. | Sp.| Fig. Name. Station. Rey es
... {(Pectunculus bicolor, Rve. P. ZS. 1843..| ---erreee | seeeee Gulf of California.

=P. inequalis, Gray, Z. B.V., non Sow.
{nec Krauss. ]
Pecten ventricosus,
=P. tumidus, Sow. P.Z.S.1835,p.109,
non Turt.
—circularis, Sow. _,, »» p.-110} sandy mud
?=P. nucleus, var.
Hinnites giganteus, Gray, Ann. Phil. 1826,| ---++..--
vol. xii. p. 103.
[ =Hinnita Poulsoni,Conr. 1834,Journ.
Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil. vol. vii. pt. i.
p- 182. pl. 14.]
Spondylus limbatus, Sow. Thes. Conch.| «+e. seeee
p. 427. pl. 88. f. 51.
[For the Mazatlan specimens, v. B. M.
Cat. no. 208.]
vadula, Rve. ..ccscsecccsserecensarsenee| stternecs
Pfr. Jay.

Sow. in Thes. Conch.| sandy mud | 6-10 |St. Elena, Cum. ; also Phi-}
lippines, Cum. i

7 |California, Cum. [!]

California and Straits of
Juan Fernandez [!].

|
2,3 |Hinnites giganteus,Gray, Ann. Phil.1826,) -+-s-00+- | seers E
‘

Panama and Mazatlan.

weeeee

if
Tehuantepec, Capt. Dare.

... |Bulimus fenestratus, Pfr. no. 258 4802) ..s.secee | errr Mexico [? ubi]. 8;
.. |—— Gruneri, Pfr. s) DBS 4845) ceesecee | veeeee Mexico.
i—— rudis, Anton, 39 DBD DOSZ) ccseceaae va) eters Mexico [sp. 216, err. typ. |:

Panama.

weeeee

Helix uncigera, Pet. .11....csseecereecnerens| serewenes
Caracolla u., Petit, Guér. Mag. Zool.
1838, pl. 113.
—— Baskervillei, P/r.P.Z.S.1849,p.130| .........
Siphonaria gigas, Sow. ..ccesceceseseeserees] seeeeeene
—. characteristica, Rve. ....cccsecseereere| enreee Sug
—— equilorata, [Rve. quasi] Gray, MS.) .....+++
March 1856.
[S. eguilirata, Cpr. B. M. Cat. no. 240.
Apr. 1856.]}

sesees Galapagos and Panama. ~
«+++ [Galapagos and Panama.

a,b |—— amara, [Rve. quasi] Nutt. MS. ...) seve | eetees
[?=S. Lecanium*, Phil. var.]
Chiton albilineatus, Sow........cececeeececes] ceveceees [seers Guaymas.
j——— articulatus, Sow......sesseeeee l. w. [San Blas, Cum.’’!

saeeee

Sitka, Lady Douglas. |
Central America. 1
W.C. Cent. Amer., Sinclatiy;
“ Valparaiso, Cum.,” Ry
“ Never took it,” Cong
ipse. ‘‘ Monterey, Har
weg,”’ teste Mus. Cumiy

—_— Sitkensis, Rve. (non Midd.).......+
J——— scaber, Rve. .ccccscsescreccecssereseees
—— Proprius, Rve.......sescecesereseeeerees
Patella Cumingii, Rve. ..creccssseeceseeeees| seveseees
+ [=Aemea patina, Esch. ]

eeeeee

teens

weeeee

38) a,b |\—— clypeaster, Less. Voy. Coq. vsseeeees| seseeeees | cereee Monterey, Hartweg. @

7 [? =A. patina, var.] S|

18] a, B, © |\——_ venosa, Rve. ...serccseesseerevecereeeee] cee ennees .... [Is. Chiloe,W.Col. [!!], Cai
al ne exarata, Nutt. .........ceccescsersceee| sescecnee ssseee (Oregon, Lieut. Baskervil
‘

The P.exarata,Nutt.,of Jay’s Cat.2814,
and of Nuttall’s coll. is from the
Sandw. Is. The Oregon shell may
be a variety of the shell called Ma-
zatlanica, probably = A.cassis,Esch.

Monterey, Hartweg. _

24| 60 a, b, ¢ |\— cinis, Rve. [= A. patina, var.] voce) ssescceee aahias
26| 67| a,b |—— vespertina, Rve.........cccccsseeeeceeee| ceeeeeeee | ceeees Panama and Gulf Cali
27) 69} a, 5, c |—— toreuma, Rve. .......sssseeereeeeneees| caceeeeee | ceeeee Monterey, Hartweg.

_ © Specimens of this species (along with the proof-sheet of Siphonariade) were sent, at —
Mr. Cuming’s request, for the use of the author of the Conch. Ic., but no notice of it has been 5 |
found in the Monograph. As Mr. Nuttall found no Siphonaria in California, it is presumed
that Mr. Reeve’s species, if of Nuttall, is from the Sandwich Islands ; if “ Californian,” that it —

is the Mazatlan S. Lecanium, Phil. jf

.

\

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA, 29]

Name,

Patella livescens, Rve. [allied to P.

Reeeences Mazatlan
toreuma]
—— spectrum, Nutt.[=P. scabra, Gld.| ......... California.
non Nutt. ]

Mazatlan, Shipley.
seeeee (Oregon.
«esses (California,

— discors, Phil. Abbild. pl. 2. f.6 ...) .......
—— Nuttalliana,Rve.[?= A. patina, var.]| ......00.
—— verriculata, Rve. [ =A. patina, var.]| ...... tea
—— leucophza, Nutt. [ = A. pelta, Esch. |

seeseeese-

——umbonata, Nutt.[=A.persona,var.]| ses... ... [Upper California

—— Oregona, Nutt.[ =.persona,Esch.]| sss.006 seseee (Oregon.

—— scabra, Nutt. [non Gld.=spectrum,| ......... | secces Upper California.
Nutt.]

——fenestrata, Nutt. [= A. patina, ME oll ee Corer aad eee cr Upper California.

——navicula, Rve.[ = A. mitella*, Mke.}| oe... ocaces Mazatlan, Shipley.

seeoes |California,
1. w.

Pee eeeene

rere ry

add oiea arab - |Conchagua, Belcher.
10 |Panama, Cum.

i—— sanguinea, Rve........... Sbrcessaccnyas |i seeees ate aaa California, Mus. Belcher.
Ampullaria Columbiensis, Sow. MS.......| cceccceee | voce, Chiriqui, Veragua.
—— Cumingii, King, Zool. Journ. vol. v.|_ ....... ada icra ee Is, Taboga, Panama.
p. 344.
—— cerasum, Hani. Conch. Misc. ......| ...ceecc. | ceseee Mexico +.
Haliotis corrugata, Gray, in Wd., pl.8.f.5) ......... -seses (California,

—— Cracherodii, Leach, Zool. Mise. 1814,
vol. i. p. 131.

=H. glaber, Schub. & Wagn.

Californiensis, Swains. Zool. Mustr.| ......06. | sesese California.

vol. ii. p. 80.

Turbo tessellatus, [Rve. quasi] Kien......) .cccccees California. i
—— marginatus, Nutt. MS.....0....s.0000| sesee aie Upper California [?].
Neritina Californica, Rves.....cccccssesseee! see peaade California.

itasee Cuba, Nicaragua.

; Panama.

St. John’s Riy., Nicaragua,
San Diego [?auct.].

—— Maugeriz, Gray, Sow. Conch. Ill! .......
no. 111. f. 30.

—— Californica, Gray, Z. Journ. iii, 365.) oss...

i———_ rubescens, Gray, P. Z, S. 1832,} under st.
p. 185.

shoals Galapagos, Cum.

* It is to be regretted that the author of the Conch. Ic., when describing so many new
“Species of Limpets from the West coast of America, did not avail himself of the previous
labours of Eschscholtz and Menke in the same field.

__t Supposed to be from the Reigen (Havre) Col., as well as other species described from
_ Mexico: but no dependence can be placed on the localities of the shells sold at the auctions:
| @ antea, p. 249,

. 02

Se

292 REPORT—1856.

Name.

fee a eee
Cyprea suffusa, Sow. Conch. Il.n.1 QG.AAL.| .cerreeee
= C. armandina, Ducl.*
Conus pyriformis, Rve. ......++0+++ sosaecse sandy mud | 7-10 |Caraccas & Montija, Cum.
—— pbrunneus, Sow. P. Z. S. 1834 ...... clefts of rks.| ...... Puert. Pt., Pan., Gal., Cum.
Vittatus, LaM..cccccccsscesceeresversens coarse sand | 7-11 |Bay Pan. & Montija, Cum.
— Mahogani, Rve. P. Z.S. 1843 ...++ sandy mud | ...... |Salango, Cum.
[? C. interruptus, var.]
——— MINIMUS, Linn. ....cceeesecetteneceeces| —teeeeeees sesee (Ceylon.—Is. Annaa, Cum.|§
var. B.=C. tiaratus, Brod. «....++++++ pools onsds.| ...... Galapagos, Cum.
—— regularis, Sow. Conch. Ill. f. 45 ...| soft mud - eres Hinds.
... |—concinnus, Brod. P. Z. S. 1833.....- on thesands}...... “ B. of Calif.,” Babs, R.N.
,6 |\Natica alabaster, Jive. [P= uber, var-]| ceseseeee | cveeee Mazatlan.
,5 |— Chemnitzii, Récl.MS.1855, non Mie.) sssseuvee | ereeee Panama. |
ees perspicua, Récl. in Pet. Jour. Conch.| ...cceeee | eeeeee Mouth of Oregon, Lieut. |
vol. i. p. 379. pl. 14. f. 1, 2. Baskerville.
—— bifasciata, Gray .seeseevereeeereneers sand 1. w. |Guaymas, Mr. Babb, R.N,
——= Uber, Val. cevscecsesersvevseceeeoseneees muddy sand} 4 Casma, Peru, Cum. f
—— umimaculata, Rve..rcccesereesecrreene| ceeneesee | seers Mazatlan, Lieut. Shipley.

.|Senegal.

Harpa Osea ....cesssesere coseeeeeeenenen sees
Acapulco, Cum. [!]

— crenata, Rve.=H. rosea, var. Kien.| sandy mud | d. w.

=H. Rivoliana, Less. [=H. testudi-
nalis+H. Mexicana, teste Jay.]

Dolium ringens, Sow. Tank. Cat. App.

Payta, Cum.

Bee
= Malea latilabris, Val.
Cassis abbreviata, Lam.--C. lactea, Kien.

. |Acapulco.

+. centiquadra- C. doliata, Val.
a,6 \Oniscia tuberculosa, Sow. Gen. p. 2 Var.| .seseevee | ceeeee Gulf California, Mus. Cum”
a,b |Voluta Cumingii, Brod. P. Z. S. 1832 ...| «s.r 9 |Gulf Fonseca,SanSalvadory
... |Turbinella castanea, Rve. .++s-esss-s009 ....crev. of rks.| ....., |Panama, Cum. [Cu

= T. acuminata, Rve. Conch. Syst. :
non Gray in Wood Suppl.

cee [——_ Cerata, GrAY.cr.sereeseseenerererevence under st. | 1. w. |Galapagos, Cum.

_.. |— tectum, Gray [Cuma] .....-...+--++ sandy mud | 10 |Bay Panama, Cum. ;

_., |Fasciolaria princeps, Sow. ...eerecereesssee] veeeseees | creeee Peru, Cum.

a,6 |Olivaangulata, Lam.=V olutaincrassata,| sandy mud| 9 |Gulf Nicoya, Cum. é
id

Dillw. = O. azemula, Ducl.

reticularis, Lam. sscsecseesessesseeees

« yays. = O. araneosa, Lam.+ O. Timo-
ria+0. venulata+ 0. obesina+ O.
pindarina, Ducl.”

_|Is. Granada, West Indies
Gulf of California, Don

aeeeeeeee

paceeeees | weveee

Gulf Calif., Donnet.

eeeees

a,b |—— Cumingii, Rve. ..scseevressrere eneceoe ‘ AB ec
a. [| ——testacea, Lam. serrrcesererserseecerees sandy mud| 6 |Real Llejos, Cum.
—— biplicata, Sow. Tank. Cat. App.p.33| sands 1. w. |Monterey, Hinds.

severe |California.

seeeeeeee

lineolata, ‘ Gray, Wood Suppl.=
O. dama, Ducl.”
[O. lineolata, Gray, Z. B. V.=0. dama,
Mawe, in Wood Suppl.]
—— undatella, Lam. 0. nedulina+ O.\sand & mud) 1. w.

Bay Panama, Cum.

ozodina, Ducl. banks
a,b |\—— anazora, Ducl. sesceersersrecereeereers sandy mud| 10 {Xipixapi, Cum.
ac |—— tergina, Ducl. ssecccsserererereseres ..| sand banks |...... Conchagua, Cum. a
Z ‘ sandy mud| 6 |Phili pines, Cum.

Triton clandestinus, Chemn. ..+...0++++ { eecier at. Ll ae G ike fais ; H
—— pagodus, Rve. [Nassa] -eesssseesees] seesereee | seeee Bay Montija, Cum.
—— pictus, Rve. c.cccceeercerereerenseees ..| under st. | 1. w. |Galapagos, Cum.
Purpura patula, Linn. ...esesseeeereeeee Seal a ceaseoucep|tepsens Philippine Is., Cum.
— bicostalis, [Rve. ?non] Lam. ...... on rocks | 1. w. \St. Elena, Cum.

a,b

e the Pacific or the Caribbean {

* Whether this and C. subrostrata (Rve. pl. 26. f. 147) b
—Vide B. M. Maz. Cat. p- 379 3

species, or whether they are identical, has not yet been decided.

‘ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 293

Pl. |Sp.| Fig. Name. Station. oer Locality,
4) 23] ... |Ricinula alveolata= Purpura a., Kien.| ......0.. | vee .. (Panama, Cum.
Icon. Conch. p. 42. pl. 9. f. 23.
. [Non Rve.]
1) | ... |Monoceros unicarinatum, Sow. C. I. f. 5.) .....00. = herr ns California.
“=P, spicata, Blainy., Kien.=P. en-
gonata, Cour.” [v. antea, p. 201.]
1) 2) ... |/—— punctatum, Gray, Z.B. V. p. 124...) ccsseseee | oeeeee Is. Cocos, N.W. Mexico,
“=P. lapilloides, Conr.” [v. p. 201.] Capt. Colnett.
6) 39] ... |Buccinum pristis, Desh........cceseccceeesee| ceceeenee | ceeees St. Elena.
= 8B. serratum, Dufresne.
=B. Northie, Gray, MS.
- 6) 43)... |—— pusio, Linn. .........6 Seeceperoccereret (en weetetienn | aisevs Honduras, California. [?]
mf] 50)... | —— pagodus, Rue, ............0sessseeeees clefts of rks./ 1. w. Island Taboga, Cum. v.r.
_ 3} 10] ... |Pyrula subrostrata, Gray, Z. B. V. pl. 36. sandy mud| 12 |Bay Montija, Cum.
f. 15.
. =Buecinum subrostratum, Wood.
= Fusus lapillus, Brod. & Sow.
2) 9) ... |Fusus* Dupetit-Thouarsii, Kien. ......00.] cesecceee | eeeeee Galapagos, Cum.
16] 61)... Oregonensis, Say= Triton O., Say.| seesesooe | veeeee N, America [? ubi].
77| sae | ——— Mexicanus, Rve...cccssccsscecetcrssces| seceeeee | eeeaee Mexico [? ubi].
19) 7]... |Murex monoceros, Sow. P. Z. S.1840...] .sseeecee | eceeee California.
2 ?—M. Nuttalli, Conr.
3] 12)... |—— foliatus, Gimel. .......cscceveeee Pile nace rky. places | ...... Sitcha, Eschscholtz.
24| 98) a,b |—— salebrosus, King. ...eessseccssssseeees under st. |...... Panama, Cum.
28/128) +... |—— horridus, Brod. P. Z. S. 1832 ......] sandy mud | 8-12 |St. Elena and Panama.
= Fusus h., Sow. Conch. Ill. f. 29.
= WM. Boivinii, Kien.

63. The Monographs of Kiener, in his “ Coquilles Vivantes,” are generally
executed with great care, and are extremely valuable for the identification of
species. The writer does not fall into the common error of minute division of
species: on the other hand, he sometimes unites what will be almost universally
considered as distinct. His judgment is not always correct on small shells, as
_ when he thinks that Cerithtum trilineatum of Phil. ought without doubt to
_ be considered as a dextral variety of C. perversum. For the identification
of the Lamarckian species, his work is extremely valuable. But on points
connected with geographical distribution, the following list will show that,
unconfirmed, it cannot be regarded as an authority. The “California” of

French authors, as of English, generally applies to the W. Mexican fauna.
_ Unfortunately, there are no dates, by which questions of the priority of
| nomenclature may be decided.

_ No. Page. Plate. Fig.
; 2 2? 30 = 1. Turbo funiculosus, Kien. [=T. ? fluctuatus, var. P.Z.S. 1855,

p. 234.]
2 2 14 2,2a.Trochus inermis [quasi] Gmel.
_ 22 29 4 2. Turritella tigrina, Kien.
_ 2 36 13 3. Cerithium maculosum, Kien. [Named adustum on the plate.]
S. Sea, Acapulco, Galapagos.
26 37 13 2, —— adustum, Kien., non Sow. [Named maculosum on the plate. |
Indian Ocean, Red Sea. [Probably correct. |
31 38 7 3. Cyprea Sowerbyi, Kien. =C. zonata, Sow. non Chemn. Calif.
61 59 8 2. Lamarckii, Ducl., Val., Rve., p. 334. Acapulco. [Not so

given in Val., Rve. }.
‘133 146 22 4. lathyrus, Dufresne. =C. sanguinea, var. Pacific.
* Fusus corrugatus, Rve. pl. 20. sp. 84, a, is said to be= Trophon muriciforme, King,
Zool. Jown,

294 REPORT—1856.

No. Page. Plate. Fig
138 152 45 3,3a,Cyprea subrostrata, Gray. Isle of France.
5 UP

136 150 52 candidula, Gask. W. Mexico.
9 14 7. 2. Cancellaria goniostoma, Sow. =C, brevis, Sow., teste Kien.
Woes! Sia we chrysostoma, Sow. Panama, Peru, Galap.
24 18 16. 1. Pleurotoma funiculata, Val. San Blas.
37°59 23> <4 maura, Val, [=P. Melchersi, Mke,] Mazatlan, Botta.
26 33 15 2 Botte, Val. [=P.incrassata, Sow.] Mazatlan, Botta. 1 sp.
115 139 55 1. Conus Lorenzianus, Chemn. Acapulco,

7 10 4 7,74.Solarium variegatum, Lam. N. Holland, Manilla, N. Ireland.
“—8§. cyclostomum+S.Aithiops, Mke.+ 8, tessellatum, Desh.”
18 27 12 2. Pyrula ventricosa, Val. San Blas.
10 19 8 15. “ Cassis coarctatum, Sow., Les cétes du Perou 4 Acapulco.”
1. Ranella bufonia, Lam. Red Sea, Seychelles, N. Ireland, Calif.
13 19 11 2, —— semigranosa, Lam. “= R. celata, Brod.” Panama.
23 31 8 1. -—argus, Lam, ‘“ =Triton Ranelliformis, King, Z.J. p. 347,
Var, = Ranella vexillum, Sow. Conch. Ill. pl. 1. f. 3.”’ Chili.
2: anceps, Lam. =R, pyramidalis, Brod, P.Z,8, 1832, p. 194.
22'630) 15) 126 scabra, Grateloup. Peru. :
16 25 16. 1. Turbinellacerata, Griff. Mazatlan,common. Du Petit Thouars.
17 26 16 2, tubercularis, Griff. (A few sp. from the voyage of Du
Petit Thouars.) Mazatlan.
25 36 20 1 ——cingulata. [Operculum described. Yet Reeve, after this,
places the shell under Monoceros.]
61 98 26 70, Purpura chocolatum, Ducl. Coasts of California.

41,414. .0/00075 biserialis, Blainv. Shores of Mazatlan.
40 64 17 49. bezoar, Bl. China and California.
49 78 20 58. columellaris, Lam. Red Sea and Pacific, Chili, California,

«» 81 21 606,—— callosa, var, [= P. triserialis.]

68 109 28 74. —— Grayi, Kien. “= Mon. grandis, Gray.” Pacific.

92 141 44 102. Monoceros lugubris, Sow. Gen, no. 5.f. 3, “== M, eymatum,
Tank, Cat, 1888. == Buccinum denticulatum + armatum,
Wood Suppl.” Peru and California,

24 23 9 28, Buccinum serratum. [=Northia pristis.] ‘ Habite la Mer du
Sud, sur les cétes de la Californie,” Eydoux,

4 2 10 2. Columbella hemastoma, Sow, California.

5 3 1 2, —~—paytalida, Ducl, “=C. rustica, Sow. Gen. f.3.non Lam.”
= C. fuscata, Sow. California.

7 10 3 3. ——meleagris, Ducl. San Blas.

9 14 2 1,2. Pyrula patula. [N.B. The operculum of P, melongena, as figured

by Kiener, is broader in proportion than that of P. patula,|
{He thinks, however, that the species should be reunited. ]
11 15 11 .,,. Fusus Dupetithouarsi, Kien, California. [Galap., Cuming, Rve.]
5 9 10 2. Murex messorius, Sow. “ =motacilla, B., Lam. + rectirostrum,
Sow.-++nigrescens, Sow.” Senegal.
3). 43 19 2. corrugatus, Sow. Red Sea, California.
39 55 21 2. ——- oxyacanthus, Sow. SS. Sea, California.

64. In a paper by Dr. L. Pfeiffer, “ Ueber die geographische Verbreitung
der Heliceen,” in the Zeit. f. Mal. 1846, pp. 74~-79,87-96, occur the following
lists of land shells from the western districts of North America :—

Page

94. From Oregon......+++: Helix Vancouverensis, Columbiana, fidelis.

94, From California ...... —— areolata, levis, tudiculata, Sagraiana, Townsend-
iana, Californiensis, Columbiana, Dupetithouarsii.

94. From Mewico.......... —— lucubrata, Oajacensis, Buffoniana, Humboldtiana,
Mexicana, bicineta, tenuicostata, Dkr,, griseola,
Hindsi, ventrosula.

94. 4, 7 Dedalochila implicata.

94535, a Polygyra contortuplicata.

“oes

= ELLE ALONE EOE API

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA 295

Page.
94, From Central America.. Helix Ghiesbreghti, griseola, labyrinthus, plicata,
quadridentata, Euryomphala, quinquestrigata.
94. From Real Liejos...... spirulata, Nystiana.
94, From Panama ........ —— Antoni, uncigera.

Many of the species quoted from Mexico and Central America probably
belong to the east side of the mountain range. In the same work, pp. 158—
160, are described the following land shells, brought from the Mexican
Republic by Liebmann. They are probably from the eastern side :—

Page Page
158. Helix caduca, Pfr. 159. Achatina Liebmanni, Pfr.
158. Bulimus Liebmanni, Pfr. 159. -—— streptostyla, Pfr.
158. Achatina coronata, Pfr. 159. Cylindrella Liebmanni, Pfr.
In the Zeit. f. Mal. for 1844, 1845, occur the following :—
Page. No.
1844. 3 Ampullaria malleata, Jonas. Tabasco, Mexico.

1845. 152 1 Helix Buffoniana, Pfr. Rio Frio, Mexico.
poitis DD: kD levis, Pfr. California, Hinds.
ete glb4. 7 areolata, Sow. MS. California, Hinds.
s» 168 7 Haliotis Kamtschatkana, Jonas. Near Island of Oonalaszka.

In the Zeit. f. Mal. 1847, pp. 1, 2, Dr. Menke describes the two following
species, brought by Liebmann from Mexico :—

Cylindrella teres, Mke. Proy.of Puebla. | Cylindrella Pfeifferi, Mke. Tehuacan.

In the Zeit. f. Mal. 1847, pp. 93-96, Dr. Philippi describes the following
freshwater shells, brought from Mexico and Central America by Largilliert
and Liebmann :—

No. 32. Unio cyrenoides, Phil. Lake Nicaragua (Larg.).
» 34. —— Aztecorum, Phil. Mexico (Lieb.).
Ailes be Mexicanus, Phil, Mexico (Lieb.).
>, 36, —— Liebmanni, Phil. Mexico (Lieb.).

In the mixed collections of shells described by Philippi in the Zeit. f. Mal.
1848, 1849, occur the following species :—

1848.

19 81 Cerithium(Potamides) Hegewischii, Ph. Mexico, Hegewisch. Resembles
ounday varicosa, Sow. [but it is not stated in which ocean it was
; found.
127. 53 Trochus (Phorcus) Panamensis, Phil. Panama, E. B. Philippi.
129 55 Adeorbis scaber, Phil. Panama, Found in Avicula margaritifera by
E. B. Philippi.
180 57 Anodonta cornea, Phil. Nicaragua, Largilliert.
atrovirens, Phil. a Bi
al Nicarague, Phil. a
141 79 Bulla Panamensis, Phil. Panama, E. B. Philippi.
143. «484 Cerithium filosum, Phil. California.—Mus. Largilliert.
145 87 Donawx Panamensis, Phil. Panama, EL. B. Philippi.
149 96 Kellia pulchra, Phil. West coast of America.
as 97 Litorina parvula, Phil, Panama, EL. B. Philippi.

a 98 phasianella, Phil. _ an
153 7 Mactra velata, Phil. ® », ?“AnMulinia exalbida,Gray.”
163 33. Petricola robusta, Phil. 39 » In Avicula margaritifera.

[This fortunately appears to be one of the many forms of Petricole
robusta, Sow.

(164 34 Phasianella perforata, Phil. Panama and Payta, HE. B. Philippi.

175 59 Tellina Panamensis, Phil. Panama, E. B. Philippi.
176 62 Unio nuculinus, Phil. Nicaragua, Largilliert.

296 REPORT—1856.
Page. No.

188 67 Trochus (Calear) erythrophthalmus, Phil. =T. olivaceus, Wood. Cali-
fornia. [Described under the erroneous impression that the T. oli-
vaceus of Wood’s Cat. was the white mouthed shell. =T. inermis,

1849. Gwmel. teste Kien. ]

148 Trochus Belcheri, Phil. Mus. Hanley. Voyage Belcher.

149 — callichrous, Phil. f RS ‘i 5

150 —— callicoccus, Phil. i ig ‘. Venus.

168 —— metaformis, Phil. 4 Bs iA Belcher.

170 — neritoides, Phil. ms a - +H

171 — nucleus, Phil. ne AA “ os

191 -—— suavis, Phil. Ry 5 34 es

1850.
84 48 Succinea brevis, Dunker. Mexico.
1851
61 73 Buccinum Panamense, Phil. Panama, Payta, EH. B. Philippi.
71 94 Cyrena inflata, Phil. Costa Rica.—Mus. Busch.
74 100 Cytherea solidissima,Phil. California.[=Trigonella crassatelloides,Conx. |
75 2 Donaz obesa, Phil. California. [=D. Californicus, Cour. ]
123 47 Terebra Belcheri, Phil. “... ex itin. Belcheri.”
126 52 Venus distans, Phil. Panama, E. B. Philippi.
1852.
79 13 Avicula (Meleagrina) fimbriata, Dkr. Central America.
(?=Margaritiphora Mazatlanica, Hanl.]
1853.
112 40 Lwutraria inflata, Dkr. California, teste Bernhard.

In the “ Malacozoologische Blatter fiir 1854,” which is a continuation of
the Zeit. f. Mal. by the same editors, occurs the following :—

1854, Page 28. Pyramidella bicolor, Mke. [Obeliscus.] Calif., teste J. W. E. Miiller.

65. The following are from Philippi’s Monographs in Kuster’s edition of
Martini’s Continuation of Chemnitz’s ‘ Conchilien Cabinet’ :—

Kust. Mart., p. 57. no. 60, pl. 9.f.4. Natica otis, Brod. & Sow. Mazatlan and

Marquesas.

Kust. Mart., p. 78. pl. 12. f. 1-5. Natica maroccana, Chemn. Morocco, Chemn.,
W. Indies, Chemn. Guinea, Largilliert. E. Africa,Rodatz. W. Mexico, Pfr. Panama,
C.B. Adams. (Var. lurida), Havanna, Sandw. Is., Lieukieu Is., Largilliert. (Var. uni-

fasciata), Peru, Petit.

66. Besides the authorities given in published works, the following have
been noted from the British Museum Collection :—

Sazxicava arctica.
Stokes. B. M.
Tellina nasuta. Icy Cape.
Donax punctatostriatus.
Capt. Ld. Byron.
Donaz scortum. San Blas. [? ubi.]

N. Zealand. Capt.

S. America.

Tellina rufescens. St. Domingo. Sir
R. Schomburgk.
Pinna? rudis. Panama. Miss Saul.

Chiton, sp. ind. California.

Chiton vestitus, Sow. Capt. Beechey.

Bulla 2? nebulosa. Pedro Blanco, Mexico.
Mr. J. Robertson.

Physa elata. California. Dr. Sinclair.

Fissurella mutabilis, Swains. Galapagos.

Dentalium pretiosum. Central America.
Dr. Sinclair.

Dentalium, like entalis, Vaucouver’s

Isl. C. Ede, Esq. (used by the natives
for money).
Litorina fasciata. SandwichIs. Lieut.
Strickland.
Cerithium ocellatum, Brug. Madagascar.
(Compare with C. stercus-muscarum.)
Odostomia. Monterey. Capt. Beechey.
(Probably O. gravida, Gould.)
Eulima distorta. St. Vincent’s, W. I.
Natica bifasciata, Gray. W.Columbia.
Marginella curta, Sow. jun. Mazatlan.
Fusus ? Dupetithouarsii, var.
Trophon labiosa, Gray. Callao.
Nitidella cribraria, S. America.
King.
Pisania ? ringens. Pernambuco. J. P. G,
Smith.

Capt.

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA.

297

67. The following species and localities have also been noticed in Mr.

Cuming’s collection :—

Petricola denticulata. Mazatlan.
Thracia plicata, Desh. W.N. America.
Periploma Leana. Mazatlan. Capt.
Keppell and Mr. Ede, R.N.
Lyonsianitida. ‘China Seas, Belcher :”
- probably an error.
Tellidora Burnett.
Elena, Cuming.
Donaz assimilis. Conchagua.
Mactra angulata: plentiful from the
Gulf, rare further south, teste Cuming.
Crassatella gibbosa and undulata. West
Columbia.
Cardium Belcheri. Panama, Cuming.
Diplodonta semiaspera. St. Thomas, W.I.
Merk.
Lucina fenestrata. Monte Xti, San Blas.
Kellia suborbicularis. Is. Muerte (Guay-
aquil), sandy mud, 11 fms. Concep-
tion, Chili.

Salango and St.

Modiola capax. Galapagos, Cuming.

Heliz vincta, Val.; Baskervillei,Pfr. From
California and the neighbourhood.

Acmea gigantea=grandis, Gray. Mon-
tery, exposed situations.

Omphalius Californicus, A. Ad. More
ton Bay.

Chlorostoma funebrale. California.

Ovulum gibbosum, Panama, Cuming.

Torinia variegata. Is. Annaa, coral reefs.

Lathyrus armatus. California.

Leucozonia Californica. Gulf of Cali-
fornia, Lieut. Shipley: appears a La-
thyrus.

Ranella, like vexillum. Mazatlan.

2 tuberculata, var. Mazatlan (Havre
Col. teste Powis).

Nassa nodocincta, A. Ad. Galapagos.

Rhizocheilus asper. Gulf of California.

Typhis grandis. California.

68. Lastly, the following have been collected from various sources :—

Gray, Syst. Ar. Moll.* p. 52 (Janthinide).
Recluzia Rollandiana. Mazatlan.
Gray, Syst. Ar. Moll. p. 117. Garnotia
solida, genus described. Mazatlan.
Gray, Syst. Ar. Moll: Scurria mitra, genus

described. Mazatlan.

Phil. Arch. 1847, p. 63. pl. 3. f. 7. Am-
phichena Kindermanni. Mazatlan.
(Appears to be a Psammobia.)

Tellidora Burneti. W.Columbia, Lieut.
Freer.—Bristol Mus.

Dione lupinaria. Valparaiso, H. Babb,
R.N.—Bristol Mus.

Cardita afinis. Cubaco, Lieut. Wood.
—Bristol Mus.

Lithophagus aristatus. Panama.—Bris-
tol Mus.

Lithophagus aristatus.
drew.

Isognomon Chemnitzianum. Panama, L.
Wood.—Bristol Mus.

Chiton consimilis. Upper California.

Paludina nuclea, Lea. Sacramento River.

Anodon angulatus, Lea. 53 33

“ Oliva splendidula. Mazatlan, — Babb,
Esq., R.N.”’—Bristol Mus.=O. Mel-
chersi.

Conus concinnus.
Capt. Babb.

Purpura coronata. California.

Turritella sanguinea. California.

Cassis abbreviata. Acapulco.

Marginella imbricata. Acapulco.

Litorina coronata. SanBlas.—Mus.Nutt.

Algiers, M‘An-

Bay of California,

69. Having now presented an abstract of all the original sources of in-

__ formation (so far as known to the writer), we proceed to embody them in a
rf table, arranged at the same time geographically+t and zoologically, so as to
_ exhibit in one view as much of the foregoing materials as may be looked
_ upon as tolerably satisfactorily made-out. Doubtful species, or those whose
_ locality rests on insufficient evidence, are not included. Where the evidence
Fis good, but suspected, the name, if inserted, is in [ ]; where it is poor, but
_ Gpriori correct, it is enclosed in ( ). Species entirely omitted can be written
in by the student, from the foregoing lists, if he is satisfied with the evidence.
_ All names printed in the same horizontal line are regarded as probably
_ conspecific ; synonyms being distinguished by a single (.

_ * Of this work, “Systematic Arrangement of Mollusca”’ (with figures of the teeth of
Gasteropoda), now passing through the press, Dr. Gray obligingly allowed me the use of the
'proof-sheets, The main grouping of the Gasteropoda has been followed to a considerable extent.

T_In the second column, A. signifies 4sia (chiefly Kamtschatka and the Sea of Okhotsk ;
, i: ted Sea. In the last column, E. signifies the coasts of Eeuador and Peru; C. those
-0 ts luk ook . Se a

REPORT—1856.

298

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REPORT—1856.

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REPORT—1856.

314

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REPORT—1856.

*e4e]9
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REPORT—1856.

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ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 319

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REPORT—1856.

*COLUL [EZ

Peter eet eee eens eeeenaeeseaeeaeees

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ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 321

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1856.

REPORT—1856.

322

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ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA, 323

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REPORT—1856.

324

*gUILOJLIQe]S
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325

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA.

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REPORT—1856.

326

ae

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REPORT—1856.

328

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REPORT—1856.

Pel eceerereereserveneleeteeevenseeeseses

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ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 331

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REPORT—1856.,

"VY 'g| ‘sobvdnjny ‘nupung | *pawaupy “9

332

“BYRISOOTINOL|"1reeeseeeeeeee*|* BIVISODTINIB

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ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA.

a * cat rn an = atare me

REPORT—1856.

*sohndnjny

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rer rr!

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335

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REPORT—1856.

‘ds
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ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA.

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“esodedeyey) reeastesees grag

REPORT—1856.

338

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339

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341

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_REPORT—1856.

342

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346. REPORT—1856.

70. Now let the student of geographical distribution of Mollusca begin by

observing the fauna of our own seas, and learn, from the invaluable work of _

Forbes and Hanley, to discriminate species and eliminate those that are
spurious. Let him then, taking Philippi and M‘Andrew as his guides, compare
them with the shells of the Atlantic and Mediterranean shores. Let him, with
Gould and DeKay, note both the similar and dissimilar forms on the shores of

the United States. Let him, after studying the very characteristic fauna of the _

Caribbean Sea, again cross the Atlantic, and observe the reappearance of well-
known forms, in spite of the vast extent of ocean. Let him trace the fauna
of Senegal with Adanson, of the Guinea coast with Dunker, and of the Cape
and Port Natal with Krauss. Here let him enter on the vast Indo-Pacific

province; and, having taken-in the general conception of the fauna from any _

collection of East Indian shells, let him examine its special districts, from
Akaba, to Easter Island in the latitude of the Gulf of California. Let him

learn from Cuming the vast variety of generic and specific forms which cul- —

minate in the Philippines. Let him trace some of these westward even to the
northern extremity of the Red Sea, where they associate with types from the
Mediterranean and even the West Indies ; and eastward from group to group
of the coral or volcanic islands in the vast expanse of the Pacific. Let him
note the reappearance of forms at the Cape and Australia, in spite of the
broad waters of the Indian Ocean. Let him learn from Nuttall the species
which are common to the Red Sea and the Sandwich Islands; and from
Stutchbury those which abound both in New Holland and Tahiti. And,
having at every step in his inquiry found somewhat in common with the last ;
having, when examining the shells of the Marquesas in the center of the
Pacific, found several conspicuous and well-known forms of the Asiatic Seas,
in spite of (in parts) the profound depth of ocean that lies between; he will

naturally expect, as he reaches the American shores, to find also not a little ~ i

in common with the opposite shores. He crosses the vast unbroken expanse
of the West Pacific; one flank of the hemisphere of waters, which of itself
almost rivals the Atlantic in extent. He pauses at the solitary Archipelago
of the Galapagos, in the very longitude of the Gulf of Mexico, guarding (as
it were) the great bay of Central America, and within 600 miles of its shores.
Even here his eye rests with pleasure on a few well-known Cones and other
forms, which have crossed the fathomless depths and come to claim kindred
with their molluscan brotherhood of the New World. But here they stop.
They could traverse half a world of waters. The human spirit that gives

them understanding and a voice, beholds them on the very threshold of the .

promised continent, in whose bays and harbours, protected by the chain of
everlasting mountains, they shall find the goal of their long pilgrimage. But
the Word of the unknown Power has gone forth; and the last narrow channel
they attempt to cross in vain.

We speak now of the first general impression, without regard to excep-
tional cases: and the ascertained facts fully bear us out in saying that there

does not exist on the surface of the earth a more separate, independent -

assemblage of mollusks than is to be found, under three great typical divi-
sions, from Oregon to Chili. Mr. Nuttall, in passing from California to the
. Sandwich Islands, found only a Hipponyx in common. Messrs. Cuming and
Hinds, both of whom had well explored the seas of the E. and W. Pacific,
and of whom the former made his great collections in the two equatorial
. boundaries, with no inconsiderable research among the intermediate groups,
_ having compared about 2000 species from the two districts, came to the

MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 347

conclusion that only one shell is common to east and west, and not even that
to the intermediate islands *.

71. And if we are thus struck with the isolation of the W. American fauna
in general, so are we with the separation of its component parts. Let us
compare (as being the most unmixed sources of information) the central
collection of Prof. Adams at Panama, on the one side with the equatorial
collections of Messrs. Cuming and Fontaine, and with the Chilian researches of
the former and D’Orbigny ; and on the other with the Gulf collection of
M. Reigen, and those in California by Mr. Nuttall and the U.S. Exploring
Expedition. We find that, while so large a number of species are common to
Mazatlan, Panama, Guayaquil and the Galapagos, that they may fairly be
reckoned as one great province, scarcely any are common to the equatorial
districts and Chili, and still fewer to the Guif and San Francisco; insomuch
that on a comparison of known forms between Mr. Nuttall’s collection,
M. Reigen’s, and the W. Indian fauna, it may be safely asserted that there is
more in common between the two latter than the two former.

We proceed now to the details and the exceptions ; merely premising that
the student must bear in mind the very unsatisfactory nature of most of our
materials, and must therefore receive what follows simply as the approxi-

-Mation partially attainable in the present state of the science, and not as
absolute truth.

72. In the Boreal Fauna, we naturally look for different conditions from
those which prevail in the continent generally, The near connexion of Asia
and America at Behring’s Straits and the Aleutian Islands leads us to ex-
pect similar forms on the two continents ; and as the boreal species are known
to be both widely distributed and extremely variable, we shall not be sur-
prised to meet again with a few familiar European types.

The following Poxar species are quoted from the extreme north at
Iey Cape :—

Corbula gibbosa. Natica pallida.

Tellina alternidentata, Buccinum angulosum.

—— inconspicua. ; polare.

—— nasuta. tenue.

Astarte a) { =corrugata. Chrysodomus fornicatus.
- lactea =semisuleata. Trophon lamellosus.

Trichotropis borealis.

:.

of these none as yet appear in the Sitcha lists but Tellina nasuta, and the
European Trich. borealis. The latter probably reaches Oregon, while the
= travels as far south as San Diego.

_ 73. From the Strcwa district are quoted 102 species (25 bivalves, and
7 univaives); of which 16 are northern forms, not known south of Behrin
3 18 biv.+26 un.=44 are found in Asia, principally in the Ochotsk Sea ;
biv. + 12un.=19are common to Oregon; about the same number, but not the
ame shells, are found in Upper California, and a few have a wide range. Triton
r is the only Sitcha Proboscidean which reaches California. The Kamts-
atkian Cryptochiton Stelleri and Placunanomia macroschisma reappear in
Jpper California, but have not yet been found in intermediate stations. Mytilus
ulis reaches from Kamtschatka to Upper, and Tellina nasuta with Cardia
; i and Californiense to Lower California; while Acmea patina travels
_ * Vide Woodward’s “ Manual of Mollusca,” pp. 373 et seq., London, Weale, 1851-56: a
work which combines in a small compass, and at a price within the reach of all, a larger
Amount both of accurate detail and philosophical research than is anywhere else accessible,
The chapters on geographical and geological distribution are invaluable,

348 REPORT—1856.

under a host of names to the peninsula, and even straggles into the Gulf.
Scurria mitra, Osilinus ater and Omphalius mestus reach from Sitcha to
Lower California, and Acmea persona sparingly enters the Gulf; while the
ubiquitous Saxicava, one species probably under a variety of names and
forms, appears, like man and dog, to adapt itself to every variety of climate,
and to reappear in every well-searched fauna, boasting also of being one of
the most ancient types now living on the surface of our globe. The
Litorina aspera and Callopoma fluctuatum, quoted on the authority of
Barclay, are so essentially tropical, that we may be allowed to suspend our
judgment before we receive them into the fauna.

74. The Orecon shells belong, in the main, to the Californian type, but
present, thus far, peculiarities which demand a separate study. ‘The total

Bivalyes. .OTdinary poxiferg, Probosci-

Univalves. difera.
number known are ........0.... L44= 49 72 1 "4
Of these have, in addition, ee iG 6 9 0 1
found only in Upper California os
» also in Lower California 12= 5 6 0 1

The following—Crenella discrepans, Trichotropis borealis and Bela ?tur-
ricula, are European forms. The following are the principal sea shells as
yet peculiar :—

Terebratula pulvinata and canrena. Katherina Douglasiz.

Panopza generosa. Puncturella cucullata and galeata.

Solen sicarius. Litorina lepida and scutellata.

Venus calcarea and ampliata. Lacuna carinata.

Cardium blandum. Cerithiopsis filosa.

Pecten caurinus, hericeus and Town- Lunatia caurina, herculza, algida.
sendi. Purpura ostrina and lagena.

Placunanomia alope and cepio. Columbella gausapata (the mostnorth-

Chitonidz dentiens and lignosus. erly species of the genus.)

Callochiton interstinctus. Nassa mendica.

Mopalia vespertina. Trophon Orpheus and corrugatus,

Chiton muscosus.

75. A comparison of the shells of the N. W. and S. W. shores of America
offers certain remarkable points of identity. The standard limpet of the
northern seas is Acm@a patina. On reaching the Gulf, it is replaced by
A. mesoleuca, which probably extends through the Panamic province. But
when we approach Chili, we again find the A. patina in D’Orbigny’s collec-
tions, and it is figured by Mr. Reeve as though brought by Cuming. Indeed
if the Chilian and Californian specimens were mixed, it would be impossible
to separate them by the shells alone. It is true that Philippi, recognizing
some of Eschscholtz’s Sitchian species as southern forms, accuses the latter of
mixing the labels; but probably they occur in each fauna. The Seurria
mitra also, though somewhat more local, is a very abundant shell on both
coasts. The Acmea cassis of Eschscholtz appears only a northern reproduc-
tion of the Patagonian Patella deaurata, Gmel. The Fissurrella violascens,
Esch., is assigned by him to the south, to which in type it belongs; but it
has some claims on the northern fauna for admission. The Bullia ampullacea,
Midd., is essentially a southern type, especially abounding in peninsulas; of
its specific relations we are not yet able to judge. The Natica caurina of
Gould, appears a geographical creation for the southern J. impervia of

Philippi ; while of the Oregonian Scalaria, Dr. Gould confesses that he has”

«

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 349

séen no marks by which it can be separated from S. australis, though he
expects that some will be eliminated hereafter.

76. The Uprer CAtirornian district presents a very peculiar assemblage
of shells ; essentially of a temperate cast, but including a few forms of tropical

type. The leading species are as follow, including several which also make

their way into Oregon and Lower California :—

Discina Evansii.

- Pholadidea penita.
Parapholas Californica.
Petricola Californica.
Rupellaria lamellifera.
Saxidomus Petitii and Nuttalli.
Platyodon cancellatus.
Cryptodon Nuttalli.
Spheenia Californica.
Thracia curta.
Mytilimeria Nuttalli.
Pandora punctata.
Machera Nuttalli.

Solecurtus subteres and Californicus.

Sanguinolaria grandis.

Tellina Bodegensis, secta and alta.
Donax flexuosus and Californicus.
Mactra Californica and planulata.

Trigona crassatelloides.

Dosinia. callosa.

Bulla nebulosa.
Tornatina culcitella and cerealis.

Lepidochiton Mertensii and scrobiculata,

Mopalia Simpsonii.

Chitonidz Nuttalli, ornatus, Monte-
reyensis, Hartwegii.

Nacella depicta and incessa.

Acmeea scabra and toreuma.

Fissurella ornata and volcano.

Lucapina crenulata.

Haliotis, 5 sp.

Trochus filosus.

Omphalius aureotinctus.

Trochiscus Norrisii.

Crepidula rugosa.

Aletes squamigerus.

Litorina planaxis.

Trivia Californica.

Defrancia bella.

Conus ravus.

q Venus Nuttalli.

_ Tapes straminea.
Trapezium Californicum.
Chama exogyra.
Diplodonta orbella.
Kellia Laperousii.
Mytilus Californianus and bifurcatus.
Modiola recta and nitens.
Nucula ccelata.

Leda polita.

Isognomon costellatus.
Pecten latiauratus.

Odostomia gravida.

Chemnitzia tenuicula and torquata.
Neverita Recluziana.

Mitra maura.

Marginella Jewetii.

Purpura macrostoma and harpa.
Monoceros engonata and lapilloides.
Nitidella Gouldii.

Columbella carinata and StaBarbarensis,
Nassa perpingius.

Cerastoma Nuttalli.

__ The total number of mollusks known to inhabit this district, excluding most
of those of which the habitat is only loosely stated as “California,” &c., is as
_ follows :—Bryozoa, 1; Palliobranchs,2; Lamellibranchs, 73; Ordinary Gaste-

ropoda, 100; Toxifera, 2; Proboscidifera, 24: Total, 202. Of these there have
only as yet been found common also to Lower California (San Diego to Cape
_ St. Lucas), Bryozca, 0; Palliobranchs, 0; Lamellibranchs, 27 ; Ordinary
_ Gasteropeda, 23; Toxifera, 0; Proboscidifera, 6: Total, 56; but as scarcely

140 species are as yet known from that region, it is next to certain that the
common species will be hereafter found much more numerous. Of the compara-
tively small assemblage known from Upper California, containing next to no
_ pelagic forms and only about half-a-dozen minute species, it will be observed
how large a proportion are bivalves, and how few proboscideans; also how
_ much larger the proportion of the widely extended species is in the former
_ than in the latter group. A very few, as Cultellus lucidus and Lyonsia
_ Californica, are perhaps identical with North Atlantic shells; but in general
_ there is a wide disagreement. Here are found the largest species of Parapholas
and Trigona; and the types of Platyodon, Cryptodon, Mytilimeria and

850 REPORT—1856.

Saxidomus. The tendency of the Muricide and Purpuride to assume the
acanthoid type, is well known, both in these and the West Southern shores.
The Lithophagus Gruneri rests on tolerably satisfactory evidence from New
Zealand as well as from Monterey. The wide-spread Sérigilla carnaria,
even more like the usual Caribbean type than are the Mazatlan specimens,
here appears in tolerable abundance ; while even the Livona pica is stated to
have been found alive. Of course it may retain a lingering existence in the
upper seas, as Lucina tigerrina in the lower, while on the coast bordering on the
Caribbean it has died out; but it is more natural at present to suppose it an
error. For the Litiopa divisa, an East Indian pelagic shell, said to have been
found on “ Cape San Francisco,” a locality of the same name occurs near the
Bay of Guayaquil. The sudden appearance of Haliotide, of great size and
beauty, in the temperate shores of West N. America, is very remarkable.
Not a single specimen occurred in the vast Reigen collection, nor have any
been taken in Central America, or in South America, the head-quarters of
Chitonide. On crossing the Pacific Ocean, however, we find that Japan,
which represents the same zone on the Asiatic coast, is equally rich in beau-
tiful forms. The following species are quoted from

*.
JAPAN. CALIFORNIA.

Haliotis Japonica, Rve. Haliotis splendens, Rve.
— gigantea, Chemn. corrugata, Gray.
discus, Rve. Cracherodii, Leach.
—— Siebaldii, Rve. — Californiensis, Swains.
—— aquatilis, Rye. rufescens, Swains.

Two of the Asiatic species, H. aquatilis, Rve., and H. Kamtschathana, Jonas,
stretch upwards within the bounds of the Polar fauna in Behring’s Sea;
while the latter appears to have crossed the waters, and to have found its
way sparingly down the American coast.

"7. Of the fauna of Lowzr CALIFoRNIA, meaning the peninsula from
San Diego to Cape St. Lucas, one of the most interesting portions in the
American coast, but the least thoroughly investigated, very little is known, and
that little but inaccurately. The shells of San Diego, as collected by Nuttall,
are almost entirely distinct from those of the Gulf. Most of them belong
to the Upper Californian type, but several fresh species make their appear-
ance, which are still distinct from the Mazatlan fauna. This ground was
well searched by Messrs. Kellett and Wood; and it is probable, though the
evidence is very slight, that many of the peculiar shells of their expedition,
such as Hinnites giganteus, Pseudoliva Kellettii, &c., were obtained in this
district. The little that is known accurately of the peninsula, shows that the
stations on both shores of the Gulf belong essentially to the Panamic type;
those within the Gulf being even more tropical than those at the mouth; as
evidenced by Oliva porphyria, Cassis coarctata, Oniscia tuberculosa, Terebra
robusta, and other Panama species not found in the Reigen collection: while
the Bay of Magdalena and other stations in the Pacific are peopled, prin-
cipally by the Californian colony moving southwards, and stopped at the
Cape by the upward equatorial current ; partly by Gulf shells making their way
round the corner; and partly, it seems, by a special little fauna of its own. It
will be an abundant recompense for the labour of this Report, if it should
lead any careful naturalist to make a diligent search of the district, both as to
its shore shells and its pelagic species; making accurate notes at the time
what species are taken alive and what dead; in what circumstances and
quantities; and with such precautions as shall effectually guard against all

i

A

et

' ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 351.

chances of error. We. shall then know, and not satisfactorily till then, where
and how the two great faunas of West N. America, both of which go loosely
by the name of “ Californian,” find their separation.

The imperfect data of the Pacific coast of Lower California only furnish
us with Palliobranchs, 1; Lamellibranchs, 60; ordinary Gasteropods, 49 ;
Toxifera, 7; Proboscidifera, 20: total 137 species. As the localities are so
far from being satisfactorily established, an exact analysis of them will not
here be attempted: but the fauna of each spot will be given entire so far as
known, both on the Pacific shores and in the Gulf. The species marked *
belong to the Californian type ; those marked + to the Panamic.

-- The following list contains the known shells of San D1rEGo :—

F

i
%
_~
_ a

4

%

Pholadidea ovoidea.
penita.
*Parapholas Californica.
Saxicava Pholadis,
*Petricola Californica.
*Saxidomus Nuttalli.
*Platyodon cancellatus.
*Sphenia Californica.
*Lyonsia Californica.
Periploma argentaria.
*Solecurtus subteres.
he Californianus.
Sanguinolaria Nuttalli.
Psammobia Pacifica.
*Tellina nasuta.
*_—_— secta.
a pura.
yicina.
Cumingia Californica.
*Semele decisa.
. flavescens.
. rubrolineata.
*Donax Californicus.
*Venus Nuttalli.
*—— Californiana.
excayvata,
dispar.
fluctifraga.
*Tapes straminea.
*Trigona crassatelloides.
*Cardium Nuttalli.

*,

*. Californiense.

*. substriatum.

T elatum.
luteolabrum.

Cypricardia Californica.
_*Chama exogyra.
_ =— pellucida.
_*Diplodonta orbella.
TLucina punctata.
bella.
~ Californica.

—— Nuttall.
TLithophagus attenuatus.
*Mytilus Californianus.

Modiola capax.

Arca pernoides.

~*Pecten latiauritus.

Pecten floridus.

purpuratus.
+ Ostrea conchaphila.
T plumula.

Hinnites giganteus.
*Helix tudiculata.
e Kellettii.
Bulimus pallidior.
+Melampus olivaceus.
Haminea vesicula.
*Bulla nebulosa.
virescens.
longinqua.
Tornatina inculta.
Mopalia Blainvillei.
*Acmeea patina.

persona.
grandis.

. spectrum.

* scabra.
fascicularis.

*Fissurella voleano.
*Haliotis Californiensis.
*, Cracherodii.
i splendens. .
*Osilinus ater.
*Trochus filosus.
*Omphalius aureotinctus,
*. brunneus.
*Phasianella compta.
+Turbo Fokkesii.
+Petaloconchus macrophragma.
*Cerithidea saerata,
albonodosa.
pullata.
TNatica uber.
Ranella triquetra.
~—— muriciformis.
— Californica.
+[Oliva splendidula].
Purpura emarginata.
Columbella carinata.
»—— Californica.
+Nassa luteostoma.
fossata.
T—— tegula.
Murex Belcheri,

352

REPORT—1856.

The following shells are quoted from San PEDRO :—

Sanguinolaria Nuttalli.
*Semele rubrotincta.
*Tellina secta.

Mactra nasuta.
*Venus Nuttalli.
fructifraga.
Californiensis.

*Tapes straminea.
gracilis.
*Diplodonta orbella

*Chama exogyra.
*Bulla nebulosa.
+Acmza mesoleuca.

The following shells are quoted from GuayMAs.

Southern fauna, except Bulla nebulosa and
longs to that of Upper California. It may b
not dissimilar Tapes histrionica.

Periploma plamiuscula.
{Petricola robusta.
+Venus Columbiensis.

Pecten circularis.
*Bulla nebulosa.

Cardium cruentatum.

Pectunculus giganteus.

*Acmea scabra.
*Scurria mitra.
*Trochus meestus.
+Crepidula incurva.
+Calyptreea spinosa.
}Litorina ? fasciata.
Oliva biplicata.

They all belong to thé
Venus straminea, which last be-
e a wrong determination for the

Omphalius rugosus.
Terebra variegata.
Conus ferrugatus.

Californiensis. Lophyrus levigatus. t regularis.

* straminea. albolineatus. +Natica maroccana.
Tapes grata. tAcmza mesoleuca. bifasciata.
Cardita Californica. +Neritina picta. Fusus pallidus.

Chama f, Mexicana. +Nerita Bernhardi.

Cardium elatum.

The following shells are quoted from Sa

—— lignarius.

N JUAN; many others are pro-

bably from the same place, but are assigned by error to the Straits of the

same name in Oregon.

+Sanguinolaria purpurea. | tTerebra fulgurata.

+Olivella tergina.

Tellina gemma. +Conus princeps. ? eburnea.
*Donax Californicus. -fOniscia tuberculosa. Monoceros tuberculatum.
Bulimus pallidior. Cassis coarctata. +Purpura muricata.
+Radius variabilis. Olivella intorta. +Murex plicatus.

The following are quoted from La Paz:—

Thracia plicata.
TMactra elegans.
Venus reticulata,
Dione Chionza.
Artemis gigantea.
Petricola dactylus.
+Lucina punctata.
Modiola capax.
fIsognomon Chemnitzianum.
Lima tetrica.
Pecten nodosus.
dentatus.
Spondylus, sp.

+Ostrea Cumingiana.
+Cancellaria obesa.
+—— solida.

T cassidiformis.
Sigaretus debilis.
+Strombus gracilior.

tOliva porphyria.

T splendidula.
+Purpura patula.

‘3 emarginata.
+t—— biserialis.
+—— hosquiformis.
+Murex bicolor.

78. A mere glance at the general Table, contrasting the species on each
side of the double central dividing line, especially leaving out of view the un-
certain column of Lower California, will satisfy the inquirer of the marked
and rapid separaticn between the two faunas of California-proper and the
Gulf. The actual difference is, however, much greater than the apparent,
since the name of a species occurs in a column if only one specimen has been
obtained, whether or not it were living there; or if living, whether it were
an habitual resident or a straggler. For it will be observed that our present
lists are much in the condition of those of British shells, before the labours’
of the dredging naturalists of our own day ; when a W. Indian shell was duly

my

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 353

entered on the fauna, if it could be shown to have been picked up on British
sands. There are two main sources of information for the comparison of the
faunas :—(1.) The collections of Mr. Nuttall and M. Reigen; and (2.)
those of the Mexican War naturalists. Now with every respect for the
labours of the latter gentlemen, who doubtless did the very best that it was
possible for them to do under their peculiar circumstances, we hesitate
before we receive from that source alone results at variance with the former.
And for this simple reason; that Mr. Nuttall did not travel further south
than San Diego, nor did M. Reigen pass beyond the district of Mazatlan:
while the officers were moving from place to place, and liable to the errors
_ that even peacable naturalists may make under such circumstances. As the
_ results of their collections have been carefully tabulated above, those who
_ place implicit reliance upon them can easily add to the lists accordingly : but
__ We think it a sufficient ground for hesitation, that no less an authority than
Dr. Gould had formed the opinion, judging from these collections alone, that
_ Mazatlan belonged to the Californian rather than the Panamic type; the
_ contrary of which is abundantly proved by the Reigen collection. It appears
_ also that Prof. Adams entertained the same doubts, though he does not ex-
_ press them; for while he quotes the war-naturalists for seven of his Panama
' species as inhabiting Upper California, he says in his introduction that none
of the species of the province inhabit San Diego, which is at the borders of
Lower California. The following are the species common to Mr. Nuttall’s
and M. Reigen’s collections, the specimens quoted from the latter being all
that were found out of several myriads of shells.

Californian Fauna. Species. Gulf Fauna.
Not uncommon......... 1. Strigilla carnaria........ Peace Not common.
Typical ...........s.c000e 2. Cumingia Californica ......... Very rare.

Typical and abundant .| 3. Trigonella crassatelloides ...|Two minute dead valves, possibly
the fry of this species.

MVPICAl ..c,.0sessoecees 4, Chama exogyra ........ Oeoae One pair and a valve, probably of
this species.
' {One young sp. ......... 5. —— (frondosa) Mexicana ...|Typical.
‘|? Rare........ Been tacoas 6. Modiola capax .........s0s.0000 Very rare.
_ {Not uncommon......... 7. Ostrea conchaphila & plumula|Very common.
BEG PICALy .osscosseescresees 8. Bulla nebulosa ...............65 A very few, resembling B. nebu-

losa, but possibly =B. Adamsi,

var.
Typical, very abundant| 9. Acmzea patina ............00000 2 sp. (? ballast).
Typical, very abundant}10, —— persona ............0see0e 1 sp. (? ballast).
_|Typical, local............ 11. —— scabra .....s...eseeeeesenee 1 sp. (? ballast).
BPVETY TATE .cccce.cscsceee 12. Crucibulum spinosum ......... Typical, widely diffused.
Dwarf var., common...|13. Crepidula aculeata ............ ,.|Typical, widely diffused.
Extremely 1 TAL sesseeees 14. Hipponyx Grayanus. ......... Extremely rare.
SEES eReer oreo 15. Petaloconchus macrophragma|Typical, common.
2 Var. Californica ...... 16. Natica maroccana .......0+... Var. Pritchardt.

In this list nos. 3, 4, 8 & 16 are doubtful.. Nos. 9, 10 & 11 appear to be
stragglers. _ Nos. 1, 2,6,7 & 13 honestly belong to both faunas, and are forms
of wide geographical extent ; the few remaining being creatures of sedentary
habits, that are easily transported from place to place. Out of the 694

__ 79. The following table will give an abstract of what is now known of the
“Mexico- Peruvian fauna, grouped in families and in columns according to their

. 1856. 2A
%

7 ao’ oP

354 E REPORT—1856. pas TION AD .

distribution. A. Species as yet only known from the Gulf, including Maz-
atlan and St. Blas.—B. Species found in the Gulf and Central America,
from Acapulco to Gulf Dulce—C. Gulf and Panama.—D. Gulf and S.
America.—E. Gulf and Galapagos.—F. Tota Guir.—G. Central Ame-
rica, peculiar—H. Central America and Panama.—I. Central America and
S. America.—K. Panama, peculiar.—L. Panama and S. America—M.
ToraLt Panama.—N. TOTAL of N. American tropical fauna.

Families, &c. A.| B.| C.|D.| E. | F. || G.|H.] 1. |] K.|-L. | M. || N.
PR VOLO Meter csss ee stccts Aetecesces RGlveee|| se seth ces] LUl| vans | ee ee
TUNICATA ..........4. hae. oe F dalle Anaath Mees
PALLIOBRANCHIATA ...,.........] .2-| oes 11) a | a Br ee a ca | ee
TOtAN, A RR, 16 eat 17 is } 1
LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.
PHOlagige o ascsseehecdsseis DA ie Pa a2 fo at Bil a 5 ALLS eed ag
Gastrocheenide ............| .. ali ea 2 ee 2). 2
NANICHVINCE Y sasetsencescess\" ess[t see oe ees | eae 11) pie §
Petricolida .......se00e0+ LO} Ral ade; aah aa 2} 2!
Myad2e —..cssessscers jo Oivcas cd feos Wat) oes seal Al Gal eed) ae PRRs, oat
Corbulidie ty svescctudecetis 3} 5) 7) 3] ...| 10] 4] 6) 5 6] 3) 14
ATIALINIGES Wyaersseecesessses co a WBA FT RA a) | RR 1 NR NS | 9° ae Pree
Soleni@ieis — 7. cccssccsoeet ass eet (ieee eres seeltiass| eae iY yer hag
Soletuehidte-stscsectcre sees 7 he a es Ia 5 | ime We Une | ey f= 1
DeHinidrth. oo. :ss2scaceces 23) 4) Of 6) ...| 39]) 8! 5) 41 23] 11) 41
MVONTNCIUIS “reste ene eres ae Pel Wie) umes Aa: | i Uae me | mae ee § Cet emi! | fom
Mactridee nen 1) aoe Rega Ue Va IAT ie) ecccy Imereti ll ke
Veneridze...05t sis vbeen ss 9) 13]-14| 17) ...) 34]} 2) 8} 12]| 6) 10) 21
AStAPtIGE oo. sckecseccceees GPR Sap ze 7 tae] (ingle Red) tes) ee edn,
Chamide .... 1 4 Pa ee Ole I ate ec ee
Cardiadz 10) 3). 4) 4b ee) EWS ALES Sheath pe ate 7
Lucinide & Diplodontide| 15} 1} 2) 2| ...) 19]} 3) ...)... Hy Ales
Kelliadae: <..c0.ctesevecnbas sal Ls) A bas We bladed iP 4] | ener Ae ye?
Cycladide <...08 2h ties: oS fee 4 Poa ha |e 8 ees fc RS ke
Unionides oie. tee fe ee ie os be : A Sy Se Wolo) | tds sc eae
My tilide9>. NP... 22k t. An 4) 3) 5) Qh) QP VB Ve seshh: Of
ATOAREE HN. AWA: POR OV 7) TO) AL a Jali Gara ae
Nuculidlse: (sig. 5<<-titce ose meat Dy $l evo 2H Ue a Oi) aes oy
Aviculidse Whessis uk isles Wee) ees) fo te Wyo U2 Be
Pectinidse Wii cidi.tbasivecue Ge Uesscte TS TOL Sra ay SS
Spondylide ............00 vee eee 9 eee ba 3H} 3]... 2) sf 3!
Ostreade Haiti Javea: 2}. SST See ee Bh ss.) 5}
ANIOMIACH 5. wwesdicecces Bee dt preps ANA] Soup = DiS Da
Total: Wiss eae 141} 56} 83} 60} 2/266)| 41] 47) 40|) 76) 62/189] 423) —
PREROPODA. vessevseesticvssessceses sotheaadl sac betesshe wwalreeel] cea aes ieee
GASTEROPODA.
aaa tat ae ra aes Gy eer] EVO. yeaa eee ere ee
onata.
Geophila +... .c.csce..003.. 4) 2) ...] ooof cool Gi] 6) 21 4.1 8
Limnophila ............... Al, ice) aas bee Sell ise PL faethe essa
Thalassophila .........64. UPL ieee Uk a) li. ay
Total tua. sects esse. 15) res | a) | i | i so} Me YP a 3

* This figure includes Montacuta chalcedonica, found in the fronds of Murex nigritus —
(Reigen Col.), since the Table was printed, 4

Families, &c.

- Prosobranchiata.
' HETEROPODA.
Tanthinide ...... auaee sate
LATERIBRANCHIATA,
Dentaliade .......... a sla.cd
ScUTIBRANCHIATA.
; Ciittonidas 7... <.geseeraeess as
Patellidz
Acmeide ....... Rec taNee Ney

Fissurellidze ...,....,.0+00.
Haliotidte ...cccccescgeeeeee
Trochide ...

Neritidge

PECTINIBRANCHIATA.
Rostrifera.
Naricidee
Calyptrzidz
Capulide ..
Vermetide....., “epee tat

Turritellidee
Cerithiade
Melaniadze
Paludinidz
Ampullariade ....
Cyclostomidze
Truncatellidee
Litorinidz
Rissoidee

Lacunide
Jeffreysiada: .,...,..... Ay
Planaxide.,,,..., sna

(OD ET FeV ae ee leant eae

Cypreide
Caneellariadz
Strombide

Terebridee .........0. thentee
Pleurotomide ..... o> Size

Proboscidifera.

Solariadze sreeereereepeneeee] see

Pyramidellide ,..,.,.....-
Eulimide

Cerithiopsidze

Scalariade

Naticide PYTETTTy) seaetepeee
Velutinidse:-: 5 sssedsaves
Lamellariade

Ficulide

Carried forward ...

ON: MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMBRICA.

: _
©. OMmom oo

ne

it~)
a

S:

: Nwnhk oer

355

356 REPORT—1856.

Families, &c. A.|B.| C.|D.| E.| F. || G.|H.| I. || K.] L. | M.]| N
(Proboscidifera, continued)...... 81} 9} 19} 4} 2/105) 8] 6) 3/| 30] 4) 52) 146
Doltadee caches capnasecrscese eel Meaa||waee|, ves bree ly swell ewelaea ae lj} 1 1
Cassidae ..cctesascooscsisesees Fel (de ty <a] cee wheal caer dois oes a Palisa 3
THtOniGe <b agectaanctb case oy] eee 2| ent ie 5|| 5} 1) ...|} 9) 4) 16] 27
Turbinellid@ ..,......0++-0+ mele Un lS eae Tf senel 2) Me ewal ee 1
Fasciolariadae........s-0s... 2 2) 1) DW 5 2]. 3) ..]] G6} cn) 9] 15
Mitrine....... a eigta sea staticles oe sae BI QE G2 eras ea ee ee eS aa ee
Volitids (.5...f..c.eee-..% 3) cca DW AM sccelas BY 2] Sl; eee ates av ee
QOlneidce pacts scat ss cae» one 5) 7] 9) 2) we], 18)... 3). 6) eee] DL) 1) 12H 24
PGnp ute scenes saesihe ees 4| 6) 7| 3) 4) 15) ...| 6) 3} 4) 6) 21); 29
Buccinide ...... Piswecdes ssh 17) 6} 7| 3] ...| 24)) 9) 11) 4) 14; 6] 30)| 59
(Pyrnlidiee yy cteessaaesiecsenoce relia wy aie dilnee Wi confit all eal | 1
IMGUTICIASS ..i2), cc tae vesceat es 28| 11} 14) 7] ...| 50); 7] 11) 4/| 16} 14] 45]; 90
Total Proboscidifera ............ 143) 45] 67) 24) 10|233)| 41} 52) 18)} 82) 41|199)| 417
TOtal ROSETILEND, o53 dessa decaaees «> 70) 30) 56) 21) 8)131)} 13} 29) 18]| 47} 34)118)| 213
Total Toxiferdses..sc0s.ssereoveds. 22! 15/ 17| 8} 1} 47/| 31) 20) 11)| 31) 17} 68); 140
Total Pectinibranchiata ......... 235! 90|140} 53] 19)411)\| 85/101) 47||160) 92/385|| 770
Total Scutibranchiata, &c....... 63) 12} 15} 4] 5) 91)| 10) 11) 8]| 30) 9} 61); 148
Total Opisthobranchiata and) 15} 4} 3) 2} 2) 23) 6) 6) 1} 22) 1) 31; 58
Pulmonata. |
Total Gasteropoda .......++++000 313)106|158) 59) 26}525|101)118) 56||212/102/477|| 976
|
CEPHALOPODA(...02..-sesscccecsee oaglh ven| Cocdl ‘nud coals tech oases|inetnal toast RBeen Metealice cell imusem
Total Lamellibranchiata......... 141) 56] 83) 60} 2/266) 41] 47] 40|| 76) 62|189)| 423
Total Palliobranchiata & Bryo-| 16) ...) 1} 1] ...] 17|| ...] 06] scoff eoe| 1] Ui} 17
zoa.
Toray Fauna, Gulf to Panama'470)162|242)120} 28/808)|142)165| 96)|288|165|667|\1416

80. Now let it be carefully borne in mind that every column of this résumé
is, without doubt, very far from the actual truth. Whatever may be learnt
from it must be estimated positively, and by no means negatively. #.g. not-
withstanding the scrutinizing researches of Cuming, C. B. Adams, Hinds,
Bridges and others in the Bay of Panama, and our almost complete ignorance
of all parts of the Gulf except its entrance, 808 species are quoted from the
latter and only 697 species from the former, giving a balance of 111 species
in favour of the northern station. Now when it is borne in mind that Panama
is in the central tropical region, that it receives both the North American
species as they travel southwards, and the South American as they move
upwards, besides (in all probability) a little nest of bay shells peculiar to its
own quiet haunts; while the Gulf fauna receives scarcely any importations
from the north, and only those southern forms of life which are capable of
subsisting at the very borders or beyond the tropies; it must be evident that
much more has to be done before even the central portion has been brought
up to its proper standing. Then let it be remembered how many species
must be yet unknown in the Gulf district. Large as is our acquaintance
with the minute species, as the whole of it has been obtained by ransacking
the worm-eaten passages of a few Chame and Spondyli, and examining the
dirt on the backs of other shells, what may be expected when the shores and
sea-bed have been subjected to the minute examination of a Barlee, an Alder,
or a Bean! In the British fauna, 170 out of 511 species are minute. It
might have been thought that degeneration of size was a condition of high
latitudes ; but wherever attention has been paid, the tropical seas are found

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 357

‘as rich in the minuter forms of life as are those that wash colder shores, or
even more so. Till the time of D’Orbigny, no one in the tropics seemed to
deign to bend his attention to what the amateur collector did not. value; but
Prof. Adams has already described many small species from Jamaica, and
80 from Panama, the latter simply by the examination of dead drift. In
__ these days of microscopic observation, most interesting results may be anti-

cipated if only dredgers will bring back labelled parcels of fine siftings from
_ deep waters; and ordinary collectors, sieved sand or mud from the shores.
If shells were packed in the sieved sand of the place; if they were always
sent home in the rough ; if those who decorticate their backs with acid, thus
destroying the minute microscopic sculpture which is often the best guide for
the discrimination of species, would only first brush them without acid, and
send the bottoms of the wash bowl to some microscopical malacologist, taking
care to wash only the shells from one spot at a time, and not to mix the dirt;
we should soon acquire a knowledge of molluscan distribution which would
advance the science by rapid strides. Here do not apply many of the
sources of error common to larger shells. Ballast can scarcely mix its
anomalous transportations with the Caca, Vitrinelle and Chemnitzie in the
interior of an oyster; and the facts of distribution are as accurately seen in
these minuter forms as in the history of Cones and Olives. The remark
made by one of our very foremost naturalists, when it was first proposed to
investigate the Mazatlan shells, was that it was not likely that there should
be anything new among them; as the large shells would be all the same as
Mr. Cuming’s, and the small ones as those of Prof. Adams. And yet, com-
paring the 314 small species from Mazatlan with the 80 described from Pa-
nama, only 28 appear identical. The Caecum jfirmatum, which is the abun~
dant Panama form, is extremely rare at Mazatlan, where it is replaced by the
beautiful and still more abundant C. undatum, of which only one minute
specimen was perhaps found at Panama. Of the principal Panamic Vitrinella,
only one individual was found at Mazatlan; where it is replaced by the shell
first termed V. clathrata, which turns out tu be the same of which an aberrant
variety was imperfectly named and described from Panama as V. parva.
And so in other instances, as in the larger shells ; Chemnitzie being always
rare in individuals, fruitful in species, with many of a wide range; Odostomie
_ not yet found at Panama; Chrysallida communis, a coast shell, and very
abundant in both districts, while the other species from deeper water are
rare and local; Bullide and small Marginelle, diffused; Rissoide, local ;
and so on in ways on which it would be pleasant but not safe yet to gene-
ralize. As the same large Spondylus which furnished the Mazatlan minutiz
is also found in Panama Bay, where it is dived-for by the natives to burn
for lime, with all its Parapholades, Gastrochene, Lithophagi and other rich
treasures, travellers in that region would do service to science by bringing
home a few valves, that it may be found how far the small nestlers correspond,
as the boring bivalves are known to do.

_ But even with regard to the large shells, the distribution of many species
is anything but satisfactorily made-out. The fauna of the Central American
seas has never been properly published. A variety of new species are de-
- scribed from Messrs. Cuming’s and Hinds’ collections, but of the old shells
found in the same stations we are left in ignorance. The practice of describing
only new species from voyages, instead of giving complete lists of those found,
very unnecessarily retards our geographical knowledge. The quotations
om Acapulco are like those from Dorsetshire or Guernsey in the old
| British writers. What we yet know makes it far from improbable that while

one great type of shells extends at least from Guaymas to the Bay of Guaya-

358 REPORT—1856.

quil, each portion (the upper Gulf, the Gulf mouth, 8. W. Mexico, Central
America proper, the Bay of Panama, the N. W. shores of South America, and
the Galapagos,) has its peculiar species, or at least those which culminate
in that locality. A large number, especially those which are also common
to the Galapagos, are found on the whole length of coast, wherever there is
a suitable station; while others, perhaps nearly related species, are very local.
Thus the beautiful Venus gnidia is found wherever there is a muddy bottom to
protect its delicate frills, (Hinds); while the V.amathusia, so near that by Gray
and even Deshayes it is regarded as identical, has only yet been found in a
typical state at Mazatlan, straggling and of modified form below. The Dione
lupinaria is in extreme profusion at Mazatlan, and also found far down the
coast of South America; but the D. brevispinosa, which resembles it with
blunted spines, has not yet come to light except from the Gulf. But we
must check these comparisons, 80 interesting to those who have made them
a imatter of study ; and which, if developed, even according to our present
knowledge, would fill a volume. Nor would a history of even the Atlantic
waters, furnish materials for one more interesting and instructive.

81. One fact however is deserving of special notice. On comparing the
shells of the Gulf and South America, we obtain the following results
Out of 143 Gulf Bivalves, 50 are found in South America, or 1 out of 2'86.
Out of 490 Gulf Univalves, only 89 have been found in South America, or
1 out of 55; while of the 151 Gulf Proboscideans, only 14 are yet known
from South America, or 1 out of 10°8. This may be accounted for partly by
the fact that the bivalves cast their spawn loose into the sea, while the uni-
valves, which have larger locomotive powers, generally affix their eggs to
shells and stones. (Gray.) Accordingly, the Lamellibranchiate fry are borne
on in the direction of the current, and are found far beyond what may fairly
be cotisidered the limits of the species. This further accounts for the absence
of sone South American bivalves from Panama which are however found at
Mazatlan; the fry, with the current, not sweeping into the bay, but landing
on the Mexican coast. It is confirmed by finding the young of many South
Ameri¢an species in the sand of Mazatlan, which are not known there in
the adult state. Only two bivalves are quoted from Mazatlan and the Gala-
pagos (one of these, Modiola capawx, a Gulf and Californian species, having
probably been added in error from Kellett’s voyage); that group being out
of the current which we may suppose to convey species fron Guayaquil to.
the northern shores.

How far the Gulf species, or those of Panama, extend on the South American
coast, we aré not yet able to state with any confidence. Most of Mr. Cuming’s
recorded South American species are from Ecuador and Columbia; and
D’Orbigny’s collections are too scanty, especially in pelagic species, for much
comparison. It seems probable that but few reach Callao, and extremely
few the coasts of Chili. A few indeed are quoted as far south as the Island
of Chiloe, but (except in the widely distributed forms, such as Calyptraide)
they need confirmation; as do also the appearance of Crepidula nivea (Les-
sonii) and Lyonsia picta, both southern forms, at Vancouver's Island.

82. A comparison with the shells of the Galapagos Islands offers points of
peculiar interest. They are known to us by the researches of Messrs. Cuming
and Darwin, the latter of whom has given a most graphic picture of their
peculiarities in his ‘Journal of Researches,’ pp. 145, 162. Collections have
also been made there by Messrs. Kellett and Wood; but for reasons before.
stated, less dependence should be placed on them. _ Unfortunately, though.

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 359

_ previous results have been tabulated, the materials have not been made
‘public. Mr. Cuming prepared a list of 90 sea shells for Mr. Darwin’s use,
but it has been mislaid; nor can Mr. Darwin furnish any additional infor-

mation, having unfortunately distributed his valuable collections before they
were geographically tabulated. The following list has been constructed from
one most kindly drawn out for this Report by Mr. Cuming, with as much
completeness as his extremely limited time allowed; with the addition of
species tabulated in the Monographs, and a few from the Pandora Voyage.
It is probable that some species have been overlooked from “ Hood’s Island,”
which appears both in the Galapagos group and in the central Pacific: both
of them are quoted in the Monographs as “‘ Lord Hood’s Island,” and they
are very rarely distinguished from each other.

List of Galapagos Shells.

In this table, stations in America are marked in columns to the left; 4. Mazatlan and
G. the Gulf; C. 4. Central America; P. Panama; and S. 4. South America; while Pacific
stations are recorded to the right,

Species. Station. Pacific Localities,

Gastrochzena rugulosa, Sow.
brevis, Sow. ........s000 Al SabeUe BewiGhas cache. Society Islands.
hyalina, Sow. .........++- In Avicule, 3-7 fin.

Petricola amygdalina, Sow...

Semele rupium, Sow. ...........+ reefs & rocks.
punctata, Sow.

Cardita varia, Brod. .....0.....+ fine sand, 6 fm.

—— incrassata.

Chama imbricata, Brod.......... Avicule, \1.w.~7. \Pearl Island.
Janus, Rve.* .......ccceeees on Avicula.

Modioela capax, Conr. [?].

Crehella coarctata, Dkr.

Byssoarca truncata, Sow. ...... stones & dvicule. |\Society Islands.
Pecten magnificus, Sow. ......... coral sand, 6-17 fm.

Lima arcuata*.

Anomia adamas, Gray ......... on Avicule.

Bulla Quoyi, Gray.

rufolabris, 4. 4d.

a \Bulimus nux, Brod. .........+6 on bushes.

& |—— verrucosus, Pfr.

c unifasciatus, Sow. .......0. under lava.
d rugulosus, Sow.

e |—— Eschariferus, Sow.

J |—— Darwinii, Pfr.

g \—— Achatinellinus, Fordes.

h incrassatus, Pfr.

2 |—— ustulatus, Sow. .....ess.00. on lava.
k

J

m

n

0

Dp

q

tin

8

t

—— Calyus, Sow. ...ccc..sss0e0e dry grass.
—— Jacobi, Sow. ......se-csece. under scoriz.
—— Chemnitzioides, Fordes.

—— corneus, Sow.

—— sculpturatus, Pfr.

—— rugiferus, Sow. ......s00008 under scorie.
—— nucula, Pfr.

—— Galapaganus, Pfr.

—— Manini, Pfr.

Helix) Apise. s.35.0e8. as anke iS aeapelbees parbeswoneesss heb 5 Sandw.I.( Darwin).
Siphonaria gigas, Sow.
—— scutellum.

& * Chama spinosa (M., C. A.) and Lima Pacifica (C. A., P., S. A.), are also quoted from
Lord Hood’s Island,” and are probably Galapagian species, 4

360 ; REPORT—1856.

American Localities. | No. Species. Station. Pacific Localities.
20 |Lophyrus Goodallii, Brod....... under stones, I. w.
21 sulcatus, Wood ..........0. under stones, l. w.
S.A.| 22 |?Chiton hirundiniformis, Sow...) under stones, 1. w.
M. |C.A.| P.|......| 23 |Acmeea striata, Rve.
24 (Fissurella mutabilis, Sow.
25 obscura, Sow......++.++++...|under stones, shore.
Moieeewss lib cles sree 26 TUQOSA, SOW. ..-.0esseereeee under stones, l. w.
C. A.|-P. |S. A.| 27 macrotrema, Sow. .........Junder stones, shore.
C.A.| P.|S.A.| 28 |—— nigropunctata, Sow. ....../stones & rks. $-t.—
Ma|G. Az) 2%. ' lies 0. 29 |Glyphis inzequalis (+-pica),Sow.| u. s., shore—8 fm.
P. |......| 30 |Turbo squamigera, Rve. ........- 7 fm.
31 |Nerita sp., Kellett § Wood.
S.A.| 32 |Calyptraca varia, Brod. .........|..00sececvesecvees ..>+-./Society Islands,
MG AS Baie... 33 |Hipponyx Grayanus, Mke....... on stones, ]. w.
Mi IC TAs sea cccas 34 |Cerithium stercus-muscarim,..| sand pools, }-t.
M. |C.A.) P.|......| 35 |——— maculosum, Kien. .........| under stones, 3-t.
Met cela! noes 36 interruptum, Mfe..........| under stones, $-t.
37 |Litorina porcata, Phil. ......... exposed rocks.
v |Paludina, sp. ..-..sssseeeee ab ytees|cOeedorsvevevencevoean ds Tahiti& V.Diemen’s
Land (Darwin).
Ve Rear 38 |Planaxis planicostata, Sow....... u. s., $-t.—h. w.
S.A.| 39 |Luponia nigropunctata, Gray...| under stones.
M. |......| -.. |......| 40 |Trivia pulla, Gask.
C.A.|...|......] 41 |—— Pacifica, Gray ............ under stones.
MST Si geos| Meee ceee 42 |—— (sanguinolenta, var.) fusca,
Gray.
C.A.|...|......| 43 |—— suffusa, Gray.
13] ee 44 rubescens, Gray.........06 under stones.
45 |—— Maugerie, Gray ......... under stones.
Bae 46 |Cancellaria chrysostoma, Sow. .| sand, 8-10 fm.
47 |—— hemastoma, Sow. ......... sand, 10-16 fm.
M. |C.A.| P. |S. A.| 48 |Strombus granulatus, Swains...jsandy mud, 6-8 fm.
12 Pe 49 |Terebra ornata, Gray.......... ..(coral sand, 5-7 fm.
50 |Myurella frigata, Hinds.
DP aleeraed 51 |Drillia excentrica, Sow. .........| coral sand, 6 fm.
Paleo 52 |—— bicolor, Sow. ......- eee sand, 8 fm.
53 |—— rugifera, Sow....... seateanes coral sand, 6 fm.
54 |—— albicostata, Sow. .........| coral sand, 6 fm.
55 |—— splendidula, Sow. ......... coral sand, 6 fm. \
Aer lecesect be cose 56. |Conus nux, Brod. .........c.c00: ? shore, 1. w.
P. |S. A.| 57 brunneus, Wood.......... ..{clefts of rocks, 1. w.
58 |—— tiaratus=minimus, Linn..| sand pools, ]. w. |East Indies.
59 |—— varius =interruptus, Wood|clefts of rocks, 1. w.|Philippines.
| 60 |—— diadema, Sow. ............ clefts of rocks, 1. w.
61 |—— Luzonicus, var. Sow.......\clefts of rocks, 1. w.|Philippines.
62 |Stylifer astericola, Brod. ...... in Asterias solaris,
63 |Cirsotrema diadema*, Sow.
MS AG s7AG Pits seek « 64 |Natica maroccana, Chemn.......|... etaee est ss Meomeeees “All over the warm
climate,’ Cuming.
M. |C.A.) P.|......) 65 |Lunatia Galapagosa ( = otis, coral sand.
Zool. Beech. Voy.).
MiGRA Ro ices. 66 |Oniscia tuberculosa, Sow. ...... clefts of rocks, 1. w.
67 xanthostoma, 4. Ad.
68 {Cassis tenuis, Wood ............ sandy mud, 6 fm.
G. |C.A.| P.|......| 69 |—— coarctata, Sow. ............ crevices of rocks.
70 |Triton reticulatus, Dillw.=tur- 6 fm. Quoted from Medi-
riculatus, Desh. terranean.
71 |—— Sowerbyi=lineatus,Brod.| sandy mud, 6 fm.
72 |—— pictus, Rve.......... +eessseee| under stones, 1. w.
73 |—— clandestinus, Chemn.

* Closely resembles C, funiculata from Mazatlan and Panama; at first thought identical by
Mr. Cumjng ; differing simply in the size and obtuseness of the apical portion.

in

| American Localities.

Oe rer

ee leeseee

* leweens
eeeeee
eoneee
© |eeeeee

seeeee

seneee

feeeee

5 | 22 | 38

- This list (which is believed to be ver
Modiola capax,

Species.

Station.

Lathyrus ceratus, Wood .........
—— tuberculatus, Brod. ......
—— varicosus, Rve. ...eeececess
Mitra muricata, Swains. .........
gratiosa, Rve............66..
—— gausapata, Rve. ............
Strigatella tristis, Swains. ......

—— effusa, Swains...cec.ccccceee
Olivella Kaleontina, Ducl.
Purpura patula, Lam. .......6004.

—— columellaris, Zam..........
—— triangularis (= Carolensis,
Rve.), Blainv.
—— planospira, Lam. .........
Vitularia salebrosa, King.
Monoceros grandis, Gray
Engina carbonaria, Rve..........
Reeviana = pulchrum, Rve.
—— pyrostoma, Sow.............
—— maura, Sow. ...cc..ccceeeee
—— crocostoma, Rve.
Zonata, RvE. ........ecceeee
Columbella hemastoma, Sow...
varians, Sow.
unicolor, Sow.
?Buccinum biliratum, Rve.
pulchrum, Ave. [?=En-
gina Reeviana. |
Nassa nodifera, Pow. ............
angulifera, 4. Ad.
—— nodocincta, 4. Ad.
Fusus Dupetithouarsi, Kien.
Anachis atramentaria, Sow......
nigricans, Sow. ..........4.
——— rugulosa, Sow.
Strombina bicanalifera, Sow. ...
— lanceolata, Sow.............
Pisania cinis, Rue. .........e0008.

Murex pumilus, Brod. .........
-—— nucleus, Brod. ....0...08.

under stones.
crevices of rocks.
sandy mud, 6 fm.
coral sand, 7 fm.
10 fm.
6-10 fms., sandy

mud: also u.s. 1. w.

sandy mud, 12 fm.

shore.

exposed rocks, 1. w.

under stones, 1. w.
exposed rocks.
crey. rocks, l. w.
under stones, 1. w.
under stones.

under stones.

under stones, 1. w.
under stones.

coral sand, 6-10fm.

under stones, ]. w.
u. 8., 3-t.—Il. w.

sandy mud, 10 fms.

coral sand, 6-8 fin.
under stones.
under stones.

coral sand, 8 fms.

u. s. & rocks, 1. w.

_ ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 361]

Pacific Localities,

Marquesas.

—————

11 species.

y accurate in all respects except
which is not included in the analysis) contains 20 land
and freshwater shells, all of which are believed to be peculiar to the islands,
except a Helix found at Tahiti, and a small Paludina,
and Van Diemen’s Land (Darwin). Of the 90 marine
Darwin, 47 were not known elsewhere; 25 inhabited the West coast of
América, 8 being distinguishable as varieties; the remaining 18 having been
found by Mr. Cuming in the Low Archipelago, and some of them also at
the Philippines. Prof. Forbes, speaking of the Galapagos in the ‘Mem.
Geol. Soc. Gr. Br.’ vol. i. p. 402, note, says, “We have distinct systems of
reatures related to those of the nearest land by representation or affinity,
and not by identity.” The latter word does not hold good of the sea shells;
for there are already known 111 species at the Galapagos, of which 55, or
nearly one half, are American shells; of these 25 inhabit the Gulf 192
_ have already been taken in Central America; 38 are found at Panama; but
- only 11 from the parallel latitudes in South America. Only 4 bivalves are

common to Tahiti,
shells analysed by

362 ‘ REPORT—1856.

quoted from the continent ; two [?] from the Gulf; one from Panama; the
other (a distinct variety), from deep water, from Isle Plata. On glancing
over the genera with their stations, it will be found that the coast shells
common to the two are more numerous than those from deep water; and
that the general aspect of the collection is essentially American*. The only
genus not yet found on the coast is Stylifer, which may indeed afterwards
receive species now placed in kindred genera, or be discovered on due search
of Echinoderms.

83. Scarcely any generic forms are peculiar to the West Coast Fauna; except
indeed Platyodon, Cryptodon and Mytilimeria, from California ; Letosolenus,
from the Gulf; Callopoma and Teinostoma, from the Central Province, and
Concholepas from Peru. But many attain here their greatest development ;
especially Calyptreide, Fissurellide, Acmea, Uvanilla, Pomaular, Cecum,
Chrysallida, Monoceros, Leucozonia, Cancellaria, Columbellide, Periploma,
Parapholas, Saxidomus, Trigona, &e. The familiar genera of the East are
often entirely absent ; especially the shell-bearing Cephalopods, Stomatellide,
Dolium, Melo, Eburna, Ancillaria, Rosiellaria, Pterosceras, Phorus, Placuna,
Malleus, Tridacnide, Glauconome, Meroé, Anatina, Aspergililum, &c. Others,
abundant in the Indo-Pacific province, are here barely represented by a few
species, or by minute or aberrant forms. Such are Marginella, Cithara,
Liotia, Rimula, Cypricardia, Clementia, Circe, Mesodesma, Crassatella,
Pythina and Scintilla; and the tribes of Casside, Harpide and Volutide.
The genera Conus, Oliva, Cyprea, Terebra, &c., the staple commodities of
the East, are here but poorly represented; nou large Cowry living on the
coast except Cyprea exanthema, and uot a single species having been yet
found in South America below the Bay of Guayaquil. (Hinds.) The almost
entire absence of coral, so common in the West Indies and Polynesia, is to be
remembered in connexion with the paucity of those tribes that usually feed
on its banks.

84. The point, however, which may prove most interesting to the geologist
and the geographical student, is whether there be any species common to the
Pacific and the Atlantic shores of tropical America; and if so, what are they?
It is easy for man to cross the narrow isthmus; have any Mollusks done the
same? The determination of this question is a matter of great difficulty ;
for while ordinary naturalists treat shells as of the same species, if there be
no greater variation between them than is known to be allowable between
individuals under the same name, it is the present custom with geographical
conchologists to treat all similar shells as “ analogues” or “ representative
species,” if they occur in unexpected places. In arranging the materials of
this Report, those species have been treated as absolutely identical,
where no difference obtained between the shells of different seas greater
than was observed between individuals in one sea. Thus when the supposed
peculiarities of the Pacific Purpura pansa, Gld., and Trochus picoides, Gld.
are found in West Indian specimens, it is regarded as a mere deference to
theory to keep them distinct. In other cases, where the shells of the two
coasts have a marked difference of aspect, though not greater than may
obtain in the same species, if a separation has been made, it is temporarily

allowed, though it is more than probable that they will hereafter prove —

identical. In other cases, the differences, though slight, appear permanent
and specific ; and in a fourth group they are simply “interesting analogues,”
but would at once be pronounced distinct, although from the same shore.

* Dr. Gray states [Dr. Richardson’s Rep. Ichth. Chin. and Jap. 1846, p. 191, note] that the’

reptiles which inhabit the Galapages also belong to American groups.

ON MOLLUSOA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 363

Now even Prof. Adams allowed that one shell was common, viz. Crepi-
‘dula unguiformis* ; and Dr. Gould himself inserts Venus cireinata and
Crepidula aculeata in his Mexican War Lists. We therefore naturally
argue, if one may be common, why not others also? Because we cannot see
how they should find their way to other seas, is only an argument drawn
_from our ignorance. Prof. Forbes, on glancing over the list of the Reigen
Collection, allowed that there might be species in common; and in the
‘Quarterly Journal’ of the Geological Society will be found a paper by
Mr. Henniker, in which the author gives geological reasons for the pro-
bability of the intercommunication. As the level of the Atlantic is higher
than the Pacific, any such communication must have poured the treasures of
the Atlantic into the Pacific, and scarcely allowed of an exchange in the
other direction. Such is found to be the case ; no species fairly belonging
to the exclusive Pacific fauna being found in the West Indies. Is it possible
_ that some such intercommunication may have been correlative with the
_ glacial conditions of the European seas? Some of the supposed Caribbean
shells in the Pacific appear to have migrated northwards; the Cyprea ex-
anthema being poor and small at Panama, where it is called C. cervinetta,
but large, fine and tolerably abundant at Mazatlan; the Strigilla carnaria
also, not even noticed as an analogue by Prof. Adams, appears blanched but
not uncommon at Mazatlan, and having crossed the “Cape Cod+” of the
western shores, assumes its normal condition on the Californian coast. The
ubiquitous Purpura patula, unknown at Panama, is extremely fine at the
Gulf. Other species, however, seem to be dying out; as Lucina tigerrina
and Mactra fragilis.

eS KS ee

eS

st dlllllielid

i

; A. Species regarded as identical between the Pacific and Atlantic.

F Pacific. West Indies. Pacific. West Indies.
1, Gastrochzena truncata ... sp.—BristolMus. | 20. Orthalicus zebra ......... undata.

2. —— ovata .........- +++. Sp.—BristolMus. | 21. Hipponyx antiquatus....,. mitrula.
3. Petricola cognata ....... ». pholadiformis. | 22. Panamensis ......... subrufa. |
4. Tellina simulans ......... punicea. 23, Crepidula hystrix ...... feat
5. —— rufescens ............ operculata, —— echinus .........00. bac Pat
> 6, == vicina........ sseeeeeese Dimaculata, 24, unguiformis ...... ... Goreensis.
7. Strigilla fucata ............ carnaria, 25. Crucibulum Cumingii ... sp.
_ 8. ——pisiformis, teste Phil. pisiformis, 26. Ovulum gibbosum, teste gibbosum.
9. Mactra fragilis ..........45 fragilis. Cuming.
10. Dione circinata (? + al- circinata. 27. Cypraea cervinetta......... exanthema.
ternata. 28. Torinia variegata ...... .-» Variegata.
11. Lucina tigerrina....... woes tigerrina. 29. Leiostraca ?distorta ...... ?distorta.
12. Diplodonta semiaspera... semiaspera, teste | 30. Olivella zonalis ..,......... sp.
Phil. 31. Marginella cerulea prunum.
13. Modiola Braziliensis ...... Braziliensis. {not sapotilla].
14. Lithophagus aristatus ... caudigerus. 32. Nitidella guttata ........ - cribraria.
15. —— cinnamomeus ...... cinnamomeus. {| 33. Purpura pansa ............ patula.
46. Arca labiata .............., labiata. 34. Anachis pygmea ......... costulata.
17. Isognomon flexuosum .., Chemnitzianum. | 35. Pisania ringens ......... »-. Sp-[Pernambuco,
18. Ostrea Virginica ......... Virginica. Br. Mus. Per-
19. Placunanomia foliacea ... foliacea. haps error.].

Tt will be seen that more than half the marine shells are bivalves.

* It is generally said that this shell is only a variety of local types. Each local white shell
may take the form wnguiformis; but there remains a distinct type, known by the form of
_ the vertical whirls, which appears to be ubiquitous. It is not always recurved, and in its
“natural state appears to be the Patella Goreensis of Gmel.—Vide Plate. f
__ t This Cape separates the two faunas in Massachusetts: Cochlodesma, Moniacuta, Cumingia,
Corbula, Tornatella, Vermetus, Columbelia, Cerithium, Pyrula, Ranella, do not pass north-
_ wards; nor Panopea, Glycimeris, Terebratula, Puncturella, Trichotropis, Aporrhais, nor Admete
‘southwards, Of 197 marine species, 83 do not pass to the south, and:50 are not found on the
_ north+-70 are found in Europe. (Gould, Rep. Inv. Mass.) : Js

364

REPORT—1856.

B. Species which may prove to be identical.

Pacific. West Indies. Pacific. West Indies.
1. Petricola robusta...... Choristodon typicum.| 18. Hipponyx Grayanus ...... ? Grayanus.
2. Solecurtus affinis ......... Caribbzeus. 19. Turritella tigrina ......... imbricata.
3. Corbula bicarinata......... Cubaniana. 20. Cerithium ? uncinatum ... uncinatum,
4, Tellina cognata .......... .. Similis. 21. Modulus catenulatus...... Carchedonicus.
5. Donax rostratus............ rugosa, Cuttingin | 22. disculus.........+++... — (pars) D’ Ord.
Bristol Mus. | 23. Trivia suffusa_......... +» 2 suffusa.
6. Venus ? crenifera ......... crenifera. 24 ? pediculus ......... pediculus.
7. —— neglecta.......+.....+. cancellata. [? imported].
8. Trigona radiata ............ mactroides, 25. Erato ? Maugere ......... Maugeree.
9. Gouldia Pacifica............ Crassatella Gua-|26. Lamellaria, sp. ............ SP.
daloupensis. |27. Marginella minor ......... minima.
10. Chama frondosa (var. sp. 28 margaritula ......... ovuliformis.
Mexicana). 29, Oliva inconspicua ......... ? oryza.
11. Felania serricata............ LucinaCandeana. | 30. —— Melchersi ............ sp.
12. Byssoarca mutabilis ...... Americana. 31. aTaneosa - ....... see» Feticulata.
13. —— gradata ..........00.0+ ?Domingensis. | 32, Olivella p. aureotincta ... petiolita.
14. FUSCA ...0seeeceeeeeeeee ? fusca, 33, Purpura biserialis ......... Floridana.
15. Ianthina decollata ......... prolongata. [=P. undata, C. B.Ad.] [not P. undata,
16. Crucibulum umbrella ... extinctorium. Lam.].
17. Crepidula onyx .........++. sp. 34. Pisania gemmata ...... .+» tincta, Conr.

The Gasteropods have now gained a large majority.

C. Species really separated, but by slight differences.

Pacific. West Indies.
1. Lyonsia picta.......s.secees plicata.
2. Capsa levigata ......... --- Braziliensis.
3. Mactra elegans ............ canaliculata.
4. Tapes histrionica ......... granulata.
5.Dione Chionza, var. ...... maculata,
6. —— lupinaria ....... ++... dione.
7. Cyclina subquadrata ...... sp.
8. Gouldia varians ...... Crassatella, sp. D’ Ord.
9. Cardium consors .....+... muricatum.
10. Lucina pectinata ........ . pecten.
11. Byssoarca solida ..... Pree) 1
12. Avicula sterna ............ Atlantica.
13. Planorbis tumens ......... affinis.
14, Physa aurantia ............ Maugere.
15. Clata cecccessccese sees) SP.
16. Bulla Adamsi............06 striata.
17. Ianthina striulata ......... fragilis.
18. Acmea fascicularis ...... Antillarum.
19. mitella ......++ sete SDs
20. Fissurella virescens, var.. Barbadensis.
21. Phasianella compta ...... sp.

Pacific. West Indies.
22. Neritina picta............... Virginea.
23. Crepidula excavata ...... porcellana.

24.
25.
26.
27.

28,
29.
30.
31.

Hipponyx serratus......... Sp.

Turritella goniostoma ... meta.

Cerithidea varicosa ..... . Lavalleana.

Rissoina Woodwardi ...... Catesbyana
Thomas).

Alaba supralirata ......... tervaricosa.

Trivia subrostrata ......... Sp»

Ovulum variabile ......... subrostrata.

Strombus gracilior........ . pugilis.

32. Terebra luctuosa .......+. cinerea.

33. Drillia incrassata ......... sp. (?alabastra, or

34, —— aterrima ........ s+ Sp. [?gibbosa).

35. Crysallida communis...... cancellatus.

36. Cerithiopsis assimilata ... terebella.

37. Lathyrus tuberculatus ... Knorrii.

38. Olivella tergina ..........«» conoidalis.

39. Purpura biserialis ...... +. deltoidea.

40. Pyrula patula............. -- melongena.

41. Murex recurvirostris ...... messorius.

(St.

The Gasteropods maintain their majority.

D. Analogous but quite distinct species.

Pacific. West Indies.
1, Tellidora Burneti ......... sp.
2. Mactra exoleta .......... .. Carinata.
3. Venus amathusia ...... ... dysera.
4, Anomalocardia subrugosa flexuosa.
5. Cardium elatum.,........... serratum.
6. —— ASPeYSUM .......ee00e bullatum.

7. Chiton sanguineus, Rve... sanguineus, Cutt.
8. Glyphis microtrema ...... sp.
9. Nerita Bernhardi ....... .. tessellata.
10. Petaloconchus macro-
phragma
11. Litorina Philippii ......... ziczac.
12. Strombus Peruvianus ... gigas.
13. Conus purpurascens 111+, aChatinus.

} varians.

Pacific. West Indies.

14. Odostomia vallata......... Sp.
15. Parthenia armata ......... gemmulosa.
16. Chemnitziz, sp.........0++. SP.
17. Polynices uber ......... .». lactea.
18. Ficula decussata......... +». gracilis.
19. Mitra nucleola ............ granulosa.
20. Cassis abbreviata ......... inflata.
21. —— coarctata ............ testiculus.
22. Oniscia tuberculosa ...... oniscus.
23. Triton vestitus .,....++.... pilearis.
24, Nassa versicolor..........+. ambigua.
25. Anachis costellata ......... terpsichore. >
26. Murex CYOSUS,ss+rees0evee08 intermedius,

&e, &e.

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 365

It is probable that these lists will hereafter be greatly extended. The
shells will be moved from one head to another, according to opinion and
opportunities of judgment. Unfortunately, although the West Indian shells
were among the first examined, they are to this day very little better known
than by the Lamarckian conchologists. Most of the shells in collections are
dead and worn, and the dredge has been but little used, especially in the
great and doubtless prolific Gulf of Mexico*. At present our best sources
of information are—(1.) The Sagra collection from Cuba (mostly poor
shells), kept distinct in the British Museum. (2.) The St. Vincent collec-
tions of the late Rev. L. Guilding, scattered in the general collections of
the British Museum. (3.) The very fine Barbadoes collections of Dr.
Cutting in the Bristol Museum. (4.) Prof. Adams’ sea-shells from Ja-
maica, which have not yet been fully tabulated, though several are de-
scribed in the ‘ Contributions to Conchology.’ Others also appear scattered
in the ‘ Zeitschrift fiir Malacozoologie,’ and other works. The Pacific shells
having been so little known to the earlier writters, when there are analogous

species, it is fair to suppose that the West Indian forms are intended. This
is another reason for their careful study.

85. But the analogies of the Mazatlan shells extend further than the
Caribbean waters. Not merely some West Indian species, as Nitidella cri-
braria, found also in the Pacific, have made their way to the east shores of
the Atlantic; but several Mazatlan forms, not yet quoted from the West
Indian islands, unexpectedly reappear on the Senegambian and Guinea coast, _
as though they loved western shores.

Species 2?common to the West (Pacific) American shores and Africa.
W. A.=West Africa. S.d.=South Africa. H. 4.=East Africa (Capt. Owen, B.M.).

West America. Africa.
1. Saxicava arctica ....ccccccccsssccseseves ... arctica, 8. A.
2. Kellia suborbicularis ..............0008 +e. suborbicularis, W. A.
3. Isognomon Chemnitzianum ............ Chemnitzianum, W. A.
4. Lithophagus aristatus.........cc:cceeeeee caudigerus, W. A.
5. Ostrea iridescens.......csccsccsseseeeveees spathulata, W. A.t
6. Conchaphila ....cceevessseeseeeeeees conchaphila, W. A.
7. Placunanomia pernoides.........s..se000 pernoides, W. A.
8. Crepidula unguiformis .........s60seee0 Goreensis, W. A.
9. RCMLEALA Facsadessintecemadensebace + 0bse aculeata, S. A.
10. Hipponyx antiquatus .........ccesescees «. antiquatus, W. A.
11. Bankivia varians{ ..........ccccceeeeeeeee varians, 8. A.
‘12. Natica maroccana (Pritchardi) ......... maroccana, W. A.§
13. Marginella cerulescens ........ eetes sted prunum, W. A.
14. Nitidella guttata ......ccccsecesesesenees ... eribraria, W. A.
15. Purpura pansa.....ssccseeseeees 48h AnkAIpOH patula, W. A.

* If the “Central American difficulty” should ever draw our Transatlantic brethren,
Messrs. Rich, Jewett and Green, to the Caribbzan seas, it is hoped that they will explore
them well; an occupation surely more worthy of a philosopher than killing his brothers; and
“ difficulty ” requiring solution quite as much as the ownership of the Mosquito territory.

T It is believed that Petricola robusta was found in the African oysters; but this only
sts on circumstantial evidence: v. B.M. Mazatlan Cat. p. 19.

{ The solitary young specimen of this characteristic species in the Reigen collection, was
aken from the debris of a Spondylus, which is a sea (not shore) shell.

; § Having very carefully compared large numbers of the West American shells (Pritchardi,
Forbes) with a fine series from Gambia, sent by Chief Justice Rankin to the Bristol Museum,
Icannot but regard them as identical, both as to shell, operculum, and similarity of variations.
The shells called unifasciata may or may not belong to this species: several unquestionably do.

366 nrac REPORT—1856. ho Aono we-

The following species might be divided into groups answering to B, C, and
D of the West Indian parallels.

Lee iscinia Oumitipitteesess.cscte,cceseo ap sot e striata, W. A.

2. Pholadidea melanura ............000¢ «... Clausa, W. A.

3. Parapholas acuminata............ceeeee nee branchiata, W. A.

4. Tellina rufescens ....... Saath. tsps. as +» perna, Spl. (Madagascar.)

5. Iphigenia leevigata .......sccecsoseveseees sp,, W. A, (Bristol Mus.)

Gul Prigana, Wats EGTA sis co0.0 44 sims oanssane tripla, W. A.

i PAU Gare dese ss <a crpsaendinecpha 2? bicolor, W. A.

8. Diplodonta semiaspera .......,.s-.0.006 circularis, W. A.

9. Pectunculus multicostatus ............... Inzequalis (Krauss not Reeve), 8. A.
LA ATOR PERIGIS Senne tes se cee sees prs veseey odes senilis, W. A
11. Gadinia pentigoniostoma .............. afra, W. and S. A.
125 Grapititila onyx. Me AUue.. eectkt. Je hepatica, Krauss.
13. Cerithium maculosum........cssecseeeeeee adustum (? Red Sea). |
14, SteYCUS-MUSCATUM ...ccseeeceeeeeeee ocellatum, E. A.
15, Terebra armillata...... ceed teed a sereeeseeee interstincta, W. A.
16. Buryta fulgurans..s....ssesessceneesseegene Spey Lu, A, f
17: OT os Biuiart ns ncet inl heli ... ?Cosentini. (Mediterranean, &c.)
UStAraconiaitestacesy. <.....s.ccsac+steeseres hiatula + Steeriz, W. A.
19S arpa Crenata) ce-a.-.-as-cynaeocea-sesn se» rosea, W.A.
20. Vitularia salebrosa ..........sccscescceeses vitulina, W. A.
21. Purpura biserialis.............-seesecseeeees hemastoma, W. A.

The comparative preponderance of bivalves in these lists is still apparent.

86. The Kellia suborbicularis, Lasea rubra, Saxicava arctica, and Hydro-
bia ulve, of the Gulf, even belong to the British fauna, The DioneChionea is
so like the D. Chione of our southern shores, that Mr. Sowerby at first united
them, quoting under Cytherea Chione, “Mr. Cuming’s specimens are from
Mazatlan,” while the dull S. Pacific specimens were described as C. squalida,
and the banded ones of the same species (by Dr, Gray) as C, biradiata.
The Cecum glabrum of the British, and C. glabriforme of the Mazatlan seas
are almost indistinguishable. The same may be said of the form Letostraca
distorta. The Cerithiopsis tubercularis and C. tuberculoides ave most closely:
allied ; as are also Byssoarca mutabilis and tetragona, B. solida and lactea,
Tellina donacina and donacilla, Modiola modiolus and capaw, Thracia
squamosa and villosiuscula, Aem@a mesoleuca and testudinalis, Galerus
mammillaris and Sinensis, Ianthina striulata and communis, I. prolongata
and pallida, Jeffreysia bifasciata and opalina, and Nassa crebristriata
and reticulata. The Gouldia varians may compare with Astarte triangu-
laris and Tornatina infrequens with Cylichna mammillata. The reappear-
ance of the rare genera /Vontacuta, Lepton, and Barleia, is also worthy of
notice.

87. Besides these analogies with the Atlantic shells, there are a few
singular exceptions to the general dissimilarity with the Asiatic and Indo-
Pacific faunas. Thus we have the Japanese Cytherea petichialis reappearing
at Mazatlan ; and Vassa acuta most closely resembling an Australian species ~
in Mr. Cuming’s collection. The Oliva Duclosi is quoted from the Pacific @
islands; as are also the ubiquitous Natica maroccana and Nitidella cribraria,
the pelagic Janthina striulata, the sedentary Hipponices barbatus and @
Grayanus ; and a few other species, concerning which there is a fair chance —
of inaccuracy, especially in shells from “ Lord Hood’s Island.”

$8. Of the land and freshwater shells little is yet known except those
brought from Oregon. These are of a different type from those of the

_* Dr, Dunker also quotes Cr. Peruviana=dilatata from the Guinea coast. His solitary:
specimen may be from ballast; but it has been plentifully received as from Mauritius,

ON MOLLUSCA OF THE WEST COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. 367

_~ Atlantic states, and have more the general appearance of old world forms.
_ The few known from Mazatlan are essentially tropical in type, and differ from
_. those found on the east of the Rocky Mountains.

a

, _ 89. The Bryozoa are included in this Report, because it appears univer-
__ sally acknowledged that they have more in common with the lower Tunicata
_ and the Molluscan type in general, than with the Radiata. What few are
known have been described by Mr. G. Busk, who regards one species as
identical with a British form, another with a specimen dredged by Mr. Darwin,
from 96 fms. in Chiloé, a third with a tertiary fossil from Vienna, and the
rest as new.

90. Of the Pteropods nothing is known; of the naked Gasteropods only a
few forms from Sitcha and Oregon; of the Palliobranchiata scarcely any ;
and of the Cephalopods only two, not characterized, from the Behring Sea.

5 I ee eee 4

91. It would be extremely interesting, after comparing the West Ameri-
* ean shells with other existing faunas, to carry our researches back in time,
and compare them with the fossils known to occur on the same coasts. For
_ such inquiries, however, there exist scarcely any materials. All that we know
7 is a little concerning the fossils of Oregon in the tenth volume of the ‘ U.S.
Exploring Expedition,’ Geology, by Jas. D. Dana. In Appendix I. p. 723,
the following fossil shells from the sandstone of Astoria are described.

tis: Astorian fossils.
Teredo substriata,Conr.[—=Dentalium*.| | Arca devincta, Conr.

Mya abrupta, Conr. [? Panopea. | > 8p.
_ Thracia trapezoides, Conv. Pecten propatulus, Conr. [B.M. |

Solemya ventricosa, Cony. Terebratula nitens, Conr.
; ‘Tellina arciata, Conr. Bulla petrosa, Cour.
= emacerata, Conr. Crepidula prorupta, Cony.
_ -— albaria, Cony. » Sp.
_ —— nasuta, Conr. Turritella, sp.
_ —— bitruncata, Cour. Cerithium mediale, Conr.
_ 2Donaz pretexta,Conr.[?cast of Solemya.| | ? Rostellaria indurata, Conr. [resembles
_ Venus bisecta, Conv. Strombus vittatus. |

— angustifrons, Conr. Sigaretus scopulosus, Cony. [2 Naticina. |
Z lamellifera, Cony. Natica saxea, Cour.
_ — brevilineata, Conv. ? Dolium petrosum, Conr.
Lueina acutilineata, Cony. 2? Buccinum devinctum, Cony.
| Cardita subtenta, Conr. Fusus geniculus, Cony.
_ Nucula divaricata, Conv. corpulentus, Cony.

impressa, Cony. [ Leda. ] Nautilus angustatus, Conr. [?=N.
_ Pectunculus patulus, Cony. zigzag. }

_—— nitens, Cour. [resembles Limopsis.]

_ The “ Dolium” is interesting from its close resemblance to the anomalous

Argobuccinum nodosum= Cassidaria setosa, Hinds.

_ Of the tertiary fossils of the United States, while many Atlantic species

- occur, none have been noticed exclusively Pacific. There are some few
which are found in both oceans ; and a Vermetus, among Mr. Nuttall’s Clai-

borne fossils, closely approaches V. eburneus, while it differs from the West

‘Indian forms. These fragments of information are all that are yet accessible.

92. The object of this Report has been so to condense and arrange the
' existing materials that those who consult it may know what has been done,
_ and may have the means of deciding on the value to be attached to different
_ Sources of information. Thus they may be enabled to begin where the writer

4 “* The notes in [] are added by Mr. S. P, Woodward, who kindly furnished the above list,

368 REPORT—1856.

leaves off, and not spend precious time in working out afresh what has already
been ascertained*. He has stated his opinions with some freedom; because
it was thought that an expression of the difficulties encountered in the prosecu-
tion of the subject and of their causes, might (1) put other students on their
guard, and (2) contribute somewhat towards their removal. They will be re-
ceived simply as the judgments of a learner who came fresh to the subject,
without previous acquaintance with books and naturalists. His object has
been, not himself to build, but to clear away some of the encumbrances, lay
part of the foundations, and collect a few of the materials, ready for the great
architects of science to erect the beautiful edifice of harmonious knowledge.
The first scientific explorer of these regions, the venerable Baron Humboldt,
still lives to enjoy the earthly rest after his labours: but the early death of so
many whose names have been quoted, of Eschscholtz, of Hinds, of Souleyet,
of Reigen, of Adams, and of Forbes, urges us to “work while it is day”; that
we may prepare for that state where ignorance shall have passed away, and
where “ we shall know even as also we are known.”

Warrington, Aug. 8th, 1856.

dbstract of First Report on the Oyster Beds and Oysters of the British
Shores. By T. C. Eyton, F.L.S., F.G.S.

For convenience sake I shall divide this Report into three sections :—1st,
A history of oysters and the laws relating to them. Zndly, An account
of the different beds. $3rdly, The history of the oyster from its embryo
state in the parent shell until it is seven years old; and, lastly, a summary
of deductions from the reports I have received. The oyster fisheries of
England are of great antiquity,—the luxurious Romans held the British
oyster in high estimation. There have at different times been many Acts of
Parliament passed for the protection of oyster-beds; the fisheries are at
present, however, regulated by a Convention entered into between Her
Majesty the Queen and the King of the French; and an Act passed to carry
the same into effect (6 & 7 Vict. c. 79), which enacts that the fisheries shall
open on the Ist of September and close on the 30th of April.

The oyster-beds which I have visited or received reports from are the
following :—Loch Ryan, the whole of the Welsh beds, Loch Fyne (a bed of
no commercial value), Isle of Man beds, Jersey, Guernsey and Sark beds,
Kentish and Essex beds. The oysters, from which the spawn I am about to
mention was taken, were obtained from Loch Ryan, at the entrance to the
Clyde, on the 10th of July, and were forwarded to me in a box packed in
wet grass; they were thirty-two in number, of which only three proved to
be in spawn: in these, from a rough calculation, which I believe to be much
under the mark, the number of young was about 3,000,000. The first oyster
I opened had the spawn exuded, so that it lay on one side between the folds
of the mantle. The mass was of a purplish colour; and on examining it with
a hand-glass, I could perceive some motion; but on placing some on a glass
plate under a 4-inch power in the microscope, I could clearly perceive that
what I had taken with the naked eye for ova were living animals varying
slightly in shape. The animal was semi-transpareut, with two reddish
elongated dots placed on each side behind the cilia, which were in constant

* The Plates appended to this Report, at the recommendation of the Committee, are intended
to illustrate some of the principal variations observed in individuals of the same species,
especially when the forms have been described as different species, or represent the characters
of different (so called) subgenera, ‘They are to be regarded as portraits, not photographs of
the Mazatlan shells in the British Museum Collection.

ON CLEAVAGE AND FOLIATION IN ROCKS. 369

and rapid motion. They were exceedingly tenacious of life, the cilia moving
until the water was dryed upon the glass. Some that I placed in a little
salt and water were alive the next day. The oysters on the table have been,
through the kindness of Mr. Sweeting, fishmonger, Cheapside, sent to me,
and are from one to four years old.

It now, therefore, only remains to trace the life of the oyster and the
changes it undergoes from the state I in which found it in the parent until it
has formed its shell and attached itself to some substance, which I hope to be
able to do next year in a continuation of this Report. From the reports I
have received and my own observations, I think that the fence months might
be advantageously altered on many beds, and that if such alteration was
made, the markets might be supplied the greater portion of the year. The
depth of water appears to be the chief cause of a difference in the time of
spawning ; and it is exceedingly doubtful if on some deep beds they spawn
at all; and they are probably supplied by the fry drifting from some neigh-
bouring bed in shallower water. The commonly received opinion among the
fishermen, that the oyster deposits its spawn in masses, is entirely erroneous.
Oysters are best for the table out of shallow water, and at the entrance of a
river if suitable ground is found, and feed quicker in such situations.

The author then read a series of questions, which it was requested any
person connected with oyster-beds would be kind enough to answer and
forward to him:—1. Name of fishery? 2. Depth of water? 3. Computed
size of beds? 4. At what age do oysters spawn? and do all oysters above
that age spawn! §&. Does the time of spawning differ on different beds
within your knowledge? 6. If such difference exist, is it caused by a
variation in the depth of water, or any other reason? 7. What is the
ground? 8. Do the oysters differ on different sorts of ground? 9. Add
any other information.

Report on Cleavage and Foliation in Rocks, and on the Theoretical
Explanations of these Phenomena.—Part I. By Joun Puiuures,
M.A., F.R.S., Reader in Geology in the University of Oxford.

Or the numerous structures existing in rocks, two more predominant than
the rest have long been referred to their appropriate causes—sedimentary
deposition—crystalline aggregation. The ‘strata,’ formed by the first pro-
cess, have all the varieties of mineral substance and magnitude of grain, and
all the inequality of extent and bulk which we observe to occur in modern
deposits from water; the granite and other quartzo-felspathic rocks offer a
large range of crystalline aggregates, always analogous to, and sometimes
undistinguishable from, the products of actual volcanoes.

But in many, and especially in mountainous countries, examples occur of
rocks which seem both crystalline in texture and stratified in structure, and
others which are apparently formed by sediments, but are thoroughly fis-
sured to a degree of tenuity, and with a regularity and continuity not observed
in ordinary cases of stratification. The former case is exemplified in gneiss,
the latter in clay-slate. Giving to the divisions of gneiss the name of
‘foliation,’ and to the fissures of slate the title of ‘cleavage,’ we may proceed
to trace the observations and inferences by which some light has been thrown
on these phenomena. We begin with cleavage.

2B

370

REPORT—1856.

§ 1. Cleavage distinct from Stratification.
The drawing No. 1 is a transverse section of the strata in the Snow-

°
oO
oO
=
. —
coal s g
bs a
ie ae
Zr
26
°o n
a
a2oo
nS
2S
oe
: c 23
@ ee 4
= is rey
5 <
3
ES
ee
o

strata at 3 are subject to some un

and indicated by arrows.

8,
1

The anticlina!

marked by fine dot

.; at 4, 80° S.E.; at 5, 80° W.

See Gara
Cc

Cleavage is

"9

1

2 ee ae

In this section ccc are conglomeritic beds.

to 85° N.W.; at 3, 80° to 85° S.E

Menai.

donian chain from the Menai
through the great slate
quarries of Mr.Pennant. It
shows the argillaceous and
arenaceous strata dipping to
the right (S.E.) or left
(N.W.), according to the
anticlinal and synclinal axes
of the district. The fine lines
mark the cleavage which
crosses the strata, the dotted
lines above show the con-
tinued ares of the strata, the
deficiencies being attributed
to enormous waste of the sur-
face; dotted lines also mark
the supposed extension of
the cleavage surfaces. The
section is an eatension of that
given by Professor Sedg-
wick*, the spectator being
supposed to look northward.

Professor Sedgwick has
also given another section in
the same linet, which shows
a complete anticlinal at a.
I did not observe this with
certainty.

It is remarkable that the
investigation of ‘ cleavage’ is
one almost entirely British,
—till within a very few years
almost entirely English; for
neither Saussure, nor Wer-
ner, nor any of their follow-
ers, appear to have clearly
distinguished between strati-
fication and cleavage. Saus-
sure{ indeed was too good
an observer to pass without
record the remarkable lami-
nation of the argillaceous
and calcareous rocks on the
flanks of the great mountains
which he so laboriously as-
cended. He recognized two
sets of fissures, but he attri-
buted to stratification the
often vertical traces of clea-
vage, and was surprised to

* Geol. Travis. 1835. + Geol. Proc. 1846. + Voyage dans les Alpes, §§ 1049, 1050 (1786).

ON CLEAVAGE AND FOLIATION IN ROCKS. 371

find these laminz crossed by repeated fissures, nearly at right angles. The
‘repeated fissures’ are, however, often the traces of strata, and the nearly
vertical lamin, so common in these parts of the mountains, are sometimes
genuine cleavage*. In the gneissic axis of Mont Blane the nearly vertical
divisions are ‘foliation.’ Even in our own day the true reading of the
structure of the Alps is a difficult problem, and laminz of cleavage are there
frequently described as layers of stratification.

The following extracts from ‘ Travels in the Tarentaise in 1820, 1821,1822,’
by Robert Bakewell, published in 1823, show that this ingenious author had
conceived views nearly approaching those of subsequent writers :—

«On the eastern side of the valley (Thénes), about two miles from the
town of Thénes, there is a rock which presents an appearance of double
stratification, not uncommon in the calcareous mountains of the Alps, and
which has frequently induced Saussure to suppose that the vertical strata
were placed in junction with other strata nearly horizontal; an error into
which he has been led by mistaking very distinct vertical cleavages for stra-
tification. On approaching that rock I had little doubt that the strata were
vertical, but when I came in front of it I perceived the true strata-seams
forming curves, which were intersected at one end by a vertical cleavage.
It sometimes happens that the strata-seams are entirely concealed in the
perpendicular escarpment of rock by a calcareous incrustation deposited
over the face of the rock, and in such instances the cleavages often project
and resemble strata so much that it requires great care to avoid error in
tracing the true line of dip in the stratification. This probable cause of
error is of frequent. occurrence in the Alps.”—Vol. i. p. 67.

In the valley of the Arve—*“ The cleavages on a large scale are often as
regular as the strata themselves, and can be scarcely distinguished from
them ; and as these cleavages intersect the strata nearly at right angles, this
has also led to many erroneous conclusions respecting the stratification of
the calcareous mountains of this part of Savoy.”—Vol. i. p. 337.

From the Appendix, vol. ii. p. 423 :—“ There are other situations where
the calcareous mountains of the Alps present to the hasty observer an ap-
pearance of the most irregular and contorted stratification imaginable, which
_ is merely an optical illusion produced by a variety of cleavages in the moun-
tain limestone ; some being at right angles to the line of dip, and cthers to
the line of bearing. There is likewise another cleavage in some of these
mountains which is curved, and is produced by a tendency to a globular
structure in the mass of the mountain. [A mountain in the valley of
-Lauterbrun, referred to as an illustration.] Near the end of the mountain
the true strata-seams are seen, and are nearly horizontal, while farther up
the valley several curved perpendicular cleavages present the appearance of
thick beds of strata very much bent. In this instance the overlapping of
the edges of the strata and the direction of the natural cleavages have nearly
concealed the true form of the stratification. Such instances as this are of
frequent occurrence in the Alps, and have been the source of many erroneous
conclusions, for they have hitherto been but imperfectly understood. This
tendency to a globular structure en masse I observed very frequently in the
Bernese Oberland. It is altogether independent of stratification, though it
has often been mistaken for it; but it has not hitherto been noticed, that I
know of, by any geologist that has visited the Alps. The limestone in which
observed the curved cleavage most distinctly is dark coloured, hard and

* See Renevier, Bull. de la Soc. Vaudoise, 4 July, 1855; Forbes, Travels in the Alps;
Sharpe, Geol. Proceedings, 1854.
232

372 REPORT—1856.

brittle; and it is intermixed with schist. This limestone seems to pass by
gradation into flinty slate.”

In his ‘Introduction to Geology’ (published 1813) the same author ex-
presses a positive opinion. Speaking of slate, he observes,—‘ This rock is
always represented as stratified; but in this respect it resembles gneiss and
mica-slate, and the slaty and tabular structure
are, I conceive, the effect of crystallization,
depending on the nature of its constituent
parts.” —P. &6.

The earliest notice of a real and firm di-
stinction between cleavage and stratification,
derived from English examples, which I have
met with, is in Otley’s ‘ Concise Description
of the English Lakes*.’ The modest and
intelligent author, speaking of the middle
division of the slaty rocks, notices their pre-
valent though obscure stratification dipping
to the south-east, speaks of the beds of slate
with frequently vertical cleavage, and adds,
“ but it is found in various degrees of inclina-
tion, both with respect to the horizon and planes
of stratification.”

In 1821 I made the acquaintance of this able
author, verified his remarks on slaty cleavage,
and in the same year sketched some of the
more curious and special phznomena in the
Lake district, which caught the attention of
W. Smith, then engaged on his geologicalmap —, ¥ 5” are bands of stratifica-
of that country+. In the mind of that great tion, displaced by a small fault f,
observer cleavage was separated from strati- across which, and across the stra-
fication, and regarded as a kind of erystalliza- tification, two small spar veins
tion, running in particular beds. run, quite straight, “ihe cornet

: - li dges, more than usuall
Dr. MacCulloch was too practised in obser- pe als Ged syne of 7

vations among primary rocks not to have ob- _ scaly structure, lying obliquely to
served the peculiarites of slate, and we find the plane of cleavage.” (Is this
him distinguishing cleavage from stratification, % ¢ase of secondary cleavage ?)
and referring it to coneretionary actiont.

§ 2. Cleavage continuous through large ranges of country.

Notwithstanding these and probably many other partial views which
recognized some difference between cleavage and stratification, it was re-
served for Professor Sedgwick, in the year 1835§, to define in a satisfactory
manner the essential character of slaty cleavage, and to show its exact place
in the series of changes by which soft argillaceous deposits have been stra-
tified and solidified, cleft and jointed. Instructed by the repeated examina-
tions of the schistose rocks of Westmoreland and Wales (begun in 1822),
how to discover the almost evanescent traces of bedding, which in some
cases are all that metamorphic action has left. and recognizing in these

* Keswick, 1823. There was an earlier publication in the Kirkby Lonsdale Magazine,
1820. t+ See Memoir of W. Smith, p. 99.

t Journal of the Roy. Inst. 1825. System of Geology, 1831, i. 139; ii. 186.

§ Geol. Trans. 2nd series, vol. ii.

s
4 ON CLEAVAGE AND FOLIATION IN ROCKS. 373

tracts the enormous and repeated undulations of the strata,—he found these
seemingly irregular structures crossed and cut through by a series of
planes characterized by almost unvarying symmetry—parallel and con-
tinuons through the heart of Snowdonia and the steeps of the Westmore-
land Alps,—and so regular as to appear like the results of enormous
crystallization. ;

These results—confirmed by universal research among the mountainous
tracts of the old and new world—by Studer and Forbes in the Alps, by
Murchison in Siluria, Darwin in the Andes, and Rogers in the Appalachians*,
—leave no doubt that cleavage is a peculiar structure impressed on certain
rocks and in certain regions, by the operation of some very extensive cause
Operating after the stratified rocks had undergone great displacement.
For this fundamental generalization we are, I believe, entirely indebted to
Sedgwick.

§ 3. Cleavage in continuous parallel planes across bent and contorted
Strata.

Of this remarkable fact, and of its extensive bearing on the theory of
cleavage, Professor Sedgwick’s memoir gives the earliest notice, confirmed
by abundant examples in Wales:—“ A rugged country, more than thirty
miles in length and eight or ten in breadth, stretching from the gorge of the
Wye above Rhaiadr to the upper gorges of the Elan and the Towy, exhibits
on a magnificent scale, thousandsof examples of much contorted strata, crossed
by parallel cleavage planes. Of the true bedding in these cases there is not
a shadow of a doubt. Many parts are of a coarse mechanical texture; but
subordinate to these are fine chloritic slate. But the coarser beds and the
finer, the twisted and the straight, have all been subjected to one change.
Whatever be the contortions of the rocks,
the planes of cleavage pass on, generally Fig. 3.
without deviation, running. in parallel
lines from one end to the other, and in-
clining at a great angle to a point only a
few degrees west of magnetic northt.”

The Diagram No. 3 shows the directions w E
here assigned. Those which follow (4, 5)

are vertical sections copied from Sedg-

wick, to show the parallelism of cleavage

planes across strata bent anticlinally (4)

and contorted (5).

Fig. 4.
River Wye above Rhaiadr.

Cleavage dips to N.W., across anticlinal.

* Proceedings of American Naturalists and Geologists, 1845.
t+ Geol. Trans. 2nd series, vol. ii. p. 477.

374 REPORT—1856.

Pigs oe

On the River Towey.

¥
Cleavage dips N.W. by north, and is parallel across many flexures.

In Diagram 6, a case of local exception to the rule is given by Sedgwick.
There the cleavage planes preserve their strike, but change the direction
and amount of their inclination, in such a way as to pass vertically through
the anticlinal axis, and to be inclined toward this axis on each side of it.
There is no cleavage observable in the lower or more central parts of the
bent mass of rocks.

Fig. 6.
Craig Gibbon.

On road from Llangollen to Ruthin. Cleavage convergent to an aunticlinal dipping N.N.E.
on one side, and 8.S.W. on the other, but vertical in the axis of the strata.

§ 4. Cleavage symmetrically related to axes of movement of the Strata.

In a great number of examples in Wales, Westmoreland and Yorkshire,
where the cleavage is perfect and the strata are distinct, it is found that the
edges of the lamin of cleavage show themselves very plainly in the surfaces
of stratification, and these edges are often nearly horizontal. To use the
expression of Sedgwick, who first declared the fact, “ where the cleavage is
well developed in a thick mass of slate rock, the strike of the cleavage is
nearly coincident with the strike of the beds*.” This is most frequently ob-
served where the strike of the strata is most persistent; or in other words,
where the anticlinal and synclinal axes of movement are most simple, con-
tinuous, and uniform in direction.

But where the axes of movement are complicated by small folds and
twists, the local coincidence of the strike of cleavage and the strike of stra-
tification frequently fails; the cleavage maintains, or tends to maintain, one
uniform direction, and thus crosses the folds of the strata under various
circumstances, more or less suggestive of an influence more general than
that which determined the folds.

If the expression above quoted from Prof. Sedgwick be well considered,
and taken in connexion with the exceptions which he mentions, it will appear
that in his mind the direction of cleavage in a large district was coincident,

* Geol. Trans. 2nd series, vol; vi. p. sli The word ‘strike’? was, I believe, first em-
ployed in this sense by Sedgwick. P

‘
ON CLEAVAGE AND FOLIATION IN ROCKS. 375

' or nearly so, with éhe main or mean direction of the strike of the beds, though
it is not actually so stated in the paper. In 1843 I presented as the result
of a special study of the geographical relation in question, among the
slaty rocks of Wales, the following explicit expression—“ The cleavage
planes of the slate rocks of Wales are always parallel to the main direction
of the great anticlinal axes, but are not affected by the small undulations
and contortions of those lines *,” which may be regarded as confirming the
views of Sedgwick. Prof. Jukes finds the same result in Newfoundland+.
Mr. Darwin has an analogous expression for South America:—“ The clea-
vage laminz range over wide areas with remarkable uniformity, being parallel
in strike to the main axes of elevation, and generally to the outlines of the
coast}.” And since 1837, Professors H. D. Rogers and W. B. Rogers have
observed and recorded, in Virginia, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey, “ the close
parallelism of the cleavage planes of a given district with each other, and
with the main axis of elevation of the district§.” And lastly, in 1849, Mr. D.
Sharpe, in reviewing these statements, adds, as from his own conviction, that
“the direction of the strike of the cleavage is parallel to the main direction
of the axes of elevation, and has no necessary connexion with the strike of

' the beds||.”. This is somewhat enigmatical, for it is by the “strike of the
beds” that we determined the axes of elevation and depression: Mr. Sharpe
had perhaps misunderstood Professor Sedgwick’s use of the word strike, and
probably meant to say that the cleavage observed at any one place was not
necessarily dependent on the strike of the beds at that place. Professor
Harkness has found remarkable agreements between the strike of cleavage
and the axes of movements in the S.W. of Ireland. According to these
authors, then, though cleavage is really or nearly independent at every
point of the previously fixed position of the strata there, crosses them with
little variation, whether they be curved or plane, and preserves or nearly
preserves its own dip or its own verticality, in whatever direction and in
whatever degree they are inclined ; cleavage and stratification have, never-

: theless, one real geographical relation, an approximate parallelism of strike,

_ dependent on the axes of movement of the rocks. To this conclusion, how-

ever, there are many exceptions; one of the most remarkable exceptions

known to me is found in North Devon, where the general strike of the beds

is nearly east and west; but the cleavage strike is nearly E.N.E. and W.S.W.,

by the observations of Sedgwick, Sharpe and myself.

In Charnwood Forest I find the average strike of the strata, exactly
measured, to form an angle of 19° 12! with the average strike of the cleavage.

—_a-

tite 45

§ 5. Relation of Cleavage Planes to the Inclination of the Strata.

Almost every observer in mountainous regions who has once perceived the
symmetrical relation of the strike of cleavage to the great axes of movement
of the masses, seeks for some corresponding symmetry between the dip of
the strata and the inclination of the cleavage. But unless the investigation
be carried across a whole district, so as to furnish comparisons on both
sides of all the anticlinals and synclinals, the result cannot be much relied
on. Mr. Darwin, who has in this respect the advantage of great range of
observation, having observed the persisteuce of the sérike of cleavage, and

* Reports of the British Association, 1843, p. 61.

+ Geological Survey of Newfoundland, p. 130.

}{ Geological Observations in South America, p. 162.

§ Ann. Reports on the Surveys of these States, 1837-40.
|| Proceedings of Geol. Soc. 1846.

§ Reports of British Association, 1855, p. 82.

376 REPORT—1856.

the frequent change of their dip both in angular value and direction, sought
for some order in these changes. He observed that frequently, in Tierra
del Fuego and in other countries in South America, cleavage planes were
inclined in opposite directions on opposite sides of an anticlinal, so as to dip
inwards*. ‘The Alps, given as an example of this fan-like arrangement of
strata by Studer+, and the corresponding appearance previously recorded
by von Buch in Norway, are mentioned by Darwin as possibly related to
this phenomenon of cleavage. Professor H. Rogers submitted to the Ame-
rican Association for the Advancement of Science, a further statement, that
“the cleavage dip is parallel to the average dip of the anticlinal and synclinal
axis planes, or those bisecting the flexuresy.” The Alps in this view are
supposed to have on their flanks many folds of strata, whose “axis planes”
dip inwards; and parallel to these “axis planes” the cleavage structure is
developed. The axis planes are more highly inclined at greater distances
from the central summit ridge.
Fig. 7.

Hypothetical Sketch Section of Alps.

For the most detailed view yet presented on this subject we are indebted
to Mr. D. Sharpe, now unhappily lost to science. According to Mr. Sharpe,
if we trace geographically any particular plane of cleavage by following its
strike 5, 10, 20 or more miles, we shall find it preserve, within narrow limits,
the same angle of dip, and in the same direction. On proceeding a few miles to
the right or left, and selecting a second plane of cleavage, it is probable that
this will not dip at the same angle, possibly not in the same direction ; but
this angle and this direction of dip are equally persistent along the line of
strike to which they belong. When by repeated trials of this kind the struc-
ture of a large tract of country is ascertained, it is found that along certain
lines of strike some miles apart, the cleavage is vertical, or nearly so; that
near these lines the cleavage surfaces are steeply inclined toward them, but
far from them greatly inclined. Thus something like auticlinal and synclinal
axes appear, and “systems of cleavage” are traced through countries which
also manifest “systems of movement.”

Thus Mr. Sharpe states, that in North Wales a line of vertical cleavage
runs N.E. and S.W. along the slate beds which lie on the western flank of
the Snowdon chain; another such line runs through the great slate quarries
between Dinas Mowddy and Maliwyd. These lines are about 35 miles apart.
Between them the cleavage is inclined,—near the north-western line the dips
are north-westward,—near the south-eastern line they aresouth-eastward,—the
angle of inclination being least towards the middle part of the area included

* Geological Observations in South America, p. 164.

+ Edinb. New Phil. Journal, vol. xxxiii. p. 144.
t Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. 1856, p. 447.

4

ON CLEAVAGE AND FOLIATION IN ROCKS. ~ 377

between the lines*. The general result of that inquiry, as regards this tract

Fig. 8. Fig. 9.

Bala.
WN T
\\ Ws hh Wu

\
Rs

ore
c
AS

s,
Chee ahd
Ss,

cence,
my,

anne,
“0 ey,
a“
.

Rhaiadr Cwm.
Section of strata in North Wales, on a line from N.N.W. to S.8.E., according to Sharpe.

KRY

v
x
rah

Fig. 10.

Section of cleavage on the same line of country, according to Sharpe: at @ and 6 cleavage vertical.

Snowdonia.

Rhaiadr Cwm,

cai

Tew

Section of strata and cleavage on line from Snowdon to Bala.

Nn

NR
EAS

ir
tH

pace only, exchanged

) the usual cleavage dip to N.W. is, for a short s

At a (Beddgelert

age dips near Bala, as far as I observed seldom exceeded 80°.

The cleay.

for vertical inclinations.

of country, may be
understood by refer-
ence to the drawings
marked 8, 9.

In his description
of these sections, Mr.
Sharpe calls attention
to the fact, that “in
this wide area we have
only one axis of the
cleavage, but there are
several anticlinal and
synclinal axes of the
stratification ; these
(with the exception
of the central one at
Rhaiadr Cwm) have
no effect on the clea-
vage, which follows its
own direction indiffer-
ently through beds
dipping in opposite di-
rections. Still there is
so much relation be-
tween the direction of
the cleavage planes
and the position of the
beds, that we might
infer from this section
alone that the cause
which produced the
cleavage of the rocks
had helped to deter-
mine the elevation of
the beds.” This infer-
ence is not only ob-
scure, but seems op-
posed to those already
established, which as-
sign priority of date to
the movements of the
strata,and more exten-
sive symmetry to clea-
vage than to inclina-
tion of beds.

The region thus
sketched by Mr.
Sharpe was previously
traversed by myself in
1836 and 1843 with a
view tc measured re-

* Sharpe, 1846; “On

Slaty Cleavage,” Proc. of
Geol. Soc. p. 90, &c.

378 REPORT—1856.

sults, but Idid not feel authorized by my observations to draw the same con-
clusions. The section, as it appeared to me, is given in Diagram No. 10.

We are indebted to the same observer for observations of the same gene-
ral character in the Lake ‘
district of England. Fig. 12.

The Diagrams 11 and ana ee]
12 represent sections from RES
north to south, through
Skiddaw and the region of
the Borrowdale Fells, as far
as Watendlath, drawn on
the same plan as Diagrams
8 and 9.

In these sections the axes
of cleavage and stratifica-
tion are identical in place
and in strike; the strata and
cleavage agree in the de-
rection of their dip; they
agree even in the angle of
dip on the south side of the
axis of elevation (45°), but
from this point southward
the dip of the beds grows
less and less till we reach
the synclival, where it is
25°, while the dip of the
cleavage grows greater and
greater till at the synclinal
it is vertical. The strike
of the beds varies from N.
15° E. to N. 30° E. That
of the cleavage is generally
N. 60° E., but varies from
N. 45° E. to N. 75° E.

I have lately followed
this section with attention
in Borrowdale, Watendlath
and Skiddaw. It appears
to correspond in the south-
ern part with the cleavage
dips of the region, but the
dips of the strata are more
various in direction and
angle than the section
shows. The cleavage dips
are vertical about Watend-
lath, and in the parallel
valley about Rosthwaite on
lines N. 67° E. (E.N.E.)
In descending Borrowdal
as far as Bowderstone, this
direction of cleavage strike
is frequently observable, with a dip to the southward growing less and less
(82°-72°), while the dip of the strata is also southward (45°-24°). Still

Borrowdale,
Watendlath.
g. Green slate. t. Trap.

Keswick.

Section of Strata.
Section of Cleavage.

s. Skiddaw slate.

Skidadw.

a. Mountain limestone.

ON CLEAVAGE AND FOLIATION IN ROCKS. 379

further northward, at a great quarry the cleavage dip is southward 52°, the
dip of the beds irregular, but northerly about 60°; and still farther the

Fig. 13. gee cleavage dip is southerly 50°, 40°,
edt 38°,—which last observation was
made at Grange.

,
t

3 4 These results are all on the
aye y north side of the line of vertical
E f
g cleavage at Watendlath, and in

the middle slate series. In the

= cal, the cleavage is nearly coin-
> cident with the strata. I have
seen no horizontal cleavage in
the Lake district *.
In the still more interesting
sections on this page (Diagrams
13 and 14), Mr. Sharpe repre-
sents the bedding and the clea-
vage in a line of country crossing
the strikes of both, from Helvel-
lyn to Bowness. In Diagram 13
the strata are seen to be bent an-
ticlinally and synclinally in Hel-
vellyn,—raised in a broad arch
north of Grasmere, and from
‘© thence subject only to smaller
folds, dipping generally south-
south-eastward. In Diagram 14,
the cleavage dips are shown for
the same region, these being per-
* Prof. Sedgwick has obliged me by
a note confirming this statement in re-
B gard to the Lake district, but he has
observed horizontal cleavage in Corn-
wall and Wales, and Mr. Sharpe records
it in Devonshire.

. 8 * Watendlath Valley and in the
. & fells between it and Borrowdale,
. % —"* =~ the phenomena are much less
| % g regular. In the Skiddaw slate
Be Fe; which appear near Grange, the
3 8 cleavage surfaces are sometimes
ae twisted so as to he partly vertical,
ar and partly diping south, with an
8 Irregular strike N. 25° E., which
3 differs from the strike of Wat-
3 3 endlath, Bowderstone, andGrange
e~ above 40°. When the beds and
: & ~ the cleavage dip in opposite di-
| rections, the angle included be-
: 3 tee
| ase tween the planes is in several
a 3 . cases about 68°; when the di
aia SN ae . . P
: SEQ = is in the same direction, the clea-
: =. vage at the highest angle, the in-
Bors = cluded angle is often about 32°.
ns, When the beds are nearly verti-
saa =
&
°
S
a
_
3
n

Section of the Cleavage (Sharpe).

Grasmere,
3092
80

30°

30°
75 80 85 90 85 80

Helvellyn.

75°
0
a

380 REPORT—1856.

pendicular on five lines, @, b, e, d,e; on each side of these lines highly in-
Fig. 15.

clined, at points farther removed less so;
the least (recorded) inclination being 65°
to the N.N.W. (south of ‘Troutbeck), and
75° to the S.S.E. (north part of Helvel-
lyn). Thus the extreme difference of
dip in the cleavage of the slates of this
tract is 40°; the most prevalent dip of
cleavage is to the N.N.W., about 80°.
The lines whose cleavage is vertical are
mostly coincident with faults, or remark-
able folds of the strata. The dip of the
strata is most regular and continuous be-
tween Grasmere and Troutbeck,—on an
average about 33° to the S.S.E.: in the
same tract the dip of the cleavage on an
average is 80° to the N.N.W. The angles
included between the planes of cleavage
and those of stratification=on an average
67°.

I have examined this tract of country
many times, and have recorded carefully
the strikes and dips of bedding and clea-
vage in a great number of cases. The
facts of my survey agree in several fea-
tures with Mr. Sharpe’s data, but they
conduct to somewhat different inferences.

There are not so much dines or axes as
several parallel bands in which the clea-
vage is vertical or deviates 5° to 10° on
either side, and these bands are rather
suddenly succeeded by others in which
the cleavage dips with considerable stea-
diness about 70°. Thus a band of verti-
cal and highly inclined cleavage passes
through Helvellyn; a band of cleavage
inclined 50° to 70° northwardly runs
through Grasmere and Rydal; a band of
vertical and highly inclined cleavage
passes through the tract between Am-
bleside and Low Wood Inn, and indeed
extends as far south as a little north of
Bowness ; then succeeds another band of
cleavage inclined 79° to N.N.W.; and
this is followed by nearly vertical bands
in the lower part of Windermere. North
of the Helvellyn band comes in the band
of Borrowdale, inclined southwardly 72°,
52°, 40°.

By combining these observations as in
Diagram No. 15, the succession of these
bands appears distinctly ; and it is evi-
dent that the cleavage dips run into
systems of greater and less inclination,

Newby Bridgee 7 7 /--~/ °
fae LEDs

Bowness, 77

Watendlath. _ aaa

ee,

Cleavage

72°-+.

Strata inclined.
inclined

Strata undulated. Cleavage
nearly vertical.

Strata inclined

Cleavage inclined
50° to 72°.

(Slate quarries.)

Strata undulated. Cleavage
nearly vertical.
(Porphyritic range )

Strata inclined.
Cleavage inelined
40° to 72°.

(Slate quarries.)

ON CLEAVAGE AND FOLIATION IN ROCKS. 381

which induced Mr. Sharpe to employ the terms “ anticlinal and synclinal,”
and to represent the lines of cleavage as parts of elliptical curves*, to which
however, they really bear but slight resemblance.

It is further evident, that when the dips of the strata are most uniform in
direction, the cleavage also mostly dips in one direction ; and that where the
strata are subject to much contortion and frequent changes of dip, the
cleavage is either vertical, or deviates only a few degrees (5° to 10°) on either
side of the vertical. For the most part the cleavage planes are steeper than
the surfaces of the strata.

The most prevalent direction of the cleavage strike in Westmoreland is
E.N.E., varying however to E. and N.E. This corresponds nearly with the
strike of the beds. In the country east of Kendal, about Hougill Fells, it is
nearly E. and W. (N.80° E., N. 85° E.). In the same vicinity the beds strike
E.N.E. and N. 85° E., or on the whole a little more to the northward. Pro-
ceeding to the S.E., we find cleavage well-developed in the clearly bedded

_ rocks of Ribblesdale, subjacent to the mountain limestone, which shows no
sign of cleavage. The beds of slate are marked by graptolites and shells; the
cleavage is always traceable. The beds are undulated on axes directed
between 15° north of west, and 3° north of west. (In a certain limited roll,
the strikes vary 37° (from 22° north of west to 15° south of west). The
cleavage strike is nearly parallel, in a general sense, to the strike of the beds;
it varies only 10° (from 16° north of west to 6° north of west).) There is
one principal synclinal roll of the strata (6), with dips on the north side (a)
of 46° to S.S.W.; on the south side (c) 60°, 73°, 80° to N.N.E.; then for a
narrow space the beds are vertical (d); after which is a broad band of dips
(e) 76°, 80°, 76°, &c. to N.N.E.

| S. Fig. 16. tt :
: \\
\ BE
f 6 @
'
s.
SPR OESTEED:

At a. Strata dip 46° S.S.W. Cleavage dip 66°-60° S.S.W.
&. ,, synclinal ,, 3 » @2° 8.S.W.
ec. ,, dip N.N.E. fr Fr S.S.W.
d. ,, vertical ,, »» none or dip 80° S.S.W.
e. 4, dip 76°N.N.E. » vertical.

The cleavage in all this tract dips to the S.S.W., at angles which upon the
* Geol. Proceedings, 1846.

382 REPORT—1856.

whole grow greater and greater toward the southern end ; so that beginning
in the northern part at 60° and 66°, they augment in the synclinal roll to 72°,
south of it to 80°, and at length appear vertical, near the line of the North
Craven Fault, which ranges E.S.E., nearly parallel to the strike of the beds
and the cleavage. In Diagrams 16 and 17 these remarkable facts are ex-
pressed in a section from N. to S. in Ribblesdale, which may be compared
with Diagrams No. 4, 5, 6. !

As already observed, the rocks which form the needles and sharp crests on
the flanks of Mont Blane, appeared to Studer and other geologists to be com-
posed of laminz which, viewed on a great scale, dip inward on each side of
the great chain, so as to produce in the section a fan-shaped structure; and
this has the more caught attention because the lowest in the scale of lamina-
tion contain organic remains and appear to be covered by crystalline schists,
—the gneissic and granitic series of Mont Blane. It appears to Mr. Sharpe
that these fan-shaped laminz are due to cleavage; that an anticlinal axis of
foliation shows itself between two lines of vertical foliation in Mont Blane,
and runs through the whole chain; and that there is really no superposition
of gneiss above fossiliferous strata. He traces across the region of the Swiss
Alps, nine of these parallel axes and ten vertical bands of cleavage and folia-
tion. The following is Mr. Sharpe’s section* of the granitic or gneissic
mass (protogine) of Mont Blane, and the strata adjoining which appear to
dip into or under the gneissic rocks.

3

bo

Fig. 18, 3
8 Mont Blanc. > Col du
: 4

=
SS?
SS Ss
Pon TS
SoS
SSS
Ss
SS?
RS
SS
=
WY,
ay
Val Ferret

Chamoun,

i <
et] t/ E> Pe
A a pkg AMA
TEAL HA Leis SEZ AN AR

a
S

oe

a

a

em

ee pena

AT:
Sowers
= cc

1
W
i

WAS\
SSAA tL
v

D

v
E

4th Awis.\
5th Avis

The Section No. 19 exhibits the same systems of cleavage and foliation,
the same axes, and the same verticals; the strata on the flanks of the Mont
Blane are secn reposing against the gneiss, not dipping into or under it. The
gneiss is not supposed to be stratified, but foliated; the foliation being in
planes parallel to, and even continuous with, those of cleavage.

Fig. 19. From the Col de Balme to the Col Ferret.
Aiguille Mont
de Tour.

ols F

¥v
c

Prof. Forbes and Prof. Rogers do not admit the statements and conclu-
sions of Mr. Sharpe in regard to the Mont Blane range. They are indeed
much different from the usual ideas of geologists, and well deserve a careful
revision and verification before being implicitly adopted in the theory of

* Geol. Proceedings, Nov. 1854.

a
-
=

sh A

Killikrankie,

Grampians. ‘

Coryaraick,

Fig. 20.

s=oaa

Palen eae
eee ees

Thee

~

S
SS
~

=

=
RSS

a
=

ey

ON CLEAVAGE AND FOLIATION IN ROCKS.

12 miles diam.

26 miles diam.

11 miles diam.

20 miles diam.

383

cleavage and foliation. It can, however, scarcely be
doubted that in this district bands of nearly vertical
cleavage alternate with bands of cleavage inclined
40°, 50°, 60°, 70°. The reference of these dips to
certain anticlinal and synclinal* axes is the part of
Mr. Sharpe’s view which specially requires the atten-
tion of observers both in Scotland and in Switzerland.

Mr. Sharpe obtained results of the same general
character in the Highlands, but with the vertical
bands (synclinal axes) much further apart than in
the Alps, and the anticlinal arches very much flat-
tened, so as to be represented by two ellipsest
(Diagram 20).

By Lyell and most writers the foliation here re-
ferred to axes, is regarded as the stratification, or
traces of the stratification, of the metamorphic rocks
of gneiss and mica-schist. The strike of the verti-
cal planes over Scotland seems to radiate from Do-
negal, and is in general included between N, 25° E.,
and N. 50° E.; but in the northern part of the Isle
of Lewis and the western parts of Ross and Suther-
land it is about N.W., or nearly perpendicular to
the usual course.

§ 6. Cleavage varies in Strata of unlike quality.

In a series of strata subjected to cleavage forces,
the result varies according to the nature of the
strata; perfect slaty structure being confined to
argillaceous, and mostly to thick-bedded argillaceous
devosits.

(a.) In a given section some of the strata are
completely traversed by cleavage, others not at all.

In this Diagram, repre-
senting a _ section at
Aberystwyth, 1836, the
beds s, s' are softer and
more argillaceous; h is
harder and more arenace-
ous. The cleavage crosses
s and s', but is inter-
rupted in A. Across h,
however, there are gene-
rally found a considerable
number of “joints,” which
are always more nearl
perpendicular to the plane
of the beds than the clea-
vage planes: are. These

joints have in some cases the same strike as the
cleavage.

Fig. 21.

* Mr. Sharpe does not mark these in his section ; they in
fact coincide with his vertical] dips.

T Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 1852, p. 445.

384 REPORT—1856.

Sedgwick seems to refer to such a case as one of imperfect cleavage,
marked by parallel planes at definite distances, which it might be difficult to
class with joints or cleavages.

(4.) In other examples all the strata are traversed by cleavage, but not all
at the same angles of inclination.

In this Diagram, taken by the author Fig. 22.
from Leck Beck near Kirkby Lonsdale,
1823*, the letters indicate, as before, soft
and hard beds: the inclination of the
cleavage planes varies in these beds in
such a way, that in the harder bed they
deviate more from planes of stratification
than in the softer beds.

Such cases were observed by the au-
thor in Wales, 1836; North Devon, 1839;
Cove of Cork, 1843; by Sharpe in Lang-
dale, 1849; by Townsend at Cork, 1854;
by Harkness in the S.W. of Ireland, 1855.

(e.) Not unfrequently, when beds al-
ternate whose mineral aggregation is not
uniform, the cleavage surfaces are curved
in the remarkable manner shown in Dia-
gram 23.

In this Diagram (23) the cleavage edges
seen in the principal section are bent, so
that at the surfaces of each bed they
tend to coincide with the stratification,
but in the middle of each bed they form a
considerable angle with the stratification.
The first example I ever saw of this was
at Sallenche, in the Liassic slate, at the
base of Mont Blane, in 1830. I afterward
observed it at Dolbadarn, in North
Wales, in Westmoreland, and Devonshire.
Mr. Sharpe has since confirmed this state--
ment. It is sometimes possible to trace
near the bounding surfaces of the beds
lamine (/) of deposition, and sometimes
the original distinction of beds is only
marked by such laminz.

(d.) Cleavage surfaces are usually dis-
turbed when traversing or passing near to
masses of unequal hardness.

When, as in Diagram 24, beds of slate
enclose nodules of greater hardness,—as
limestone or ‘ calliard,’ or ironstone,—the
cleavage, which is perfect and continuous
in the mass of slate, becomes irregular and
interrupted so as to resemble a series of
cracks in the nodules ; these cracks follow
the law indicated in Diagram 2], and tra-
verse the nodules in directions more nearly

* Geol. Trans. 1828.

ON CLEAVAGE AND FOLIATION IN ROCKS. 385

perpendicular to the planes of the stratification than the cleavage planes are.
Carbonate of lime, or quartz, may often be found filling these cracks ; sul-
phuret of iron also occurs in them. The Fj

slaty laminze are somewhat twisted about ig. 25.

the nodules.
Mr. Sorby has given us an example | {3
|

(Diagram 25) of the deviation of cleavage
planes in passing through a thin bed of | uu
indurated gritstone, lying in fine-grained | |
slate near Ilfracombe. The strata being ||
subject to much’ pressure, the thin grit- |

stone layer is bent in parallel folds, and is

of greatest thickness in the vertices of the |
folds. In this remarkable case, which is (u-¥
on a small scale, the cleavage lamina in
the slate are more or less parallel to the
axial planes of the folds; but in the grit-
stone, they deviate into fan-shaped arrange-
ments, which.on a small scale resemble the i
laminar structure of Mont Blanc, Here
also, as in Diagram 21, the cleavage fissures,
on passing through the harder substance,
deviate toward a direction perpendicular
to its surface. When the axes of the con-
tortions of such a bed as g (the hard grit-
stone) pass in different directions, the clea-
vage invariably passes through the centre
of them in planes coincident with the axes,
This is on a small scale the same law as_ ||!
that already quoted from Professor Rogers,
the cleavage plane in each case bisecting |
the flexures. The author just named pre-

ca

WM

mull

MW,
pies

a)

ZI
‘]

sents us with a drawing (Diagram 26) very well suited to explain his idea of
fan-like cleavage planes, in materials of unlike nature, and bent anticlinally*.

* Trans. of Roy. Soc. of Edinburgh, 1856.
1856. a 26

386 REPORT—1856.

§ 7. Cleavage accompanied by change of dimensions in Rocks.

In rocks subject to cleavage, the parts of the mass have undergone some
change of place; and the whole mass has suffered compression in one di-
rection. This will be evident from the following facts :—

(a.) Surfaces of stratification are frequently undulated and wrinkled by
edges of cleavage.

Thus in Diagram 27, let S be a surface of stra-
tification, K a plane of cleavage, and J a vertical
joint. The cleavage edges are often traced on the
bed S by undulated, interrupted ridges and hollows,
which appear in no other surfaces, and suggested to
me the idea of a “creeping movement among the
particles of the rock, along the plane of cleavage, the
effect of which was to roll them forward, in a direc-
tion always uniform, over the same tract of country.”
In this expression the term ‘ creep ’ is borrowed from
experience in collieries, where argillaceous strata are
frequently thrown into undulations which slowly
propagate themselves under continued pressure. :
These undulations are often formed on a plane highly inclined to the axis
of pressure, as in the case of slaty cleavage. The interrupted character of
the ridges and furrows on the plane of the strata arises sometimes from the
unequal yielding power of the materials.

(4.) These undulations are really due to pressure of some kind, and affect
the figure of shells and other flexible and compressible objects on the sur-
faces of the strata, so that in the direction of the dip of the strata these objects
are often much shortened in dimension. ‘

Thus a thin object originally circular, fig. 28 (as Orbicula), becomes short-
ened to an elliptical figure, fig. 29, on the plane, and arched, as fig. 30, in the
section. Thus it is certain that the effect of cleavage is to cause relative
“motion among the parts of stratified rocks,” such as would be produced
by a compression in the direction perpendicular to cleavage.

Fig. 28. Fig. 29.

Fig. 30.
| | /}
] Hf IN

“mT fl | i] Timm

I am not aware of any observations on record regarding these curious —
pheenomena of change of place in the parts of a slaty mass prior to 1843,
when I communicated them with other facts to the British Association at
Cork*. One of the points then much insisted on was the fact of the move-

TT prnit

* “On certain movements in the parts of Stratified Rocks,” Reports of Brit. Assoc.
1843, p. 61.

‘instance coincident with S),

. the internal movements of the

ON CLEAVAGE AND FOLIATION IN ROCKS. 387

ment uniformly in the line of the dip of the strata of the parts of symmetrical
fossils like trilobites, Zingule, Spirifere ; so that, when presented in one
direction, these objects were shortened,—in a direction at right angles to the
former they were relatively lengthened (really narrowed), and in an inter-
mediate direction distorted, fig. 31. And the change of figure was employed
as a measure of the movement on the plane of stratification, viz. } or ¢ an
inch in the common trilobite of Llandeilo (Ogygia Buchit), equals 5th or
ith of the whole space. The movement does not seem, in the case of Irish
or North Devon rocks, to have affected the thicker and harder shells, but
only those which were thin, as also the Algz and Trilobites ; the latter
in Llandeilo flags are often covered with little folds, or even thread-like
striations parallel to the wave of motion, fig. 32, which, when lying right
across the axis of figure, may deceive an inexperienced person into the sup-
position of a real transverse striation. The same thing occurs in North
Devon, and in the south of Ireland.

Fig. 31.

(c.) By attending carefully
to the surfaces of stratification
and marking the phenomena
on these surfaces where they
are modified by cleavage, an-
other curious and important
structure is indicated, which |
appears to have escaped pub-
lication, though I learn with
pleasure that it has not been
unobserved by Sedgwick.

Let S be the strike of a
bed, o the strike of cleavage
on the surface of the bed,
and parallel to it (not in this

3
r

Wf
/ Yy 4
Go a) Me yy :

J
ridges and furrows indicating

mass, ra
; 2c2

388 REPORT—1856.

In the remarkable case sketched, the ridges and hollows assume a regu-
larity of wavy interruptions which appear the effect of concretionary forces
whose axes cross the bed, the concretions being subsequently pressed by
cleavage, so that the rock can sometimes be practically divided by art, and
in other cases is found actually divided by nature into irregular oblong
solids whose axis is parallel to the line of dip of the cleavage. Phanomena
of this order are observable among the slaty rocks of Westmoreland (Win-
dermere Head, Bowness), and in some tracts of South Wales (Llandowror),
but they do not yield good slate.

In some cases the irregular surface of the beds is apparently due to ori-
ginal ripple structure, which by the general movement of the mass of the
rock across the cleavage planes, have acquired superposed wrinkles parallel
to the cleavage edges. ‘Thus in several cases may the planes of stratification
be clearly distinguished from joints.

The steps thus placed for a mechanical theory of the series of changes by
which the structural characters and accidents of position in slate rocks might
be determined, were relaid with care, and strengthened by new observations,
by Mr. D. Sharpe*.

In the quarries of South Petherwin, where argillaceous, ochraceous, and
calcareous beds occur, the former are wholly cleft, the latter partially so, or
rather cracked, the soft ochreous beds not marked by cleavage. In the argil-
laceous slate the thinner and more tender fossils are much changed in figure,
the encrinite columns not so. The distortion is greatest where the angle
between the planes of cleavage and stratification is least. The contraction of
dimensions in the plane of the strata on the line perpendicular to the strike
of cleavage, is estimated at one-fourth, and there is an expansion in the
plane of cleavage on the line of the dip. Mr. Sharpe’s general result is
expressed in these distinct terms :—“ From these and similar cases, we learn
that the shells have been compressed by a force acting in a direction perpen-
dicular to the planes of cleavage, and that the compression of the mass
between the cleavage planes has been counterbalanced by its expansion in
a direction corresponding to the dip of the cleavage.” And again, “ As
the expansion of the rock in one direction may have been caused by its com-
pression in the contrary direction, it follows that all the effects yet described
may have originated in the compression of the mass of the rock in a direction
perpendicular to the cleavage planes.” The oblique pressures which appear
to have affected many shells in the planes of stratification and produced such
extraordinary distortions as that of Spirifera disjuncta (Diagram 34 a, com-
pared with 34 5), “ may always be resolved into the same two direct forces ;
one forwards along the plane of cleavage towards the intersection of the
cleavage and the bedding, the other downwards in a direction perpendicular
to the cleavage. When the bedding and cleavage exactly coincide at Tin-
tagel, the shells are flattened and drawn out considerably, even 50 per cent.
in one direction,’ —the direction 3 .
being, doubtless, that of the line Fig. 34a. Fig. 346.
of dip of the cleavage plaues.

Mr. Sharpe thus concludes this
part of his investigation :—

“Tt may be asserted as probable,
that all rocks affected by that pe-
culiar fissile character which we
call staty cleavage have under-
gone,—

* See Geol. Proc. 1846 and 1848,

ee

“an

ON CLEAVAGE AND FOLIATION IN ROCKS. 389

1. A compression of their mass in a direction everywhere perpendicular
to the planes of cleavage.

“2. An expansion of their mass along the planes of cleavage in the direc-
tion of a line at right angles to the line of incidence of the planes of
bedding and cleavage; or in other words, in the direction of the dip
of the cleavage.

**3. No proof has been found that the rock has suffered any change in the
direction of the strike of the cleavage planes. We must therefore pre-
sume that the masses of rock have not been altered in that direction.”

These conclusions, presented in 1846, on the sure evidence of the changed

forms of shells, trilobites, &c., were extended in 1848 to slates in which no

traces of any organic forms had been observed. The evidence in this case

was found by examination of the mechanical structure of the slates, especially

by certain apparently brecciated slates including masses of discernible mag-

nitude, and distinct colour and quality. Such are frequent in Westmoreland .
and Cumberland about Rydal, in Langdale, Patterdale and Borrowdale.

“In all these slaty breccias, the included masses are flatter between the

planes of cleavage than in any other direction. Their flattest sides are always

parallel to the cleavage planes,—they are usually rather longer on the line of
dip of the cleavage than along the strike,—thus confirming the opinion that

the rocks have expanded in the direction of the dip of the cleavage.”

The Diagram No. 35 represents the
appearance of the included masses on Fig. 35.
the plane of cleavage, they being
somewhat elongated in the line of
dip ; while Diagram 36 gives the ap-
pearance of similar masses on the
edge of the same sheet of slate, the
fragments being all more or less flat-
tened between the planes of cleavage.
It is curious to observe in some of
these brecciated slates which have
undergone much metamorphosis,
crystals which have suffered no
change by compression. These cry-
stals (e. g. garnets) have probably
been generated in the mass by the
metamorphic actions consequent on
communicated heat.

It is obvious, that with such a
structure the easy cleavage of slate
in parallel planes is completely pro-
vided for. Moreover, in each sheet
of slate, where the parts are sensibly \
extended in the direction of dip,
there is a somewhat greater facility of fracture in that direction than in any
other. This comparative facility of fracture is called by Mr. Sharpe “se-
condary cleavage*;” it is of some importance in the working of slate, and
gives rise to the terms “end” (e in fig. 35), and “side” (s in fig. 36).
Slates are best split by inserting the tool at the end.

The labours of Mr. Sorby + now claim attention. Accustomed to investigate

* This term is not used in the same sense by other writers.
+ Edinb. New Phil. Journal, 1853.

490 REPORT— 1856.

the structure of rocks by the microscope, and especially by the use of thin
sections, he has applied this method of research to ascertain the origin of
slaty cleavage. In the course of a careful examination of contortions in North
Wales and Devonshire, he was convinced that they indicate a very con-
siderable amount of lateral pressure, the thickness of the contorted beds being
very different in one part to what it is in another (see Diagram 25). In the
case referred to, the amount of compression inferred is so great, that points
which appear to have been 38 inches apart, are now at the distance of only
9 inches. Unyielding parts have been contorted, yielding parts simply pressed
together in one direction and extended in another. The green spots so often
seen in purple slate, also indicate great change of dimensions in the mass. In
rocks without cleavage they appear spherical ; in cleaved slates they are found
to be compressed in the perpendicular to cleavage, elongated in the line of its
dip; so that, if originally spherical, they have become ellipsoids of three
dimensions, the shortest axis lying across the cleavage, the longest in the
line of cleavage dip, while the third axis of intermediate length coincides
with the strike of the cleavage. These three axes, in a case not supposed to
be extreme, though doubtless above the average, in the slates of Llanberis
and Penrhyn, are found as 1 : 3°75:6; from which it follows that the sphere
has been compressed to less than half the original bulk (as 3°75° to
I x 3°75 x 6:0), or as 100 to 43.
In a mass so compressed, the relative angular positions Fig. 37.

of all the particles not exactly perpendicular to the line
of pressure or exactly parallel to it would be changed.
Supposing the particles, or some of them, to be unsym-
metrical (as they mostly are in the brecciated slates, and
indeed in most kinds of slate), and that their lengths
were equally presented in all directions, or inclined at
all angles to the plane perpendicular to the line of pres-
sure,—we shall find after compression their inclination

6! by the formula tan poe where ¢ is the ratio of
c

the longer to the shorter axis of the ellipse representing
the compression, @ the original angle, and 6! the angle
to which it has been changed by compression. In the

case assumed above c=6, where @ and 6! appear in the
following Table :—

Originally. After compression.
v= =="? rf
10 1 4!
20 ao
30 5 30
40 7 58
50 11 14
60 16 6
70 24 36
80 43 23
90 90 O

Or suppose in a smali part of the original mass the particles to be so dis-
tributed as to occasion ten planes of equal fissility, having the same strike,
and surrounding the same axis, and inclined to one another 10°,—this part
of the mass, after undergoing compression ¢ (6:1), would still possess ten
cleavage planes, but they would be inclined to one another as in Diagram 38,
which corresponds to the calculation just given.

———— ©

a

' 5° on each side of a given position we had assumed a very

ON CLEAVAGE AND FOLIATION IN ROCKS, 391

By inspection of this figure, the great tendency of a
mass so penetrated by secret fissures to split in planes ap-
proximately parallel is evident. This tendency may be
exhibited numerically for any particular angle of inclina-
tion to the plane of principal cleavage.

“If we suppose (says Mr. Sorby) that in a mass of
rock there were 600 particles having their longer axes
lying in the space included within 5° on each side of
positions inclined at 0°, 10°, 20°, &c. to the line of pressure,
so that they were uniformly distributed, as is nearly the
case in thick-bedded uncleaved rocks, then, after compres-
sion in the ratio 1 : 6, their distribution would be changed,
as shown in the following Table* :—

Inclination to the direction Original Subsequent
of the pressure. distribution. distribution.
Pry ey FN Po ai 100
CEP ENE. DOE Wels sear ows wit) oe f339 103
so Ma Sle ar Po a z 113
IU cake cat hee -. 134
Be ect 600 in each case.< "7!" 986
Setar ec Shee ey PN ONT Ie ORBIT) 376
ee a ap EES DOC IT AORTA, Sa 733
MA A aaa -- 1825
ee Ss Wists often 3324.”
These numbers exhibit the relative tendency to cleavage
in each are of 10° in the compressed mass. If instead of

small angle only, the tendency to fissility along the prin-
cipal cleavage plane, as compared to that perpendicular to
it in the line of strike, would have been as 36: 1.

The structure here assigned by calculation does actu-
ally occur in slaty rocks, but not in others. ‘“ The water
of Ayr stone, which has no cleavage, consists of mica and a very few grains
of quartz sand, imbedded in a large proportion of decomposed felspar ; the
peroxide of iron being collected to certain centres, and having the character —
of peroxidized pyrites. The flakes of mica do not lie in the plane of the
bedding, but are inclined at all angles; so that there is no definite plane of
structural weakness independent of that due to bedding’’ But in a rock of
similar composition having cleavage, a section cut perpendicular to cleavage
in the line of its dip, shows by far the greater part of the flakes of mica in-
clined at low angles, so that the majority lie within 20° on each side of it,
being most numerous in and nearly in the plane of cleavage,—twenty times
as many nearly in it as nearly in the plane of 45° to it, and very few at 90°. -
In a section perpendicular to cleavage, and in the line of strike, there is still
a preponderance of flakes of mica in and near the plane of cleavage, but in
a less marked degree. On the plane of cleavage itself, a slight tendency to
arrangement of the flakes parallel to the line of dip is observable.

One of the latest and most instructive of Mr. Sorby’s observations relates
to the cleavage of Devonian limestones. Ina specimen from Kings Kerswell
near Torquay, the cleavage pressure has affected the whole mass of the rock,

* Phil. Mag., January 1856.

392 | REPORT—1856.

including the encrinites, which are found with their substance compressed
and crushed so as to occupy, in the direction of the perpendicular to cleavage,
only a quarter of the space they fill in the direction of cleavage dip. Thus
the originally nearly equiaxed cells of the encrinital stem are altered by
cleavage to elongated fusiform shapes, whose longer axes are parallel, and
four times as great as the shorter axes. Even erystals of calcareous spar and
dolomite are found crushed, bent and broken up, so as to be with difficulty
recognizable. f

The instances thus collected of the movements of the parts of the rocks
subject to slaty cleavage, in directions normal to the planes of cleavage, have
been, if possible, made more convincing by imitative experiments, which
show that some of the phenomena of cleavage are attainable by means of
pressure in materials composed of particles capable of change of figure, or
change of position. Mr. Sorby, observing by the microscope that in certain
uncleaved stones (e.g. water of Ayr stone) mica occurred in plates inclined |
evenly in all directions,—while in slates in which cleavage was manifest the
mica was found more collected on the cleavage planes and inclined at low
angles to it,—a circumstance directly deducible from the phenomena of com-
pression already proved,—made a cleavable mass in the following manner * :—
He mixed scales of oxide of iron with soft pipe-clay, so that the scales lay
evenly in all direction as in water of Ayr stone, and then pressed it so as
as to alter the dimensions of the mass in the same proportion as the slate of
Llanberis already referred to. Having then dried and baked it, he examined
the interior state of the substance by rubbing smooth faces, one face perpen-
dicular to pressure and in the line of elongation or dip; another in what
represented the line of strike, and a third face in the plane of the pressure
corresponding to the cleavage plane. The particles of oxide of iron were
found distributed just as mica is in well-cleaved slate; the mass was capable
of easily splitting parallel to the pressure planes, but not across them.

Professor Tyndall has more recently taken up this part of the subject,
and has produced a variety of results, confirming and extending the inge-
nious reasonings and experiments of Mr. Sorby+t. Perhaps his most re-
markable experiment is that made with pure white wax, which in the ordi-
nary state admits of fracture in all directions equally, and contains no
unequiaxed particles like mica and scales of oxide of iron. This substance,
being subject to pressure}, is found to have acquired true slaty structure,
even in a higher degree than any known slate, for it splits to much finer and
more equal lamin. “The finer the slate the more perfect will be the resem-
blance of its cleavage to that of the wax,” is the conclusion of the author of
this instructive experiment.

The experiments and reasonings of Professor Tyndall, Mr. Sorby, and
Mr. Sharpe, will again come under review in a future Report, when the theory
of slaty cleavage may be examined, and the ‘mechanical pressure’ which
these authors advocate may be placed in comparison with the crystalline
polarity, formerly advanced by Prof. Sedgwick. ‘The veined structure of
glaciers, which reminded Professor J. Forbes of the analogous lamination in
slates,—an idea since expressed by Rogers and Tyndall,—and Mr. Fox’s in-
genious imitation of slaty cleavage by electrical currents passing through
clay, will then receive the attention which they merit.

* Edinb. New Phil. Journal, July 1853.

tT Lecture to the Royal Institution, June 6, 1856.

=~ The wax is kneaded with the fingers, aud pressed between thick plates of glass pre-
viously wetted. In cold weather, or when cooled by a freezing mixture, it splits beau-
tifully.

3 r
j ON CLEAVAGE AND FOLIATION IN ROCKS, 393

§ 8. Secondary Cleavage of Slate.

It is difficult to break slates of the usual thickness (about 1th of an inch)
so as to produce surfaces even rudely rectangled to the plane of cleavage; a
circumstance which need occasion no surprise. But in this respect two
lines may be chosen in the slate, along one of which the rudely perpendi-
cular fracture may occasionally be looked for; this is the line of dip,—on
the other it can hardly be produced even with the utmost care; this is
parallel to the strike. In experiments for this purpose, it should be observed
whether the surfaces produced by fracture on lines parallel to the strike
tend to parallelism. If a sheet of slate be laid on two supports parallel to
and equidistant from the strike edges, it may be found that at one of these
edges fracture will be more easy than at the other. Then turn over the
slate to see if the facts will be reversed, and the other edge give the easiest
fracture. [An observation in the affirmative is in my note book, for 1836,
at Llanberis. I shall be glad to know if it has been noticed by others in
this or other localities. ]

Hence it appears probable, that besides the principal cleavage, some slates
contain a secret lamination, or ‘ secondary cleavage,’ which occasions a par-
tial fissility ; but in general this kind of structure produces no such distinct
appearances in the blocks and masses as to be often recognized on a great
scale. Some cases in which I had supposed such a structure to be real and
important, turned out on further research to be merely examples of symme-
trical jointing. Prof. Sedgwick, however, refers me for satisfactory instances
to the old black slates of Buttermere, and to the vicinity of Yspytty Evan, in
North Wales.

One of the cases in which a second set of cleavage planes was supposed to
cross the principal cleavage frequently and regularly, is the “pencil bed ”
of Skiddaw slate dug in Westmoreland, near Shap. Mr. Sharpe has exa-
mined this curious rock, and finds in one case (Thornthwaite Gill) the prin-
cipal cleavage parallel to the original beds and dipping N.W. 60°; the
secondary cleavage crosses it nearly at right angles and dips S.E. between
20° and 30°. In another case (Rosgill Moor) the beds dip N.E. 30°; the
principal cleavage N. by W. 60°; the secondary cleavage S. by E.15°. By
natural decomposition, small square prisms are produced, whose sides mea-
sure one-quarter to half an inch across, and these may be sometimes split
again parallel to the faces. Mr. Sorby has found proof that this so-called
‘secondary cleavage’ is due to many small parallel joints.

The following case occurred to me in North Wales, in 1836:—A sheet of
slate was excavated into a notch on one dip-edge, and the other struck by a
heavy tool on the opposite point (the plane of cleavage being held vertical) ;
it yielded along a zigzag line so as to show two sets of planes on the fracture
meeting each other at 90° + on the plane of cleavage, but with a common
edge oblique to the plane (70° and 110°). This I regard as a case of secret
jointing, and wish to know if any thing of the kind has been observed by others.

§ 9. Relation of Cleavage to Joints.

The joints which traverse cleavage, in well-cleaved and massive slate rocks,
show much regularity for short spaces, and often present the same or nearly
equal angles of intersection. After examining and measuring innumerable
instances, I believe that this apparent symmetry is not delusive, and that by
a careful classification of joints with reference to the plane of stratification
and the plane of cleavage, some data of importance in the theory of their
origin may be obtained. An example of joints seen on a plane of stratifica-

394 REPORT—1856.

tion ae in 1836) in the quarries of Dolbadarn, will illustrate this
remark.
In this case, a and 6, which meet each other Fig. 39.

at a right angle on the plane of the strata, are
also perpendicular to that plane, and may be
regarded as depending on it,—while ¢ and d,
on the contrary, seem to depend on the plane
of cleavage, for they are perpendicular to it
and to each other. a and 0 predominate in
coarse beds where cleavage is least developed ;
cand d in fine slate; 6 is not a joint, but a
‘band,’ or as it is called in Ribblesdale, a ‘ row’

Dee
RSC —
\ !
or small regular fold.
The joint here marked ¢ constitutes what

\
\EF
in the Dolbadarn quarries is sometimes called

‘Level bottom ;’ and where the ‘split’orclea- ‘¢ Zz ad \a@_ \
vage dips from the vertical 4 inches in a yard eS
to the S.E., the ‘level bottom’ deviates as
much from the horizontal to the N.W. The joint marked d makes the
‘square ends’ of the same quarries, from which ‘ bevel ends’ differ by the
want of strict perpendicularity with the ‘split.’ The joint marked a seems
to be what is called ‘ Crub,’—said to ‘steal away the level bottom ;’ c/ marks
undulated lines on the bed formed by the edges of the cleavage. Green
veins in this place follow the split-level, and dip here west 42°; parallel to
these are the variations of colour—the changes of texture—the boundaries of
the workable slate: ‘wrinkles’ are also parallel to them, being, in fact, dis-
continuous small strata, often useful in marking and measuring the effect of
a fault.

§ 10. Oceurrence of structures analogous to Cleavage near G'reenstone Dykes.

“A case of this kind fell under the author's notice in 1834, at Coley Hill
near Newcastle*. In the annexed cut d is a Greenstone dyke, nearly verti-

Fig. 40.

cal, and between 20 and 30 feet across,
ranging east and west, and appearing
at the surface.

“‘s is the ordinary coal shale, which
is, as usual, very much laminated at a
moderate distance (a few yards) from
the dyke, and contains fern leaves and
other plants between the laminz.

“ At the sides of the dyke the hori-
zontal lamination is obscured, the slaty
mass is indurated, and traversed by
numerous vertical divisional planes parallel to the faces of the dyke, most
numerous near the dyke, so as to occur in every half-inch of breadth, but
becoming less and less abundant in the parts removed from the dyke till they
entirely vanish. On the horizontal section, the lines of these vertical planes
would, on a minute scale, represent the cleavage edges of slate.”

Another remarkable case occurred to me while examining the great green-
stone dyke, of Brockhill, in the Abberley district, first described by Murchi-
son. This dyke measures 30 feet across; its structure is rather tabular than
prismatic; it divides the sandstones and marls of the old red series. ‘ For

* Treatise on Geology, vol. ii. p. 86, first edition (1839).

—

ON CLEAVAGE AND FOLIATION IN ROCKS. 395

a space of 30 feet on the north and 17 feet on the south of the dyke, the

_ sandstones and marls are changed in hardness, texture and structure, so that

i

ae

for these breadths they are excavated with the trap; and from their density,
hardness, and resemblance to basalt, amygdaloid or porphyry, may be easily
mistaken for primeval rocks of fusion. They have been literally baked under
pressure, not roasted with freedom of access and escape for volatile matter.”
—“ In regarding the structures of the stratified rocks, we observe that on
approaching toward the dyke the stratification grows less distinct and sud-
denly becomes untraceable ; that instead of it, especially on the south side,
a great abundance of angularly intersecting divisional planes occur, so as to
produce prismatic structures perpendicular to the plane of the dyke. Further,
we observe, parallel to the dyke, to a distance of 30 or more feet from it,
several very long, very straight, nearly vertical joints, continuous through all
the beds, without any sign of vertical displacement, or any mark of lateral
disturbance, unless the appearance of broad striation or narrow fluting,
which horizontally marks the vertical sandstone surface, 30 feet from the
dyke on the north side, be of the nature of slickenside, and referrible to
lateral movement*.”

If these examples be attentively considered, it will appear that under the
circumstances described—heat being probably the principal agent, and pres-
sure very little if at all evident—the following changes occur, near to and
parallel to the heating surfaces :—

1. Extinction of the stratified structure.
2. Production of a new structure.
3. Accompanied in one case by great molecular and mineral changes.

But it must be remarked, that the change indicated in the second of these
sentences is really distinct from that which slate has undergone. Slate is
cleavable in all its parts, more or less perfectly ; because its ultimate mole-
cular texture is altered to such a condition ; near these dykes the rocks are
cleft indeed, but not further cleavable; split, but not traversed by numerous
planes of easy fissility.

I have seen phenomena of a somewhat similar character, but less marked,
near great faults, as, for example, in the line of the Craven fault in
Yorkshire.

§ 11. The Cleat in Coal.

In the northern coal districts of England, and in other tracts, there exists,
besides the lamination parallel to the bounding surfaces of the beds, a series
of approximate often nearly vertical divisional surfaces, along which the
coal admits of easy fissility. This structure is called cleat, and it is of the
greatest importance in coal working, since parallei to it the ‘ headways’ are
driven in the ‘ post and stall’ workings of Northumberland and Durham, and
parallel to it the ‘ banks’ are wrought in the ‘long wall’ and ‘board and end’
systems of Yorkshire and Derbyshire. Cleat is little affected by fractures,
or undulations of the strata. It has usually one persistent course across a
large district, the same direction often obtains in neighbouring districts, and
even prevails over the whole of a great carboniferous region. ‘Thus in North-
umberland and Durham the cleat runs most generally to the north-west (true);
its ‘strike’ is in that direction. The most general strike of the beds is to
the N.N.E. The same direction of cleat is prevalent in Yorkshire and
Derbyshire, and this whether the beds strike eastward, as near Leeds and

Sheffield ; or southward, as near Huddersfield and Chesterfield. The same
direction prevails in Lancashire.

* Memoirs of Geological Survey of Great Britain, vol. ii. pt. 1, p. 156.

396 - - REPORT—1856.

‘There are some cases in which the cleat varies in its direction from the
normal strike, and degree or inclination, even (as I have been informed*) in
different parts of one bed of coal. From frequent inspections of cleat in
its ordinary state and near trap dykes and near faults, I conceive that no
doubt can exist of its being a peculiar structure, more resembling the effect
of aggregation under polar attractions than anything else. Coal affected by
it is not properly ‘cleavable’ like slate, but actually cleft into numerous
parallel, nearly vertical tables, whose general direction is remarkably uniform
amidst many variations of other concomitant conditions.

Neither heat nor pressure seem to be specially indicated by the phzno-
mena of cleat, which on the whole most resemble the jointed structure of
rocks, where that is manifested on the smallest scale and in greatest regu-
larity, 7.e. where the dips of the strata are most uniform, and all the conco-
mitant conditions are the most regular. Joints, like cleat, have very preva-
lent directions in given districts, and inclinations to the strata tending to one
angular value in one bed. In parallel beds of the same mineral nature and
in the same series of strata, their strike and dip are often the same. In beds
of a different mineral nature joints vary in character; and in a given series
of argillaceous, calcareous and coarse arenaceous rocks, we may find many
plane close joints in the argillaceous beds, inclined fOr -+ to the strata; a
few large continuous fissures in the limestone nearly perpendicular to the
beds; and a varying number of irregular rents in the sandstone.

Addendum (1857).—Very lately Professor Haughton has instituted accu-
rate measures and calculations founded on the distortion of fossils in cleaved
rocks, and has obtained numerical results which concur with those of
Mr. Sharpe and Mr. Sorby already referred to, in regard to the proof of
pressure in a direction perpendicular to the cleavage plane; they, however,
for the most part, do not indicate greater relative extension on the line of
cleavage dip than on the line of cleavage strike.

On the Stratigraphical Distribution of the Oolitic Echinodermata.
By Tuomas Wrieut, M.D., F.R.S.E.

[A communication ordered to be printed entire among the Reports.]

Aut the classes of the animal kingdom, when viewed in relation to their
stratigraphical distribution, are not of the same value to the paleontologist.
Some Mollusca, as the Conchifera and Gasteropoda, have a much greater
extension in time than the Cephalopoda, and among the Radiata, Corals and
Echinoderms may be adduced as examples of classes whose species had a
limited life in time; in estimating the value of paleontological evidence, it is
therefore necessary to take into consideration this important fact, which has
not received the attention it is so justly entitled to.

The Echinodermata, although occupying a low position in the animal
series, in a zoological point of view, still afford the paleontologist most
important data for discussing questions relative to the distribution of species
in time and space, for it is well known that the Silurian, Devonian, and Car-
boniferous rocks are all characterized by distinct forms of Crinoidea, most of

* Mr. John Buddle gave me an instance of this in the High Main coal of Newcastle, in
1834.
tT Phil. Mag. December 1856.

OOLITIC ECHINODERMATA. 397 |

which are limited in their range to the different stages of these great groups.
It is the object of.this paper to show that the species of the Oolitic Echino-
dermata had a limited range in time, and that the different stages of the
Oolitic formations are characterized by species which are special to each.

Dr. William Smith was doubtless aware of the value of the Echinodermata
in stratigraphical geology, for he carefully noted the different species known
to him which characterized the secondary rocks; and it is a remarkable
fact, that although our knowledge of the species of this class has been
nearly quadrupled since the publication of his works*, still the outlines
sketched by the hand of our great master remain nearly the same as laid out
by him.

The test of the Echinodermata constitutes an internal and integral part of
the body of the animal, participating in its life, intimately connected with the
organs of digestion, respiration, and generation, as well as with those of vision
and locomotion, and having consequently many of the distinctive characters
of the organism indelibly impressed on portions of its skeleton. The individual
plates which compose the columns of the test of the EcHINoIDEA, and the
ossicula which form the skeletons of the ASTEROIDEA, OPHIUROIDEA, and
CRINOIDEA, are organized after distinct plans; they are therefore of great
value in determining the species, as the specific characters are often well pre-
served on even fragmentary portions of the skeleton; for this reason the
remains of this class are of the highest value in stratigraphical geology, and
second to no other class of the animal kingdom in importance.

In the Ecurno1peEa the body is spheroidal, oval, depressed or discoidal,
and enclosed in a calcareous test or shell composed of ten columns of large
plates constituting the inter-ambulacral areas ; and ten columns of small plates
constituting the ambulacral areas, which segments are separated from each
other by ten rows of holes constituting the poriferous zones. ‘ihe external
surface of the plates is studded- with tubercles of different sizes, in the dif-
ferent families ; to these are articulated, by a kind of ball-and-socket joint,
the spines, which are of different sizes, forms, and dimensions in the different
families, and serve to characterize the genera and species,

At the summit of the test is the apical disc, composed of five genital plates
perforated for the passage of the ovarial and seminal canals; and five ocular
plates notched or perforated for lodging the eyes: in one family, the SaLz-
NIAD#, an additional or suranal plate, composed of one or many pieces, is in-
troduced within the circle formed by the genital and ocular plates.

There are two great apertures in the shell, one for the mouth, which is
always at the base ; the other for the anus, which occupies different positions
on the test; in one section it is in the centre of the upper surface, directly
opposite to the mouth, and surrounded by the genital and ocular plates; ina
second section the vent is external to the circle of genital plates, and never
opposite to the mouth, but situated in different positions in relation to that
opening, being placed on the upper surface, on the sides, the border, the infra-
border or the base, in the different groups.

The mouth is sometimes armed with a complicated apparatus of jaws and
teeth, but it is sometimes edentulous, or provided with lobes formed of the

plates of the test itself.

The AsTEROIDEA have a depressed stelliform body provided with five or
more lobes or hollow arms, which are a continuation of the body, and contain
prolongations of the viscera, The mouth is always below and central, and
rows of tubular retractile suckers occupy the centre of the rays. The com-

* Strata identified by Organized Fossils, 4to, 1816, Stratigraphical System of Organized
Fossils, 4to, 1817.

398 REPORT—1856.

plicated skeleton is composed of numerous solid calcareous ossicula, variable
as to number, size and arrangement in the different genera which they serve
to characterize. Their coriaceous integument is studded with calcareous
spines of various forms, and they have a spongy madreporiform body on the
upper surface of the dise near the angle between two rays; reptation is accom-
plished by the retractile tubular ambulacral suckers.

The Oprururorpea have a distinct depressed discoidal body provided with
long slender arms, in which there is no excavation for any prolongation of
the viscera ; they are special organs of locomotion, independent of the visceral
cavity, and provided with spines which are developed on their sides; the
mouth is basal and central, and surrounded by membranous tentacula. The
skeleton is composed of a series of plates which form the disc or centrum,
and the long slender rays are sustained by numerous elongated vertebrate-
like ossicula, having numerous plates or spines disposed along the borders
of the rays to assist in reptation. The form, structure and arrangement
of the discal plates, and of the ossicles of the rays, afford good characters for
distinguishing the genera.

The Crino1pEA have a distinct bursiform body formed of a calyx, com-
posed of a definite number of plates, provided with five solid rays, which are
independent of the visceral cavity, and adapted for prehension ; they have a
distinct mouth and vent, no retractile suckers, and the ovaries open at the
base of the arms into special apertures. The skeleton is extremely compli-
cated, being composed of many thousands of ossicula closely articulated to-
gether, the number, form and arrangement of which are determinate in the
different families, the multiples of five being the numbers which in general
predominate ; the central plate of the calyx is supported on a long jointed
column composed of circular, pentagonal or stelliform plates, the articulating
surfaces of which are sculptured with crenulations that interlock into each
other; in many genera the stem was attached by a calcareous root to the bed
of sea, and supported the calyx and arms upwards like a plant; in others it
appears to have been moveable, and was used as a point of suspension from
submarine bodies, the calyx and arms having had a pendent position.

The mouth is central and prominent, and the vent opens near its side ; the
arms are mostly ramose and multiarticulate, and when extended they formed
a net-like instrument of considerable dimensions.

The four orders of the Echinodermata thus briefly described are the only ones
found fossil in the oolitic rocks, and of these by far the largest number of
species belong to the Ecuino1peA ; for this order I have proposed the fol-
lowing classification, which differs in many essential particulars from that of
previous authors.

As the mouth is always basal, central, subcentral, or excentral, the excen-
tricity being invariably towards the anterior border, this aperture does not
afford a character of primary importance, although when taken in connexion
with others it is valuable in the definition of families.

The position of the anal opening affords a good primary character; in one
section the vent opens within the centre of the apical disc, surrounded by
the genital and ocular plates; in another section the vent opens without the
apical disc, and is external to, and at a greater or less distance from, the genital
and ocular plates: these two sections may be thus defined.

Echinoidea endocyclica.

A. Test circular, spheroiaal, more or less depressed, rarely oblong; mouth
central and basal ; vent in the centre of the upper surface directly opposite

4

WW

ee

OOLITIC ECHINODERMATA. 399

to the mouth, and surrounded by the five perforated genital and the five ocular
plates. Mouth always armed with five powerful calcareous jaws, formed
of many elements disposed in a vertical direction.

Echinoidea exocyclica.

B. Test sometimes circular and hemispherical, oftener oblong, pentagonal,
depressed, clypeiform or discoidal; mouth central or excentral ; vent ex-
ternal to the circle of genital and ocular plates, never opposite the mouth, but
situated in different positions in relation to that opening: four of the genital
plates are generally perforated. ‘The mouth is sometimes armed with jaws,
but is oftener edentulous. The jaws are disposed ina more or less horizontal
direction.

The structure of the ambulacral.areas and poriferous zones, the form,
number, and arrangement of the tubercles and their spines, the presence or
absence of fascioles or semite, the size and form of the elements of the apical
disc, and the position of the anus, afford collectively good characters for de-
fining the genera.

The minute details in the structure of the plates; the size, form, and
number of the tubercles on each ; the form and arrangement of the pores in
the zones ; their proximity or remoteness from each other; the general out-
line of the body, which has only certain limits of variation ; the character of
the sculpture on the plates; the form of the areolas ; the greater or less pro-
minence of the base; the size of the tubercle ; the presence or absence, the
size and arrangement of the granules forming the areolar circle; the com-
pleteness or incompleteness of the same ; the width of the miliary zone, the
number and size of the rows of granules composing it ; the length of the spines;
the form of their stems ; the character of the sculpture on them; the size of
the head, and the prominence and milling of the ring,—are all details of struc-
ture which individually and collectively afford good specific characters, as
they are persistent details which are more or less developed on every consider-
able fragment of the test and spines of the EcHINoIDEA.

Taking these characters for our guidance, I have grouped the genera, already
so numerous by the discovery of extinct forms, into the following natural
families :—

A Table, showing the Sections and Families of the Echinoidea.

ORDER. SECTIONS. FAmMILIEs,
f yeecisie A CIDARID&.
Echinoidea endocyclica. Liam Seca bo
wet : IADEMADZ,
Vent within the genital plates, E
always opposite the mouth. ———
SALENIADA.
OrpEer ECHINOIDEA. EcHINOCONIDZ.
CoLiyRiTID&.
SEcTION B. EcHINONID.
Echinoidea exocyclica. EcHINANTHIDZ.
Vent without the genital plates, | EcHINOLAMFID.
never opposite the mouth. CLYPEASTERID&.
' | EcHINOcORIDZz,
SPATANGID.

400 REPORT—-1856.

A Table, showing the Stratigraphical distribution of the genera and species of
the Oolitic Echinodermata.

Oolitic Group.

Lower Division. Middle Division. | Upper Division.

oP) Veh | Heel el Stole uel #| | 3/2.
4] 3] 2/4) e)a/S\ se e/Z21S| 2 (S| 2 | 2 (38
=) 93/5/9|8/ 3/6) 2/5] 2 ec lal & lal =| 2 les
B/=|EEE| S| z|S|Z/E/B3|s| B]s) 2] 2 |e
3) 3/5) 8/3) 2/5) 2/5/S/38 8) S$ |al a | 5 lee
s/s FA | Fe M718 pl mg] * 1&s
Fam. Crparip&.
Cidaris Edwardsii, Wright .........|..-| *
Ilminsterensis, Wright.......+.|-+ woe
—— Mooreii, Wright .....csececeee|-e:|eee] *
Fowleri, Wright ......s+++000++|-+- sealer]
—— Bouchardii, Wright ...........-|+++|-++|-+- *
— Wrightii, Desor ........ Beane | suo see *
— Bradfordensis, Wright.........}s+-|s++|se-|e++]--]-+e 00+] *
florigemma, Phillips.........0++|-+2|+++|se+] +++ Ao Pod bee Bedee pag cose *| x
—— Smithii, Wright ...ccccccceesecfece|eee|-ee|eoee|eee|eee]ece]eee weve] *]
—— SpPinosa, AYASSIZ ..eseeseseeeeee|eee|ee oe Gee *
—— Boloniensis, Wright.......+...J.++|+++|-+ eJaceleoe]eee|eccecefoee|ons *
Rabdocidaris Moraldina, Cotteau ...|... *
maxima, Miinster ......2cecsecee[eee|err|ece|ecslaeeleee| %
Diplocidaris Desori, Wright .........|.+:|-++|-++ *
—— Wrightii, Desor ....... eeccessglane) seal tee *
—— Cotteauana, Wright...........-|-+++ seleee| oF
Fam. HEMICIDARIDZ.
Hemicidaris granulosa, Wright Sad cre| Pook
—— pustulosa, Wright ......+00..-Jeos|rer|ee- *
—— Stokesii, Wight ....ccceceeeeee[eee|eee|eee|eeefoes *
— Luciensis, d’Orbigny .........|-0-|eee|eee|eee]eee]ere *
———_ MINOY, AGASSIZ coorssrsseeeerver|ere|ers|eeeleee|eoelere|
—— Ramsayii, Wright...... eee Reel biel tal eel ised a aS
—— Bravenderi, Wright .........+0+Jees|eor|ees]eoe]ee-|eee| *
—— Wrightii, Desor ......sseecseveleee|ree[ere|oee|eee|oee [eee * ‘
—— Icaunensis, Cotteau ...ses.sceeefeeeeee[ene|ees|eee| eee] ¥
intermedia, Fleming......+++.+-|-0.|-+|see]ees|ere seeleee[eneleoeleec[eeeee *
Davidsonii, Wright ........+...|... eee lessees | sa Soe) hoe ee Pine: eel BaeBeal baal Reece : *
Purbeckensis, Forbes .....+ere|eee{ec[eee[eee|eoefeee{ece]eee | ceseetsl eos |veceus wa |gasdee|Seancr| OK
Fam. DIADEMADZ.
Pseudodiadema Mooreii, Wright ...|...|--- *
—— depressum, Agassiz ......++++++|.-.|-+ saat Fi |ewe| ==) 3
— Parkinsoni, Desor .+....+0+---[eeeleee Dc ee IN *
—— pentagonum, M‘Coy ......+++|-+/e+ Meal deletes | 2
— homostigma, Agassiz ......+.-|...].+- aut aless| cea ES. # Jeee[
—— Bailyi, Wright ...cccceecgeereseefene[eee * rec| cae. a]
—— vagans, Phillips sss.-seeeeceers|oeelers So2]see| wae} ae slik leks| owe)
-—— versipora, Phillips .....i.see0|eeefecefees[ers]ene BPA rel en |Pae bed ares) en. *
—— hemispharicum, Agassiz ......|...|e0|se-|-+-Jeee|eee|eee|eeeece|eoeererer|ers ane
radiatum, Wright........++ Brera eel cualecc|oual aaclace| ewe) cex| sae cael Seugm laa *
mamillanuim, Roemer ......ceeleee|oee{ece[ere[eee|ene[eee[enelene [eee Shee Nec *
Hemipedina Bechii, Broderip ......| *
Bowerbankii, Wright .......+- *

—— Jardinii, Wright .........cee0. [ee *

OOLITIC ECHINODERMATA. 401

Oolitic Group.

Lower Division. Middle Division. | Upper Division.

a Bike Rae eS 3] Bloale
-| .| S/-4/ 8] a] Bis : my om 3 a
4/4] 4/4] 5/a/Slale|4i22/°) #/°]| S$] 2 isa
|S) | Oo n (9 GaP a 5 oO
3/4/5/S)8) 2/8! 3] z/So /4] 2 S| SF} 3 lee
Bla] SB) 5/2lalsl SlSlseleei/Sl a iol & FREE
Bl S| BV B/S) sl sislsisisais| §|s) 9] B15
2 3 2 By
3] 3/5] 3/3] 81S) EB/o}S5 5) Oo |B) # ojo
asl 7} ae ed ed S| ag] = i

S| —S | —| — | SS) | | SS | | | | |

Hemipedina Etheridgii, Wright ,,,|...|...
Bakeri, Wright. ..ccss.sesseveoee|ers
—— perforata, Wright.....+..cseeees|++|s
—— tetragramma, Wright .......,.Je+}e0.|-++
—— Waterhousei, Wright ......61.].+-|eve|e+
Bonei, Wright ......000.see-e0.[e9
—— Davidsoni, Wright .......... ae

— Woodwardi, Wright ....... cae re lel spe latctatelebal ae

— microgramma, Wright....... ALAZARARABBRALS ERE RIE

—— Marchamensis, Wright ....+.)ee.|.c.Jeoe|er-foreleoslegs[one[ere|eee|eeseen| ¥
a Corallina, WIGhh. os geceesssssae soslecsleerleeeleeelerrlemeleneieerlees[aceeeeisee|
| — tuberculosa, Wright,..-2....c0.|essJeec[ene|ersleeeferelecclenclere[ersfecesee|ede
|] —— Morrisii, Wright ......,.:.00.c.Jecs}ece|es elsdalugalanaloge]-pelstelcas|ansaan|sar|detes *
| Cunningtoni, Wright .........|...Jees{oer]es solecofeerlecelecesce|ses|eoseneleen]
| Pedina rotata, Wright .....cccccssecsjere|eceleee] ® leesfoeeleselassdene] ¥
| —— Smithii, Forbes......,.c00-.seeesfeee *

Fam. Ecuinipm.

Glypticus hieroglyphicus, Goldfuss.|...|...|+«+|...|+«
| Magnotia Forbesii, Wright .........|...|...|-+

Polycyphus Normannus, Desor ...|..-|...|-+-
| —— Deslongchampsii, Wright ...|...}...|-+
| Stomechinus germinans, Phillips...|. ea
- intermedius, Agassiz A
| —— bigranularis, Lamarck. .........|.,.|...|++
microcyphus, Wright .........|...Jso-|+s+]+
——— Byratus, AGAssiz woe pssscceeese [eee

Fam. SALENIADA,
Acrosalenia minuta, Buckman ......

—— Lycettii, Wright ............66|.
——- pustulata, Forbes ..........5
— Wiltonii, Wright ...,........+.

- decorata, Haime ............

weet et eeeleee

j Fam. EcHinoconipz.
| Holectypus depressus, Leske.........Jecesee|eee

hemispheericus, Desor .........|...|...{s«

- Oblongus, Wright... ...ceesseee|ecelecefeeefoee|enelece [er

-conoideus, Wright ........s00e|..-leaeler
Morrisii, Wright ......... meaagalscctuns
umbrella, Lamarck .eccescesseelecs|ecelees

Fam, ECHINOBRISSID.
Echinobrissus clunicularis, Lhwyd..}...|...|...
—— orbicularis, Phillips ......+0006|...|.4.eefee.
P= MAJOT, Agassiz ....0....0ecepeees|eecfoes|ere lore
—— Woodwardii, Wright .........|.e.Jeec[eee

—— dimidiatus, Phillips .........s00|0+.

~~ 1856. "

eeeleeeloseleaclconleerlerelevelsenieererri eee

402

Echinobrissus scutatus, Lamarck
Clypeus sinuatus, Leske...
—— Agassizi, Wright .
altus, MSCoy.....ccscocccccsssses
— Michelini, Wright ...........
Hugii, Agassiz ........
— Solodurinus, Agassiz ......40

— emarginatus, Phillips .........|.+

Fam. CoLLyritTip&.
Collyrites ringens, Desor .........05

ovalis, Parkinson .......
Hyboclypus agariciformis, Forbes...

—— gibberulus, dgassiz .....
—— Ovalis, Wright ..,.....seecceseee

Fam. EcHINANTHID.
Pygurus depressus............. :
pentagonalis, Phillips .. aeiignaeeel

— Phillipsii, Wright.........c0000.
—— giganteus, Wright

Order ASTEROIDEA.

Fam. URASTERID.
Uraster Gaveyi, Forbes .....ssssss00s

Fam. SoLaAsTERID&.
Solaster Moretonis, Forbes ..

seeeeee

Fam. GoNIASTERID.

Goniaster Hamptonensis, Wright...|...

— obtusus, Wright ......+66.4.

Fam. AsTERID#.

Tropidaster pectinatus, Forbes......|...

Astropecten Hastingsiz, Forbes .
Orion, Forbes .......0ce000e
— Phillipsii, Forédes ..........
— Cotteswoldie, Buckman ..
— Wittsii, Wright......
— Forhesii, Wright ......s.ssee0e
—— arenicolus, Goldfuss......
rectus, M‘Coy Aharon
Luidia Murchisoni, Williamson

Order OPHIUROIDEA.

Fam. OrHiuRIDz.
Ophioderma Gaveyi, Wright

—— Milleri, Phillips ...cccccccscecelese

Lower Lias.

Sees Od bee

caudatus, Wright .........00+ 41) :

Blumenbachii, Koch & Dunker ae Bi

ser eseseeserlene

senslens

seeleacleee|.
er eeeleceleee

REPORT—1856.

Lower Division.

Middle Lias.
Upper Lias.

seeeeeeleselene

KERR KE

| Inferior Oolite.
| Fuller’s Earth.

.

.

*

3
Bell
o
als
3|
7|O
Gls
e|
s|o

n

x:

| Bradford Clay.
| Forest Marble.

Cornbrash.

Oolitic Group.

Middle Division. | Upper Division.

: = S| - |e
oe |e "fe & so =;
Selo] ~|5| 5 | B leg
Sig ||| Veo | lee a | heres
MS|s| s | 5| |] 21O8
mo le| * |'s| S| slot
SEO] g lol & |
CS er Ws = a) Sh
SHis| 6 |s| oa lbecs
ZO|E| O Ey g o|5%3
Moya ily <0 eae ba

*

OOLITIC ECHINODERMATA. 403

Oolitic Group.

Lower Division. Middle Division. | Upper Division.
Ape 1 ee 4 | #/2/<d/8,.
SAA o/s) s/s] a) S]/ 2/e0/3] & 3) os] os [oe
5) Sle] |=) S/S] S/2l4| 28/5) a 1S) B] € |B
B| S| 5-2/8) 3 S/S 21 6/8S|5| & |e | =e leh
S)ElslS]3) 85] 2) 5/S/S 2) O18) 2] 2 Se
Ales) (Ae) | |S p| & te
Ophioderma Egertoni, Broderip ...|...|...| *
tenuibrachiata, Forbes ......... wee PEP
— Griesbachii, Wright .......... selrelene|eaefere|eon eealees see | %
— Brodei, Wright.............+ Sdos leet ocd liee
Ophiura Murravii, Forbes ..........4.|-++|*?
Order CRINOIDEA.
Fam. PENTACRINID&.
Pentacrinus tuberculatus, Miller ...| *
— basaltiformis, Miller.......cs0ee|+++| *
— scalaris, Goldfuss .......0..00...| *
— Goldfussii, M‘Coy ....0....... ++.| *
robustus, Wright .......0....05 wee[ K
— Johnsonii, Austin.............0. BA Par ie
— dichotomus, M‘Coy ......... eae eas eee
—— punctiferus, Quenstedt......... Her PEIES
— Phillipsii, Wright.............6. vee leoe| %
—— Milleri, 4ustin............ 3 Bg) Hedy ote ce *
— subsulcatus, Goldfuss ......... Pra Aes Cee Roc eed oe ea 2
| Austenii, Wright ....c0.s..0000 orale cae *
—— subteres, Goldfuss .........66 bel ecelpastess| Seleccione] 2
_| Extracrinus briareus, Miller......... ae
| —— subangularis, Miller ............ 5
Fam. APIocRINIDz.
Apiocrinus Parkinsoni, Schlotheim..|...|...]...|++-|.-.|..-|... *
— elegans, Defrance............+++ Bal erclece Keilfecc[acalee *
— exutus, M‘Coy ........ Sameera Are fea eee are ec eed lace *
Millericrinus Prattii, Gray ......... a Ate:
—— Koninckii, Wright ........s00eJeceleee]en-[ece]eoe[eee[oes *
— echinatus, Schlotheim ......... 5-6 eae! Bee knoe) Bel loo ase Aca hen : *
6/17] 9 43/0} 6|26}9|5|17| 0 |9} 20/0) 4 1 1

152 Species.

Echinoidea........cseceeceeeeee 110
Asteroidea ...scccssscseeeee Boreal <4
Ophiuroidea .............00006 7
CHINOIGGRY Fiapssesessnicessps » 21—152

From the above Tables, it appears that the English Oolitic rocks are known

at present to contain 152 species of fossil Echinodermata, of which 110

species belong to the Order EcutnorpEa; 14 species to the Order As-

_ TEROIDEA; 7 species to the Order OpuiurormpEa; and 21 to the

_ Order Crinorpea. All the species belonging to the. families CibaRIDm,

_ Hemiciparip#, DiapemMaAp#, Ecuintp® and SALENIAD#, have been

. already figured in my ‘ Monograph on the British Fossil Echinodermata of

__ the Oolitic Formations,’ published by the Paleontographical pea and the
; D

404 REPORT—1856.

remainder will appear in due course in the future volumes of that series ; an
analysis of the Table shows that the species are thus distributed :—

LOS TG ampeeareaenanaliel 6 species.
tind 151318 | Fe RS ae i Uf

MADMIEES Mab 2.as oe 9. Bay
InfeniouOoalites oo. esis. AiOe? 55
Brillermsmpiar th tr. /ct.'./.icepe eee HOM. Wes
Stonesfield Slate .......... 6 5;
GreatOolite.. . 65. «vcs srd cs heh a
Bradtord Clay)... - 2: 4 sn 9 Kegi
Forest Marble). jie. d< 4. te Sin ics
Cornbrash. . | Walaa
Oxford Clay and Kelloway .. 0 »
Lower Calcareous Grit 9 355
(oral Mia obi tore hd ca Ped 20> 3,
Upper Calcareous Grit...... Pay
Kimmeridge Clay........ . 4 3
Portland’ Sandis.):ep.biaetaa * Ok -
Marine Purbecks...... oS Sb se ibe ter

The Lias species appear to be special to the three subdivisions of that for-
mation, so well characterized by the species of Ammonites which indicate these
three zones of Liassic life. The Inferior Oolite contains forty-three spe-
cies, of which forty are EcHINorpEA, one ASTEROIDEA, and two are CrI-
NOIDEA ; of these, ten species extend into the Great Oolite, and seven species
pass into the Cornbrash; the Inferior Oolite has therefore twenty-six species
which up to this time have not been found in any other formation, and all the
species from the Lias to the Cornbrash included became extinct before the
deposition of the Kelloway rock and Oxford clay. The Fuller’s earth has
yielded no remains of Echinoderms ; the Stonesfield slate contains six species,
most of which are special to this fissile oolitic rock. The Great Oolite has
yielded twenty-six species, of which nine extend into the Cornbrash, but seven-
teen are special to the Great Oolite stage. The eight species of the Bradford
clay are mostly common to this argillaceous bed, and the Great Oolite lime-
stone on which it rests. The Forest Marble contains seven species, of which
four are common to this rock and the Cornbrash, which contains seventeen
species, most of which are found in the older formations ; with the deposition
of the Cornbrash the lower division of the Oolites terminate, and with it all
the species of Echinodermata found in these rocks became extinct.

The middle division of the Oolites contains far fewer species than the lower.
The Kelloway rock and Oxford clay, so rich in Cephalopoda, have not in
England, as faras 1 can learn, yielded any remains of Echinodermata. The
Lower Calcareous grit, the Coral rag, and Upper Calcareous grit, have
several species in common ; of the nine species of the Lower Calcareous grit,
five are common to it and the Coral rag, which contains twenty species ; but
I have not ascertained how many, if any, pass into the Upper Calcareous grit;
in fact these three stages in reality represent only one stratigraphical zone of
life.

The Kimmeridge clay up to the present time is known to contain only
four species, which are all special to it. There is one species only in the
Portland sand, and one in the Marine Purbeck beds. The Portland Oolitic
limestone is said to contain the remains of Echinoderms, but I have not been
able to obtain any of the specimens for examination.

TENSILE STRENGTH OF BOILER PLATE. 405

On the Tensile Strength of Wrought Iron at various Temperatures.
By Wixiu1am Farreairn, F.R.S. &e.

On a previous occasion I had the honour of conducting, for the Association,

a series of experiments to determine the effects of temperature on the

strength of castiron. In that inquiry I endeavoured to show to what extent
the cohesion of that material was affected by change of temperature, and
taking into account the rapidity with which iron imbibes caloric, and the
facility with which it parts with it, it is equally interesting to know to what
extent wrought iron is improved or deteriorated by similar changes. In the
present inquiry, as in the former on cast iron, the expansion of the metal
by heat is not the question for solution. Rondelet, Smeaton and others have
already investigated that subject, and it now only remains for us to deter-
mine the effects produced on the strength of malleable iron by changes of
temperature, varying from —30° of Fahrenheit to a red heat, perceptible in
daylight.

The immense number of purposes to which iron is applied, and the changes

‘of temperature to which it is exposed, render the present inquiry not only

interesting, but absolutely essential to a knowledge of its security under the
varied influences of those changes; and when it is known that most of our
iron constructions are exposed to a range of temperature varying from the
extreme cold of winter to the intense heat of summer, it is assuredly desirable
to ascertain the effects produced by these causes on a material from which
we derive so many advantages, and on the security of which the safety of

the public not unfrequently depends.

Independent of atmospheric influences, another consideration presents
itself in reference to the durability and ultimate stability of iron under
changes much greater than those alluded to above, and this is the strength
of such vessels as pans and boilers subjected to the extreme temperatures of
boiling liquids on one side, and the intense heat of a furnace on the other.
But even these extremes, however great, do not seem seriously to affect the
cohesive strength of wrought-iron plates, nor do they appear to cause any
disruption of the laminated structure which results from the system of piling
and rolling adopted in the manufacture, excepting only where small particles
of scoria happen to intervene between the laminated surfaces. These not
unfrequently prevent a perfect welding, as the plate is compressed by
passing through the rolls, and the effects of temperature are strikingly
exhibited in the production of large blisters upon the surface of the plate, as
shown in the annexed sketch at
a,a. Now the reason of this is 5 Fig. 1.
the want of solidity and homo- Bbivo i 2]
geneity in the plate, and the con- eT ae
sequent expansion of the lower
part exposed to the greatest heat. Let us suppose, for the sake of illustra-

tion, the plate to be 2ths of an inch thick, and the surface 6 to be the inte-
‘rior of a boiler-plate, and the surface a, a to be exposed to the action of the

fire in the furnace. In this case it is evident that the temperature of the side
a, a may be upwards of 1000°, while that of 6 is very little above 212°, or
the temperature of boiling water ; and supposing there be any imperfection or

‘want of soundness in the plate, the result will be a greater expansion on the
exterior surface, causing it to rise up in blisters in the manner we have de-

406 REPORT—1856.

scribed. These defects are invariably present when the plates are not sound ;
but in other respects, where the bars which form the pile are clear and free
from rust or scoria, and are well-welded in the rolling process, the wide dif-
ference between the temperature of one side and that of the other produces,
apparently, no injurious effect on the strength of the plate. It is, however,
widely different when the whole of the plates are exposed to the same de-
gree of temperature, as in this position the strengths are increased or dimi-
nished according as the temperature approaches or recedes from the point
where the strength is a maximum.

In order to show how the results were obtained, it will be necessary to
describe the apparatus and the mode of conducting the experiments.

The apparatus consisted of a powerful wrought-iron lever, Plate IV. A,
figs. 2 and 3, capable of imparting a force of more than 100,000 lbs., or 45 tons
per square inch to the specimen to be broken. The lever is supported in a
cast-iron standard or frame B, arranged for the reception of specimens of the
material to be subjected to a crushing force or tensile strain. On the short
arm of the lever the plates and bars (one of which is seen at a) were
suspended by a shackle ce, and held down to the bottom of the cast-iron
standard by the rod and screw e; on this rod the box, 6, was fixed, and pre-
pared to hold a bath of oil or water, in which the iron to be broken was
immersed. Below this box was a fire-grate, d, for heating the liquid in the
bath to the required temperature, and this grate could be drawn backwards
from the box 6, when the required temperature was attained or when it be-
came too high. The fulcrum of the lever is shown at f, and the scale in
which the weights were placed at g. The cast-iron standard was firmly
bolted to the heavy balks of timber upon which it stands, and the pressure on
the specimen was adjusted by placing weights in the scale.

The plates experimented upon were of the form shown in fig. 4, reduced
at a, to 24 inches wide, and at b to 2 inches wide, in order to secure frac-
ture at the part of the plate immersed in the liquid in the bath. At each
end two holes are drilled
to receive the bolt which
fixed them in the shackles.
The wrought-iron _ bars
were formed in a similar
manner. They were 7 inch
in diameter, reduced to 2
of an inch at a, and to, |

Fig. 4.

” t _’ ‘ eo tt . '
inch, or 3 inch at b. The ersalblt = alsa ase —4—I
shackles were made to clasp a
the bars below the shoul- ;
ders so as to apply the strain Fig. 5.

requisite to cause fracture.
It is evident that the weak-
est part of the bars being
within the bath, breakage Se ge ae CL Sa ae ers oe a EC
was sure to occur at that
point where the temperature was raised or lowered to the required degree.
With these preparations, the experiments proceeded as follows :—the bar
to be broken was fixed between the shackles of the lever; and, if necessary,
the bath was filled, and the fire drawn close under it; as soon as the intended
temperature was attained, the lever was let down by the crab, and weights
carefully added to the scale until the bar broke. During the process the
temperature was observed from time to time, and the fire adjusted accord-

ae

—————eEe rT t—“‘“‘CO:COC~C

TENSILE STRENGTH OF BOILER PLATE. 407

ingly, and the temperature registered in the Tables was observed imme-
diately after the bar had given way.

Experiments to ascertain the Influence of Temperature on the
Tensile Strength of Boiler Plate.

TaBLE I,—Strain applied in the direction of the fibre.
Boiler plate; sectional area =2°02 x *34="6868 sq. in.

Tempera-| No. of Strain Elongation Breaking weight

ture, - i +s i Remarks.
Sabr,, fj soeaten, | dente, «| | ;
0° 1 18,540 For figures of the specimens ex-
2 26,940 perimented on, see Plate V.,the
3 27,780 numbering of the figures cor-
4 28,620 responding with that of the
5 29,460 tables.
6 30,300
7 31,140 Broke with a clear ringing noise,
8 31,980 almost like cast iron.
9 32,820
10 33,660 | °14 49,009 =21°879 tons.

The temperature in this experiment was reduced to zero by a mixture of
pounded ice and salt, carefully placed round the plate in order to secure the
same temperature in the metal as in the bath.

Taste IJ.—Strain applied across the fibre.
Boiler plate; sectional area=2°5 x ‘313=°7825 sq. in.
60° 1 8,190
2 10,140
3 16,860
4 23,580
5 30,300
6 31,980 162 40,357 = 18-001 tons.

The experiments in the above and No. III. Table were conducted at the
temperature of the atmosphere. Both specimens indicated a hard brittle
iron, the interior laminations having somewhat the appearance of cast iron,
with a fracture widely different from that exhibited when torn asunder in the
direction of the fibre.

Taste III.—Strain applied across the fibre.
Boiler plate ; sectional area =2°0 x *32='64 sq. in.

60° 1 10,140
(1680 lbs.
wasadded Some steely spots in fracture.
at a time
tillweight
10 25,260
11 26,100
in 12 26,940
“> 13 27,780 ‘1 43,406 =19-377 tons.

|

—— ee eeeEeeEeEeSESFSFSFSFSSFSSeSeseseeeeee

408 REPORT—1856.

Tas.eE IV.—Strain applied in the direction of the fibre.
Boiler plate ; sectional area =1:99 x °32=°6368 sq. in.

Tempera-| No. of Strain | Flongation Breaking weight
- = r .
abs. | ruamte, | Seth.) | Smebes. | Pot GS ee ke es
60° 1 10,140
2 18,540
3 20,220
4 21,900
5 23,580 A fissure containing cinder ex-
6 25,260 tended one-third of the breadth’
7 26,100 of the plate. In some parts
8 26,940 the blade of a penknife could:
9 27,780 be introduced.
10 28,620
Il 29,460
12 30,300
13 31,140
14 31,980 | -2 50,219 = 22-414 tons.

In some former experiments on the tensile strength of wrought-iron plates*,
the strength of the specimens was rather more uniform, and there appeared
to be no difference between the strength of the plates when torn asunder in
the direction of the fibre, and the strength when the strain was applied across
it. Comparing Tables II. and III. with IV., we find the breaking weight in
the direction of the fibre is to that across it as 22°41:18°67, or as 5:4 nearly;
but it is possible that this arises from inequality in the rolling of the two
specimens.

Tasie V.—Strain applied across the fibre.
Boiler plate; sectional area =1°99 x *33 sq. inch.

110° 1 25,260
2 26,940 Fracture very uneven.
3 27,780
4 28,620
5 29,460 13 44,160 =19-714 tons.

The last weight was hardly on:
29,000 lbs. was probably nearer
the breaking weight.

TasLe VI.—Strain applied in the direction of the fibre.
Boiler plate; sectional area =2:0 x *34=°68 sq. inch.

112°

18,540

20,220

21,900

23,580

25,260

26,940

28,620 42,088 |=18-789 tons.

STS Ot Go bo

= ee Transactions for 1850, p. 677, the results of which are also quoted at
page 340.

TENSILE STRENGTH OF BOILER PLATE. 409

Tasxre VII.—Strain applied in the direction of the fibre.
Boiler plate; sectional area =2'54 x *32=°8128 sq. inch.

Tempera- | No. of Strain ion|Breaking weight
ture, experi- applied peo per hanate inch Remarks.
1m ids.

Fahr. ments. in lbs.

1 25,260
2 26,940
3 28,620
4 30,300
5 31,140
6
7
8
9

31,980
32,400
33,660
34,500
10 | 35,340
11 35,760
12 | 36,180
13 | 36,600
14. | 37,020

173 40,625 |=18-136 tons.

The last three experiments, at a mean temperature of 114°, indicate a near
approach to uniformity of strength, that broken across the fibre being the
strongest; the very reverse of those fractured at 60°, the numbers being as
197 : 184, or as 44:41 nearly, showing a loss of about ‘007 per cent. It is
difficult to account for these changes and defects in the strengths of the
plates, as most of the specimens were cut from one plate, and all of them
were of the same manufacture.

TasLe VIII.—Strain applied in the direction of the fibre.
Boiler plate ; sectional area =2°6 x 3088008 sq. inch.

212°

1 | 30,300
15

2 31,980

39,935 be 17-828 tons.

Broken in boiling water. This specimen did not break at the narrowest
part of its section, which shows a serious defect in the plate.

Tasie IX.—Strain applied across the fibre.
Boiler plate; sectional area =2:01 x ‘33 ="6633 sq. inch.

212° 18,540
20,220
21,900
23,580
25,260
26,940
27,780
28,620
29,460
30,300 | +11 _ 45,680 |=20-392 tons.

Broken in boiling water.

ee ii, i eee

SENOS Ode

—_

_ In Table VIIL, where the specimen was drawn in the direction of the
fibre, there appears to be some defect in the plate, as it gave way, not at the

smallest section, but at a wider part of the plate, with a force of only

410 REPORT—1856.

39,935 lbs. to the square inch, whereas the same plate torn asunder across
the fibre sustained a force of 45,680 lbs. before breaking. This difference
of strength can only be accounted for by some defect not perceptible when the
fracture was examined. The difference of strength, at the temperature of
boiling water, indicated by these two specimens, is as 178 : 203, or in the ratio
of 87:1.

TasLe X.—Strain applied in the direction of the fibre.
Boiler plate; sectional area =2°0 x °34='68 sq. inch.

Tempera-| No. of Strain

ion |Breaking weight
ture, experi- applied oe per sauaee aN Remarks.
Fahr. ments. in Ibs. in lbs.
212° 1 18,540 Broken in boiling water.
2 20,220
3 21,900
4 23,580
5 25,260
6 26,940
7 27,780
8 28,620
9 29,460
10 30,300
11 31,140
12 31,980
13 | 32,820
14 | 33,660| -22 49,500 |=22-098 tons.

Comparing -this plate with that in experiment VIII., it will be seen that
the power of resistance of the former is more than one-fifth greater than that
of the latter, showing that there must have been some defect in the longer
section of the specimen, or fracture would not have ensued at so early a
period of the experiment. We cannot abandon this experiment, as no defect
presented itself, if we except the highly crystallized state of the fracture,
both specimens having been drawn asunder in the direction of the fibre. In
these experiments it will be observed that the infusion of heat into wrought-
iron plates, from zero to 212°, does not injure, but rather improves, their
tensile strength.

TaBLeE XI.—Strain applied in the direction of the fibre.
Boiler plate; sectional area =2°01 x ‘'32=°6432 sq. inch.

270° 1 18,540 Broken in hot oil.
2 20,220
3 21,900
4 23,580 Broke before the last weight was
5 |2 25,260 fairly on; 28,320 lbs. probably
6 26,940 nearer.
7 27,780
8 28,620 13 44,020 |=19°651 tons.

From this experiment it appears that an increase of 58° of heat makes no
perceptible difference in the strength of the plate. If we take the mean of
the two previous experiments, in the direction of the fibre, it will be found
there is no great difference between them, the mean of Tables VIII. and X.
being 44,708, and Table XI. giving 44,020 lbs. to the square inch.

eee

TENSILE STRENGTH OF BOILER PLATE. 411

Tas_Le XIJ.—Strain applied in the direction of the fibre.
Boiler plate; sectional area =2:0 x *32=64 sq. inch.

Tempera- | No. of Strain Elongation Breaking weight
ture, experi- applied | in inches, | Pet Square inch Remarks,
Fahr. ments. in lbs. in Ibs.

te eee

340° 25,260
26,940
28,620
29,460
30,300
31,140
31,980 | ‘1 49,968 | =22-307 tons.

ST SD St OO bD

In this experiment the plate gave way at the shackle, the bolt which held
the plate tearing through the eye, and forcing away a four-sided piece as the
plate was about to yield to the weight on the lever. We may therefore
safely assume 31,980 or 32,000 lbs. as the ultimate strength or breaking
weight of the plate.

Tas LE XIJI.—Strain applied across tlie fibre.
Boiler plate; sectional area =2:0 x°34=°68 sq. inch.

340° 18,540 Broken in hot oil.
20,220

21,900

23,580

25,260

26,940

27,780 ;

28,620 | °15 42,088 |=18789 tons.

CONT OS) Ot RR OO DO

The mean result of experiments XII. and XIII. is 46,014 lbs., or about
203 tons per square inch, evidently showing that the iron is in no degree
injured by a temperature ranging from zero up to 340°, and this temperature
may probably be increased as high as 500° or 600° without seriously
impairing the strength, as may be seen in the following Table at nearly 400°.

TasLe XIV.—Strain applied in the direction of the fibre.
Boiler plate; sectional area =2:02 x ‘33="6666 sq. inch.

395° 1 18,540 Broken in hot oil.

2 | 20,220
3 21,900
4 | 23,580
5 24,420
6 25,260
7 26,100
8 | 26,940
9 27,780

10 | 28,620

11 29,460

12 30,300

13 30,720 18 46,086 = 20°574 tons,

The only difference between this and the last two experiments is the
“increased elongation, which in the latter was 1:25, and in the former °18

412 REPORT—1856.

inches. However, the elongation of these short specimens cannot always be
depended on, as there is considerable difficulty in ascertaining them accu-
rately.

TasLE XV.—Strain applied across the fibre.
Boiler plate; sectional area =2°0 x ‘31="62 sq. inch.

Tempera- No. of Strain |Plongation |Breaking weight

ture, Fahr. experi- applie in inches. | Pet Square inch Remarks.
; ments. in lbs. in lbs.

—

8,190
10,140
11,820
13,500
15,180
16,860
18,540
20,220
21,900
23,520} 15 38,032 |=16-978 tons.

A scarcely
perceptible
red heat.

SOON Orie Oo bo

_

The plate in this experiment was heated until it became perceptibly lumi-
nous in the shade; it was then loaded, as before, until fracture ensued. In
this experiment it will be observed that a considerable diminution of strength
took place in consequence of the increased temperature, clearly showing that
above a certain point the tensile strength of wrought iron is seriously injured.
This fact is more strikingly apparent in the next experiment, in which the
temperature was raised to a dull red heat, just perceptible in daylight.

TABLE XVI.

In this experiment a plate of the same description as the last was raised
to a dull red heat, when the weight of the lever was allowed to strain the
specimen with a force of 18,540 lbs., and fracture immediately ensued. The
elongation was *23.

Sectional area of boiler plate=1*96 x *31=*6076 sq. inch.
Strain applied across the fibre.
Breaking weight per square inch =30,513 lbs.=13°621 tons.

This experiment is quite conclusive as to the effects produced on wrought
iron whenever it approaches a red heat. At that temperature nearly one-
half its strength is lost; it becomes exceedingly ductile, and is drawn con-
siderably in the direction of the strain before its cohesive powers are
destroyed.

The greatly increased ductility of wrought-iron plates, at a dull red heat,
is strikingly exemplified in the flues of boilers, whenever the water gets low,
or recedes below the surface of the plates, and that more particularly if the
plates are immediately over the fire; in such a position the flues readily collapse
with a comparatively low pressure. In the bending of a plate, when red hot,
a very small force is required ; but within limits of temperature not exceed-
ing 400°, it requires nearly the same force to produce collapse as it would
at any temperature above 32°, or the freezing-point of water*.

* We hope in a short time to give a series of experiments on the resistance of wrought-
iron plates and bars to a transverse and compressive force at various temperatures.

TENSILE STRENGTH OF BOILER PLATE, 413

Collecting the results of these experiments, tabulated above, it will be
necessary to exhibit them in a more condensed form, so as to facilitate com-
parison, and to deduce the laws which regulate the tensile strength of wrought
iron. We may then apply the results of these experiments to a much greater
variety of plates produced in the different districts of England. It will be
borne in mind that the ordinary Staffordshire plates, such as those experi-
mented upon (unless they are double-worked), are rather inferior in quality
to the Shropshire and Derbyshire plates, and much more so to those manu-
factured at the Lowmoor and Bowling Works. Hence the comparison will
only hold good between the Staffordshire plates in each case.

General Summary of Results.

No. of Tempera- Breging Breaking wrsht Breaking bgt Mean breaking wartas of :
eri- wei r square er square inch | wei; er square| strain in regar
pe aly tare, Faby. in Tbs BF i) Ibs. bd Oy i aera. chin Ihe. to fibree
r 0 33,660 | 49,009 21°879 49,009 With.

TI. 60 31,980 40,357 18°00] Across.
II. 60 27,780 43,406 19°377 44,498 Across*.
TV. 60 31,980 50,219 22:414 With.

Vv. 110 29,460 44,160 19°714 Across {.
VI. 112 28,620 42,088 18-789 } 42,291 With.

VII. 120 37,020 40,625 18°136 With.
VII. 212 31,980 | 39,935 17:828 With.
IX, 212 30,300 45,680 20°392 45,005 Across,
X. 212 33,660 49,500 22:098 With.
XI. 270 28,620 44,020 19°651 44,020 With.
XII. 340 31,980 49,968 22°307 46.018 With||,
XIII. 340 28,620 42,088 18°789 } ‘ Across.
XIV. 395 380,720 46,086 20°574 46,086 With.
XV, |Scarcely red} 23,520 38,082 16:978 34.272 Across.
XVI. |Dull red 18,540 30,513 13°621 } , Across J.

From the above Table we may deduce the following :—

Drawn asunder in the direction of the fibre. Drawn asunder across the fibre.
‘Tempera- :
. ture, Breaking weight Breaking weight Breaking weight | Breaking weight
| Fahr. per square inch per square inch per square inch per square inch
in lbs. in tons. in Ibs. in tons.
i) 49,009 21-879
60 50,219 22-4147 41,881 18-689 *
114 41,356 18°462 44,160 19:714t
212 44,717 19:963§ 45,680 20:392
270 44,020 19°651
340 49,968 22307 || 42,088 18-789
395 46,086 20°574
Red. 34,272 15-2999

‘ * Some steely spots in fracture.
= Too high, fracture very uneven,
|| Too low, tore through eye.

+ Fissure containing scoria.
§ Did not break at smallest section.
{ Too high, see Table.

414 REPORT—1856.

From the experimental inquiry into the strength of wrought-iron plates,
as applied to ship-building, we have the following results* :—

Mean breaking weight,
in the direction of the
fibre, in tons per
square inch.

Mean breaking weight,
across the fibre, in
tons per square inch.

od

Yorkshire plates.......cssscesesecsescecees 25°770 27-490
Yorkshire plates....... 22-760 26:037
Derbyshire plates 21:680 18:650
Shropshire plates 22°826 22-000
Staffordshire plates .......s:eeseseseese 19-563 21:010

Meant! Sevsvesercss cones 22-519 23-037

Now if we compare the ultimate strength of the Staffordshire plates in
the above Table with those since experimented upon, we shall have, taking
those in which the strain was applied in the direction of the fibre, for the
former 19°563 tons per square inch, and for a mean of nine experiments of
the latter, ranging in temperature from zero to 395°, 20°408 tons per square
inch. Taking those torn asunder across the fibre, we have for Staffordshire
plates in the above Table 21-010, and for those since experimented on 19°254
tons+ per square inch, which on comparison give the following ratios of re-
sults :—

Staffordshire plates, torn in the direction of the fibre, at a mean tempera-
ture of 191°=20°408 tons, and those (in the above Table) at the tempera-
ture of the atmosphere, or about 60°=19°563 tons, or in the ratio of 1°:*96
nearly, a remarkable coincidence in tensile strength in the two series of
experiments.

Those torn across the fibre, at a mean temperature of 156°, gave a tensile
strength =19°254 tons ; those at the temperature of atmosphere 60°, as shown
in the previous experiments =21:010 tons, or in the ratio of 1: 1-091.

The above results indicate great uniformity in the ultimate strength of
Staffordshire plates, which may safely be taken at 20 tons per square inch at
all temperatures, between the extremes of zero and 400° Fahr., that is, under
a dead weight calculated to destroy the cohesive powers of the material. To
what extent these plates would resist impact, at various degrees of tempera-
ture, we have yet to determine; but assuming that iron is more liable to frac-
ture from an impactive force at a very low temperature ; it will be safer to
calculate on a reduction of their resisting powers, at the lower temperatures
under 32° Fahr., or the freezing-point of water.

These experiments might be multiplied to a great extent, in order to de-
termine the strength of plates under the varied conditions of temperature in
regard to compression, extension, and the force of impact; but we have
already shown in former experiments, and those now recorded above, that
iron is not seriously affected by those changes, and we trust the foregoing
results will prove sufficient to enable the practical engineer to calculate the
resisting powers of iron plates, under all the changes of temperature, from
zero up to a red heat.

* Philosophical Transactions, Part II. 1850, p. 677.
+ The mean temperature of nine, broken in the direction of the fibre, is 191°; and the
mean temperature of five, broken across the fibre, excluding red heat, is 156°.

"2 ie @e@ey

eles)

—r Cr

4
2
)
Ps
+4

TENSILE STRENGTH OF RIVET IRON. Ald

Experiments on the Tensile Strength of Rivet Iron.

At the time when the preceding experiments were instituted, it was con-
sidered expedient to make them on plates of ordinary quality, and of the de-
scription in general use. For this purpose Staffordshire plates were selected,
as being of medium quality, such as are employed in the construction of boilers,
ship-building, &c. Plates of a higher character, such as the Lowmoor and
double-worked qualities, might have been selected ; but those most in demand,
and which are manufactured in large quantities, were considered more de-
sirable, although it left untouched a question of some importance in regard
to the influence of heat upon the finer qualities, generally known as “ serap”
and “ fagotted” iron. This description of iron is forged from old iron serap,
and rolled into bars for bolts and rivets. It is a fine ductile iron of great
tenacity, and works freely under the hammer; and it was determined to apply
to it the same experimental tests as had been applied to the Staffordshire

lates.
: From the results of these experiments, it will be seen that they indicate
precisely the same law as was found to influence the Staffordshire plates,
the maximum strength being at a temperature of 325°, rather higher than
that indicated by the plates. This is irrespective of the superior strength of
the bar iron as compared with that of the plates.

Having prepared the lever, as before, a long bar, iths of an inch in
diameter, was selected and cut into lengths, which were then reduced to the
form shown in the
annexed sketch, |
with shoulders to
receive the shackle. The specimens, when immersed in the bath, were drawn
asunder by the same process as that described for the plates.

Experiments to ascertain the Influence of Temperature on the
Tensile Strength of Rivet Iron.

TasLeE XVII.—Area of section =:24850.

Tempera-| No.of | Strain Elongation Breaking weight

-- Sei yi Geel i oa.
—30° 1 9,205 Broken in a mixture of pounded
2 9,415 ice and crystallized chloride of
3 11,648 calcium.
4 10,045 Figures of some of the fractured
KK specimens will be found in
58 15,610 Pl. IV. fig. 1, numbered to cor-
respond with the tables.
59 15,715 “80 63,239 |=28-231 tons.

From the above it will be observed that the strength of the best quality of
bar iron greatly exceeds that of the plates, being in this experiment two-
fifths more, and in some experiments, at higher temperatures, nearly double

_ that of the Staffordshire plates.

416. REPORT—1856. 1
TaBLe XVIII.—Sectional area =°24850.

Tempera-| No, of Strain Elongation Breaking weight
ture, experi- applied | 5, inches, | Pet square inch Remarks.
in

Fahr. ments. in lbs.

+60° 1 | 12,565
2

lbs.

—

13,405
3 13,812 A large bright spot, like steel, in
4 14,035 fracture.
OK OK
16 15,295
7 15,400 82 61,971 = 27°665 tons.

There is a slight diminution in the strength of this bar as compared with
the previous experiment at —30°, but the discrepancy is scarcely appreciable,
and may easily be accounted for by inequalities in the forging or rolling of
the bar.

Tasie XIX.—Sectional area =*24.850.

1
2
3 12,565 Drew out at shoulder.
4 12,985
2K kk
30 15,715
31 15,820 “56 63,661 | =28-419 tons.

The strength of the bar in this experiment is a trifle in excess of those
fractured at —30° and 60°. It would have been rather stronger had it been
rounded at the shoulder to prevent its pulling out there, as shown in the figure.
However, there is little difference in the strength of the material through
a range of 90° of temperature.

TaBLE XX.—Sectional area =*24:850.

10,885 Pulled out at shoulder. After
12,565 between 13,000 and 14,000 Ibs.
13,405 had been laid on, only 105 lbs.
13,615 were added at a time, as it gave
* hohe more correct indications of the
17,500 strength as the bars approached
fracture. .
17,605 D6 70,845 =31-627 tons.

It has already been observed that the whole of the specimens for experi- _
ment were cut from one bar, and as each experiment was conducted with
great care, both in preparing the specimens and laying on the weights, we
are bound by the results to believe that the increased strength of this de-
scription of iron is due entirely to the increase of temperature. In this ex-
periment, it will be seen that the resisting power of the bar ruptured at 114°
was to that of the bar ruptured at 60° (Table XIX.) as 1 : °898.

TENSILE STRENGTH OF RIVET IRON. 417

Taste XX1.—Sectional area =24.850.

Tempera- | No. of Strai ion |Breaking weight
aes experi- apened ea ru Fea .: a Remarks,
Fahr. ments, in Ibs. in lbs,
212° le 12,565
| 2 12,985
3 13,405
4 13,825 |
5 14,245 |
eRe |
| 76 | 21,805 | At this point it was discovered
| | that the bar was cutting into
| the shackle; the experiment was
1 12,565 | therefore discontinued till a
2 12,985 new shackle could be prepared,
3 13,405 | and it was then repeated.
4 13,825
KKK |

56 19,285 "64

—_—_—,:,|_——— | ——. | rs es

Mean ......| 20,545 82,676 =36-900 tons.
ee ee a ee tT tyne aid gin

This bar tore into the shackle, so that the strain was not thrown properly
on it; the experiment was therefore discontinued, and another shackle sub-
stituted with the bearing-edges steeled. When the same bar was tried again,
having been injured in the previous experiment, it broke with 19,285 lbs.
Under these circumstances, we have taken the mean of the two experiments
21,805 + 19,285

2

=20,545 as the breaking weight, as recorded in the Table.

TaBLe XXII.—Sectional area =+19635.

nes Seer HU GLE. SUG RE thar Leia
{ ai | 1 | 19,565 |
a) 13,405 | Bar defective: a large longitudinal
| | 3 | 14,245 | fissure, filled with scoria.
| 4 | 14,350 |
5 | 14455 |
6 | 14,560) -47 | 74,153 | =33-104 tons.

There is a progressive increase in the strength of the bars as the temperature
ascends, Table XX. exhibiting an increase of 11,831 Ibs., and Table XXII.
an increase of 3,308 lbs. over the breaking weight at 114°. Taking the

_ mean of the two last experiments, we have an increase of 7,569 lbs. over the

7

OSS."

breaking weight in experiment XX.

TABLE XXIII.—Sectional area =-24850.

14,245
| 15,925
| 16,135
| 16,345
| KKK
| 20,020
| 20,125 | -66 80,985 |—36-154 tons.

3
40

This experiment being at the same temperature as the two last, viz. 212°, it
6. 2E

418 REPORT—1856.

will be proper to take the mean of the last three Tables as the breaking

82,676 + 74,153 + 80,985

weight at that temperature, =79,271|bs. per square

inch=ultimate breaking weight at 212°.

TaBLE XXIV.—Sectional area =*19635. +

Tempera- | No. of Strain Elongation Breaking weight
ture, experi- applied | jn inches. | Pet Square inch Remarks.
Fahr. ments. in Ibs. in lbs.
250° 1 10,045
2 | 10,885
3 | 11,725
3K OR Kk
43 | 15,925
44 16,135 ‘6 82,174 |=36°684 tons.

Here again, in the above experiment, is a perceptible increase of strength,
as the temperature rises 38°, from 79,271 to 82,174 ]bs. per square inch, and
so in the next Table, where the increase is still greater.

TasLe XXV.—Sectional area =*24850.

12,565
13,405
14,245
15,085
15,400
15,925
16,345
2K OK KOK
20,545
20,650 | -74 86,056 | =88-417 tons,

ams NOOR COD

tae’

The increase of 20° of temperature in this experiment gives a correspond-
ing increase of strength of 3882 Ibs. per square inch, something more than
the increase exhibited in the previous experiment. There is, however, a
remarkable coincidence in the ratio of the strengths as they rise with the
increase of temperature, the only exceptions being those of Tables I. and
XXII, but in both cases the anomaly is sufficiently explained by the state of
the fracture.

TABLE XXVI.—Sectional area =:19635.

| 12,565
14,245
15,085
15,295

310°
|
i
| 15,715

1
2
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 15,820 | 63 80,570 | =35:968 tons.

In this experiment it will be observed that there is a falling offin tenacity
with the increase of temperature from 86,056 to 80,570 lbs. per square
inch. It is difficult to account for this discrepancy, as the fracture in this,
as in the previous and succeeding experiments, appeared sound and free
from flaws of any description,

>

;

TENSILE STRENGTH OF RIVET IRON. 419

TasBLE XXVII.—Sectional area =:19635.

Tempera- | No. of Strain Elongation Breaking weight

Fahe. | tabots, | ehpet | iminches. | Per sgusre inch aid ak
325° 1 10,045
2 | 10,885
3 | 11,725
* KKK
53 | 17,080
54 | 17,185 6 87,522 |=39-072 tons.

The above bar, although of the same quality and appearance as that in the
previous experiment, gives no less than 6952 lbs., upwards of three tons,
greater tenacity than its predecessor. The former appeared equally tough
and fibrous in the fracture, and the elongation in the same distance was
rather more than in the latter, and yet it is about one-twelfth weaker.

TasLe XXVIII.—Sectional area =:24850.

415° 1 12,565
2 14,245
3 15,085
4 15,925
5 16,765
* KKK
8
9

20,230
20,335 64 81,830. |=36-531 tons.

In this experiment there is a decrease in the strength with an increase of
temperature of 90°, but in the next experiment, with a further increase of
20°, the strength again rises from 81,830 to 86,056, or nearly two tons,
_ which shows that the increase of 100° of temperature has not seriously
affected the molecular constitution of the iron. This irregularity, after so
constant an increase of strength, indicates that we have about reached the
_ Maximum strength of the material. We shall see hereafter that the increase
_ of strength from —30° to 325° has been four-tenths, nearly one-half.

Taste XX1X.—Sectional area =*24.850.

435° 12,565
13,405
13,812
14,035
14,245
14,665
15,085
* +X
21,280 .
21,385 744 86,056 |=388-415 tons.

Aor NO) St > GO Oe

[=rB=r)

The difference between this and the last experiment is about one-eighteenth,
part of the former in favour of the latter. This difference we cannot account
‘or by an examination of the fractures; but taking the mean of the two, and
_ comparing it with Table XXVILI., it appears that we have passed the maxi-

‘mum strength, and recede from it in the ratio of 87,522 : 83,943, or as 1 :°959.
Ef 2E2

420 REPORT—1856.

TasLe XXX.—Sectional area ='24850.

Temperature raised to red heat, visible by daylight.

Broke with the weight of the lever =8,965 lbs.

Elongation ='55.

Breaking weight per square inch =36,076 lbs. =16°105 tons.

In this experiment, as in those on the plates, the tenacity of the iron is
seriously injured before the temperature reaches dull red heat ; and when that
point is attained, it has lost more than one-half its powers of resistance to
strain. At this high temperature it becomes exceedingly ductile and weak
when subjected to any description of force, inasmuch as it becomes so pliable
that it is immaterial whether the strain applied is compressive, tensile or
torsional. Under any of these forces it is not to be depended upon at a
temperature bordering upon redness.

Collecting the results of the foregoing experiments in their consecutive
order into a Table, we see that the maximum strength of bars appears to be
attained at a mean temperature of about 320°. This is above the tempera-
ture at which the maximum strength of the plates was attained ; but it is to
be remembered, that little or no change is observable in the strength of the
plates, whilst that of the bars is increased nearly one-half.

This fact is worthy of notice, inasmuch as in countries where the climate
is hot and never descends below freezing, the best bar iron will retain a
power of resistance equal to 29 tons upon the square inch, whereas in colder
and more northerly districts it would not be safe to calculate upon more
than 28 tons to the square inch.

General Summary of Results.

No. of Breaking | Elon- Breaking Breaking | Mean break-

Temperature, experi- weight gation | weight per weight per | ing weight | Remarks |
Fahr. ment, in Ibs. pein square inch | square inch | per square ay
inches. in lbs. in tons. inch in Ibs. }
|
—30 XVII. 15,715 80 63,239 28-231 63,239 |Too low.
+60 XVIII. 15,400 82 61,971 27°665
60 XIx.| 15;820 | -56 | 63,661 | 28-419 } 62,816 Too low.
114 XX. 17,605 ‘56 70,845 | 31-627 70,845 Too low.
212 XXI.| 20,545 “64 82,676 36°900
212 XXII. 14,560 “47 74,153 | 33°104 79,271
212 XXII. 20,125 “66 80,985 | 36:154
250 XXIV.| 16,135 : 6 82,174 36°684 82.636
270 XXV.| 20,650 | -74 | 83,098 38-417 } ,
310 XXVI. 15,820 63 80,570 35°968 84.046
325 XXVII. 17,185 6 87,522 39-072 } :
415 | XXVIII. 20,335 64 81,8380 36531 83.943
435 XXIX.| 21,385 74 86,056 38-415 } :

Red heat. XXX. 8,965 55 36,076 167105 35,000 Too high.

In the above Table we perceive a steady improvement in the strength of
the iron from 60° up to 325°, where the maximum appears to be attained.
As already noticed, this improvement does not present itself in the inferior
descriptions of irons, such as the plates tested in the preceding experiments.
This may arise from the different processes pursued in the manufacture, the
bars being rendered fibrous and ductile, in the first instance, under the
hammer, and this is further improved by reheating them and passing them |
between the rolls. Bar iron will thus be drawn by the hammer and rolls’

TENSILE STRENGTH OF RIVET IRON. 421.

to from twenty to twenty-five times its original length ; whilst plates, such
as we have selected, never come under the hammer, and seldom exceed six
Bee times the length of the original shingle after passing through the
Tolls.

On comparing these results with those of a similar quality of iron, viz.
S.C. & bar iron, experimented upon at Woolwich Dockyard, it will be found
that a corresponding and progressive increase of strength is equally appa-
rent as in the above experiments; that increase, however, arising from a
different cause, namely, the repeated fracture of the bars as exhibited in the
following Table :—

First breakage. | Second breakage.| Third breakage. |Fourth breakage.

ee eS ae Rao Eee ee [fet Spt ae co Reduced
aoe Stretch Stretch Stretch Stretch ne
Tons. in 54 Tons. | in 36 Tons. | in24 | Tons. | in 15 to
inches. inches. inches. inches.
in. in. in. in.
A 33°75 9-125 | 35°5 2°00
C 33°75 9-250 | 35:25 25 | 87:00|1:00 | 38°75 1:25
E 32°5 9:250 | 34°75 | 1:25
F 33:25! 10500 | 35:50} 1:12 | 37:25} ‘62 40°40} ...... 1:18
G 32°75 8-500 | 35-00} 1:25 | 87°5 | ...... A041] ...... 1:25
H 33°75| 10°625 | 36:25| 1:87
I 33°50 8-375 | 34:50 “62 | 36°5 | 1:50 :
J 33:50| 9-250 | 36:00! +25 | 36°75| 1-120 | 41°75] ...... 1:25
L 32-25 |Defective| 36°50) 1:5 37°75 | ...6. | 41:00} “31 1:25
M 30:25 |Defective| 36°50} .-62 37-:75| -06 | 38:50] -06 1:25
Mean ......... 32°92 | 0... 35°57 | .....- | 37°21) .....- 40°16] ...... 1:24 -
Bo ien f) Po oe]. ce 25-86 | «0... 27-06 | .eeeee 29-20) ...... 90
square inch -

From the above it will be seen that the mean strength of the bars was
24 tons, whilst that of the rivet iron was 28 tons per square inch, at a tem-
perature of 60°, and that the former attained its maximum strength of
29 tons from repeated breakages, whilst the latter reached a strength of
37 tons by an increase of temperature up to 317°. These are curious and
interesting facts, exhibiting a parallel increase of strength, in the one case
resulting from repeated strains, in the other from increase of temperature.

The foregoing Table indicates a progressive increase of strength, notwith-
standing the reduced sectional area of the bars. This fact is of considerable
importance, as it shows that a severe tensile strain is not injurious to the
bearing powers of wrought iron, even when repeated to the extent of four
times. In practice, it may not be prudent to test bars and chains to their
utmost limit of resistance ; ,it is however satisfactory to know, that in cases of
emergency those limits may be approached without incurring a serious risk
of injury to the ultimate strength of the material.

It is further important to observe, that the elongations are not in propor-
tion to the forces of extension; thus in the bar F, the elongation of a bar,
_ 54 inches long with 33-25 tons, is 10°5 inches, giving an elongation per unit
of weight and length= SOP nEEX 0058, whereas an additional weight of

225 tons produces an elongation of 1°25 inches in 36 inches of length of

1°25

j bar, giving an elongation per unit of length and weight=a.5.~-9¢ ='0154;

25x36
_ that is, the elongation in this case is about three times that in the former.

422 REPORT—1856.

From the experiments on rivet iron we have a mean elongation, in four-
: ; : 643 :
teen experiments, of °643 inches in 25 inches, or 5 = 257 per unit of
length; and in those on the S. C. — bars, we have a mean elongation of
274, as given in the following Table :—

. Elongation per
Length of bar. Elongation. iiit oF leagth,

216
233
"244
‘258
420

Hence it appears that the rate of elongation of bars of wrought iron in-
creases with the decrease of their length; thus while a bar of 120 inches has
an elongation of ‘216 inch per unit of its length, a bar of 10 inches has an
elongation of 42 per unit of its length, or nearly double what it is in the
former case. The relation between the length of the bar and its maximum
elongation per unit, may be approximately expressed by the following
formula, viz.—

25

i= 18+7>

where L represents the length of the bar, and / the elongation per unit of
length of the bar.

It is difficult to measure accurately the elongations in 2} inches, but the
following Table shows the elongation per unit of weight and length at
various temperatures, as exhibited in the experiments on rivet iron.

Temperature, | Elongation per | Mean elongation
Fahr.

ton per inch. per Bess . hcg
—30 00284 00284
+60 ‘00297 :
60 00197 00247
114 00177 00177 |
212 00173
212 00142 00162
212 00182
250 ‘00164 :
270 O0tga } 00178
310 “00175 :
325 00153 } 00164
415 ‘00175 :
435 ae } 00183
Red heat. “00341 00341

The two first experiments, at low temperatures, are rather anomalous, but
the rest are more consistent, showing that the elongation per unit of length
and weight is nearly the same at all ordinary temperatures, but is more than
doubled at red heat.

MERCANTILE STHAM TRANSPORT ECONOMY. 423

‘Mercantile Steam Transport Economy. By Cuaries ATHERTON,

Chief Engineer of Her Majesty’s Dockyard, Woolwich.
[A Communication directed to be printed entire among the Reports of the Association. ]

THE construction of ships and the administration of shipping affairs, invol-
ving a multiplicity of considerations of a scientific and of a practical and
mercantile character connected with these arts, requires that shipping direc-
tion be regarded and treated as the subject of an exclusive science; and, of
late years, the progressively extended application of steam to maritime pur-
poses, and the prospect of its general use as an auxiliary power, have still
further complicated the subject, and extended the range of mercantile
acquirement which is now necessary in the prosecution of steam-ship equip-
ment, direction, and management. It is therefore with diffidence, and with
the feeling of my not possessing the combination of qualifications which is
necessary to ensure adequate justice being done in all respects to the eluci-
dation of the important subject, ‘Steam Transport Economy,” that I enter
upon the task of bringing that subject before the notice of the British Asso-
ciation for the Promotion of Science. I am, however, encouraged by the
assuring reflection that public utility is a field in which it is an honour to
labour, that lenient consideration for individual deficiencies and the helping
hand of others will be extended to the most humble delvers in that field, and
that credit may be earned in proportion to the roughness and obdurate nature
of the spot of ground which we may have undertaken to break up, and to
the perseverance by which one may at least attempt the accomplishment of
the assigned task. Permit me, therefore, to remark, that my present appeal
to the British Association is but a continuation of my previous efforts in the
cause of steam exposition, with a view to bringing “ Steam Transport Eco-
nomy ” within the pale of arithmetical calculation ; and asI shall have occa-
sion to refer to the enunciation of principles and to the details of calculations
which have thus preceded this essay, it may be convenient that I briefly
enumerate the various published statements thus referred to as forming an
integral portion of this paper, and which, accordingly, I beg to hand in to
the Association for the purposes of reference and record.

Ist. A brief essay on ‘ Marine Engine Construction and Classification,’
published by Weale, in 1851.

The object of this essay was to analyse the data afforded by published and
authentic statements of the actual test-trial performances of various steam-
ships, and ascertain, by means of such comparative analysis, what are the
peculiarities or proportions of build, and what are the peculiarities of engine-
construction of those vessels which have attained to the highest degrees of
locomotive efficiency, thereby also scrutinising how far the popularly re-
ceived notions in regard to steam-ship type and marine engine construction,
supposed to be most conducive to locomotive efficiency, may be in accord-
ance with, or in opposition to, the results of actual experience, when mea-
sured by any definite and received law.

2nd. An essay on ‘Steam-ship Capability,’ originally published in 1853,
and of which a second edition, with supplement, was published by Weale, in
1854.

This essay was designed to demonstrate the mutual relations which subsist
between displacement, power, and speed in steam-ships ; especially as respects
the increasing scale of engine-power by which progressive increase of speed
is attained; and to show the difficulties which attend the prosecution of a
steam service in which long passages are required to be performed ata high

424 REPORT—1856.

rate of speed; also to show the sacrifice which attends the employment of
vessels of an inferior type of build, as compared with vessels of’ a superior
type. The supplement published with the second edition of this essay ex-
tended the tabular calculations to embrace vessels of hypothetical magni-
tude, and to demonstrate a system of £ s. d. arithmetical calculation appli-
cable to estimating the cost of goods conveyance per tun weight by steam-
ships, based on the constructive type of the ship, the speed to be realized,
and the size of ship employed to do the work. The appendix to this essay
embraces a dissertation on the probable capabilities of ships of unprece-
dented magnitude, showing the advantage of magnitude so far as mechanical
principles are concerned irrespective of mercantile considerations, and under
what combinations of speed and distance without re-coaling, comparatively
with the more frequent coaling depots available to smaller vessels, the me-
chanical advantage of magnitude becomes neutralized ; also giving new tables
for facilitating steam-ship calculations, by showing the cubes of numbers
from 5 to 25, rising by the decimal ‘01, and the cube-roots of the squares of
all numbers likely to be embraced in the tonnage displacement of ships.

3rd. A paper on “ Steam-ship Capability,” read before the Society of
Arts, London, 16th May, 1855.

The object of this paper was to expose the indefinite nature of the terms
«horse-power” and “tonnage” as respects their not being what they are
generally supposed to be, definite units of measurement of engine-power and
ships’ size ; also to show the uselessness for scientific purposes of all statistical
data based on nominal horse-power and nominal tonnage, and the fallacy of
all calculations based on those indefinite terms, thence showing the necessity
for some definite measure of power being legalized as the unit of power to
be denoted by the term “ Marine Horse-power,” and used as the base of
calculation and contract engagement in steam shipping affairs.

4th. A paper on “ Tonnage Registration,” read before the Society of Arts,
London, January 16, 1856, with the discussions thereon.

The object of this paper was to show the insufficiency for scientific pur-
poses of the system of tonnage registration now in force, as prescribed by
the Merchant Shipping Bill of 1854, in so far that under this Act the
registered tonnage of a ship affords no certain indication of the tons weight
of cargo that the ship will carry, nor does it give, even approximately, the
displacement with reference to any given draught; nor does the registration
afford any indication of the power capable of being worked up to by the
engines of steam-ships, or any other data whereby the dynamic properties or
locomotive duty of vessels may be scrutinized on scientific principles. By
this paper, I brought forward certain suggestions for public consideration
and discussion with a view to our official registration of shipping being ren-
dered more comprehensive for the fulfilment of the various useful purposes
to which statistical registration, if complete, would undoubtedly conduce, in
a scientific point of view, irrespectively of merely fiscal objects.

These papers, of 16th May 1855, and 16th of January 1856, urging the
establishment and recognition of definite units as the legal admeasurement of
marine engine-power and ships’ tonnage, I beg respectfully to submit to the
notice of the Committee appointed by this Association for the consideration of
the tonnage question, of which Committee I had the honour of being named
a member, but I was under the necessity of declining to take part on this
Committee in consequence of my being, as above stated, committed to cer-
tain views and publicly engaged in agitating the question of ‘Tonnage Regi-
stration amendment, with a view to supplying the deficiencies of the present
system.

i MERCANTILE STEAM TRANSPORT ECONOMY. 4.25

_ Having thus shown that various investigations essentially connected with
the elucidation of the subject now before us, “ Steam Transport Economy,”
have constantly and publicly engaged my attention since 1851, I may now,
in the beginning of my paper, announce the proposition to which I hope to
direct the attention of the British Association.

Now, what I have undertaken to demonstrate is this: that, in consequence
of there being no legalized definitions of the terms PowER and TONNAGE as
standard units of quantity applied to the prosecution of steam navigation,
there is practically no definite measure of quantity whatever attached to
those terms, even although they are so generally made use of as the base of
pecuniary contracts, and that, in addition to the private evils as between
buyer and seller resulting from this singular anomaly in matters of mercan-
tile account: the public evils, resulting from nominal “horse-power” and
“tonnage ” being terms which cannot be scientifically recognized as express-
ing either the working power of marine machinery or the size of a ship, are
monstrous, inasmuch as they publicly defeat science from being brought to

_ bear on steam-ship construction and steam-ship management as a means of
_ investigation and proof whereby to confirm the existence and establish the
continued adoption of good practice where good practice does exist, and to
detect error either in the construction of steamers or in the management of
steamers in cases where bad types of construction and mal-administration
may exist and be destructive of enterprise, which might otherwise have con-
duced to public good. In short, my object is to show that in consequence
of the deficiencies in our national standard units of power and tonnage, and
deficiencies of our statistical registration, the public are deprived of the
benefits capable of being derived from science as a means of discriminating
between good and bad practice in the great matter of shipping, thus enabling
us to take advantage of the one and explode the other. The constructive
_ merits of steam-ships in a dynamic point of view may be comparatively de-
_ termined by the ratio that subsists between the amount of displacement that
is propelled from place to place, the speed or time in which the vessel per-
forms the given passage, and the engine-power exerted or the coal consumed
in the performance of the work; yet every ship that is launched, and goes
with flying colours upon the usual test-trial, is always for the day pronounced
to be the most wonderful ship that ever was built; and no wonder that it is
so, considering that the dynamic merits of ships are thus determined, not by
_ any admitted rule based on the mutual relations of displacement, power, and
speed, but by acclamation based on the mutual interests of all concerned, |
that a new ship shall be of good repute. All attempts to expose this mon-
strous deficiency in our nautical system by urging the importance of statis-
tical registration, have been held up to reprobation as an interference with
the shipping interests, regardless of the fact that it is the public who pay the
penalty of an enhanced price of goods transport consequent on whatever
deficiencies may exist in connexion with the locomotive properties of our
shipping.
_ In justification of these remarks as to our denominations of ships’ tonnage
and engine-power being a delusion, subversive of all truth so far as scientific
inquiry and research may be based thereon, I may be permitted to adduce
the following statements :—
Ist. As to tonnage registration. Although tonnage measurement for re-
’ gistration has been subjected to legislative revision under the Merchant
_ Shipping Act of 1854, the term “tonnage’’ is still made use of in various
Significations. By the present law, 100 cubic feet of internal roomage, or
available space for cargo, constitutes the unit of tonnage, but as respects all

7

426 : REPORT—1856.

ships built previously to the month of May 1855, when this Act came into
operation, the adoption of this law is not compulsory. Merchants have the
privilege of retaining the former registration of some ships, and getting such
others of their ships measured and registered under the new Act as they may
think fit to select for re-registry, so that the term “tonnage” may now signify
‘builders’ tonnage,” old measure, under the Act of 1773, or tonnage under
the Act of 1833, or tonnage under the Act of 1854; and these are three
totally different systems of admeasurement, having no definite ratio to each
other. Moreover, the unit of tonnage under the Act of 1854 being based
on internal roomage measuring up to the deck, affords no certain indication
of the displacement of a ship when loaded fit for sea, nor does it afford any
assurance whatever as to the tons’ weight of cargo that a ship will earry ; for
example, by adopting the cellular principle of build now introduced in the
construction of iron ships, a ship of 10,000 cubic feet of internal roomage, or
100 tons register tonnage, may have such external displacement as would
safely float with the whole internal roomage filled with iron, and therefore
weighing no less than 1000 tons of dead weight, or ten times the register
tonnage, and the registration of steam-ships is open to similar delusion as to
their capability for weight of cargo. So much for the mercantile liberties
that may possibly be introduced and taken with our statistics of exports and
imports so far as they may be based on the tonnage registration of shipping
under the Act of 1854.

The abortiveness for statistical and scientific purposes which has hitherto
attended all legislation on tonnage registration, appears to have been occa-
sioned by the attempt to embrace under the one term “tonnage,” two things
which have no fixed ratio to each other, namely, tonnage by bulk, and ton-
nage by weight. The law has not comprehended the double mercantile use
and application of the term “ton” by providing for the separate and distinct
registration of each, namely, tonnage by bulk and tonnage by weight, the
capability of ships for holding bulk tonnage being dependent on internal room-

age; but the capability of ships for carrying weight tonnage being dependent.

on external displacement, a distinction which is not noticed by the new law
of tonnage admeasurement under the Act of 1854.

2nd. As to marine engine-power. Although Watt originally defined the
unit of power, which he denominated horse-power, as equivalent to 33,000 lbs.
weight raised one foot high in one minute of time, and invented a mecha-
nical device or instrument called a “ steam-indicator,” whereby the variable
pressure of the steam in the cylinder and consequently the working power
of steam-engines could be readily ascertained (whence the working power so
ascertained was denominated the “indicated horse-power”), all which ar-
rangements of Watt put the working operation of the steam-engine originally
on a scientific base, defined by a standard unit of power admeasurement,
still this definite unit of power was never recognized by law, and conse-
quently the steam-engine was uo svoner applied to maritime purposes, than
the rivalry of trade introduced a practice under which the nominal, or contract
power of engines, did not specifically regulate the working capability of the
engine delivered. Engines were not objected to by the purchaser if their
working capabilities were in excess of the nominal power, and engineers
themselves voluntarily supplied marine engines working up to an “ indicated
power far in excess of the nominal” power, for the purpose of thereby dri-
ving the new vessel at a higher rate of speed than that attained by some rival
vessel with the same nominal power. Reputation for the production of fast
steamers depended on beating the rival boat, not on the mode of effecting
that object, The shipping interests and their working craftsmen, ship-

a

wrights and engineers, felt themselves constrained to meet their rivals in
trade with their rivals’ weapons ; numerous devices have been adopted with
a view to the development of power on board of ship by packing the greatest
amount of engine-power into the least space, and undoubtedly great improve-
ments have been made by adapting the dimensions and proportions of vessels
to the service required, but still “ Fame,” in regard to the character of steam-
ships based on speed, has been too much the result of horse-power delusive
jockeyship rather than of truthful science. By the practice of trade, horse-
power came to be measured by the diameter of the cylinder, without any
- limitation as to the capabilities of the boiler, and gradually in time a marine-
engine contract was considered not to be fulfilled unless the engines were
capable of working up to an “indicated horse-power ” at least double that of
the contract nominal power; still, however, no specific limit was assigned
either by eustom or by law; and at length to such a degree has competition
set truth at defiance, that the working, or “indicated horse-power ” of
engines delivered under contract, has frequently amounted to four times the
nominal horse-power actually stipulated for by the contract. These facts
are fully set forth in the paper read by me before the Society of Arts on the
16th of May, 1855.

Having thus pointed out the indefinite application in steam-shipping
practice of the terms “ tonnage” and “horse-power,” with reference to the
definite terms “displacement” and “indicated horse-power,” it may be still
further edifying that we illustrate the anomalies liable to result when these
terms are used in combination with each other, as is constantly the case in
expressing and recording the ratio of tonnage to power of a steam-ship. In
exposition of this matter, I may again refer to the before-mentioned paper,
whereby it will be seen that I selected ten vessels, in each of which the ratio
of builders’ tonnage to nominal power was very nearly the same, namely, in
the ratio of 100 tons of builders’ tonnage to 40 nominal horse-power, or
2% tons of tonnage to one nominal horse-power; but on comparing the
constructors’ load displacement of these same ships, calculated in tons weight
at 35 cubic feet of water to the ton, with the effective working power, based on
indicator measurement, the ratio was found to be 100 tons displacement to
38 horse-power in one case, and 100 tons displacement to 281 horse-power
in another.

The recorded statistics of these ten vessels would lead one to infer that
they are all powered in the same proportion of engine-power to size of ship ;
but, in fact, they are all different, and on comparing the two extremes, one
ship has no less than seven times the power of the other, in proportion to
size of ship as determined by displacement. In fact, generally, the records
of register-tonnage and nominal horse-power do not constitute statistical data
of any value whatever for the scientific purpose of discriminating between
the relative dynamic n‘erits of steam-ships, but, on the contrary, such records
and all ideas resulting therefrom are positively delusive and mischievous.
The conclusion at which I would arrive from these statements is, that the
_ very first step in any attempts to bring steam affairs within the range of
arithmetical calculation, must necessarily be to establish the measure or value
which we assign to our units of tonnage and power. It is only by the moral
influence of such a body as the British Association that the cause of science
_ ean obtain a hearing in this matter of statistical registration applied to ship-
_ ping. With reference to our units, it is, of course, desirable that the measure
_ Of the unit, to be legally recognized as the unit of power, should be nearly
_ in accordance with the general average of practice at the time when the unit

_ may be so established; and as at the present time (1856) the general run of

MERCANTILE STEAM TRANSPORT ECONOMY. 427

428 REPORT— 1856.

marine nominal horse-power varies from two indicated horse-power to four
indicated horse-power, that is from 66,000 lbs. to 132,000 lbs. raised one foot
high per minute, it is submitted that the unit of marine horse-power would
now be most conveniently fixed at 100,000 lbs. raised one foot high per
minute. Until, however, some definite measure of the unit be legally
recognized, it is considered advisable in matters of scientific inquiry like the
present to adhere to the measure of the unit originally proposed by Watt,
namely, 33,000 lbs. raised one foot high per minute, designating this scale
of measurement as the ‘indicated horse-power,” thus :—Ind. h.p.; and such
will be the unit referred to when horse-power is spoken of in the following
pages of this paper.

Now, as to the measure of the unit of tonnage by which the sizes of ships
are to be spoken of and compared, we have already observed that under the
Merchant Shipping Act passed in the year 1854, the unit of tonnage is based
on the internal roomage of ships available for cargo; that all ships built since
May 1855, are registered under this Act; but the re-measurement and
re-registration of ships built previously to 1855 is not made compulsory.
Shipowners have the privilege of re-registering, under the Act of 1854, such
vessels as they may select for that purpose; consequently, our present regis-
tration is mixed, and the various units of tonnage-measurement thus embraced
under our present tonnage-registration have no definite ratio to each other,
or to the tons weight of cargo that ships will carry. The comparative merits
or demerits of these various systems of registration for fiscal purposes need
not be here discussed. Suffice it to say, that in none of these systems has
any notice whatever been taken of the measurements which constitute dis-
placement; and as displacement is an essential element in any scientific in-
vestigation as to the locomotive performance of steam-ships with reference
to the power employed and speed attained, it follows that our present regis-
tration of shipping, even under the Act of 1854, does not afford statistical
data of such a character as to be available for science in the matter of com-
paring the merits, in a locomotive or dynamic point of view, of the various
models or types of form by which steam-ships have been constructed. It is
submitted for the consideration of the British Association, that national ad-
vancement in maritime affairs, especially in regard to transport economy,
would be promoted by our public registration of shipping in general, and of
steam shipping in particular, being so systematized as to embrace not only
the roomage measurement required for fiscal purposes, but also, in addition,
those details of displacement, which in combination with the data of speed
and power derived from the actual performances of ships, are necessary to
scientific investigation in determining the relative dynamic merits of different
types of form of steam-ships. It must be borne in mind, that it is the public,
the consumers of merchandise, who must ultimately bear all the expenses
connected with the transport and delivery of merchandise, whether well or
ill performed. Bad ships individually enhance the average cost of imported
corn and all other consumable merchandise. Bad ships also enhance the
price of cotton and all other similar raw material imported for the production
of export manufactures. This enhanced price restricts demand, thus curtailing
the sources of employment; so that every bad ship, whether employed in the
import or export trade, is, of itself, a public nuisance: a prevalent bad type
of ships would be a public calamity, and progressive improvement would be
a public benefit. It has been said that the interests of shipowners is in
itself a sufficient guarantee for ensuring the adoption of the type of ships
best adapted for mercantile steam transport economy. It is scarcely fair
to base any argument on interested motives, but as that argument has

—

MERCANTILE STEAM TRANSPORT ECONOMY. 429

‘been raised it must be noticed. Undoubtedly, each shipowner has an

individual interest in his own ships being the best afloat, but if he does
possess the best ships, it is equally his interest to keep that fact and the
means of acquiring them to himself, so that the charges for freight may con-
tinue to be ruled by the inferior dynamic qualities of the average ships em-
ployed by the trade, not by the superior dynamic qualities of the best ships
as possessed by himself, the difference being the shipowner’s private advan-
tage or the public’s loss. It is therefore the interest of the public that all
bad types of shipping be exposed and eradicated. Freight would then, as
respects the quality of ships, be ruled by a scale of charges derived from
the performance of a generally improved type of ships working in fair com-
petition with each other.

Having already defined the measurement of the units by which we propose
to designate the working power of the engines and the size of the ship,
namely, ind. h.p. at 33,000 Ibs. raised one foot high per minute, and tons
weight of displacement at 35 cubic feet of water to the ton, it is now neces-
sary that we refer to the received law or formula by which the comparative
dynamic duty of steam-ships may be numerically ascertained. The formula
usually adopted for obtaining the coefficient of dynamic duty of steam-

3 D2
ships is (mae =) in which D is the displacement of the ship at the

time of trial expressed in tons weight, V the speed (usually expressed in
nautical miles per hour), and ind. h.p. the working power as ascertained by
means of the indicator. The resultant number (C) deduced from this formula
is termed the coefficient of dynamic performance. This coefficient (C) will
be a constant number for all vessels of perfectly similar model or type of
form, and of which the engines are equally effective in proportion to their gross
ind. h.p.; but if the vessels be not of similar type, and the engines not equally
effective in proportion to their ind. h.p., the coefficient (C) will vary, and thus
the dynamic performance of different vessels will be comparatively ascertained.
It is not our purpose in this paper to raise any question as to the scientific
rationale or resultant accuracy of this formula; I will merely observe, that
though open to criticism in several respects, the results of experience have
demonstrated that this formula, when applied to any known type of ship, ex-
pounds the mutual relations of displacement, power, and speed with a degree
of precision that admits of its being practically made use of for determining
the resultant speed that is to be expected from any combination of power
and displacement, and in like manner, any one of the three elements of the
formula may be deduced from the other two being given. Further, this
formula may be rendered available as a counting-house check on the work-
ing operation of steam-ships, simply by substituting the consumption of coals,
expressed in cwts. per day of 24 hours (W), in lieu of the ind. h.p.; for 1
ewt., or 112 lbs., per day of 24 hours is at the rate of 4°66 lbs. per hour,

which is probably about the ordinary consumption per ind. h.p. per hour,

and it ought not to be exceeded. If, therefore, in lieu of the ind. h.p. we
substitute the consumption of coals, calculated in ewts. per day of 24 hours,
the resultant coefficient (C) will afford an approximate indication of the
good or bad performance of ships, as compared one with another, and the
fact of an inferior performance being thus detected, the cause to which it

_ may be attributable, whether to inferior type of form, or foulness of bottom,

or inferior adaptation of engine, or inferior construction of boiler, or inferior
management on board ship, will then become the subject of professional in-
quiry ; thus, the merchant, by aid of his counting-house statistics of displace-
ment, time on passage of given length, and coals consumed, will be enabled

430 REPORT—1856.

to detect the fact of inefficiency, and it will then be for the professional -

engineer to detect and remedy the cause thereof, The annunciation of the
formula, or the mercantile rule above referred to, is as follows :—Multiply
the cube of the speed, expressed in knots or nautical miles per hour (V3),
by the cube root of the square of the displacement (D2), and divide by the
consumption of coals, expressed in ewts. per day of 24 hours, the resultant
numeral coefficient (C) will indicate the dynamic or locomotive efficiency
of the vessel; and such is the variable condition of steam-ships in present
use, that the coefficient has been found to be as low in some cases as 120,
whilst in other cases it has reached the number 250. The pecuniary value
of gold is determined by assay ; and in like manner the contract price to be
paid for a steam-ship should, in some measure, be regulated by the coefficient,
based on the mutual relation of displacement, speed, and coals, which may
be realized on trial of the ship; for example, multiply the contract price by
the numeral coefficient that may be actually realized, and divide by the
coefficient that may be regarded as the par measure of dynamic efficiency,
according as the vessels may be painted or sheathed with copper. Contracts
based on this principle would constitute a check upon the production of
inefficient ships, and award a premium on the construction of ships of superior
merit.
Vs D2

The approximate trustworthiness of the formula ie =¢) being
conceded, we now have the means of pursuing our exposition of the extent
to which any definite difference of type or falling off in the working condition
of a ship will affect the amount of prime cost expenses incurred in the con-
veyance of merchandise by steam-ships. Suppose, for example, that we
have ships whose coefficients of dynamic duty or index numbers (C) deduced

3 2

from the formula aos =C) are respectively 250 and 166, which num-
bers correspond with 1000 and 664, if the unit of marine engine-power be
taken at 4 ind. h.p., as is the case in the tabular calculations given in Ather-
ton’s ‘Steam-ship Capability,’ and are coefficients of dynamic duty not
unusual as between different steam-ships in actual practice; in evidence of
which, confirmatory of the official records whence ti-cse numbers are taken,
I may refer to a tabular statement of steam-ship trials recently supplied to
me by one of our most experienced firms (engineers and shipbuilders), by
which statement it appears, that, adopting the formula referred to, the index
numbers or coefficients of dynamic duty of eight steam-ships varied from 251
to 149, thus showing that the difference of constructive types now assumed
as the base of calculation for this exposition, is not an exaggeration, but such
as is common in practice. In the first place, referring to ‘ Steam-ship Capa-
bility, 2nd edit. page 78, we will expose the difference of power (ind. h.p.)
which would be required by two vessels, A and B, of the respective types
or working conditions of service indicated by the coefficients above referred
to (namely 250 and 166), supposing the vessels to be each of 2500 tons load
displacement. The vessel A will be propelled at 8 knots, 10 knots, and 12
knots per hour, by 376 ind.h.p., 736 ind.h,p., and 1272 ind.h.p. ; but the vessel
B will require, to attain the same rate of speed, 568 ind. h.p., 1112 ind. h.p.,
and 1920 ind. h.p. Thus the ship B requires, in consequence of her inte-
riority of working condition, or type of construction, an increase of power of
no less than 50 per cent. in order to attain the same rate of speed as ship A;
and, be it observed, that these assumed coefficients are within the range of
ordinary difference between one ship and another.

We will now show the sacrifice which such a difference of type produces

Det mt

MERCANTILE STEAM TRANSPORT ECONOMY. 431

in the weight of cargo which these ships of (say) 2500 tons displacement,
with mean quantity of coal on board, would respectively carry on a given
passage, if powered for running at the speed of 8, 10, and 12 knots per hour.
For this exposition we will assume the weight of the ships themselves, as
measured by the light displacement of ships, when ready to receive cargo and
coal for the voyage, to appropriate 1000 tons displacement, being 40 per
cent. of the load displacement. We will also assume the weight of the
engine department complete at 5 ewts. per ind. h. p., and the consumption of
coal to be at the rate of 4 Ibs. per ind. h.p. per hour, and the length of passage,
without re-coaling, to be 3250 nautical miles, being about the distance from
Liverpool to New York, or to Constantinople. On these data, according as
the vessels may be powered, as before shown, for being propelled at the speed
of 8, 10, and 12 knots per hour, the displacement available for cargo in A
will be 1270 tons, 1103 tons, and 875 tons weight of cargo; while in B it will
be 1152, 900, and 556 tons weight. The consumption of coal in A will be
973 tons at 8 knots, 427 tons at 10 knots, and 615 tons at 12 knots; and in
B it will be 412, 645, and 929 tons weight. Hence it appears that purely in
consequence of the difference in constructive type, or working condition of
the ships, the reduction of cargo in B, as compared with A, will be 9, 18, and
36 per cent., according as the speed may be, 8, 10, or 12 knots per hour;
while the increase of coal, being in proportion to the increase of power, will
in each case be 50 per cent. But the public evils of an inferior type, or
neglected condition of ships, will be still more fully exposed, and be more
definitely understood by the extra £s.d. charge that must be made for
freight per ton weight of goods conveyed, in order to meet the prime cost
expense of conveyance. In order to work out this calculation, we must
assume certain data of investment and current expense as constituting the
prime cost charges of permanently establishing and upholding a commercial
fleet of steam-ships ; and as this is the vital point in which the public, as con-
sumers, have a direct interest, it will be expected that I enter upon it in con-
siderable detail, as set forth in Supplement to ‘ Steam-ship Capability,’ 2nd
edit. page 76.
In the first place, I would remark that it is only during the number of days
_ that steamers are annually at sea conveying cargoes of goods from port to
port that they earn the income that is to defray the whole annual expenditure
incurred. The number of days per annum during which steamers are at sea
will, of course, depend materially on the service in which they may be
employed; and as it is proposed to work out our calculations with reference
_ to a passage of 3250 nautical miles—such, for example, as the passage from
England to New York or to the Black Sea—I have assumed that the vessels
_ employed on such service may be at sea 200 days per annum. In the next
place, the cost of coal is a very material item, greatly dependent on the
service on which the vessels may be employed. This I have assumed at £2
per ton weight as the average cost of the yearly consumption. Next, as to
the ship ; I have assumed that a ship of 2500 to 3000 tons load displacement
would be purchased from the builders as a ship of about the same amount of
tonnage, builders’ measurement, and that the cost of the ship, completely
fitted, equipped, and furnished in all respects ready for sea, would be £25 per
ton, Then, assuming the interest on investment at £5 per cent. per annum,
_ the upholding and replacement at 10 per cent. per annum, insurance at 5 per
_ cent, per annum, and wages and rations of officers and crew all the year
_ round at £3 per 100 tons per week ; on these data we shall have the prime
_ cost expenses incidental to the hull amounting to £6 11s. 2d. per ton of
tonnage per annum, which is 8d. per day sea-time, assuming the vessel to be

432 REPORT—1856.

at sea 200 days per annum, exclusive of harbour dues, lights, and pilotage,
which are supposed to be the same for all ships of equal tonnage.

Next, as to the engine department :—

The average price of marine condensing engines, as now usually con-
structed, may be rated at £50 per nominal horse-power, and in general each
horse-power nominal may be expected to work up to 23 ind. h.p., so that the
cost of marine engines may be rated at £20 perind.h.p. Then, assuming the
interest on investment at 5 per cent. per annum on the contract cost, the
upholding and replacement at 10 per cent., insurance 5 per cent., wages and
rations of engineers and stokers at £5 per 100 ind. h.p. per week, consu-
mable stores (coal excepted) £2 10s. per 100 ind. h.p. per week, on these data
we shall have the prime cost expenses incidental to the engine department
(exclusive of coal), amounting to £7 18s. per ind. h.p. per annum, which is
9d. per day per ind. h.p. sea-time, assuming the vessel to be at sea 200 days
per annum.

These assumed data of pecuniary charges incidental to steam-ship transport
service, as applied to mercantile purposes, combined with the mutual relations
of displacement, power, and speed, which are derivable from the foregoing
Peta

anagamataes Cit Gs
quality of the ship, as shown by the coefficient or index number C, enable us
to make up the prime cost expenses, being the minimum at which goods can
be conveyed, and which therefore should constitute the base of the estimate
by which a minimum scale of freight charges should be estimated; and
applying these data to the ships A and B, employed on a passage of 3250
nautical miles, as exemplified in the Supplement to Atherton’s ‘ Steam-ship
Capability,’ 2nd edition, page 7S, the minimum scale of freight charges per
ton of goods, according as the vessels may be powered for a speed of 8, 10,
or 12 knots per hour, will, on the data referred to, require to be as follows :—

=C) according to the constructive type or locomotive

8 knots. 10 knots. 12 knots.
Ship WA yn ctenes tices £115 7 £2. 4 6 £3 4 6
Ship Bs ae > ees, OPW feta) Se 89 bus 616 3

The proportions in which goods, according to their respective kinds, may
be made to bear freight charges so as to yield the average return per ton
weight on the entire cargo, is altogether a matter of commercial discretion
and management. The entire cargo must be made to yield the average return
per ton weight here set forth.

Hence it appears that 12 miles speed involves about double the freight cost _
of the 8 miles speed with the superior ship A, and nearly three times the cost
of the 8 miles speed with the ship B, and 12 miles speed with the ship B is
about four times as expensive as the 8 miles speed with the ship A. Also,
the extra cost to the public at which freight charges are enhanced by the in-
ferior type or inferior working condition of ship B, as compared with the ship
A, if continuously employed on the passage of 3250 nautical miles, and under
the data referred to, assuming the consumption of coal to be at the rate of
4 lbs. per ind. h.p. per hour, and according as the steaming speed of both
ships may be 8, 10, or 12 knots per hour, is no less than 32 per cent. at
8 knots, 56 per cent. at 10 knots, and 111 per cent. at 12 knots. Undoubt-
edly, the details of the data on which the foregoing calculations have been
based are open to correction, and will greatly depend on their application to
special services on considerations immediately connected with such special
service, and cannot be generalized; but, whatever alteration of these data
may be applied to the ship A must likewise be applied to B, so that, although

MERCANTILE STEAM TRANSPORT ECONOMY. 433

the foregoing estimate of the actual cost expenses of freight may be consider-
ably modified by our altering the data of the calculations, still the per-
centages of difference above set forth, showing the degree or per-centage in
which freight charges for the passage of 3250 miles are enhanced in conse-
quence of the infericrity in locomotive properties of the ship B, as compared
with the ship A, will not be much altered from the per-centages above set
forth, showing an enhanced cost of freight to be paid by the public on bring-
ing cargo, grain forinstance,from the States, or from the Black Sea, to England,
amounting to 32 percent.at the 8 knots speed, 56 percent.at the 10 knots speed,
and 111 per cent. at the 12 knots speed, extra charges incurred on freight per
ton of goods conveyed, and to be paid by the public, in consequence of the
dynamic inferiority of ship B, as compared with ship A. It is surely in con-
sequence of the public not being generally aware of the high scale of prime
cost charges necessarily involved in a 12 miles speed (steaming speed at sea),
as compared with an 8 miles speed, that such high speed is so universally de-
manded by the public; and it must surely be in consequence of an almost
similar want of insight into the real cost of high speed on the part of directors,
that obligations as to speed are so frequently incurred at a price inadequate
tosuchservice. If the public will have a progressively increasing high rate of
speed, they must pay for it about in the ratio at which they purchase iron,
copper, silver, gold, and diamonds, either of which may be bought too dear for
common use.

The foregoing results have been based on the supposition that the consump-
tion of fuel in both ships is at the rate of 4 lbs. per hour per ind. h.p. My
own experience, however, induces me to be of opinion that this rate of con-
sumption is but very seldom realized, and that 5 lbs. of coal per ind. h.p.
per hour is much nearer in accordance with our present actual steaming prac-
tice. It is therefore important that we show to what extent the rate of trans-
port freight expenses will be enhanced, if the service above referred to,
namely 3250 nautical miles direct, be performed with an inferior construc-
tion of boiler, causing a consumption of 5 lbs. of coal per indicated horse-
power per hour, instead of 4 lbs., as above calculated on. In this case, accord-
ing as the speed for which the vessel may be powered is 8, 10, or 12 knots
an hour (see ‘Steam-ship Capability,’ p.'78), the cost expenses incurred by
vessel A, instead of being £1 15s. 7d., £2 4s. 6d., and £3 4s. 6d. per ton-weight
of cargo, will now amount to £1 19s. 5d., £2 11s. 4d., and £3 19s. 1d. per
ton-weight of cargo, this increase of prime cost freight expenses per ton of
goods being 11 per cent., 15 per cent., and 22 per cent., according as the
service speed may be 8, 10, or 12 knots per hour, solely in consequence of the
inferiority of the boiler, or inferiority of boiler-management, causing this
extra consumption of fuel; and further, if this greater consumption of coal
_be combined with the inferior type of vessel B, the prime cost expenses of
freight per ton of goods, instead of being £1 15s. '7d., £2 4s.6d., and £3 4s.6d.,
will now be £2 13s. 7d., £4 5s. 5d., and £9 15s. 2d., this increase of freight
cost being 18s. per ton, £2 Os. 11d. per ton, and £6 10s. 8d. per ton weight
of cargo conveyed, or 50 per cent., 100 per cent., and 202 per cent. extra
charge incurred according as the service speed may be 8, 10, or 12 knots per
hour. These results show the monstrous extent, in a pecuniary point of
view, to which the public are interested in the general quality of the type of
‘ships and machinery adaptation thereto, and working condition of ships by
_ which the mercantile transport service of the country may be prosecuted.
But let us look a little further into this matter, in the hope of obtaining
_@ more definite appreciation of the total extent in & s. d. to which the

British public are interested in having their mercantile transport service per--

—:1856. QF

484 REPORT—1856.

formed to the best advantage. It has been publicly stated (‘ Times,’ June 18,
1856) that at the twelve principal ports of the United Kingdom during the
year 1855, ship tonnage to the extent of 6,372,301 tons entered inwards, and
6,426,566 tons cleared outwards, making altogether 12,798,867, say 125
millions of tons of tonnage per annum; and since mercantile shipping will
probably, on the average, carry dead weight of cargo to the full extent of
their register tonnage, it is probable that the tons weight of merchandise con-
stituting the cargoes of ships arriving at and sailing from the United -King-
dom, amounts to no less than twelve millions of tons per annum, of which,
for the purpose of illustration, we will suppose that one-sixth part, or two
millions of tons, is conveyed by steam power on a passage of 3250 nautical
miles, under the circumstances of the data that have been assumed as the base
of the foregoing calculations ; and since we have shown under these circum-
stances that the prime cost expenses of freight per ton of goods may be
enhanced by an inferior type of ship and machinery, or inferior management
thereof, to the extent of 18s., £2 Os. 11d., and £6 10s. 8d. per ton weight of
goods conveyed, it follows that the extra charges for freight on the assumed
quantity of two millions of tons weight per annum, will amount to the extra
annual cost or public loss of £1,800,000 at 8 knots speed, £4,916,666 at 10
knots speed, and £13,666,666 at 12 knots speed, according as the type of ship
and machinery by which the work is performed may be of the inferior type
B, as compared with the superior type A; seeing also that it is the public
interest which has to bear the brunt of our national goods transport service,
being either as respects construction or working condition anything short of
that degree of perfection which the application of science might achieve, is it
not, therefore, of importance that our public system of statistical shipping
registration should be complete, especially in those points which are essential
for scrutinising the dynamic properties of steam-ships, thus leading to the
recognition of good practice on the one hand, or the exposition of bad practice
and consequent public loss on the other? Ships may be regarded as national
implements for doing the work of the nation, and should therefore be sub-
jected, by the aid_of statistical registration, to public scrutiny, as conducive
to their being upheld fit to do their work in the best manner. A shipbuilder
will not allow his interests to be trifled with by the use of a blunt adze, so
the public interest requires that its national transport service in the couvey-
ance of goods should not be performed by bad ships if the statistical grind-
stone will obviate the evil. Nevertheless, the public statistics of British ship-
ping afford no data available to science for promoting or even protecting
from abuse the great public interests which are involved in the proper execu-
tion of its transport service, amounting probably to twelve millions of tons
perannum. It is pre-eminently for the British Association to suggest the
remedy for this humiliating fact. ’
The subject herein treated of admits of extended illustration beyond the
limits of time that I may presume to occupy at a meeting of the British
Association. I only profess to have broken up new ground, in showing that
mercantile transport service by steam-ships admits of being brought within
the range of arithmetical calculation, whereby the dynamic quality of ships,
the size of ships as measured by displacement, the working quality of engines
and engine-power as measured by the unit ind. h.p., and the speed to be
assigned as the condition of any service, may each of them be treated as
functions of calculation involving definite pecuniary considerations, consti-
tuting a system which may be denominated the “ arithmetic of steam-ship
adaptation to the requirements of mercantile service.” By the application of —
these principles of calculation, I submit that errors in steam-ship construction,

MERCANTILE STEAM TRANSPORT ECONOMY. 435

or neglect of its working condition, may be exposed, correction will follow,
the directorial management of steam-shipping affairs, as respects steam-ship
capability, will be based upon arithmetical calculation, thereby prosecuting
its assigned service with confidence, and rejecting all Utopian projects that
will not pay. Thus science will produce its fruit in promoting public in-
terests, without detriment to the fair competitive pursuits of any class, by pro-
ducing a sound, well-understood, and healthy condition of steam-ship manage-
ment, and consequently of “ Mercantile Steam Transport Economy.”

Remarks by James R. Napier, Glasgow, on Mr. Atherton’s Paper on Mer-
cantile Steam Transport Economy.

I quite agree with Mr. Atherton in regard to the indefiniteness of the
term horse-power as at present used in steam-engine contracts, and in the
desirableness of having a dynamical unit, or standard of power or work
legalized, as well for the purpose of buying and selling machines produ-
cing power, as for that of scientific comparison. The rule or formula
established by James Watt for the horse-power of condensing engines was

PxV_ _ foot lbs. per minute

33,000 °* 33,000

velocity (V) had either their actwal values or fractional parts thereof. But

at the present time the pressure (P) is continued at what it was in the days
of Watt, viz. 7 lbs., no matter what the actual pressure may be now. And
for the velocity (V) almost every engineer has a scale of his own, varying
according to the length of stroke of the steam-piston; some assuming the
velocities to vary as V (of the length of stroke), others following the Admi-
ralty rule for paddle engines assuming the velocities to vary as W (of the
length of stroke). All these assumptions, moreover, have no necessary con-
nexion with the results desired, nor with the actual results afterward obtained ;
nor do they answer any better the purpose either of the buyer or seller; and
all the use they subserve is to fix the size of the cylinder by the very round-
about method of resolving an arithmetical or algebraical equation in which
two of the three quantities, diameter, length of stroke or velocity, and horse-
power required to be known.
_ As the term horse-power applied to steam-engines was fixed by Watt at
$3,000 lbs. raised 1 foot high per minute, and as this same value is used by
the Americans, the French, the Germans, and, I presume, by all nations
where the history of the steam-engine is known, I should be very sorry to
recommend any change as to the use of the name in any other sense than as
synonymous with 33,000 Ibs. per minute. I see no objection, however, to
the entire abolition of the term Nominal Horse-Power, as it is of no use
whatever to the engineer, as little to steam-engine owners, and deceitful to
the public.
_ As I adhere to 33,000 lbs. per minute being received as a horse-power, I
would object to the 33,000 being altered into 132,000, or into any other
figure, without at the same time changing the name into something alto-
gether different from Horse-Power or Marine Horse-power. I would sug-
gest that the power be expressed in foot Ibs. alone, as this is a term already
mown to all scientific nations. Dividing by 1,000,000, the result would be
Simply stated in millions of foot lbs.

_As to the tonnage question, I feel I know very little about it, except that
the present law is very complex, and certainly does not give what Mr.
Atherton would like, viz. the displacement.

That part of Mr. Atherton’s paper concerning the comparison of vessels

2"2

= horse-power, where the pressure (P) and

436 , REPORT—1856.

is very important. What other writers have called the efficiency or the ratio
of the power expended to the work produced, is surely a subject which all
shipowners ought to be acquainted with. The formula adopted by Mr.
Atherton for the efficiency or dynamical duty of steam-ships, is, I fear, too
rough an approximation to be recommended for general adoption, especially
when a more exact and equally simple formula is at hand, and the one also
from which Mr. Atherton’s adopted formula is no doubt deduced, viz.

V3 x mid. secti
a ead =C. The power in similar vessels, I here take for granted,

at present varies as the cube of the velocity. This, I believe, is nearly true,
and ought to vary also directly as the immersed midship section. For simi-
lar vessels the midship section no doubt varies as displacement raised to
the power 2rds; but scarcely any two vessels are similar (in the mathema-
tical sense of the term); nor is the same vessel similar to itself when the draft
of water varies.

The following Table, deduced from published statements of some of the
ships of the Navy, and also from vessels built by the firm with which I am
connected, shows the difficulty there would be in the use of the formula
V® (displacement) 2=C, from the (displacement) 3 having no necessary
connexion with the midship section :—

Comparison between Midship Sections, and ( Displ.)*.

Mid. section. | (Displ)s. | Ratio of mid.

2
sec.to (disp.)*-

HAS uxiaiche ofatou she cretet tober: 807 212°5 1000: 263
Am phion tea viel. slag tate 546 160° 1000: 290
Arrogant .. 2.000500 0 580 181°4 1000 :313
Blerthenm ric siete sta) aecorsy- 738 198-2 1000 : 267
Dauntless .......... 522 1712 1000: 328
Euphrates .......... 570 179°:25 | 1000:314
EVOPNE/ seis sitcoler ebietsles 820 215° 1000: 261
Horatio iso cei emeeeas 537 142°8 1000 : 266
NAUSPATEUS cies) =/<tej0.6 920 229°8 1000 : 250
SING aS BBs 68S - 567 19818 | 1000:350
Termagant .....:.... 587 179°4 1000 : 306
Black Swan.......... 385 140°76 | 1000:366
Tiondon ier casei steele 233 86°89 | 1000:373
Lady Eglinton........ 207 77°33 | 1000:373
QUCChis cis cpioma eb clad 122 44°5 1000: 365
Bogota (P) very deep... 330 134-51 | 1000:408
Wictorias(©)cri-tecras ss 47 25° 1000: 532
Nulcans (P)iscieetaseect 56 26°962| 1000:481
Lancefield .......... 244 draft. 96-8 1000: 397

270 12114 100°2 1000: 371
Fiery Cross .......... 331 } reatt eee 1000 :355

394 # 135-08 | 1000: 343

In the ‘ Fiery Cross,’ at different drafts of water, there is a difference of
nearly 3 per cent. in the ratio of midship section to (displacement) 2, which —
might affect the coefficient C to the same extent.

The ‘ Victoria’ and ‘ Vulcan’ are two river steamers of nearly the same size _
and power, yet there is upwards of 5 per cent. of difference in the ratio of —
midship section to (displacement) 2. The formula used by Mr. Atherton
is, notwithstanding these remarks, exceedingly useful for commencing the
designs of steam-vessels, and may be an approximation sufficiently near for
most practical purposes,

MERCANTILE STEAM TRANSPORT ECONOMY. 437

In reference to the Table of the performances of steamers, which I recently
gave to Mr. Atherton, it is necessary to remark that too much confidence is
not to be placed in it as an exact document. Though I aimed at the truth,
it is possible I may have erred in the speed which is generally on the Clyde
tried between the Clock and Cumbrae lighthouses, or 132 nautical miles—
too great a distance for maintaining a uniform speed, especially in new ves-
sels with strange firemen, &c. I believe the statement, however, to be nearly
true, and the study of it affords useful lessons. The last column shows the
efficiency of the vessels by both formulas; I adhere, however, to the mid-
section formula, as being the more correct.

The ‘ Vulcan’s’ speed and power is deduced from a number of trials at a
measured statute mile on the Garelock. The ‘Simooms’ performances I
obtained from one of the Dockyards.

The ‘ Bogota,’ a common paddle-wheel steamer employed by the Pacific
Steam Navigation Company, and loaded very deeply at her trial, shows a
very inferior result to that of the screw-steamer ‘Black Swan’ (now ‘Ganges’),
not deeply laden. Their displacements are nearly alike, and their speeds
about equal; yet the paddle vessel (too deeply laden) requires about 60 per
cent. more power than the screw.

The ‘ London’ and ‘ Lady Eglinton’ are two screw vessels near enough
alike to be comparable. ‘Their screws are the same diameter, but the one is
more immersed than the other, which I imagine is sufficient to account for
at least part of the difference in the efficiency of the two vessels.

The ‘ Edina’ was constructed by Messrs. Barclay and Curle, and her
engines by Inglis; but I was kindly invited to the trial, and got the particu-
lars of displacement, power, and midship section from the constructors. The
trials of the screw-steamer ‘Lancefield’ are not so satisfactory as could be
desired, there being a little uncertainty as to speed. At the first trial the
screw was not immersed: the result shows a very low coefficient. The speed
at the other trials is uncertain, as it was taken at sea, and not in the usual
way for such calculations.

___ I was unfortunate in not getting the particulars of the power and speed of
_ the ‘ Persia’ before she left the Clyde, so as to add her performances to the
| Table.

| Letter by Mr. ATHERTON on Mr. J. R. Napier’s paper.
To the President of Section G. on Mechanical Science.

S1r,—With reference to Mr. James R. Napier’s remarks on my paper,
“Mercantile Steam Transport Economy,” I beg to submit the following ob-
servations. Mr. J. R. Napier concurs with me as to the indefiniteness of the
term “nominal horse-power,” as at present applied in marine engineering
practice, and in the desirableness of having the unit of power, denoted horse-
power, specifically defined ; and he prefers that the measure originally pro-
posed and acted upon by Watt, viz. 33,000 lbs. weight raised 1 foot high
per minute, be now adopted as the statute unit of horse-power.

On this point I have merely to remark, that scientifically it is a matter of
indifference what may be the statute measure of the unit, provided it be
specific. In my ‘ Essay on Steam-ship Capability,’ I based my calculations

and tables on 132,000 lbs. raised 1 foot high per minute, because that was the
_ average performance, per nominal horse-power, of the ten mail packets then
Rtaiployed in Her Majesty’s Service. In my paper on “Mercantile Steam
_ Transport Economy,” I have suggested that 100,000 lbs., raised 1 foot high
_ per minute, be adopted as the statute unit of horse-power, because that is, I

.
4
-.

438 REPORT—1856.

believe, about the average present practice in the highest class of our mer-
chant steam-shipping, and this measure of the unit would facilitate calcula-
tions; but whether 33,000, or 100,000, or 132,000, er any other number of
Ibs. weight, raised 1 foot high per minute, be adopted as the statute unit of
horse-power, is a mere matter of convenience, a question very proper for
being submitted for the consideration and recommendation of a Committee.

Vv? D2 V*x mid. see.
ind.h.p. © ind. b.p.
be the better formula for determining the relative dynamic merits of steam-
ships, these formulz are, as respects simélar types of immersed form, a mere
transformation of terms, for in similar types of form the immersed midship
section will vary in the same proportion as the cube root of the square of the
displacement. These formule would therefore give proportional results. I

V? D2 )

ind. h.p. J’
because this formula may, as I believe, be made the base of calculations as
to the capability of ships for mercantile service, for which purpose the for-
mula, based on midship section, without reference to displacement, is
inadequate.

The Table of data now supplied by Mr. J. R. Napier, is a valuable addition
to our statistical data, in so far that, after having determined the relative
dynamic merits of the ships referred to, and classified them accordingly, the
information afforded by this Table will aid in the analysis of their respective
types of form. I would, however, beg to suggest that the position of the
centre of gravity of the immersed midship section of each ship, expressed by
its depth below the surface line, at which the displacement has been cal-
culated, would be a very important addition to this Table, and it is hoped that
Mr, James R. Napier will be able to supply it.

In fact, it is in consequence of the depth of the centre of gravity not being
noticed in the formula above referred to, that I have spoken of it in my
paper as “open to criticism” and probable amendment, and I shall be pre-
pared in Committee to submit this view of the case for consideration.
Requesting that this letter be read conjointly with Mr. Napier’s remarks,

I have the*honour to be, Sir, your most obedient servant,
; CHARLES ATHERTON.

As to the question whether the formula would

have, however, preferred the formula based on displacement (

On the Vital Powers of the Spongiade.
By J. 8S. Bowereank, F.R.S., F.G.S. &c.

Inhalation and Exhalation.

Some years since I received from Dr. Lister of Madeira two masses of a
Halichondriaceous sponge, each about 7 inches in diameter, accompanied
by the information that they were portions of the same individual, and I
was struck by the remarkable difference in the external appearance of the
two. In one, the oseula were nearly all widely expanded, several of
the orifices being nearly half an inch in diameter; while in the other
piece searcely any of them were open, the greater part being entirely closed

PEPER ee

by a stout membranous veil, which in many cases was pursed up in the —

centre of the area in a conical form. On writing to my friend to inquire
the cause of this difference in the appearance of the two pieces of the
same sponge, he informed me that the piece with the closed oscula had been

ON THE VITAL POWERS OF THE SPONGIADE. _ 439

dried immediately on being taken from the sea, but that the other one had
been placed in a vessel of sea-water, about half an hour after removal from
the sea, and placed in the sun; nearly all the orifices were then closed,
and it was observed by Dr. and Mrs. Lister hat a gradual contraction shortly
commenced in the membranous veils of the oscula, which continued until the
whole of the orifices were opened to the fullest extent, and in this condition
they remained. Struck by this explanation and by some other circumstances
of a similar nature which I had observed in other sponges, I felt a strong
conviction that the Spongiade possessed the power of expanding and con-
tracting the oscula at their pleasure while in a living condition, and I deter-
mined at the first convenient opportunity to work out this interesting problem
in their natural history. I accordingly located myself at Tenby, South
Wales, at the latter end of last May for the purpose.

The great cave that runs completely through beneath St. Catherine’s
Island at Tenby, is highly favourable to such observations as I contemplated
making, as it is studded abundantly in every direction with specimens of
Halichondria panicea and Grantia compressa, Johnston, and a deep orange-
coloured sponge, Hymeniacidon caruncula, Bowerbank, MS. On my first
visit to the cave, June 2nd, I carefully noted the appearance of Halichondria
panicea and Hymeniacidon caruncula in the condition of repose during the
period of low tide, while they were without water and fully exposed to the
influence of the atmosphere. I found that in Hal. panicea the greater
portions of the oscula were completely open, while the tubular orifices of
others were either partially or completely closed. On the contrary, in fifty or
sixty specimens of Hymeniacidon caruncula they were so completely closed
that I could scarcely detect even their position on the surface of the sponge.
I carefully removed several specimens of each species from the rocks to
which they adhered, taking care not to injure the basal membranes of the
sponges. I placed them in shallow dishes of fresh salt water, and in a short
time the whole of them began to pour forth streams of water from their
oscula with considerable force. I supplied these specimens with indigo
rubbed up into a fine powder and infused in salt water; the rush of the par-
ticles to the outer surface of Halichondria panicea and Grantia compressa
rendered them of a deep blue colour in a short time, and the ex-current
streams continued steadily in action for more than an hour. I then poured
off the water, that they might remain for some hours in the same condition as
the specimens were in their natural locality; at 8 o’clock in the evening
I filled up the dishes with fresh salt water, and in a very short time the ex-
current action commenced ; and I left it in full action in two specimens of
Halichondria panicea at 11 P.M. On examining these specimens at 10 a.m.
on the 3rd of June, I found that nearly the whole of the oscula, which were
fully distended on the previous evening, were now nearly all closed; and
the mode of closing was in some cases rather peculiar; the greatest con-
traction was at about half a line within the outer edge of the osculum, and
by this constriction the closing was completely effected, leaving the outer

art of the osculum above this constriction in the form of a shallow cup,
slightly elevated above the general level of the surface of the sponge.

Of three specimens of Hymeniacidon caruncula placed by themselves in a
saucer of sea-water, not a single osculum was apparent at 11 p.m. on the
previous night ; but on the following morning, June 3, at 94.M., several oscula
in each specimen were to be seen in a full state of expansion, varying in size
from one to four lines in diameter, and the ex-current streams were steadily

poured forth.
The surface of the sponges exhibited a comparatively smooth and dilated

440 REPORT—1856.

appearance, and the inhalant pores were distinctly visible by the aid of a
2-inch lens; I removed these specimens from the water and placed them in
a saucer; in the course of a few minutes the surface of the sponges lost the
smooth distended appearance, the pores were scarcely distinguishable by the
aid of the same lens, and the surface became full of corrugations. The
oscula gradually contracted at about a line or half a line within the outer
margin, and this slow contraction continued in action until the openings were
completely closed, and a cup-shaped depression only remained to indicate
the large orifices which but 10 or 15 minutes previously were steadily pouring
forth the ex-current streams. The thin sharp membranous edges of the
osculum shrunk into a fleshy obtuse margin to the basin-shaped depression
of these organs in their closed state.

I let them remain without water from half-past 9 o’clock in the morn-
ing until half-past 1 p.m., and then replaced them in the saucer with
a few fronds of green fuci, and gave them fresh sea-water. In 5 or 6
minutes there was a manifest expansion of the oscula, and they continued
gradually to open; the obtuse margins became thin, sharp, and slightly pro-
jecting, and the currents were poured forth vigorously and continuously
from each osculum. I triturated a little crude indigo in séa-water, and let
it glide from the small palette knife over those portions of the sponges where
there were no oscula; the molecules of indigo were immediately drawn
forcibly down to the surface, and were retained there. I then dropped in a
similar manner a few drops of the water laden with indigo, immediately
over the oscula; a few molecules remained very close to the margin of the
osculum, but the remainder were driven off by the powerful jet of water
issuing from the osculum, and were speedily dispersed and mixed with the
surrounding fluid. By these experiments the in-current and ex-current actions
were rendered strikingly apparent, and it was evident that even in the imme-
diate vicinity of the oscula the in-current action was in full operation. At
a quarter past 3 o'clock the ex-current action had entirely ceased in one
of the four specimens, and was very languidly continued in the others, but
the oscula were still fully expanded; before an hour had elapsed, the ex-
current action had apparently ceased in all the specimens ; the smaller oscula
were closed, but the larger ones were contracted to the extent of about half
their greatest amount of expansion. I drained the water from these sponges
at half-past 11 p.m., and at 10 o’clock the next morning, June 4, I filled up
the saucer with fresh sea-water, but J did not detect them in action during
the remainder of the day. At half-past ]1 of the 4th the water was again
drained from them.

June 5th.—At a quarter past 9 a.m. I put fresh water to the same group of
Hal. caruncula ; about five minutes after the oscula were slowly opened, and
the ejection of the water from one of the small oscula near the middle part
of the largest sponge, commenced at first slowly, and then, after the lapse
of a few minutes, with such force as to produce a continued elevation of the
surface of the water immediately above it, about a 1 or 3 of an inch above
the osculum. During this action of the smaller and more simple osculum
near the middle of the sponge, two large compound oscula, each consisting
of three or four orifices, situated in depressions near each end of the sponge,
were languidly pouring forth streams of water. Three quarters of an hour
after the commencement of the projection of the ex-current streams they
became still more languid in their action, and at the end of an hour they
entirely ceased ; the oscula in each of the groups near the ends of the sponge
were entirely closed, and the small one, near the middle of the sponge in
which the action had been the most forcible, alone remained partly open.

a Se Ceo

Las 0 ee
. Ww

ON THE VITAL POWERS OF THE SPONGIADA. 44}

Finding that this sponge, which was 2 inches in length, 1 inch in breadth,
and 2 of an inch in thickness, was by far the most interesting and active in
its habits, I determined to direct my observations more especially to its
proceedings for the future, and I accordingly separated it from the others
and placed it in a saucer full of salt water fresh from the sea, and put a few
small green fuci along with it. In 7 minutes after immersion in the cool
fresh salt water, the ex-current action again commenced slowly; the closed
oscula gradually expanded, but not fully and completely, and the action was
steadily and moderately sustained ; at a quarter to 12 the action was so strong
and vigorous as to again cause a considerable elevation of the surface of the
water above the central and most active osculum of the largest sponge. It
is evident, therefore, that temperature has much to do with the activity of its
action, and that the animal is quickly cognisant of such changes, and is rapidly
amenable to the stimulus of a fresh and cool supply of the element in which
it exists; and it is equally evident that its actions are not merely mechanical or
periodical, but subject to its own control, and that it can as readily avail

itself of favourable circumstances for imbibiag nutrition or of protecting

itself from adverse circumstances, as the higher organized and more elabo-
rately constructed classes of animals. At 12 o'clock, on returning to
examine the state of affairs, I found the sponge perfectly quiescent, and some
of the oscula again closed. I immediately changed the water in this case,
pouring it full on the sponge in a large stream, and at 4 minutes after 12 the
currents were again in full action; at 11 minutes after 12, the stream from
the central osculum was so forcible as to elevate the water to a considerable
extent at the surface immediately above it; at a quarter past 12 one of the
large groups of oscula commenced ejecting a stream so strong as also to pro-
duce an elevation of the water immediately above it. It would appear
therefore that the action of the different oscula is not simultaneous, but that
each is independent, to a considerable extent, of the other. At 1 o’clock, when
Tleft them, they were still in action, although slowly; and on my return at
3 o'clock they were all apparently quiescent, and remained so for the remainder
of the day. At 11 v.m. I drained the water from them, and left them so
for the night.

June 6th.—At half-past 9 o’clock I put more sea-water to them. It had
stood some time in the sun, and was probably above the ordinary tempera-
ture. In about 5 minutes the ex-current action commenced, and proceeded
languidly for about half an hour, and then ceased. At half-past 12 I drained
the water from it, and supplied it with water fresh from the sea, and the ex-
current action almost immediately recommenced, and at 1 o'clock was so
forcible that the surface above the two large groups of oscula was consider-
ably elevated by the force of the jets; at a quarter to Z o’clock the action
had entirely ceased. I drained off the water, and poured fresh water over
the sponge by jerks, until I had filled the saucer; again, in a few minutes,
action commenced in the large group of oscula near the largest end of the
sponge, and attained sufficient force to elevate the surface of the water by
the force of its jet at 6 minutes to 2 o'clock; but this time it was the only
osculum in action, the smaller central one and the other large compound
osculum remaining quite inert, and the central one so completely closed, that
it was only by minute inspection with a 2-inch lens, and a complete familiarity
with the surface of the sponge, that [ could make certain of its precise posi-
tion ; at 20 minutes after 2 o’clock the central small osculum had opened,
and was sufficiently in action to elevate the surface of the water above it;
but the third, the large one at the smaller end of the sponge, was still inert,

and the small oscula within the large outer orifice were closely shut. At

442 REPORT—1856.

37 minutes past 2 the third osculum had opened, and the whole three were
in strong action, each projecting a stream so strong as to elevate the surface
of the water above it. This independence and inequality of action is remark-
ably curious. I left them in the above-described state of full action at 15
minutes to 3 o'clock. On my return at a quarter past 3, action had entirely
ceased, the group of oscula at the small end of the central osculum were
closely shut up, but in the group at the largest end of the sponge the mouths
of the oscula were open, but apparently entirely inert. At half-past 11 p.m.
I drained off the water for the night.

June 7th.—I put fresh water to the same sponge at half-past 9. No action
was observed until half-past 10 ; it was then very languid, and ceased entirely
in a very short time; at a quarter past 12 I again drained off the water, and
poured fresh cool water on the sponge; in about 10 minutes the ex-current
action commenced from the two large groups of oscula near the ends of the
sponge, and in a very short period, about 10 minutes, the action became so
strong as to produce the elevation at the surface of the water immediately
above them. During this period the small osculum in the middle of the
sponge was closed and entirely inert. I did not examine it again until
2 o'clock, when the action had ceased ; at 11 p.m. I poured off the water as
usual.

June 8th.—At 10 o’clock I poured fresh sea-water over it and filled the
saucer as usual; within one minute it commenced ejecting granules of effete
matter from the two large oscula, and in a few minutes the action was strong
enough to produce the usual elevation at the surface of the water. I looked
carefully with a 2-inch lens for the central osculum, but could not detect it,
and it had all the appearance of having been permanently closed by a mem-
brane. When in full action the membranous margins of the oscula are
tense and very distinctly defined ; but when the action becomes languid or
ceases, the orifices contract to about half the diameter they assume in an
active state, the marginal membranes lose their tension, and the edge becomes
very indistinct. Previously to a general cessation of action, it will sometimes
occur that one or two of the oscula of the group will assume this inert and
flaccid appearance, while from one only the stream will continue to issue in
full force, and this condition was assumed by the two large compound oscula
this morning at 12 o’clock.

It is a remarkable circumstance, that of eighteen other specimens of the
same species of sponge which were treated in precisely the same manner as
the one whose history I have just recorded, three only of them had assumed
ex-current action up to 12 o'clock on the 8th of June. It is evident therefore
that the commencement or the cessation of action is not a merely mechanieal
effect, arising from temperature, or the general effect of particular cireum-
stances, but that, as in other animals, each individual commences or ceases
action as may be dictated by its especial necessities.

At 8 minutes past 12 o'clock the osculum at the large end was still in full
work. Ata quarter to 1 o'clock the osculum at the small end had resumed
action, and in the mean time no cessation had occurred in the action at the
large end. At half-past 1 o'clock I left both groups of oscula in steady
action, each producing its elevated spot on the surface of the water. On my
return at 4 o'clock they appeared perfectly quiescent. I immediately poured
off the water and gave them fresh cool sea-water, and on looking at them
again at 5 o'clock, they were in very powerful action, and the middle single
osculum that had remained closed so long, had now opened and poured forth a
stream that raised a considerable elevation on the surface of the water,
and the osculum was fully expanded. At 5 o'clock the same osculum had

ON THE VITAL POWERS OF THE SPONGIADA. 443

‘ceased to act and was again completely closed, while the other two groups of
oscula were still in full action.

I frequently examined the condition of the sponge until past 11 o’clock
P.M., and found the ex-current action of both the large groups of oscula in
full force. The action of the ex-current streams had been more vigorous
and continuous than on any day since the commencement of my observations
of it, and the elevation of the water at the surface above the oscula had been
larger than ordinary, indicating a greater amount of force than usual. At
half-past 11 p.m., when I poured off the water for the night, the two large
compound oscula were in full play.

June 9.—At 10 o’clock I put fresh sea-water to the sponge, and within a
minute the ex-current action was apparent at both the large groups of oscula,
and in a few minutes became in full vigour. The central smaller single
osculum was perfectly closed, and not the slightest appearance of it was to
be detected with a 2-inch lens. The action in the two groups of oscula
continued in full force until half-past 12, when the group at the small
bend had ceased to act, and the smaller oscula of the group had contracted
to about half their full diameter. I placed a drop of water charged with indigo
immediately above this osculum, and watched the effect with a 2-inch lens,
and was surprised to find that its action was reversed, and the molecules of
indigo passed into it with a considerable degree of rapidity. I repeated the
application of the drop of water charged with indigo several times, and the
result was the same. Occasionally the ex-current action was resumed for an
instant, and a large molecule of indigo would be expelled, but the next mo-
ment the in-current action would be resumed. At half-past 1 I repeated
the application of the drops of water charged with indigo with the same
result; when it suddenly broke forth again into strong ex-current action, ele-
vating the surface of the water immediately above it in the usual manner,
and continued thus to act. The reversal of the action in the osculum in
this instance was apparently effected by the vigour of the action in the
other group of oscula; the whole of these organs being more or less con-
nected, not only by the intermarginal canals, but also by the general system
of interstitial canals of the mass of the sponge.

- At half-past 2 o’clock the action of both of the groups of oscula had
entirely ceased. At 10 minutes to 3 o’clock I drained off the water, and put
fresh sea-water to it, and the ex-current action from both groups commenced
again in less than a minute, and were in full action in about 2 minutes. The
action continued untill 11 p.m., when the water was drained off for the night..

June 10.—At 10 a.m. I put fresh water to the sponge. The’ ex-current
action commenced immediately from the large groups of oscula, elevating
the surface of the water as usual. The central osculum remained perfectly
closed, presenting the appearance of a new membrane having been formed
over its orifice, and below it on the side of the sponge 1 observed that a
new osculum had been formed about the same size as the largest of those
already existing. The stream poured from this osculum was as powerful as
any of the older ones, and it elevated the water at the surface strongly,
although the line of action was in a diagonal direction, and therefore passing
through a greater distance than those that were ejected in nearly a straight
line upward. At 11 I left the whole of these oscula in full play. On
my return at 3 o'clock all action had apparently ceased. On carefully
examining the state of the oscula I had left iu full action, I found that the
elosing membrane of each was contracted in such a manner as to close each
orifice all but a central opening, so small as to appear by the ai’ =| a 2-inch
_ lens scarcely capable of admitting the point ofa pin. I drained oif the water

44,4 REPORT—1856.

and poured fresh sea-water slowly over the sponge, and positioned it again
for observation, and found that it was again in full action, having the three
oscula distended to the fullest extent of their capability. At half-past 4,
when I returned, they were perfectly quiescent, and the oscula had resumed
the appearance I have described above, with the very minute orifice in the
centre. I left them in that condition, and at 7 o’clock examined them again,
when I found them still quiescent ; but one of the two large groups of oscula
and the new one were entirely closed, while the other osculum at the largest
end of the sponge had opened to the extent of about one-third of its diameter,
and the membrane presented the appearance of a series of lines or corrugations
radiating from the centre to the circumference. I have since frequently
observed the same appearance when the oscula have been in a half-closed
condition.

I observed today that three new oscula had been opened about midway
between the large group at the largest end of the sponge and the base of
the sponge ; these new organs entered upon their function with as much vigour
as the older ones, ejecting their streams with an equal degree of force. The
new osculum, formerly described as having been opened beneath the central
osculum, was increased in diameter; and the central one, formerly so energetic
in its action, remained completely closed.

June 11, 12, and 13.—I continued to watch closely the action of this
interesting and active specimen. It continued to exhibit results very similar
to those already recorded. The three new oscula beneath the group at the
large end increased somewhat in diameter and acted with much force. The
central osculum, up to June 13, continued completely closed, and not the
slightest indication of its former existence could be discerned. Considerable
alteration had also taken place in the two large groups of oscula. ‘At an
early period of my observations I sketched each of these groups carefully,
that I might be under no subsequent mistake regarding them; and I was
induced to do so from having observed that even during the same day the
oscula in the same group varied in the relative degree of their diameter when
in full action ; and I have since frequently observed that sometimes the whole
were fully expanded and in vigorous action, while at other times the largest
osculum of the group would be very active, while the lesser ones were par-
tially closed and very languidly in action; thus while from the large one the
molecules were ejected with great force and rapidity, those from the minor
ones seemed to float gently from their orifices until they came under the
influence of the forcible stream flowing from the large and active osculum.

Some of the smaller oscula in each group have become apparently perma-
nently closed, while others have assumed greater dimensions: thus the confi-
guration of each of these large groups had become greatly modified, and the
sketch of them in their former condition was anything but a faithful portrait
of their present appearance.

These variations in the position and diameter of the oscula are very inter-
esting, but are not so surprising as they may appear at the first blush. If we
examine the surface of the sponge in its most distended condition while in
full action, we see that immediately beneath the dermal membrane there is
a complicated system of large ex-current canals, inosculating with each other
in every possible direction, and furming a wide but irregular cloacal network.
At any point therefore in the course of these canals oscula may be generated
in accordance with the necessities of the animal, and new ones having been
thus generated, a portion of the older organs becomes more or less useless,
and during the cessation of action their membranous lip becomes firmly and
permanently closed.

ON THE VITAL POWERS OF THE SPONGIADA. 445

The systems of large cloacal or ex-current canals are very visible by the
aid of a 2-inch lens while the sponge is distended and in full action, but in
its inactive and contracted condition they are not so readily to be traced.
About 1 o’clock I perforated the dermal membrane with a needle in two places,
directly above one of these large canals, and immediately applied drops of
sea-water charged with indigo, but no immediate result arose from this expe-
riment. At 5 o’clock of the same day, June 13th, I observed that the
punctured orifices were much smaller, and had become oval in form, and at
11 o’clock p.m. they were scarcely visible. At 10 o’clock on the following
morning, June 14th, previously to placing the sponge in water, they were
not visible ; but after the expansion of the sponge by the inhalation of water
they were barely distinguishable, but the orifices were entirely closed by
membrane, apparently as thick and strong as the adjoining uninjured portions
of the dermal membrane.

It is thus evident that the formation of new oscula on the lines of inter-
marginal ex-current canals is not due to accidental circumstances, but that
they are instinctively formed or closed up in accordance with the physiolo-
gical necessities of the animal. This law is also demonstrated by the fact,
that when a slice of considerable dimensions was removed from the upper
surface of a specimen of this species, when three large orifices were generated
by the sections at right angles of as many large canals, none, either of the
large orifices thus created, or of the numerous smaller ones, remained open
after a lapse of twenty-two hours. é

June 14.—During the whole of this day the largest osculum of the group
at the small end of the sponge continued in strong and steady action; all the
other oscula remaining inactive and closed.

June 15.—No traces of the punctured wounds above the large intermar-
ginal canals were visible. The sponge commenced action at 10 o'clock a.m.,
when water was put to it in exactly the same manner as recorded on the
14th, and the action was confined to the single large osculum at the small
end of the sponge. At half-past 11 a.m. the whole of the remaining oscula
opened, and commenced pouring forth streams of water vigorously. The
smaller oscula of the groups at the small end of the sponge were apparently
permanently closed, and the single large osculum had much increased in
diameter.

I continued my observations on this sponge from the 16th to the 28th of
June, with variable results. Some days it remained perfectly inert, but it
generally inhaled and exhaled water with more or less vigour for some
hours each day ; and I could usually induce action by pouring or it a small
stream from a few inches above it, or by running the water over it for a few
minutes with a spoon.

On the 29th I poured the water from it and some other specimens of the
same species at 7 A.m., and placing it in a pan on fresh fuci, I brought it
with me to London, where I immersed it in sea-water which I had brought
with me at 7 o’clock p.m. I continued to treat it as heretofore, and on giving
it some fresh sea-water on the Istof July, it slowly commenced action from the
large osculum at the small end of the sponge. On weighing it after having
been immersed about an hour in water, July 1st, I found it weighed 128
grains after having been immersed in water two hours. I was induced to
weigh it, from observing that it was paler in colour than usual, and had a,
more rugged or warted surface than customary. On the 10th of June, at
10 a.m., I had previously weighed this sponge, first, after having been out of
the water the whole night, when it weighed 137 grains, and at 12 o'clock of
the same day, after being in water two hours, when it weighed 144 grains,

446 _ REPORT—1856.

having increased in weight one-nineteenth, or rather more than 5 per cent.
The difference between the first and second weighing, under similar cireum-
stances, therefore amounted to 16 grains. It had thus lost one-ninth of its
original weight.

I continued to observe daily the condition of this sponge which had previ-
ously afforded me such satisfactory results. It exhibited very little difference
in appearance until the 15th of July, when tt became somewhat paler in
colour; after being an hour out of the water it weighed 121 grains. I con-
tinued to examine it frequently from the 15th to the 20th of July, and I found
that the paleness that I had noticed on the former date, was occasioned by
a gradual dissolution or change of the dermal membrane, the remains of
which hung about the sponge in the form of small flocculent fragments.

This dissolution or change of the dermal membrane produced a remarkable
alteration of its external features. Beneath the old dermal membrane, as I
before stated, there were several large superficial canals which meandered
irregularly over nearly every part of the sponge, with which the oscula were
always connected ; but after the dissolution of the membrane, the whole
of these closed canals were uncovered, and became simply a series of deeply
indented channels on the exposed surface, and no membranous oscula were
any longer apparent; but in the places formerly occupied by these, there
remained a series of large, irregular orifices only, without any membranous
veil whatever that was apparent. Under these circumstances, the sponge
presented a much more rugged and attenuated appearance than it had pre-
viously exhibited, and I accordingly weighed it again, under precisely the
former circumstances, and was surprised to find that the weight was 121
grains, being precisely the same as when weighed five days previously.

From the Ist of July to the 20th I examined this sponge-frequently, and
often endeavoured to excite it to ex-current action by pouring water over it,
but without success. On the 2st of July J omitted to replace it in the water
at night, and in the morning I found it was dead, giving forth a peculiar
odour that always accompanies the death of the sponge.

Adhesion of Species.

It has long been known to naturalists, through the valuable communi-
cations of Dr. Grant in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, vol. xiv.
p- 115, that individuals of the same species of sponge growing near each other,
united and became as one sponge, when by their natural extension they came
in contact ; and that individuals of different species under similar circum-
stances, however closely they might embrace each other, never became
organically united. I have frequently seen these facts verified in their natural
localities at Tenby, and under other circumstances. I determined therefore
to endeavour to ascertain, if possible, the phenomena that were exhibited
under such occasions of coalescence.

On the 4th of June, at 3 p.m., I placed nine small specimens of Hyme-
niacidon caruncula in a saucer-full of salt-water with a few green fuci in it,
and I arranged the sponges gently in contact with each other. On
examining them at 11 o’clock a.m. on the 5th of June, I found that five of
these specimens in which the contact had been complete, were firmly
cemented together. Two of them were one and a half inch in length, and
three-fourths of an inch in breadth, and the others about half that size; but
so strong was the adhesion, that the largest four, full of water, were readily
sustained out of the water by the smallest of the united group. Twenty hours
therefore had sufficed to unite them firmly.

At 3 o'clock p.m. of the 5th of June, I placed several specimens of the

ON THE VITAL POWERS OF THE SPONGIADZ. 447

same sponge in contact in pairs; at half-past 11 p.m., on pouring off
the water carefully, I found some of the pairs had slightly adhered to each
other.

I left them in contact without further disturbance, and it is evident that
adhesion will, to a certain extent, be effected in eight or nine hours, an
amount of exertion of vital action that was scarcely to have been expected.
At half-past 9 o’clock on the following morning, June 6th, I found the junc-
tion of the four pairs of sponges had been strongly and completely eftected
during the night, and while deprived of water. ‘The united portions in two
of the pairs were three-eighths of an inch in length. No traces of the lines
of separation that existed on the previous day could be detected with a 2-inch
lens, and the uniting membrane stretched from one to the other, without the
slightest depression or indication of the former state of separation. Thus we
find a strong and complete junction effected in each of the four cases in so
short a time as eighteen hours.

None of these specimens when taken from the rock were compressed or
otherwise injured, and in none of them were there any oscula visible. On
the following morning, when supplied with sea-water after having been left ex-
posed to the air and without water during the night, the numerous oscula
made their appearance, and the ex-current action became general and very
vigorous, creating currents in every possible direction at the surface of the
dish of water in which they were kept.

June 7.—I examined them again at half-past 9 o'clock, and found the
adhesion between the specimens had been strengthened ; I gave them fresh
water, but not finding any action taking place at 12 o’clock, I removed them
and pickled them in bay-salt and water.

I repeated this experiment on the adhesion of individuals of the same spe-
cies many times and always with the same results. Specimens of Hal. panicea,
when placed in contact, also adhered to each other, but they did not appear
to adhere either so rapidly or with so much force as in Hym. caruncula.
When specimens of Hal. panicea and Hym. caruncula were placed in close
contact, no adhesion whatever took place.

I fully expected this result, as I had often examined the two species grow-
ing closely pressed against each other on the rock, and always found that,
although the contact was close and apparently forcible, no adhesion could
ever be detected.

On several subsequent occasions I placed pairs of specimens of Hymenia-
_ eidon caruncula in contact at about 11 o’clock p.m., after draining the water

from them, and in every instance I found the adhesion took place as readily
without, as with immersion in water.

SSS SS rrr —S

Reparative powers.

The remarkable activity of the vital power, as displayed in the rapidity and
strength with which individuals of the same species adhered to each other,
naturally led me to imagine that the power of repairing injuries would be no
less great than that of simply coalescing, and I determined to investigate
this branch of their economy.

June 8.—At half-past 1 p.m. I wounded a specimen of Hymeniacidon
-earuncula, rather exceeding 2 inches in length, in two places. In one case

_ I made a clean cut across it nearly half an inch in depth; in the other I
eut a notch in it about three-fourths of an inch in length, and the eighth
of an inch wide and deep. At 5 p.m. a manifest alteration had taken
_ Place in the latter case. The edges of the wound at the dermal membrane
_ were no longer angular, but were rounded off, and a very thin membrane
%

448 REPORT—1856.

appeared to be in course of production over the whole of the cut surface.
The surfaces of the first simple incised wound could not be readily separated,
and a sufficient amount of adhesion had evidently taken place within, to
prevent the wounded surfaces from separating without the application of
some amount of violence. At 10 a.m. of the 9th of June, I examined
this specimen again, and found that the deep incised wound had entirely —
closed, and a firm and strong membrane had united the previously separated
parts of the surface of the sponge so completely that a separation of the sides
of the wound could not have been effected without a degree of violence that
would have endangered the whole sponge. ‘The large notch that had been
cut on the other end of the sponge had also been completely repaired. The
edges of the wound had lost all their angularity, and the sides of the cut, in
which when first made there were numerous orifices arising from sections
of the great canals, were now covered by the new membrane, which entirely
closed all the orifices caused by the wounding of the sponge; and so com-
plete was the reparation, that the indentation appeared to be merely one of
the natural depressions of the surface of the sponge. From 11 to 12 0’clock
the sponge exhibited ex-current action from its principal oscula, and among
those in full action was one which had been bisected in the act of making
the deep simple incision across the substance of the sponge.

On the 8th of June, at 4 p.m., I also wounded several sponges of the same
species im situ, on the rocks in St. Catherine’s cave, by cutting notches
about the eighth of an inch in breadth and depth in their surface, or by cut-
ting out conical masses from near the middle of the sponges about a quarter
of an inch in diameter at the surface of the sponge; and in another case I
cut a slice from the surface about three quarters of an inch in diameter, and
about one-tenth of an inch in thickness at the middle of the sponge. My
object in this experiment was to ascertain whether any difference in the
results would arise from the very different condition under which the last and
the present experiments were made.

On examining the wounded sponges in their natural localities twenty-four
hours after the wounds had been made, I found the results to be precisely
the same as in those that I had kept in a state of perfect quiescence; the
continued action of the water upon them had not retarded the reparative pro-
cess in the slightest degree, nor had the quiescent condition of those which I
had retained in the dishes apparently accelerated the healing process.

June 12.—I cut off a piece from the small end of a specimen of H. carun-
cula, about 14 inch in length, at 12 o’clock at noon, and let it remain sepa-
rated for about an hour. I then placed the two surfaces in contact in sea-
water. At half-past 11 p.m. they had already united, but were evidently
not strongly cemented together. I drained off the water as usual at that
period, and left them without any during the night; at 11 a.M., on June 13th,
they were completely and firmly united. On June 13th, at noon, with
a view to ascertain whether the healing process emanated from the dermal
membrane, from the interior substance of the sponge, or from both, I cut
a notch, about the eighth of an inch in width, entirely round the middle of
the same sponge, and then cut it asunder through the middle of the notch,
replaced it in sea-water, and brought the two sides of the section in
close contact, to ascertain whether the healing process would take place
’ independent of the dermal membrane. On June the 14th, at 10 a.m., I found
the two pieces firmly cemented together without contact of the dermal
membrane.

June 13th.—At noon, from a specimen of Z. caruncula, about 1} inch long
by 12 broad, I cut a slice from the top of the sponge + inch long by about

-

ON THE VITAL POWERS OF THE SPONGIADA. 449

4 an inch broad, the greatest thickness being about {jth of an inch, laying
open three large ex-current canals, and numerous other small canals and
cavities, and then replaced it in the water. I also cut seven other specimens
in halves, and then replaced them in the water, bringing the sections into close
contact. June 14th, at 10 o’clock a.m., I found the two pieces firmly
cemented without contact of the dermal membrane. On examining the sponge,
from the top of which I had cut off'a slice at 12 o’clock, June 13, at 5 o'clock
on the same day, I observed that the three great orifices arising from sections
of great ex-current canals were each in process of being closed. From the
circular margin of each a membrane had extended from the circumference
towards the centre, very nearly closing the smallest of the orifices, and in
the other two cases leaving in one a circular central orifice, one-third of the
original diameter, and in the other about one-fourth of the diameter. On the
following morning, June 14, these apertures were entirely closed, and over
the whole of the wounded surface a new dermal membrane had been formed,
which securely closed all the numerous small orifices as well as the larger
ones.

The seven larger sponges which I had separated by cutting into halves,
and then replaced in water with the divided parts again in close contact, were
all found firmly united at 10 o'clock on the following morning, June 14th;
and at June 15th, 10 a.m., the reparation of the subjects of the above
experiment were so complete as to quite obliterate the traces of the separation
in some of them. I therefore pickled the specimens. In other cases I cut
the same species of sponges into three pieces and reversed the position of the
middle piece of each, so as to render the sections unconformable; but this
reversal of position, when the surfaces were brought into close contact, did
not seem in the slightest degree to retard the healing process, or to render
the adhesion of the pieces less firm than when placed together conformably.

Disease and Death.

July 1.—At 10 a.m. I observed in one of the specimens of Hym. carun-
cula which I had brought from Tenby to London, an appearance of
disease in one of the lobes of the sponge for about half an inch from
the point inwards. There was a tumid appearance of the surface tissues
and a glassy opalescence in the part affected. On smelling this portion of
the sponge, there was a slightly foetid odour which did not exist in the
healthy portions of it. I immediately cut off this piece about half an inch
from the diseased part, and placed it in a basin by itself in sea-water. In six
hours the diseased appearance had become much more evident, but the
healthy part attached to it remained apparently unaffected. On examining a
section from the surface of the most diseased part, I found the dermal mem-
brane distended by an effusion of an opalescent lymph-like fluid; the sarcode.
in the immediate neighbourhood had lost its red colour, and the parts were
apparently in a decomposing state, but the adjoining portions of the same
tissue presented a healthy appearance. The separation of the diseased piece
from the parent sponge, had apparently been effective in preventing the
spread of the disease, as it retained its usual appearance at the section and
in the other parts of the sponge during the next twenty-four hours, but
shortly after that time, it began to exhibit strong symptoms of disease, and
in a few hours it was evidently dead.

Nutrition.
=} I cannot dismiss the subject without a few words regarding the nutri-
_ tion of the Spongiade. That they inhaled and exhaled water abun-
1856. 2G

4

450 REPORT—1856.

dantly, has been long well known, but what the effects of the exertion of
those functions were has been little noted by naturalists; and although,
by the almost universal consent of zoologists, they have been received as
animals, they have been denied the possession of stomach, intestines, and
almost of every organ that constitutes animality, while in truth nearly the
whole of the interior of the animal is one large stomachal cavity, furnished
abundantly with mucous membranes, if I may so term them, covered with a
coat of sarcode, analogous in every respect to the mucous lining of the
intestines of the higher animals, and which performs for the sponge precisely
those functions that the sarcode exerts, from Actinophrys Sol upwards, through
every gradation of animal existence, to man, and the rest of the most elabo-
rately constructed animals. This extraordinary substance, designated, in
Actinophrys Sol, sarcode by Kdlliker, and in the higher animals known by
anatomists as the mucous lining of the intestines, is apparently an organ
of very much more importance in the process of digestion than has been
generally conceived. It is never deficient in any animal, from the lowest
to the highest. Ihave examined it from living specimens microscopically in
Acalepha, Actinia, Radiaria, Fishes, and in the Mouse and other small
quadrupeds ; and in all, it presents nearly the same appearance. It is semi-
transparent, has an uneven corrugated surface, and in every instance in which
I have observed it, abounds with solid and vesicular molecules of extraneous
matter in a semi-digested state. Generally speaking, of the vesicular mole-
cules, very few indeed are in a fully distended condition, and by far the
greater number present every degree of collapse that can well be imagined
during the dissolution of such bodies by digestion.

In the Spongiade there is every reason to believe that the imbibition of
the molecules by this substance is precisely in the manner described by
Kolliker in Actinophrys Sol, and from my examinations of the mucous mem-
branes of so many classes of animals, I feel persuaded that the mucous lining
of the intestines in such animals is truly the homologue of the sarcode in
Actinophrys Sol and in the Spongiade.

I will not enter at the present time fully into this subject, as I trust I shall
hereafter, by further investigations, be enabled to do so more completely and
effectively.

In conclusion I may observe, that I have been thus particular in detailing
minutely the history of the actions of the specimen of Hymeniacidon carun-
cula that has been the subject of so great a portion of this communication, as
it leads us to some very interesting conclusions. We learn by the daily
records of its actions, that it is neither the mere stimulus of light or even the
presence of fresh water, or the abundance of its natural food, that will at all
times stimulate these animals to action, asin vegetables ; but that, on the con-
trary, they select or reject their food like other animals as their necessities
may dictate ; and not the least curious part of the history of this sponge, is
the power it displayed to determine what parts of its organs should be called
into activity, and what should be quiescent.

During the course of these observations I have frequently observed other
specimens of the same species, and have tested the degree of their action or
repose by the application of a few drops of sea-water charged with molecules
of indigo ; and in almost every case where the oscula were in the slightest
degree open, I have found that although apparently inert, there usually re-
mained a very gentle ex-current action. It will be remembered also, that in
the course of the records of the action of the sponge which has formed the
principal subject of these observations, the general effect of the removal
of the animal from the water is the entire closing of the oscula; but that on ©

——- ee.

Te

ON THE ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION OF SALMON. 451

the cessation of the full and vigorous action, the oscula while still immersed
in the water do not close entirely ; the orifices almost always remain more or
less open, and during this condition a comparatively languid circulation
continues. b

These two conditions of the animal action are strongly indicative of the
exertion of two distinct functions; the vigorous action being that of the
period of feeding, while the gentle one indicates the breathing one only.

If, during the powerful state of action of the sponge, we introduce a few
drops of water charged with indigo, the rush of the molecules to its outer
surface is immediate; and if the species be Grantia ciliata or compressa, we
find the sponge deeply tinctured with blue in a very few minutes. After a
brief period we find a few molecules of indigo ejected from the common
fecal orifice of the sponge.

If the sponge be now removed into fresh water, the ejection of molecules
of indigo continues for hours to be slowly effected. After having thus im-
bibed indigo, there is no amount of washing that will not injure the sponge
that will remove the colouring matter; but if the sponge be removed into
fresh water, it will be found to be free from colour in a period varying from
twelve to twenty-four hours, the process of digestion and defecation having
naturally effected its removal; and if any molecules remain on the outer sur-
face, a very little water poured over the sponge will now usually remove them.

The strongly adhesive power inherent in the dermal membranes of sponges
and in all parts of their internal structure, readily accounts for the universal
habit of inosculation, not only as regards the large external branches, but
the internal fibres also, and it is evident that to this active power of
adherence the reticulated forms of fibrous structure is due.

Report of a Committee, consisting of Sir W. Jarpine, Bart., Dr.
Fuiemine, and Mr. E. Asuworts, upon the Experiments con-
ducted at Stormontfield, near Perth, for the artificial propagation
of Salmon.

Tue migrations of the Salmon between the seas and rivers have long been a
subject of much interest to the proprietors of salmon fisheries, to sportsmen,
and to naturalists ; and the difficulty of making observations, or of obtaining
accurate information, rendered the pursuit of the inquiry if possible more

: exciting. The experiments conducted by Mr. Shaw at Drumlanrig, and

Mr. Young at Invershin, produced many valuable and important results;
and being conducted with great care by practical men, entirely independent of
each other, and at stations widely apart, the facts stated were entitled to
every reliance. The opinions of these two men, however, were at variance
on a very important point, viz. the age at which the young fry assumed their

' migratory dress and took their departure from the river to the sea—

Mr. Shaw making it two years, Mr. Young only twelve or thirteen months.
_ These experiments, and the success which had attended artificial propaga-

tion in France, and the extent to which, in that country, the latter was

beginning to be practised economically and for profit ; the trials of Mr.

7 Garnett at Clitheroe, and of Mr. Ashworth at Outerard in Ireland, attracted

the attention of the fishermen of the Tay; and on the 19th of July, 1852, a

_ meeting of the proprietors of that river was held at Perth to consider the

262

452 REPORT—1856.

subject generally. This meeting was numerously attended, and Mr. Thomas
Ashworth of Poynton laid before it and explained the operations which had
been recently carried on by himself and his brother, Mr. Edmund Ashworth,
at their fisheries in Ireland, and recommended strongly that these should now
be attempted for the Tay. The recommendation was acceded to, and the
Earl of Mansfield, who was chairman of the meeting, at once gave permis-
sion to select from his estates any situation favourable for carrying on the
experiments. This was the origin of the Stormontfield breeding ponds, and
an excellent account of their construction, with a detail of the operations con-
ducted in them, was brought before the Natural History Section of the
British Association at their meeting in Glasgow, which led to the support of
the Association, and the appointment of the Committee which has reported
this year to the meeting at Cheltenham*.

To bring the subject up to the period when the Committee appointed by
the British Association was prepared to act, it will be necessary to mention
the principal points and results of the experiments detailed by Mr. Edmund
Ashworth at Glasgow. These are extremely interesting in themselves, and
are indispensable for the right understanding of the operations which were
afterwards conducted and are now in operationy+.

The situation for the ponds was selected at Stormontfield Mill}, not far from
the Palace of Scone. ‘A gentle slope from the lade which supplies the
mill offered every facility for the equable flow of water through the boxes
and pond. Three hundred boxes were laid down in twenty-five parallel
rows, each box partly filled with clean gravel and pebbles, and protected at
both ends with zine grating to exclude trout and insects. Filtering beds
were formed at the head and foot of the rows, and a pond for the reception
of the fry was constructed immediately below the hatching ground. On the
23rd of November, 1853, operations were commenced, and by the 23rd of
December, 300,000 ova were deposited in the boxes. The fish were taken
from spawning beds in the Tay.”

The process of fecundation and of depositing the ova in the boxes was
conducted by Mr. Ramsbottom, who was engaged for the purpose, his prac-
tice and experience at Clitheroe and elsewhere giving confidence to his
manipulations. ‘The ova were placed in the boxes as nearly similar to
what they would be under the ordinary course of natural deposition as
possible, with, however, this important advantage—in the bed of the river
the ova are liable to injury and destruction in a variety of ways. The
alluvial matter deposited in times of flood will often cover the ova too deep
to admit of the extrication of the young fry, even if hatched. The impetuosity
of the streams, when flooded, will frequently sweep away whole spawning
beds and their contents§. Whilst deposited in boxes, the ova are shielded
from injury, and their vivification in large numbers is thus rendered a matter
of certainty, and the young fish reared in safety. On the 31st of March,
1854, the first ovum was observed to be hatched, and in April and May the

* The Committee named to watch over the experiments in progress, and those to be ccm-
menced in 1856, consisted of Sir W. Jardine, Bart. ; the Rev. Dr. Fleming, Prof. Nat. Hist,
Free College, Edinburgh ; and Mr. Edmund Ashworth, Egerton Hall, Lancashire.

+ Remarks on Artificial Propagation of Salmon, and some account of the Experiment at
Stormontfield, near Perth, by Edmund Ashworth. Bolton, 1855. 8vo, pp. 8.

$ Mr. Spottiswoode, the tenant of Stormontfield, with much liberality, also agreed to give
the use of the ground and water from his mill lade, free of all remuneration ; and we may add,
that the interest taken by all who had any control over the locality chosen, either in the ma-
nagement and conducting of the experiments, or in communicating information, could not be
exceeded ; this of itself is a proof of the importance attached to these operations.

§ ‘‘ These causes, in addition to the great destruction of ova, as well as young fry, by wild
fowl, fish and insects, all tend to limit the natural increase of the salmon,”

ON THE ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION OF SALMON. 453

greater portion had come to life and were at large in the boxes; in June they
were admitted into the pond, their average size being about an inch and a
half in length. From the period of their admission into the pond the fry
were fed daily with boiled liver rubbed small by the hand. Notwithstanding
the severity of the winter, they continued in a healthy condition, and in the
spring of the present year (1855) were found to have increased in size to
the average of 3 and 4 inches in length. On the 2nd of May, 1855, a
mecting of the Committee (appointed by the Tay proprietors in 1852) was
held at the pond, to consider the expediency of detaining the fry for another
year, or allowing them to depart. A comparison with the undoubted smolts
of the river then descending seawards, with the fry in the ponds, led to the
conclusion that the latter were not yet smolts, and ought to be detained.
Seventeen days afterwards, viz. on the 19th May, a second meeting was
held, in consequence of the great numbers of the fry having in the interim
assumed the migratory dress. On inspection, it was found that a considerable
portion were actual smolts, and the Committee came to the determination to
allow them to depart. Accordingly, the sluice communicating with the Tay
was opened, and every facility for egress afforded. Contrary to expecta-
tion, none of the fry manifested any inclination to leave the pond until
the 24th of May, when the larger and more mature of the smolts, after
having held themselves detached from the others for several days, went off
in a body. A series of similar emigrations took place, until fully one-half of
the fry had left the pond and descended the sluice to the ‘Tay. It bas long
been a subject of controversy, whether the fry of the salmon assume the
migratory dress in the second or third year of their existence. So favourable
an opportunity of deciding the question as that afforded by the Stormontfield
experiment was not to be overlooked. In order to test the matter in the
fairest possible way, it was resolved to mark a portion of the smolts in such
a manner that they might easily be detected when returning as grilse. A
temporary tank, into which the fish must necessarily descend, was constructed
at the junction of the sluice with the Tay; and as the shoals successively left
the pond, about one in every hundred was marked by the abscision of the
second dorsal fin. A greater number were marked on the 29th of May than
on any other day, in all about 1200 or 1300. The result has proved highly
satisfactory. Within two months of the date of their liberation, viz. between
the 29th of May and 31st of July, twenty-two of the young fish so marked when
in the state of smolts, on their way to the sea, have been, in their returning mi-
gration up the river, recaptured, and carefully examined. This fact may be
considered as still further established, by observing the increased weight,
according to date, of the grilse caught and examined ; those taken first weigh-
ing 5 to 95 l|bs., then increasing progressively to 7 and 8 lbs., whilst the one
captured 31st July weighed no less than 94 pounds. In all these fish the
~ wound caused by marking was covered with skin, and in some a coating of
scales had formed over the part. Although twenty-two only are mentioned,
the taking of which rests on indubitable evidence, nearly as many more are
_ reported from distant parts; the weights and sizes of these have not been
forwarded.

“The experiment at Stormontfield has afforded satisfactory proof, that a
portion at least of the fry of the salmon assume the migratory dress, and
descend to the sea shortly after the close of the first year of their existence ;
and what is far more important in a practical point of view, it has also
demonstrated the practicability of rearing salmon of marketable value within
_ twenty months from the deposition of the ova. A very interesting question
still remains to be solved. At what date will the fry now in the pond

454 REPORT—1856.

become smolts? Hitherto they have manifested no disposition to migrate,
and if the silvery coat of the smolt be not assumed till the spring of 1856,
a curious anomaly will present itself. Some of the fry, as smolts, will, for
the first time, be descending seawards, of the average weight of 2 oz.; some
as grilse will be taking their second departure to the sea; and others still
more advanced will even have completed their second migration, and return
to the river as salmon 10 or 12 lbs. in weight. It is much to be desired, that
the experiment at Stormontfield could be continued for a year or two longer,
till the links in the chain of evidence now wanting to complete the natural
history of the salmon should be obtained. All praise is due to Lord Mans-
field for the liberal manner in which he has aided the carrying out the ope-
rations to this time, and from which he can reap little advantage, beyond
the satisfaction to an enlightened mind, of promoting the interests of science
and the welfare of the community.

“ Since arriving in Glasgow I have received a communication from my
friend Mr, Buist, in which he says,—‘In my opinion, you have kept your
statements within the truth, as I have got satisfactory evidence of twenty-
two marked griise being taken, besides others which have been reported; and
I have no doubt many have been thrown in the heap without being noticed
by the careless fishermen. There is at present a mystery as regards the
progress of the young salmon; there can be no doubt, that all in our ponds
are really and truly the offspring of salmon; no other fish, not even the seed of
them, could by any possibility get into the ponds; now we see that about
one-half have gone off as smolts in their season as grilses. The other half
remain as parrs, and the milt in the males is as much developed in proportion
to the size of the fish as their brethren of the same age 7 to 10 lbs. weight,
whilst these same parrs in the pond do not exceed 1 oz. in weight. This is
an anomaly in nature, which I fear cannot be cleared up at present. I hope,
however, by proper attention, some light may be thrown upon it from our
experiments next spring. The female parrs in the pond have their ova so
undeveloped, that the granulations can scarcely be discovered by a lens of
some power. It is strange, that both Young and Shaw’s theories are likely
to prove correct, though seemingly so contradictory, and the much-disputed
point settled, that parrs (such as ours at least) are truly the young of the
salmon.’ ”

We may now consider ourselves at the close of the Glasgow meeting.
The Committee which is now reporting to you prepared to act, and one-half
of the fish hatched in the spring of 1854 are still in the Stormontfield ponds,
and under the charge of their faithful guardian, Peter Marshall. These fish
are still in the state of parr. Mr. Ashworth had arranged that a book
should be kept at the ponds, in which every occurrence worthy of notice
should be entered, and we shall allow that book to tell its own story :—“ These
parr continued, during the winter 1855—56, healthy and in good condition,
but did not appear to make much advance in size until the month of April
1856. They were then in good condition, but not much larger than those
which had been allowed to leave the ponds the previous year.”

As the migratory season approached, the fish were closely watched.
Peter Marshall reports, 19th March, “that the parrs in the pond continued
very healthy.” 19th April:—“ Ponds again inspected, and some experiments
tried to mark with silver rings. They were then also healthy.” 26th
April :—“ Found that a great change had taken place upon them, and that
they were fast getting into their smolt state; marked a few with the silver
rings ; found it to answer very well, and that the fish went off very lively on

4

ON THE ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION OF SALMON. 455

being turned into the river; fixed on a place in the river where the smolts
can be intercepted for the purpose of being taken out and marked. They
showed a decided tendency to go out, and from 28th April to the 24th of
May, the shoals went off daily from the ponds.”

It is supposed, as a fair estimate, that about 120,000 fry in all have left
the ponds in May 1856, and of those 1435 have been marked, being 300
with silver rings, and 1135 by having the lower lobe of the tail cut diagonally
off. The return of some of those marked fish was anxiously watched for, and on
the 30th of July Mr. Buist writes to me,—“ There has been a very large catch
of grilses, indeed in such numbers, that the people don’t take care to examine
them. On 12th July we had a grilse of 33 lbs. weight, with the lower fork
cut off the tail, such as we marked in April and May, and several who were
present at the marking of the smolts considered that it was one of them;
another with the same mark was reported, but not produced to me.” On the 7th
of August Mr. Buist again writes,—‘“‘ Several grilse with cut tails have been
taken within the last week.” Up to the time of the reading of this Report,
no fish marked witk rings had been taken, but when the small number marked
is considered, this is not remarkable. The experiment of the first hatching
may now be said to be completed. The results have been satisfactory in two
ways. In showing the practicability of hatching, rearing, and maintaining
in health a very large number of young fish for a period of two years, and
not reckoning the origina] expense of the ponds at a comparatively small cost;
it may be worthy of consideration, whether the “large catch” mentioned
by Mr. Buist as taking place this year, may not have been, in part at least,
due to the ‘numbers that have been lately turned out. It has also been again
proved, we think without dispute, that the young fish turned out as smolts
return as grilses within a period of from five to ten weeks, Not so many
marked fish have been taken as could have been wished; at the same time
there have been sufficient to establish this fact.

We now come to the experiments of the present year, which have been
conducted as carefully as possible, and we hope to be able to report what
the final results may be at your next meeting; and if there is a partial
migration before that time, or if a certain number of the fish now in confine-
ment take upon them the migratory dress, then we may assume that a similar
process takes place in the rivers, and that a portion of the broods do seek the
sea, at the age of from twelve to fourteen months after they are hatched. In
conducting experiments of this kind, there are always attendant circumstances
not quite natural that we shall have to contend with; and it may now be
urged, that the regular feeding during winter might bring the young fish
sooner to maturity, or on the other side of the question, that the confinement
of so many within a small compass might retard their growth. But on com-
paring the fish of the ponds with those in the rivers, we find a remarkable
similarity and agreement of the different stages, so far as we can judge of the
age of those in the rivers. If, on the other hand, we can by care, with good
and regular feeding during winter, force on, as it were, the young, or some por-
tion of them, to be in a fit state to migrate in twelve or thirteen months, it will
be a very great point gained in the object we have in view (the artificial-

_ increase of the salmon), and it does not appear to us that this is impracti-

cable.

In order to try over again the experiments we have just described as con-
eluded in May last, arrangements were made at Stormontfield to fill the boxes
with fresh impregnated spawn, and to take every care that this should be done
with exactness. The taking of the fish for spawning was commenced on the

5 22nd of November, and continued until the] 9th of December, 1855; in that time

456 REPORT—1856.

183 boxes were filled. each being supposed to contain 2000 ova. On the 16th
December last, Mr. E. Ashworth, on the part of the British Association
Committee, accompanied by Mr. Buist of Perth, and Mr. Ramsbottom, met
the fishermen at a ford near the junction of the Almond and the Tay, for the
purpose of obtaining spawn. Our pond journal relates,—‘“ When we arrived
at the river they had caught two female fish, and at the next cast of the net
two other female fish were taken. At the third cast they captured a male
fish in fine condition, from 24 to 28 lbs. weight. We had now full oppor-
tunity of seeing the whole process of spawning performed. The female fish,
after being relieved of their ova, swam away quite lively, and each were
marked by punching a hole in the tail *.”

The maie fish proved to be one of the fish which had been caught by Mr.
Ramsbottom iz December 1852, and marked at.that time by the dead fin
being cut off.

On 18th February, 1856, Peter Marshall reports,—‘ The spawn all healthy,
and have every appearance of coming to life.”

On 3rd March. “The appearance of the spawn still continues very
healthy, but not yet quite ready for hatching.”

These reports were continued, and the ova that were first deposited,
viz. or the 22nd of November, 1855, came to life on the 3rd of April, 1856.
The others in succession and those last deposited, viz. 19th December, were
hatched on the 11th of April, showing a difference of only eight days in the
hatching, although there was FOURTEEN between the different dates of
deposition in the boxes.

Upon the dispersion or turning out the last portion of the previous brood
in the end of May, the rearing pond was emptied, thoroughly cleaned out
and prepared for the reception of the young fish of this year, still in the
spawning boxes, but now increasing in size. On the Ist of July last, your
Committee visited Perth, and in company with Mr. Buist and Mr. Walsh
inspected the ponds. At this time a large proportion of the young fish had
found their way to the rearing ponds. Some were still in the communicating
race through which the water flowed gently, and a few still continued in the
small pools of the spawning boxes. After the ova are hatched or come to
life, the young are allowed to find their own way to the rearing pond; this
they do gradually, and with the exceptions stated, had nearly all reached it.
They appeared quite healthy, were feeding upon flies and other insects, and
when a small quantity of their artificial food (boiled liver grated) was thrown
in, they would rush towards it in shoals. ‘The reports of the keeper since
the Ist of July have been equally satisfactory,—“ The young are as thriving
as could be wished in every way.”

This, then, is the state and condition of the experiment which your Com-
mittee consider they have under charge. Nothing further can be done until
the time arrives next year, when it is supposed a part, or the whole of the

* Ova depositedin Stormontfield ponds in November and Decezaber 1855.

Boxes. Boxes.
1855. November 22 . 25 Brought forward: ;. . ).oje0 queen oe!
i 23.4 9 | 1855. December 3 6
sn cee 1 | : 4 5
eS 26. 3 S 5 ; 17
3 Dt. OT ES Siar Ft .O% Daa fe
5 28)F «6 ;; 15: toadat VM as
oO Oe gia gl J Micha, . 24
December 1. . 32 | $3 19 - 10
on eee
Carry forward . Seth" Total. . . 1838

i
i

ON THE ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION OF SALMON. 457
brood, may assume the migratory dress, and be ready to remove to the sea.
We propose to take such measures as will allow us to watch this narrowly,
and also if the migratory dress be assumed, to mark a large number before
turning out.

Norte ro Rerort oN STORMONTFIELD Ponps.—The importance of arti-
ficial impregnation, and the general question of changes and migration, is also
being attended to elsewhere, and we trust, that as soon as the natural history,
the “rise and progress” of the Salmon shall have been completed, a similar
series of experiments will be instituted, to determine that of other migratory
fishes which have not yet been bred or kept in confinement. Mr. Shaw bred
and reared the “ Sea Zrout” of the Solway, and we have given a series of
figures of this fish from the length of an inch to a weight of 43 lbs.*; but
the fish of the Tweed, known as the “ Bull Trout,” has never been examined
through its different stages, and except those now in the Duke of Rox-
burghe’s ponds at Floors, has never been bred in confinement.

Ponds similar in construction to those at Stormontfield were erected
in 1855 by the Duke of Roxburghe near Floors, and upon writing to his
Grace regarding them, every information has been kindly supplied by
himself, and a detailed account, at his desire, has been drawn up by the
Superintendent of the Tweed River Police; and as this bears so much
upon our subject, it is thought that some extracts from it will not now be
out of place :—

“ The pond is situate on a small rivulet called Stodrig Burn, and is about
sixty yards from the Tweed, within the policies of Floors Castle, near Kelso.
The breeding boxes or troughs I caused to be made similar to those at Stor-
montfield, and they consist of four, laid parallel, 18 feet long, subdivided
into four compartments, 44 feet long, the only division between the troughs
being a 14-inch deal, instead of the gravel walk as at GStormontfield. The
water, which is raised by a dam at the upper end, is made to fall into a deep
trough which adjoins the breeding troughs, from which it is as equally dis-
tributed, and after flowing over the gravel, it falls into an aqueduct 18 inches
wide, and which is carried round the margin of the receiving pond, which is
oval-shaped, and about 30 feet long by 15 wide, in which there is about
18 inches of water, and into it the aqueduct or canal discharges itself.

“The pond was constructed in the latter months of 1853, but owing to
circumstances, it was not stocked that season.

«On the 4th and 5th of March, 1855, the produce of five fish (three of
them grilses) was impregnated with the milt procured from two male fish,
and deposited in the hatching troughs. The spring was very cold, and the
temperature of the water very low; however, the ova appeared to thrive
nicely, and on the 27th of April the young were formed and moving, and
from their appearance, I expected they should have been hatched in the
course of another week ; but when I examined them on the 4th of May, I
found, to my astonishment, that not a single ovum was in a healthy hatching
state, but thousands of them had in the course of the week become opake,
and the backbone and eyes of the little creatures could be easily seen upon
dividing the ovum with a penknife. The cause of this mishap it was impos-
sible to trace, but there is much reason to believe that it was caused by a
large quantity of lime being used as manure upon the lands through which
the rivulet which supplies the ponds flows.

“On the 17th, 18th, and 19th of March this year (1856), I had a quantity
of spawn dug from a shallow bank in the Tweed, near Galashiels, part of

* Illustrations of Scottish Salmonide.

458 REPORT— 1856.

it being the ova of the salmon, grilse, and bull trout, in about equal portions,
and the whole being not less than 50,000. The ponds being in readiness, it
was conveyed on the 19th of March to Kelso, in boxes filled with fine
gravel or sand in a damp state, and was deposited in the breeding boxes the
same day, where it remained till the 11th of April, when the young were
first observed to be bursting the shell or covering of the ova. Upon exa-
mining the gravel in the boxes on the 2nd of May, I found that all the fish were
hatched, and only those remained which had become addled. Since that
time most of the fry left the hatching boxes, and fell back into the aqueduct,
from which most of them have passed into the receiving pond, where they
now remain. They have as yet received no artificial food, but they appear
quite healthy, and are growing as well as could be desired. There is a
great difference in the size and appearance of them: the largest are about
1} inch long, while some of them are not over half the size, and the colour
of some is much lighter than of others, which no doubt arises from the different
kinds of ova which were placed there.”

The fishing season in the Tay is now closed for this year, and none of the
ringed grilse have been recovered ; but Mr. Buist writes to me,—“ Since I
last wrote (7th August) several grilse with the tail mark have been taken,
and a number of salmon have been taken during the season with /ast year’s
grilse mark upon them. The two last taken were 13 and 19% lbs.” Next
season, therefore, our ringed fry may yet appear as salmon, although they
have not been captured this year in their grilse state. ‘Our young brood
are thriving well; but as in former cases, they are already showing a great
disparity in size.”

Provisional Report on the progress of a Committee appointed at the
Meeting in Glasgow, September 1855, to consider the question of
the Measurement of Ships for Tonnage, consisting of the following
Gentlemen :—Mr. J. R. Napier, Mr. Jonn Woop, Mr. ALLAN
Giutmorg, Mr. Caarues AtrHerton, Mr. JAMes PEAKE, and
Mr. ANDrREw Henperson (Reporter).

As the first-named Member of the Committee on Tonnage Measurement,
it becomes my duty to report progress in the matters referred to us, and in
so doing, I beg to premise my report with the remark, that I was induced to
propose this Committee from having had the honour of reading a paper on
Ocean Steamers, Clipper Ships, and their descriptive measurement, to the
Association at their Meeting at Liverpool (vide page 152 to 156 of Report,
1854). While at Glasgow, in 1855, a new shipping bill having come into
operation, I found that the extreme interest then publicly taken in the general
question of Government interference in shipping affairs seemed to render
this Committee expedient.

The serious and important character of the subject thereby involved, and
the consequent responsibility imposed on all individuals who may take a
prominent part in this matter, have operated as an obstacle to the immediate
establishment and working operation of this Committee. In the first place,
I beg to notice that the subject of Tonnage Registration, as connected with
our national statistics of shipping, had been brought to the notice of the
public, both at the Institution of Civil Engineers by myself, in 1853, and at
the Society of Arts, by Mr. Charles Atherton, in a manner which has fully

EEE EE

ON THE MEASUREMENT: OF SHIPS FOR TONNAGE. 459

set forth the importance of the subject, and shown that legislative enactment
will be necessary in order to correct the deficiencies of our present tonnage
registration of shipping: the subject, having been thus brought before the
public in its most serious and important aspect, has apparently induced
several of the gentlemen proposed for this Committee to decline the task
thus expected of them.
. The absence from Glasgow of many interested in the subject rendering
previous communication impracticable, the President and officers of the
Mechanical Section deeming it desirable that the three scientific bodies
before whom the subject had been brought should participate in the inves-
tigation, Mr. John Scott Russell was nominated to represent the British
Association; and it being also considered expedient to follow the precedent
of the Tonnage Committee of 1849, comprising shipowners, shipbuilders,
officers of the Royal Navy, Merchant Service, and Trinity House, gentlemen
connected with Lloyd's Register, and their surveyors, with several naval
architects and engineers, there were proposed Mr. Allan Gilmore, Mr.
John Wood, and Mr. James R. Napier, representing the shipowners and
shipbuilders of Scotland; Mr. C. Atherton and Mr. J. Peake, the latter
professions, with the understanding that they were to seek the cooperation
of others.

Accordingly, application was made to noblemen, officers and engineers
connected with the Navy, the Society of Arts, and Institution of Civil
Engineers, the shipowners’ societies of London and Liverpool, the Com-
mittee of Lloyd’s Register of Shipping, and to shipbuilders ; although many
of these gentlemen of scientific attainments and practical experience offered
to participate in the investigation, difficulty and delay occurred from some
of the members of the Committee being resident in distant parts of the
country, while for the deposit of papers and plans for references by the
Committee, no provision had beeri made even in the metropolis; the only
means of bringing them under consideration, was the forwarding copies of
them to the principal ports, that the members might elicit the opinion of the
Local Marine Boards and shipowners.

With this view application was made to the Board of Trade for copies of
Acts and Parliamentary papers bearing on the question, to be submitted to
the members of the Committee of the British Association in their investi-
gation of Tonnage Measurement.

The official reply was, that the Board of Trade “6 not consider that the
law of tonnage measurement requires alteration, or that the subject requires
further investigation with any view of amending the law.” “ Most of the
papers to which you refer are published, and can be purchased. Those
which have not been published, and which are among the records of this
office, My Lords cannot part with; but you are at liberty to inspect and take
copies of the plans which you have yourself submitted to the Board.”

In addition to these delays and the difficulties thrown in the way by the
routine of a public office, Mr. Allan Gilmore and Mr. John Wood of Glas-
gow, expressed a desire to withdraw from the Committee ; and Mr. Scott
Russell’s engagements, especially in connexion with the construction of the
great ship for the Eastern Steam Navigation Compauy, have so engrossed
his time and attention as to have put it out of his power to take that interest
in this question which has hitherto so laudably characterized his exertions in
the cause of science, in connexion with the labours of the British Association.

Mr. Atherton also declined on the ground that the public agitation of the
question referred to, in which during the past year he was engaged before
the Society of Arts, disqualified him for the time being from taking part om

460 REPORT—1856.

this Committee ; consequently, Mr. James R. Napier and Mr. James Peake
were the only parties available for cooperation with myself (Mr. Hender-
son) in this matter, and it has therefore been considered most advisable,
under the circumstances above referred to, not to officiate in our collective
capacity as a Committee of the British Association, but simply to give our
individual aid in promoting the discussions which have thus sprung up.

With this view, I have myself taken a personal interest in the discussion
of the tonnage registration question before the Society of Arts, as exem-
plified by the documents submitted herewith, showing a large amount of
statistical data on steam-ship performances, which has been collected by me
since I originally brought it before the Institute of Civil Engineers in 1847,
with the view of collecting in the archives of that Institution, statistics of
the progress of improvement in our mercantile marine.

The papers comprise my view as to tonnage measurement, as laid before
the Board of Trade in 1850 and in 1852, and as to steam navigation and
the speed realized by mail steamers as laid before Parliament in 1851, papers
read before the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1853, the British Association
in 1854, and published by the Society of Arts in 1855; together with the
discussions that have taken place in the Journal of that Society, in 1856, on
Mr. Atherton’s paper on Tonnage Registration. The system of measurement
I proposed to the Board of Trade in 1850, being exemplified by a pro forma
certificate of survey appended to the paper, as well as by a tabular analysis
of the proportion and displacement of different ships and modes of measure-
ment, including the paper read before the Association last year, and
subsequent information, as well as proposed new rules, will be printed com-
plete, before submitting them to the consideration of any committee or
authority that will investigate the whole question. :

Mr. James R. Napier has, I understand, during the past twelve months,
collected much statistical information on the trial performances of steam
ships, and Mr. Peake has taken the opportunity of drawing public attention
to the question of the mode of measurement most available for shipping
operations ; by these means I beg to bring to the notice of the General
Committee, that the individual labours of Mr. Atherton, Mr. Napier, Mr.
Peake, and myself, have now contributed materially to the elucidation of the
subject referred to, thereby facilitating any further effort that may be decided
~ on; and the favourable manner in which Mr. Atherton’s paper on the analo-
gous subject of “ Mereantile Steam Transport Economy ” has been received
at the Mechanical Section of the Association, affords every prospect of the
labours of this Committee being now prosecuted under far more encouraging
prospects of public support and cooperation, on the part of the shipping
interests themselves, than has hitherto been the case.

As an example of the benefit to be derived from public discussion, I may
refer to the numbers of that popular work, the ‘ Mechanics’ Magazine,’ pub-
lished during the months of April, May, and June last, in which, after fully
investigating the subject of the deficiencies of our present tonnage regis-
tration for scientific purposes, the Editor has been pleased to announce
the following admitted deficiencies and proposed corrections of our present
system for the consideration of its numerous readers :-—

“ First. That the tonnage, measurement, and registration of vessels has
never been brought before Government in any other than a purely fiscal
point of view.

“ Secondly. That Government in legislating on tonnage registration has
not contemplated the scientific features of the case, nor those which bear on
the sea voyage.

©

a

ON THE MEASUREMENT OF SHIPS FOR TONNAGE. 461

“Thirdly. That undoubtedly there is a point beyond which ships cannot
be safely loaded.

“Fourthly. That undoubtedly it would be desirable, if possible, to fix
limit to the degree to which ships may be loaded.

“ Fifthly. That as respects the draft of water at which ships leave port,
let the Board of Trade have, if it so please, properly authorized officers to
note and record the facts.

“ Sixthly. We should see with satisfaction a competent committee appointed
by Government, or by the British Association, with a view of ultimately, if
need be, acting on the Government, to take into consideration the foregoing
points.”

Such being the declaration of opinions expressed by the Editor of one
of our most popular periodicals devoted to science, in respect to the deficiencies
of our present system of statistical registration of tonnage, it is respectfully
submitted that good and sufficient cause is shown for the re-appointment and
further continued labours of the Committee on this subject; and that under
such indications of the public appreciation of the utility of such labours,
there can be no doubt of such amendments of the present system being
desired as will conduce to public good.

It may be in the recollection of members, that at the meeting of the
British Association at Liverpool, in 1854, the recommendaticns of the
General Committee included one, “ That it was expedient for the advance-
ment of naval architecture, that a portion of the intended museum at Liver-
pool should be appropriated to this subject.” Little progress having been
yet made with the museum at that port, while the want of such an establish-
ment for the record and disposal of papers and models added to the difficulties
of the Committee of 1855, it is with satisfaction I have to state that such
difficulties may be considered removed for the future, by the considerate
offer of the Chairman of the Crystal Palace Company, Mr. Arthur Anderson,
to lend the Naval Gallery of the Palace in any manner that can aid the
objects of the Committee, or ventilate the subject.

Considering that there are already collected at the Crystal Palace Naval
Gallery models of ships and steamers, fishing-boats and life-boats, both
English and foreign, ancient and modern, and that a comparison can be there
made of the rapid improvement in shipping and steam-vessels since the old
tonnage law was abandoned, the great desideratum being that on the six
points enumerated, the question shall be better understood ; and also the neces-
sity for the investigation and re-examination of our system of measurement
and registration ; and that vast advantages would thereby accrue to our mer-
cantile marine, it is hoped that this appeal to the British Association will not
be in vain. ANDREW HENDERSON.

Cheltenham, August 8, 1856.

On Typical Forms of Minerals, Plants and Animals for Museums.

Proressor Henstow gave the results of the labours of the Committee
The lists which had at present been obtained had been printed in the last
volume of the ‘ Transactions.’ They were still incomplete, but Prof. Henslow
hoped they would be complete for every department before the next meeting.
He exhibited some specimens of a new method of mounting mineral spe-
cimens. ‘This consisted in placing them in any required position on a small

462 REPORT—1856.

stand of clay, which being at first soft, gradually hardened and became a firm
support to the object. The cement employed was liquid glue, é. e. shell-lac
dissolved in naphtha.

Interim Report to the British Association on Progress in Researches
on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards. By JAMES
Tuomson, C.E.

Belfast, August 6, 1856.

Havine at last year’s meeting of the Association read in the Mechanical

Section a short paper on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards, and

having been requested by the General Committee to prepare a Report on

the same subject, 1 beg now to state that I have in the mean time been
collecting information for the purposes of that Report. My professional
engagements have occupied me necessarily so much as to oblige me to defer
for this year the detailed prosecution of the subject and the preparation of
the Report in full. I have, however, the gratification of stating, that, with
special reference to the researches entrusted to me by the Association, the

President of the Athenzeum of Boston, United States, Mr. Thomas G. Cary,

has generously sent to me, with the request that it be presented to the

British Association on his behalf, a valuable book containing accounts of

experiments recently carried out on a very grand scale in America, on the

measurement of large bodies of flowing water by means of weir boards and
by other methods, and on the performance of Turbine Water Wheels.

The work is entitled “ Lowell Hydraulic Experiments,” by James B. Francis,
In reference to the experiments, Mr. Cary, the donor of the book, states in
his letter to me,—“ These experiments, made under the direction and at the
expense of the Associated Companies of Lowell near Boston, who employ
Mr. Francis as the engineer for their cotton and woollen factories, have cost
about £4000 sterling ; and they make part in a series of investigations which
have cost those Companies £15,000.”

In the Report which I hope to submit to the British Association, I shall
have much occasion for reference to these important experiments, and, for
this purpose, I think it right to retain the book in my hands at present.

As the expenses incurred in reference to the researches have been but
small, and chiefly for the procuring of books, I do not desire to draw, for
them, on the fund of £10 placed at my disposal by the Association ; and as
my intention is not to conduct experiments on the subject myself, but chiefly
to give a review of the most important experiments and deductions which
have been made by others, I do not think it necessary to ask for a renewal
of the grant. JAMES THOMSON.

On Observations with the Seismometer. By R. MAuuer, C.E£.,
M.R.LA.

A Provisional Report was presented. The author is continuing his re-
searches at Holyhead.

On the Progress of Theoretical Dynamics. By A. Cayury, M.A.,
F.R.S. .

A Provisional Report was presented. The author proposed to deliver in
the complete Report in 1857.

PROVISIONAL REPORTS. 463

Report of a Committee appointed by “ The British Association for the
Advancement of Science,” to consider the formation of a Catalogue
of Philosophical Memoirs.

THE Committee were appointed—on the occasion of a communication from
Professor Henry of Washington, containing a proposal for the publication
of Philosophical Memoirs scattered throughout the Transactions of Societies
in Europe and America, with the offer of cooperation on the part of the
Smithsonian Institute, to the extent of preparing and publishing, in accord-
ance with the general plan which might be adopted by the British Associa-
tion, a catalogue of all the American Memoirs on Physical Science—to con-
sider the best system of arrangement, and to report thereon to the Council.

The Committee are desirous of expressing their sense of the great im-
portance and increasing need of such a catalogue.

They understand the proposal of the Smithsonian Institute to be, that a
separate catalogue should be prepared and published for America.

In the opinion of the Committee,—

The Catalogue should embrace the Mathematical and Physical Sciences,
but should exclude Natural History and Physiology, Geology, Mineralogy,
and Chemistry, which would properly form the subject-matter of a distinct
catalogue or catalogues. The difficulty of drawing the line would perhaps be
greatest with regard to Chemistry and Geology ; but the Committee would
admit into the Catalogue memoirs not purely Chemical or Geological, but
having a direct bearing upon the subjects of the Catalogue.

The Catalogue should not be restricted to memoirs in Transactions of
Societies, but should comprise also memoirs in the Proceedings of Societies,
in Mathematical and Scientific Journals, in Ephemerides and volumes of
Observations, and in other collections not coming under any of the preceding
heads. The Catalogue would not comprise separate works.

The Catalogue should begin from the year 1800.

There should be a catalogue according to the names of authors, and also
a catalogue according to subjects; the title of the memoir, date, and other
particulars to be in each case given in full, so as to avoid the necessity of a
reference from the one catalogue to the other.

The Catalogue should, in referring to a memoir, give the number as well
of the last as of the first page, so as to show the length of the memoir.

The Catalogue should give in every case the date of a memoir (the year
only), namely, in the case of memoirs published in the Transactions of a
Society, the date of reading, and in other cases the date on the title-page of
the volume. Such date should be inserted as a distinct fact, even in the case
of a volume of transactions referred to by its date.

The Catalogue should contain a list of volumes indexed, showing the com-
_ plete title ; in the case of transactions, the year to which the volume belongs,
and the year of publication ; and in other cases, the year of publication, and
the abbreviated reference to the work.

_ The references to works should be given in a form sufficiently full to be
easily intelligible without turning to the explanation of such reference.

The author’s name and the date should be printed in a distinctive type, so
as to be conspicuous at first sight ; and generally the typographical execution
_ should be such as to facilitate as much as possible the use of the Catalogue.

As to the Catalogue according to the authors’ names, the memoirs of the
same author should be arranged according to their dates.

As to the Catalogue according to subjects, the question of the arrange-
_ ment is one of very great difficulty. It appears to the Committee that the
_ scheme of arrangement cannot be fixed upon according to any @ priori

464 REPORT—1856.

classification of subjects, but must be determined after some progress has
been made in the preliminary work of collecting the titles of the memoirs to
be catalogued. The value of this part of the catalogue will materially
depend upon the selection of a proper principle of arrangement, and the
care and accuracy with which such principle is carried out. The arrange-
ment of the memoirs in the ultimate subdivisions should be according to —
their dates.

The most convenient method of making the Catalogue would appear to be,
that each volume to be indexed should be gone through separately, and a list
formed of all the memoirs which come within the plan of the proposed
Catalogue. Such list should be in triplicate, one copy for reference, a
second copy to be cut up and arranged for the Catalogue according to
authors’ names, and another copy to be cut up and arranged for the
Catalogue according to subjects. -

The Committee have endeavoured to form an estimate of the space which
the Catalogue would occupy. The number of papers in a volume of trans-
actions is in general small, but there are works, such as the ‘ Comptes Rendus,’
the ‘Astronomische Nachrichten,’ the ‘ Philosophical Magazine,’ &c., containing
a very great number of papers, the titles of which would consequently occupy
a considerable space in the Catalogue. Upon the whole, the Committee con-
sider, that, excluding America, they may estimate the number of papers to be
entered at 125,000; or since each paper would be entered twice, the
number of entries would be 250,000. The number of entries that could
conveniently be brought into a page 4to (double columns), would be about
30, so that, according to the above estimate, the Catalogue would occupy ten
quarto volumes of rather more than 800 pages each,

It appears to the Committee that there should be paid Editors, who should
be familiar with the several great branches respectively of the Sciences to
which the Catalogue relates ; but that the general scheme of arrangement and
details of the Catalogue should be agreed upon between all the Editors, and
that they should be jointly responsible for the execution. It would of course
be necessary that the Editors should have the assistance of an adequate staff
of clerks.

The principal scientific trausactions and works would be accessible in
England at the Library of the British Museum, and the libraries of the
Royal Society and other Philosophical Societies. It would be the duty of
the Editors to ascertain all the different works which ought to be catalogued,
and to procure information as to the contents of such of them as may not
happen to be accessible.

The Catalogue according to authors’ names would be the most readily
exccuted, and this catalogue, if it should be found convenient, might be first
published. The time of bringing out the two catalogues would of course
depend upon the sufficiency of the assistance at the command of the Editors ;
but if the Catalogue be undertaken, it is desirable that the arrangement
should be such, that the complete work might be brought out within a
period not excceding three years.

13th June, 1856, A. CAYLEY.

R. Grant,
G. G, Sroxes.

3

NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS

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MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

MATHEMATICS.

On the Polyhedron of Forces. By J. T. Graves, M.A., F.R.S.

Ir any number of forces, represented in number and magnitude by the faces of a
polyhedron, and in direction perpendicular to those faces, act upon a point, they
will keep it in equilibrium. The above is the proposition which is called by the
writer “the Polyhedron of Forces.’’ It has probably occurred to many, that the
well-known geometrical representation in magnitude and direction of a system of
balanced forces acting upon a point by the sides of a closed polygon is so simple
and complete that nothing needs to be noted beyond the polygon of forces. What
is commonly called the parallelopipedon of forces—which is the elementary theorem
in solid space analogous to the parallelogram of forces—represents by the diagonal
of a parallelopipedon the resultant force, which balances the three forces represented
by the areas. But there the separate forces are represented by lines. The writer
was led more than ten years ago to the representation of forces by areas in making
researches respecting complex numbers with a new imaginary symbol. He has
mentioned the result here enunciated to several mathematicians, to whom it has
appeared familiar, and who have believed that it must have been already published;
but the writer has searched for it in collections of memoirs and works on statics,
and has been unable to find it in print. He has, accordingly, been advised by a
very learned scientific friend to occupy it, if it has not been already appropriated.
With this view, he takes this opportunity of publishing it to the British Association.

On the Congruence nx==n+1 (mod p). By Joun T. Gravzs, M.A., F.R.S.

As is well known to those who have studied foreign works on the theory of num-
. bers, the expression
a=6 (mod. ec)
denotes that a—b divided by c is a whole number. When this relation has place,
_ a and 6 are said to be congruent with respect to the modulus ec, and the relation
itself is called a congruence.

Mr. J. T. Graves shows, from elementary principles of the theory of numbers,
: that in the congruence
» nt —=n-+1 (mod. p),
_ if p be a prime number, and if m be made to assume, in regular ascending order, all
values from 1 to p—1 inclusive, x will be found to have, in some order or other, all
values from 2 to p inclusive.

1856. ; 1

——

2 . REPORT—1856.

Taking, for example, the modulus 7, the congruence
nz —=n-+1 (mod. p)

is a type of the six congruences (mod. 7),

1.2=2
2.53
3.6=4
4.3>5
5.46
6.1%

in which, while to are given successively the values 1.2.3.4.5.6, we give tox
the corresponding values 2, 5, 6, 3, 4, 7.

From this simple theorem Mr. J. T. Graves derives Wilson’s famous theorem,
namely,—

‘« When p is a prime number, we have

1.2.3....(@—l) =—1 (mod. p).”

It is easy to see that the congruence (p—1)x=p is solved by making =p, and
hence, by the preceding theorem, it is possible to find among the quantities 2.3.4..,
p—1, distinct values, including all numbers from 2 to p—1, for a, 2, 3,.. Xp—2,
such that

1. 4,2
2 eSB OE ONT) GS SER SY ()
Stat A Le oy As, ce ate emer)
(p—2)x2p-2=p—l.

If, as is allowable, we substitute 1. a, for the factor 2 in the left-hand member of

congruence (a), we get
Ds 58q):0; Bg Sones weld pumels sy hls) —Semiane (c)

Again, if we substitute 1 . 2) . x, for the factor 3 in the left-hand member of con-
gruence (b), we get
1.%.%,.%3==4;

and proceeding similarly, we find
1.m,.%,.%3...¢%p—2=—p—l=—l,. « «+ « + dd)
but by Mr. J. T. Graves’s theorem,
1. %.%q.%g....2p—2—1.2.3....(p—2)(p—D.-
Hence we have by (d),
1.2.3....(p—2)(p—l) =—1. QED.

For example, with respect to modulus 7, we obtain in this manner the six con-
gruences,

1=1

22
rhe ee ee
1.2.5.6=4
1.2.5.6.3=5
122,6,..6 3.8 =o:

the last congruence being equivalent to
1.2.3.4.5.6=—1 (mod. 7).
Wilson’s theorem is thus exhibited as the last of a series of minor theorems.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 3

In introducing the subject of his paper, Mr. J. T. Graves took occasion to point
out that the late Mr. Peter Barlow’s valuable work ‘On the Theory of Numbers,’ pub-
lished in 1811, which is the only elemenary text-book of note in our language spe-
“ae directed to that subject, is not sufficient for the requirements of modern English
students. ;

Two Memoirs.—I. On a Theorem in Combinations. II. On a particular Class
of Congruences. By Henry M. Jerrery, M.A., Second Master of Pate’s
Grammar School, Cheltenham.

I. Ad Theorem in Obnianctlanis:

1. It is proposed to determine the number of combinations of 2 things
taken severally 1, 2, 3,... together, where there are p of one sort, q of
another, r of another, &c.

We will begin by examining a simple case, where there are three quan-
tities, a, 5, c.

The product of the factors

(1+ar+ a’2")(1+ ce),
or

1+(a+c)¢+4 (a?+ac)z?+a°cx"*,
contains the combinations of the three quantities taken 1, 2, 3 severally
together.

Their numbers in each case are found by equating a, c to unity; or

30,;=2; ,C,=2; ,C,=1;
subject to the above restriction, that two of the three quantities are equal.

The same process of reasoning is easily extended to the general case, as
proposed. :

The product of the factors

(ltarta@e?+...... -aPa?

xX (1+br+ br? + ...... + 6127)
X (l4+er+ea?+ ...... +c" x")
SOAS eto os

contains the combinations of the ~ quantities taken severally 1, 2, 3,..2

together, viz. in the coefficients of 2, z”, v°.. 2”.

The number of the combinations in each case is found by equating a, b,c...
to unity.

Hence any particular combination ,,C,, is found by finding the coefficient of

that power of a in the expansion of

(lta+a°+.. +a?)(l+a4+a°+ .. +a7)(l+a+a?+..+27)......(A)
whose index is k.
Or the rule may be otherwise conveniently stated: ,C,= the coefficient

of x* in the expansion of

1—gPt! J —x9+1 J—grti

- . . a

l—z © 1—w# ~ 1—-z
2. It is important to observe that, subject to these restrictions,
C,,-~=nCye
as is proved by the circumstance, that 2 and 1 may be interchanged in the

above formula (A) without altering its value.

1*

4 REPORT—1856.

Hence we conclude that there is no necessity for investigating the coeffi-
nl] it n be odd.

This consideration vastly diminishes the labour of expansion.

8. The total number of possible combinations is found by equating 2 to
unity in the formula (A), and subtracting 1 from the result, since 1 is the
first term in the expansion involving no power of z, and therefore cannot
denote the number of any combination.

Hence the number required is

(p+ I(Qt1)(r74+1)...... —1;
which is a known theorem.
4. Example: To find the number of combinations that can be formed of
the letters of the word ‘‘ Notation” taken severally 1, 2, 3, ... 8 together.
There are two n’s, two o’s, two ?’s, one a, one 2.
The numbers required are found by expanding, at least as far as 2*,

(1—a*)*. (1-2)?
(i—z2)°
=(1—32?+ .... )(1—22?+4 2*)
x (1+524+15274+ 352°+ 702*+..)
=1+452+ 1327+ 222° + 262*+....
The series can now be completed by aid of the theorem

cients of powers of x beyond 5 if m be even, or beyond

=(1—2*)}(1—2?)?. (l—2)~*

Cy_n=8Cx:
1+ 52+ 1327+ 2223 + 2627+ 222° + 132°+ 5274+ 2°.
The total number of possible combinations
=5+13+4 224 264 224+1384+5+4+1=107=3.3.3:2.2—1,
as might have been obtained at once by the formula
(pt)I(q4+)(r+))... —1.

This example was selected to contrast the tentative method used in ‘ Lund’s
Companion to Wood’s Algebra,’ p. 111, London, 1852, in the particular case
of k=3.

I quote the author’s words :—

‘Here are five different letters: the number of combinations of five letters,
3 together, where no letter recurs = axe SSH 0p

** Also there are two n’s, two o’s, and two ?’s, each of which pairs may be
combined with each of the other four letters, and form four combinations.of
three, making altogether 3 x 4=12 such combinations where the letters recur,

* number required =10+12=22.”

5. To find the number of permutations of 2 things taken 1, 2, 3,..2
together, when x consists of groups of identical quantities, p of one sort, g of
another, 7 of another, &c.

In the following solution we shall denote ,P,, ,P,,.. +P, by powers of P,
Viz. P, P?, ... P”, and subject P to the laws of indices.

In order to see more clearly the method and notation that will be adopted,
let us examine the familiar case of four different quantities, a, b, c,d. The
permutations are contained in the coefficients of the several powers of v in
the expansion of

(1+ Par)(1+ Poz)(1+Pex)(1+Pdz),

: .TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 5

or
1+ (a+b+c+d)Px-+ (ab+ac+ ad+ be+ bd-+ ed)P*x?
+ (abe+ abd+ acd+ bcd) P*x* + abcdP*zt.

The number of the permutations in each -case is given by the coefficients

of the several powers of 2 in the expansion of
(1+ Pz)’ or 1+4Pa+ 6P?2?+ 4P%43+ Piz.
That is,
gh, =4P=4: {P,=6P=12: ,P,=4P?=24: ,P,=Pt*= 24.

Next consider the case of a, a, c, d.

The permutations are contained in the coefficients of the powers of z in
the expansion of

(Ita. Pa ©. Pe wate. Px)(1+d. Pr),
or

1+(a+e+d) Pre+ (ac+ad+ cd+ )pe

a@.c+d a*cd
d)\Pig84 2% pigs
+( [75 +a0d )Pat-+ oo v

The justice of this conclusion may be seen by examining the mode of for-
mation of each coefficient.

. The number is found by equating a, c, d to unity:
1+3Pa+2P?2?+ 2P%a*+ $Pie*.

Hence
aP = 8 : gPo=7 : GPs=12 : ,Pi=12.

The general theorem may be expressed as follows :—
nP,,= the coefficient of z* in the expansion of

(1+Pe tity. + Em")

x(1+Pet TS ra +o)

x(1+Pe+ FS asain 2)

where P is subject to the law of indices,
We may observe that
Pr L”

P= SS
Lert. pReopmnps 9:

a well-known theorem.
6. The total number of permutations of things taken 1, 2, 3... 2

together is
P? pP
(1+P+ io Loe |

L?
2 q
x (1+P+ BEC, aia: ==)
j L?
2 r
x(1+P+P5+..+=2)
1.2 L”

6 REPORT—1856.

where it must be observed that P and its various powers have no meaning,
until the expansion has been effected.

7. Ex. ‘‘ Notation.”

The number of permutations in each case is contained in the expansion of

22 3
(14+Pe+ 3) . (1+ Pa)’,
or
24(14 Px)®+3(1+ Px)’ +3(1 + Pa)'+ (1+ Pa)’}
8
=145Pr+ = P°2? + 16P82+ = P*a?+ s PPx*® + Sh Piaf 4 Prat + a.
In this case, therefore,

gP,=5: gP,=23: gPs=96: ,P,=—354: ,P,=1110: ,Pg=2790:

gP;=5040: ,P,=5040.

To test these results, examine ,P,.

There are five different letters, 2, 0, ¢, a, i, whose permutations taken three
together = 60.

There are twelve groups of the form ‘‘nno,” each of which may be per-
muted three times, or there are thirty-six permutations of this form. In all
60+ 36=96.

8. It is presumed that a general method is preferable to the tentative pro-
cess, which requires considerable acuteness in detecting the several groups,
and leaves a liability to error after all. Hence it is hoped that this theorem,
which supplies a desideratum in every-day algebra, may be worthy of the
attention of the Meeting.

Il. A particular Class of Congruences.
1. If 3, denote

1742"437+ ..+(p—1)”,
where p is a prime number,
Smo (mod. p.);
unless m=r( p—1), when
Ex p—1) = (p—)).
2. If a, 6, c, d denote four of the series I, 2, 3,.. p—1,
3(a?-")=(p—1); BaP? )=1
S(a?~1b?—1cP—1) —(p—1); SCG? bP cP gal 1

pare

1. If p is prime, the congruence
w—l.a—2.... e—p+1—(a2”"'—1)=o0 (mod. p.)
has p—1 roots 1, 2, 3,....p—1: and since this congruence is only of the

( p—2)th degree in z, the coefficients of the several powers of 2 are sepa-
rately congruous to p. Hence we have

$) ==0, Sy=0,.... Sp—2 =0, Sp-1 = —1,
where s, denotes the sum of the roots,
le 6. a re taken two and two,

Sp 21-eaeest <- (ces. thei product,
The above paragraph contains Serret’s demonstration of Wilson’s theorem.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 7

Now observing the meaning of 3,,, we have from the theory of equations
the following relations between the symbols = and s in the equation
a1 5, P24. 5, oP 38 2. +5p-1=0.
=,—s,=0.
2,—s, 2, +2 s,=0.
23—s, 2,+s, 2;—3 s,=0,

2p—1—$, Zp—2 Sy Yp—3— soa FF =0.
Zp —S) Zp-1 +S, Zp-2 wieidvewe +5Sp-1 2,

2yp—2 —S, Zyp—3t 8p cs a ve e+ FSp—1 Up-1=0.
Hence we establish the aawne tA SSPE S i—

=| =s, =o (mod. p.)

By SS — 2 S90... «2s

2p-2 = 0.

2p-1 = —(p—1)s-1 =p.

By p—2 = —Sp-1 Yp-1 =p—l.

2+(p—1) = —Sp-1 Ze@—1(p-1) =p.
2. To prove the second proposition, we will premise the following con-
gruence ;—

See

if p is prime, according as r is even or odd.

For 2a OPA ee P—t is always an integer ;

ister L -p—2....p—r+1.2....7 is an integer,

and is therefore a multiple of p, since p is a prime greater than any of the
factors of the denominator.

3. 3(a?-) )=p—1= —1, as has been proved above.
(p— es el 1) _@- DG) }
cy 1.2
gtian i, ae pacenats ae
S(a?— 1 oP = ‘p—1 oa 2 3p
Srl) 3 peas) SAR pate Sader =~,
1.2.3 .2.3 ae
D(a?! pp} eb hg?)
— (Bp-1)'—6 Bp p—2 - (Bp—1)" +8 - By p—a + Bp + 3( By p—2)’— 6 By p—4

Z(aP-} ae 1)" Eee Tat

raj? spdts 4
= (p—1)'—6(p—1)*+11(p= 1)" 6(p=1)_p—1 .p=2.p—3 .p—4
1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4

=+1.

8 REPORT—1 856. oper

4, From observing the symmetry of formation

x(a?) =P = 1
=(a"* iat) es sa p-2= +1
os 12
p-1,p—-1 ,p-} —p—1.p—2.p—3__j
2 ae = i
ee ee pal. pin Pe ae
BCP BE oP) =a gg
and observing that a
prl.p—B...s.. Por yy,

1 eee w=
one cannot help guessing at the general theorem
(a?) BP) oP“! P71) = 41 (mod p.),
according as the number of factors a, 6, c,.. k is even or odd.

But the process of determining the value of B(a? b% c”.... k‘) in terms of

the sums of powers of the roots is so laborious, that the law, which seems to
exist, has not been verified beyond four factors.

The theorems might have been multiplied indefinitely ; but two only have
been selected, as being the most striking in their results.
5. Numerical examples :—

1424+3 +4= 10=0 (mod. 5)
1°4+274+3°+4= 30=0
13+ 23+ 33+ 445=100=0
14+ 244 31+ 44= 354=4

142*+ 1434+ 134?

+ 243+ 2144+ 3!44= 26481 = 1 (mod. 5)
13243*+- 132444

+ 133144 + 2'3!44= 357904 = 4.
13 2r8 4 — 90/4 Go ==.

On a New Method of Treating the Doctrine of Parallel Lines.
By Prof. Stevetty.

The author stated that from the days of Euclid to the present, all geometricians
admitted that Euclid’s twelfth axiom was a property to be proved, and not an axiom
to be assumed as self-evident ; but hitherto no satisfactory and sufficiently element-
ary proof of it had been adduced. He then showed that, by defining parallel lines
to be “‘ when two lines in the same plane were both perpendicular to the same line,
they should be called parallel,” all the properties of parallel lines as proved by
Euclid could be shown to belong to these, by two supplementary propositions, The

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 9

second of these was, that the line joining any two points along parallel lines,
assumed at an equal distance from the line to which both are perpendicular, formed
right angles with each of the parallel lines. The author then went through the
series of geometrical proofs, which would, however, be unsuited to our report, con-
cluding with the proof of the twelfth axiom of Euclid.

Models to illustrate a new Method of teaching Perspective. By H. R. 'Tw1n1ne.

The object of this communication is to explain the principles of perspective in
such a manner as may enable those who draw to distribute their objects not only in
a correct manner, but in one agreeable to the eye. The method affords an intermediary
step between those rules which are demonstrated by diagrams in the usual treatises,
and those appearances which characterize natural objects themselves. The chief dif-
ficulty in enabling an audience to follow out the principles of perspective when applied
to solid objects is, that every individual sees these from a different position ; so that
such an explanation of the effect observed as is adapted to one individual cannot suit
another. Mr. Twining’s method aims at overcoming this difficulty by placing an
image (with which each individual is supposed to identify himself) in the exact spot
which the observer ought to occupy, and which serves to mark the true focus of the
picture.

°
Licut, Heat, ELEctRIicITy, MAGNETISM.

On various Phenomena of Refraction through Semi-Lenses producing Anomalies,
in the Illusion of Stereoscopic Images. By A. Cuaunpezt, F.R.S.

The paper had for its object to explain the cause of the illusion of curvature given
to pictures representing flat surfaces, when examined in the refracting or semilen-
ticular stereoscope. The author showed that all vertical lines seen through prisms
or semi-lenses are bent, presenting their concave side to the thin edge of the prism,
and as the two photographic pictures are bent in the same manner and by the same
cause, the inevitable result of their coalescence in the stereoscope is a concave sur-
face produced by the necessity of converging the optic axes more to unite the ends and
less to unite the centres of the two curved lines ; more convergence giving the illusion
of nearer distance, and less convergence of further distance. The only means to
avoid this defect is to examine the two pictures in order to employ the centre of
the lenses, which do not bend straight lines; but as the centre does not refract
laterally the two images, their coincidence cannot take place without placing the
optical axis in such a position that they are nearly parallel, as if we were looking
at the moon, or a very distant object. This isan operation not very easy at the first
attempt, but which a little practice will teach us to perform. Persons capable
of using such a stereoscope will see the pictures more perfect, and all objects in
their natural shape.—Mr. Claudet presented to the Meeting a stereoscope made
on this principle, and many of the members present could see perfectly well with
it. The author explained the cause of another defect which is very often noticed
in examining stereoscopic pictures, viz. that the subject seems in some cases to
come out of the openings of the mountings, and in some others to recede from
behind,—this last effect being more favourable and more artistic. Mr. Claudet
recommended photographers when mounting their pictures to take care that the
opening should have their correspondent vertical sides less distant than any two
correspondent points of the first plane of the pictures, which could be easily done
by means of a pair of compasses, measuring those respective distances. To
illustrate the phenomenon of vertical lines, bent by prisms, forming by coalescence
concave surfaces, Mr. Claudet stated that if holding in each hand one prism, the
two prisms having their thin edges towards each other, we look at the window from
the opposite end of the room, we see first two windows with their vertical lines

10 REPORT—1856.

bent in contrary directions; but by inclining gradually the optical axes, we can
converge them until the two images coalesce, and we see only one window; as soon
as they coincide the lateral curvature of the vertical lines ceases, and they are bent
projectively from back to front: we have then the illusion of a window concave
towards the room, such as it would appear reflected by a concave mirror.

On some Dichromatic Phenomena among Solutions, and the means of representing
them. By J. H. Guapstont, PA.D., F.R.S.

This paper was an extension of Sir John Herschel’s observations on dichromatism,
that property whereby certain bodies appear of a different colour according to the
quantity seen through. It depends generally on the less rapid absorption of the red
ray as it penetrates a substance. A dichromatic solution was examined by placing
it in a wedge-shaped glass-trough, held in such a position that a slit in a window-
shutter was seen traversing the varying thicknesses of the liquid. The diversely
coloured line of light thus produced was analysed by a prism; and the resulting
spectrum was represented in a diagram by means of coloured chalks on black paper,
the true position of the apparent colours being determined by the fixed lines of the
spectrum. In this way the citrate and comenamate of iron, sulphate of indigo,
litmus in various conditions, cochineal, and chromium, and cobalt salts were examined
and represented. Among the more notable results were the following :—A base,
such as chromic oxide, produces very nearly the same spectral image with whatever
acid it may be combined, although the salts may appear very different in colour to
the unaided eye. Citrate of iron appears green, brown, or red, according to the
quantity seen through. It transmits the red ray most easily, then the orange, then
the green, while it cuts off entirely the more refrangible half of the spectrum.
Neutral litmus appears blue or red, according to the strength or depth of the solu-
tion. Alkalies cause a great development of the blue ray; acids cause a like increase
of the orange, while the minimum of luminosity is altered to a position much nearer
the blue. SBoracic acid causes a development of the violet. Alkaline litmus was
exhibited so strong that it appeared red, and slightly acid litmus so dilute that it
looked bluish purple; indeed, on account of the easy transmissibility of the orange
ray through an acid solution, the apparent paradox was maintained that a large
amount of alkaline litmus is of a purer red than acid litmus itself. Another kind
of dichromatism was examined, dependent not on the actual quantity of coloured
material, but on the relative proportion of the solvent, and diagrams of the changing
appearances of sulphocyanide of iron, of chloride of copper, and of chloride of cobalt
were exhibited.

On the Stratified Appearance of the Electrical Diseharge.
By W. R. Grove, M.A., F.R.S.

Mr. Grove communicated some additional facts connected with a phenomenon
first observed and published by him in the ‘Philosophical Transactions’ for 1852,
viz. the striated or stratified appearance in the electric discharge in rarefied gases
and vapours, particularly that of phosphorus. M. Ruhmkorff, M. Quet, and
Dr. Robinson had, subsequently to Mr. Grove, experimented on the subject. Nosa-
tisfactory rationale of it has hitherto been given. Mr. Grove has, however, observed
that the mode of breaking contact has a marked influence on the phenomenon, which
would lead to the belief that it is due to the intermittent character of the discharges.
If, for instance, the arm of thecontact-breaker be made to rest on aslight spring placed
underneath it, the bands become narrower. If a single breach of contact be effected,
most observers have remarked that the effect is still perceptible; but it is very diffi-
cult to effect a single breach of contact. The fusion of the metals at the point of
contact, with the vibration accompanying the movement, occasions a double or
triple disruption. The best mode is to place two stout copper wires across each
other, and with a firm hand draw one over the other, until the end of the former
parts company with the Jatter ; when this is well done the striz are, in the majority
of cases, not observed. Of all the substances which had been tried, the vapour of
phosphorus succeeds best, and with this is seen a remarkable effect on the powder
or smoke of allotropic phosphorus (which is always formed when the striz are

bam T _.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 11

observed): this smoke traverses from pole to pole, from the negative to the positive
side, showing, unless there be some latent optical deception, a mechanical effect of
the discharge under the circumstances.—The phenomenon was exhibited to the
members of the Section in the committee-room, which had been darkened for the
purpose.

On the Law of Electrical and Magnetic Force. By Sir W. S. Harris, F.R.S.

The author prefaced the exposition of the views he himself had adopted, after
elaborate experimental research on the subject, by stating that the discovery of the
beautiful and comprehensive law of universal gravitation by Newton had predisposed
all physical inquirers to entertain the notion that every other foree associated with
ordinary matter was subject toa similar law. The forces of electricity and magnetism
were especially considered as coming under a like law, and a great variety of expe-
rimental inquiries were instituted to verify the conjecture. Cavendish, after Gipinus,
was certainly the first philosopher who investigated experimentally and threw light
on this question. This appears by his celebrated paper in the ‘ Philosophical Trans-
actions’ for 1772, and likewise by his unpublished manuscripts, which had descended
to the Earl of Burlington, and had been placed by that nobleman in the hands of the
author; and, he might add in passing, were open to the inspection of any inquirer
engaged in these researches, and contained matter of the most importantkind. The
author then pointed out several well-known and acknowledged truths in these
sciences which were due to the researches of Cavendish. He then pointed out the
influence which the researches of Coulomb had exercised on the universal philoso-
phic world, particularly after the writings of the celebrated Poisson, Laplace, Biot.
and others had given form and currency to his views and principles. Such a
galaxy of eminent names, and so wide a reception of Coulomb’s theoretical views,
the author considered to be calculated to discountenance and discourage much critical
inquiry as to their soundness, and to immerse us ir a kind of philosophical ortho-
doxy very unfavourable to a more complete knowledge of these unseen, yet astonishing
powers of Nature which we daily experience. The author then went on to illustrate
the law of the inverse square of the distance as relating to forces emanating from
one central point and to other emanations from a centre, and to point out how far
this might safely be relied upon as applicable to the electrical and magnetic forces
of attraction and repulsion ; and stated that the object of the present communication,
which the author submitted with all due diffidence, was to investigate the physical
condition under which these forces manifest themselves,—what are the general laws
of the operation of such forces,—how far we may safely consider them as central
forces, such as gravity, or whether they are to be considered more.in the light of
forces, operating between surfaces distinctive in their character and in their ordinary
relations to common matter. He then pointed out one essentially distinctive cha-
racter of these forces. In gravitation, the attracted body, as far as we can observe,
remains in the same physical condition before and during all the changes of distance
and force to which the bodies are naturally subjected. But in the phenomena of
electrical and magnetic attraction and of repulsion, the very first step was that the
body acted upon had its physical condition changed ; and this change again, by a
kind of reflex influence, affected what had been the instant before the physical
condition of the body producing the change; and thus, during the action and its
changes, new physical conditions of both had to be investigated and taken into con=
sideration, that is, if we wish truly to interpret the facts. The author then, with
well-arranged apparatus, proceeded to illustrate, by some striking experiments, both
electrical and magnetic, the truth and importance of these general views: he endea-
voured to explain the peculiar electrical conditions under which the forces of elec-
tricity and magnetism might be expected to vary in the inverse duplicate ratio of the
distances, but which conditions being interfered with, other laws of force might
become developed, as found by many eminent philosophers of the last century, dis-
tinguished by their great skill in experimental physics. The author concluded by
some observations on the use of the proof plane and the torsion balance, and showed
with what great caution the proof plane should be applied as a means of deducing
results to serve as data for mathematical analysis.

rg REPORT—1856.

On the Unequal Sensibility of the Foramen Centrale to Light of
different Colours. By J. C. Maxwett.

When observing the spectrum formed by looking at a long vertical slit through a
simple prism, I noticed an elongated dark spot running up and down in the blue,
and following the motion of the eye as it moved up and down the spectrum, but
refusing to pass out of the blue into the other colours. It was plain that the spot
belonged both to the eye and to the blue part of the spectrum. Theresult to which
I have come is, that the appearance is due to the yellow spot on the retina, com-
monly called the foramen Centrale of Soemmering. The most convenient method of
observing the spot is by presenting to the eye in not too rapid succession, blue and
yellow glasses, or, still better, allowing blue and yellow papers to revolve slowly
before the eye. In this way the spot is seen in the blue. It fades rapidly, but is
renewed every time the yellow comes in to relieve the effect of the blue. By using a
Nicol’s prism along with this apparatus, the brushes of Haidinger are well seen in
connexion with the spot, and the fact of the brushes being the spot analysed by po-
larized light becomes evident. If we look steadily at an object behind a series
of bright bars which move in front of it, we shall see a curious bending of the bars
as they come up to the place of the yellow spot. The part which comes over the
spot seems to start in advance of the rest of the. bar, and this would seem to indicate
a greater rapidity of sensation at the yellow spot than in the surrounding retina.
But I find the experiment difficult, and I hope for better results from more accurate
observers.

On a Method of Drawing the Theoretical Forms of Faraday’s Lines of Force
without Calculation. By J.C. Maxwetu.

The method applies more particularly to those cases in which the lines are entirely
parallel to one plane, such as the lines of electric currents in a thin plate, or those
round a system of parallel electric currents. In such cases, if we know the forms
of the lines of force in any two cases, we may combine them by simple addition of
the functions on which the equations of the lines depend. Thus the system of lines
in a uniform magnetic field is a series of parallel straight lines at equal intervals, and
that for an infinite straight electric current perpendicular to the paper is a series of
concentric circles whose radii are in geometric progression. Having drawn these two
sets of lines on two separate sheets of paper, and laid a third piece above, draw a
third set of lines through the intersections of the first and second sets. This will
be the system of lines in a uniform field disturbed by an electric current. The most
interesting cases are those of uniform fields disturbed by a small magnet. If we
draw a circle of any diameter with the magnet for centre, and join those points in
which the circle cuts the lines of force, the straight lines so drawn will be parallel and
equidistant; and it is easily shown that they represent the actual lines of force in a
paramagnetic, diamagnetic, or crystallized body, according to the nature of the ori-
ginal lines, the size of the circle, &c. No one can study Faraday’s researches without
wishing to see the forms of the lines of force. This method, therefore, by which
they may be easily drawn, is recommended to the notice of electrical students.

On the Theory of Compound Colours with reference to Mixtures of Blue
and Yellow Light. By J.C. Maxwestt.

~ When we mix together blue and yellow paint, we obtain green paint. This fact
is well known to all who have ever handled colours; and it is universally admitted
that blue and yellow make green. Red, yellow, and blue, being the primary colours
among painters, green is regarded as a secondary colour, arising from the mixture of
blue and yellow. Newton, however, found that the green of the spectrum was not
the same thing as the mixture of two colours of the spectrum, for such a mixture
could be separated by the prism, while the green of the spectrum resisted further de-
composition. But still it was believed that yellow and blue would make a green,
though not that of the spectrum As far as I am aware, the first experiment on the
subject is that of M. Plateau, who, before 1819, made a disc with alternate sectors
of prussian blue and gamboge, and observed that, when spinning, the resultant

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. a8

tint was not green, but a neutral gray, inclining sometimes to yellow or blue, but
never to green. Prof. J. D. Forbes of Edinburgh made similar experiments in
1849, with the same result. Prof. Helmholtz of Kénigsberg, to whom we owe the
most complete investigation on visible colour, has given the true explanation of this
phenomenon. The result of mixing two coloured powders is not by any means the
same as mixing the beams of light which flow from each separately. In the latter
case we receive all the light which comes either from the one powder or the other.
In the former, much of the light coming from one powder falls on particles of the
other, and we receive only that portion which has escaped absorption by one or other.
Thus the light coming from a mixture of blue and yellow powder, consists partly
of light coming directly from blue particles or yellow particles, and partly of light
acted on by both blue and yellow particles. This latter light is green, since the blue
stops the red, yellow, and orange, and the yellow stops the blue and violet. I have
made experiments on the mixture of blue and yellow light—by rapid rotation, by
combined reflexion and transmission, by viewing them out of focus, in stripes, at
a great distance, by throwing the colours of the spectrum on a screen, and by
receiving them into the eye directly; and I have arranged a portable apparatus by
which any one may see the result of this or any other mixture of the colours of the
spectrum. In all these cases blue and yellow do not make green. I have also made
experiments on the mixture of coloured powders. Those which I used principally
were “ mineral blue” (from copper) and “ chrome-yellow.’’ Other blue and yellow
pigments gave curious results, but it was more difficult to make the mixtures, and
the greens were less uniform in tint. The mixtures of these colours were made

. by weight, and were painted on discs of paper, which were afterwards treated in

the manner described in my paper “‘On Colour as perceived by the Eye,” in the
‘Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,’ vol. xxi. part 2. The visible
effect of the colour is estimated in terms of the standard-coloured papers :—ver-
milion (V), ultramarine (U), and emerald-green (E). The accuracy of the results,
and their significance, can be best understood by referring to the paper before
mentioned. I shall denote mineral blue by B, and chrome-yellow by Y; and B; Y;
means a mixture of three parts blue and five parts yellow.

Given Colour. Standard Colours. Coefficient
Wem e, */is of brightness.

Bs OO: = Pease 7) ee 45
Se: =e ee AP ......... 37
Bg Y¥o-7 100.) => 4,7 LE 34 49
B;.. 3p) 100 =. 8 "'5 40 54
B, Y,,100 = 15 1 40 56
"Bee Ne ll 9 eee 4a... 05. G4
By Ye ssl0., = Soe WOT GL v6. eke 76
B, Y,,100 = 64-19 64 ......... 109

Yg ; 100- = 180 —27 124 .....0... 277

The columns V, U, E give the proportions of the standard colours which
are equivalent to 100 of the given colour; and the sum of V, U, E gives a co-
efficient, which gives a general idea of the brightness. It will be seen that the first
admixture of yellow diminishes the brightness of the blue. The negative values of
U indicate that a mixture of V, U,and E cannot be made equivalent to the given
colour. The experiments from which these results were taken had the negative
values transferred to the other side of the equation. They were all made by means
of the colour-top, and were verified by repetition at different times. It may be
necessary to remark, in conclusion, with reference to the mode of registering visible
colours in terms of three arbitrary standard colours, that it proceeds upon that theory
of three primary elements in the sensation of colour, which treats the investigation of
the laws of visible colour as a branch of human physiology, incapable of being
deduced from the laws of light itself, as set forth in physical optics. It takes advan-
tage of the methods of optics to study vision itself ; and its appeal is not to physical
principles, but to our consciousness of our own sensations.

14 REPORT—1856.

On the Form of Lightning. By Jamzs NasmytH, F.R.AS.

Mr. Nasmyth said, that, observing that the form usually attributed to lightning by

painters and in works of art was very different from that which he had observed as
exhibited in nature, he was induced to call attention to it. He believed the error of the
artists originated in the form given to the thunderbolt in the hand of Jupiter as sculp-
tured by the early Greeks. —
The form of lightning as
exhibited in nature was
simply an irregular curved
line, most generally shoot-
ing from the earth below to
the cloud above, and often
continued from the cloud
downwards againtoanother
distant part of the earth.
This appearance, he con-
ceived, was the result of the
rapid passage of a point of
light which constituted the
true lightning, leaving on
the eye the impression of
the path it traced. In very
intense lightning, he had
also observed offshoots of
an arborescent form to pro-
ceed, at several places, from
the primary track of the
flash. But in no instance
among the many thunder-
storms whose progress he
had most attentively watch-
ed, had he ever observed
such forms of lightning as
that usually represented in
works of art; in all such,
the artists invariably adopt
a conventional form, name-
ly, that of a zigzag com-
bination of straight lines as
indicated in fig. 1; whereas
the true natural form of a
primitive flash of lightning
appears to Mr. Nasmyth
to be more correctly repre-
sented by an _ intensely
crooked line, as indicated
in fig. 2; and on several
occasions he has observed
it to assume the forked or
branched form indicated in
fig. 3; but, as before said,
never in the zigzag dovetail
of fig. 1. Mr. Nasmyth
also remarked, that in the
majority of cases he had
observed that the course of the flash was from the earth upwards towards the heavens.
He used the term “primitive flash” to distinguish it from “ sheet lightning,”
which is generally the reflexion on light diffused from a hidden primitive flash.

»

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 15

On Fresnel’s Formule for Reflected and Refracted Light. By the Rev. BADEN
Powett, M.A., F.R.S. &c., Savilian Professor of Geometry, Oxford.

The author having recently published in the ‘Philosophical Magazine’ (July and
August 1856) a detailed review of the various questions respecting the demonstration
of these well-known and important formule, and their applications, is anxious to
put before the Section a short summary of the whole case, and to elicit, if possible,
a more complete discussion of the questions arising out of it, more especially as some
views recently taken would seem calculated to set aside the whole reasoning hitherto
adopted on the subject, and to involve the whole application and interpretation of
the formulas in doubt.

The whole of these investigations is founded on the following principles :-—

(1) The law of vis viva (m and m, being the simultaneously vibrating masses of
zther without and within the medium; 4, !, h, the amplitudes of the incident, re-
flected, and refracted rays),

m(h?—h")=m,h?.

(2) The law of equivalent vibrations as given by Maccullagh (é and r being the

angles of incidence and refraction, I the plane of incidence),
h+i'=h, vibrations perpendicular to I.

Cosa ty
(3) h+h'=h, —; vibrations parallel to 1.
(4) Another form of this law, the second case of which was adopted by Fresnel
, =) ee eRe Bane perpendicular to I.
cosr
(5) h—W'=h cosgctttte -. parallel to I.
(6) Maccullagh’s hypothesis of equal densities, giving
m _ sin 2%
m, sin 27°

(7) Fresnel’s hypothesis of increased density in the more refractive medium, giving
m __sinrcosié
m, sinicosr
(8) Maccullagh’s hypothesis of vibrations parallel to the plane of polarization.
(9) Fresnel’s hypothesis of vibrations perpendicular to the plane of polarization.
From these assumptions are directly deduced formulas whose general types are
h' sin @—r)
he => sin G7)” - eo . ."_ ee
Kk’ tan (i—r)
ktanG@+rey° oc ot tt tt ®D
whence h, and k, follow from (1) by (2), (3), or (4), (5). Also k! becomes = 0, and
changes sign at the incidence of polarization.
The several hypotheses give these formulas with different signs, and consequently
with different values of h, k,.
(A) Combining Nos. 1, 2, 3, 6, 8, gives
(w)...... thand +2'...... parallel to I
(8) ...... akand +é'...... perpendicular
(B) Combining Nos. 1, 2, 3, 7, 9, gives
(@) ...... +hand —h’..,... perpendicular—Fresnel.
(8) ...... +kand +k ...... parallel.
(C) Combining Nos. 1, 4, 5, 7, 9, gives
(@) «eeeee +hand +A'.,.... perpendicular—Fresnel.
(8B) «+40. hand +k',,..., parallel.

(H)

} Maccullagh.

16 REPORT—1856.

Thus, proceeding in all cases on the principle of vis viva, and that of the mecha-
nical equivalence of the incident, reflected, and refracted vibrations,—on the hypo-
thesis of equal densities,—of vibrations parallel to the plane of polarization, —and of

Maccullagh’s law of equivalence, we have Maccullagh’s formulas (H) and (K). (A.) -

On the hypothesis of increased density,—of vibrations perpendicular to polariza-
tion, and Maccullagh’s law of equivalence, we have Fresnel’s formula (H), but a for-
mula (K) differing from Fresnel’s in the signs. (B.)

On the same hypotheses, but taking that form of the law of equivalence which
Fresnel adopted in one instance, we have (H) differing from Fresnel’s in sign, and
(K) the same as Fresnel’s. (C.) :

The theoretical principles seem as yet to furnish no guide to a choice between
these assumptions ; but the results of experiment must be appealed to.

The only known experimental results which bear upon the question between these
several formule and the hypotheses on which they are deduced, are—

I. Professor Stokes’s result of the change of plane of vibration and polarization in
diffraction, which sets aside absolutely the hypothesis of vibrations parallel to the
plane of polarization, and by consequence Maccullagh’s formule (A), and the hypo-
thesis of equal densities on which they are founded.

II. The result of Arago, Fresnel and Brewster, as to the change of plane of polari-
zation by reflexion; the new plane being, at small incidences, on the opposite side of
the plane of incidence to that of original polarization; while after passing the inci-
dence of complete polarization it comes to the same side. This requires formulas
which give /! and k’ of opposite signs at small incidences, and of the same sign after
the polarizing incidence, which is only the case with Fresnel’s original formulas
(B, «) and (C, 8), and excludes those on the other hypotheses, (B, 8), and (C, a).

III. The result of Dr. Lloyd from his interference fringes, where at the extreme
oblique incidence the incident and reflected ray are in opposite phases ; this requires
both h! and h, as also k and k', to be of opposite signs at great incidences, which
agrees only with Fresnel’s original formulas (B, «) and (C, f).

But these inferences assume the correctness of the reasoning on the symbols as
hitherto adopted, both by the original investigators referred to, and also in the ele-
mentary treatises of Mr. Airy and others. Some suggestions lately made in order
to bring the other formulas into accordance with the facts, can only do so by setting
aside the validity of the entire reasoning just referred to. These suggestions turn
on the geometrical change in position which (in the case of vibrations parallel to the
plane of incidence) the directions of the vibrations undergo, with the change of posi-
tion of the ray, in passing from small to large incidences, so that if they accord in
the first instance they will (from this cause alone) be opposed in the second.

On the other hand, the original formulas of Fresnel are still deficient in respect
to their direct deduction from any one of the above-mentioned hypotheses ; they will
only follow from partially adopting two of them, viz. (B, «) and (C, §).

A suggestion for deducing them on another principle has been since made by the
author in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine,’ October 1856.

On a Modification of the Maynooth Cast Iron Battery. By W. Symons.

A recent paper by Professor Callan in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ on a cast iron
battery which he states to be equal in power to Grove’s nitric acid battery, will
probably induce many persons to adopt this very cheap but cumbrous metal, The
battery now exhibited is an improvement on one published by the author in the ‘ Phar-
maceutical Journal’ for February 1853, and its recommendations are compactness, as
it can be moved as one mass; and simplicity and economy of construction, as one
wooden screw is sufficient for 10 or 12 pairs. The construction was minutely de-
scribed, and two arrangements of plates were shown, one adapted for a Wedgewood
trough with cast-iron plates on each side of each zinc plate, and the other fitted up
in a similar manner to a battery described by Martyn Roberts,-in-which he proposes to
use both sides of both plates: such an arrangement may perhaps be advantageous
where the resistance is very smal], but from a few experiments with the battery shown,
it appears to be far from economical where the resistance is equal to that required for
the decomposition of water. Six pairs on each plan were fitted up. with similar plates

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 17

and with acid of the same strength, but the arrangement in which the pairs were
isolated in a Wedgewood trough, liberated three or four times the amount of gases
in the voltameter, as the arrangement on Martyn Roberts’ plan. The battery, when
arranged as the author proposes, will be one compact mass, which can be readily
moved in and out of the cells; this will probably more than compensate for the loss
by the action of the acid on the iron surface not exposed to the zinc, as the battery
need only be kept in the acid when actually at work; and this loss may perhaps be
further prevented by covering the outside of the iron with a resinous mixture; but
should the cast-iron cell suggested by Callan be preferred, they can be easily cast with
the addition required in this arrangement. As cast-iron plates 5 inches square can
be procured for 2d. each at any foundry, and no binding screws are required, this
battery will probably be found much cheaper and quite as efficient as any published,
and especially adapted for experimentalists who make their own apparatus, who will
know how to appreciate the cheap and easy method for making the connexions. A
more detailed account, with an engraving of this battery, may be seen in the
‘Chemist ’ for November 1856.

On Dellman’s Method of observing Atmospheric Electricity. By
Professor WiLu1aM Tuomson, M.Z., F.R.S., Glasgow.

Extract from letter addressed to General Sabine :—“ During my recent visit to
Creuznach I became acquainted with Mr. Dellman of that place, who makes meteoro-
logical, chiefly electrical, observations for the Prussian Government, and I had oppor-
tunities of witnessing his method of electrical observation. Itconsists in using a copper
ball about 6 inches diameter, to carry away an electrical effect from a position about
two yards above the roof of his house, depending simply on the atmospheric ‘ poten-
tial’ at the point to which the centre of the ball is sent ; and it is exactly the method
of the ‘carrier ball’ by which Faraday investigated the atmospheric potential in the
neighbourhood of a rubbed stick of shell-lac, and other electrified bodies (‘ Experi-
mental Researches,’ Series XI. 1837). The whole process only differs from Faraday’s
in not employing the carrier ball directly, as the repeller in a Coulomb-electrometer,
but putting it into communication with the conductor of a separate electrometer of
peculiar construction. The collecting part of the apparatus is so simple and easily
managed that an amateur could, for a few shillings, set one up on his own house, if
at all suitable as regards roof and windows ; and, if provided with a suitable electro-
meter, could make observations in atmospheric electricity with as much ease as ther-
mometric or barometric observations. The electrometer used by Mr. Dellman is of
his own construction (described in Poggendorff’s ‘ Annalen,’ 1853, vol. Ixxxix., also
vol. Ixxxv.), and it appears to be very satisfactory in its operation. It is, I believe,
essentially more accurate and sensitive than Peltier’s, and it hasa great advantage in
affording a verveasy and exact method for reducing its indications to absolute measure.
I was much struck with the simplicity and excellence of Mr. Dellman’s whole system
of observation on atmospheric electricity; and it has occurred to me that the Kew Com-
mittee might be disposed to adopt it, if determined to carry out electrical observations.

_ When I told Mr. Dellman that I intended to make a suggestion to this effect, he at once

offered to have an electrometer, if desired, made under his own care. 1 wish also to

} suggest two other modes of observing atmospheric electricity which have occurred to

me, as possessing each of them some advantages over any of the systems hitherto fol-

lowed. In one of these I propose to have an uninsulated cylindrical iron funnel, about

7 inches diameter, fixed to a height of two or three yards above the highest part of

the building, and a light moveable continuation (like the telescope funnel of a

steamer) of a yard and a half or two yards more, which can be let down or pushed

up at pleasure. Insulated by supports at the top of the fixed part of the funnel, I

would have a metal stem carrying a ball like Dellman’s, standing to such a height

that it can be covered by a hinged lid on the top of the moveable joint of the funnel,

_ when the latter is pushed up; and a fine wire fixed to the lower end of the insulated

‘stem, and hanging down, in the axis of the funnel to the electrometer. When the

apparatus is not in use, the moveable joint would be kept at the highest, with its lid

_ down, and the ball uninsulated. To make an observation, the ball would be insu-

ast the lid turned up rapidly, and the moveable joint carrying it let down, an
_ 1856. 2

\

18 REPORT—1856. ; 7

operation which could be effected in a few seconds by a suitable mechanism, The
electrometer would immediately indicate an inductive electrification simply propor-
tional to the atmospheric potential at the position occupied by the centre of the ball,
and would continue to indicate at each instant the actual atmospheric potential,
however variable, as long as no sensible electrification or diselectrification has taken
place through imperfect insulation or convection by particles of dust or currents of
air (probably for a quarter or a half of an hour, when care is taken to keep the
insulation in good order). This might be the best form of apparatus for making
observations in the presence of thunder-clouds. But I think the best possible plan
in most respects, if it turns out to be practicable, of which I can have little doubt,
will be to use, instead of the ordinary fixed insulated conductor with a point, a fixed
conductor of similar form, but hollow, and containing within itself an apparatus for
making hydrogen, and blowing small soap-bubbles of that gas from a fine tube ter-
minating as nearly as may be in a point, at a height of a few yards in the air. With
this arrangement the insulation would only need to be good enough to make the loss
of a charge by conduction very slow in comparison with convective loss by the
bubbles; so that it would be easy to secure against any sensible error from defective
insulation. If 100 or 200 bubbles, each +, inch in diameter, are blown from the
top of the conductor per minute, the electrical potential in its interior will very rapidly.
follow variations of the atmospheric potential, and would be at any instant the same
as the mean for the atmosphere during some period of a few minutes preceding.
The action of a simple point is (as, I suppose, is generally admitted) essentially
unsatisfactory, and as nearly as possible nugatory in its results. I am not aware
how flame has been found to succeed, but I should think not well in the circumstances
of atmospheric observations, in which it is essentially closed in a lantern; and I
cannot see on any theoretical ground how its action in these circumstances can be
perfect, like that of the soap-bubbles. I intend to make a trial of the practicability
of blowing the bubbles ; and if it proves satisfactory, there cannot be a doubt of the
availability of the system for atmospheric observations.”

[Addition, Feb. 1857.]|—The author has now made various trials on the last-men-
tioned part of his proposal, and he has not succeeded in finding any practicable self-
regulating apparatus for blowing bubbles and detaching them one by one from the
tube. He has seen reason to doubt whether it will be possible to get bubbles so small
as those proposed above, to rise at all; but he has not been led to believe that, if it is
thought worth while to try, it will be found impracticable to construct a self-acting-
apparatus which will regularly blow and discharge separately, bubbles of considerably
larger diameter, and so to secure the advantages mentioned, although with a pro-
portionately larger consumption of the gas. ;

On the other hand, he finds that, by the aid of an extremely sensitive electrometer
which he has recently constructed, he will be able, in all probability with great ease
and at very small cost, to bring into practice the first of his two plans, constructed
on a considerably smaller scale as regards height than proposed in the preceding
statement. } ;

On Printing Photographs, with suggestions for introducing Clouds and Artistic
Effects. By E. Vivian, M.A.

The object of this paper was to point out the deficiencies in the chiaroscuro of
photographic pictures, occasioned by the discrepancy between the actinic and the
visual ray, and also the importance of introducing artistic effects in accordance with
the laws of composition.

The former of these is well known, yellow being the focus of light in the scale or
colour, whilst it is the darkest in the photographic image, the greatest intensity of
chemical action in the spectrum being in the violet, and even beyond the range of light.
The defects of composition in ordinary nature are not so generally admitted, but, to
the artist’s eye, few scenes are capable of producing a good picture, without, at
least, the concentration and balance of light and shadow, which are only seen under
rare and peculiarly favourable circumstances. Attention to this latter point is the
more necessary in most photographic pictures from their reduced size, which
requires them to be viewed at a distance from the eye, much beyond the technical

.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 19

“distance of the picture,” the rays thus entering the retina from all parts at nearly
the same angle, instead of those from the centre being full and direct, and those
from the extremities weakened by obliquity, as would be the case if the picture were
the size of life.

The remedy proposed was the employment of a second artificial negative, similar to
the tint stone in double lithography. In preparing this, a sheet of transparent tracing
paper is laid upon the original photograph, and all those portions which are to form
the high lights are stopped out with opake colour, the clouds being formed with
washes by a camel-hair brush, and the fine tracery of architecture, &c. with a reed
pen or crowquill. Whilst the positive impression is still sensitive, this tint paper is
to be accurately fitted on, either by the eye, or points in the frame, and exposed
again to the light, until flat tones of the requisite depth are produced. The sky may
be graduated by moving a shade over the surface, allowing the horizon to be least
exposed, the effect of which is to produce the utmost delicacy in the force of the
clouds as they recede in the perspective, however rudely drawn. A still more per-
fect method is’ to commence with a good negative photograph of’ natural clouds,
proceeding as before with the details of the picture.

The first object should be to throw a flat tint over all those portions which, from
being blue, have printed too light, as the sky, slate roofs, and all polished surfaces,
as water, leaves of evergreens, &c., which reflect the blue of the sky. This alone
will often produce a pleasing picture from a very unsatisfactory negative, light objects
relieved by a dark sky, and the deep tones of water, especially in sea pieces, being
amongst the most effective objects in nature, but which are quite lost in ordinary
photography. . The effect must be left to the skill of the artist, shadows of clouds, with
the toning down of obtrusive or offensive features being amongst the most obvious
means employed to improve the composition, without interfering with the truth of
the original outlines. The most powerful effects of moonlight, sunrise, or sunset
may thus be produced, with reflexions in still water, or the gleams and ripple of a
breeze ; the foam and sharp lines of a cataract may, by stopping out high lights on
the original negative, be also substituted for the dull mass which ordinarily repre-
sents falling water.

The difficulty of reversing the lights of the clouds by using dark colour, may, if
preferred, be avoided by substituting Chinese white tinged with yellow, the trans-
parent paper being laid upon the dark sky of the negative.

A tint paper thus produced may be used for any number of impressions, and, if
the details of the picture are satisfactory, skies alone may be adapted to many
different negatives, especially if drawn of more than the requisite extent, so as to
apply such portion as is suitable to the composition of each picture.

Many other suggestions were offered, such as inverting the negative to produce
reflexions, when taken from the level of the water, the introduction of foregrounds,
cattle, &c., by using both the object and the matrix from which it was cut, so that
the lines should exactly coincide. , Methods were also shown by which the printing
of parts of a photograph may be retarded so as to bring up the more opake portions.
The most effectual of these was to attach a sheet of transparent tracing paper over
the back of the negative and to stump over the weaker parts, so as when seen by
transmitted light the whole should be in due gradation. The dispersion of ray
through the thickness of the glass is found sufficient to prevent any trace of this
artificial shading. With paper negatives the same result may also be produced by

_partial waxing.

On the Construction and Use of an Instrument for determining the Value of
Intermittent or Alternating Electric Currents for purposes of Practical
Telegraphy. By WitpmMan WHITEHOUSE.

In the prosecution of some electrical studies, requiring an estimate of the values
of different magneto-electric currents, Mr. Whitehouse found that the ordinary gal-
vanometer was totally inadequate to indicate the required results.

However suitable that instrument might be for a continuous or voltaic current,
and within a very limited range, yet the problem before him involved the numerical
estimate of currents of the widest range and of the shortest duration.

Q%*

20 REPORT—1856.

It therefore occurred to Mr. Whitehouse that the amount of magnetic force deve-
loped by the current in its passage through fine wire surrounding an electro-magnet,
seemed to offer the most ready, and at the same time the most practical mode of
attaining the object ;—an idea which received confirmation from the fact, that when-
ever such currents were used in telegraphy, they were always received upon and made
to actuate electro-magnets. ;

He therefore wound an electro-magnet with fine wire, placing its poles very near
to a keeper of soft iron, poised in the manner of a lever steelyard and loaded to any
given weight; the current either lifted or did not lift the given weight, and this was
the test of what Mr. W. proposed to call its ‘ value ” in telegraphy.

So delicate was this test that he had been able to determine accurately the “ value,”
as it raay be termed, of a current too feeble in its energy, and too brief in its dura-
tion, to give the slightest indication of its presence on one of the most sensitive
“detectors” usually employed in critical telegraphic operations.

He had actually weighed with accuracy a current whose force was represented by
42,ths of a grain; and on the other hand currents with a wide range of quantity and
intensity, and of varying amounts of force up to no less than 600,000 grains.

Mr. Whitehouse then described in detail the principle and construction of the
instrument. The reels of fine wire were so arranged as to be easily removeable, in
order to substitute others carrying wire of different gauges, or even without this
change any two reels might be either joined up in series for intensity or in parallel
currents, which thereby halved the length while it doubled the area of conducting wire.

Mr, Whitehouse then illustrated its uses and practical capabilities,

Ist. It had contributed valuable aid in the analysis of several forms of induction
coils, varying in size and construction ; it not only estimated in grains the value of
each secondary current thus produced, but approximatively determined their relative
amounts of quantity and intensity, by noting the arrangement of wire which gave
the best result.

2ndly. It speedily indicated the advantage of using induction coils in pairs rather
than singly, under which head some surprising results were given, the near presence
of an unexcited. iron bar augmenting the value of the current in the coil under
observation.

3rdly. It would evidently afford the means of practically determining a point of
considerable interest in the comparison of voltaic and magneto-electric currents,
to the solution of which Mr. Whitehouse had pledged himself: this was to ascer-
tain the economico-practical limits of battery series; because the penetrating
power or intensity and value of currents so produced might hereby be accurately
compared with the force of coil currents educed from batteries of much simpler and
less wasteful construction, consisting only of one or two elements, instead of
hundreds.

Athly. It had, conjointly with the use of a pendulum and automatic recording
arrangements, led to the production of a series of curve diagrams, representing a
minute analysis of any given current, denoting its force, however variable, in the
several fractions of a second of time.

5thly. It had enabled Mr, Whitehouse, with the assistance and cooperation of
Mr. Bright of the Magnetic Company, after weighing the value, upon short circuit,
of the currents from many of their magneto-instruments, so as to determine their
average value, to weigh the same currents after working through various distances,
from 40 to 320 miles of subterranean and submarine wires; thus showing with
certainty and minute accuracy the loss due to the combined influence of resistance,
induction and defective insulation.

Lastly. It had done good service in working out the laws relating to induction in
submarine circuits ; and some striking illustrations were given in conclusion,

Working upon a 498 mile length of very perfectly insulated cable-wire, the phe-
nomena of induction and retardation, of charge and discharge, as originally described
by Faraday, were exhibited in a remarkable manner.

A current, lifting 18,000 grains on short circuit, was sent into the long wire, the
further end of which was insulated; but on cutting off the battery, and instantly
discharging the wire to earth through the same instrument, it gave a lifting power
of 60,000 grains; so strikingly cumulative was the tendency of this gigantic Leyden

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 21

jar. While, if both ends of the wire were discharged to earth simultaneously, a lift
of 96,000 grains was obtained, thus realizing as a return, more than five times the
amount which the battery gave on short circuit. Again: A feeble magneto-current
of only 4 grains was adequate to work a telegraphic receiving instrument, a sensitive
galvanometer being placed in the same circuit; but this latter gave most uncertain
indications of value; its unsteady movements ranged wider with slow and feeble
currents, and indicated a lesser value for stronger currents, which followed more
rapidly in succession, all which however were accurately pourtrayed by the new
instrument. Again: A pair of induction coils, excited by six small Smee cells, gave
27,000 grains; the mere addition of a soft iron armature at one end augmented
this to 43,000, while a similar one at the other end increased the current’s value
up to 47,500.

Mr. Whitehouse called it a ‘‘ Magneto-electrometer”’ from its special adaptation
to the measurement of magneto-electric currents, while the terms galvanometer,
voltameter, and electrometer sufficiently indicated for these instruments their con-
nexion with other forms of electricity.

The desirability of a definite and common standard of comparison was insisted on,
and Mr. Whitehouse promised to set aside for this special use the most accurately
finished and perfect instrument he could obtain, for the free use of any fellow-
labourers in the same field.

The Law of the Squares—is it applicable or not to the Transmission of Signals
in Submarine Circuits? By WitpMaANn WHITEHOUSE.

Referring to the proceedings of this Section last year at Glasgow, the author
quoted Prof.W.Thomson’s paper on this subject, where he stated ‘‘ that a part of the
theory communicated by himself to the Royal Society last May, and published in
the ‘ Proceedings,’ shows that a wire of six times the length of the Varna and Bala-
klava wire, if of the same lateral dimensions, would give thirty-six times the retar-
dation, and thirty-six times the slowness of action. If the distinctness of utterance
and rapidity of action practicable with the Varna and Balaklava wire are only such
as not to be inconvenient, it would be necessary to have a wire of six times the
diameter ; or better, thirty-six wires of the same dimensions; or a larger number of
small wires twisted together, under a gutta-percha covering, to give tolerably
convenient action by a submarine cable of six times the length.’”” The author then
stated, that circumstances had enabled him to make very recently a !ong series of
experiments upon this point, the results of which he proposed to lay before the
Section ; adding, that an opportunity still existed for repeating these experiments
upon a portion of cable to which he could obtain access, and that he was ready to
show them before a committee of this Section in London, if the important nature of
the subject should seem to render such a course desirable. Although the subject of
submarine telegraphy had many points of the highest importance requiring investi- _
gation, and to the consideration of which he had been devoting himself recently,
Mr. Whitehouse proposed to confine his remarks on this occasion to the one point
indicated in the title, inasmuch as the decision of that one, either favourably or
otherwise, would have, on the one hand, the effect of putting a very narrow limit
to our progress in telegraphy, or, on the other, of leaving it the most ample scope.
He drew a distinction between the mere transmisssion of a current across the
Atlantic (the possibility of which he supposed everybody must admit) and the
effectual working of a telegraph at a speed sufficient for ‘commercial success ; ”’
and we gathered from his remarks that there were those ready to embark in the
undertaking as soon as the possibility of ‘‘ commercial success’’ was demonstrated.

The author then gave a description of the apparatus employed in his researches,
of the manner in which the experiments were conducted, and, lastly, of the results
obtained. The wires upon which the experiments were made were copper, of No.
16 gauge, very perfectly insulated with gutta percha—spun into two cables, con-
taining three wires of equal length (83 miles), covered with iron wires and coiled in
a large tank in full contact with moist earth, but not submerged. The two cables
‘were subsequently joined together, making a length of 166 miles of cable, containing
three wires. In addition to this, in some of the latest experiments he had also the

22 REPORT—1856.

advantage of another length of cable, giving with the above, an aggregate of 1020 miles.
The instruments, one of which was exhibited, seemed to be of great delicacy, capable of
the utmost nicety of adjustment and particularly free from sources of error, The
records were all made automatically, by electro-chemical decomposition, on chemi-
cally prepared paper. The observations of different distances recorded themselves
upon the same slip of paper; thus, 0, 83, and249 miles were imprinted upon one paper,
0,83, 498 miles upon another slip, 0, 249, 498 upon another, and 0, 535, 1020 upon
another. Thus by the juxtaposition of the several simultaneous records on each
slip, as well as by the comparison of one slip with another, the author has been
enabled to show most convincingly that the law of the squares is not the law which
governs the transmission of signals in submarine circuits. Mr. Whitehouse showed
next, by reference to published experiments of Faraday’s and Wheatstone’s (Philo-
sophical Magazine, July, 1855), that the effect of the iron covering with which the
cable was surrounded was, electrically speaking, identical with that which would
have resulted from submerging the wire, and that the results of the experiments
could not on that point be deemed otherwise than reliable. The author next
addressed himself to the objections raised against conclusions drawn from experi-
ments in “Multiple” cables. Faraday had experimented, he said, upon wires
laid in close juxtaposition, and with reliable results; but an appeal was made to
direct experiment, and the amount of induction from wire to wire was weighed, and
proved to be as one to ten thousand, and it was found impossible to vary the amount
of retardation by any variation in the arrangement of the wires. Testimony also
on this point was not wanting. The Director of the Black Sea Telegraph, Lieut.-
Col. Biddulph, was in England, and present at many of the experiments. He con-
firmed our author’s view, adding, ‘‘ that there was quite as much induction and
embarrassment of instruments in this cable as he had met with in the Black Sea
line.” The author considers it therefore proved, ‘‘ that experiments upon such a
cable, fairly and cautiously conducted, may be regarded as real practical tests, and
the results obtained as a fair sample of what will ultimately be found to hold good
practically in lines laid out in ewtenso. At the head of each column in the annexed
Table is stated the number of observations upon which the result given was com-
puted,—every observation being rejected on which there could fall a suspicion of
carelessness, inaccuracy, or uncertainty as to the precise conditions; and, on the
other hand, every one which was retained being carefully measured to the hundredth
part of a second. This Table is subject to correction, for variation in the state of
the battery employed, just as the barometrical observations are subject to correction
for temperature. Of this variation as a source of error I am quite aware, but I am
not yet in possession of facts enough to supply me with the exact amount of cor-
rection required. I prefer, therefore, to let the results stand without correction.

Amount of Retardation observed at various distances. Voltaic Current.
Time stated in parts of a Second.

.

Mean of 550 | Mean of 110 |Mean of 1840}/Mean of 1960) Mean of 120 simultaneous
observations. | observations. | observations. | observations. observations.

83 miles. 166 miles. 249 miles. 498 miles. 535 miles. | 1020 miles.
08 “14 | 36 “79 “74 1:42

‘ « Now it needs no long examination of this Table to find that we have the retar-
dation following an increasing ratio, that increase being very little beyond the simple
arithmetical ratio. I am quite prepared to admit the possibility of an amount of
error having crept into these figures, in spite of my precautions ; indeed, I have on
that account been anxious to multiply observations in order to obtain most trust-
worthy results. But I cannot admit the possibility of error having accumulated to
such an extent as to entirely overlay and conceal the operation of the law of the
squares, if in reality that law had any bearing on the results. Taking 83 miles as
our unit of distance, we have a series of 1, 2, 3,6, and 12. Taking 166 miles as
our unit, we have then a series of 1, 3, and 6. Taking 249 miles, we have still a
series of 1, 2, and 4,,;in very long distances. Yet even under these circumstances,
and with these facilities, I cannot find a trace of the operation of that law.”? The

EE

fi aca iil

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 23

author then examined the evidence of the law of the squares, as shown by the value
of a current taken in submarine or subterranean wires at different distances from the
generator thereof, which he showed were strongly corroborative of the previous
results. He next examined the question of the size of the conducting wire; and he
had the opportunity of testing the application of the law, as enunciated by Prof.
Thomson last year. The results, far from confirming the law, are strikingly opposed
to it. The fact of trebling the size of the conductor augmented the amount of
retardation to nearly double that observed in the single wire. The author, however,
looked for the eaperimentum crucis in the limit to the rapidity and distinctness of

utterance attainable in the relative distances of 500 and 1020 miles. 350 and 270

were the actual number of distinct signals recorded in equal times through thgse two
lengths respectively. These figures have no relation to the squares of the distance. |
** Now, if the law of the squares be held to be good in its application to submarine
circuits, and if the deductions as to the necessary size of the wire, based upon that
law, can be proved to be valid also, we are driven to the inevitable conclusion that
submarine cables of certain length to be successful must be constructed in accord-
ance with these principles. And what does this involve? In the case of the
Transatlantic line, whose estimated length will be no less than 2500 miles, it would
necessitate the use, for a single conductor only, of a cable so large and ponderous,
as that probably no ship except Mr. Scott Russell’s leviathian could carry it,—so
unwieldy in the manufacture, that its perfect insulation would be a matter almost of
practical impossibility,—and so expensive, from the amount of materials employed,
and the very laborious and critical nature of the processes required in making and
laying it out, that the thing would be abandoned as being practically and commer-
cially impossible, If, on the other hand, the law of the squares be proved to be
inapplicable to the transmission of signals by submarine wires, whether with refe-
rence to the amount of retardation observable in them, the rapidity of utterance to
be obtained, or the size of conductor required for the purpose, then we may shortly
expect to see a cable not much exceeding one ton per mile, containing three, four or
five conductors, stretched from shore to shore, and uniting us to our Transatlantic
brethren, at an expense of less than one-fourth that of the large one above men-
tioned, able to carry four or five times the number of messages, and therefore yielding
about twenty times as much return in proportion to the outlay. And what, I may
be asked, is the general conclusion to be drawn as the result of this investigation of
the law of the squares applied to submarine circuits? In all honesty, I am bound
to answer, that I believe nature knows no such application of that law; and I can
only regard it as a fiction of the schools, a forced and violent adaptation of a prin-
ciple in Physics, good and true under other circumstances, but misapplied here.”

Astronomy, Metrors, WavEs.

On the Tides of Nova Scotia.
_ By the Rev. Professor Cuzvarurer, B.D., F.R.A.S.

The observations to which reference is made were taken by a tide-gauge fixed
upon a wharf at the north end of the naval yard at Halifax. The tides there are
small in amount, the spring tides rising from 63 to 9 feet at Halifax, and 8 feet at
Sambro Isle, twelve miles south of that place. The tides themselves appear to be quite
regular ; but in addition to the ordinary tide-wave there occurs a series of undula-
tions succeeding each other at intervals of twenty minutes or half an hour, the
difference of elevation and depression rarely exceeding 6 inches, and being usually
much less. They are more perceptible near low water; but occur at all times of
tide, and are very distinctly marked upon the curve traced by the self-acting tide-
gauge. The question to be considered is, what is the cause of these small waves?
1. They do not arise from any influence which the casual swell of the sea might
exercise upon the tide-guage: for the rise and fall of one of these waves very
seldom takes less time than a quarter of an hour, and often requires half an hour,

24 ' REPORT—1856.

or even three-quarters of an hour. 2. They do not arise from undulatory motion in
the whole waters of the harbour. In order to examine this question, Mr. Edgcumbe
Chevallier, the storekeeper in Halifax Dockyard, went to Sambro, ten or twelve miles
south of Halifax, and entirely clear of the harbour, and erected upon Power Island
a temporary gauge, with which he took the height of the water every five minutes
for the whole day. Having laid off the results in a form similar to that employed
with the fixed tide-gauge at Halifax, it was found that every irregularity at Halifax
was preceded ten or fifteen minutes by a larger irregularity at Sambro. These
observations show that the irregular waves do not arise from the peculiar form of
the harbour at Halifax. 3. At about sixty miles eastward from Halifax, outside
Sable dsland, the Gulf-stream runs in nearly a north-eastern direction with consider-
able velocity ; and between Sable Island and the land a counter-current runs nearly
in a south-western direction. One of these currents would elevate the surface of the
sea near the middle of the currents; and such an elevation of the surface over which
the tide-wave is propagated might give rise to undulations similar to those observed.
I am informed, however, that the undulations in question are observed on the
western side of Nova Scotia, to which any effect of those two currents could not extend.
4. Although the tides at Halifax and on the neighbouring coast are small, that
part of the ocean is near the indraught of the Bay of Fundy, where the peculiar
form of the coast and its position with reference to the great tide-wave of the
Atlantic give rise to a local tide of excessive magnitude. Such a tide, espe-
cially when reverberated from coast to coast in a comparatively narrow inlet,
might not improbably give rise to perceptible undulations in a neighbouring part
of the sea. If this be the cause, it might be expected that a similar effect should be
noticed where a tide of the like nature takes place. The Bay of Avranches is
a locality of this kind, and the island of Jersey appeared to be a place where any
undulations of the tide might probably be noticed. The extreme difference between
high and low water at St. Helier’s is 42 feet, and the difference of height of the
mean high and low water is 36 feet. On inquiry, I find that about ten years since
a tide-guage was fixed at St. Helier’s, but observed only at high water, when
irregularities were observed of the same kind as those noticed at Halifax. This seems
to give probability to the opinion that the irregularities observed in the tide at
Fialifax may be connected with the unusual tides in the Bay of Fundy. But
whether they arise from this source, or are to be traced to some great reciprocating
motion to which the waters of the Atlantic may be subject, the pheenomenon deserves
to be studied, as likely to lead to a more extended knowledge of the hydrodynamical
conditions of our globe.

Working Model of a Machine for polishing Specula for Reflecting Telescopes
and Lenses. By Ricuarp Greene, M.D.

The polishing machine, the model of which I have now the honour of laying before
the British Association, scarcely deserves the name of an invention, inasmuch as
the public have for some years been in possession of a very beautiful machine,
invented by William Lassell, Esq. of Liverpool, and most ably constructed by my
very talented friend James Nasmyth, Esq. of Patricroft foundry. It will no doubt
occur to most persons acquainted with the very superior specula produced by both
these gentlemen with that machine, why trouble the Association with an imitation
of that invention?

This question is solved by the weighty argument of the three letters £ s. d.
The polishing machine of Mr. Lassell is constructed entirely of metal, is quite out
of the power of any amateur to construct, requires to be bolted to wall, can scarcely
be turned by hand power, weighs at least three or four hundredweight, and from
the great care and accuracy required in its construction, costs, I think, £70, while
a light portable machine on the principle of this model can, without any difficulty,
be made by any handy amateur with a common foot lathe for less than 70s., and
need not weigh 90 pounds. The only machine I ever made on this principle is
amply powerful to polish specula of 12 or 14 inches aperture ; its fly-wheel is only
2 feet diameter, weighing about 45 lbs., and such a fly-wheel can always be found
at the old iron stands for six or eight shillings: all the spindles are common bar iron

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 95

with the journeys turned on them, and all the bearings are of box-wood, which is
far better than bell-metal, as neither heating, wearing, or scarcely ever requiring oil.

In that beautiful machine of Mr. Lassell, the axis of the table which carries the
speculum is in the same line with the axis of the slow crank, which by two systems
of gearing rotating round a fixed toothed wheel, the pin of the quick crank carries
the centre of the polisher with an epicycloidal motion over the surface of the specu-
lum. This machine effects the same object simply by a crank rotating in a circle,
but the centre of the table which carries the speculum, can be moved at pleasure
more or less distant from the centre of that circle. This simple sliding of the axis
of the table out of the line of the axis of the crank, causes the centre of the polisher
to describe over the face of the speculum the exact figure the more complex machine
produces.

When first I contemplated the construction of a polishing machine on this very
simple principle, I never intended to do anything more than to imitate exactly the
motions which produced such happy results in the hands of its talented inventor.
In carrying out my design, it became obvious, that, by adding three or four more
pulleys, at a cost of less than half so many shillings, the machine (in addition to the
proved movements of Mr. Lassell’s machine) was invested with a power enabling
an experimenter in that most interesting branch of practical science, to try the effect
of a vast variety of motions for figuring, which the more complex machine is not
capable of producing. A few of these motions have been transferred to paper, by
substituting for the iron sliding box (which by its pin moves the polisher) a wooden
sliding box carrying a pencil, and in place of the speculum these pieces of paper
were laid on the table and held there with weights on their corners. The figures
are extremely regular and of every conceivable variety of curve.

Several specula of 43, 7, and 81 inches have been repeatedly polished and repo-
lished with this machine, and in no instance has a really bad figure been the result.
Of course some were better than others ; but I believe it will be admitted by all who
have trodden this very difficult but interesting path of practical science, that a very
fine figure is as much entitled to be enrolled in the chapter of accidents, as a really
fine chronometer, which no care in its construction can possibly ensure. Ifthe cause
of the imperfection of a speculum be ascertained, and it is found to be decidedly sphe-
rical or hyperbolical, the former can with certainty be removed by increasing the
excentricity of the table, and the latter by diminishing it. Very frequently, however,
it happens that the different zones of a speculum, as tested by diaphragms, have their
foci coincident, yet the speculum does not perform well, from a want of uniformity
in the curvature. In these cases I have derived great advantage from placing the
centre of the speculum a little excentric as regards the centre of the table, so that in
working the excentricity (which is the slow crank in Lassell’s) is continually vary-
ing from the sum of the two excentricities, to their difference, the mean excentricity
remaining uuchanged. Latterly, indeed, I have always employed the double excen-
tricity. A few remarks upon the formation of the polisher will bring this descrip-
tion to a close. Mr. Lassell recommends making the polisher of two pieces of light
wood glued together, with their grain at right angles; in his hands it has certainly
performed wonders, but as it is liable to warp with hygrometric changes in the
atmosphere, it is as well totally to prevent such warping by employing three, instead
of two pieces of board, making the two outside pieces at right angles to the’ centre
piece as regards their grain. To make the furrows in the pitch so that they shall
not fill up in polishing, is extremely difficult by the ordinary process of pressing the
pitch while in a soft state with the edge of a ruler, as the pitch forced out of the
furrows is heaped up on the edges of the squares, leaving a hollow in the centre of
each square; in working it is forced back again, and it is absolutely necessary that
the furrows should remain open during the entire process of polishing. I prefer
covering the surface of the polisher with squares of wood about 3 inch in thickness
and 2 an inch apart, stuck on with hot pitch or glue, and a nail in the centre. The
polisher being held with the face down, the squares are covered over with a brush
dipped in the pitch (not very hot), and repeating the operation until a proper thick-
ness be obtained; when made in this way the furrows will never fill up except the
pitch be much too soft.

26 REPORT—1856.

On the Physical Structure of the Earth. By Professor Hennessy.

After some preliminary observations as to the impossibility of accounting for the
earth’s figure, without supposing it to have been once a fused mass, the exterior of
which has cooled into a solid crust, the process of solidification of the fluid was
described. The influence of the convection and circulation of the particles in a
heterogeneous fluid was shown to be different from what would take place in a
homogeneous fluid such as usually comes under our notice. As the primitive fluid
mass of the earth would consist of strata increasing in density from the surface
towards the centre, its refrigeration would be that of a heterogeneous fluid, and the
process of circulation would be less energetic in going from its surface towards its
centre. Thus the earth would ultimately consist of a fluid nucleus enclosed in a
spheroidal shell. The increase in thickness of this shell would take place by the
solidification of each of the surface strata of the nucleus in succession. Ifthe matter
composing the interior of the earth is subjected to the same physical laws as the
material of the solid crust coming under our notice, the change of state in the fluid
must be accompanied by a diminution of its volume. The contrary hypothesis had
been hitherto always assumed in mathematical investigations relative to the form
and structure of the earth. The erroneous supposition that the particles of the
primitive fluid retained the same positions after the mass had advanced in the pro-
cess of solidification as they had before the process commenced, had been tacitly or
openly assumed in all such inquiries until it was formally rejected by the author*,
who proposed to assume for the fluid similar properties to those exhibited by the
fusion and solidification of such portions of the solidified crust as are accessible to
observation. The results to which the improved hypothesis has led, show that it
fundamentally affects the whole question, not only of the shape and internal struc-
ture of the earth, but also of the various actions and reactions taking place between
the fluid nucleus and the solid shell. If the process of solidification took place
without change of yolume in the congelation of the fluid, the strata of the shell
would possess the same forms as those of the primitive fluid, and their oblateness
would diminish in going from the outer to the inner surface. If the fluid contracts
in volume on passing to the solid state, the remaining fluid will tend to assume a
more and more oblate figure after the formation of each stratum of the shell. The
law of density of the nucleus will not be the same as that of the primitive fluid, but
will vary more slowly, and the mass will thus tend towards a state of homogeneity
as the radius of the nucleus diminishes by the gradual thickening of the shell. The
surface of the nucleus, and consequently the inner surface of the shell, will thus
tend to become more oblate after each successive stratum added to the shell by con-
gelation from the nucleus. This result, combined with another obtained by Mr.
Hopkins, proves that so great pressure and friction exist at the surface of contact of
the shell and nucleus as to cause both to rotate together nearly as one solid mass.
Other grounds for believing in the existence of the great pressure exercised by the
nucleus at the surface of the shell were adduced. If the density of the fluid strata
were due to the pressures they support, and if the earth solidified without any change
of state in the solidifying fluid, the pressure against the inner surface of the shell
would be that due to the density of the surface stratum of the nucleus, and would
therefore rapidly increase with the thickness of the shell. Contraction in volume
of the fluid on entering the solid state would diminish this pressure, but yet it may
continue to be very considerable, as the coefficient of contraction would always
approach towards unity. The phenomena of the solidification of lava and of volcanic
bombs were referred to in illustration of these views, and their application was then
shown to some of the greatest questions of geology. The relations of symmetry
which the researches of M. Elie de Beaumont seem to establish between the great
lines of elevation which traverse the surface of the earth, appear to Prof. Hennessy
far more simply and satisfactorily explained by the expansive tendency of the nucleus
which produces the great pressure against the shell than by the collapse and subsi-
dences of the latter. The direction of the forces which would tend to produce a
rupture from the purely elevatory action of the pressure referred to would be far
more favourable to symmetry than if the shell were undergoing a distortion of shape

* Philosophical Transactions, 1851, part 2.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. yy a

from collapsing inwards. The nearly spherical shape of the shell would also greatly
increase its resistance to forces acting perpendicularly to its surface, so as to cause
parts to subside, while the action of elevatory forces would not be resisted in the same
manner.

On the Eclipse of the Sun mentioned in the First Book of Herodotus,
By the Rev. Dr, Eowarp Hinckxs.

The author maintained that the eclipse of the 18th of May, 603 3.c., was that.
which terminated the Lydian war, and that from this celebrated eclipse and hiS
knowledge of the period of 223 lunations, Thales had predicted the eclipse of the
28th of May, 585 s.c. Herodotus, he thought, had confounded the two eclipses
with which the name of Thales was connected.

Previously to the publication of Mr, Baily’s paper in 1811, it was generally belieyed

by astronomers that the eclipse of 603 B.c. satisfied the conditions of that which

terminated the war, the field of battle being supposed to be in the neighbourhood of
Kars. Now that Mr, Baily’s arguments against this eclipse have been shown to be

_ erroneous, the author regretted that recent writers had neglected it; the elements of

it having never been calculated: with the improved lunar tables now in use,

On an Instrument to illustrate Poinsét’s Theory of Rotation,
By J, C. Maxwett.

In studying the rotation of a solid body according to Poinsét’s method, we have
to consider the successive positions of the instantaneous axis of rotation with refer-
ence both to directions fixed in space and axes assumed in the moving body. The
paths traced out by the pole of this axis on the imvariable plane and on the central
ellipsoid form interesting subjects of mathematical investigation. But when we
attempt to follow with our eye the motion of a rotating body, we find it difficult to
determine through what point of the body the instantaneous axis passes at any
time,—and to determine its path must be still more difficult, I have endeavoured to
render visible the path of the instantaneous axis, and to vary the circumstances of
motion, by means of a top of the same kind as that used by Mr. Elliot, to illustrate
precession*. The body ofthe instrument is a hollow cone of wood, rising from a
ring, 7 inches in diameter and 1 inch thick. An iron axis, 8 inches long, screws
into the vertex of the cone. The lower extremity has a point of hard steel, which
rests in an agate cup, and forms the support of the instrument. An iron nut,
three ounces in weight, is made to screw on the axis, and to be fixed at any point;
and in the wooden ring are screwed four bolts, of three ounces, working horizontally,
and four bolts, of one ounce, working vertically. On the upper part of the axis is
placed a disc of card, on which are drawn four concentric rings. Each ring is
divided into four quadrants, which are coloured red, yellow, green, and blue. The
spaces between the rings are white. When the top is in motion, it is easy to see in
which quadrant the instantaneous axis is at any moment and the distance between
it and the axis of the‘instrument; and we observe,—Ist. That the instantaneous

_ axis travels in a closed curve, and returns to its original position in the body.

|

2ndly. That by working the vertical bolts, we can make the axis of the instrument
the centre of this elosed curve. It wil] then be one of the principal axes of inertia.
3rdly. That, by working the nut on the axis, we ean make the order of colours either
red, yellow, green, blue, or the reverse, When the order of colours is in the same
direction as the rotation, it indicates that the axis of the instrument is that of great-
est moment of inertia, 4thly. That if we screw the two pairs of opposite horizontal

bolts to different distances from the axis, the path of the instantaneous pole will no

a

longer be equidistant from the axis, but will describe an ellipse, whose longer axis is
in the direction of the mean avis of the instrument. 5thly. That if we now make one
of the two horizontal axes less and the other greater than the vertical axis, the instan-

* Transsactions of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts, 1855.

98 REPORT—1856.

taneous pole will separate from the axis of the instrument, and the axis will incline
more and more till the spinning can no longer go on, on account of the obliquity.
It is easy to see that, by attending to the laws of motion, we may produce any
of the above effects at pleasure, and illustrate many different propositions by means
of the same instrument.

On the Constancy of Solar Radiation. By Professor Prazzi Suyrtu, F.R.S.E.

Having lately recomputed all our earth-thermometric observations from the
year 1838 to 1854 inclusive, I am able to offer to the Association a few particulars
respecting acosmical question, on which many speculations have been ventured, but
no exact numerical particulars ascertained,—I mean the constancy in amount of heat
radiated from the sun.

These earth-thermometers have been observed once a week during the whole
period alluded to, and are admirably adapted to equalize temporary meteorological
variations, and to give good mean results.

Their bulbs (filled with alcohol) are buried in the porphyry rock of the hill at the
several depths of 3, 6, 12, 24 French feet, and their tubes are long enough to rise to
the surface of the ground where the scales are placed, and may be read off to *01 of
a degree Fahrenheit. This set of thermometers was one of those which were esta-
blished in and about Edinburgh in 1837 for the British Association, under the care
of Prof. J. D. Forbes, and it is the only one of them which has survived more than
half the period which has elapsed. The excellence and completeness of the burial
of the bulb of every thermometer is vouched for by the length of time which the
wave of summer heat is found to occupy in reaching each bulb in succession accord-
ing to its depth. Thus the 3-feet thermometer has its maximum in August; the
6-feet ditto in September; the 12-feet ditto in October; and the 24- feet ditto in Decem-
ber or January. Again, from the annual range decreasing with the depth, as the
3-feet thermometer, annual range = 15°; the 6-feet ditto, annual range = 9°°8; the
12-feet ditto, annual range = 4°°6; and the 24-feet ditto, annual range = 1°2, And
when it is added that each weekly observation is carefully corrected for the effect
caused by the difference between the temperature of the bulb, and of the several
parts of the stem and scale, it will be seen, I trust, that the annual means of such
observations must be worth some attention. They are as follow :—

Annual! means of Thermometers.

/

On. these thermometers two heating forces are evidently acting, one from without
and residing in the sun, the other from within from the supposed molten centre of
the earth. Let us dispose of this one first. From the immense comparative thick-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 29.

ness of the bad conducting rock between the lowest of our thermometers and any
part of the earth where its substance can be fluid with heat, and be capable of
assuming more sudden changes of position or temperature than a solid can, we may
safely in a first examination consider the internal or terrestrial effect as constant at
each depth for the whole period from 1838 to 1854. The effect is smail, but very
sensible, as thus :—

Mean of each Thermometer for the whole period, from 1838 to 1854.

t, 3-feet thermometer 46°27

ts 6 os 46°55
te 12 $y 46°94
t, 24 Z 47°24

where we find each thermometer to tell the same story of, and to point to, a heated
terrestrial centre, even by approaching so small a space as 3 feet ; and on the whole
they show an increase of 1° Fahr., with 21 feet of difference of depth for the in-
ternal influence, or the terrestrial source of surface temperature. Subtracting the
differences between ¢, and the other thermometers from each in turn, we obtain the
following Table, wherein the terrestrial effect being eliminated, the variations from
cosmical influences become more apparent :—

| —— | | |

If these numbers be projected with the times, the curves they form are most in-
teresting, for they contain appearances of periodical waves distributed over a secular
swell, with so long a period, that only a small portion of it appears in the seventeen

_ years.

_ If then we can depend on our observations being strictly cleared of every instru-
mental and terrestrial cause of disturbance which can logically affect their accuracy,
we have at once an indication of our sun being amongst the number of variable
stars. Can we then depend on them to this extent? The only possible room that
Ican see for doubt, is the question of the constancy of the zero-points of the thermo-
‘Meters ; and having no means of inquiring into this practically, I can only combine
with the general experience of the unalterability of spirit-thermometers, with the
very thick glass bulbs and tubes here employed, after a certain period, the particular
observations by Professor J. D. Forbes on a thermometer made at the same time as
our set, and in the same manner, and filled with the same spirit. The result of
examination was, that after nine years no appreciable change (certainly not 2;th
of a degree) was found.

_ This is very satisfactory ; and if further evidence be required that there is some
tural and cosmical cause acting on our thermometers, tending to produce an effect,

30 REPORT—1856.

certainly very similar to what an alteration in the zero-points might do, we have-
such evidence in special features of difference between the curves of the several
thermometers. Thus while ¢, and ¢,, by the rapid and uniform rise of their curves
at the beginning of the period, lead one to suspect the possibility of something in-
strumental affecting them, yet it may be that the observations were commenced at
the bottom of one of the temperature waves, of which there are evidently three, with
a nearly sexennial period between 1838 and 1854. If this latter be the true expla-
nation, then inasmuch as ¢, is retarded in its indications on ¢, and ¢; by two or three
months, it ought to show in 1838 by so much the temperature of the opposite slope
of the wave, and its curve should not reach its maximum depression so pointedly in
1838 as those of ¢, and ¢;. On looking at it, we find ¢, fulfilling these expectations
perfectly, for its curve, instead of rising up steeply from 1838 to 1839, is nearly
level.

But there is still another proof: ¢, ought to exhibit the retarded effects of ¢, in a
still greater degree, if the continued rise of ¢, and ¢; in 1838-39 and 1840 be due toa
cosmical cause, and not to an instrumental defect that would act on all the thermo-
meters alike. Now ¢, does precisely what it should do on such a hypothesis ; for
instead of being only level like ¢, for 1838-39, it is even depressed, having its minimum
in the latter year. :

Similarly, it will be found through the whole of the period of our observations,
that by their regulated differences from each other depending on the effect of the
several depths of non-conducting matter covering each of them, the several thermo-
meters serve to confirm each other, as really indicating changes in the mean tempe-
rature of the surface of the earth, such as can hardly be attributed to any cause but
the variations in the development of solar light and heat.

In this case the ascertainment of the period of the secular wave must be of the
utmost importance; for its summit may bring us years warmer than any that have
been felt in our own day, and the bottom of it seasons with cold in corresponding
severity.

On a Collimator for completing the Adjustments of Reflecting Telescopes.
By Professor G. Jounstone Stoney, M.A.

This paper described an accessory to large reflecting telescopes, designed to assist
in adjusting their mirrors at night with more ease and accuracy than hitherto. In
general construction the new collimator resembles the telescopes made use of by
engineers ; it differs only so far that provision must be made for sufficiently illu-
minating the wires or an artificial star, and that its large lens should have a focal
length f, determined by the equation

h adie’

f aF
where F is the focal length of the telescope to be adjusted, and d is the distance from
the centre of the large lens of the collimator to the cross wires. If this instrument
be placed in the usual position of the eye-pieces, the illuminated cross wires, and
the image of them which will be formed, may be viewed in it, and if these be now
brought into coincidence by the adjustment of the mirrors, the line from the inter-
section of the cross wires to the centre of the large lens of the collimator will be
the optic axis of the telescope ; 7. e, this ray, after reflexion from the small mirror
will, if produced backward, pass through the centre of curvature of the large mirror.
A slight addition to the arrangement would ensure that this axis should also pass
approximately through the vertex of the large mirror; but it was supposed that,
so far as the optical performance of the telescope is concerned, this would be found
a needless refinement if the collimator be employed only to complete adjustments
already approximately made by the usual methods, and if the small mirror be
properly supported. -

The experiments which had been made showed that this latter condition was one
of much importance and required that the support of the small mirror should be very
stiff, and that the small mirror should be counterpoised at the end of it, The small
mirror is usually supported by a single arm placed edgewise, in order to intercept
but little light; a second bar, also placed edgewise, and forming a small angle

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. , 31

with the first, had been found sufficient to make the arrangement capable of re+
sisting flexure and vibration in a surprising degree, and, as the angle may be reduced
so far that both bars can be attached to a slide carrying the eye-pieces, it is also
more convenient than the steadying wire which has been sometimes employed.

The facility and accuracy offered by the use of the new collimator are such, that it
Was suggested that in some instances it might be desirable to make arrangements for
adjusting the telescope after every considerable change of altitude. If the collimator
were to be thus frequently employed, a beautiful contrivance made use of by Lord
Rosse might with much advantage be adapted to it, by mounting it and one or two
of the eye-pieces in a slide so that any one of them could in a moment be brought
opposite to the coneof rays. A slide moving on a centre was recommended. Since
the tilt of the large mirror will thus become of less importance, we may henceforth
admit for its support arrangements which introduce more tilt than those at present
in use, and thus the solution of what now remains the most difficult problem of
large reflecting telescopes may possibly be facilitated.

On Phenomena recently discovered in the Moon. By J. Symons, M.A.

On the reasons for describing the Moon’s Motion as a Motion about her azis.
By the Rev. W. Wuewe tt, M.4A., D.D., F.R.S.

Merrorotoey.

On the Causes of Great Inundations.
By Tuomas Dozson, B.A., of St. John’s College, Cambridge.

The principal special causes which tend to produce great inundations in a country
are, the inclination and the lithological character of the surface of the basins drained
by the rivers of the country.

Where the subsoil of a river-basin is composed chiefly of porous and therefore
permeable materials, as oolite, loose gravel, &c., the rain will be absorbed almost as
fast as it falls, and will reach the river gradually, after returning to the surface
through springs.

But where the subsoil is generally compact and impermeable, as clay, granite, &c.,
the rain will flow over the surface with more or less velocity, according to the
greater or less inclination of the surface to the horizon.

So far, therefore, as the geological character of a river-basin is concerned, the
tendency to inundation due to that basin will be measured by the difference between
the areas of the permeable and of the impermeable superficial strata, and by the
inclination of the sides of the basin to the horizon.

The general cause of great inundations in the countries forming the western sea-
board of Europe, is the easterly progressive motion of the cyclones, or revolving
storms, of the North Atlantic Ocean.

Starting from the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, and sweeping during a
considerable portion of their early course along the warm surface of the Gulf-stream,
they collect the vapours so copiously generated in southern latitudes and finally pre-
cipitate them on the high lands and mountain chains of Europe. In general, several
cyclones follow each other in rapid succession, so that the continued rains at length
saturate the earth, and floods and inundations ensue.

I shall illustrate these remarks on the general cause of European inundations by a
brief meteorological history of the great inundations in France in October 1844,
October 1846, and in May and June of the present year.

1844,—The tracks of the cyclones of October 1844 have been determined by
Mr. Redfield. The first passed over the West Indian Islands on the Ist and 2nd of

82 REPORT—1856.

October. The second was the “ great Cuba hurricane,” which destroyed more than
a hundred ships at Havannah, Jamaica, &c.. The loss at Havannah alone was
estimated at £1,000,000. Its diameter already exceeded 1000 miles. Passing over
Cuba on the 3rd and 4th of October, it skirted the coasts of the United States, and
struck off eastward into the North Atlantic Ocean at Newfoundland on the 8th
of October. Smaller cyclones, waterspouts, &c., as usual, followed in its rear.

The barometer in Britain, as shown by the annexed curve, distinctly recognizes
the arrival of each member of this chain of aérial eddies. Tempests, rains, unusually
heavy floods, and destructive inundations marked their progress over France, Ger-
many; Italy, &c.

1846.—On the 10th of September, 1846 (Col. Reid, ‘ Development of the Law of
Storms,’ p. 371), a great cyclone formed between the islands of Trinidad, Marguerita,
Grenada, and Tobago. ‘‘ Asit advanced, its force increased, until it became a tempest
of a furious kind. Passing to the westward of Bermuda, it blew there a hard gale
on the 17th and 18th, with the centre a little to the eastward of Newfoundland,
where it did great damage to the town of St. John’s, and was felt as far as 19° W.,
50° N, on the eastern side of the Atlantic.”” We have here evidence that this cyclone
came from the West India Islands to the mouth of the English Channel. The
barometric readings given by Col. Reid show that the south-eastern margin passed
over Bermuda between the 13th and 20th of September. The accompanying baro-
metric curves for Rouen and the Orkneys during September and October 1846, prove
that the front of this cyclone first affected the barometer at Rouen on the 17th of
September.

This was followed by a series of cyclonic paroxysms, of which the most violent
has been examined in detail by Mr. Redfield. It began in the Caribbean Sea on the
6th of October, and passed over Havannah on the 11th, wrecking more than 100
ships, and sending the mercurial column down to 27°70 inches. On the 12th nearly
the whole town of Rey West, in Mexico, was destroyed, and twenty ships driven ashore.
On the 13th it swept over Washington and New York, and started across the
Atlantic from Newfoundland on the 14th of October.

. 1846,
Bermuda

13145 16 F 38 1920

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 33

These dates indicate approximately the position of the central area, which may
have a diameter of 100 miles, while the whole cyclone probably extends more than
2000 miles, for the barometer shows that the front often strikes the British Islands
about the same time as the rear is leaving Newfoundland.

Here then was an uninterrupted series of cyclones, which, beginning among the
tropical heats of the West Indies, crossed the Atlantic in succession and maintained
a continuous discharge of storms and unprecedently heavy rains in Britain, France,
Germany, and Italy, from the 17th of September to the end of October.

On the 30th of September a destructive tempest passed over Sicily and Italy. Seven
villages near Messina were destroyed by storms and inundations. At Portici many
houses fell and fifteen persons perished. The village of St. Firmin was engulphed and
many lives lost. From the 15th to the 18th of October a tempest raged over the
whole Continent. During that period there fell ‘153 m. (6 inches) of rain at Mont-
brison, in France. On the 16th, the village of Schledorf, three leagues from Munich,
was utterly destroyed by a storm of wind, rain, and lightning. On the 18th the
great rivers of France overflowed ; the Loire rose 6°94 métres (73 yards) above its
mean height, and a general inundation ensued, the most destructive since that of the
13th of November, 1790.

In the Tyrol, it rained incessantly from the 28th to the 31st of October, and the
River Elsch inundated the country.

On the western coasts of Britain and Ireland, the rear of the last cyclone pro-
duced a hurricane from N.W., which occasioned great loss of life and property on
the 22nd and 23rd of October.

1850.— Before considering the inundations of 1856, it will be useful to show that
the elevated temperature which invariably accompanies the southern half of a cyclone,

January 1850.
232495 26

may sometimes exert a powerful influence in promoting an inundation by suddenly
melting the snows accumulated on the mountains during the winter. On the 26th

of January, 1850, a warm rain began to fall at Paris, and melted the snows at the

_ sources of the Seine and its affluents so rapidly as to produce an extraordinary flood.

The annexed barometrical curves for the Orkneys, Versailles, and Bordeaux, show

the presence at that time of a cyclone of moderate dimensions, the central track

;

_ passing between the Orkneys and Versailles. The outer southern margin passes
; 3

‘1856.

-
t
:

34 REPORT—1856.

over Bordeaux, where the wind is light. At Versailles the thermometric curves show
* that the warm S.W. wind raised the temperature 12° C., and the cold N.W. wind
afterwards produced a corresponding depression. These curves are good types of
the general actions of the barometer and thermometer during the transit of a cyclone.

hi Mey
hoe a hy Ati

t anh Ly :

Elgin.

i

ie

SS ES

Wakefield.
——
E

Teignmouth.

1856.—In order to determine as accurately as possible the various phases of the _
weather in Great Britain during the months of April and May, 1856, I have con- :
structed the curve of barometric pressure, and the curves of maximum and minimum
temperature (the latter on the scale of 20° F. to an inch) from the observations
during these months, at eight stations of the British Meteorological Society ; viz.
Elgin, Anstruther, and Makerstoun, in Scotland ; Stonyhurst, Wakefield, Canter-
bury, and Teignmouth, in England; and Lampeter, in Wales. From these I have
selected to accompany this paper the curves for Wakefield, where observations are
made night and day at equal intervals of six hours, and those for Elgin and Teign-
mouth, the extreme stations to the North and South respectively.

These curves indicate, as in the case of the inundations of 1846, a succession of :
cyclones, of storms of wind and rain, producing floods of increasing height and —
violence, until the culminating disastrous inundations at the end of May and in the i
beginning of June. +

Two cyclones, either of enormous extent or of slow progressive motion, occupy
the whole month of April. The first ended about the 15th, and caused great floods
in the Garonne, and other large rivers of France. The second cyclone had passed
over by the 2nd of May. An abrupt depression of the mercury, accompanied by
heavy easterly gales, shows the passage, of a cyclone between the 3rd and 8th of
May ; the central track lying to the south of, Britain. From the 8th to the 20th of May,
a deep cyclonic depression occurs. Physical phenomena happen during this period,
which frequently characterize the passage of cyclones in tropical countries. On the
10th of May there was a heavy earthquake at Saint Rabier, in the canton of Terras-

f

i

LS

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 35

son, by which a mountain was precipitated into a ravine. On the same day great
storms devastated Rhenish Bavaria; a destructive waterspout fell in the commune of
Dembach, and the Garonne and other rivers of France again overflowed. On the 12th
of May a waterspout fell at Givry, St. Denis; and another at Beaume on the 15th.

In Britain the temperature rose 20° F. on the 9th, with the S.W. wind, and con-
tinued high until the end of the month. Several accounts from the south and west
of France mention the powerful influence of the south and south-west winds at this
time in melting the snows on the mountains.

The barometric curve shows that the centre of the cyclone passed on the 18th, a
day signalized by great storms at London, Rouen, and in the South of France. At
Nantes on that day, the wind blew violently from the S.W. and then shifted sud-
denly to the northward, a well-known indication of the passage of the centre of a
cyclone.

From the 20th to the 30th of May, the faithful barometer registers the passage
over Britain of the northern margins of two closely-allied cyclones, whose centres
lay far to the southward. In each case the wind veers from S.E. through E. to
N.E., and the depressions increase in depth towards the south.

A very heavy thunder-storm passed over England on the 22nd of May; at Brad-
ford Moor a man was killed by lightning; the Midland Railway was flooded and
several villages inundated. At Leeds the river Aire overflowed, and two lives were
lost.

On the 25th of May two men were killed by lightning during a thunder-storm, at
Strabane, in Scotland.

On the 29th of May, Brighton, Hastings, Portsmouth, and all the South Coast
of England, were visited by a violent storm of thunder, lightning, rain, and hail.

Such were the effects in Britain, which was merely grazed by the northern margins
of the two associated cyclones. The effects were much more disastrous in countries
farther south, which lay nearer to the centres of the cyclones. Violent storms of
wind, hail, and rain traversed France, Austria, Italy, and Spain. The enormous
falls of rain deluged the countries already saturated by the previous inundations of the
middle of May. At Lyons it rained continuously for forty-six hours, from 7 p.m. of
the 29th to 5 p.m. of the 31st of May. At Ainay, the rain measured in this interval
was ‘30 m. (112 inches), and at Aux Brotteaux it was ‘22 m. (83 inches). These
rains were general over the western countries of Europe. An indication of the east-
erly progress of these cyclones is given by an account of a great storm which broke
over Ratisbon on the afternoon of the 3lst of May, accompanied by a waterspout.
Great damage ensued at Ratisbon. Scarcely one house in Lichtenfels was uninjured,
whole roofs were carried away, and the strongest trees uprooted.

The numerous cyclone-tracks determined by Redfield and Reid all tend to pass to
the northward of Great Britain, and this agrees with the well-known preduminance
of south-westerly and westerly gales here. But the barometric curves, and the
winds, prove that the centres of the twin-cyclones of May 260 to 30 lay far to the south
of England.

Now, as cyclones invariably move, more or less, from the equator towards the
pole, their track must have been through latitudes unusually low, at a season of the
year when the sun has a high northern declina- May 1856, Bordeaux.
tion. This passage through an atmosphere of an
elevated temperature, and therefore abounding in
vapour, will account for the altogether abnormal
quantities of rain which they precipitated on southern
Europe.

M. Abria, Dean of the Faculty of Sciences of Bor-
deaux, having most obligingly forwarded to me a copy
of his Meteorological Observations, taken four times
daily, from May 20th to June 6th, I am enabled to
determine approximately, as in the annexed sketch, the positions of the centres of
the twin-cyclones of the end of May. :

The first cyclone declared its approach at Bordeaux on the 21st by “‘a very strong”
§.E. gale, with thunder and lightning. The centre, therefore, lay to the south of
Bordeaux. Where the two cyclones impinge upon and interfere with each other,

3%

36 REPORT—1856.

the S.W. wind of the second neutralizes the N.E. wind of the first; the wind is
feeble and the mercury rises. Nevertheless, the S.W. prevails on the 25th; this
changes to W., and finally to N.W. on the 28th and 29th with almost continual
rain. These winds show that the centre of the second cyclone passed to the north
of Bordeaux, and therefore between Bordeaux and Teignmouth.

In neither of these cyclones is the central barometric depression so extreme as is
usual in the great winter storms. This may probably arise from the confusion or
juxtaposition of the central spaces.

DP (ly

J

1? een
a.

On the Balaklava Tempest, and the Mode of Interpreting Barometrical Fluc-
tuations. By T. Doxson, B.A. of St. John’s College, Cambridge.

In the month of November, 1854, the passage of a storm over the British islands
caused a considerable depression of the barometric column, beginning on the 11th
of November and ending on the 19th, as shown by the barometric curves which
accompany this paper. During four consecutive days of this period of diminished
atmospheric pressure, there occurred in the coal mines of Britain six fatal explo-
sions, at the following places :—on Nov. 13, at Old Park Colliery, Dudley, Worces-
tershire; Nov. 14, Cramlington Colliery, Northumberland; Nov. 15, Bennett’s
Colliery, Bolton, Lancashire; Birchey Coppice Colliery, Dudley; and Coalbrook
Vale Colliery, Monmouthshire; Noy. 16, Rosehall Colliery, Coatbridge, N.B.
These facts alone render this storm worthy of especial attention, independently of
the notoriety which it has acquired from its disastrous effects on the allied fleets
and armies in the Crimea. The meteorological circumstances which characterized
the Balaklava tempest have been determined with unusual care and skill, from avery
great number of observations at stations spread over the whole surface of Europe,
by M. Liais, of the Imperial Observatory at Paris. In all probability, many years
will elapse before a great storm on land is subjected to an examination so rigorous
and complete as that undertaken by M. Liais, in the present instance. This storm
may therefore be adopted as the most satisfactory test that we are likely to have
for some time to come of the correctness of the principles of interpretation which
I have already applied to barometric fluctuations in my report on the relation be-
tween explosions in coal mines and revolving storms,—principles which flow directly
from the nature of cyclones.

A

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 37

For the observations with which I have constructed the barometrical curves for
November, 1854, at Teignmouth in Devonshire, Stonyhurst in Lancashire, Wakefield
in Yorkshire, and Dunino in Scotland, I am indebted to Mr. Glaisher, the able

bead rn_ f\ f\ /\ sussis
Orkneys ....... N fi \©
Dunino .......
Wakefield
Stonyhurst ...
Teignmouth ...jA

November 1854.

Secretary of the British Meteorological Society. The curve for the Orkney Islands
is from observations published in the ‘Philosophical Magazine.’ At Wakefield and
Stonyhurst observations are made four times a day, at the other stations twice a day.
The cyclonic interpretation in this case would be—First, that the curves indicate the
passage of a cyclone, of which the central track lay to the southward of England.
This is inferred from the gradual increase of the barometric depression from the
Orkneys in the north to Teignmouth in the south, and depends on the fact that the
height of the mercurial column decreases continuously from the circumference to the
centre of a cyclone. This inference is confirmed by the observation that the wind
blew from the eastward at all the above-mentioned stations. Secondly, that the cyclone
Was progressing to the eastward. This is derived from observing that at each
station the wind began at S.E. while the mercury was falling, veered to E. when
the mercury was lowest, and then to N.E. as the mercury rose. If the wind had

- =~

veered from S.W. through W. to N.W.., as it does most frequently in British storms,
and the barometric depressions had increased from Teignmouth towards the Orkneys,
the interpretations would have been, that the depression was caused by a cyclone
travelling eastward, of which the central track lay to the north of Scotland. In the
first case (A), the explanation would be that the chord (S.E., E., N.E.) passed over
the British islands, and the chord (S.W., W., N.W.) in the second case (B). Such
deductions are both obvious and satisfactory to persons whose knowledge of nautical
technicalities has enabled them to appreciate the demonstrations of the rotatory

38 REPORT—1856.

and progressive motions of Atlantic cyclones, given by Redfield, Reid, &c. M. Liais
having favoured me with an opportunity of studying his unpublished charts of the
Balaklava tempest, I have found therein a distinct and impressive confirmation of
the correctness of the method of interpreting barometric fluctuations according to the
laws of cyclonology. These charts fully establish the truth of the inferences derived
above from the contemporaneous barometric curvesin Britian. They prove that the
Balaklava tempest was a cyclone, moving to the eastward, along a central track which
lay to the southward of Britain. It is known that during their transit from the
Gulf of Mexico to the western coasts of Europe, across the comparatively uniform
surface of the ocean, cyclones preserve an approximately circular form. The excellent
charts of M. Liais, at the same time that they exhibit the progress of the storm day
by day, from the shores of Britain across the continent of Europe, to the Caucasian
mountains and the borders of the Caspian Sea, show also the remarkable modifica-
tions produced in the normal condition of the cyclone by mountains and other
irregularities of the surface of the land. Thus, for example, a portion of the cyclone
is delayed nearly twenty-four hours in passing the Alps. The consequence of this
and similar obstructions is, that what was nearly a circular atmospheric wave while
crossing the ocean, takes the form of a much elongated and somewhat distorted
ellipse on land, enveloping an elliptical central area of maximum barometric depres-
sion, which extends, on one chart, from Dantzic in the Baltic to Varna in the Black
Sea. Around.this central space the wind still blows continuously in the direction
peculiar to the cyclones of the northern hemisphere. In the case therefore of the
Balaklava tempest, whose nature has been determined with much greater exactness
than that of any other tempest on land, we have unequivocal testimony that the
principles of cyclonology may be safely applied to interpret the fluctuations of the
barometer in Great Britain.

On a Model of a Self-Registering Anemometer. Designed and Constructed by
R. Beckuey, of Kew Observatory. Described by Mr. Weusu.

In this model Mr. Beckley has adopted Dr. Robinson’s method of measuring the
velocity of the wind by the rotation of a system of hemispherical cups, the direc-
tion being indicated by a double wheel-fan like the directing vane at the back of a
windmill. A stout tubular support carries the whole of the external part of the
instrument, including the measurer of velocity, the direetion vane, and a rain-gauge.
This support is so made that it can be easily adapted to the roof of any building
upon which it may be necessary to mount it. All the rotatory parts of the anemo-
meter run upon friction balls. The shaft of the apparatus for measuring the move-
ment of the wind, by means of a diminishing train of wheels, is made to turn a
cylinder upon which is wrapped a sheet of paper of the kind used for “ metallic
memorandum books,” this paper having the property of receiving a trace from a
style of brass. The sheet of paper is divided into two sections, upon one of which
is recorded the motion of the wind and upon the other the direction. As the
cylinder is being turned by the action of the wind, a clock carries a pencil along the
cylinder at a uniform rate of 12 inches in the twenty-four hours. To the lower end of
the direction shaft is attached a spiral of such a figure that equal angles correspond to
equal increments of radius; the edge of this spiral consists of a thin slip of brass, which
touches the paper and records the direction of the wind on a rectiJinear scale. When
the sheet of paper is unwrapped from the cylinder after twenty-four hours, the motion
of the wind and the direction are both found projected in rectangular co-ordinates.

With reference to anemometric observations at sea, Mr. Welsh read the following
extract from a letter which he had addressed to the Chairman of the Kew Committee,
describing a method of making allowance for the effect of the ship’s motion upon
the observed velocity and direction of the wind :—‘*‘ By means of a portable Robinson’s
anemometer, provided with a means of observing the total number of turns made by
the rotating part in any given time, observe the apparent velocity of the wind and
record it in knots per hour. By an anemoscope of any kind register the apparent direc-
tion of the wind. From the log-book take the rate and direction of the ship’s motion.
Ona slate or other similar surface scratch a permanent compass circle. Set off from
the centre of the circle, on the radius of the direction of the ship’s head, by any

Saxe

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 39

convenient scale, the number of knots per hour the ship is going; from this point
draw a pencil line parallel to the direction of the wind as observed by the anemo-
scope (i. e. the apparent direction to which the wind is going) ; set off on this line
the number of knots per hour as shown by the anemometer ; draw a line from the
centre of the circle to this last point. The length of this line by the scale adopted
gives the ¢rue velocity of the wind, and its direction (carried backwards) shows the
point from which the wind is coming. A parallel ruler divided on the edge is all
that is required besides the slate. It would be easy enough to contrive some
mechanism to save the trouble of drawing linés, but it would not, I believe, be any
real simplification, and would increase the expense. The train of indicating wheels
might be so arranged that they at once indicate knots per hour without reference
to tables, and can be readily set to zero for a fresh observation.”

On a remarkable Hail-Storm in North Staffordshire. With some Casts of the
Hailstones. By R. Garner.

This storm, which came from the N.W. in the afternoon of the 22nd of July last,
between four and five o’clock, continued with great violence for about half an hour,—
some of the masses of ice which fell being 13 inch in diameter, and of course doing
corresponding injury, for instance, breaking more than twenty large squares of glass
in the rather small house of his (the writers’s) next-door neighbour, and those of
his own Wardian case. Most of the hailstones seemed to have nodulated nuclei,
containing numerous particles of air, and externally to these were formed irregular
conglomerations of ice, looking like a mass of imperfect but transparent crystals.
The storm was attended with gusts of wind and thunder, and was of a very limited
and defined extent; but to the south of the writer’s residence, about four miles
away, near the Barlaston Station, a violent wind frém an opposite direction, S.W.
or S8.S.W., occurred at the same hour, without rain or hail, the ravages of which
could afterwards be traced for a length of two miles, with a breadth of only from
50 to 100 yards. Oaks were deprived by it of their largest limbs, poplars broken at
the height of 8 or 12 feet from the ground, and an alder, 50 feet high, was uprooted
and carried some distance. The clouds were extremely dark for a great extent of
country. An artist took some casts of such hailstones as he picked up, by no means
the largest. These the writer exhibited with a drawing.

On Isothermal Lines.. By Professor Hennessy, M .RLA.

After some preliminary remarks as to the general influence of the distribution of
land and water on the forms of isothermal lines, the author proceeded to discuss
the distribution of these lines in islands. By considering an island situated so as
to have its shores bathed by a warm oceanic current, if the influence of direct solar
radiation be obstructed, it appears that the isothermals would be closed curves
surrounding the centre of the island and having some relation to its coastline. The
influence of ranges of mountains, and in general of inequalities in the surface of the
island, as well as the modifying action of general winds, and the resulting changes
in the shapes of the isothermals, were explained. By the introduction of solar
radiation, it now follows from the mathematical theory of heat that the entire quan-
tity of heat received by a unit of surface of the island will depend on two principal
terms: one, a function of the distance of the point from the coast, and capable of
being expressed in some cases as a function of the difference of latitude of that point
and the nearest point on the coast ; and, secondly, of a term depending on the
latitude and on an elliptic function of the second order having for its modulus the
sine of the inclination of the equator to the ecliptic. It hence follows that the effect
of solar radiation will be to transport the centres of all the closed isothermals
towards the pole of the hemisphere in which the island is situated. Some of the
lines may thus ultimately terminate at the coast with their convex sides turned
towards the equator, while others may still continue as closed curves in the in-
terior. If the influence of difference of latitude and direct solar radiation were
greatly predominant compared to other causes affecting the temperature of the
island, the isothermals might all terminate on the coast. If the continents may
be considered as immense islands so circumstanced, they become subjects for the

40 REPORT—1856.

application of these views.—Prof. Hennessy then proceeded to show that the
isothermals of Ireland strictly conformed to his theory. On discussing the obser-
vations collected and arranged by Dr. Lloyd in his ‘Memoir on the Meteorology of
Ireland,’ it appears some of its isothermals are actually closed curves, while others
terminate at points on the coast, the shortest being closest to the equator. The
physical structure of Ireland, and the difference of nearly 4° between the tempera-
ture of the seas bathing its shores and the air above them, rendered it probable,
@ priori, that Ireland should present a good example for the application of the
theory. From the general nature of his views, Prof. Hennessy anticipated that the
discussion of observations in other islands would lead to their further confirma-
tion; and it would ultimately follow, that not only are isothermals sinuous in their
shapes and not generally parallel to the equator, but that many would be found
which do not at all circumscribe the axis which joins the opposite poles of the earth.

On an Instrument for observing Vertical Currents in the Atmosphere.
By Professor HEnNEssy.

The author said he had been led to devise this instrument when offering an
explanation, printed in the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy,’ of certain
abnormal phenomena sometimes observed on the surface of Lough Erne. The
instrument is constructed like a common wind-vane, but instead of the fixed tail, a
circular disc is placed vertically on an axis passing through the branches of a fork
at the tail end. This disc is pierced about half-way between its centre and circum-
ference so as to admit another axle, to the ends of which are firmly attached two
light rectangular discs. ‘These discs are always in a horizontal position, whatever
may be the position of the circular disc, for each of them has ap endulum attached to its
centre by which the centre of gravity is kept considerab!y below the axle. These
discs, therefore, cannot be acted on by a wind which blows horizontally. The position
of the circular disc will thus very clearly show whether any given current has an
upward or a downward tendency. The application of this instrument to the study
of mountain winds was pointed out, as well as to assist in studying some of the undula-
tory movements of the atmosphere. In the trials which have been already made
with it, Prof. Hennessy stated that it gave satisfactory results. The instrument is
of course not an anemometer, but simply a kind of universal anemoscope, for it shows
both the horizontal and vertical directions of a current.

On Negretti and Zambra’s Mercurial Minimum Thermometer.
By Joun Lez, LL.D., F.R.S.

Dr. Lee exhibited the thermometer to the Section, and pointed out the advantages of
a thermometer of mercury in preference to alcohol, which is subject to unequal ex-
pansion at different degrees of heat; it is a desideratum that ail thermometers in
a meteorological observatory should be constructed with one fluid, and that mercury,
the recognized standard measurer of heat. The thermometer has been tried at the
Observatory of Greenwich; by Mr. Glaisher, the Secretary of the British Meteoro-
logical Society ; Mr. E. J. Lowe of the Beeston Observatory, and several other emi-
nent meteorologists ; some instances have occurred in which errors in the alcohol
minimum thermometer have been corrected by the observations made by the mer-
curial minimum thermometer.

Dr. LEE made some remarks upon a pamphlet recently printed by Dr. Herbert
Barker, of Bedford, on the relative value of the Ozonometers of Dr. Schénbein and
Dr. Moffat, based upon daily observations made for eighteen months at Bedford, and
he drew the attention of the audience to the following points :—1. Whether ozone
observations have generally been conducted by them in their meteorological ob-
servations? 2. Whether they use Schénbein’s or Moffat’s test papers, or both?
3. Whether they have noticed the difference between those which the Bedford
observations those of Mr. Glaisher in various parts of London, and those at Hart-
well House Observatory indicate? 4. Whether they will without delay add the
Ozonometer to their instruments, as so much interest and importance belongs to
the mysterious agent, Ozone, which is carrying on its, at present, incomprehensible
effects on the atmosphere, in order that they may be recorded ?

Oe ee ee

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 41

On a New Method of making Maximum Self-Registering Thermometers.
By Joun Puiuirs, M.A., F.R.S., Reader in Geology in the University of Oxford.

Thermometers constructed after this plan were first exhibited by Prof. Phillips,
accompanied by a description, at the Oxford Meeting of the Association in 1832,
In consequence of a careful examination by Mr. Welsh, of the principle on which
they were arranged, attention was again called to the subject. The principle of the
instrument is the employment of a certain portion of the column of mercury, detached
as a marker. The length of this is capable of a great range of adaptation, to suit
the objects of experiment ; when set to work, the instrument is independent of
change, by time or chemical action, and as delicate in operation and as free from
error as the best ordinary thermometer can be made. Mr. Phillips constructed
many twenty-five years since, some of which remain in excellent state to this day.
The length of the marker was varied at pleasure, by means of a second hollow ball
blown at the extremity opposite the ball containing mercury. The longer this marker
is left, the easier is its flow : at a certain small length, depending on the diameter of the
tube, it will remain without turning in any position, and requires strong shaking to
change its place. Mr. Welsh constructed some in a manner superior to that for-
merly employed by Prof. Phillips, and reported in very favourable terms on the
accuracy and permanency of the instrument. Thus encouraged, Mr. Casella had
undertaken to adapt the thermometer to different purposes in meteorology and philo-
sophical research, but without changing in any degree the essential character of the
instrument. Among the examples on the table was one which was planned by Prof.
Phillips for special researches on limited sources, or areas, of heat, with small bulb,
fine bore, and short detached marking column. ‘Thus made, the thermometer may be
used in any position, vertical, inclined, or horizontal, and the short detached marking
column will retain its place with such firmness that instruments may be carried far,
or even agitated much, without losing the registration.

Observations with the Aneroid Meétallique and Thermometer, during a Tour
through Palestine, and along the shores of the Dead Sea, October and
November 1855. By Henry Poot.

During a recent tour through Palestine, I carried an Aneroid Métallique,and though
I would not presume to say that the results of observations made with it are quite
correct, yet as the readings in many instances are close approximations to the cal-
culations of Lynch and other travellers, I wish to draw attention to that instrument
as affording an easy mode of obtaining approximate levellings of heights in unsur-
veyed countries. It is light, and can be easily carried by a strap over the shoulder.
From the rackwork being visible, a readjustment can easily be made when required
upon ascending high mountains.

A table of corrections is, however, required, and which I found must be additive
with an increase of temperature (being the reverse of mercurial barometers and
vacuum aneroids), as indicated by the variation in the readings at different tempera-
tures at the same localities, as recorded in the accompanying Table.

In Dent’s tables, 85 feet are calculated for the difference of each tenth of an
inch of the barometer; this, multiplied by 39°37 inches, equal to a metre, gives 33°46
feet, or 333 feet in common practice, as the multiple of each division in the Aneroid
Meétallique. In practice I found it very nearly correct; for instance, there are forty-
seven steps with a 6-inch rise going down into the Tomb of the Virgin Mary in the
Valley of Jehosophat equals 23°5 feet, and by aneroid I read a difference of 7 milli-
metres X by 33°5=23°45 feet ; again, the minaret of the Church of Ascension on
the top of the Mount of Olives measured 36°5 feet,—by aneroid the difference was
11 millims. X 33°5=36'85 feet. If the aneroid were mounted with a vernier scale,
the observations could be more closely read off. I particularly mention these com-
parisons of the aneroid with actual measurements, as they gave me confidence in it
at the time, and also because I found on my return to London that I had arrived
very nearly to the same results as Lieut. Lynch up to 2000 feet above the level of
the Mediterranean Sea; and also in the depression of the Dead Sea, 1313°5 feet by
aneroid, while Lynch made it 1316-7 feet by level, and Capt. Symonds calls it 1312
feet. There is also a variation in the line of the Dead Sea level at different seasons

42 REPORT—1856.

of the year, for I found at Ras Em Barghek three distinct lines of drift-wood one
above the other; opposite Usdum the line of salt incrustations was 40 yards, and
the line of drift 70 yards distant from the edge of the sea; while along the west side
of the peninsula ‘‘ E] Lisan,”’ a reef of rocks was exposed about a quarter of a mile
distant from the shore, which does not appear to have been noticed by Lieut. Lynch’s
party ; I therefore think I must have been there when the water was unusually low.
I found the temperature of the Dead Sea at the north end 82° Fahr. at 5 a.m., and
83° Fahr. at the south end at 4 p.m. River Jordan, and brooks on the Lisan, and at
the Ghor, 64° each. Brine spring 90°, where Lebia were caught near the sea-shore.
Wady Em Barghek, temperature 76°. Spring at Engedi, 83°. At Ain Terabéh the sea
was 80°; also a brine spring close to the shore, and the freshwater spring was 79°: in it
were a number of Lebia swimming about, the largest appearing to be about 3 inches.
A sulphurous smell was observed on passing the white hills south of Sebbeh near
Wady El Mahras, at Birket el Khalil, but not at other places. It often blew hard
during the day, but the waves never appeared to be more than two feet high, and the
sea quickly went down after the wind ceased. Several nights were quite calm, but
I never observed any phosphorescence on the water.

The table of observations with the dry- and wet-bulb thermometer were made by
the same instrument, as unfortunately I had broken two others, and there were not
any to be bought in Jerusalem ; I therefore obtained the lower or wet-bulb tempera-
tures by wetting the bulb, and waving the instrument about in the shade. The
vapour arising from the Dead Sea, when looked at from the heights of Ain jidi and
Ghomran, had the same appearance as the fumes produced at brass castings.

Comparative Readings of Aneroid Métallique at different Temperatures at same

Localities.
1855. Time. Locality. Fahr. |Aneroid.
hm a
Oct. 26.| 2 05 p.m. |Nebi Mousa ...... 89 | 77-17
8 00 P.M. ditto ......... 78 | 77°47
27.. 400 a.m. ditto ......+..| 67 | 77:50 |33 millims. in 22 degrees.
30.| 9 15 p.m. |Hebron ....... senes}p OO: (969527)
31. 8 15 a.m. CIGLO Men cnaaes 51 | 69°38 |11 millims. in 5 degrees.
Nov. 1. 4 30 p.m. |Bed of Dervish...; 80 | 73°88
6 00 p.m. ditto, .c.cc0s..| @4 | £400
8 00 p.m. Cito} os. 6000-7 74 | 74:10
2.) 810 a.m. ditto ....... -.| 64 | 74°20 |32 millims. in 16 degrees.
12 35 a.m. Usdum ............ 89°5 | 80°06
7 30 P.M. CiGLO! renee - 76 | 80°41 |35 millims. in 135 degrees.
3.| 6 00 a.m. ditto”. .Gest.: 75 | 80°39
4.) 6 45 a.m. Gitto .....c vee 76 89°40
815 a.m. ditto .........| 79 | 80°44
5.) 845 a.m. GiktO! Saeewes- 79 | 80°62 lor 33°938 inches.
3 00 p.m. |Ghor ............0+ 90 | 80:10
5 10 P.M. ith O acne a 86 80°13
810 pM. ditto ........-| 85 | 80°22 |12 millims. in 5 degrees. Gale
6.|10 00 a.m. | CIGLO Vcnaeesn's 90 | 80-44) of wind.
8.| 3 35 p.m. ditto ........., 99 | 79°70
8 30 P.M. CUGLO) teowenesss 61 | 80:20
6 00 a.m. CIELO rc entes ce 60 | 80°24 |54 millims. in 33 degrees.
| 6.| 430 p.m. El Lisan............ 72 \°79"99
12 15 p.m. ditto ......... 66 | 80°30|31 millims. in 6 degrees. Gale
7.| 10 25 a.m. | iLO MIA eos 81 | 80°31] of wind 8 p.m.
7 45 P.M. ditto) <.5....5. 73 | 80°30
8.) 645 a.m. GUE Gis. ccs 72 80°21
915 a.m. GittO jc. <00-0e. 86 | 79°94|27 millims. in 14 degrees.
9.) 7 30 p.m. Em Barghek ...... 83 | 79:83
10 15 a.m. ditto, .........| 83 | 79:90
10.} 1 30 a.m. GILEO o.. +200 81 | 79°96
6 30 a.m. ditto .......... 78 | 80:00 /10 millims. in 5 degrees.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 43

Thermometrical Readings near the shore of the Dead Sea.

= B
orce a
Fahr. Centigrade. of 2
Date. Time. Locality. DRE one = Remarks.
point. 2
s| 3 Re
ra = Dry. | Wet. | Ins. | Mills. 3
h. m. Astaire a) =
Oct. 27) 5 30 a.m. |North of Dead|70| 64 (58°25 |21°11 {17°78 |-5148 |13-08 |-70 |Bulb wetted with
Sea. Dead Sea water.
Noy. 2.| 200 p.m. |Usdum......... 90| 71 |59-03 |32°22 |21°67 |-4732 |12°03 |-32|114 feet above
3.| 135 p.m. ditto..s2:. 87| 72 |62°40 |30°55 |22:22 |-5795 |14°72 |-45| Dead Sea.
4.) 9 30 am. ditto...... 82/65 (53°44 |27°78 |18°33 |-3905 | 9°93 |-35
11 40 a.m. |Em Barghek |84|66 [54°12 |28-89 |18-89 |-4023 |10°22 |-34 |281 feet ditto.
5.| 510 p.m. |Ghor ......... 86| 71°5|62°08 |30°00 |21-94 |-5795 |14°73 |-47
6.} 10 00 a.m. ditto...... 90| 67 |52°51 |32°22 |19°44 |-3519 | 8:94 |-25
11.| 8 45 a.m. |Sebbeh......... 82168 |58°48 |27°78 |20-00 |-4960 |12°60 |-45 |563 feet ditto.
2 00 p.m. ditto...... 90| 70 (57°40 32°22 |21°11 |-4668 |11°85 |-33
12.) 12 42 a.m. |Engedi......... 86| 74 |66-20 |30-00 |23°33 |-6106 |17-24 |-55 |710 feet ditto.
13.| 4 30 p.m. |Ain Terabeh.../84 67°5\54-95 |28°89 |19°72 |-4677 |11°87 |-40 |710 feet ditto.
Comparative Observations at Alvaston, Derby.
1856.
Aug. 3.) 200 p.m. |Alvaston ...... 84| 72 |64:08 |28°89 |22°22 |-6228 |15°82 |-54 |About 250 feet
5.| 11 00 a.m. ditto....../73| 64 |55°34 |22°78 |17-78 |'4768 |12°11 |-59 | above sea.

Levellings by Aneroid Métallique from the Mediterranean Sea by Joppa, to
Samaria, through Jerusalem. October 1855.

eactet Hecht a Height in
Eeiece 2 Names of Places. Lenekat eet, a
Oz “Woppa, Hotell” a... 5.0 55.cccceecetsscesecvenes eebistcod| Mattias. 67
4 PGMA OL OSEPID sch seen dena-seaes-s-netwocctenecevock| twehasdees 93
114. ~=‘|Convent at Ramleh (Arimathea) Sobae soaeaes'scuee 230 244
17 HKuballe ptr dea sapescrrnstees dpe -~' Stine etek oboe 543 445
21 Bab Wiady, Aine cies ents sndioesscecerac cer ep «annens 965 857
| 221 ~=|Terebith Tree (Wady Beit Hanina) Sa twauiesvongens aaede ban 3 1232
21 Church Aboo Gosh (Emmaus) .......... sence esis: ee LOSS 1892
253 Ain Dilbeh ....... ppeeidan de aistiass <= pape ecenanvies santa 2024 2047
282 Bridge, Keulonich ............s0ssssscscseescsesees o| 1954 1527
31 Bottom of Hezekiah’s Pool, Jerusalem............ 26103* 2061
36 Valley of Mount Gibeon...............ssccecsceeeees| sevencees 2231
40 Bicrah ......... Sais ene saiseee Refine aserece Beaune 2254
42 Bethel ......... segura RbcgrevdaccchudsasedevcsevetassmenelWi ts sce ane 2401
45 Khafa arno ........ depen cuit aersiss staronets socttoss eicteltah om MR, cere 2200
463 |Ainy Bruk .......... Bamaeteas 6 biiicisis seeisiee aeetp eink = sb | MANE de atts 1766
48 Ain el Hara mich, “ Robber’s spring ”’...... Reeecal | pebentts vs 1803
50 Ridge near Singel .......0..0....ssseseceeeees Se cpaee sili Boda auec 2020
52 BlEmbbans.'* Mebowele?, \ asin. .-csccuns dove esctbevei| if ccdecs i3 1424
56 Mopiof Ein ye. - Samaebiaaae sits aenloeiasinysf'a sin Sac ce Gerais Wess SF 1640
58 Brook near Burin ...cec..ceeseeeeseeceerees eaaecncesl |p Mrassiekddbs 1290
64 Jacob’s Well .........c2eseeeee Boe ueeAcsecaesswacha| ese ubaices 1347
64 Summit of Mount Gerizim...............200.-0+ RaARAW uses eeitan 2408
65 Nablous, “‘ Shechem ” .............00... Reet |oa ineieicase ete 1464
“1 Wiadhy S@DAStICh cnetletengsseactapteetiancs cupioaies senile eons nan 800
Filles Summit of Hill Samarid-ccc.cesecscestcccccscscsseses|| aves eeeae 1233
72 Willd elon Sebastlehe cracecaystemteeetscsccceaec cree |") cenctce ss 1120

* The precise locality in Jerusalem to which Lieut. Lynch levelled is not known.

44 REPORT—1856.

Levellings by Aneroid Métallique from Jerusalem through Hebron to the Dead
Sea, compared with the level of the Mediterranean Sea at Joppa.
November 1855.

Height in
Distance in Wanies of Places feet with
Miles. . Mediter-

ranean Sea.

(0) Jerusalemjiat Hezekiah’s Pools ...° ... 206 Sie Oe eee eZOGT
2 Wilijabie: Ganinentyc0 as <5. ? bss Soci Svevtue docs ise ee ea eee
3 Rachel’s Tomb ... .. Peer reer ead! sei LTT
63 |Vale of Artas, at junction of ‘Wadies.. igs Gar easaig weceg hace AO
ve DittosMeshallumisvhouse, sich: maesntsccet.css vasen ase gael) BESUO
7
8
9

= |Aqueduct at Pools of Solomon ... ... 21. se. eee vee 2144
Upper Pool ditto: 2h Stisdehe hs 0 302 Pecan aes ow Cena SHZZO
Ridge ss. 28s seb Rates (Rodel itavquaee tenner ZOD

10 Wady em Bir, or ‘wells nae! Reve sisMauets iecabaNecel coc | Nene meee
13 UNO Go eee CE Ne he RCO LOM MN PORCH TEE econ cal) 2alIe
142s hamish secuece kes Silene Jessi" See teva sublease
17 Camp at Fiehran, near incareteas. Las, eda tie wel eae nee ee ED
TombysaCaveorlVakpelani ys cseu) ce rietel less abcess] OS
Abraham’s Oak; valley of Hshcol 7.05 | ssc een ces) veea|) nO?
Aines Lin ... ... sen biaa gine session og Mi as| RO
Temple ruins at Mann RaGhemaademiy Sal Lesa spe hee eee OD
19, “Hitidwe idee ube Fie Lat chy sd Wace ace) Se ee
UOSeh | Valleyane euaeeest Uiewet Go Gl -teh kesctit eco tose: tesalaeoncuene

20 Ridge ... wane cco eddly aos)! eral ene
221 |Ruins of Ziph « on left hand a mile wes eras. ecel| 2eET!
242 |Ruins Em Sirkan... .. $s see! fysnensssee galt cel| pee
27 Birket el Kurmel (Carmel «. Be eee EL eeerriiorroalar hone!
29% |Ain Tawana... ... Wier eet rises ko sain mote aie prea onan ee |e
30 Ridge sree Ssesu pare eset Pensisca ta nestbacs, locnbe eos nimees manner
Se.) |Ridzeig.s.) |}... wed) piesen Msaca: some lecesiesne] meee

33 ‘tame Camp of the Djahalins os een = ileal sno sare ee EE
So). .|Birglalaca lsccwhusesss, 00%), .¢2200.es0 eatin tess Me seRb anual orl eon
38 IGG Ch ies nore made co sitacwe., << citsieseraieact bare Miss: Pe ceeete ie |) Tua
BOP | |Wiadyowe. 2.‘ cccthiceapincces asceiece PMeaeimacee cae amen ne |. wie

AQ: \Ridge’S... iw Sea) >> sew Watetethe eee) ane Mg deee ewe] eee
43 Wady el Mahras, o or + Drippings waa (ities ealecete | kel csete.a|panlainO
45 |Ridge ... .. Joa, Maa ae eT on neem tae mag,

46 Ermeli (view of Dead Sea) ». omer tib Wei aah scr, jn iil
Up NEG Kp mieee. * cocm misSanm cca eoplegenoeeciaes toormmeicgucctie taal] ie
Age, ) |Ridbeseuc.- fess ace settee censhs oonkh weieiiacs, tf sae. - rca geen eeLOO

49 Plain, ces sae pees Saiemetb eNO cay meee 931
50 Bed of Dervish fond a eh aby-saste-, das | cea pepenietaes 895
52 |Wady of Bazaar ... ... one h(esr he. Beh .cetoc. Mepeipitens| ame
533 |Passed near a supposed crater Pe, He en hhc 298
551 |Nejeb (view of Dead Sea) . dapactearcodyl <eeaken ce MaMa 4
Bos |Towermiil\ Zuweireh\- sll stom eos) iscsi leae” foc? levels. .|=——go8
58 |Campat Usdum... . .|—1176
59 Shore of Dead Sea (Lynch, “1316 1; Symonds, =1312) —1313°5
Summit of “ El Lisan,”’ or the Pesineiin = Seatil nes — 1063°5

Levellings from Jerusalem to Dead Sea by Nebi Mousa.

Koad branches to Jericho 265° V5 ose cewanb peas coaen dae 705
a \WULDEZ NC baaees oes ec oss wa shuMinnoMatedad” mcglinen 708
Py Rid Pe wither sos cess se pment pute | ating hans ee 607
PuNCHONLOEAVGOIESIS vices) + s0carces, irectie nebiaceaan ween Betas 209

<< ae

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 45

‘ Height in
Distance in feet with
Miles. Names of Places. Mediter-
ranean Sea.

ROME Vertical Challis: aeasp key leat, Susy) ts alulendye\saneinees mimes 353
Mosel Dany, Wiadye welpeca |) i's vila) vese irises) sae: ovabpuriern) Seale e Qo
og SUVESREN | San SAR a Ra eae I i
12 |Pointed rocks... “ie aR ee Mr ae Oy NEE 286
13 |Ridge (red-coloured aiectoaain cckdl) <comeetnaitl tna lian a\-—— ab
14 |Nebi Mousa Lapetianet limestone) Seley Weert ts, eden ann OO
15% |Ridge ... ... AT Schc | nO ace, LICeS a eehe ecm mace ne Boa i= eaiere!
17 Base of ane arises! Petar Weck teed gests o kanal k Sik
See | larity dane etal eect seni et ath an Mel ons (fost asdey sotect, snail OSU)
OD Se ICAO E SCA Maar altvar y vecomaheastii Snel ane” (aceih Lene) ease eat (La

Levellings by Aneroid Métallique along the west shore of the Dead Sea, commen-
cing at the south end from Usdum to Jericho. November 1855.

Distance Height in feet | Height in feet
in Names of Places, with Medi- above
Miles. terranean Sea.} Dead Sea.
0} |Cave in middle of Mount Usdum ... ... ...| —1200 114

2 |Ascent at back of Usdum... ... ... «.. +. — 930 384
3 |North end of Usdum... ... 12. ss. «se ee| —1200 114
41*/Brine-spring (temp. 90°) ... se ss see eee| —1284 30
43 |Fish in gully of ditto... ... ose ss. ase eee} —1311 3
6% |Wady Em Barghek ... 44. o0. see eee vee] =— 1033 281
Fan Olde Hort cGiGtO’ fash ican)? gmake ose, e0e ulyes jeeuane| onsen O82 382

7 |Hillclose to shore... eaeie ae, ooe| . — 1065 249
8 |Wady Em Dian, or Wild Goats.. ass | MSTLOT 194
11 _ |White lime-rocks 7a can ER ace Ase cent ee veteyeh 430
Dae WWady Sebbehiie scsi assinedeeph jovehe Viva: «cep ese|) oS L 463
123 |North bank of ditto ... 1... .62 eae wee ae] = «784 530
133 |Ascent to Mosada... ws. aes wee nee vee] = 822 992
Top of ditto, by sextant ... ... ... .. «| + 98 1412

14 |Camp at Sebbeh... ... Bos ene rad Saye 563
15 |Wady El Mahras, ¢ or Drippings... eee |e LOOG 308
17 |Wady El Kehabra, or Spies... ... «.. ...| —127] 43
19 Birket El Khalil (Abraham’s salt) ... ... ...J —1314 0)
21 |Plain of Ain jedi (Engedi)... ... ...| —1190 124
213 |Spring near Tower on ditto (temp. 83°). ..| — 604 710
22 |Camp in Wady ... ... ws. oe sapere L030 258
24, Ras Mersed ... cee jee aoe cee ave) ane oon] 1114 200
25 |Wady Khmeid Abdo § Sak | Dae BRR Monet oa eA elec! (0)
Bera Mountait pass ss. Pes fica, spe lesa sce oacf 2 — LOTE 240
i MNDIELOSGIttO: cs enV Ley Misee sen tae ae ee OD 509
Zora y La AMT cs Veeeatitean sect cee lest hetoel oe L209 105
BeeMREPE eng ee ce eee (atte aah ol Oe Ament 740
29 |Upper ridge... ... Boi sisal Menai winset eee eee 874
293 |Ain Terabeh, or ‘‘ Morass ” senda cece MacaliPe peda: 40
30 |Springs with reeds a. «| — 1314 (0)
32 |Springs with reeds and fish (temp. 79). sult 1314 0
333 |Wady Kedron, or En Nar... ... wen vase» L200 114
34 |Mountain ridge ... ... 1.) wee vee cee veel 584 730
Ste |DittOndittOassy cs apace sda tare cc. c,.| = O88 1226
mag |Lablesland: ipa)... fas) <2. ateeunesdie nas) leslie. 25 1289

* The Brine-spring issues out of the rocks about 100 yards distant from the shore of the
Dead Sea ; and the fish “ Lebias ” were caught in this spring at three yards’ distance from the
shore of the Dead Sea, and to which they had free access.

46 . REPORT—1856.

Distance! Height in feet | Height in feet
in Names of Places. with Medi- above ©
Miles. terranean Sea.| Dead Sea.
SEE IGeG aise sak ee ee ss acs ar eed eee 1340
38 |Heights above Ghomran ... ... «. « «| — 161 1153
Sea Calan atditcOnmeecemces) yes ses eee. force sal (OO 1005
39) Edge GfielitiydttiGaen te. 2+. cee ace esaecewer| eta ess 951
39 |Foot of ditto, ruins and graves... «... ... «..| —1076 238
391 |Base of chalk hills, with graves eee gues uatesl) omnes 100
30% |Shore of Dead Sea ... 1... 20. cee coe vee] §=— 1314 (0)
42s | Plainsofvordanpece tess ise) (eee) betas cere yuatel a OOS 506
40 |Mouth of Jordan river Deter Ao ct ae erigel te esac] W511i! (0)
44 |Pilgrim’s bathing-place, ditto ... ... ... «| —1210 104
453 |Jericho Tower TOY ts ee ae eal vatls — 798 516
From Jericho to Jerusalem.
Pe ANootoLMOUNtAIMS) x6 ices -asee ly s0e cee cueeel,. =e DGO 724
DE Adana maa, UAE Doves wr tres |) = BE 1228
G MIRidgens. eee. ce beereceniestl (onc: jcc acces feees|aett 03 1616
7 Po lKhantienauriderenesttcet” ctemmeeOn ccc, scree aes us| ee te wOGe 1995
(o> ||PlavpaottBemobbersizsse)yesebaes stances chess eet | ant mee rae 1784
OMe Ridzerecwutens Macimmscsh <5o Wess pads Ader ces] ete 2068 |
12 |Road turns off to “‘ Nebi Mousa” ... ... ...| + 705 2018
Tb, |Apostles* fountain’ s25 ois. tre to cem Seve ose feos 2567
16 |Lazarus’s Tomb, Bethany... ... .. ... s.| +1803 3116
17. |Church of Ascension, Mount of Olives ... ...| +2138 3451
172 |Tomb of Virgin Mary, Valley of Jehoshaphat...) +1834 3147
18 |Hezekiah’s Pool, Jerusalem ... ... .- «| +2061 3374

Note.—Since the reading of the above paper before the British Association at
Cheltenham, Mr. Poole has been in Westmoreland, and taken the heights of several
mountains in the Lake District with the Aneroid Métallique.

In the Table below, the first column shows the height by calculation, allowing
33°5 feet per millimetre as adopted by him in Palestine. The second column is cal-
culated by Delcros’s formula, giving corrections for temperature and latitude. The
third column shows the heights furnished by Colonel James, Chief of the Ordnance
Survey of Great Britain, and which were obtained from him since the aneroid level-
lings were calculated.

The Ordnance survey thus confirms most satisfactorily the correctness of the
aneroid, when corrected by Delcros’s formula, up to a height of 3000 feet.

Unfortunately the temperatures at the time of observation were not kept in Pales-
tine, and therefore Delcros’s formula cannot be now used for those readings, and
the heights given in the original paper are proportionally too low

Levellings by Aneroid Métallique in the Lake District, taken from Iveing Cottage,
Ambleside, which is calculated at 80 feet above Windermere Lake (128 feet above
the sea by Colonel James), or Station at 208 feet above the sea. September 1856.

Colonel
i i *5 feet nillimetre, with 208 feet Ss? James’

on Oy ede heght of Statiin( above the see ie aaeteth eriuatis Difference.

Survey.
Helvellyn ...s...seo0-.s00 COCR TIO TROOECE nestareeten 2734 3056 3117 —61
Fainheld cccntececeeeeetesereeetnscokccccorscssncecssiee 2566 2837 2861 — 24
Highstreet .........ccccccosesceeeecseseeeeceessreeceans 2452 2693 2722 —29
Wansfell (not quite at top, 30 feet assumed)...| 1524 1649 1598 +51
Kirkstone pass, boundary line .........+00-..e0eee 1400 1487 1466 +21
House at ditto ........+0006 BbeaRecs Atth bes ctiosis sees 1383 1490) Nekegae + 4
Loughrigg Fell, or Ewe Crag .........+++sssesee0 1032 1123 1101 +22

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 47

On a Meteor seen at Cheltenham on Friday, August 8th.
By the Rev. C. Prircuarp, F.R.S.

The author stated, that on leaving the Meeting of the Association on Friday
evening, about 8 P.m., the friend who was with him suddenly exclaimed, ‘There is
lightning !”” But observing that the light continued, he turned round, and saw a
beautiful meteor moving, nearly in a vertical circle, nearly through « Lyre,—com-
mencing about eight diameters of moon below & Lyre, and extending through about
ten diameters,—commencing, in fact, in a line drawn through Jupiter and the lower
of the three stars in Aquila. It was very decided and persistent, with rose- coloured
scintillations, taking a serpentine course, and lasting for fully forty seconds. No
further meteors were observed that night ; but on the following night he observed six
others, about the same hour,—all having their vanishing points near, or below, the
horizon, and, in the vertical circle, through @ Lyre. The former meteor was seen
by other friends, and also at Tewkesbury, and its decided persistency and violet
colour remarked upon at the time.

Continuation of Meteorological Observations for 1855, at Huggate, Yorkshire.
By the Rev. T. Rankin.

The atmospheric wave of November was twelve days in passing ; coldest day, 13°,
February 18; hottest day, 73°, July 13; lowest point of the barometer, 28°160,
March 3; highest point, 30°460 ; rain, 23°570 inches ; eclipse of the sun visible only
a few seconds ; in the evening a large meteor exploded and discharged coloured scin-
tillations like a rocket. On the evening of October 21, the whole atmosphere had
the appearance of the hull of a ship, with the white planks all distinct from stem to
stern. The ends were N.W. and S.E. The N.W. end was like pieces of amber,
and the S.E. end a beautiful purple. The common observation of the oldest
labourers is, that when the wind blows across the ends of the ship, heavy rain will
soon come. In the present case, the wind blew obliquely across the ends, and,
according to the common prognostic, there was soon a heavy fall of rain. Winds:
E., 11 days; W., 36 days; N., 5 days; N.E., 39 days; N.W., 30 days; S.E.,
6 days; S.W., 25 days. Weather: clear days, 117; rain, 51; frost, 28; white
frost, 29; snow, 18; mist, 7; fog, 4; thunder, 8 days.

On a Thermometer for Measuring Fluctuations of Temperature.
By B. Stewart. Communicated and described by Mr. Wetsu.

If a bulb be blown between two thermometric glass tubes of unequal bores, and
the instrument be filled with mercury in the same manner as an ordinary thermo-
meter, and laid horizontal or nearly so, it will be found that contractions from cold
take place only in the narrow bore, and expansions from heat only in the wide one.
The reason of this seems to be, that while the temperature remains the same the
mercury is kept at rest, and prevented from retreating from the small bore into the
bulb, by friction; but when a motive force is supplied by a change of temperature,
the motion of the mercury takes place in that direction in which it is most aided
by capillary action. It was suggested by Mr. Welsh to the author that such an
instrument might be used to measure fluctuations of temperature. And the author
thinks it might be applied to measure- with exactness the power of a source of
radiant heat; for, by alternately interposing a screen between this instrument and
the source of heat, and withdrawing the same screen, the effect of the source on the
mercury would be multiplied by the number of times this operation was performed.
In constructing such an instrument, care must be taken that the tubes used are quite
free from dirt or moisture, and that they are not bent, but form one straight line, the
bulb being in the middle, and swelling out symmetrically from both its extremities.
The best proportion between the capacities of the bores is perhaps about 1 to 4, and
the best arrangement of bores seems to be one suggested by Mr. Welsh, viz. a
round bore for the wide tube, and a flat or elliptical bore for the narrow one, the
greatest diameter of which equals the diameter of the wide bore. In graduating, if,
when the instrument is vertical, the narrow bore being beneath, the mercury fills

48 REPORT—1856.

the bulb and rises in the wide bore, then the wide bore may be pointed off at differ-
ent temperatures like an ordinary thermometer ; but if under these circumstances
the mercury does not rise in the wide bore, then, in order to point off the wide
bore, the instrument must be laid horizontally in a dish of water, and compared
with a standard thermometer at different temperatures; the extremity of the
mercury in the narrow bore being always kept at a fixed point. When the
wide bore has been pointed off, we may, by running the mercury along, find
what length of the narrow bore corresponds to a certain length of the wide
one, and thus be enabled to point off the narrow bore. In using the instrument
it should be kept nearly horizontal, and there is probably for each instrument a
small range of inclination, for every position within which its peculiar action holds,
but beyond which it is interfered with by gravity. Before graduating such an instru-
ment it should be ascertained whether it is likely to answer, and the best test
seems to be to lay it horizontal, exposing it to changes of temperature of the same
nature with those which it is intended afterwards to measure ;—if its action be per-
fect, the mercury will eventually be found to have retreated into the bulb from the
narrow bore; but should it have stopped at any point, the action will only be
perfect up to that point. If this demands too much time, it may be tested by
repeatedly applying to the bulb of an instrument so placed a few drops of slightly
warmed water,

On the Climate of Torquay and South Devon. By E. Vivian, M.A.

Mr. E. Vivian, of Torquay, laid before this Section the statistics of the meteoro-
logy of Torquay and Sonth Devon contrasted with those of the average of England,
as given in the Reports of the Registrar-General, to which he is a contributor. The
observations on which they were based extended from 1842 to 1856, but the com-
parative statement was confined to the last six years. The following was the
general summary :—

5 3 3 3 $2... 0S
a -0- ie ee en mf
S28) 82 |f2|88/88| os | e4 [s8c] 2s | gs
$3 |/-353 |.85 om | fs oa | sca as| SE O-m
sa|5a|/sa)/sSse/ SS | Se | oe |27 Be | sve
Be eg ee eee a Bl situs

a a = A o 2414 s

o fe} fe} io} °

Torquay...| 50:°3| 76 | 27 | 99] 15 | 155 | 278| 34 | -9 | -76
England...| 483 | 83 | 15 | 145 | 46 | 170 | 255 | 3:4 | -7 | -82

He explained the principles upon which the cool summers and mild winters of
South Devon and Cornwall are to be accounted for, namely, the equable tempera-
ture of the sea with which the peninsula is surrounded. He had observed the
surface water in Torbay to be as much as 21 degrees above the minimum tempe-
rature of the air in winter, and 13 degrees below the maximum in summer. He
also accounted for the equable hygrometrical condition of the air by the same
cause—-the temperature of the sea being frequently above the dew-point in winter
and below it in summer. He reviewed the inaccuracies in several medical pub-
lications, which had raised a prejudice against South Devon as a summer residence
as being too relaxing, while the exact contrary is shown by these observations. He
exhibited a set of his newly invented meteorological instruments for obtaining all
the really important elements of climate by one daily, weekly, or monthly obser-
vation, especially self-registering hygrometers; one for the maximum and minimum
difference of the wet- and dry-bulb thermometers, the other for registering their
average difference during any period of time,

———

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 49

Instructions for the Graduation of Boiling-point Thermometers, intended Sor
| the Measurement of Heights. By J. Wetsu.

Let the thermometer be in the first instance filled with a sufficient quantity of
mercury to allow the point 82° Fahr. to be where the point 212° is desired ulti-
mately to be. Let a chamber be made at the top of the tube about 3 inches
above the point 212°; or, if the thermometer is required to have a chamber at the
top when finally completed, let there be two chambers made with sufficient space
between them to allow of the tube being there sealed by a blowpipe flame. By
comparison with a standard thermometer, set off the points 82°, 72°, 62°, 52°,
42° (but not 32°). The scale may then be divided, adopting the mark 82 as
corresponding to 212:00; 72 to 201°87 ; 62 to 191°74 ; 52 to 181°61; 42 to 171°48.
The graduation of the scale should then be verified by comparison with a standard
thermometer at different points from 37° to 87° Fahr., and a table of errors of
graduation thus obtained. A sufficient quantity of mercury must now be separated
from the main mass until the top of the column stands in boiling water at the
proper reading. The superfluous mercury having been lodged in the upper chamber,
may be removed by sealing up the tube between the two chambers. If it is not
possible to detach exactly the proper quantity of mercury to make the column stand
at the true temperature of boiling water, the difference should be added as a further
constant correction to the table already found by comparison with the standard. The
following determination of the corrections to a thermometer, constructed on this
principle by Messrs. Negretti and Zambra, will serve as an example of the accuracy
which may be attained by this method.—

Reading of Boiling-

* Standard
Reading point Thermometer. tne Final
of : after correc-
Standard. Observed: ast a Withdrawal} tion.
at 212°, | of mercury.
°
42-00 171-76 | 17161 | 17-48 | —-13
47:00 176°80 176°65 176°54 —'ll
52°00 181°85 181°70 181:61 —'09
57:00 186°99 186°84 186°67 —17
62:00 191°97 191°82 191°74 —'08
67:00 196°98 196°83 196°80 —'03
72:00 202-08 201°93 201:87 —°06
77:00 207°19 207°04 207:94 —'10
82°00 212°29 212°14 212:00 —'14

On Barometrical and Thermometrical Observations at Scarborough.
By Captain Woopatt, M.A.

CHEMISTRY.

On the Composition of Parafine from different sources. By Taomas ANDERSON,
M.D., F.R.S.E. Regius Professor of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow.

Some seven years since the author commenced the investigation of Rangoon petro-

leum, but being at the time engaged in other researches, the subject was abandoned

after some experiments and analyses of the paraffine it contains had been made,

More recently his attention had been directed to this substance in examining the

paraffine obtained during the distillation of coal. He found that Boghead coal yields

two distinct kinds of paraffine, one highly crystalline after fusion, the other a granular
1856. 4

50 REPORT—1856.

mass resembling bleached wax. The former melted at 114° Fahr., the latter at 126°.
That obtained from Rangoon petroleum melted at 142°, and from peat at 116°. All
these varieties gave on analysis the same results, the numbers obtained being—

Coal.
rn ey
Crystalline. Granular.
Er ote str SS
Carbon .....s.00- 85°08 85°14 85°12 85°09 85:28 85:00
Hydrogen ....,.... 15°33 15°11 oe 15°23 15°38 15:36
100°41 100°25 100°32 100-66 100°36
Peat. Rangoon Petroleum.
maa
Carbon,...sseceesessrers 85°23 84°95 85°15
Hydrogen ....... sgetee, LODLG 15°05 15°29
100°39 100-00 100:44

These analyses lead to the conclusion that all varieties of paraffine are nof carbo-
hydrogens of the CnHy series, as is commonly supposed, but lend support to Lewy’s
view, according to which some of them belong to the CnHn+, series. This is rendered
obvious by the comparison of the mean analytical result with the calculation for the
former series and for the formula C4)H4, which comes very close to the analytical
results.

Expt. Calculation.
pe
: CH CygH ag
Carbone cesses sbsess 85:10 85°71 85°10
Hydrogen ......... 15°23 14:29 14:90
100°33 100°00 100-00

The latter formula is a purely empirical one, and is simply the nearest approach to
the experimental numbers, which, however, might be equally well expressed by Cy.H 44,
or even C,,H4g. The author has tried in vain to obtain some means of determining
the rational formule of the different paraffines, but without success. They are all
acted upon by chlorine with the formation of turpentine-like substitution compounds,
in which the proportion of chlorine differs,

The author leaves it an open question whether these paraffines are radicals or the
hydrurets of radicals, his object being to show that the term paraffine has a very wide
acceptation, embracing not only the cerotene and melene obtained from wax, which
belong to the CnHn series, but also a great variety of other compounds.

On a new combination of Carbon, Oxygen and Hydrogen, formed by the
Oxidation of Graphite; and on the Appearance of Carbon under the Mi-
croscope. By Professor Bronir, F.R.S.

On the Incrustations of Blast Furnaces.
By Professor F. Cracz Catvert, F.C.S.

During a journey which I made twelve months ago in Shropshire, in which I visited
certain iron-works, my attention was drawn to large incrustations which gradually
formed at the mouth of blast furnaces, and which had acquired such a size as nearly
to shut up the mouth of the furnaces, and as they proved a great annoyance, it was
thought proper that they should be removed.

To do this, the mass in the furnace was allowed to fall eight or ten feet from the
mouth of the furnace, the blast was then taken off and the incrustations removed,
some of which were placed in my hands for analysis, and which I found to be com
posed as follows ;—

CORIGELOUZIIC. «os: -s ss ue 6 oy O4I05
Peroxide of iron. .. '. «| ° 2:10
Miccamees nt | ol? Oe TA rgea5
Carine Se a
2) Seog gdm Rach Measee 0)

100°00

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 51

-” As the presence of zine was the souree of very great injury to the iron-master, not
only in consequence of its forming incrustations, but also on account of a certain

‘quantity of it finding its way into the cast iron and thereby rendering it very brittle,

I was requested by the proprietor of these furnaces to examine the various mate-
rials that were employed, and try to find out in which of them existed the compound
of zinc which gave rise to these several incrustations, ee

. Having failed to discover any blende or calamine in the limestone used, I next
examined the iron ores, and found that the ‘under penny-stone’ (a name given in
Shropshire to the ironstone nodules which are employed there nearly exclusively) con-
tained small black crystals, which proved, on analysis, to be sw/phuret of zine or blende.

Since this observation was made by me, E. W. Binney, Esq., F.R.S., has placed a
very interesting paper in my hands (published in 1852), in which he describes the
presence of the sulphurets of lead and zinc “as existing in the druses or hollows of
ironstone nodules occurring in coal-measures, which seem to indicate that metals
had in some instances been precipitated from aqueous solutions, or segregated from
semifluid masses.”

But it would appear probable, from the recent researches of Messrs. Fremy,
Deville, and Senarmont, that the blende has formed itself in the druses by the action
‘of a volatile sulphuret on the oxide of zine which had been deposited in those druses
after they had been formed in the ironstone.

In examining the coals employed, I found in the lowest strata which bear the name
of “Court Bandles Coal’’ in the neighbourhood of Coalbrook Dale, a large quantity
of white metallic scales disseminated through the mass of coals, exactly in the same
manner as pyrites are observed in the same substance. The presence of such scales
having not yet been observed, I analysed them, and found them to be composed of

alena mixed with a little blende.

I think that the presence of the blende and galena in the iron mineral and in the
coals, clearly indicates that in the neighbourhood there must be veins or lodes of the
sulphurets of these two metals.

On the Salts actually present in the Cheltenham and other Mineral Waters.
By J. H. Guapstonz, PA.D., F.R.S,

The Cheltenham waters have been analysed by many distinguished chemists, and
the experiments of Messrs. Abel and Rowney leave nothing to be desired in point of
accuracy, that is to say, as far as the amounts of chlorine, carbonic acid, soda, lime,
&e. are concerned; but the author contended that the usual method of arranging the
results of analysis, as so much chloride of sodium, so much carbonate of lime, &c.,
was utterly fallacious. The rule of ‘combining the strongest base with the strongest
acid’ is purely empirical, and almost incapable of application, since our knowledge is
very vague as to which is stronger and which weaker; but the rule is also false, if it
be true, as the author has found it to be wherever proof was possible, that ‘‘ where
two or more binary compounds are mixed under such circumstances that all the
resulting bodies are free to act and react, each electro-positive element arranges itself
in combination with each electro-negative element in certain constant proportions.”

The method of determining the salts actually present in a water by evaporating it
down and exhausting the residue successively with ether, alcohol and water, is also
fallacious, for the state of combination of the acids and bases may materially alter
when crystallization is taking place.

The paper of Messrs. Abel and Rowney contains indications that the salts are not
actually present in the Cheltenham waters in the manner in which they are arranged
in their lists of analyses. Thus so carefully had these chemists experimented, that
they observed there was not sufficient free carbonic acid to retain in solution the lime
and magnesia which, according to the usual principles, they supposed present in the
form of carbonates. Hence they imagined them dissolved by the alkaline salts, and
add, “‘ We have satisfied ourselves by direct experiment, that the solubility of car-
bonate of lime is much increased by the presence of chloride of sodium and sulphate
of soda.” Now all this is the necessary consequence of the law of reciprocal affinity,
as the lime, instead of monopolizing the carbonic acid, will unite more or less with the
other acids present, forming salts soluble in water. :

The author was fully aware that analytical. chemists themselves did not profess the

4%

52 REPORT—1856.

method complained of to be absolutely correct; but he feared that the semi-scientific
and the general public were deceived by it, and that chemists also often came to
believe there was some truth in their own arbitrary mode of expressing the results of
analysis.

Notes on Nitroglycerine. By J. H. Guavsronz, Ph.D., F.R.S.

The author had made several observations on this remarkable explosive liquid,
which had been first exhibited by Dr. De Vrij at the Ipswich meeting of the Associa-
tion; but the recent research of Mr, Railton had forestalled him, and left little for
him to bring before the public. However, he felt convinced that nitroglycerine was
not always uniform in its properties, and was perhaps various in its composition.
Thus a liquid produced by immersing glycerine (in the hydrated state in which it is
found in commerce) in a mixture of one part of fuming nitric acid and three parts of
sulphuric acid, was found to be easily exploded by a blow with a hammer, or when
heated rather strongly in a test-tube, giving rise to much flame and noise, with the
evolution of much nitrous gas ; while a liquid produced in a precisely similar manner
from the same glycerine, but after it had heen rendered anhydrous, did not explode
by a blow with a hammer, and burnt without noise when very strongly heated.
Again, some explosive nitroglycerine was allowed to decompose spontaneously till only
about one-half was left; this remaining portion was non-explosive. Each variety,
when exposed to a bath of solid carbonic acid in alcohol, froze, becoming at first viscous,
and then assuming an appearance similar to that of the fatty acids at the ordinary
temperature. This substance, like other nitrous acid substitution products, is liable
to slow spontaneous decomposition. ‘This had been several times observed : one spe-
cimen exposed for some weeks to the light of the summer sun, gave off abundance of
red fumes, and separated into two liquids, between which long crystals of oxalic acid
formed. The upper liquid contained the products of decomposition, being in fact
an aqueous solution of nitric and oxalic acids, with a large quantity of ammonia, a
little prussic acid, and traces of two or three slightly acid or neutral bodies, which
could not be identified.

On the Conversion of Tannin into Gallic Acid. By Joan Horstey.

It is several years since I first noticed the facts which I now bring before your
notice. I have never yet heard or read of the practical application of the agent in
the manufacture of gallic acid in the manner I now suggest.

Every chemist is aware that the quantity of gallic acid naturally contained in the
gall-nut is very small compared with the tannin (alias tannic acid), and that the gallic
acid of commerce is a manufactured article, being obtained by what is called the fer-
mentation process, which consists in the saturation of the bruised galls with water
and exposing the mass to the air for a period of several weeks or even months, when
decomposition sets in, a mould collects, and small yellow crystals of gallic acid are
observable, evidently the result of the oxidation of the tannin. The gallic acid is
then dissolved out by boiling the mass in water, and crystallizes from the concentrated
liquid on cooling.

It occurred to me to make experiments by keeping powdered galls in contact for
some time with liquid acids, such as sulphuric, sulphurous, nitric, and acetic acids,
but with diluted sulphuric acid only did I perceive any change produced; small
white tufts or nodules of gallic acid being observed soon to protrude themselves, so to
speak, to the surface of the dried cake.

I have lately, for the purpose of drawing up this paper, made further experiments,
of which these are specimens. I merely moistened the powdered galls with the diluted
acid and exposed the mixture in an evaporating dish to the full action of the sun, and
in a few hours signs of intestine motion began to manifest themselves and crystalline
white tufts were forming ; these white tufts gradually increased from day to day, and
became more apparent as the mass dried. It is necessary to renew the application
of moisture from time to time, so as to promote the growth of gallic acid.

In proof of the above, I likewise treated pure tannin by triturating it with dilute
sulphuric acid, and in a very short time white crystalline tufts of gallic acid were
visible.

tiene eeemaiiomeal

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 53.

A New Method of instituting post-mortem researches for Strychnia.
By Joun Horstey.

The following will be found an exceedingly simple and successful method of
obtaining strychnia, in cases where it is practicable, from the tissues of the body.

The weather at the time of making these experiments being very hot, the effluvia
evolved from so much putrefying animal matter, induced me to adopt some means
for remedying the annoyance. I therefore thought of a solution of ordinary chloride
of lime (bleaching liquid), but fearing lest that agent should decompose or destroy
the strychnia, I first tried its effect on a weak acetic solution of strychnia, and was
surprised to find that a milky white precipitate of a chloride, possibly a hypochlorite
of strychnia, ensued, insoluble even on the addition of a large quantity of acetic acid.
This precipitate, when drained on a filter and dried, is freely soluble in alcohol, which
seems to be its best spirituous solvent, but did not readily dissolve in dilute sulphuric
acid even with the aid of heat. Its best acid solvent is glacial acetic acid. It is also
soluble in alkaline liquors.

This result gave me such confidence, that I at once proceeded to operate on animal
matter. I therefore took some of the putrid liquid in which the liver of a dog
poisoned by strychnia had been boiled, which liver had not hitherto yielded me any
strychnia. I purposely introduced a little of the alkaloid, boiled the whole a few
minutes, and when cold, added the liquid chloride of lime in excess, or till all soluble
matter (animal or otherwise) was precipitated, and then filtered it through a cloth,
No trace of bitterness could be detected in the liquor.

The drained precipitate of fibrine, gelatine, caseine, and strychnia was next dried,
in a water-bath, then powdered, digested in alcohol acidified with acetic acid, heated,
filtered, and evaporated to the consistency of a syrup: by this time the whole of the
smell of chlorine will have been given off, and acetate of strychnia obtained, which
can be purified in the usual way, by precipitation with an alkali, &c.

Testing for Strychnia, Brucia, §c. By Joun Horsey.

The author tried the effects of a precipitant formed of one part of bichromate of
potash dissolved in fourteen parts of water, to which were added afterwards two
parts in bulk of strong sulphuric acid, upon a solution of strychnine, which was entirely
precipitated in the form of a beautiful golden-coloured insoluble chromate. The
decolorization of a solution of either the chromate or bichromate of potash was effected
by gradually adding a solution of the acetate of strychnia, when chromate of strychnia
was precipitated. Scarcely a trace of bitterness was left in the filtered liquor.

The author claimed as his own, this mode of the application of the chromic salt
and the acid. He diluted thirty drops of a solution containing half a grain of strychnia
with four drachms of water. When six drops ofa solution of bichromate of potash were
added, at each drop crystals were at once formed, and the decomposition was complete
when the whole were mixed together. Though the half-grain of strychnia was split
up into millions of atomi¢ crystals, each atom as effectually demonstrated the chemical
properties of the poison asa pound in weight could have done. The chemical reaction
with these crystals was next shown by spreading out a drop of the liquid chromate of
strychnia upon an evaporating dish, and adding a drop or two of strong sulphuric acid.

Amorphous chromate of strychnia may be obtained from neutral chromate of
potash ; nacreous or crystalline, from the bichromate; and, thirdly, in the regular
crystalline state with a weak chromic acid solution : fine spiculz are first formed, and
next (which is the peculiar characteristic of strychnia) small cubic crystals studding
the sides of the glass.

The salts of brucia and of lead alone appear to afford results in anywise similar,
The chromates of strychnia and of brucia become (contrary to that of lead) dark
coloured by exposure to sunlight.

Chromate of strychnia is changed to deep purple, and then to violet and red on appli-
cation of sulphuric acid. But chromate of brucia shows only an orange-red colour;
and being more soluble, no crystals can be obtained by means of the weak acid
solution mentioned. Chromate of lead also is in the amorphous or powdery state, and
developes no colour with sulphuric acid. ;

The following new tests disprove the fallacy entertained, that the non-detection
of strychnia in the body of J. P. Cooke was owing to the presence of antimony.

Mix one part of a saturated solution of the yellow cyanide of potassium (12 grains

54. REPORT—1856. :
to each drachm of water) with two parts of solution of acetate of strychnia; or take
thirty drops of solution of strychnia diluted with sixty or ninety drops of water ; drop in
one minim only of the ferrocyanide of potassium, and agitate the mixture, and an abun-
dance of minute yellowish-white crystals of the ferrocyanide of strychnia is formed.
Again, lay a little of the dried ferrocyanide of strychnia upon a small portion of pow-
dered protosulphate of iron ; drench both with water ; the deep blue of the iron is first
shown: add one or two drops of strong sulphuric acid, and then stir in a minute
portion of powdered chromate of potash ; the purple and violet colour of strychnia at
once appears.

In the next test, a solution of the ammonio-sulphate of copper is discoloured by
gradually adding a solution of strychnia and by boiling the mixture; crystals of
strychniate of copper with a little ammonia will be formed ; decolorize these when
dry, by sulphuric acid; add chromate of potash ground in by a glass rod, and strychnia
will be revealed.

On a New Method of extracting the Alkaloids Strychnia and Brucia from
Nux Vomica without Alcohol. By Joun Hoxrstey.

The usual modes of obtaining strychnia from nux vomica are, besides being more
or less expensive owing to the alcohol used, far from satisfactory. his, in a toxico-
logical point of view, is particularly the case, on account of the small quantity of
strychnia naturally contained in the nut; and as the production of the alkaloid for its
characteristic colour-test is a matter of importance, I have been induced to make
several experiments on the different methods in use, and it appears to me that the
simplest and best is that which I now propose, viz. to make an acetic extract by
kneading up, say a quarter of a pound of nux vomica with an equal quantity of com-
mercial acetic acid, and thinning the pulpy mass with two or three pints of cold water,
allowing it to digest for a few days. The clear liquor must then be decanted off and
an equal quantity of fresh water poured on the mass to digest for a day or two longer,
or till all soluble matter is extracted. The clear liquor is then to be decanted, and
the remainder thrown on a flannel filter. The liquid which passes through should
be mixed with the former decanted liquors and evaporated to a syrupy consistence
(about three or four ounces). When this is cold, dilute it with an equal quantity of
water, add liquor ammoniz in excess, and set it by for a day or two that the strychnia
may crystallize out, which is known by thie various little white tufts which collect
within the fluid as well as on the sides of the glass vessel. When the crystallization
is complete, the dark green supernatant fluid is to be passed through a calico filter ;
and the residuum with the crystals adhering to the vessel collected thereon, must be
left to drain; the dark green mass consisting of strychnia and brucia with resinoid
matter is next to be scraped off and well dried in a water-bath, digested in hot diluted
acetic acid, and the solution filtered. The strychnia and brucia may be thrown down
by potassa, or the strychnia only by the addition of a solution of chromate of potassa,
when a chromate of strychnia will be obtained free from brucia provided the solution
which retains the brucia be tolerably acid.

This chromate of strychnia being collected on a filter and well drained, can easily
be dechromatized by digestion in liq. ammoniz, and the strychnia obtained of a more
or less snowy whiteness.

The quantity of strychnia actually contained in the nux vomica has not, I believe,
been accurately ascertained, at least if I may judge from Professor Taylor’s work on
Poisons, where that gentleman represents it at about =, or 3 a grain per cent. I
cannot help thinking that the exhaustion in that case must have been but imperfectly
performed, as my own experiments show that nearly twice that quantity is capable of
being extracted ; for in my first concentration of the liquor from a quarter of a pound
of nux vomica I obtained as follows :—

From the Ist concentration 11 grains of strychnia
” 2nd ” a

” 3)
21,
» ord ¥. 2

” ”

17 grains.
_ This difference in quantity is necessary to be borne in mind by the medical prac- —
titioner when prescribing the extract and other preparations of nux vomica.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. © 55

Experiments on Animals with Strychnia, and probable reasons for the non-
detection of the Poison in certain cases. By Joun Horstey.

The author next related his experiments on three white rats with strychnine. To
each rat was given a quarter of a grain of powdered strychnia. In little more than
an hour a quarter-grain dose was given to the largest rat, and in about another hour
half a grain more was given to the same animal. At 4 o’clock the next morning
they were all alive, having eaten bread and milk, but shortly after 7 o’clock they
were all dead, one having lived just twelve hours after taking the quarter-grain dose.

In about three hours afterwards not the least indication of strychnine could be
obtained by the usual tests, and all traces of bitterness were lost. Every portion of
their bodies gave the same negative results, Was, then, the strychnia decomposed in
the organism, and its nature changed, as Liebig intimated?

The strychnine might have been absorbed into the albumen or other solid animal
matter, and thus abstracted from the fluid, forming perhaps by coagulation in the
blood, a solid albuminate as in the case of the glairy white of egg with strychnia, the
full quantity of the alkaloid not being recoverable.

In his second experiment the author gave full three-quarters of a grain to a wild
tat, which was killed by a dog four or five days afterwards, exhibiting but little of
the effects of the poison; the palms of the feet having cedematous swellings, and one
of the fore-feet being contracted. Inthe third experiment, Mr. H. yave a pill of two
grains of strychnia wrapped in blotting-paper, to a full-sized terrier dog. It was ap-
parently well for at least five hours, but in the morning was found dead, as though
asleep. When taken up, blood flowed freely from its mouth. The right ventricle
and auricle of the heart contained no blood; the left was full of partly liquid, partly
clotted blood. The stomach was detached with both orifices closed. On incision,
the paper wrapper, so far from being reduccd to a pulp by the action of the stomach,
was found in the same state as when the pill was given, and contained nearly all the
strychnine.

.. None of the absorbed strychnia could be detected in the blood or elsewhere after
the most careful experiments.

Mr. H. subsequently made experiments proving the great probability that a more
or less insoluble compound of organic or animal matter is found in combination with
strychnia.

On the Products and Composition of Wheat-Grain.
By J. B. Lawes, F.R.S., and Dr. Giupert.

On the Detection of Strychnine. By Srevenson Macavan, Ph.D., F.RS.E.,
F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry in the Medical School, Surgeons’ Hall ; in the
School of Arts ; and to the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, Edin-
burgh.

Four points were sought to be determined by the present investigation.

(1) Can strychnine which has been administered as a poison be thereafter detected
in the animal system ?

(2) Will antimony, morphine, coniine, or other chemical agent, conceal strychnine,
when such has been given to the animal ?

(3) Will time, with its host of putrefying agents, so far destroy strychnine as to
render its detection unlikely or impossible? And

(4) Can strychnine which has been given to the animal in minimum doses remain
in its organism in such quantity as afterwards to be isolated and recognized?

In examining animal matter for strychnine, the author has found the following
process eminently serviceable, and confidently commends it to the notice of analysts
-as a method which can be depended upon. ‘The animal matter, when solid, is chopped
into minute fragments, and treated with a dilute solution of oxalic acid. After stand-
ing twenty-four hours, during which time the mass is repeatedly agitated, the whole
is filtered through muslin. The contents of the filter are well washed with water, and
the washings added to the filtrate. The liquid so obtained is heated to ebullition,
-when albuminous matters separate, and whilst warm, is filtered through paper. Ani-

4

56 7 REPORT—1856.

mal charcoal is added to the filtrate, and, after repeated agitation during twenty-four
hours, the supernatant liquid is decanted off, and the charcoal received on a paper
filter, where it is well washed with cold water. ‘The charcoal now retaining the
strychnine is allowed to dry spontaneously, thereafter placed in a flask, drenched
with alcohol, and the whole kept for two hours at a temperature short of ebullition.
The alcoholic extract is separated by filtration from the charcoal, and is evaporated
down to dryness in a porcelain vessel, at a water-bath heat. The residue so obtained
will generally be found in a fit condition to be at once tested for strychnine, by means
of bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid; but should such not be the case, a few
drops of oxalic acid solution are again added, and the process repeated from the action
of charcoal onwards. Proceeding in this manner, the author has many times suc-
ceeded in detecting strychnine in the various organs of an animal destroyed by means
of it. In a few instances, hydrochloric acid and acetic acid were severally employed
instead of the oxalic acid, but were found unsuitable. Tartaric acid, however, gives
results equally successful with those yielded by oxalic acid.

When this investigation commenced, it was still an open question as to the possi-
bility of strychnine being absorbed and retained in the animal system. Accordingly,
in the first trials, large doses were gradually given, so as to afford every chance of the
strychnine being afterwards found.

A Horse received 24 grains of strychnine in small doses at repeated intervals during
one hour and fifty minutes, when a large dose of 12 grains was given. Tetanus
came on in two hours from the commencement of the experiment, and the animal
died in one minute thereafter. Strychnine was detected in (1) the contents of the
stomach, (2) the muscle, (3) the blood, and (4) the urine.

A large Police Deg partook of four bread pills, each containing ?,th of a grain of
strychnine, at intervals of about a quarter of an houreach. In fifteen minutes after-
wards 3 grains of strychnine were given, and in other fifteen minutes another dose of
3 grains. Tetanic spasms commenced in one hour and forty-five minutes after the
first dose was administered, and the animal died in thirteen minutes. Strychnine was
found in (1) the intestines, (2) the blood, (3) urine, and (4) muscle. The other
parts of this animal were not examined.

Three Mice were poisoned with strychnine by the author's assistant, Mr, John J. J,
Kyle, whoafterwards examined them according to Stas’ process, substituting chloroform
for ether. He detected the alkaloid in the stomachs and intestines thrown together,
but not in the muscle and other organs.

The suggestion lately advanced, that antimony and other substances are capable of
destroying, retaining, or concealing strychnine, when such has been administered as
a poison, does not seem to possess any foundation. A White Dog which had been
under treatment with tartar emetic for four days, receiving four ;th of a grain doses
each day, was poisoned with 1 grain of strychnine, and died in forty minutes; and,
when tested, the poison was found in every organ. A Black Dog, similarly treated with
tartar emetic, received 13 grain of strychnine along with 12 grains of extract of hem-
lock, died in one hour and two minutes, and when examined yielded evidence of the
poison having passed into neatly every part of its system. A Terrier Dog, poisoned
by 13 grain strychnine and 8 drops coniine, gave the same positive result. A Cat,
to which half a grain of strychnine and 2 grains of muriate of morphia were given, died
in fifty-six minutes, and afforded evidence of strychnine in six different parts.

The effect of time in causing the destruction of the strychnine has also occupied the
attention of the author. Several parts of the Horse which had been buried for four
weeks, as also other parts which had lain above ground for three weeks, including the
stomach itself, and which were in an advanced stage of decomposition, on being tested,
showed the presence of strychnine. A Duck also poisoned by strychnine, and which
lay above ground for three and a half weeks (by which time maggots in abundance
were crawling in and through it), yielded strychnine. Further, the remains of a Dog
destroyed two and a half years ago by strychnine, as also those of another Dog poi-
soned three and a half years ago by the same substance, still yielded satisfactory indi-
cations of the agent by means of which they came by their death.

As strychnine, like other organic substances, is liable to change in the animal
systein, it is of importance to know how far minimum doses may be given which in days
may prove fatal and yet be thereafter discovered. A Skye Terrier received 3th of

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 57

a grain of strychnine, was seized with tetanus in three hours, died in twelve hours,
and notwithstanding the smallness of the dose, and the length of time the vital powers
could act upon it, yet strychnine was satisfactorily discovered in all the more im-
portant organs. Again, a Terrier Dog was fed on the flesh of the horse for four-
teen days, received each day 2lbs. of food undoubtedly containing strychnine, lived
and thrived on the poisoned flesh, and when afterwards destroyed by strychnine (un-
fortunately so), yielded such a comparatively large proportion of strychnine, that the
author came to the conclusion that this excess of strychnine must have been stored up
in the tissues of the animal whilst it was partaking of the flesh of the horse, containing
the minimum of minimum of doses of strychnine.

In summing up these remarks on the detection of strychnine, the author deduces
from the results of the experiments, the following conclusions :—

(1) That, when administered to the animal, strychnine is absorbed and retained
in its system.

(2) That strychnine is not sensibly destroyed in the animal system during life, nor
by the partial decomposition of the animal tissue consequent on death.

(3) ‘That minimum doses of strychnine may cause the animal to exhibit but par-
tially, or not at all, the physiological effects, but such doses are the most favourable
for the chemist; so that, as the physiological evidence decreases, or sinks to a mini-
mum, the chemical proof increases or rises to a maximum.

(4) That tartar emetic, muriate of morphia, extract of hemlock, and coniine, may
retard or relieve the spasms, but they do not in the slightest degree hinder the chemi-
cal isolation and detection of strychnine.

(5) That, by proper treatment, strychnine can be separated from organized tissue
and organic matter in general, as easily as any other poison—arsenic not excepted—
and much more easily than most other poisonous substances.

(6) That, when isolated, strychnine can be distinguished by a special test, which
is unerring and most delicate, and which will detect the merest trace.

(7) That the decomposition or natural decay of the animal frame may in ages cause
the complete destruction of the strychnine; but in this, time will no more easily blot
out all traces of strychnine than it will obliterate the mark of the knife of the assassin,

On a Series of Descriptive Labels for Mineral Collections in Public Institu-
tions. By the Rev. W. Mitcue.t and Prof. J. TENNANT.

Note on the Alkaline Emanations from Sewers and Cesspools. By WiuLiam
Ovurne, M.B., F.C.S., L.R.C.P., Professor of Practical Chemistry, &c.,
Guy’s Hospital.

Sewer and cesspool water was distilled. The powerfully alkaline distillate was
supersaturated with hydrochloric acid, and precipitated with bichloride of platinum in
the usual manner, The resulting platinum salt was crystallized, and then burnt with
chromate of lead. The liberation of a large amount of carbonic acid proved the car-
boniferous character of the alkali. The platinum salt yielded the same per-centage
of platinum as the platino-chloride of methylamine. '

On the Detection of Antimony for Medico-Legal Purposes. By Wi..1aM
Opune, M.B., F.C.S., L.R.C.P., Professor of Practical Chemistry, &c.,
Guy’s Hospital.

By Reinsch’s process, antimonial deposits upon copper can be obtained from solu-
tions which, on account of their dilution, are unaffected by sulphydric acid. The
‘OO1th of a grain of dry tartar emetic, under a dilution of half a million times, gives
acomplete metallic coating to one square inch of copper surface. By the same pro-
cess, other metals than antimony, arsenic, and mercury can be deposited as brilliant
metallic coatings upon copper. The characters of the various deposits, and the cir-
cumstances under which they form, vary somewhat. Cadmium precipitates copper
completely from cupric solutions; but, on the other hand, from cadmic solutions cad-
mium is readily precipitable upon copper. The deposit of antimony upon copper is

58 REPORT—1856. ;
best identified by boiling the coated foil in a weak and faintly alkaline solution of
permanganate of potash, until the whole of the liquid is destroyed, filtering, acidi-
fying the filtrate, and treating it with sulphydric acid, when the characteristic orange-
coloured antimonial sulphide is produced. ‘

On the Compounds of Chromium and Bismuth. By W. R. Pearson.

On Engraving Collodion Photographs by means of Fluoric Acid Gas.
By Cuaruus Poorey, Cirencester.

In this paper the author set forth the means he had adopted in order to obtain
engraved impressions of collodion photographs on glass, He divided the process into
four steps :—

Ist. The preparation of the plate.

2nd. The treatment of the picture.

3rd. ‘The application of heat to the picture.

4th, The exposure of the picture to the influence of fluoric acid gas.

In the preparation of the plate, Mr. Pooley found it necessary to use new glass,
and strong collodion well iodized, and also to deposit as much pure silver as possible,
for which purpose he developed with protosulphate of iron and acetic acid, although
he thought other agents would answer the purpose equally well.

The author then proceeded to show that the great obstacle he had to contend with,
was the presence of the film of collodion covering the glass; but this was overcome
by submitting the plate to a high temperature, which gave to the silver a white, frosted
appearance, and attenuated the film of collodion so much as to make it permeable to
the action of the gas. The picture was then exposed to the influence of the dry,
warm vapour of fluoric acid, and in 20 to 40 seconds the operation was completed.

Having washed off the film, a fine etching becomes visible, so delicate in its mark-
ings, and yet so perfect, that the unassisted eye is unable to discern all its beauties.
It requires a lens to make out all the minutiz of detail correctly.

The author then adverted to a remarkable fact which he had observed in the
character of the engraved picture, namely, that the portions of the glass on which the
silver had been deposited were those on which the action of the gas first took place,
the unsilvered parts being unaffected by it. This circumstance, which appears to be
at variance with our notions of the ancient claims of fluoric acid for silica, opens a
new field for investigation. The author refrained from offering an explanation of
this interesting question, but left it as a subjeet for future consideration.

On the Gases of the Grotto del Cave.
By the Rev. C. Prircuarp, M.A., F.R.S.

On the Corrosive Action of Smoke on Building Stones.
By Professor A. Vortcxnr, Ph.D., F.C.S.

On the Composition of American Phosphate of Lime.
By Professor A. Voricxer, Ph.D., F.CS.

On Basic Phosphates of Lime. By Professor A. Vorncxer, Ph.D., F.C.S.

On Albuminized Collodion. By W. Sykes Warp, F.C.S.

Immediately after the publication of M. Taupenot’s process, I proceeded to experi-
ment on it, under the impression that it possessed many advantages over the dry
photographic processes then known, and that the further investigation of it was likely
to lead to results of the highest interest, both practically and theoretically. In these
respects I have not been disappointed, and I can most decidedly recommend the
adoption of the process to all photographers, as well to those who are not afraid of a
little trouble in the manipulation of preparing their own materials and plates, as to
those who, preferring the artistic choice of subjects, would rather commit the prepara-
tion andsubsequent development of plates to assistants, or to professional photographers.

2 LF ”t—“‘“_‘COCOCO~™

ee

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 59

: Ihave to acknowledge the assistance of several friends, Members of the Leeds
Photographic Society, of whom some worked conjointly with me, and of others who
freely communicated to me their experience in working the albumen process.

The modification of the original process which I have adopted, consists, first, in
using only one bath for both the first and second sensitizing of the plate. ‘This bath
is composed of about 35 grains of nitrate of silver per ounce, with about 10 per cent.
of the commercial acetic acid known as Beaufoy’s acid. Secondly, in using a very
fluid collodion somewhat highly iodized and not containing any bromide, and in using
albumen without any other addition than a bromide and sufficient water for its solu-
tion. I use about 4 grains of bromide of potassium for the white of each egg, but
the particular bromide, or the precise quantity, does not appear to be very material.
And, thirdly, in drying the coating of albumen by suspending the plate in a wire
cradle attached to a long thread over a heated iron plate, and keeping the prepared
glass plate in rapid rotation until dry, so as in the first instance to throw off the
superfiuous albumen by the centrifugal force, and then to cause the plate to dry
equally from the centre.

I use a similar method of drying after the second sensitizing, but without heat if
the plates are to be kept more than a day or two.

By adopting these manipulations, I have been able to prepare plates up to 17 inches

by 13 as free from blemishes and with very little more trouble, than if collodion alone
had been used.
’ T have always preferred to develope the picture by gallic acid, using a cold, nearly
saturated solution, with the addition of about 4 minims per ounce of a solution of
nitrate of silver, 30 grains per ounce with about 30 minims of acetic acid, z. e. rather
less acidified than the bath solution. This generally developes the picture in about
an hour and a half; but if the picture be faint from over-exposure, or slow in developing
from under-éxposure, an addition of double or treble the quantity of aceto-nitrate
solution should from time to time be added. A greater quantity of silver in the first
instance appears to retard tle development.

Small plates may be more speedily developed by pyrogallic acid, but with large
plates I find gallic acid preferable, both on the score of economy, and that with pyro-
gallic acid constant care is required in watching the development and in preventing
the spoiling the result by a muddy deposit.

The theoretical advantages of this process appear to me to be, that, compared with
other processes, it permits quite as great, and I think a much greater latitude in the
time of exposure; that whilst the rapidity is as great as can be desired (except for
the instantaneous effects, which are only practicable with wet collodion), an exposure
for many hours or even days may be given for feebly illumined objects; that the use
of an iodide in the collodion and a bromide in albumen, give a great increase of sen-
sibility, in like manner as the accelerating effect by the alternate use of iodine and
bromine in the Daguerreotype; that the image is formed on the plane on which the
combined films of collodion and albumen coalesce together, and where alone there is
a combination of iodide and bromide of silver; thus, although it is necessary that the
plates should be very carefully cleaned to procure the perfect adherence of the film
of collodion, neither impurities on the surface of the glass plate, nor on the upper sur-
face of the albumen, are increased during the development of the image; that the
drying the plates by heat prevents almost entirely the blistering of the plates, which
has been found so great « disadvantage in the process as published by M. Taupenot.

Note.—Subsequent experiments have shown the use of a bromide alone in the
albumen to be fallacious.

On a New Process for Making and Melting Steel. By P. J. Worsiey.

This process, invented by Dr. Gurlt, is interesting as an example of the method of
applying fuel, known as the gas-fuel method, by which the useful portions of the fuel
are brought to bear while all impurities are left behind. This latter advantage is
peculiarly applicable to iron and steel making, as the chief impurities in these metals
are derived from the fuel. Dr. Gurlt exposes iron-ore to a current of gas, of which a
small proportion is burnt to give the necessary heat. A short exposure merely reduces,
a longer carbonizes, so that either malleable iron, steel, or cast iron can be obtained

60 - REPORT—1856.

at will. By applying gas-fuel to a reverberatory furnace, and blowing in air by pipes
over the bridge, a true blowpipe flame is obtained, by which the highest heat possible
is attained, and also by the regulation of the wind the atmosphere of the furnace
may be kept either neutral, oxidizing or reducing at will. With such a furnace
Dr. Gurlt hopes to melt steel in large quantity without injury to its quality. The gas
is obtained by burning the fuel in a close deep fire-box by means of a blast of air at
the bottom.

On the Use of the Gramme in Chemistry, By Henry Wricut,

GEOLOGY.
On Gold in India. By Lieut. Ayton, Bombay Artillery.

On Fossils from the Crimea. By Witt1am H, Bary, Geological Survey of
Great Britain.

Tue fossils which formed the subject of this communication belong, with one ex-
ception, to the Invertebrata, and were principally collected in the southern part of the
Crimea, by Captain C. F. Cockburn, of the Royal Artillery. They comprise a series
from the Monastery of St. George and gorge of Iphigenia, consisting of fossils from
the Jurassic and oldest deposits; also others from the tertiaries resting immediately
upon them ; and from the volcanic or eruptive rocks which have disturbed and broken
up some of these strata, together with a set of well-preserved newer tertiary Mollusea
from the Quarantine Harbour. The Museum of Practical Geology has also received
from Major Cooke, of the Royal Engineers, a suite of somewhat similar forms of
Steppe limestone fossils from the Redan, and near the dockyard of Sevastopol, and
some interesting Jurassic Brachiopoda from Balaklava. It possesses also from Lieu-
tenant-Colonel Munro, and Lieutenant-Colonel Charles Lygon Cocks, of the Cold-
stream Guards, other specimens of the Steppe limestone containing fossils, obtained
from the ground before Sevastopol, upon which the allied armies were encamped, and
volcanic and mineral specimens from the sea-coast.

These instructive collections, including a series of fossils from the various strata of
the Crimea, formerly presented by the Imperial School of Mines at St. Petersburgh,
enable us to add to the published lists of fossils from that country seventy-four
species.

P The geology of this peninsula having been described in detail by M. Du Bois de
Montpéreux, M. Huot in the work of Demidoff, M. Hommaire de Heli, and by Sir
R. I. Murchison and M. de Verneuil in the ‘ Geology of Russia and the Ural Moun-
tains,’ a slight sketch of the formations represented in that country only is necessary
before proceeding to the remarks upon the fossils.

The most ancient deposits of the Crimea are those at the base of the Jurassic for-
mation, described as black schists, composed of hard, soft, and ferruginous beds, which
are probably equivalent to the Trias, or New Red Sandstone appearing in the Valley
of Baidar and other localities, and on the coast, where they are superimposed by the
Lias. Overlying the schists of the Lias are the Jurassic rocks, which extend along the
southern sea-coast from Balaklava to the vicinity of Theodosia or Kafia, a length of
about 100 miles. This mountain-chain of hard and crystalline limestones, pierced
and broken into by volcanic eruptions of greenstone, porphyry, &c., is, with its asso-
ciated strata, analogous to that of the Caucasus, and proceeds in a direction E.N.E. to
S.S.W., its highest point being the Tchatir Dagh or Tent Mountain, of an elevation
of 5135 feet. The Bay of Balaklava is enclosed on both sides by steep and rugged
rocks of the Jurassic formation, composed of compact red and grey limestones, in
which are clefts filled with a reddish clay. These limestones and clays contain nume-
rous organic remains, the most abundant of which are corals and Encrinital joints.

At the foot of the chain towards the north, the lower division of the Cretaceous
series, or “‘ Neocomien,” may be well observed, its horizontal beds resting unconform-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 61

ably either upon the Jurassic limestones, or upon the shales at their base, the inter-
mediate subdivisions being absent. Upon these beds repose the Upper Cretaceous,
composed of shales (probably equivalent to the Gault), Upper greensand, Chalk marl,
and White chalk. On the eastern coast the Hippuritic and Senonian subdivisions
test immediately on the disturbed Jurassic beds, the intermediate subdivisions being
absent. The Cretaceous series does not occupy much space in the Crimea, being
enclosed between the nummulitic deposits and the Jurassic limestone, taking the same
direction, and extending from Kaffa to Cape Chersonese on the south-west coast. The
soft calcareous rock of Inkermann, from which the beautiful white stone used in con-
structing most of the public buildings of Sevastopol was obtained, is very easily
worked, but becomes harder and more durable by exposure to the atmosphere. From
comparison of its fossils, it appears to be identical with the Upper chalk.

The Lower Tertiary or Eocene is represented by the Nummulitic formation, which,
like the cretaceous series, is elevated by the mountainous region of the coast, and dis-
posed in long bands following its contour. This formation commences in the environs
of Theodosia, continuing to the north, near to Karas-ubazar, Simferopol, and Baktchi
Serai, terminating at the south-west coast near Sevastopol.

The Upper Tertiary formation includes the older and newer Caspian or Steppe
limestone, the former of which subdivisions, or older Caspian, occupies the northern
and greater portion of the peninsula at Eupatoria, Sevastopol, &c., including the
chief limestones round Kertch, and the deposits of the cliffs of Kamiesch Boroun
and Taman. These limestones and sands, associated in some localities with volcanic
ashes, tufa, &c., occur in various conditions as shelly and oolitic limestones of marine
and freshwater origin, being more or less fossiliferous. The Heracleotic Chersonesus
is, as it were, a shred of the Steppe limestone; the Bay of Sevastopol exhibiting a
succession of formations from the most recent of these tertiaries through the nummu-
litic limestone and chalk. The newer Caspian occupies the still more northern extre-
mity of the Crimea, extending to Perekop, Kherson, and the shores of the Sea of Azof.
The environs of Kertch and Taman are the most favourable localities to observe its
characters, and here the fossils are in good preservation. The existence of coal has
been often rumoured, but on examination the supposed coal has proved to be lignite
of very ordinary quality.

Deposits of hydrate and phosphate of iron have been met with near to Kertch,
Taman, and other parts of the Crimea. A foundry was formerly established near
Kertch, and the iron was worked by M. Gourieff. From an analysis by Hussein
Effendi, of the Government School of Mines, it gave but 19:234 per cent.

After describing the new species, the following summary of fossils collected from
each formation was read, viz. :—

Lower Seconpary—Jurassic Group.

Known New
species. species. Total,

Ja \ ELUTED ADE MS ANE SIR SPORE IS WE AEROS ew itr yey Sarr ety RO 1
ZED TE, NEE TERI SER RNID eer cones Piers ames-ek EMMA) ) 10
1: 21 ay oye aT SR RNP ee NG 9 RR SA an CS: ? 9
MioWuscan. brachiopoda.. tga, be \ Seal ais ebisen the fetes len barnes wih 4 11
SCONGDITGE Ay cater eMail ss Delle Se by pli oe weld sh eps ah O 2 8
Gastenopoda). 6 ),-< mei CIE ola toh sjecau) oc tule cs aibmieen py ok 1 2
Cephalopoda, .8 <ul aw peimeie. by sii ahi al luda «ta LO 0 15
43 8 56

Uprrer Seconpary—Cretaceous Group.
ROE NOZORW rays?! ia 0's Nils Make Se ST AT oS
BE pHLY Laie! hey 6) oS Ihe, MUR eek i TL
Beminodermata x0/s).250) Se eels BS SPINE Pre Sed ay ee D
Polyzoa . .
Bre eaRtCTPOH Ah = Urs. sun ape eee mem te ere et) AE
eescinerdt tts ait eun ho aan tere penis SS e MAD
Gasteropoda
Mephalopoda 2 ow) as Wie ee eM a he ee

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.
le)

«
e
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Ke)

"Potala 124

62 -- . REPORT—1856.

Oxper Tertiary—Nummulitic,

Horaminifers ics.) s Gsdrys w ieess be = See! We
Echinodermata. 2: s) 0. ele2iw os Peni fella Hig Dibeen
Conehiferains igiistets, Qaik tet ten 8
Gasteropoda . .... . ; - . fo abt Uo
Total — 23
Newer Tertiary—“ Falunian ” (D’Orbigny).
Amounhogga eres s)he of antec <1 > tila tl wpe tee eeee «Ot NO eee 2
Canchifersia or waned gaestaeets) tes 's. ta Ce : ot 120 30
Gasteropoda saasw ie «eb be gees ey Co alae 4a! Gaymehe 34
46 66 112
Species before described . . . 286 Total number of species col-
Wew species ste er eee ees ere Tected t=, thee

Remarks on the Fossils,

On referring to the table of Jurassic fossils, it was shown that the most numerous
classes represented in the Crimea from that formation are the Zoophyta, Brachiopoda,
and Cephalopoda—the Conchifera and Gasteropoda being the fewest. In the lowest
class, the Amorphozoa—a group of rare occurrence in this formation—a new form of
Sponge has been collected by Capt. Cockburn, from the red Jurassic limestone near
the Monastery of St. George. Of the Zoophyta nearly all the specimens received
have been identified with species found in the coralline and inferior oolite of this
country. The Echinodermata are principally spines belonging to the genus Cidaris ;
with these are joints of crincids (Apiocrinites) from near Balaklava, and portions of
stems of Pentacrinites from the interior of the Crimea. Of the Brachiopoda, the cha-
racteristic lias species, Terebratula numismalis, has been obtained from Woronzoft
Road. Four are new species—two of these belonging to the genus Rhynchonella;
others of the same genus have been identified with inferior oolite and marlstone spe-
cies. In the lias shales of the Woronzoff Road were found several specimens of a
bivalve, identified with Astarte complanata (Roemer), together with a new form of
Cardium allied to an inferior oolite species. The Gasteropoda are represented only
by a large species of Natica from the red limestone near the Monastery of St. George,
and a fragment of Nerinea, probably N. grandis, from the village Djanatai. The
Cephalopoda, of which the Ammonites belong mostly to the fimbriated group, have
been described by M. d’Orbigny, together with one species of Belemnites from Kobsel
and Biasali.

In the list of Cretaceous fossils are included those mentioned by M. Du Bois de
Montpéreux in his table of fossils from the Neocomian to the chalk found at Baktchi
Serai; from the Neocomian of that locality he tabulates sixty-five species. The
Upper Cretaceous, including the Upper greensand, Chalk marl, and Upper chalk, are
richest in Conchifera, of which there are thirty-two species. Many of these were col-
lected by Capt. Cockburn from the Upper chalk of Inkermann, several of them being
identical with characteristic chalk fossils. Associated with these were found many
specimens of a large Crania, identified with the Crania spinulosa of Nilsson, and most
probably the same species as that mentioned by Du Bois in his table under the name
of Crania nummulus from Baktchi Serai.

From the Nummulitic formation, belonging to the Older Tertiary, only twenty-
three species are known, most of these being included by M. Du Bois in his table of
cretaceous fossils. ‘The Nummulites are referred by M. d’Orbigny to two species
only, viz. Nummulites nummularia and N. mamilla from near Simferopol. Three
species of Echinoderms from this formation are mentioned in M. d’Orbigny’s ‘ Pro-
drome de Paléontologie,’ a remarkable form of which, the Conoclypus conoideus, is in
this collection, from near Simferopol; it has also been-described as from near the
River Salghir. Of Conchifera cight species are tabulated, the most characteristic of
which is the Ostrea gigantica (Brander). Ten species of Gasteropoda are also noticed,
one of them being the Cerithium giganteum, a large cast of which, together with the
last-named oyster from Simferopol, is also, in this collection. ,

The list of Newer Tertiary, or Steppe limestone fossils, includes those described by

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 63

M. Deshayes in the third volume of the ‘ Memoirs Geol. Soc, of France,’ from Ter-
tiary deposits in the neighbourhood of Kertch; the majority of them are, however,
from near Sevastopol. The classes represented, with the exception of two new species
of Amorphozoa, are entirely composed of species of Conchifera and Gasteropoda, in
nearly equal proportions, more than half of which are new. Of the peculiar forms of
Cardium resembling the present Aralo-Caspian types, thirty-one species are tabulated,
including those described by M. Deshayes, as found associated with bands of iron-ore
before alluded to. Several of these are in the collection of the British Museum from
the same locality; also twelve species of Zrochus, some of them being in beautiful
preservation, and mostly collected by Capt. Cockburn from the Quarantine Harbour,
Sevastopol. Six of these are identified with species figured in the fine work of M.
Hommaire, and described by M. d’Orbigny from the Tertiary of Kichinev in Bessar
rabia, and contemporaneous deposits.

On the Origin of Siliceous Deposits in the Chalk Formation.
By J. S. Bowrersans, F.R.S,, F.G.S. &c.

Some years since the author read at the Geological Society of London, a paper on
the origin and structure of the siliceous deposits of the chalk and greensand forma-
tions, and subsequently one on the spongeous origin of moss, agates, &c., in which he
advocated the doctrine of the derivation of nearly the whole of the flints and cherts
from various species of sponges that existed in the ancient oceans.

The principal proofs adduced at that time in fayour of the views then enunciated,
were to a great extent derived from the microscopical evidence afforded by sections
of such siliceous bodies. . The object of the present communication is to strengthen
and confirm those views by the production of evidence derived from information
recently acquired, regarding the habits and manner of growth of the recent Spon-
giadz. In the opinion of the author, the whole of the numerous strata of nodular and
tabular flints are derived from vast quantities of sponges that existed in the seas of those
periods ; the attraction of the animal matter of the sponges inducing the deposit of
the silex, which in the first instance is always in the form of a thin film surrounding
the skeleton of the sponge, and from which successive crops of chalcedonic crystals
proceed until the solidification of the whole is effected,

The tabular beds of flint are accounted for on the presumption that the sponges
originating the deposit grew on a more consolidated bottom than the tuberous ones,
and that they therefore developed themselves laterally instead of perpendicularly, as
many species of recent sponges are in the habit of doing, and that approaching and
touching each other, they united and thus formed extensive and continuous beds
instead of numerous isolated specimens. The author illustrated this part of his
subject by producing four recent sponges of the same species, which having been
placed in close contact while in the living state, became firmly united to each other
within eighteen hours, and ultimately formed but one sponge.

The occurrence of the shells of bivalves and of echinoderms filled with flint or chert,
was accounted for on the principle of their having been previously filled with living
sponges, and subsequently fossilized by the deposit in the spongeous tissue of silex
held in solution in the water; in illustration of which the authgr produced specimens
of recent bivalve shells in a closed condition, which were completely filled with recent
sponges.

The loose specimens of fossil sponges contained in the Wiltshire flints were. ex-
plained on the same principle; but their not adhering to each other, the author stated,
was in accordance with the law that always obtains among the recent Spongiade,
that although individuals of the same species of sponge always adhere on being
brought in close contact, those of different species never unite under such circum-
stances, and specimens of recent sponges, one species completely enveloping the other,
but without the slightest adherence between them, were exhibited.

The author concluded his paper by applying the same principles to the siliceous
deposits of the whole of the geological formations of aqueous origin, and by expressing
his opinion that the geological office of the Spongiade in creation is that of inducing
the deposit of siliceous matter held in solution in the ocean, as the Corallide assist in
the consolidation of the calcareous matter.

ere

64 ; REPORT—1856.

On some New Species of Corals in the Lias of Gloucestershire, Worcestershire,
and Warwickshire. By the Rev. P. B. Bropiz, M.A., F.G.S.

The object of this communication is rather to indicate the occurrence of some new
and undescribed species of corals in the Lias, than to describe them in detail. They
are generally rare in the Lias, the sea in which it was deposited being unfavourable
to the growth of Polyparia. A species of Cyathophyllum and a Flustra have been
found by Mr. C. Moore in the Upper Lias of Ilminster, in Sorersetshire, in addi-
tion to those figured in the ‘ Memoirs of the Palontographical Society.’ From
the Lias marlstone of Northamptonshire a form belonging probably to the Fungide
is in the collection of the late Hugh Strickland, Esq. I have in my collection several
specimens of the genus Montlivaltia, which I discovered in the shales of the Lower
Lias, in Gloucestershire, and one or two occur in the same beds in Oxfordshire. From
the Lower Lias near Cheltenham, I obtained a small coral, which appears to be a
species of Turbinolia. I have met with a few species of Isastrea both in Worcester-
shire and Gloucestershire, and in one case in sufficient numbers to show the existence
of an ancient coral reef: most of them arc highly solidified, but in others the cells
are soft and crumbly, a condition very different to that of most of the liassic Isastree,
In the Isle of Skye there is a group of corals belonging to this genus nearly a foot in
thickness in the lower division of the Lias.

On a New Species of Pollicipes in the Inferior Oolite near Stroud, in Glouces-
tershire. By the Rev. P. B. Broniz, M.A., F.G.S.

The Lepadidz are usually rare in a fossil state, and the specimen which I found
at Selsley Hill, near Stroud, appears to be a distinct species from the Pollicipes ooli-
ticus in the Stonesfield slate. On comparing the scutum two valves of which are
entire, with the same valve of P. ooliticus, there is a sufficient difference to warrant
the conclusion that it belongs to a different species. A small valve of another, and
probably a distinct species, has been detected in the Lias at Campden, in Gloucester-
shire, by Mr. Gavey, the oldest remains of a Cirripede yet discovered.

On the Basement Beds of the Oolite.
By Professor James Buckman, F.L.S., F. G.S.

The object of this paper was to show that the Pisolite or its equivalents formed
the true base of the Inferior Oolite as established by Murchison, Strickland, and the
Cotteswold geologists, but in opposition to a theory recently started by Dr. Wright,
in which he places certain bands of ferruginous stone resting on the ‘ Inferior Oolite
sands ” of the Ordnance Surveyors with the Upper Lias, a theory which he attempts
to support from the presence of a number of Cephalopoda therein contained, some of
es are truly liassic, but the majority are peculiar to the so-called ‘ Cephalopoda

ed.’

The Professor contends that the bed is oolitic in structure, and as regards the fossils,
only a small per-centage belong to the Lias, as may be seen from the following

Analysis of the Fossils of the Cephalopoda-bed of the so-called Upper Lias.

Species. Species.
Ammonites ......+. 15 Common to Lias 5
Belemnites ........ 3 ep ee ce 3
Gasteropoda........ 1 x 5 aa 0
Lamellibranchiata .. 21 as aca ay 0
Brachiopoda........ 3 * shoo 3
Inferior Oolite 43 11

Thus giving a total of forty-three species, only eleven of which are liassic, and of
these several extend a considerable way upwards in the oolitic series.

The author further contended, that as much as from sixty to eighty feet below the
‘ Cephalopoda bed,’ at the very base of the ‘“ Inferior Oolite sands,” a band of ferru-
ginous oolite had been worked by Mr. John Lycett, of Minchinhampton, which was
full of fossils of the Inferior Oolite forms,—a fact not adverted to by the learned Doc-
tor, as he was then unaware of the bed. ‘This may be summed up as follows :—

———————————

ard

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 65!

Analysis of Fossils from the bottom of the Inferior Oolite Sands at Nailsworth.

Species. Species.
Ammonites ...e..05 2 Common to Lias 0
Belemnites .,...... 1 ” » »” 1
Gasteropoda........ 5 yo 0
Lamellibranchiata ., 20 9” 9” 3
Brachiopoda eorcsveces 2 ” ”» ” 1
5

Inferior Oolite 30

Here, then, if fossil evidence is to be relied on, the sands far below the Inferior Oolite
should be added to that rock rather than a portion of the Inferior Oolite to be abs-
tracted and added to the Lias, an argument which was further supported by reference
to the fauna of the Cornbrash, in which out of about sixty-five species, twenty-one,
including even Cephalopoda, were identical with the common species of the Inferior
Oolite.

The author’s general conclusion was, that as the Inferior Oolite sands mark a change
in the physical conditions under which the unctuous blue lias clays were deposited,
which was immediately followed by a corresponding change of animal life, therefore
the natural separation of the Lias and Oolite should commence with these sands: by
so doing we have a boundary-line which all can recognize both lithologically and
paleontologically ; whereas by adopting Dr. Wright’s view, we separate a bed of true
oolitic structure into two parts in obedience to the dictum of a small minority of fossils
peculiar to lower strata which one must always meet with at points of oscillation.

On the Oolite Rocks of the Cotteswold Hills.
By Professor Buckman, F.L.S., F.G.S.

On the Igneous Rocks of Lundy and the Bristol District.
By R. Erueripesr, F.G.S.

On some New Fossils from the ancient Sedimentary Rocks of Ireland and Scot-
land. By Professor Harxnsss, F.G.S.

Hitherto the only fossils which have been obtained from the oldest fossiliferous
strata of Ireland, the Cambrian rocks of the county of Wicklow, consist of two forms
of Oldhamia, viz. O. radiata from the purple slates of Brayhead, and O. antiqua
from the drab shales of Carrick M‘Rielly. Associated with the former, last summer,
the author found evidences of the existence of Annelidz in the form of burrows, and
also sinuous tracks on the surfaces of some of the purple slates. These tracks and
burrows appear to be among the earliest we possess, which show the occurrence of
this tribe of animals.

Among the black graptolitic shales of Moffatdale, at Dobbs Lin, the author has
also met with specimens of Beyrichia complicata, a crustacean which occurs in the
Lower Silurian rocks of England and the continent of Europe.

On the Jointing of Rocks. By Professor Harxnuss, F.G.S.

In the Devonian strata of the south of Ireland the rocks manifest jointing in a very
perfect state. The master-joints, which are very prominent, have a north and south
direction, and, in the language of Professor Sedgwick, might be termed lip-joints;
joints of a similar nature are also seen intersecting the carboniferous limestone, where
they are even more prominent than in the Devonians, having frequently the aspect
of stratification, and being, like the Devonian joints, perpendicular. Besides these
perpendicular master-joints, the carboniferous limestone is also intersected by two
other series of jointings, the one nearly horizontal, and the other inclined at about
46°, also running north and south. These two latter jointings are not so persistent
as the master-joints, and are, in some cases, only local.

The great uniformity of the master-joints and their great parallelism over large

1856.

66 ! REPORT—1856.

areas, would induce the conclusion that they result from some uniform cause operating
over a great space.

The theory which attributes joints to shrinkage would not be sufficient to account
for these master-joints.

These seem rather to have originated from the application of a mechanical force
applied in one direction. This force was probably that which gave the middle and
upper palzozoic strata of the south of Ireland their east and west strike of rolls,—the
force being applied either to the north or south, the rocks having a tendency to extend
themselves at right angles to the direction of the force, and consequently breaking,
from their rigidity, into parallel lines which we recognize as joints. The origin of
the other two forms of jointing is by no means apparent, but this may probably have
been the same cause operating locally in different directions at a subsequent period to
that which produced the master-joints.

On the Lignites of the Giant’s Causeway and the Isle of Mull.
By Professor Harkness, F.G.S.

The Giant’s Causeway affords, in connexion with its basalts, beds of lignite, and in
the Isle of Mull we have the same circumstances occurring. The lignite of the former
locality retains its woody nature to a great extent, and this exhibits sufficient of its
original structure to admit of the determination of the forms of vegetables to which
this substance owes its origin. The only changes which the structure of this substance
has undergone, result from compression, which has brought the sides of the woody
cells in immediate contact, and in some instances so lacerated the tissue as to give
this, in longitudinal section, a somewhat spiral arrangement. Sometimes, however,
the longitudinal section gives this tissue in its perfect state, and when this is the case,
pitted vessels, of a coniferous character, are seen on the sides of the cells.

The size of these cells, and their relative distance from each other, would lead to the
conclusion that the trees forming this lignite are nearly allied to those which are found
forming the mass of lignite mentioned by His Grace the Duke of Argyll as occurring
associated with the basalts of the Island of Mull. In the latter locality the lignite
presents itself in two conditions, the one in a state of nearly pure coal, the other
having more of a woody aspect.

The vegetable fibre of the Mull lignites is often sufficiently distinct to manifest its
internal structure, and would support the inference as to the similarity in age of these
deposits, and those of the Giant’s Causeway. The fossil evidence, as this is shown
by the nature of the lignites, supports the conclusion of His Grace the Duke of
Argyll, adopted by Sir Charles Lyell, that the traps of Mull and the Giant’s Cause-
way belong to the same geological epoch, that epoch being the Miocene.

On the Relative Distribution of Land and Water as affecting Climate at
different Geological Epochs, By Professor Hennessy, M.R.J.A.

The views developed in this paper were partly deduced from the principles advanced
by the author in his memoir on isothermal lines. As all the investigations on terres-
trial temperatures which he has undertaken will be printed elsewhere, it is unnecessary
to do more than state some of the conclusions of this paper.

1. The distribution of land and water most favourable to high general terrestrial
temperature all over the globe is that of the existence of land, not in great continents,
but in islands evenly distributed over the earth’s surface.

2. Under such conditions the isothermal lines in the islands would generally
approach the character of closed curves, and the temperature in the higher latitudes
would decrease in advancing from the coasts to the interior of an island.

3. If these views are correct, some differences might be expected between some of
the fossils representing the organized beings of the interior of such islands, and those
distributed about the coasts.

Notice of some Minerals from the Isle of St. Thomas.
By Dr. H. B. Hornzecx.

——— - dol

©

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 67

On the South-easterly Attenuation of the Oolitic, Liassic, Triassic, and
Permian Formations. By Eowarp Hutt, A.B., F.G.S.

The subject of this paper is partly of a local, and partly of a general character.

Sir R. I. Murchison having called the attention of the Section to the Map of the
Geological Survey (No. 44) just completed, and embracing the region of the Cottes-
wold Hills, together with the liassic plains of Gloucester and Moreton, the author
proceeded to point out the remarkable diminution in thickness which the rocks of the
Cotteswold Hills undergo in their extension to the borders of Oxfordshire,

Taking as points of comparison Leckhampton Hill near Cheltenham, and Burford
in Oxfordshire, distant from each other about twenty miles, it was shown that the
same beds, which at the former locality have an aggregate thickness of 624 feet, at
the latter have dwindled down to the twenty-ninth part of this amount. The for-
mations included in this computation range from the marlstone to the Fuller’s earth,
and may be tabulated as follows :—

Leckhamptor Hill. Burford.
Feet. Feet.
Buller’s datthy ici vv vine bates Pe2Er WUE ae eed é absent.
- _ f RagstomeS .......cs000 neta ily B82 HAaiweece 10
eal Freestones (including oolite marl) .. 188 ...... (ut absent.
PR POB/ BTID SO oars diatine cosa GE ce ee OS Mea ian tive absent.
Ferruginous sands, &¢.......00see005 HIG GGT 200... ea wet absent.
Upper lias shale..e.......0005 Patella ee es DOs KS aid te

Marlstone, or middle lias ......eeeececeeses LID secvecssee 6

Total 624 21

From this table it would be observed that the ragstones of the inferior oolite, in-
eluding a bed remarkable for the abundance of Clypeus sinuatus, forms the most con-
stant zone of the inferior oolite, and that at the eastern limits of the district it is the
sole representative of the formation. This fact tends to show that this terminating
zone was deposited in a sea of greater depth and tranquillity than that of the lower
members of the formation ; an hypothesis, which is also borne out by differences in the
state of the included organisms. For while the freestones everywhere present the
phznomena of false bedding, and are to a great extent composed of organic debris,
the stratification of the ragstones is always regular, and the organic remains in good
preservation, though frequently occurring as moulds and casts.

Passing on to the consideration of the formations which underlie the marlstone or
middle lias, Mr. Hull proceeded to show from analogy the strong probability that the
lower lias forms no exception to the law of easterly attenuation, which obtains in the
case of the upper and middle members of the liassic group; and that consequently
under Burford the lower lias would be found of comparatively small depth. From
these premises, he also drew the conclusion, that further in the same direction, e. g.
under the city of Oxford, all the strata already alluded to must be on the point of dis-
appearing.

It was next shown that the trias of Central England undergoes a similar south-
easterly attenuation, so that, while in Lancashire, Cheshire, and Shropshire, the
Keuper and Bunter attain their greatest development, in the counties to the eastward
bordering on the lias, these formations are greatly reduced in thickness. With regard
to the Permian formation, it was not possible to speak with equal certainty, as it has
been found, through the researches of the Government Geological Surveyors, to vary
rapidly in thickness. Thus while it is almost or altogether absent around the Leices-
tershire coal-field, it appears in considerable force on the flanks of the coal-field of
Warwickshire.

Attention was then called to the fact, that on the borders of France and Belgium,
and in the “ Bas-Boulonnais,” all the secondary formations between the coal-mea-
sures and the chalk in the former case, and the great oolite in the latter, are altogether
absent*. This fact was shown to bear out the hypothesis of the author, and to lead
to the supposition that under some parts of Oxfordshire and Northamptonshire the
coal-formation may lie at depths not inaccessible to human agency.

* Description Géognostique du Bassin du Bas-Boulonnais, par M. picid? 1828.

68 REPORT—1856.

Lastly, in order to obviate the objection that the coal-formation itself might have
thinned out in the same direction as the superincumbent formations, Mr, Hull endea-
voured to show that the manner of its formation, and that of the secondary strata,
were altogether different; for while (as had been shown by Mr. Godwin-Austen) the
ancient coal basin included the greater part of the British Isles, France and Belgium
forming one almost uninterrupted coal-growth; on the other hand, the development
of the new red sandstone and lias proved that they are formed of sediment derived
from north-westerly sources, and that consequently, as the distance from these sources
increased, the quantity of sediment diminished. Hence it was argued, that while under
Oxfordshire the strata between the great oolite and the coal-measures might be very
thin, the thickness and quality of the coal-seams would not necessarily have deterio-
rated.

On the Alteration of Clay-slate and Gritstone into Mica-schist and Gneiss by
the Granite of Wicklow, &c. By J. Beets Juxzs, M.A., F.RS.

The granite of the south-east of Ireland, extending from Dublin Bay into the county
of Kilkenny, is intrusive as regards the Lower Silurian rocks, and sends veins into them.
The Lower Silurian rocks generally are composed of dull earthy slates interstratified
with fine-grained gritstones commonly not more than an inch in thickness, but some-
times two or three feet. The main granite range is not a true geological axis, as it
does not bring up the lowest beds of the district, and forms only a partial geographical
axis as it is breached through by the valley of the Slaney.

Wherever granite appears at the surface, it metamorphoses the surrounding slaty
rocks and changes them into schistose rocks (mica-schist, &c., and gneiss).

The dull earthy slates are found on approaching the granite to acquire a “ glaze”
or silvery lustre not only externally but internally, as it is as apparent in the rock when
ground to powder or triturated into mud or silt as in the mass of the rock. This
micaceous lustre increases as we approach the granite, till within half a mile (more or
less) of its general boundary nothing can be found but schistose rocks, often containing
crystals of garnet, andalusite, staurolite, schorl, &c. Simultaneously with this change
in mineral structure the rocks are affected by a folding or corrugation, crumpling both
slates and grits, evidently the result of a mechanical force. The foliation of the mica-
schist is most usually parallel to the original stratification of the rock, as shown by
these grit-bands.

In the cases observed where the foliation crossed the beds, and ran parallel to the
cleavage, the plates of mica were smaller and more interrupted than when parallel to
the bedding, their development being apparently interfered with by the changes of
texture in the original lamination of stratification.

The surface boundary of the granite is very undulating and irregular, and many
large patches of schistose rock are found within it, resting on, and apparently dipping
down into the granite. The original surface of the granite appears to have had rather a
gentle general slope, but to have been very uneven, having many hollows and

rotuberances.

i Although the lowest beds of the Silurian rocks are not brought up by the granite,
yet the beds near it dip every way from it at angles not often exceeding 30°, and the
patches of schistose rock lying within the general boundary of the granite dip towards
that boundary. The graphite is probably continued under the adjacent slates with a
similarly gentle slope and irregular surface ; especially on the eastern side, where many
smaller bosses appear at the surface between the main range and the sea. These
smaller bosses produce alteration in the slates through which they appear, exactly
similar to that of the main range, though of proportionately less extent.

At Polmounty near New Koss, thick beds of grit interstratified with shale were
observed converted into alternations of fine-grained gneiss and mica-schist, and near
Graiguenamanagh a dark gneiss was seen, in which crystals of common felspar as large
as the thumb were imbedded, forming a true porphyritic gneiss, which is yet nothing
more than an altered Silurian gritstone or an arenaceous slate rock.

The very general occurrence of mica in these schistose rocks results probably from
the varied mineral composition of different well-characterized micas, so that true mica
(of some kind or other) is more likely to be produced than any other mineral. Inde~

a

_

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 69

pendently of this, however, it was asked if mica, such as it occurs in mica-schist, might
not often rather be the result of the physical condition of other mineral combinations,
than those forming well-characterized micas ; whether those combinations were definite
minerals, or only indefinite mixtures of silicates of alumina with other silicates?

Finally, it was stated as the general result, that no one could examine the district
without arriving at the conclusion, that as perfect mica-schist, gneiss, &c. as can be
found in any so-called primitive district, has been produced by the metamorphosis of
earthy clay-slate by the granite, and without being convinced that all schistose rocks,
even the most crystalline gneiss, had a similar metamorphic origin.

On some Fossil Fishes from the Strata of the Moselle. By J. E. Lue.

On an Elephant’s Grinder from the Cerithium Limestone. By J. E. Lax.

On the Time required for the formation of “ Rolled Stones.”
By M. Mogeriper.

The uncertainty which prevails as to the period required for the reduction of rough
stones to the condition of “rolled” pebbles, has led me to make the following obser-
vations at a place where the time occupied in that process is susceptible of proof,—at
least as regards the maximum.

Limeslade Bay is the second inlet of the sea to the west of the Mumble Point in
Glamorganshire. It runs into the land to the depth of 206 yards, 56 of which are
covered by shingle. The width at the mouth is 80 yards; and in the broadest part,
a little below the bottom of the shingle, 103. Hard firm sand of an average width of
20 yards occurs from low water to the shingle; on each side of which are large and
rugged rocks filling up the rest of the inlet. It would not appear therefore that the
action of the sea can be peculiarly violent here, more especially when we consider
that the general bearing of the little fiord is N. 10° E. and S. 10° W., the prevailing
winds being westerly, and the western’ promontory somewhat overlapping the
eastern. é

The sea occupies the southern end, and at the northern is the Mumble hill (carboni-
ferous limestone), through which, nearly in continuation of the line of the inlet, runs
a lode of dark peroxide of iron, first opened at this end in 1846, the refuse stones
being thrown into the little bay already described, somewhat below high-water mark.
~ Of these stones the smaller are now generally completely rounded; while some,
which from their size or configuration remained stationary, have their under sides
unaltered, 7. e. rough as when quarried, and the exposed portions ground down and
rounded, presenting in fact the appearance of large “rolled stones ” split through the
middle. I have measured (July, 1856) two of the latter.

No. 1 is of calcareous spar; the underside flat and rough, 1 ft. 1 in. by 1 ft. 1in.,
over the rounded part 2 ft.

No. 2 is limestone; under side 1 ft. 2in. by 1 ft. 4in., over 2 ft.

The effects produced by the attrition appear to be irrespective of the toughness or.
resisting power of the material ; calcareous spar, carbonaceous limestone, and the dark
peroxide of iron being found occasionally in the same stone, and equally worn down.

The general result to be deduced from the above may be thus stated ;—that on a
beach not more than usually exposed to the action of the sea, ten years sufficed for
the formation of “rolled stones.” +

On the Skin and Food of Ichthyosauri and Teleosauri.
By Cuarurs Moors, F.G.S.

In clearing specimens of the former genus dark patches of matter have been

frequently seen, in association with which thousands of minute black hooks may be

noticed by the aid of the lens. These have been supposed to be portions of the outer
skin of the Ichthyosaurus covered by the hook-shaped processes referred to. It was
stated by Mr. Moore that out of twenty-three saurians in his museum he had traced
these black patches in not less than sixteen; but that as in every instance they were

70 REPORT—1856.

connected with the stomach of the saurian, the conclusion was forced upon him that
they were not portions of skin, but were to be accounted for by supposing that the
Ichthyosauri had fed upon naked cephalopods, allied to the cuttle-fish. On continuing
his investigations on the subject, Mr, Moore proved that there were many cephalopods
existing with the Ichthyosaurus that would supply these hooks, and that they were fre-
quently to be found on the fleshy arms of the Onychoteuthis and allied genera.
Mr, Moore exhibited to the Meeting the body of a small saurian, which at this distant
time had its soft skin entire; and appealed to it in confirmation of his opinion, that
the black patches containing these hooks were no portion of its outer covering. In
conclusion, Mr. Moore produced some of the dark matter taken from the stomach of
one of his Ichthyosauri, and stated that he could show to the Meeting, that although
it had through so many ages been lying in the stomach of this ancient creature, and
had been mixed with other food, it could be no other than what was once the fluid
ink of a cuttle-fish; a fact, which was demonstrated to the Meeting, by his showing
them that it retained its colouring matter almost as perfectly as if it had been taken
from arecent sepia. Of the genus Jeleosaurus a very beautiful example was shown
to the Meeting, which, like the Gavie of the present day, was covered with bony
scutes or scales. In clearing this specimen, Mr, Moore was fortunate enough to
make an incision into its stomach, in which, though so long a period had elapsed since
it had taken its last meal, there was still to be seen there, in perfect preservation, a
small fish of the genus Leptolepis.

On the Middle and Upper Lias of the West of England.
By Cuartes Moors, F.G.S.

Sections were given of these beds at Ilminster, their most westerly point, from
whence they were traced to Yeovil, where they were shown to become extremely thin,
and to be covered up by the sands of the Inferior Oolite, from whence they were traced
to Bath and to the neighbourhood of Cheltenham, where they were shown to be of
considerable thickness, In noticing the organic remains of the Middle Lias, Mr,
Moore called attention to the Braghiogoda in these beds, and exhibited many of the
original specimens of this class published by the Paleontographical Society, The
attention of the meeting was also directed to a series of microscopic shells of the family
Foraminifera, nearly 150 species of which were shown by Mr. Moore to have existed
during the deposition of the Middle and Upper Lias. From the latter beds a magni-
ficent series of organic remains was exhibited, chiefly consisting of Saurians, Fishes,
Crustacea, and Insects. Mr. Moore amused the Section by informing them what
animals were contained in certain stones, which, on being broken, presented the animals
indicated.

On the Bone Beds of the Upper Ludlow Rock, and base of the Old Red Sand.
stone. By Sir R. I. Murcaison, F.R.S,

Sir Roderick Murchison gave an account of certain additional discoveries made
in those strata, whieh, whether they pertain to the uppermost beds of the Silurian
rocks, or to the lowest junction strata of the Old Red Sandstone, have been grouped
under the term of ‘ Tilestones.” In his original description of the upper Ludlow
rocks he had deseribed a layer, near their summit, as being characterized by the
remains of bones of fishes, principally the defences of Onehus, with jaws and teeth,
and numerous small coprolitic bodies. | He also formerly noticed, in several locali-
ties, the occurrence of a still higher bed, which seemed to form a passage into the
Old Red Sandstone, and in which remains of terrestrial plants occurred. He had
further pointed out, that the Upper Ludlow Rock was the lowest stratum in which
the remains of Vertebrata were discovered,—an observation which has remained
uncontroverted till the present day,—no remains of true fishes having yet been detected.
in more ancient strata in any part of Europe. In an ascending order, on the other
hand, it was well known that Ichthyolites augmented rapidly ; and the object of the
present communication is to show how the recent ouservations of Mr, Richard Banks,
of Kington, and of Mr. Lightbody, of Ludlow, have made us acquainted with’ the
presence of fish remains in thin layers a few feet above the original bone-bed of the
Upper Ludlow Rock.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 7

The lower of these overlying beds, which, according to sections exhibited, occurs both
at Kington and Ludlow, was recently inspected by Sir Roderick, accompanied by
Professor Ramsay, Mr. Aveline, and Mr. Salter. Itis a greyish or yellowish flag-like
sandstone, the lowest course of which, at Kington, contains many spines of Onchus,
with Lingula cornea. This thin layer, and another softer one, full of remains of
Pierygotus, and with two species of Pteraspis, are there surmounted by bluish-grey
building-stone, with Pterygotus, Lingula cornea, &c. These beds are covered by
others, less massive, which contain fragments of plants and large Péerygoti, and gra-
duate upwards insensibly into more micaceous sandstones, often splitting into tiles.
The Lingula cornea and Trochus helicites, together with species of Modiolopsis, and
hitherto the small Beyrichia Klédeni, all considered characteristic of the uppermost
Ludlow rock, prevail throughout these strata, with occasional carbonaceous matter
and traces of land vegetation; clearly indicating a graduation towards the younger
formation of Old Red Sandstone, The last-mentioned fish-bed is probably of similar
age to the stratum which Sir R. I. Murchison described as occupying the summit of the
Silurian system in Clun Forest and other places. A stratum of this age has recently
been laid open by the cutting of the railroad north-east of the town of Ludlow, and
exhibits a grey rock beneath passing up into an overlying micaceous reddish sand-
stone and red marl: large fragments of Péerygotus are here associated with remains
of fishes and the Lingula cornea.

The succession is more clearly traceable on the right bank of the Teme, opposite
Ludlow and below Ludford, where the Ludlow rocks with the old bone-bed are over-
laid by micaceous brownish-red sandstones and red marls, with true cornstones, ex-
posed in the bed of the river, which are again followed by other marls and sandstones,
surmounted by a band of coarse, greenish-grey micaceous sandstone, containing re-
mains both of fishes and of Pterygotus. The fish remains consist of distinct jaws and
teeth and fin defences of Onchus, the heads of a Cephalaspis, together with the Lingula
cornea,

The genus Péerygotus having now been found throughout the Upper Silurian rocks,
can no longer be considered characteristic of the transition beds’ between the Silurian
and Devonian; and as the genera Cephalaspis and Péeraspis are now known to extend
their downward range to the very verge of the true upper Ludlow strata, our views
concerning the zoological characters, which separate the two formations, may be
settled accordingly, As regards the frontier of the Silurian rocks in England, the
phznomena present.no ambiguity ; for all the strata, from the lowest bone-bed of the
true Ludlow rock, which contains so many species of shells of Silurian age, to the
uppermost of the above-mentioned fish-beds with the Lingula cornea, do not exceed
40 or 50 feet in thickness,—the upper part of the series with the Cephalaspis and
Pteraspis, constituting a true mineral and zoological passage into the Old Red Sand-
stone. In conclusion, the author observed, that if applied either to the top of the Upper
Ludlow Rock or to the base of the Old Red Sandstone exclusively, the word ‘‘tilestones”’
might mislead; but if generally to the beds of transition between the two deposits,
it is still a convenient term.

Description of an ancient Miner’s Axe recently discovered in the Forest of Dean.
In a letter to Ricuarp Bramisu, F.R.S. By Roserr Musuer,

The accompanying relic was found as follows. Some miners were engaged at an
iron-mine, near Lambsquay, in turning over some of the refuse iron-ore, which had
been put aside centuries ago as not rich enough in iron to be suited for the Bloomary

“Forges then in use. At a depth of upwards of sixteen feet, and under a very old and
decayed lime tree, which had grown over the spot, the axe was discovered amongst
the refuse iron-ore. The handle was broken to pieces and lost, before the axe itself
was noticed, a circumstance much to be regretted. The spot where the axe was dis-
covered, was free from moisture, except that incidental to rainy weather, and there-
fore the axe itself must have been wet and dry just as the weather varied. On trying
the point of the axe with a file, it proved to be iron, and not steel, so that its date
must have been earlier than that of the use of steel for mining purposes.

The iron-ore surrounding the axe, was a mixture of hydrated peroxide of iron and
carbonate of lime, mixed with common loam, and the axe itself is covered with cpn-

72 REPORT—1856,

cretionary carbonate of lime and hydrated peroxide of iron. But the extraordinary
circumstance connected with this discovery is the fact, that the wooden handle origi-
nally inserted into the eye of the axe, has become converted into pure hydrated per-
oxide of iron, precisely similar to the ordinary brush iron-ore peculiar to the Forest
of Dean, except that in the centre of the handle, on the underside of the eye, a portion
of soft woody fibre remains, and on the upper side there appear the two small iron
wedges by which the helve was tightened tothe axe. Thus apiece of wood (probably
ash) has been replaced by hydrous oxide of iron, composed of

Peroxide ofiron . . . . . 81°63
Water tits.) see A SRLS SF

Or more probably it is the subhydrate, containing only 10°5 per cent, of water, and
which is the proportion contained in the forest brush-ore. Two reedy specimens,
taken from the solid vein of iron-ore, near the spot where the axe was found, accom-
pany the latter, and in their appearance they present some analogy to the converted
portion of the axe-handle.

I believe that this relic of antiquity is well worthy of the notice of the British
Association about to meet in Cheltenham, and I have therefore enclosed it, and the
reedy specimens, in a box, to be forwarded to you.

On the Dichodon cuspidatus, from the Upper Eocene of the Isle of Wight and
Hordwell, Hants. By Professor Owen, F.R.S.

Prof. Owen communicated the results of examinations of additional specimens of
jaws and teeth of the Dichodon cuspidatus, which he had received since his original
Memoirs on that extinct animal in the ‘Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society,’
vol. iv. (June 1847). The first specimen described supplied the characters of the
last true molar tooth of the lower jaw, which had not been previously known. This
tooth has six lobes, the additional posterior pair being less than the normal ones, and
more simple. The inner surface of the inner lobe has an accessory cusp at the back
part of its base, but not at the fore-part as in the other lobes. The length of the last
lower molar was nine lines, that of the first and second molars being each six lines.
A specimen of the Dichodon cuspidatus from the Hordwell Sands, in the British
Museum, supplied the characters of the permanent incisors, canine, and three anterior
premolars of the upper jaw: all these teeth closely correspond in form with the cor-
responding deciduous teeth, but are of larger size. Finally, a portion of the lowerjaw
of an aged specimen of Dichodon, in the British Museum, showing the effects of
attrition on the last molar tooth, was described, and the results of this additional evi-
dence confirmed the conclusions of the author as to the generic distinction of the
Dichodon.

Additional Evidence of the Fossil Musk-Ox (Bubalus moschatus) from the
Wiltshire Drift. By Professor Owen, F.R.S.

This evidence consisted of mutilated crania, but with the horn-cores complete, of
both male and female Musk-Ox.

Drawings of the specimens of the natural size of the fossils were exhibited, and the
characters were pointed out which, in the author’s opinion, confirmed his opinion of
the fossil being of the same species as the recent Musk-Ox of Arctic America (Buba-
lus moschatus).

The fossils were associated with remains of the Elephas primigenius, Rhinoceros
tichorinus, and teeth of bovine, cervine, and equine quadrupeds. They were discovered
by Charles Moore Esgq., F.G.S., of Bath.

On a New Species of Anoplotherioid Mammal (Dichobune Ovinum, Ow.) from
the Upper Eocene of Hordwell, Hants, with Remarks on the Genera Dichobune,
Xiphodon, and Microtherium. By Professor Owen, F.R.S.
The author exhibited drawings of an entire lower jaw with the dentition nearly

complete of a fossil herbivorous quadruped, of the size of the Xiphedon gracilis of

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 73

Cuvier, from the Upper Eocene marl at Binstead, Isle of Wight, Hampshire; and
pointed out the characters by which it differed from the known nearest allied fossils,
The total length of the lower jaw was 5 inches 11 lines; the extent of the molar series
of teeth 2 inches 11 lines, and that of the three true molars 1 inch 83 lines.

The near equality in height of the crowns of all the teeth, and their general cha-
racter, show that the animal belonged to that group of the Anoplotherioid family which
includes the genera Dichobune and Xiphodon.

It has the same dental formula as the Anoplotherioid and Anthracotherioid qua-
drupeds, viz.

-3-3 1-1 4—4 3-3
orig) Crea Pry m ——; = 44.

It differs from the genus Dichodon in the absence of the accessory cusps on the
inner side of the base of the true molars, and both from Dichodon cuspidatus and
Xiphodon gracilis, in the minor antero-posterior extent of the premolar teeth: it corre-
sponds with the Dichobune leporinum, Cuv., in the proportions of the premolars and in
the separation of the canine and anterior premolar; and to this genus, therefore, the new
fossi] was referred. Its size and proportions indicate its specific distinction from
previously defined species of Dichobune. The name proposed for this species is
Dichobune ovinum. The specimen forms part of the series of fossils in the British
Museum.

On a Fossil Mammal (Stereognathus Ooliticus) from the Stonesfield Slate.
By Professor Owen, F.R.S.

Prof, Owen exhibited, by favour of the Rev. J. P. B. Dennis,.M.A., a portion of a
lower jaw, with three molar teeth, of a small mammal, from the oolitic slate of
Stonesfield, Oxfordshire, for which the name of Stereognathus Ooliticus had been
proposed ; and after a minute description of the characters of the bone and teeth, he
entered upon the question of its probable affinities. These could only be judged
of by the peculiarities of certain molar teeth of the lower jaw of the unique fossil.
Those teeth presented the singular complexity of six cusps or cones upon the grind-
ing surface, in three longitudinal pairs, the crown of the tooth being quadrate, broad-
est transversely, but very short or low. The jaw-bone presents a corresponding shal-
lowness and thickness. The cusps are sub-compressed : the outermost and innermost
of the three hinder ones are oblique, and converge towards the middle of the crown,
being overlapped by the outermost and innermost of the three front cones. The
three molar teeth occupy the extent of 43 lines, or 1 centimetre; each tooth being 3
millimetres in fore and aft extent, and nearly four millimetres in transverse extent.
After a comparison of these molars with the multicuspid teeth of the Rat, the Hedge-
hog, the Shrews and Galeopitheci, the author showed that the proportions, numbers,
and arrangement of the cusps in those Insectivora forbad a reference of the Stereo-
gnathus, on dental grounds, to that order. The same negative result followed a com-
parison of the fossil oolitic mammal with the sex-cuspid teeth with the eocene
Hlyracothere, Microthere and Hyopotamus ; but in these the resemblance was
presented only by the teeth of the upper jaw. The lower molar teeth of the Chero-
potamus, to which the author deemed those of the Hyracotherium would most closely
approximate, when discovered, showed a rudiment of the intermediate cones between
the normal pairs of cones. The proportional size and regularity of the form of the
cones of the grinding teeth of the Stereognathus give a quite different character of
the crown from that of the multicuspid molars of the Insectivora, and cause the sex-
cuspid crown of the oolitic mammal to resemble the pente-cuspid and quadri-cuspid
molars of the before-cited extinct Artiodactyle genera. Prof. Owen concluded, there-
fore, that the Stereognathus was most probably a diminutive form of non-ruminant
Artiodactyle, of omnivorous habits.

On the Scelidotherium leptocephalum, a Megatherioid Quadruped from
La Plata, By Professor Owrn, F.£#.S.

The extinct species of large terrestrial sloth indicated by the above name, was first
made known by portions of its fossil skeleton’ having been discovered by Charles

‘

74 ; REPORT—1856.

Darwin, Esq., F.R.S., at Punta Alta, Northern Patagonia. These portions were
described by the author in the appendix to the ‘ Natural History of the Voyage of
H.M.S. Beagle.’ The subsequent acquisition by the British Museum of the collec-
tion of Fossil Mammalia brought from Buenos Ayres by M. Bravard, has given further
evidence of the generic distinction of Scelidotherium,and hassupplied important charac-
ters of the osseous system, and especially of the skull, which the fragments from the
hard consolidated gravel of Punta Alta did not afford. The best portion of the cra-
nium from that locality wanted the facial part anterior to the orbit, and the greater
part of the upper walls; sufficient, however, remained to indicate the peculiar charac-
ter of its slender proportions, and hence Professor Owen has been led to select the
name leptocephalum for the species, which is undoubtedly new. The aptness of the
epithet ‘ slender headed,’ is proved by the author’s researches to be greater than could
have been surmised from the original fossil; for the entire skull, now in the British
Museum, exhibits a remarkable prolongation of the upper and lower jaws, and a
slenderness of the parts produced anterior to the dental series, unique in the leaf-eat-
ing section of the order Bruta, and offering a very interesting approximation to the
peculiar proportions of the skull in the Ant-eaters. The original fossils from Pata-
gonia indicated that they belonged to an individual of immature age: the difference of
size between them and the corresponding parts in the British Museum, depends on
the latter having belonged to full-grown individuals : the slight difference in the shape
of the anterior molars seems in like manner to be due to such an amount of change
as might take place in the progress of growth of a tooth with a constantly renewable
pulp. Professor Owen finds at least no good grounds for inferring a specific distine-
tion between the fossils of the old animal from Buenos Ayres, and the younger
specimen from Patagonia. The author then proceeds to give a detailed anatomical
account of the fossil bones in the British Museum, instituting a comparison between
them and the bones of other large extinct animals, especially those of the Edentate
order, The Scelidothere was a quadruped of from eight to ten feet in length, but not
more than four feet high, and nearly as broad at the haunches, the thigh-bones being
extraordinarily broad in proportion to their length. The trunk gradually tapered
forwards to the long and slender head. ‘The fore-limbs had complete clavicles, and
the rotatory movements of the fore-arm. All the limbs were provided with long and
strong claws. The animal had a long and muscular tongue, and it is probable that
its food might have been of a more mixed nature than that of the Megatherium.
But it was more essentially related to the Sloths than to the Ant-eaters. In conclusion,
the author remarks, that as our knowledge of the great Megatherioid animals increases,
the definition of their distinctive characters demands more extended comparison of
articulars. Hence in each successive attempt at a restoration of these truly remark-
able extinct South American quadrupeds, there results a discription of details which
might seem prolix and uncalled for, but which are necessary for the proper deyelop-
ment of the task of reproducing a specimen of an extinct species.
These details of the osteology and dentition of the Scelidotherium leptocephalum, it
is the intention of the author to communicate, with the requisite illustrations, to the
Royal Society of London.

On the Beekites found in the Red Conglomerates of Torbay.
By W. Peneetty, F.G.S,

Perhaps the most interesting things found in the red Triassic conglomerates of
Torbay are the Beekites, so named from the late Dr. Beeke, Dean of Bristol, by
whom, it is believed, they were first noticed, They vary in size from half an inch
to a foot, but the more common dimensions are from three to six inches in mean
diameter. Their surfaces are covered with chalcedony, generally arranged in tuber-
cles, each of which is not unfrequently surrounded by one or more rings, and occa-
sionally the same ring invests two or more tubercles, or sets of rings.

The interior of the Beekite is calcareous. In most instances the nucleus is under-
going decomposition and is only partially attached to the shell ; sometimes it is entirely
detached, and rolls about within the cavity when shaken; not unfrequently it is
reduced to a dark-brown or iron-grey powder, which effervesces in acids. ~

The nucleus appears to be always a fossil, and is either a sponge, a coral, a shell,

ee

“ee

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 95

or a group of shells—generally spiral univalves—all of well-known Devonian forms.
The organic structure is frequently preserved on the inner or concave surface of the
enveloping crust, even when the nucleus is reduced to powder. Occasionally organic
traces are discernible on the exterior surface of the chalcedony, but such cases are
not frequent. Some of the nuclei are slightly siliceous, but in no.case more so than
ordinary limestones are.

Beekites which have fallen from the cliff, and have been for some time exposed to
the action of the waves, are much abraded, while those taken at once from the rock
above the reach of the sea have not the least marks of friction; hence it may be
inferred that the chalcedony has been deposited on the nuclei since they became
immoveable, that is since the conversion of the ancient triassic sea-beach*into a
conglomerate rock.

Beekites are found in every part of the Torbay conglomerates, which extend along
the coast from two and a half to three miles, but they are considerably more abun-
dant at Livermead Head, and at and near Paignton harbour, than elsewhere in the
district; but though rocks of the same age and character prevail throughout a great
part of the south-east of Devonshire, no Beekites have been found beyond the district
named ; indeed, so far as is at present known, they appear to be peculiar to Torbay.

On whatever surface chalcedony is deposited, it appears in most cases to take a
tubercular arrangement; hence the tubercles on the surface of the Beekite. From a
careful examination of all the facts of the case, it seems probable that after the forma-
tion of the triassic conglomerate some of the calcareous pebbles in it underwent
decomposition; that water holding chalcedony in solution, and passing through the
rock, deposited the chalcedony on the nucleus: the nucleus in some cases continued
to decompose, by which it was wholly or partially detached from its envelope, and
not unfrequently reduced to dust. Suppose the decomposition to have commenced
at various points or centres on the surface of the pebble, the chalcedony deposited at
these points would form central tubercles; let the decaying process extend from and
around these centres, the chalcedony deposited around each tubercle would form a
ring; in like manner a succession of rings might be formed, until they touched, after
which a more comprehensive circle might invest two or more of the systems already
formed, until the whole surface would be covered.

On the Correlation of the North American and British Paleozoic Strata.
By Professor H. D. Rogzrs, Boston, U.S.

On the Origin of Saliferous Deposits. By Professor H, D. Rocers, Boston, U.S.

On the Great Pterygotus (Seraphim) of Scotland and other Species.
By J, W. Sauter, F.G.S., of the Geological Survey of Great Britain.

This paper was in some measure a continuation of one published in the Quarterly
Geological Journal for 1855, describing some new and large crustacean forms from
the uppermost Silurian rocks of the south of Scotland.

They were described under the name of Himanthopterus, and were supposed to
differ from the published fragments of the great Pterygotus by the lateral position of
the large simple eyes.

In the general shape of the body, however, the terminal joints and tail, in the want’
of appendages to the abdomen, as well as in the form and number of the swimming
feet, mandibles, maxillz and antennz, there was found to be on further examination
the closest resemblance between Himanthopterus and the great Pterygotus. And the
resemblance has been carried still further by the favourable collocation of all the
known specimens from the Scotch collections, which have furnished nearly all the
portions; and also the head. This is now found to be exactly like that of Himan-
thopterus, and to have Jateral, not subcentral eyes, as represented by other authors.

_ The two genera are therefore identical, and the group, as now constituted, includes
a number both of small and moderate-sized crustacea, along with some which were
far larger than any living species, and which certainly attained a length of six or
eight feet.

76 . REPORT—1856.

The collections made by the Scottish geologists,—those in Lord Kinnaird’s cabinet,
and in the Watt Institution, Dundee,—in connexion with other specimens obtained
by Mr. Banks of Kington and Messrs. Lightbody and Cocking of Ludlow, show that
that Pterygotus was an elongate crustacean, with a comparatively small head and
sessile compound eyes; and having but few appendages, of which the large chelate
antennz are most remarkable, being a foot long, and only four-jointed,—the terminal
joints forming a strong serrated claw. The large mandibles were fully six inches
long: the maxille were either one or two pairs, with six-jointed palpi; and the great
swimming feet consisted of six joints, of which the terminal ones were modified for
swimming; the basal joints are great foliaceous expansions with crenulate edges, which
possibly“assisted, like the first joints of the legs in Limulus, in mastication.

The singular piece called ‘‘ Seraphim ” by the workmen, is not, as formerly sup-
posed, a portion of the carapace, but in all probability the hypostome on the under
side of the front of the head, the central prong of which is really free, being the labrum
itself. ‘The plate would be analogous to a similar piece on the under surface of the
head of the Trilobite,—of Apus, Limulus, and many other crustacea. No argument
seems necessary to show that it was not a portion of the upper surface, as indicated
by Mr. Page in his communication to the Section last year, since we possess the cara~
pace entire, and it is like that of all the other nine or ten species.

From the explanation given by Mr. Huxley in the memoir above referred to, there
is a general resemblance both in form and structure to the small Stomapod Crustaceans,
Mysis and Cuma, minute forms, which are now arranged very low down among the
Decapods, and which are frequently ornamented with a sculpture very similar to
that of the fossils. There is even a yet greater resemblance in form to the larve of
the common crab. If this be accepted, the coincidence in essential structure between
such minute and embryonic forms and these gigantic denizens of the old seas be-
comes,most remarkable and interesting, as bearing on the course of development of
life throughout geological epochs.

On some New Paleozoic Star-fishes, compared with living Forms.
By J. W. Sauter, F.G.S.

The object of the communication was chiefly to exhibit some new forms of Asteri~
de, from the Upper Silurian rocks; and others which have all the aspect of Ophiuride,
but are essentially distinguished by the number of ossicles which go to form a single
segment of the arms—the lower surface showing a double row of flat plates, and the
upper also being composed of two rows of plates, while the Ophiuride have a single
plate above, and one below.

There is, however, the closest similarity to the latter family in the length of the
arms and the restriction of the disc (Protaster, Forbes)*.

The Star-fish proper belong to three and probably to more genera, all remarkable
for their membranous texture.

In the great length of the spines on the margin, Paleocoma resembles Péeraster,
Miill., while in the pentagonal form and simply plated integument of another genus
(Palasterina), there is a much nearer approach made to Asteriscus or Palmipes than to
any other type of living star-fish. One of the latter had been described from Sweden.

A Lower Silurian form, originally described by Forbes as Uraster, has the disc
little developed or quite absent, but better specimens show it to have had but two rows
of suckers, and the avenues bordered by very large plates. This is’also apparently
allied to Asteriscus, and J find that the name Pale@aster has been proposed by Prof.
Hall for the genus, which is represented by five or six species.

The genera are,—

1. Palzeaster (Hall), without disc, avenues deep. Upper and Lower Silurian . . 6sp.
2. Palasterina (M/‘Coy), pentagonal, disc moderate, plated. Upper Silurian . .2sp.
3. Palzocoma (Salter), disc loosely reticular,avenuesvery shallow. Upper Silurian. 5 sp.

4. Protaster (Forbes), disc small, arms long, extended, with two plates above
and two below. Upper and Lower Silurian. . . . . . . «© .45p.
There appear to be other forms yet undescribed.

* Later observations (1857) have led the author to believe this genus to be a true Ophi-
urid, but of a new group.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 794

Description of a Working Model to illustrate the formation of ‘‘ Drift-bedding ”
(a kind of false stratification). By H.C. Sorsy, F.G.S.

This model was constructed to explain the manner in which that kind of false
stratification, for which the author has proposed the term “ drift-bedding,” is produced
by the sandy material being drifted along on the bottom, till the depth of the water
becomes so much greater, that the velocity of the current is not sufficient to wash it
any farther. It then accumulates in stratula, inclined to the horizontal plane at angles,
the value of which depends upon various circumstances. In the model, the drifting
effect of the current was intimated by a kind of coarse screw, which, when turned
round, carried forward the sand, supplied from a bag, along a groove, from which it
fell into a space with a glass front, where it accumulated at the angle of rest. Being
a mixture of heavy black fine grains of specular iron and coarser white quartz sand,
it became sorted by moving the screw alternately quickly and slowly, and thus accu-
mulated in black and white bands; whereas, if it was moved with a uniform velocity,
no such bands were produced, but the coarse white particles collected at the bottom.
These effects, thus produced experimentally by an irregular or uniform forward
moving action of the screw, are precisely the same as what the author had previously
deduced to have been generated in strata of various geological periods by currents of
varying velocity; and the appearance of the structure, thus formed in the model, so
closely agrees with what is so commonly met with in sandy rocks, that no one can
doubt how it originated. Such models may now be procured of Messrs. Chadburn
Brothers, Sheffield.

On the Magnesian Limestone having been formed by the alteration of an ordi-
nary calcareous deposit. By H.C. Sorsy, F.G.S.

It is well known that crystals of calcareous spar are in some cases found changed
into dolomite, and that corals and other calcareous organisms are often altered in a
similar manner, and their organic structure obliterated. It is therefore clearly
proved that such a change may take place in calcareous rocks. Portions of the car-
boniferous and Devonian limestones have also frequently experienced this change,
and it has so taken place along joints and veins, that no explanation appears probable,
but the long-continued action of some soluble magnesian salt.

When thin sections of such rocks are examined with the microscope, some trace of
the fragments of organic bodies of which they were composed may be seen in some
cases, but in many the original mechanical structure has been entirely obliterated by
the change, and there is now only a peculiar crystalline structure, chiefly due to the
_ more or less interfering action of minute rhombohedrons. The same is seen in thin
sections of the Permian dolomite; so that a considerable portion, if not the whole,
appears, like other limestones, to have been derived from comminuted and decayed
calcareous organisms, and to have been subsequently altered into dolomite. Ifsuch be
the case, the author suggested that probably this alteration was effected by the infiltra-
tion of the soluble magnesian salts of the sea-water, under some peculiar conditions not
yet clearly explained, during the period when it became so far concentrated that rock-
salt was frequently deposited; and that the calcareous salt removed during the change
had, by decomposition with the sulphates of the sea- water, given rise to the accumula-
tions ofgypsum. In support of this, it is an important fact, that some very solid dolo-
mite does even now still contain about one-fifth per cent. of salts soluble in water, con-
sisting of the chlorides of sodium, magnesium, potassium and calcium, and sulphate of
lime, doubtless retained in the minute fluid cavities, seen with the microscope to exist
in greatnumbers. These, like those in most crystals formed from solution, must have
been produced at the same time as the dolomite, and caught in some of the solution
then present, which is thus indicated to have been of a briny character.

A process the very reverse of that just described is now taking place hy the action
of dissolved gypsum, by which sulphate of magnesia, frequently efflorescing on the
surface of the rock, and carbonate of lime are produced; and this may perhaps, in
some cases, explain why the upper beds of the Permian limestone are now more cal-
careous than the lower.

i eieaeneanammmneiieaaiid

78 REPORT—1856.

On the Microscopical Structure of Mica-Schist. By H.C. Sonpy, F.G.S.

The examination of thin transparent sections of mica-schist and the allied rocks
shows that there exist two very marked varieties, characterized by the manner in
which the flaky crystals of mica are arranged. In one they lie more or less closely
in the plane of the alternating layers of different mineral composition, and, when
these are bent into complicated contortions, they also continue to coincide with them ;
whilst in the other variety they lie in one particular plane, and, instead of varying in
direction in sharp contortions, they still remain throughout more or less closely in
the same general line, This structure then is similar to cleavage in a contorted
slate rock; and its direction in like manner coincides with the axis planes of the
contortions, and varies from the general direction in the same particulars. One
structure is as if chemical and crystalline changes had occurred in a rock that
possessed no slaty cleavage, the arrangement of the particles due to stratification
having caused the crystals of mica to be formed in its plane, which may or may not
have been subsequently contorted. For this the author proposes the term “ stratifica-
tion foliation,” to distinguish it from the other that may be called “cleavage folia-
tion,” which is as if the rock had been compressed in such a manner as to alter the
ultimate structure and develope slaty cleavage, before the large crystals of mica were
formed. Then, when the subsequent crystalline changes occurred, the minute flakes
of mica, placed more or less closely in the plane of cleavage by the change in the
dimensions of the rock, grew up into larger crystals in the same general line of clea-
vage. The distribution of these two kinds of mica-schist follows general laws similar
to that of cleaved and uncleaved slates.- For instance, in the coast section south of
Aberdeen, most of the rocks possess cleavage foliation, whereas in the Loch Lomond
district there is simply stratification foliation.

The author particularly argued that the peculiarities in the rocks having cleavage
foliation cannot be explained except by supposing that they have been metamorphosed
stratified rocks; for their structure so clearly shows the effects of both stratification
and slaty cleavage, and that the cause- of the separation into layers of different mine-
ral composition is pre-existing stratification, and is in no way analogous to that which
produced the cleavage of slates—that the cleavage foliation is the effect of previously
existing cleavage, and not that slaty cleavage is a partially developed foliation.

Attention was also drawn to the vast numbers of minute fluid cavities, containing
water, that occur in the quartz layers in mica-schist; being analogous to those found
almost invariably in crystals formed from solution, and not in those produced by
simple fusion, ‘These indicate that the metamorphic changes have been due to an
aqueous process, or else minute globules of water could not thus have been caught
in the solid crystals during their formation. Probably an clevated temperature was
also concerned in the change, but not heat alone and a simple partial fusion,

In mica-schist there is often a peculiar structure, which in many cases might easily
be confounded with siaty cleavage. This is when the rock has been so bent into sharp
crumples or small contortions, that planes of weakness or actual joint fractures have
been produced. These may be so close as to appear just like slaty cleavage to the
naked eye, but are seen with the microscope to be quite distinct; being finite divi-
sions, and not an ultimate structure as itis. Both occur occasionally in the same
clay-slate, and then give rise to what has been described as double-cleaved slate.

On some Phenomena in the Malvern District.
By the Rev. W. 8. Symonns, M.4A., F.G.S.

On the Rocks of Dean Forest. By the Rev. W. 8S. Symonps, M.4., F.G.S.

Researches in Kent’s Cavern, Torquay, with the original MS. Memoir of its
first opening, by the late Rev. J. Mac Enery (long supposed to have been
lost), and the Report of the Sub-Committee of the Torquay Natural History
Society. By E. Vivian, M.A.

A communication was made to this Section by Mr. Vivian, in continuation of that
which had been given before the Ethnological Section, and extracts were read from

7

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 79

the Rev. J. MacEnery’s original memoir, which gives a most graphic account of the
first discovery of fossil remains in the cavern, and which is thus referred to by
Professor Owen in his ‘ Foss1z Mammalia:’—Perhaps the richest depository of
bears hitherto found in Engiand is that called Kent’s Hole near Torquay. It is to
the assiduous researches of the Rev. Mr. MacEnery, that the discovery of the
various and interesting fossils of this cave are principally due, and some of the rarest
and most valuable of this gentleman’s collection have been recently acquired by the
British Museum. M. de Blainville frequently cites ‘A description of the cavern of
Kent’s Hole, Devonshire,’ which he supposes to have been published by Mr. Mac-
Enery, but which he regrets that he had not been able to procure. I have been assured
by Dr. Buckland that Mr. MacEnery never published such a work, and it is most
probable that the drawing or lithographic impressions, shown by Mr. MacEnery
to Professor Blainville, were those designed to illustrate the forthcoming second
volume of the ‘ Reliquiz Diluviane.’’’ Mr. Vivian had recovered the original rough
notes of this memoir, which had been disposed of at the sale of Mr. MacEnery’s
collection, and proposes shortly to edit it with annotations in a connected form.

The following extract is a specimen of the geological portion of the work:—

The Bear’s Den.—‘‘ A curtain of stalactite, with depending clusters of spar at
certain intervals, and corresponding eminences on the floor, was the picture this
chamber presented when we first saw it. It was floored through its entire extent
with a continuous sheet of stalagmite, siliceo-calcareous and crystalline, so difficult
to penetrate, that after repeated attempts we abandoned it in despair; at length,
availing ourselves of cracks that traversed it, like the divisions in a pavement, we
succeeded in ripping it up. All we had hitherto observed vanished in interest before
this disclosure. The first flag that was turned over, exhibited in relief groups of
skulls and bones adhering to the stalagmite. Each successive flag repeated the same
spectacle. It is to be regretted that their size prevented us from transferring them
at once, as they were found, to our museums ; for while they lay in the chamber
awaiting their removal, some persons, who had heard of the discovery, broke into the
cavern, and either tore away or disfigured the masses. Sufficient, however, have
been preserved to give an idea of the accumulation and character of the remains in
this quarter.

«The remains of Bear prevail here to the exclusion of all others, of all ages, and of
all periods down to their encasement in the mud; some of the teeth have the
most dazzling enamel, and the bones retain their natural freshness, as if derived from
animals in high health destroyed for the sake of their skeletons ; others, on the con-
trary, are of a darkish brown, with the texture of the bone decayed from long expo-
sure, and only kept together by the calcareous and ferruginous matter with which
they are saturated ; even the enamel is of a greenish tinge. Owing to the induration
of their earthy enclosure or their encrustation by stalagmite, few were extracted
entire. Two skulls were buried in the stalagmite as in a mould, and were brought
away in that state. The spar has formed into a variety of specular crystals in their
chambers. The skulls were severed in two; the front separated from the occiput
and found apart, the other parts of the skeletons lay about in all directions without

‘any order; generally we were able to trace the natural relation of the parts

in some instances ; but.in no case were they or the skulls broken or gnawed like
those in other parts. The long bones were found generally entire, and when found
broken, it was only mechanically, from pressure. In no instance have they exhibited
indications of being broken or gnawed by the jaws of carnivorous animals for the
sake of their flesh or marrow. In fine, they were precisely in the state of bones that
belonged to animals that died by a natural death on the spot during a succession of
ages, whose remains had long laid about on the surface, subject to be trampled upon
by the feet of their own species that made this branch their haunt. In this respect
this section of the cavern resembles the caves of Germany, in the predominance of
the Bear, in the identity of the species, and in the unbroken condition of the remains.
It is worthy of remark, that the remains of the Ursus cultridens do not appear here
any more than among the Bears in the German caves, though they do, as we shall
see, in the other chambers with bones of Elephants. To enhance the wonder of
this anomalous scene, there appeared, and there still exist attached to the under sur-
face of one of the pyramidal mounds in this chamber, lumps of Album Grecum ;

80 REPORT—1856.

but of other traces of the presence of the Hyzena there is not a shadow, nor indeed
of any other animal, except in its outskirts, as shown by the fractured jaws of Ursus
speleus and cultridens. In the German caves we know that the remains of the
Hyzena generally accompany those of the Bear, and under such circumstances as to
warrant the inference that certain species, at least, if not all, lived in good intelligence
together. In the centre of this chamber there was a double floor of stalagmite, be-
tween which was interposed a stratum of rubble sparry pipes, a black flint knife and
spots of charcoal, with shells of mussel and oyster, but no red marl or its usual
contents. The rest of the floor was regularly stratified in red and white lamine, ex-
hibiting no vestiges of adventitious matter or of interruption. The position of the
rubbly stratum occurring half-way down the section of the stalagmite, inclines me
to refer it to the same cause and epoch as the seam containing the Bears’ remains
at the entrance of the Arcade of which we have already spoken.”

On the Evidence of a Reef of Lower Lias Rock, extending from Robin Hood’s

Bay to the neighbourhood of Flamborough Head. By Capt. Woopatt.

Capt. Woodall called attention to the fact that this reef joined the land at the point
where the lower lias is thrown up in contact with the inferior oolite of that part
of Yorkshire. He produced aspecimen, which he had obtained twenty miles to the
south-east of Robin Hood’s Bay, from a depth of 20 fathoms, and attempted to prove,
from the softness of the specimen, that the reef was liassic throughout. The very
straightinner margin of the reef, which extends twenty miles and upwards in one straight
line, was another reason for such argument; and, by comparing the fossils contained
in the specimen exhibited with some from the boulders of the Holderness coast, he
thought that there was a probability that those fossils had originally been derived
from this submerged area.

On the Occurrence of Upper Lias Ammonites in the (so-called) Basement
Beds of the Inferior Oolite. By Tuomas Wricat, M.D., F.R.S.E.

The brown sands which lie at the base of the Inferior Oolite are capped in some
localities, as at Beacon Hill, Frocester Hill, and Wotton-under-Edge in Gloucester-
shire, and in several places in Somersetshire and Dorsetshire, by a remarkable bed
containing a great number of Ammonites, Belemnites and Nautili, and which the
author designates “the Cephalopoda bed;” by far the greater number of the
ammonites contained in these deposits, have not been figured in the ‘ Mineral
Conchology of Great Britain,’ and are for the most part new as English fossils. Many
of the same species of Ammonites as those exhibited are found in France and Ger-
many, in strata which are regarded by the palzontologists of those countries as the
uppermost zone of the Upper Lias, and are only found in that particular horizon ;
whereas the equivalent strata in England have been described as the basement beds of
the Inferior Oolite.

In the localities already enumerated the brown sands are overlaid by a bed of coarse
brown marly limestone, full of small, dark, ferruginous grains of the hydrate of iron,
which impart an iron-shot aspect to the rock: fossils are very abundant in this bed,
which attains only a few feet in thickness; the true position of the Cephalopoda bed
is shown in the sections of Frocester Hill and Wotton-under-Edge, now exhibited.
Beneath this fossiliferous band or Ammonite bed are the so-called sands of the Infe-
rior Oolite, consisting of fine brown and yellow calcareous sands, often micaceous, _
and attaining a thickness of from 2 to 150 feet. The sands contain in their upper _
part inconstant layers of siliceo-calcareous sandstone, and sometimes in their lower
part inconstant concretionary masses of coarse sandstone, the lowest beds becoming
blue and marly, and passing insensibly into the clays of the Upper Lias. The sands
themselves are not fossiliferous, but sometimes nodules lying near their base are found
to contain organic remains.

When unquestionable sections such as those at Beacon Hill, Frocester Hill, and
Wotton-under-Edge exist, it becomes a matter of great interest to study the boun-
dary between two such formations as the Lias and Inferior Oolite, as the general
principles developed in the investigation of this question apply equally to other frontier

oe

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 81

stratigraphical lines. The lithological characters, and other physical evidence, assist
the investigation, but do not enable the geologist to assign exact limits to such con-
tiguous formations, It is here that the value of palzontological evidence becomes
so important; for without its aid it would be impossible to say where one rock group
terminates and another begins: this testimony of the rocks proves, that it is by the
zones of life alone that the line of separation between the Lias and the Inferior Oolite
ean be drawn, and that if we accept this view of the subject, we are bound to admit
thai a considerable deposit, which has hitherto been grouped with the Inferior Oolite,
must be transferred to the Upper Lias, of which it forms its highest stage.

The following list contains all the species which have been collected from the
sands and Cephalopoda- -bed of Beacon Hill, Nailsworth, Frocester Hill, and Wotton-
under-Edge :—

Reptilia.
Ichthyosaurus, sp., vertebrae of. F,

Pisces.
Hybodus, portion of a dorsal ray. F.

Cephalopoda.

Ammonites opalinus, Reinecke. B.F. Ammonites Raquinianus, d’Orbig. F.N.W.
bifrons, Brug. F. Levesquei, d’Orbig.
insignis, Schuibl. F. W. concavus, Sow.
hircinus, Schloth. F. Leckenbyi, Zyc., n.sp. F.
Jurensis, Zieten. F.N. variabilis, d’Orbig. F.N.W.
striatulus, Sow. F. Nautilus inornatus, d’Orbig. F.
Thouarsensis, d’Orbig. F. Belemnites compressus, Vol/z. F.N. W.
radians, d’Orbig. F. B. tripartitus, Schloht. F.N.W.

» Dewalquianus. F. irregularis, Schloht. F.N.W.
Mooreii, Lycedé, n. sp. F. . Nodotianus, d’Orbig. F.
discoides, Zzeten. F.

Gasteropoda.
Pleurotomaria nearly allied to Amal- _ *Turbo capitaneus, Meinst. F.N.
thei, Quenstedt. Trochus allied to duplicatus, Sow. N.
Chemnitzia lineata?, Sow, - N.
Conchifera.
*Lima bellula, Zyc. F.N. Cypricardia brevis, Wright. F.N.
*Pholadomya fidicula, Sow. F.N.B. Cardium Hullianum, Wright. F.N.
*Gervillia Hartmanuni, Minst. F.N. Opellii, Wright. N.
*Trigonia striata, Sow. F.N. Cucullza allied to ee ae Goldf. N.
*Perna rugosa, Goldf. N. Lima electra, d’Orbig. F.N
*Hinnites abjectus, Phil. F.N. ¢ Unicardium, nov.sp. N.
*Pecten articulatus, Goldf. F. Tancredia, nov. sp.
*Gresslya abducta, Phil. F.N.B. Trigonia Ramsayii, Wright. F.
* conformis?, Agass. F.N. Pecten textorius?, Goldf. F.
*Pleuromya tenuistria, Agass. I’. N. Pholadomya allied to media, Agass. F.
*Goniomya angulifera, Sow. F. Astarte complanata?, Romer, N.
*Astarte excavata, Sow. F.N. lurida, Sow,
*Myoconcha crassa, Sow. N. Lima ornata, Lyc.,n.sp. N.
*Astarte modiolaris, Lamk. N. Gervillia fornicata, Lyc.,n.sp. N.
*Cypricardia cordiformis, Desh. -F. Arca allied to olivzeformis, Lyc. N.
Pecten comatus?, Goldf. N. Nucula ovalis?, Ziet. N.
Opis carinata, Wright. F. Pholadomya ovulum, Agass.
Brachiopoda.

Terebratula subpunctata, David. F. N. B. Rhynchonella cynocephala, Rich. F. B.t

+ B.F.N. W. indicate that the species is found at Beacon, Frocester, Nailsworth, and
Wotton-under-Edge.

1856. 6

82 REPORT—1856.

All the Cephalopoda of the above list are found only in the uppermost zone of the
Upper Lias of France and Germany, with the exception of Amm. bifrons, which
occupies always a lower zone, and at Frocester is contained in the nodules towards
the base of the sands; one gasteropod and seventeen species of Conchifera, found in
the Ammonite bed, extend upwards into the Inferior Oolite; the species marked with
an asterisk (*) form the series which are common to the Cephalopoda bed, and to the
limestones of the Inferior Oolite. All the others are either Upper Lias forms or are
special to this bed.

One of the Brachiopods, Rhynchonella cynocephala, is found only in the Cepha-
lopoda bed, whilst Terebratula subpunctata descends into the marlstone.

The author contended that all classes of the Mollusca are not of the same value to
the palontologist in stratigraphical geology, as some have a much wider range than
others; for example, certain species of Conchifera extend through the Lower and
Middle Lias, others pass from the Inferior Oolite into the Cornbrash, and even into
the Coral rag, whilst the different zones of the Lias, and the several stages of the
oolitic rocks, are all characterized by distinct species of Ammonites, which are limited
to these different horizons of life; for this reason Cephalopoda are regarded as better
indicators of geological time than Conchifera; as none of the twenty-one species of
Ammonites, Belemnites and Nautili passed from the Cephalopoda bed into the In-
ferior Oolite, and were all identical with Upper Lias forms, it was inferred that the
Cephalopoda bed represented the Jurensis-marl of German authors, or the uppermost
zone of the Upper Lias.

The author further showed that the Inferior Oolite contains fourteen species of
Ammonites, two Nautili, one Belemnite, ten species of Gasteropoda, forty species of
Conchifera, ten species of Brachiopoda, eight species of Annelida, twenty-two species
of Echinodermata, and fourteen species of Anthoxoa, not one of which was found in
the Cephalopoda bed on which the Inferior Oolite immediately rests.

The Dorsetshire sections confirm the same conclusions, but the lists of. fossils from
these rocks are not so complete as those furnished by the Gloucestershire sections;
the author had not collected many of his Dorsetshire fossils himself, and was unable
to decide on the stratigraphical position of many of his specimens. Ammonites Dorset-
ensis, Wright, has not yet been found in the Cotteswold hills, although it is most °
abundant in several localities in Dorsetshire.

The Cephalopoda bed is regarded as the English equivalent of the “ Grés supra-
liassique ou marly sandstone” of M.Terquem, as developed in the department of the
Moselle.

“ Schiste et Marne de Grand Cour” of MM. Chapuis and Dewalque, as it occurs in
the Province of Luxembourg.

“Graue Kalkstein-Bank mit Ammonites Jurensis” of Quenstedt, forming the bed ¢
the uppermost of his Schwarzer Jura (Lias).

The Jurensis-marl of Dr. Fraas, in his table of the Jura formation of Suabia.

The positive palzontological evidence leads the author to group his Cephalopoda
bed with the uppermost zone of the Lias, specifically characterized by Ammonites
Jurensis and variabilis, and Rhynchonella cynocephala, and the other forty-four
species special to this bed; and negatively separated from the Inferior Oolite which
rests upon it, by the one hundred and twenty species which appear for the first time
in that stage.

Besides the forty-seven species which have hitherto been found only in the Cepha-
lopoda bed, there are eighteen species which are common to this bed and the Infe-
rior Oolite ; but these are chiefly Conchifera, which have a wide vertical range, whilst
the Cephalopoda, which are special to it, have a very limited distribution in time}
both positive and negative evidence therefore support the conclusion that the Cepha-
lopoda bed and sands belong to the uppermost part of the Upper Lias, and not to
the Inferior Oolite with which they have hitherto been classed.

Pee ee

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 83

BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY, IncLupDING PHYSIOLOGY.

Botany.

On a supposed Fossil Fucus found at Aust Cliff, Gloucestershire.
By C. C. Basineton, M.A., F.RS.

Asove the well-known bed containing fossils occupying the higher part of Aust
Cliff, there is a bed of laminated rock nearly, or quite, devoid of fossil remains.
Lately a fall of the cliff brought down a part of this upper stratum, when Mr.
Brodie, the author of a well-known work on fossil insects, found between some of
the thin plates of stone a substance closely resembling a Fucus. There being no
apparent mode of accounting for its presence in that position, and no reason except
its very modern appearance for doubting its fossil character, Mr. Brodie and other
geologists and naturalists inclined to think it of ancient origin, and for that reason
presented it to the notice of the Section. Several naturalists examined the specimen,
and thought it possible that it might be a recent product, a Rhizomorpha, which
had intruded itself between the plates of stone. A careful microscopic examination
alone can determine if it is of fungoid or algal structure, of recent or fossil date.

Notes on Experiments in the Botanical Garden of the Royal Agricultural College.
By Professor Buckman, F.G.S., of the Agricultural College, Cirencester.

In this paper the author first described the soil and situation of the locale occupied
as his garden, which, from being situate on Forest Marble Clay, is of a somewhat
sterile character. ‘The experimental portion is divided into 200 plots, most of which
are 23 yards square, some double that size, and a few still larger, now engaged for
experiments with various manures. The plots are employed at the present time with
crops mostly experimental, in the following classes :—grasses, 82; papilionaceous
feeding-plants, 25 ; crops for green food, 12; wheat, 6; garden vegetables, 5; turnips,
experiments with manures, 14; economic plants, 13; flowering and ornamental
plants, 40: total, 197. For the grasses many observations were given tending to
show that several so-called species prove in cultivation to be varieties,—instances of
which were given in the following genera:—Bromus, Festuca, and Agrostis. One
case in particular of the three following forms of Festuca, F. loliacea, F. pratensis,
and Ff. elatior, were shown to have been produced from the same seed by the gradual
change of the first two into the latter. In the Papilionacee the author pointed out
the production of the spring and winter varieties of Vetch from the V. angustifolia.
In the genus Trifolium he made the foliowing remarks on T. pratense and T. medium.
The T. pratense occurs wild in all good and rich meadows and pastures; its place,
however, in poor sandy soils is supplied by the T. medium, on which account the
latter plant was some few years since introduced into agriculture to ensure a crop
when the former usually failed. The seedsmen used to supply it under its botanical
name of 7’. medium ; but it is a curious circumstance that all the samples of this seed
now in the market show it to be but a variety of T. pratense, and hence, at present,
the best informed seedsmen no longer send it out under the original botanical desig-
nation of T. medium, but under that of T. pratense perenne,—the fact being well
established that we have two varieties of broad clover in cultivation, whilst the true
T. medium has been entirely lost to agriculture; and the whole evidence with respect
to this subject showed that it has not been lost from neglect, but that it has merged
into T. pratense; and if so, it remains as a most interesting matter for experiment,
especially when itis considered that no doubt has been entertained by botanists of
their distinction as species. Many experiments of a like kind were described, and
their practical utility clearly pointed out.

On New Forms of Diatomacee from the Firth of Clyde. By Professor Grecory,
Edinburgh.
The author, after referring to two papers by himself on the Diatoms of the Glen-

shira Sand, the marine forms in which must have come from the Firth of Clyde,
proceeded to describe the material now under investigation. It is remarkable that

_ of all the many undescribed marine forms found in the Glenshira Sand, not one has

6*

84 : REPORT—1856.

yet been recorded as occurring in the Firth of Clyde. The new materialwas nothing
more than dirt washed from some nests of Lima hians, dredged by Prof. Allman off
Arsan, in four fathoms water, on the 19th of July. After washing with acids, &c.,
a residue, rich in Diatoms, was left. In this the author found—1. Many common
species, both freshwater and marine; 2. Many known but rare or curious marine
forms, such as Navicula Hennedyi, Sm.; Lyra, Ehr.; granulata, Bréb. ; Pleurosigma
transversale, Sm. ; obscurum, Sm. ; rigidum, Sm.; delicatulum, Sm. ; Stauroneis
pulchella 8, Sm.=Stauroptera aspera, Ehr.; Eupodiscus Ralfsii, Sm.; crassus, Sm. ;
Coscinodiscus concinnus, Sm. ; Eupodiscus sculptus ; Podosira Montaguei, Sm.; Cam-
pylodiscus Horologium, Sm.; Surirella fastuosa, Sm.—3. Many of the new forms
figured by the author in his two papers on the Glenshira Sand, the third part of
which will not be published till October. Those here found are Navicula rhombica,
W. G.; maxima, W.G. ; maxima, var. 8, W. G.; quadrata, W. G. (humerosa, Bréb.);
latissima, W. G.; angulosa, W. G.; angulosa, var. 6, W. G. formosa, W. G.;
Pandura, Bréb.; Crabro, Ehr.; incurvata, W. G.; splendida, W. G.; didyma y,
costata, W. G.; didyma, W. G.; clavata, W. G.; Amphora Arcus, W. G.; Amphi-
prora vitrea 8, W. G.; Tryblionella constricta, W. G.; Synedra undulata, W. G.
(=Toxarium undulatum, Bailey). The above are all correctly figured in the two plates
of Glenshira forms already published. The following are figured in the plate to be
published in October :—Cocconeis distans, W. G.; costata, W. G.; Amphora crassa,
W. G.; elegans, W. G.; Grevilliana, W. G.; Amphiprora minor, W. G.; Nitzschia.
insignis, W. G.; socialis, W. G.; distans, W. G.; Eupodiscus sparsus, W. G. ;
Campylodiscus simulans, W. G.; and another disc not yet named. It thus appears
that about thirty of the new marine forms of the Glenshira Sand occur in this ma-
terial, as might be anticipated from the connexion between Glenshira and Loch Fyne
which is an arm of the Firth of Clyde.—4. Many forms which appear to be entirely
new. These consist of—a. Navicuiz and Pinnulariz, of which there are several,
chiefly small; but there is one very fine large Navicula, of very peculiar aspect, which
proves to be N. pretevta, Khr. It has a marginal and two medial striated bands,
and the space between these is irregularly powdered with round granules, the same
as those of which the strie are made up. One of the smaller forms exhibits,
at one focal distance, a striated marginal band, at another the whole vaive is seen
to be striated. There are several others, which the author has not had time as
yet to study. 0. Filamentous forms, of which there are several. One is ap-
parently a Denticula, a fine large form, which, as no marine species of the
genus are known in Britain, the author names, provisionally, Denticula marina.
Four appear to be species of Zygoceros, two of which are rather large, and two
smaller. One frequent form is that named by Smith, from the front view alone,
Himantidium Williamsoni. The side view proves it to be not a Himantidium ; and it
is probably a Diadesmis. A predominant form in the material is a small disc, possi-
_ bly = Coscinodiscus minor, Sm. But it is here seen to be an Orthocira. . Cocco-
neides. There appear to be three or four species of Cocconeis, which are only
mentioned, not having been fully studied. Two of these are allied to C. distans,
which also occurs as above stated, and is both frequent and fine, and, notwithstand-
ing the opinion of Prof. Smith, is held by the author to be entirely distinct from C.
Scutellum. d. Discs. These are some apparently new discs, one of which is a large
Campylodiscus, allied to C. Ralfsii, which the author has also found in the Glenshira
Sand, but has not yet described. e. Amphore. Of this genus, of which the Glen-
shira Sand has yielded so many and such remarkable new species, this material, be-
sides several of the Glenshira forms, including two of the finest, 4. crassa and A. Gre-
villiana, has yielded a large number of new, and in most cases very remarkable spe-
cies. One of these is nearly square, one is linear with an expansion in the middle,
and one is linear with two suchexpansions. There are probably about ten new spe-
cies of Amphora, but it has been impossible in'so short a time to determine them
properly. Almost all the forms which have been named above, whether known or
undescribed, occur finely developed, and there are also very fine specimens of many
forms which have not been named. On the whole, the author trusts that this pre-
liminary notice will show how much remains to be done among marine Diatoms, and
how desirable it is that marine deposits on mud should be carefully and minutely
searched.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 85

On the Development of the Embryo of Flowering Plants.
By Arruur Henrrey, F.R.S., Professor of Botany in King’s College, London.

All those who have devoted attention to the study of vegetable physiology, are
aware that a controversy has been carried on pretty actively of late years, regarding
the real mode of origin of the primary cell, from which the embryo becomes deve-
loped in the seeds of the higher plants. On one hand, Prof. Schleiden has asserted
that the ‘‘germ-cell”’ is produced in the end of the pollen-tube, after this organ
has penetrated to the nucleus of the ovule. Until very lately, Schleiden has firmly
adhered to this opinion, and it has been most actively defended by Dr. Schacht in
various memoirs, receiving additional support also in a few other less important
guarters. On the other hand, Prof. Amici, about ten years ago, announced his
conviction that Schleiden and the pollinists were mistaken, and, moreover, showed
that in certain species of Orchis and other plants the germ-cell originates quite inde-
pendently in the embryo-sac, and is merely fertilized by the contents of the pollen-
tube. Amici’s views have been confirmed, and the illustrations of the doctrine
extended, by Von Mohl, Hofmeister, and others, among whom the author of this
paper may be counted. M.Tulasne also may be ranked, for his later researches, in
the same company, although he differs in his conclusions in a subordinate point, he
having been unable to detect the germ-cells in the embryo-sac prior to fertilization,
aithough he finds them originating quite independently of the pollen-tube after this
has exerted its influence. This discrepancy is perhaps explicable, by the perishable
condition in which the germinal body has now been ascertained to exist, previously
to its impregnation by the pollen-tube.

In the course of the last twelve months the aspect-of the present question has
undergone a most striking change, depending not only on the total surrender of one
of the conflicting parties, but on the recognition of a totally new point, throwing
very considerable light on the true nature of the analogies existing between the pro-
cesses of reproduction in vegetables generally. The author is induced to lay the
particulars of the recent occurrences before the British Association, not only on
account of the importance of certain of the facts, but by the circumstance that his
long-continued researches on this subject have been rewarded by his being the
first to recognize what he believes to be the essential point in the process of fecun-
dation. i

In the first place, to dismiss certain matters which now belong only to the history
of this question, it may be stated that Schleiden, the originator of the pollinic hypo-
thesis, has become convinced that it is erroneous. One of his pupils, Dr. Radlkofer
of Munich, published in the early part of this year, some researches carried on under
the auspices of Prof. Schleiden; and in the relation of his results, he makes the
statement, that he is authorized by Schleiden to publish that author’s admission
that the preparations figured in the memoir demonstrate the existence of the germinal
vesicles as independent bodies before the pollen-tube reaches the embryo-sac. So
far, therefore, as that point was concerned, Amici’s doctrine might be considered
substantiated, although it still remained to obtain the acknowledgment of error on
the part of Dr. Schacht. That physiologist was in Madeira at the time Dr. Radl-
kofer’s pamphlet appeared, pursuing his physiological researches ; and we have just
received a report of a communication sent by him to Berlin, containing not only
the required admission, but a remarkable confirmation of a new and most important
point, which had been brought forward in the mean time by the author of this
notice.

_ From the time when I carefully repeated Amici’s observations on Orchis years
ago, I have been convinced that he was right in regard to the independence and
pre-existence of the germinal bodies in the embryo-sac. Every summer I have
prosecuted researches on this subject, with a view to overcome the obstinate resist-
ance of the pollinists. During last year, I was led to observe certain minute cha-
racteristics of the germinal vesicles, and to apply reagents to them, in order to
ascertain more accurately their conditions in various stages. In the article ‘‘ Ovule ”
of the ‘ Micrographic Dictionary,’ published last autumn, I stated that I had good
reason for believing that the germinal bodies did not possess a cellulose coat until
after impregnation. I had net leisure until the completion of that work to bring my

86 REPORT—1856.

Embryogeny of Santalum album. (All magnified 400 diameters.)

All the figures represent the upper end of the embryo-sac (after soaking in spirit,
by which the protoplasmic contents are coagulated) : figs. 1 and 2, just before the
pollen-tube comes into contact; figs. 3—5, after it has descended and become adhe-
rent to the embryo-sac. The letters have the same significance in all the figures.
a. The protoplasmic germinal corpuscle which becomes the embryonal cell. 6 and
e. Two protoplasmic corpuscles, which always occupy the apex of the sac (coagula).
d. Protoplasmic substance in “‘ primordial utricle’’ of the embryo-sac coagulated
and contracted. e. Membrane of the embryo-sac. /f. Starch-granules. p. Pollen-
tube. a!. The cellulose membrane of the fertilized germinal corpuscle, now become
a perfect embryonal cell.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 87

notes into a fit state for publication, but in February I forwarded a paper to the
Linnean Society of London, which was read on the 4th of March, in which the
new discovery was fully illustrated and explained, as observed in the ovules of San-
talum album. That memoir contained many details respecting the development of
the ovule in all its stages ; but’ the point of greatest physiological importance, and of
absolute novelty, was the demonstration, that previously to the period when the
pollen-tube reaches the embryo-sac, the germinal vesicles, or rather ‘ corpuscles,”
are not perfect cells in the old and ordinary acceptation of the term in vegetable
anatomy, but are merely definitely-bounded, spherical or ellipsoidal masses of gra-
nular protoplusm ; being, in fact, in the same condition as the zoospores of the Con-
fervoid Algz, before they are discharged from the parent-cell in swarming. The
pollen-tube reaches the summit of the embryo-sac, and adheres very firmly to it.
It was not decided whether the membranes gave way, so as to allow the contents
of the pollen-tube to be discharged into the embryo-sac, but this appeared probable.
The result of the application of the pollen-tube to the end of the embryo-sac above
the germinal corpuscles, was very quickly evident in the appearance of a solid cellu-
lose membrane as a new coat to that germinal corpuscle which was to give origin to
the embryo, converting it into a perfect cell. This cell then became divided into
two by a transverse septum, the upper half forming the ‘‘suspensor’’-cell, while
the lower increased in size, and by cell-division became a cellular mass, ultimately
taking the proper form of the embryo.

Botanists who are acquainted with the recent discoveries of Thuret, Pringsheim,
Cohn and others in the reproduction of the Algz, will see the interesting connexion
which exists between the process above described, and the phenomena of fecunda-
tion of the species of the lower plants. I have dwelt upon this in the memoir
presented to the Linnean Society, and stated my opinion, since confirmed by further
observation, that the germinal corpuscle of the archegonium of the Ferns is likewise
destitute of a cellulose coat until it is fertilized by the contact of the spermatozoids.

I send with this notice some drawings illustrating the phenomena presented in

the fertilization of the ovule of Santalum.

Having arrived at the above views, it was with great pleasure I last week received
the report of the May sitting of the Berlin Academy, containing a paper by Dr.
Schacht, transmitted from Madeira, with the date of April, on the same subject,
and confirming my account in all essential respects. His observations on the ovule
of Gladiolus segetum have induced him not only to admit the error in his long and
warm advocacy of the pollinic hypothesis, but to assert that the germinal corpuscles
are, as stated by me, pre-existent as protoplasmic masses destitute of a membrane,
and that their conversion into true cells, with a cellulose wall, is the result, aud the
first evidence of the process of fertilization by the arteries of the pollen-tube. This
corroboration of my statements by an independent observer, is very satisfactory,
seeing the delicacy of the observations on which they rest; but it may be observed,
that the new views form a natural development of those previously entertained by
Amici’s school, resulting from a more minute attention to the nature of “‘ cell-con-
tents”’ than was formerly paid. It is probable that part of the error of the pollinists,
together with Tulasne’s inability to find the germinal corpuscles before impregnation,
may have arisen from the great liability to destruction of the corpuscles by external
aBents, and alteration by endosmose. We have observed them best either by moist-
ening the fresh preparations with solution of sugar instead of pure water, or by
soaking the ovules in spirit before dissection.—August 2, 1856.

On the Triticoidal Forms of A gilops and on the Specific Identity of Centaurea
nigra and C. nigrescens. By the Rev. Professor Henstow, M.A., F.R.S.

In this paper the Professor recorded the result of his own experiments, in which
he had so far succeeded in changing the character of gilops squarrosa as to lead
him to conclude that M. Fabre’s original statement, that 4. ovata was the origin
of the domestic wheat, Triticum sativum, was not altogether without foundation.
He exhibited specimens in which the form of Zgilops squarrosa had undergone
considerable change; but he had not succeeded in obtaining the characters of Triti-

88 REPORT—1856.

cum sativum. Prof. Henslow then exhibited Centaurea nigrescens, in which it was
seen that cultivated specimens of seedling plants had completely passed into the
form of C. nigra. He then referred to instances of species of Rosa, Primula, and
Anagallis, passing one into the other.

On the Movements of Oscillatorie. By Professor G. B. Knowutes, F.L.S.,
Queen’s College, Birmingham.

The Oscillatorie belong to a group of plants which seem to stand immediately
between the animal and vegetable kingdoms. After very careful and repeated exa-
minations, the author has fully satisfied himself that the motions of this family of
freshwater Algz are entirely independent of any electrical influence; of any current
in the fluid in which they are placed; or of any effort to recover their straight posi-
tion. The motions, in fact, have very much the appearance of being spontaneous ;
an opinion in which Prof. Knowles is pleased to find that Captain Carmichael, who
devoted his attention for many years to the investigation of marine and freshwater
alge, fully concurs. Fi

Many of the larger Oscillatoriz, if carefully watched, may be seen to move in
various directions, sometimes to the right, sometimes to the left ; sometimes slowly,
sometimes briskly. The author, however, never perceived in them anything like an
effort to recover the straight position which is considered to be natural to them.
On the contrary, they may often be observed tu bend gradually, so as to form a very
considerable curve ; to return again to the straight position, and then to bend in an
opposite direction. They have also a progressive motion; and two filaments lying
side by side, may frequently be seen advancing in opposite directions on the field of
the microscope. This progressive motion, in all probability, is effected by means of
cilia, although they have not hitherto been detected. Of the correctness of these
facts any one may readily convince himself, by examining with a little attention
fresh specimens of any of the larger Oscillatoriz.

On the genus Abrothallus, De Nrs.. By W. Lauper Linnsay, M.D., Perth.

The genus Abrothallus has long been misunderstood and little known by botanists.
Its species have generally been regarded either as the abortive, monstrous or acces-
sory apothecia of various common lichens :—as parasitic species of Endocarpon or
Lecidea; or as parasitic Fungi. They are athalline: hence the apothecia, which
are very minute, almost microscopic, may be said to constitute the plants. They
are parasitic on the thallus of various common foliaceous lichens belonging to the
genera Parmelia, Cetraria and Sticta; and are especially abundant on furfuraceous
states of Parmelia saxatilis. Though comparatively unknown to British botanists,
Dr. L. has met with them plentifully on old road-side walls, and more sparingly on
boulders, rocks, and trees, both in the Highlands and Lowlands of Scotland; and
more particularly in the neighbourhood of Perth, Dunkeld, Braemar, Glen Shee,
Lochaber, Skye, and Dumfries. The genus is specially interesting, from possessing,
in addition to the ordinary reproductive organs,—the spores and spermatia,—of
other lichens, accessory, 1eproductive bodies, stylospores, contained in minute
microscopic conceptacles, termed by Tulasne Pycniod-s. The presence of stylo-
spores and the absence of a thallus, tend to assimilate this genus closely to the
Fungi, between which and the lichens the marks of differentiation are daily beco-
ming less and less distinct.

The first approach to a satisfactory examination and description of the genus was
made by De Notaris, who, however, was led into various errors regarding its struc-
ture. He described it as possessing a small, delicate thallus; hence the name
which he bestowed on the genus. This thallus is now ascertained to belong to, or
to be a modified portion or anamorphosis of, the thallus of Parmelia saxatilis, or
other lichen, on which the Abrofhallus is parasitic. His errors were corrected by
Tulasne, in a monograph on the genus dbrothallus, and certain allied parasitic
genera, included in his elaborate and valuable memoir on the minute anatomy of
the lichens, published in the ‘Annales des Sciences Naturelles’ for 1852. The
results of Dr. Lindsay’s examination of a large number of Scotch specimens, have

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 89

led him, however, to take a somewhat different view of the numbers and characters
of the species; and have enabled him to supply certain important omissions, and to
correct various minor errors of previous observers. He has been the first, it is
believed, to observe and describe the spermogones and spermatia of the genus; and
thus to give a complete account of its minute anatomy. The structure of the apo-
thecia appears to entitle this genus to be classed in the natural family of the Leci-
deacea. Tulasne describes the five following species :—

1. Abrothallus Smithii.

z. sy Welwitzschit.
3. ae microspermus.
4. ” oxysporus.
5. ey inquinans.

Dr. L. includes the three first species of Tulasne under his 4. Smithi’, retaining
Tulasne’s specific characters as distinctive of varieties, which he denominates re-
spectively a. var. ater; 8. var. pulverulentus ; and 6. var. microspermus. The fifth
species, which Tulasne himself designates a “‘ species recedens,’’ he discards as
not properly pertaining to the genus Abrothallus at all. The fourth he accepts as a
good and well-marked species. The species described by Tulasne and Dr. Lindsay
contrasted are therefore as follows :—

1. d. Smithii, Tul.
2. A. Welwitzschii, Tul. }
3. A. microspermus, Tul.

1. A. Smithii, Linds.
a. ater.
B. pulverulentus.
y. microspermus.
4. A. oxysporus, Tul. = 2. A. oxysporus, Linds.
5. A. inquinans, Tul. omitted.

The following are the full characters of the genus and its two species, as
emended by Dr. L.

Genus. Abrothallus, De Nrs. emend. Athalline: parasitic on the thallus of various
foliaceous lichens. Apothecia developed in medullary tissue of matrix: burst
through, sometimes fissuring in a radiate manner, the cortical layer, which may
form a raised border: finally seated on, or partially immersed in, the alien
thallus: at first flattened or discoid, sometimes becoming pulviniform or globose:
immarginate: circumference agglutinated to matrix or free: smooth or pulveru-
lent: mostly black. Thece 8-spored: clavate, becoming obovate: amyloid
reaction with iodine often inconspicuous or absent. Paraphyses closely aggre-
gated: thickened, deeply coloured and cohering at their apices. Spores ovate-
oblong and obtuse at ends, or ellipsoid and acute: 2-locular, the loculi being
unequal in size and the larger one always looking towards the apex of the theca,
or simple : of an olive-green or brownish colour, or pale: frequently containing
two or more globular nuclei. Spermogones immersed, spherical, simple, open-
ing by a point-like or stellate-fissured ostiole: envelope of a deep brown tint.
Sterigmata simple, slender, irregular, generating from their apices linear, straight,
slender spermatia. Pycnides also immersed, spherical, 1-locular, opening by a
simple or stellate ostiole: generally larger and more conspicuous than the sper-
mogones. Sterigmata short, simple, sometimes inconspicuous or absent: mo-
nospored: generating from their apices the stylospores, which are pyriform or
obovate, simple, pale, obtuse at ends, and contain an oily protoplasm or distinct
oil-glebules. ‘

Species I. Abrothallus Smithii, Tul. emend. [including the A. Smithii, A. Wel-
witzschii, and A. microspermus of Tulasne; and the A. Bertianus and A. Buel-
lianus of De Notaris and Massalongo.] Apothecia epithalline: scattered,
rarely confluent: prominent: pulviniform or globose: normally smooth and
black, sometimes green-pulverulent: circumference agglutinated or free: ulti-
mately falling out and leaving distinct, cyphelloid, variously coloured foveolz,
which have sometimes raised and dark margins. Theca: amyloid reaction with
iodine feeble or none. — Spores ovate-oblong : 2-locular, upper segment broader
and shorter than lower: olive-green or brownish: vary in size: loculi fre-
quently containing one or two globular nuclei.

a, var. ater. Apothecia black and smooth.
(A. Smithii, Tul. in part.]

90 REPORT—1856..

B. var. pulverulentus. Apothecia sparingly or copiously green-pulverulent.
[A. Smithii, Tul. in part, and A. Welwitzschii, Tul.)

6. var. microspermus, Spores small and pale.
[A. microspermus, Tul. ]

Habitats. I. Parasitic on furfuraceous states of Parmelia saxatilis, chiefly on old
roadside walls, less frequently on boulders, rocks, and trees. Craigie Hill
and Moncrieff Hill, Perth: Craig-y-Barus, Birnam Hill, and Amulrec Road,
Dunkeld: Caerlaveroch Road, Dumfries: Ben Lawers: Glen Shee and Glen
Clunie: Braemar: Fort-William and Ben Nevis: banks of Crinan Canal:
Glen Sligachan, Portree, Broadford and Uig, Skye: Wrekin Hill, Shropshire:
var. a. [Leighton’s Lich. Brit. exsicc. No. 46. Fasc. 2. 7: Barmouth, North
Wales, Rev. W. A. Leighton.]

II. On Sticta fuliginosa : rocks, New Cut, Meadfoot, Torquay, Devonshire [ Leight.
Lich. Brit. exsicc. No. 191. Fasc. 6.], var. B.

Species II. A. orysporus Tul. emend. Apothecia not prominent: chiefly im-
mersed: flattened or discoid: blackish-brown: generally crowded. Thece:
amyloid reaction with iodine distinct. Paraphyses: tips light brown. Spores
ellipsoid, acute at ends, colourless or pale yellow, normally containing two yel-
lowish globular nuclei, placed at opposite ends of the spore.

Habitats. 1. Parasitic on furfuraceous states of Parmelia saxatilis, generally asso-
ciated with the preceding species in most of the stations already mentioned.

II. On Parmelia conspersa, Barmouth, North Wales, Leighton.

III. On Cetraria glauca, Barmouth, Leighton.

Mr. M. Masters exhibited a specimen of an abnormal growth in a rosewood-tree.
The specimen consisted of two root-like organs which had been found in the hollow
of a trunk of the rosewood-tree ; the root-like branches having descended from the
upper part of the cavity in the trunk, and descended and penetrated into the bottom
of it.

On the Flora of the Crimea. By Dr. MicuEtsen.
On the Geography of Breadstuffs. By Dr. Micnesen.

Notice of the Natural Printing of Sea-Weeds on the Rocks in the vicinity of
Stromness, Orkney. By Cuantes W. Pracu.

The author found, on the rocks near Stromness, by the sea-side, distinct impres-
sions of living Alge, Desmarestia ligulata, Halidrys siliquosa, Fucus nodosus, and
several others. It appeared that in some cases the stone (micaceous Old Red Sand-
stone) had been covered by a Leathsia?, that this was corroded by the larger sea-
weeds, so that their forms appeared slightly impressed, and of a yellow colour. In
other cases no preparatory growth of Leathsia was observed, but the stone was
slightly excavated, and darkened in colour. The author showed the bearing of this
observation in cases of plant-like forms in the Lower Paleozoic strata of Cornwall,
where no trace of carbonaceous matter appeared.

Zoo.Loey.

A Notice of some New Genera and Species of British Zoophytes.
By Josuua ALpER.

The paper contained descriptions of thirteen new species, found by the author on
the coasts of Northumberland and Durham. They include two new genera, and
another genus not before recorded as European. They are as follows :—Vorticlava,
a new genus allied to Clava, but differing in having the tentacles in two regular circles
round the head, and dissimilar. The species V. humilis has five tentacles in the
upper row, and ten in the lower.—Eudendrium confectum, a small species encrust-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 91

ing old univalve shells, and having much the habit of a Hydractinia.—E. capillare,
_ a minute slender-branched species, having the polypes and reproductive capsules on
different branches.—Sertularia tricuspidata, somewhat resembling S. polyzonias,
but more nearly allied to a New Zealand species (S. Johnstoni, Gray). It has three-
toothed apertures to the cells.—Sertularia tenella, a species supposed by Dr. John-
ston to be a variety of S. rugosa with the habit of S. polyzonias, but it differs from both
in some of its characters.—Campanularia volubilis, C. Johnstoni, and C. Hincksit.
The Linnean species is re-described for the purpose of distinguishing it from the
other two, which have been confounded with it. According to the opinion of the
author, the C. volubilis of Johnston differs from that of Ellis. The latter is considered
to be the Linnean type, and the second species is named C. Johnstoni. They differ
in the form of their ovicapsules, as well as in other particulars. A third species,
with the margin of the cell sculptured in a castellated form, had been previously ob-
served by the Rev. T. Hincks, and is here called C. Hinckstii.—C. gracillima, a
species allied to C. dumosa.—Grammaria, a. genus lately described by Mr. Stimpson
in ‘A Synopsis of the Marine Invertebrata of Grand Manan,’ published by the Smith-
sonian Institution of Washington. The British species, now first noticed, comes
very near to the G. robusta of Stimpson, but differs in being much branched. It is
called G. ramosa.—Buskia, a new genus of Polyzoa, belonging to the family Vesi-
culariade. It is parasitical, and consists of small cells, closely adhering to other
substances, with marginal spines also adhering. They are united by a creeping fibre.
The species B. nitens is minute, shining, and horn-coloured.—Farrella pedicellata.
Found on old shells from deep water. It differs from the Laguncula (Farrella) elon-
gata of Van Beneden in the great length and slenderness of the pedicle, and in some
other respects.—Alcyonidium mammillatum, an encrusting species, found on old
shells, distinguished by the size of the papilla.—A. albidum, enveloping the stem of
Plumularia falcata with prominent whitish polypides.

A skull of a Manatee, obtained by Dr. Baikie in Africa, was exhibited to the
Section.

Dr. Bauu, of Dublin, exhibited a Dredge which he had found of the greatest use ~
in making dredging excursions.

Notice of a new Crustacean, Monimia Whiteana. By Spence Bate, Plymouth.

Observations on the Acalephe, with respect to Organs of Circulation and Respi-
-ration. By Professor J. H. Corserr, M.D., Queen’s College, Cork.

In this communication the anthor claimed for the Acalephe a degree of organi-
zation higher than that usually conceded to them, and which might be supposed
consistent with so soft-and perishable a structure. He described two different sets of
vessels —a centrifugal and centripetal ; the former divide, subdivide, and anastomose,
as they proceed towards the circumference of the disc; the latter larger, but less in
number, commence towards the circumference and pass in straight lines towards
the centre, where they become connected with the plaited red bands which are
disposed around the gastric cavity. It seems evident that the tubes which circulate
the nutritive fluid are not simply gastro-vascuiar canals as generally described, but
really vessels which assist in maintaining a complete circulation. The four bands
situated around the gastric cavity are considered by recent authors as exclusively
the organs of reproduction, consisting of vesicles which contain sperm-cells in the
male and ova in the female. ‘The contributor of this paper believes these to be
compound parts, and states that the vascular plaited bands are organized in an
appropriate manner for carrying on the respiratory action, while the contained
vesicles are the agents of the reproductive function. According to some writers,
respiration is accomplished by the agency of the cilia, which are attached along the
margin of the disc ; but as ciliary appendages are frequently absent amongst the
Medusz, such a view cannot be considered as satisfactory.

The following considerations seem to indicate that the membranous constituents
of these bands are branchial or respiratory organs :— 1st, by their position around

99 REPORT—1856.

the gastric cavity and their continuity with the membrane which lines it ; 2ndly, by
their connexion with the vessels; 3rdly, that a rhythmical action of the entire disc
and of these bands takes place both by day and during night, as carefully observed
by the author; 4thly, by an alteration in their colour when respiration is retarded ;
5thly, by the diminution which occurs in one of these bands, if an injury happen
to be inflicted, on the corresponding portion of the disc, while the others preserve
their condition unchanged. : i

On the Pearls of the Conway River, North Wales, with some Observations on
the Natural Productions of the Neighbouring Coast. By Roserr Garner.

_ Though the Unio margaritiferus, or true British Pearl-mussel, is sufficiently well
known to naturalists, yet some obscurity has been thrown on the subject, andthe repu-
tation of its beautiful pearls also suffered, from the circumstance that another very
sordid sort of pearl is procured from the salt-water mussel found at the mouth of the
Conway, the inquirer commonly resting satisfied with such as are here procured and
offered him. With respect to these inferior pearls, undue mystery has been attached
to them and their use. It is true that several families exist by gathering the mussels
at low water, but it is not for the sake of the contained pearls, but as food for swine,
some being also used as baits, the pearls, which indeed are sold as curiosities, being
a secondary object. We doubt whether any method is known of making them orna-
mental. The true pearl mussel must be searched for a good many miles up the
river, and the writer found it plentiful about a mile above the ancient bridge of
Llanrwst, near the domain of Gwydir, where the water is beautifully clear, rapid,
and deep, and it may be had hence up to Bettws-y-Coed. It was probably from
the first spot that Sir Richard Wynne obtained the pearl which he presented to the
queen of Charles the Second. The writer procured a couple of pearls from one
mussel, one of which he considers by no means despicable, though inferior to
another which he saw in the possession of one of the village maidens. By means
of the coracles still used on this part of the river, the naturalists might procure
plenty of these handsome shells, and it may be, be fortunate enough to meet with a
earl,

The banks of the Conway near its embouchure are-singularly rich in maritime and
other plants, very interesting to a naturalist from an inland district of England.
On the rocks of the Great Ormshead, immediately over Llandudno, we picked
Cotoneaster chrysocoma, Veronica spicata, Hypocheris maculata, an Orobanche (pro-
bably minor), apparently springing from the ivy, and, in the neighbourhood, about a
score more plants nearly as rare. The madwort (4sperugo) is not to be had
without endangering the neck, but it grows at Llech, the extreme and exposed point
of the Great Ormshead peninsula. The Scrophularia verna is considered by some a
doubtful native; we gathered it near Gloddaeth, where it is plentiful on one spot,
and have it also from Diganeury; it can hardly have been introduced, Along the
rather dangerous path which goes along the face of the Great Ormshead from the
west, a variety of plants may be got, as the Samphire (Crithmum), generally rare in
Wales. We-here found the Cyclostoma elegans, Bulimus obscurus and acutus, Zua
lubrica, Helix virgata and pulchella, with five or six other common species of Helix,
and three or four common Pupz and Clausiliz.

On several places on the Llandudno mountain are large accumulations of shells,
specimens of which a geologist gave to the writer as crag fossils, and proofs of an
elevation of the rock in comparatively recent times. They entirely consist of the
limpet, mussel, and periwinkle, and are mixed with bones of the sheep or goat.
No doubt they are the débris of ancient inhabitants, who probably worked at the
mines. We obtained a rude stone hammer which was found in tlie mines, similar
to some found by Mr. Bateman in British barrows; and on Pen Ddinas, hard by, we
noticed rows of the foundations of circular British dwellings. An intrepid female
oologist, living by the mines, furnishes eggs of the Guillemot, Puffin, Divers, and
two or three species of Gull.

In the drift at the entrance of the Conway, many minute shells abound, four or
five species of Rissoa, and some of Odostomia, Mangelia, Lacuna, and Chemnitzia :
Chiton cinereus is here abundant under the stones, the C. fascicularis more common

—

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 93

on the Anglesea side of the Menai. The writer picked up also dead shells of Emar-
ginula reticulata, and obtained a specimen of a rare fish, Echiodon. By means of
the dredge, he got from Llandudno Bay Tubularia indivisa, Bullea aperta, Ophiura
rosula, Beroé pileus, Medusa aurita, and a few other species of animals. The deep
cavernous inlets at the foot of the Ormshead, appear to abound in other Meduside,
which however we cannot attempt to enumerate. - In a little pool in the Bay we
captured two specimens of the beautiful little fish, the Argentine. The large
yellowish Doris was common in the crevices of the rocks, and we found it also at
Beaumaris. It appears to take the place of D. verrucosa, which we have commonly

found on the Sussex coast. We picked living specimens of Sphenia Binghami, and,

amongst Radiata, Cribella oculata, of a very rich orange colour, Uraster violacea, and
Asterias papposa ; also Actinia mesembryanthemum of distinct varieties or species, the
beautiful A. dianthus (finer, however, at Penmon), and Anthea cereus. Saxicava
rugosa seems to take the place of the Pholades as a borer in the limestone, though
valves of P. candida and crispata are to be found. The Cephalopoda generally seem
rare on the coast of North Wales; Sepia, Loligo vulgaris and media, all of which we
have found plentiful on the Sussex coast, are uncommon, particularly the first ;
Sepiola and Octopus are, we have heard, occasionally found; of the ova of Cepha-
lopoda we found none. Trochus magus, crassus, and zizyphinus are very fine on the
Caernarvonshire coast ; the largest of the first species are carried up by sea-birds to
the summit of the rocks, the second is the most common species of the shores.
Patella pellucida in all its forms is found on the Laminaria. We got two fresh
shells of Tornatella from the Menai, anf one of Rostellaria pes-carbonis. Jusus
antiquus and islandicus, Bulla lignaria and the large Turritella are not rare as
mere shells. The Natica moniliformis, as it is now termed, abounds alive in Car-
digan Bay, but smaller than on our southern coast. Pecten maximus and Donax
trunculus or anatinus are also often small. The different species of Venus seem to
abound in this sea, particularly if we extend our search to the Isle of Man, where
we found /. striatula and casina, Tapes aurea and fasciata, Artemis lincta, borealis
and exoleta, and Venerupis pullastra, decussata and virginea, often containing the
animals. Solen ensis, Reliqua marginatus and legumen are also common and fine on
this coast ; and other not rare bivalves are Lutraria elliptica, Scrobicularia piperita,
Mya truncata, Psammobia Ferroensis, Mactra solida, truncata, subtruncata, and
stultorum, the latter, however, often as cinerea; also Pectunculus glycimeris in its
two principal varieties.

Crustacea appear to abound; we found species of the hermit crab in shells of
Trochus, Natica, Turbo, and Buccinum. The latter on the Sussex coast, at the
back part of the spire, in company with the crustacean, often contains great speci-
mens of the Nereis bilineata; we have not been able to find it in Wales. The
Phyllodice viridis, a pretty green worm, is seen crawling on the wet rocks of the
Ormshead ; also a species of Aphrodite or Halithea, about an inch and a half long,
with blackish dorsal lamine, four tentacles, muscular retractile proboscis, two sets
of bright sete on each side of every joint, the latter being between thirty and forty
in number, also a small soft process above and below the sete. The Aphrodite
aculeata I could not meet with. :

A specimen of Sponge (S. pulchella) accompanied the communication, which is
abundantly thrown up on the Caernarvonshire coast ; also some specimens of pearls,
and a small shell of the Unio which produces the fine variety.

On the Morphological Constitution of Limbs.
By Professor Goonsir, F.R.S.L. & £.

On the Morphological Constitution of the Skeleton of the Vertebrate Head.
By Professor Goopsir, F.R.S.L. & E.

On the Morphological Relations of the Nervous System in the Annulose and
Vertebrate Types of Organization. By Professor Goonsir, F.R.S.L. & E.

94 REPORT—1856.

Remarks on the Anatomy of the Brachiopoda. By Atnany Hancocx.

Having been engaged for some time past in investigating the structure of the
Brachiopods, I propose laying before this meeting of the British Association the
results attained up to the present moment, especially on two or three points, to which
my attention has been more particularly directed, and on which there exists some
diversity of opinion among anatomists.

So far back as 1852 I had dissected Waldheimia Australis and Terebratulina caput-
serpentis, and was struck by the peculiar appearance of the organs commonly deno-
minated hearts, which seemed very unlike any molluscan heart that I had ever seen.
On attentive examination, it became evident that they gave off no arteries as they
had been described to do; and, moreover, that their apices, from which the arteries
were stated to pass, appeared to openexternally. Iwas therefore, and for other
reasons, inclined to consider the so-called hearts oviducts.

At the same time I examined, with considerable care, the alimentary tube, my
attention having been particularly drawn to this part by Mr. Woodward ; and failed
to demonstrate an anal outlet, though I was disposed to believe in the existence of
a minute anal puncture; and thought that the refuse of digestion might make its
escape by the foramen of the pedicle. Howsoever this might be, it was quite obvious
that no anal aperture was situated in the pallial chamber as described by Professor
Owen. I also examined the muscular apparatus, and likewise the nervous system ;
and the complicated structure of the mantle, I found, invited further investigation.

Other and more urgent matters, however, at that time claimed my attention, and
all further inquiry into the structure of the Brachiopods was necessarily postponed.
The results at which I had arrived were, nevertheless, partially made known, and
have, to a considerable extent, been substantiated by the more recent investigations
of Mr. Huxley, who in 1854 published a very interesting paper on the anatomy of
the Brachiopoda in the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society.’ In this paper the author
arrives at the conclusion, that in Waldheimia and Rhynchonella there is no anus at all,
but that the intestine terminates in a blind sac; that the so-called hearts give off no
arteries, and that they possibly open externally. Mr. Huxley also describes, for the
first time, a system of ramified peripheral vessels, and two or three pyriform vesicles,
one of which is attached to the stomach, and is in connexion with a series of ‘‘ ridges ”’
and “bands.’’ Some of the “ridges” are stated to pass from the so-called hearts
to the genitalia; and the whole apparatus is supposed to be a portion of the circula-
tory organs.

It is then mainly in relation to these points, respecting the vascular and alimentary
systems, raised by Mr. Huxley and myself, that there is a difference of opinion,
Professor Owen maintaining the existence of an anal aperture situated in the pallial
chamber, and that the so-called hearts are true vascular centres propelling the blood
through arteries to the various organs. The opinion of this distinguished anatomist
demands the utmost deference; and it is on no slight grounds that I have ventured
to dissent from it in this instance, doing so only after the most diligent examination
that it was possible to give to the subject, and when to doubt longer would have
been to disregard the evidence of my senses. The greatest caution was forced upon
me, not only by the respect due to authority, but likewise because analogy strongly
favoured the views of the learned Professor respecting an anal aperture. And here
it must be stated that I should never have been able to enter upon this subject with
any chance of success, had I not had at my command an ample supply of specimens.
I have therefore to express my obligations to Dr. Gray, Mr. Huxley, Mr. Wood-
ward, Mr. Davidson, Mr. M‘Andrew and Mr. Alder; as it is to the liberality ot
these gentlemen that I am indebted for the specimens used upon the present
occasion.

First, with regard to the so-called hearts: these are two in number in the Tere-
bratulide ; they are composed of two portions, which have been denominated respect-
ively auricle and ventricle. The former portion is suspended by a membrane in
the visceral chamber, and resembles the mouth of a trumpet with the inner surface
laminated in a radiating manner. The other portion is tubular, arched and tapering,
and is imbedded in the thickness of the anterior wall of the visceral chamber, passing
diagonally through it. On reaching the surface, the apical extremity opens into the
pallial chamber. The whole organ may be looked upon as a tube, constricted a little

ee

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 95

near the centre, with one extremity expanded and opening into the visceral chamber,
the other tapering and opening externally. These organs are placed one on each
side of the intestine, and the apertures by which they communicate with the pallial
chamber are situated near the junction of the two pallial lobes, one on either side of
the. mouth.

In Rhynchonella there are four of these organs, as first pointed out by Mr. Huxley,
all of which open externally. Two correspond in situation with those of the Tere-
bratulide, the other two being placed at the sides of the liver a little above the for-
mer. Lingula is supplied with a pair of these so-called hearts, which do not-differ
materially from those already described.

The external apertures of these organs I have seen in every instance, and though
I have searched with the greatest care, have entirely failed to detect any arteries or
vessels, or anything that could be taken for such, passing from their apices to the
ovaries, or to any other part. When I first detected the external apertures I thought
they might possibly be ruptures of the tissue; but further experience prohibits any
such notion. They are always placed symmetrically, and are of equal size, resem-
bling each other in form, and in every respect are similar, which would not be the
case were they formed accidentally. -

It is quite evident that these organs are not muscular centres ; some other func-
tion than that of propelling blood must be assigned to them. I was originally dis-
posed to look upon them as oviducts, and such I still believe them to be. It has,
however, been suggested to me by Mr. Huxley that they are possibly renal organs,
and that they may perhaps serve also as oviducts. This appears plausible enough,
and may probably turn out to be correct. Professor Owen supposes that the eggs
escape by dehiscence of the pallial membrane. Such a theory might seem feasible
in respect to those Brachiopods which have the ovaries situated between the layers
of that organ; but in Lingula they are developed in the visceral chamber attached
to membranes to which the pseudo-hearts are appended. Here then the ovaries
and these peculiar organs are brought into intimate relationship with each other;
and it would appear more likely that the eggs should escape by this conduit than
that they should have to find their way into the pallial sinuses and then escape by
the rupture of the membranes. The walls of the conduit are of a glandular nature,
and the lips of the internal aperture are spread out like the mouth of a funnel, as if
for the very purpose of receiving the ova on their escape from the ovaries.

The alimentary tube in the Terebratulide and Rhynchonellide is remarkable for the
firmness of its walls, which never collapse, though the cesophagus is generally a little
compressed. It is bent into the form of a siphon, the arch being turned towards
the dorsal or imperforate valve: the cesophagus represents the short, the stomach
and intestine the long arm. The gastric organ, though small, is distinctly marked ;
it is irregularly oval, and suddenly contracting posteriorly gives origin to the intes-
tine, which is short, and is suspended by a membrane in the midst of the visceral
chamber. This portion of the alimentary tube passes downwards and terminates
behind the adductor muscle, having a cardinal muscle on each side. In the Tere-
bratulide it gradually tapers towards its extremity, which is rounded and imperforate.
In Waldheimia Australis it abuts against the membrane circumscribing the visceral
chamber, to which it is firmly attached. But in Waldheimia cranium and Terebra-
tulina caput-serpentis there is no such attachment, the rounded cecal extremity ter-
minating at some little distance from the neutral wall of the chamber. The intestine
of Rhynchonella on reaching this point doubles upon itself, and then advancing a little
ends in an enlarged rounded extremity, which inclines to the right, and projects freely
into the centre of the visceral chamber. In this, as in the Terebratulide, there is no
anal outlet, the termination of the intestinal tube being cecal. This is perfectly
obvious in Rhynchonella psittacea. I have nevertheless made every endeavour to find
an anal perforation; I have made numerous dissections under a powerful doublet, —
have removed the part and examined it with the microscope; I have filled the tube
with fluid as the finger of a glove with air, and by pressure have attempted to force
a passage; I have tried injections; but have equally, on all occasions, failed to
discover an outlet; and have only succeeded in demonstrating more and more clearly
the cecal nature of the terminal extremity of the alimentary tube. Therefore, how-
ever it may be opposed to analogy, the fact must be recorded,—there is no anal
orifice in Waldheimia, Terebratulina and Rhynchonella.

96 REPORT—1856.

The next point that claims attention, is that relating to the pyriform vesicles
described by Mr. Huxley, of which there are five in Waldheimia Australis. In the
other species that I have examined they do not appear to be so numerous; one,
however, is always present. This is attached to the dorsal surface of the stomach
on the median line; and I have satisfactorily ascertained that the “‘ ridges ”’ on the
alimentary tube mentioned by Mr. Huxley as connected with it are really vessels ;
likewise that these vessels pass along the gastro-parietal and ilia-parietal bands of
that gentleman, and thus reaching the ovarian sinuses run along their inner wall
and become attached to the border of the membranous ridge which suspends the
‘ovaries. They then course along the entire length of these organs, however ramified,
forming the axis around which the ova are developed. Two other vessels are in
connexion with this system; one, passing backwards from the tube that runs along
the ilia-parietal bands, goes apparently to the pedicle ; the other, which is larger than
the rest, extends along the middle line of the stomach at the base of the membrane
which divides the liver, and which has been denominated mesentery, and enters the
vesicle in front. The other four vesicles are considerably smaller than that attached
to the stomach, the walls of which are muscular, and are appended to the ovarian
vessels as they enter these organs.

From the above facts it may be safely concluded that in this apparatus we see the
true vascular system of these animals; and yet it must be allowed to be rather of
a peculiar character. The vesicle suspended from the stomach is undoubtedly the
heart, and the vessels passing from it backwards are as assuredly arteries. The
vessel which passes along the stomach and approaches the vesicle in front, is appa-
rently the channel by which the blood is returned from the aérating surface; but I
have hitherto failed to ascertain by what path the blood reaches this channel. It
would not, however, be difficult to conjecture, were it not better to wait the result
of further investigation. The central organ of propulsion is here of a very simple
form,—a mere vesicle scarcely higher in organic mechanism than the pulsating
vessel of the Ascidian; there is no auricle, no pericardium. Its powers must neces-
sarily be feeble; hence probably the additional vesicles appended to the ovarian arteries,
which are apparently accessory pulsating organs.

With respect to the muscular system, I now find that the accessory cardinals are
not always distinct from the cardinal muscles ; but that the two occasionally coalesce,
forming only one muscle. This is the case in Waldheimia cranium. It is also worthy
of remark, that the dorsal pedicle muscles are not invariably attached to the hinge
plate. In W. cranium and Terebratulina caput-serpentis they have their origin in
the valve itself between the adductors, extending nearly as far forward as they do.

I have nothing very positive to communicate on the reproductive system; it does
not, however, appear conclusive that the Brachiopods are dicecious; but, on the
contrary, I find that the so-called ovaries or testes in Waldheimia Australis are really
composed of two parts,—one yellow and minutely granular, the other red and
formed of large vesicles. In some specimens the former portion was developed into
eggs; but I have not yet observed spermatozoa in the red part, which is probably
the malesecreting organ. This would appear to be likely from what I have observed
in Lingula. In this genus the ovary is developed within the visceral chamber, of a
yellow colour; and on the inner surface of the dorsal and ventral walls of this
chamber there ramifies a red dentritic organ which is made up for the mast part of
large vesicles like those of the red portion of the genitalia of Waldheimia; and in
this organ I have found what I believe to be spermatophora filled with spermatozoa.
Thus it would appear that Lingula is androgynous; and if so, it is probable that
the other Brachiopods may likewise have the sexes combined in the same individual.

I shall refrain on the present occasion from entering upon the nervous system,
which is beautifully developed, only remarking that it requires further elucidation ;
and in conclusion may express a hope that I shall be able, before terminating the
investigation on which I am now engaged, to clear up what still remains obscure in
the anatomy and physiology of these interesting animals, and that at no distant
period I shall be in a position to publish a detailed and illustrated account of these
matters. With a view to this I have already made numerous drawings.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 92

Suggestions for ascertaining the Causes of Death in Birds and Animals.
By W. E. C, Noursz, F.R.Med. & Chirur.S.

The Medical Indications of Poisoning. By Wittiam E.C. Nourse, Surgeon
~ to the Kast and West Cowes Dispensary, and Fellow of the Royal Medical and
Chirurgical Society

The medical proofs of poisoning are to be sought for,—1. in the recognition of the
phystological or vital effects of the poison ; and 2. in the detection of the poison by tests: —
by chemical tests, used in the test-tube, the subliming tube, or the blowpipe; by
mechanical tests, powerful microscopes being used for the identification of crystals;
and by vital tests, portions of the suspected matter being given to animals, applied
to living tissues, or tasted with the tongue.

The testing of a poison thus seems in a fair way of being thoroughly understood ;
but the methods of its recognition by its physiological or vital effects demand a few
further remarks,

1. The author insists in an especial manner on the importance of recognizing the
earliest symptoms of the administration of a poison.

2. The recognition of the severer and fully developed symptoms of poisoning requires
no new comment; yet we have seen that life has actually been allowed to pass away
without such recognition being made.

3. In cases of recovery, it is important to note the manner in which the symptoms

ass off, and to observe the sequele of them, if any.

4. The mode of dying, when death takes place, is very indicative. There may be
death from coma, death from suffocation, or death from exhaustion, either of vital
power or of the vital fluid, or both. Itis necessary to remember which sort of death,
each poison produces, both to aid in identifying the poison, and for purposes of treat-

» ment.

5. The first thing sought for in examination after death should invariably be, phy-
siological evidence as to the mode of dying. ‘Thecontents of the cavities of the heart
ought therefore to be examined before any other part is touched. It seems surprising,
that in the very able and careful post-mortem exanunations now made, this needful
attention to the order of proceedings should be overlooked; yet we every day read
accounts of such investigations in cases of the highest importance, in which no
notice is taken of th2 contents of the heart, or if they are examined, it is after other
parts have been looked into, and when the empty or full condition of these cavities
can no longer be ascertained, owing to the vessels having been cut across.

A proper examination of the contents of the heart, which can only be done rightly
if done first, would show the immediate physiological state which caused death, and
which points directly, through a more or less rapid series of effects of which it forms
the closing one, to the poison which originated them.

Nor is it in cases of poisoning alone that this point should be attended to. It
should be done in all cases ; and should invariably form the first step in any post-
mortem examination. The uses and advantages of this proceeding will be obvious
to every medical man ; and for the sake of the student, who is generally called on
to assist or to be present, it ought to be especially insisted on.

6. The other effects of poisons discovered in examinations post-mortem, are well known,
and have always received due attention.

In fact, these, with the chemical detection of the poison, and the severer and fully
developed symptoms during life, are and have been generally relied on as the great
medical proofs of poisoning. They must continue to be so ; but it is also necessary that
the other points alluded to should not be overlooked, especially the earlier and pre-
monitory symptoms which indicate poisoning, and the information to be gathered
from inspection of the contents of the heart.

Note on an instance of Instinct in a Caterpillar.
By Sir Tuomas Puiturrrs, Bart., M.A., F.R.S.

1856. 7

98 REPORT—1856.

Recent Researches on the Cause of the Fluidity of the Blood.
By B. W. Ricuarpson, M.D.

The point of Dr. Richardson’s researches consisted in the discovery of the volatile
alkali, ammonia, as a constituent of the living blood, and its escape from blood
abstracted from the body. The author related a long series of demonstrative expe-
riments, all proving not only that ammonia was present in the blood, but that upon
its presence the solubility of the fibrine, and therefore the fluidity of blood, de-
pended. The peculiarity of this demonstration of the cause of the fluidity of the
blood is, that it explains the different hypotheses which have previously been offered
on this question, and shows how far these hypotheses have approached or fallen
short of the truth. In concluding his paper, Dr. Richardson pointed out that
ammonia, in combination with carbonic acid gas, is a constaat constituent of the air
expired in the breath. The presence of ammonia in the animal economy, and its
evolution in respiration, was of interest, in that it connected more closely the link that
exists between the animal and vegetable worlds. But the subject was of the greatest
importance in relation to the causes, the nature and the treatment of various diseases,
especially those of the fever class.

Experiments and Observations on the Development of Infusorial Animatcules.
By J. Samurtson, Honorary Secretary to the Royal Institution (Literary
Society), Hull.

The author mentioned that, in March last, he had traced in rain- water the growth
of an infusorial animalcule, called Glaucoma scintillans, from one of the so-called
Monads of Ehrenberg, and, aided by a diagram, pointed out its gradual development ;
explaining, at the same time, the action of the internal organs, such as those of
digestion, &c., and the differentiation in structure which takes place as the animal-
cule grows older. He stated that he had fed these invisible forms with vegetable *
cake in the first instance, and under the microscope with indigo, so that the process
of digestion was rendered visible (the latter is a mode which has for some time been
adopted by microscopists). Another phase in the existence of the animalcule was
then described by the author, namely, the encysting process; also, the subsequent
appearance of numerous examples of Kerona,—a form of a higher character than
Glaucoma, which the author believed to be the result of the process just named.
Having obtained this glance at the life of Glaucoma, Mr. Samuelson then tried (at
the suggestion, he said, of Mr. Robert Hunt) what effect the rays of the sun would
have when filtered through variously-coloured glasses in accelerating or retarding
animalcular life. For this purpose, he fitted up a box containing three compartments,
covered by a pane of blue, red, and yellow glass respectively ; and he found that whilst
under the blwe and red glass infusorial forms were rapidly developed, under the yellow
hardly any signs of life were visible. He then transferred a portion of the infusion
from the yellow to the blue compartment, when the infusorial forms very shortly
made their appearance. After this he varied the experiment, employing distilled
water and finely-cut hay, when the same results were even more strikingly exhibited.
The temperature, he said, under the three compartments varied on the average about
three degrees, though frequently the variation was greater, the blue always being the
lowest. After mentioning one or two other circumstances connected with the expe-
riment, Mr. Samuelson concluded with a review of the results, and observed that if
they should be confirmed, that is, if the differently-coloured rays could be proved to
operate variously upon animal and vegetable life (to which he also adverted in the
course of his paper), much new light would be thrown on the debateable ground
between the two kingdoms.

Description of the Ajuh, a kind of Whale, found by Dr Vogel in the River
Benué (Central Africa) in September 1855. Translated and communicated
by Dr. Suaw.

The Ajuh is a species of whale found in the River Benué, or Upper Chadda, by

Dr. Vogel, and is thus described by him :—It is black, horizontal, shovel-shaped,

with two fins, situate close’ behind the head, each with three three-jointed bones,

PRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 99

éach ending in a short nail. The head is pointed ; upper lip cleft; mouth extraordi-
narily small (in one individual, of 5 feet in length, the head was 18 inches long, 15
inches high, and the orifice of the mouth only 3 inches); nostrils directed forward
and close over the upper lip—they are crescentic; eyes upward directed, close
behind the nostrils, and (in the above mentioned case only 34 inches from the end
of the muzzle or snout) very small (3 lines in diameter), black ; no spouting-holes ;
gullet hard ; tongue immoveable (grown fast) on each side, above and below; five
grinders (with six points and three roots each), extending only a few lines above the
gum ; front teeth wanting, instead of which the jaw is bordered with hard, short
bristles ; colour, dark grey; belly, whitish ; the back covered with isolated, rough,
red hairs. The Ajuh becomes 10 feet long, and lives in the marshes inundated by
the river. With the subsidence of the waters, the animal retires down the river to
the ocean; but reappears in the commencement of the rainy season with the rising
waters, bringing with it one or two young, at that period from 3 feet to 4 feet in
length. Its food consists chiefly of grass; and in the dung; which in colour and
form resembles that of the horse, no trace of fish was ever found. The Ajuh is
exceedingly fat; the flesh and fat, similar to that of the hog, is very well-tasting.
The bones are as hard as ivory, and rings are fabricated from them, and whips are
made from the skin. The Ajuh appears to be rare; and I do not believe that during
the three months it remains in the Benué more than twenty to thirty are taken.

On this paper, Prof. Owen read the following Note on the Ajuh of Dr. Vogel.—
The translation of Dr.Vogel’s account of the animal which that enterprising traveller
had seen in the river Benué or Chadda, in Central Africa, permits of no doubt being
entertained as to the class, and even genus, of animal to which that brief and some-
what vague account refers. The combination of two crescentic nostrils, with a
pair of fins attached “close behind the head,” shows that it is a cetaceous animal;
whilst its food, ‘‘chiefly of grass,’’ proves it to belong to the herbivorous section of

_the order Cetacea of the Cuvierian system, answering to the order Sirenia of Illiger.
That order now includes three genera, Manatus, Halicore, and Rytina; the first of
which is the only one in which the teeth are multicuspid and with two or more
roots. It is therefore a species of Manatee that Dr. Vogel makes known to us
under the name of Ajuh. One species of Manatus has long been known as inhabit=
ing certain rivers of Africa, especially those terminating on the west coast. This
species is the Manatus Senegalensis of Cuvier and other zoologists. A stuffed specimen
from that coast is in the British Museum ; it was presented by Messrs. Vorster and Co.,
African merchants. The back and sides of the body are of avery dark gray, approach-
ing to black ; the belly is a light gray. The head is small in proportion to the body,
and tapers to an obtuse muzzle; the upper lip is cleft, and the mouth small. The
nostrils, a pair of crescentic clefts, with the convexity upward and backward, are
situated as described in the Ajuh: the eyes are, however, not situated close behind
the nostrils, and they are distant 7} inches from the end of the muzzle. This
admeasurement is from an individual about 3 feet longer than the one of which the
dimensions are given by Dr. Vogel ; but the difference of relative position seems still
too great to be accidental or probable in animals of the same species. The hard short
bristles which fringe the mouth, the scattered hairs along the back, the nails termina-
ting each of the three-jointed digits of the pectoral fin, the want of front or incisive teeth,
the hard ivory-like texture of the bones, the fatness and vapid nature of the flesh,
are all characters common to the Manatees. The number of nails appears to vary
in individuals of the same species, as might be expected in parts almost rudimental
in their development, and of no very great utility to the animal. Thus Cuvier
notices in one individual of the American Manatee (Manatus Americanus, Desm.,
M, Australis, Tilesius) four flat rounded nails on the edge of the fin; the fourth
being very small. In a foetus of this species there were but three nails on one fin,
and four on the other. In a young Manatee, Cuvier noticed only two nails on each
fin*. The three nails observed by Dr. Vogel on the fin of the Ajuh, cannot, there-
fore, be depended on as a constant or specific character. The teeth of the known
species of Manatee have the crown divided into two transverse ridges,—each ridge,
in the upper molars, being at first tri-tuberculate ; but the intervals of the tubercles
are so shallow that they are soon worn down, and a transverse ridge of dentine,

* Ossemens Fossiles, ed. 1836, 8vo, tom. viii. p. 18.

7*

100 REPORT—1856,

bordered by enamel, is exposed. There is also an anterior and posterior low barrel
ridge; the posterior one being most developed in the lower molars. The upper
molars have each three diverging roots, one on the inner and two on the outer side.
The lower molars have two fangs. Dr. Vogel’s description of the grinders, as
«having six points and three roots each,” would apply to the upper molars of the
M. Senegalensis before they had been much worn*. As to the number “ five,”’ that
doubtless refers to the number forming the series of teeth on each side of the jaw.
I have not had the opportunity of examining the dentition of the known African
Manatee. In the figure of the skull of the M. Senegalensis given by Cuviert, six
molars are shown on the right side of both upper and lower jaws, and the coronoid
process of the mandible may hide a greater number. In the American Manatee I
have ascertained that at least nine molars are developed on each side of both jaws t,
but they are never simultaneously in place or use. The greatest number which I
have found in that condition is seven, the socket of a shed anterior molar being at
one end of the series, and that containing an incomplete ninth molar at the opposite
end. Prof. Stannius has observed a small simple conical molar anterior to the nor-
mal two-ridged molars, and divided by a narrow interval from them, in a new-born
American Manatee. The individual Ajuh, 5 feet in length, which appears to have
been more especially the subject of Dr. Vogel’s account, was a half-grown animal,
and the number of grinders (five), as well as their six-pointed crowns, doubtless
relate to that circumstance. Fifteen feet is said to be the length to which adults of
the M. Senegalensis attain: the Ajuh becomes 10 feet long. It may be a distinct
and somewhat smaller species. ‘The chief indication, however, of such specific di-
stinction is the closer approximation of the eyes to the nostrils and to the end of the
snout, as shown by the admeasurement given by Dr. Vogel. The easiest procura-
ble and transportable evidence of the Ajuh, and the best calculated to determine
this point would be the skull ; but every part would be most acceptable ; and, in the
meanwhile, the species may be indicated and kept before the notice of the naturalists
by entering the Ajuh in the Zoological Catalogue as the Manatus Vogelii, or Vogel’s
Manatee.

Experimental Researches on the Eye, and Observations on the Circulation of
the Blood in the Vessels of the Conjunctiva, of the Iris, of the Ciliary
Ligament, and of the Choroid Membrane, during life, as seen under the Com-
pound Microscope. By Avcusrus Wautrr, M.D., F.R.S.

Dr. A. Waller states, that his observations are founded in great measure on the
fact observed by him some months since, that the eye may be obtained sufficiently
protruded from the cavity of the orbit to render its deep-seated parts accessible to
direct observation.

Artificial exophthalmosis of this nature, he finds from experiment, may be easily
produced in various animals, sufficiently to expose the anterior two-thirds of the
eyeball and to observe the circulation oyer the greatest portion of the vessels of the
choroid.

While in this state the iris may be made to contract by light, and there is reason
to suppose that the organ of the animal still possesses the powers of vision.

The eye is obtained in this state by opening widely the eyelids, and by exercising
a slight lateral pressure on the eye, which causes the eyeball to escape through the
opening of the eyelids ; returning to its original situation as soon as the pressure is
removed.

For his experiments, Dr. Waller employs the rabbit, the guinea-pig, and the Mus de-
cumanus or rat, all of them of the albinos variety, and more especially the albinos rat.

In these animals, by means of the light passing through the pupil and through the
sclerotica, the organ may be sufficiently illuminated by transmitted light to enable
us to observe, under the compound microscope, the different parts of the eye as a
transparent object.

The body and the eye of the animal are fixed by using a roll of linen like a swad-
dling band, and then tied to a piece of flat cork, the eye at the same time being pro-

* Cuvier figures a similar molar of the MZ. Americanus in pl. 220. fig. 11.
+ Loc. cit., fig. 4, }{ Odontography, vol, i. p. 371. pl. 96. fig. 2.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 101

truded from the orbit by a few turns of thread passed alternately behind and in front
of the eyeball in close contact with it.

The result is, that the animal’s eye is kept nearly immoveable, and that by direct -
ing the microscope to any point of the exposed surface, the circulation of the vessels
may be easily examined under a magnifying power of 200 diameters and upwards.

Dr. Waller then proceeds to describe minutely the different parts of the eye, and
the distribution of the vessels over the cornea, the sclerotica,'the iris, and other deep-
seated parts of the eye.
On the Mechanism of Respiration in the Family of Echinide.

By Tuomas Witt1ams, M.D.

The author stated, that, after a very careful research upon the subject, he had
arrived at the conclusion that the mechanism of the breathing process in the Echi-
nide differed in a radical manner from that which obtained in the Asteride. In
the latter, the entire integumentary skeleton was perforated by minute orifices,
through which digital, membranous, cecal processes protruded, and in and by
which the cavitary fluid was brought into contact with the exterior aérating
element. In the Echinide, on the contrary, the integumentary skeleton was
perforated only by the “‘ambulacral feet.”” The branchie in this family were
restricted to the membranous area which surrounded the mouth, around the
circumference of which they are disposed ina row. They differed in number and
structure in different orders, but in all they conformed to one type. They were
hollow-branched membranous processes, considerably larger in size than the
corresponding processes rising from the ligamentary surface of Asterias; and
communicated directly with the general cavity of the body. They bore an inti-
mate resemblance to the branchie of the Sipunculide. The Echinidie differed from
the Stpunculide in being totally destitute of every provision along the general sur-
face of the body which could aid in the office of respiration. The relation which
was thus established between the branchiz and the cavitary fluid in the Echinide,
was a strong presumptive ground for the belief that a blood-vascular system did
not exist at all in this family of Echinoderms.

On the Fluid System of the Nematoid Entozoa. By 'Taomas Witt1aMs, M.D.

In this communication the author mentioned the leading facts:—1. That espe-
cially in the genus Ascaris the peritoneal cavity was occupied by a peculiar vesicular
tissue, opening on the integumentary exterior, which appeared to be adapted to
absorb fluid from without. 2. That in some species it almost entirely filled up that
space which in the Annelids was free, and occupied by an oscillatory fluid; and, 3.
That in the Nematoid Entozoa there did not exist any trace whatever either of a
blood-vascular or a water-vascular system.

MIscELLANEOUS.

On the Variation of Species. By the Rey. L. Jenyns, M.A., F.L.S.

The object of this paper was to draw the attention of the Natural History Section
of the British Association to the importance of collecting all the facts already known,
or which might be obtained by further researches, connected with the variation of
species. The subject was stated to be one, which, more than almost any other,
deserved the consideration of naturalists at the present day. Reference was made to
the many complaints which may be found in the works of different authors, as to the
difficulty of determining what is and what is not a species, as also to the excessive
multiplication of species by some naturalists, and their too ready disposition to over-
rate the value of those slight differences, by which many of these so-called species are
distinguished. It was thought that a very large number would probably prove to
be merely local races, originally derived from one stock, their differential characters

102 REPORT—1856.

being due to climatal or other external causes exercising a permanent influence through
a succession of generations. Hence it was recommended, in the case of such species
as have others closely allied to them but supposed to be probably distinct, to endeavour
to trace the effect of such causes. Many facts bearing on this question were thought
to be already on record, only scattered over various works and periodicals, which
required to be collected under one head; while a far larger number were wanted in
order to arriye at any certain conclusions admitting of such generalization, These
last must principally be sought for at the hands of travellers or naturalists stationed
in different parts of the world, whose comparative observations on the same species,
as found in different regions and latitudes, would prove of great yalue.

In this communication the author restricted his remarks for the most part to the
species adopted in zoology. It was urged especially that we should endeavour to
work out the history of those exotic animals which either appear identical with, or
which closely approximate to, European forms, and observe whether, between two
nearly allied species inhabiting remote countries, there cannot be discovered inter-
mediate forms, or as they have been termed ¢ransition species, serving to show the
passage from one species to another, and so proving all to be the same. Or, if such
cannot be detected in any of the intervening parts of the globe, inquiry should be
made whether the exotic form is never found in any transition state in the particular
country it inhabits. It was remarked that it does not follow, because the European
race never acquires the distinguishing character of the exotic form, that the latter
may never so vary as to become identical with the former.

But it was added, that before we can hope to clear up the doubts which hang over
a large number of exotic species, we must be better acquainted with the European
species themselves to serve asa standard of comparison with all others. Even in the
case of some of our most common birds, and the same is true in every other class of
animals, there are several different races, or sub-species as some call them, or real
species as accounted by others, inhabiting either the same or different countries on
the continent, each showing some slight though constant peculiarity of character,
but on the whole so generally similar, that we are at a loss, in the present state of
our knowledge, whether to refer them to one or more than one original stock. It
was thought that the endeavour to remove some of the difficulties which attend this
question would prove more serviceable to zoology than adding to our already over-
loaded lists of names, one-half of which would probably in the end sink to mere
synomyms, increasing the confusion. We alone advance the philosophy of the
science, when we are not content with registering a new species, or subdividing an
old one; but when we seek to ascertain the origin and nature of species themselves,
their geographical range, the influence they receive from the particular circumstances
under which they live, the limits within which they may vary, without having their
essential differences destroyed,—and the degree of permanence stamped upon some
of these variations, through the slow operation of local and climatal causes over a
long period of time.

The author, in allusion to the doubts entertained by some with respect to species
in general, stated his opinion that there was nothing to contradict the belief
that they had a real existence in nature, and that all the individuals belonging to
the same species had emanated from a single stock, or in other words, that there
had been for each species but one centre of creation. He considered that the case
of hybrids, so far from proving anything to the contrary, only demonstrated the
reality of species the more plainly; for he believed that strictly hybrid plants had
never been known to reproduce themselves beyond two or three generations at most,
while there were not more than one or two well-authenticated instances of hybrid
animals producing offspring at all, excepting with one of the parent species, to which
in this way, the hybrid, making continually a nearer approach, was gradually brought
back. He regarded this as a clear indication on the part of nature that there is a
barrier separating certain forms, or collections of forms, from certain others, which
shall not be ordinarily passed, and never passed, without those who pass it, being,
so to speak, sent back in the end. Unless we ground our notions of the species on
this law, we in vain attempt a definition of it at all. If we once hold that species can
intermix through an unlimited succession of generations, since no species under such
circumstances could preserve its distinguishing characters for any length of time,
itis equivalent to saying that species have no existence at all.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 103

He thought it probable that a great deal of the obscurity in which this subject
is involved arose from our inadequate ideas with respect to the degree to which cer-
tain species may vary, without losing their identity, and the unwillingness of some
naturalists who have been long accustomed to other ways of thinking, to receive the
facts as conclusive, which have been adduced in support of this opinion. He then
adverted to certain facts and observations which had been brought forward of late
years by different naturalists to show the variation to which many species are liable
in the classes of Insects, Birds, and Shells. Several conclusions arrived at by Mr.
Wollaston*, in reference more especially to the coleopterous insects of the island of
Madeira, were much dwelt upon. Variations of structure, size and colouring had
been found by that gentleman to be often connected with the insular or continental
stations in which these insects lived, the temperature of the climate, the altitudes at
which they were found, and their greater or less proximity to the sea.

In the class of Birds, a few cases were alluded to in which the adult males of cer-
tain species in certain countries appeared never to arrive at the same state of plumage
which characterized the very old male in others: also the instance of the common
Ruff (Machetes pugnax), which, according to Mr. Blythet, is never met with in the
neighbourhood of Calcutta in the breeding plumage, by which it is so remarkably
distinguished in Europe. Mention was then made of several common European
birds, of which two or more races existed in different parts of the continent, each
characterized by certain constant peculiarities of plumage, and which it was very
desirable should be studied more closely, especially in respect of habits and manner
of life, by those who had the opportunity, in order to ascertain whether they have
any real claim to be elevated to the rank of species, the light in which they have
been considered by some naturalists :—such, for example, as the Sylvia suecica of
Latham, of which one race exists in the north of Europe having the pectoral spot
rufous, and another in the central and south parts having the same spot white; the
Sawicola aurita, and the S, stapazina, found, at least in the greatest plenty, in the
north and south parts of Italy respectively, and only to be distinguished by the °
colour of the throat ; the Common, Cisalpine, and Spanish Sparrows, the differences
between which, and those very slight, were almost confined to the adult males; the
many so-called species of White and Yellow Wagtails, mostly inhabiting different
parts of Europe, though occurring, some of them, together in some places. It was
observed, in reference to these and similar cases, that if two closely-allied species
are found living together always, without any individuals occurring of an intermediate
kind, it is a strong argument for their being really distinct. But if they are mostly
found in two different countries or districts, the same inference cannot be drawn from
the circumstance of their being occasionally met with together in the localities lying
between those two countries, or bordering on them when contiguous.

In the above-mentioned instances, the differences between the supposed species
rest principally in the plumage ; but the anthor went on to speak of others, in which
these are combined with slight differences of form or size of parts, but on which it
was shown, from many recorded observations, no greater reliance could be placed,
as.a ground at least in all cases, of specific distinctness. The differences between
the White-winged Cross-bills of America and Europe, as indicated by De Selys-
Longchamps}, were adduced as a probable example of this kind of variation. That
naturalist observes that these two Cross-bills (which have been considered by some
naturalists as two species to which the names of Lowia leucoptera and L. bifasciata
have been respectively given) differ slightly, but constantly, in size, form of the bill,
depth of the red tint of the plumage, and proportions of the wings and tail. He
thinks, nevertheless, that these are only the distinguishing marks of two races, sprung
originally from the same stock,—one race having fixed itself in the North of America,
the other in the North of Asia. He suggests, in explanation of the modified form of
the bill in the two kinds, that, in birds which use the bill as pinchers for detaching
the seeds of fir-cones, and tearing them violently away, the shape of this organ may
to a certain extent be affected by the different forms of fructification in the different

* Tn a little work ‘On the Variation of Species,’ 1855.

+ Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist. vol. xii. p. 170.

} “Notice sur les Bécroisés Leucoptére et Bifascié,’”” Bull. de l’Acad. Roy. de Belg.,
tom. xiii.

104 REPORT—1856.

species of conifers. Andhe is strengthened in this opinion by the circumstance that
the second American species of Cross-bill (Loxia Americana, Wils.) resembles on
the whole the L. curvirostra of the Old World, but differs from it, exactly in the
same way as the L. leucoptera differs from L. bifasciata, that is to say, by its smaller
size, and weaker bill with the points finer and more elongated.

Reference was also made to a remark by Mr. Gould respecting the swallows and
sylvan birds in the island of Malta, which, “‘ though unquestionably of the same
species as those of Great Britain, exhibit small local characteristics by which they
mav be immediately distinguished, such as the length of the wings, size of the bills,
and tints of the plumage*.”’ Mr. Gould was inclined to think that the shortening
of the wings in these Maltese individuals was connected with the circumstance of
their having a shorter distance to traverse in their migrations to and from Africa,
where they winter.

These and several other observations, all tending to show the occasional variation
of the characters of birds,—more especially some by the same gentleman last alluded
to respecting the greater brilliancy of the plumage, according as individuals of a
given species were found in the interior of continents, or in insular or maritime
countries ;,—led the author to ask, whether there is not enough on record to make us
at least hesitate respecting the stability, not of species in general, but of many of the
so-called species of Birds. When we couple the facts above referred to, with the
known influences of season and temperature in causing periodic changes in the
plumage of some species;—when we find these changes hastened or retarded
according as the seasons are more or less forward, prevented, it is probable, from
taking place at allsome yearsy or in some localities, in which the summers are colder
or the winters milder than in others ;—when we further take into consideration the
known effect which particular kinds of food have in altering the plumage of birds in
captivity, the colours becoming deeper or more dull, sometimes changing to a complete
black} ;—when we bear all this in mind, and recollect too how generally the offspring
is marked with the peculiarities of the parents,—might we not almost @ priori be led
te expect, that if a species had originally extended itself ages back, or been accidentally
introduced into other countries than that in which it had been first created, these
countries having a different climate, or the bird finding there a particular food, cal-
culated to exercise a permanent influence of a like kind to that which is only seasonal
or occasional elsewhere,—it would become, in the course of generations, stamped by
some permanent variation of plumage, just as we have the different races of men,
each bearing so remarkably its own distinctive characters, yet surely all of one species,
as the best ethnographers and physiologists of the day seem disposed to admit?

An opinion was expressed, that where two species are really distinct, there will
generally be some difference of song, nidification, or other habits, accompanying any
slight differences of plumage, as in the instance of Sylvia trochilus and S. rufa, which
no one would mistake when heard in the woods, though difficult to distinguish in
hand. And though we must for a long time be necessarily ignorant of the habits
of a large number of foreign birds, the author thought it far better, in the case of any
Supposed new species, especially where only one or two specimens have been obtained,
to abstain from naming it for the present, unless characterized by well-marked and
unmistakeable peculiarities of form or plumage, rather than incur the risk of increasing
the synonyms of some previously known species, from which it may not prove to be
distinct. Until further information respecting it were obtained, it would be prefer-
able to regard it as a mere local race, to which race, however, there would be no
objection to append the name of the particular country or district in which it was
found.

Before concluding, the author made some remarks on the variation of shells,
noticing chiefly some valuable communications to science by Dr. Gray§ and Mr.
M‘Andrew||, who have shown that the characters of many species of shells greatly
alter, according to the depth of sea they inhabit, or the more or less exposed situations
in which they are found. He then expressed a hope that these variations, along with

* Mentioned by Mr. Wollaston in his work ‘On the Variation of Species,’

T Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist. vol. xvii. p. 510.

£ See Bennett’s edition of ‘ White’s Selborne,’ p. 165, note.

§ Phil. Trans. 1833. || Edinb. New Phil. Journ. vol. xlvi. p. 355, &c.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 105

‘the others he had spoken of in the species of different classes of animals, would
receive more attention from naturalists in future, as tending to throw light upon a
question which is every day assuming more importance, and on the solution of which
‘all correct notions of classification must be based.

Dr. LanxesTeEr laid upon the table several Tables of Forms issued by the Com-
mittee for obtaining Reports on Periodic Phenomena that had been filled up by various
observers. It was stated that new forms could be had by application to Dr. Lan-
kester or Professor Phillips.

Phatographs of Objecis of Natural History were exhibited by Wm. Tuompson.

GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.

Report of an Expedition to explore the Interior of Western Australia.
By Rozsert Austin.

On recent Discovery in Central Africa, and the reasons which exist for
continued and renewed Research. By Dr. W. B. Batxte.

Let a map constructed about the commencement of the present century be exa-
mined, and attention will be at once arrested by the immense tracts of country marked
unexplored; and even in other directions names are but sparingly given, and the
positions of cities and the courses of rivers marked only by guess. The famous city
of Timbuktu was known merely by name—the marshy Lake T'sdd was then a myth—
the mighty Niger, or Kwora, historical ever since the days of Herodotus, was inserted
without beginning and without termination, save when some bold theoretical charto-
grapher connected it with Gambia, or led it to the Nile or the Congo. Even the
numerous streams which enter the Bights of Benin and Biafra were unknown except
as breaks in the coast line, which were never visited but by slaves or pirates. The
tide of more modern discovery may be held to have commenced with the travels of
Bruce in Abyssinia, when he discovered the sources of the Blue Nile, and in more
central Africa, with the first expedition of the celebrated Mungo Park, when he deter-
mined the easterly course of the Niger. Many other adventurers, as Houghton, Horne-
mann, Nicholls, &c., followed, and added little by little to our previous scanty know-
ledge. But by far the most important facts were collected by Denham and Clapper-
ton, who re-discovered Borni, identified Lake TsAd, visited Bagirmi, Mandara, and
other unknown districts, and brought circumstantial accounts of a wonderful, do-
minant race, the Puilo or Fulata tribes. About the same time Timbuktu had been
reached, first by the unfortunate Major Laing, and shortly afterwards by M. de
Caillie, whose narrative was the first authentic one relating to that wondrous city.
The next important journey was that of the brothers Richard and John Lander, who,
having penetrated from Badagry, on the coast, to the town of Yauri, descended the
river in a canoe, and at the expense of great hardship and danger, discovered its
embouchure, and so settled a controversy which had commenced long before the
Christian era. This exploit of the Landers caused the beginning of a new series of
efforts, and thenceforth attention was especially directed to a water communication
with Sudan. The first of these was by Mr. Macgregor Laird, Capt. Allen, and Mr,
Oldfield ; the second by the late Mr. Consul Beecroft ; and, finally, one undertaken
by the Government, and which left this country in 1841. All of these showed
Ee iy that the Niger was easily navigable, the only difficulty being from the effects
of the climate, which proved so fatal to European life, that Mr. Laird lost 44 out of
49, and the Government Expedition in less than two months experienced a mortality

106 REPORT—1856.

of 49 out of 145 whites,—a result which shook the confidence and deadened
the energy of the most ardent philanthropists. In 1845 and 1846 Mr, J. Richardson
travelled from Tripoli to the northern parts of the Great Desert, visiting Ghadames,
Tuat, and Murzak, during which time he collected much information, both geo-
graphical and commercial, which may be found in his interesting volumes entitled
‘Travels inthe Great Desert of Sahara.’ On this gentleman’s return to England he
made proposals to Government for an expedition on a more extended scale, for the
purpose of establishing commercial relations with the tribes across the Desert, and,
by the introduction of legitimate trade, of striking a blow at slavery. Accordingly,
he again set forth accompanied by Drs. Barth and Overweg, who started from
Tripoli for Sudan on the 30th of March, 1849. Mr. Richardson’s strength was not
equal to the great fatigue and labour he had to undergo, and he died at Ungurutua,
in Bornu, on the 4th of March, 1851. His journal up to that date, full of instruct-
ive materials, has since been published under the care of Mr. Bayle St. John. His
companion, Dr. Overweg, also unable to withstand the baneful effects of climate,
expired in Bornt on the 27th of September, 1852; but Dr. Barth, composed proba-
bly of tougher materials, undismayed by the death of his associates, boldly continued
his solitary wanderings, and after a sojourn in Central Africa of upwards of five
years, happily returned in safety to England. He is now preparing for the press
an account of his most interestIng journeys and discoveries ; and from some conver-
sations and correspondence I have had with him, I am looking forward with impatience
for the appearance of his work, as with such a fund of information and of novelties
as he possesses, he must be able to give the fullest and most accurate, as well as the
latest, account of Central Africa, from Timbiktu to Adamawa. The most recent
traveller in Nigritia is Dr. Vogel, who, by the last letters received from him, was
endeavouring to penetrate towards the kingdom of Wadai, and from whom numerous
important astronomical and other observations have been already transmitted.

In 1852, Dr. Barth, whilst on the route to Yéla, the capital of Adamawa, crossed
a large river called the Binue, just at its junction with a considerable affluent, the
Faro. This river he conjectured, from the information he received, to be the upper
portion of that hitherto known near its termination, to Europeans, as the Tsadda or
Tshadda,—a name which seems to have been given to it by Lander, in consequence
of a report he heard from a travelling Mallam, that it flowed from lake Tsad,—a
view now proved to be erroneous. Dr. Barth described this as a large river, and as
containing during the rainy season a large body of water,—fitted, therefore, for the
purposes of navigation. On hearing these accounts from Dr. Barth, Government
resolved to fit out a small expedition, to endeavour to ascend the so-called Tsadda,
and to ascertain its identity with the Binue. For this purpose a small iron screw
schooner was built by Mr. John Laird at Birkenhead, and fitted out and manned by
Mr. Macgregor Laird ; and as it had been agreed to combine the commercial element
with exploration, a suitable cargo was also provided. Government appointed certain
officers to proceed in this vessel for geographical, scientific, and other general
purposes. Careful and copious instructions were drawn out under the direction of
Sir Francis Beaufort, aided more especially by the scientific knowledge of Sir
Roderick Murchison, who took an especial interest in the progress of the expedition,
was one of its chief promoters, and who himself personally prepared a set of hints
on geology and mineralogy for the guidance of the officers. This expedition entered
the mouth of the Kwora or Niger on the 12th of July, 1854; and after remaining in
the river 120 days, again left without the loss of a single life, and without having
encountered any troublesome sickness. This almost unlooked-for exemption is to
be ascribed, first, to the employment of as few Europeans as possible; secondly, to
ascending the river during the rainy season, and avoiding any delay in the Delta;
and, thirdly, to the free use of quinine as a prophylactic or preventive. Nearly 700
miles of river were explored and surveyed, a chart was compiled, the capabilities of
the surrounding countries examined, and friendly relations were established with the
various tribes.

The trade with Western Africa is much greater than is generally supposed, and
has for some years past been steadily on the increase. From 1846 to 1850, the
annual value of exports from Britain to the West Coast averaged £554,000, and in
1854 amounted to upwards of £958,000. The African races are, almost without

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 107

exception, born traders, buying and selling being with them the chief end of their
lives. Only give them the chance, and they will eagerly grasp at it; and being
also naturally friendly and well-disposed, they only require kind treatment to render
them confiding and quiet. The only well-marked exceptions are among the natives
living along the coasts, who have contracted from Europeans all possible vices,
which have been unfortunately encouraged for selfish ends by white men, until
now; the present generation, at least, is almost beyond the reach of reform. In
the interior the population is much better conducted, and it is with these people
that I now propose to open trade directly, by means of the rivers, instead of through
the medium of the many savage races with whom we now deal. This would, more-
Over, Open to us vastly increased supplies, which could also be purchased at more
moderate rates. By opening new markets also with these people, they would have
other things to occupy them instead of intestine wars, and above all it would tend
directly to supplant by means of legitimate commerce that still existing unnatural
and horrid traffic in human flesh, which, first established and since fostered by men
styling themselves Christians, has been the bane and the curse of Africa, but which
T feel assured, from what I have observed, as well as from the experience of other
recent travellers, would be greatly lessened, and in time altogether stopped, by the
means I now recommend.

The population of Sierra Leone is composed, to a very great extent, of recaptured
and freed slaves and their families, and among them are to be found representatives
of almost every tribe in Central Africa. ‘These people have become civilized, are
Christians, speak the English language, have acquired English manners, and learrt
our methods of trading ; they are usually most industrious, and many have acquired
wealth. Still, among them an intense love of country exists, and the all but uni-
versal desire is to revisit their native land. One very extensive race, the Yéruba or
Akd tribe, have already returned to their original seats in great numbers, their
country having a sea-coast, and access being easily attained by Lagos and Badaery.
But others are not so fortunate, and have not the opportunities of gratifying their
amor patrie. But in these persons we have at hand all that we desire, ready in-
struments to be employed alike in establishing commerce, and in civilizing, by their
own efforts, their less favoured brethren. By opening to these the navigation
of the Niger, and aiding them to settle along its banks, we do good alike to them,
to the country, and to ourselves ; and I have satisfied myself, by actual inquiry, both
that these people would eagerly embrace any opening for return, and likewise that
they would be received with open arms. Such are the commercial and philanthropical
grounds for advocating further progress ; but there are equally strong scientific reasons
for prosecuting the inquiry. Numerous tribes are yet unknown, many countries
unexplored, cities and towns unvisited, lakes and rivers unsurveyed, and mountains
unmeasured. The zoological and botanical novelties are unaccountable, the geologic
condition and mineral treasures have yet to be examined, and the economical products
carefully inquired into. The climate is not so deadly as has been supposed, and the
hitherto dreaded diseases are more thoroughly understood. The expense, too, of
exploration, especially if combined with commercial enterprise, would be very
trifling,—not one-twentieth part of what was lavished on the unfortunate attempt in
1841. If the expedition is to be renewed, no time should be lost; as if not at once
undertaken, all that has been effected in 1854 will be thrown away, and efforts
' would have to be commenced de novo. During my ascent of the river, I was often
asked why white men had been so long in revisiting the place, and why they had
not sooner kept the promises they made in 1841. My ingenuity was often taxed to
afford explanations and excuses, and the chiefs said that when they saw us returning
regularly they would then believe white men, but not before. Two years have
already elapsed since my visit; and it would be of the utmost consequence that
preparations should be now made for the season 1857, for which purpose Govern-
ment should be urged to come to a decision, so as to enable the requisite arrange-
ments to be at once entered upon, as those engaged should leave England early in _
the spring.

108 REPORT—1856.

Notes on some Antiques found at Cirencester as Evidence of the Domestic
Manners of the Romans. ‘By Professor Buckman.

In this communication the evidence derived from the position of most of the
Roman stations went to show that this people was guided by a careful survey of
the district, as they fixed some important stations, and Corinium amongst others,
at a distance from the direct road, making an abrupt turn in accordance with the
geological facts which presented themselves;,and as for some miles round the
country does not offer water supply for a large community, but this is ensured at
Cirencester by a curious concatenation of geological conditions. The esteem in
which this people held a good water supply, is attested by the remains of most care-
fully executed wells still remaining, and indeed some of those now in use, all lined
with fine ashlared stone, the rubbish which has been cleared from the bottom of
some of them presenting traces of the well-moulded coping stones by which they
were surmounted.

In metallurgy it was pointed out that they greatly excelled ; and two most inter-
esting crucibles were exhibited, in order to show that the chemical apparatus so
named is of very ancient date.

In metallic work some beautiful bronze personal ornaments were exhibited, espe-
cially some armille or bracelets, six of which were stated as having been taken
from a single arm; and as these possessed rivets, it was suggested that they were
never removed from the person; if, therefore, these were lovers’ gifts, it showed
either that the lover was very lavish or that a gift was not returnable.

An oyster-knife was shown, as also some fictilia for domestic use, as a funnel,
colander, infants’ feeding-bottle, their form and application so much like our own as
to lead to the inference that comfort and convenience were sought in furniture which
we have very exactly copied. Amongst other articles, bone-spoons, like those used
in country places, were shown to be so perfect, as to lead to the inference that they
could scarcely be antique ; however, on comparing them with our present forms, it
was observed that the handles were pointed, a custom with all spoons of Roman
work, whether in bone or metal; it is stated that this was for the piercing of egg-
shells, so that they should not swim, the legend that uncanny visitors may swim in
egg-shells, being, like many articles of modern use, not a modern invention.

In concluding his remarks upon the various relics which he had collected at
Cirencester, the Professor remarked that these were not sought often by the anti-
quary merely as curious property, but because their study was so well calculated to
fill up those blanks in history which acquaint us with the inner life of the people,
instead of confining it to a mere account of the battles, murders and sudden death
of potentates and rulers.

On the Site of Ecbatana. By the Ancupxacon of Carpican.

Ona more positive Knowledge of the Changes, both Physical and Mental, in Man,
with a view to ascertain their Causes. By R. Curt, F.S.A.

On the Varanger Fiord. By Dr. L. K. Daa.

On the Torenic System of the Ugrians (Finns), Albanians, and other Populations.
By Dr. L. K. Daa.

On the Relation of the Siberian and Armenian Languages. By Dr. L. K. Daa.

On the Forms of the Crania of the Anglo-Saxons.
By J. Barnarp Davis, F.S.A., F.E.S.

The typical form of the Anglo-Saxon skull is distinguished for its great size, the
horizontal development of the brain-case being somewhat expanded in all directions
at its periphery, without being deficient in height ; by which means is produced a well-
marked platy-cephalic skull. The calvarium, when viewed vertically, does not impress

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 109

the eye with its unusual length or shortness, although it is not at all deficient in
length ; but it appears somewhat broader than common. The frontal region is fre-
quently upright, so as to afford a good Camperian angle, broad and expanded at the
sides, in this respect greatly resembling what we regard as the typical Roman form.
The lateral regions are full, and sometimes project over the base of the skull. The
posterior region is usually capacious and elevated. The outer surface of the vault of
the calvarium, which is full, equable, and expanded, gives the impression of great
capacity, and of constituting the receptacle of a massive powerful brain. The face
is upright, and only occasionally presents any marked prominence in the region of
the frontal sinuses. The nasal bones differ a good deal in form, are seldom large,
and only very rarely aquiline. The face is somewhat broad ; but from the angles of
the lower jaw not being so much expressed, does not present the quadrate form of
the ancient Roman.

Table of Measurements derived from the Crania exhibited, and others to show the
considerable size of the Anglo-Saxon skull.
Internal capacity.
Largest skull in Mortonian College at Philadelphia, of a Dutchman of

noble family, 114 cub. in. (of sand) Peuichenc) -coysyatt: ark, sh suthieP:, > tue C4007
Largest skull author has gauged, of an Irishman, found 10 feet deep in
Bite Nablinese fers tich ie useuner,« Wi bEN oth ERE as Bake delet eg LODSIOR
Anglo-Saxon skull from Harnham near Salisbury. . . . - + - + 7502.
Diab was J be another example. . - . - - - + + + 76302.
Anglo-Saxon skull from Linton Heath, Cambridgeshire. . . . - . 79 oz.
ie as re another enamiples 00 pink i. sy y=...) spy Oe ae
Skull of Merovingian Frank from cemetery at Envermeu, Normandy. . 80 oz.
Large modern Saxon skull from Leipsic. - . . . - » - - + + 9002.
Mean internal capacity of these six crania, 99 cubic inches, or. . .- 813 oz.

In Morton’s great table the mean of eighteen German skulls was 90 cub. in., that
of five English ones 96 cub. in., and that of seven Anglo-Americans 90 cub. in. The
mean of these three classes, 92 cub. in., is 7 cub. in. less than the mean of the six
erania enumerated; and these three classes stand at the head of Morton’s table.
Without claiming for the Anglo-Saxon skull such a large average capacity as that
deduced from the examples, we are still justified in assuming that it was not at all
deficient in capacity, and in believing that the people of Germanic race equal, if they
do not exceed, all others in the size of their heads.

Besides the typical form, there is a large proportion of skulls found in Anglo-Saxon
cemeteries, which present much of the oval form that may be regarded as distinctive
of modern English crania.

Of the accounts of the ancient German tribes, that of Tacitus is most ethnological.
He says, “I have already acceded to the opinion of those who think that the Germans
have hitherto subsisted without intermarrying with other nations, a pure, unmixed,
and independent race, unlike any other people, all bearing the marks of a distinct
national character. Hence, what is very remarkable in such prodigious numbers, a
family likeness throughout the nation; the same form and features, stern blue eyes,
ruddy hair, their bodies large and robust, but powerful only in sudden efforts.” It
should be recollected these accounts are derived from Italian writers, accustomed to
a people of somewhat smaller stature, and to dark hair and eyes, and for these reasons
likely to exaggerate the more marked differences which arrested their attention in the
ancient Germans.

_ That the Anglo-Saxons were a large people we have the indisputable evidence of their
skeletons. Of three thigh-bones, one is 17-6 in. long, another 19°5, and the third
20°5. Of thirty-six thigh-bones of different ancient Britons, the range is from 17 to
19°5 in. The longest therefore is an inch less than the longest of these Anglo-Saxon
femora. Faussett, in the ‘ Inventorium Sepulcrale,’ remarks of a skeleton found at
Crundale, “I think this person must needs have been about 63 feet high.” The brothers
Lindenschmit found the skeletons in the Frankish cemetery at Selzen to range from
53 to 7 feet Rhenish, including those of women, or from 4 ft. 8 in. to 63 feet English.
One woman actually measured this extreme length. Douglas met with Anglo-Saxon

110 REPORT—1856.

hair in Greenwich Park of an auburn colour; and Mr. Bateman, near Taddington,
Derbyshire, of a decidedly light colour. ¥

Dr. Prichard thought the Germans had José the peculiar features attributed to them
by classical writers, from a change of climate, both which positions are most ques-
tionable, and, indeed, are disproved by the evidence of facts. The present German
natives are a tall stout people with large heads, fair complexions, and generally
light or blond hair and eyes, probably all that was intended by the Italian writers.
This view is quite borne out by Dr. Beddoes’s careful examination of people of dif-
ferent districts of our own country. In the Lothians and borders which were subdued
by the Angles and Saxons in the sixth century, he says, “the people seem generally
tall, large, and muscular ; their outlines of face and figure are rounded, particularly in
the forehead and the chin; the nose varies in form, but as a rule is short and
straightish. The heavy overhanging brow and deep sunk eye, which, with the high
cheek-bones, are generally sufficient to mark out a Scotchman from among a group
of Saxon Englishmen, are in this district comparatively rare. The prevailing com-
plexion is fairer than in any other district [of Scotland] I have visited. The eyes
are in a great majority of cases blue or light grey, but hazel is not an uncommon
colour. The hair varies from light yellowish-red and flaxen yellow, through divers
shades of brown.”

The great mental power of the Germanic races, with its special manifestations in
different tribes ; and the probability that the ancient Germans, and perhaps the Anglo-
Saxons, distorted the skull artificially, were briefly alluded to, previous to the closing
remarks on the ‘striking ethnological position of the lasting permanency of ethnical
characters confirmed by all the evidence adduced.

On some Volcanic Islets to the South-East of Japan, including the Bonin
Islands. By A. G. Finvuay, F.R.G.S.

. The recent importance of our commercial relations with Japan, consequent upon
the opening of the ports of Nagasaki and Hakodadi to our shipping, and the increasing
commerce now developing itself between Eastern Asia and North-West America,
has rendered the great ocean-highway between Nippon and the Bonin Islands of
great interest. The dangers of this region to the seaman is much increased by the
rapid Japanese current, first shown by the author in 1850 to run from east to west
across the North Pacific Ocean, in an analogous course to the Atlantic Gulf-stream.
This mighty stream, running to the E.N.E., through the space under consideration,
has given rise to the very complicated nature of the so-believed new discoveries ;
above thirty of these announcements being, by investigation, reduced to five or six
rocky islets of very singular character. The islands nearest to Japan, the Broken
Ids, Fatsisyo, the Japanese penal colony, and South Island, were shown to be in
some cases defectively represented. The Redfield Rocks are those discovered by
Broughton, and corrected by Capt. Donnel in 1850, and therefore not a discovery by
the United States Japan Expedition in 1854. The islands'scuth of this are, perhaps,
Tibbit Island of 1844, then an island or reef of pointed rocks, discovered by Coffin
in 1825, afterwards announced as new by Capt. Jurien-Lagraviere in May 1850;
again announced as new by Capt. Rogers in 1851; again in 1852 by Capt. Drescher
of the ‘ Walter,’ and again in 1856 by Capt. Grove, each person believing that he had
discovered a newisland. Others similar were also cited. The next group, perhaps,
is about eight miles to the south of the last, or lat. 31° 53’ N., long. 139° 59’ E.,
was discovered in the Dutch corvette, the ‘ Koerier,’ August 24th, 1849, and is of
a very dangerous character. Jeannette Island, twenty-three miles further south, is
doubtful. Smith Island, in lat 31° 12’ N., long. 139° 55’ E., discovered by Capt.
Smith of the ‘ Heber,’ March 1846, is a most singular needle-rock, springing from
unfathomable depths to a height of 300 feet, and not more than 250 feet diameter at
the base. It has been seen by others. Ponafidin Island of the Russians lies next,
to the south. St. Peter’s or Black Rock, first seen in 1821, and again in 1853, isa
wonderful column of basalt 200 feet high, parallel and quite perpendicular sides, not
more than 150 feet in diameter, and like a bottle in appearance. It is im lat.
29°42’ N., long. 140° 15’ E. The volcanic nature of these remarkable rocks, lying near
the meridian of 140° E., indicates a continuation of those immense volcanic ranges

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 111

which pass along the Kurile Islands, throughout Nippon, the great Japanese island,
and thence to the well-known range of spiracles in the Ladrone Islands. At the
northern end of this range is the well-known Mount Fusi, 10,000 or 12,000 feet in
height, now quiescent. To the south of this volcano is Simoda,—a port between
the two capitals of Japan, Jedo and Miako, which has been thrown open to the ships
of the United States in 1854. The dreadful earthquake of 1854 at this place was
alluded to. It totally changed the character of the harbour of Simoda, destroyed
the fine city of Osaca, and injured Jedo. The wave which was caused by this up-
heaval of the land traversed the entire breadth of the North Pacific in twelve hours
and some few minutes, a distance of between 4000 and 5000 miles, demonstrating
the depth of that ocean to be between two and three miles. The diagram illustrating
the paper showed the singular confusion before mentioned in the hydrography of
these small but important positions. The Bonin Islands lie to the southward. They
have recently been made the subject of some uncourteous disputation by the Americans
as to the right of discovery and ownership. There can be no doubt of their Japanese
discovery, and are the Arzbispo Islands of the early Spaniards. Next follows Captain
Coffin in 1824-25, who was believed to be an Englishman, but which is controverted
by Commodore Perry of the United States Navy. The particulars of the discovery
were related. Next, Captain (now Admiral) Beechey saw them in 1827, and took
possession of them before the discovery of Coffin was published. They were colonized
under the direction of Her British Majesty’s Consul at Oahu in 1830, the survivors
of those settlers still living there. These islands have been lately explored by the
United States Japan Expedition, and their volcanic origin established. It was hoped
that some authority to repel aggression would be established there, as the islands have
now become important, as they are adapted for a coaling and refitting station for
steam-vessels. The Volcano Isles which follow are tolerably well known, and from
these the volcanic submarine ridges diverge to S.S.H. and S.W., several isolated
shoals and volcanic rocks having been discovered in these directions. The paper
concluded with a hope that our naval officers would endeavour to clear up the embar-
rassing confusion which had arisen from the imperfect accounts given of this now
important region.

Vesuvius and its Eruptions ; illustrated by a Collection of Drawings by
W. Baylis. By F. D. Hartitanp.

On the most Ancient Map of the World, from the Propaganda, Rome.
By F. D. Harrianp.

Vesuvius and its Eruptions. By Freprericx D. Hartianp, F.S.A., F.R.G.S,

The first part of this paper (which was illustrated by a series of views) was de«
voted to a geographical and geological description of the mountain ; it then touched on
the legends of the Phcenicians, of its previous volcanic character, and finally gave an
outline of the principal of its fifty-four historically recorded eruptions, selecting from
each the peculiarities that render it most interesting. The 34th, which took place on the
8th of August, 1779, and terminated in three days, was thus described :—‘‘ A dense
_ smoke first issued from the cone, followed by a shower of scoriz and large stones; an

explosion, of such force as to shake Portici, Torre del Greco, and Torre dell’ Annun-

ziata, followed, and then in an instant a fountain of liquid transparent fire began to
rise, and gradually increasing, arrived at so amazing a height as to strike every
beholder with the most awful astonishment. The height of this stupendous column
of fire could not be less than three times that of Vesuvius itself, which rises perpen-
dicularly near 3700 feet above the level of the sea. Puffs of smoke, as black as can
_be possibly imagined, succeeded each other hastily, and accompanied the red-hot trans=
_ parent and liquid lava, interrupting its splendid brightness here and there by patches
of the darkest hue. Within these puffs of smoke, at the very moment of their emis-
sion from the crater, could be perceived a bright but pale electrical light, briskly
playing about in zigzag lines.” This graphic description is from the pen of Sir

2 REPORT—1856.

William Hamilton; but Mr. Morris also states the light was so strong at Sorrento,
nearly fourteen miles off, that he could read large print by it. The column fell partly
perpendicularly, filling up the valley of the Atrio del Cavallo, and partly around
Ottajano. After its fall, the black cloud advanced towards Naples, putting the citi-
zens in great fear, but it did not fall on it. Next day another vast column arose,
but there being no wind, it fell back into the crater. On the 11th some lava was dis-
charged, and Vesuvius was covered with a mass of white cotton-like clouds, piled one
over another in a colossal mass, scarcely possible to describe.

The last eruption from its proximity was the most interesting.

The fifty-fourth and last eruption of Vesuvius took place on the Ist of May, 1855.
The warning of its approach was given early in January, by the opening of a new
crater at the summit of the cone, between the old one and the city of Naples, and
directly across the route of ascent. This crater differed from the others, insomuch
as it was neither sulphurous in its character, nor was it of the usual chimney form. It
was from sixty to eighty yards wide, and a slight smoke issued from its blackened sides,
After its appearance, the report of an immediate eruption was spread, and was
kept up without intermission for many months; but on Monday, the 30th of April,
the symptoms were so apparent, that the guides declared toa party then making the
ascent the number of hours it would be before it occurred. On Tuesday, the Ist of
May, Vesuvius was invisible at Naples, and it was not till the afternoon that the
fact became known that the eruption had commenced. A rush was then made for
Santa Lucia, the spot of Naples from which the mountain can best be seen, and
here the truth became apparent, as the mountain was blazing from several points.
Upon accomplishing the ascent, and after passing the Hermitage, the intense heat
betrayed the approach of the burning element; and after leaving various cascades of
fire, down which half-melting blocks of lava were dashing at a pace to overcome all
resistance, the current of the eruption was reached, and resembled a liquid fiery river
rushing from the side of the cone, and apparently fed from an orifice about half-way
up it, which, amidst flames of fire, was throwing out stones to an immense height,
accompanied by volumes of dark smoke; whilst all below was clear, and the lava at
times even assumed a bright phosphoric blue. This was the most magnificent part
of the scene, as the ascent of the cone did not repay the risk and trouble. During
this scene daylight dawned, and so earnest had been the attention given to it by the
thousands assembled on the mountain, that although a perfectly visible eclipse of the
moon occurred during the time, it passed, with few exceptions, unobserved. The
eruption continued till the end of the month (27th), and before its close eleven cones
were in active operation, the discharge from which was so great, that at one time
a total falling in of the mountain was dreaded. ‘This discharge, almost unaccom-
panied by the ejection of stones or ashes, was the peculiarity of the last eruption.

On the Homolographical Maps of M. Babinet. By Prof. Hennessy.

Prof. Hennessy explained the nature of the new system of maps, invented by
M. Babinet, Member of the Institute of France, and referred to a letter which that
gentleman had written on the subject to General Sabine. In the new projection all
the meridians are ellipses, and the parallels straight lines; whence it follows that
the areas included between any two pairs of equidistant meridians are always equal.
It follows that all areas lying between the same parallels and having equal bases
on these parallels will be also equal. This property is not possessed by any of the
ordinary modes of projection, all of which, more or less, distort the actual configu-
ration of the surface of the globe. This new projection, designated by its author
the Homolographical Projection, alone possesses the property of making the areas
of the different parts of a map comparable among each other, like corresponding

‘areas on the surface of a globe. Its value in geography is thus obvious, especially
in such cases as those where relations of surface are important, such as the distribu-
tion of vegetable and animal life, of population, of races, and, generally, in all ques-
tions of physical and statistical geography.

On the Arctic Current around Greenland. By Capt. Inminczr, R.D.N.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 113

Report on his Expedition up Smith’s Sound in Search of Sir John Franklin. -
By Dr. E.K. Kant.

An original Letter from General Mouravieff. By Col. A. Lake.

Return Journey across Southern Africa. By the Rev. Dr. D. Livineston.

Sir R. I. Murchison communicated to the Section an outline of the accounts of
the last journey of the Rev. Dr. D. Livingston, from the western to the eastern coast
of South Africa, as contained in three long and highly interesting letters addressed
to him by that eminent explorer and!successful missionary. ‘The first of these was
written at Linyanti, on the river Chobe, from whence he had been accompanied
across the continent, to St. Paul di Laonda, on the west coast in 10° 8. Lat., by
the natives, whose fidelity to him during his perilous adventures had been rewarded
by being instructed and reconducted to their native place, and is dated the 16th of
October, 1855; the second from the Hill Chanyuné, on the banks of the Zambesi,
the 25th of January, 1856; the third from Teté, or Nyungwe, lower down the
same river.

The map about to be constructed by Dr. Livingston, of the vast unexplored region,
has been for some time in preparation by Mr. Arrowsmith for publication in the
volumes of the Royal Geographical Society ; and some of the information contained
in the letters recently received will occasion improvements in that map,—the chief
points of which have, for the first time, been fixed by astronomical observations,
which the undaunted traveller was enabled to accomplish even under all the priva-
tions and dangers of his two remarkable journeys. These observations have been
calculated by Mr. M‘Clear, the astronomer at the Cape of Good Hope.

_ Not endeavouring to detail the names of all the African chiefs and places alluded
to, but pointing out generally the line of route pursued, Sir Roderick read those
passages of the first letter which confirmed, by actual observation, a theory he had
himself formed in the year 1852*, of the probable physical condition of the interior
of Africa in modern as well asin ancient times, from the examination of a geological
map of the Cape Colony by Mr. Bain, and from the earlier discoveries of the
Lake Njami by Dr. Livingston and his former associates, Oswell and Vardon; viz.
that crests of hard rocks constitute both the eastern and western flanks of the con-
tinent, through which the rivers, escaping by deep fissures, have proceeded from a
broad central watery region of no great altitude. Of this interior basin, intersected
by a network of rivers, Dr. Livingston gives a clear account,—some of the waters
even flowing northwards into the Zaire or Congo, and others south-eastwards into
the Zambesi.

The chief geological and mineralogical characteristics of the eastern and western
flanking crest-lands are described, including coal-fields, iron and other ores, and hot
springs issuing from igneous and metamorphic rocks. The internal or watery basin,
on the contrary, is everywhere occupied by calcareous tufa, often of considerable
thickness, in which are enclosed the remains of existing shells and animals of
the land and water of the present day. A collection of fossil bones found to
the south of the last explorations, and consigned to Dr. Buckland, has been
unfortunately lost; with measurements of chief altitudes as determined by the
ebullition of water. The return journey from St. Paul di Loanda to Linyanti was
facilitated for a time by the possession of two asses, given to the author by friends
in the Portuguese settlement of Loanda; these animals being insensible to the sting
of the Tsetse, which destroys oxen and other animals.

In the second letter, Dr. Livingston, then within a few days’ march of the Portu-
guese eastern station of Tete, gives a lively and graphic sketch of the remainder of
the route he pursued in proceeding across the eastern hilly region; and his descrip-
tion of the scenery (as read to the Section), where the broad river Zambesi, after
forming great rapids, is compressed into a narrow gorge and cascades over a lofty
precipice, amidst the most luxuriant and extraordinary vegetation, afforded the
liveliest gratification. This rocky region is very salubrious, and in passing through

* Journal of the Royal Geographical Society.
1856. 8

114 REPORT—1856.

it the traveller is no longer molested by the Tsetse, or destructive insect. The
author speculates, indeed, on the probability of such hilly sanitaria being extended
vastly further to the north, and adds, ‘‘ At present there is the prospect of water-
carriage right up to the bottom of the eastern ridge; and if a quick passage can be
effected thither during a healthy part of the season, there is, I presume, a prospect
of residence in localities very superior to those on the coast.” The deltas between
such hilly districts and the shores of the eastern as well as of the western oceans,
are, on the contrary, described as the most unhealthy of all the tracts examined.

The third letter, much of which was read to the Meeting, gives a general view
of the ethnological distinctions and habits of the various tribes among whom he has
lived and with whose languages he is so well acquainted, assigning a manifest
superiority in bravery and conduct to the hill people, and particularly to the Caffre-
Zuluh race. He also explains that the Bible has been nearly all translated into
Sechuana, or the dialect of the Bechuanas, the most regularly developed of all the
African languages. ‘ Of its capabilities (he adds) you may judge, when I mention
that the Pentateuch is fully expressed in considerably fewer words than in the Greek
Septuagint, and in a very greatly less number than our verbose English.”

After a sketch of the zoology and natural history of the region, and a record of
the prevalent diseases of the people, showing that certain maladies which civilized
man cannot eradicate, are often worn out and disappear naturally in South Africa,
Dr. Livingston, adverting to previous explorers, and returning his warmest thanks
to the Portuguese authorities of Laonda and Tete, modestly expresses his belief that
he is the first European who has travelled across Southern Africa in those latitudes,
-——and having acomplished thus much, he speaks of a visit to his native land, but
only with the intention of returning to exercise his sacred calling. He concludes
in these words :—“ I feel thankful to God who has preserved my life while so many
who would have done more good have been cut off. But I am not so much elated
as might have been expected, for the end of the geographical feat is but the beginning
of the missionary enterprise. Geographers labouring to make men better acquainted
with each other, soldiers fighting against oppression, and sailors rescuing captives in
deadly climes, are all, as well as missionaries, aiding in hastening on a glorious con-
summation to all God’s dealings to man. In the hope that I may yet be permitted
to do some good to this poor, long trodden-down Africa, the gentlemen over whom
you have the honour to preside, will, I doubt not, all cordially join.”

In conclusion, Sir Roderick called attention to the great merits of Dr. Livingston,
who had justly been honoured with the adjudication of a Gold Medal of the Royal
Geographical Society, and having also adverted to the extraordinary and extensive
travels of Barth in Central Africa, who had received a similar honour, and to the
prospect of fresh explorations both up the Niger and from Zanzibar on the east coast,
to the mountains from whence the Nile is supposed to flow, he congratulated the
assembly on the hope we might now rationally entertain of spreading civilization and
Christianity throughout these benighted lands.

In the absence of detailed maps, and in the expectation of seeing Dr. Livingston
soon in England, Sir Roderick forbore to enter into any specific account of the
courses of the interior rivers, or to dwell upon data which would in due time be
brought before the Geographical Society.

A New Route to India—the Syro-Arabian Railway. By Joun Locke.

This paper suggested a railway from Acre to Busrah, passing the Jordan between
the 32nd and 33rd degrees of latitude. The gain in space of this line over the pro-
jected Euphratean route was stated to be 400 miles, and in time (making due allow-
ance for greater velocity of locomotiye than steamer) two days and a half; and over
the present overland route of 1000 miles, or six days, which might be increased one
day and a half by accelerating the speed in the long level reaches of the Desert,
where the traveller can observe at the distance of several miles any object of a size
likely to impede or endanger a train. Mr. Locke’s paper went to demonstrate the
shortness, security and economy (both in time and in cost of construction) of this
route. He also pointed out the facilities likely to be afforded by the Ottoman
government and the Imaum of Muskat, and especially dwelt on the collateral advan-

ere

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 115

tages of developing new markets and commercial relations, not only in the Persian
Gulf, but also with the eleven millions of the Arabian peninsula, hitherto almost
isolated from the conditions of modern civilization.

Researches in the Crimean Bosphorus, and on the site of the Ancient Greek
City of Panticapeum (Kertch). By Dr. D. Macrnerson, F.R.G.S.

The present town of Kertch is built close to the site where 500 years s.c. the
Milesians founded a colony. About fifty years before Christ, this colony became
subject to Rome, or rather a Satrap of the Roman Empire, from the circumstance of
the Bosphorean kings, who were also rulers of Pontus, having been subdued by
this people in Asia. In the year 375 of our era, the colony was utterly annihilated
by the Huns. Barbarous hordes succeeded one upon another thereafter until a.p.
1280, when the Genoese became possessors of the soil, and held it until expelled
by the ‘lurks in 1473; they being in their turn expelled in 1771 by the Russians.
The characteristic features around Kertch are the immense tumuli, or artificial mounds,
that abound in this locality, more especially within the second vallum. These
sepulchres of the ancient world are found in many places. We have them in the
form of barrows in England, and cairns in Scotland. Calculated as they are for
almost endless duration, they present the simplest and sublimest monument that
could have been raised over the dead. The size and grandeur of the tumuli found
in this locality excite astonishing ideas of the wealth and power of the people by
whom they were erected, for the labour must have been prodigious and the expendi-
ture enormous. The highest specimens of Hellenic art have been discovered in these
tumuli—such as sculpture, metal, alabaster and Etruscan vases, glass vessels,
remarkable for their lightness, carved ivory, coins, peculiarly pleasing on account of
their sharpness and finish, and trinkets, executed with a skill that would vie with
that of our best workmen. All originals were forwarded to the Hermitage, at
St. Petersburg, duplicates being preserved in the Museum at Kertch, and these
might have been with ease secured to England on the investment of the place by the
Allies ; but with the exception of some bas-reliefs, which, in connexion with other
two officers, I transmitted to the British Museum, the whole of these rare treasures
were barbarously made away with. The local tradition is, that these tumuli were
raised over the remains, and to perpetuate the memory, of the kings or rulers who
held sway over the colonists, and that the earth was heaped upon them annually on
the anniversary of the decease of the prince, and for a period of years corresponding
to the rank or respect in which its tenant was held or had reigned; and to this day
successive layers of earth, which were laid on in each succeeding year, can be traced,
a thin coating of sea-shell or charcoal having been first put down. I have counted
as many as thirty layers in a scarp made in one of those mounds, about two-thirds
from its base. They are to be seen of all sizes, varying from 10 to 300 feet in
circumference, and in height from 5 to 150 feet, and are usually composed of surface
soil and rubble masonry. Herodotus’s reference to these sepulchres is the earliest
account which history has recorded of this mode of burial ; and 1 would particularly
draw attention to his description of the mode adopted by the Scythians to perpetuate
the memory of their deceased princes, for it will be hereafter seen that one of my
excavations corresponds exactly with the description given byhim. ‘The tombs of
the Scythian kings,’’ he states, ‘‘ are seen in the land Gberri, at the extreme point
to which the Borysthenes is navigable. Here, in the event of a king's decease,
after embalming the body, they convey it to some neighbouring Scythian nation.
The people receive the royal corpse, and convey it to another province of his domi-
nions ; and when they have paraded it through all the provinces, they dig a deep square
fosse, and place the body in the grave on a bed of grass. In the vacant space around
the body in the fosse they now lay one of the king’s concubines, whom they strangle
for the purpose, his cup-bearer, his cook, his groom, his page, his messenger, fifty of
his slaves, some horses, and samples of all his things. Having so done, all fall to
work, throwing up an immense mound, striving and vieing with one another who
shall do the most.” The Greeks, who always respected the religion of the countries
they had subjugated, and who, in process of time, imbibed, to a certain extent, their
customs and observances, appear to have adopted this Scythian meee burial,

8

116 REPORT—1856.

Instead, however, of placing their magistrates or rulers in a “‘ deep square fosse”’ dug
in the earth, they built tombs, and over these raised the conical hill. I examined
several without meeting with any success. All, or nearly all, of these tumuli have
been already explored. Not far from Mons Mithridatis I came upon a portion of an
aqueduct which probably conveyed water to the Acropolis. It was formed of con-
cave tiles ; one of these, with a Greek name thereon, I have brought with me. On
one occasion I arrived at a place where five stone tombs were found adjoining, neither
of which contained any relic; but in a spot contiguous a large ornamented earthen-
ware jug and five glass cups, one within the other, were discovered. It was not
unusual thus to find the remains in one spot and the ornaments in another. On
removing the earth off the sides of a rock, the apex of which was only perceptible on
the summit, I struck upon a recess, three sides of a square chiseled out of the rock
16 feet in length and 8 indepth. Following this, I reached a stone seat ; hewn out
on each side of this seat small recesses had been made, apparently for the purpose
of receiving lamps. After descending 12 feet I came to human remains, and for five
days the workrnen turned nothing out of this pit but human bones. How far these
would have descended I know not, for I ceased my explorations here, feeling satisfied,
from the appearance of the bones, that they must have been placed there at the same
period—the result, most probably, of some great engagement, for many of the skulls
and long bones presented fractures and injuries. The marks on the rock would
indicate that sacrificial meetings, possibly commemorative of the event, was held here.
Replacing these remains, I proceeded to a point indicated as the tombs of the dimi-
nutive or pigmy race, but discovered nothing that would indicate a peculiar class of
people. Beneath an extensive sloping artificial tumulus, running at right angles
with the ridge extending northwards from Mons Mithridatis, I came upon a mass
of rubble masonry, beyond which wasa door leading to an arched chamber, built
under the side ofthe mound. This led me toa larger chamber, which was also arched.
The walls of the larger chamber were marked off in squares, with here and there
flowers, birds, and grotesque figures. Over the entrance into this chamber were
painted two figures of griffins rampant, two horsemen, a person in authority and
his attendant—the latter carrying in his hand a long spear—being rudely sketched
on one of the inner walls. There were no remains of any sort in this tomb or temple.
A recess in the walls on two sides resembled doors blocked up. On removing the
masonry to the right, the skeleton of a horse was found. To the left a human ske-
leton lay across the door. Tunnelling on each side, the work was carried on beneath
the descents of former explorations from above. On the right-hand side the tunnel
extended seven yards, but nothing of interest was met with. On the left, descending
as the tunnel was formed, arriving occasionally at objects possessing much interest, I
came upon a layer of natural slate rock, the sides and roof of the tunnel being com-
posed of artificial soil, charcoal, animal remains, and, as usual, heaps of broken
pottery. Thirty feet from the entrance, the rock suddenly disappeared to the front
and left, the mark of the chisel being perceptible on the divided portion. Tunnelling
on, the rock was again reached 12 feet from the spot where it had disappeared, loose
sand occupying the intervening space, into which the exploring rod, 6 feet long,
dropped without any effort. 1 worked down into this shaft 12 feet. But the left side
of the shaft, which was composed of the same loose sand as far as the steel rod could
reach, was continually falling in. Moreover, the labour caried on by candlelight of
raising the earth in baskets, and conveying it in wheelbarrows to the outside through
the building was becoming very arduous, and was compelled to abandon the work.
At this period no relics or remains of any sort were discovered, and the steel rod
sunk into the loose sand as if it had been so much flour. I felt satisfied that this
shaft led to rich treasures below, but regard for the safety of my workmen prevented
my proceeding deeper. I now sought out other ground, and selected a place
removed about 100 yards from that I had just left. Descending some 10 feet, I
struck upon a tomb cut cut of the solid rock. Not far from this my attention was
attracted to an excavation in the rock, somewhat similar to, but on a much smaller
scale, than that large descent which I had just abandoned. Clearing the surface, I
found that the rock was hewn out 3 feet in width and 12 in length, the intervening space
being filled with sand, similar in all respects to the other into which the steel rod sunk
with ease. Fifteen feet of this sand being removed, I came upon the skeleton of

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 117

ahorse. <A few feet further on, an upright flag, 4 feet high, and the breadth of
the shaft, was placed over the entrance of a tomb cut out of the calcareous clay.
The opening faced the east by an arched door, 24 inches wide and 32 high. The
tomb was of a semicircular form, arched, 10 feet by 12 in diameter, and 8 feet high
in the centre. Above the doorway, a lintel stone was placed on which the slab which
closed it rested. The cavity was cut out of the natural calcareous clay, which was
firm and consistent, the form and shape of the instrument by which it had been re-
moved being very distinct. The candle burnt brightly on entering. The floor was
covered with beautiful pebbles and shells, such as are now found on the shores of
the Sea of Azov. A niche was cut out of the walls on three sides, in which lay the
dust of what once was human. It was a sight replete with interest to survey this
chamber—to examine each article as it had been originally placed more than 2000
years ago—to contemplate its use, and to behold the effect of twenty centuries upon us
proud mortals. There lay the dust of the human frame, possessing still the form of man.
The bones had also crumbled into dust; the space once occupied by the head didnot
exceed the size of the palm of the hand, but on the undisturbed dust, the position of
the features could still be traced. The mode in which the garments enveloped the
body, and the knots and fastenings by which these were bound, were also distinct.
On each niche a body had been placed, and the coffins, crumbled into powder, had
fallen in. At the head were glass bottles—one of these contained a little wine. A
cup and a lacrymatory of the same material and a lamp were placed in a small niche
above. A coin and a few enamelled beads were in the left hand, and in the right a
number of walnuts—the wine and nuts being doubtless placed there to cheer and
support the soul in its passage to Paradise. Some fibule and common ornaments,
valuable on account of their antiquity, were alsofound. Continuing my researches
in the same locality, | came upon other similar shafts, at the end of which were
the bones of a horse, and then the large flagstone closed the mouth of tombs similar
to the last. I now resolved to make another attempt to explore the great shaft ; the
only mode of effecting this being to remove entirely that portion of the hill above it,
I brought all my labourers to the spot, although the few days that remained of our
sojourn in Kertch would hardly enable me, I feared, to complete the work. Placing
my men in two gangs, each were made to work half an hour without ceasing. On
the third day we struck on two large amphore, containing each the skeleton of a
child. Adjoining these were the tombs of two adults, and then came the skeleton
of a horse. There was now every indication that a great feast or sacrifice had been
held, for a few feet further on we came upon immense heaps of broke amphore,
fragments of wine jars, the inside of which were still encrusted with wine lees, broken
drinking cups, flat tiles which may have served the purpose of plates, beef and mutton
bones, fragments of cooking pots still black from the smoke, and quantities of charcoal.
Descending still further, we came upon what appeared to have been a workshop—
portions of crucibles in which copper had been smelted, corroded iron, lumps of
vitreous glass, broken glass vessels, moulds, and other things being found. Five feet
deeper we exposed the excavation in the rock, and a shaft exactly similar to, but on
amuch larger scale than the descent into the arched tombs. As the hill was removed,
platforms were scarped on the sides, on which the earth was thrown up, a man being
placed on each platform ; and as I descended into the shaft, similar platforms of wood
were slung from above. On the twelfth day we reached a depth of 16 feet in the
shaft, the portion of the hill removed being 38 feet in length, 20 in depth, and 12 in
breadth. The mouth of the shaft hewn out of the rock, 3 feet in thickness, was 18 feet
long by 12 broad. It then took ona bell shape, the diameter of which was 22 fect, cut
out in dark consistent clay, a depth of nearly 7 feet. Beyond this the size of the
shaft became a square of 7 feet, cut out of successive layers of sandstone and calca-
reous clay. When we had attained a depth of 30 feet in the shaft, the labour of
raising the earth became very great ; but by means of a block and shears, which Capt.
Commerell, of Her Majesty’s ship ‘Snake,’ very kindly fixed over the descent, the
work was much facilitated, the earth being slung up in baskets, and the men ascend-
ing and descending in the same manner. A few feet beyond the bones of the horse,
and exactly in the centre of the shaft, the skeleton of an adult female appeared
enveloped in sea-weed. Under the neck was a lacrymatory, and on the middle
finger of the right hand a key-ring. Three feet further we met a layer of human
skeletons, laid head to feet, the bones being here in excellent preservation,—as, indeed-

118 REPORT—1856.

we found them to be in all places where the calcareous clay came into immediate
contact with them. There were ten adult male skeletons on this spot, and separated
by a foot of clay between each, five layers were found, being fiftyin all. I may state
that toads in large numbers were found alive in this part of the pit. We had now
reached a depth of 42 feet in the shaft, the bones of another horse were turned out,
and then we came on loose sand toa depth of 5 feet. Six more skeletons were
here again exposed. The sides of the shaft were regular and smooth, the mark of
the chisel on the rock being as fresh as when first formed. Six feet more of the
loose sand being now taken away, hard bottom could be felt by the steel rod, and
there lay two skeletons, male and female, enveloped in sea-weed; and in a large
amphora at the corner, which was unfortunately found crushed, were the bones of a
child. Some beautiful specimens of pottery, lacrymatories, beads, and a few coins,
were all that I got to repay my labours on this spot. I examined well on every
side, and in the rock below, for a trap-door or concealed passage, and an abrupt
perpendicular division in the natural strata or layers of calcareous clay appeared to
indicate the existence of such, but I found none. Everything during the descent
had promised so very favourably, that I fully expected to have found a large chamber
leading on from the termination of the shaft ; but if such does exist, the discovery of
the passage to it utterly baffled all my researches. The deep fosse, the mode in which
the skeletons were found at the bottom, the six discovered immediately above these,
the fifty about the centre, and the bones of the horses, are exactly in harmony with
the description of Herodotus of the mode in which the Scythian kings were buried.
The substance which I have called sea-weed, from its bearing a stronger resemblance
to that production than anything else I can compare it with, may possibly be the
“ grass ’’ described by Herodotus as used toenvelopethe body. If such be the case,
the description is in all respects exact.

This wonderful place of sepulture must therefore be Scythian, and date with the
very earliest colonization of the Greeks; full 500 years s.c. That able osteologist
and comparative anatomist, Professor Owen, confirms this by pronouncing the crania
brought with me from the bottom of the shaft, as certainly not of Grecian, but rather
of Indo-European characters, and of the dolichocephalic variety.

On the Plastic Origin of the Cuneiform Characters, and its Relation to our own
Alphabet. By James Nasmytu.

Since Mr. Nasmyth first brought this subject forward in a lecture which he gave
at the Royal Institution in 1838, so much additional interest has been excited in
relation to the cuneiform character in consequence of the admirable discoveries and
researches of Layard, Rawlinson and others, that Mr. Nasmyth availed himself of
the opportunity afforded by the meeting of the British Association at Cheltenham to
recall attention to the subject.

With this view he gave a complete practical illustration of the mode in which he
conceives the cuneiform character had originated ; secondly, how it was written; and
thirdly, how far he conceives it to have been the parent of certain portions of our
own alphabetic characters.

In respect to the first part of the subject, namely the plastic origin of the cuneiform
characters, Mr. Nasmyth stated that he considered it was due to the simple circum-
stance of clay or plastic mud, in the form of bricks and tiles, having been employed as
the chief building material by the primitive founders of the cities on the banks of the
Euphrates and Tigris, that the cuneiform character owes its origin and adoption.
Mr. Nasmyth showed, by a practical demonstration of the most convincing kind, that
the peculiar triangular impression or indentation which is the distinguishing feature
or characteristic element and basis of all cuneiform inscriptions, is the direct and
inevitable result of the contact of the angle or corner of a hard or dried brick with
the side of a soft one.

That the most perfect cuneiform characters can thus be inscribed on soft clay,
Mr. Nasmyth proved to the meeting by rapidly inscribing a vast variety of cuneiform
characters on plastic clay by the means referred to. He then proceeded to state, that
although he considered it highly probable that the first idea of the cuneiform had
thus suggested itself, yet as a brick would be found to be rather an awkward stylus

pe.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 119

to manipulate with, and as it was only the corner of the brick that was acting as the
stylus, the cumbrous brick would soon be substituted by a triangular stylus as the
most convenient agent to be employed in inscribing the cuneiform on plastic clay.
In proof of this Mr. Nasmyth exhibited to the meeting an impression from a Baby-
lonian brick which he had access to in the British Museum, in which the absolute
size as well as the form of the stylus employed in impressing it was given. This
specimen appeared to set at rest all doubt as to the nature of the instrument employed,
as well as to illustrate the mode of usingit. Mr. Nasmyth gave a practical illustration
of the capability of such a stylus in enabling the inscriber to produce cuneiform cha-
racters of a vast variety of size as well as form, simply by varying the depth to which it
Was impressed into the clay.

In conclusion, Mr. Nasmyth stated his views as to the probable connexion that
appeared to him to exist between certain parts of our own alphabetic characters and
that of the cuneiform, referring in this respect to those portions of our alphabetic
characters termed “ Serifs,”” namely, the cross strokes which terminate the limbs of
most of our capital letters. In illustration of this part of the subject he referred to
several ancient Greek inscriptions, in which he showed that the characters of which
they were formed were decomposable into absolute cuneiform elements ; in many
cases the bottom strokes terminating the limbs of the letters were so identical with
the cuneiform element, that they were at right angles to the axis of the limb of the
letter, and not parallel to the line of inscription.

Remarks on the Esquimauz. By Joun Raz, M.D., F.R.G.S.

The Route between Kustenjeh and the Danube. By Capt. Spratt, C.B.
On recent Discoveries in Australia. By Capt. Cuarzes Sturt, F:R.G.S.

On the earliest traces of Human. Remains in Kent’s Cavern.
By E. Vivian, M.A., Torquay.

The cavern is situated between Torquay and Babbicombe, beneath a conical
hill of the Devonian limestone, extending to a circuit of about 600 feet. It appears
to have been first occupied by the bear and hyena, the remains of which, with the
bones of elephants, rhinoceros, deer, &c., upon which they preyed, were strewn
upon the rocky floor. By some violent and transitory convulsion, a vast amount of
the soil of the surrounding country was injected into the cavern, carrying with it the
bones, and burying them in the inmost recesses. Immediately upon its subsidence
the cavern appears to have been occupied by human inhabitants, whose rude flint-
knives and arrowheads are found upon the mud beneath the stalagmite. A period
then succeeded, during which the cavern was not inhabited until about half of the
floor was formed, when a streak containing burnt wood and the bones of the wild
boar and badger was deposited, and again the cave was unoccupied, either by men
or animals, the remaining portion of the stalagmite being, above as below, pure and
unstained by soil or any foreign matter. Above the floor have been found remains
of Celtic, early British and Roman remains, together with those of more modern
date. Among the inscriptions is one of interest as connected with the landing of
William III. on the opposite side of the bay, ‘‘ W. Hodges, of Ireland, 1688.”

The position of the flint instruments beneath the stalagmite, although contrary to
the generally received opinion of geologists, and carrying back the first occupation
of Devon to very high antiquity, was shown to be not necessarily at variance with
Scriptural chronology, the deposit of stalagmite having apparently been much more
rapid at those periods when the cavern was not inhabited, in consequence of a greater
discharge of carbonic acid gas. Without attempting to affix with any certainty
more than a relative date, Mr. Vivian suggested that there was reason for believing
that the introduction of the mud was occasioned, not by the comparatively tranquil
Mosaic Deluge, which spared the olive and allowed the ark to float without miracu-
lous interposition, as was once assumed by Dr. Buckland, but by the greater
conyulsion, alluded to in the first chapter of Genesis, which destroyed the pre-

120 REPORT—1856.

existing races of animals—most of those in this cavern being of extinct species, —and
prepared the earth for man and his contemporaries.

The original formation of the cavern was attributed principally to the action of
trap and the volcanic action which had disturbed the strata in many parts of this
district, causing deep fissures, as at Daddy’s Hole and Ansty’s Cove.

The sources from which the statements in the paper were obtained were princi-
pally the original manuscript memoir of the late Rev. J. MacEnery, F.G.S., which
is deplored by Professor Owen, in his Fossil Mammalia, and by other writers, as lost
to science, but which had been recovered by Mr. Vivian and was produced before
the Section; also the report of the sub-committee of the Torquay Natural History
Society, and his own researches. Photographic representations were exhibited of
the fossils, showing the connexion between the teeth of elephants, horns of deer, &c.,
found in the cavern, and in the submerged forest in Torbay.

The following was read amongst other extracts from Mr. MacEnery’s manu-
script :—

cn The floor we found at our first visit covered, through its whole extent, with a
darkish mould, varying in depth from a few inches to a foot. It only dates since
the cavern became a popular place of resort, and the further progress of the stalag-
mite in open situations was interrupted by the trampling of visitors. In the vesti-
bule were found, deep imbedded in it, those curiously shaped pieces of oak to which
the appellation of Druids-sandal was given, as has been remarked,—together with a
quantity of decomposed animal and vegetable matter, the remains of fires and feasts,
mingled with rabbit bones.

«© Tn the crevices of the rock, and in the cavities occasioned by the overlapping of fallen
masses, were concealed the skeletons of such animals as strayed or retired hither to
die, such as dog, hare, rabbit, sheep; and the remains of the bat, with its delicate
framework spread out on the black mould, were particularly noticed.

‘« But, for greater precision and perspicuity, I shall take the chambers in the order
they are visited in. To commence with the common entrance.—Here, once for all, I
must solicit indulgence for entering into details apparently unimportant. In this
cavern are found grouped together, phenomena which have only been observed
separately in others, dispersed over divers countries. By closely examining the dis-
closures of this, a clue may be obtained to all. At the hazard of unnecessarily charging
the thread of my narrative with seemingly frivolous particulars, I proceed to note down
the characters presented by its general aspect, no less than its contents, before it was
altered by those operations which have since left no part of it in its original state.
It is only on a just appreciation of all their circumstances that a true estimate can
be founded of those facts which should serve as the basis of all reasoning on its
nature and history.

“The floor of the entrance, except that it had the appearance of being broken up,
offered nothing remarkable to detain us;—we shall have occasion to return to it
presently. Not so the lateral branch by which it communicates with the body of
the cavern on the left ; at this point so great was the obstruction, from the accumu-
lation of mould and a fallen ledge of rock lying across the way, that those who then
visited it will not have forgotten their accomplishing the passage on all fours. These
impediments have been partly removed. Under a similar ledge on the left, still
standing, was found the usual sprinkling of modern bones; and, in the mould
beneath, which had acquired the consistence of hard clay, were found fragments of
pottery, calcined bones, charcoal, and ashes,—in the midst of all were dispersed
arrow-heads of flint and schist ; the ashes furnished a large proportion of the mould.
In the same heap were discovered round slabs of roofing-slate of a plate-like form,
some crushed, others entire. The pottery is of the rudest description, made of
coarse gritty earth, not turned on a lathe, and sun-baked; on its external margin it
bears zigzag indentations, not unlike those represented on the urns found by Sir
Richard Hoare in the barrows of Wiltshire. These fragments, there seems no
reason for doubting, are the remains of cinerary urns which once contained the
substances scattered around, and to which the slates served as covers. At a short
distance nearer the entrance were found, in a continuation of the same mould, articles
of bone, of three sorts,—some of an inch long and pointed at one end, or arrow-
heads,—others about three inches long, rounded, slender, and likewise pointed.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 121

Conjecture was long busy as to their destination ; they were thought by some to be
bodkins ; by others, for confining the hair, like those ornaments used by the women
in Italy; lastly, they were supposed, with more probability, to be a species of pin
for fastening the skin in front which served savages for garments.

The shaggy wolfish skin he wore,
Pinn’d by a polish’d bone before.

“The third article does not seem quite so easy to explain: it is of a different shape,
quite flat, broad at one end, pointed at the other ; the broad part retains the trun-
cated form of a comb, the teeth of which were broken off near their root,—whether
it was used as a comb or for making nets for fishing, is not clear. There was only
this solitary one found, and two of the former, but several of the first, with a quantity
of bone chips. All three bore marks of polish. Nearer the mouth are collected a
good number of shells of the mussel, limpet, and oyster, with a palate of the Scarus.
This, as well as the nacker of oysters, which was thickly disseminated through the
mould, served, as they do at the present day among savages, most probably for
ornament. ‘The shell-fish may have furnished bait for fishing. The presence of
these rude articles render it probable that they were collected here by the ancient
aborigines, who divided their time between the chase and fishing in the adjacent sea.

“Close to the opposite wall, in the same passage, buried in black mould, I found a
stone hatchet, or celt, of syenite, the only one found in the cavern. Another of the
same material, but of a different shape, I found shortly after, not far from the
cavern near Anstis Cove, which the labourers engaged in making the new cut had
just thrown up with the mould. As we advanced towards the second mouth, on
the same level, were found, though sparingly, pieces of pottery. The most remark-
able product of this gallery were round pieces of blue slate, about an inch ands half
in diameter and a quarter thick. It may have served, like the Kimmeridge coal, for
money. In the same quarter were likewise found several round pieces of sandstone
grit, about the form and size of a dollar, but thicker, and rounded at the edge, and
in the centre pierced with a hole, by means of which they seem to have been strung
together like beads. Clusters of small pipes or icicles of spar, such as depended
from the roof at our first visit, we saw collected here in heaps buried in the mud.
Similar collections we had occasion to observe accompanied by charcoal, throughout
the entire range of the cavern, sometimes in pits excavated in the stalagmite.
Copper ore with these various articles in the same stuff was picked up; a lump
much oxidized, which the late Mr. Phillips analysed, was found to be pure virgin
ore. Though this branch of the cavern is more spacious and the mouth more ample,
it by no means furnished an equal proportion of antiquities as the other. Several
of these articles were slightly encrusted with a pellicle of stalagmite, according as
they happened to lie within the reach of the drop when exposed on the surface.
Having taken a general survey of the surface of the floor, we returned to the point
from which we set out, viz. the common passage, for the purpose of piercing into
the materials below the mould. Here, in sinking a foot into the soil (for of sta-
lagmite there remained only the broken edges adhering to the sides of the passage,
and which appeared to be repeated at intervals), we came upon flints in all forms,—
confusedly disseminated through the earth, and intermixed with fossil and human
bones, the whole slightly agglutinated together by calcareous matter derived from
the roof. My collection possesses an example of this aggregation in a mass consisting
of pebbles, clay, and bone, in the midst of which is imbedded a fine blade of flint,
all united together by asparry cement. The flints were in all conditions, from the
rounded pebble, as it came out of the chalk, to the instruments fabricated from them,
as arrow- and spear-heads, and hatchets. Some of the flint-blocks were chipped only
on one side, such as had probably furnished the axes, others had been on several faces,
presenting planes corresponding exactly to the long blades found by their side, and
from which they had been evidently sliced off ; other pebbles were still more angu-

' larly chipped at all points, which were no doubt those which yielded the small arrow-

heads, which abounded in by far the greatest number. Small irregular splinters,
not referable to any of the above divisions, and which seem to have been struck off
in the operation of detaching the latter, not unlike the small chips in a sculptor’s
shop, were thickly scattered through the stuff, indicating that this spot was the
workshop where the savage prepared his weapons of the chase, taking advantage of

122 REPORT—1856.

its cover and the light. I have discovered in this passage precisely similar arrow-
heads to those which I detected in an urn from a barrow presented to me by
the Rev. Mr. Welland. With the exception of the boar-spear and a blade of the
same metal found not far from it very much rusted, all the articles in the mould, or
in the disturbed soil, consisted of flint, chert, syenite, and bone,—such primitive
substances as have been in all countries, and down to the present, used by the savage
for the fabrication of his weapons, whether for the chase or battle. At astill greater
depth, near the common entrance, in the passage, lay extended, lengthwise, in the
ordinary position of burial, the remains of a human skeleton, much decayed ;—two
portions only of the jaw and some single teeth, with the mouldering vertebre and
ribs, were all that remained. Asin the case of the flint-knife mass, already described,
there adhered to the jaw portions of the soil on which it lay, and of the stalagmite
which partly covered it. The teeth were so worn down that the flat crowns of the
incisors might be mistaken for molars,—indicating the advanced age of the individual.
M. Cuvier, to whom I submitted the fragments, in 1831, was struck with the form of
the jaw. He pronounced it to belong to the Caucasian race : he promised to bestow
particular notice on it, but death, unhappily for science, put a stop to his glorious
labours. All the specimens, together with a collection of fossil bones,—the third I
had presented to the museum of the Jardin des Plantes,—I transmitted to him
before I quitted the Continent, and may be found among his effects. The skeleton
lay about a foot and a half below the surface ; from the tumbled state of the earth,
the admixture of flags of-stalagmite, added to the presence of flint articles and pieces
of slate, it was manifest that the floor had been dug up for the reception of the body,
and that it was again covered over with the materials thrown up from the excavation.
The earthy covering consisted of the red soil, containing fossil bones mixed up with
recent mould ; the mound of earth outside the mouth, at the right hand, was thrown
up from the passage to render it more accessible. It was precisely that which
covered the human skeleton and contained the admixture of human and fossil relics.
Previous to the disturbance of the floor for the admission. of the body, it would
appear, from the presence of flags of stalagmite in the rubble, that it was covered
by a continuous crust,—the edges indeed of which still adhere to the sides. It
further appears from the repetition of similar crusts, as indicated by the broken
edges at the sides, that there were periods of repose which allowed new floors to
form, marking clearly their repeated destruction and renovation at intervals of time.
With the exception of single teeth and an occasional rib or vertebra in charcoal,
which may have possibly belonged to the same subject, there were no other traces
of human remains.”

Further extracts from this manuscript will be found in the Geological Section, p. 78.

STATISTICS.

Opening Address by Lorv Stanuey, M.P., President of the Section.

I BELIEVE it will be my duty to open the proceedings of this Section by a few words
relative to the purpose of our meeting; and I must begin by observing, that the
remarks which follow were prepared before the passing of that resolution of yester-
day, which has enlarged the scope of our duties so as to include, in addition to
Statistics, properly so called, Economic Science in general.

It is needless in this presence to define, at any length, the nature or the object of
statistical science. The axiom on which that science is based may be stated thus:
that the laws by which nature is governed, and more especially those laws which
operate on the moral and physical condition of the human race, are constant, and
are, in all cases, best discoverable—in some cases only discoverable—by the investi-
gation and comparison of phenomena extending over a very large number of

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 123

individual instances. In dealing with the individual human being every thing is
uncertainty : in dealing with man in the aggregate, results may be calculated with
the precision and accuracy of a mathematical problem. To take a familiar instance,
—the length of a single life can never be known beforehand; but by the accurate
keeping of returns the aggregate length of ten thousand or a hundred thousand lives
is easily ascertained. This aggregate length, the conditions of life being generally
the same, approximates to a constant quantity, however often the experiment be
repeated ; and from that quantity, thus obtained, we deduce an average, which, as
the experience of every insurance office shows, is near enough to the truth for ordi-
nary purposes of calculation. Accidental diversities, whether of internal constitution
or of external circumstances, tend to neutralize one another. Their influence
diminishes as the area of investigation increases, until, if that area be sufficiently
extended, we are justified in disregarding them altogether, and in admitting as
approximately, if not as absolutely true, the general inference to which our suc-
cessive trials point. I will not lead you into those strange and startling conclusions
to which Quetelet has come, when comparing some of the averages obtained with
one another, and representing them in mathematical form ; he finds in the laws thus
discovered a close resemblance to, perhaps an actual identity with, those which
operate in physics; as, for instance, when he lays it down that the obstacles which
oppose the increase of population act in a manner exactly the same as does the
resistance of the medium in which 4 body moves to the motion of that body. Wide
as is the field of thought which such a suggestion opens, it must probably be, for
many years, premature to enter it: the laws as yet made known to us by statistical
research are too few to allow of generalization relative to their mutual inter-con-
nexion. Enough to cite the dictum of Quetelet, confirmatory of what was said
above, “‘ All observation tends to confirm the truth of this proposition, that that
which concerns the human race, considered collectively, is of the order of physical
facts: the greater the number of individuals, the more completely does the will of
individuals disappear, and allow the series of general facts, which depend upon the
causes by which society exists and is preserved, to predominate. . . . . We
must admit, that on submitting to careful experiment unorganized bodies, and the
social system, we are unable to say on which side causes act in their effects with the
greatest regularity.”

This, then, is the first characteristic of statistics as a science: that it proceeds
wholly by the accumulation and comparison of registered facts ;—that from these
facts alone, properly classified, it seeks to deduce general principles; and that it
rejects all @ priori reasoning, employing hypothesis, if at all, only in a tentative
manner, and subject to future verification. It starts from the assumption, verified
by many trials, that human action, fluctuating as regards the human unit, is
approximately invariable as regards the masses which make up society. But there
is another aspect in which it may be considered. As a rule, the degree of certainty
which attends any science is exactly proportioned to the extent to which such science
admits of the application of numbers. We know what has been done for chemistry
by the discovery of a single numerical law—the theory of definite proportions—
‘turning, by one stroke, into a science, what was before little more than a collection
of important, but detached observations. And what we aim at in statistics is, to
substitute for vague phrases, intended to express certain qualities, arithmetical
formule, by which the same idea may be conveyed with a precision to which
language alone cannot attain. For instance, the uneducated man, speaking of a
climate or season of the year, will say only that it is warm, hot, or very hot; the
statistician Tegisters the temperature of each day, strikes an average, and gives his
result, in numerical form, extending, it may be, over a period of several years, and
calculated, accordingly, with the most absolute accuracy of which human investi-
gation is capable. Again, the traveller, in describing a nation which he has visited,
writes that offences of violence are exceedingly common, probably more so than in
any other country ; the statistician obtains returns of convictions, distinguishes the
different classes of crime, ascertains the per-centage of murder, or assaults per head,
on the total population, allows for the probable amount of undetected criminality,
and oath compares these results with others similarly obtained in other parts of
the world.

124 REPORT—1856.

When, therefore, in discussing social questions, we apply the statistical test, we
are really doing nothing more than appealing from imagination to fact,—from con-
jecture to certainty—from an imperfect to a perfect method of observation. In the
principle, srrictly speaking, there is no novelty: every sensible and observing man
who has lived in a civilized state of society, has been to some extent a statistician ;
the novelty, consists, first, in the greater accuracy with which, and the enlarged
scale on which, facts can be collected in modern Europe; and, secondly, in the
. practical application of that theory, which to philosophers must, from the analogy
of inanimate nature, have always appeared probable—the theory, namely, that
organized beings, taken in the aggregate, are governed in their acts by determinate
and discoverable laws.

It is obvious that in a science of this kind, unlike many which have occupied the
attention of mankind, little room is left for imagination, and as little for error. On
the first ground, the study is unattractive even to many who appreciate its value; on
the second, it is eminently and necessarily progressive. ‘‘ Hypotheses non fingo,”’—
those memorable words of Newton’s—should be written over the door of every
Statistical Society in Europe. Nor is there any branch of mental exertion’ so
calculated to promote a cosmopolitan habit of thought and feeling. Man is the
object studied ; and man, so studied, is seen to vary in different countries only in
consequence of discoverable influencing causes, such as race, climate, food, laws,
modes of life, &c. However great, therefore, the external differences between
branches of the human family, the tendency of sociology is to eliminate these
differences one by one, to refer each of them to its several specific orgin, and thus,
finally, to bring to light the essential unity of type which underlies them all.

I would also observe, that as an experimental science, the progress of statistics is
not liable to those delays which impede the advance of many other branches of know-
ledge. Where, as in mathematics, the work to be done is transacted necessarily and
exclusively within the mind of the discoverer,—where not the quantity, but the
quality of intellect brought to bear is all-important,—great advances are rare, for
the plain reason that they can only be made by men of extraordinary capacities.
No number of ordinary proficients in mathematics, working jointly, can make up
for the absence, or supply the place, of one Newton. But though not one man in
ten thousand can be distinguished as an analyst or a geometer, the number is far
larger of those who possess the mental requisites for statistical investigation, at least
in its simpler forms: and without disparaging the remarkable talent for arrangement
and generalization evinced by such men as Quetelet, and by some of our own country-
men whom I will not here mention, it may be safely affirmed that the extension of
statistical inquiry depends less on the appearance among us of any one mind of
more than common power, than on the sustained and cooperative industry, encouraged
by the State, of many minds trained to this pursuit, and each taking a separate and
distinct department in which to labour.

It is almost superfluous to point out the sources of those errors which most
beset statisticians. They may I think be reduced under two heads: (1) Calculation
of mean results from an insufficient number of data; a fault, from the effects of which,
in finances, many provident societies are suffering grievously: (2) Calculation of
mean results without sufficient care being taken to eliminate disturbing causes :
whether this omission arises from the classing together of phenomena essentially
distinct, and referable to separate laws, or from omitting to make allowance for
imperfections in the data supplied, e.g. as though one engaged on criminal statistics
were to assume that all offences committed were actually brought to light, overlooking
those in which no detection follows, and, consequently, in which no trial takes place.
Neither of the sources of error which I have mentioned are difficult to avoid. The
one danger against which they warn us is that of premature conclusions. In all
physical science, but in no science more tkan this of which we treat, is supension of
judgement necessary. I mean by the phrase, that temper of mind which says, “I
neither believe nor disbelieve; evidence is wanting to do either. I only wait and
hold myself free from bias until further facts are adduced.” How easy this is in
theory,—how hard and painful in practice, need not be told to any one who has
given time, and thought, and toil to the proof or disproof of a scientific hypothesis.

Time would not allow me to attempt even the most rapid and hasty survey of

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 125

what has been done, and of what yet needs doing, in the way of statistical research.
Generally,—I think we may say this of the progress of the science in England,—
that what defects remain arise principally from causes beyond the’control of indi-
viduals. Statistics are the function of the State in a sense in which no other science
is so. The details of population, of employment, of instruction, of religious worship,
of commerce, and of health, are already recorded in official publications; those’of
agricultural production we may hope will shortly follow. The branch which I
principally note as deficient is that which relates to civil and criminal judicature.
Lord Brougham has brought this subject before the House of Lords, and even
embodied in a Bill the data on which information is needed. We require a regular
and uniform record to be kept of every fact connected with the administration of the
law. We require to know, in civil proceedings especially, the number and nature of
suits that go to each court, the length of time occupied in their decision, the nature
of that decision, and the cost to the parties. Our criminal returns might be fuller
than they are: they give us at present absolutely no information respecting that vast
class of offences (of late much increased) which are dealt with under summary juris-
diction. It is not wise in any country to copy servilely tne practice of another : local
differences may create and necessitate diversity of procedure. But I may refer to
the annual reports (two yearly volumes) of the Minister of Justice in France as
examples of an almost perfect arrangement of complicated statistical details. One
result of that publication is to show a vast local difference between department and
department in the nature and amount of crime. It is obvious, that when such a
difference is shown, by the lapse of a sufficient period, to be chronic and not merely
casual, the Government, whose attention is thus invited, must feel itself bound to
investigate the source of the evil, and, if possible, to provide a cure. In fact, an
executive regularly supplied with such knowledge, may be said to have its finger on
the pulse of every province, ready, at the first symptom of disease, to intervene with
the requisite remedy.

There is another suggestion which I may make, and which indeed connects itself
with this last. I allude to the advantage, I might almost say the necessity, of esta-
blishing a Statistical Department of Government, charged with the annual publication
of such facts relative to the management of national affairs, as are reducible to nume-
rical expression. We have statistics enough presented to Parliament every session,
but they are, in the great majority of cases, called for by individuals. They are drawn
out to suit the particular purpose of those who move for them : they are, accordingly,
deficient in unity, and often of no use beyond the moment. Now I speak from some
personal observation when I say, that at a cost hardly greater than that of these
desultory, fragmentary, isolated returns, (which have in addition the inconvenience,
coming as they do, at unexpected times, and without any regularity, of throwing a
sudden increase of work on particular offices,) it would be possible to present to the
nation such a yearly résumé of administrative statistics, as should, to a very great
degree, supersede the present system (if system it can be called) of moving for returns
as, and when, they are wanted.

I have said that I think a Statistical Department desirable, instead of a Statistical
Branch in every Department; because the former method gives better security for
unity of plan, and because the work will be best done by those whose sole and undi-
vided business it is.

I have not referred to the meetings of the International Congress of Brussels and
Paris, because on such a subject I could offer no remark that would not naturally
occur to those whom I address. Such meetings have a twofold value. First, they
extend the field of statistical research: and we have seen that accuracy of result
varies directly as the magnitude of the area of investigation. Secondly, they form
a new link between nation and nation; because, though speech differs, arithmetical
notation is the same everywhere. In proportion, therefore, as numerical is substi-
tuted for descriptive statement, we approach nearer to that otherwise impracticable
dream of philosophers—a universal language.

There is, I believe I may state, a probability of the Congress of 1857 being held
in London; an expectation which seems both natural and reasonable, inasmuch as
it has been averred in public, and not denied, that the first design of holding such

126 REPORT—1856.

international meetings was suggested by the analogy of the Hyde Park Exhibition
of 1851.

Should the event I allude to take place, it will become the duty of all concerned
in statistical science to see that such an opportunity does not pass unimproved; so
that 1858 may find us with a thoroughly organized system for the annual collection
and publication of national facts, assimilated, if possible, to the systems of France
and Belgium. For it must be borne in mind, that the objects to be aimed at are
two: one, the adoption of a method as perfect in itself as possible ; the other, the
assimilation of that method to those which prevail elsewhere, so that nations may
mutually profit by each other’s experience.

As a proof how much such comparing of notes is required, I may remind you that
the census of Ireland and Scotland was taken in a manner different from that of
England, while no attempt has ever been made to bring the entire British empire,
including India and the colonies, under a single statistical organization.

The constitution of such a statistical department as we require is matter of fair
discussion at the approaching Congress. Probably the most effective combination
of working talent would be that obtained by the appointment of a Commission or
Board, to preside over the issuing of official publications, partly composed of scientific
men, partly of members of the permanent or parliamentary administration (the for-
mer preferably, as having more leisure), who would bring in the necessary element
of a knowledge of official customs. This is, I believe, the system actually existing
in Belgium. In Prussia there isa Minister at the head of the Statistical Department.
Those who wish to see the question more fully discussed, will find information in a
valuable Report by Dr. Farr to the Registrar-General, dated October, 1855, p. 108
et seq., of the Registrar-General’s Sixteenth Annual Report. It was also gone into
at the Paris Congress of 1855, and a debate upon it will be found in the volume of
Proceedings, s. 360 e¢ seq.

1 wish also to point out to the Association the advantage of such a communication
between the Home Government and the leading British colonies, in reference to the
approaching Congress, as may enable such of them as desire it to represent themselves
by means of delegates.

Before I conclude, let me read two letters from the Secretary to the London Sta-
tistical Society, giving an account of an important work in which its members are
engaged, the only work of the kind which the Society has just now on hand,

“ Statistical Society, 12 St. James’s Square,
London, 5th August, 1856.

«“«My Lorp,—A Committee was appointed by this Society on the 25th January
of this year to collect information relating to the Beneficent Institutions of the Me-
tropolis. The class of institutions to which their attention was first directed was
the Medical Charities. They have received reports from 49 hospitals, of which the
total annual income is £352,370, and from 58 dispensaries, with a total annual
income of £28,192; besides this, the Samaritan and other small funds connected
with hospitals have an income of £1656 ; the Poor-Law-Board’s expenses for medi-
cal officers are £28,000, and for vaccination £4000, so that the total sum expended
in medical relief in the Metropolis is £414,218 per annum. The Committee will
shortly be able to publish a detailed account of the items of which this income con-
sists, deduced from the reports of the institutions themselves.

“J am, my Lord, your Lordship’s obedient Servant,

«‘ EpWARD TuDOR SCARGILL.”
«Lord Stanley, M.P.”’

“« Statistical Society, 12 St. James’s Square,
London, August 6th, 1856.

‘«¢ Srr,—I have received from Mr. Lumley, this morning, the Returns relative to
the expenses of the Poor-Law-Board in the Metropolis.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SEOTIONS. 127

** Hence I have deduced the following statement, which I believe to be as correct
as it is possible to make it from the information in my hands.

£
Annual income of 49 Hospitals . . . +» - + + + «+ 352,370
$3 58 Dispensaries . . - » + - + « 28,192
65 11 Samaritan and other Funds (depend- } 1.656

ent on Hospitals and Dispensaries) :

Annual cost of Medical Relief under Poor-Law . . . . 28,776

os Vaccination AA reine G44 F 4,393
Total amount of Medical Expenses . . . . + + 415,387
‘ii Poor-Law Relief, nof medical . . 736,809
£1,152,196
‘I am, Sir, your obedient Servant,
“Dr. Farr, F.R.S. P «‘ EDWARD TUDOR SCARGILL,

« P.S.—I have reduced the francs to £ sterling, and am able to give you, as the
nearest comparison that can be made, the following :—
Hospitals and Dispensaries.
London: £256,558 Paris: £215,664
Lunatic Asylums and Medical Poor-Law Expenses.
In London, contrasted with Hospices in Paris*.
£158,829 £184,304
“The sum expended in non-medical relief under the Poor-Law (£736,809) would
have also to be taken into consideration, as well as the very considerable sums
expended in the support of aged and infirm persons in alms-houses. Against this,
in the case of Paris, will have to be set £160,882, which with the two sums already
quoted, appears to be the sum devoted to the relief of poor, aged, infirm, sick, and
lunatic persons in Paris; giving, as a grand total, supposing that I have rightly
understood Mr. Legoyt’s letter,
For London: £1,152, 196 {x For Paris: £560,853
“The returns of the 49 hospitals include a sum of £72,402, paid from parish rates
to lunatic hospitals.
«Tn Paris, in 1853—

Francs,

Expenses of the Hépitaus, including Maisons de ee 5,391,614
and Maisons de Convalescence ale

a Hospices. . . . . . 3,948,323

Ay General Management. . .. . 631,168

General Establishments for the use of 28.161
both Hospitals and Hospices . -

9,999,266

“The receipts of the Central Board (J’administration générale de Vassistance pub-

igue) are of various sorts, and are not all applicable to medical charities.
Francs.

In 1853 theiramount was, .... . - .- . 9,583,148

» Annual Municipal Grant. . . . . . - 4,438,181

14,021,329

“‘ Assuming that the population of Paris is one-half that of London, the sum
expended, at the Paris rate, for a population equal to that of London, would be
£1,121,706; the total expenditure for London being, as just stated, £1,152,196.”
—E. T. 8.

I have now only to announce to you the papers about to be read, and to request
attention to the following rules, laid down for the sake of brevity and clearness in
our proceedings :—

**To avoid reading long consecutive lists of figures, and, as far as possible, to
give only results.

* Including central expenses.

128 REPORT—1856.

«Where money is. in question, to avoid shillings and pence, stating only the
number of pounds.

«‘ Where large sums are concerned, to give round numbers, avoiding units.”

Of course there is a medium in observing these directions; and if the choice lies
between the two, better be obscure than inaccurate. All I mean to convey, is that
over-minuteness in these matters is apt to defeat its own ends.

Statistics and Suggestions connected with the Reformation of Juvenile Offenders.
By T. Barwick Lioyp Baker.

The author commenced by saying thatit was not necessary at the present time to go
into the general question—whether Reformatories were good or bad. The voice of the
country had decided that point, and probably by Michaelmas there would be only two
counties which would not be provided for. But there were three points which he
thought had hardly received the attention they deserved: and he would confine him-
self to these.

The first and principal point was the necessity of paying attention, not merely to
the individual boys who chanced to be committed to the school, and endeavouring to
reform them, but the paying attention also to the statistics of juvenile crime in the
district, with the view of finding out all those who are extending the evil by cor-
rupting and teaching others. ‘The apprehension of one or two leaders of a gang will
frequently restore the others to at least comparative habits of honesty : but what is
far more important, the apprehension of one or two instructors in crime will prevent
the temptation and fall of perhaps eight or ten others whom they would have corrupted.
He produced some local statistics of juvenile crime, showing that the number of boys
under I6 years, convicted in the Cheltenham district of any offence since the Ist of
January, 1852, was 149. Of this number, 54 may be termed regular thieves; 39 have
been, or are at Hardwicke, of whom two had not been convicted; 9, convicted once;
16, twice; 6, three times; 4, four times; and 2, five times. Of these youthful pri-
soners nearly ali had had a fair education*, and could read and write well; and the
statistical result, in that point of view, did not show that mere instruction prevented
the necessity of reformatory schools. Mr. Baker explained that the object of the
reformatory school was to clear out of the district all who might be termed regular
thieves, and gradually to reduce to the lowest the amount of criminality which might
be considered to confer the title of regular thief. This, he said, must vary in different
towns. In Liverpool, from which place he had lately had several boys, there were
many who lived entirely by plunder for years together; and a boy who usually works,
and only occasionally steals, even though he might be three orfour times convicted, was
comparatively a trifling case. In Cheltenham he did not believe that for the last
three years there had been a single boy belonging to the place who had gained one-
half of his keep dishonestly for a month together. The term, therefore, “ regular
thief”’ is applied to all who had been convicted a second time, even though many of
the cases were extremely slight.

Extracting from the total number of convicted boys returned by the Cheltenham
police during the 42 years all those who either were convicted a second time, or whose
first offence was considered sufficiently serious to send them to a reformatory school,
it gave a total of 54 regular thieves, i.e. either twice convicted, or such as were
thought worthy of being sent to the Hardwicke Reformatory on a first conviction.
Of these, 39 had been, or still were, at Hardwicke, 8 were long past age, and 7 are still
in the town. Of these seven, two have not been convicted since May 1854; and the
other five}, though repeatedly convicted, were merely very slight cases of vagrancy.
Considering that in January 1852 there were 20 boys who had been twice, thrice,
or four times convicted, this result he (Mr. Baker) considered not unsatisfactory.
With regard to the 39 boys who had been or were at Hardwicke, he by no means
pretended that all were “ reformed,’’ past the possibility of again falling into crime.

* Of 39 who have been sent to Hardwicke, 15 could read and write well, and were well
up in the four first rules of arithmetic; 17 could read and write sufficiently to understand and
we understood, though with incorrect spelling, and were fairly up in addition and subtraction ;
and 7 only were below this point.

+ Of these 5, 3 have been since committed to Hardwicke.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 129

He could not predicate more of them than he could of himself. But all had at least
been kept long enough away from Cheltenham to break the course of education which

‘had been handed down from boy to boy. Of fifteen who had left the school, six were
doing well, one had fallen, but was still hopeful, three unsatisfactory, but never con-
victed, four had been convicted, and one had not been heard of lately. The other
twenty-four were still either in his (the Hardwicke) school or in others, where situa-
tions would probably be found for them that would keep most of them away from
Cheltenham. He was by no means one of those who abused the prison system. In
many points it was admirable; but it certainly had the grand failing, that after a boy
or man had undergone his punishment he was returned to the world with very little
capability of earning an honest livelihood, or doing anything but steal again. Now,
he thought they might say,—Ist, that they had been able at Hardwicke to receive
for two years all regular thieves, and to break off the connexion between them and
the innocent; 2ndly, that they had wiped off from themselves the reproach of com-
mitting boys to prison, and then turning them out without enabling them, if they
pleased, to live honestly; 3rdly, that they had reduced the degree of evil necessary
to confer the title of regular thief as low as they could well hope, there being now no
such thing as a gang, or connexion between the dishonest boys, but all being merely
boys yielding to a sudden temptation,—not premeditately planning a theft.

The two other points he would touch upon very briefly. When a boy was once
committed to the school for two years, he believed it was by no means intended by the
Legislature that he should necessarily remain the whole of those two years at the
school. It was extremely undesirable that he should do so, because it would then be
difficult to find a place for him exactly at the moment that his sentence chanced to
expire. Power had been given to the Secretary of State to release a boy at any time
upon good grounds shown for it; he always appeared willing to exercise this power.
But if he could go further, and, without granting a pardon, he could allow a boy leave
to go on trial for a time, it would enable the managers, if the boy behaved ill or did
not suit his place, to receive him back again, and at any rate to keep a more thorough
surveillance over him for the first part of his new service.

The third point was the allowing a parent or guardian, where good proof of respect-
ability could be shown, and in such cases as in the opinion of the committing magis-
trates and manager of the school should be desirable, to bail a boy out from the school,
on finding security for his good behaviour for a time longer than the expiration of the
sentence. Mr. Baker then concluded by recapitulating the three points :—First, the
giving attention to clearing a district*; second, the giving leave on trial; third, the
permitting bail,

Statistics of Cheltenham. By Ricuarp Bramisu, F.R.S.

This paper gives a short account of the early history of Cheltenham, its connexion
with the Crown, and grant to the celebrated Bohun, Earl of Hereford, its present
government under commissioners, and its rapid increase in population from 3076 in
1801 to 35,051 in 1851, being greater than that of any town in England, with the ex-
ception of Lemington Priors, which in 1801 numbered but 315 inhabitants, and in 1851
15,724; Cheltenham having increased 1039-5 per cent. in 50 years, while Leming-
ton in the same time increased 4891-74 per cent. .

The paper further shows the salubrity of the climate of Cheltenham in the longevity
of its inhabitants, and its immunity from epidemic diseases, cholera never having
visited the town, which is attributed to the high range and great equality of tempera-

* The Gloucestershire Quarter Sessions at Midsummer ventured on what will probably be
a most important step in recommending to the magistrates of the county, as a general rule,
(mot without exception nor interfering with the due discretion of the magistrates) to send all
boys on a first conviction to gaol for one week (thus securing the lowest diet, and not giving
them time to overcome their dislike to a prison). If they are convicted a second time, to
send them to thé Reformatory. If they relapse after this, they fairly merit penal servitude.

If this be feasible, as it probably now is in Gloucestershire and will be in all counties when
they have had sufficient time, three important points will be gained. Ist. There will rarely
be any boys in our gaols. 2nd. No boys can become habituated to gaol. 3rd. Unless the
police are very careless, no boys can obtain sufficient practice in crime to enable them to
teach others.

1856. 9

130 REPORT—1856.

ture, combined with the excellent sanitary regulations of the place. The discovery
and application of the mineral waters are stated; their popularity as curative agents,
and their subsequent decline. A considerable portion of the paper is allocated to the
statistics of secular and religious education, from whence it would appear that Chel-
tenham has attained a pre-eminence above all the towns in the kingdom, and that while
secular education has been extended from 1 in 174 of the population in 1818, to 1 in
84 in 1851 throughout the kingdom, Cheltenham reckons 1 in 6, whilst the accommo-
dation afforded for religious worship in its churches and chapels amounts to no less
than 60 per cent.

Interesting details are given of the rise and progress of the various schools and pro-
prietary colleges, and more particularly of the resuscitation of the Cheltenham Gram-
mar School, the amount of money expended by these establishments in the town, that
of the Cheltenham Proprietary College being upwards of £16,000 per annum; the
Grammar School and Training College upwards of £5000 each. The author dwells
strongly upon the importance of schools for the adult poor. “ Father and son,”’ he ob-
serves, “are thus found learning the same lesson ; both drinking at the same purifying
fountain ; both being made to feel that there are higher pleasures than those of the
senses, and that being without well-being may be a curse rather than a blessing.”
He considers that it is beginning at the right end, and “ that however children may
be instructed in their schools, their moral development must still depend upon their
homes.” He adds, “ that it is scarcely possible to conceive any antagonism greater
than the influence sought to be exercised upon the minds of children in a well-organ-
ized school, and those to which they are subjected in a rude semi-barbarous home ;
but bring the parent into sympathy with the intellectual and moral progress of the
child, and the whole atmosphere is changed. Education then really commences, and
every subsequent step in the path of knowledge adds another element to the lofty re-
ciprocities of domestic and social life, and affords another defence against immorality
and crime.”

Pauperism and crime is brought into juxtaposition, and some illustrative evidence
given of the evils resulting from eleemosynary institutions, in which Cheltenham, like
Salisbury and Newbury,abounds, and which are found to exercise a baneful influence
upon the moral condition of the people, and to weaken the efforts of the local autho-
rities. In Cheltenham, the result seems to have been to increase largely the amount
of larceny and of pauperism, although vagrancy has been repressed to the extent of
703 per cent. since 1849.

The paper closes with an account of the Reformatory at Hardwicke Court, and the
benefit which it has conferred on the county generally, and on Cheltenham in parti-
cular; and the author infers that one-half at least of those whom a prison would have
consigned to a life of infamy, may be rendered valuable, if not worthy members of the
community.

His conclusions are,—Ist, that opportunity is afforded him whose moral tendencies
are favourable, to break his connexion with the really vicious.

2ndly. That the instructed thief is deprived of his opportunity of daily exercise in
his art, whereby his chance of future success is reduced to a minimum, and he is made
to feel that life has charms, and labour has sweets which no amount of dishonest skill
can obtain.

3rdly. That the heavy reproach against society is (so far as boys are concerned, and
why not girls?) thus removed ; that it punishes crime without providing any means
by which to change the character of the criminal.

Suggestions on the People’s Education. By the Rev. C. H. Bromsy, M.A.

The principles laid down in this paper were as follow :—

1, That a rate shall not take the place but come in aid of voluntary benevolence.

2. That existing schools as well as future schools, originating in denominational
zeal, and claiming the rate in aid, shall contribute threepence from subscriptions,
collections, endowment, and children’s payments, in order to secure for themselves
denominational management.

3. That alocal School Committee shall be empowered to establish new schools, which
children in the receipt of outdoor parochial relief shall be compelled to attend, and

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 131

for whom the Guardians of the Poor shall pay the schoo] premium; and the capita-
tion fee now made by the Committee of Council shall take the place of subscriptions.
and donations.

4. That such a school shall be regarded in the light of a preventive school, and
shall be industrial in its character.

5. That in all ragged or preventive schools, in regard of moral and religious
instruction, the British and Foreign School might be taken as a type.

After briefly reviewing the system of public education in present operation, and
which was originated in 1846 by Sir J. K. Shuttleworth, the paper proceeded to point
out the more prominent defects of the system.

The pupil-teacher is apprenticed at an age too early to know his natural fitness for
the office. He is often coaxed into it at 13, and at 16 he finds he has no heart for
the work, becomes desultory in character, and loses rapidly in moral tone. 2. There
is a want of unity of action in everything that relates to school-keeping. Each of
Her Majesty’s Inspectors has his peculiar views of school-fittings, school-method, and
school-organization. A master is written down by one, and held up another year as
amodel. This is a growing evil, and the more so as new regulations place the master
more and more absolutely in the hands of the Inspector. The third great defect is—
the present system fails to carry help where help is most imperatively wanted. The
problem which proposes to supply this defect has not been solved. No measure can
succeed which does not distinctly show that the working of the present system will
not be arrested. And yet almost every plan hitherto proposed has failed in this
particular.

A Scheme proposed.—In order to excite and not to nip nor finally destroy sub-
scriptions, let the amount of support borne by the rate hold a fixed proportion to the
amount of voluntary subscriptions. It is found that in towns the average cost of each
child is at the rate of 17s. a-year, or of fivepence a-week for 45 weeks in the year,
Let grants be made to existing schools from the rates of twopence per child to meet
threepence raised by local subscriptions and children’s pence conjointly, The pro-
portion in which the latter sum shall be divided may perhaps be left to be determined
by the circumstances of the locality, but a minimum proportion of local subscriptions —
should be defined. Such a plan would have the effect of encouraging private bene-
volence up to the extent required, and at the same time it would leave disengaged
any excess now found in the more favoured districts of a borough, for the benefit of
those neighbouring localities which are now neglected. A subscriber who now pays
#1 for the school of his own district, finding 10s. sufficient under the operation of the
rate-system, would be likely to divide his original donation with another school, in
order to enable it to claim the benefit of the rates, and remain under Denominational
control. A great advantage would thus accrue from such diffusion. This plan would
have the direct effect of encouraging combined Denominational action. Local School
Associations would take the place of isolated Church or Chapel School Committees,
and the poorer schools belonging to the same religious society would have an equal
claim with the richer upon the central fund.

Compulsory Attendance.—There is great reason to fear that free schools in destitute
localities would be comparatively empty without some inducement or compulsion.
Poverty, intemperance, and improvidence, are not likely to beget any high estimation
of school work. In Manchester and Salford, from inquiries of 17,426 families visited,
the following results have been published :—

1. Children between 3 and 15 neither at school nor work, 17,177.

Once attended. Never attended. Total.

Sickness,.......... Ps af 669 + 238 = 905
Domestic Causes ........4. 757 + 139 — 896
Poverty and Indifference.... 6040 + 9336 = 15,376
Bafa tas casi atari aintve, s aibie acetal . 7466 + 9711 meaty FH

2. In spite of improved instruction and increased number of schools, the census
returns show a diminished attendance.

Year. Attendance. Population. Proportion.
1854-5 24,365 250,323 10-27
1851 29,145 387,816 13-30

g*

132 REPORT—1856.

These statistics go to show that no system, however perfect, will satisfactorily meet
the educational wants of the land, so long as the improvident parent is under no obli-
_ gation to send his children to the school. Even the Denominational Schools already
supply more room than is filled, and if this be the case in the localities where the
presence of the higher orders of society must exercise a favourable influence, it is
more than possible, nay, it is sure that the free and rate-supported schools in wholly
destitute neighbourhoods, will miss their aim for want of children. From the census
return we find 17,002 children attending school in, Manchester and Salford, while
private inquiry in connexion with Mr. Entwhistle’s local scheme, gives the number
21,925. Taking the larger figure, and comparing it with the school accommodation
which is given on the same authority, as 74,887 children, we find that two-thirds of
the school accommodation is entirely wasted. How much lost energy therefore may
be expected in those rate-supported schools erected and set to work in the still poorer
and neglected localities, without some species of compulsion? But for what species
of compulsion are we prepared? Mr. Horner remarks, ‘‘ Popular education must be
in some form obligatory, and the successful working of the Factory Act in this respect
is a very satisfactory beginning.” Let the inhibitory clauses of the Factory Act be at
once applied to at least similar fields of child employment; and in al! other desul-
tory and less organized spheres of labour, let it be illegal to employ a boy under 14
who cannot produce the school certificate that he has attended for three years, 172
days at least during each year. Above all we repeat, make it compulsory upon a
child who receives out-door parochial relief, that he attend a day-school at the expense
of the parish, and ultimately make a certificate of school attendance a condition of
the elective franchise. Beyond this it is better to foster than to force. It is a favour-
able sign that the Government have adopted the employment of educational tests as
passports to clerkships in public offices. The example of Government has been hap-
pily followed by the Society of Arts, who have established a system of examination
with granting certificates of merit. A large number of capitalists, both individual
and corporate, have signed a declaration that they will give preference to candidates
for their more lucrative offices who hold these certificates. A great necessity presses
upon the Government for establishing institutions of secondary education. In France
we find écoles de dessein and schools of trade; but in England, the workshop of the
world, where there is no law to compel attendance in the primary school, there is no
opportunity of learning the principles of trade in the secondary school. The time
has gone by when England can safely trust to her coal and iron, when steam can
cheaply convey the raw material to countries who are educating their skilled operatives.

Another instrument of secondary education is the establishment of Free Libraries.
Wherever the measure has been tried the most satisfactory results have followed. In
the Parliamentary Return asked for by Mr. Ewart, we find very interesting details.

At Liverpool, “the number of volumes issued in the first year was 35,928, in the
second 99,021, and the circulation is now 5000 per week.”

At Oxford, ‘during the two years since its establishment 236,000 persons have
visited the Free Library. Here the working-man finds rest after a day of labour,
which he was wont to spend in a far less creditable manner.”

At Salford we find the issue steadily increasing at the rate of 10,000 a year, while
a corresponding improvement in taste is observable in the following comparison of
the character of the books selected. The comparison is limited to 3000 consecutive
issues of books: —

All Classes except fiction. Works of fiction. Total.
S50 setkewest wevOLOGO baal ONOLIST 2. |. 8000
TROD See a eee LDTG So. M684 Ae ep 000)

Loe OLGE . J VEG. 18h. wee duo
deioaere ee wee LOLOL . PSU TOSSaas oe. Rint. be000
TSE OO, se eee, CONT 0.) oe TOOUU
1855. MEMEZZOOL cy yet ea OL ee ale 3000

Résumé.—In the advocacy of a supplementary measure, let it be distinctly seen
that present schools will not be thinned by proximate free schools, and that they will
not slip under the control of the local board. Let it be felt that such supplementary
measure looks simply at present to the lowest and outcasts of our children. In this
way the religious jealousy of denominations will be avoided, for they never quarrel

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 133

about ragged children. According to the census of 1851, there were 132 Ragged
Schools, with 23,643 scholars. Only nine of these schools were connected with par-
ticular denominations, The politician and philanthropist need not fear religious
scruples here. Those who, as a rule, object to all religious teaching except what is
formal and technical, are found to merge their scruples in the paramount necessity
for converting the dangerous classes into new constituents of social strength. Here,
at least, is a work in which the attractive element of philanthropy and pity is stronger
than the repelling element of sectarianism. Nor will the advocates of national eco-
nomy object either. They know that a million spent upon moral and industrial
training will save ten millions in county rates. The simple state of the case is that
two millions are neither at work nor school. The question is, how shall we obtain hold
of them? We answer, refuse to feed by out-door relief those who attend no school.
This would reduce the two millions by one-half. A fourth below those who receive
out-door relief might still remain untouched, and another fourth above. But the
lower fourth might be thinned by the provisions of Reformatories, and the fourth
above them, who are the children of parents able but unwilling to educate them,
would be stimulated by the improvement of those who are below them, and who are
threatening to supplant them in the walks of life and industry. In Cheltenham there
is a population of 35,000, of which number there are 867 children under 16 years of
age receiving out-door relief. The parents are either hopelessly poor, or culpably
unthrifty, and the majority of the children, as might be expected, are left to chance
and ignorance. This is the point on which to put the screw. More compulsory
measures may indeed be needed, but is the country prepared to adopt them ?

On the Advantages to Statistical Science of a Uniform Decimal System of
Measures, Weights, and Coins throughout the World. By Samurx Brown,
F.S.S., and Vice-President of the Institute of Actuaries.

There are few facts relating to material objects in which weight and measure do
not form principal points in the comparison; and if the comparison be made for
commercial purposes, value also becomes a prominent consideration.

Whoever has undertaken for statistical purposes to reduce a collection of facts to
one measure for comparison, will recall the immense labour which the system of
measures, weights, and coins prevalent even in this country has caused him. If, in
addition to this, it be desired to make the comparison of the results with similar
tables of other countries, how much additional labour is thrown upon him!

This difficulty has of late been felt so strongly since the frequent assemblages of
men interested in science or commerce, that scarcely any meeting of consequence
has been held without an expression of opinion on the incongruities of existing
systems, and the importance of preparing the way for a change. At the Statistical
Congress at Brussels in 18538, a resolution was carried, recommending that in the
Statistical Tables of counties not possessing the metrical system, a column should
be added indicating the metrical reductions of weights and measures. Previous to
this, however, the great difficulty of comparing the measure, weight and value of
articles from so many different countries as were represented in the Great Exhibition
of 1851, had forced the subject on the attention of the Jurors. In every year since
then an addition has been made to the number and influential position of those who
advocate some uniform system. The resolution above quoted only partially removes
the difficulty. It merely suggests the advantages of reducing all measures and weights
to the metrical system, which is already extensively recognized; but it does not provide
the means of dispensing altogether with the great labour required in the reduction.

The declaration signed by the Members of the International Jury of the Great
Exhibition in Paris, or Commissioners sent by their respective Governments to the
Exhibition, takes a more comprehensive view, and, without pledging themselves to
the support of any particular system, they urge “upon the consideration of their

‘respective Governments, and of enlightened individuals, friends of civilization, and
advocates for peace and harmony throughout the world, the adoption of a uniform
system of weights and measures computed decimally, both in regard to its multiples

and divisions, and also in regard to the elements of all the different units.”

At the Statistical Congress held in Paris last year, after a discussion originated by
Mr. Peut, a resolution was passed still further extending the objects to be aimed at,

’ and applying it expressly to the‘purposes of the Meeting : — The Congvess, considering

134 REPORT—1856.

how much the adoption by different nations of a uniform system of measures, weights,
and coins would facilitate the comparative study of the statistics of different countries,
resolves that it is desirable to put such a uniform system into energetic practice.”

Of the extraordinary labour which attends the comparison of the statistics of
different countries at the present time, no better idea could be given than by a little
work containing only a few pages, which was prepared and published by Mr. Wool-
house in 1836, and which is still used by architects and contractors whose operations
are carried on in foreign countries. It is entitled ‘‘ Tables of continental lineal and
square measures.”’ Table I. contains a list of the principal lineal measures of the
various countries, states, and cities throughout Europe, arranged in alphabetical
order. The columns exhibit to 4 places of decimals the value of a unit of each
respective measure, when estimated in English feet, Florence bracchi, French metres,
Neapolitan palmi, Rhineland feet, Roman palmi, Venice feet, and Vienna feet.
Under each column the number of different places in which the unit of measure is
compared under Table I. amounts to 143, nearly all forming different proportions of
the English foot. In the second table is shown the comparison of square and super-
ficial measures for the same number of places.

In the discussion which took place at the Institution of Civil Engineers in February
1854, Professor Airy stated that for every different class of objects a different unit
was adopted; that the multipliers of that unit were counted by the decimal scale of
common arithmetic, and the subdivisions of that unit by the binary scale. Thus he
enumerates—

The Acre (for land measure).

The Mile (for itinerary measure).

The Yard (for measure of drapery).

The Coomb (for capacity of corn, &c.),

The Gallon (for capacity of liquids).

The Pound (for grocer’s ware).

The Stone of 8 pound (for butcher’s meat).

The Stone of 14 pounds (for flour, oatmeal, &c.).
And the learned Professor did not consider that the Government ought to enforce a
decimal scale except in coinage.

Now it is evident that if so many units are to be maintained, having no connexion
with or relation to each other, and if they are not even to be divided decimally, and
if foreign nations may each have as many units equally unrelated to each other, no
great advantage would be gained by any change at all. If the inconvenience of an
alteration of system must be encountered, the one adopted should at least be of such
akind, that no further change should be necessary, that the system should be decimal
for the convenience of calculation, that it should be distinguished by the utmost sim-
plicity, and that both measures and weights should be in harmony with each other.

The author states that at the present time no system so completely fulfils these
conditions as the metrical system, which, beginning in France, has been since
established in so many countries, and from which, whatever prejudices it may have to
overcome, there seems no desire in any country where it has been introduced, to
withdraw or to substitute any old system for it. Both in weights and measures the
difference is so slight between some denominations of the metrical system and some
used in this country, that very little inconvenience would be felt in the change.
Thus the ton=1015°65 kilogrammes might easily be altered to 1000 kilogrammes.

1 pole or perch (53 yards)= 5°029 metres to 5 metres.

1 furlong (220 yards) = 201:164 ,, to 200 metres.
5 furlongs =10053°22 pa to 1 kilometre.
1 foot = 3°048 decimetres to 3 decimetres.

On the Position of Reformatory Schools in reference to the State, and the

General Principles of their Management, especially as regards Female Re-

Sormatories. By Mary Carpenter (0f Bristol).

Reformatory schools have only been brought prominently before the public during
the is five years, and great ignorance still prevails respecting their real object and
working,

The sid Saxon law distinctly provided that all persons who are by the “act of God ”
irresponsible, should not be punished; and that a child “‘pardonatur, quia infans.’’

pe» s

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 135

Yet, although in the United States for thirty years, and in France and Germany for
a long period, the school had been considered a fitter place than the gaol for juvenile
delinquents, our own country had forgotten that a child was a child, and till August
1854 had compelled magistrates and judges to punish them as adults. The act 17
and 18 Vict., chap. 86, allows magistrates to sentence young persons under sixteen
to a reformatory school under legal detention; the schools being private, but under
government certificate and inspection, and the superintendents receiving from Govern-
ment five shillings per week for each child so sent. Further aid, in the establishment
and working of schools, is provided by recent minutes of the Committee of Council on
Education ; and acts have been passed during the present and the last sessions, to
facilitate the practical workings of the original measure. This indeed must simply be
regarded as tentative, the establishment of Reformatory Institutions being left to the
accidents of private benevolence, and the old laws still remaining in force. Hence it
happensthatin somelarge citiesand towns not a child has been sent to any such institution,
though schools exist in the immediate neighbourhood, and young delinquents swarm
in their streets who are receiving a gaol education in short and repeated imprison-
ments. This painful fact shows the necessity of a law making it compulsory on
magistrates to send to a Reformatory all children on a second conviction; and on a
first, all children whose circumstances prove that they cannot escape from crime if
left to themselves.

It is also found that great differences exist in the length of imprisonment to which
a child is subjected before transmission to a Reformatory School,—the time being often
proportioned to the magnitude of the same crime in the adult, and not to the cireum-
stances of the child, who often, if of tender years, suffers not a little from the rigours
of the system. The experience of four years in the management of Reformatory
Schools, and a close observation of the effects of different modes of treatment on both
boys and girls, leads the writer to the conviction, that while a lengthened imprison-
ment is most injurious to the physical and mental health of the child, and while his
conduct in prison is in no way a criterion of his penitence or future course, yet the
influence of a short seclusion in a separate cell, under the good influence now happily
administered to such prisoners, prepares the child to receive in a grateful and sub-
missive spirit the advantages held out in the school, and makes him understand the
consequences which his past conduct would entail on him in future life,

Government has power to compel parents to pay a larger or smaller proportion of
the weekly cost of the child’s maintenance; a power already enforced in Bristol and
other towns. Thus all cause of fear lest the advantages of the school should be a
premium on vice or a relief to the natural guardians, is removed.

Reasons were given for the well-ascertained fact that girls of the criminal class are
far worse than boys, and more difficult to manage. The object is to restore the young
girl to the natural condition of childhood, and fit her for the social duties of life. The
writer’s experience as manager of the Red Lodge Girls’ Reformatory School, Bristol,
leads her to give the following recommendations.

1. A healthy physical state to be attained, with a view to moral reformation. Venti-
lation, cleanliness, temperature. Out-door play and walks in the country, to supply
the want of boys’ agricultural labour. Food sufficient, and of a more nourishing de-
scription than is allowed in most pauper schools, the girls having been previously
accustomed to a stimulating diet.

2. The child must be brought under steady regular restraint, administered with a
firm, equal, but loving hand.

3. They must be trained to feel themselves apart of society ; not to have the dress
of a caste; and to have intercourse, as far as possible, with persons of virtuous cha-
racter and loving spirit.

4, The healthy affections must be cultivated ; the natural ties cherished; and the
school made a home, and a happy one.

5. The activity and love of amusement natural to childhood should be cultivated in
a healthy and innocent manner. Many useful lessons respecting social rights may
be built upon it.

6. Rewards and punishments should be made the natural consequences of actions.
Bribery to do right as well as angry infliction of pain should be avoided. The child
should be taught to surpass not others, but herself.

7, Children should be gradually brought into situations of trust. Zé is only in pro-

136 REPORT—1856.

portion as liberty is rightly used, that security can be felt that the child is really
reformed,

te Wholesome direction should be given to the mental energies by no inconsiderable
amount of intellectual training.

9, Every effort must be made to bring the tone of the school and the common feeling
of its inmates to the side of virtue, and into harmony with the instructors. The
religious element must be the prevailing one in the minds of the teachers; and must
infuse itself into all their intercourse with the children. This will have a greater
direct influence than any formal lesson.

10. The will of the child must be enlisted in her own reformation. She must be
led to feel that obedience to the Divine Will is the highest good; and to desire to
obey that Will.

On the Tendency of European Races to become extinct in the United States.
By Evwarp Cuiszorn, Corr. Mem. Nat. Inst. Washington.

The object of this paper was to exhibit the probability of the extinction on the
continent of North America, not only of the Celtic, or Irish race, but of all other
European races, provided intercourse with Europe was entirely interrupted.

The argument was based on a fact admitted everywhere in the United States, that
the town populations there are more healthy and productive than those of the
country districts; and that as the law of extinction of town populations exists in the
United States, as well as in Ireland and other parts of Europe, and as the annual
loss of population cannot be supplied by the country districts, which are, on the con-
trary, in a measure replenished by the towns in the United States, it follows, that in
the course of a few generations, both the towns, as well as the country districts,
would be left without inhabitants,—provided the annual deficiencies in both were not
supplied by the emigrants from Europe.

It was admitted there were some favoured localities in the United States where
the population of European extraction increases by reproduction, and which in some
degree helps to replace the loss of population in'‘other districts, which are, however,
by far the more numerous. It was however argued, from the general unfitness of
the climate to the European constitutions, coupled with the occasional pestilential
visitations which occur in the healthier localities, that on the whole, or on an average
of three or four generations, extinction of the European races in North America
would be almost certain, if the communications with Europe were entirely cut off.
And thus the facts indicated by the extinction of the colony from Iceland, in Nara-
ganut Bay,—the extinction of French and:German settlements in the West,—of
Spanish settlements in the South,—the non-increase of the numbers of people
representing the old settlers in New York, Maryland, and especially the families
who with Penn colonized Pennsylvania,—all told the same sad story, and led to the
inference, that the continent of North America had not been, and was not likely to
become, a homestead to the European races, and which would, from the force of cir-
cumstances not likely to change, die out if the intercourse with Europe were prevented.

It was also explained, that*the probability of the United States being long a tem-
porary homestead to the European peoples was greatly endangered, if not prospectively
barred, by the Chinese emigration, entirely antagonistic in its sympathies, which had
begun to flow in, and which, at no very distant period, promises to overrun the
whole country with an increasing population, whose constitution was perfectly adapted
to the climate, it might be said, in the inverse ratio of its unwholesomeness to the
European constitution; thus giving the Chinese rice cultivators and others extra-
ordinary opportunities of plantation not offered to any Europeans, except in a very
few limited localities, the population of which, in the course of time, could not stand
their ground against overwhelming and surrounding populations perpetually at war
with them; so that it was clear from causes now in operation, that no matter how
favourable the circumstances of the European peoples in the United States were,
their extinction at no distant period was certain, provided the connexion of America
with Europe ceased.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 137

~ On the Diversity of Measures in the Corn-Markets of the United Kingdom.
By J. Towne Danson, F.S.S.

Taking the current circulars ot upwards of twenty firms engaged as corn-factors in
as many of the principal corn-markets of the kingdom, Mr. Danson enumerated the
various measures upon which the prices were quoted, some having reference to capa-
city only, some to weight only, and some to both; and the weights used Varying with
nearly every change of locality. In London the bushel of wheat and all other grain
is determined by the imperial measure. In Liverpool a bushel of wheat means 70 lbs. ;
in Birmingham, 62 lbs.; in Gloucester, 60 lbs.; and in Neweastle-on-Tyne, 63 lbs.
Again, in Birmingham, a bushel of barley means 49 lbs. ; in Gloucester, 50 Ibs. ; in
Leeds, 524 Ibs. ; and in Newcastle, 56 lbs. ; and to extend the field of comparison only
. extends the variety of measures to be dealt with. The following evils were specified,
as resulting from this want of uniformity in these markets, where, since the promul-
gation of the Imperial Measures Act, it is vulgarly supposed that tolerable uniformity
has existed :—“ 1. That in almost all cases in which a seller or buyer of agricultural
produce has occasion to resort to more than one market, he is compelled to deal with
more than one mode of ascertaining the quantity sold; and that, while such differences
answer no good purpose whatever, they check the freedom of commercial intercourse,
afford facilities for the commission of fraud, often cause mistakes and disputes, and
always involve trouble and loss of time. 2. That the quotations by which producers,
dealers, and the public seek to inform themselves of the variations of the price of the
same commodity at the same time in different parts of the kingdom (in order to their
equalization by the legitimate action of trade), are deprived of a great part of their
proper utility, in consequence of the weights or measures quoted for each locality being
very commonly unintelligible in most others. 3. That the inconveniences thus arising
are increased precisely in proportion as the commercial intercourse of each locality
with every other in the kingdom is promoted, by the improvement of road and postal
communication; and, hence, are now much greater than they were when reported on
by the Parliamentary Committee of 1833; and are growing greater year by year,”

On the Connexion between Slavery in the United States of America and the
Cotton Manufacture in the United Kingdom. By J. Towne Danson, F.S.S.

Mr. Danson argued in favour of five propositions, which may be thus expressed :—
1. That cotton, from the conditions of climate necessary to its culture, cannot be
grown in Europe; but that, with the single and not important exception of the facto-
ries in the New England States of America, it is, and must long continue to. be,
manufactured almost exclusively in Europe. 2. That the present supply is chiefly
raised, and for the present must continue to be raised, by slave-labour—seeing that
while for fifty years we have sought over the whole earth for cotton, we have during
that time continued to obtain from the slave States of the American Union a continually
increasing proportion of our entire supply. 3. That two-thirds in number at least of
the slave population of the United States have been called into existence, and are now
directly or indirectly maintained, for the supply of cotton for exportation. 4. That
of the cotton thus exported, three-fourths at least in value are raised for, and sent to,
this country alone. And 5. That of the entire quantity we import, four-fifths at least
in value are thus derived from the United States. Each proposition was supported by
tabular accounts extracted from the public records of this country and the United
States, and the conclusion was expressed thus :—‘‘ That hence, in the present state of
the commercial relations of the two countries, the cotton-planters of the United States
are interested, to the extent of two-thirds at least of their entire exportable produce,

in the maintenance of the cotton manufacture of the United Kingdom; and that,

reciprocally, the cotton manufacturers of the United Kingdom, and through them the
entire population of the kingdom, are interested, to the extent of more than four-fifths
of the raw material of that manufacture, in the existing arrangements for maintaining
the cotton culture of the United States.”

et

188 REPORT—1856.
A Table of the Lapps and Finns in Norway, according to the Census

In 1845. In the year

Lapps. Lapps.

Parishes and Towns.

In fixed No Finns. ||In fixed N Finns. | Landed
habita-| - dic,| Total. habita-| die proprie-
tions. i tions. | M2 tors.
IROFON) voaseqecten weed _ 31 31 — _ 45 —
Trondhyem Town...} — _ —— _ _ _ — fasereee Beas
Salho). asesee: stateside? — 44 44); — _— — mes) tN cadeadpiteoss
Stordal —_ 10 10; — 16 — _ _
—_— _ — 10 = a rencenaas se
7 7\|— — —_ —_ _—
= == at 12 =a = ph
=a Sal ip 2s _ p=4 A. —
= ieee ia ees = =
a 1 ice | 9k Al We 3 =
41 41 =m WH cones ccalecccasscelesenesonslammasaeerl amare rese6 .
8 guide. 5 = oe 3
Grong 89 97; — _— 97 — _
Fosnes ..e.eee act sees _ — _ — —_ 14 —_ —
Brén6 see. ogs 6); — 6}; — 1 ~ — —
Bindalen.......e.sc00e: _ _ _ — _— 39 — _
Alstadhoug.....+...+«: 28) — 28); — — |ecenveeee _ _
Vefsen ...... Sacconss 253 7 253 SS | PAR ee equate dasauesse
Nesne ....... aa oe _ _ _ _— 2 — — —_
Kemnes .......+..+ wep 47 36 83 | — 38 27 — ~
TAT ecanae oss eoakes ses 25 — 25 _— 29 _ — _—
MU ecanessesssteaceseses 59 | — 59 | — 26 77 — _
Gildeskaal ............ 4| — 4); — — —_ —_ 1
Skydrstad .........06. 240 | — 240 | — || 230 _— = —_
Saltdalen§ ............ 19); — 119 | — 94 = — 2
BodGil scacaaavacssee wel 53) — 53), — 49 _— = _
WOIGEIE txascactcacccaal sO Neuere 60); — 69 — — 1
Stegeni .....ssycees nas 9; — 9); — 1 _ — —_
Hamer6o ...... Seah oce | 54) — 54] — 52 —_ _— _
Lédingen 140 9 149 | — —_ — — 7
GHGPEN | sccseceseexeges 522 | — 522} — 570 7 8 —
FIAGRCR oe. .scaceccee has so; — 80; — 84 a — —_—
Bo 28 _— 28 _ 34 —_ _ —
Qumbsii's. 8. cisecdes. 5 _ — — _ —_ —_ —_ _
Dverberg ......00004. = 5 2 | _ 3
Waageniice: ..sydayesens _ 14 14); — — 14 _ =_
Borge .......cseccseeees = _ _ _ — _ _ _
Trondenes ......++++.- 202 | — 202; — 231 — 1 1
Kreedfyord ........+++. 112; — 112} — | 118 _ — 14
Thestad ....csssesseese Abad dems | GBBT fee Y poe ope a5 |{t. 4t
Trano qacteccccante eevee} 207 | — 207; — 235 _ 7 _ r
L. 1
Lenvik } “21 OUR EES eee cing ies 10 {F 1
Maalselven f**'’*'**’ 109 nis. 80 L. 11
F. 6
Tromso Parish ......| 600 | 10 610 | 22 — — 91 _
Tromso Town......... a} = 3 | 82 — _— 38 —_
Karls6.........00+ tre 844} — 844 | 29 708 _ 45 _
Liyigens iousoseccucsd ...| 1460 | — | 1460] 436 |leo1 | — yay ts Be 88

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

139

returns of 1845 and 1855. By Louis Kr. Daa, of Christiania.

f the Census 1855.

Social Condition. Heads of Families. Besides of mixed origin, and
included in the Norwegian
pee population. Notes,
Far- . Se ee ee
tains of N N L
mers. vessels,| NOrWego-|Norwego-| Lappo-
Lapps. | Finns. | Finns.
ABA Peace oer bees cer eee seseseeeees/eceaseeseee-(COnvicts in prison.
Redeedisalte Weaeaidedlioceccedeatesess easel ce Sek cAeM It Rcthaceres| ccch cee anl Returnyet wauting.
= oe 2 x == —
1 mex i Als ite Ls
= a 4 us Sar
rh = 2 = = as
eteereeelaccceners[eeeteeece|escenenes Picltnachedeslassoe=drelscccetateasc|eeas seeeeeeeleccccesveens Return yet wanting.
20 — —_— _ aS
a ae — 2 _ 10
& ae Sais gies cone seesseseslecseecssenesleesee eves ee(REturn yet Wanting.) °
= 3 os = = os
— — — _ —_ 27
19 _— — = = 7
— 1 = = = 13
_— _ _ re = 43
4 3 = = = 31
Ss = — — _— 10
6 1 _ = = BS Mle dansctennealeas SAR Not stated whether
_ _ —= ia == 8 they are included
- _ _ = - 3 among the Nor-
6 8 _ = — _ wegians.
8 13 _ —- a 19
3 2 = =) =
16 1 _ = cara abil shed «Aah <4} gaeegtsh | siegs caneey -|Among the Lapps

_ : F
SSll lool SlaSaala elllolloleleeleli ellllee

4 1 =
27 28 —

1 1 _
25 6 =
— L. —) Oeecccccee =
a 4 2 =
127 3 —
42 2 _

to be mixed.

140 REPORT—1856.

Table
Tn 1845. In the year
Lapps. Lapps.

Parishes and Towns. seessesss Sree

In fixed Ne Finns. |/Infixed u Finns. | Landed

habita- : | Total. habita- : | Total. proprie-

tions. madic, tions. adic. tors.
SKYZIVO .....0.sseeeeee 1447 — 1447 | 426 1620 —_— 1620 858 —_—

P

1 een epaahakta 1069 | — | 1069 | 863 || 1019 | — | 1019 | 1107 eae
LOppen. «cece 550| — | 550| 50 | se9| — | 569| 26 1F ie
Hammerfest Parish..| 1011 — | 1011 | 118 1166 | — | 1166 160 —
Hammerfest Town...| — —_ _ 154 — _ — 195 —_—

: ; L.154
Sea }. 664 | 1026 | 1690 | 2054) 763 | 405 | 1168 | 253 |4 psy
£ 122 | 705 827 23 —

L. 8
Lebesby 919| 116 | 1035| 31 | was Eka Pee) Wee ss
Nesseby f*"""""""""" L.236
1303 85 1388 83 F. 14
Vardo Parish ....... ao — _ _ — _ 65 14 _
Vardo Town ......06. 4 —_ 4 8 5 —_— 5 14 —
Vads6 Parish ......... 1093 | 93 | 1186| 129 | se4| 10 | 674| 259 |{2-—)
Vads6 Town ..ccoceee] — —_— 134 3; — 5 Joy (oe ay Seoererrerne
REMARKS.

1. In comparing the printed account of the Census of 1845 with this paper, it will
be seen that I have omitted altogether that cluster of Finns who are living in Chris-
tiania Stift, in the Glommen valley (Solér). The reason of this is, that their dena-
tionalization and amalgamation with the Norwegians has made such progress, that it
has become utterly impossible to distinguish them ethnologically by that administra-
tive machinery employed in taking a general census; except a few old men and
women, they all understand and speak Norse, and the young people do not even use
the language of their ancestors among themselves. _ What has been enumerated by
the parish officers, is then rather the population of that peculiar district (Finskogen),
originally inhabited by Finns, than a body of true and unmixed Finns. This colony,
that is about 250 years old, may now be considered practically extinct as a peculiar
nationality, by a transformation into a population that could not be distinguished from
the Norwegian but by investigations into the pedigree and the language of each single
inhabitant.

2. The separate and recognized Tshudic population of Norway, then, now com-
mences to the north of the Dovre range of mountains at Boros, and is noted down
from south to north.

3. In these districts of Trondhyem, Nordland, and Finmark, will be observed
several discrepancies between the enumerations of 1845 and 1855. These differences
are explainable by the greater accuracy of the last census ; the roaming and wander-
ing habits of the Lapps, and the continual immigration of Finns from the Russian ter-
ritory into Norway, that are going on to the north of Tromso.

The census gives no means of distinguishing between the increase of this Finnic
population, that is owing to the new settlers, and to an increase of births.

The Lapps do not change their domicile in this way, but many of them live periodi-
cally on both sides of the Kidlen range in Sweden and Norway. This circumstance
is stated as the cause of the census not being completed in due time in the parishes
of Selbo, Snasen, and Vefsen. :

continued.

of the Census 1855.

Social Condition.

Heads of Families.

Besides of mixed origin, and
included in the: Norwegian
population.

Cotters} New tes.
Far- le with- | Settlers | Me- |, or So ae Be i
mers. | yang, | out in waste chanics), js, |Norwego- Norwego-| Lappo-
* | land. | lands. ‘| Lapps. | Finns. | Finns.
== = — — = _ 116 107 167 } |Whether the mixed
16 _ 7 7 _ _ races are included
2 2 2 16 _ -- 28 283 63 among theNorwe-
ts © 2 Pe i : a = } 19 34 9 gians isnot stated.
a — — — _ _ 50 29 2
_ _ _ _ 3 6 2 1
— Ee 2 1 e& =
be 2 aba ses Pats a)
—}—}]}— — a ae 8
— 26 11 _ _ _
mags. | Fda Wea ag ak \ 8 6
= — 2 = =
=— _ _ — — _ 11 5
_ _ _ _ ed — _ 3
— |) — |o— 2

4, The distinction of Lapps living in fixed habitations and nomadic, is not strictly

but merely approximately correct. The account for the parish of Grogn shows that
some of those Lapps, who are considered as undoubtedly nomadic, because they wander
with their flocks of reindeer, yet rent lands and habitations. This tendency to prefer
fixed abodes will of course be increasing. The classification given of the social con-
dition of the Lapps with fixed habitations, shows that their ways of living are like those
of the Norwegian peasantry ; that interesting portion of them who are put down as
settlers in waste lands, are proprietors of their cleared and claimed lands.

5. Between the census of 1845 and 1855, the parish of Maulselven has been esta-

blished. Finmark proper was divided in three parishes, Kistrand, Lebesby, and
Vadso. It now forms eight subdivisions. To judge of the fluctuation of its popula-
tion, these last eight districts of the Table must then be joined together, and will give,—
1845. 1855.
Lapps in fixed habitations........ 2683 ........ 2985
Nomadic 0.22 vices Stee eccvees® 1285 saccsces Lado
Watalis.s ae ace ee: 3918 ......45 4388
MUMS 22 coc eRe ee CEM Sececn eas Late

6. In the census of 1845 no account was taken of the mixed races. They were
most probably by the enumerating officers included among the Norwegians. In the
census of 1855, only those are noted down as mixed whose father or mother was a
_ pure Lapp or Finn, the further offspring being considered as Norwegian.

When it is observed that the Lapps and Finns keep up their numbers, or even in-
| __ crease considerably, in spite of this loss by absorption, it will be perceived that their
population is a great deal progressing.

It will be observed that this intermixture is next to nothing in the southern
districts, where the Lapps are few, and of course looked upon with an idea of strange-
ness, if not contempt; but that it is considerable where they constitute a number in
the parish, almost equalling that of the Norwegians. The intermixture is stated to
| be chiefly owing to legitimate marriages.

REPORT—1856.

142

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TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 148

On the Wirral Peninsula, and the Growth of its Population during the last
Jifty years in connexion with Liverpool and the Manchester District. By
J. Towne Danson, F.S.S.

The Wirral Peninsula is that tract of land, part of Cheshire, lying between the
Mersey and the Dee, and about 60,000 acres in extent, on the eastern border of
which has recently sprung up the town of Birkenhead. The following Table exhibits
the growth of the population, on the assumption that Birkenhead is, in fact, an off-
shoot of the town of Liverpool :—

Liverpool. Town and Suburbs.

Population. Wirral alone.

Total Decimal

Years. |In Lancashire-| In Wirral. | Total. bi ti Po | increase,
aL Uh per cent.

1801. 81,910 ae 81,910 9,410

1811. 104,740 120 104,860 10,0138 6:3

1821. 141,340 720 142,660 12,191 21:7

1831. 198,660 4,540 203,200 17,340 42°5

1841, 232,770 16,060 248,830 31,784 83°5

1851. 299,450 40,230 | 339,680 57,157 80-0

The assumption that Liverpool and Birkenhead are substantially but one town, was
supported by a return of the number of passengers across the Mersey by the two
ferries between Liverpool and Birkenhead, showing an increase from 3,800,000 in
1850, to upwards of 5,000,000 in 1854 ; the passengers by the ferry attached to, and
principally serving, the Birkenhead and Chester Railway, forming but a small portion
of the total number. The comparative distribution of the entire population of Wirral
at the beginning and end of the fifty years—the additional population being almost
entirely concentrated within about 12,000 acres of the peninsula, along the bank of
the Mersey,—confirmed the general inference, that to the growth of Birkenhead, or
rather to the expansion of Liverpool across the river, the whole or nearly the whole
of the change was due. The return of the birth-places of the population of 1851,
showed that of the immigrants of twenty years of age and upwards, about equal propor-
tions had come in from the other parts of Cheshire, from Lancashire, and from Ireland.
Scotland had contributed nearly as many as Wales, and York and Cumberland stood
together next on the list. The avowed purpose of the paper being simply to place
distinctly upon record a statistical outline of the leading facts touching the growth of
Birkenhead, the writer abstained from inferences, and left the materials to be added
at a future period.

The Family Principle in London Banking. By JamzusWitutam Gixpart, F.R.S.

The author states, that the object of his paper is to inquire to what extent the pri-
vate banks of London are composed of members of the same family. Where we find
two or more partners in any bank bear the same name, it is reasonable to suppose that
they are members of the same family. The annual returns published in the London
Gazette give the name of each firm, and the individual name of each member of the
firm. From these returns the author has constructed a table of all the London Banks
classified according to the number of families they respectively represent,

The following is a summary of this Table :—

Partners. Names.

20 Banks are composed of 1 family having together 52 bearing 20

25 ny a 5: 2 families ,, %s 78 ¥ 50

8 ” 7 ” 3 ” 2 ” 33 ” 24

6 39 2) ” 4 2 ” 2 28 ” 24

1 ” ” ” 5 ” ” ” 6 3? 5

oat ”? ” ”? 6 >») ” 23 Ne ” 6
Total 61 208 129

144 d REPORT—1856. |

The author observes in conclusion, that from the official returns he can trace only
those family connexions that are denoted by a similarity of name. The relation of
fathers-in-law and sons-in-law, of brothers-in-law, of uncles and nephews, and of
cousins, may exist in cases where the parties have different names. He professes only
to give an analysis of the facts stated in the returns, and he abstains from stating any
opinion as to whether family relationships are beneficial or otherwise as an element in
the composition of our Banking Institutions.

The Definition of Income in Economic Science compared with the existing
Taxes on Income. By W. Neitson Hancocs, LL.D.

On the Mortality among Officers of the British Army in the East.
By R. Tuomeson Jorxine, F.S.S.

The battle of the Alma was fought on the 20th of September, 1854, and Sebastopol
was taken on the 9th of September, 1855,—a period of little less than ayear. During
this interval three, or including the battle of Sebastopol, four, distinct battles were
fought, besides several minor ones, such as the attack on the Quarries on the 7th of
June; the attack on the Redan on the 18th of June; and others.

It appears that the total number of officers killed in action was 162, and of those
dying subsequently from wounds 62; making together 224. Of these, 4 were Major-
Generals, 5 Colonels, 21 Lieutenant-Colonels, 16 Majors, 77 Captains, 88 Lieutenants,
11 Ensigns and Cornets, 1 Quartermaster, and 1 Surgeon. Among the Captains, 62
were killed in action, and 15 died subsequently from wounds; while among the Lieu-
tenants, 60 were killed in action, and 28 died from wounds, proving how much more
Captains are exposed to sudden death (i. e. to be killed in action in proportion to dying
subsequently from wounds) than Lieutenants, and, indeed, looking generally at Table
I., than any class of officers.

The following Table shows the number exposed to risk, the number killed or dead
from wounds, with the rate of mortality, for each of the four battles before alluded to.
Under the column of Sebastopol, the deaths therein stated occurred from the two
attacks on Sebastopol on the ]8th of June and the 8th and 9th of September, 1855,
as well as the Quarries on the 8th of June, and also include officers killed in the
trenches by chance shots, &c.

uilled ana
ed an
Battles. paler Number | Being one |died subse-| Being one
oe killed. in quently of in

= wounds.
Alma ......... 1065 23 46°3 29 36°7
Balaklava......} 1146 11 104°4 13 88°2
Inkerman ...| 1115 43 25°9 54 20°7
Sebastopol ...| 3250 85 38°8 128 25:2
Crimea......... 3250 162 20°71 224 14°5

The number of officers exposed to risk, as shown in this Table, represent the actual
number present on the field.. On this subject the author states, that although it may be
argued that these numbers will not represent the numbers actually under fire in each
battle, yet upon consideration it will be seen, that for the purpose of showing the pro-
portion killed by the casualties of each battle, the total number in the field should be
taken ; and that because only a small portion may happen to be actually under fire,
arising from the fact that the battle did not last long enough to require all the troops
to be called into action.

By the above Table it appears that the estimated number of officers of Her Majesty’s
Army, exclusive of those attached to Foreign Legions, the Artillery, Engineers, and
Land Transport Corps sent to the Crimea since the commencement of the war, amounts
to 3250. Of these, 5 per cent., or 1 in 20, were killed in action or in the trenches,
and nearly 2 per cent. (1*9) died subsequently from wounds, making together 7 per
cent, (6°9), or 1 in 14 (145).

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 145

Of the Indian wars, the statistics of which the author elaborates in his paper, the
greatest mortality occurred at the battle of Ferozeshah, where it was 1 in 12 (12-4),
and the lowest at Alliwal, at which only 4 officers were killed, the mortality being 1 in
58 (58:2). Ofthe Peninsula wars, Waterloo shows a mortality of 1 in 12 (12°83), at
which 186 officers were killed; while at Vittoria, where the number of officers killed
amounted to 44, the mortality was only 1 in 58 (58°5).

The number of officers who died of disease in the Crimea amounted to 148, being
a per-centage on the total number sent out of 43 (4:5), or 1 in 22. This number of
148 consisted of 28 field officers, 30 Captains, and 90 Subalterns. If we add the
numbers of those who were killed in action, and died subsequently from wounds, we
shall have 74 field officers, 107 Captains, and 191 Subalterns, making together a total
of 372.

The following abstract shows the general result of mortality from all causes :—

t Killed in action . . . . . . . 5 percent.
Died of wounds . . . . . . © 2 percent.
Died of disease. . . . . . . . 4% percent.
Deaths from all causes . . . . . 114 percent.

Hence the total number of deaths from all causes, during the whole of the Crimean
campaign, which extended over rather more than twelve months, were 372, beng 11}
(11-5) per cent., or about 1 in 9 (8-7) of the number sent out.

The author concluded by stating, that at a subsequent period he purposes laying
before the public a complete statistical review of the whole question, including every
branch of Her Majesty’s service, and enlarging more particularly on the general sickness
of the army, and on the mortality from disease. On these latter points the peculiarities
of each disease will be carefully considered, with the causes producing them, the
Sahat of seasons, temperature, humidity, the prevailing winds, and other incidental
conditions.

Distribution of the Albanians, politically.. By R. G. Laruam, M.D., F.R.S.
In the Orroman Empire.—Albania Proper. . . . .
Turkish Servia . . 2. . 1,600,000.
# Bosnia’. 7s. kee
Bulgaria, Asia Minor, &c.
In Greece.—Attica (minus Athens), Megara, Sala-
mis, the Pireus. . . . . . 80,000
Boeotiaisnes, wosnh le Wt Wi Joreins\ 25,000
PHOS se ee 3 o> . BOOOKQ)
Valley of Sperchius. . . . . . 10,000 (2)
Eubeea (South) . . . . . . ~ 25,000
Andros (North). . . .. . . 6,000
ATEOR, ads 2) +, fe es . 4) shou) =, 20,000
Korinth and Achaia . . . . . 15,000
Arcadia Seueeeh aicdh ace. + LO:000
Hydra. ih ee sh sw) ee « 22000
PGAMain, an etl TeBeedl.” 4.2 eal, oP LO,0U0

173,000
In Austria.—Clementines of Ninketdy and Herkovize in Syrmia . . (2)
Erizzo, a suburb of Zarain Dalmatia . . 880

— Pervi, near Polain Istria. . . . . . 210
—1090
In Russta.—(Bessarabia) ; fe 1328
In Iraty.—Calabria Ulteriore . . . . . 4,407
Calabria Citeriore . . . . . . 30,812
Basilicata - - « . 10,090

Capitanata. . . .
Terra d’Otranto . . . .. . . 6,844
. Abruzzo Ulteriore . . . .. . 220
Sicly ap aty)'sa Wa aale eee, cif. LOSCLS

.
—

wo
>
Dp
1)

85,551
1856. ‘ 10

146 REPORT—1856.

To which add a few families in Venice, chiefly, or exclusively, in the parish of S. Cas-
siano. Add too, as areas more or less Albanian, some villages of the Monte Gargano
in Italy, and those of Bronte, Biancavilla, S. Michele, and S. Angelo in Sicily. Here,
however, fusion has taken place, and the general character is Italian or Sicilian.
Rexicion.— Albanians of Orroman Empire.
Ay Mahometan ttre * tet (2)
B. Christian peer ee MS. SAE?
Greek Church . . . (?)
Romanists . . . . 96,000 (?)
Some of the professors of Mahometanism really Christians (Crypti Catholict).
I. Gresce,—A. Mahometans, few.
B. Christians.

Greek Church all, or nearly all.
Romanists, few or none.

II. Austria.—Christians and Roman.

III. Russta.—Mahometan? Greek Church.

IV. Ivaty.—Christian, two-thirds Roman, one-third Greek.

On the Former and Present Plans of disposing of the Waste Lands in the
Australian Colonies. By Witt1am Newmarcy, F.S.S.

On the Credit Mobilier and other recent Credit Institutions in France.
By Wit11am Newnanrcg, F.S.S.

Plan for Simplifying and Improving the Measures, Weights, and Money of this
Country, without materially altering the present Standards. By Lieut.-
General Sir C. W. Pastry, K.C.B., R.E., D.C.L., F.RS. &c.

I. Generat Taste or New Linear MEAsuRE PROPOSED.

10 tenth parts. . . . . . .°. J imperial inch.
10 imperial inches or 100 parts . . 1 foot.
Deel Me eee e eae, Sera eva ney
Gfect S 2-) + ee meatitt Gis Al tasnaray
1000 fathoms: =). ou «nism «mae mule.
60 mile. . . . 1 degree of the terrestrial meridian.

For Architectural and Mechanical purposes.
10 tenth parts. . . ... 1 imperial inch.
10 imperial:inches or 100 parts . . 1 foot.
For Itinerary Measure.
TO'MESIVO A GS ec 3 os > AER

100links.-. . . . « . . «~ .« 1 chain of 10 fathoms.
100 chains or 1000 fathoms. . . . 1 mile.
For Cloth Measure.

2half-tenths , : : . . . . . 1 tenth ofa yard.

22 tenths sh) Sea tyes Soon Je liqnatter:

OtCHtUS mise 6 ots skate! eee. eel ele.

PRMEUUNG Cel soe) yer os ihe” fe vas oO QUATLES.

10 tenths ... 1 yard.

The new standard of lineal measure to be the fathom of 6 feet, marked on a rod of
brass or other metal, and made equal to 6 feet 0°91548 inch of our present measure,
at the temperature of 62°°6 of Fahrenheit, or 17° of Celsius’s thermometer, when the
barometer stands at 29 inches and 4 tenths of an inch of the new measure. This
proportion will make the proposed mile equal to 1012°715 fathoms of our present
measure, being the mean length of the minute of a degree of the terrestrial meridian,
according to Mr. Airy’s treatise on the Figure of the Earth in the ‘ Encyclopedia Me-
tropolitana.’ Should more extensive surveys of meridional ares, since made or in
progress, lead to a more accurate value of the said minute, it is proposed that the
necessary correction shall be effected, not by changing the standard rod, but by
altering the legal temperature to a higher or lower temperature than the above,

_—

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 147.

In measuring works of architecture and engineering, the foot and its decimal sub-
divisions will be the unit without reference to the fathom; and all workmanship
measured by lineal measure must be priced by the foot, the 10 feet, or the 100 feet,
not by the yard or rod.

For Itinerary Measure or Land Surveying the fathom will be the unit without
reference to the foot. The mile will be the nautical or geographical miles, the only
universal measure recognized by all civilized nations. The proposed new fathom and
foot will differ so little from our present standards—only by one-eightieth part of the
latter in excess— that, supposing the two fathoms to be set up at some little distance
apart, no person standing between them, and who consequently could not see both at
the same time, would be able, after having looked first at one and then at the other,
to say which of the two was the shorter.

II. New Square or SuperrictaL MEAsuBE PROPOSED.
For Architectural and Mechanical purposes.
100 squareinches. . - . - . - - 1 square foot
All work now measured by the superficial foot to be priced in future by the square
foot, sg the 10 square feet, or by the 100 square feet, and not by the square yard
or rod.
For Cloth Measure.
Cloth to be priced by the new or imperial yard, in the same manner as is now done
by the present standard yard.

For Land Measure.
100 square links. . . . . . . 1 square fathom.
1000 square fathoms. . . . . . 1 imperial acre.
1000 imperial acres . . . . . ~ 1 square mile.

III. New Measures or Souipity AND CaPAcITY PROPOSED.
Of Solidity for Architectural and Mechanical purposes.
1000 cubic inches . . . . ~~ ~ 1 cubic foot.

Of Capacity for Dry Goods.

100 cubic inches . epee tena ol Call.

10 cans or 1000 cubic inches. . . . 1 cubic foot.
10 cubic feet . COPED PIS 1 quarter of corn.

In measuring corn for wholesale dealings, as well as sand, lime, &c., wooden boxes
of 1 cubic foot and of 5 cubic feet respectively, open at the top and bottom, and laid
upon a level floor, to be used; two of the latter to be put together, one over the other,
to measure a quarter of corn.

Liquid Measure for Wholesale Dealings.

100 cubic inches. . . . . . . . Jlcan.
1000 cubic inches. . . . . . . . 1 cubic foot.
Liquid Measure for Retail Dealings exclusively.
2 gillsor10 cubicinches. . . . . . 1 half-pint or chopin.
MONDINE >) 7-575) -chieee Wt ae Hiate th wie so LeRiaes
PEDIUES 1. ody; ney flog hs _Lusiteetin sok Uilpeyehe 9 eed arks
2% quartsor5pints . .. . . . + Ilcan.
Beer, wine, and other liquors, sold wholesale, to be gauged and priced, and the
duties collected by the cubic foot and can.
In retail dealings, the cubic foot, divided as above into 10 cans, 25 quarts, 50 pints,
100 chopins and 200 gills, if sold in bottles, should be priced by the 10 bottles instead
of the dozen, and each bottle should contain a quart or pint of the new standard.
When not bottled, to be sold in pewter pots or other measures, being respectively the
same aliquot parts of the new cubic foot that have been specified.

New Apothecaries’ Liquid Measure proposed.

50 minims . . . . . ~ 1 tenth of an imperial cubic inch.
500 minims or 10 tenths . . 1 eubic inch,
10 cubic inches. . . . . 1 half-pint or chopin. :

- This will differ so-very little from the present apothecaries’ liquid measure, that no
medical practitioner can hesitate in adopting it,
10*

148 REPORT—1856.

IV. New Measures or WEIGHT PROPOSED.

10 tenth parts . . . . . . . ~ 1 imperial ounce.
10 ounces. . . «. ~ . . « ~ « 1 imperial pound.
100 pounds . . . . . . . +. . 1 hundred weight.
1000 pounds . . . . . . . . . 1 thousand weight.

2000 pounds . . 5 | imperial ton.

For Retail Dealings exclusively.

23 tenths MMe? 5 as 1 quarter

Bitentheen too seers. SL naLe ho an imperial ounce.
de eNOS” Sot tee gee = 3 quarters

The standard one-pound weight to be exactly one-sixtieth part of the weight of the
new cubic foot for distilled water as ascertained by brass weights, at the temperature
and state of air before mentioned. By this arrangement 100 lbs, of the new will be
equal to about 108 lbs. of the present avoirdupois weight.

All goods now sold by avoirdupois weight to be priced in future by the imperial
pound, and its decimal multiples the 10 Ibs., the 100 Ibs., and the 1000 Ibs., to the
exclusion of stones, quarters, hundred weights and tons of our present avoirdupois
weight. For retail purposes the new ounce and its tenth parts to be used.

For Coins, Bullion, &c., and for Apothecaries’ Weight.
10 hundredth parts ofa grain . . . . ~ 1 tenth part.
LOitenth pantse se. 2 eos ucnea ite ] grain.
LOOO rains oi). vss aye EOS, bee “Ris YL imperial inchs

The grain, being subdivided into tenths and hundredths for very delicate purposes,
and its decimal multiples the 10 grains, the 100 grains, and the 1000 grains or
imperial ounce, will be used exclusively for weighing and pricing all valuable articles
to which troy weight is now applied, to the entire exclusion also of pearl weight,
diamond weight, and all the carat weights.

For apothecaries’ weight, to which troy weight is also applied in preparing medical
prescriptions, and which requires the use of the grain as well as of the ounce, the
difference between the present and the proposed new grain and imperial ounce are
not worth noticing.

Barrels and casks of various denominations, as well as sieves, baskets, sacks, boxes,
and other packages, now designating special quantities or weights of beer, wine, fruit,
corn, and other goods, together with the various customary loads, lasts and weys, all
differing from each other, not to be used as measures or weights without specifying
the contents or the amounts of each in cubic feet or pounds weight, as may be.

Measures of Temperature and Air.

For determining the new standard measures of length and of weight proposed, 62°°6
of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, or its equivalent 17° of Celsius’s, were recommended,
with the barometer standing at 29°4 inches of the new measure. The author suggests,
that the last mentioned thermometer, which is established in France, and which has
its zero at the freezing-point, the only invariable point of temperature in nature, shall
be adopted in preference to Fahrenheit’s*.

If the foregoing suggestions, or any system on the same principle, for simplifying
our national measures and weights, should be adopted, the fine idea, generally supposed
to have been intended in Magna Charta, and most clearly and unequivocally expressed,
in one of our ancient laws of a subsequent date, but which has never yet been realized
in this country, will be literally accomplished, namely, that THERE SHALL BE ONLY ONE
MEASURE AND ONE WEIGHT THROUGHOUT ALL THE LAND T.

* He is also of opinion, that it would be desirable to ascertain the length of the seconds’
pendulum by experiments in air, on the first floor of the new Houses of Parliament, in refer-
ence to the mean level of the tidesin the Thames, without attempting to reduce it to the level
of the sea in a vacuum, by theoretical corrections, of which subsequent experience has rendered
the accuracy doubtful. The new experiments now suggested might be carried on in September,
during the recess of Parliament, when the above-mentioned temperature might easily be
obtained, and the state of air corrected, by ascending or descending from the given spot to a
different level.

+ See the tenth chapter of an Act of the 27th of Edward III., Statute 2nd, entitled Ordi-
nacio Stapularum, in the Statutes of the Realm, vol. i, p. 337. ,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 149

V. New Monerary SystEM PROPOSED.

10 farthings.. 5.14) sacs 52 |<: +, i+: ¢. 1 cent.
10 cents or 100 farthings. . . |. . . . 1 florin.
10 florins, 100 cents, or 1000 farthings. . . 1 pound sterling.

Setting aside all the new coins, proposed by him in his first publication of 1834,
except the tenth of the pound (since called the florin) and the silver cent, and setting
aside also his attempt to simplify the monetary system therein proposed, in the paper
read to the British Association at Oxford in 1847, which he admits was by no means
an improvement, the author now thinks, that the only new coin that ought to be
issued, is the silver cent, and that no silver coin greater than the florin should be
coined in future, gradually withdrawing all the crowns and half-crowns still in circu-
lation, as soon as florins to an equal amount can be issued from the Mint to replace
them. |

When any sum of money of the new coinage is written in sterling money, the last
figure or unit of the pound should always have a point after it, the three next figures
to which will designate florins, cents, and farthings, whether having these denomina-
tions written over them or not; but more than three such figures must never be used.

He is also of the opinion, now adopted by the Council of the Decimal Association,
of which he is a member, that instead of coining new copper mils, or tithings as he
called them at first, it will be much better to declare by royal proclamation, that the
farthing shall be the tenth part of the cent, and the thousandth part of a pound, or to
make it so by Act of Parliament; but it does not appear to him to be necessary to
withdraw any of the smaller silver coins, such as the threepenny and fourpenny
silver pieces, which, though not known when he first published, have been a very
great convenience to the public, and which none of the working classes ever mistake
for one another, even in the dark, nor will they confound any of them with the new
silver cent proposed.

The silver cent should be stamped with the words, oNE CENT OR TEN FARTHINGS;
the present sixpenny pieces need not be called in; but when more are required, let
them be stamped with the words one uaF suiutinc. In like manner, when more
fourpenny pieces are required, let them be stamped § or A suinLine, and when more
threepenny pieces are required, let them be stamped 4 or a sninuinc. To add any-
thing more would be superfluous.

The author then treats of the “ difficulties urged as objections to the decimal coinage
proposed,” points out the advantages of the new system proposed, and urges objec-
tions to the French metrical system.

Aphoristic Notes on Sanitary Statistics of Workhouses and Charitable
Institutions. By M. Roru, M.D.

1. A number of adult disabled persons are kept year after year in workhouses or
charitable institutions, and very little or nothing is done to improve or cure their
chronic ailments.

2. A number of constitutionally weak infants and children are in the workhouse
who could be cured or considerably improved.

3. The expenses of the parish and charitable institutions would be, in the course of
years, considerably diminished by a better state of health amongst the poorer classes,

4. It is necessary to have detailed statistics of the sanitary condition of the work.
houses and charitable institutions, and, if possible, of those who receive permanent or
periodical outdoor relief; and, as such returns do not exist,

5. Ihave proposed the following as a specimen of a sanitary statistic table, which,
by the kindness of a poor-law guardian, was returned with the numbers showing the
actual sanitary state of one of the metropolitan suburban workhouses.

I have proposed the classification of ages in a different way; but as all the inmates
of workhouses are divided according to the scale shown in the Table, the actual work-
house classification has been retained.

REPORT—1856.

150

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TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 151

Such a sanitary state, as exhibited by the preceding Tables, cannot exist without great
loss of life and without considerable expense to the community at large, and the fol-
rng are a few suggestions to remedy this bad state of health amongst the poorer
classes.

6. All constitutionally weak children of several parishes should be brought into a
union sanatorium, where all the available hygienic and medical means, according to the
present state of science, should be used, and the education of the children continued,
as far as their weakly state permits; when healthy, these children might be sent to the
union or charity school.

7. The curable adult disabled paupers suffering from chronic affections should be
also visited, for the sake of cure or improvement.

8. The expenses for the cure of such paupers would not be much more than the
expenses of the workhouse, where such paupers are frequently kept for years in con-
sequence of their having been neglected at a time when their health could have been
restored.

9. In order to prevent the increase of the number of disabled paupers, it is most
important that the health of the healthy inmates should be kept up to the highest
standard, for which purpose the masters and matrons of workhouses, as well as all
schoolmasters and schoolmistresses, should have an elementary, popular, and practical
knowledge of the injurious and beneficial influences affecting health. This sanitary
knowledge should be imparted to the children, whose bodily faculties should be deve-
loped simultaneously with their mental faculties. '

10, This sanitary knowledge should form a part of the instruction in the training
schools of schoolmasters and schoolmistresses, of whom we cannot expect that they
should bestow more care on the preservation of the health of their pupils so long as
they are entirely ignorant on the subject ; the preservation of individual health depends
upon the parents and schoolmasters, but not on the medical man, who enters on his
duties, in the great majority of cases, only after those of the educator have been
neglected.

11. The importance of a large garden or play-ground, as an indispensable part of a
workhouse, has been sufficiently advocated and proved by the condition of those schools
and workhouses which are not sufficiently provided in this respect.

12. The kitchen fire in workhouses and charitable institutions can, by the aid of hot
water or steam, provide the necessary warmth in the various apartments, and sufficient
warm water or steam for baths, which are most important in preserving health, in cut-
ting short many diseases at the beginning, or in curing them when developed.

Conclusion.—lIt is most important not only to diminish the amount of ill-health at
present existing among our poor population, but we must prevent, as far as it depends
upon ourselves, all the causes artificially producing disease and deteriorating the
general health: the number of inmates of our workhouses would thus considerably
decrease, and a diminution of poor’s-rate would go hand-in-hand with the improved
health of the paupers.

On the Territorial Distribution of the Population, for purposes of Sanitary
Inquiry and Social Economy. By H. W. Rumszy, F.R.C.S.

1. If opportunities are now rarely afforded to States to group their populations on
scientific principles, to determine the most salutary and beneficial sites for human
habitation, and to combine the sites so occupied in well-contrived districts for statis-
tical inquiry and local management,—it cannot be denied that the past neglect of
governments, and the mistakes of private or associated enterprise, in the selection of
places for migration and colonization, have led to most fatal tesults,—to enormous
sacrifice of life, to immense national and personal loss, and to sad degradation of race.

2. Correct principles of localization are not easily applied to old communities, yet
‘the difficulties in the way of a re-adjustment of territorial divisions, even in this country,
are not insuperable. The mobility of the population of England has undergone some
striking variations since the Conquest. Many causes and great facilities existed for
change of abode until the sixteenth century. Legislation and other circumstances
tended to fix the population in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries.
But most of those impediments to locomotion have been removed in the present age;

152 REPORT—1856.

great changes are now in rapid progress; and the obstacles to an amended distribution
of the inhabitants are fast disappearing.

3. During the first half of this century, a much larger proportion of the population
aggregated in towns; but now a reflux of population from crowded centres is again
taking place. Suburban inhabited areas are accordingly increasing in a greater ratio
than the numbers of town residents.

4. Past legislation has limited political privileges to crowded populations within
narrow boundaries, and has thus fostered the injurious condensation of the masses.
It is important to reverse this policy, and to treat the whole population on equal
terms.

5. The old divisions of the country, various and conflicting, are inapplicable to the
progressive extension of inhabited areas. Changes have accordingly been found
necessary in parochial and municipal boundaries, which cannot therefore be considered
of a settled or permanent nature. :

6. The recent division of the country into poor-law Unions was based on the paro-
chial system, and like it, is irreconcileable with municipal boundaries. Unions were
not formed scientifically ; and they often manifest, in their form and contents, singular
inattention to physical geography and sanitary considerations,

7. The registration districts, and (now) the census arrangements, are based on the
poor-law division, and the returns of population, births, deaths, and marriages, have
made the defects of that division more obvious, while an erroneous distribution of the
people has, in turn, affected the compilation of vital and sanitary statistics, so that
these returns do not afford, to the extent which they might, the means for correct
inferences respecting the physical condition and social progress of distinct communities,
in special circumstances, natural or artificial,

For this, among other valid reasons, it is unsafe to adopt the rate of mortality in
any union or registration district, as a test of the actual salubrity, either of its principal
town or of its more scattered population.

8. Until our national records of vital statistics are more complete (including facts
now omitted) and compiled from a more scientific classification of the people, we can
arrive at no satisfactory conclusions respecting the life, the health, the social state,
the education, the morals and the habits of those who inhabit different places; we are
unable to demonstrate the causes of social evils, and therefore we cannot fairly call
upon the legislature to inaugurate the required reforms.

9. Another obstacle to a correct territorial division for statistical objects, is the co-
existence of several kinds of local administrative bodies, exercising conflicting functions,
within different areas of jurisdiction, Various administrative duties, of a sanitary or
reformatory nature, are performed in most towns by two rival bodies (a Board of
Guardians and a Town Council or Local Board of Health) managing districts which
differ widely in extent ; the vital statistics being collected under the authority of that
local board which has been the most distrusted as regards sanitary management.

10. The practical evils of limited and isolated jurisdictions, in the execution of
measures of public health, are many and serious,—evils to the inhabitants included,
and evils to those excluded.

11. It is of paramount importance to extend sanitary inspection and regulation to
suburban and rural districts. The outskirts of towns are more and more peopled by
the humbler classes of society ; and it is therefore increasingly necessary to promote
a better description of dwellings for working people out of towns, either near railway
stations, or within accessible distance of their places of labour.

12. Measures of public health should be extended to the whole population of the
kingdom, without reference to any district-rate of mortality. It is absurd to defer
the application of preventive measures, until the fatal result of neglect, namely, a high
proportion of deaths,—the precise ratio of which different parties cannot agree upon,
—be detected in any place.

13. No system of territorial division, for statistical purposes and for local self-govern-
ment, deserves consideration, which would not secure for every portion of the country,
whether town or rural parish, the superintendence of a uniform administrative ma-
chinery, competent to collect all returns relating to the numbers, the vital force (ages
of the living), the mortality, the diseases, and the reproduction of; he population,—
as well as to carry into effect all sanitary precautions.

14, A public registration of diseases should have special regard to their causation,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 153

and to their relations with residence and occupation ; while observations of meteoro-
logy, and of the varying conditions of the animal and vegetable kingdoms (agricul-
tural statistics) should be concurrently made in each superior registration district. And
these combined observations and records in each locality should be published periodi-
cally for the instruction of its inhabitants.

15. Again, the law should no longer confer badly-defined powers upon two or more
rival boards in the same place. If each of the existing local boards and councils were
fairly represented in a superior court, with a larger jurisdiction than now belongs to
any of those bodies,—as the district boards of London are in its metropolitan board,—
all reasonable objections to a transferfof local functions might be avoided.

16. As to the extent and form of the proposed larger districts for collecting and
registering vital and social statistics and for local management (the jurisdiction of
the Metropolitan Board of Works being wholly excluded from present considerations),
each might contain, on the average, two or more parochial unions.

Wherever a correction of existing boundaries might be deemed necessary, the
natural features of the locality should be carefully borne in mind; each parish or
cluster of population being included in that district, the principal town of which would
be most easy of access; and special regard being had to density of population.

17. Every sanitary jurisdiction should be provided with a superintending officer of
health, debarred from private professional engagements, and performing a variety of
most important public functions*.

And such sanitary jurisdictions should be an exact aggregate of a sufficient number
of smaller districts for medical visitation, which should be either identical with the
- registration sub-districts or subdivisions of them.

18. Recapitulation of practical suggestions.

(a.) The physical geography of the district, and the general character of its popula-
tion, should be the main facts upon which any revision of existing territorial divisions
should be founded.

(b.) Areas for statistical returns should invariably be co-extensive with those for
Sanitary management.

(c.) The extent of these areas should be large enough to provide satisfactorily for
the amalgamation of existing smaller jurisdictions.

(d.) They should also be large enough to secure, with economy, the appointment
of a superior class of superintending Registrars, as officers of health.

All these changes might be effected without any offensive sacrifice of existing in-
terests, or violation of justly established rights.

On the Progress, Extent, and Value of the Porcelain, Earthenware, and Glass
Manufacture of Glasgow. By Joun Srrane, LL.D., FSS.

At the last meeting of the British Association I had the honour of bringing before
this Section a paper on the progress, extent, and value of the coal and iron trade of the
west of Scotland, of which Glasgow is the central mart ; and I now have the pleasure
of presenting you with the past and present position of certain other modern branches
of industry, which, although not so great as the former, have tended to give an onward
impulse to that progressive city : I allude to the manufacture of porcelain, earthenware,
glass, and tobacco-pipes. Although the making of delft or stoneware in its rudest
style and forms, and the manufacture of porcelain in somewhat better taste, were
there early introduced—the one in 1748 and the other in 1766—the whole aciual
value of both these articles made during the year 1777 amounted only to £5000; and
although the manufacture of black bottles and flint-glass was begun—the one in 1730
and the other in 1777—the export of the former from the Clyde during the year 1777
merely reached 4760 cwts., and of the latter to little more than 14 cwts, The fact is,
till within these thirty years, there was only one pottery, one flint-glass, and one bottle-
work in the city of Glasgow. The trade in all these articles may therefore be said to
be but of yesterday, when it is stated that there are now eight large potteries engaged
in the manufacture of all kinds of china, porcelain, parian, and other ware, four flint-
glass manufactories, and twelve bottle-houses, with a considerable number of manu-

* See also ‘ Essays on State Medicine,’ pp. 50, 302, &c.

154 REPORT—1856.

factories of ornamental vases, chimney-tops, gas retorts, drain- and water-pipes, fire-
bricks, figures and fountains from fire-clay, and several very extensive works, wholly
engaged in the production of coarse earthenware, sugar moulds, and drips and chim-
ney caps from the red clay of the district. For the purpose of exhibiting more palpa-
bly and clearly the present extent and importance of this almost new branch of manu-
facture in Glasgow, the following statistical facts have been obtained, which cannot
fail to prove the rapid rise of this important department. During the year 1854 the
eight manufactories of porcelain and earthenware imported and used 7805 tons of clays
from Dorset, Devon, and Cornwall, 1240 tons of Cornish stone, and 2850 tons of flints,
employing in all 11,895 tons of shipping, while in these works were consumed about
50,000 tons of coals. The number of persons employed during the same period,
consisting of men, boys, and girls, were 2000, who, on an average, gained 12s. per
week of wages ; making an aggregate of £62,400 paid to workpeople in the Glasgow
potteries during the twelvemonth. The total value of this branch may be fairly esti-
mated at £120,000, while the quantity exported in 1854 from the Clyde amounted to
4,931,166 pieces. At first sight it might be supposed that a manufacture which requires
to draw such heavy products as clays, flints, and Cornish stone from so great a distance
would be disadvantageously placed as to profit. But as respects this, Glasgow is not
less favourably situated than the great seat of the porcelain manufacture in England,—
Staffordshire; while in regard to the price of fuel, and the ready means of conveyance to
all parts of the world, it is even more advantageously placed. In the manufacture of
porcelain, however, there are a vast variety of articles required, in addition to clays
and flints. As a somewhat curious picture of the variety of articles which enter into
the manufacture of porcelain, we find the following rather long list used in a Glasgow
pottery employing 315 persons :—

Blue clay. . . . . 600 tons. Tar used with colour . 30 galls.
Chinaiclayatmeeerne werOU0neess Flannel used for trans-
Cornish stone . . . 3800 ,, ferring prints, &c. . 320 yards.
inte amened.c ae rer OO vey. Gold used for gilding . 30 ozs.,
Fire-clay used. . . 500 ,, {pure.
Borax used for glaze . 1G oF Straw used for packing . 17,000 stones.
Lead ,, Da te LG tie. Crates used during year 3,000
Calcined bone . . . OMe, Cordage used . . . 14 ewt.
Gypsum used for moulds 40_,, Fire-bricks used for
Paris whiting . . . | ae keeping up kilns and
Chromate ofiron . . Ws slippans . . . . 40,000
Oxide of zine . . . 15 ewt. Goversisyn:'.\jyia) Seelagels 600
Pink, green, black, Granite stone used for
brown, and colours. 1200 Ibs. grinding purposes . 70 tons.
Oxide of cobalt. . . 600 ,, Enginepower for grind-
Paper used for printing 550 reams. ing materials. . . 60 horse
Cost of engraving and [steam-engine.
copper .. . . £200 Coals consumed . . 5,000 tons.

Linseed oil used . . 100 galls.

In the flint-glass manufactories of Glasgow there was produced during the year
1854 about 1,640,000 lbs. of finished goods, which employed 328 persons ; and there
were used in these glass-houses 330 tons of white sand, 220 tons of red lead, and 115
tons of saltpetre and pearl-ashes; the wages paid out of the manufactories being
£16,000, and the whole value of the branch being about £40,000, while the quantity
exported from the Clyde amounted to 2262 cwt. From the twelve bottle-houses which,
during 1851, employed 400 workers, there were produced bottles to the extent of
208,000 ewt., or 14,992,667 bottles—the value of the branch in 1854 being about
£104,000. The amount of wages paid was £31,200; and the export from the Clyde
90,430 cwt.

In the manufacture of tobacco-pipes, there has of late years been perhaps a greater
proportional advance than in that of porcelain or glass. This is a handicraft which
may be said to belong peculiarly to Glasgow, being carried on to a far greater extent
there than in any other part of the country. Within little more than twenty years,
there were not above fifty persons employed in this manufacture in that city, and at

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 155

this moment there are no fewer than 600 persons, who work up 2740 tons of clay, and
who manufacture, finish, and pack about 2700 gross of pipes per day, and whose wages
amount for each person employed to about 20s. yer week. The whole value of this
manufacture may amount to £44,000.

Assuming, then, all these statements to be as correct as they probably can be made,
let us see what the gross value of these branches are in twelve months :—

j Value of porcelain . . . . .. .. . . . £120,000
Value of flint-glass . 2. 1. . 6 2 1 we ee 40,000
Walnciofibnitios tise heey tireveottah rds coll 2a swistos 104,000
Value of tobacco-pipes. . . ... . 44,000
We find, also, from the foregoing statements, that the number of persons employed
in these branches, and the wages paid, during one year, were as follows :—
Employed in porcelain and earthenware manufactories,
2000; 'at\12s:perweeki . 006. ew . woe. 862,400
Employed in flint-glass works, 323 . . 2... 16,000
Employed in bottle works, 400, at 30s. per week. . . 81,200
Employed in tobacco-pipe manufactories, 600, at 20s. . 31,200
In short, the foregoing Tables show that the porcelain, glass, bottle, and tobacco-pipe
manufactories in Glasgow, produce at present an annual value of £288,000, and give
employment to 3323 persons, who receive for their labour wages to the amount of
£140,800.

The rapid progress which these several manufactures have made in Glasgow may
be chiefly attributed to the demand which the foreign trade of the Clyde has created
for bulky freight, and which the following Table, showing the number and tonnage of
the vessels employed in the foreign trade at the harbour of Glasgow alone, will best

illustrate :—

Number of Vessels. Tonnage.
Rael GRR oe file Tatil yg toa sit erp AT
Pape te Die Tel ti Oe flaygey F822 ai eyed GO Soge' agp
GS ae serra Rho te SL OOl a ys ds dou aie eee
CSO eT iste eee RICE Ow a ces Pats! se | et OsUOS,
1855 poh tepaepie af Ole) 212,913

It is well known that Liverpool has long enjoyed, through the manufacturers of
Staffordshire, the desideratum of bulky freight; and no sooner had Glasgow become,
as it has only done within twenty years, an increasing harbour for vessels trading to
every quarter of the globe, than it was found, that while she could furnish abundance of
heavy freight in the shape of pig, malleable iron, and coal, she was deficient in such
bulky articles as coarse earthenware, common porcelain, flint, and bottle glass and
china to fill up the space unoccupied by finer goods. It is probable, therefore, that
the manufactures whose progress we have been attempting to illustrate will go on in-
creasing with the increase of foreign commerce, and that the increase of these will in
future be chiefly excited and marked by the increasing tonnage employed in the
foreign trade from the harbour of Glasgow and the other lower ports of the Clyde.

On the Money-rate of Wages of Labour in Glasgow and the West of Scotland.
By Joun Strano, LL.D., F.S.S.

A correct chronicle of wages, as applied to different kinds of manufactures and hand-
crafts, combined with the changing cost of the necessaries and even the common
luxuries of life, would form one of the most valuable contributions to economic science.
While the rate of these would at once mark the advance or fall on the value of labour
at particular epochs, it would, at the same time, note the changes which have taken
place in the value of labour as applied to particular distinct handicrafts; and if the
money-rate were further measured by the cost of the great necessaries of existence,
would give a pretty clear insight into the social condition of the labourer at any period
_of the country’s history. As a humble contribution to this chronicle of labour, I have
‘now to present you with a comparative statement of the rate of wages in one of the
“most important of the labour marts of Great Britain, 1 mean the City of Glasgow and
its neighbourhood ; and for this purpose I shall select, from the long list of mechanics,

156 REPORT—1856.

handicraftsmen, and labourers, a few of those who are engaged on the production of
the great staples that belong to that district, premising that the following facts in
general are based on returns made to me by some of the leading manufacturers,
engineers, ironmasters, and builders of the city and surrounding district, and that they
are not general estimates, but are founded on the actual wages-books of the several
concerns to which they apply. Let us commence with the cotton-spinners and power-
loom weavers, of whom in the West of Scotland, Glasgow is the central mart, and
whose numbers amount at present to about 30,000. It appears the average wages of
those persons were as follows at the three different periods of 1841, 1851, and 1856:—

1841. 1851. 1856.

Power-loom weavers—average per week........ 7s. 7s. 3d. 8s. 3d.
Cotton-spinners—average per week............ 21s. 21s. Od. 20s. to 35s,
From these figures, it appears that the wages in this department of manufactures have
been gradually rising since 1841. While this has been generally the case, it may
however be remarked that not more but even less has been paid for weaving for each
piece of cloth, and for spinning each hank of yarn. In the case of cotton-spinners in
particular, matters have so changed, and mills and machines have been so altered in
productive power, that it is almost impossible to arrive at a correct average of wages
at present paid: for while in the older factories a spinner cannot gain more than
20s. a week, in the new miils, possessing all the advantages of improved machinery,
his wages may even reach 35s. In the one aman manages 500 spindles, whereas in
another he can superintend 1500 or 2000. In proof of this I may mention that five
and thirty years ago the spinner of the finest or highest numbers of yarn had only
about 150 spindles to each jenny to attend to, whereas now in the factories where the
finest numbers of yarns are spun, one individual can easily manage 880 spindles, and
these two are annually on theincrease. In short, in cotton-spinning and power-loom
weaving the advance of wages has arisen principally from increased production in con«
sequence of improvements in machinery. It must also be kept in mind that weavers
and spinners worked 69 hours in 1841 and only 60 in 1851, and hence received more
money for less labour.

Let us next advert to the wages of two of the most important manufactures of the
West of Scotland, I mean the rates obtained by the workmen employed in mines and
iron-works, whose numbers in the year 1854-55 amounted to 33,900, and whose united
wages during these twelve months reached the large sum of £1,976,000. Average
rate of mining labour for the last five years:—

Per day.
From January, 1852, till October, 1852, inclusive ...... 2s. 6d.
» November, 1852, ,, January, 1853, ,, ca ieeleer omer
» February, 1853, ,, August, 1853, ,, Deectea ian eetee CEs
» September, 1853, ,, October, 1853, ,, ...... 4s. Od.
»» November, 1853, ,, December 1858, ,, ...... 4s. 6d.
» January, 1854, ,, January, 1855, - rdiacae 5s. Od.

» February, 1855, ,, September 1855, ___,, no seces 48. Of-
» October, 1855, ,, March, 1856, _ ,, Sc eee Ost
» April, 1856, ,, August, 1856, ,, ac cane, AS OR:
Average rate of wages paid to workmen connected with the manufacture of pig and
malleable iron :—
1852. 1853. 1854. 1855. 1856.
Blast furnace-keepers, per day .. 5s.0d. 6s.3d. 6s.8d. 6s, 8d. 7s. 9d.
Do, assistants, per day ........ 8s.2d. 3s. 7d. 48.2d. 4s.2d. 4s.9d.
Do. fillers Ae ter Ree 2s.3d. 3838.4d. 38.10d. 3s.9d. 4s. 2d.
Puddlers, inclding under hands.. 7s.6d. 10s. 3d. 10s. 6d. 10s. Od. 10s. Od.
Rollers (chief rollers) ........ 10s.0d. 14s,0d. 14s. 6d. 13s.6d. 18s. 6d.
Labourers!) ".\ikaiididektlss sss) ls6d. 618,10d: «2s. 1d.) 2ecOd. 4 2p Ody
From the foregoing statements, it appears that there has been a gradual but important
rise in the wages of those employed in the coal and ironstone mines, as well as of those
employed in the manufacture of pig and malleable iron; in the former, from 2s. 6d.
a day, in October, 1852, to 5s, in March last; and in the latter of from 25 to 50 per
cent. on the wages paid to the labourers connected with the working of the blast
furnaces and the rolling and puddling of iron since 1852: and when the number of

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 157

men connected with these several departments is remembered, being nearly 34,000,
such a rise cannot fail to involve most important consequences. The third point to
which we would call attention, is the wages of engineers and mechanics—a very large
class of workers in Glasgow and its neighbourhood. The following is the average
rate of engineers’ wages per day (of ten hours) during the last six years :—

Shillings.
Al So lvatepeieiatels av'ayerwlavs' cle © alse eforel viel sar e.0 3°43
iSeaeameteeeteelatstaiele) elatelersiche o's 7 -teieialete sve 3°52
LS SBE GUAS go dtdr eon OOD OOOMOGeDS 3°82
GA were eravcrcestgiel heselaleiis’s!clatevaisars, ors 3°97
USP Ong cat dine cospunce dans onac Ac 3°99
UBIO Gore, Sale olate eral ntntels co OE Roh) ateveis 4

- From the foregoing Table it is quite plain that the wages paid to engineers and
mechanics during these last six years have been progressively advancing, and shows
_ since 1851 to the present time a rise of about 14 per cent.

The fourth subject to which we would allude is that of building, or house con-
struction. In so growing a city as Glasgow, which, with its suburbs, has a population
at present of not less than 400,000, and whose rate of increase from births over deaths
and immigration amounts annually to about 33 per cent., it is easy to conceive how very
large the employment must be of those engaged in this business. Of the many
handicraftsmen engaged in constructing houses, warehouses, and other buildings, we
shall, however, limit ourselves to stone quarriers, masons, carpenters, and labourers,
_ The following is the rate of wages paid to quarriers from 1851 to 1856 ;—

LSD aoc anced Ho sino wo goood oe 16s. per week of 60 hours,
VE52 ve ecco ceva ence secece .. 16s. ” 33
1853 ccc. scene Sra Ouerorioon oo oe 17s. ” ”
1854 ...... Sect eee OE 5 FR he a ki
GET ain) ale svaieteree st Seceue se cccees 20s, rs 7
MSOBM CEs Tilets Wares ease efeleidie seee aes 55 .

Or a rise of 6s. per week, or about 37 per cent., since 1851.
The following is the average rate paid to masons :—

Per week.
During summer of 1850 and 1851 ............ Tae 21s.
» winter of 1850 and 1851 ...... Se cea bane . 18s.
3) summer of USS 28 tar ieceteiiel usiela 3 ».eee. 21s, and 18s.
re A UGGS, cre ts canietersi «a ieleuaielens 23s. 9d., ;th less in winter.
of ~ C5 abe plies — eek nae pate 25s. de
»” ” GOD Ls crete, aia, sys)'scaaye Fiaaheketel Oe ”
” ” OGG Bars cr MRos dt o\'alalsten 9s) sauaye 25s. ”

For the last three years masons have restricted themselves to 57 hours’ work per week;
previous to this, they worked 60 hours; and there is a prevalent feeling among this
class of craftsmen still further to reduce the hours of labour.

The following is the rate of the wages paid to carpenters and joiners, from 1850 to
1855 inclusive :—

1850 (average during year) ............000. 21s. 6d. per week of 60 hours.
1851 ye Ye oOceE ABIOETIGIE 21s. Od. rs

1852 ihren wie 50 cc eis sis ogee. ss 22s. Od. re

1853 ” Gales ese becn ee . 23s. Od. st

1854 4 Cfaleeeteinn sje ceecits, 245. OG. 57 hours.

1855 ” weave tsnccccs .. 24s. Od. »

or an advance of 2s. 6d. per week, with a reduction during the last two years of
the series of three hours on the week’s work. At the present moment the rate of
wages paid to carpenters and joiners is 5d. per hour for whatever time they are
working, without reference to weeks; but the stated time is 57 hours per week, or
23s. 9d. per week; or, should they work the day of 10 hours, 4s: 2d. per day. This
shows the advance on the wages of this handicraft to have been 4s. 6d. per week.

__ The following is the rate of wages paid to common labourers, connected with all
matters of house construction :—

158 REPORT—1856.

1650) VS5T, and WEA cece «cele e's 12s. per week.
DOD e seletaleisietslaletstetate ts stole sc (e's 'everers Teal oy
LBS ATS Pr ent e seh. ts. saree T7e es
BSG a ee betes 8 PRN stares aiem, c'tyors eirap eye's Vise tee
TS5G ee oe. ae ee hee alerts ieee ey

Thus the rise has been greater on unskilled than even skilled labour, being 5s., or
upwards of 40 percent. These labourers are almost exclusively Irish ; and, strange to
say, that while in the north of Ireland, within 30 miles of Belfast, labourers can be got
from 1s. to 1s. 6d. per day, or 6s. to 9s. per week, with the cost of transit per steam to
Glasgow of from 2s. 6d. to 4s., the flow of Irish immigration to Glasgow has greatly
diminished.

It would be easy for me to multiply examples of the advance which has taken
place in the rate of wages from almost every class of workmen during the last five
years, an advance which has now reached the long sinking employment of the hand-
loom weaver. For a long period the position of those connected with this last
employment had been gradually lowering, till at length it became pitiful indeed.
The facility with which the art can be learned, the numbers which unfortunately
rushed to this work, frequently creating an equal competition between the man and
the child, coupled with the competition of power-loom labour, are assuredly some
of the causes which have produced the great fall during these thirty years past in this
species of handicraft. But whatever the causes may have been for sinking the value
of hand-loom labour, it can scarcely be denied that the average rate of weekly wages,
as furnished me by two or three of the leading manufacturing houses in Glasgow,
being at present from 6s. to 7s. 1d. per week, is indeed a miserable pittance even
when measured by the reduced prices which have taken place in every article of
consumption and clothing since 1825, when the wages was 13s. 6d. per week. The
following is a progressive statement of the average wages earned by the hand-
loom weavers from 1825, marking the periods when the reductions took place :—

US Zdterey etree e165 « 13s. 6d. USAGirete' c's ss ata ate 6s. Od,
CHO aiaeieoaen oe 9s, Od. DBO toa ass, sietauelege 5s. 8d.
G2) ates Sgaese 7s. 6d. HPA Riverside. © 6s. 9d.
USA bets Beal OAC ieee 6s. 6d. LUE Aodioadinan 60 7s. Od.
URCBY Bhat grisccnn oe 8s. Od. IPCISTh nm cpyrugs On IN 7s. Od.
LUCEY MAS aG dia sori 7s. Od.

It will be observed from the foregoing statement, that the late advance in wages has
even reached those miserably paid workmen, the wages in 1851 being 5s. 8d. per
week, whereas, in 1856, the average is 7s. 1d. It is gratifying to state that the hand-
loom weavers are fast diminishing in Glasgow, although in the villages and
towns around they still maintain their numbers. That they should do so, is
at first sight surprising, when other branches of manufacture offer such high
wages for labour. There is, however, some compensation to the hand-loom weaver
which the factory workman and the artisan do not enjoy—I allude to the feeling
that they are their own masters, can work short or long, late or early, in the garden
or in the shop, and that without any detriment to their web—that they can employ
their wives and children either as adjuncts or assistants in their own labour, and can
thus eke out a tolerable subsistence without the restraints imposed on many of their
more money-gaining brethren.

The deduction which may be gathered from the foregoing statements and figures is
simply this :—That during the last five or six years a gradual and permanent rise seems
tohave beenestablished in all wages connected with the leading manufactures of Glasgow,
and we may almost add, throughout Great Britain and Ireland ; and that, too, even in
the face of the reduction which has been made in the hours of labour. And were we

to carry the inquiry further, and place in a comparative table the price of the chief _

articles of consumption which enter into the domestic economy of the artisan and

labourer, since the period when the policy of this country was directed, to relieve not

only all the great necessaries of life from fiscal burdens, but to reduce, as far as pos-
sible, the duties exigible on those articles of luxury, such as tea, sugar, coffee, &c.,

which more particularly enter into the consumption of the labouring classes ;—it may be

fairly affirmed that this most important body of the community is at the present mo-
ment placed in a more enviable position in the social scale than they were ever for=

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 159

merly in this country, or are perhaps to be found in any quarter of the globe. From
the foregoing facts, and from the results of the policy pursued by the Government, it
is quite certain that the industrious man never knew a period in which, if he could only
be temperate and frugal, he might more easily save money; and could he only be
induced to eschew the whisky shop, and turn his footsteps to the Savings’ Bank, he
would speedily find himself more comfortable, independent, and happy, than the mass
of his fellow-labourers, whose increased means are but too frequently devoted to the
gratification of the grosser passions of humanity.

On some Statistics bearing upon the Relations existing between Poverty and
Crime. By W. M. Tartt, M.S.A.

_ After alluding to the crimes committed by those who were in the enjoyment not

merely of competence but of luxury, Mr. Tartt contended, that, although poverty might
be a predisposing state, it was rarely an immediate cause of crime till it became allied
with drunkenness and ignorance. It was proved by prison returns from the manufac-
turing districts of Lancashire, that crime had increased during periods of prosperity,
and diminished (sometimes to the extent of 40 per cent.) in immediately succeeding
periods of adversity ; plenty leading to vicious indulgence, while poverty was the severe
teacher of economy and restraint. In addition to the more minute details furnished
by the chaplain of the County-House of Correction at Preston (the Rev. W. Clay), and
quoted in the paper now read, it was shown by the reports of the chief constable for
Manchester, that the committals and summary convictions in that borough for the
prosperous years 1844-45 were 10,436, and that for the two years of distress which
followed, they were only 7635. It seemed admitted by all who came in contact with
the administration of criminal law, that the two great causes of crime amongst the
lower classes are drunkenness and ignorance ; and it was shown by the returns which
were now before them, that the greater proportion of the crimes committed were directly
or indirectly to be traced to drunkenness. At the assizes for Lancashire in the year
ending March 1854, out of 380 of the worst cases, 250 (including 9 murders) were
traceable to this vice. Much of it is the result of ignorance, and of the consequent
inaptitude to find amusement in better things. To show the extent to which it pre-
vails, it was stated that of the male prisoners who came under the notice of Mr, Clay
in 1858 and 1854, 1088 (or 41 per cent. of the whole) were incapable of reading at all;
938 (or 36 per cent.) were unable to repeat the Lord’s prayer with any approach to
accuracy in the words or proper comprehension of their meaning; and 1836 (or 72
per cent.) were unable to understand the import of the plainest language necessary to
convey instruction in moral andreligious truth. The Liverpool police returns showed
asimilar result; and they pretty nearly confirmed the calculations of Mr, Porter for an
average of thirteen years from 1836-1848. They cannot be taken as evidence on the
general question of education: they merely refer to the connexion between ignorance
and crime. The remedy was our great difficulty. One of the judges (Mr. Justice
Wightman) had more than once declared his belief, “ that drunkenness would ultimately
be eradicated by moral and religious instruction. He did not depend so much upon,
the knowledge acquired, as upon the habit of discipline and self-restraint consequent
upon better education ; and the creation of a tone of self-respect which might ope-
‘ate as a check upon disgraceful or degrading conduct.” Something might also be
effected by example. The lower classes were, at times, encouraged in their vices by
the conduct of those above them; and as temperance has now been substituted for
debasing excesses in the one, the same change may, before long, be witnessed in the
other. But, above all, we should endeavour to get rid of the monstrous anomaly of
raising revenue from the vices of the people; for whatever may be shown by tabulated
returns, we cannot but believe that the establishment of beer-houses has been the
atest incentive to crime that was ever sanctioned by legislative enactment, }
It is, under every aspect, one of the most important questions to which our attention
can be directed.

’ A Deduction from the Statistics of Crime for the last Ten Years.
By Professor R, H. Warsz, LL.D.

A theory has lately grown up, that when the people suffer privation they refrain from

160 REPORT—1856.

crime, but fall into excesses when prosperity returns. This notion, opposed to the
malesuada fames of the poet, is bas¢d on some criminal statistics, principally composed
of the records of summary convictions in a few localities. But it is not fair to esti-
mate the morality of a nation by the number of petty offences committed in one or
two districts, or even throughout the entire country. The returns of the summary
convictions before magistrates do not afford a correct test either of the number of
prohibited acts committed, or of the guilt of the perpetrators. Most of the offences
which swell these returns are of a most trivial character; and at one time the acts
which constitute such offences are committed with impunity, while at another the
excessive vigilance of the police and over-energy of the public in the assertion of their
rights, let nothing escape. But even if these alternate fits of remissness and zeal (the
necessary consequences of the petty nature and trivial character of the offences in
question) did not occur, andthe summary convictions afforded a true representation
of the quantum of prohibited acts committed, the test they furnish must be objected
to. The accurate measure of crime is to be found in the returns of offences sent for
trial to assizes and quarter sessions. These are usually of a serious and well-defined
character ; and for that very reason, the acts which constitute them are rarely committed
without being made the subject of legal investigation. These are the returns to be
employed in measuring the morality of a nation, and they should not be mixed up
with the summary convictions. To do so is to be guilty of the absurdity of confound-
ing together, as if they were on a footing of equality, the most serious offences and
trifling misdemeanors, and placing in the same category with the robber and the
murderer the man who slights the dignity of a policeman, heedlessly offends an irasci-
ble wayfarer, or happens to drive on the wrong side of the road. The returns of the
committals for trial at assizes and quarter sessions in England and Wales from 1844 to
1854 (the last year for which they have been published), show clearly that crime
increases when the physical condition of the people deteriorates, and vice versd.
In 1844 the number of committals was 26,542; in 1845, 24,303; 1846, 25,107;
1847, 28,8383; 1848, 30,349; 1849, 27,816; 1850, 26,813; 1851, 27,960; 1852,
27,510; 1853, 27,057; and in 1854, 29,359. The first year in which the committals
increased is 1847, a year of distress; the rise then being nearly 4000. This rise was
maintained with an addition of nearly 1500 in 1848, likewise a year of distress, partly
owing to the same causes as in 1847, and partly on account of political disturbances
and apprehensions. In 1849, the causes which before had depressed the condition of

the labourer died away. Food was cheap and employment abundant. Emigra- —

tion had removed many of the working classes, and those who remained at home found
the demand for their services increased ; and in that year we find the committals de
cline by nearly 2500. The succeeding years were likewise seasons of prosperity, and
during these the criminal returns exhibit no marked fluctuation. In the last year of
the series, the number of committals rose by a little over 2000, but at the same
time the condition of the people was impaired owing to the enhanced price of food and
other necessaries of life, and also to the waste of the national resources and partial
derangement of trade occasioned by the war. It may be observed in conclusion, that,
if the number of committals in 1844 was but 26,542 and in 1854 29,359, the popula-
tion had increased in the interval in a greater proportion. The criminal returns for
Treland tell a similar tale, when we take into account the changes experienced in the
physical condition of the people. Indeed, the lesson is the more instructive from the
fact of the changes in the condition of the people having been greater than those ex-
perienced in England, so that the corresponding fluctuations in crime exhibit more
strongly the marked connexion between the two. During the years of distress the
committals rose to over 40,000, and when prosperity visited the land they fell to less
than a fourth of thatnumber. The returns of the summary convictions (as might be
expected) do not exhibit in their fluctuations any constant relation to the changes in
the physical condition of the people; but, as far as they go, they more frequently
follow the same than an opposite course to that of the other criminal returns. So
much for the results of the statistics of summary convictions, the class of offences from
which it had been inferred that poverty and privation are conducive to popular
morality. But, taking the statistics of real and formidable offences, we arrive at the more
agreeable conclusion, that, when the people are comfortable, they are well-conducted;
while it is only when they suffer privation, that a general increase of crime takes place.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 161

On the Present Export of Silver to the East. By Prof. R. H. Wausu, LL.D.

So far back as the time when Pliny termed it the sink of the precious metals, silver
was a favourite article of export to the East. It has continued so since; but the trade
of late has assumed an extraordinary magnitude. In the five years prior to the present
over £22,000,000 worth of silver have been exported to the East through England
alone, and from other countries a similar movement has been in operation. The
export in 1855 was £6,400,000; and this year it is proceeding at the rate of over
£9,000,000 per annum, judging from the returns that have been published for the first
four months. Unlike the old movement, the present cannot be permanent. The
former was seldom more than. might be accounted for as the distribution of silver to
‘some of its chief consumers—the nations of the East—according as new supplies were
raised elsewhere. It was, in fact, the ordinary movement from the producer to the
consumer. But now silver goes faster to the East than it is produced throughout the
world. Hence the process cannot be permanent, but must come to an end as soon
as the re-distribution of the old stock has been effected; for the annual production of
silver is only about £8,000,000, and since the export to the East through England
alone is at the rate of over £9,000,000, it follows that it cannot be the new supplies of
silver which meet that demand and all others for the same metal, but there must be
some auxiliary fund to be drawn upon. Such a fund is furnished by a cessation in
the demand for silver in several countries which before employed it most largely, but
now use gold instead. In a paper brought before this Association at Glasgow last
September, I had occasion to notice that silver, which used to be coined in France and
the United States at an average rate of £4,000,000 per annum, is now little employed,
while much of the old coin of that metal is melted down and exported. In France, it
- is said, that in one year, 1853, so much as £12,000,000 was disposed of in this man-
ner, and that the operation has since been proceeding at a stillgreater rate. All this
acts in the same way as if a silver California had been discovered. No one thinks it
extraordinary that gold is exported on a large scale from the auriferous regions to the
various nations which use that metal; but it is quite as natural to suppose that when
large supplies of silver are thrown upon the market (it matters not whether newly
extracted from the earth, or just taken from the melting-pot), they would find their
way to those places where silver is generally employed. India, China, and other East-
ern nations come under this description, and hence the late extraordinary exportation.
As this cause isa novel one, there is an inclination on the part of some who call thein-
selves practical men to adopt any other rather than it. Experience gives no instance
of any such, and hence those who look to their personal experience alone are completely
at fault when discussing this question. Some talk of the balance of trade; others of
an increased importation of tea and silk from China; and a third set of investigators
enunciate details of the machinery of the foreign exchanges by which the transmission
is effected. But such persons forget that the export of silver is just as likely in the
abstract to be the cause as the effect of the “balance,” or “increased importation,”’ in
which they dogmatically assume it originated ; and that, as for the details of the foreign
exchanges, they merely tell us how and not why the export takes place. Yet all this
is said while the question presents no difficulty whatsoever, when two facts are noticed
in juxtaposition,—one, the great cessation in the demand for silver in countries which
employ a double standard; the other, the circumstance that the Eastern nations
habitually use silver on a large scale, especially in their currency. After that there
is nothing to be said to complete the explanation, except to call to mind that when
the supply of any article is unusually great compared with the number of consumers,
it must find its way to these latter in quantities proportionally augmented; and that
such is the case at present with the article silver, the principal consumers of which
are the nations of the East.

Concluding Address. By R. Monckton Mityxzs, M.P.

In the absence of Lord Stanley, Mr. Monckton Milnes, a Vice-President of the Section,
_ gave a summary of the proceedings of the Section. He remarked on the small proportion
of papers that had been read bearing on political economy when compared with the
papers on other subjects. They were, no doubt, aware that there were French and

1856. 11

162 REPORT—1856.

American economists who disputed the very fundamental principles of political economy
as laid down by Adam Smith and Ricardo, and he should be glad if the members of
the British Association would make this subject their study. In reviewing the papers,
he particularly alluded to the paper on the ‘ Crédit Mobilier’ of France, and expressed
his fear that it would lead to the wildest speculations, such as could not occur in any
country without creating the greatest social disorganization. The Crédit Mobilier
had this peculiarity, that it was not like the great commercial crises which had fallen
in our own time, which had arisen from over-employment of capital in public works
by the authors and promoters of these works; the speculators were ruined, but the
works remained, This was not the case with the Crédit Mobilier, which encouraged
speculations for the advantage of a mere body of capitalists, who, by their very system,
liberate themselves from all personal responsibility and all interest in the works under-
taken, and thus give encouragement to every extravagance, without even the pretence
of any permanent public utility. He believed the greatest political danger was likely
to result from evils of this kind, and hoped that British capitalists would take no part
in so unsound a system. He also commented on the papers on social subjects which
had been read, especially on those connected with the reformation of young offenders,
for which object he had brought a Bill into Parliament ten years ago, and which was
now bringing forth abundant fruit. Crime might, under certain cireumstances, as had
been shown, be increased by national prosperity, but it might be diminished by moral
training and true education.

MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
On the Manufacture of Iron and Steel without Fuel. By H. Bessemer.

On the Manufacture of the large-wrought Iron Gun, and other Masses of
Tron made at the Mersey Iron Works, Liverpool. By W. Cuay.

On the Application of Corrugated Metal to Ships, Boats, and other Floating
Bodies. By Major V. Eyre.

On a Methed of uniting Iron with Iron or other Metals without welding,
invented by M. Sisco of Paris. By Dr. Grernz.

On a New Railway Break, invented by M. Sisco of Paris. By Dr. Greene.
On the Inundation of Rivers. By Professor HENNESSY.

Explorations through the Valley of the Atrato to the Pacific in search of a
Route for a Ship-canal. By F. M. Kewrey, of New York.

Several surveying expeditions have been sent by Mr. Kelley into this region, and
much valuable information has resulted. But the chief result is a conviction of the
feasibility of a ship-canal through the isthmus. ‘The most recent of Mr. Kelley’s ex-
plorers, Mr. Kennish, proposes to enter the Atrato by the Cafio Coquito. The great-
est depth on the bar is about 4 ft. at low water; the soundings gradually deepen, and
become 30 ft. within 2 miles, when the depth increases to 47 ft., and is nowhere less
up to the Truando. The width varies from a quarter of a mile to 2 miles, and the re-
moval of the bar would allow of the transit of the largest steamers. The confluence
of the Truando is about 63 miles from the Gulf, and that river forms the channel of
the proposed line for 36 miles. ‘The line then follows the valley of the Nerqua through
rock-cutting, and passes the summit by a tunnel of 34 miles. It reaches the
Pacific through the valley of a small stream, and debouches at Kelley’s Inlet, In the

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 163

valley of the Atrato, 300 miles long and 75 broad, and lying between the Antiochian
mountains on the east and the Cordillera of the Andes on the west, rain falls almost
daily, which accounts for theimmense supply of water in that region. On the Pacific
side of the Cordillera there is scarcely any rain for eight months of the year. The
greater portion of the rain falling in the Atrato valley is caught above the confluence
of the Truando. Fifteen large tributaries and numerous smaller streams fall into the”
Atrato and contribute to the immense lagoons, which form natural reservoirs and a
superabundant store of water throughout the year. There are various cogent reasons
for selecting the confluence of the Truando as the best point from whence the passage
from the Atrato to the Pacific may be effected. In the first place, there is no point
of junction with the Atrato by western tributaries so near the level of high water on
the Pacific as that of the Truando. It happens tobe 9 ft. above the Pacific at high
water, and it is therefore of sufficient elevation to prevent the Pacific at high water
from flowing through the proposed cut into the Atrato; while it is not so high
as to cause the current from the Atrato to the Pacific at ow water to pass through the
cut too rapidly. In fact, the elevation of the Truando confluence just preserves a pre-
ponderating balance on the side of the Atrato. The Atrato, at the junction of the
Salaqui, is only 1 ft. above the level of the Pacific at high water; but the dividing
ridge is 1063 ft. high and 30 miles wide, according to a survey of that route by Mr.
Kennish and Mr. Nelson. Should any of the rivers at the mouth of the Atrato be
selected without reference to the height and width of the dividing ridge, it may be
observed that the maximum tidal wave in the Pacific being 25 ft. and that on the
Atlantic only 2 ft., the Pacific at high tide would flow into the Atlantic with a current
equal to a head of 113ft; and at low water in the Pacific the Atlantic would flow into
it with a similar current. In the inlet of the Gulf of Micuel recently called Darien
Harbour, the action of the tide is so strong, that Her British Majesty’s steamship ‘ Virago,’
commanded by Capt. Prevost, dragged both anchors ahead, and was only brought up > by
paying out nearly all her cable. The heights of the tides and the levels of the two oceans
have been well established by the recent observations of Col. Tolten in Navy Bay on the
Atlantic, and in a deep bend of the Bay of Panama on the Pacific. On the Atlantic a
consecutive series of thirty-two observations were taken in the months of August and
September during the season of calms. On the Pacific two sets of observations were
made : the first during May and June, when fifty-four consecutive tides were observed
in aseason of calms; and the second in November and December, when fifty-two
consecutive tides were observed in a season of light winds. The results do not exactly
correspond, and are given in the following Table :—

Pacific. Atlantic.

May and | Nov. and | Aug. and
June Dec. Sept.

Greatest rise of tide .......ccececevecccecevees| 17°72 21:30 1:60

Least ....... Ee sake’ ehchis SHEE RAB EPG EGE choheyate Sepieyste 7°94 9:70 0°63
ENGST AS MO Apia Grebo orlod CaO Une Sema nO 16 12:08 14:10 1-16
Mean tide of Bache above mean tide of Atlantic . 0°759 0:140

High spring-tide of Pacific above high spring- ; 4

tide of Atlantic ........cceseeceesencvners \ ge Ae

Low spring-tide of Pacific below: low cc! 6°55 9:40
Feta GLATIEIG cot arerni hoyclp reine omelet steals aie 1 2\ +=

Mean high-tide of Pacific ‘above mean high-tide : .,
LAAT AIGIC Ls sie p2> vieysinaee ws sjerpbayeeseiel ege lb)ieie! eve Pee Bis

Mean low-tide of Pacific below x mean a low-tade of 4°73 5:26

Atlantic .........6.. Jn, Dele y ehehwhar aya le dels) ape «
Average rise of Spring tes ox daiqeysfoisine's oiayaies «jee |) 24:08 17°30
Average rise of neap-tides......eceeeseseeeeeee+| 9°60 | 12°40

These observations make the mean level of the Pacific from 0-14 to 0°75 higher
than the mean level of the Atlantic ; but this is probably owing only to local circum-
stances, and it may be assumed that there is no difference in the mean levels of the

11%

164 REPORT—1856.

two oceans. The conclusions arrived at by the successive independent surveys
carried out at the expense of Mr. Kelley may be summed up as follows :—first, that
the oceans can be united through the Atrato and Truando by a canal without a lock or —
any other impediment; second, that while the distance between the oceans by this route

_ is only 131 miles, half that distance is provided by nature with a passage for the largest
ships ; third, the remaining distance requires the removal of bars, excavations, and
cuttings presenting no unusual difficulties; fourth, harbours requiring but little im-
provement to render them excellent exist at the termini.

On the Patent Laws. By W. A. Macxriz.

On the Management of Mercantile Vessels. By R. Meruven, F.R.G.S.

On a New Plan for a Ship Communicator. By Dr. S1spaupv, Liverpool.

Nothing is more common than for a ship in some position of difficulty to require
to communicate readily with adjoining land, especially with a lee shore when she
is in danger. Or it may be that two vessels require to communicate when they
cannot approach each other ; and various other sets of circumstances may arise to
render such communication desirable or absolutely necessary.

The following apparatus has been patented for the purpose; and numerous ex-
periments have shown that it may be employed with great success.

A series of four parallel hoops of wood, about two feet and a half in diameter,
are covered with patent oiled cloth so as to be impervious to water. When not in
use, the machine lies flat, about four inches in thickness, and is less than six pounds
in weight. When required, the hoops are separated, and the machine becomes in-
flated on the system of a pair of bellows. It forms two cylinders with a small neck
between, the cylinders serving to produce buoyancy and to be acted upon by the
wind ; and the intermediate neck having coiled round it a cord of two miles, or of
any required length. In the centre of the lowest circle or bottom is an orifice of
brass, into which a spindle of light cane is inserted ; and this is fastened at the top
by a screw so as to keep the machine inflated during pleasure.

It is now dropped into the water; and a weight attached to the bottom keeps it
in a uniform position. Standing at least two feet out of the water, the wind catches
it, and drives it on. It revolves on a vertical axis, and ‘pays off’ the cord with
which it is surrounded. When the line has reached the shore, a communication can
easily be effected with the other ship, or the wreck, as the case may be, in either
direction. It is obvious that additional line can be attached, should the original
quantity be found insufficient.

To this general outline, various modifications have been added. For example, a
brass hoop, the plane of which is vertical, is screwed to the centre of the top, and
inside this are suspended a lamp and bell. These keep their position in all circum-
stances, and address themselves to two senses, the eye and the ear. Also, in a
pocket on the top, suitably protected from the water, letters may be inserted ; so
that the instrument acts as an inanimate postman, returning with replies, or con-
veying the most explicit directions. Lastly, to the top are attached ropes by which
one individual, or even more, can in special circumstances make it serve the purpose
of a life-buoy ; but this use might interfere with its primary one, which is simply
that of a communicator. Experiments have shown that it requires about a ton to
effect its immersion ; and it is hardly possible under any circumstances that such
an amount of force could be employed.

There are many circumstances which might arise in which this instrument could
not be employed; but the occasions are so numerous in which it could be put to
its legitimate use, that it is surely most desirable that it should be known and pos-
sessed. Its perfect portability is a great recommendation; and its inflation ‘and
immersion occupy only one minute.

On Improved Mechanical Means for the Extraction of Oil, and the Econo-
mical Manufacture of Manures from Fish and Fishy Matter.
By W. Smirn.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 165

On the Quantity of Heat developed by Water when violently agitated.
By Grorce Rewntz, F.R.S. &c.

Our knowledge of the mechanical properties of heat was very limited until the
year 1798, when Count Rumford published his valuable paper ‘‘ On the Source of
Heat excited by Friction.” The investigations of Dr. Black, and subsequently of
Watt, Southern, Creighton and Murdoch of Soho, and of Lavoisier, Mongolfier,
Dulong, Seguin, Mayer, &c. on the Continent, have been engaged in similar re-
searches; while the chemical or mechanical properties of heat have been largely
augmented by Dalton, Leslie, Taylor, Davy, Faraday, Hesse, and Thomson. The
question may be considered —

8 an As to the effects of electric action in separating or decomposing compound
odies. ©

2nd. The effects of the compression and extension of solids and fluids.

3rd. The effects of the chemical affinity of acids on metallic or saline bases, in
which may be included the spontaneons combustion of metals, fossils, and fibrous
substances.

4th. The condensation and expansion of fluids and gases.

All these have attracted the attention of modern philosophers, among whom may be
cited the names of Andrews, Graham, Joule, Thomson, Rankine, and of M. Regnault,
whose magnificent experiments, under the auspices of the French government, and
published in the year 1847, and since continued in a second part, have developed,
more fully than hitherto, new values of the calorific and specific heat of water under
different states of density, and temperature, and of other elastic fluids. He found
the calorific capacity of water to be double that of ice or steam, a quality which
would tend to prove that liquid water has a different molecular arrangement from
that of ice or steam.

But it is owing to the more recent experiments of Mr. Joule, communicated to the
Philosophical Society of Manchester in 1843, to the British Association in 1847 and
1848, and afterwards to the Royal Society in 1849, that we became first acquainted with
the numerical value of heat as a mechanical power. Mr. Joule’s experiments* were
made on three different fluids, water, oil, and mercury; and in all the three cases
the remarkable result appeared, viz. that the mechanical power represented by the
force necessary to raise 774'88 lbs. one foot high, produced a quantity of heat equal
to the temperature of 1 Ib. of water raised 1° Fahrenheit. This equivalent was after-
wards altered by an improvement in the apparatus with which he experimented to
711lbs.; thus confirming the experiments of Rumford and Davy on the friction of
solids, and proving that the heat of elastic fluids consists simply in the vis viva of
their particles. In the years 1845 and 1847, Mr. Joule employed an agitator to
agitate water, oil, and mercury in a box, to produce fluid friction on the principle of
common paddle-wheel, by which means he obtained equivalents of 781°5, 782°1, and
787-6 respectively.

These and other experiments left no doubt in his mind as to the existence of an
equivalent relation between force and heat. The care bestowed upon these experi-
ments in deducting the retarding influences entitle them to every credit. Upon
examining the Table showing the results, it does not appear that the temperature of
the water had been raised more than 0°563209°, say half a degree to 97470°2 grains,
or as 1 to 7-84229 lbs. of water, and to a higher temperature, and for mercury, than
31:31. It is desirable, therefore, that these experiments be extended.

Having long entertained the idea that steam, as applied to the movement of en-
gines, lost a large portion of its heat in the act of transmission, I watched carefully
the attempts which had been hitherto made by inventors for improvements in the
application of it through the medium of atmospherical air, such as by Neipce in
France in 1806, by Sir George Cayley in 1807 and 1838, by Sterling in 1816, by
Erichson in 1826 and 1830, by Brown with his hydrogen gas-engine in 1823, and
by Du Trembley’s combined steam and ether engine in 1846; and its subsequent
realization on a great scale in 1849, and more recently by Siemens in his combined
steam- and air-engine now in operation on the Continent, gave reason to expect that

* In 1843, Mr. Joule announced that he had found that heat was evolved by the passage
of water through small tubes, and that each degree required for its evolution a mechanical
force of 770 Ibs.

166 REPORT—1856.

the loss of heat occasioned by the use of steam, and which had been variously esti-
mated from +5 to 2; of the heat transmitted, might be avoided, and that we should
ultimately discover a more economical medium. All these attempts have as yet
been arrested by practical difficulties which have been encountered, but which may
yet be obviated.

The dynamical theory of heat has, however, been more recently developed by
Mayer in 1842*, and Helmholtz in 1847, and greatly extended by Messrs. Rankine
and Thomson about the same period. Mr. Siemens, in his paper “‘ On the Conversion
of Heat into Mechanical Effect,” published in the second part of the twelfth volume of
the ‘ Transactions of the Civil Engineers,’ in citing proofs against the material theory
of heat shown by the experiments of Davy and Dulong, says, that, “inasmuch as they
show an intimate connexion between heat and the mechanical force by which it was
produced, and according to which heaf, mechanical force, electricity, chemical affi-
nity, light and sound are but different manifestations of one great and infinite cause,
motion ,— the specific heat and temperature of a body determine the vibrating
velocity of the material particles, the square of which multiplied by the weights of
the particles gives their inherent force or vis viva. In solids, the vis viva is least
remarkable; in fluids it is greater. In gaseous fluids, it predominates so strangely
over gravitation that the latter force becomes inapplicable.”

Mr. Siemens gives the following as the results obtained in units of power or foot-
pounds for one unit of heat by different authors : —

Centigrade Fahrenheit’s
Thermometers. Thermometers.

By Holtzman’s formula.............. 1227 foot lbs. 682 foot lbs.

By Joule’s experiment ............+. 1386, iO 65,3
By Rankine’s formula ...........0.. 1252, 695.5 3
By Thomsonts! 9559. 02% Jo eee. Me BLSIO Tick WTZIOR Gs
By the best Cornish engine, according to

Bambu hs POU ALA Peele iiteeh oe 148 _~—C,, 82 j,
By a perfect low pressure and condensing 90°8 ,, 50°4 ,,
By an actual Bolton and Watt’s engine. . 46 25;; B5:50533

The above Table is further illustrated by a table showing the theoretical and an
actual] performance of steam- and air-engines by diagrams showing the curves which
would be indicated theoretically by converting heat into dynamic effect.

In March, 1856, being at Southampton, it occurred to me to make an experiment
on the difference of temperature between the water in the tidal basin of the docks
there, and the water then running through the sluices of the iron gates of one of the
dry docks which was then filling for the purpose of letting out a vessel into the tidal
basin. The result was a difference of two degrees. In both cases the same thermo-
meter was suspended ten minutes in the water of the tidal, and afterwards in the
current of water running through the sluices into the dry dock. Observations on
the temperature of the sea in stormy weather, and through water-wheel races, always
indicated an increase.

Being desirous of corroborating these statements, a box or cistern made of deal, 24 by
221 inches square, and 20 inches deep, was prepared; a quantity of Thames water,
about 20 inches in depth, was poured into it, equal to 437i 1bs. Into the side of the
box was fitted a bent iron tube of 2 in. diameter; and into the upper part, above the
bend of the pipe, a glass tube was inserted; so that, by suspending a glass thermo-
meter in the water contained in the tube, the temperature could be easily seen.

The box was then covered by a wooden lid, so closely fitted as to exclude the sur-
rounding air, and to prevent the loss of water by agitation. A wooden spindle
having four arms, and twelve vertical agitators, was previously fitted into the lid of
the box, as shown by the accompanying woodcut; a pulley of wood was fitted to the
top of the spindle; and the apparatus was rapidly revolved in the water by being
connected with a steam-engine.

* Mayer was the first to observe an increase of temperature of from 12° Centigrade to 13°
Centigrade by agitating water in the year 1842.

The remarkable experiments of Beaumont and Mayer in the boiling of 400 litres of water
by the friction of a roller revolving in the interior of a tube, in the middle of a boiler sur-
rounded by water, 1855, at the Paris Exhibition, show the effects of mechanical force.

T Correlation of Forces, by Grove.

: TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 167

The annexed illustrations exhibit views of the apparatus, and the accompanying
description will make the whole understood. (See woodcut.)

| Fig. 2. pa ; —-,;

i lel

GLASS THERMOMETER

The experiment commenced on the 19th of June last.

The apparatus was then worked for an hour and a half, and the result was the
raising of the temperature of the water by agitation from 58° to 64° Fahrenheit.

The apparatus, however, got deranged, and the experiments were postponed to the

168 REPORT—1856.

following day. The Thames water was then replaced by clear well-water. The
apparatus was again adjusted. The quantity of water weighed in the box 437 lbs.
The temperature of the air was 65° Fahrenheit when the experiment commenced,
and of the water 64° Fahrenheit.

The apparatus made 270 revolutions per minute, and in 55 minutes raised the
temperature of the water from 64° to 731°, or an increase of 94° Fahrenheit.

The experiments were continued on the third day with well-water at 59°, and the
temperature of the air 601°. The apparatus was worked from 10% 5™ a.m. to 1b 5™
p.m., when the temperature of the water was raised from 59° to 75}°, or 16}° in-
crease in three hours. ~

On the third day the apparatus was defective from the slipping of the strap, and
only made 140 revolutions instead of 270 revolutions per minute.

The apparatus having been repaired was again set to work on the 24th of June,
being the fourth and last day of experiraenting.

The following were the results : —

Number of revolutions of apparatus 240 per minute.

Temperature of well-water in the box 593° Fahrenheit.

Began at 10 A.M. Temperature of Water.
10-0 591 deg. Fahr.
10-5 693 “
11-0 74 6
11°20 74 i
11°34 75 os
12-0 ae &
12°8 80 D
1 P.M. 89 ”

Stopped at 1 p.m. for one hour, and on starting again at 2 p.m., found that the
temperature of the water had fallen to 76°, being a loss of 130 Fahrenheit.

This, however, was owing to the tube which contained the thermometer being
exposed to the influence of the east wind: started the engine and apparatus at
2 P.M.

At P.M. Temperature.
2-0 76 degrees.
2-5 (increase 10°) 86
2°15 88 45
3:0 92
3°30 95 ss
4-0 LIES a aec
4:15 Ooh oa
4:45 100 A
5:0 101},
5°15 102 of
5:30 stopped 103,

The total increase of temperature having been 443° in 6} hours.
On examining the foregoing Tables, it will be seen that the increase of tempera-
ture seems to follow no regular laws; thus: —

From 10 a.m. to 11 a.m. the increase is ........ 143° Fahrenheit.
» lla. to 12 a.m. et, Eee 5° 3
» 12am. to 1 P.M. Sowants (il. Siccear <7 16?

2 p.m. to 3 p.m. the temperature of the water
rose from 76° to 92°, being an increase of 16° in 1 hour.
Se to 4 eM. 4, °° 92° to 975° ,, 52°7 only
Api. tombe, ©), 972 to 1012°~”,, 4° } per
» OPM. todip.m. , 1013 to103>° ,, 2° J} hour.

So that, had the experiments continued longer, the rate of increase per hour might
have been reduced to an equilibrium.

As a proof that the box radiated very little heat, on one occasion the apparatus
(after the temperature of the water had been raised from 60° to 103° Fahrenheit)
was left all night for 14 hours exposed to the external air. The temperature of the

j

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 169

water in the box next morning was found to be 87° Fahrenheit, being a loss of 16°,
or little more than one degree per hour. é

The conclusions to be derived from the foregoing experiments are as yet uncer-
tain. That the evolution of heat by fluid friction has been proved, cannot be doubt-
ful, as has been shown by the refined experiment of Joule; but by what law re-
mains to be determined by future experiments.

Experiments to determine the Resistance of a Screw when revolving in Water
at different Depths and Velocities. By Grorce Rentz, F.R.S. &c.

The experiments which have hitherto been made upon screw propellers, have had
for their object, principally, to determine their forms and proportions, to enable
them to act most effectively in propelling the vessels to which they were attached,
and at the same time to impede by their form as little as possible the vessel’s mo-
tion through the water when under steam or sail. :

In every case it has been considered necessary to give as large a diameter to the
screw as the draft of the vessel would admit, in order that the area of its whole disc
should have as large a proportion to the midship section and resistance to the on-
ward motion of the vessel as possible. So that the present state of our knowledge
upon screw propulsion is confined to the best form and area of the propeller and of
the vessel to which it is attached.

The experiments of Mr. Barlow on several of Her Majesty’s paddle-wheel vessels,
and of Mr. Lloyd on the propelling powers of Her Majesty’s steam sloop ‘ Rattler,’
and the recent investigations of Mr. Charles Atherton, had already established cer-
tain relations between these extremes. But no experiments have as yet been re-
corded on the action of screw propellers immersed at different depths and driven at
high velocities.

Last year my attention was called by Mr. Joseph Apsey, an engineer of Broad-
wall, in the parish of Christ Church, Surrey, to some remarkable properties which
he stated to have discovered in a double screw which he had invented, but which
was similar in every respect to the screw used in the Archimedes steamer.

The screw which he experimented upon was of brass 133 diameter, 28 inches
pitch, and 145 square inches, or about 1 foot area. The screw was fixed upon an
iron spindle resting in bearings, one being a stuffing-box on the outside of a boiler
in which the experiments were made, so as to prevent leakage, and the other end

Mr. Apsey’s Experiments.
K& “a Z

loose in the bearing fixed at the bottom of the boiler. A pulley of iron was fixed
to the outer extremity of the spindle, so as to allow of its being driven by leather
bands at any rate of speed. A bracket was bolted to the outside of the boiler for
the purpose of serving as a fulcrum to a bent lever, the horizontal extremity of
which supported a scale and weight, and the vertical extremity was pushed by the
screw when revolved in the water in the boiler, so that the weights lifted by the
bent lever indicated the thrust of the screw. '

170 REPORT+1856.

The length of the boiler was ....... Mcdet oes - 8 feet
The breadth of dO.) WAS, oissi..Ne. oe eee 4 feet
The height of COS TWASPA.< 52552. ssiccteioettos - 4 feet

The depth of the water in the boiler was at first regulated so as to have its surface
level with the surface of the screw. This depth was subsequently increased to

One foot above the level of the screw
Two feet do.
Three feet do.

The speed of the engine (which was 50 revolutions per minute) was multiplied by
different-sized pulleys and bands, so as to cause the screw to make 920 revolutions
per minute, and was reduced afterwards to 460 (one half) the revolutions per mi-
nute. The following were the results : —

Revolutions Revolutions
920 per min. 460 per min.

Pressure. Pressure,
Ibs. lbs.
First experiment, water level with top of screw 67 ......... 63
Second do. water above top of screw 1 ft. 299 sca sees 88
Third Ae a ns of 235 350 ..cccene 112
Fourth i if S01 mead sad aes 448 eceecees 126

So that on reducing the results, they approximated to a parabolic curve with high
velocities, and a sharper curve with lower velocities. The conclusions derived from
these experiments at the meeting at Glasgow in 1855, were, that the water being
confined in a boiler by its reaction damaged the results, and were not to be de-
pended upon.

In order, however, to remove further doubts on the subject, I had an apparatus
constructed somewhat similar, figure 3, as represented in the accompanying wood-
cut, with these differences, that the diameter of the screw was 1 ft. 9 in., and its
disc area 346} square inches, or nearly 2} times larger than Mr. Apsey’s screw.
The screw worked on the outside of the cistern, and the lever and weights and
pulley were inside the cistern, the water having been kept out by means of a stuff-
ing-box let into one of the sides of the cistern, through which the spindle of the
screw worked. The experiments were made in the river Thames; so that as the
tide rose or fell, the screw could be driven at different depths outside the cast-iron
cistern, while the observations were taken within the cistern.

The greatest speed at which the screw could be driven, was at the rate of 558 re-
volutions per minute, and the following were the results :--

Experiments made in June, 1856, in the river Thames, for the purpose of determining
the resistances experienced by an ordinary two-bladed screw propeller when driven at
a high rate of speed and at different depths,

Number Weiglit lifted

of Rate of speed in all cases, 558 revolutions per minute. by

Experiment. screw.
1 Water level with top of screw in. 49
2 Above top of screw 3 50
3 ditto 6 196
4 ditto ft. in. 9 224
5 ditto 1 Oor 12 252
6 ditto 1 6 or 18 _ 280
7 ditto 2 0 or 24 343
8 ditto 2 6 or 30 364
9 ditto 3 O or 36 369
10 ditto 3 6 or 42 371
11 ditto 4 O or 48 385
12 ditto 4 6 or 54 399
13 ditto 5 O or 60 405

The ordinates of the above thrusts are represented by a parabola.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 171

On comparing these experiments, it will be seen that, although the propeller is of
larger dimensions than that of Mr. Apsey, the thrusts are not so great. In the first
case, the velocity is nearly twice as great, while the area, taken as discs, are as
1: 2°47; but taking the respective thrusts of the two propellers, Mr. Apsey’s in the
boiler, and mine in the open river Thames, the ratios of resistance or thrusts of the
propellers at one, two, and three feet immersion respectively, are not very dis-
similar.

In both cases the influence of velocity is much greater than depth, and is such
as to approximate the action of a screw in a solid, like which the water becomes
when rapidly acted upon ; but the joint influence of depth and velocity shows that
the thrust or resistance of the screw is 63 times greater when immersed three feet

CAST IRON CISTERN

below the water level than when working at a level; consequently, a screw whose
disc area is one-sixth, three-fourths of the area of the screw, when the level of the
water is level with its circumference, is equally effective. If this be the fact, as the
often-repeated experiments proved, it is reasonable to expect very important results
hereafter in the use of the screw; and further, if one small screw proportioned as
above shown be as effective as one large screw working in the dead wood, how much
smaller and more effective will be two screws, when applied to a vessel’s quarters on
either side of the dead wood and stern!

172 REPORT—1856.

APPENDIX.

Containing Abstracts which were not received in time to be included in the
Sections to which they belong.

Crystallogenesis, and the Equivalent in the Mineral Kingdom corresponding to
Geographical Distribution in the Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms. By
Samuet Hieuxey, F.G.S.—(Read in 1854.)

The author pointed out, that in mineralogy no scientific value could be attached to
Locatiry, equivalent to that which it possessed in botany or zoology ; and although
the Leonhards had published works on topographical mineralogy, no laws had been
deduced analogous to those of the geographical distribution of plants and animals,
though it was very evident local conditions determined the association of minerals,
and the aspect, form or its modifications, isomorphic constitution, colour, &c. of the
same species; and as we know from laboratory experience that temperature, light,
electricity, magnetism, catalytic action, &c. are determining influences in crystallogenic
force, we must learn in detail the physical as well as the chemical conditions of geo-
logical districts in various parts of the globe before we should have data for founding
any general laws on the mineral-producing conditions of the earth. The following
form was then proposed and described in detail for tabulating local mineralogical
phznomena, which if distributed amongst naturalists, mine-masters, &c. at home and
abroad and returns obtained, would furnish matter for deductions, not only of value
in mineralogical, but also in physical, geological, zoological, ethnological, and agricul-
tural science.

Geogra- Physiogno- Deduc-
: : 1g . i :
phical. Geognostic. Physical. =a Chemical. | Physiographical. | tions,
a % .
Peyh | ice tee | se/le th Shoal liebe Ss |. 28 (ees
‘oO S = 3) = mM) s
CED 6 Ces 3 i sips ; -ISilo
Pete ey 42s gelag Pf Soc] .|/2/4/s]s 3
ees [2ESLS2 (218 (238, alZl2\5/38/s 3
BSS ee moves eee ois Sslsisjel ele x
OE tS Se | eam. ee ags hilo] Elrels S] 4s|.2
2 .o 2 On ge|eS = ws Se Mala |FlEls] . Bl pls
S288 [Rel slesulsle (OSS Bslalsfofol[2/S} [le] _.
So S elalz =
Soe Sas ew OWES SlalStgl> as aslSialSisisre 2|sj/e| Sg
BS o Pek o|/Sd'o|# Sl\ES a= Blo lolol lala Sl eic| 2
5 Sua 2 S-sia es >| 5 o c o|lo]} oo] = = = an
Sy | 55 | SutglH a Slo gzl2ss 5 Al Slam sl S/S/Flso 2
S\B/a/5 8! als 2sdie sl Sls 8 oH of Ses) 2)/2lslelsielelsissa
SleleleunBQOlson HIS PF SISI2Z SC -2 = SS Ol/F/S\SlalSlSlE\S/S(ElE 8
S/SsSS SHS S255/Cs SE Sa SESS Sa slaizleslelelslsls SS
e/S/OIESESSHIFES SEK OE CIS Sic PSSM SialslelSials|o/eit ie cs
AlAjaja © mre SQ a Flies Wa So hole (eS la|DOloim oe a
* * * * * #|#) | | *| *|* *

* Space to be given to these columns according to the requirements of the observations to
be made.

On some points connected with Agricultural Chemisiry.
By J. B. Lawes, F.R.S., and Dr. J. H. Grrzenr, F.C.S.—(Read in 1854.)

The authors thus express the conclusions to which their inquiries, mentioned in
this paper, which was read at Glasgow, conducted.

1. That the manure indicated by the resultant requirements of British agriculture,
has no direct connexion with the composition of the mineral substances collectively
found in the ashes of the produce grown on, or exported from the farm; and that
the direct mineral manures which are required, are not advantageously applied for
the direct reproduction of the exported corn, but should be used for the green or
fallow crops, an office of which it is, to collect from the atmosphere, or to conserve
on the farm, available nitrogen for the increased growth of the saleable cereal grains.

2. That the nitrogen required to be provided within the soil for this purpose, is far
greater than that contained in the increase of produce obtained by it.

3. That the effects of fallow in increasing the growth of the saleable cereal grains

2 CO

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 173

(so far as they are chemical), are not measurable by the amount of the additional
mineral food of plants liberated thereby, these being under ordinary cultivation in
excess of the assimilable nitrogen existing in, or condensed within the soil in the
same period of time; the amount of which latter therefore—the available nitrogen—
is the measure of the increased produce of grain which will be obtained.

4. That the beneficial effects of rotation, in increasing the production of saleable
produce (so far as they are chemical), are mot explained by the fact of one plant
taking from the soil more of the different mineral constituents than another, but
depend on the property of the so-called green or fallow crops bringing on, or con-
serving upon the farm, more of substance rich in nitrogen than is yielded to them in
manure, whilst the crops to which they are subservient are both largely exported
from the farm, and yield in their increase considerably less of nitrogen than is given
to them in manure. ;

5. In a word, that in the existing condition of Bee sh agriculture, a full pro-
duction of the saleable cereal grains, with at the safie time other exportable produce,
is only attained—whether by manures, fallow, or rotation—by an accumulation of
available nitrogen (normally an atmospheric constituent), within the soil itself.

On the Composition of Wheat-Grain, and its Products.
By J. B. Lawes, F.R.S., F.C.S., and J. H. Gitsert, Ph.D., F.CS.

The authors had for a series of years conducted experiments on the successive
growth of wheat, on the same land, by different chemical manures. The general
result of these experiments had been to show, that, although the amount of the pro-
duce had been much increased by the use of nitrogenous manures, the per-centage of
nitrogen in the grain had been, comparatively speaking, but little affected thereby.
Variation in season had had more influence on the composition of the crop in this
respect. It had further appeared, that, within the limits of their own locality and
climate, there was, on the average of the seasons, a lower per-centage both of nitrogen
and of mineral matter in the grain, the more favourably the produce was developed
and matured. The varying composition of the entire grain as affected by season and
manuring, the authors hoped to treat of more fully elsewhere* ; their object, in the
present paper, being chiefly to call attention to some points in the character and com-
position of the different products obtained from wheat-grain by means of mechanical
separation.

With a view to the prosecution of this part of the inquiry, in selected cases, quan-
tities of the experimentally grown grains, namely, seven lots from the produce of 1846,
nineteen from that of 1847, and two from that of 1848, had been carefully watched
through the milling process. In some of the cases nine, and in others seven different
products of the dressing apparatus, were separately taken. The proportion of each of
the several products in the respective grains was ascertained and recorded, and the
per-centages of dry substance and mineral matter were also in every case determined.
The three first wires of the dressing machine gave on the average rather more than
70 per cent. of the grain as fine flour; but in practice about 10 per cent. more would
be obtained from the next two products, yielding in all 80 percent. or more of pretty
good bread flour. The average amount of dry substance in the various mill products
was about 85 per cent. ; the external or more branny portions containing rather mere,
and the finer flours rather less. The per-centage of mineral matter varied very much
in the different products, it being scarcely 3ths of 1 per cent. in the fine flours, and
ten times as much, or more than 7 per cent., in the coarsest bran. From the much
larger proportion of flour than bran, however, it resulted that rather more than ird
of the total mineral matter of the grain would be accumulated in its currently edible

ortions.
In one series of these mill-products, from the finest flour at the head of the ma-
chine down to the coarsest bran, the nitrogen was determined, and also some of
the constituents of the respective ashes. It appeared that the per-centage of ritrogen
was about once and a half as great in the bran as in the finer flours. And even in-
eluding all the currently edible portions, still the excluded branny parts contained

* See Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society, April, 1857; where also is given, with
additions, the tabular matter, &c. to which this abstract relates,

174 REPORT— 1856.

considerably higher per-centages of nitrogen. Turning to the ashes of the respective
inill-products, there was a much larger proportion of matter insoluble in acid in those
of the finer flours than in those of the coarser brans ; of the phosphoric acid, on the
other hand, there was considerably the higher per-centage in the ash of the brans.
The magnesia also was the higher in the ash of the brans, and the potash and lime
the higher in that of the flours. Looking to the distribution of the various consti-
tuents, according to the average proportion in the grain, of each of the several mill-
products, it appeared that about ths of the total nitrogen, and about 3rd or 2ths of
the total mineral matter, were accumulated in the usually edible flours, and of the
total phosphoric acid, there was only about 4rd in the ashes of the latter. Notwith-
standing the higher per-centage of nitrogen, and the large actual amounts of the
mineral constituents of the grain contained in the branny portions, the authors were
of opinion, that, besides the information at present at command as to the character
and condition of the nitrogenous constituents of the bran, such were the effects of the
branny particles themselves in increasing the peristaltic action, and thus clearing the
alimentary canal more rapidly of its contents, that it was questionable whether fre-
quently more nutriment would not be lost to the system by the admission into the
food of the imperfectly divided branny particles, than would be gained by the in-
troduction into the body coincidently with them of the larger amount of supposed
nutritious matters. The action alluded to might indeed be conducive to health with
those of a sluggish habit or who were overfed ; but with those who were not so, the
benefits derivable from an already perhaps scanty diet would be still further reduced.

Experiments were also described, in which several lots of the experimentally grown
wheats were ground in a colonist’s steel hand-mill. ‘The results of the examination
of the products thus obtained were in the main consistent with those from the pro-
ducts of the ordinary mill. They showed, however, more strikingly the effects of
mechanical means in separating different chemical compounds within the limits of
the floury parts of the grain.

Experiments were next adduced; in which the different edible products, from grains
grown by different manures or in different seasons, were made into bread ; the several
products of the dressing machine being employed sometimes separately and some-
times collectively. The result obtained was, that comparing with each other the three
separate products which together yielded a fine flour, that at the head of the machine,
which was the least nitrogenous, yielded on the average the least weight of bread for
a given amount of flour, that is to say, itretained the least amount of water. Again,
when the three products were mixed together, the flours of the season of 1846, which
were the less nitrogenous, gave the less weight of bread, that is, retained less water
than those of 1847, which were rather the more nitrogenous. The effect of an in-
crease of nitrogen in augmenting the weight of bread was, however, not observable
when this increase was due to including more of the more branny portions of the grain.
The average yield of bread in twenty-two experiments with the individual products
was rather more than 135 for every 100 of flour,—equal to about 63 per cent. of dry
substance and 37 of water in the bread. The average of nineteen experiments with fine
flour, composed of the products of the first three wires mixed together, gave a produce
of about 1372 of bread for every 100 of flour, and about 614 of dry substance, and
381 of water in the bread. Bakers’ loaves were next examined. Of these, four ob-
tained from different bakers in the country gave an average of about 62 per cent. of
dry substance and 38 of water in the bread; and three procured in London, rather
more than 64 of dry matter and rather less than 36 of water. The authors concluded,
that from 36 to 38 per cent. of water was perhaps the best average that could be
assumed for bakers’ bread within twelve hours of its being withdrawn from the oven.
They showed, by reference to a Table of the results of other experimenters, that this
agreed pretty well with the determinations of some of the most recent and trust-
worthy. Others, however, gave the water in bread as much higher ; and all seem to
agree that it was generally higher in country bread than in that of towns and
cities.

The point next illustrated was the general influence of locality and varying cli-
matic circumstance upon the per-centage of gluten in wheaten-flour. It appeared
by the numerous results adduced, that, other things being equal, there was a tendency
to an increase in the per-centage of gluten, proceeding from the north to the south—
a point which was illustrated in specimens both from the European and American

— ew

-— we, 3

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 175

continents. A comparatively high ripening temperature was indeed, among other
circumstances, favourable to a high per-centage of gluten. There were, however, in-
teresting exceptions to this generalization; at any rate, so far as the per-centage of
the nitrogen, if not of the gluten itself, was concerned.

The foreign wheats containing a high per-centage of gluten, which were generally
ripened under a high temperature, had the undoubted character of yielding a flour of
great ‘strength,’ and retaining a considerable amount of water in the bread. Owing,
however, to their frequent hardness, and the peculiarity of their structural character
generally, which rendered them both refractory in the mill, and less fitted to make
an easily workable dough, and a bread of the desired colour, texture, and lightness,
they were less valued to use alone for bread-making purposes than many grains of
less per-centage of gluten, provided only that they are in an equal condition as to
maturation or elaboration of their constituents. Some of the most approved foreign
bread-flour grains in the market had indeed a comparatively low per-centage of nitro-
gen; but apparently of very high condition of both their nitrogenous and non-nitro-
genous compounds, as well as a very favourable relation to each other of these two
classes of constituents. Within the limits of our own island, again, on the average of
seasons, the better elaborated grain would probably be the less nitrogenous; though
the nitrogenous matter it did contain would be in a high condition as to elaboration,
and as to its mutual relations, structural and chemical, with the other constituents of
the flour> Hence it came to pass, that as our home-grown flours go, those which
were the best in the view of the baker would frequently be those having a compara-
tively low per-centage of nitrogenous compounds, a higher condition more than com-
pensating for the higher per-centage of nitrogen, generally associated as it was in our
climate with an inferior degree of development and maturation of the grain.

The authors further maintained, that the high per-centage of nitrogen or gluten in
wheaten-flour was no more an unconditional measure of value to the consumer, than
it was in the view of the baker.

In illustration of this latter point, a Table was exhibited showing the relation of
nitrogen to carbon in a number of current articles of food. It was submitted, that
the under-fed or chiefly bread-fed working man, would, as his means increased, ge-
nerally first have recourse to the addition of bacon, or other highly fatty matters ;
which, though they might increase the actual amount of nitrogen consumed, would
seldom increase, and frequently decrease, the proportion of the nitrogenous or flesh-
forming to the more exclusively respiratory and fat-forming constituents. Indeed, so
large was the amount of fat, and therefore of respirable hydrogen, as well as respirable
carbon, even in fresh meat itself, that by its use the proportion of the nitrogenous to
the other constituents would be much less augmented than might be generally sup-
posed.

On the Correlation of the North American and British Paleozoic Strata. By
Henry Darwin Rogers, Corresp. Memb. of the British Association, Hon.
F.R.S.E., F.G.S. &c.

The palzozoic system of strata constituting the first term in the great succession
of fossiliferous deposits of the globe, surpasses in geological interest all other groups
of rocks. Itisfrom it that we learn under what types animal and vegetable existence
appeared in the morning of the great day of life, which is only now culminating
towards its noon. The classification of the palzeozoic deposits, only another expres-
sion for the determination of their true chronology, assumes in this light a high im-
portance, since through it alone can we trace the physical history of our earth through
the most interesting of all its phases, that of the infancy of its inhabitants; but a
sound classification and correct chronologyare not to be reached but through a compa-
rison of the sediments and fossils of very wide areas, indeed, not until the contents
of several great ancient contemporaneous basins have been faithfully coordinated.
This consideration confers an especial interest at the present time, upon the study of
the palzozoic fields of North America, which constitute, apparently, five-sixths of
that wide continent, and possess, from their very breadth of distribution and amazing
continuity of mineral and organic type, unusual value for such comparison. Their title
to the attention of the philosophical geologist will be admitted when he reflects,—
1st, on the remoteness and apparently partial original insulation of the North Ame-
rican palzozoic basin from the European one ; 2ndly, on their amplitude and unbroken

176 REPORT—1856.

continuity, offering unusual facilities for the detection and tracing of their natural
horizons; and 3rdly, on the fullness of the whole series of deposits as a record of
the physical and vital conditions of the ages which beheld their accumulation. The
American basin is not only more replete in specific forms than the palzozoic basin
of Europe, but more abundant in well-defined paleontological horizons. Geographi-
cally more continuous, it appears to be stratigraphically more expanded. From the
lowest platform of ancient life to the uppermost layers crowning the coal series, its
latest formation, the aggregate thickness of the strata is between 35,000 and 40,000 feet.

To coordinate faithfully such distant affiliated systems of strata, each set of the rocks
to be compared should be classified in accordance with their own phenomena, and
not upon any preconceived notions of their equivalency to the deposits of independent
districts assumed as standards ; nor should the classification rest solely on the rela-
tions of their organic remains, but should recognize equally their physical peculiarities
or composition, and the nature of the horizons dividing them. From a deferential
feeling among American paleontologists towards their learned British brethren,
there has been, the author conceives, a disposition to apply prematurely a favourite
British nomenclature to the American strata, and this unphilosophical procedure has
tended to check that spirit of free inquiry which is indispensable to the perception of
the wider relationships and grander laws of creation. To apply to a large field of
nature in North America an interpretation expressed in a classification and nomen-
clature drawn from a distant region across the Atlantic, is to make one country a
standard for another ; whereas by the sanctions of inductive philosophy, each great
tract of creation must be its own exemplar, must itself furnish the measure of its own
phenomena. In the universal federation of scientific intellect, no community or
school of thinkers, however able or authoritative within their own domain, can be-
come a supreme court of opinion in questions of a world-broad significance.

Hitherto little has been done by the American and European geologists who have
attempted the arduous study of the American paleozoic basin, to measure the de-
grees of relationship subsisting between its constituent formations, while those
affinities which have been examined have been almost exclusively paleontological.
In this field all honour is due to the masterly labours of James Hall, and the in-
vestigations of M. De Verneuil, and of the lamented Daniel Sharpe. Other skilful
naturalists have contributed much to the definition of the American species ; Conrad
of Philadelphia, and William Salter of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, have
supplied many valuable determinations. Still there has been no systematic attempt
to explore the physical phenomena, which are in beautiful coordination with these pa-
leontological discoveries. While the fossils have been appealed to, as they should in
every attempt at classification, the strata themselves have scarcely been interrogated.

In the present essay, the author’s leading aim is to indicate the principal natural
planes which intersect the North American paleozoic strata and insulate them more
or less into formations, and to point out the relative magnitudes of the breaks of con-
tinuity, both as respects their geographical areas, and their greater or less distinctness
in the vertical scale. But first it will be expedient to sketch the general limits of the
paleozoic area of North America and of its chief subordinate basins.

Paleozoic Basins of North America.

We may estimate the surface originally covered by paleozoic sediments on this
continent at about five-sixths of all the land between the North Atlantic, Pacific, and
Arctic Oceans. These deposits are embraced in two great natural basins, bounded by
zones of the older crystalline rocks. By far the largest is a great interior basin,
spreading from the Appalachian chain to the Pacific mountains, and from the parallel
of 32° or 33° to the Arctic Sea and the Laurentian water-shed. This continental
palzozoic area includes three wide fields of these rocks, partially separated superficially
by overlapping newer strata, but probably united underneath. These may be desig-
nated severally as the Appalachian, the Saskatchewan, and the Chippewayan basins.
The first extends westward from the Appalachian mountains to the eastern edge of
the sandy plains of Texas, Kansas, and Nebraska, and northward from the low cre-
taceous and tertiary plane fringing the Gulf of Mexico to the crystalline zone north
of the St. Lawrence and its lakes. The Saskatchewan basin, strictly a prolongation
of the Appalachian area, is a long paleozoic belt stretching north-westward from the

j

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. Fe

sources of the Red River of Winnipeg to the Arctic Sea, between the crystalline
lacustrine zone on its east, and the cretaceous and tertiary prairies on its west.

The Chippewayan basin, more vaguely known, may be defined, provisionally, as
coextensive with the Rocky Mountains and Humboldt Mouutains of the Utah
Desert, and as including wide tracts surrounding the sources of the Rio-Colorada
of California, palzozoic rocks being developed on a stupendous scale between the
Rocky Mountains and the Salt Deserts of Utah and the Columbia River. It would

_ seem from palzeontologic evidence, that each chief division of palzozoic time, except

the Permian, is represented within each of these vast tracts or basins; and there appear
good reasons for inferring that many of the Appalachian formations, modified in com»
position and fossils, extend into both the other areas.

The Hudson Bay Paleozoic Basin, lying north of the crystalline plateau, skirting
the valley of the St. Lawrence and its lakes, is of much more limited extent than
the main continental area. The zone of metamorphic rocks separating the two, after
running from Labrador to the head of Lake Superior, deflects to the north-west and
ranges in that direction 1500 miles to the Arctic Sea. Hitherto no strata of Cambrian
or Lower Silurian age have been detected within the basin thus enclosed.

Appalachian Formations. —The paleozoic strata of the Appalachian basin consti-
tute fifteen series or natural groups, individualized by distinctive organic species and
by their mineral composition. Some of these blend together both in their fossils and
their materials more than others, and it becomes important to ascertain their relative
degrees of affinity. Objecting to a geographical nomenclature as inapplicable to
formations so very widely distributed, and on the same ground of their inconstancy, to
the plan of naming them from prevailing local fossil or mineral features, titles have been
applied to them based on the consideration of their relative age, using a series of terms
significant of the different natural periods of the day as metaphorically expressing the
relative ages of the formations. These Appalachian rocks of North America are
therefore here named Primal, Auroral, Matinal, Levant, Surgent, Scalent, Premeri-
dian, Meridian, Pomeridian, Cadent, Vergent, Ponent, Vespertine, Umbral and Seral;
the deposits, that is to say, of the dawn, daybreak, morning, sunrise, mounting
day, climbing-day, forenoon, noon, afternoon, declining day, sinking day, sunset,
evening, dusk and nightfall.

[The communication, of which this is an abstract, contains in this place a tabular
view of these fifteen series of formations, with their synonyms and nearest equivalents

_ among the European strata; also their lithological characters, their more character-

istic organic remains, and the nature and relative magnitude of the physical and
ontological breaks which separate them ; but it is too voluminous to be inserted
here. |

This vast succession of strata admits of a somewhat natural classification into four
assemblages, partially representing the Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian, and Carboni-
ferous series of European geologists, but the relative values of these groups are by no
means the same as the European, and it is doubtful if some of them can be strictly coor-
dinated. One main object of this essay is to indicate the proportionate value of the
differential elements which divide the fifteen members of the system, and bring these
into relationship with the palzontological breaks upon the recognition of which the
palzozoic rocks of Europe have received their present classification. Attention will
be first directed to the stratigraphical phenomena, and then to the paleontological ;
but some preliminary suggestions will be offered respecting the inferences to be de-
duced from the conditions of superposition of strata.

It must be conceded that every over-resting sheet or current of water has left some
permanent monument of its presence, and therefore wherever between two strata or
ancient surfaces known to have been produced in periods separated by some interval
of time nothing sedimentary intervenes, we must assume the vacuous space to have
been dry land. It is not supposable that water, endowed as it is with a power of
suspending and transporting sedimentary matter into the very middle of the ocean,
and there and everywhere teeming with animal and vegetable organisms, could have
rested over any surface without leaving an indelible record behind it. Until it can
be proved that some one formation has been thoroughly swept away from a wide

area where it was deposited, we are not entitled by rules of sound reasoning to infer
that such have existed.

1856. 12

178 REPORT—1856.

Looking at the conditions under which strata repose upon each other, we may view
their relations of superposition under the four following categories.

Ist. Successive deposits may lie together in parallel arrangement, and so graduate
into each other as to denote no pausein time or interruption in the formative process ;
and even a formation of one long period may thus graduate into another by their
sediments and their fossils. Such a close following of strata, the author entitles a
conformable continuous sequence.

2nd. One set of strata may rest immediately on another with perfect parallelism,
and yet their plane of contact represent a long interval of time and a total change of
sedimentary conditions and of the physical geography ; for certain beds or even whole
formations interposed between them in other districts, may be altogether absent.
This relationship is entitled a conformable interrupted sequence.

It proves not merely a lift of the watery floor into dry land, and its subsequent
re-immersion, but a movement unaccompanied by any tilting or undulation of the
lower deposit.

3rd. An upper group of beds may repose on a lower with an angle between them
such as to imply an uptilting from horizontality in the inferior, before the superior
was deposited, while a close sequence of type in their organic remains shows them to
be the products of immediately consecutive periods, or that no time elapsed for the
production elsewhere of a middle formation. This relationship is entitled an wncon-
formable continuous sequence.

4th. Two sets of strata resting in contact, may present not only an absence of
parallellism, but an omission of one or more intermediate formations elsewhere
existing. This state of things implies not only an inclining of the inferior beds, but a
lifting of them into dry land, with a lapse of time before their immersion for the recep-
tion of the overlying deposits. Such a condition, familiar as the commonest species of
unconformity, may fitly be entitled an wrconformable interrupted sequence.

The fifteen principal divisions of the Appalachian palzozoic strata contain several
important planes of discontinuity. These are of very unequal magnitude, both geogra-
phically and stratigraphically. Between them are other lesser horizons, but only the
greater ones are discussed in this paper. The two most conspicuous of all, are that
at the end of the Matinal or Hudson River period, and that at the beginning of the
Vespertine or first Carboniferous age. Another, though materially less extensive
one, divides the Premeridian or Lower Helderberg period from the Meridian or
Oriskany sandstone age.

Evidences of an extensive Paroxysmal Revolution in the Physical Geography and
Organic Inhabitants of the Appalachian Sea at the end of the Matinal Period.

The break or plane of discontinuity terminating the Matinal series or Hudson
River group, exceeds all the others in the Appalachian basin for the abruptness of
the transition which it implies in the organic remains, and in the magnitude of the
crust-movement. From the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Hudson River, nearly 800
miles, this break is marked by an unconformable interrupted sequence ; the Matinal
rocks highly inclined and folded, generally supporting less inclined strata of the Levant
or some other middle paleozoic formation. The Scalent or Niagara group, next to ”
the highest of the four true Silurian equivalents, reposes discordantly upon the Upper
Cambrian or Matinal, not only in the Peninsula of Gaspé, but in the Eastern Town-
ships andin Vermont. The evidence of a great crust-movement at this epoch of the
close of the Matinal slates, was shown by the author as long ago as 1838, in an
annual report on the geological survey of Pennsylvania, where he pointed out the
unconformity in the vicinity of the Hudson River, and drew the inference of an up-
heaval of the bed of the ancient ocean. It would appear that throughout this north-
eastern division of the Appalachian chain, the movement at the epoch separating the
Cambrian and Silurian or older and newer Silurian periods, was so vehement, as to
plicate and partially metamorphose the older strata. The condition of unconformity,
with and without interruption of sequence in the strata, extends to the west side of
the River Hudson, and there is good geological evidence that the displacement of level
producing it reached westward as far as Oneida Lake. Undulated Matinal rocks
support horizontal Niagara or Scalent strata, with a lapse of two intermediate for-
mations for some distance from the Hudson, westward along the base of the Helderberg

pilin

ee ee a oo

IR Se ees

¢
4
i

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 179

range. Ascending the Mohawk valley, the undulation in the Cambrian rocks disap-
pears, and both series become approximately horizontal and parailel, but still with
omission of formations.

South-westward from the Hudson, following the north-west margin of the great
Appalachian valley, one may trace this plane of discontinuity as far as Eastern
Tennessee, or even into Alabama; for throughout this whole distance of 800 or 900
miles, though there is no lapse of a formation at the plane of contact, or any physical
unconformity, there is universally so abrupt and crisp an horizon dividing the
strata, in respect to composition, conditions of bedding, and organic remains, and
such plain evidence that the upper rock was formed from the wreck of the lower
ones, that the conviction is inevitable, that a crust-movement revolutionizing the
physical geography extended throughout this whole space. The Levant rocks, though
next in succession to the Matinal, and reposing conformably upon them, give evidence
of such a movement in every feature of their composition. The lower bed is usually
a conglomerate composed of fragments of all the underlying formations of the earlier
palzozoic or Cambrian series. Some of its pebbles belong to the Primal sandstone ;
some are of chert from the Auroral limestone, and much of the grey sandy matter
has evidently come from the Matinal slate group.

Turning attention to the phenomena connected with this horizon in other parts of
the broad Appalachian basin west of the mountains, it can be shown, that, over half
the width of the continent, there exists, notwithstanding an almost absolute horizon-
tality and parallelism of the two sets of strata, or the lower and middle palozoic
series, a true discontinuity in the sequence of the formations. In New York there
is a conformable interrupted sequence from the Hudson to Oneida county; from
Oneida to Lake Ontario the Levant conglomerate, or Lowest Silurian stratum, enters
the gap and makes the sequence complete.

But this state of things nowhere again prevails from Lake Ontario westward to
Illinois and the Missouri River, nor southward from the Laurentian Lakes to the
southern outcrops of the two systems on the borders of Alabama, Arkansas, and
Texas.

The Medina sandstone, a higher Levant stratum, partially fills the break across
New York, and across Canada to the Manitoulin islands of Lake Huron, where,
after constantly thinning, it dies out. Thence to the western boundary of Iowa the
hiatus remains unsupplied by any equivalent throughout this whole distance. Tracing
the Surgent or Clinton group, the second Silurian formation ascending along the
same plane of discontinuity, it is found, after entering the brake or gap near Schoharie,
to stretch westward to the Niagara River, and north-westward to the Manitoulins,
and possibly thence to Green Bay. Beyond the Niagara River it is an extremely
thin bed of limestone and calcareousshale. Thus from the peninsula of Michigan to
the cretaceous plains of the Missouri, two entire formations are omitted above the
top of the lower palzozoic or Cambrian formations. The Scalent or Niagara series,

the third Silurian group, ranges through a wider zone. Thin and obscure in the

eastern part of New York, and almost gone in the Appalachian chain from the
Hudson southward, it is an important stratum from western New York westward
to its disappearance beneath its cretaceous Covering in the plains of Nebraska. It
was the first middle palzozoic or Silurian deposit, formed upon the floor of the old
Appalachian sea, upon its re-immersion after its upheaval at the close of the Matinal
period.

Reviewing these statements, we arrive at this interesting general picture :—lIst, a
violent and universal agitation of the whole bed of the Appalachian palzozoic ocean
at the close of the Matinal period, resulting in its upheaval and drainage, from the
region of the Gulf of St. Lawrence to that of the centre of the continent, and ina
general shoaling of every other portion. 2nd, a more local paroxysmal movement
of depression accompanied by the formation of the Levant or Oneida conglomerate,
followed by a gradual and successive subsidence, letting in the ocean over a wider
space during the Levant and Surgent periods, until in the Scaient or Niagara period
the whole area was reclaimed again by the ocean. In the first stage of the subsidence,
the sea filled only a long, narrow trough, parallel with the present Appalachians; in
the next or Median age, it had spread along its northern coast westward as far as
Lake Huron, but was evidently very shallow ; and in the following or Surgent period,

12*

180 REPORT—1856.

steadily deepening and supporting more living inhabitants, it extended its bed as far
as the western side of Lake Michigan; but not till the Scalent or Niagara age did
this second-time created palzeozoic ocean recover all its old domain.

Break between the Middle and Lower Paleozoic Formations in the Anticlinal Zones of
Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee.

The lower palozoics rise to the day upon this wide flat wave in two districts ;
one enclosing Cincinnati, the other occupying a central position in the plain of
Middle Tennessee. Upon the Matinal strata, which are there very calcareous,
there rests not a vestige of the Levant or Medina formation, and scarcely a trace of
the Clinton or Surgent. The first Silurian deposit lapping upon the uppermost Cam-
brian, is the Scalent or Niagara limestone. Still more striking is the hiatus, where
the contact of the lower with the middle palzozoic formations is exposed round
the margin of the Tennessee anticlinal, for there we find on its eastern side, neither
Levant, Surgent, Scalent, nor Premeridian rocks, that is to say, no proper Silurian
formation whatsoever, and on its western only a thin layer of the Scalent or Niagara.

Break in Eastern Missouri.—From Lake Superior, by the valley of the Upper Missis-
sippi, and by the Ozark and Washita Hills, to the igneous range of the Rio-Colorado
of Texas, there is a chain of broad anticlinals, exposing ancient plutonic and gneissic
rocks, but chiefly the older palzozoics near their axes. Around every one of these,
either the middle, that is Silurian and Devonian, or upper, namely the Carboniferous
deposits, rest in discordant superposition with or without parallelism upon the Primal,
Auroral, or Matinal members of the older palzozoic division. This condition prevails
in southern Wisconsin, but to a more marked degree around the anticlinal area
traversed by the Missouri River eastward of the Osage*.

On the western and northern borders of the Matinal area, some one of the Carbo-
niferous formations very generally reposes unconformably upon the strata of the
older palzozoic or Cambrian age, all the middle formations, Silurian and Devonian,
being absent. Here then we have the clearest demonstration, that the anticlinal zone
of the Lower Missouri remained in the condition of dry land from the period of the
general movement of the bed of the Appalachian Sea at the close of theMatinal period
throughout all the long ages of the middle palzozoic formations. This district gives
evidence of asimilar, but less extensive paroxysmal movement, resulting in discordant
stratification at the beginning of the Carboniferous period, but the discussion of this
and other subsequent displacements of the crust can only be alluded to in this abstract.
The physical break visible throughout this western chain of anticlinals implies a
wider interval of time, or longer cessation of formative actions, than is discernible
anywhere further east within the Appalachian area.

Reasoning from the data afforded by recent geological researches, especially those
of Owen, Norwood and Swallow, the author infers that the Silurian waters, even as
late as the Scalent or Niagara period, when they had attained their widest expansion,
were by no means co-extensive with the wide bounds of that earlier Appalachian
ocean which covered the Matinal and other primordial paleozoic sediments. In the
middle latitudes of the United States, this Silurian sea had crept no further eastward
than a line joining the Tennessee anticlinal and the Helderberg Hills of New York,
prolonged thence into New England, Lower Canada, and New Brunswick. It occu-
pied the area of the present Laurentian Lakes, but did not reach the limit of the
ancient Matinal sea even in that direction, and towards the west and south-west it
did not spread to the Lower Missouri. It was merely a wide Mediterranean, covering
the area which is now the northern-middle and north-western Atlantic States. [Want
of space compels the omission of that part of the memoir which relates to the Sas-
katchewan palzozoic basin, and to the Chippewayan region, or that west of the
Rocky Mountains. ]

Paleozoic Basin of Hudson Bay.—The north-eastern palzozoic basin of North
America is encircled on three sides by a low, broad zone of gneissic and azoic strata,
between 200 and 300 miles broad, and of a curved length of not less than 3000 miles,
from Labrador to the Arctic Sea, This belt is not, in the proper sense, an axis of
crust elevation, but more truly, the still uncovered remnant of the broad floor of
metamorphic strata upon which the palzozoic deposits of the two great basins which

* See Owen’s Geological Survey and Map, of Wisconsin, &c.

Ps

eee eee

_— 2s ~~”,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 181

fringe it were accumulated. It seems not to have been sensibly upheaved since the
date of their deposition. ;

Of the age of the palzozoic basin of Hudson Bay, recent research has furnished
some very suggestive information. According to the statements of the geologists of the
Canadian government, and others, it has hitherto disclosed not a single fossil indi-
cative of the existence of either the Primal, Auroral, or Matinal formations of the
older paleozoic series, but it abounds in deposits of middle paleozoic or Silurian
age. Mr. Isbister, in anadmirable summary of the results of research in this region,
considers this important general fact to be well-established for all the widely scattered
localities hitherto visited. It receives the strongest confirmation from the determi-
nations of Mr. Salter, who has devoted a careful scrutiny to the extensive collection
of fossils brought to England by the recent Arctic expeditions, According to Isbister,
middle paleozoic or Silurian rocks extend uninterruptedly from Lake Temiscaming,
a little above 47° latitude, to the shores of Wellington Channel beyond 77°, or through
more than 30°. From all the geological evidence collected, it would appear that a
large portion, if not the whole of this wide palezozoic area remained uncovered by
the sea throughout the three earlier or Cambrian periods, and was not submersed
until that stupendous disturbance of the crust took place which displaced so large a
tract of the bed of the Appalachian ocean. This north-eastern area was therefore
the nucleus of the continent, or, at least, one island centre, from the infancy of its
growth down to the end of the Matinal ages. The stupendous movement which
then depressed its central districts, converting it into a Silurian basin, also lifted off
a large part of the waters to the south of the neutral axis of motion marked by the
dividing zone of metamorphic strata. No sharp corrugations of the crust attended
this enormous displacement of the levels, analogous to the crust-undulations of the
same epoch between Gaspé and the Hudson. Still the subsidence of the Hudson
Bay region must have been violent or paroxysmal, if we are to judge from the con-
glomerates which strew its immediate floor, their lowest bed, according to Sir William
Logan, being composed of great boulders and blocks of sandstone, some of them 9 feet
in diameter, so energetic was the disturbance which attended the letting on of the
waters. It is not certain that this subsidence occurred at the beginning of the
Levant or first Silurian period, for Mr. Salter has shown* that all the strata of the
southern border of the Hudson Bay area yet examined, are of the age of the Scalent
or Niagara limestone. It is probable that after the first tremendous and nearly
universal disturbance of the levels at the close of the Matinal period, there occurred
an interval of comparative repose, with a slow deposition of the Levant and Surgent
formations in the central and southern tracts of the Appalachian Sea, and also in the
central parts of the Hudson Bay basin; and that succeeding this there was a broad,
nearly equalized subsidence of the whole northern basin, and the northern half of the
southern one in the Scalent or Niagara period.

Reviewing all the facts, it would seem that the wide break in the sequence of the
American palzozoic strata above the Matinal, or latest Cambrian formation, is as
well indicated north of the Laurentian metamorphic zone as south of it, though not
by a physical unconformity in the usual narrow sense, but by a prodigious hiatus in
the series of deposits.

[The paper next contains ‘‘ Evidences of a physical break or interruption in the
depositions between the Premeridian or latest Silurian, and Pomeridian or Devonian
formations,’’ and also ‘‘ Evidences of a similar physical break between the Pomeri-
dian and Vespertine, or earliest Carboniferous formations.’”’ These instances of dis-
cordant sequence are shown to be of less magnitude than that already discussed
between the Matinal and succeeding deposits; and as the physical breaks are, so are
the paleontologic ; the transition in the organic remains being far more complete
and abrupt between the lower and middle paleozoics, than between the middle and
upper or anywhere within the middle between its Silurian and Devonian equivalents. ]

Paleontological Break, or Amount of Change in the Organic Remains between the
Older and Middle Paleozoic Struta of the Appalachian Basin.

Great as the physical discordance is between the lower and middle palzozoic
formations, the palzontological break or the transition in the fossils is even more re-

* Proceedings of British Association, 1851.

25? Ponent. Old Red Sandstone.
100? Vergent. 200
Lower Devonian.
130? Cadent.
U0 bcs coanweene Post- Meridian.
TQ. ca dohecinnes Meridian.
BID i.» ailsapinln Pre- Meridian.
j Ludlow. 80
229 15 Scalent.
L444
107 Surgent.
’ Wenlock. 864
18 Levant. \
278 Matinal. Bala, 420
vse 486
80 Auroral. Festiniog. 16
18 Primal.

182 REPORT—1856.

markable. All the American palzozoic formations appear to contain fewer species
in common than do the European ; and even strictly sequent formations divided by
no crisp physical plane, display decidedly abrupt transitions in their organic types.
No doubt every such sharp paleontological horizon coincides with a horizon of true
physical discontinuity, or sudden change at least, somewhere within the same
basin. Indeed, such paleontological planes may be accepted as evidence of im-
portant revolutions in the level of the ancient oceanic floor. This horizon of the
upper limit of the Matinal rocks is incontestably the sharpest palzeontologically
within the whole palzozoic system of the Appalachian basin, whether we measure
it by the smallness in the proportion of the species which bridge the gulf, or by the

Paleontological relations of the American and European Paleozoic Strata.

Coal.
Coal.
Umbral.
Carb. Limest.
Weeping 2°) | ns o> he? |e a Se

Bangor.

os eek fon ile ee

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 183

alteration in their types of structure. The following summary of the results of the
researches of Professor James Hall, and other skilful paleontologists, will show the
extent of this revolution in palzozoic life. Unluckily, neither Hall nor any other
naturalist, has yet advanced to an exhaustive description and enumeration of the
American species above the Scalent and Niagara series, though it is possible to
glean valuable data from his essay on the Palzozoic Deposits of the United States
and Europe, and from other sources whereby to make the comparison between the
Cambrian-Silurian break and the other later horizons of life discontinuity.

The annexed Table presents in a summary form the palzontological relations of
the American and European palxozoic strata, indicating the numbers of the species
restricted to the several groups, and the numbers which are common to related ones.

It is a striking fact, bearing directly on the present inquiry, that the proportion
of organic forms common to the lower and middle paleozoic divisions, scarcely
exceeds zero. According to Professor Hall*, the number of species now examined
from the lower paleozoics of the United States surpasses 400, and those from the
Levant, Surgent, and Scalent series, or all but the uppermost Silurian formation,
are about 344. He also states}, that already more than 200 species have been re-
cognized in the Premeridian or Lower Helderberg limestone, from which 1t would
appear that the Silurian or Upper Silurian of Great Britain have yielded about 550
forms. The two sets together have thus turned out about 950 species, or nearly the
number catalogued by Professor Morris as found in the corresponding formations
in the British Islands. Now it is a most instructive fact, that, out of these nearly
1000 lower and middle palzozoic fossils, only three or four, if as many, span the
great break which divides the two groups of rocks. This complete extinction of
the earlier or Cambrian races, is a circumstance so important in the comparative
paleontology of the two continents, that it deserves to be dwelt on sufficiently to
show the precise extent of the evidence. Professor Hall, speaking of the Medina,
Clinton, and Niagara groups, states, ‘‘ In these investigations, some new facts have
been brought to light, which all the previous examinations have not shown, the
discovery of several species of fossils heretofore known only in the lower rocks. In
the western part of the State of New York, the lower beds of the Clinton group
have furnished very dilapidated specimens of Bellerophon trilobatus with Delthyrus
Lynx, and one or two imperfect specimens of a Leptena undistinguishable from L.
alternata. A few other fragments and imperfect specimens have also been found,
which appear to be forms belonging to Lower Silurian strata. These facts are ex-
tremely important and interesting, and I take the present occasion of recording them,
from the circumstance that all our investigations previously had only strengthened
the opinion that no fossils of the lower rocks had passed the Oneida conglomerate.”

When we compare this remarkable palzontological break, amounting to certainly
99 per cent. of all the discovered organisms from the two sets of strata, with the
synchronous break, separating the Cambrian or older Silurian from the Silurian of
Great Britain, we find a marked difference in the extent of the discontinuity in the
vital stream. Sir Roderick Murchison has shown in an Appendix to his work
‘Siluria,’ in a Table of the vertical range of the older palzozoic fossils, compiled
by Mr. Salter, that not less than 114 species are common to the lower and upper
groups. This number, assuming 880 as the species accessible for comparison, is
nearly 13 per cent. of the two entire faunas compared. It is obvious, therefore,
that the life-break, like the mechanical, was even more complete in the Appalachian
portion of the American palozoic basin, than it was in the British part of the
European. A little more than one half of the 880 species enumerated by Professor
Morris, belong to the Upper Caradoc, Wenlock, and Ludlow formations, while,
according to Mr. Salter’s list, 114 species, that is to say, about 22 per cent., range
from the Llandeilo into these upper rocks. .
~ We reach a still clearer apprehension of the relative magnitudes of the American
and the British paleontological breaks at the Matinal or Caradoc period, when we
regard for a moment the additional evidence afforded by comparing the proportionate
number of genera which pass the boundary in the two countries. According to
Professor Phillips’s condensed enumeration framed from Professor Morris’s Cata-

* Paleontology of New York, vol. ii. p. 319.
+ Foster and Whitney’s ‘Geology of Lake Superior,’

184 REPORT—1856.

logue of British Fossils, there are restricted to the strata below the break 136
genera, and to those above it 149, while there are 74 genera common to the two
sets. In other words, the proportion of common to restricted is nearly 26 per cent.
Turning now to the American older and middle palzozoic faunas, I find, on care-
fully comparing Hall’s catalogues of the fossils of the two corresponding sets of
formations (deficient, unfortunately, in any enumeration of Premeridian or latest
Silurian species), that there are restricted to

the Primal
», Auroral 53 genera,
» Matinal

while there are restricted to

the Levant
», Surgent > 81 genera;
» scalent

and that there are 37 genera common to the two series, the whole number of genera
being 171. Here the proportion of common to restricted is about 25 per cent. The
introduction of the Premeridian fossils, many of which are on the horizon of the
Wenlock beds of Britain, would add materially to the proportion of genera not held
in common, and would reduce the common to probably less than 20 percent. Thus
even on this broadest basis of comparison, there would seem to have been a much
more complete extinction and replacement of organic types in North America, than
occurred in Europe, or at least, in Britain.

Parallelism of the North American and European Paleozoic Rocks.

Having examined the reciprocal relations of the Appalachian paleozoic strata, and
also those of the European palzozoics among themselves, as expressed by the nume-
rical proportions of their fossils, and also by the generic forms of their organic re-
mains, and learned where the stream of life was most continuous, and where most
interrupted, it remains to coordinate the deposits of the two basins with each
other. Thus may we hope to learn what formations are synchronous, and what are
without equivalents. In attempting this correlation, it should be remambered that
Nature presents no true or literal equivalency of strata, nor anything closer than a
mere approximate relationship where the deposits compared belong to independent
basins, or even to the remote sides of the same great receptacle. The most we can
hope to establish, is a general agreement in time with possibly a stricter synchronism
of the few chief paroxysmal movements which agitated the bed of the ancient ocean,
Partially representative formations are discoverable, but equivalent ones are not to
be looked for upon any philosophical view, since the distribution of organic beings
is essentially partial or geographical. The life horizons of the globe are no more
universal than are its horizons of sedimentation. With these reservations, we turn
to the degrees of affinity, linking the American and European palzozoic groups of
fossils.

Relations of the Primal Series (Potsdam sandstone).—The Appalachian Primal strata
characterized by a peculiar group of Trilobites, absent from the higher formations
and by those earliest brachiopodous genera, Obolus, Lingula and Orbicula, are
obviously nearly on the horizon of Barrande’s Primordial zone, and of the lowest
rocks of Russia and Scandinavia. Notwithstanding a general agreement of type,
there is not a species common to the two continents.

Auroral Series (Calciferous, Chazy and Black River Groups).—The Appalachian
Auroral strata, containing in New York alone more than 83 recognized forms, possess
but a single species, the Lituites convolvens, in common with the strata which repre-
sent them in Europe. Hall thinks that the Auroral limestones are not represented
by any British rocks, nor clearly by any European. Possibly they were approximately
contemporaneous with the Swedish Orthoceratite limestone.

Matinal Series (Trenton and Hudson River Groups).—This group of formations,
Matinal limestone (Trenton), Matinal black slate (Utica), and Matinal shale (Hudson
River), would seem, from the testimony of the fossils, to be represented in Great
Britain by the Llandeilo flags and Caradoc sandstone, or more generally by Sedg-
wick’s Bala or Upper Cambrian group. It finds also a near equivalent in the Ortho-

———

Ee

—

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 185°

ceratite limestone of Sweden and Russia, and in the Graptolite shales. Mr. Hall,
the best American authority, states that the Caradoc sandstone is zoologically an
equivalent of the Hudson River group. While the Matinal series in New York
has afforded more than 250 forms, and the Bala group 122, there are, according to
the late Mr. Sharpe’s comparison, only 12 in common. M. de Verneuil, contrasting
the American and North Europe Matinal fossils, finds only 14incommon. Still the
two faunas, though so poor in cosmopolite forms, have so many identical genera
that there can be no hesitation in admitting them to be the products of the same age.
Of the 20 species common to the American Matinal limestones and Matinal shales,
10, according to Mr. Sharpe, are also European species. This is one among many
facts showing that the most widely distributed races were those which best withstood
the revolutions between one formation and another. Adding together the British and
the North European species, there are only 24 or 62 per cent. found also in the Ame-
rican basin.
__ Levant Series (Medina Group).—Passing the important horizon which divides the
Matinal from the Levant strata, we find that the latter, produced in an age of much
crust disturbance, contain a very limited fauna and flora, and seem not to be repre-
sented in Kurope, but to have been formed in America just prior to the Wenlock
period of Great Britain.

Surgent and Scalent Series (or Clinton and Niagara).—While the Surgent series
contains more than 100 well-defined species, 12 of them are ascertained to be Euro-
pean, and are eminently distinctive of the British Wenlock strata. But this Wen-
lock formation is equally a representative of the Scalent or Niagara of the United
States. The two together contain more than 326 species, the Surgent about 104 ;
the Scalent some 222. Only 15, that is to say about 5 per cent., are common to both;
but according to Hall, the Wenlock and its European continental equivalent has, at
least, 35 Niagara species. Thus we perceive that the Surgent and Scalent groups
are severally in closer affinity with the Wenlock of Europe than with each other. This
instructive fact suggests, that, during the quiet deposition of the Wenlock beds, an
important crust-movement may have occurred within the Appalachian basin, alter-
ing the conditions suitable to its marine inhabitants. The dissimilar areas which the
Surgent and Scalent deposits occupy indicate such a shifting of the Appalachian sea-
bed. These facts indicate that we cannot proceed securely in the classification of
formations until.we synchronize them widely.

Premeridian Series (Lower Helderberg).—In the region of New York, where this
formation has been most closely examined, it has furnished Mr. Hall more than 200
species, only about 9 per cent. of which are also European, being fossils of the Wen-
lock and Dudley strata; but Mr. Hall thinks that this number of identical forms will
be increased on a more critical comparison. Only two or three of the species, namely
the Calymene Blumenbachii, Atrypa reticularis, &c., occur in any higher or lower
stratum. Though thus insulated by its species, it is linked to the adjoining forma-
tions by possessing with them many common genera. While palzontologically it
has so little in common with the strata above and beneath it, it curiously enough
finds more than a tenth part of its organic remains in distant European formations,
in the Wenlock especially. This anomaly disappears, however, when we reflect on
the superior magnitude of the crust-movements or changes of physical geography
which seem to have taken place in the Appalachian sea. Compared with those in
the Silurian basin, Mr. Hall, agreeing with Mr. Sharpe, regards the lower Helderberg
strata as representing the Wenlock formation of England, while M. De Verneuil
considers them equivalent to the Ludlow. Hall admits the propriety of recognizing
the Niagara on the one side, and the Lower Helderberg on the other, as of Wenlock
age.

Saalerdiian Series (Oriskany).—This formation is still more completely insulated
from the formations above and beneath it, than any of the preceding. Its fossils,
not numerous, are exclusively its own, though they possess features linking them
somewhat with those of the next higher formations. Most American geologists,
adopting the view of their synchronism, first proposed by M. De Verneuil, regard
them as the base of the American Devonian deposits. We shall see, however, that,
though nearly on this horizon, no precise coordination of any of the middle palzo-
zoic strata of the two basins is practicable.

186 REPORT—1856.

Pomeridian, Cadent, and Vergent Series (Upper Helderberg, Hamilton, and Che-
mung Groups).—These three natural, physical groups of strata, though characterized
by many peculiar fossils, are much less completely insulated from each other by
their species, than are the formations below them. It is remarkable that they are
related almost as intimately to the Silurian-Ludlow formation of England, and to
its continental equivalents, as to the European Devonian strata. Only two out of
all the Pomeridian species seem to be European; but the general facies of the
fauna is as much Silurian as Devonian. The number of species common to the
Pomeridian and the Cadent rocks, is even less than the number which in England
pass upward from the Ludlow into the Devonian. Guided by numerical proportion
only, we might be justified in drawing the Silurian-Devonian line, — if the attempt
at recognition of the Silurian and Devonian, as independent systems, is legitimate
at all for the Appalachian basin, — at the boundary of the Pomeridian and the
Cadent. Mr. Hall, who was the first to promulgate explicitly this view of the
joint Silurian and Devonian affinities of the American Pomeridian and later strata,
reminds us, that in England there is a fusion amounting to 25 percent. of Silurian-
Ludlow fossils with Devonian in the rocks of Devonshire, or 10 per cent. of all the
Devonian species described by Professor Phillips. He justly says, “there is no
such mingling of species in the American formations.’”? The older members of the
American Association of geologists will recollect, that, from an early day, the author,
in fellowship with his brother W. B. Rogers, contended, that we should not look for
a true equivalence between the formations of the American and European basins,
nor hope to discover either the same physical or the same paleontological breaks
on both sides of the Atlantic; and that therefore we were forbidden by the rules of
a sound philosophy to apply a European nomenclature to the American formations.

Out of more than 220 or 230 species from the Cadent and Vergent (Hamilton
and Chemung) strata, about 20 are recognizable as European, Silurian and Devo-
nian forms, though Mr. Hall reduces the list to 12. He thinks that the organic
remains of the Cadent series are more closely related to those of the Ludlow forma-
tion of England, than to the European Devonian. M. De Verneuil recognizes 39
species of the Pomeridian, Cadent, and Vergent series, as belonging to the Silurian
and Devonian rocks of Continental Europe. Mr. Hall is unable to appreciate the
evidence which would place all these deposits in parallelism with the Devonian.

From all the foregoing facts and statements, we arrive at this general inference,
that upon both palzontological and physical evidence, there is no well-marked Silu-
rian-Devonian »reak discernible in the North American basin, no proof of an epoch
of general interruption in the life-stream, with wide crust-disturbance in the middle
palzozoic ages, such as that which in earlier times, in the morning of the paleozoic
day, at the Cambro-Silurian transition, revolutionized alike the entire extent of the
American and European areas both in their inhabitants and in their physical geo-

graphy.

INDEX I.

TO

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

OBJECTS and rules of the Association,
xvii.

Places and times of meeting, with names
of officers from commencement, xx.

Treasurer’s account, xxiii.

Members of Council from commence-
ment, xxiv.

Officers and Council, xxvi.

Officers of Sectional Committees, xxvii.

Corresponding members, xxviii.

Report of Council to General Committee
at Cheltenham, xxviii.

Report of Kew Committee, xxx.

Accounts of the Kew Committee, xxxvii.

Report of the Parliamentary Committee,
XXXviil.

Recommendations adopted by General
Committee at Cheltenham ;—involving
grants of money, xxxix; not involving
grants of money, ib.; involving appli-
cations to Government or public insti-
tutions, xli; applications for reports
and researches, ib.; communications
to be printed entire among the Reports,
xlii.

Synopsis of grants of money appropriated
to scientific objects, xlii.

General statement of sums paid on ac-
count of grants for scientific purposes,
xiii.

Extracts from resolutions of the General
Committee, xlvi.

Arrangement of general meetings, xlvii.

Address by Charles Daubeny, M.D.,

_ F.R.S., xlviii.

America, North, on the present state of

our knowledge with regard to the mol-
lusca of the west coast of, 159.

Animals, or typical forms of, for museums,
461.

Ashworth (E.) on the experiments con-
ducted at Stormontfield, near Perth,
for the artificial propagation of salmon,
451.

Atherton (Charles) on mercantile steam
transport economy, 423; remarks by
James R. Napier on, 435; letter by,
on Mr. Napier’s paper, 437; on the
measurement of ships for tonnage, 458.

Atlantic and neighbouring seas, on the
marine testaceous mollusca of the
north-east, 101.

Balfour (Prof.), dredging report~—Frith
of Clyde, 1856, 47.

Boiler plate, on the influence of tempera-
ture on the tensile strength of, 407.
Booth (Rev. James) on the trigonometry
of the parabola, and the geometrical

origin of logarithms, 68.

Boult (Joseph), Report on the changes
in the sea channels of the Mersey, as
recorded by the surveys taken and pub=
lished within the last fifty years, 26.

Bowerbank (J. S,) on the vital powers of
the Spongiade, 438.

British shores, on the oyster-beds and
oysters of the, 368.

lamas photochemical researches,

2.

Carpenter (Philip P.) on the present state
of our knowledge with regard to the

188

mollusca of the west coast of North
America, 159.

Cayley (A.) on the progress of theoretical
dynamics,—provisional report pre-
sented, 462; on the formation of a ca-
talogue of philosophical memoirs, 464.

Chapman (Mr.) on the navigation and
conservancy of the river Mersey, 9.

Cleat in coal, on the, 395.

Cleavage of rocks distinct from stratifi-
cation, 370; continuous through large
ranges of country, 372; in continuous
parallel planes across bent and con-
torted strata, 373; symmetrically re-
lated to axes of movement of the strata,
374; relation of cleavage planes to the
inclination of the strata, 375; varies
in the strata of unlike quality, 383 ;
accompanied by change of dimensions
in rocks, 386; secondary cleavage of
slate, 393; relation of, to joints, 7b. ;
occurrence of structures analogous to,
near greenstone dykes, 394.

Clyde, Frith of, dredging report, 1856,47.

Coal, on the cleat in, 395.

Crustacea dredged from the Frith of
Clyde, test of, 50.

Denham (Captain) on the navigation and
conservancy of the river Mersey, 11,
21.

Dredging report—Frith of Clyde, 1846,

47.

Dynamics, on the progress of theoretical,
—provisional report presented, 462.

Echinoidea endocyclica, 398 ; exocyclica.
399; table of the, showing the sections
and families of the, ib.

Echinodermata, list of, dredged from the
Frith of Clyde, 51; on the stratigra-
phical distribution of the oolitic, 396,
400,

Eyton (T.C.), dredging report—Frith of
Clyde, 1856, 47; abstract of first re-
port on the oyster-beds and oysters of
the British shores, 368.

Fairbairn (William) on the tensile
strength of wrought iron at various
temperatures, 405,

Fleming (Dr.) on the experiments con-
ducted at Stormontfield, near Perth,
for the artificial propagation of sal-
mon, 451.

Frith of Clyde, dredging report, 1856,
47.

Giles (Mr,) on the navigation and con-
servancy of the river Mersey, 10.

INDEX I.

Gilmore (Allan) on the measurement of ~
ships for tonnage, 458.

Grant (R.) on the formation of a catalogue
of philosophical memoirs, 464.

Greville (Dr.), dredging report—Frith of
Clyde, 1854, 47.

Henderson(Andrew), report on the effects
produced on the channels of the Mer-
sey during the last fifty years, 44; on
the measurement of ships for tonnage,
458.

Henslow (Professor) on typical forms of
minerals, plants, and animals for mu-
seums, 461,

Induction, photochemical, 65.

Iron, on the tensile strength of wrought,
at various temperatures, 405; on the
tensile strength of rivet, 415.

Jardine (Sir W., Bart.) on the experiments
conducted at Stormontfield, near Perth,
for the artificial propagation of salmon,
451.

Light, reduction of the chemical action
of, to an absolute measaure, 67.

Liverpool, report of the Mersey Com-
mittee in, in September 1854, 1; rights
of the mayor, aldermen and burgesses
of, to the lordship of, 23.

Logarithms, on the geometrical origin of,
68.

Lord (Lieut. William) on the navigation
and conservancy of the river Mersey, 2,
19, 24, 26,

Lowe (E. J.), luminous méteors observed
by, in 1855-56, 56.

MacAndrew (Robert), report on the ma-
rine testaceous mollusca of the north-
east Atlantic and neighbouring seas,
and the physical conditions affecting
their development, 101.

Mallet (R.) on observations with the
seismometer—provisional report pre-
sented, 462.

Mercantile steam transport economy, on,
423.

Mersey Committee in Liverpool, in Sep-
tember 1854, report of the, 1.

Mersey, on the changes in the sea chan-
nels of the, 26.

Meteors, luminous, report on observa-
tions of, 53; observed by E. J.
Lowe, in 1855-56, 57, 61; seen
near Canterbury,-60; seen by Prof.
C.P.Smyth, ib.; seen by Mrs. Smyth,
ib.

INDEX I.

Miles (Rev. Dr.), dredging report—Frith
of Clyde, 1856, 47.

Minerals, on typical forms of, for mu-
seums, 461.

Mollusca dredged from the Frith of
Clyde, list of, 49; nudibranchiate, 50 ;
on the marine testaceous, of the north-
east Atlantic and neighbouring seas,
101 ; on the present state of our know-
ledge with regard to the west coast of
North America, 159.

Museums, on typical forms of minerals,
plants, and animals for, 461.

Mylne (Mr.) on the navigation and con-
servancy of the river Mersey, 11, 12.

Napier (James R.), remarks by, on Mr.
Atherton’s paper on mercantile steam
transport economy, 435; letter by
Mr. Atherton on his paper, 437; on
the measurement of ships for tonnage,
458.

Oyster-beds and oysters of the British
shores, on the, 368.

Parabola, on the trigonometry of the, 68.

Peake (James) on the measurement of
ships for tonnage, 458.

Phillips (John), report on cleavage and
foliation in rocks, and on the theoreti-
cal explanations of these phenomena,
part i., 369.

Philosophical memoirs, on the formation
of a catalogue of, 463.

Photochemical researches, 62 ;
tion, 65.

Plants, on typical forms of, for museums,
461.

Powell (Rev. Professor Baden), report
on observations of luminous meteors,
1855-56, 53.

induc-

Rennie (George) on the past and present
state of the Mersey within the last
seventy years, 4.

Rennie (John) on the navigation and
conservancy of the river Mersey, 9.
Rocks, report on cleavage and foliation
in, and on the theoretical explanations

of these phenomena, 369.

Roscoe (Dr. Henry E.), photochemical

researches, 62.

189

Salmon, on the experiments conducted
at Stormontfield, near Perth, for the
artificial propagation of, 451.

Seismometer, on observations with the—
provisional report presented, 462.

Ships, on the measurement of, for ton-
nage, 458.

Spongiadz, on the vital powers of the,
438; inhalation and exhalation, 7b.;
adhesion of species, 446; reparative
powers, 447; disease and death, 449;
nutrition, 24.

Steam transport economy, on mercantile,
423.

Stevenson (Robert) on the navigation and
conservancy of the river Mersey, I1.
Stokes (G. G.) on the formation of a
catalogue of philosophical memoirs,

464.

Stormontfield, near Perth, on the experi-
ments conducted at, for the artificial
propagation of salmon, 451.

Stratification of rocks, cleavage distinct
from, 369.

Thomson (James), interim report on pro-
gress in researches on the measure-
ment of water, by weir-boards, 46.

Tonnage, on the measurement of ships
for, 458.

Walker (Mr.) on the navigation and con-
servancy of the river Mersey, 11.

Water, on progress in researches on the
measurement of, by weir-boards, in-
terim report on, 46.
Weir-boards, on progress in researches
on the measurement of water by, 46.
Whidbey (Mr.) on the navigation and
conservancy of the river Mersey, 8.
Wilkin (Messrs.), report of the, relative
to the navigation and conservancy of
the river Mersey, 7.

Wood (John) on the measurement of
ships for tonnage, 458.

Wright (Dr. Thomas) on the stratigra-
phical distribution of the oolitic echi-
nodermata, 396.

Zoophyta dredged from the Frith of
Clyde, list of, 51.

INDEX II.

TO

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE
SECTIONS.

ABROTHALLUS, on the genus, 88.

Acalephe, on the, with respect to organs
of circulation and respiration, 9].

Acid, on the conversion of tannic into
gallic, 52.

ZEgilops, on the triticoidal forms of, 87.

Africa, Central, on recent discovery in,
and reasons for continued and renewed
research, 105.

Africa, Southern, Dr. Livingston’s return
journey across, 113.

Ajuh, a kind of whale, description of the,
found by Dr. Vogel in the River Benué,
98.

Albanians, on the torenic system of the,
108; distribution of the, politically,
145.

Albuminized collodion, on, 58.

Alder (Joshua), notice of some new
genera and species of British Zoophytes,
90.

America, on the connexion between
slavery in the United States of, and the
cotton manufacture in the United King-
dom, 137; on the correlation of the
palzozoic strata of Britain and North,
175 ; palzeozoic basins of North 176.

American phosphate of lime, on the com-
position of, 58.

Ammonites, on the occurrence of upper
lias, in the (so-called) basement beds
of the inferior oolite, 80.

Anderson (Dr. Thomas) on the composi-
tion of paraffine from different sources,
49.

Anemometer, on a model ofa self-register-
ing, 38.

Aneroid métallique, observations with the,
during a tour through Palestine and
along the shores of the Dead Sea, 41.

Anglo-Saxons, on the forms of the crania
of the, 108.

Animalcules, infusorial, on the develop-
ment of, 98.

Animals, suggestions for ascertaining the
causes of death in, 97.

Antimony, on the detection of, for medico-
legal purposes, 57.

Arctic current around Greenland, on the,
112.

Astronomy, 23.

Atmosphere, on an instrument for observ-
ing vertical currents in the, 40.

Atrato, explorations through the valley
of the, to the Pacific in search of a
route for a ship-canal, 162.

Aust Cliff, on a supposed fossil Fucus
found at, 83.

Austin (Robert), report of an expedition
to explore the interior of Western Au-
stralia, 105.

Australia, report of an expedition to ex-
plore the interior of Western, 105; on
recent discoveries in, 110.

Australian colonies, on the former and
present plans of disposing of the waste
lands in the, 146.

Axe, description of an ancient, recently
discovered in the Forest of Dean, 71.

Ayton (Lieut.) on gold in India, 60.

Babinet (M.) on the homolographical
maps of, 112.

Babington (C. C.) on a supposed fossil
Fucus found at Aust Cliff, Gloucester-
shire, 83.

Baikie (Dr. W. B.) on a skull of a Ma-
natee, 91; on recent discovery in Cen-
tral Africa, and the reasons which exist
for continued and renewed researeh, 105.

INDEX II.

Baily (William H.) on fossils from the
Crimea, 60.

Baker (T. B. Lloyd), statistics and sug-
gestions connected with the reformation
of juvenile offenders, 128.

Balaklava tempest, on the, 36.

Ball (Dr.), exhibition of a dredge, 91.

Banking, on the family principle in, Lon-
don, 143.

Barometrical fluctuations, on the mode of
interpreting, 36.

Bate (Spence) on a new crustacean Mo-
nimia Whiteana, 91.

Battery, on a modification of the May-
nooth cast-iron, 16.

Beamish (Richard), letter to, by Robert
Mushet, on an ancient miner’s axe re-
cently discovered in the Forest of Dean,
71; statistics of Cheltenham, 129.

Beckley (R.) on a model of a self-register- |

ing anemometer, 38.

Beekites, on the, found in the red con-
glomerates of ‘Torbay, 74.

Bessemer (M.) on the manufacture of iron
and steel, 162.

Birds, suggestions for ascertaining the
causes of death in, 97.

Bismuth, on the compounds of chromium
and, 58.

Blood, on the cause of the fluidity of the,
98.

Boats, on the application of corrugated
metal to, 162.

Bone-beds of the upper Ludlow rock, and
base of the old red sandstone, on the,
70.

Bosphorus, researches in the Crimean,
115.

Botany, 83.

Bowerbank (J. 8.) on the origin of sili-
ceous deposits in the chalk tormations,
63.

Bubalus moschatus, additional evidence
of the, from the Wiltshire drift, 72.
Buckman (Professor James) on the base-
ment beds of the oolite, 64; on the
oolite rocks of the Cotteswold hills, 65 ;
notes on experiments in the Bota-
nical Garden of the Royal Agricultu-
ral College, 83; notes on some antiques
found at Cirencester as evidence of the
domestic manners of the Romans, 108.

Brachiopoda, on the anatomy of the, 94.

Breadstuffs, on the geography of, 90.

Bristol district, on the igneous rocks of
Lundy and the, 65.

British army in the East, on the mortality
among officers of the, 144.

British palzozoic strata, on the correla-
tion of the North American and, 75.

191

Brodie (Prof.) on a new combination of
carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, formed
by the oxidation of graphite, 50; on
some new species of corals in the lias
of Gloucestershire, Worcestershire, and
Warwickshire, 64 ; on a new species of
Pollicipes in the inferior oolite near
Stroud, in Gloucestershire, 64.

Bromby (the Rev. C. H.), suggestions on
the people’s education, 130.

Brown (Samuel) on the advantages to
statistical science of a uniform decimal
system of measures, weights, and coins
throughout the world, 133.

| Brucia, on testing for, 53; on a new

method of extracting, from nux vomica
without alcohol, 54.

Calvert (Prof. F. C.) on the incrustations
of blast furnaces, 50.

Carbon, on a new combination of oxygen
and hydrogen formed by the oxidation
of graphite, 50; on the appearance of,
under the microscope, 2.

Cardigan (Archdeacon of) on the site of
Ecbatana, 108.

Carpenter (Mary) on the position of re-
formatory schools in reference to the
state, and the general principles of their
management, especially as regards fe-
male reformatories, 134.

Caterpillar, on an instance of instinct in
a, 97.

Centaurea nigra and C. nigrescens, on the
specific identity of, 87.

Cesspools, on the alkaline emanations
from, 57.

Chalk formation, on the origin of silice-
ous deposits in the, 63.

Cheltenham, on a meteor seen at, 47; on
the salts in the, and other mineral
waters, 50; on the statistics of, 129.

Chemistry, 49; on the use of the gramme
in, 60; on some points connected with
agricultural, 172.

Chevallier (Rev. Prof.) on the tides of
Nova Scotia, 23.

Chromium, on the compounds of, and
bismuth, 58.

Cirencester, notes on some antiques found
at, as evidence of the domestic manners
of the Romans, 108.

Claudet (A.) on various phenomena of
refraction through semi-lenses produ-
cing anomalies in the illusion of stereo-
scopic images, 9.

Clay (W.) on the manufacture of the
large-wrought iron gun, and other
masses of iron made at the Mersey iron-
works, Liverpool, 162.

192

Clibborn (Edward) on the tendency of
European races to become extinct in
the United States, 136.

Collimator for completing the adjustment
of reflecting telescopés, 30.

Collodion, on albuminized, 58.

Collodion photographs, on engraving, by
means of fluoric acid gas, 58.

Colours, on the theory of compound, with
reference to mixtures of blue and yel-
low light, 12.

Combinations, on a theorem in, 3.

Conglomerates of Torbay, on the Beekites
found in the red, 74.

Congruences, on a particular class of, 6.

Conway river, on the pearls of the, 92.

Corals, on some new species of, in the lias
of Gloucestershire, Worcestershire, and
Warwickshire, 64.

Corbett (Dr. J. H.) on the Acalephe, with
respect to organs of circulation and
respiration, 91.

Corn-markets of the United Kingdom,
on the diversity of measures in the, 187.

Cotteswold Hills, on the oolite rocks of
the, 65.

Cotton manufacture in the United King-
dom, on the connexion between slavery
in the United States, and the, 137.

Crania of the Anglo-Saxons, on the forms
of the, 108.

Credit Mobilier, on the, and other recent
credit institutions in France, 146.

Crime, on the statistics of, for the last ten
years, 159; on some statistics bearing
upon the relations existing between
poverty and, 159.

Crimea, on fossils from the, 60; on the
flora of the, 90.

Crimean Bosphorus, researches in the,
115.

Crystallogenesis, on, 172.

Cull (R.) on a more positive knowledge
of the changes, both physical and men-
tal, in man, with a view to ascertain
their causes, 108.

Cuneiform characters, on the plastic origin
of the, and its relation to our own
alphabet, 118.

Daa (Dr. L. K.) on the Varanger Fiord,
108; on the torenic system of the
Uprians (Finns), Albanians, and other
populations, i.; on the relation of
the Siberian and American languages,
ib.; census returns of 1845 and 1855,
table of the Lapps and Finns in Nor-
way, 1388.

Danube, on the route between Kustenjee
and the, 119.

INDEX Il.

Davis (J. Barnard) on the forms of the
crania of the Anglo-Saxons, 108.

Dawson (J. T.) on the connexion be-
tween slavery in the United States of
America and the cotton manufacture in
the United Kingdom, 137; on the di-
versity of measures in the corn-markets
of the United Kingdom, éb.; on the
Wirral peninsula, and the growth of its
population during the last fifty years in
connexion with Liverpool and the Man-
chester district, 143.

Dean Forest, on the rocks of, 78.

Decimal system of measures, weights, and
coins, on the advantages to statistical
science of a uniform, throughout the
world, 133.

Dellman’s method of observing atmo-
spheric electricity, on, 17.

Devon, South, on the climate of, 48.

Dobson (Thomas) on the causes of great
inundations, 81; on the Balaklava
tempest, and the mode of interpreting
barometrical fluctuations, 36.

Diatomacez, on new forms of, from the
Firth of Clyde, 83.

Dichobune ovinum, Ow., on a new species
of, from the upper eocene of Hordwell,
with remarks on the genus, 72.

Dichodon cuspidatus, from the upper
eocene of the Isle of Wight and Hord-
well, Hants, on the, 72.

Dredge, exhibition of a, 91.

“ Drifi-bedding,” description of a work-
ing model to illustrate the formation of,
dita

Earth, on the physical structure of the,
26.

Earthenware, on the progress, extent and
value of the, manufacture of Glasgow,
1538.

East, on the mortality among officers of
the British army in the, 144; on the
present export of silver to the, 161.

Ecbatana, on the site of, 108.

Echinide, on the mechanism of respira-
tion in the family of, 101.

Eclipse of the sun, on the, mentioned in
the first book of Herodotus, 27.

Economic science, the definition of, in
commerce, 144.

Economy, social, on the territorial distri-
bution of the population, for purposes
of sanitary inquiry and, 151.

Education, suggestions on the people’s,
136.

Electrical discharge, on the stratified ap-
pearance of the, 10.

Electrical force, on the law of, 11.

hee tLe A

INDEX II.

Electric currents, on the construction and
use of an instrument for determining

’ the value of intermittent or alternating,
for purposes of practical telegraphy, 19.

Electricity, 9; on Dellman’s method of

~ observing atmospheric, 17.

Elephant’s grinder from the cerithium
limestone, 69.

Embryo of flowering plants, on the deve-

~ lopment of the, 85.

England, on the middle and upper lias
of the west of, 70.

Entozoa, on the fluid system of the ne-

~ matoid, 101.

Esquimaux, remarks on the, 119.

Etheridge (R.) on the igneous rocks of

- Lundy and the Bristol district, 65.

Ethnology, 105.

European races, on the tendency of, to be-
come extinct in the United States, 136.

Eye, experimental researches on the, 100.

Eyre (Major V.) on the application of
corrugated metal to ships, boats, and
other floating bodies, 162.

Faraday’s lines of force, on a method of
drawing the theoretical forms of, with-
out calculation, 12.

Findlay (A. G.) on some volcanic islets
to the south-east of Japan, including

_ » the Bonin islands, 110.

_ Fiord, on the Varanger, 108.

Firth of Clyde, on new forms of Diato-
macez, from the, 83.

Fish, on improved mechanical means for
the extraction of oil from, 164.

Fishes, on the fossil, from the strata of
the Moselle, 69.

Flamborough Head, on the evidence of a
reef of lower lias rock, extending from
Robin Hood’s Bay to, 80.

Foramen centrale, on the unequal sensi-
bility of the, to light of different co-
lours, 12.

Forces, on the polyhedron of, 1.

Forest of Dean, description of an ancient
miner’s axe recently discovered in the,
71.

Fossils from the Crimea, on, 60; on new,
from the ancient sedimentary rocks of
Ireland and Scotland, 65.

France, on the credit mobilier, and other

~ recent credit institutions in, 146.

Franklin (Sir John), Dr, Kane’s report on
his expedition up Smith’s Sound in
search of, 113.

Fresnel’s formule for reflected and re-
fracted light, on, 15.

Fucus, on a supposed fossil, found at Aust
Cliff, Gloucestershire, 83.

193

Furnace, on the incrustations of blast, 50.

Gallic acid, on the conversion of tannin
into, 52.

Garner (R.) on a remarkable hail-storm in
North Staffordshire, 39 ; on the pearls
of the Conway River, N. Wales, with
some observations on the natural pro-
ductions of the neighbouring coast,
92.

Gas, fluoric acid, on engraving collodion
photographs by means of, 58.

Gases of the Grotto del Cave, on the, 58,

Geography, 105.

Geology, 60.

Gilbart (J. W.) on the family principle
in London banking, 143.

Gilbert (Dr. J. H.) on some points con-
nected with agricultural chemistry, 172;
on the composition of wheat grain, and
its products, 173.

Giant’s Causeway, on the lignites of the,56.

Gladstone (J. H.) on some dichromatic
phznomena among solutions, and the
means of representing them, 10 $ on the
salts actually present in the Cheltenham
and other mineral waters, 51; on nitro-
glycerine, 52.

Glasgow, on the progress, extent, and
value of the porcelain, earthenware, and
glass manufacture of, 153; on the mo-
ney-rate of wages of labour in, 155.

Glass manufacture of Glasgow, on the pro-<
gress, extent, and value of the, 1538.

Gloucestershire, on some new species of
corals in the lias of, 64.

Gold in India, on, 60.

Goodsir (Prof.) on the morphological con-
stitution of limbs, 93; on the morpho-
logical constitution of the skeleton of
the vertebrate head, 7b.; on the mor-
phological relations of the nervous sy-
stem in the annulose and vertebrate
types of organization, ib.

Gramme in chemistry, on theuse of the, 60.

Granite of Wicklow, on the alternation of
clay-slate and gritstone into mica-schist
and gneiss, by the, 68.

Graphite, on a new combination of carbon,
oxygen, and hydrogen, formed by the
oxidation of, 50.

Graves (J.T.) on the polyhedron of forces,
1; on the congruence nx=n+1 (mod.

), 1b.

bbc (Dr. Richard), working model of
a machine for polishing specula for re-
flecting telescopes and lenses, 24; ona
new railway-break, invented by M.
Sisco, of Paris, 162; on a method of
uniting iron with iron or other metals

13

194

without welding, invented by M. Sisco,
of Paris, 162.

Greenland, on the arctic current around,
112.

Gregory (Prof.) on new forms of Diato-
macee from the Firth of Clyde, 83.
Grotto del Cave, on the gases of the,

58.

Grove (W. R.) on the stratified appear-
ance of the electrical discharge, 10.
Gun, on the manufacture of the large

wrought-iron, 162.

Hail-storm in North Staffordshire, on a
remarkable, 39.

Hancock (Albany) on the anatomy of
the Brachiopoda, 94.

Hancock (W. Neilson) on the definition
of income in economic science com-
pared with the existing taxes on in-
come, 144.

Harkness (Prof.) on some new fossils
from the ancient sedimentary rocks of
Ireland and Scotland, 65; on the lignites
of the Giant’s Causeway and the Isle of
Mull, 66; on the jointing of rocks, 65.

Harris (Sir W. S.) on the law of electric
and magnetic force, 11.

Hartland (F. D.), Vesuvius and its erup-
tions, illustrated by a collection of draw-
ings by W. Baylis, 111; on the most
ancient map of the world, from the

. Propaganda, Rome, ib.

Head, on the morphological constitution
of the skeleton of the vertebrate, 93.
Heat, 9; on the quantity of, developed by
water when violently agitated, 165.
Henfrey (Arthur), on the development of

the embryo of flowering plants, 85.

Hennessy (Prof.) on the physical struc-
ture of the earth, 26; on isothermal
lines, 39; on an instrument for obser-
ving vertical currents inthe atmosphere,
40; on the relative distribution of land
and water as affecting climate at dif-
ferent geological epochs, 66; on the ho-
molographical mapsof Mr. Babinet, 112;
on the inundation of rivers, 162.

Henslow (the Rev. Prof.) on the triticoidal
forms of /Egilops, and on the specific
identity of Centaurea nigra and C. ni-
grescens, 87.

Herodotus, on the eclipse of the sun men-
tioned in the first book of, 27.

Highley (Samuel), crystallogenesis, and
the equivalent in the mineral kingdom
corresponding to geographical distribu-
tion in the animal and vegetable king-
doms, 172.

Hincks (Rev. Dr. Edward) on the eclipse

INDEX II.

.

of the sun mentioned in the first book
of Herodotus, 27.

Homolographical maps of M. Babinet, on
the, 112,

Hordwell, on a new species of anoplothe-
rioidmammal from the upper eocenestra=
ta, 72; onthe Dichodon cuspidatus, ib.

Hornbeck (Dr. H. B.) on some minerals
from the Isle of St. Thomas, 66.

Horsley (John) on the conversion of tan-
nin into gallic acid, 52; on testing for
strychnia, brucia, &c.,53 ; new method of
instituting post-mortem researches for
strychnia, ib.; on a new method of ex-
tracting the alkaloids strychnia and bru-
ciafrom nux vomica withoutalcohol, 54;
experiments on animals with strychnia,
and probable reasons for the non-de-
tection of the poison in certain cases,
55.

Huggate, meteorological observations for
1855, made at, 47.

Hull (Edward) on the south-easterly at-
tenuation of the oolitic, liassic, triassic,
and permian formations, 67.

Hydrogen, on a new combination of car-
bon, oxygen and, formed by the oxida-
tion of graphite, 50.

Ichthyosauri, on the skin and food of, 69.

Income, on the definition of, in economic
science, 144.

India, on gold in, 60; on a new route to,
11

Inundations, on the causes of great, 31.

Treland, on some new fossils from the an-
cient sedimentary rocks of, 65; table of
the population of, at different intervals
from 1608-1856, 142.

Irminger (Capt.) on the arctic current
around Greenland, 112.

Iron, on the manufacture of, without fuel,
162; on masses of, made at the Mer-
sey iron-works, Liverpool, 2b.; on a
method of uniting iron with, without
welding, id.

Isle of Wight, on the Dichodon cuspidatus
from the upper eocene of the, 71.

Isothermal lines, on, 39.

Japan, on some volcanic islets to the
south-east of, 110.

Jeffery (Henry M.) ona theorem in com-
binations, 3; on a particular class of
congruences, 6.

Jenyns (Rev. L.) on the variation of spe-
cies, 101.

Jopling (R. Thompson) on. the mortality
among officers of the British army in
the East, 144.

INDEX II.

Jukes (J. Beete) on the alteration of clay-

slate and gritstone into mica-schist and

gneiss by the granite of Wicklow, &c.
68.

Kane (Dr, E, K.) on his expedition up
Smith’s Sound in search of Sir John
Franklin, 113.

Kelley (F. M.), explorations through the
valley of the Atrato to the Pacific in
search of a route for a ship canal, 162.

Kent’s Cavern, Torquay, researches in,
with the original MS. memoir of its
first opening, 78 ; on the earliest traces

- of human remains in, 119.

Knowles (Prof. G, B.) on the movements

__ of Oscillatoriz, 88.

Kustenjee and the Danube, on the route
between, 119.

Lake (Col. A.), an original letter from
General Mouravieff, 113.

Land and water, on the relative distri-
bution of, as affecting climate at dif-
ferent geological epochs, 66.

Languages, on the relation of the Siberian
and Armenian, 108.

La Plata, on the Scelidotherium leptoce-

_ phalum from, 73,

Lapps and Finns, table of the, in Norway,
according to the census of 1845 and
1855, 138,

Latham (R.G,), distribution of the Alba-
nians, politically, 145.

Lawes (J. B.) on some points connected
with agricultural chemistry, 172; on
the composition of wheat-grain and its
products, 173.

Lee (Dr. John) on Negretti and Zam-
bra’s mercurial minimum thermometer,
40; remarks on Dr. H. Barker's pam-
phlet on the relative value of the ozo-
nometers of Dr. Schénbein and Dr.
Moffat, 40.

Lee (J. E.), on an elephant’s grinder
from the cerithium limestone, 69; on
some fossil fishes from the strata of

_. the Moselle, 2.

Lias, on the middle and upper, of the west
of England, 70; of Gloucestershire,
Worcestershire, and Warwickshire, on
some new species of corals in the, 64.

Liassic formation, on the south-easterly
attenuation of the, 67.

Light, 9; on the theory of compound,

_ with reference to mixtures of blue and
yellow, 12; of different colours, on the
unequal sensibility of the foramen cen-
trale to,12; on Fresnel’s formule for re-
flected and refracted, 15.

195

Lightning, oh the form of, 14.

Lignites, on the, of the Giant’s Cause-
way and the Isle of Mull, 66,

Limbs, on the morphological constitution
of, 93.

Lime, on the composition of American
phosphate of, 58; on basic phosphates
of, 7b.

Limestone, cerithium, on an elephant's
grinder from the, 69; on the formation
of magnesian, by the alteration of an
ordinary calcareous deposit, 77,

Lindsay (Dr, W. L.) on the genus Abro-
thallus, 88.

Livingston (Rev. Dr. D.), return journey
across South Africa, 113.

Locke (J.), a new route to India—the
Syro-Arabian railway, 114.

Ludlow rock, on the bone-beds of the
upper, 70.

Lundy, on the igneous rocks of, 65.

Macadam (Stevenson) on the detection of
strychnine, 55.

Macfie (W, A.) on the patent laws, 164.

Macpherson (Dr. D.), researches in the
Crimean Bosphorus, and on the site of
the ancient Greek city of Panticapzeum
(Kertch), 115,

Magnetism, 9,

Magnetic force, on the law of, 11.

Malvern district, on some phenomena in
the, 78.

Mammal fossil, from the Stonesfield slate,
on a, 793. ;

Man, on a more positive knowledge of
the changes, both physical and mental,
with a view to ascertain their causes,
108,

Manatee, Dr. Baikie on a skull of a, 91.

Manures, on the economical manufacture
of, from fish and fishy matter, 164.

Masters (M.) on an abnormal growth in
a rosewood tree, 90.

Mathematics, 1.

Maynooth cast-iron battery, on a modifi-
cation of the, 16.

Maxwell (J. C.) on a method of drawing
the theoretical forms of Faraday’s lines
of force without calculation, 12; on the
unequal sensibility of the foramen
centrale to light of different colours, ib. ;
on the theory of compound colours with
reference to mixtures of blue and yel-
low light, 2b.; on an instrument to il-
lustrate Poinsdt’s theory of rotation, 27.

Measures, on the diversity of, in the corn-
markets of the United Kingdom, 137;
plan for simplifying and improving
the, of this country, 146.

13*

196

Mechanical Section, 162.

Mercantile vessels, on the management
of, 165.

Mercurial minimum thermometer, on
Negretti and Zambra’s, 40.

Mersey iron-works, on the manufacture
of the large wrought-iron gun and
other masses of iron made at the, 162.

Meteorology, 31.

Meteors seen at Cheltenham, 47.

Methuen (R.) on the management of
mercantile vessels, 164.

Mica-schist, on the microscopical struc-
ture of, 78.

Michelsen (Dr.) on the flora of the Crimea,
90; on the geography of breadstuffs,
ib.

Microscope, on the appearance of carbon
under the, 50.

Microtherium, on the genus, 72.

Milnes (R. Monckton), concluding ad-
dress at the Statistical Section, 161.
Mineral collections, on a series of de-

scriptive labels for, 57.

Minerals from the isle of St. Thomas, on
some, 66.

Mitchell (Rev. W.) on a series of descrip-
tive labels for mineral collections in
public institutions, 57.

Moggridge (M.) on the time required for
the formation of “ Rolled stones,” 69.
Money of this country, plan for simplify-

ing and improving the, 146.

Monimia Whiteana, on a new crustacean,
91. °

Moon, on phenomena recently discovered
in the, 31.

Moon’s motion, on the reasons for de-
scribing the, as a motion about her
axis, 2b.

Moore (Charles) on the skin and food of
Ichthyosauri and Teleosauri, 69; on
the middle and upper lias of the West of
England, 70.

Moselle, on some fossil fishes from the
strata of the, 69.

Mouravieff (General), an original letter
from, 113.

Mull, on the lignites of the isle of, 66.

Murchison (Sir R. I.) on the bone-beds of
the upper Ludlow rocks and base of the
old red sandstone, 70.

Mushet (Robert) description of an an-
cient miner’s axe recently discovered
in the Forest of Dean, 71.

Musk-ox, additional evidence of the, from
the Wiltshire drift, 72.

Nasmyth (James) on the form of light-

ning, 14; on the plastic origin of the |

INDEX II.

cuneiform character, and its relation
to our own alphabet, 118.

Negretti and Zambra’s mercurial mini-
mum thermometer, on, 40.

Nervous system in the annulose and ver-
tebrate types of organization, on the
morphological relations of the, 93.

Newmarch (William) on the credit mo-
bilier and other recent credit institu-
tions in France, 146; on the former
and present plans of disposing of the
waste lands in the Australian colonies,
146. :

Nitro-glycerine, on, 52.

North American and British Paleozoic
strata, on the correlation of the, 75.
Norway, census of Lapps and Finns in,

in 1845 and 1855, 138.

Nourse (W. E. C.) on ascertaining the
causes of death in birds and animals,
97; on the medical indications of
poisoning, 2b.

Nova Scotia, on the tides of, 23.

Nux vomica, on a new method of ex-
tracting strychnia and brucia from,
without alkaloids, 54.

Odling (Professor William) on the alka-
line emanations from sewers and cess-
pools, 57; on the detection of antimony
for medico-legal purposes, ib.

Oil, on improved mechanical means
for the extraction of, from fish, 164.
Old Red Sandstone, on the bone-beds of

the, 70.

Oolite, on the basement beds of the, 64;
on a new species of Pollicipes in the
inferior, near Stroud, in Gloucester-
shire, ib.; on the occurrence of upper
lias ammonites in the (so-called) base-
ment beds of the, 80.

Oolitic formation, on the south-easterly
attenuation of the, 67.

Organization, on the morphological rela-
tions of the nervous system in the an-
nulose and vertebrate types of, 93.

Oscillatoriz, on the movements of, 88.

Owen (Prof.) on a new species of ano-
plotherioid mammal (Dichobune ovi-
num, Ow.) from the upper eocene of
Hordwell, with remarks on the genera
Dichobune, Xiphodon, and Microthe-
rium, 72; additional evidence of the
fossil musk-ox (Bubalus moschatus)
from the Wiltshire drift, 2b.; on the
Dichodon cuspidatus, from the upper
eocene of the Isle of Wight and Hord-
well, Hants, 7b. ; on the Scelidotherium
leptocephalum, a megatherioid quad-
ruped from La Plata, 73; on a fossil

Ee

INDEX II.

mammal (Stereognathus ooliticus) from
the Stonesfield slate, 7.

Oxygen, on a new combination of carbon
and hydrogen, formed by the oxidation
of graphite, 50.

Ozonometers of Dr. Schénbein and Dr.
Moffat, remarks on a pamphlet by Dr.
Herbert Barker on the, 41.

Pacific, explorations through the valley
of the Atrato to the, in search of a
route for a ship-canal, 162.

Paleozoic basins of N. America, 176.

Panticapzum (Kertch), on the site of the
ancient Greek city of, 115.

Paraffine, on the composition of, from
different sources, 49.

Parallel lines, on a new method of treat-
ing the doctrine of, 8.

Pasley (Sir C. W.), plan for simplifying
and improving the measures, weights,
and money of this country, without
altering the present standards, 146,

Patent Laws, on the, 164.

Peach (Charles W.), notice of the natural

- printing of sea-weeds on the rocks in
the vicinity of Stromness, 90.

Pearls of the Conway river, on the, 92.

Pearson (W. R.) on the compounds of
chromium and bismuth, 58.

Pengelly (W.) on the Beekites found in
the red conglomerates of Torbay, 74.
Periodic phenomena, tables of forms for

obtaining reports on, 105.

Permian formation, on the south-easterly
attenuation of the, 67.

Perspective, on a new method of teach-
ing, 9.

Photographs, on printing, 18; on engra-
ving collodion, by means of fluoric acid
gas, 58.

Photographs of objects of natural history
exhibited, 105.

Phillips (John) on a new method of ma-
king maximum self-registering thermo-
meters, 41.

Phillips (Sir Thomas, Bart.) on an in-
stance of instinct in a caterpillar, 97.

Physics, 1.

Physiology, 83.

Plants, on the development of the embryo
of flowering, 85.

Poinsét’s theory of rotation, on an instru-
ment to illustrate, 27.

Poisoning, on the medical indications of,
97.

Pollicipes, on a new species of, in the in-
ferior oolite near Stroud, Gloucester-
shire, 64.

Poole (Henry), observations with the

197

aneroid métallique and thermometer’
during a tour through Palestine and
along the shores of the Dead Sea in
1855, 41.

Pooley (Charles) on engraving collodion
photographs by means of fluoric acid
gas, 58.

Population, on the territorial distribution
of the, for purposes of sanitary inquiry
and social economy, 151.

Porcelain, on the progress, extent, and
value of the, manufacture at Glasgow,
153.

Poverty and crime, on some statistics
bearing upon the relations existing be-
tween, 159.

Powell (Rev. Baden) on Fresnel’s formule
for reflected and refracted light, 15.
Pritchard (Rev. C.) on a meteor seen at
Cheltenham on Friday, August 8, 47;
on the gases of the Grotto del Cave, 58.

Pterygotus of Scotland, on the great,
75.

Rae (Dr.), remarks on the Esquimaux,
119.

Radiation, solar, on the constancy of, 28.

Railway break, on a new, 162.

Rankin -(the Rev. T.), continuation of
meteorological observations for 1855,
at Huggate, Yorkshire, 47.

Refraction, on various phenomena of,
through semi-lenses, 9.

Rennie (George) on the quantity of heat
developed by water when violently agi-
tated, 165; experiments to determine
the resistance of a screw when revolv-
ing in water at different depths and
velocities, 169.

Respiration, on the mechanism of, in the
family of Echinide, 101.

Richardson (Dr. B. W.) on the cause of
the fluidity of the blood, 98.

Rivers, on the inundation of, 162.

Robin Hood’s Bay, on the evidence of a
reef of lower lias rock, extending from,
to Flamborough Head, 80.

Rocks, oolite, of the Cotteswold hills, 65;
on the jointing of, 2b.; on the igneous,
of Lundy and the Bristol district,
7b.; on some new fossils from the an-
cient sedimentary, of Ireland and Scot-
land, 2b.; on the evidence of a reef of
lower lias extending from Robin Hood’s
Bay to the neighbourhood of Flam-
borough Head, 80; parallelism of the
North American and European pale-
ozoic, 182.

Rogers (Prof. H. D.) on the origin of sa-
liferous deposits, 75 ; on the correlation

198

of the North American and British pa-
leozoic strata, 175.

* Rolled Stones,” on the time required
for the formation of, 69.

Romans, on some antiques found at Ciren-
cester as evidence of the domestic
manners of the, 108.

Rotation, on an instrument to illustrate
Poinsét’s theory of, 27.

Roth (Dr. M.), aphoristic notes on sanitary
statistics of workhouses and charitable
institutions, 149.

Rosewood tree, on an abnormal growth
in a, 90.

Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester,
notes on experiments in the Botanical
Garden of the, 83.

Rumsey (H. W.), on the territorial dis-
tribution of the population, for purposes
of sanitary inquiry and social economy,
151,

Saliferous deposits, on the origin of, 75.

Salter (J. W.), on the great Pterygotus
(Seraphim) of Scotland, and other
species, 75; on some new palzozoic
star-fishes, compared with living forms,
76.

Salts, on the, in the Cheltenham and
other mineral waters, 50.

Samuelson (J.) on the development of in-
fusorial animalcules, 98.

Scarborough, on barometrical and ther-
meometrical observations at, 49.

Scelidotherium leptocephalum from La
Plata, on the, 73.

Schools, reformatory, on the position of,
in reference to the state, 134.

Scotland, on some new fossils from the
ancient sedimentary rocks of, 65; on
the great Pterygotus of, 75; on the
money-rate of wages of labour in the
west of, 155.

Screw, experiments to determine the re-
sistance of a, when revolving in water
at different depths and velocities, 169.

Scully (Vincent) on the population of
Treland at different intervals, from 1603
to 1856, with causes for periodical in-
crease or decrease, 142.

Sea-weeds, notice of the natural printing
of, on the rocks in the vicinity of Strom-
ness, 90).

Sewers, on the alkaline emanations from,
57.

Ships, on the application of corrugated
metal to, 162.

Ship-canal, explorations through the
valley of the Atrato ,to the Pacific in
search of a route for a, 162.

INDEX II.

Ship-communicator, on a new plan for a,
164.

Sibbald (Dr.) on a new plan for a ship
communicator, 164,

Silver, on the present export of, in the
East, 161.

Sisco (M.), on a new railway break in-
vented by, 162.

Slavery, on the connexion between, in
the United States of America and the
cotton manufacture in the United King-
dom, 137.

Smith (W.) on improved mechanical
means for the extraction of oil, and the
economical manufacture of manures
from fish and fishy matter, 164,

Smith’s Sound, Dr. Kane on his expedi-
tion up, in search of Sir John Franklin,
113.

Smoke, on the corrosive action of, on
building stones, 58.

Smyth (Prof. Piazzi) on the constancy
of solar radiation, 28.

Solar radiation, on the constancy of, 28.

Solutions, on some dichromatic phzeno-
mena among, and the means of repre-
senting them, 10.

Sorby (H.C.) on the magnesian limestone
having been formed by the alteration.
of an ordinary calcareous deposit,77; de-
scription of a working model toillustrate
the formation of ‘drift bedding” (a
kind of false stratification), 77; on the
Pein structure of mica-schist,

8.

Species, on the variation of, 101.

Specula for reflecting telescopes andlenses,
working model of a machine for polish-
ing, 24.

Spratt (Captain) on the route between
Kustenjee and the Danube, 119.

Squares, on the law of,—is it applicable or
not to the transmission of signals in
submarine circuits ?, 21.

Staffordshire, North, on a remarkable
hail-storm in, 39.

Stanley (Lord), opening address by, pre-
sident of the statistical section, 122.
Star-fishes, on some new palzozoic, com-

pared with living forms, 76.

Statistics, 122.

Steel, on a new process for making and
melting, 59; on the manufacture of,
without fuel, 162.

Stereognathus ooliticus from the Stones-
field slate, on, 73.

Stereoscopic images, on various phzno-
mena of refraction through semi-lenses

producing anomalies in the illusion of;

.

INDEX II,

Stewart (B.) on a thermometer for
measuring fluctuations of temperature,
47.

Stevelly (Prof.) on a new method of
treating the doctrine of parallel lines, 8.

Stones, on the corrosive action of smoke
on building, 58.

Stonesfield slate, on a fossil mammal
(Stereognathus ooliticus) from the, 73.

Stoney (Prof. G. Johnstone) on a colli-
mator for completing the adjustments
of reflecting telescopes, 30,

Strang (John), on the progress, extent,

- and value of the porcelain, earthen-
ware, and glass manufacture of Glasgow,
153; on the money-rate of wages of
labour in Glasgow and the west of
Scotland, 155.

Strata, palzeozoic, on the correlation of
the North American and British, 175 ;
palzontological relations of the Ame-
rican and European, 182,

Stromness, notice of the natural printing
of sea-weeds on the rocks in the vicinity
of, 90.

Stroud, in Gloucestershire, on a new spe-
cies of Pollicipes in the inferior oolite
near, 64,

St. Thomas, on some minerals from the
isle of, 66.

Sturt (Capt. Charles) on recent discoveries
in Australia, 119,

Strychnia, new method of instituting post-
mortem researches for, 53; on testing
for, 7b. ; on a new method of extracting,
from nux vomica without alcohol, 54;
experiments on animals with, and pro-
bable reasons for the non-detection of,
in certain cases, 55,

Strychnine, on the detection of, 55.

Submarine circuits—is the law of squares
applicable or not to the transmission
of signals in ?, 21,

Sun, on the eclipse of the, mentioned in
the first book of Herodotus, 27.

Symonds (Rev. W. 8,) on some pheno-
mena in the Malvern district, 78; on
the rocks of Dean Forest, ib.

Symons (J.) on phznomena recently
discovered in the moon, 31.

Symons (W.) on a modification of the
Maynooth cast-iron battery, 16.

Syro-Arabian railway, a new route to
India, 114.

Tannin, on the conversion of, into gallic
acid, 52.

Tartt (W. M.) on some statistics bearing
upon the relations existing between
poverty and crime, 159,

199°

Telegraphy, on the construction and use
of an instrument for determining the
value of intermittent or alternating elec-
tric currents for purposes of practical, 19.

Teleosauri, on the skin and food of, 69,

Telescopes, working model of a machine
for polishing specula for lenses and re-
flecting, 24; on a collimator for com-
pleting the adjustment of reflecting, 30.

Temperature, on a thermometer for mea-
suring fluctuations of, 47.

Tennant (Prof. J.) on a series of descrip-
tive labels for mineral collections in
public institutions, 57,

Thermometer, on Negretti and Zambra’s
mercurial minimum, 40; observations
with the, during a tour through Pales-
tine, and along the shores of the Dead
sea, 41; on anew method of making
maximum self-registering, id.; on a,
for measuring fluctuations of tempera-
ture, 47 ; instructions for the graduation
of boiling-point, intended for the mea-
surement of heights, 49.

Thompson (Wm.), photographs of objects
of natural history, exhibited, 105,

Thomson (Prof, W.) on Dellman’s method
of observing atmospheric electricity, 17.

Tides of Nova Scotia, on the, 23.

Torbay, on the Beekites found in the red
conglomerates of, 74.

Torquay, on the climate of, 48,

Triassic formation, on the south-easterly
attenuation of the, 67,

Twining (H. R.) on a new method of
teaching perspective, 9.

Ugrians, on the torenic system of the, 108.

United States, on the tendency of Euro-
pean races to become extinct in the,
136; on the connexion between slavery
in the, and the cotton manufacture in
the United Kingdom, 137,

United Kingdom, on the diversity of
measures in the corn-markets of the,
137 ; on the connexion between slavery
in the United States, and the cotton
manufacture in the, 137.

Vesuvius and its eruptions, on, 111.

Vivian (E.) on printing photographs,
with suggestions for introducing clouds
and artistic effects, 18; on the climate
of ‘Torquay and South Devon, 48; re-
searches in Kent’s Cavern, Torquay,
with the original MS. memoirs of its
first opening, by the late Rev. J.
MacEnery, 78; on the earliest traces
of human remains in Kent’s Cavern,
119.

200

Voelcker (Prof.) on the composition of
American phosphate of lime, 58; on the
corrosive action of smoke on building-
stones, ib. ; on basic phosphates of lime,
ib.

Vogel (Dr.), description of the Ajuh, a
kind of whale found in the river Benué
(Central Africa), in Sept. 1855, 98.

Wages of labour in Glasgow, and the west
of Scotland, on the money-rate of, 155.
Waller (Dr. Augustus), experimental re-
searches on the eye, and observations
on the circulation of the blood in the
vessels of the conjunctiva, of the iris,
of the ciliary ligament, and of the
choroid membrane, during life, as seen
under the compound microscope, 100.

Walsh (Prof. R. H.) on the statistics of
crime for the last ten years, 159 ; on the
present export of silver to the East,161.

Ward (W. Sykes) on albuminized collo-
dion, 58.

Warwickshire, on some new species of
corals in the lias of, 64.

Water, on the relative distribution of land
and, as affecting climate at different
geological epochs, 66; on the quantity
of heat developed by, when violently
agitated, 165.

Waters, on the salts in the Cheltenham
and other mineral, 50.

Waves, 23.

Welsh (Mr.), description of a self-regis-
tering anemometer by R. Beckley, 38;
description of a thermometer for mea-
suring fluctuations of temperature, by
B. Stewart, 47; instructions for the
graduation of boiling-point thermome-
ters, intended for the measurement of
heights, 49.

Weights, plan for simplifying and im-
proving the, of this country, 146.

Wheat-grain, on the composition of, 173.

Whewell (Rev. W.) on the reasons for
describing the moon’s motion as a mo-
tion about her axis, 31.

INDEX II.

Whitehouse (Wildman) on the construc-
tion and use of an instrument for deter-
mining the value of intermittent. or
alternating electric currents for pur-
poses of practical telegraphy, 19; on
the law of squares—is it applicable or
not to the transmission of signals in
submarine circuits?, 21.

Wicklow, on the alteration of clay-slate
and gritstone into mica-schist and
eneiss by the granite of, 68.

Williams (Dr. Thomas) on the mechanism
of respiration in the family of Echinide,
101; on the fluid system of the nema-
toid entozoa, ib.

Wiltshire drift, additional evidence of
the fossil musk-ox from the, 72.

Wirral peninsula, on the growth of the
population of the, 148.

Woodall (Captain) on barometrical and
thermometrical observations at Scar-
borough, 49; on the evidence of a reef
of lower lias rock, extending from
Robin Hood’s Bay to the neighbour-
hood of Flamborough Head, 80.

Worcestershire, on some new species of
corals in the lias of, 64.

Workhouses and charitable institutions,
aphoristic notes on sanitary statistics of,
149.

World, on the most ancient map of the,
111.

Worsley (P. J.) on a new process for
making and melting steel, 59.

Wright (Henry) on the use of the gramme
in chemistry, 60.

Wright (Dr. Thomas) on the occurrence
of the upper lias ammonites in the
(so-called) basement beds of the inferior
oolite, 80.

Xiphodon, on the genus, 72.
Zoology, 90.

Zoophytes, notice of some new genera
and species of British, 90.

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T. G. Bunt, Report on Discussions of Bristol Tides, under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell;
—D. Ross, Report on the Discussions of Leith Tide Observations, under the direction of the
Rev. W. Whewell ;—W. S. Harris, upon the working of Whewell’s Anemometer at Plymouth
during the past year j—Report of a Committee appointed for the purpose of superintend-
ing the scientific co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Obser-
vations in Terrestrial Magnetism and Meteorology ;—Reports of Committees appointed to pro-
_ vide Meteorological Instruments for the use of M. Agassiz and Mr. M‘Cord ;—Report of a Com-
mittee to superintend the reduction of Meteorological Observations ;—Report of a Coms
mittee for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars ;—Report of a Committee for obtaining In-
struments and registers to record Shocks and Harthquakes in Scotland and Ireland ;=-Report of

a Committee on the Preservation of Vegetative Powers in Seeds ;—Dr. Hodgkin, on Inquiries
into the Races of Man ;-——Report of the Committee appointed to report how far the Desiderata
in our knowledge of the Condition of the Upper Strata of the Atmosphere may be supplied by
means of Ascents in Balloons or otherwise, to ascertain the probable expense of such Experi-
ments, and to draw up Directions for Observers in such circumstances ;—R. Owen, Report
on British Fossil Reptiles; Reports on the Determination of the Mean Value of Railway
Constants :—-D. Lardner, LL.D., Second and concluding Report on the Determination of the
Mean Value of Railway Constants ;—E. Woods, Report on Railway Constants ;—Report of a
Committee on the Construction of a Constant Indicator for Steam-Engines.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Whewell’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or toe TWELFTH MEETING, at Manchester,
1842, Published at 10s. 6d.

ConTENTsS: —Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the co-operation of the British
Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—
J. Richardson, M.D., Report on the present State of the Ichthyology of New Zealand ;—
W.S. Harris, Report on the Progress of Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;—Second
Report of a Committee appointed to make Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds;
—C. Vignoles, Report of the Committee on Railway Sections ;—Report of the Committee
for the Preservation of Animaland Vegetable Substances ;—Lyon Playfair, M.D., Abstract
of Prof. Licbig’s Report on Organic Chemistry applied to Physiology and Pathology ;—
R. Owen, Report on the British Fossil Mammalia, Part I.;—R. Hunt, Researches on the
Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants ;—L, Agassiz, Report
on the Fossil Fishes of the Devonian System or Old Red Sandstone ;—W. Fairbairn, Ap-
pendix toa Report on the Strength and other Properties of Cast Iron obtained from the Hot
and Cold Blast ;—D. Milne, Report of the Committee for Registering Shocks of Earthquakes
in Great Britain ;—Report of a Committee on the construction of a Constant Indicator for
Steam-Engines, and for the determination of the Velocity of the Piston of the Self-acting En-
gine at different periods of the Stroke ;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Committee on the form of
Ships ;—Report of a Committee appointed “‘to consider of the Rules by which the Nomencla-
ture of Zoology may be established on a uniform and permanent basis.”—Report of a Com-
mittee on the Vital Statistics of large Towns in Scotland ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices
of Progress in special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Francis Egerton’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHe THIRTEENTH MEETING, at Cork,
1843, Published at 12s.

ConTENTS :—Robert Mallet, Third Report upon the Action of Air and Water, whether
fresh or salt, clear or foul, and of Various Temperatures, upon Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, and
Steel ;—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the co-operation of the British As-
sociation in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—Sir
J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., Report of the Committee appointed for the Reduction of Meteoro-
logical Observations ; — Report of the Committee appointed for Experiments on Steam-
Engines ;—Report of the Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality
of Seeds ;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Series of Observations on the Tides of the Frith of
Forth and the East Coast of Scotland ;—J. S. Russell, Notice of a Report of the Committee
on the Form of Ships;—J. Blake, Report on the Physiological Action of Medicines ;—Report
of the Committee on Zoological Nomenclature ;—Report of the Committee for Registering
the Shocks of Earthquakes, and making such Meteorological Observations as may appear to
them desirable ;—Report of the Committee for conducting Experiments with Captive Balloons;
—Prof. Wheatstone, Appendix to the Report ;—Report of the Committee for the Translation
and Publication of Foreign Scientific Memoirs ;—C. W. Peach on the Habits of the Marine
Testacea ;—E. Forbes, Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the A.gean Sea, and on their
distribution, considered as bearing on Geology ;—L. Agassiz, Synoptical Table of British
Fossil Fishes, arranged in the order of the Geological Formations ;—R. Owen, Report on the
British Fossil Mammalia, Part IJ. ;—-E. W. Binney, Report on the excavation made at the
junction of the Lower New Red Sandstone with the Coal Measures at Collyhurst ;—W.
Thompson, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Invertebrata ;—Provisional Reports, and
Notices of Progress in Special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Earl of Rosse’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.

« PROCEEDINGS or rot FOURTEENTH MEETING, at York, 1844,
Published at £1.

ConTENTS :—W. B. Carpenter, on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—J. Alder and A.
Hancock, Report on the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca ;—R. Hunt, Researches on the
Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants ;—Report of a
Committee appointed by the British Association in 1840, for revising the Nomenclature of the
Stars ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on the Meteorology of Toronto in Canada ;—J. Blackwall, Report
on some recent researches into the Structure, Functions, and Ciconomy of the Araneidea
made in Great Britain ;—Earl of Rosse, on the Construction of large Reflecting Telescopes ;
—Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Report on a Gas-furnace for Experiments on Vitrifaction and other
Applications of High Heat in the Laboratory ;—Report of the Committee for Registering
Earthquake Shocks in Scotland ;—Report of a Committee for Experiments on Steam-Engines;
—Report of the Committee to investigate the Varieties of the Human Race ;—Fourth Report
of a Commiitee appointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds ;—W. Fair-
bairn, on the Consumption of Fuel and the prevention of Smoke ;—F. Ronalds, Report con-
cerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew ;—Sixth Report of the Committee
appointed to conduct the Co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simulta-
neous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—Prof. Forchhammer on the influence
of Fucoidal Plants upon the Formations of the Earth, on Metamorphism in general, and par-
ticularly the Metamorphosis of the Scandinavian Alum Slate ;-—H. E. Strickland, Report on
the recent Progress and Present State of Ornithology ;—T. Oldham, Report of Committee
appointed to conduct Observations on Subterranean Temperature in Ireland ;—Prof, Owen,
Report on the Extinct Mammals of Australia, with descriptions of certain Fossils indicative
of the former existence in that continent of large Marsupial Representatives of the Order
Pachydermata ;—W. S. Harris, Report on the working of Whewell and Osler’s Anemometers
at Plymouth, for the years 1841, 1842, 1843 ;—W. R. Birt, Report on Atmospheric Waves ;
—L. Agassiz, Report sur les Poissons Fossiles de l’Agile de Londres, with translation ;—J.
S. Russell, Report on Waves ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special Re-
searches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dean of Ely’s Address, and Recommenda-
tions of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue FIFTEENTH MEETING, at Cambridge,
1845, Published at 12s.

ConTENTS :—Seventh Report of a Committee appointed to conduct the Co-operation of the
British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observa-
tions ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on.some points in the Meteorology of Bombay ;—J. Blake, Report
on the Physiological Actions of Medicines ;—Dr. Von Boguslawski, on the Comet of 1843;
—R. Hunt, Report on the Actinograph ;—Prof. Schonbein, on Ozone ;—Prof. Erman, on
the Influence of Friction upon Thermo-Electricity;—Baron Sentfenberg, on the Self-
Registering Meteorological Instruments employed in the Observatory at Sentfenberg ;—
W. R. Birt, Second Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress and Pre-
sent Extent of Savings’ Banks in the United Kingdom ;—Prof. Bunsen and Dr. Playfair,
Report on the Gases evolved from Iron Furnaces, with reference to the Theory of Smelting
of Iron ;—Dr. Richardson, Report on the Ichthyology of the Seas of China and Japan ;—
Report of the Committee on the Registration of Periodical Pheenomena of Animals and Vege-
tables ;—Fifth Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Appendix, &c.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir J. F. W. Herschel’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue SIXTEENTH MEETING, at Southampton,
1846, Published at 15s.

ConTENTS:—G. G. Stokes, Report on Recent Researches in Hydrodynamics ;—Sixth
Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Dr. Schunck on the Colouring Matters of
Madder ;—J. Blake, on the Physiological Action of Medicines ;—R. Hunt, Report on the Ac-
tinograph ;—R. Hunt, Notices on the Influence of Light on the Growth of Plants ;—R. L.
Ellis, on the Recent Progress of Analysis ;—Prof. Forchhammer, on Comparative Analytical
Researches on Sea Water ;—A. Erman, on the Calculation of the Gaussian Constants for
1829;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress, present Amount, and probable future Condition of the
Iron Manufacture in Great Britain ;—W. R. Birt, Third Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—
Prof. Owen, Report on the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton ;—
J. Phillips, on Anemometry ;—J. Percy, M.D., Report on the Crystalline Flags ;—Addenda
to Mr. Birt’s Report on Atmospheric Waves.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir R. I. Murchison’s Address, and Re-
_ commendations of the Association and its Committees,

PROCEEDINGS or tHE SEVENTEENTH MEETING, at Oxford,
1847, Published at 18s.

ConTENTS :—Prof. Langberg, on the Specific Gravity of Sulphuric Acid at different de-
grees of dilution, and on the relation which exists between the Development of Heat and the
coincident contraction of Volume in Sulphuric Acid when mixed with Water;—R. Hunt,
Researches on the Influence of the Solar Rays on the Growth of Plants ;—R. Mallet, on
the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Prof. Nilsson, on the Primitive Inhabitants of Scan-
dinavia ;—W. Hopkins, Report on the Geological Theories of Elevation and Earthquakes ;
—Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Report on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—Rev. W. Whewell and
Sir James C. Ross, Report upon the Recommendation of an Expedition for the purpose of
completing our knowledge of the Tides ;—Dr. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—Seventh Re-
port of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—J. Glynn, on the Turbine or Horizontal
Water-Wheel of France and Germany ;—Dr. R. G. Latham, on the present state and recent
progress of Ethnographical Philology ;—Dr. J. C. Prichard, on the various methods of Research
which contribute to the Advancement of Ethnology, and of the relations of that Science to
other branches of Knowledge ;—Dr. C. C. J. Bunsen, on the results of the recent Egyptian
researches in reference to Asiatic and African Ethnology, and the Classification of Languages ;
—Dr. C. Meyer, on the Importance of the Study of the Celtic Language as exhibited by the
Modern Celtic Dialects still extant ;—Dr. Max Miiller, on the Relation of the Bengali to the
Arian and Aboriginal Languages of India;—W. R. Birt, Fourth Report on Atmospheric
Waves ;—Prof. W. H. Dove, Temperature Tables; with Introductory Remarks by Lieut.-Col.
E. Sabine ;—A. Erman and H. Petersen, Third Report on the Calculation of the Gaussian Con-
stants for 1829.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Robert Harry Inglis’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHe EIGHTEENTH MEETING, at Swansea,
1848, Published at 9s.

ConTENTsS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—
J. Glynn, on Water-pressure Engines ;—R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns ;—Eighth
Report of Committee on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—W. R. Birt, Fifth Report on At-
mospheric Waves ;—E. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—J. P. Budd, on the advantageous use
made of the gaseous escape from the Blast Furnaces at the Ystalyfera Iron Works;—R. Hunt,
Report of progress in the investigation of the Action of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of
Plants allied to those of the Coal Formations ;—Prof. H. W. Dove, Supplement to the Tem-
perature Tables printed in the Report of the British Association for 1847 ;—Remarks by Prof.
Dove on his recently constructed Maps of the Monthly Isothermal Lines of the Globe, and on
some of the principal Conclusions in regard to Climatology deducible from them; with an in-
troductory Notice by Lt.-Col. E. Sabine ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the progress of the investigation
on the Influence of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Ferns ;—J. Phillips, Notice of further
progress in Anemometrical Researches ;—Mr. Mallet’s Letter to the Assistant-General Secre-
tary ;—A. Erman, Second Report on the Gaussian Constants;—Report of a Committee
relative to the expediency of recommending the continuance of the Toronto Magnetical and
Meteorological Observatory until December 1850.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Marquis of Northampton’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHe NINETEENTH MEETING, at Birmingham,
184.9, Published at 10s.

ConTENTs :—Rev. Prof, Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Earl
of Rosse, Notice of Nebulz lately observed in the Six-feet Reflector ;—Prof, Daubeny, on the
Influence of Carbonic Acid Gas on the health of Plants, especially of those allied to the Fossil
Remains found in the Coal Formation ;—Dr. Andrews, Report on the Heat of Combination ;
—Report of the Committee on the Registration of the Periodic Phenomena of Plants and
Animals ;—Ninth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds;
—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from
Aug. 9, 1848 to Sept. 12, 1849 ;—R. Mallet, Report on the Experimental Inquiry on Railway
Bar Corrosion ;—W. R. Birt, Report on the Discussion of the Electrical Observations at Kew.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rey. T, R. Robinson’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

Rha: .

PROCEEDINGS or tHE TWENTIETH MEETING, at Edinburgh,
1850, Published at 15s.

ConTEnTs :—R. Mallet, First Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Rev. Prof.
Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Dr. T. Williams, on the Structure and
History of the British Annelida;—T. C. Hunt, Results of Meteorological Observations taken
at St. Michael’s from the Ist of January, 1840, to the 31st of December, 1849 ;—R. Hunt, on
the present State of our Knowledge of the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Tenth
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Major-Gen.
Briggs, Report on the Aboriginal Tribes of India;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Ob-
servatory of the British Association at Kew ;—E. Forbes, Report on the Investigation of British
Marine Zoology by means of the Dredge ;—R. MacAndrew, Notes on the Distribution and
Range in depth of Mollusca and other Marine Animals, observed on the coasts of Spain, Por-
tugal, Barbary, Malta, and Southern Italy in 1849 ;—Prof. Allman, on the Present State of
our Knowledge of the Freshwater Polyzoa ;—Registration of the Periodical Phenomena of
Plants and Animals ;—Suggestions to Astronomers for the Observation of the Total Eclipse
of the Sun on July 28, 1851.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir David Brewster’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Asseciation and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tut TWENTY-FIRST MEETING, at Ipswich,
1851, Published at 16s. 6d.

ConTENTS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Eleventh Re-
port of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Dr. J. Drew, on
the Climate of Southampton ;—Dr. R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns: Action of
Porous Strata, Water and Organic Matter ;—Report of the Committee appointed to consider
the probable Effects in an CEconomical and Physical Point of View of the Destruction of Tro-
pical Forests ;—A. Henfrey, on the Reproduction and supposed Existence of Sexual Organs
in the Higher Cryptogamous Plants ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the Nomenclature of Organic Com-
pounds ;—Rev. Dr. Donaldson, on two unsolved Problems in Indo-German Philology ;—
Dr. T. Williams, Report on the British Annelida;—R. Mallet, Second Report on the Facts of
Earthquake Phenomena ;—Letter from Prof. Henry, to Col. Sabine, on the System of Meteoro-
logical Observations proposed to be established in the United States ;—Col. Sabine, Report
on the Kew Magnetographs ;—J. Welsh, Report on the Performance of his three Magneto-
graphs during the Experimental Trial at the Kew Observatory ;—F. Ronalds, Report concern-
ing the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from September 12, 1850, to July 31,
1851 ;—Ordnance Survey of Scotland.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Airy’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tut TWENTY-SECOND MEETING, at Belfast,
1852, Published at 15s.

ConTENTS :—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Twelfth
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Rev. Prof.
Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1851-52 ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the In-
fluence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants;—A Manual of Ethnological
Inquiry ;—Col. Sykes, Mean Temperature of the Day, and Monthly Fall of Rain at 127 Sta-
tions under the Bengal Presidency ;—Prof. J. D. Forbes, on Experiments on the Laws of the
Conduction of Heat;—R. Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Dr. Hodges,
on the Composition and Economy of the Flax Plant;—W. Thompson, on the Freshwater
Fishes of Ulster; —W. Thompson, Supplementary Report on the Fauna of Ireland;—W . Wills,
onthe Meteorology of Birmingham;—J. Thomson, on the Vortex-Water- Wheel ;—J. B. Lawes
and Dr. Gilbert, on the Composition of Foods in relation to Respiration and the Feeding of
Animals.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Colonel Sabine’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tur TWENTY-THIRD MEETING, at Hull,
1853, Published at 10s. 6d.

Contents :—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1852-53 ;
—James Oldham, on the Physical Features of the Humber ;—James Oldham, on the Rise,
Progress, and Present Position of Steam Navigation in Hull;—William Fairbairn, Experi-
mental Researches to determine the Strength of Locomotive Boilers, and the causes which
lead to Explosion ;—J. J. Sylvester, Provisional Report on the Theory of Determinants ;—
Professor Hodges, M.D., Report on the Gases evolved in Steeping Flax, and on the Composition
and (Economy of the Flax Plant ;—Thirteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the
Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Robert Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations;
—John P. Bell, M.D., Observations on the Character and Measurements of Degradation of the
Yorkshire Coast; First Report of Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Sur-
face, as compared with that of the Earth;—R. Mallet, Provisional Report on Earthquake
Wave-Transits; and on Seismometrical Instruments ;—William Fairbairn, on the Mechanical
Properties of Metals as derived from repeated Meltings, exhibiting the maximum point of
strength and the causes of deterioration ;—Robert Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earth-
quake Phenomena (continued).

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Hopkins’s Address, and Recommenda-
tions of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHe TWENTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Liver-
pool, 1854, Published at 18s.

ContTENTS:—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena (continued) ;
—Major-General Chesney, on the Construction and General Use of Efficient Life-Boats ;—Rev.
Prof. Powell, Third Report on the present State of our Knowledge of Radiant Heat ;—Colonel
Sabine, on some of the results obtained at the British Colonial Magnetic Observatories ;—
Colonel Portlock, Report of the Committee on Earthquakes, with their proceedings respecting
Seismometers ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers
of Plants, Part 2;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1853-54;
—Second Report of the Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Surface ;—W. G.
Armstrong, on the Application of Water-Pressure Machinery ;—J. B. Lawes and Dr. Gilbert,
on the Equivalency of Starch and Sugar in Food ;—Archibald Smith, on the Deviations of the
Compass in Wooden and Iron Ships; Fourteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on
the Growth and Vitality of Seeds.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Earl of Harrowby’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue TWENTY-FIFTH MEETING, a Glasgow,
1855, Published at 15s.

ConTENTS:—T. Dobson, Report on the Relation between Explosions in Coal- Mines and
Revolving Storms;—Dr. Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers
of Plants growing under different Atmospheric Conditions, Part 3;—C. Spence Bate, on the
British Edriophthalma ;—J. F. Bateman, on the present state of our knowledge on the Supply
of Water to Towns ;—Fifteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and
Vitality of Seeds ;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report en Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1854-55 ;
—Report of Committee appointed to inquire into the best means of ascertaining those pro-
perties of Metals and effects of various modes of treating them which are of importance to the
durability and efficiency of Artillery ;—Rev. Prof. Henslow, Report on Typical Objects in
Natural History ;—A. Follett Osler, Account of the Self-Registering Anemometer and Rain-
Gauge at the Liverpool Observatory ;—Provisional Reports.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Duke of Argyll’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

LIST OF PLATES.

PLATE I.
Illustrative of the Report upon the Channels of the River Mersey.

PLATE II.
Illustrative of the Dredging Report.—Frith of Clyde. 1856.

PLATE III.

Illustrative of Photochemical Researches, by Professor Bunsen and Dr.
Henry Roscoe.

PLATES IV. and V.

Illustrative of Mr. William Fairbairn’s Report on the Tensile Strength of
Wrought Iron.

PLATES VI. to IX.

Illustrative of Mr. P. P. Carpenter’s Report on the present state of our
knowledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of North
America.

Puates VI., VII., VIII., [X. are designed to illustrate variations of form
between individuals of the same species, observed in comparing large
numbers of specimens from the Reigen Collection of Mazatlan Shells: vide
Report, pp. 241-264.

; PLATE VI.

Fig. 1. Three adult specimens of Arca grandis, Brod. & Sby., laid on the same hinge-
line: 7, normal state; e, elongated; 0, obese.
_ Fig. 2. The same specimens in profile.
Fig. 3. Two young specimens, showing that the changes of form are not merely the
F result of circumstances of growth: e, elongated; ¢, transverse.
Fig. 4. The same specimens in profile. The A. equilatera, Sby., is probably the
; young of this species. It has been selected from a group usually constant
Im its characters; the nestling Byssoarks being notoriously irregular.

2 REPORT—1856.

PLATE VII.

Fig. 1 a. Cyrena Mexicana, Brod.& Sby. Two young specimens laid together at the left
angle between the dorsal margin and the umbo: 2, normal; e, elongated.
In this state it forms part of C. Floridana, Desh. MS., non Conr.
Fig. 1b. Four specimens, similarly placed, adult : n, the largest shell, normal shape ;
e, elongated; r, rounded; a, an extreme form, described by Dr. Gould as
C. altilis. The Cyrene are generally very regular shells.
Fig. 2. Two specimens of Avicula sterna, Gould: the black line, normal; the dotted
line, with the characteristic tail almost evanescent, while the upper ears
are enormously developed.
Fig. 3. Gadinia pentegoniostoma, Sby.: a, normal state, round, margin deeply
crenate, ribs deeply grooved internally ; these characters pass away more
or less in the other specimens ; }, with one corner; c, with two corners ; d,
with three corners; e, with four corners ; f, with five corners; g, with six

corners obscurely marked.

Fig. 4. Glyphis inequalis, Sby., including Fissurella pica, Sby., and F. mus, Rve. :
a, extreme form, type of F. inequalis, oblong, with faint sculpture, shown
at a’, and trilobed hole; 6, lobes of hole evanescent; c, form F. mus;
d, type of F. pica, oval, with rounded hole and strong sculpture shown at
d'; e, f. 9, h, i, k, 1, m, n, internal views of the hole and callosity, mag-
nified, showing the great changes of form, and the development or absence
of the posterior truncation and pit. This, with an oval hole, are con-
sidered generic characters by Messrs. H. & A. Adams: vide Gen. vol. i.
p- 447 (as Lucapina, but not of Gray, except L. crenulata).

Fig. 5. Fissurella rugosa, Sby., including F. chlorotrema, Mke., F. humilis, Mke.,
and F. viminea, Mke. non Rve.: a, finely grown, with faint, flattened,
smooth ribs, and trilobed hole; 8, normal state, ribs faint, hole suboval ;
c, specimen of irregular growth, normal outline when young, ribs stronger ;
d, specimen with ribs on the upper portion strongly developed ; e, speci-
men of coarse growth, ribs nodulous; f, extreme form, from which the
species was described, ribs very strong and irregular. The colour varies
from uniform green to nearly uniform red; the young shells being gene-
rally green with a red patch. g, h, i, k, interior sketches of hole and cal-
losity. The shape of the hole is generally a very constant character in
Fissurellide.

PLATE VIII.

Fig. 1. Development and varieties of Crepidula nivea, C. B. Ad., including Calyptrea
squama, Brod., Calyptrea Lessonii, Brod., and Crepidula striolata, Mke.
(=Crypta nivea, Ianacus squama, and Ianacus Lessonii, H. & A. Ad.) :
a, inside view of very young specimen, deck just forming; 8, ditto,
a stage older; c, ditto, older, less magnified, anterior sinus not developed
(Crypta, H. & A. Ad.); d, external view, showing prominent, ribbed
apex ; e, another specimen, rayed (squama, Brod.); f, group of deck-
margins, the horizontal line representing the medial point; the two
to the right are young, magnified; the rounding of the outline and de-
velopment of the anterior sinus, made of subgeneric importance by Messrs.
Adams, here appear extremely variable; g, a normal specimen, margin
sharp; h, the same indented by attachment to a Strombus granulatus ; 1,
margin in layers, flattened, abnormally thickened near the umbo ; j, out-
side view, form striolata, the layers beginning to appear separate outside ;
k, layers here and there prominent, form Lessonii, shell concentrically
striated, and with colour rays as in e; /, an abnormally bilobed specimen,
form Lessonii; m, a specimen abnormally costated, by attachment to a
ribbed shell ; n, inside view of two specimens, laid with the deck-margin to
correspond, to show the great length of deck in the lined specimen, and
its shortness in the dotted one ; 0, two specimens similarly laid, one long
and straight, the other rounded and semispiral, like Crepipatella, H. &

}

a

LIST OF PLATES. 3

A. Ad.; the long specimen has grown in the burrow of a Lithophagus,
and displays margin-layers at the umbonal region, and one Lessonioid
lamina in front; p, profile of the last-named specimen, with deck promi-
nent, and back somewhat indented, as in C. explanata, Gld.

Fig. 2. Young state of Crepidula unguiformis, Lam. (Ianacus, H. & A. Ad.), to com-
pare with the last species, which it closely resembles when adolescent: a,
inside view, showing large imbedded spiral portion ; }, outside, showing
flattened, smooth spire.

Fig. 3. Crepidula aculeata, Gmel,, including Calyptrea echinus, Brod., Calyptrea
hystriz, Brod., Crepidula Californica, Nutt., and probably Crepidula
costata, Mke. (not Sby.), subgenus Crepipatella, H. & A. Ad.+ a, young
state, like Neritina, deck just commencing ; 4, ditto, a stage older; c, the
same in profile; d, ditto, somewhat older; e, ditto, a little older ; f, out-
side view, older, showing spiral growth, margin not produced, spines just
appearing ; g, a group of deck-margins, arranged as in fig. 1 f, the three
to the right being magnified ; the second from the left is the normal state ;
in the first, not only the characteristic medial angle is rounded off, but an
abnormal angle appears, turned the wrong way; h, two specimens, out-
side view, to show straight and spiral growth, as in fig. 10; i, two speci-
mens, laid with the upper margins corresponding, to show dispropor-
tionate length of deck; the short deck belongs to the dotted margin;
Jj, two specimens in profile; one arched, with deck internal; the other
(dotted) flat, with deck prominent.

Fig. 4. Lophyrus articulatus, Sby.: a, front profile of a specimen abnormally tri-
lobed; the dotted line shows the same profile of an elevated specimen ;
6, terminal valves of two specimens, one with inner margin incurved, the
other excurved; ¢, medial valves of two specimens, one much waved, the
other nearly straight. These characters are much dwelt on by Midden-
dorff in the discrimination of species.

Fig. 5. A monstrosity of Fissurella virescens, Sby., inside view, with a circular hole
in addition to the normal one.

PLATE IX.

Fig. 1. Crucibulum imbricatum, Sby., Brod., Desh. =Patella scutellata, Wood,=
Calypeopsis rugosa, Less. non Desh.: including the non-pitted form, Dys-
potea dentata, Mke.=Calyptrea ? extinctorium, Sby. non Lam.=Ca-
lyptrea rugosa, Val., Rve., non Desh.: showing development. a, fry,
magnified, outside view ; 5, ditto, inside, shell like Narica, with umbilical
chink, slight columellar lip, and a thin film of patelliform margin sur-
rounding the whole; c, young state, slightly magnified, cup much ex-
panded ; in this state it appears to belong to the subgenus Dispotea (Say)
of H. & A. Ad.; d, ditto, outside view, ribs scarcely indicated; e,
adolescent, ribs strongly developed, cup-angle narrower ; f, a stage nearer
maturity, cup-margins nearly closed; g, adult state.

Fig. 2. Crepidula ?dorsata, Brod., var. bilobata, nearly adult (Crepipatella dorsata,
H. & A. Ad.), to compare with fig. 1 c and 3 a.

Fig. 3. Crucibulum spinosum, Sby.,=Patella Peziza, Wood,=Calyptrea tubifera,
Less.,= Calypeopsis auriculata, D’Orb. non Chemn.; including Calypeop-
sis tenuis, C. hispida, and C. maculata, Brod. The C. quiriquina, Less.=
C. Byronensis, Gray, MS.=C. rugosa, D’Orb. (pars), is probably a coarse
variety of the same species ; and the C. rugosa, Desh., non Less. nec Val.
=C. lignaria, Brod., may be a distorted growth of the same variety.
a, young state, magnified ; 6, the same, a stage older, wrinkles developed
crenating the margin, shape abnormal; c, inside of smooth form, adult ;
d, a specimen with the cup diseased, probably owing to the decay of half
the outside, where the commencement of the cup may be seen exposed ;
margin of the undecayed part thick and in layers, as in C. quiriquina ;
e, outside view of specimen without spines, wrinkles very faint ; f, speci-
men with a very few rudimentary spines in the form of tubercles, and

4 REPORT—1856.

faint, curved, radiating lines indicating the direction in which the spines
would normally appear; g, another specimen, smooth over most of the
surface, but with spines fully developed at the top; 4, a specimen with
wrinkles almost evanescent, yet with a few well-developed spines, in
straight radiating lines; 7, a specimen of normal development, with
irregular wrinkles crossed by curved rows of spines; 7, portion of internal
margin of specimen h; k, margin of specimen with spines partly formed,
open; J, ditto fully developed, hollow throughout ; m, profile of specimen
beginning with regular margin, smooth, afterwards with irregular margin
and a few long spines at one corner; n, profile of smooth specimen
beginning regularly, then with different amounts of irregularity, ending
with a regular margin; o, three specimens in profile, laid for the vertex to
coincide ; the first is flattened throughout, forming a regular, obtuse-
angled triangle; the second (shaded) begins very conical, spinous, then
with two stages, flattened, smooth ; the third begins like the first, then
spreads somewhat, but ends much compressed ; p, an abnormal specimen
found by Mr. Cuming in a hole, from deep water, and figured in Trans. Zool.
Soe. vol. i. pl. 28. f. 8; the long spines are curved backwards over the flat
shell, and the cup is extremely prominent; the dotted lime represents the
outline of a shell at the opposite extreme, var. compresso-conicum, Proc.
Zool. Soc. 1856, p. 167.

Fig. 4. ‘Cecum undatum, magnified, exhibiting development and variations in shape,
sculpture, form of mouth, prominence of plug, &c., observed among about
‘340 specimens. Similar changes in the common Panama species form the
‘Caecum diminutum, C. pygmeum, C. monstrosum, C. eburneum and C. fir-
‘matum of Prof. C. B. Adams: (a, young Cecum, with spiral part attached,
species not known ;) 0, tube smooth and short; c, ditto, long; d, with
‘faint indications of rings near the margin; e, shell more curved ; marginal
rings stronger ; f, shell passing at once from smooth to fully ringed state ;
‘g, the same, more bent, rings irregular; fh, ditto, curvature irregular;
2, with more rings, outline very irregular; 7, stumpy form, rings close,
mouth immature; k, adult, front view, with multispiral operculum in situ,
‘apical portion smooth; /, another specimen, mouth contracted, apical
portion ringed; m, normial state, profile; , specimen with rings almost
evanescent; 0, deformed specimen, broken, and mended without rings.
All the irregularities in these figures are intended.

Fig.5. Neritina cassiculum, Sby.: a, elevated state, corresponding with subgenus
Vitta (Klein) of Messrs. Adams; 4, normal state, subgenus Neritina
(Swains.) of Messrs. Adams; c, depressed state, answering to restricted
genus Neritella (Humph.) of Messrs. Adams. The same changes of form
are observable in the very closely related Neritina picta, Sby.=Vitta
picta of Messrs. Adams.

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a

List of those Members of the British Association for the Advancement
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Freeland, Humphrey William, F.G.S.,
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Frerichs, John Andrew, 1 Keynsham
Bank, Cheltenham.

Fullarton, Allan, Greenock.

Fulton, Alexander, 7 Woodside Crescent,
Glasgow.

Gadesden, Augustus William, F.S.A.,
Leigh House, Lower Tooting, Surrey.

Gaskell, Samuel, 19 Whitehall Place,
London.

Gething, George Barkley, Springfield,
Newport, Monmouthshire.

Gibson, George Stacey, Saffron Walden.

Gilbart, James William, F.R.S., London
and Westminster Bank, Lothbury, Lon-
don.

Gladstone, George, F.C.S., Clapham
Common, London.

Gladstone, John Hall, Ph.D., F.R.S.,
21 Tavistock Square, London,

Goodman, John, M.D., The Promenade,
Southport.

oe

a

EE

BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 5

Goodsir, John, F.R.S. L. & E., Professor
of Anatomy in the University of Edin-
burgh.

Gordon, James, 46 Park Street, Bristol.

Gordon, Rev. James Crawford, M.A., De-
lamont, Downpatrick, Downshire.

Gotch, Rev. Frederick William, B.A., 1
Cave Street, Bristol.

Gotch, Thomas Henry, Kettering.
Graham, Thomas, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
Master of the Royal Mint, London.

Grainger, John, Rose Villa, Belfast.

Gratton, Joseph, 94 Shoreditch, London.

Graves, Rev. Charles, D.D., Professor of
Mathematics in the University of
Dublin, M.R.I.A.; 2 Trinity College,
Dublin.

Graves, Rev. Richard Hastings, D.D.,
Brigown Glebe, Michelstown, Co.Cork.

Gray, John, Greenock.

Gray, John Edward,Ph.D., F.R.S.,Keep-
er of the Zoological Collections of the
British Museum; British Museum.

Gray, William, F.G.S. (Local Treasurer),
Minster Yard, York.

Grazebrook, Henry, jun., 61 Canning
Street, Liverpool.

Greenaway, Edward, 40 Kensington
Park Gardens, Notting Hill, London.

Greswell, Rev. Richard, B.D., F.R.S.,
Beaumont Street, Oxford.

Griffin, John Joseph, 119 Bunhill Row,
London.

Griffith, Richard, LL.D.,M.R.1.A.,F.G.S.,
Fitzwilliam Place, Dublin.

Griffiths, S. Y., Oxford.

Guinness, Rev. William Smyth, M.A.,
Beaumont, Drumcondra, Co. Dublin.

Gutch, John James, 88 Micklegate, York.

Hall, T. B., Coggeshall, Essex.

Hallam, Henry, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
Trust. Brit. Mus., 24 Wilton Crescent,
Knightsbridge, London.

Hamilton, Mathie, M.D., Warwick Street,
Glasgow.

Hamilton, Sir William Rowan, LL.D.,
Astronomer Royal of Ireland, and
Andrews’ Professor of Astronomy in
the University of Dublin, M.R.1.A.,
F.R.A.S.; Observatory near Dublin.

Hamilton, William John, F.R.S., For.
Sec. G.S., 23 Chesham Place, Bel-
grave Square, London.

Hamlin, Captain Thomas, Greenock.

Harcourt, Rev. William V. Vernon, M.A.,
F.R.S., Bolton Perey, Tadcaster.

Hare, Charles John, M.D., 41 Brook
Street, Grosvenor Square, London.

Harley, John, Ross Hall near Shrewsbury.

Harris, George William, 17 Park Street,
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Harris, Henry, Heaton Hall near Bradford.

Harrison, William, Galligreaves House
near Blackburn.

Harter, William, Hope Hall, Manchester.

Hartley, Jesse, Trentham Street, Liver-

pool.

Harvey, Joseph Charles, Youghal, Co.
Cork.

Hatton, James, Richmond House, Higher
Broughton, Manchester.

Haughton, William, 28 City Quay, Dublin.

Hawkins, Thomas, F.G.S., Down Court,
Isle of Wight.

Hawkshaw, John, F.R.S., F.G.S., 43
Eaton Place, London.

Hawthorn, Robert,C.E.,Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

Henry, Alexander, Portland Street, Man-
chester.

Henry, William Charles, M.D., F.R.S.,
Haffield near Ledbury, Herefordshire.

Henslow, Rev. John Stevens, M.A.,
F.L.S., Professor of Botany inthe Uni-
versity of Cambridge, and Examiner in
Botany in the University of London ;
Hitcham, Bildeston, Suffolk.

Hepburn, J. Gotch, Clapham Common,
Surrey.

Herbert, Thomas, Nottingham.

Heywood, Sir Benjamin, Bart., F.R.S.,
9 Hyde Park Gardens, London ; and
Claremont, Manchester.

Heywood, James, F.R.S., 5 Eaton Place,
London.

Heywood, Robert, Bolton.

Higgin, Edward, Liverpool.

Higson, Peter, Irwill Terrace, Lower
Broughton, Manchester.

Hill, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G.S., Sheering
Rectory, Harlow.

Hill, Rowland, F.R.A.S., General Post
Office, London.

Hindmarsh, Frederick, F.G.S., 17 Buck-
lersbury, London.

Hindmarsh, Luke, Alnwick.

Hoare, Rev. George Tooker, Tandridge,
Godstone.

Hoblyn, Thomas, F.R.S., White Barnes,
Buntingford, Herts.

Hodgkin, Thomas, M.D., F.R.G.S., 35
Bedford Square, London.

Hodgkinson, Eaton, F.R.S., M.R.1LA.,
Professor of the Mechanical Principles
of Engineering in University College,
London ; 44 DraytonGrove, Brompton,
London.

Hodgson, Adam, Everton, Liverpool.

Holden, Moses, 13 Jordan Street,Preston.

6 MEMBERS TO WHOM

Holditch, Rev. Hamnet, M.A., Caius
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Holland, P. H., Poplar Cottage, 12
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Hollingsworth, John, 10 Burney Street,
Greenwich.

Hone, Nathaniel, M.R.I.A., Doloughs
Park, Co. Dublin.

Hopkins, William, M.A., F.R.S., Cam-
bridge.

Horner, Leonard, F.R.S., V.P.G.S., 17
Queen’s Road West, Regent’s Park,
London.

Horsfield, George, Brampton Grove,
Smedley Lane, Cheetham, Man-
chester.

Houldsworth, Henry, Newton Street,
Manchester.

Houldsworth, John, 196 Athol Place,
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Hoyle, John, Brown Street, Manchester.

Hudson, Henry, M.D., M.R.I.A., 23
Stephen’s Green, Dublin.

Hull, William Darley, F.G.S., 49 Milner
Square, Islington, London.

Hulse, Edward, D.C.L., All-Souls’ Col-
lege, Oxford.

Hunter, Thomas C., Greenock.

Hutchison, Graham, 16 Blythswood
Square, Glasgow.

Hutton, Robert, M.R.1.A., F.G.S., Put-
ney Park, Surrey.

Hutton, William, North Terrace, West
Hartlepool.

Ibbetson, Captain Levett Landen Bos-
cawen, K.R.E., F.R.S., Clifton House,
Old Brompton, London.

Inman, Thomas, M.D., Rodney Street,
Liverpool.

Jackson, James Eyre, Tullydory, Black-
water Town, Co. Armagh.

Jacob, John, M.D., Maryborough.

Jardine, Sir William, Bart., F.R.S.E.,
Jardine Hall, Applegarth, by Lockerby,
Dumfriesshire.

Jarratt, Rev. John, M.A., North Cave
near Brough, Yorkshire.

Jee, Alfred 8., 6 John Street, Adelphi,
London.

Jeffray, John, 137 Sauchiehall Street,
Glasgow.

Jenkyns, Rev. Henry, D.D., Professor of
Divinity and Ecclesiastical History in
the University of Durham; Durham.

Jenyns, Rev. Leonard, M.A., F.LS.,
Upper Swainswick near Bath.

Jerram, Rev. S. John, M.A., Witney,
Oxfordshire.

Jerrard, George Birch, B.A., Examiner in
Mathematics and Natural Philosophy
in the University of London; Long
Stratton, Norfolk.

Johnson, Thomas.

Johnstone, James, Alva near Alloa, Stir-
lingshire.

Johnstone, Sir John Vanden Bempde,
Bart., M.P., M.A., F.G.S., 27 Gros-
venor Square, London.

Jones, Christopher Hird, 2 Castle Street,
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Jones, Major Edward, 5 York Place,
Clifton, Bristol.

Jones, Josiah, 2 Castle Street, Liverpool.

Jones, Robert, 2 Castle Street, Liverpool.

Jones, R. L., Great George Square,
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Joule, Benjamin, jun., New Bailey Street,
Salford, Manchester.

Joule, James Prescott, F.R.S., Oakfield,
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Joy, Rev. Charles Ashfield, Hopwas, Tam-
worth, Staffordshire.

Jubb, Abraham, Halifax.

Kay, John Robinson, Boss Lane House,
Bury, Lancashire.

Kay, Rev. William, D.D., Lincoln Col-
lege, Oxford.

Kelsall, Henry, Rochdale, Lancashire.

Ker, Robert, Auchinraith, Glasgow.

Kerr, Archibald, Glasgow.

Knowles, Edward R. J.,23 George Street,
Ryde, Isle of Wight.

Knowles, William, Newport, Monmouth-
shire.

Knox, G. James, 2 Finchley New Road,
St. John’s Wood, London.

Laming, Richard, Hazelgrave, Hayward’s
Heath, Sussex.

Langton, William, Manchester.

Lansdowne, Henry, Marquis of, K.G.,
D.C.L., F.R.S., Trust. Brit. Mus., 54
Berkeley Square, London; and Bo-
wood Park, Wiltshire.

Larcom,Colonel ThomasA., R.E., LL.D.,
F.R.S., M.R.LA., Chief Secretary’s
Office, Dublin Castle, Dublin.

La Touche, David Charles, M.R.I.A.,
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Laurie, James, Langholm near Carlisle.

Leatham, Charles Albert, Wakefield.

Leatham, Edward Aldam, Wakefield.

Leather, John Towlerton, Leventhorpe
Hall near Leeds.

Lee, John, LL.D., F.R.S., 5 College,
Doctors’ Commons, London; and
Hartwell House near Aylesbury.

BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 7

Lee, John Edward, Caerleon, Monmouth-
shire.

Leese, Joseph,jun.,Glenfield, Altrincham.

Leeson, Henry B., M.A., M.D., F.R.S.,
The Maples, Bonchurch, Isle of Wight.

Lefroy, Lt.-Colonel John Henry, R.A.,
F.R.S., War Office.

Legh, George Cornwall, M.P., F.G.S8.,
High Legh, Cheshire.

Leinster, Augustus Frederick, Duke of,
M.R.1.A., 6 Carlton House Terrace,
London.

Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., F.R.S., 46
Charles Street, Berkeley Square, Lon-
don; and Carclew near Falmouth.

Lemon, James, jun., Ardville, Belfast.

Lindsay, Charles, 103 Addle Hill, Up-
per Thames Street, London.

Lindsay, John H.,317 Bath St.,Glasgow.

Lingard, John R., F.G.S., Stockport,
Cheshire.

Lister, Joseph Jackson, F.R.S., Upton,
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Lloyd, George, M.D., F.G.S., Stank Hill
near Warwick.

Lloyd, Rev. Humphrey, D.D., LL.D.,
E.R.S. L. and E., V.P.R.LA., Trinity
College, Dublin.

Lloyd, John Buck, Liverpool.

Lobley, James Logan, 87 Brunswick
Road, Liverpool.

Locke, John, Rathmines, Dublin.

Lockey, Rev. Francis, Swainswick near
Bath.

Loftus, William Kennett, F.G.S.

Logan, Rev. Thomas, M.A., Rutherglen,
Glasgow.

Logan, Sir William Edmond, F.R.S.,
F.G.S., Director of the Geological Sur-
vey of Canada; Montreal.

Londesborough, Albert Denison, Lord,
K.C.H., F.R.S., 8 Carlton House Ter-
race, London; and Grimstone Park,
Tadcaster, Yorkshire.

Lubbock, Sir John William, Bart., M.A.,

F.R.S.,Mansion House Street, London;
and High Elms, Farnborough.

Lubbock,John, 1] Mansion House Street,
City, London; and High Elms, Farn-
borough.

Luckcock, Howard, Oak Hill,Edgbaston,
Birmingham,

Lundie, Cornelius, Tumnahulla, Head-
ford, Ireland.

Lyell, Sir Charles, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.G.S., 11 Harley Street,
Cavendish Square, London.

Macadam, Stevenson, Ph.D., Surgeons’
Hall, Edinburgh.

M°All, Rev. Edward, Rector of Brigh-
stone, Newport, Isle of Wight.

McAndrew, Robert, F.R.S., Isleworth
House, Isleworth, Middlesex.

MacBrayne,Robert,8 Woodside Crescent,
Glasgow.

M°Connel, James, Manchester.

Mackenzie, James, Glentore.

bar eae Adam Jobn, Duncairn, Bel-

ast.

Macrory, Edmund, 7 Fig Tree Court,
Temple, London.

McCulloch, George, M.D., Cincinnati,
United States.

MacDonnell, Rev. Richard, D.D., Provost
of Trinity College, Dublin, M.R.I.A. ;
Dublin.

M°‘Ewan, John, Glasgow.

Macfie, R. A., 72 Upper Parliament
Street, Liverpool.

M°Gee, William, M.D., 10 Donegall
Square East, Belfast.

Maclver, Charles, Abereromby Square,
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Mackinlay, David, Pollockshields, Glas-

gow.

Malcolm, Frederick, 4 Sion College, Lon-
don Wall, London.

Mallet, Robert, F.R.S., M.R.1.A., Del-
ville near Dublin.

Manchester James Prince Lee, D.D.,
Lord Bishop of, F.R.S., Palace, Man-
chester.

Marshall, James Garth, M.A., F.G.S.,
Headingley near Leeds.

Martin, Francis P. Brouncker, 14 Bruton
Street, Berkeley Square, London.

Martindale, Nicholas, Peter Lane, Ha-
nover Street, Liverpool.

Martineau, Rev. James, Liverpool.

Mason, Thomas, York.

Mather, Daniel,58 Mount Pleasant, Liver-

pool.
Mather, John, 58 Mount Pleasant, Liver-

ool.

Meese James C., Professor of Natural
Philosophy, Marischal College, Aber-
deen.

Maxwell, Sir John, Bart., F.R.S., Pollok
House, Renfrewshire.

Maxwell, Robert Percival, Finebrogue,
Downpatrick, Ireland. i
Mayne, Rev.Charles, M.R.I.A., 22 Upper

Merrion Street, Dublin.

Meadows, James, York Place, Rusholme
near Manchester.

Meynell, Thomas, F.L.S., Aiskew House,
Bedale, Yorkshire.

Michell, Rev. Richard, B.D., Prelector
of Logic, Lincoln College, Oxford.

8 MEMBERS TO WHOM

Miller, Patrick, M.D., Exeter.

Miller, William Allen, M.D., V.P.R.S.,
Professor of Chemistry in King’s Col-
lege, London.

Mills, John Robert, Bootham, York.

Milne, David, M.A.,F.R.S.E.,Edinburgh.

Milner, William Ralph,
Yorkshire.

Milner, William, Liverpool.

Moffat, John, C.E., Ardrossan.

Moore, John Carrick, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.,4 Hyde Park Gate, Kensington
Gore, London ; and Corswall, Wigton-
shire.

Moore, John Schank, Professor of the
Law of Scotland in the University of
Edinburgh, F.R.S.E., 19 Great King
Street, Edinburgh.

Morris, Rey. Francis Orpen, B.A., Naf-
ferton Vicarage near Driffield, York-
shire.

Morton, Francis, James Street, Liverpool.

Moss, W. H., Kingston Terrace, Hull.

Murchison, SirRoderickImpey,G.C.8t.5.,
M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., V.P.G.S., Di-
rector-General of the Geological Sur-
vey of the United Kingdom; 16 Bel-
grave Square, London.

Murray, John, C.E., 11 Great Queen
Street, Westminster, London.

Muspratt, James Sheridan, Ph.D., Col-
lege of Chemistry, Liverpool.

Napier, Captain Johnstone (74th Regi-
ment), The Villa, Poughill, Bude,
Cornwall.

Nasmyth, James, F.R.A.S., Patricroft
near Manchester.

Newall, Robert Stirling,Gateshead-upon-
Tyne.

Newlands, James, 2 Clare Terrace, Liver-
pool.

Newman, Francis William, Professor of
Latin in University College, London ;
7 Park Village East, Regent’s Park,
London.

Newman, William, Darley Hall near
Barnsley, Yorkshire.

Nicholls, John Ashton, F.R.A.S., Ard-
wick Place, Manchester.

Nicholson, Cornelius, F.G.S., The Hill,
Hornsey near London.

Nicholson, John A., M.D., M.R.LA.,
Balrath, Kells, Co. Meath.

O’Reardon, John, M.D., 35 York Street,
Dublin.

Orpen, Charles Edward H., M.D., Cape
of Good Hope.

Osler, A. Follett, F.R.S., Birmingham.

Wakefield, |

| Oxford, Samuel Wilberforce, D.D., Lord

Bishop of, F.R.S., 61 Eaton Place,
London.

Palmer, William, Headington Hill near
Oxford.

Parker, Charles Stewart, Liverpool.

Pasley, Major-General Sir Charles Wil-
liam, Royal Engineers, K.C.B., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., 12 Norfolk Crescent, Hyde
Park, London.

Patterson,Robert,M.R.1.A.,( Local Trea-
surer), College Square North, Belfast.

Pattinson, HughLee,F.R.S.,Scots House,
Gateshead-upon-Tyne.

Pearsall, Thomas John, F.C.S., Little-
down, Mendip Hills near Wells,
Somerset.

Peckover, Alexander, F.R.G.S., Wisbeach,
Cambridgeshire.

Peckover, Algernon, F.L.S., Wisbeach,
Cambridgeshire.

Peckover, Daniel, Woodhall near Brad-
ford, Yorkshire.

Peckover, William, F.S.A., Wisbeach,
Cambridgeshire. _

Pedler, Lieut.-Colonel Philip Warren,
Mutley House near Plymouth.

Peel, George, Soho Iron Works, Ancoats,
Manchester.

Perigal, Frederick, 28 Hereford Square,
Brompton, London.

Peters, Edward, Temple Row, Birming-
ham.

Petit, Rev. John Louis, 9 New Square,
Lincoln’s Inn, London.

Philips, Edward, 35 Church Street, Man-
chester.

Philips, Herbert, 35 Church Street, Man-
chester.

Philips, Mark, The Park near Manchester.

Phillips, John, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
Reader in Geology in the University
of Oxford, (Assistant General Se-
cretary) ; Magdalen Bridge, Oxford.

Phillipps,Sir Thomas, Bart.,M.A.,F.R.S.,
Middle Hill near Broadway, Worces-
tershire.

Philpott, Rev. Henry, D.D., Master of
St. Catharine’s Hall, Cambridge.

Pike, Ebenezer, Besborough, Cork.

Pitt, George, 11 Pembridge Villas, Bays-
water, London.

Pollexfen, Rev. John Hutton, M.A., Rec-
tor of St. Runwald’s, Colchester.

Pontey, Alexander, Plymouth.

Poppelwell, Matthew, Rosella Place,
Tynemouth.

Porter, Henry John, Tandragee Castle,
Co, Armagh.

BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 9

Portlock, Lieut.-Colonel Joseph Ellison,
Royal Engineers, F.R.S., Archeliff
Fort, Dover.

Powell, Rev. Baden, M.A., F.R.S., Savi-
lian Professor of Geometry in the Uni-
versity of Oxford ; 6 Stanhope Street,
Hyde Park Gardens, London; and
Oxford.

Poynter, John E., Clyde Neuck, Udding-
ston.

Pratt, Samuel Peace, F.R.S., F.G.S., 2
Coleman Street, London.

Preston, R. Berthon, 10 Abererombie
Square, Liverpool.

Prestwich, Joseph, F.R.S., Treas. G.S.,
2 Suffolk Lane, City, London.

Pretious, Thomas, Royal Dockyard, Pem-
broke.

Price, Rev. Bartholomew, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S., Sedleian Professor of Natural
Philosophy in the University of Oxford;
Pembroke College, Oxford.

Pritchard, Andrew, 162 Fleet Street,
London.

Prower, Rev. J. M., M.A., Swindon,
Wiltshire.

Pumphrey, Charles, Rock Mill, Stroud,
Gloucestershire.

Radford, William,
Sidmouth.

Ramsay, Sir James, Bart., F.G.S., Bamff
House, Perthshire.

Ramsay, William, M.A., F.S.S., Professor
of Humanity in the University of Glas-
gow, (Local Treasurer) ; The College,
Glasgow.

Rance, Henry, Cambridge.

Ransome, Robert, Iron Foundry, Ipswich.

Rawlins, John, Birmingham.

Rawlinson, Colonel Sir H. C., K.C.B.,
F.R.S., 21 Langham Place, London.
Rawson, Thomas William, Saville Lodge,

Halifax.

Read, William Henry Rudston, M.A.,
F.L.S., Hayton near Pocklington,
Yorkshire.

Reade, Rev. Joseph Bancroft, M.A.,
F.R.S., Stone Vicarage, Aylesbury.
Redfern, Peter, M.D., Lecturer in Ana-
tomy and Physiology in the University
of Aberbeen; 2 Crown Place East,

Aberdeen.

Richardson, Sir John, M.D.,C.B.,F.R.S.,
Lancrigg, Grasmere, Westmoreland.
Riddell, Lieut.-Colonel Charles J. B.,

R.A., F.R.S., 1 Clarence Place, The
Common, Woolwich.
Roberts, Richard, Globe Works, Man-
- chester.

M.D., Sidmount,

Robinson, John, Shamrock Lodge, Ath-
lone, Ireland.

Robson, Rev. John, D.D., Glasgow.

Roget, Peter Mark, M.D., F.R.S., 18
Upper Bedford Place, Russell Square,
London.

Ross, Rear-Admiral Sir James Clark,
R.N., D.C.L., V.P.R.S., Aston House,
Aston Abbots, Aylesbury.

Rowland, John,30 Terminus Road, Brigh-
ton.

Rowney, Thomas H., M.D., College La-
boratory, Glasgow.

Rowntree, Joseph, Pavement, York.

Rowntree, Joseph, Newtown, Leeds.

Royle, John Forbes, M.D., F.R.S., Pro-
fessor of Materia Medica and Thera-
peutics in King’s College, London ;
Heathfield Lodge, Acton, Middlesex.

Rushout, Capt. the Hon. George, M.P.,
F.G.S., 10 Bolton Street, Piccadilly,
London.

Russell, William J., Ph.D., Derwent
Lodge, Chad Road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

Ryland, Arthur, Birmingham.

Sabine, Major-General Edward, R.A.,
D.C.L., Treas. and V.P.R.S., (General
Secretary), 13 Ashley Place, West-
minster.

Salt, C. F., 88 Canning Street, Liver-
pool.

Salter, Thomas Bell, M.D., F.L.S., Ryde,
Isle of Wight.

Sanders, William, F.G.S., (Local Trea-
surer), Park Villa, West Park, Bris-

tol.

Satterthwaite, Michael, M.D., Lindow
Grove, Alderley near Wilmslow, Che-
shire.

Schemman, J. C., Hamburgh; at L.
Thornton’s, Esq., the Elms, Highgate,
Birmingham.

Schofield, Robert, 1 Gresham Street, City,
London.

Scholes, T. Seddon, 16 Dale Street, Lea-
mington.

Scholey, William Stephenson, M.A.,Clap-
ham, London.

Scholfield, Edward, M.D., Doncaster.

Sedgwick, Rev. Adam, M.A., F.R.S.,
Woodwardian Professor of Geology in
the University of Cambridge, and
Canon of Norwich; Trinity College,
Cambridge.

Shaen, William, 8 Bedford Row, London.

Sharp, William, F.R.S., Rugby.

Shaw, Charles Wright, Russell Street,
Liverpool.

10 MEMBERS TO WHOM

Sherrard, David Henry, 88 Upper Dorset
Street, Dublin.

Shortrede, Captain Robert, F.R.A.S.,
H.E.1.C.’s Service, Aden.

Sillar, Zechariah, M.D., Rainford near
Liverpool.

Simpson, Rey. Samuel, Douglas, Isle of
Man.

Simpson, Thomas, M.D., Minster Yard,
York.

Sirr, Rev. Joseph D’Arcy, D.D.,M.R.LA.,
Castle Hill, Winchester.

Slater, William, Princess Street, Man-
chester.

Sleeman, Philip, Windsor Terrace, Ply-
mouth,

Smith, Rev. Geo. Sidney, D.D., M.R.LA.,
Professor of Biblical Greek in the Uni-
versity of Dublin; Aughalurcher, Five-
mile-Town, Co, Tyrone.

Smith, James, Berkeley House, Seaforth
near Liverpool.

Smith, John, Welton Garth near Hull.

Smith, Rev, Joseph Denham, Kingstown
near Dublin.

Smith, Rev. Philip, B.A., Head Master of
Mill Hill School, Hendon, Middlesex.

Smith, Robert Mackay, Bellevue Cre-
scent, Edinburgh.

Smyth, C, Piazzi, Astronomer Royal of
Scotland, Professor of Practical Astro-
nomy in the University of Edinburgh ;
1 Hill Side, Edinburgh.

Solly, Edward, F.R.S., Professor of Che-
mistry to the Horticultural Society of
London; Holme Court, Isleworth ;
and Parkston near Poole.

Solly, Samuel Reynolds, M.A., F.R.S.,
Surge Hill, King’s Langley, Herts.
Sopwith, Thomas, F.R.S., Allenheads,

Haydon Bridge, Northumberland.

Spence, Joseph, Pavement, York.

Spiers, Richard James, 14 St. Giles’s
Street, Oxford.

Spottiswoode, William, M.A., F.R.S.,
12 James Street, Buckingham Gate,
London.

Sprague, Thomas Bond, St. John’s Col-
lege, Cambridge.

Squire, Lovell, Falmouth.

Stainton, JamesJoseph,F.L.S.,Lewisham,
Kent.

Stanger, Joshua, Keswick, Cumberland.

Stanley, Lord, M.P., St. James’s Square,
London.

Stewart, Henry Hutchinson, M.D.,
M.R.LA., 71 Eccles Street, Dublin.
Stokes, George Gabriel, M.A., D.C.L.,
Sec.R.S., Lucasian Professor of Ma-
thematics in the University of Cam-

bridge; Pembroke College, Cam-
bridge.

Strickland, Arthur, Bridlington Quay,
Yorkshire.

Strickland, Charles, Loughglyn, Ballagh-
adereen, Ireland.

Sykes, Colonel William Henry, M.P.,
F.R.S., Chairman of the East India
Company; 47 Albion Street, Hyde
Park, London.

Symonds, Frederick, F.R.C.S., Oxford.

Symons, William, Dunster, Somerset.

Tayler, Rev. John James, B.A., Principal
and Professor of Ecclesiastical History
in Manchester New College, London ;
22 Woburn Square, London.

Taylor, James, Culverlands near Read-

ing.

Taylan John, F.R.S., (General Trea-
surer), 6 Queen Street Place, Upper
Thames Street; and Chester Terrace,
Regent’s Park, London.

Taylor, John, jun., F.G.S., 6 Queen
Street Place, Upper Thames Street,
London.

Taylor, Richard, F.G.S., 6 Queen Street
Place, Upper Thames Street, Lon-
don.

Taylor, Richard, F.L.S., Red Lion Court,
Fleet Street, London.

Tennant, James, F.G.S., Professor of
Mineralogy and Geology in King’s
College, London; 149 Strand, Lon-
don.

Thodey, Winwood, 4 Poultry, London.

Thomson, Corden, M.D., Sheffield.

Thomson, James, M.A.,C.E., 16 Donegall
Place, Belfast.

Thomson, James Gibson, Edinburgh.

Thomson, William, M.A., F.R.S., Pro-
fessor of Natural Philosophy im the
University of Glasgow; The College,
Glasgow.

Thornton, Samuel, The Elms, Highgate,
Birmingham.

Thorp, The Venerable Thomas, D.D.,
Archdeacon of Bristol; Kemerton near
Tewkesbury.

Tidswell, Benjamin K., Brown Street,
Manchester.

Tindal, Captain, R.N., Branch Bank of
England, Birmingham.

Tinné, John A., F.R.G.S., Briarly Aig-
burth, Liverpool.

Townsend, Richard E., Springfield, Nor-

wood.

Trevelyan, Arthur, Wallington, Northum-
berland.

Tuckett, Francis Fox, Frenchay, Bristol.

So =

a a lee

BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 11
Tulloch, James, F.R.S., 16 Montagu | Williams, Caleb, Micklegate, York.

Place, Russell Square, London.
Turnbull, Rev. Thomas Smith, M.A.,
F.R.S., Blofield, Norfolk.
Tweedy, Wm. Mansell, Truro, Cornwall.

Vallack, Rev. Benj. W. 8., St. Budeaux
near Plymouth.

Vance, Rey. Robert, 16 Montpelier Hill,
Dublin.

Vernon, John, Hayman’s Green, West
Derby, Liverpool.

Vivian, H, Hussey, Swansea.

Waldegrave, The Hon. Granville, 26 Port-
land Place, London.

Walker, John, Weaste House, Pendleton,
Manchester.

Walker, Joseph N., F.L.S., Caldeston
near Liverpool.

Walker, Rev. Robt.,M.A., F.R.S., Reader
in Experimental Philosophy in the Uni-
versity of Oxford; Wadham College,
Oxford ; and Culham Vicarage, Abing-
don.

Walker, Thomas, 10 York Street, Man-
chester.

Warburton, Henry, M.A., F.R.S., 45
Cadogan Place, Sloane Street, London.

Ward, William Sykes, F.C,S., Leathley
Lodge, Leeds.

Waterhouse, John, F.R.S., Halifax, York-
shire.

Watson,
Moors.

Way, J. Thomas, Professor of Chemistry,
Royal Agricultural Society of England,
Hanover Square, London.

Webb, Rev. Thomas William, M.A.,
Cloisters, Gloucester.

Western, T. B., Felix Hall, Kelvedon,
Essex.

Westhead, Joshua Proctor, York House,
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Whewell, Rev. William, D.D,, F.R.S.,
Master of Trinity College, Cambridge ;
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Whitehouse, Wildman, 16 Hyde Vale,

_ Blackheath.

Whiteside, James, M.A., Q.C., M.P., 2
Mountjoy Square, Dublin.

Whittey, John Irwine, LL.D., Civil and
Mining Engineer, 15 Henrietta Street,
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Whitworth, Joseph, Manchester.

Wickenden, Joseph, F.G.S., Birming-

Henry Hough, Bolton-le-

ham.
Willert, Paul Ferdinand, Manchester.

Williams, Rev. D., D.C.L., Warden of
New College, Oxford.

Williams, William, 6 Rood Lane, Fen-
church Street, London.

Williamson, Alex. W., Ph.D., F.R,S.,
Professor of Practical Chemistry in
University College, London; 12 Pro-
vost Road, Haverstock Hill, London.

Williamson, Rey. William, B.D., Datch-
worth Rectory near Stevenage.

Wills, William, F.G.S., Edgbaston near
Birmingham.

Wilson, Alexander, F.R.S., 34 Bryan-
stone Square, London.

Wilson, Capt. F., Dallam Tower, Miln-
thorpe, Westmoreland.

Wilson, John, Bootham, York.

Wilson, John, jun., West Hurlet near
Glasgow.

Wilson, Sumner, Southampton.

Wilson, Thomas, Crimbles House, Leeds.

Wilson, William Parkinson, M.A., Profes-
sor of Pure and Applied Mathematics
in the University of Melbourne.

Winsor, F, A., 57 Lincoln’s Inn Fields,
London.

Wollaston, Thomas Vernon, M.A.,F.L.S.,
10 Hereford Street, Park Lane, Lon-
don.

Wood, Rt. Hon. Sir Charles, Bart., M.P.,
Admiralty, and Hickleston Hall, Don-
caster.

Wood, Rev. H. H., M.A., F.G.S., Queen’s
College, Oxford.

Wood, John, St, Saviourgate, York.

Wood, Rey. William Spicer, M.A., Oak-
ham, Rutlandshire.

Woodd, Charles H. L., F.G.S., Hillfield,
Hampstead, London.

Woodhead, G., Mottram near Manchester.

Worcester, Henry Pepys, D.D., Lord Bi-
shop of, 24 Grosvenor Place, London.

Wormald, Richard, 12 Little Tower Street,
London.

Worthington, Robert, Cheetham Hill near
Manchester.

Worthington, Rev. Alfred William, B.A.,
Bridgwater.

Wright, Robert Francis, Hinton Blewett,
Somersetshire.

Yarborough, George Cooke, Camp’s
Mount, Doncaster,

Yorke, Colonel Philip, F.R.S., 89 Eaton
Place, Belgrave Square, London.

Younge, Robert, M.D., Greystones near
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' ANNUAL

12 ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS.

ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS.

Abercrombie, John, M.D., 13 Suffolk
Square, Cheltenham.

Addams, Robert, Welbeck Street, London.

Alison, William P., M.D., F.R.S.Ed.,
Emeritus Professor of the Practice of
Medicine in the University of Edin-
burgh; 44 Heriot Row, Edinburgh.

Allman, George James, M.D., F.R.S.,
M.R.1.A., Professor of Natural History
in the University of Edinburgh; 3
Hope Park, Edinburgh.

Argyll, George Douglas, Duke of, F.R.5.,
Campden Hill, Kensington, London,
and Inverary Castle, Inverary, Scot-
land.

Armstrong, William George, F.R.S., Els-
wick Engine Works, Newcastle-on-

Tyne.
Armstrong, William Jones, M.A., Mount
Irwin, Tynan, Co. Armagh.

Bailey, William, Horseley Fields Chemi-
cal Works, Wolverhampton.

Baines, Samuel, Brighouse near Hudders-
field.

Banks, Richard William, Kington, Here-
fordshire.

Barrington, Edward, Fassaroe, Bray, Tre-
land.

Barrington, Richard, Trafalgar Terrace,
Kingstown, Dublin.

Becker, Ernest, Buckingham Palace,
London.

Beke, Charles T., Ph.D., F.S.A., Mauri-
tius.

Bell, Captain Henry, Chalfont Lodge,
Cheltenham.

Benson, Starling, F.G.S., Gloucester
Place, Swansea.

Billmgs, Robert William, 3 St. Mary’s
Road, Canonbury, London.

Blythe, William, Church, Accrington,
Lancashire.

Bolton, Thomas, Hyde Iron Works near
Stourbridge.

Boult, Joseph, 24 North John Street,
Liverpool.

Brazier, James S., Marischal College,
Aberdeen.

Brewin, Robert, Birstall Hall, Leicester.

Brewster, Sir David, K.H., D.C.L.,
E.R.S., V.P.R.S. Ed., Principal of the
United College of St. Salvator and St.
Leonard, St. Andrew’s.

Bright, Charles T., The Cedars, Harrow
Weald.

Bright, Edward B.,2 Exchange Buildings,
Liverpool; and The Vale, Liscard,
Cheshire.

Brodie, B. C., F.R.S., Professor of Che-
mistry in the University of Oxford ;
Oxford.

Brooke, Edward, Marsden House, Stock-
port, Cheshire.

Brooke, Peter William, Marsden House,
Stockport, Cheshire.

Brown, John, 3 Newcastle Place, Clerk-
enwell, London.

Brownlee, James, 173 St. George’s Road,
Glasgow.

Calvert, Professor F. Crace, F.C.S., Royal
Institution, Manchester.

Carr, John, Queen’s Circus, Chelten-
ham.

Carter, Richard, C.E., Long Carr, Barns-
ley, Yorkshire.

Cator, John B., Commander R.N., 1
Adelaide Street, Hull.

Cheshire, Edward, Conservative Club,
London.

Clapham, Robert Calvert, Ardeer Chemi-
cal Works, Stevenston, Ayrshire.

Claudet, A., F.R.S., 107 Regent Street,
London.

Close, Very Rev. Francis, M.A., Dean of
Carlisle; Deanery, Carlisle.

Cooke, Rev. William, M.A., Gazeley Vi-
carage near Newmarket.

Cooper, Sir Henry, M.D., Hull.

Copeland, George F., 5 Bays Hill Villas,
Cheltenham.

Corbett, Joseph Henry, M.D., Professor
of Anatomy and Physiology in Queen’s
College, Cork.

Cotterill, Rev. Henry, Brighton College,
Brighton.

Crum, Walter, F.R.S., Thornliebank near
Glasgow.

Cull, Richard, Hon. Sec. Ethnological
Society; 13 Tavistock Street, Bedford
Square, London.

Cunningham, William A., Bank, 94 Mos-
ley Street, Manchester.

Daglish, Robert, Sen., M. & C.E., Orrell
Cottage near Wigan.

Dale, John A., M.A., 11 Holywell Street,
Oxford.

Dashwood, Charles, Thomage, Norfolk.

Da Silva, Johnson, Percy Cross House,
Fulham near London.

ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 13

Deane, Henry, Clapham, London.

D’Elwart, Mons., LL.D., 31 North Place,
Cheltenham.

Dennis, J. C., F.R.A.S., 122 Bishopsgate

' Street, London.

Dicker, J. R., 29 Exchange Alley North,
Liverpool.

Dickson, Peter, 28 Upper Brook Street,
London.

Domvile, William C., Thorn Hill, Bray,
Dublin.

Dove, Hector, 71 Hope Street, Glasgow.

Elliot, Robert, Wolflee, Hawick.

Evans, Griffith F. D., M.D., St. Mary’s,
Bedford.

Everest,Colonel George, Bengal Artillery,
F.R.S., 10 Westbourne Street, Hyde
Park, London.

Farr, William, M.D., F.R.S., General
Registry Office, Somerset House; and
1 Melina Place, St. John’s Wood,
London.

Ferguson, James, Gas Coal Works, Les-
mahagow, Glasgow.

Fielding, James, Sowerby Bridge near
Halifax.

Forbes, Colonel Jonathan, 12 Lansdown
Terrace, Cheltenham.

Fowler, Rev. Hugh, M.A., College Gar-
dens, Gloucester.

Fowler, Richard,'M.D.,F.R.S., Salisbury.

Fraser, James P., 58 Buccleuch Street,
Glasgow.

Frazer, Daniel,9 Mansfield Place,Glasgow.

Gardner, James Age, (Local Treasurer),
Hadley House, Cheltenham.

Gassiot, John P., F.R.S., Clapham Com-
mon, London.

Gerard, Henry, 52 Upper Canning Street,
Liverpool.

Gibson, Thomas F., 124 Westbourne
Terrace, Hyde Park, London.

Grant, Robert, M.A., F.R.A.S., Royal
Astronomical Society, Somerset House,
Strand, London.

Greenhalgh, Thomas, Bolton-le-Moors. °

Greenwood, William, Stones, Todmorden,
Lancashire. ;

Greg, Robert Philips, F.G.S., Noreliffe
Hall near Manchester.

Guise, W. V., Elmore Court, Gloucester.

Hall, Hugh F., 40 Everton Terrace,
Liverpool.

Hancock, John, Lurgan, Co. Armagh.

Hancock, W. Neilson, LL.D., 74 Lower
Gardiner Street, Dublin.

Harcourt, Rev. L. Vernon, West Dean
House, Chichester.

Harkness, Robert, F.R.S.,F.G.S., Profes-
sor of Geology in Queen’sCollege,Cork.

Harrison, Lawrence J., 11 Lansdown
Terrace, Cheltenham.

Hartland, Frederick D., F.S.A., Ciren-
cester.

Hartnup, John, F.R.A.S., Observatory,
Liverpool.

Haville, Henry, Montpellier Spa Build-
ings, Cheltenham.

Hawkes, William, Eagle Foundry, Bir-
mingham.

Hayward, J. Curtis, Quedgeley near
Gloucester.

Hector, James, M.D., 57 Inverleith Row,
Edinburgh.

Hennessy, Henry, M.R.I.A., Professor
of Natural Philosophy in the Catholic
University of Ireland, Dublin.

Hepburn, Robert, 8 Davis
Berkeley Square, London.

Hepworth, Rev. Robert, 2 St. James’s
Square, Cheltenham.

Hervey, The Rev. Lord Arthur, Ickworth,
Suffolk.

Higgins, Rev. Henry H., M.A., Rainhill,
Liverpool.

Hill, Laurence, Port Glasgow.

Hill, William, F.R.A.S., Worcester.

Hincks, Rev. Edward, D.D., Killyleagh,
Ireland.

Hitch, Samuel, M.D., Sandywell Park,
Gloucestershire.

Holland, Edward, M.P., Dumbleton,
Evesham.

Hooton, Jonathan, 80 Great Ducie Street,
Manchester.

Horsley, John H., 389 High Street,
Cheltenham.

Hudson, Robert, F.R.S., Clapham Com-
mon, London.

Humphris, Daniel James, 1 Keynsham
Parade, Cheltenham.

Humphreys, E. R., LL.D., Grammar
School, Cheltenham.

Hunt, Robert, F.R.S., Keeper of Mining
Records, Museum of Practical Geology,
Jermyn Street, London.

Huntington, Frederick, F.R.C.S. Engl.,
19 George Street, Hull.

Street,

Inverarity, Jonathan Duncan, Bombay.

Jacobs, Bethell, Hull.

Jeffery, Henry, M.A., High Street, Chel-
tenham.

Johnston, A. Keith, 4 St. Andrew Square,
Edinburgh,

14

Jones, C. W., 7 Grosvenor Place, Chel-
tenham.

Jones, Rey. Henry Halford, Cemetery,
Manchester,

Jones, John, 34 Chapel Street, Liver-
pool.

Kay, Alexander, Atherton Grange, Wim-
bledon Park, Surrey,
Kaye, Robert, Mill Brae, Moodiesburn,

Glasgow.

Kay-Shuttleworth, Sir J. ames, Bart.,Gaw- .

thorpe, Burnley.
Kirkwood, Anderson, 246 Sauchiehall
Street, Glasgow.

Lankester, Edwin, M.D., F.R.S., 8 Savile
Row, London.

Latham, R. G., M.D., F.R.S., Greenford,
Middlesex.

Lister, John, M.D., F.G.S., Shibden Hall
near Halifax.

Lister, Rev. William, Bushbury, Wolver-
hampton.

Liveing, G. D., St. John’s College, Cam-
bridge.

Low, David, F.R.S.E., Mayfield by Tri-
nity, Edinburgh.

Maclaren, Charles, Moreland
Grange Loan, Edinburgh.

M‘Laren, John, Spring Bank, Dunoon.

M°Clelland, John, Calcutta.

Malahide, Talbot de, Lord, Malahide
Castle, Malahide, Ireland.

Marsh, W. M., Wilbury Park, Wiltshire.

May, Charles, F.R.S.; 3 Great George
Street, Westminster.

Melly, Charles Pierce, Liverpool.

Miles, Rev. C. P., M.D., 14 Buckingham
Terrace, Glasgow.

Miurlees, J. Buchanan, 94 West Street,
Tradeston, Glasgow.

Moffatt, T., M.D., F.R.A.S., Hawarden,
Chester.

Moi, James 174 Gallowgate, Glasgow.

Mould, Rev. J.G., B.D., Corpus Christi
College, Cambridge.

Muir, William, Britannia Works, Man-
chester.

Murray, William, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., 160
West George Street, Glasgow. t

Munley, Stephen Hempsted, Trowbridge,
Wiltshire.

Cottage,

Neale, Edward V., West Wickham, |

Kent.
Neild, William, Mayfield, Manchester.

Globe Insurance, Cornhill, London.

ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS.

| Roberton,

Shewell, John T., Rushmere, Ipswich.
Newmarch, William, Secretary to the |

Nicolay, Rev. C. G., King’s Col
Strand, London. !

Niven, Rey. J: ames, Swannbourn Vicarp,
Cheltenham.

Odling, William, M.B. Lond., F.
Professor of Practical Chemistry,G
Hospital, London ; Kennington
London.

Oldham, James, C.E., Austrian Ch
bers, Hull.

Outram, Thomas, Greetland near Halif),

Peach, Charles W., Custom House, Wi}

Pengelly, William, F.G.S., Lamor}
Torquay.

Percy, John, M.D., F.R.S., Museum}
Practical Geology, Jermyn Str
London.

Perkins, A. M., 6 Francis Street, Reg
Square, London.

Petrie, William, Ecclesbourne Cottag
Woolwich.

Pierson, Charles, 3 Blenheim Parad
Cheltenham.

phere Henry Davis, Quay Street, §
ord.

Potchett, Rey. William, M.A., The
carage, Grantham.

Ramsay, Andrew C., F.R.S., Local
rector of the Geological Survey of Gre!
Britain, Museum of Practical Geolog

Rankine, W. J. Macquorn, C.E., F.R.
L.& E., 59 &t. Vincent Street,Glasgoy
James, Gorbals Foundr

Glasgow.

Roberts, John, 101 Upper Parliame
Street, Liverpool.

Robinson, C. B., The Shrubbery, Le
cester.

Ronalds, Francis, F.R.S,

Round, Daniel George, Hange Collie
near Tipton, Staffordshire.

Rumsey, Henry Wyldbore, Glouceste

e Lodge, Cheltenham.

Salter, John W., F.G.S., Museum},
Jermyn Street, London.

Scougall, James, 14 Clarence Square} |
Cheltenham. |

Shaw, Norton, M.D., Secretary to th
Royal Geographical Society, 3 Water.
loo Place, London.

Siemens, C. William, 1 Kensington Ter-
race, Kensington, London.

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Sleddon, Francis, 2 Kingston Terrace,
Hull.

Sloper, George Elgar, jun., Devizes.

Smith, George Cruickshank, 19 St. Vin-
cent Place, Glasgow.

Smith, Robert Angus, Ph.D., 20 Gros-
venor Square, Manchester.

Smith, William, Eglinton Engine Works,
Glasgow.

Smyth, John, jun., M.A., C.E., Milltown,
Banbridge, Ireland.

Sorby, Henry Clifton, F.G.S., Broomfield,
Sheffield.

Southwood, Rev. T. A., M.A., Chelten-
ham College, Cheltenham.

Spence, Peter, Pendleton Alum Works,
Manchester.

Spence, William, F.R.S., V.P.L.S., 18
Lower Seymour Street, Portman Sq.,
London.

Spence, W. B., 18 Lower Seymour Street,
Portman Square, London.

' Stevelly, John, LL.D., Professor of Na-
tural Philosophy in Queen’s College,
Belfast.

Stewart, Balfour, 13 Rutland Square,
Edinburgh.

_ Stoney, G. Johnstone, M.A., Galway.

Stuart, William, 1 Rumford Place, Liver-

pool.

Talbot, William Hawkshead, Wrighting-
ton near Wigan.

Tartt, W. Macdowal, Sandford Place,
Cheltenham.

Taylor, John, Oriental Association, Wal-
brook, London.
Taylor, William Edward, Enfield near

Accrington.

Terry, John, 15 Albion Street, Hull.

Teschemacher, E. F., 1 Highbury Park
North, London.

Thodey, Rev. S., Rodborough, Glouces-
tershire.

Thorburn, Rev. William Reid, M.A.,
Starkies, Bury, Lancashire.

Tibbs, Somerset, 58 Regent Street,
Cheltenham.

Tomes, Robert Fisher, Welford, Strat-
ford-on-Avon.

Tooke, Thomas, F.R.S., 31 Spring Gar-
dens, London.

Turnbull, John, Bonhill House, Dum-
bartonshire.

Turnbull, Rev. J. C., 8 Bays Hill Villas,
Cheltenham.

Tuton, Edward S., Lime Street, Liverpool.

Twining, Richard, F.R.S., 13 Bedford
Place, Russell Square, London.

Tyndall, John, Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor
of Natural Philosophy in the Royal
Institution of Great Britain, London.

Varley, Cornelius, 7 York Place, High
Road, Kentish Town, London.

Vivian, Edward,B.A., Woodfield, Torquay.

Voelcker, J.Ch. Augustus, Ph.D., F.C.S.,
Professor of Agricultural Chemistry,
Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester,

Walker, Charles V., F.R.S., Fernside
Villa, Red Hill near Reigate.

Walker, John James, M.A., 2 Trinity
College, Dublin.

Walsh, Richard Hussey, LL.D., Profes-
sor of Political Economy in the Uni-
versity of Dublin; 27 Summer Hill,
Dublin.

Waller, Augustus V., M.D., F.R.S., 28
Rue des Fossés, St. Bernard, Paris.
Warington, Robert, F.C.S., Apothecaries’

Hall, London.
Warner, Thomas H. Lee, Tiberton Court,
- Hereford.

Washbourne,Buchanan,M.D.,Gloucester,

Watt, William, Flax Works, Bedford
Street, Belfast.

Watts, John King, F.R.G.S., St. Ives,
Huntingdonshire.

Webster, James, Hatherley Court, Chel-
tenham.

Wight, Robert, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.
Grazeley Lodge, Reading.

Witts, Rev. E. F., Upper Slaughter,
Stow-on-the-Wold.

Woodall, Captain John Woodall, St.
Nicholas House, Scarborough.

Woolley, Thomas Smith, jun., South
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Wornell, George, 2 Park Crescent, Ox-
ford.

Worthy, George S., St. James’ Barton,
Bristol.

Wright, Thomas, F.S.A., 14 Sydney St.,
Brompton, London.

Yeats, John, F.R.G.S., Leicester House,
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