“ a ote 00 plrty thy a. Serates Sieh ee terse Sthigseesecs ptreat ayes 3 Behts teres i ie ost - 3 inate wleres ponte ce rect be ges 7 eal pane: — Peaecapcre toatl Faastetes Senn Sel wv a “ 7,4 «REPORT THIRTY-FIRST MEETING ans. ar Ja PES 2g | oa OF THE d >) Giistoat BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE; HELD AT MANCHESTER IN SEPTEMBER 1861, LONDON: JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 1862, PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET, .@)) ALERE i FLAMMAM. CONTENTS. Ossects and Rules of the Association .........cecsesscecessessceceecescne Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement. .........+++e++008 Treasurer's Account Table of Council from commencement .........csccceceececseecesceecenees Page Xvi xX XXiV XXV MPESEIUURG ONUGIL <,ssceccsdstics doc ccevcc cons cunecsecgescdsasdisaltscedssee XKVIL Officers of Sectional Committees Corresponding Members.. sep toeseecepecacees Report of the Council to ce Genes Genuine 6 XXIX XXX XXxi ETRE LEW CCOMMICEE’ <5 -ccasceccensesee~auuisacapn sepsceevacss) XRMILL Report of the Parliamentary Committee..............c.sesccenescersecseeee XXKIX Recommendations for Additional hehe a ede eee in ae XXXix Synopsis of Money Grants . o Seagate Sb

ssecee ser eesmeaede 2 Mr. Tuomas Dosson on the General Forms of the Symmetrical Properties of Platic mUMANPICS eucsheseadtecse sek hes seaanetcoes anicasennseeccntes re smcneanr eee ont saa cunenene 2 C. F. Exman’s Inquiry into the Fundamental Principles of Algebra, chiefly with regard to Negative and Imaginary Quantities.......sssesssseesereeeeees veces 4 M. Brerens ve Haan on Definite Integrals .............4. Goa sce seatocey sous uer ements 4 Sir W. R. Hamitton on Geometrical Rests in Space ...sececercecscseeeeseceeesecee 4 Rev. T. P. KirkMAN on the Roots of Substitutions ..........cssscecesececeeeseeeees 4 Professor Pricsr on the Influence of the Rotation of the Earth on the Apparent PauhvolvayElcavysbaritCle sc cedececcascnusceeacresSesnavcccssesessoccvieses aucesearctasenres 6 Mr. W. H. L. Russet on the Calculus of Functions, with Remarks on the sD liconyao tm leCtiiCliyioscsscanscmeseecseaaesawseenvavesaneacrenses/sesdccceaueassaedenemnes 9 Mr. Witu1am Sportiswoope on Petzval’s Asymptotic Method of solving Dif- PEN ENE tel SEG UAMOMS centers ccsechsicccaseensaracacssesashonessoncee=aatbensevarenpeee=eeuce 10 on the Reduction cf the decadic Binary Quantic conte CanonicalyHOUmll.dccscasee-cessasavacessdsavyseceecheaescavees ous sapensavecermereers 11 Professor SyLvEsTER on the Involution of Axes of Rotation .........sscsseeeeeeees 12 ASTRONOMY. ViswIN ee punirek Oa tHe CANIM ANAG leenacspisessensusaccscasnstnh=satsucsianseseSalsaessanrs sox ip ehe The AstRoNoMER Royav’s Remarks on Dr. Hincks’s Paper on the Acceleration of the Moon’s Mean Motion as indicated by the Records of Ancient Eclipses 12 Mr. J. 8. Sruarr Guenniz on the Resistance of the Ether to the Comets and Planets, andvonithe) Rotationof the latter .s....00s ssss-+:scsccecscovncesecssmeseenced 13 Mr. R. P. Gree on M. Haidinger’s Communication on the Origin and Fall of Aérolites ......02000...... apaopoce ner Seeeemeninncinesiesscsiasesssoncswecsnasnaeseteeeeenmes 13 M. W. Haipincer’s attempt to account for the Physical Condition and the Fall of Meteorites upon our Planet .........-....4. SoventecuceSousscccesiesemtummneeees 15 - Rev. Epwarp Hincxs on the Quantity of the Acceleration of the Moon’s Mean Motion, as indicated by the Records of certain Ancient Eclipses ........ 22 Mr. Danret Vaucuan on Cases of Planetary Instability indicated by the ap- pearance of Temporary Stars...... Fedteenseetbassesevan cosees € egecaasietien hanes seveeee 24 CONTENTS. Puysics. Mr. J. S. Sruarr Guenniz on the Application of the Principle of the Conser- vation of Force to the mechanical explanation of the Correlation of Forces... Professor W.THomson’s Physical Considerations regarding the Possible Age UB MICROLN TS LICAL-scoesccesccccdccestvectearessrccedsseaRuecresssscrerascesevssesss ec seeeee Lieut, Heat. Sir Davip Brewster on Photographic Micrometers.........+++. andesontescssedasce — on the Compensation of Impressions moving over the PROUMAjowns eves cnavevsucdseae asus sunevatesacsvectasasdadelesddiepesos¥easer! svedeessosececcecs —_——— on the Optical Study of the Retina.......... “A Hoo actt Ag —— ——— on Binocular Lustre .,..........-sccecececsessoerseseverceserecs Mr. J. ALexanpER Davizs’s Observations upon the Production of Colour by the Prism, the Passive Mental Effect or Instinct in comprehending the En- largement of the Visual Angle, and other Optical Phenomena.............s00008 Mr. Tuomas Ross on Presentations of Colour produced under novel conditions ; with their assumed relation to the received Theory of Light and Colour....... Mr. Wiri1am Tuomas Suaw’s Method of interpreting some of the Pheno- BUCH NMUI PLE ame ayes acd ne aneccneensae aac sniedany's sa neenecnenesenesneacn sees eceenanse> ove Mr. Joun Smirtu on the Chromascope, and what it reveals .........sccsecseceeeees on the Prism and Chromascope......ssseescssscssssseeess esseeseoe Mr. Tuomas Sutton on the Panoramic Lens......,.... peaencaes crn nottentecs paren Mr. H. H. Vivian’s Microscopic Observations on the Structure of Metals..,... Mr. J. J. WaLKER’s Observations on an Iris seen in Water, near Sunset....... > Evectricity, MAGNETISM. The AstRoNoMER Roya on Spontaneous Terrestrial Galvanic Currents ...,.. on the Laws of the Principal Inequalities, Solar and Lunar, of Terrestrial Magnetic Force in the Horizontal Plane, from obser- vations at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, extending from 1848 to 1857... Mr. Latimer Crark and Sir CHarxes Bricut on the Formation of Stand- ards of Electrical Quantity and Resistance......c.sesssscsoeseceronteseesccesspes hits Mr. J. P. Gassror on the Deposit of Metals from the Negative Terminal of an Induction Coil during the Electrical Discharge in Vacuo.............0.. teceanes Professor Hennessy on a Probable Cause of the Diurnal Variation of Magnetic Dip and Declination......... aeecccsenesersncees Saeear deperaeassnachaaes naa dallo poineciparaee Mr. FLEEMING JENKIN on Permanent Thermo-Electric Currents in Circuits of one Metal......... Maen aass vatnacases savannas octianmemeenone aechasaeusdatssepa piletp veh “ntens Rev. H. Lroyp on the Secular Changes of Terrestrial Magnetism, and their Connexion with Disturbances ...,........0.. savatesseeccossacsepaacis Saieearias paeaeo dae Mr. C. W. Siemens on an Electric Resistance Thermometer for observing Temperatures at inaccessible situations ......... saaseadas BoP Bec: Bae pepe delete a Messrs. ARCHIBALD SmiTH and F. J. Evans on the Effect produced on the Deviation of the Compass by the Length and Arrangement of the Compass Needles; and on a New Mode of Correcting the Quadrantal Deviation....... Mr. F. J. Evans on H.M.S. Warrior’s Compasses ........4 seth AREAS SAS eee Mr. B. Stewart on the Photographic Records given at the Kew Observatory ha the great Magnetic Storm of the end of August and beginning of Septem- BEL S59) vsccacdseecncnrsces ececccveccccnscocsccence wecsernccnss eeccceeee eeseascecves oe vil Page 26 27 vill CONTENTS. Mr. G. Jounstone Stoney on the Amount of the direct Magnetic Effect of the Sun or Moon on Instruments at the Earth’s Surface....cccccocscsestsssseeseseees Mr. Cuartes Tomiinson on Lightning Figures, chiefly with reference to those Tree-like or Ramified Figures sometimes found on the Bodies of Men and Animals that have been struck by Lightning ....s...seceeeseeseees seceereseseesoees METEOROLOGY. Mr. I. Asn on the Causes of the Phenomena of Cyclones «..ccecceroecscescerees oe Mr. Joun Atuan Broun on the supposed Connexion between Meteorological Phenomena and the Variations of the Earth’s Magnetic Force....... oeseeeenes , Mr. Witi1am Danson on the Law of Universal Storms.......s.ecseeesseseseees ve Mr. Witt1aMm Fairsairn on the Temperature of the Earth’s Crust, as exhi- bited by Thermometrical Returns obtained during the sinking of the Deep WMirreta faa KINHElG vcncncnccecesd consebe ccs’ oases snecdddesscccsdeess Rear-Admiral FirzRoy’s Tidal Observations .....sessececeseeeeerere dodeende anbsisslavs Dr. J. H. Guapsrone on the Distribution of Fog around the British Isles...... Mr. James GuaisHer on a Deep-Sea Thermometer invented by Henry John- SON, Esq. ssesseceseee swele Sate R eth, coaches senae ve trabeidn ests idasn once te eeds Foddataaeacs ‘ on a Deep-Sea Pressure-Gauge invented by Henry John- Oia JOE -centec cer eee Seti eelndte dine swe venetewb once bucledevocudewseduccosadestd Meares Py on a Daily Weather Map; on Admiral FitzRoy’s Paper presented to Section A. relative to the Royal Charter Storm; and on some Meteorological Documents relating to Mr. Green’s Balloon Ascents.........+++ Mr. J. T. Gopparp on the Cloud Mirror and Sunshine Recorder ..........+e++0+ Professor Hennessy on the Connexion between Storms and Vertical Disturb- ances of the Atmosphere ..........+ BB CUS undo c CHO UCann IOS aDUne EH aagcisuneerincducech: icpaat Mr. Wiiu1am Hopkins on the Theories of Glacial Motion ........scescesesereneee Mr. W. S. Jevons on the Deficiency of Rain in an Elevated Rain-Gauge, as caused by Wind......sseesssesserees dbs cad feats de deeekeVab be eWardvenvvervneeitxedeenrsceine Mr. H. W. Craw ey on a Solar Halo observed at Sydney, Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, August 13, 1861 ...........e000. BPO CODE CHOCUL Sos cOnicceoe dbo -oroandkceocuacnece Mr. Perer J. Livsry’s Description of a Mercurial Barometer, recently invented by Mr. Richard Howson, Engineer of Middlesborough-on-Tees .........+.+++ Mr. E. J. Lowe on the Great Cold of Christmas 1860, and its destructive LOR nS err aad ap mm aD A dacs ae cr ean alice dat suiva teeren AAR ABER me Letter from Captain Maury on the importance of an Expedition to the Antarctic Regions, for Meteorological and other scientific purposes. (Communicated by the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty) .ess.ccssccssssseeseseceeeessscessusseues Mr. Joun E. MorGan on an Anemometer for Registering the Maximum Force and extreme Variation of the Wind...........+. eneobbesene poccbovesssnentenae tated eee Rev. T. Ranxrn’s Meteorological Observations at Huggate, Yorkshire .. Mr. C. W. S1emens on a Bathometer, or Instrument to indicate the Depth of the Sea on Board Ship without submerging a Line ............seeecceeeeeeeeeeeees Mr. Bacrour Stewart on a New Minimum Mercurial Thermometer proposed yalViiie Casella ce eseuccscccesseeesss esa scarstences eeasesecae PaBASRGARSAR SSE Biridast sens es Mr. G. J. Symons on British Rain-fall . Rey. W. Watron on some Signs of Changes of the Weather eeecoenonceone Sacqics Page 47 48 74 74 CONTENTS. CHEMISTRY. Address by W. A. Mituzr, M.D., F.R.S. &c., Professor of Chemistry, King’s College, London .........ceecesseceeeees Annas ced se ensneg@eesecacecescas aieaelideebicndeaecees Professor ANDERSON on the Constitution of Paranaphthaline or Anthracene, and some of its Decomposition Products..........sssssssssescessecseseceteeeesens eee Professor ANDREWS on the Effect of Great Pressures combined with Cold on the Six Non-condensable Gases. ......sseceseceseeeseteencees Tol O A SEO AR He a Dr. Cracz Carvert on the Chemical Composition of some Woods employed in the Navy.........- peak ebitceeaat ccunnaseneiiolsa sess canes Saaisaelonee aaa sereene eas Sseaoce on the Chemical Composition of Steel ....... Seescnajane Singer Professor DauBeny on the Evolution of Ammonia from Volcanos .........2se++++ Mr. H. Deane on a particular Decomposition of Ancient Glass....... seeaantee ad Dr. Detrrs on Morin, and the non-existence of Morotannic acid ...... eqanevacech Mr. G. C. Foster on Piperic and Hydropiperic Acids...........ssscessecesecesesees Professor GALLoway on the Composition and Valuation of Superphosphates... Dr. J. H. Grapstone and Mr. G. Giapstone on an Aluminous Mineral from Pes Uipper Chalk nearsBrig btn we cceseresh ects seswoaeveedsacessbocestasisenaedecs Poca Dr. J. H. Grapsronz on the Emission and Absorption of Rays of Light b certain Gases....... Radenece tds dese snacsceascaneien enescaracaeeatiecs eencnSaqetascenss vee Mr. W. GossacE on the History of the Alkali Manufacture............sceeseseees Mr. J. J. Grirrin on the Construction of Gas-Burners for Chemical Use...... Mr. W. J. Hurst on the Sulphur Compound formed by the Action of Sulphu- retted Hydrogen on Formiate of Lead at a High Temperature ..........0.00e00s Dr. Jouie and Professor W. THomson on the Thermal Effects of Elastic Fluids Mr. J. B. Lawes and Dr. J. H. Girzerr on some points in connexion with the Exhaustion of Soils...........+se0e0s sp iirbsie vm gusiiels weed eenancie pach stecileciveeetees el Dr. J. H. Luoyp on Purifying Towns from Sewage by means of Dry Cloacz... Dr. S. Macavam on the Proportion of Tin present in Tea-Lead.......... Rodeaeede on the Proportion of Arsenic present in Paper-Hangings...... on an Economical Mode of boiling Rags, &c. with Alkaline Ley Mr. W. Marrrorr on the Separation of Ammonia from Coal-gas..............0. Mr. Joun Mercer on Madder Photographs.............+ AScnCr nigh ecueetnede Serra Professor W. A. Mitier on Photographic Spectra of the Electric Light ........ Dr. Morrar on Atmospheric Ozone ............++ deh eid Pbicta dria ihe apote veut boradteh chau : on Sulphuretted Hydrogen as a Product of Putrefaction............ Mr. Wiitram Roserts on the Solvent Power of Strong and Weak Solutions of the Alkaline Carbonates on Uric Acid Calculi..............006 sooaket Abdevssaesce Professor Roscok on Perchloric Acid and its Hydrates............ccseece0s faaserves Drs. Russevt and MarruressEN on Vesicular Structure in Copper..........0+++ Dr. Swiru (of Sydney) on certain Difficulties in the way of separating Gold RPMI AGU AMeeerdcnscdreccoecettcans Carastsesdeserttaneactatees eos estes ScAnaoeeBhandastte Professor TENNANT on a Specimen of Meteoric Iron from Mexico .......... tesece Mr. Cuartes Tomiinson on the Cohesion-Figures of Liquids ............s00se008 Dr. Voetcker on the Composition of Crystallized Moroxite, from Jumillo, near Alicante .........0. siisiebtemenuaiducuting cde tices eaese prclevececteras sh ctracmeeriecsecnseee Dr. Watvace on the Composition and Properties of the Water of Loch Katrine, araupylien! Mi GlassOW ve.cacesscsstavenssccrtcecsecccectnconeaees SLOoopuckicchcanesemanisan ix Page 75 76 76 ye 17 77 78 78 78 79 79 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 85 86 86 86 87 87 88 89 90 91 92 92 93 93 93 94 x CONTENTS. Drs. WiLtrAmson and Russet on an Apparatus for the rapid Separation and Measurement of Gases..........ceccseseescscsecesssnvecs saclcantdssensiaveseeaeasteaceaacise GEOLOGY. Address by Sir Ropertcx Impzy Murcutson, President of the Section........ Mr. W. H. Barty’s Paleontological Remarks upon the Silurian Rocks of Ire- TAG Lt See SeacBoneasadhootoe Soden daedt dodacei serindaHan auaunBoSbovoeScadanriscsoSIgdnclonaend Mr. T. W. Barrow’s Remarks on the Bone-caves of Craven .....sssceeescsceceeee Mr. E. W. Brnney’s succinct account of the Geological Features of the neigh- bourhood of Manchester.......scscscsesescncnencecesesecsseeetececersccsesesetes apnea Mr. J. Bonwick on the Extinct Volcanos of Australia .........sseeseceseresnceee eee Mr. Antonio Brapy on some Flint Instruments, &c. exhibited to the Meeting Mr. AtexanperR Bryson on the Aqueous Origin of Granite............seseseseeee Rev. C. R. Gorpon on the Laws discoverable as to the Formation of Land on BhewGl Gberasee eee sate ie sea etebosaics aeidaas caisloaab ra cesleeculen chinesaaaeeccecseusmas anaeecetns Mr. C. Goutp on the Results of the Geological Survey of Tasmania............. Mr. A. H. Green on the Faults of a portion of the Lancashire Coal-field...... Dr. Hacen’s Comparison of Fossil Insects of England and Bavaria...... =SASSHee Professor Harkness on the Old Red Sandstone of South Perthshire ............ —______——— on the Sandstones and their associated Deposits of the Valley of the Eden and the Cumberland Plain.............+.4.. ae one niaeetaeeeeenen Mr. D. Mitne Home’s Notice of Elongated Ridges of Drift, common in the Southiof Scotland: called ‘* Keainis’ setae os. cds sci ec ebeneceveles seca sueattecteemeee Mr. Epwarp Hutt on Isomeric Lines, and the relative Distribution of the Calcareous and Sedimentary Strata of the Carboniferous Group of Britain... Professor Jukes on the Progress of the Survey in Ireland.............s.scceseeeeeee Mr. J. G. Marsuatt on the Relation of the Eskdale Granite at Bootle to the Schistose Rocks, with Remarks on the General Metamorphic Origin of Granitermee anc owes ss ceseeuestecouseassccesncsasnscns ssce Bonen Pes loss ecremeeee advvetantenasse Mr. Greorce H. Morton on the Pleistocene Deposits of the District around Liverpool.....cecoscsseosessonceecaseeeuss sesiecaisse(nasccrweamne saevessosenacersse esesvecenent Mr. C. Moors’s Notes on two Ichthyosauri to be exhibited to the Meeting.... Information from Professor Haidinger respecting the Present State of the Im- perial Geological Institution of Vienna. (Communicated by Sir R. I. Mur- CHISON) .osscccncccveccccctccsesncscscevcccsansses Shasisleias Sieiisinioaiennenwelpeaconsanveenns see Maps and Sections recently published by the Geological Survey, exhibited by Sins Wi ROBESON: sec ecceccssnbeciees os senieiennenclecjepn~aesaaceesinnsnnssacpasuhteaa sel Professor OwEN on a Dinosaurian Reptile (Scelidosaurus Harrisoni) from the Nuowenrslias Of CHapmOut hear seescssratesesaseasms'ocssiscnsensneacisienes Rov one seme ——— on the Remains of a Plesiosaurian Reptile (Plesiosaurus Aus- tralis) from the Oolitic Formation in the Middle Island of New Zealand..... Mr. W. Patrerson on certain Markings in Sandstones.,....+...seseeeees saneee a Mr. W. PENGELLY on a new Bone-cave at Brixham...... Pere Pre: ees on the Recent Encroachments of the Sea on the Shores of Torbay ......ccccsesescceecssroscscccrccetncscstneecrsscecscsasanascsseaseecessaasses eocnseces on the Relative Age of the Petherwin and Barnstaple Beds. on the Age of the Granites of Dartmoor ......... essesererseeess Page 95 123 124 124 127 CONTENTS. Pruressor Putixirps’s Notice of the Post-glacial Gravels of the Valley of the PRTC eae ceca tsccete crease Medessethendandssecccndsodmtescseacsatctee Raa bintitiice watlewsttcs Mr. T. A. Reapwin on the Gold of North Wales..............scscsessesececcccseecs Mr. Ricuarpson on the Details of the Carboniferous Limestone, as laid open by the Railway Cutting and Tunnel near Almondsbury, north of Bristol...... Mr. J. W. Satter on the Nature of Sigillarie, and on the Bivalve Shells of GHC MOOeliorintaatnee seers octccecnlecl sselesmucicesscesecnal dees some teen seam te ess cueacaracnlsiek Mr. R. H. Scorr on the Granitic Rocks of Donegal, and the Minerals asso- NTP MUCK WIEN seco css ceoestswbanos dunt aad qccenae ns adenisontg sweat esteth as eveseb sees Mr. Harry Seevey on the Elsworth Rock, and the Clay above it ............+6 Rev. W. S. Symonps on some Phenomena connected with the Drifts of the MEVELESAVOD) NMINE) AMC NUISKS \) iiesaviensaa\tclsavesisoppactesiive tite sa sete ter sebsciie fals Professor VAUGHAN on Subterranean Movements .........ssscececseecevesseteeeenees Mr. W. WurncoppP on the Red Crag Deposits of the County of Suffolk, con- sidered in relation to the finding of Celts, in France and England, in the rift OL then EOst-PliocanerEEriOd)s. soweank acdccsecadevnscldasetovscacecduendasaneseuniase Messrs. J. T. Witk1nson and J. WuHiTaxker on the Burnley Coal-field and BRNO SS OOUCEN Sit. asasqetdt «nema fon dulnismcnslss's/o' ssisen signe enascaspies ce vanes esses Mr. A. B. Wynne on the Geology of Knockshigowna in Tipperary, Ireland... Mr. J. Yates on the Excess of Water in the Region of the Earth about New edad emits CAUSES AUG BIMCCES ececesecnescacsssdtesshaasheodsccve decd seseaevenscnsese BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY, incitupinc PHYSIOLOGY. Remarks by Professor BaprnGTon (Chairman) ........seeeseseee adult ainsieeplemleceias Dr. T. Atcocx on some Points in the Anatomy of Cypr@a ......escscsesseeesecees Dr. Puirie P. Carpenter on the Cosmopolitan Operations of the Smith- BUNA TETBEHE ILD CLON o./nneacawvateversepectes suse deianc sasidubs viele uocuvoss evewsbasvacackoes on the Variations of Tecturella grandis............ see Dr. Joun Crevanp on the Anatomy of Orthagoriscus Mola, the short Sunfish Mr. Curnsert Coriincwoon’s Scheme to induce the Mercantile Marine to assist in the Advancement of Science by the intelligent Collection of Objects of Natural History frem all parts of the Globe ..........ccscccecescscececsceeeusees Mr. J. Cousurn on the Culture of the Vine in the Open Air...........ceeceeeees Mr. W. Danson on Barragudo Cotton from the Plains of the Amazon, and on the Flax-fibre Cotton of North America...........s.seceees aitdaaeee vee onboured ase Professor DausEny on the Functions discharged by the Roots of Plants; and on a Violet peculiar to the Calamine Rocks in the neighbourhood of Aix-la- ROEM G eettaaeedceeaetsteenssemucldhoceseenedcentacas Madedaigncsanedewsstns ter cetosuee taceews eee —--——- on the Influence exerted by Light on the Function of LANES sctslaeiee'aleatlet vse's'sesivesteatvetettdss Sguanstetcncacdser soadtiacawecseaunacawcecaenenccae Ba eeise Mr. H. Fawcerr on the Method of Mr. Darwin in his Treatise on the Origin EP SPECIES sa se a csnu elie dustin states cacae salar madatindeaht »eadueasaesattenee deeendeuemeeveestkis Mr. Georce D. Grss on the Arrest of Puparial Metamorphosis of Vanessa Antiopa or Camberwell Beauty.........sscecsscecssceeeees de aeanApasistesendnieemedens Dr. J. E. Gray on the Height of the Gorilla ............e0008 Spaesteee Sek getans alee Mr. H. L. Grinpon on the Flora of Manchester .........sssesseeeseseoee See Asin Rey. H. H. Hieerns on the Arrangement of Hardy Herbaceous Plants adopted in the Botanic Gardens, Liverpool......... iawn ghiuaiaa easteetaetne de austin déawaenie seers xl Page 137 137 137 137 138 138 140 140 141 Xli CONTENTS. Rey. T. Hrncxks on the Development of the Hydroid Polyps, Clavatella and Stauridia, with Remarks on the Relation between the Polyp and its Medu- soid, and between the Polyp and the Medusa ........sssecssssseeccssacssscscccceese — on the Ovicells of the Polyzoa, with reference to the views of IPEOLeERSO}, EVURICY, « ncacanesade sense secencar sass sareeandes¥etencsinnacasee¥atenucsdactes +5 Rey. A. KR. HoGAn, on, Daphnia Schappert rc. vwsiscasscasnessneesssenc0scescanacsusee¥ue~ Mr. J. Gwyn Jerrreys on an Abnormal Form of Cyathina Smithiiess....-++0++: Dr. JEssen on the Absorbing Power of the Roots of Plants ....-.seessseseeeeees eee Mr. Maxwett T. Masters on the Relation between Pinnate and Palmate CAVES /sy0.cenevscue esses BOP OECLOCPELECK Oe OG CDCR ROS CEKEe oT ede edaseaees Mr. J. M. Mircuett on the Migration of the Herring...........ccscseseeeeeeeeees - Rey. ALrrep Meriter Norman on the Crustacea, Echinodermata, and Zoo- phytes obtained in Deep-sea Dredging off the Shetland Isles in 1861.......... Professor OwxNn on the Cervical and Lumbar Vertebre of the Mole (Tulpa FHUMOP CO, U2) gnitalsndacasiold« vo'eWeineeis «side a/sitis viele osa\eadiesielashrs viv sls aaiglaoderese¥¥euh bogs eas on some Objects of Natural History from the Collection of PY Tep Unt ist ttonee divaae’s oiesienebe siamo nes paste ddesPe eda vedeue Mega demen kent ve eee genes Statistics of the Herring Fishing. (Communicated by Mr. C. W. Pracn)...... Dr. P. L. Scrater’s Remarks on the late Increase of our Knowledge of the SSIRUL DU OUSENMEOS © adeipcce nesta «noha 0c exe as de vetiduwe acing ow sbynuidh ce seas wacker Mr. H. T. Stainton on a New Mining Larva, recently discovered ...........s00« Mr. A. STANSFIELD on Varieties of Blechnum Spicané collected in 1860 and Mia eamecawaties'snsatenecesdewccwlde ccs ctl cues dcendesteanenemsesccetetcas sabeeties teas esata samen Professor WyviLLE Tuomson’s Observations on the Development of Synapta MITETONS oc Come ea cago kdode cava de eudcccccuceCoweneqhotanartte neacssnwee casoetectieroneeee geaane Mr. Turren West on some Points of Interest in the Structure and Habits of Spiders.....seereeee Guedeescecevucveutucuscustestetendseasvereress esecuaneesaenentenvense cees PHyYsIoLoey, Professor Lrionet S. BEALE on the Structure and Growth of the Elementary Parts (Gells). of hiving Beitigs st sca. .da——_ OBJECTS. Tue Association contemplates no interference with the ground occupied by other Institutions. Its objects are,—To give a stronger impulse and a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire, with one an- other, and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress, RULES. ADMISSION OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES. All Persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to be- come Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to con- form to its Rules. The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical So- cieties publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Members of the Association. The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees, of Philosophical Institutions, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem- bers of the Association. All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Council or Managing Committee, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem- bers of the Association. Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the General Committee or Council, to become Life Members of the Association, Annual Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the approval of a General Meeting. COMPOSITIONS, SUBSCRIPTIONS, AND PRIVILEGES. Lirz Memssrs shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be pub- lished after the date of such payment. ‘They are eligible to all the offices of the Association. Awnuat Susscrisers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds, and in each following year the sum of One Pound. They shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this Subscription in any particu- lar year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and ail future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association gratis : but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any sub- sequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the sum of One Pound. They are eligible to all the Offices of the Association. Associates for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound. They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office. 1861. b a XVili RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. The Association consists of the following classes :— 1, Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid on admission Five Pounds as a composition. 2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on ad- mission T’en Pounds as a composition. 3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to the payment of One Pound annually. [May resume their Membership after in- termission of Annual Payment. ] 4, Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the pay- ment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each following year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of Annual Pay- ment. | 5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound. 6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council. And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’) price, according to the following specification, viz. :— 1. Gratis —Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo- sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845, a further sum of Five Pounds. New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a com- position. Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub- scription. 2. At reduced or Members’ Prices, viz. two-thirds of the Publication Price.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a composition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a Book Subscription. Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Subscrip- tion. Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for that year only. ] 3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any of the first seventeen volumes of Transactions of the Associa- tion, and of which more than 100 copies remain, at one-third of the Publication Price. Application to be made (by letter) to Messrs. Taylor & Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet St., London. Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries. MEETINGS, The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee at the pre- vious Meeting; and the Arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Offi- cers of the Association. GENERAL COMMITTEE. The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the following persons :— 1. Presidents and Officers for the present and preceding years, with authors of Reports in the Transactions of the Association. 2. Members who have communicated any Paper to a Philosophical Society, which has been printed in its Transactions, and which relates to such subjects as are taken into consideration at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. X1x 3. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, altogether not exceed- ing three in number, from any Philosophical Society publishing Transactions. 4, Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, not exceeding three, from Philosophical Institutions established in the place of Meeting, or in any place where the Association has formerly met. 5, Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and who are specially nominated in writing for the Meeting of the year by the Presi- dent and General Secretaries. 6. The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the Sections are ex-officio members of the General Committee for the time being. SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. The General Committee shall appoint, at each Meeting, Committees, con- sisting severally of the Members most conversant with the several branches of Science, to advise together for the advancement thereof. The Committees shall report what subjects of investigation they would particularly recommend to be prosecuted during the ensuing year, and brought under consideration at the next Meeting. The Committees shall recommend Reports on the state and progress of particular Sciences, to be drawn up from time to time by competent persons, for the information of the Annual Meetings. COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS. The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee, which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science. All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re- searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects, shall be submitted to the Com- mittee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the General Committee, unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recom- mendations. LOCAL COMMITTEES. Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings. Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire. OFFICERS. A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or tore Secretaries, and a Treasurer, shall be annually appointed by the General Committee. COUNCIL. In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the Meeting. PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS. The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve his right of property therein. ACCOUNTS. The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors appointed by the Meeting, 12 ‘stra “bso ‘poomfoyy souer F 4 é rat a sw “a “Aten *O “AA SMA OVW YOMIPIS *V AO Foes eeeeeeeeencrney ‘NOLUGOT SIONVUA CUOT OL ‘CW Surapy AA ‘sy wad “bsg ‘axel aaqed (079 “S' Td “WoqIeH “AL ‘40u PUL UOH = *S"H' aL “Tog ‘wove uyor *bsq “unt ‘xopAey, pxvyony ‘beg ‘xogy ofa ogo (ooceecs ste trteseetesesseesssseseserseceres ss2' pet SPEBEY "L'a ug spa “Mesh acter alee TOUS faeeeop Ogura “TTEMEHM LOSSAIOUd ‘ATU OL PTUTUSECEPEET Ee Pee ‘ { 4ivg ‘poomsayy utmeluog ut gpat “eg oung ‘MESHHONV SY *S'T'r SyptWIg WoRTUIVE “TOD ‘sta “soy ‘shuvp MoUs * AL weer e eee ence reer tessa eresee ‘LW “JOUR PLOT *AgTLOJ{ JO [LV OYL ‘hsq ‘Buus uyor ¢ *‘oqumoaspg JUNOT JO [VA ONL "ATT ‘OOIN ‘df A “bsg ‘[OpPrT serpuy L's "wa “Woysmorg Ped AS ‘E'S ‘Yoousery pio] [woway ~soleyy sbsq ‘12180 WOT "SUA “bsp ‘uosSpoH ydasor pe ceceee cer esseecesccecccssesssseser*® OUBIVIIETT jediuug “Aa AIDA 4 , 3 Neate uaa : sreeeseeegurer “beg “tsop uyor "ad ‘wosurqoy “UW WL “AW ONL OR “Sa Rot Gann nnr ete on ‘ATU OWL ‘Suwa “Meg ‘ouvqsiig “WL a8 } ‘ost ‘ZI saqmiaydag ‘MooSVTH teeeeeeeee soured “ANVATIVAVANE JO SINDUVN UL ‘at ‘uoysEyerg, woydog ‘siya “bsg ‘oyseg oBs0ap Lorrrsss tte eyMOMyUC JO [VA ‘uojduvy won jo sinbre yy "Sa “VW ‘woysuyor Lossayorg *S'D'A “uojMA “UAL ‘ory “STA “uoeuepy uyor *jood -s9avy “Horyngysuy [ehoy ‘sold ‘Jaye *N ydesor bso ‘aqing aoxyepy “MAA “CW “TAL tossejorg Tere eee ee eee “ff fra . ‘ . oy, ory “SUA “gano0odwH WOWIIA “AL “AML ML Popegn aS yd ‘CNVINAENOHLYON 40 THN UL eee se Soi & ‘a'S'wa “Dsq *d o OW ‘Kapueyg pio'y ouL Tet teeeeeeeeeeeeeseececeraeseresees acute ‘QIQUISOTT JO LC OULL, SW WAS Wa VW UpaOd tossajorg «SUA CW ‘puepy Aossajorg Ce ee ‘SO “Old “Sar “a'qgTt “OW ‘uaqned AIOSSIJOIg heres prope “YoY s1YO Jo uvad “a'd ‘TEPPYT “HD 'W Ae AIA EYL Ce ee ie iy ‘'s'O'a “Wt “bsq ‘qygty 281025 "S'O'a “Wit “bs ‘yytas “sg “¢ 'H I “Sra “a'd “pr1ojxo jo doysig pro'y ouL, ‘S'la “CW ‘a0jsaT[oy a31005 ee ee ‘SVU a “ow “Wh “TI ‘assoy jo ped a7L SATYSPIOFXO JO UBUAINAYT pIO'T “S*H' a TO’ “YBnosoqie yp Jo yn IL, ** plojxQ JO AZISLAAIU A) BY} JO AOT[aNUBYQ-2dI,A “T'O’C ‘BUNaL *y “AVY ONL * *P1OJXO JO “ATU 94} JoroTaoURYD “T'D'G “O'd “OM ‘Aqued Jo [eg OUT, *ugapraqy jo 4yun0D 243 Jo rauaAu0D “gag “a'TT “bsg ‘uosmoyy, ' ‘ogst ‘Ze oung ‘aaoaxg f es] “UP OTM OWT “Sud “wosurspoy "| Jossajorg Feet eeneeeeeeeeerereceesenneteneeaere seen eenaesereret ee © 4I9189T9 “y'g “soosox “aE “HT rOSsayorg “UBYL "90S “Td 2B “HVT “Sead “Sa “a1 “bsg ‘omor y300sarg sourer | “US WU “S'U'd'A “VM ‘ADISHLLOUM CUOT OL ee es ee eeee "SW “aa ‘aosulqoy "a *L ‘AQ ouL th eeeesseegenred Swen ‘amooeH ‘A "MM *AQY OL, ‘bs OMA “aT UNOL nae ab 1G OULU g 1OSsojorg “S'O'A CO'S'U'A ‘IOOIN “f¢ tOssajorg ae eet Sa “T'0'd.“s448'0'H ‘aostqom yl “1 Yowepoy Tig "6S8I ‘FI daquiojdeg ‘naaauaay esee es ennenye fermen be . ‘ . Sut Lod HM sesmord Pav US (++ tIOSNOO MONIUd AHL SSANHSIH IVAOU SIH were eee eens +] <1 dat ¢ “mod OWA “qed ‘jeyosio NN “a uyor ag pia Sie rene ere Ty Posen nie ede» Vareteohs Se TO apa tO An9 ay} JO JSOAOIT priory auL “Sra SL SoM “aT ‘ueepseqy jo [eg OU sete eeeercererseceneecenecerecsssomrey Mx ‘UOMO JO aN WL | “4 newer : ste ee eee ee ‘SoU “TW “T9'a “bsq ‘SOUT OJ ZOUO TT ’ wee wwe “SOA SW “Dbsa ‘Teysae yy quey somes eee eee ee ee ed aspiiquieg ‘adatjoo Aqwunsy, JO 1948e “SVU “S'O'd CWT WOH “Sa a “Od “TMT AN “AL ‘AO OTL, were eee “S'O'a “omy “TW “qe ‘109103 Kary sedyey op dt md ag Wee riiA See vie.cieg 0 clei SRie Ser sai “WA ‘soureg ae "W “u0oy 94, TY a7.L ‘WA “bsq ‘uos[tqy seuroy, ‘s'O'a “bs ‘prey soxdg “Wy *y'q ‘sxouly svuoqy *s0z7 "SSSI ‘2g zaquiojdag ‘sagary tee ee eee eeeeceeceeaeeeeeeeeesers TOMASI, YSMUG O73 jo sjuoujsedeg A£10};814y eINQeNY 93 Jo yUepuazutiadng “so'a°s'Tas'a'd'A“T'0'C “C'W ‘NAMO CUVHOIN seers gy “dl “Yawapoy yunoasta p1ory aq, "S'W ad ‘eSvozuo0jyy psoy oy a ee b 81 LEseF & S&L FFG tl ocooooeocecececosco ocooooceocecocooeonse nooooco mooooco Lol c 7 LL POH e eet PP eeeetteeeeeessereresesee SI9INSCILT, jeo0'T pue Jomsvary, [eae ay} JO puey Ut OIG OL 8 Lea eee sraqueg ay ev soured detenvasgersreseeerseeeeesatereaeseneeeee® SOIMUBIY JO SUINIYSUOD eeecereee : “+ ‘squoosy auldly serrtesesenseeeeeeeseerers IQABAA JO SUISNVD seseeeerenseaneecensranegersenecensegenacsssenesseseereees* JOTCT UOSL siteeeeeresereeeeesessseseseseoes cuOTIATOS() OY AeABOIOY-0JOU Verereeseeeeetteeeeee TOIT) CIC seq pur Aassoyy Ul Suispoiqg SUOTJOVSULIT, It} 0} XAPUT payisse[g OOO ee eee ee HOOP EEE EOE HEHEHE EEE E HT Hee ease eeEEeeeere® sAOITV yeonmeyg “MINIMOIII) 4ev suOyeL0[AxT tressereveree QSEUBUTSIT JO S|ISSOT sa receccecscsecceraeacesasceeeosssssree OOTBTIIOJION ,S[OSSAA-WI}S POCO em H eee reese H HEE H eee e eet OE HHH EOE OHH eee seeeee® Sas jo Ayyianjog seteaeesreerteenesesetserseereesenesress CT BINT FO SUOTVAVOXT Pee eet et ee temaeeeseeeee 0 0 & T98T 0341p 071g 0 0 cs PTUTTETET Tee 0981 ‘90941U1 0100, Buspar reteeereererensees NUIBTIONS JO JSVOD JSUT] PUL YON Suspoaq, 4, Huesacesac sense es’)>*s ets nTOUIMom gy: ayenbyeq seeresers KTOIVATIASYO MOY JO JUIMYSI[GeIs| oy} Sururequreyy SOP Pee eee entre eaters eereeeree® sjosuog which) jad ¢ 00cs jo aseyoing GOS BOP TERE CRE RDI AIT ISA fe (CONSE ZL ‘SaLIe}Ug 9 61 G9 ‘ttt SuysaTy YjouatTy, 94} JO *02 ‘Surrvasug 8 IL 8ezF Suyooy yQuiu-Ajyuomy, aya Jo yaoday Sunuug srereeeeeseeseeeescTQnSBal], [VIO] OY} pue JaINsvaIy, [e.IdUay ayy Aq sjuowkeg jeyuepiouy pur, ‘Sursysaapy ‘s}10dayy Supurg ‘Suyutg Aipung ‘Suysoyy p1loyxQ jo sosuedxg Ag “SENGNAVd b Sl Leger UALSAANVT NIMC < “shopipny ‘LOISSV9 ‘d “£ ‘MVHS NOLUON "4091100 punoj pue paulwMmexT Cen LG2 Ss tae oe SP Go ees gangensig yderSouyvy pue ‘sour'y S,aAaoq ‘apuryery ‘sivqg Jo anso[eye9g 0 FI 0s Sessasie>caeevebaterenes sus USA UTIOOT jo sy1odey I0q (PEre) 4 F “ZIA—suoteorqnd JO [8S 0% GGG Teteeeetesstteessesetsseeeeeseseeesersees son QOO/F WO SYIUOU ZI pur yoog “yuao sad ¢ QOCIF uo puaepraiq syyWOW 9 0 0 £9F Oe eereeceessoreceses ouIp 0341p ‘SJOMOLy, SIpeyT 0 0 9¢9 TOP ewer eaeeeereesses 0341p 0431p ‘sJOMOL], So}RID0ssy 0 0 66€ opp op ‘suodrrosqng yenuuy 0 0 0&2 doUIS pue Taaplaqy 3@ suortsoduo0y ayy Q JL BIZ cette qunosoY 4st] WOIF pAvMAOZ WYSNOIG vour[Vg OF, Ds F “SLdIGOaL ‘(UMLSAHONVIN 3%) 19ST toquiaydag uF 0} (ONILAGN AUOAXO Jo yuowsouswmos) gggt ounp y37Z Woy TNNOOOV SAANASVAUL TVYAINAD FHL “AONAIOS FO LNGNAONVACV AHL YOL NOILVIOOSSV HSLLTda MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. XXV II. Table showing the Names of Members of the British Association who have served on the Council in former years. Aberdeen, Earl of, LL.D., K.G., K.T., F.R.S. (dec*). Acland, Sir Thomas D., Bart., M.A., D.C.L., E.R.S. Acland, Professor H. W., M.D., F.R.S. Adams, Prof. J. Couch, M.A., D.C.L., E.R.S. Adamson, John, Esq., FL. S. Ainslie, Rev. Gilbert, D.D., Master of Pem- broke Hall, Cambridge. Airy,G. B.M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Astronomer Royal. ‘ 3 Alison, ProfessorW. P.,M.D.,F.R.S.E.(dec#). Allen, W. J. C., Esq. Anderson, Prof. Thomas, M.D. Ansted, Professor D. T., M.A., F.R.S. Argyll, George Douglas, Duke of, F.R.S. L. & E. Arnott, Neil, M.D., F.R.S. Ashburton, William Bingham, Lord, D.C.L. Atkinson, Rt. Hon. R. ,Lord Mayor of Dublin. Babbage, Charles, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. Babington, Professor C. C., M. A., FBS. Baily, Francis, Esq., F.R. S. (deceased). Baines, Rt. Hon. M. T., M.A., M.P. (dec*). Baker, Thomas Barwick Lloyd, Esq. Balfour, Professor John H., M.D., F.R.S. Barker, George, Esq., F.R. 8. Gilad. Beamish, Richard, Esq., E.R.S. Beechey, Rear-Admiral, F.R.S. (deceased). Bell, Professor Thomas, V.P.L.S., F.R.S. Bengough, George, Esq. Bentham, George, Esq., Pres.L.8. Biddell, George Arthur, Esq. Bigge, Charles, Esq. Blakiston, Peyton, M.D., F.R.S. Boileau, Sir John P., Bart., F.R.S. Boyle, Rt.Hon. D.., Lord J ustice- Gen!. (dec*). Brady,The Rt. Hon. Maziere, M.R.1.A., Lord Chancellor of Ireland. Brand, William, Esq Breadalbane, J ohn, malin of, K.T., F.R.S. Brewster, Sir David, K.H., D.C.L., enim ERS. L. & E., Principal of the Uni- versity of Edinburgh. Brisbane, General Sir Thomas M., Bart., K.C.B., G.C.H., D.C.L., F.R.S. "(dect), Brodie, Sir B. C., Bart., D. CL. V.P.R.S. Brooke, Charles, B.A. FERS. Brown, Robert, D.C.L., F.R.S. (deceased). Brunel, Sir M. I., F.R.S. (deceased). Buckland, Very Rey. William, D.D., F.R.S., Dean of Westminster (deceased). Bute, John, Marquis of, K.T. (deceased). Carlisle, George Will. Fred., Earl of, F.R.S. Carson, Rev. Joseph, F.T.C.D. Cathcart, Lt.-Gen., Harlof, K.C.B., F.R.S8.E. (deceased). Chalmers, Rev. T., D.D. (deceased). Chance, James, Esq. Chester, John Graham, D.D., Lord Bishop of. Christie, Professor 8. H., M. A., F.R.S. Clare, Peter, Esq., F.R. AS. (deceased). Clark, Rev. Prof, M.D., F.R.S. (Cambridge. Clark, Henry, M.D. Clark, G. T., Esq. Clear, William, “eq. (deceased). Clerke, Major 8. K.H., R.E., F.R.S. (dec*). Clift, William, Esq., FRS. (deceased). Close, Very Rev. F., M.A., Dean of Carlisle. Cobbold, John Chevalier, Esq., M.P. Colquhoun, J. C., Hsq., M.P. (deceased). Conybeare, Very Rey. W. D., Dean of Llan- daff (deceased). Cooper, Sir Henry, M.D. Corrie, John, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). Crum, Walter, Esq., F.R.S. Currie, William Wallace, Esq. (deceased). Dalton, John, D.C.L., F.R.S. (deceased). Daniell, Pr ofessor J. F, F.R.S. (deceased). Darhishire; R. D., B.A., F.G.8 Dartmouth, William, Earl of, D. C.L., F.B.S. Darwin, Charles, Esq., M.A. FRS. Daubeny, Prof. C. G. B., M.D.,LL.D., F.B.S. DelaBeche, Sir H. T., C.B., F.R.S., Director- Gen. Geol. Surv. United Kingdom (dec*). De la Rue, Warren, Ph.D., F.R.S Derby, Earl of, D. 0. sb Chancellor of the University of Oxfor d. Devonshire, William, Duke of, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S Dickinson, “Joseph, M.D., F.RS. Dillwyn, Lewis W., Esq,., ERS. (deceased). Donkin, Professor 'W.F , M.A., F.R.S. Drinkwater, J. E., Esq. (deceased). Ducie, The Ear] of, E.R.S. Dunraven, The Earl of, F.R.S. Egerton, Sir P. de M. Grey, Bart., M.P., E.R.S. Eliot, Lord, M.P. Ellesmere, Francis, Earl of, F.G.S. (dec*). Enniskillen, William, Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S. Estcourt, T. G. B., D.C.L. (deceased). Fairbairn, William, LL.D., C.E., F.R.S. Faraday, Professor, D.C.L., F.R.S8. FitzRoy, Rear-Admiral, F.R.S. Fitzwilliam, The Earl, D.C.L., F.R.S. (dec*). Fleming, W., M.D. Fletcher, Bell, M.D. Foote, Lundy E., Esq. Forbes, Charles, Esq. (deceased). Forbes, Prof. Edward, F.R.S. (deceased). Forbes,Prof.J.D., LL.D., F.R.S.,Sec. R.S.E., Principal of the University of St. An- drews. Fox, Robert Were, Esq., F.R.S. Frost, Charles, F.S.A. Fuller, Professor, M.A. Galton, Francis, F.R.8., F.G.S. Gassiot, John P., Esq., ER. Ss. Gilbert, Davies, D.C. L., F.R.S. (deceased). Gladstone, J. H., Ph.D. E.R.S, Gourlie, William, Esq. (deceased). Graham, T., M.A. D.C.L., F.B.S., Master of the Min Gray, John i, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S. . Gray, Jonathan, Esq. (deceased). XXVi Gray, William, Esq., F.G.S. Green, Prof. Joseph Henry, D.C.L., F.RB.S. Greenough, G. B., Esq., F. Pa 8. (deceased). Griffith, George, M. A., F.C Griffith, Sir R. Griffith, Bt., LLD, M.R.LA. Grove, W. R. , Hsq., M.A., "ERS. Hallam, Henry, Esq., M. A, ERS. (dec!), Hamilton, W. J., Esq., F.R.S., For. Sec. G.S. Hamilton, Sir Wm. R., LL. he Astronomer Royal of Ireland, MRLA, FE.R.AS. Hancock, W. Neilson, LL.D. Harcourt, Rev. Wm. Vernon, M.A., F.R.S. Hardwicke, Charles Philip, Earl of, E.BS. Harford, J. 8., D.C L., F.R.S. Harris, Sir W. Snow, F. RS. Harrowby, The Earl of, F.R.S. Hatfeild, William, Esq., F.G.S. (deceased). Henry. Ww. C., M. D., RS Has Rey. P. 8., D. D. , President of Queen’s College, Belfast. _Henslow, Rev. Professor, M.A., F.L.S. (dec). Herbert, Hon. and Very Rey. ‘Wm. LL.D., F.L.S., Dean of Manchester (dect). Herschel, Sir John F. W., Bart., M.A., D.C.L., E.R.S. Heywood, Sir Benjamin, Bart., F.R.S. Heywood, James, Esq., F.R.S. Hill, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G.S. Hincks, Rey. Edward, D.D., M.R.1.A. Hincks, Rey. Thomas, B.A. Hinds, 8., D.D., late Lord Bishop of Norwich (deceased). Hodgkin, Thomas, M.D. Hodgkinson, Professor Eaton, F.R.S. (dec*). Hodgson, Joseph, Esq., F.R.S. Hooker, Sir William J., LL.D., F.R.S.. Hope, Rey. F. W., M.A., ERS. Hopkins, William Esq., M. A., LL.D., F.RS. Horner, Leonard, "Esq., E.R. S., Pres.G.s. Hovenden, V. F., Esq., M.A. Hugall, J. W., Esq. Hutton, Robert, Esq., F.G-.S. Hutton, William, Esq., F.G.S. (deceased). Ibbetson, Capt.L.L. Boscawen, K.R.E.,F.G.S8. Inglis, Sir R. H., Bart., D. CL. , MP. (dec!) Inman, Thomas, M. D. J acobs, Bethel, Esq. Jameson, Professor R., F.R.S. ideeesend), Jardine, ‘Sir William, Bart., F.R.S.E. J effreys, John Gwyn, Esq., ERS. Jellett, Rey. Professor. Jenyns, Rey. Leonard, F.L.S. Jerrard, H. B., Esq. Jeune, Rey. F., D.D., Vice-Chancellor of the University of Oxford. Johnston, Right Hon. William, late Lord Provost of Edinburgh. Johnston, Prof. J. F. W., M.A., F.BS. (deceased). Keleher, William, Esq. (deceased). Kelland, Rey. Prof. P., M.A. F.R.S. L. & EB. Kildare, The Marquis of, Lankester, Edwin, M.D., F.R.S. Lansdowne, Hen. Marquis of, D.C.L.,F.B.S. Larcom, Major, RE,, LL.D., E.R.S. Lardner, Rey. Dr. (deceased), REPORT—-1861. Lassell, William, 1 ied E.R.S. L. & E. Latham, i Ge; .. ERS. Lee, Very Rev. ‘Tek D.D., F.R.S.E., Prin- cipal of the University of Edinburgh (deceased). Lee, Robert, M.D., F.R.S. Lefevre, Right Hon. Charles Shaw, late Speaker of the House of Commons. Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., F.R.S. Liddell, Andrew, Esq. (deceased) Liddell, Very Rev. H. G., D.D., Dean of Christ Church, Oxford. Lindley, Professor John, Ph.D., F.R.S. Listowel, The Earl of. Lloyd, Rey. B., D.D., Provost of Trin. Coll., Dublin (dec*). ms Rev. H., D.D., D.C.L., F.B.S. L.&E., M.R.IA. Londesborough, Lord, F.R.S. (deceased). Lubbock, Sir John Ww, Bart., M.A., F.R.S, Luby, Rey. Thomas. Lyell, Sir Charles, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., E.R.S. MacCullagh, Prof., D. L., M.R.I.A. (dec*). MacDonnell, Rev. RB. D.D., M.R.LA., Pro- vost of Trinity College, Dublin. Macfarlane, The Very Rev. Principal. (dec*). MacGee, William, M.D. MacLeay, William Sharp, ed, ELS. MacNeill, Professor Sir John, F.R.S. Malahide, The Lord Talbot de. Malcolm, Vice-Ad. Sir Charles, K.C.B. (dec*). Maltby, Edward, D.D., F.R.S., late Lord Bishop of Durham (deceased). Manchester, J. P. Lee, D.D., Lord Bishop of. Marlborough, Duke of, D.C.L. Marshall, J. G., Esq., M.A., F.G.S. May, Char rles, Esq., FRAS. i Meynell, Thomas, Esq., F.L.S Middleton, Sir William F. F, Bart. Miller, Professor W. A., M.D. Treas. and V.P.RBS. Miller, Professor W. H., M.A., For. Sec.R.8. Milnes, R. Monckton, Esq., D.C.L., M.P. Moggridge, Matthew, Esq. Moillet, J. D., Esq. (deceased). Monteagle, Lord, F.R.S. Moody, J. Sadleir, Esq. Moody, T. H. C., Esq. Moody, T. F., Esq. Morley, The Ear! of. Moseley, Rev. Henry, M.A., F.R.S. Mount-Edgecumbe, ErnestAugustus, Earl of. Murchison, Sir Roderick T.,G.C.S8t.8., D.C.L., . ERS. Neild, Alfred, Esq. Neill, Patrick, M.D., F.R.8.E. Nicol, D., M.D. Nicol, Professor J., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Nicol, Rev. J. P., LL.D. Northampton, Spencer Joshua Alwyne, Mar- quis of, V.P.R.S. (deceased). Northumberland, Hugh, Duke of, K.G.,M.A., EBS. (deceased ). Ormerod, G. W., Esq., M.A., F.G.S. Orpen, Thomas Herbert, M.D. (deceased). _ ‘ | MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. Orpen, John H., LL.D. Osler, Follett, Esq., F.R.S. Owen, Professor Richd.,M.D.,D.C.L.,LL.D., R.S Oxford, Samuel Wilberforce, D.D., Lord Bishop of, F.R.S., F.G.S. Palmerston, Viscount, K.G., G.C.B., M.P., E.RB.S. Peacock, Very Rev. G., D.D., Dean of Ely, F.R.S. (deceased). Peel, Rt.Hon.Sir R.,Bart.,M.P.,D.C.L.(dec*). Pendarves, H. W., Hsq., F.R.S. (deceased). Phillips, Professor John, M.A., LL.D.,F.R.S. Pigott, The Rt. Hon. D. R., M.R.1.A., Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer in Ireland. Porter, G. R., Esq. (deceased). Portlock, Major-General, R.E.,LL.D., F.R.S. Powell, Rey. Professor, M.A., F.R.S. (dec*). Price, Rev. Professor, M.A., F.R.S. Prichard, J. C., M.D., F.R.S. (deceased). Ramsay, Professor William, M.A. Ransome, George, Hsq., F.L.S. Reid, Maj.-Gen. Sir W., K.C.B., R.E., F.R.S. deceased). Rendlesham, Rt. Hon. Lord, M.P. Rennie, George, Esq., F.R.S. Rennie, Sir John, F.R.S. ee! Sir John, C.B., M.D., LL.D., Richmond, Duke of, K.G., F.R.S. (dec*). Ripon, Earl of, F.R.G.S. Ritchie, Rev. Prof., LL.D., F.R.8. (dec*). Robinson, Capt., R.A. Robinson, Rey. J., D.D. Robinson, Rey. T. R., D.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Robison, Sir John, Sec.R.S. Edin. (deceased). Roche, James, Esq. Roget, Peter Mark, M.D., F.R.S. Rolleston, George, M.D., F.L.S. Ronalds, Francis, F.R.S. Roscoe, Professor H. H., B.A. Rosebery, The Earl of, K.T., D.C.L., F.R.S. Ross, Rear-Admiral Sir J. C., R.N., D.C.L., E.R.S. (deceased). Rosse, Wm., Earl of, M.A., F.R.S., M.R.LA. Royle, Prof. John F., M.D., F.R.S. (dec*). Russell, James, Esq. (deceased). Russell, J. Scott, Esq., F.R.S. Sabine, Major-GeneralEdward,R.A., D.C.L., LL.D., President of the Royal Society. Sanders, William, Esq., F.G.S. Scoresby, Rev. W., D.D., F.R.S. (deceased). Oe; Rev. Prof. Adam, M.A., D.C.L., Selby, Prideaux John, Esq., F.R.S.E. Sharpey, Professor, M.D., Sec.R.S. Sims, Di , Hsq. Smith, Lieut.-Colonel C. Hamilton, F.R.S. (deceased). XXVll Smith, Prof. H. J. §., M.A., F.B.S. Smith, James, F.R.S. L. & EB. Spence, William, Hsq., F.R.S. (deceased). Spottiswoode, W., M.A., F.R.S. Stanley, Edward, D.D., F.R.S., late Lord Bishop of Norwich (deceased). Staunton, Sir G. T., Bt., M.P., D.C.L., F.B.S. St. David’s, C.Thirlwall,D.D.,LordBishop of. Stevelly, Professor John, LL.D. Stokes, Professor G.G., M.A.,D.C.L.,Sec. B.S. Strang, John, Esq., LL.D. Strickland, Hugh E., Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). Sykes, Colonel W. H., M.P., F.R.S. Symonds, B. P., D.D., Warden of Wadham College, Oxford. Talbot, W. H. Fox, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. Tayler, Rev. John James, B.A. Taylor, John, Esq., F.R.S. Taylor, Richard, Esq., F.G.S. Thompson, William, Hsq., F.L.S.(deceased), Thomson, A., Esq. Thomson, Professor William, M.A., F.R.S. Tindal, Captain, R.N. (deceased). Tite, William, Esq., M.P., F.R.S. Tod, James, Esq., F.R.S.E. Tooke, Thomas, F.R.S. (deceased). Traill, J. S., M.D. (deceased). Turner, Edward, M.D., F.R.S. (deceased). Turner, Samuel, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S. (dec*). Turner, Rey. W. Tyndall, Professor John, F.R.S. Vigors, N. A., D.C.L., F.L.S. (deceased). Vivian, J. H., M.P., F.R.S. (deceased). Walker, James, Esq., F.R.S. Walker, Joseph N., Esq., F.G.S. Walker, Rev. Professor Robert, M.A., F.R.S. Warburton, Henry, Esq.,M.A., F.R.S.(dec*). Ward, W. Sykes, Esq., F.C.S. Washington, Captain, R.N., F.R.S. Webster, Thomas, M.A., F.R.S. West, William, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). Western, Thomas Burch, Esq. Wharncliffe, John Stuart, Lord,F.R.S.(dec*). Wheatstone, Professor Charles, F.R.8. Whewell, Rev. William, D.D., F.B.S., Master of Trinity College, Cambridge. White, John F., Esq. Williams, Prof. Charles J. B., M.D., F.R.S8. Willis, Rev. Professor Robert, M.A., F.R.S. Wills, William, Esq., F.G.S. (deceased). Wilson, Thomas, Esq., M.A. Wilson, Prof. W. P. Winchester, John, Marquis of. Woollcombe, Henry, Esq., F.S.A. (deceased). Wrottesley, John, Lord, M.A.,D.C.L., F.RB.S. Yarborough, The Ear! of, D.C.L. Yarrell, William, Esq., F.L.S. (deceased). Yates, James, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. Yates, J. B., Esq., F.S.A., F-R.G.S. (dec?). OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1861-62. TRUSTEES (PERMANENT). Sir RopERIcK I. Murcuison, G.C.St.8., F.R.S. Major-General EDWARD SaBinF, R.A., D.C.L., Pres. B.S. Sir PHitie DE M. GREY EGERTON, Bart., M.P., F.R.S. PRESIDENT. WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN, Esq., LL.D., C.E., F.R.S. VICE-PRESIDENTS. The EARL OF ELLESMERE, F.R.G.S. ‘ THOMAS BAZLEY, Esq., M.P. The LorD STANLEY, M.P., D.C.L., F.R.G.S. JAMES ASPINALL TURNER, Esq., M.P. The LoRD BISHOP OF MANCHESTER, D.D., F.R.8., | JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., Pre- F.G.8. sident of the Literary and Philosophical Society Sir PHitrie DE Mapas GREY EGERTON, Bart., of Manchester. M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S. JOSEPH WHITWORTH, Esq., F.R.S., M.I.C.E. Sir BENJAMIN HEYWOOD, Bart., F.R.S. PRESIDENT ELECT. Rey. R. WILLIS, M.A., F.R.S., Jacksonian Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy in the University of Cambridge. VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT. The Very Rev. H. Goopwin, D.D., Dean of Ely. J.C. ADAMS, Esq., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Pres.C.P.5., The Rev. W. WHEWELL, D.D., F.R.S., Master of Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and Geometry Trinity College, Cambridge. in the University of Cambridge. The Rev. A. SED@wicK, M.A., D.C.L, F.R.S., | GG. STOKES, Esq., M.A., D.C.L., See. R.S.,Lucasian Woodwardian Professor of Geology in the Uni- Professor of Mathematics in the University of versity of Cambridge. Cambridge. G. B. Arry, Esq., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Astronomer Royal. LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT CAMBRIDCE. C. C. Bapincron, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.8., Professor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. G. D. Liverne, Esq., M.A., F.C.8., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Cambridge. The Rey. N. M. FERRERS, M.A., Gonville and Caius College. LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT CAMBRIDCE. The Rey. W. M. Campion, M.A., Queen’s College. ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. BATEMAN, J. F., F.R.S. GLADSTONE, Dr. J. H., F.R.8. SHARPEY, Professor, Sec. R.S. CRAWFURD, JOHN, Esq., F.R.S., | Grove, WILLIAM R., F.R.S. SPoTTIswooDE, W., M.A., F.R.S. Pres. Eth. Soc. HEYWOOD, JAMES, Esq., F.R.S. | SyKES, Colonel W. H., M.P., DAvBENY, Dr. C. G. B., F.R.S. Huron, RoBERT, F.G.8. F.RB.S. DE LA RUE, WARREN, Ph.D., | LYELL, Sir C., D.C.L., F.R.S. TrrE, WILLIAM, M.P., F.R.S. E.R.S. MILLER, Prof.W.A., M.D., F.R:8. | WEBSTER, THOMAS, F.R.S. FrrzRoy, Rear-Admiral, F.R.8. PorTLOCK, General, R.E., F.R.S. | WHEATSTONE, Prof., F.R.S. Gatton, Francis, F.R.S. PRICE, Rey. Prof., M.A., F.R.S. | WILLiAMson, Prof. A. W., F.R.S. Gassior, JouN P., F.R.S. EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. The President and President Elect, the Vice-Presidents and Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant-General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the T'rustees, and the Presidents of former years, viz.—Rev. Professor Sedgwick. The Marquis of Lansdowne. The Duke of Devonshire. Rey. W. V. Har- court. The Marquis of Breadalbane. Rey. W. Whewell, D.D. The Earl of Rosse. Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. Sir Roderick I. Murchison. The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. Sir David Brewster. G. B. Airy, Esq., the Astronomer Royal. General Sabine. William Hopkins, Esq., LL.D. The Earl of Harrowby. The Duke of Argyll. Professor Daubeny, M.D. The Rey. H. Lloyd, D.D. Professor Owen, M.D.,D.C.L. The Lord Wrottesley. GENERAL SECRETARY. WILLIAM Hopkins, Esq., M.A., LU.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY. JouHN PHILLIPS, Esq., M.A., LL.D., F.R.8., F.G.8., Professor of Geology in the University of Oxford, Museum House, Oxford. : CENERAL TREASURER. WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8., F.R.A.S., 10 Chester Street, Belgrave Square, London, 8. W. LOCAL TREASURERS. William Gray, Esq., F.G.S., York. John Gwyn Jefireys, Esq., F.R.S., Swansea C. C. Babington, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., Cambridge. J. B. Alexander, Esq., Ipswich. William Brand, Esq., Edinburgh. Robert Patterson, Eeq., M.R.LA., Belfast. John H. Orpen, LL.D., Dublin. Edmund Smith, Esq., Hull. William Sanders, Esq., F.G.S., Bristol. Richard Beamish, Esq., F.R.S., Cheltenham. Robert M‘Andrew, Esq., F.R.S8., Liverpool. John Metcalfe Smith, Esq., Leeds. W. R. Wills, Esq., Birmingham. John Forbes White, Esq., Aberdeen. Professor Ramsay, M.A., Glasgow. Rey. John Griffiths, M.A., Oxford. Robert P. Greg, Esq., F.G.8., Manchester. ; AUDITORS. Dr. Norton Shaw. John P. Gassiot Esq. Dr. E. Lankester. - OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. XXIX OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE MANCHESTER MEETING. SECTION A.-—-MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. President.—G. B. Airy, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Astronomer Royal. Vice-Presidents.—J. P. Joule, LL.D., F.R.S.; Rev. Professor Price, M.A., F.R.S. ; The Lord Wrottesley, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.; Major-General Sabine, R.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Pres.R.S.; Sir David Brewster, K.H., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. L. & E.; Rev. T. P. Kirkman, M.A., F.R.S. Secretaries.—ProfessorJ. Stevelly, LL.D.; Professor H.J.S. Smith, M.A.,F.R.S. 5 Professor R. B. Clifton, B.A., F.R.A.S. SECTION B,— CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY, INCLUDING THEIR APPLICATIONS TO AGRICULTURE AND THE ARTs. President. —W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in King’s College, London. Vice-Presidents,—Professor Anderson, M.D.,F.R.S.E.; Professor Andrews, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.1.A.; J. P. Gassiot, F.R.S.; J. H. Gladstone, Ph.D., F.R.S.; W. R. Grove, M.A., F.R.S.; Dr.Schunck, F.R.S.; Dr. Stenhouse, F.R.S.; Professor A. W. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S. Secretaries.—G@. D. Liveing, M.A.; A. Vernon Harcourt, M.A. SECTION C.—GEOLOGY. President.—Sir R.I. Murchison, G.C.St.S.,D.C.L., LL.D.,F.R.S., Director-Gene- ral of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. Vice-Presidents.—E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S.; Sir P. de M. G. Egerton, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S.; Earl of Enniskillen, F.R.S., F.G.S.; J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S., F.G.S.; General Portlock, F.R.S., M.R.I.A., F.G.S.; Rev. Professor Sedgwick, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Secretdries.—Professor Harkness, F.R.S., F.G.S.; Edward Hull, B.A., F.G.S.; T. Rupert Jones, F.G.S.; G. W. Ormerod, M.A., F.G.S. d SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY. President.—C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. Vice-Presidents.— Professor W. C. Williamson, F.R.S.; Professor Owen, M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. ; Professor Daubeny, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. Secretaries.—Thomas Alcock, M.D.; Edwin Lankester, M.D., F.R.S.; P. L. Sclater, Ph.D., M.A., F.R.S.; E. Percival Wright, M.A., M.D., M.R.1.A., F.L.S. SUB-SECTION D.—PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCE. President.—John Davy, M.D., F.R.S. L. & E. Vice- Presidents.—Professor Rolleston, M.D., F.L.S.; Professor C. J. B. Williams, M.D., F.R.S.; Dr. Roget, F.R.S. Secretaries.—Edward Smith, M.D., F.R.S.; William Roberts, M.D. SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY. i oo Crawfurd, Esq., F.R.S., President of the Ethnological Society, ondon. Vice-Presidents.—Sir R. 1. Murchison, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.; Rear-Admiral Sir James C. Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S.; Vice-Admiral Sir E. Belcher, C.B., F.R.S. ; Colonel Sir H. Rawlinson; Rev. Professor Sedgwick, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.; Major-General Chesney, R.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. Secretaries.—James Hunt, Ph.D.; J. Kingsley; Norton Shaw, M.D.; W. Spot- tiswoode, M.A., F.R.S. SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. President.—William Newmarch, F.R.S. Vice- Presidents.—William Farr, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. ; James Heywood, F.R.S.; Lord Monteagle, F.R.S.; Alderman Neild; Right Hon. Joseph Napier; Edwin Chadwick, C.B.; Daniel Noble, M.D. ; Rev. Canon Richson, M.A. ; Colonel Sykes, M.P., F.R.S.; W.N. Massey, M,P.; William Tite, M.P., F.R.S. XXX REPORT—1861. Secretaries.—Rev. Professor J. E. T. Rogers, M.A.; Edmund Macrory, M.A.; Professor R. C. Christie, M.A.; David Chadwick, F.S.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E. SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE. President.—J. F. Bateman, Esq., C.E., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B., F.R.S.; Thomas Fairbairn, Esq. ; Captain Douglas Galton, F.R.S. ; The Mayor of Manchester; Rey. T, R. Robinson, D.D., F.R.S.; Rev. Professor Willis, M.A., F.R.S. J. Scott Russell, Esq., F.R.S.; Thomas Webster, M.A., F.R.S. ; © Secretaries. —P. Le Neve Foster, Esq., M.A.; John Robinson, Esq.; Henry Wright, Esq. CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. Professor Agassiz, Cambridge, Massa- chusetts. M. Babinet, Paris. Dr. A. D. Bache, Washington. Dr. D. Bierens de Haan, Amsterdam. Professor Bolzani, Kazan. Dr. Barth. Dr. Bergsma, Utrecht. Mr. P. G. Bond, Cambridge, U.S. M. Boutigny (d’Evreux). Professor Braschmann, Moscow. Dr. Carus, Leipzig. Dr. Ferdinand Cohn, Breslau. M. Antoine d’Abbadie. M. De la Rive, Geneva. Professor Wilhelm Delffs, Heidelberg. Professor Dove, Berlin. Professor Dumas, Paris. Dr. J. Milne-Edwards, Paris. Professor Ehrenberg, Berlin. Dr. Eisenlohr, Carlsruhe. Professor Encke, Berlin. Dr. A. Erman, Berlin. Professor A. Escher von der Linth, Zurich, Switzerland. Professor Esmark, Christiania. Prof. A. Favre, Geneva. Professor G. Forchhammer, Copenhagen. M. Léon Foucault, Paris. Prof. E. Fremy, Paris. M. Frisiani, Milan. Dr. Geinitz, Dresden. Professor Asa Gray, Cambridge, U.S. Professor Henry, Washington, U.S. Dr. Hochstetter, Vienna. M. Jacobi, St. Petersburg. Prof. Jessen, Med. et Phil. Dr., Griess- wald, Prussia. Professor Aug. Kekulé, Ghent, Belgium. M. Khanikoff, St. Petersburg. Prof. A. Kolliker, Wurzburg. Prof. De Koninck, Liége. Professor Kreil, Vienna. Dr. A. Kupffer, St. Petersburg. Dr. Lamont, Munich. Prof. F. Lanza, M. Le Verrier, Paris. Baron yon Liebig, Munich. Professor Loomis, New York. Professor Gustav Magnus, Berlin. Professor Matteucci, Pisa. Professor P. Merian, Bale, Switzerland. Professor von Middendorff, St. Petersburg. M. l’Abbé Moigno, Paris. Professor Nilsson, Sweden. Dr. N. Nordenskiold, Finland. M. E. Peligot, Paris. Prof. B. Pierce, Cambridge, U.S. Viscenza Pisani, Florence. Gustave Plaar, Strasburg. Chevalier Plana, Turin. Professor Pliicker, Bonn. M. Constant Prévost, Paris. M. Quetelet, Brussels. Prof. Retzius, Stockholm. Professor W. B. Rogers, Boston, U.S. Professor H. Rose, Berlin. Herman Schlagintweit, Berlin. Robert Schlagintweit, Berlin. M. Werner Siemens, Vienna. Dr. Siljestrom, Stockholm. Professor J. A..de Souza, University of Coimbra. M. Struvé, Pulkowa. Dr. Svanberg, Stockholm. M. Pierre Tchihatchef. Dr. Van der Hoeven, Leyden. Prof. E. Verdet, Paris. M. de Verneuil, Paris. Baron Sartorius yon Waltershausen, Gottingen. Professor Wartmann, Geneva. REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. XXX1 Report of the Council of the British Association, presented to the General Committee at Manchester, September 4, 1861. (1) The Council were directed by the General Committee at Oxford to maintain the Establishment of the Kew Observatory by aid of a grant of £500. At each of the meetings of the Council, the Committee of the Observa- tory have presented a detailed statement of their proceedings, and they have transmitted the General Report for the year 1860-1861, which is annexed. (2) Asum not exceeding £90 was granted for one year, and placed at the dispesal of the Council for the payment of an additional Photographer for carrying on the Photoheliographical Observations at Kew. On this subject the Report of the Kew Committee, which is annexed, may be consulted. (3) A further sum of £30 was placed at the disposal of Mr. Broun, Dr. Lloyd, and Mr. Stoney, for the construction of an Induction Dip-Circle, in connexion with the Observatory at Kew. The result of this reecommenda- tion is stated in the Report of the Kew Committee. (4) The Report of the Parliamentary Committee has been received by the Council for presentation to the General Committee to-day, and is printed for the information of the Members. (5) Professor Phillips was requested to complete and print, before the Manchester Meeting, a Classified Index to the Transactions of the Associa- tion from 1831 to 1860 inclusive, and was authorized to employ, during this period, an Assistant ; and the sum of £100 was placed at his disposal for the purpose. Professor Phillips reports that he has secured the assistance of Mr. G. Griffith, of Jesus College, Oxford, in carrying on the Index, which had been already much advanced by the help of Mr. Askham, and states that with the aid thus afforded he had hoped to be able to complete the work within the time specified. Though this expettation has not been realized, specimens of the work are laid before the Meeting. (6) Professor Phillips requested the attention of the Council to circum- stances regarding his own health and occupations, which are gradually render- ing it necessary for him to prepare to withdraw from the duties of the As- sistant General Secretary, which have been for many years intrusted to him; and suggested that opportunity might be taken of this announcement to con- sider whether the arrangements connected with the Secretariate should remain unchanged, or be modified. The Council regret to have received letters from Professor Walker, General Secretary, dated 15th March and 20th April, stating that, on account of in- disposition which required cessation from labour, it would not be in his power to continue his attention to the official business of the Association at the next Meeting. Under these circumstances the Council requested Professor Phillips to draw up in writing such statements and suggestions as might appear to him likely to assist the Council in considering the steps to be taken in consequence of these announcements*. (7) The communication of Professor Phillips in reference to the appoint- ment of a General Secretary having been considered, the following Resolu- tion was adopted :— That the President, and the gentlemen who have formerly acted as General Secretaries, viz. the Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Sir R. I. Murchison, and * The statement drawn up by Professor Phillips in consequence of this request was eee in the Minutes of the Council, and separate copies were laid before the General ommittee. XXXI1 REPORT—1861. Major-General Sabine, together with Professor Phillips, be a Committee to consider and report the steps which they deem it advisable for the Council to take in regard to the appointment of a General Secretary ; and that their Report be printed and circulated among the Members of Council previous to their meeting in Manchester on the 4th of Septem- ber next. By the following Report, which has been received from these gentlemen, the General Committee will learn with satisfaction that, if it be their pleasure to elect him, the services of a most efficient and experienced Mem- ber, who has discharged many offices, including the Presidency, with great benefit to the Association, are at their disposal for the duty of General Secretary. Report of the Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Sir R. I. Murchison, and Maor- General Sabine. Considering the present state of health of the General Secretary of the British Association, the Rev. Professor Walker, F.R.S., and the announced withdrawal at no distant period of Professor John Phillips, F.R.S., from the post of Assistant General Secretary, which he has so long held, and with such very great advantage to the British Association, we the undersigned, as requested by the Council to propose some suitable arrangement, have now to express our unanimous opinion that Mr. William Hopkins, F.R.S., of St. Peter’s College, Cambridge, is eminently qualified to fill the post of Joint General Secretary. ; We beg to add that, having applied to Mr. Hopkins, we find that he cor- dially accepts the offer, and, with the sanction of the Council, will be ready to commence his duties at the ensuing Manchester Meeting. The consideration of the future relation of Professor Phillips to the British Association is postponed, in compliance with his own request. Former General Rop. I. Murcuison, Saureities WILLIAM VERNON Harcourt, July 25, 1861. EDWARD SABINE, The Council have resolved, in conformity with the recommendation of this Report, to propose to-day in the General Committee that W. Hopkins, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., be elected General Secretary. (8) The following Foreign gentlemen, eminent in Science, who were present at the late Oxford Meeting and took part in the proceedings, were elected Corresponding Members of the British Association :— Dr. Bergsma, Utrecht. M. Khanikoff, St. Petersburg. Dr. Carus, Leipzig. M. Werner Siemens, Vienna. Prof. A. Favre, Geneva. Prof. B. Pierce, Cambridge, U.S. Dr. Geinitz, Dresden. Prof. E. Verdet, Paris. Dr. Hochstetter, Vienna. (9) Major-General Sabine communicated a copy of the Statutes of the Humboldt Foundation, now definitely organized, and of a Circular issued by the Committee, announcing that about £8000 had been secured as a Capital Fund, and that about £260 will be available in the year 1862 for the general object of assisting Researches in Natural Science and Travels, in which Hum- boldt was conspicuously active. ‘The disposition of the fund rests with the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin, and is open to applications from Scie entific Travellers of all nations. REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XXXlii (10) The Council are informed that Invitations will be presented to the General Committee at its Meeting on Monday, September 9, to hold the next meeting in Cambridge. ‘The invitations formerly offered on the part of Birmingham and Newcastle-on-Tyne will be renewed on this occasion ; and other invitations will be presented from Bath and Nottingham. Report of the Kew Committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science for 1860-1861. The Committee of the Kew Observatory beg to submit to the Association the following Report of their proceedings during the past year. It was noticed in a previous Report that General Sabine had undertaken to tabulate the hourly values of the magnetic elements from the curves given by these instruments. These values have been reduced under his super- intendence, and some of the results have been embodied in the following papers which he has communicated to the Royal Society :— (1) On the Solar-diurnal Variation of the Magnetic Declination at Pekin. —Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. x. p. 360. (2) On the Laws of the Phenomena of the larger Disturbances of the Magnetic Declination in the Kew Observatory : with notices of the progress of our knowledge regarding the Magnetic Storms.—Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. x. p. 624. (3) On the Lunar-diurnal Variation of the Magnetic Declination obtained from the Kew Photograms in the years 1858, 1859, and 1860.—Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xi. p. 73. The Superintendent, Mr. Stewart, has also communicated to the Royal Society a description of the great magnetic storm at the end of August and beginning of September 1859, deduced from the Kew Photographs. Mr. Chambers continues to be zealously employed in the magnetical de- partment, and attends to the self-recording magnetographs, which have been maintained in constant operation. The usual monthly absolute determinations of the magnetic elements con- tinue to be made; and the dip observations from November 1857 to the present date (282 in all), a large portion of which were made by the late Mr. Welsh and Mr. Chambers, have been made available by General Sabine in connexion with some previous observations of his own for determining the secular change in the magnetic dip in London, between the years 1821 and 1860. See Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xi. p. 144. The instruments for the Dutch Government alluded to in the last Report have been verified at Kew and taken away. They consisted of a set of self- recording magnetographs with a tabulating instrument, two Dip Circles, and one Fox’s Dip Circle for Dr. Bergsma; also of two Unifilars, one for Dr. Bergsma and one for Dr. Buys Ballot. Shortly after the despatch of these instruments, another set of self-record- ing Magnetographs were received at Kew, in order to be tested previous to _ their being sent to Dr. Bache, of the United States, and these were despatched in the early part of this year to America, along with a tabulating instrument, a Unifilar, and Dip Circle, all of which were verified at Kew. The staff at Kew are at present occupied with a third set of these instru- ments, along with a Dip Circle and Unifilar, for the University of Coimbra ; and Prof. Da Souza of that University is engaged at present at the Kew Observatory in examining his instruments, and in receiving instructions regarding them. It will thus be seen that no fewer than three sets of these instruments 1861. : c XXXIV > REPORT—1861. have been furnished during this last year, under the superintendence of the Committee, and it has hitherto been deemed advisable for the interests of science that no charge should be made for their verification. As this, how- ever, is an operation involving labour and a large expenditure of time, an application was made to the Royal Society for the sum of £90 from the Donation Fund, in order to cover the expense of verifying these three sets of instruments, while it was arranged that in future a charge of £30 for verification should be added to the cost of each set. This sum was at once granted by the Council of the Royal Society, and it will be found among the receipts in the financial statement appended to this Report. In addition to the instruments already mentioned, the following have also been verified at Kew Observatory :-— For the Havana Observatory, a set of differential magnetic instruments, also a Unifilar, Dip Circle, and an altitude and azimuth instrument for abso- lute determinations of the magnetic elements. For Dr. Smallwood, Montreal, a Unifilar, Dip Circle, and Differential Declinometer. For the Astronomer Royal, Greenwich, a 9-inch Unifilar. For the Rev. W. Scott, Sydney, a Unifilar and Dip Circle. For Dr. Livingstone, Africa, a Unifilar, Dip Circle, and Azimuth Compass. For Mr. Jackson, Bach. of Science, Ceylon, a Unifilar and Dip Circle. Mr. Jackson and M. Capello, of the Lisbon Observatory, have also received instruction at Kew in the use of instruments. The meteorological work of the Observatory continues to be performed in a satisfactory manner by Mr. George Whipple ; and here the Committee de- sire to mention that, both from the report of the Superintendent and from their own observation, each member of the staff at present attached to the establishment seems to interest himself in the duties he is called upon to discharge. During the past year, 150 Barometers, 660 Thermometers, and 8 Hydro- meters have been verified at the Observatory. Seven Standard Thermometers have also been constructed and disposed of. Dr. Bergsma and Dr. Buys Ballot were each presented with one of these instruments. For some time telegraphic reports of the meteorological elements were daily sent to Admiral FitzRoy’s office, the expense being defrayed by the Board of Trade; but these despatches were ultimately discontinued, on account of the Board of Trade having only a limited sum disposable for meteorological telegraphy, and Kew being too near London to prove a use- ful station. At the last Meeting at Oxford it was announced that the Kew Heliograph was about to be transported to Spain for the purpose of photographing, if possible, the so-called red flames visible on the occasion of a total solar eclipse. ‘That the mission had most successfully accomplished the object contemplated was known in England on the morning of the 19th of July, 1860 (the day after the eclipse), by the publication in the ‘ Times’ news- paper of a telegram sent by Mr. Warren De la Rue from Rivabellosa, near Miranda, where the Kew party were stationed. It will be remembered that, at the suggestion of the Astronomer Royal, the Admiralty had placed at the disposal of the expedition of astronomers H.M. Ship ‘Himalaya,’ and that the Government Grant Committee of the Royal Society had voted the sum of £150 for the purpose of defraying the aes of transporting the Kew Heliograph with a staff of assistants to pain. REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE, XXXV As the scheme became matured, it was deemed desirable to extend con- siderably the preparations originally contemplated; and actual experience subsequently proved that no provision which had been made could have been safely omitted. Originally it was thought that a mere temporary tent for developing the photographs might have answered the purpose ; but on maturing the scheme of operations, it became evident that a complete photo- graphic observatory, with its dark developing-room, cistern of water, sink, and shelves to hold the photographs, would be absolutely necessary to ensure success. An observatory was therefore constructed in such a manner that it could be taken to pieces and made into packages of small weight for easy transport, and at the same time be readily put together again on the locality selected. The house when completed weighed 1248 lbs., and was made up in eight cases. Altogether the packages, including house and apparatus, amounted in number to thirty, and in weight to 34 ewt. Besides the Heliograph, the apparatus comprised a small transit theodolite for determining the position of the meridian, and ascertaining local time and the latitude and longitude of the station, and also a very fine three-inch achromatic telescope, by Dallmeyer, for the optical observation of the phe- nomena of the eclipse. Complete sets of chemicals were packed in du- plicate in separate boxes, to guard against failure through a possible accident to one set of the chemicals. Collodion of different qualities was made seusitive in London, and some was taken not rendered sensitive, so as to secure as far as possible good results. Distilled water, weighing 139 lbs., had to be included ; and engineers’ and carpenters’ tools, weighing 113 lbs., were taken. Mr. Casella lent some thermometers and a barometer, and Messrs. Elliott an aneroid barometer to the expedition. The preparations were commenced by Mr. Beckley (of the Kew Observa- tory) early in the year 1860; and in June Mr. De la Rue engaged Mr. Reynolds to assist Mr. Beckley in completing them. Mr. Beckley and Mr. Reynolds were charged with the erection of the Observatory at Rivabellosa ; and so well were the plans organized that the Observatory and Heliograph were in actual operation on the 12th of July, the expedition having sailed from Plymouth in the ‘ Himalaya’ on the morning of the 7th. This could not, however, have been so expeditiously accomplished without the energetic cooperation of Mr. Vignoles, who met the ‘ Himalaya’ in a small steamer he had chartered to convey the expedi- tion and their apparatus into the port of Bilbao, and who despatched the Kew apparatus, as soon as it was landed, to the locality he and Mr. Dela Rue had agreed upon. This was situated seventy miles distant from the port of landing, and accessible only through a difficult pass. Mr. Vignoles had also taken the trouble to make arrangements for accommodating the Kew party, and for the due supply of provisions—a matter of some importance in such a locality. Besides Mr. De la Rue, Mr. Beckley, and Mr. Reynolds, the party con- sisted of Mr. Downes and Mr. E. Beck, two gentlemen who gave their gratuitous services, and of Mr. Clark, who acted as interpreter, also kindly assisting during the eclipse. Each of the party had only one thing to attend to; and thus rapidity of operation and certainty of result were secured. The total expenditure of this expedition amounted to £512; the balance of £362 over the amount granted by the Royal Society has been generously defrayed by Mr. De la Rue. Upwards of forty photographs were taken during the eclipse and a little before and after it, two being taken during the totality, on which are depicted c2 XXXVi REPORT—1861. the Juminous prominences with a precision impossible of attainment by hand drawings. ‘The measurements which have been made of these prominences by Mr. De la Rue show incontrovertibly that they must belong to the sun, and that they are not produced by the deflection of the sun’s light through the valleys of the moon. The same prominences, except those covered over during the moon’s progress, correspond exactly when one negative is laid over the other; and by copying these by means of a camera, when so placed, a representation is obtained of the whole of the prominences visible during the eclipse in their true relative position. The photographs of the several phases of the eclipse have served to trace out the path of the moon’s centre in reference to the sun’s centre during the progress of the phenomenon. Now, Rivabellosa being north of the central line of the moon’s shadow, the moon’s centre did not pass exactly across the sun’s centre, but was depressed a little below it, so that a little more of the prominences situated on the north (the upper) limb of the sun became visible than would have been the case exactly under the central line, while, on the other hand, a little of those on the southern limb was shut off. It has been proved, by measuring the photographs, that the moon during the totality covered and uncovered the prominences to the extent of about 94” of arc in the direction of her path, and thata prominence situated at a right angle to the path shifted its angular position with respect to the moon’s centre by lagging behind 5°55’. On both the photographs is recorded a prominence, not visible optically, showing that photography can render visible phenomena which without its aid would escape observation. Copies of the two totality pictures are being made to illustrate Mr. De la Rue’s paper in the Report of the ‘ Himalaya’ Expedition by the Astronomer Royal. . Positive enlarged copies of the phases of the eclipse, nine inches in dia- meter, have also been made by means of the camera, and will be exhibited at the Manchester Meeting. The Heliograph has since been replaced in the Observatory; but few opportunities have occurred for using it, in consequence of the pressure of other work ; latterly, however, Mr. Beckley has been requested to carry ou some experiments with the view of ascertaining whether any more details are rendered visible when the full aperture of 3 inches of the telescope is used, than when it is reduced to about one inch and a half. Up to the pre- sent time no definite conclusion can be drawn from the results obtained ; so that, at all events, an increase of aperture does not appear to givea strikingly better result when a picture of the same size is taken with various apertures of the object-glass. More experiments, however, are needed before this point, which is one of some importance in guiding us in the construction of future instruments, can be answered definitely. Mr. Beckley has obtained sun-pictures of great beauty during the course of these experiments. The work of the Kew Observatory is now so increased that it has become absolutely imperative to make some provision for working the Heliograph in a way that will not interfere with the current work of that establishment ; and Mr. De la Rue has been requested by his colleagues of the Kew Com- mittee to take charge of the instrument at his observatory, where celestial photography is continuously, carried on. This request Mr. Dela Rue has kindly acceded to; and he.will for a time undertake to record the sun-spots at Cranford, as long as it is found not to interfere with his other observations. Mr. De la Rue has contrived, and had made by Messrs. Simms at his own expense, an instrument for measuring the photographs, which will much facili- tate the reduction of the results. ‘It consists of a fixed frame in which work two slides, moving at right angles to each other. Each is furnished with a REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. - XXXVil vernier reading to =,,th of an inch. The top slide works on the lower slide, and carries a hollow axis 44 inches diameter, on which rotates hori- zontally a divided circle reading to 10", and this carries a second circle on the face of which are fixed four centering screws. An image intended to be measured is placed on the upper circle, and is centred by means of the adjusting screws ; it is then adjusted by means of the upper circle in any required angular position with respect to the lower divided circle, so as to bring the cross lines of the photograph in position under a fixed microscope, supported on an arm from the fixed frame. By means of this instrument the sun-pictures are measured so as to determine the diameter to = ,>th of the radius ; the angular position of any part of a sun-spot and its distance from the centre are thus readily ascertained ; or the differences of the right ascension and declination with respect to the centre are as easily read off to the same degree of accuracy. Mr. De la Rue has recently produced by his large Telescope an image of a solar spot, and portion of the sun’s dise, far superior to anything before effected, and which leads to the hope that a new era is opened in heliography, and that the resources of this Observatory might be further developed in that direction. At the last Meeting of the Association the sum of £90 was voted for an additional photographer, and of this sum £50 has been received. The Com- mittee suggest that the balance of £40 be granted again at this Meeting, as the full sum will be required during the ensuing year. A detailed account of this expenditure will be presented in the next Annual Report. Allusion was made in last Report to an instrument constructed by Prof. William Thomson, of Glasgow, fer determining photographically the electric state of the atmosphere. ‘This instrument has been fitted up at Kew, where it has been in constant operation since the beginning of February last. It has been found to answer well in a photographie point of view, and Prof. Thomson has expressed himself much pleased with the results obtained. The mechanical arrangements connected with the fitting up of this instru- ment were devised and executed with much skill by Mr. Beckley, the Mechanical Assistant, who has also recently made a working drawing of the instrument for Prof. Thomson, who intends to publish a description of it. The arrangements made by Mr. Francis Galton, in the Observatory Park, for testing sextants, and which were alluded to in last Report, are now almost complete ; and six sextants sent by Captain Washington, R.N., Her Majesty’s Hydrographer, have been verified. The Observatory was honoured with a visit from His Imperial Highness Prince Napoleon on the 9th of September last. His Highness expressed much satisfaction at witnessing the efficient state of the Institution. Application has been made to the Commissioners for the International Exhibition of 1862, for a space of 40 feet by 20, in which to exhibit as many as possible of the instruments in use at the Observatory, including those which are self-recording. The Committee desire to express their thanks for a valuable addition which has been made to the Library at Kew, consisting of a very large number of the Greenwich publications, presented to them through the kindness of the Astronomer Royal. It will be observed by the annexed statement that the expenditure of last year has exceeded the income by about £90; but as this year comprised five quarters, it is hoped that the usual annual grant of £500 will cover the expense until the next Meeting of the Association. Kew Observatory, Joun P. Gassior, “August 30, 1861. Chairman. REPORT—1861. _XXXY1ll ‘“NOLLOHA “ad — Ea ee ae a es iene ei Ne. ee ee “1981 *Ayuo read v Jo siozavnb-9a1q} 10J useq Suravy yunovoe qstl ayy Ur yey} ‘JayeNb & puv avak JU OJ St AVIA SI} ‘OI ‘SoLIeTeS IO aINyIpUadxa ayy yeyI pue ‘ “ps se BL Jo WHS aY1 Aq poatooar asoyy povoxa papuadxe syunoue oy} yey} puy T pur ‘our 0} pazuasaad sxoyonOA oy} YITA JT porvdotoo puv yunodde oAoqe 94} pauIWEXE oAry ] 4 ¢& Gf 8 OL 86LF OT Ot Ot ZT 9 GL 9T LT 0 6F Ot £3 9 0¢ FI &P SAOAANS S&S & ps F&F bletho =e 0 OL ee 2 se co T 19Q039O ek — al — 2 — a — 0s — ee — i=) a N eal "s ss soeeepanecesenseesessrasseoeess QOUBIET ""* TORT “19G0PO WOT OF puevy Jo ua { *-9Spay e@ Suyueld yo pur ‘yo41p | @ YIM adnsopoua Surpunosins jo 4809 sreeseeseeeeces sosuadxa Aqjad pues o3v10910g treseesecees sony (KaTpuryy ‘sasuadxy asnozy tteeertseaeteesenneeeeereereres® SBC) PUL §[BOD *wadeysog pur ‘syoog ‘Arau0yeig ‘Buynuitg “'"**TOSBI, put ‘1ojuadieg ‘1aSuouuosy srreeeesoese eon S100], ‘STBaIVI ‘snyereddy esenenneeeenterereseeesg7T ae (TQRT ‘z, saqmojdeg Surpua ‘syeoun cz “OIG Lee eee 42 ‘TO8T ‘TT yore Surpua ‘s3]9044 9% ‘out 7 Ne, cate Bee "8g 48 ‘098I ‘OL Joquiaydag Surpus ‘eyeoas iat ‘ye, “iL erseeeneesenses “SO 4u “TORT 'Z 10q -miaydag Surpus ‘syoom 79 *Aop00€ _T ssereteeeaenertereseeeeaeees TOT COT Jaqmaydag Zurpuo ‘1aj.1enb auo £0441 viteeeeaeerneeneeseerarteeres TQQT (QT aung Surpua ‘sxo3aenb moj ‘atddiy \\ "9 Prat 4 rics @anralb cae ‘9 1940199 Zurpua ‘sioyrenb say ‘stoquivyg ‘oO A SeeeeneenrnneesessessoeartsesesesQQcTig’ [ -xa Suryoavsy Ayj,0d roy pamorye ‘0941 BZurpue ‘staqzaenb aay ‘aVaaig “g{ OF —! ‘om ‘SOLIR[es “SINGWAVd 8 GL 86LF a a YT 8 SL 9g ‘'''''9t WOdN poMojsoq INOGr] pue r93900T -ONOo[Y Burpx«ooar-jjas sity ypLM pajoau -u0d sasuodxd OF UOSMIOYT, “MA Jorg wow 0 0 06 ‘sydeaZojouseyy Jo UONVOgLIOA 94} IOJ Ayatoog yekoy oy} Jo puny uoyeuog oy} woy “ Gola? Sa 0 T 98 shee eeeereeseneretes suvioydg mol 0 9 LI cigele« cekisle rowies AA re ITU i ay} mol 0 8T 4 “""" apery Jo prvog oy} woIy ‘pS F —SUIMINAYsUy JO MONOUIIOA oy} Oy “ 0 0 00G “ts JaMsvarT], [eI9UIy 9Y4 WOIZ POAtooIy GB LL itiittieeereesseseesers gumogoe yse] mouy oounleg ps ¥ “SLdIGOTe “19ST “p uaquardag 07 ‘O98T ‘SI aung wosf uoynuossp YsuIMg ayp Jo aayumog may ay) fo syunoooy RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. XXxix Report of the Parliamentary Committee to the Meeting of the British Association at Manchester, in September 1861. The Parliamentary Committee have the honour to report :— That on the 19th of July they met the Steam Performance Committee, by appointment, at the Admiralty, and had, in company with the Members of that Committee, an interview with the Duke of Somerset. That in the course of that interview the Chairman of your Committee shortly explained the motives which had induced the British Association to appoint the Steam Performance Committee, and called upon Mr. Fairbairn, who thereupon stated and explained the principal suggestions contained in the Report of the Steam Performance Committee, which had been prepared and agreed upon, and will be presented to this Meeting; and urged upon His Grace the expediency of carrying them into effect. The Duke of Somerset, in reply, stated certain objections which he en- tertained to some of the suggestions, founded chiefly upon the circumstances that sufficient time could not be allowed for the various experiments con- sistently with the interests of the service, and that the ships of the Royal Navy only employed steam occasionally, and only as an auxiliary power ; but His Grace was understood to agree to supply such information to the scientific public as could be done without improperly interfering with the performance of ordinary duties. The Dukes of Devonshire and Argyll, the Earls of Enniskillen, Har- rowby, Rosse and De Grey, Lord Stanley and Sir John Pakington, must be considered as having vacated their seats in your Committee, in pursuance of the resolution adopted at Liverpool in 1854 ; but your Committee recommend that they should be re-elected. Your Committee also recommend that the two vacancies in the House of Commons List be filled by the election of Sir Joseph Paxton and Lieut.-Col. Sykes. WrottesLey, Chairman. RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE MaAncuHester MEETING IN SEPTEMBER 1861. [When Committees are appointed, the Member first named is regarded as the Secretary of the Committee, except there be a specific nomination.] Involving Grants of Money. That the sum of £500 be appropriated, under the sanction of the Council, for maintaining the Establishment at Kew. That the sum of £40 be placed at the disposal of the Kew Committee for the employment of the Photo-heliometer. That the cooperation of the Royal Society be requested in obtaining a ‘series of photographic pictures of the Solar Surface; and that the sum of £150 be placed at the disposal of the Kew Committee for the purpose. __ That Professor Airy, Lord Wrottesley, Sir D. Brewster, Col. Sykes, Sir J. Herschel, General Sabine, Dr. Lloyd, Admiral FitzRoy, Dr. Lee, Dr. Ro- binson, Mr. Gassiot, Mr. Glaisher, Dr. Tyndall, and Dr. W. A. Miller be requested to form a Balloon Committee ; and that the sum of £200 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. ‘ That Professor Williamson, Professor Wheatstone, Professor W. Thomson, Professor Miller (of Cambridge), Dr. Matthiessen, and Mr. F. Jenkin be a xls. REPORT—1861. Committee to report upon Standards of Electrical Resistance; and that the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Mr. J. Glaisher, Mr. R. P. Greg, Mr. E. W. Brayley, and Mr. Alex. Herschel be a Committee to report upon Luminous Meteors and A€rolites ; and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Mr. Fleeming Jenkin be requested to continue his Experiments for determining the Laws of Permanent Thermo-electric Currents in broken metallic circuits, and to report thereon; and that the sum of £20 be placed at his disposal for the purpose. That Professor Hennessy, Admiral FitzRoy, and Mr. Glaisher be a Com- mittee to study, by the aid of instruments specially devised for the purpose, the connexion of small vertical disturbances of the atmosphere with storms, and to report thereon; and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Mr. Alphonse Gages be requested to continue his Researches on Mechanico-Chemical Analysis of Minerals ; and that the sum of £8 remaining undrawn from the grant of last year be again placed at his disposal for the urpose. 4 That Dr. Hooker, Mr. Binney, and Professor Morris be a Committee to prepare a Report on the connexion between the external form and internal microscopical structure of the Fossil Wood from the Lower Coal-Measures of Lancashire; and that the sum of £40 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Sir C. F. Bunbury *, Mr. Binney, and Mr. H. Ormerod be requested to prepare a Report on the Flora of the Lancashire Coal-fields ; and that the sum of £40 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Mr. R. H. Scott, Sir Richard Griffith, Bart., and the Rev. Professor Haughton be a Committee to prepare a Report on the Chemical and Mine- ralogical Composition of the Granites of Donegal and the Rocks associated therewith; and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Mr. Alder, and the Rev. Thomas Hincks be a Committee to Dredge the Dogger Bank and portions of the Sea Coast of Durham and Northumberland; and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Dr. Dickie, Professor Nicol, Dr. Dyce, and Dr. Ogilvie be a Committee for Dredging on the North and East Coasts of Scotland; and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys, Dr. Kinahan, Dr. Carter, and Mr. E. Waller be a Committee for conducting the Dredging Report of the Bay of Dublin; and that the sum of £15 ve placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Dr. Collingwood, Mr. Isaac Byerley, Rev. H. H. Higgins, and Dr. Edwards be a Committee to Dredge the River Mersey and Dee; and that the sum of £5 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Dr. Lukis, Mr. C. Spence Bate, Mr. A. Han- cock, Dr. Verloren, and Professor Archer be a Committee for the purpose of Reporting on the best mode of preventing the ravages of the different kinds of Teredo and other Animals in our Ships and Harbours; and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Dr. P. Lutley Sclater, Mr. R. J. Tomes, and Dr. Giinther be a Committee to Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the West Indian Vertebrata; and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. * Sir C. F. Bunbury has declined to act. RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. xli That Dr. P. Lutley Sclater and Dr. F. Hochstetter be a Committee for the purpose of continuing their investigations as to the Species of Apteryz in New Zealand ; ant that the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Dr. E. Perceval Wright and Professor W. H. Harvey be a Committee to draw up a Report on the Fishes of Dublin Bay and the Coasts of Leinster ; and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Dr. P. Lutley Sclater and Dr. E. Perceval Wright be a Committee to assist Dr. P. P. Carpenter in preparing a Supplementary Report on the Mollusca of N.W. America; and that the sum of £10 be placed at their dis- posal for the purpose. That Dr. Collingwood, Mr. John Lubbock, Mr. R. Patterson, Dr. P. P Carpenter, Mr. J. A. Turner, M.P., and the Rev. H. H. Higgins be a Com- mittee to Report on the Collecting of Objects of Natural History by the Mercantile Marine, with £5 at their disposal for the purpose. That Dr. Edward Smith, F.R.S., and Mr. W. R. Milner be requested to continue their inquiries into the influence of Prison Discipline and Dietary over the Bodily Functions of Prisoners; and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Mr. Thomas Webster, the Right Hon. Joseph Napier, Sir W. Arm- strong, Mr. W. Fairba rn, Mr. W. R. Grove, Mr. James Heywood, and Ge- neral Sabine be a Committee (with power to add to their number) for the purpose of taking such steps as may appear expedient for rendering the Patent Law more efficient for the reward of the meritorious Inventor and the advancement of Practical Science; and that the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That Professor J. Thomson be requested to complete his Report of Ex- periments on the Gauging of Water; and that the sum of £15 be placed at his disposal for the purpose. That Mr. William Fairbairn, Mr. J. E. M¢Connell, and Mr. William Smith be a Committee (with power to add to their number) to investigate and re- port on some of the Causes of Accidents on Railways, more particularly those accidents consequent upon the failure of the materials and apparatus used in the Construction and Working of Railways, and in the Rolling Stock; that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That the Committee on Steam-ship Performance be reappointed; that the attention of the Committee be also directed to the obtaining of information respecting the performance of vessels under Sail, with a view to comparing the results of the two powers of Wind and Steam, in order to their more effective and economical combination ; and that the sum of £150 be placed at their disposal. ‘That the following ncblemen and gentlemen be requested to serve on the Committee, with power to add to their number:—The Duke of Sutherland; The Earl of Gifford, M.P.; The Earl of Caithness; Lord Dufferin; Mr. William Fairbairn, F.R.S.; Mr. J. Scott Russell, F.R.S.; Admiral Paris; The Hon. Captain Egerton, R.N.; The Hon. Leopold Agar Ellis, M.P.; Mr. J. E. M¢Connell; Mr. W. Smith; Professor J. Macquorn Rankine; Mr. James lt. Napier; Mr. Richard Roberts; Mr. Henry Wright, to be Honorary Secretary. That Mr. J. Oldham, C.E., Mr. J. F. Bateman, Mr. J. Scott Russell, and Mr. T. Thompson be a Committee to conduct a series of Tidal Observations in the Humber; and that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That the sum of £600 be appropriated for the purpose of printing an Index to the Volumes of Reports and Sectional Proceedings of the Association, from 1831 to 1860 inclusive. xlii REPORT—1861. That Professor Phillips be authorized to employ for the ensuing year an Assistant, and that the sum of £100 be placed at his disposal for the purpose. Applications for Reports and Researches not involving Grants of Money. That Professor G. G. Stokes be again requested to furnish a Report on Physical Optics. - That Mr. A. Cayley be again requested to furnish a Report on the Recent Progress in the Solution of certain Problems in Dynamics. That Mr. Archibald Smith and Mr. F. J. Evans be requested to abstract and report upon the three Reports of the Liverpool Compass Committee, and other recent publications on the same subject. That Mr. Johnstone Stoney be requested to report on the Present State ‘of Molecular Physics. That Dr. Lloyd, General Sabine, Mr. A. Smith, Mr. G. Johnstone Stoney, Professor Airy, Professor Donkin, Professor W. Thomson, Mr. Cayley, and the Rev. Professor Price be requested to inquire into the adequacy of exist- ing data for carrying into effect the suggestion of Gauss to apply his General ‘Theory of Magnetism to Magnetic Variations; and to report on the steps proper to be taken to supply what may still be wanting, and generally on the course to be adopted to carry out Gauss’s suggestion. That Dr. Crace Calvert be requested to draw up a Report on the Che- mical Composition and Physical Properties of the Wood employed for Naval Construction. That Dr. Williamson, Dr. W. A. Miller, Dr. Andrews, Professor Brodie, Professor W. H. Miller, Dr. Lyon Playfair, and Dr. Angus Smith (with power to add to their number) be requested to inquire into the best means of effecting a registration and publication of the Numerical Facts of Che- mistry. That Dr. Williamson, Dr. Angus Smith, Dr. Christison, Mr. W. De la Rue, Mr. Grove, Mr. Webster, Mr. Bateman, Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt, Professor Brodie, and Professor W. A. Miller be requested to consider whether any im- provements can be suggested in the present practice respecting scientific evidence, as taken in courts of law, and to report any such suggestions of improvement as may appear practicable to the ensuing Meeting at Cam- bridge; that the Committee have power to add to their number. That Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Mr. R. MacAndrew, Mr. G. C. Hyndman, Dr. Edwards, Dr. Dickie, Mr. C. L. Stewart, Dr. Collingwood, Dr. Kinahan, Mr. J. S. Worthey, Dr. E. Perceval Wright, Mr. J. Ray Greene, Rev. Thomas Hincks, and Mr. R. D. Darbyshire to act as a General Dredging Committee, with a general superintendence of all other Dredging Com- mittees appointed by the Association. That M. Foster, M.D. be reappointed to report upon the Present State of our Knowledge in reference to Muscular Irritability, he having been unable from ill health to prepare it for the present Meeting. _ That Admiral Sir E. Belcher, Sir J. Rennie, Mr. G. Rennie, and Mr. Smith be requested to report on the Rise and Progress of Steam Navigation in the Port of London. That Mr. W. Fairbairn, Mr. J. F. Bateman, Professor Thomson, and Mr. J. G. Lynde be requested to report on Experiments to be made at the Man- chester Waterworks on the Gauging of Water; with power to add to their number. That in the opinion of the Committee a large and extensive Reform in the tee! Fy Sees ee ee RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. xliil Patent Laws and their administration is necessary and urgent; that the dis- cussion which took place indicated the means for effecting such reform ; that the Parliamentary Committee of this Association might be advantageously employed in bringing the subject before Parliament, and that they be re- quested to give their attention to the subject, and to take the necessary steps for the purpose. That Mr. Webster and Mr. Grove be requested to make the communication to the Parliamentary Committee. The following recommendation was referred to the Parliamentary Com- mittee :—“ That application be made to the Charity Commissioners of Eng- land and Wales to provide sufficient means for the Classification and Con- densation of the Accounts of Charities sent in Annually to the Charity Com- missioners.” That Mr. Heywood be requested to communicate with the Parliamentary Committee. ; Involving Applications to Government or Public Institutions. That a Committee, consisting of Dr. Robinson, Professor Wheatstone, and Dr. Gladstone, be requested to make application to the Board of Trade for Experiments on the Transmission of Sound Signals during Fogs. That it be represented to the Secretary of State for India, that inquiries into Prisons similar to those made by Dr. Mouat on the Prisons of Bengal, as detailed by him from his printed Reports, be instituted in the other Pre- sidencies of India, especially in those of the Punjaub and the North-West Provinces. That Dr. Davy, Dr. Smith, and Mr. Miller be a Committee to make a representation in this matter to the Secretary of State for India. Communications to be printed entire among the Reports. That Dr. Lloyd’s Paper, on the Secular Changes of Terrestrial Magnetism and their Connexion with Disturbances, be printed entire in the Sectional Proceedings of the Association. That the Report of Drs. Schunck, Smith, and Roscoe, on the Recent Pro- gress and Present Condition of Manufacturing Chemistry in the South Lancashire District, be printed entire among the Reports. That Dr. James Hunt’s Paper, on the Acclimatization of Man, be printed entire among the Reports. That Mr. Charles Atherton’s Paper, on Freight as affected by difference of the Dynamic Performance of Steam-Ships, be printed entire among the Reports. That Mr. E. J. Reed’s Paper, on the Iron-Cased Ships of the British Ad- miralty, be printed entire in the Sectional Proceedings. = Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Purposes by the General Committee at the Manchester Meeting in September 1861, with the name of the Member, who alone, or as the First of a Committee, is entitled to draw the Money. Kew Observatory. igt"b.c02 For maintaining the Establishment at Kew..........ssssss00.55 500 O O Pees oo ~~” €arried forward...... £500 0 0 xliv REPORT—1861. agian forward...... For Photo-heliometry at Kew ...........0.000+ nade For Photographic pictures of the Sun. Mathematics and Physics. Syxes, Colonel, and Cummittee.—Balloon Ascents .......+«++ Wixtiamson, Professor, and Committee.—Electrical Resist- ance .., sackeaaps GLAISHER, Mr. “and Cannas ET amido ‘Meteors Bpaser Jenkin, Mr. —_Thermo- BIectricity .....0..scecseoncs cor sacieceneones Hennessy, Professor, and Committee.—Connexion of Storms Chemical Science. Gaces, Mr.—Analysis of Rocks .........sesssssesrseaseeesevesenes Geology. Hooker, Dr., and Committee.-—Lancashire Fossil Wood ...... Hooxer, Dr., and Committee.— Lancashire Carbonaceous Plora,%..:... Deiseaeeenanen Scott, Mr., and Committee. Rocks of Donegal . sia dele Ruma as Zoology and Botany. Jerrreys, Mr.,and Committee——Dredging Coasts of Durham and Northumberland ............csccssesesceeeseeeceseccoececsenens JeFFReEYS, Mr., and Committee-—Dredging North-East Coast of Ireland. .......... JEFFREYS, Mr., and Committee. Dredging i in Dublin Bay .. Jerrreys, Mr., and Committee.—Dredging in the Mersey .. JEFFREYS, Mr., and Committee—Ravages of Teredo ......... SciaTer, Dr., and Committee——West Indian Vertebrata ...... Scrater, Dr., and Committee.—Apteryx ....... oobi Wricat, Dr., and Committee.—Fishes in Dublin Bay . poulteeee SciaTeEr, Dr., and Committee——Mollusca, N.W. America ... CoLtincwoon, Dr., and Committee.—Collecting of Natural Physiology. Smitu, Dr. E., and Mr. Mitner.—Effects of Prison Discipline Mechanical Science. WessTeEr, Mr., and Committee.—On Patent Laws... Tuomson, Professor J—Gauging ....... Saceee FarrBairn, Mr., and Committee -—Railwe ay “Accidents......... SUTHERLAND, Duke of, and Committee.—Steam-ship Perform- ance OLDHAM, Mr.,. and Committee. Tide Observations, “Hinhber For Printing of Index to Reports and Transactions and Sec- tions, from 1831 to 1860 inclusive .........sscsccececeeceeuseeee For Assistance to Professor Phillips...........ssssscsccccssessesees ce) se Wd. 500 0 0 40 0 O 150 0 O 200 So) o oooo ©& oooo 9° 8 0 0 40 0 O 40 0 O 20. 0 20 25 0 0 25 0 0 15°%0: 0 5 0 0 10 O O 10j20. 0 50 0 0 10 0 O 10 0 O 5 0 0 20 0 0 50 0 0 15 0 0 25 0 0 150 0 O 25 0 0 600 0 0 100 0 O Total ......£2263 0 O GENERAL STATEMENT. ‘xlv General Statement of Sums which have been paid on Account of Grants for Scientific Purposes. £85 d. £ 3s. d. 1834. Meteorology and Subterranean Tide Discussions ....ccccreeeseeess 20 0 0 Temperatures... ccaccacesscsasssess 2h011') 0 1835 Vitrification Experiments......... 9 4 7 Tide Discussions iterate iloks » 62 0 0 Cast Iron Experiments............ 100 0 0 British Fossil Ichthyclo 105 0 0 | Railway Constants... 28 7 2 VOTO.» so0nke Land and Sea Level..........0.... 274 1 4 £167 0 0 | Steam-vessels’ Engines...... wees 100 0 0 1b86 Stars in Histoire Céleste ......... 331 18 6 Tide Discussions ...,.......0...-- 163 0 0 ce a Sp er hia epryne os ‘ - British Fossil Ichthyology ...... iil aie Rit cleo Sona ars ocean 10 10.0 Thermometric Observations, &c. 50 0 0 | CUIMAL SECKENONS. «sseseee-seeees e 5 = Steam-engines in Cornwall . 50 0 0 Experiments on long-continued Atmospheric Air 1610 eee ree nb | Cast and Wrought Iromses.aseese 40 0 0 Refraction Experiments arageeceapy Lon 04 0 sabi has cp | cecrabhagerr ale eaairile Tater Naintion 60 0 0 Gases on Solar Spectrum......... 22 0 0 eer imcters BRERA 15 6 0 Hourly Meteorological Observa- : RY ee aa tions, Inverness and Kingussie 49 7 8 ae Fossil Reptiles .......se.sseeeeeeee8 118 2 9 1837. Mining Statistics cessseeeseteeseees 90 0 0 Tide Discussions .,,......0e..000. 284 1 0 £1595 110 Chemical Constants .........e000. 2413 6 Lunar Nutation..........c0...0006 70 0 0 : , 1840. Observations on Waves..........+- 100 12 0 | Bristol Tides.........cesserereereee 100 0 0 Paden at Bristol..........s0.02 0000 . 150 0 0 | Subterranean Temperature ...... 13 13 6 Meteorology and Subterranean Heart Experiments ............. 18 19 0 Temperature ...ssseereesseeeeeee 89 5 0 | Lungs Experiments ............ 8 13 0 Vitrification Experiments......... 150 0 0 | Tide Discussions ..........0000. 50 0 0 Heart Experiments .......... eeeee 8 4 6 | Land and Sea Level............. «- 611 1 Barometric Observations ......... 30 0 0 | Stars (Histoire Céleste) .,....... 242 10 0 EEMNICUETS) oeeccssecevetscovsisiacee, 11.18 ..6)) Stars (Lacaille) vt vearctesavees 14.15 6 £918 14.6 oS (Catalogue) ......... sesereeee 264 0 0 tmospheric Air ....sscccccoseeeee 15 15 0 1838. Water on Iron ......... sovsssscense 10 0 O Tide Discussions ..........e+0ee... 29 0 0 | Heat on Organic Bodies ......... 7 0 0 British Fossil Fishes ............ 100 0 | Meteorological Observations...,.. 5217 6 Meteorological Observations and Foreign Scientific Memoirs .,.... 112 1 6 Anemometer (construction)... 100 0 0 | Working Population.,............. 100 0 0 Cast Iron (Strength of) ...... se 60 0 0 | School Statistics.........0000.000 50 0 0 Animal and Vegetable Substances Forms of Vessels .....csssseese00e 184 7 0 (Preservation of) .s+.....0.40eee 19 1 10 | Chemical and Electrical Pheno- Railway Constants .......... coors 41 12 10 MENA wsssecssecssecseererseeseseeee 40 0 0 Bristol Tides ........ss00sss:es0eeee 50 0 0 | Meteorological Observations at Growth of Plants .....s00..000. 75 0 0 Plymouth sseeeesssseseeerseseese 80 0 0 Mud in Rivers .......sesseseeees.ee 3 6 6 | Magnetical Observations ...,..... 185 13 9 Education Committee secsesseceee 50 0 0 “£1546 16 4 Heart Experiments ............... 5 3 0 Land and Sea Level............... 267 8 7 1841, Subterranean Temperature ....... 8 6 0 Observations on Waves......002... 30 0 0 Steam-vessels.s......ssssseesseeseees 100 0 0| Meteorology and Subterranean Meteorological Committee ...... 31 9 5 Temperature ......ss.sseeeseeeree 8 8 0 Thermometers .,...,+0eesseeeee006. 16 4 0] Actinometers........... secsssreereee 10 0 0 £956 12 2 Earthquake Shocks .....,......... 17 7 0 ———— Acrid POISONS........0.00.008 secvccee OOO ; 1839. Veins and Absorbents ............ 3 0 0 Fossil Ichthyology.........sesee000+ 110 0 0 | Mud in Rivers veecececccsccoeeese 5 0 0 Meteorological Observations at Marine Zoology......sssesesecseeese 15 12 8 Plymouth sesseeeseveseeseesseeeee 63 10 0 | Skeleton Maps ...eccccsssccsseeeeee 20 0 0 Mechanism of Waves ...00...... 144° 2 0] Mountain Barometers ...00...... 618 6 Bristol Tides sssessersersterrreees 35 18 6 | Stars (Histoire Céleste)ssessereeee 185 0 0 . xlvi REPORT—1861. £ 3s, Stars (Lacaille) .ccccsscscsesseseses 79 5 Stars (Nomenclature of) ......... 17 ¥" Stars (Catalogue of") ..........0++ . 40 Water on Tron ........-.00ecseeesee 50 ; Meteorological Observations at THVErMESS - -sssscucoscscsscovesavtis 20 0 Meteorological Observations (re- duction Of) .sesese0e secasedseute 25 0 Fossil Reptiles .....scescsecssseees . 50 0 Foreign Memoirs .......0+... bee G2e 0 Railway Sections ......scs0ereee-08 38 1 Forms of Vessels ...... sdesceccesse 193 12 Meteorological Observations at Plyniouth. 1... scsdeevtviessvests. DO" O Magnetical Observations ......... 61 18 Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone 100 0 Tides at Leith. +ss.sscssessses00 vice 1500 Anemometer at Edinburgh ...... 69 1 Tabulating Observations ..... be 9 6 Races of Men sessssssececssveovese «8650 Radiate Animals ......sss.s00008, 2 0 d. ooaos o t £1235 10 11 1842. Dynamometric Instruments .,.... 113 11 2 Anoplura Britanniz ...........0+ - 5212 0 Tides at Bristol..... obsbdebeee sooses OO, SIO nO Gases on Light........,..++++ poosedmnal) LAY, Chronometers .,.....+65+ prabeieee 026 AZ 6 Marine Zoology,.,...... sos onbtenpsopeeslld 75). 510 British Fossil Mammalia ......... 100 0 Statistics of Education ............ 20 0 0 Marine Steam-vessels’ Engines... 28 0 0 Stars (Histoire Céleste)..........0. 59 0 0 Stars (Brit. Assoc, Cat, of) ...... 110 0 0 Railway Sections .......... sevessss 161.10 O British Belemnites,............s0008 50 0 0 Fossil Reptiles (publication of Report) ...... ppassscdwesvatl edits . 210 0 0 Forms of Vessels sesiisisesssseodss 180 0 0 Galvanic Experiments on Rocks 5 8 6 Meteorological Experiments at Plymouth ,,...,....... spareseaneeoe EO Constant Indicator and Dynamo- metric Instruments ...... £5 0d50090. O00 Force of Wind ...... eanandestene aq LO Sneed Light on Growth of Seeds ...... S200 Vitali Statistics, ceccnsececes saceanes WOU OLD Vegetative Power of Seeds ...... 8 1 11 Questions on Human Race ...... (felt is oC £1449 17 8 .. 1848. Revision of the Nomenclature of SfAISip..050 535 veveosrersrensensesis 2dr 0 Reduction of Stars, British Asso- ciation Catalogue ............006 95.0 0 Anomalous Tides, Frith of Forth 120 0 0 Hourly Meteorological Observa- tions at KingussieandInverness 77 12 8 Meteorological Observations at Plymouth “osc sscescrrponecsssoat 55 0 0 Whewell’s Meteorological Ane- mometer at Plymouth .,,.... 10 0 0 £ s. d. Meteorological Observations, Os- ler’s Anemometer at Plymouth 20 0 0 Reduction of Meteorological Ob- servations ......+« Seseleceue sat aaa) OL0) Meteorological Instruments and Gratiities) ic. cconcccecasneas sspetvanmone Gin 0 Construction of Anemometer at Inverness ......e00e oevececeserece 56 12 2 Magnetic Cooperation ............ 10 8 10 Meteorological Recorder for Kew Observatory .......06+ seserscscesemo J0TNO Action of Gases on Light......... 18 16 1 Establishment at Kew Observa- tory, Wages, Repairs, Furni- ture and Sundries ...........+0. 3 loot 2 og Experiments by Captive Balloons 81 8 0 Oxidation of the Rails of Railways 20 0 0 Publication of Report on Fossil Reptiles scpsscceweenees Seseeesee 40 0 0 Coloured peti of Railway Dections..;:tecctetarseancersererets 147 18 3 Registration of Earthquake Shocks ...... cnemexpeaunenasneme = med. 10). 20 Report on Zoological Nomencla- LUTE r00.....00000 Soenbs aces cspsew LOO. 0 Uncovering Lower Red Sand- stone near Manchester .,....... 4 4 6 Vegetative Power of Seeds ...... 5 38 8 Marine Testacea (Habits of ) 10 0 0 Marine Zoology.......:+++0++ spessaet oop aly Marine Zoology.......sseeseeseeeeee 2 14 11 Preparation of Report on British Fossil Mammalia ..... oaaeeeAae - 100 0 0 Physiological Operations of Me- dicinal Agents ....... weseosener es neal BODE IE VitalsStatisiits "vss, sccercseottces see 36 5 8 Additional Experiments on the Forms of Vessels sssoucisoacsses 04 (070 Additional Experiments 0 on the ; Forms of Vessels ......... aa dsipy Og Oe Reduction of Experiments on the Forms of Vessels ............2++ 100 0 0 Morin’s Instrument and Constant Indicator) 2,055.45 sppeasdentoaass 69 14 10 Experiments on the Strength of Materials: ssscsererearseassrnneeetlb meu £1565 10 2 ————— 1844, Meteorological Observations at Kingussie and Inverness ...... 12 0 0 Completing Observations at Ply- MAOUCH: os. 5cescckscceeevedeeuees - 85 0 0 Magnetic and Meteorological Co- operation ...... oSebesestciteds ao 25 8 4 Publication of the British Asso- ciation Catalogue of Stars...... 35 0 0 Observations on Tides on the East coast of Scotland ......... 100 0 0 Revision of the Nomenclature of Stars .....sss.sseguasebsesess O42) GB) U9INI6 Maintaining the Establishmentin Kew Observatory. s..ssesetiecs 117 1718 Instruments for Kew Observatory 56 7 3 GENERAL STATEMENT. nla Bs) Gs Influence of Light on Plants...... 10 0 Subterraneous Temperature in Treland ....c....cscsesssesessstees’ = 5 | O Coloured Drawings of Railway Sections ..cc/0..82ccditeatiwesed 15 17 Investigation of Fossil Fishes of the Lower Tertiary Strata ... 100 0 Registering the Shocks of Earth- quakes .iississsssceesseseeo1842 23 Structure of Fossil Shells......... 20 0 Radiata and Mollusca of the #Bgean and-Red Seas.....1842 100 0 0 Geographical Distributions of Marine Zoology..........--1842 010 0 Marine Zoology of Devon and Reta NG coy. cocszscccsspsavncses 10" 0, .Q Marine Zoology of Corfu aaeesdeea LU Uy 0 Experiments on the Vitality of PEO Bimeavsivassesccescstecnens ieee Experiments on the Vitality of Rerditntclsccccccasssstecsssck Oda 9 "6." s -8 Exotic Anoplura ........s000 15 0 0 Strength of Materials ......,..... 100 0 0 Completing Experiments on the Forms of Ships .....,0esseseeee . 100 0 0 Inquiries into Asphyxia ......... 10 0 0 Investigations on the Internal Constitution of Metals ......... 50 0 0 Constant Indicator and Morin’s Instrument, 1842 ..,............ 10 3 6 £981 12 8 1845. Publication of the British Associa- tion Catalogue of Stars......... 351 14 6 Meteorological Observations at Inverness ...... Gasrecdsscdeace 2930) 168i Magnetic and Meteorological Co- Operation ...secceceseeeeeee EL 16 16 8 Meteorological Instruments at BEGIN BUr’H v.cscsssecsncscccess 1811 9 Reduction of. Anemometrical Ob- servations at Plymouth......... 25 0 0 Electrical Experiments at Kew Observatory ssecscscssccsessssess 43 17 8 Maintaining the Establishment in Kew Observatory ..........00. 149 15 0 For Kreil’s Barometrograph...... 25 0 0 Gases from Iron Furnaces ...... 50 0 0 The Actinograph ...... Rescate seene los 0) 0 Microscopic Structure of Shells... 20 0 0 Exotic Anoplura ............1843 10 0 0 Vitality of Seeds,..............1843 2 0 7 Vitality of Seeds............ ee than’ Mall a Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 0 Physiological Actionof Medicines 20 0 0 Statistics of Sickness and Mor- fality in VOLK “iicscccssspcsenses 20 0 0 Earthquake Shocks ..........1843 15 14 8 £830 9 9 1846. British Association Catalogue of Stars Chicccovevvannaccenss edkOoe 211 15 0 : £& s. d. Fossil Fishes of the London Clay 100 0 0 Computation of the Gaussian Constants for 1839......+00..-... 50 0 0 Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory ....00......00. 146 16 7 Strength of Materials............... 60 0 0 Researches in Asphyxia............ 616 2 Examination of Fossil Shells...... 10 0 0 Vitality of Seeds -3.:....:....1844 2 15 10 Vitality of Seeds .....3.....,1845 712 3 Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 0 Marine Zoology of Britain ...... 10 0 0 Exotic Anoplura -4...........1844 25 0 0 Expensesattending Anemometers 11 7 6 Anemometers’ Repairs .......... cep eae Orn Atmospheric Waves .......0... 38 3 3 Captive Balloons .......... 1844 819 3 Varieties of the Human Race 1844 7 6 3 Statistics of Sickness and Mor- tality in York ...seccocssosees 12 0 0 £685 16 0 1847. Computation of the Gaussian Constants for 1839 ..... eaeneess | OUR SU Habits of Marine Animals ...... 10 0 O Physiological Action of Medicines 20 0 0O Marine Zoology of Cornwall ... 10 0 0 Atmospheric Waves .....+...++ Sa Vitality of Seeds .......4......00. Pee: Pray any / Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory ...,,.ss0000.55 107 8 6 £208 4 1848. Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory ......seseeeeee Pit loL k Atmospheric Waves ............... 3 10.9 Vitality of Seeds “............0ceeee 915 0 Completion of Catalogues of Stars 70 0 0 On Colouring Matters ..i........ 5 0 0 On Growth of Plants,.............. 15 0 0 £275 1 8 1849. Electrical Observations at Kew Observatory ......sc0csseesceeeee 50 0 O Maintaining Establishment at CULO ats cavtsereseescnsecsetentenss: 10 5 oi i Vitality of Seeds ......... PEO ML iat a | On Growth of Plants.............. 5 0 0 Registration: of Periodical Phe- NOMENA ........00008 mareescueuse 10 0 0 Bill on account of Anemometrical Observations sessecssssessseereeee 13 9 O £159 19 6 Sa 1850. Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory ..s......000... 255 18 0 Transit of Earthquake Waves... 50 0 0 xlviii REPORT—1861. £5 a. £s. d. Periodical Phenomena ......00. 15 0 0 1856. Meteorological Instrument, Maintaining the Establishment at AZOLES civscceevsecreverccesernse 25 0 0 Kew Observatory :-— eel 1855......£500 0 0 Abe Wd 1851. Strickland’s Ornithological Syno- Maintaining the Establishment at NYS wis «seeesdsussccsvenasemmnaenlOOs Oly 0 Kew Observatory (includes part Dredging and Dredging Forms... 913 9 of grant in 1849) ..s.secseeeeeee 309 2 | Chemical Action of Light... 20 0 0 Theory Of Heat .....+seeeeee oeeveeee 20 1 1) Strength of Iron Plates ..... seasees 1G LO 440) 510. Periodical Phenomena of Animals Registration of Periodical Pheno- and Plants ....,seeeseees Soop essen 5 0 0 Hen aes sdedie Baw ick Bude Ee OOO Vitality of Seeds seeeeerecoscceree . 5 6 4 Propagation of Salon deeawethes 10 0 0O Influence of Solar Radiation,..... 30 0 0 e744. 13 9 Ethnological Inquiries ............ 12 0 0 ———= Researches on Annelida ,....... pee) tee 7 1857. £3919 7 bape i 2 ie Ee we at wey GG EW Observatory cesseesscseeeee po ee 1852. Earthquake Wave Experiments... 40 0 0 Maintaining the Establishment at Dredging near Belfast ...... sees eLO, OED Kew Observatory (including Dredging on the West Coast of balance of grant for 1850) ... 233 17 8) — Scotland..scscsseeseseerseeseeee 10 0 0 Experiments on the Conduction Investigations into the Mollusca of Heat seeseeacerecsccccesececeace 5 2 9 of California ..... wcceasecees 10 0 0 Influence of Solar Radiations ... 20 0 0} Experimentson Flax .......0. 5 0 0 Geological Map of Ireland ...... 15 0 0} Natural History of Madagascar.. 20 0 0 Researches on the British Anne- Researches on British Annelida 25 0 0 lida... senveccesesesececeeasers 10 0 0} Report on Natural Products im- Vitality of Seeds ........046 seeeece 10 6 2 ported into Liverpool ......... 10 0 0 Strength of Boiler Plates ........ - 10 0 0} Artificial Propagation of Salmon 10 0 0 £304 6 7] Temperature of Mines ........... on ag BD 1853. Thermometers for Subterranean Maintaining the Establishment at Observations seevessererererereee 9 7 4 Kew Observatory cagbacdeeene . 165 0 0 Life-Boats ..cnascesoucsesepecancccncs 5 0 0 Experiments on the Influence of £507 15 4 Solar Radiation.......c..ecsesees P5=40) 10 1858. ee on the British Anne- Maintaining the Establishment at ~ eipeaaganey tage Sanlgae seat 10 0 0 Kew Observatory .....sseseseeee 500 0 0 2 on an € East Coast o Earthquake Wave Experiments.. 25 0 0 5 COU AN ss sccessereeeseseceoosens + 10 0 0} Dredging on the West Coast of Ethnological Queries sss 5 0 0 | Scotland sssssscssseesesereeseree 10 0 0 £205 0 0 | Dredging near Dublin ....... sudo) ONGC RED 1854. ————— | Vitality af Seeds’. .csicsctcssscsseen SEO O Maintaining the Establishment at Dredging near Belfast sodas coucae aimee eee Kew Observatory (including Report on the British Annelida... 25 0 0 balance of former grant) ..... . 33015 4 Experiments on the production Investigations on Flax ............ 11 0 0 of Heat by Motion in Fluids... 20 0 0 Effects of Temperature on Report on the Natural Products Wrought Iron .............0. «- 10 0 0 imported into Scotland\..s..0i00 10) 00 Registration of Periodical Phe- £618 18 2 pomena ttt eeaeeeeeeeeeeecnsane veo, 10 0250 1859. Ta ane ae Annelida ........00. sees 10 0 0] Maintaining-the Establishment at ality OF Seeds. We iy ’? uth * ; AM ai». ap 26, Po) oy yi O GEA xy eee Wy vie by A ae ot tee Keine Le eee oF yer « MS See o 2) 1 ea temew pet NH» Sie eet Dries ao wa! ehiradiaa 5 hie grat ct “e- é an ae eS } a ek Barly Marve ote apy ale Cae es . beres'yi). eles Pat fel Tee's peed. veo + aleds bn ie a cease rabies aie Dips 4 ia oo eb po ¥ a a Ox pA Neate > eres a ~ an oe: PhS OME > tS howe Plasto > paper as ‘* ; , i) at. ge. ae Poe; |” Sgt ori REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1860-61. By a Com- mittee, consisting of James GuatsHER, Esq., F.R.S., of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, Secretary to the British Meteorological Society, &c.; J. H. Guapstone, Esg., Ph.D., F.R.S. &c.; BR. P. Gree, Esg., F.G.S. &c.; and K. J. Lowe, Esq., F.R.A.S., M.B.M.S. &c. Tue Committee, in presenting this report upon the Luminous Meteors of the past year, feel that the arrangement for collecting this information is far from perfect, as for the most part the number of observers, Members of the Association, who have sent observations are very few indeed. During the entire year 1860 the number of meteors were few, and the sky during the nights of both the August and November epochs was generally overcast over the whole country, and scarcely any meteors were seen. In the August just passed, the sky for the most part was clear, and many meteors were observed. It was stated in the Report for last year, that the remarkable meteor of March 10, 1860, must have been seen by many persons, and it seems to have been so, but no observations were taken by them of elevation, direction, &c. ; and we are not in possession, even now, of sufficient information upon which to base calculations. In the Catalogue of Meteors observed this year, of one alone have accounts by three observers been received, that of July 16, 1861, as seen by the Duke of Argyll, at Kensington; Mr. Frost, at the Isle of Wight; and Mr. Howe, at Greenwich : the three observers agree as to the place of its origin, viz. near a Lyre, but Mr. Howe says it moved towards the N.E., whilst Mr. Frost says its motion was towards the §.W., just in opposite directions to each other*. Another meteor, that of August 6, at 11.15, was seen by two ob- servers ; the one at Manchester, the other near Macclesfield, but in neither case are sufficient data recorded. The Committee regret that but one account of all the remaining meteors in the catalogue has been received, and nothing can therefore be added to the observations themselves. * This was also probably the one seen at Tunbridge Wells, at Darlington in Yorkshire, and at Namur in Flanders, and of which an approximate orbit has been calculated by Mr. Alexander S. Herschell. (See Appendix, No. 3.) 1861. B to REPORT—1861. They would earnestly press upon the Members of the British Association the necessity of more complete and numerous observations, noting the times of appearauce and disappearance, by a watch regulated to railway time, or whose error from railway time is known nearly ; the size, colour, and general description of the meteor, and its place among the stars at its first appear- ance and at its last appearance. If. these particulars were received from three or four observers, separated from each other by some little distance, sufficient information would be furnished to determine in many cases the Date. : Appearance and Brightness Velocity or Magnitude. and Colour. Duration. Train or Sparks. 1849. Aug. 11] Midnight |Globular; 12 times the Bright blue ...|..cceecesecsecereeeseeeresserees 30 seconds ......... size of Venus when seen in her full splendour. pba sberossee Intensely Burst into fragments of a white. red colour. Saenboooog Purple ......... cern eel een eases tse es ews see enemas seen esse sesee reese esse esl eee Bradford. Hi Besanodoncad Beare Ads heere Scarlet before bursting, green after- wards. Brilliant:s 5 seswesessaes Reddish p.m.|= Ist mag. * ......--(Blue «--.404+-/Streak left .......s.eee00ee AS 6\From 10 till|Six small meteors|Colourless ...|Slight trains .. from 2nd to 4th mag. and as|Bluish ......... Ill. jescsedvesvenccsesascesss 1 second; move bright. over 20° of sky. one pity Bren icons + 60 (BTN a ee ee night. from 01 sec. 1d sec. 10)11 15 p.m.|/Twice the size of ..seee...(Left a streak in the sky/Slow; duration Venus, and brighter. which lingered after the) second. meteor had vanished. A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 3 distance of the meteor from the earth, its path, size, velocity, &c., and thus render these reports far more valuable than they are at present. The following Catalogue contains a list of all the meteors, accounts of which have reached the Members of the Committee, arranged in their order of occur- rence. In the Appendix following the Catalogue are abstracts from some of the most important papers which have appeared, during this year, connected with this branch of science. Observer. Reference. choseeeec J. Atkinson .......MS. communica- tion. SRE CCRSAE SEOCOREL SOE See Appendix No.1. + Collected by Mr. Greg. Direction or Altitude. General remarks. Place. In the S.; burst into fragments).............+00.0.c0004 Siberia | With a great flash, followed | by detonation. PMMERPOEAW cco evonscscecacseess Light as day ...... Athlone — and ! Holyhead. (In the westerly part of the|...........ccscsecceees Bradford. _ heavens; no noise. SUMMER Getetaearcorases-csccerscnena|ecnca-cécawansescxasses Alderly Edge, Cheshire. BME ess cacsesce Bid Seunsedcanvsacsseccoseslesessasccoscsscsssuccoen| NEWDOLt,) 111 Salop Fell, inclining in an arc of 15°..)..........scseeeeeeeseee Leeds. Moved downwards towards)........+.......cceee0ee Blackburn. W.S.W. From Polaris towards a Ursz]......ces..s.ccesseseees Plymouth......... Majoris. Tn Ursa Major and Ursa Minor|From direction of|H.M.S. S. ‘ Hi- Cassiopeia. malaya,’ Ply- mouth Break- water. From the zenith towards N.W.|...............-0:seeees H.M.S.S. ‘ Hi- horizon. malaya,’ Bay of Biscay. Tn northern heavens ............ Counted 17 finellbid ............... meteors. Light- ning over France. In northern heavens ............ Counted 24 me-|Ibid............... teors, some very brilliant. Fre- quent lightning over France. Fell from direction of zenith,| Very fine and warm.|Fuente del Mer, almost across Mars. Several very; near Santan- small meteors) der, North seen, but not) Spain. nearly so many as on the evening of 4th and early morning of 5th instant. E. J. Lowe ..,...,MS. communica- tion TOs Secouseouscteon Ibid. ler ieesetcs ces cee Ibid. Vif asarsseadestect Ibid. 1G SRS Ibid. 1 Pee BR ae ria er Ibid. ee B2 qd REPORT—1861. Appearance and Brightness - Velocity or Dee ues Magnitude. and Colour. To ee Duration. 1860. | h m : July 13/10 10 p.m.|= Ist mag. +, and|Intensely blue/No separate streak; disap-|Rapid ............... twice as bright. peared instantaneously. 15 or 16/11 0 p.m.|About the size of thel.........-++e++0 Long tail, somewhat re-|-.....++sseessereesceeee full moon ; oblong. sembling a rocket. 25/Froml0p.m.|Small .........s0seeeees Colourless <.-\-.2.2.ccasscoseseenaneneoeeepseee TRAC semen eee till 1 a.m. of 26th. OW oe aan sinew hike apdark Perpen-|-.a.cmavescvavsces|cvcsacecsaseshenebeccesseseseveccl ea suduccerenhotastwonespenlcceeeeaenten exons NINONGC: caceassncbessueavee cece 1 second .....s008 V4/11 14 p.m.) =3rd magek ....sss-ecccerssseeeceeees INGHO | sesceceaehscsavsense ait 1 second er 14\11 27 p.m.|=8rd mag.x ......... Wibitevsti;.ss..| Small train .......c00.s00000e 1 second ....04+ : 15} 9 59 p.m.|=2nd mag.* ......... NViDIGeizss bscs es! Short train ...5....sceesceees 1 second ....+++40s 1510 8 p.m.]=2nd mag. ......ccelecceerreceeceneees Small train ....scscsceseserss 1 to 2 seconds, ..¥ 21) 8 53 p.m.jLarge .........0606 eevee] WuMtGiider.sesel4 cuenaVaencssenans ievcernepsoathe 3 or 4 seconds...) 26,11 5 p.m.J= Ist mag.# ......... BING treeancn: Leaving a thin streak i to 2 seconds...) light. 10) Fegpam:|Small. .....000ehdéveeeeses|seanen wachaetecses None: , .dsisessas dvesauventoans 1 second ied No. 1.—A large meteor, October 25th, 1859, was seen at Holyhead, Anglesea; and at Ballinaman, 13 miles west of Athlone, in Ireland. 1. As seen by Mr. Harris, C.E., at Holyhead At about 7.15 p.m. a bright ball of fire appeared directly overhead, illuminating the dense masses of vapour which filled the sky at the time, and rendering objects around as The appearance lasted two or three seconds; it was blowing nearly a gale at the time, and immediately after the rain came down visible as if by day. like a deluge. 2. As seen by Thomas C. Carter, about 13 miles west of Athlone.—The APPENDIX. A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. Direction or Altitude. wn across « Arietis, from direction of Perseus. om Sword-handle of Perseus. From direction of Perseus. ‘ross 6 Andromedz, from/Arc 7°,......00...00- direction of Perseus. wn from just above @ An- dromedz. wn from between 6 and y ndromedz. » from 10’ S. of y Andro- medz. rpendicular down, inclining . from Swan to 12° N. of Perseus. om » Pegasi towards Cassio- eia. ssed from 5° E. of « Lyre to! a Corone Borealis. “ygni to Cassiopeia............ m « Draconis to 3 Cygni ... m 6 Pegasi direct, downward ourse to horizon. m f Trianguli to f Persei... m /3 Persei to « Arietis...... sed from a Cygni to Cas- iopeia. descended vertically from|.........00. 0° S. of Arcturus for a istance of about 8°, disap-| aring behind a cloud. from the neighbourhood, f Polaris towards the en horizon for about from the zenith, passing hrough the tail of Urse ajoris, disappearing about 0° below. General remarks. Direction of Cas- siopeia. Direction of Cas- siopeia. Arc 3°. Discordant Hee meee ee aeeseseeseseees Seen een eee aseeeneeeeees eee ee ween tee eereneees SOO eee ee eet tenes aeeeee Very fine, stars very bright. Greenwich, Tra-|J. MacDonald ...\Ibid. falgar Road. ING) s scesncendesvieens Greenwich, Nel-|Id. ..,...s00++...jLbid. son Street. 29 Place. Observer. Reference. Highfield House!E. J. Lowe ...... MS. communica- Observatory. tion. LNG Cae ene ot no mree Ratitagsacetesdeesss Ibid. bids JR eeca a sos (Uda tenaeeaepeeseas abide Widieesstecccancsss Td ecastccacevoce | ule MDidessse teas cdeseek Ii Een REA eaeer veeee{LbDid DIG ee ettes cae scac es 11 <2 Ba ..Lbid UDidvbevccscccecces ay ee Seotceates Ibid Mil essx wesseceacea| Ulsan samen ves ance Ibid Blackheath ...... J. Glaisher ...... pid New Cross ...... J. Howe ......... Ibid Mbid.2c 0 .Siccdads ce Dida (5 ec eee Ibid NDidl arevatewstesed Me <3 vaptete sue scien Ibid. Greenwich ...... W. C. Nash...... Ibid. Highfield House|E. J. Lowe ...... Ibid. Observatory. Greenwich ..,.../W. C. Nash...... Ibid. DIGS ciiwcecsnacaeee J. Howe ..... vee. (I bid. ..(Royal Hospital,/W. T. Lynn....../Ibid. Greenwich. sky was clear, when about 7.30 p.m. (Irish time ?) a meteor, at first about the size of a star of the first magnitude, swiftly approached from the direction of the Pleiades; itadvaneed rapidly, increasing in size, forabout four orfiveseconds, giving out an intensely white light; at the end of that time it changed colour to a bright ruby-red, and then it seemed to change its course as well as to lose velocity ; almost immediately after that it burst into fifteen or sixteen bright-green particles that remained visible some two seconds more, and then altogether disappeared. The whole phenomenon lasted perhaps eight seconds ; its direction was about N.W. or N.N.W.* * There can be little doubt that these two observations related to one and the same meteor. ~ 30 REPORT—1S6l1. No. 2.—The following accounts of the remarkable meteor of June 11th, 1845, of which some descriptions have already been published in preceding Reports, have been forwarded to us, as first seen by the Rey. F. Hawlett, F.R.A.S., near Adalia, Asia Minor :— 1. Towards the close of the 18th we started, after one of the sultriest days I almost ever experienced; at 11 a.m. the thermometer was 98° in the coolest part of Mr. Purdie’s house, whilst not a breath of wind was astir. I know not whether the stagnant heat may have contributed to the occurrence of a very splendid meteor which we witnessed that evening. We had entered the mountainous district north-west of Adalia, the sun had recently set in a per- fectly cloudless sky, and the twilight was coming on, when there suddenly burst out in the north a meteor that resembled in appearance a bright but perma- nent flash of lightning, whose upper extremity lay a little to the east of the pole-star. The length of the flash, as near as I could judge, was about 50°— certainly more than half the space between the zenith and the horizon (sloping downwards towards the west of north) ; and that which I presumed was the vapour resulting from the explosion presented for several minutes the same shape as the original flash, and being strongly illumined (as I took it) by the upslanting rays of the vanished sun, appeared about the bright- ness of the rising moon, which was then about at the full. Absorbed as we all were by the magnificence of the spectacle, which elicited from the Turks repeated cries of “Allah, Allah,” I forgot to note by my watch the time which might elapse until an explosion should be audible, and was only reminded of the omission upon hearing a dull heavy report like that of a distant piece of ordnance boom on my ear, after an interval we then judged of some 7 or 8 minutes. According to this estimate, the sound, if it came to us from the meteor, and which (it was so peculiar) I think was the case, must have travelled to us from a distance of 90 miles (sound travelling 1140 feet per second), and owing to the altitude of the meteor must have had its origin in the highest and rarest regions of our atmosphere. This brilliant visitant gradually appeared to grow larger and more diffuse, as to breadth more particularly, and at last to break up into detached por- tions, which were beautifully decked in luminous colours of red, orange, and silvery green. Finally the coloured portions, having taken meanwhile a slightly westerly course, by degrees faded away, having continued visible at least 20 minutes to half an hour. We were informed that the meteor was seen at Philadelphia (160 miles west). 2. From ‘ Malta Mail.’ The brig ‘ Victoria’ saw this extraordinary appearance when in latitude 86° 40’ 56” north, and longitude 13°44 36” east, being becalmed and without any appearance of bad weather; her topgallant and royal masts suddenly went over the side, as if carried away by a sudden squall; and two hours after it blew very hard from south and east, but suddenly again fell calm, with an overpowering stench of sulphur and an unbearable heat. At this moment three luminous bodies were seen to issue from the sea at the distance of about half a mile from the vessel, which remained visible for about 10 minutes; soon after it came on to blow hard from the south-east, and the vessel ran into a current of air the reverse of that just experienced (900 miles west of Adalia). 3. Letter from Amab, on Mount Lebanon. On the same day, about half an hour after sunset (very nearly the same time), the heavens presented an extraordinary and beautiful appearance. A fiery meteor, composed of two luminous bodies, each appearing at least five times larger than the moon, with streamers and appendages to each, joining the two, and looking like large flags blown out by a gentle breeze, appeared in A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 31 the west, remained visible for an hour, and taking an easterly course gradually disappeared. ‘The appendages appeared to shine from the reflected light of the main bodies, which it was painful to look at for any length of time. The moon had risen half an hour before, and there was scarcely any wind (350 miles south-east of Adalia). Accounts from Erzeroum, in Asia Minor, describe a sudden fall of the thermometer on June 21st (three days after), which usually ranges in summer between 20° and 22° Reaumur, to 5°, and a further fall of two more degrees during a heavy snow-storm which lasted three days, after which the thermo- meter suddenly rose to 21°. The greatest consternation prevailed among the inhabitants, who thought the warld was coming to an end. At Malta the heat was excessively oppressive, the thermometer ranging from 87° indoors in shade to 140° exposed to the hot air. At St. Antonio, the coolest spot in the island, the governor was compelled to rig up Indian punkahs and order an extra supply of ice*. No. 3.—The following additional notice of the meteor of July 16th has recently appeared in the ‘London Review’ of August 10th, 1861, written by Mr. Alexander S. Herschel :— “ Excellent observations at Tunbridge Wells, and at Darlington, in York- shire, afford the following conclusions upon the orbit of the first meteor of Tuesday evening, the 16th of July. If this were not an electrical phe- nomenon of extraordinary magnificence, it came from space as a body of one- third of a mile in diameter, drawn towards our sun from some initial path, in which it must have had a native velocity of at least twenty-three miles a second (exceeding by four miles that of our earth in her orbit). The meteor first became visible 320 miles above Namur (in the south of Flanders), and in- clined downwards at 20° to about 100 miles above the North Sea, 250 miles due east of Perth, where it suddenly disappeared, soon after separating into two parts. The whole course of 500 miles was performed in 10 to 12 seconds of time ; and if we neglect the action of the earth, which can only deflect a satellite 3° in a minute, the path was from over the head of Sagittarius, and presents a direct hyperbolic orbit of eccentricity of 111°, and obliquity 45°, leading from the descending node (where it encountered the earth) to an apse at 156° in advance along its course, and within 16,000,000 miles of the sun.” Note—The time of this meteor is not given by Mr. Herschel in this notice, but he speaks of it as the first meteor seen that evening ; it is very possible that this was the one seen also at Greenwich, the Isle of Wight, and Kensington, about 11 p.m, though it does not appear to be quite clear. It - may be observed that large meteors seem to have been not unfrequently observed about the 17th of July. An observed altitude of 320 miles for a meteor ismost unusual. Though it is true, as observed by Mr. Herschel, and proved by elaborate calculations by Walker (see ‘American Philosophical ‘Transactions’ for 1841), that the influence of the earth's attraction is very inconsiderable on passing meteors, yet in calculations on the real orbits of meteors, taken generally from observations founded on positions more or less within the limits of the atmosphere, it must not be forgotten that the elasti- city of the atmosphere itself must have a tendency to make the meteor deviate more or less from its true path, materially qualifying the elements of its ellipticity, and rendering somewhat uncertain whether it is hyperbolic or not. * Sir W. S. Harris considers it probable this was an electrical phenomenon. 39 REPORT—1861. No. 4.—1. One of the most interesting falls of meteorites, and for a longtime the only one of metallic iron which had been witnessed, took place at Hraschina, near Agram, on May 26th, 1751. At a meeting of the Imperial Academy of Vienna, April 14th, 1859, M. Haidinger produced the Latin document referring to it (which had never been published), and the original German translation ; also a second document, lately discovered in the Impe- rial Cabinet of Minerals at Vienna, accompanied by two plates representing the phenomena as observed at Szigetvar (or Gross-Sziget), '75 miles east of Hraschina. Ata meeting held on February 3rd, 1860, he presented a third document, discovered in the archiepiscopal library at Agram, describing the same phenomena as seen at Biscupeez, near Warasdin, 17 miles north, a little east of Hraschina. Prof. Haidinger also drew attention to the meteor seen on May 26, 1751, between 6 and 7 p.m., west of Gross-Sziget. It was first observed as a flash of light, without noise ; immediately afterwards it resembled a tortuous chain, extending directly west, terminating in the middle height of the air as a fire- ball, leaving a long tail. On arriving in the lower strata it resembled an enormous sparkling fireball, with a chain-like tail in the higher regions, the last traces of which faded away at about 10 p.m. At Biscupecz it was observed as a small cloud from which some noise emanated, and which after- wards disappeared *. Two pieces of iron fell to the east of Hraschina, one of 71 lbs. penetrating 4. feet 6 inches into the ground, at present preserved in the Imperial Cabinet of Vienna; the other of 16 Ibs., which had been distributed partly at the place of its fall, and afterwards at Presburg, every vestige of which is lost. From the computations of various observations it appears to have passed from Neustadt to Hraschina, or from north to south from 48°35’ to 40°6' 2”; and from west to east from 28°18’ to 34°, east of Ferro. No observations. were taken of its velocity ; but its height before its fall at Hraschina, viewed from Szigetvar, was from 30° to 35°—equal to about 44 to 523 miles. Prof. Haidinger remarked upon the vast difference between the apparent size of the meteor and its solid contents. A body 15 inches in diameter at 75 miles distance is invisible; yet the meteor is pictured as if of the size of the sun. The appearance of the chain indicates the time when the solid portions became visible ; they are, however, only the paths of the lumi- nous bodies; and that they do not form straight lines is very natural, if we take into consideration the flat shape of the meteorite, which must have been tossed from side to side by the resistance of the air. If the rapid compres- sion of the air is sufficient to annul the cosmical velocity, it certainly can pro- duce the elimination of light—the fiery phenomena. ‘These two points esta- blished, as a natural consequence two phenomena result, which belong to the character of fiery meteors. The solid nucleus of a meteor is nota globe ; it passes undoubtedly through the resisting medium with its centre of gravity foremost, producing, on account of the unequal distribution, a rotation of its mass, which increases in rapidity, whilst the velocity of its motion diminishes in a direct ratio. The report of the Hraschina meteor was heard as far as Warasdin, which, taking Hraschina as a centre, gives an area of nearly 1000 square miles over which the sound was audible. The Hraschina iron was the first in which the highly crystalline structure of meteoric iron was observed, and Haidinger gives an account of the cir- cumstances under which the discovery was made. Alvis von Widmannstit- ten, a highly educated and thorough iron-master, had a plate of the mass cut * See American Journal of Science, 2nd series, vol. xxxii. No. 94, July 1861. A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 33 off 14 by 1 inch in size and 5%, oz. in weight ; this was carefully polished for the purpose of examination when exposed to heat. But what a surprise ! After the colour of the principal mass had passed through the various shades of straw-yellow, brownish-yellow, violet, and blue, there remained groups of triangles of straw-colour parallel lines, the blue and violet intervals 2 to 4 line wide, the straw-yellow lines 4 to {—a splendid phenomenon. This was the first observation, and the figures were called ‘“‘ Widmanstitten’s figures,” in honour of the discoverer. ‘The method of etching by acids was introduced after this discovery. 2. Leitform.—In a paper on a typical form of meteorites, presented at the meeting of the Imperial Academy of Vienna, on April 19th, 1860, by Prof. Haidinger, he suggests some new and interesting ideas. The paper is accompanied by two plates of the appearances of meteoric stones from Stan- nern and Gross-Dwina, which are complete in themselves, and may be con- sidered as individuals of their kind, which at the same time show distinctly one of the periods through which they have passed. In viewing meteorites there must be a starting-point from some funda- mental considerations proved by the phenomena themselves, in order to arrive at an understanding of their forms and conditions. These are, Ist, the stone leaving the extra-terrestrial space as a solid ; 2nd, its velocity being greater on entering the earth’s atmosphere ; 3rd, it is retarded by the resistance of the air; 4th, the “ fireball” (or luminous envelope of the meteor) formed by the compression of the air and the rotation of the stone resulting therefrom ; 5th, the termination of the first part of the path is marked by a detonation, the so-called explosion, the vacuum inside of the fireball being suddenly filled by the surrounding air. The Stannern stone seems to have passed through the air with its rounded side first, and shows over its surface effects resulting from a uniform action of the atmosphere upon it whilst the crust was in a viscous state. The lustrous crust is surrounded by a protruding gibbosity ; the stone had sharp edges which in the foremost direction of the meteorite were melted off and blown towards the back part. The time of the passage through the air generally lasts only a few seconds. The rising temperature producing the crust belongs to this period, since the stone came from the planetary space with a tempera- ture of 100° C. below freezing-point. Some meteors get heated very rapidly ; masses of iron will sometimes get red-hot whilst one composed of some other substance will be quite cold inside ; and as soon as the detonation takes place, and the fireball disappears, the inside and outside temperatures of the me- teorites are soon counterbalanced and the crust rapidly cools, especially at a height where the temperature is very low. The stone of Gross-Dwina, which in its general character is allied to those of Timochin, Zebrak, and Eichstadt, shows a great dissimilarity on its two principal planes, one being smooth, and the other rough. The form is that of a fragment altered only on its surface. Characteristic of this meteorite is a ridge which passes over the “head” of it; and corresponding with it there was one passing over the back part of it. The roundish spots where a melting off has commenced have a striking resemblance to the impressions of figures in dough ; they are generally to be found on the side best protected during its passage. 3. St. Denis- Westrem.—At a meeting of the Imperial Academy of Vienna on October 4th, 1860, Director Haidinger gave an account of this meteorite. The fall took place without detonation, and only a slight noise was heard similar to the rattling of carriages, on June 7th, 1855, 77 P.M., near the town of St. Denis-Westrem, 23 miles from Ghent. 1861. D 34 REPORT—1861. It fell thirty paces from a man and woman, penetrated the ground about 2 feet, and was immediately dug up; it was hot, of a bluish-black colour, and smelled sulphurous. It weighed 700°5 grammes, its sp. gr.=3'293. Its form was similar to that of an “ ananchites,” having a flat elongated base and an arched enclosure. It has the character of areal fragment, and is encrusted all over. The crust is uneven on one side, whilst the other is more even and equally rounded, the edges between the rough surface and rounded planes being well marked. The stone resembles those of Reichenbach’s second family, “ somewhat bluish stones.” The stone contains disseminated iron and pyrrhotine,—the latter, sometimes filling up vein-fissures, giving it the character of a fragment from a very large mass—a mountain of rock. Disseminated through the whole mass were spots of iron-rust and crystalline globules, which leave im- pressions when falling out of the brittle mass. 4. Indian meteorites.—At the meetings of the Imperial Academy of Vienna, on June 8th, November 3rd, and the last one in the year 1860, M. Haidinger gives accounts of the Calcutta meteorites which had been acquired a short time previously by the Imperial Cabinet of Minerals. (1.) The meteorite of Shalka fell in a rice-field about 80 yards south of the village, on November 30th, 1850, a few hours before sunrise ; it was witnessed by two persons. The nqise, compared with thunder, was not very loud; the stone penetrated 4 feet into the earth ; fragments were found 3 feet deep ina circle of 20 feet radius. Only one stone fell, which may have been 3 feet long. It came from the south, at an angle of about 80°. The stone is very peculiar ; the white portions resemble pumice, whilst the darker resemble pearlstone ; it is friable like cocolite. The real fracture shows greasy lustre. It does not contain any metallic iron. It belongs to Reichenbach’s first family, first group. (2.) A fall of meteorites occurred on December 27th, 1857, at Quenggouk in Pegu; three stones, evidently fragments, were tound tive and ten miles apart. It had the appearance of a large umbrella in flames, as observed at a place ninety miles south of Quenggouk, at an altitude of 40° or 50°, giving a report like that of a monster gun. Another observation, taken on board the ‘ Semiramis,’ about 200 miles S.E. of where it fell, describes it as having had at first the appearance of a large star increasing to three times the size of the moon, leaving behind a long tail, and falling towards the east. Haidinger gives the height at 80 or 120 miles. (3.) This fall occurred at Dhurmsala in the Punjab, accompanied by a tre- mendous noise, the earth being shaken in convulsions. The direction was N.N.W.to S.S.E. The fragments penetrated to a depth of 1 to 17 feet; the largest weighed 320 lbs. The fall took place July 14th, 1861. (4.) The fall of meteorites at Futtehpore on November 30th, 1822, is men- tioned. (5.) The real locality of a stone which was found in 1846, and which Piddington supposes to be from Assam, is not known. It is beautifully marbled, very solid, and resembles the meteorites of Seres, Barbotan, and others of the third family of Reichenbach. The crust is dark greyish-black, sp. gr. at 17° R.=3°792. (6.) The fall of the Segowolee meteorites took place on March 6th, 1853. All the stones were pyramidal, and weighed from 7 to 4 lbs. The crust is very thin, not over 7 line in thickness, dark-reddish brown. The whole con- dition gives proof of a slight fusibility. : A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 35 No. 5. The meteoric iron from Tula, Russia.—In the year 1846, a mass of iron of over 15 puds (542 lbs.) was found 43 miles from Marunskoje. Dr. Auerbach has given us the first notice of it. The principal mass consists of iron with pieces of meteoric stones imbedded. They are real fragments separated from larger masses by mechanical force. The metallic nickeliferous iron formed veins in the granular rock, the latter consisting of a mixture of me- tallic iron and a silicate of iron and magnesia. The Widmanstatten’s figures in this iron show a striking resemblance to those of Burlington, Owego County, New York. Judging from analogies observed upon our earth, Haidinger has come to the conclusion that before the stones were imbedded in iron they were united as portions of real rocks in one and the same celestial body, from which they came to our earth. The forms of the larger and smaller lumps show, however, many peculia- rities which require a more thorough investigation. The meteoric iron from Nebraska was obtained from N. Holmes, Esq., of St. Louis. The original mass weighed 35 lbs., and was found 25 miles west of Fort Pierre. A segment of the Vienna specimen cut parallel with a octahedral plane showed striz of half a line in width, intersecting at angles of 60° and 120°, with the triangular and rhombic intervals between the en- closing ledges of schreibersite covering the whole etched surface. The Widmanstiitten’s figures show a close resemblance to those of the Red River iron preserved in the Yale College cabinet. Fall of the Meteor of Parnallee, near Madura, in Hindostan. By W. Haidinger, Ordinary Member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences. (Presented at the sitting of February 7th, 1861.)— A communication from Professor Silliman causes me to report on the fall of a meteor which occurred on February 28th, 1857, about noon, near the village of Parnallee, south of Madura, at the northern extremity of Hindostan. Mr. Silliman wrote to me that the meteorite (which is deposited at Western Reserve College, at Hudson, Ohio) had, according to the chemical analysis made by Dr, Cassels, of Choktaws, Ohio, been found to contain only 3 per cent. of metallic iron, and amongst it 17 per cent. of nickel. He expects to receive a fragment of it, and they also intend to send us a portion of the lat- ter- Now I was enabled, in answer to the above, to communicate several statements which had not been known to Mr. Silliman. Already in the summer of 1858, I read the excellent account drawn up by the head of the American Mission at Madura, Mr. H. S. Taylor, respecting the fall of the meteor itself,—two stones of immense size having fallen, one weighing 37 lbs. and the other weighing four times as much, or 148 lbs. This account is given in the ‘ Transactions of the Geographical Society of Bombay ’ for 1857; also the ‘Atheneum ’ [probably the Madras ‘Atheneum’ ] contained a notice of it. Only in 1859, when our operations commenced for the increase of the collection of the meteorites of the Imperial Mineral Cabinet, I wrote to Dr. G. Buist, secretary of the Society and editor of the Bombay Times. But Buist was just in the act of removing to Allahabad, and could not intercede in the matter; so then I applied to Mr. Taylor himself, and I also wrote to Madras. It now became evident that the larger stone was being sent to the Museum of Madras, but that the one weighing 37 lbs. which he received back again, had been sent to Hudson in America. _ Mr. Taylorwas kind enough to give me the address of ProfessorCh. A. Young, to whom I then wrote directly, and who already a fortnight ago had the kindness to promise us a beautiful specimen of this meteorite of Parnallee, D2 36 REPORT— 1861. which I shall in due course place before the students and fellow-mem- bers of my class. I could even have delayed my present communication respecting the fall itself until then, as no accounts of it are to be found in any European book. According to Mr. H. S. Taylor’s account, the two stones fell a little north- east of the village of Parnallee, 9° 14’ N. and 78° 21’ east of Greenwich, ac- cording to the map of the Government Survey. According to the direction of the hole which they made in striking the ground, they came from about N. 10° W. inclining to the perpendicular at an angle of from 15° to 20°, the smaller one nearly perpendicular. They were fixed in the ground in such a manner that that part of the surface which was the most rounded or convex was placed towards the bottom; this was, as Mr. Taylor expressly states, in accordance with the centre of gravity, and therefore the very position which the meteorites had to take in passing through the resisting atmosphere. The larger stone struck into the ground in a ploughed field to the depth of 2 feet 5 inches, the smaller one to the depth of 2 feet 8 inches; the smaller one had not the appearance as if it were a fragment of the larger one; the specific weight of the smaller one is, according to Taylor, 3°3. The larger stone when grown moist showed on the round surface a crack, which after- wards became still wider, perhaps in consequence of oxidation: the report caused by its fall was considered terrible by the natives, like two thunder- claps as one stone struck into the ground after the other; and the echo lasted for some time, although that was not so loud. They were heard as far as Tuticorin, to the south, on the coast of the Gulf of Manaar, at a distance of forty English miles ; very loud at Madura, which is sixteen miles off. Several persons were near the spot when the fall took place, and yet nobody saw either of these large bodies as they fell, owing, as they think, to the velo- city of the motion. A cloud of dust rose from the places where they struck the ground; Mr. Taylor could still see the hollow which had been caused in the compressed earth. Up to the 21st of April, when he examined the locality and obtained the stones, there had been no fall of rain. Their shape, although somewhat irregular, is compared to large cannon-balls covered with a black crust as if smoked, in the interior like granite, with particles of iron. Taking into account the short time during which the phe- nomenon lasted, the fact of the stones striking into the ground without any one having seen them approaching in the atmosphere, all this might tend to show that the ground was struck by a real “ horizontal shot.” M. Haidinger, of Vienna, recommends as convenient in certain cases that the observed apparent tracks or paths N. N.E. ibs S.E. Ss. of meteors should be approximately mapped down, on the principle of a Mercator’s chart, and that the alti- tude and geographic orientation should be carefully inscribed in a diagram like the annexed figure, in order afterwards to be able, by com- parison with the precise time, hour, day, and year, to find the point from whence they were coming. A B would be the track of a meteor seen first at A at an altitude of 75° in the N.N.E., and disappearing or bursting at an altitude of about 40°; while C D might denote a meteor that seemed to move horizontally from 45° N.E. to 45° S.E., its true course being from A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. OM north to south, but visible from the side. Similarly a meteor appearing at A might move obliquely downwards to F, disappearing at 15° in the south- east, and: be represented by a line joining those two points. No. 6. Extracts from a letter from Professor Cocchi, at Florence, to Mr. Greg. “At 9 o'clock p.m., 25th July, 1847, when I was riding from Prato to Florence with a relation of mine and a man-servant, an enormous igneous body appeared over our heads, rushing towards the north. Our horses were much terrified, and we saw everything around us as if it were daylight. We heard no detonations after the disappearance of the meteor, which was many times larger than the moon, but a kind of hissing sound, not unlike the flying of some bird. I think it must have passed very near us; at least, we expe- rienced a sense of heat at the time, and when its light was extinguished we could for some seconds distinguish in the air a phosphorescent light. *On the 4th or 5th of October, 1859, I was walking with my two brothers near our country seat of Tarrarossa, at about 8 p.m., when suddenly our attention was attracted by a splendid fire-ball flying rapidly in a S.W. direction ; the apparition lasted some seconds, when it disappeared beneath the horizon. I heard no detonation, but my brothers stated they heard it in spite of the great distance ; if so, the fragments of this meteoric body fell down into the sea, not many miles from Tarrarossa. “ My friend Professor Compani, of Siena, wrote to me some time ago about a similar event which terrified and dismayed Siena, and made many of its citizens leave their shaking houses in a great hurry. He says, ‘In December last (1860), about the 16th day of the month, an enormous bolide traversed the sky over Siena, which a few minutes afterwards made a terrible noise in its progress ; it left in its track many sparks. Judging by the ear, the explo- sion must have taken place between Asciano and Buonconvento ; some indeed aver having seen fall, in some places, sparks of fire; nothing, however, was found.” “Florence, August 8th, 1861.” No. 7.—Extract from Dr. Buchner’s Work on Fire Meteors. ‘It has been contended by many, in opposition to Chladni’s (1820) opinion, that large fire-balls are totally different from shooting-stars, that they are quite a different class of bodies. Davy, L. Smith, and Shepard, who are the advocates of this opinion, among other things insist upon this point, that if both are analogous bodies there would also, at the time of the periods for shooting-stars, especially in the months of August and November, neces- sarily fall more aérolites. They contend that no instance of any observation made could be stated, that whenever an aérolite has been seen, it equally made its appearance by itself alone, and not in connection with other meteors. “ Even though the rich November streams of 1779, 1830, and other years have not actually been shown to have been abundant as regards meteorites, yet the recent modern comparisons made are such as may cause us to fairly admit the homogeneous nature of the two phenomena. Baumhauer compared the fire-meteors for the single days in the year, as also has Rudolph Wolf at Zurich. Accordingly, leaving out the days on which no fire-meteors or a few only were observed, we have the following days as having been particularly plentiful as regards large fire-balls and falls of meteor-stones. 38 REPORT—1861. Baumhauer. Wolf. Greg*. Baumhauer. Wolf. Greg*. - January2... 6 5 11 | AugustlO .. 7 11 ll wLlOks 0) 5 8 seebildys 2 5 10 sft Ss 6 0 6 Bolt eae 5 0 15 Feb. Anes O 5 3° |asept.yaegl ae (0) 5 7 ” 6): 7 7 a a5) Ove % (@) 9 Perl Gotan 6 5 8 aye bowens 6 6 vi Mareh.*1..:00 5 5 9. :| Octobend ge. y446 6 11 a Sa; 5 0 6 oP et scr 0 5 e a epiligts 0 5 4 sre 2Sre 5 0) 8 Aprils ap9) 2. 5 5 5 Nov-tis90e 4. 6 13 a LOi ec 4: 5 5 op OLDE 0 5 LZ mt BOW tz 4 5 al gh gl 2hy<5 8 a 1] May 17 B00 5 O 5 ” 13 eee 9 9 16 joie eet 6 0 4 pf LGY ee 0 15 10 June fa 76s (0) 5 6 aOR: 5 8 14 Joly HLT wdsee 10 7 1l Si ZO 5 5 9 SAS pare 6 8 10 | Dee. 2 ye% 4 5 6 August 8 ... 6 5 12 Pat ate 4 q 12 suck Dws 4, 5 10 spe lligiss 0 cL 15 iLO 5 10) 6 Sg lS 6 5 10 est ale at 5 5 LZ, nro Ole 0 5 8 “ Sik 4 5 6 ‘Mr. Greg himself is, however, favourable to the notion that the larger and probably aérolitic class of fire-balls, e.g. such as those seen in July or at long and uncertain intervals, are dissimilar in character and orbit to the small and more common sporadic meteors. It would be, however, premature as yet to offer any dogmatic opinion on this point. “Upon the whole, it may be taken with some confidence that there are periods when a larger class of fire-balls and falling stones are more numerous than at others; and it is rather singular that this class does not seem to be so abundant at the August epoch as might have been expected; in fact, they seem to be more numerous towards the end of July and the first three or four days in August, the great epoch being the 9th and 10th days.” No. 8.—A. In the volume of the Dublin British Association Report, page 143, it states that M. Coulvier-Gravier did not assign any reason why more meteors are seen in the east quarter than the west quarter of the heavens. But Mr. Bompas seems to have given a very neat solution (page 144), that is, on the supposition that all meteors are equally distributed in space, not only the reason of that, but why we see more towards 6 a.m. than at 6 p.m. Pro- bably his reason is a correct one, and perfectly sound; there may possibly be others. In diagram No.1 let it be supposed there are meteors, AB, crossing obliquely and in one direction; and it is possible the majority of them may really do so (or the obliqueness of their paths may be considered the resultant, or ap- parent resultant, of the combination of the earth’s motion in her orbit and of the meteor’s motion). If the average of meteors pass the earth’s orbit ob- liquely, such a result as fig. 1 shows might likewise explain how it is we should see more meteors in the early morning than in the evening, and also a ten- dency to see a larger proportion in the east than in the west. * The numbers here appended are taken from Mr. Greg’s Catalogue published in the Oxford Reports for 1860, given here for the sake of comparison. A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 39 The time when most meteors are seen would probably also be the time when we should observe them most nearly moving at right angles to their true directions. OI B Giang, \ a \ UNL AG wes West 6pm. 0 a.m G\ East eed \ O, observer. z” observer’s zenith. B. Olmsted, in his ‘ Mechanism of the Heavens,’ a popular little hand-book, gives a diagram (fig. 2), the object of which is simply to show the reason A Let ABC be the vault of the sky, and O the observer. Let 1, 2, 3, 4 represent par- allel lines towards the earth. A meteor passing through 1’1, or axis of vision, would appear stationary at 1’. A body falling at 2 2 would seem to describe the short arc 2’2’, ora concave path in the sky ; and similarly a body falling through 3 3 would appear to describe the larger arc 3’ 3’, &c. Hence those meteors which fall nearer the axis of vision would describe shorter arcs, and move slower, while those further from the axis and nearer the horizon would seem to describe larger arcs, and move with greater velocity. The meteors would all seem to radiate from a common centre 1’, which was the case on Nov. 13th, 1833. why there should appear to be a radiant point for shooting-stars, and why near that point in the heavens no meteors or very few were seen, or if seen why their tracks near that point appeared so short, and in other parts longer (and why perhaps also, on the principle of fig. 1, more numerous towards the east). 40 REPORT—1861. C. May it not be presumed that the majority of meteors seen at night must be coming towards the sun, their average distance from us while visible being not more than 50 or 100 miles; while the earth, being 7000 miles in diameter, would consequently intervene as a shield in keeping out of sight the majority of meteors coming directly from the sun, and whose paths we come across? If two meteoric stones struck opposite sides of the earth at the same moment, 12 M., we might almost presume one was going to, and one from, the sun. It would certainly be interesting to know whether the ma- jority of meteors are going to or from the sun, or passing the earth’s path at right angles, obliquely or parallel. _ D. It is quite possible that two shooting-stars, m and m! (fig. $) might each Fig. 3. appear to project on the sky apparently a similar and common track Z’ Z", though in reality moving nearly at right angles to each other’s direction, the only difference being a shorter or longer visible path. The angle might even in some cases perhaps be more than 90°, and the two meteors coming obliquely and from opposite directions ; yet an observer at o would be unable to tell in which direction the meteor moved; in either case it would seem to pass downwards in the ordinary way. This helps to show the difficulties in these cases, and to negative results in catalogued descriptions giving the directions meteors have appeared to move. E. Why is it that meteors are so seldom seen near the horizon even on a clear night? Is it because of the atmosphere, or that they would necessarily in that position be too far off? If they do not come nearer the earth’s sur- face than 40 miles without being consumed or extinguished (fig. 4), we should Fig. 4. ae ae Faw i eee eee l PADRES SS: z Pe Be ears 3 Pheng a ee ——— Harihs surface more frequently see them at Z’, only 40 miles off, than at Z, 150 miles distant ; | A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 41 and as that possibly (say 150 miles) is above the average limit of visibility, we perceive perhaps why we do not often see shooting-stars very low down in the horizon. It might be desirable as frequently as possible to record the length of the visible ares described by shooting-stars, and the time in moving along these arcs, to see if the average varies at different hours of the night, for dif- ferent quarters of the heavens, as well as at different times of the year. F. In making averages from tabulated statements, say for a whole year, in reference to meteors, the enormous preponderance of meteors seen on a few days only, viz. August 9-12 and November 10-13, which, being periodic and generally moving in parallel right lines and in one direction, must have a tendency to disturb to some extent any attempt to fairly tabulate the more scattered observations during the rest of the year. However, Olmsted’s account of the great meteor-shower in 1833 seems to prove that there were then hardly any known meteoric appearances (whether as regards tracks, luminosity, size, direction, velocity, &c.) which were seen on that night that one is not accustomed to see or read of at all other times put together. Most, too, were seen in the east, and moving from thence towards the north-west ; so that we might not unreasonably infer that most shooting-stars at all times much resemble each other. G. Humboldt describes a shower in Mexico, on the night of the 12th of November, 1799, thus :—‘“ They vose from the horizon between the east and north-east points, described ares of unequal magnitude, and fell towards the south.” They were seen in many other parts of North and South America on the same night, and in Labrador they were observed to fall down towards the earth. No. 9.—WMeteors of August 1860.— At Paris, Coulvier-Gravier states the mean hourly number at midnight, of shooting-stars, on August 9th was 62 ; on August 10th, 54; or about ten times as large as in the middle of July. At Rome, the observations of Secchi gave a decisive maximum on the 10th of August. The observations of Bradley at Chicago, and of Herrick at New Haven, Connecticut, U. S., gave the increase of shooting-stars on the nights of the 9th and 10th of August, 1860, at about six times the common average, and their apparent direction nearly all from the vicinity of the constellation Perseus. At Yale College, Connecticut, U.S., 565 falling stars were seenon the night of the 9th of August and morning of the 10th, between 10 p.m. and 3 A.M., by six observers. The majority first appeared in the south-west quarter of the sky, with a westerly direction ; several left behind luminous trains, but none appeared to explode: none seemed larger than Venus; three-fourths conformed to the usual radiant in Perseus. Meteors of November, 1860.—In the United States a slight tendency to an increase over the average was noticed; the conformable ones coming from the usual point in Leo, exactly as in the great shower of November 13th, 1833. Professor Twining, of New York, observed on the morning of the 14th four- teen meteors, of which nine were conformable and five not conformable. The total number actually observed by Professor Kirkwood and five assistants in Indiana, on the night of the 12th of November and morning of the 13th, in six hours, amounted to 381, distributed as follows :— Reet to 1) PM. ae eee Brom. <1 toe 2 A.M. «,.'', t=O From 11 to midnight. .°. .. 66 From 2to 3am. «9. 2 . 90 From midnight tol am. . . 68 From 3to 4am... . . 46 The Shooting-stars of August 1861.—‘“ M. Coulvier-Gravier has forwarded 42 REPORT—1861. to the French Academy his annual report on this subject, especially for August 9th, 10th, 11th, but including the time from July 15th to August 14th. The average number of these meteors per hour, at midnight, for July 15th, 18th, 19th, was 6°5; for July 28th, 29th, 30th, was 13°63 for July 31st, August Ist, 2nd, was 22-4; for August 4th, 5th, 6th, was 27-2; and for August 9th, 10th, 11th, was 50°8. For August 12th, 13th, 14th, the average per hour was only 24-4. M. Coulvier-Gravier’s calcula- tions show that the year 1858 marked the term of the decrease of the number of these phenomena since 1848—the epoch of their greatest number. Since 1858 their number has gradually risen; and we may hope therefore for the reappearance of the meteoric splendours of August. Further observations on these brilliant phenomena, by Father Secchi, at Rome, appear in the Cosmos. On August 9th, forty shooting-stars were seen between 9 and 10 o'clock p.M.; on August 10th, between 9 and 103, 133 appeared ; and in the same period of time on August 11th, the number fell to seventy. Secchi therefore concludes that these phenomena are not meteorological, but cosmical. He adds that he considers the most rational explanation to be the admission that the sun is surrounded, in addition to the comets and planets, by a ring formed of small bodies, which cuts the ecliptic at the point where the earth is situated on August 10th; and as every year the earth returns to this point on the same day, and as, also, this point may correspond with a condensed portion of the ring, we therefore see a great number of these small bodies, attracted by the mass of the earth, fall into it, and become inflamed by contact with our atmosphere. This theory he considers to be confirmed by the constancy of their directions, which are parallel and contrary to that of the earth in its orbit on that day.”—E#xtract Srom the ‘ Illustrated London News’ of September 14, 1861. Note.—In generalizing from observations on the August periodical meteors at any one spot on the earth’s surface, it should be remembered that the hourly numbers seen vary considerably with the locality. In 1833, the great and wonderful display of meteors on November 13th was almost en- tirely confined to the area of the United States; and the total numbers per hour observed of late years simultaneously at different stations appear to vary. Secchi’s theory of the ring of meteors is pretty much that which Sir John Herschel advanced some time ago, and seems to be well worthy of acceptance ; their orbits must in all probability be more elliptic than that of the earth’s orbit. August Meteors. “S1r,—The August meteors this year have been more numerous than usual. Last year, both at the August and November epochs, the sky was completely overcast ; so that it was impossible to determine their number, or, in short, to make any observations at all. During the August epoch of the present year (1861), although there was much cloud at times, there were periods of clear sky which enabled me to make some good observations. “ Several letters in the Times have given a Persei as the point of diver- gence of the August meteors; this is not correct, as the point is very near n Persei: a line drawn from Persei to a Cassiopeiz will pass through this point at a distance of less than 2° from 7 Persei. The meteors increased in number as the night progressed, z.e. there were more about 2 A.M. than at 10 p.m. “The nearer the meteors were to 7 Persei, the shorter were their paths ; those with long paths were mostly 45° or more from this point. Those near Perseus were longer in moving over 1° of space than those at a distance from this point. A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 43 «The meteors about Perseus were mostly small, some only just distinguish- able, the larger ones were usually 40° to 60° from 7 Persei. «A meteor, almost upon the point of divergence, scarcely moved amongst the stars. The year before last I saw one evactly on this point; it became visible, increased in magnitude, and then disappeared without moving. “No meteor was observed to move towards n Persei, all moving away from that star. On the 14th there were a number of meteors discordant, but on the 11th and 12th scarcely one whose path produced backwards would not have touched the point near 7 Persei. “ There was a great similarity in the meteors. Nearly all had tails or streaks which lingered for a short time after the meteors themselves had vanished, and nearly all were of the 2nd to 4th magnitude. “A meteor seen through a telescope of 23 inches aperture, with a power of 20, had a decidedly planetary appearance, the tail being phosphorescent-looking, not fire-like. The duration was too brief to make any very careful observa- tions; and the meteor itself was small, viz. 3rd magnitude. “ The weather on the above days was warm, and the wind between W. and S.W. “ E. J. Lowe.” “Observatory, Beeston, August 20th, 1861.” No. 10.—M. Le Verrier has just applied the results of his researches on the four planets, Mercury, Venus, the Earth, and Mars, totherectification of existing astronomical tables. From the perturbations observed in the orbits of these planets, he has come to the conclusion that there exists in our system a con- siderable quantity of matter which has not hitherto been taken into account. Inthefirst place, he supposes that there must exist within the orbit of Mercury, atabout 0°17 of the earth’s distance from the sun, a mass of matter nearly equal in weight to Mercury. As this mass of matter would probably have been observed before this, either in transit over the sun’s dise or duriug total eclipses of the sun, if it existed as one large planet, M. Le Verrier supposes that it exists as a series of asteroids. Secondly, M. Le Verrier sees reason to believe that there must be a mass of matter, equal to about one-tenth of the mass of the earth, revolving round the sun at very nearly the same dis- tance as the earth. This also he supposes to be split up into an immense number of asteroids*. Thirdly, M. Le Verrier’s researches have led him to the conclusion that the groups of asteroids which revolve between Mars and Jupiter, and sixty of which have been seen, and named, and had their ele- ments determined, must have an aggregate mass equal to one-third of that of the earth. He thinks it not at all unlikely that similar groups of asteroids exist between Jupiter and Saturn, between Saturn and Herschel’s planet, and between the latter and Neptune. Haidinger reports that M. Julius Schmidt, of the Royal Observatory, Athens, is continuing his observations, it is said, on the phenomena pre- sented by the luminous trains of meteors, with interesting results. It is in- tended to publish some particulars in the next year’s report on luminous meteors. The following recent publications on meteoric literature may be especially noticed. 1. Versuch eines quellenverzeichnisses zur Litteratur tiber Meteoriten : von Dr. Otto Buchner von Giessen. Published at Frankfort-on-Maine, 1861. 2. By the same author, and a very valuable and comprehensive work, * It is very possible the meteorites which from time to time fall to the earth may be the representatives of this group of Le Verrier’s. 44 REPORT—1861. Die Feuermeteore, insbesondere die Meteoriten historisch und naturwissen- schaftlich betrachtet. Giessen, 1859. 3. Kengott tiber Meteoriten. Zurich, 1860. 4, Recherches sur les Météores et les lois qui les régissent: par M. Coul- vier-Gravier. Paris, 1859. 5. Ueber den Ursprung der Meteorsteine: von P. A. Kesselmeyer. Frankfurt am Main; accompanied with a most valuable catalogue of meteor- ites and 3 maps. Report on the Action of Prison Diet and Discipline on the Bodily Functions of Prisoners.—Part I. By Epwarp Smita, M.D., LL.B., F.R.S., Assistant Physician to the Hospital for Consumption, Bromp- ton; and W. R. Mitner, M.R.C.S., Surgeon to the Convict Prison, Wakefield. With Appendices. Tue Committee appointed at the late Meeting of the British Association, “to prosecute inquiries as to the effect of prison diet and discipline on the bodily functions of prisoners” have the honour to state that they have ful- filled the task assigned to them so far as time and opportunity have per- mitted ; but they regret that, on the one hand, they have not been able to gain access to some information which they required, and, on the other, that the great extent of the inquiry has prevented the completion of the series of researches, to which they attach great importance. Hence they purpose on the present occasion to present the first part of their report, which will include some general remarks on the management and present system of dietary and punishments in county gaols, with the various re- searches which they have hitherto made into the influence of prison disci- pline over the weight of the prisoners, the precise influence of prison punishments over the respiratory function and the elimination of urinary products, with the ordinary discipline of the gaol and with certain forms of labour. 5 In conducting their researches the Committee have had in view not only the letter but the spirit of the resolution by which they were appointed, and have understood their prime duty to be the elimination of important physio- logical facts, for which the discipline enforced in gaols offers good opportu- nities. Whilst, therefore, determining the various matters which will be discussed in this the first part of their report, they have also been very de- sirous to investigate some of the more recondite questions in nutrition—as, for example, the relation of the nitrogen ingested to that egested ; and having obtained the valuable aid of Mr. Manning in making chemical analyses, they have concluded two extended series of inquiries at Coldbath Fields and Wakefield Gaol, in which the relations of the ingested and egested nitrogen have been largely inquired into; but the great care required in this part of the inquiry, and the very extended character of the subject, have induced the Committee to withhold the results hitherto obtained until another occasion, when, should they be permitted to do so, they will present them with addi- tional inquiries in the second part of their report. With these explanatory observations, the Committee proceed to state the results of their inquiries, and, first, to offer some general remarks upon the management, the dietary, and the punishments in county gaols. ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. 45 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. Tue MANAGEMENT OF County GAOLS. The management of county prisons is placed almost exclusively in the hands of the County Magistracy, and is therefore liable to as much diversity as there are Boards of Visiting Justices. The Secretary of State must ap- prove of any “rules” within the meaning of the Act, and he also approves of the scale of dietary; but hitherto he has not exercised his power to insist upon uniformity in dietary ; and hence, within certain limits, the Visiting Jus- tices regulate the dietary. There are also three* (nominally four) Inspectors of Prisons for England, appointed by the Home Secretary, who visit the pri- sons periodically, and report their condition to the Home Office, and also suggest to the Visiting Justices from time to time such changes as they may think to be desirable; but they have no power to interfere with the orders of the Visiting Justices, if the orders are within the provisions of the law and the “rules” of the prison. Hence the sole authority in county gaols under normal conditions is the Board of Visiting Justices. There is a scheme of dietary which was recommended by the Home Office, under the admini- stration of Sir James Graham; but it is not always adopted, and there is no plan whereby uniformity is ensured. It thence follows that there is the greatest diversity in the gaols both as to punishment and dietary, and to a consideration of this your Committee directed their first attention. A “Return of Dietary for Convicts, &c.” was issued in 1857, which gives the dietary in the various convict and county prisons, but there has not been any general return obtained as to the nature of punishment inflicted, and the plan pursued in carrying out hard-labour sentences. As it was very desirable that some authorized information upon these points should be introduced into this report, Mr. Bazley, M.P., most readily and kindly un- dertook to move for one in the form given in the Appendix (II.), but, after having it entered upon the “Orders for the day,” he failed to obtainthe sanc- tion of the Government, and withdrew it. The Committee venture to hope that the British Association may think this of sufficient importance to lend their aid in obtaining it during the next Session of Parliament, and would remark that, although the proposed return has a formidable appearance, its tabulated character tends to reduce, and not to increase, the expense of print- ing and the labour of writing. PUNISHMENTS. In the absence of this authorized return, the Committee quote the results of an inquiry previously made by Dr. Smith, who addressed a letter to the governors of upwards of sixty county gaols, and was favoured with their re- plies. The general expression of the results is as follows :— “Jn our county prisons some find no labour at all, others only that of ordinary trades, others have crank-labour + alone, others treadwheel-labour alone, whilst in many one of the two, or both of the two latter forms of hard labour are conjoined with some kind of trade. In many the treadwheel and erank are unprofitably employed, whilst in others they are used as mills or pumps. Insome, women even work some kind of crank and the treadwheel. * The number is now reduced to two.—Feb. 1862. t When the term “ crank” is employed in this report, it is intended to indicate the in- strument turned by hand, and technically known as the “‘hard-labour crank.” This differs from other hand cranks only in that it is purposely arranged for non-remunerative work, and indicates the number of revolutions which have been made in a given period. 46 REPORT—1861. In some the treadwheel and crank are exceptional employments; in others they are universally used for a small part of the sentence; whilst in a third class they are the constant employments during the whole term of imprisonment. In most gaols they are chiefly employed for short sentences, and therefore for small crimes, and with insufficient food, whilst the light occupations are reserved for long sentences, with greater crimes, or frequent repetition of crime, and sufficient food. In some they are worked for an hour without intermission ; in others thirty, twenty, fifteen, ten, and down to four minutes only ata time. In some they are enforced for three hours daily, and simply as exercise; whilst in others the labour endures ten hours. In many, boys of fourteen years of age work the wheel and the crank; whilst in others, able grown men make shoes or pick oakum only. In some the ordinary rate of the ascent on the treadwheel is fifty-six steps of 8 inches each per minute, whilst in others it is so low as thirty. In some the ordinary pressure on the crank isseven pounds; in others, twelve pounds,—the pressure being certain, and demonstrated by weights in one, and uncertain, depending upon the turns of a screw in another. In some the ordinary number of revolutions per day is 14,400 ; whilst in others, in which the crank is still the chief in- strument of punishment, it varies from 13,500 to 7000 or 6000, at the discre- tion of the surgeon, the prisoner being in all these instances without disease. ° In some the day’s work may be performed in any part of the twenty-four hours, with the index of the instrument in sight of the prisoner; whilst in others, as the New Bailey, Salford, it must be performed before the night and with the index outside the cell, so that the prisoner is unable to ascer- tain, from time to time, how much labour he has yet to perform. In some, pumping is employed for an hour only, and even during that short period, as at Reading, there is no method of determining if any individual prisoner is labouring or not; whilst in others, the labour is for the whole day, pump- ing water into the sewers. “ Oakum-picking is no labour in one prison, and hard labour in another; and in the latter it is two pounds for a day’s work at Wandsworth, and three pounds at the Coldbath Fields, whilst it is five pounds at a workhouse ; and the rope itself differs greatly in the amount of labour which is required to tear it to pieces. In some the prisoner, by good conduct, obtains lighter labour, a commendatory badge, and a pecuniary reward ; in others it is tread- wheel labour from the beginning to the end of the imprisonment, whilst in many, as at Wandsworth, the change of labour is due neither to crime, sen- tence, nor conduct, but simply to the variation in the number of the pri- soners. “In addition to all this, in some prisons the separate system is strictly enforced and a mask worn, whilst in others hundreds of prisoners sit together in the room picking oakum; and, finally, in some the cat is so heavy, and the officer’s arm so strong and willing, that the prisoner is for a time made insensible to pain after a few strokes, whilst in other prisons it is so light as to leave very little evidence of its use.” Hence it appears that the utmost diversity exists in the different county prisons as to the instruments of punishment employed, the condition in which they are kept, the amount of labour which they exact, the amount of a day’s work, the system of progressive change in the use of the various means of enforcing labour, and, in fact, in all that concerns the carrying out of the sentences of hard labour. DIETARY. In reference to dietary, the diversity is even more striking ; for so various are the schemes contained in the “ Return of Dietaries for Convicts, &c.,” ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. 47 referred to, that it is impossible, by any method, to give an analysis of the amount of nutriment which they supply. An abstract of the most notice- able parts of the return is given in the Appendix (I.); and it is proposed to state in this place only a few general facts. It is customary to provide several scales of dietary, increasing in the nutri- ment supplied according to the duration of the imprisonment; so that with the shortest sentences, as three, seven, or fourteen days, the only food given is bread and gruel*; whilst for prisoners condemned to long terms of impri- sonment the diet is generally an abundant one of meat, vegetables, bread, and gruel. The, terms of sentence to which these several classes apply vary in the different gaols; but usually a sentence of four months carries with it the highest scale of dietary. In nearly all gaols the prisoner is on entrance placed upon his proper scale of dietary; but in the Kendal, Carlisle, and other prisons he begins with the lowest scale, and gradually ascends as his duration of imprisonment continues. It is also usual to vary the dietary from day to day; so that there is a con- siderable daily variation, not only in the kind and quantity of food, but in the amount of nutriment supplied. There is commonly an increased dietary given to those who are condemned to hard Jabour ; but the modes in which sentences of hard labour are carried out differ so much, that this is practically valueless. There are gaols in which the treadwheel is worked for short periods with a dietary of bread and gruel only*. But in none is there any attempt to estimate in a scientific manner the amount of increase of nutri- ment which is proportioned to the increased labour. Usually there are three meals a day allowed (at St. Albans there were only two); and of these the first and last consist commonly of bread and gruel. The amount of flesh supplied in the highest scale of dietary varies greatly, as, for example, from 6 ozs. of cooked meat without bone in the Middlesex and Brecon Prisons, and 73 ozs. of uncooked meat with bone at Wakefield, to (until very recently ) an entire absence of that food in the Cardiff Gaol. Very small quantities of milk, cocoa, oatmeal, cheese, and tea are given in a few gaols; but com- monly the dietary consists of meat, soup, potatoes, bread, and gruel in various proportions, and with various systems of alternation. The surgeon has power to add to the dietary if he should see fit; and such additions are commonly bread or milk. Bread and water are rarely given as an ordinary dietary*, except for “ prison offences;” and for these the pri- soners may be condemned to the dark cell and bread-and-water dietary for a period not exceeding three days at one time. If the prisoners have been condemned to hard labour, this most severe punishment may be extended to one month ; but after three days he is fed on bread and gruel. Flogging is resorted to in various prisons as a part of the sentence upon prison offences, if the prisoner have been convicted of felony ; and a return in reference to it has recently been issued. The gaols in which the largest number of prisoners were flogged for prison offences were those which had the most non-remu- nerative punishments ; and in this respect the gaols at Manchester and Liver- pool offer a striking contrast. In military prisons it is understood that the punishments are still more severe, since they are inflicted under the Mutiny Act; and it is very desirable that authorized returns should be obtained from them. The foregoing general observations may suffice to show that he who at- tempts to ascertain the effect of the present system of prison punishments and dietary undertakes an inquiry of the widest kind, and, with the diversity * In the Gloucester Gaol bread and water are still given as a dietary: 48 REPORT—1861. of system which exists, he will need to present nearly as many reports as there are gaols to be reported upon. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHES. The Committee now proceed to consider the effect of prison discipline over the bodily functions of the prisoners, and will include in their report the result of the inquiries made by them into the variation of the weight of the prisoners, the excretion of nitrogen and carbon, the quantity of air in- spired, and the rate of pulsation and respiration. VARIATION IN WEIGHT. The value of weight as an indication of the healthfulness and vigour of the body is one of a very general character only, and, when applied to test the effects of any agent over a number of men relatively to each other, is of little worth until all the men have been brought into nearly the same bodily condition. The weight of the body is due to many circumstauces of very different values, as, for example, to the contained food and excretions, the amount of fluid in the circulation and in the tissues, the deposited fat, and to the size of the bones, quite apart from the nitrogenous elements to which reference is essentially made when an estimation is attempted of the vigour and healthfulness of men. Many of these elements can never be truthfully estimated ; but in prison discipline it has been ascertained that some of them are removed during the earlier periods of imprisonment—as, for example, fat and superfluous fluid; and, with the reduction in weight which follows, the body gains a higher relative nitrogenous composition. When, therefore, the body has been so reduced in weight by the labour and discipline enforced, the condition of the men may be compared with greater truthfulness, and weight will be a fair index of the vigour and health- fulness of the system. Hence, whilst investigations into the infiuence of prison discipline over the weight of the prisoners must be regarded as of great value, they must give place in importance to such as determine the influence of the discipline over each separate function of the organism. Much difference of opinion exists in gaols as to the value of the test of weight ; and in many it is so lightly esteemed that it is not applied at all. In other gaols it is usual to weigh the prisoners on entrance and discharge ; and ~ in a few the weight is taken monthly ; but in none is it effected with such rigorous exactitude as to fit the results for the use of the physiologist. It is manifest that the weighings should be made before breakfast, and after emitting the excretions, and also that the prisoner should be weighed naked, or the clothes be weighed apart and the weight of them deducted carefully on each occasion ; for otherwise the former will lead to an error of Z lbs. in either direction, and the latter to an error of a smaller amount, even if the external clothing be the same on each occasion. ‘This, however, is not at- tended to in any gaol, but the prisoners are weighed at various hours, and a standard weight is allowed for the clothes. Mr. Milner has investigated this subject during a period of more than ten years, including several thousands of prisoners, and embracing the questions of duration of imprisonment, employment, season, and others of a subordi- nate importance; and to these the Committee will now refer. Appendix IIL. The diet on the convict side at the Wakefield House of Correction is liberal and uniform, consisting of 20 ozs. of bread, 4 ozs. of cooked beef, 2 pint of soup, 1 lb. of potatoes, # pint of skimmed milk, and 2 ozs. of oat- meal. The dress is sufficiently warm. The prisoners have running and ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. 49 walking exercise during nine hours per week, and are all employed in some manufacturing occupation, as mat- and matting-making, tailoring, or shoe- making. There are not now any of the proper prison punishments, as the crank and the treadwheel, used at that gaol. The cells offer a capacity of 900 cubie feet, and 35 cubic feet of air per minute for each prisoner, with a mean monthly temperature varying from 56°9 in March, to 66°°5 in August. The average age of the 4000 prisoners under inquiry was 263 years, of whom 25 per cent. were under 21 years, and were therefore still at the period of growth. In reference to duration of imprisonment, Mr. Milner states as follows :— “ Duration of Imprisonment.—I have divided the time of imprisonment at Wakefield into periods of two months each, and have tabulated six of these periods, so as to show the variation of the weight of the men during the first twelve months of their stay. (Appendix IV.) I have not carried the table any further, as very few prisoners remained longer than twelve months, and those that were detained beyond that time were chiefly invalids, and, consequently, cases from which no general inferences could be fairly drawn. “ The table shows the gains and losses in bi-monthly periods, and also the proportion of prisoners who had to be placed on the extra diet list, who were first placed on the list during each period. The number placed on extra diet during the first twelve months of their stay, was 1393, out of which number 3°14 per cent. were put on during the first two months, and 12°31 per cent. during the second two months. “The stage of their imprisonment had evidently a very marked effect. During the first two months the majority gained weight; in the second bi-monthly period a large loss occurred, equal to nearly twice the amount gained in the first period; in the third period there was still a loss, but not to so great an amount; the next three periods show a steadily increasing gain. “For a due understanding of these fluetuations, it is necessary to consider the circumstances under which prisoners are received into this prison. They are all brought from other prisons after having been tried and sentenced to various periods of transportation, or penal servitude; they have consequently passed through the period of anxiety which elapses between committal and trial, during which time, I have reason to think, men often fall off very much in condition and health. When we receive them their fate is decided, and they know the worst. In a large proportion of cases, I believe this is fol- lowed by a feeling of relief and by a reaction of the mind against the de- pression under which it had previously been suffering ; later on, the con- tinued imprisonment begins to tell and it becomes necessary to give extra diet to counteract its depressing tendency. A reference to the tables shows that it was thought necessary to give extra dict to a large number of prisoners during the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth months. The number of pri- soners who were placed on the extra dict list for the first time during these four months, was nearly twenty-one per cent. of the prisoners in confinement, and 60 per cent. of the whole number who were put on extra diet during the twelvemonths. “The effect of this addition to the dict is shown by the gradual and pro- gressive improvement during the last three bi-monthly periods, when the amount gained, added to the gain of the first period, nearly restored the equilibrium of the mass. * Prison Employment.—In Appendix V. the employments of the prisoners wl siesibated into five groups, putting into each group the classes of work- 50 . REPORT—1861, men who, as a class, were most nearly associated in the average amount gained or lost during their stay ; and when arranged on this principle, it will be found that the groups also represent very accurately the amount of muscular force required to be expended in the respective kinds of work at which they were employed. “ The first group consists of men employed in picking oakum, an occupa- tion in which the labour is merely nominal; and it will be seen that these men gained nearly two pounds each on the average, and that a large per- centage of them were gaining weight. Tle oakum-pickers are placed in a group by themselves, as they consist principally of exceptional cases, a large proportion of them being men who, from weakness or infirmity, were unfit for real labour; many were, on medical grounds, employed in the garden, and had extra allowances. The second group contains men working at sedentary trades, as tailors and shoemakers, as well as a few employed in writing and other light occupations. Of these men a large per-centage gained weight, and the average gain was nearly a pound and three quarters per man. ‘The third group comprises carpenters, mechanics, and men employed in winding the yarn into balls, or winding it on to bobbins for the mat-makers. The men in this group generally work standing, and therefore a greater number of muscles have to be brought into play. The weight of work, however, is thrown on the arms, and the legs have little more to do than to support the body in a convenient attitude. A smaller per-centage of these gained weight, and the average amount gained was less. The fourth group contains the men employed in weaving canvas, in making mats in the loom or on boards, and also a small number (thirty-six) who were engaged in platting coir, or in binding mats. The work of all these men is decidedly heavier than that of the men forming the preceding groups, and the majority of these were found to have lost weight. ‘The last group contains only one class of work, viz. the weaving of coir matting; but the effects of this were so very decided that it was necessary to give it a place to itself. ** The weaving of coir matting by hand is a very laborious occupation: the yarn is coarse and rough, so that the friction between the thread of the warp and weft is great, and to produce good firm work the weft has to be heavily and repeatedly struck, in doing which the muscles of the arms and trunk are brought into powerful action; the legs have also to be employed in working the treddles, and, in consequence of the power required to work the loom, the weaver cannot work sitting. “ The effect of this greater expenditure of muscular force is very manifest ; for nearly 80 per cent. of the men so employed lost weight during their stay, and the average loss per man was nearly seven pounds. “ The influence of the various employments would have been much more marked if it had not been, in some degree, counteracted by the extra diet given to those men who were falling off very much in weight; and the num- bers to whom it was found necessary to give extra diet, in each class, also bore a pretty close relation to the amount of muscular force expended. Among the men employed in coir-picking, 26°8 per cent. had to be placed on extra diet; in the second group 26-4 per cent.; in the third 36:8 per cent.; in the fourth group 39-4 per cent.; while of the matting-weavers 60'1 per cent. required additional food. “ Treadwheel Labour.—The Committee have not been immediately asso- ‘ciated with inquiries into the influence of the proper prison punishments over the weight of the prisoners, such as the treadwheel, crank, and shot-drill ; but their inquiries warrant them in stating that the normal action of these punishments is to reduce the weight of the prisoners... In the absence of the ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. ‘651 ‘Return’ above referred to, it will not be possible for the Committee to discuss this influence satisfactorily. * The only returns in reference to treadwheel labour which have been obtained are given in the Appendix (VI.), and have been kindly furnished by the governor of the Wakefield House of Correction ; but they comprehend only a small number of prisoners, for the use of that instrument was discon- tinued in consequence of the serious loss of weight which it occasioned. “ The average loss of weight was 2'63 lbs. per man during the first week’s labour, 4°57 lbs. at the end of the second week, 6 lbs. at the end of the third week, and 7*7 lbs. at the end of the fourth week. The progressive de- ¢clension in weight with duration of labour is very striking; but it must not be presumed that it would be continued indefinitely, since a point must be at length reached when the weight would be so reduced that it will remain ‘nearly stationary; and the time required to arrive at that point will vary with the fulness of the body, the tone of the tissues, the nature of the dietary, and the severity of the labour. The greatest loss of weight always occurs in the earlier weeks of imprisonment. “ Age, Weight, and Season—On the subordinate questions of age, weight, and the season of the year, Mr. Milner found that those prisoners who were at the period of growth did not grow according to the scale ob- served in others more favourably circumstanced, but lost weight in‘an in- creasing ratio ; so that, conversely, he found that the deerease-in the virtual loss of weight occurred as the age increased. ‘The prisoners gained weight from March or April to August or September, and lost in the winter months. The loss of weight of the prisoners varied as the height; so that the taller men required an inereased quantity of extra food. Appendix VII., VIII., and IX. « Summary.—On summing up the whole question it was found that, with the arrangements of that prison, which. were more favourable than the ave- rage of prisons both in dietary and punishment, there was an average loss on the. whole weighings, although 3635. of. 4000. men. were under forty years of age.” From the foregoing tables and remarks it will appear that the weight of prisoners is much below that of persons of the same age and height ina state of freedom, and also that loss of weight during imprisonment is the normal condition of prison discipline. ; This result doubtless depends partly upon the relation of food and exer- tion, and partly upon the inability of the system to assimilate the ordinary ‘food of mankind with a rapidity sufficient to meet the wants induced by constant and great labour. The Committee do not purpose on the present occasion to consider the question of the exact amount of food required to meet the wants of the prisoners; but as in the foregoing remarxs reference -has been frequently made to the necessity of giving extra diet in order to avert loss of weight, it is deemed right to introduce two interesting facts which came under Mr. Milner’s observation. Liffect of Milk.—The effect of milk in arresting loss of weight was most striking, and in a degree far beyond that of the relation of its nutritive ‘elements to the waste of the system. Thus the addition upon his recom- mendation of only + pint of skimmed milk, containing not more than 7 grs. of nitrogen, to the daily dietary, was followed by a reduction in the extra diets from 22°55 per cent. in 1853 to 15:08 per cent. in the first nine months after the additions in 1854, 15:27 in 1855, 14°08 per cent. in 1856, to 9°56 -per cent. in 1857. As the extra diets represent the cases permanently losing ‘Weight, it is manifest that milk was the proper remedy to meet the loss, aud | E2 52 ae - REPORT—1861. that it acted not simply by supplying a small quantity of nitrogen to obviate the waste of the nitrogenous tissues, but in an indirect manner by improving the general nutrition of the system in the matter pointed out by Dr. Smith in the ¢ Phil. Trans.’ of 1859. Effect of Tea.—The effect of tea in lessening weight was also largely in- vestigated by Mr. Milner in 1857, both as an addition to the ordinary dietary, and in substitution of the oatmeal contained in the gruel. Four divisions of the prison, each containing between forty and fifty prisoners, were chosen for observation and comparison. The divisions chosen were Nos. 2 and 3 in B and C wings. The prisoners in the division No. 2 were chiefly employed in mat-weaving, and those in division No. 3 in mat-making. The prisoners in the 2nd division of B wing had a pint of tea given to them iz addition to the regular diet of the prison. The prisoners in the 3rd division of B wing had a pint of tea given to them iz place of the pint of gruel served out for supper; the prisoners in the 2nd and 3rd divisions of C wing remained on the regular dict. All the prisoners in these four divisions were weighed every week during the continuance of the observa- tions. At the end of the period the result was thus :— lb. The prisoners in the 2nd division of B wing had gained on the 0°31 AVETAZE. ceesececeice wala dels a oe ewe seietp ae The prisoners in the 2nd division of C wing had on the average Orde gained ja .a 0s on dh Pealiata ates (age dale la ah ys Wisval aan Si dipl al tiesto ee Showing a virtual loss by the prisoners who had had tea in addition | ,, o ; O13 to the regular diet, Of .....00scecseceees 40 Big el be he, cee The prisoners in the 3rd division of B wing had gained on the average 0°04 The prisoners in the 3rd division of C wing had gained on the | 9.95 AVETALE. 2 oak aaviee cae e> eveiafereth ais Sie» Rie set nin ly bisa Showing a virtual loss by the prisoners who had had tea in place O14 of gruel, of ....... ee a ka etch v's isle ois naw Thus, so far as the results obtained from one set of prisoners may be compared with those obtained from other sets, it must be admitted that these experiments prove that the use of tea tended to lessen the weight of the prisoners, and consequently to show that it is unsuited as an article for extra diets. - RespIRATION AND PULSATION. The Committee now proceed to give the details of their inquiries into the influence of the agents under consideration over some of the vital processes © of the body, and first those of the respiration and pulsation. The inquiries comprehend experiments as to the quantity of air inspired and of carbonic acid expired, and the rate of the functions of respiration and pulsation. In reference to tne value of the quantity of respired air as a measure of vital action, the Committee refer to the inquiries previously made by Dr. Smith and published in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ for 1859, which have shown that, whilst there is not an unvarying relation between the air inspired and the carbonic acid expired in ordinary respiration, but that the ratio increases with the severity of the exertion, there is such a correspondence that the one may be used as a measure of the other in ordinary inquiries, and especially that the measure of the air inspired may be used as a measure of the relative effects of similar agents. The effects of the most laborious prison occupations, as the treadwheel, crank, and shot drill, over the respiratory function and over pulsation have ON FRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. 53 been determined by Dr. Smith, by experiments made upon himsclf in Cold- bath-fields, Wandsworth, the New Bailey Salford, and Canterbury prisons. The experiments upon the quantity of air inspired were made by the aid of a spirometer, which was a dry gas-meter with an inverted action and enlarged apertures, and was connected with the body by a mask which enclosed the nose, mouth and chin, and prevented ingress and egress of air, except through pre-arranged valvular openings. This was bound upon the head with straps. The spirometer was adapted to register from 1 to one million cubic inches. The inquiry in reference to the carbonic acid was made by the aid of ‘a double set of the apparatus elsewhere described *. With Treadwheel..Labour.—The effect of treadwheel labour varies in different prisons with the rapidity of the ascent, and other phenomena, Thus at the Coldbath-fields prison. the amount of air inspired per minute during two minutes after having been upon the wheel five minutes, and again during two minutes after having been upon the wheel thirteen minutes, was, in various experiments, from five to six times the quantity expired at rest, viz. 2900, 2605, 2350, 2350, 2435, 2460, and 2450 cubic inches, giving an average of 2500 cubic inches per minute. At the New Bailey, Salford, the average of experiments made upon two days gave only between three and four times the quantity at rest, viz., 1839 cubic inches per minute. At the Canterbury gaol the amount was even less, and varied from 1607 to 1820 cubic inches per minute ; but as the rate of ascent varied greatly at that treadwheel, it was impossible to obtain fair average results. The rate of respiration at Coldbath-fields was about double that at rest, viz., 27, 264, 25, 233, 244, 25; and 26 per minute. At the New Bailey it was 24 per minute; at Canterbury it was still less, and varied from 214 to 24 per minute. The depth of inspiration at Coldbath-fields was from 3 to 4 times that at rest, viz., 1074, 914, 94, 100, 993, 984, and 944 cubic inches. The rate of pulsation at Coldbath-fields was more than double of that at rest, viz., 150, 172, and 168 per minute; at the New Bailey 159, and at Canterbury 140 to 158 per minute. That of the prisoners was at the New Bailey from 125 to 155 per minute ; and at Canterbury, from 118 to 142 per minute. Such was the effect of the labour during the period of exertion; but in order to determine the full influence it is necessary to refer to the intervening periods of rest also; and in doing so it will be found that, during the whole period of rest allowed, the functions were never restored to their normal action. At Coldbath-fields, after thirteen minutes’ rest, the quantity of air inspired was still nearly double of that at rest, viz., 980 and 815 cubic inches per minute ; and at the New Bailey, after four minutes’ rest, it was 855 cubic inches. The rate of respiration at Coldbath-fields was reduced to an addi- tion of about 4, viz., 183, 15, and 164 per minute, and at the New Bailey to 18 per minute. The depth of respiration was nearly one-half greater than during normal rest, viz., 53, 48, and 49 cubic inches at Coldbath-fields. The rate of pulsation at Coldbath-fields was one half more than the normal . amount, 110,97, and 120 per minute, whilst. at the New Bailey it was reduced to 109 per minute. These two sets of inquiries, when conjoined with the knowledge of the prescribed duration of each, enables us to compare the effect of these modes of punishment at the different gaols, notwithstanding the almost un- ~ * ¢ Health and Disease as influenced by the Daily Seasonal and other Cyclical Changes in the Human System.’ By Edward Smith, M.D., F.R.S. Walton and Maberly. : 54 REPORT—18061. accountable diversity which exists in the use of them; and the result will show, in a most striking manner, the great accuracy with which experience enables ordinary officials to regulate their system of punishment to the full powers of endurance of the prisoners. It is customary at Coldbath-fields for the prisoners to work and rest during fifteen minutes alternately; but at the New Bailey they are placed upon the wheel during twelve minutes, and have only four minutes’ rest before the labour is renewed. Hence, the actual period of labour at Cold- bath-fields is only 3? hours, but at the New Bailey it is six hours daily ; and although the Jabour is lighter at the New Bailey than at Coldbath-fields the total effect per day is the same in both prisons, as the following estimate proves :— ' : CoLDBATH-FIELDS. Total daily. Cubic Inches. 32 hours’ work with 2500 cubic inches of air inspired per minute 562,500 33 ~~ ‘rest with 1000 hs is My 225,000 ) 787,500 New Baley. 6 hours’ work with 1850 cubic inches of air inspired per minute.. 666,000 2 5 rest with 950 » 2 e 114,000 780,000 Thus, with the use of instruments differing so greatly in power over the human system, the plan pursued in each gaol is so well adapted to the usual powers of the body, that the difference in the effect is only equal to about three minutes’ actual labour upon the treadwheel at Coldbath-fields, and four minutes’ at that at the New Bailey. This result illustrates also the accuracy of the method of inquiry thus adopted. The influence of this kind of labour over the production of carbonic acid as well as over the rate of the functions, was established by another set of experiments made in a similar manner at Coldbath-fields prison. The apparatus employed was that already mentioned, and was used withont inconvenience when placed upon a shelf over the wheel and at a suitable distance from the person to be experimented upon. As there was neces- sarily some adverse weight placed upon the expiration by the collection of the carbonic acid, it was not thought advisable to measure the air inspired also, lest the result should be vitiated by placing some impediment upon both acts of respiration at a time when the deepest and most frequent inspirations were demanded; and hence that part of the inquiry was abandoned. The ascent of the body upon the wheel was 28°65 feet per minute, and the weight to be lifted was 200 lbs., and hence the labour actually performed was equal to lifting 575°558 tons through 1 foot per day. The duration of the labour was a quarter of an hour at a time, and the carbonic acid was col- lected during three minutes after having been upon the wheel five minutes, and during two minutes after ten or after thirteen minutes. Thus the car- bonie acid was collected during five of each fifteen minutes. The quantity obtained per minute was between five and six times that expired in normal rest, viz., 43°36 grains, 42°9 grains, and 48°66 grains on different days, the latter quantity having been found soon after a good prison-dinner of soup. The average excretion of carbonic acid under the influence of treadwheel- labour was thus 45 grains per minute. The rate of respiration was 22, 21, and 20, and that of pulsation 150 per minute on each of the occasions referred to. ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. 55 The carbonic acid was also collected in the interval which followed the labour, viz., during three minutes after four minutes’ rest, two minutes after ten minutes’ rest, and two minutes after thirteen minutes’ rest; and, on the average of the whole, the rate of excretion was above that at rest, viz., 9°14 grains per-minute. The quantity of air inspired was also measured at the same periods, and was somewhat less than that which occurred in the previous experiments, viz., 680, 590 and 600 cubic inches, 560 and 540 cubic inches, and 560 and 570 cubic inches per minute. The rate of respiration was 17, 16 and 15, and the rate of pulsation at the end of the 15 minutes’ rest, was 102 per minute. Thus the results obtained from inquiries into the quantity of air inspired and of carbonic acid expired during treadwheel-labour closely correspond, and show that at Coldbath-fields the influence of that mode of punishment is to increase the elimination of respiratory products from five to six times during the period of actual labour. With the Hard-labour Crank.—The next series of experiments refer to the influence of the crank as an instrument of punishment. This instrument is simply a hand-mill which demands a certain expenditure of force to move the handle, and is described as having a pressure of such a number of pounds as may be requisite to depress the handle from the horizontal to the vertical position. It is not used profitably, and is worked by each prisoner separately in his cell. Experiments have been made at Wandsworth and the New Bailey prisons in the manner already described. At Wandsworth the cranks are Appold’s patent, and are of superior con- struction. They move with a minimum pressure of 7 lbs., but the pressure required to move them may be increased to 10 or 12 lbs. by a prepared set of weights. The usual number of revolutions which the prisoner must make per day of ten hours, is 13,500; but that number may be reduced at , the discretion of the Surgeon. The index is in sight of the prisoner, so that he may ascertain the progress of his work, The experiments were made at several periods on two days with 7 Ibs. and 12 lbs, pressure, and with varying rates of speed. The rate which was the most natural was forty revolutions per minute, but the prisoners generally performed about thirty per minute. The effect upon the system varied much, both with the pressure and the speed; but, excepting the rate of pulsation, the very interesting fact was educed, that the total effect of the day's work in performing the required number of revolutions was nearly the same, whether the rate was 30 or 45 per minute. Wath 7 lbs. pressure and 30 revolutions per minute, the quantity of air inspired was somewhat less than double of that at rest, viz., 9124} cubic inches per minute, with 17 respirations and 92 pulsations per minute. With the speed increased to 45°7 revolutions per minute, the quantities of air inspired were increased to nearly three times that at rest, viz., 1336 cubie inches, with 21°5 re- spirations and 113 pulsations per minute. With 12 lbs. pressure and 30 revolutions per minute, the quantity of air inspired was between 2 and % times that at rest, viz., 1260 cubic inches; the rate of respiration 24°7, and the rate of pulsation 111°5, per minute. ‘Two experiments gave almost identically the same results, the only difference being 3 pulsations, -4 respiration, and 3 cubic inches of air per minute. With the speed increased to 44°7 revolutions per minute, the average of two experiments gave 1898 cubic inches of air, or about 4 times that at rest, with 24-7 respirations and 150 pulsations per minute. The effect of speed in reference to the day’s work of 13,500 revolutions may be thus shown :— 56 REPORT—1861. 1. With a pressure of 7lbs. With 30 revolutions per minute 7 hours 831 minutes will be employed in completing the task, and the total quantity of air inspired will be 415,636 cubic inches ; but if the rate be 45°7 revolutions per minute, the task may be completed in 4 hours 55:4 minutes, and the total quantity of air inspired will be 345,654 cubic inches, giving a difference of 7982 cubic inches, or only 6 minutes’ labour at the greater speed in favour of the increased speed. 2. With a pressure of 12lbs. With 30 revolutions per minute the total quantity of air inspired will be 571,158 cubic inches, and with 44°7 revolu- tions per minute it will be 573,196 cubic inches per minute, quantities which for all purposes may be regarded as identical. Hence the law is established that the effect upon the system of the whole day’s work varies little with the speed, provided there be a fixed number of revolutions per day. The experiments in reference to the effect of the two pressures with the same kind of crank, show that with the ordinary rate of revolution the in- ° fluence of the 7 lbs. to the 12 lbs. is a little more than as 8 to 5, or in general terms it may be affirmed that 31 hours’ labour with the 12 lbs. pressure is equal to 5 hours with 7 lbs. pressure. When the rate was increased beyond the ordinary one, the relative effect of the greater pressure was somewhat higher. “The cranks used at the New Bailey prison are much inferior to those found at Wandsworth, and the pressure employed cannot be rigorously determined. The medium amount of pressure was estimated at 7 lbs. ; and the effect of this labour with a rate of revolution of 36°5, 39°5, and 40 per minute was to cause the inspiration of nearly double of that of the 7 lbs. crank at Wandsworth, viz., 1793 cubic inches of air per minute, with 214 respirations and 155 pulsations per minute. When the pressure was increased to the one of nominally 9lbs., the quantities were nearly 75 per cent. higher than that of the 12 lbs. crank at Wandsworth, viz., 2105 cubic inches of air, with 231 respirations per minute. Hence the effect was much greater at this than at the Wandsworth prison, and the pressure, although nominally the same, was fearfully different. Such is the effect of crank-labour, an effect which time for time is less than that of the treadwheel ; but the experience in prisons proves that crank- labour is not inferior in severity to that of the treadwheel, and, in the ob- servation of many, has long been believed to exceed it. The inquiries now recorded enable us to determine this question with exactitude, and to show that, when the duration of the labour is taken into considevation, the effect of the crank at the New Bailey is so great that the treadwheel may be used as a relief from it. In comparing the effect of crank- and treadwheel-labour, it has been shown that the 12lbs. crank at Wandsworth and the so-called 7 lbs. crank at the New Bailey, are equal time for time to that of the treadwheel at the New Bailey, but that the effect of-the so-called 9 lbs. crank at the New Bailey is nearly equal to that of the treadwheel at Coldbath-fields, when considered time for time; but as the time of actual daily labour with the crank is double that of the actual labour on the treadwheel, the whole daily effect must be so striking as double of that of the treadwheel. Can it be wondered at that the punishment ofthe lash and of the dark cell for neglect of work is frequent at the New Bailey, and in general in all prisons where the ordinary punishments are very severe ? With the Shot-drill—This punishment is common in military prisons, but in civil prisons it is used unfrequently and rather as an exercise and an alle- ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. 57 viation from more severe labour. The labour varies with the weight of the shot to be carricd, the weight of the body, and the rate of speed. The weight of the shot is known and regulated, but varies in different prisons, whilst the speed is dependent upon the will of the presiding officer. With a 16 Ibs. shot at Coldbath-fields, the average of three inquiries showed that the quantity of air inspired amounted to nearly 4 times the amount at rest, viz., 1800 cubic inches per minute; and the rate of pulsation was 146 per minute; but with the 24.lbs. shot the quantities increased to 1850 cubic inches, and 154. pulsa- tions per minute. ‘The increase in the quantity of air inspired corresponded with that observed by Dr. Smith when carrying various weights at the “quick march,” viz., an increase of 7 cubic inches for each lb. of weight. The 32 lbs. shot is commonly employed in military prisons, but no experi- ments have been made with it. The chief sense of suffering in this labour is found in the arms and hack, from the frequent stooping and lifting which are required, and therefore it is evident that persons of different height and bulk will be influenced variously. EMISsION oF NITROGEN. The next series of inquiries to which reference will be made, are those which show the influence of prison discipline over the excretion of nitrogen, and which constitute the most laborious and extended portion of these re- searches. They consist of two sets, one of which was prosecuted at Cold- bath-fields under the immediate supervision of Dr. Smith, and the other at Wakefield under that of Mr. Milner. The same series were also employed to determine the relation of the ingested and egested nitrogen ; but this part of the inquiry will, as has been already mentioned, be reserved for the second part of this report. EXPERIMENTS AT COLDBATH-FIELDS Prison*, In the first set of inquiries four prisoners in Coldbath-fields prison were selected who had been some time in prison, and who worked the treadwheel on three days in each week. Their ages varied from 22 to 43 years, their height from 5 feet 2} inches to 5 feet 7 inches, and their weight from 105-1 Ibs. to 122°6 lbs., and the averages were 32 years, 5 feet 41 inches, and 113°75lbs. They were spare but in good health, and their habits of body were tolerably regular. By the kindness of the Visiting Justices and the governor of the prison, Mr. Lambert, the third officer, took these men under his immediate charge, and collected the urine, weighed the feces, weighed the food and the body, superintended the meals, the period of exertion, and the whole general arrangements of the inquiry. The inquiry occupied 26 days. The dietary was uniform, with the exceptions to be presently mentioned, and consisted of 20 ozs. of brown bread, 1 pint of cocoa, 1 pint of gruel, 44 ozs. of lean and 14 oz. of fat cooked meat, 8 ozs. of boiled potatoes, 1 oz. (reduced to ? oz.) of salt, and 30 ozs. of water ; and one of the men had 62 ozs. of extra bread perday. The average quantity of solid food was 34 0z., and of fluid 70 ozs., daily, besides the ingredients of the gruel and cocoa, and the extra bread of one of the prisoners. The. exceptions made in the dietary were as follows:—No salt, except that in the cooked food, was allowed during four days; and 33 ozs. of extra fat, 1 0z. of tea, 1; 02. of coffee, and 2 ozs. of alcohol, were separately given through suc- ceeding periods of three days each. * For further details than are included in this Report, see ‘ Philosophical Transactions,’ . 58 _- REPORT—1861, The discipline enforced consisted of treadwheel-labour on three days weekly, from 74 a.m. to 53 P.M., comprehending a period of 33 hours of actual labour, and an actual ascent of 1°432 mile, and was equal to lifting 384 tons through 1 foot dailys On the alternate days the labour was oakum- picking, or similar light occupation, and on Sunday there was perfect rest. The urine was collected in bottles which were used also whilst passing feces. Two collections only were made on Sundays, viz., those of the day and night, but on the weekdays the urine was also collected separately, from 6.15 to 7.15 A.m.; and on the treadwheel-days from 7.15 to 8.25, a.M. These two latter sets of quantities were termed “ basal quantities,” since by one it was hoped to determine the actual rate of urinary excretion in the absence of food, and by the other the influence of treadwheel labour apart from any other influence. The analyses for urea and chloride of sodium were made by Dr, Smith; but those of the food and feces, and the final analyses of the urine were kindly made by Mr. Manning. The samples for analysis were taken with the utmost care. The details of this investi-. gation are very numerous; and probably it may suffice to give the follow- ing principal results of the inquiry. Urea.—The proportion of urea to each lb. of body-weight, both on days of labour and on those of rest, was much above that found in the ordinary conditions of life, viz., from 4°39 grains to 4°74 grains, or an average of 4°58 grains to each lb. of body-weight. It was less than 4 grains to each lb. on only one occasion in each of the lighter, and on three occasions in each of the two heavier men, whilst Dr. Smith found in himself with about the same food, but with much greater weight of body, an average proportion of only 2°75 grains to each Ib. The cause as well as the significance of this fact is not clear; for, as it occurs with rest as well as labour, it can scarcely be an evidence of increased degradation of tissue, and as the food allowed is not much beyond that which a man in health would ordinarily eat, it cannot be the result of an undue ingestion of nitrogenous food. The probable explanation is that already referred to, viz., that the nitrogenous tissues in the bodies of prisoners after a certain term of imprisonment, bear a larger proportion to the weight of the whole body than is found in health under ordinary conditions, since, by the labour and disci- pline of the jail, they have lost much of their fat and the fluid contained in the tissues is reduced to a minimum quantity. The average weight of these men was much below the ordinary weight of men of their age and height. If this be the true explanation, the relation of urea to body-weight loses much of its physiological importance. The urea excreted during treadwheel-labour before breakfast showed that such exertion had no definite influence over the elimination of that product. In one of the cases the excretion of urea was much greater than in the others. There was some diversity in the quantities evolved by the others; so that in one they were the same in labour as at rest, in another there was an excess of 2°5 grains per hour with rest, and in the 3rd there was an increase of 1:9 grain per hour with labour; but on the average, of all the three over the whole period, there was ‘2 grain per hour less evolved with labour than during rest ; and on the average of all the four prisoners, this defect was so much as 24 grains per hour. There were numerous occasions on which there was an excess with labour, viz. 28, 33, and 71 per cent. of the observation in the three cases above separated. The greatest excess with labour was 7°5 grains, and the greatest defect with Jabour was 5°3 grains per hour, and both occurred in the same person. As this inquiry occupied only 80 minutes at one time, it is very probable that. ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE, 59 the urea produced would not be eliminated within that period, and hence we cannot take this as indisputable evidence of the effect of treadwheel-labour. The variations above referred to were also, in part at least, due to the varia- tion in the quantity of urinary water which was secreted during that period ; aud it is just possible that, notwithstanding every eare, the bladder might not have been completely-emptied on each occasion. ; The total daily excretion of urea was the least on the Sunday, greater on the days of light labour, and the greatest on days of treadwheel-labour, on which occasions the average quantities were 494, 512, and 528 grains, giving a daily increase on treadwheel-days of 16 grains over that of days of light labour, and of 34 grains over that of perfect rest. There were some di- versities in the results, owing, apparently, to the fact that on two occasions the elimination of the urea due to the treadwheel-days was in part deferred until the next day, when there were remarkable meteorological disturbances, and thus gave the appearance of greater elimination on the days of light or of no Jabour. From this cause one of the cases gave an average de- crease of 51 grains of urea on the days of treadwheel-labour, but in the other three prisoners the increase with labour was 37, 59, and 21 grains daily. The largest increase on the treadwheel-days was 144 grains, and the largest decrease 100 grains per day. Urinary Water—The quantity of urinary water evolved was, on the total average, 10°4 per cent. greater on treadwheel than on other days, viz., '74°7 and 67°7 fl, ozs., and the same relation held good in each of the cases, Thus Register No. of Prisoner. On Treadwheel days. On other days. ozs. OZS, 858 79°4: 73°15 948 82°87 70°8 1040 67°9 63°8 1041 68°9 62'9 The quantity of fluid drank was the same on each day, and the amount lost by perspiration was much greater on treadwheel-days than on other days ; and hence the blood and tissues must have lost considerably more fluid with great labour than occurs with rest. Chloride of Sodium.—The evolution of chloride of sodium was very great, owing to the large quantity taken with food, but was somewhat less on treadwheel days than on other days, viz., 509 and 520 grains. When _ ‘the quantity of chloride of sodium taken with the food was diminished, the same relation was still maintained, but in a less degree, viz., 492 and 437 grains. There was much variation in the results. Hence, from all these inquiries, it follows that there is an increased elimination of urea and urinary water with treadwheel-labour, but the former is much less and the latter much more than we should have expected, Neither of them are efficient measures of the true effect of exertion. _ Feces.—The determination of the daily evacuation of feces was rendered difficult from the habit of one of the prisoners to have an evacuation only on alternate days, and the only method by which we could make an approxima- tion to the daily evacuation was to divide the quantity on alternate days into two equal parts, and reckon one part on the day on which no evacuation eccurred. The feces were also placed under the date of the preceding day, as they clearly were due to the conditions of that day. The following are the principal facts educed :— 1. The average weight of the feces daily was double of that found in 60 REPORT—186]1. ordinary life, and varied on the average of the different prisoners, from 7*1 to 10:1 ozs., and gave so large a total average as 8°55 ozs. The extremes of single observations were 1°75 and 26°59 ozs. The proportion to the solid food was 22+ per cent. 2. The weight was increased on Sunday by 44°3, 70, and 74 per cent. of that on all days. 3. The weight was lessened on the treadwheel-days from that observed on Sundays, by 41, 53°3, and 42°6 per cent. in three cases, and from the average of all days by 14°8 and 21°1 in two cases, whilst in the 3rd case the weight was equal on all days. 4. The least evacuation occurred on the Saturday (which was also a treadwheel-day), and the diminution from the weight of all days was 26°1, 57°6, and 34°6 per cent., and from that on Sundays no less than 48, 75, and 62 per cent. 5. The proportion of water contained in the feeces was very uniform from day to day, viz., 73°5 per cent., and varied only from 71-8 to 77°6 per cent. on different days. It was above the average on Sundays and a little below the average on treadwheel-days. 6. The quantity of nitrogen in each oz. of fresh feeces varied from 4°36 to 4°9 grains, and was, on the average, 4°646 grains. The total daily quantity thus evacuated, was, on the average, no less than 41°8 grains. There was a considerable increase on the Sunday, and a marked decrease on the Saturday, and it was below the average on treadwheel-days, and in both of these respects it corresponded with the gross weight of the faces. The actual amounts under the three conditions were 59°9, 35°8, and 4.0'53 grains, giving an increase of 43°3 per cent. and a decrease of 14°3 and 3 per cent. There was a very interesting fact noticed in reference to the relation of nitrogen in the urine and feces on the Sunday, and which showed, probably, that the assimilation of food was lessened on a day of perfect rest following one of hard labour, viz., that the increase which was observed in the nitrogen in the faeces on the Sunday corresponded accurately with the decrease observed in the urine on that day, viz., a decrease of 13 and 18 grains of urea in the urine, and an increase of nitrogen, reckoned as urea, in the feces, of 71°33 rains. ; 7. The case which had the extra allowance of 62 ozs. of bread daily, evacuated the largest amount of feces, both on the total average and on Sundays,—a fact of great significance in reference to the kind of food which should be selected for extra diets. Summary.—Thus, on reconsidering the foregoing results obtained from this large series of inquiries, the following general facts were elicited :— The prisoners emitted much more urea and feces than occurs in ordinary life. On Sundays, with entire rest, the amount of urea was commonly lessened, but the nitrogen in the feces was increased in the same degree. The whole weight of the faeces was increased. With treadwheel-labour there was a small increase in the amount of urea and of urine evolved, whilst there was a small decrease in the evolution of chloride of sodium in the urine, in the weight of the feces, and the nitrogen and the fluid contained in the feeces. On Saturdays, with treadwheel-labour, the diminution in the weight and nitrogenous matter of the feeces was considerable. With increase in the allowance of bread to a prisoner who was believed to need extra diet, there was a considerable increase in the weight of the faces and loss of their nitrogen, and particularly with rest. : ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. 61 Experiments with Fat, Tea, Coffee, and Alcohol.—The foregoing observations will be again referred to at the end of the report, and will form a basis upon which the Committee may offer some recommendations; and before closing the analysis of this inquiry the Committee propose to state the results of certain short experiments which were made upon the effect of fat, tea, coffee, and alcohol when temporarily added to the dietary. It is not proposed on this occasion to enter into detail, since the results obtained point to the desirability of conducting similar inquiries through much longer periods. The issue of the inquiries was as follows :— 1. During the period of the administration of 33 ozs. of extra fat daily, the amounts of urea and urinary water excreted were 529 grains, and 69°17 ozs. on the average of all the cases, showing that no noticeable change had been produced. 2. During the withdrawal of 3 of an ounce (328 grains) of chloride of sodium daily, the quantity of that salt excreted by the urine was reduced from 506 to 184 grains daily, the difference being almost exactly the amount which had been withhela. After the full supply was renewed, it was some days before the whole again appeared in the urine. 3. The excretion of urea was lessened during the administration of the tea to 402 grains on the second, and 508 grains on the third, which was a treadwheel-day. The exact amount of the diminution cannot be determined, since in the three preceding days two treadwheel-days were included, and thus this basis of comparison was unduly elevated. The excretion of chloride of sodium was increased to 542 grains per day. The quantity of urinary water evolved remained unchanged. 4. The urea, which had fallen during the action of tea, remained below the average during the action of coffee (which was administered after the ex- periments on tea), but it rose 42 grains daily, and at the end of the period was scarcely below the quantity normally evolved. The quantity of chloride of sodium evolved was 50 grains daily less than with the tea, viz., 494 grains. The quantity of urinary water was not changed. 5. The urea was also lessened during the action of alcohol, to the extent of 26 grains per day below the normal quantity ; but it was still 14 grains per day higher than the quantity to which it first fell with the tea. The effect was much more evident with treadwheel-labour on the first day ; for, instead of an increase with labour, there was an elimination of 43 grains less than occurred on the previous day with rest, but on the third day the in- erease with labour was 111 grains over that evolved on the Sunday. On the first day the barometer fell greatly and tended to prevent the elimination of urea. The greatest effect was upon the elimination of urinary water, being a diminution of no less than 20 ounces per day on the average of the three days; and as there was an unusual thirst during the administration of the alcohol (without, however, any additional fluid food being allowed), it is easy to see in how great a degree alcohol tends to temporarily fix fluid in the tissues of the body, and in doing so to restrain the emission of urea. There was also a large diminution in the excretion of chloride of sodium, but it cor- responded precisely with the diminution in the urinary water. The quantity evolved daily was 352 grains, or a diminution of 27-5 per cent. Hence the effect of tea, coffee, and alcohol in lessening the emission of urea appeared to be temporary only, and in the case of alcohol was associated with retention of fluid in the body, and consequently with an increase of weight. The information thus obtained renders it important to test the in- fluence of cach article over a much longer period, 62 3 REPORT—1861. / EXxrerIMENTS AT THE WAKEFIELD Prison. Apprenprx X. In June 1861 another series of inquiries were prosecuted in Wakefield Goal of a character similar to those just related. Mr. Milner took charge of all the observations which were made within the prison; Dr. Smith made the analyses for urea and chloride of sodium; and Mr. Manning kindly deter- mined the dry matter and the nitrogen in the food, faeces, and urine. Four men of regular habits and. in good state of health were selected. Two were weavers of cocoa matting, which is a very laborious occupation, and two were tailors. Their ages were 19, 22, 24, and 28 years; their height was 643, 66, 663, and 67 inches, and their weight was 118 lbs. 11 ozs., 125 lbs. 121 ozs., 146 Ibs. 11} ozs., and 146 lbs. 153 ozs. The girth around the nipples was 32? inches, 34 in., 35} in., and 353 in., giving an average of nearly 343 inches. The total averages of age, height, weight, and girth were 233 years, 661 inches, 134 lbs, 82 ozs., and 344 inches. They had been fed on the highest class of prison dietary ; but as that con- sisted of some variety of food, it was deemed advisable to give them a uni- form daily diet during one week before the experiments began, and it was continued without intermission until the inquiry terminated. ' The food supplied daily was in part fixed, and in other part variable in quantity. The fixed quantities were those of meat, oatmeal, and potato, and the variable ones those of bread, salt, and water. Milk was given in a fixed quantity, but the amount supplied was not uniform in both classes of prisoners. - The meat consisted of 5 ozs. of lean and 1 oz. of fat cooked beef, without bone. Thesupply of oatmeal was 2 ozs., and 16 ozs. of cooked potato; 20 ozs. of skimmed milk were given to the tailors, and 25 ozs. to the weavers. The daily quantity of bread eaten was on the average 30*4 ozs. by the tailors, and 343 ozs. by the weavers, or a general total of 27:35 ozs. 136°5 grs. of chloride of sodium were eaten (besides that contained in the bread) by the tailors, and 63°5 grs. by the weavers, giving an average of 100 grs.; but there was some considerable variation from day to day. One of the tailors ate an average quantity of 199°3 grs.; whilst the other tailor ate only 73°8 grs. The quantity of water which was drunk, besides that contained in 1 pint of gruel, was only 23°8 ozs. on the average, giving with the milk a total sup- ply of fluid of 66:3 ozs. The weavers drank much more than the tailors, and the total daily quantities in the two classes was 80°5 ozs. and 52°1 ozs. The solid food was 51°8 ozs., and the fluid 66°3 ozs., or a total of 118 ounces daily. The men arose at 6 A.M., and having passed urine and feeces were imme- diately weighed. The scales employed were good ones, and the weight was taken to jth of an ounce. The prisoners were weighed naked. The weight of the feeces and urine was ascertained daily, by the aid of balances kindly lent by Messrs. Avery, of Birmingham, up to 63 A.M.; and the degree of con- sistence of the feeces was recorded under five heads, viz. scybalous, well- formed, formed but soon subsiding, soft, and liquid. A fair sample of the bread, oatmeal, potato, meat, and milk was sent up to Mr. Manning from time to time as changes in the supply occurred. A portion of the mixed quantities of faeces and the urine of each set of prisoners was most carefully taken and sent for analysis daily ; but delay sometimes occurred in the trans- mission, so that the analyses were usually made on the third day after the evacuation. The greatest care was taken to avoid loss by evaporation and otherwise, and to prevent decomposition. The observations included thirteen days besides the week of preliminary dietary, and the following are the principal results which have been obtained :-— \ ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE, 63 Weight of body.—The average weight of three of the prisoners during the inquiry was greater than that recorded on the day preceding the commence- ment of the inquiry, but there was a loss of weight in the fourth. ‘The aver- age gain was, in the tailors, 154 ozs. and 174 o0zs., and in one of the weavers $1 0zs., but in the other weaver there was a loss of 34 0zs. The greatest gain in the different cases was 1 lb. 134 ozs. and 1 lb. 74 ozs. in the tailors, and $4 ozs. and 1 lb. 11 ozs. in the weavers; and the greatest loss 14 oz. in one tailor, 1 1b. 24 ozs, and 44 ozs. in the weavers. There was not an unvarying progression in the weight during the week, but in every case there was an inerease from the Saturday to the Sunday, and the amounts were as follows: — 114 ozs. and 101 ozs., 93 ozs. and 5 zs. in the tailors; 6} ozs. and 18} ozs. 194 ozs. and 3l4 ozs. in the weavers; or an average increase of 13°62 ozs. on the Sunday. Urine: quantity —The largest quantities which were evolved in one day were 25,321 grs. (56'6 ozs.) and 26,624 ers. (59°17 ozs.) in the tailors, and 97,791 grs. (62°3 ozs.) and 32,924 grs. (74 ozs.) in the weavers, The average daily quantity was 41°2 ozs. in the tailors, and 47°51 ozs. in the weavers, viving a total daily average of 44°35 ozs. There was a large increase on the Saturday, and a marked decrease on the Sunday, as the following figures prove :— Friday. Saturday. Sunday. OZS. ozs. OZS. Two tailors ..... — 49°] 39°45 3% Fe eee es 37°85 48°95 37:9 Two weavers .... — 51°92 44°98 3 + 2 ROR NES 49°5 57°25 43° The average decrease from the Saturday to the Sunday was 10:29 ozs. Specific gravity—The specific gravity of the urine varied from 1016 to 1027°5, but there was singular uniformity in the general results. In the tailors it was 1023-7 and 1025, and in the weavers 1024°37 and 10246, giving a total average of 102435 in the tailors, and 1024-45 in the weavers. Urea.—The analysis for urea was made by Liebig’s method, from a test solution which had been prepared in large quantity and used daily in other experiments. The chloride of sodium was not removed, but its amount was duly determined and deducted. The total average daily quantity of urea evolved was 655°65 grs., of which 608°4 grs. were emitted by the tailors, and 702°9 gers. by the weavers; the maximum and minimum amounts were 790 and 456 grs., the former in the weavers; and the latter in the tailors. In the weavers the quantity exceeded 700 grs. in 7 of 13 days, whilst this occurred only 3 times in the tailors, and in only one instance during the inquiry was it below 500 grs. daily. The quantity of urea to each pound of body-weight was 4°812 grs. in the tailors, and 4°675 grs. in the weavers; but it varied in the former from 3°72 to 5°82 grs., and in the latter from 3°62 to 5:39 grs. on different days. The quantity of urea was always lessened on the Sunday. In the tailors the diminution from the Saturday to the Sunday was 145 grs. and 122 ers., and in the weavers 26 and 92 grs., giving a total average diminution of 96°25 grs. The quantity in each ounce of urine was, on the average, 149 grs. in the tailors, and 15°25 grs. in the weavers, giving a total average of 15075 grs. The maximum and minimum quantities were 18°8 and 12°3 in the tailors, and 17°84 and 13°53 in the weavers. Chloride of Sodium.—The average quantity of chloride of sodium evolved 64 : REPORT—1861. was 3:37 grs. per 6z. in the tailors, and 3°18 grs. per oz. in the weavers, giving a daily emission of 138°844 grs. in the former, and 148°5 grs. in tire latter. Feces.—The general character of the faeces was homogeneous and mode- rately cohesive, but on a few occasions there was a variety in the consistence. In the 52 observations 32 exhibited feeces formed but soon subsiding, 7 well formed, 1 scybalous, 2 soft, and 9 of mixed character, and no one per- son offered any marked difference in these characters. The bran of the brown bread was easily seen in the faeces. The average daily evacuation was 6°98 ozs. in the tailors, and 8°52 ozs. in the weavers, giving a total daily aver- age of 7°75 ozs. ‘There were somewhat considerable daily variations, so that the maximum and minimum quantities were, in the tailors regarded separ- ately, 11°41 ozs. and 4°32 ozs., and in the weavers 14°42 ozs. and 1°72 oz., but in no instance was there the omission of a daily evacuation. The quantity of nitrogen per cent. found by Mr. Manning by the volu- metric method varied from *71 gr. to 1°16 gr. in the tailors, and from ‘97 gr. to 1°35 gr. in the weavers; but the total average in the two classes was ‘93 in the tailors, and 1°12 in the weavers, giving 1°025 gr. in the whole. The total daily elimination of nitrogen by the faces was found to be 27°45 grs. in the tailors, and 40°93 grs. in the weavers. The variation in the amount of feces on Sunday from that of other days was not uniform, since it was Jess in the weavers and was equal in the tailors. It will have been observed that there were many differences in the results obtained from the prisoners occupied in the two kinds of labour; and as one of the objects had in view was to show these differences, the two trades were selected which, in that prison, offered the greatest dissimilarity in the amount of exertion required. - Of these two sets of prisoners, the weavers of cocoa matting, when com- pared with the tailors, were older, taller, heavier, and broader; they ate more bread, milk, and water. ‘They lost weight, whilst the tailors gained weight. They emitted more urine, urea, chloride of sodium, and feces with their contained nitrogen; they exhibited much less diminution of urea on the Sunday, and a little less urea to body-weight. It is not possible to compare the results of this inquiry very closely with those already described at Coldbath-fields, since in the latter inquiry the quantity of bread and water was rigidly fixed, whilst in the former there were daily variations. The quantity of bread taken was greater at Wakefield than at Coldbath-fields, and would so far increase the amount of urea pro- duced, whilst the variable quantity of water taken from day to day would vary the elimination of that product. Yet these causes of variation are not of great value, and upon the whole it will be seen that there is a very close correspondence between the products of the weavers at Wakefield and those who worked the treadwheel at Coldbath-fields. The weight of the men at Wakefield was more than that at Coldbath-fields, the quantity of urine and of fluid drank was less, and that of urea was greater, but the proportion of urea to body-weight was very nearly the same. In both there was more urea with labour, and less on Sunday. ‘There was less chlo- ride of sodium in the urine as there was less supplied in the food. The weight of the feces and the contained nitrogen were the same in both places. Conclusion.—The Committee cannot close this first part of their report without offering a few remarks in the nature of deductions or suggestions, but, inasmuch as the duty confided to them is limited to a consideration of the influence of prison discipline over the bodily functions of the prisoners, and the present is only a part of their report, they feel that they cannot ‘express their views at any length. ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. 65 - ‘The Committee venture to think that the time is’ approaching when the whole subject of prison discipline must be reconsidered, and when a deter- mination may be arrived at as to the propriety of continuing a system which when practised occasions vast waste of the vital powers of the prisoners, and vast expenditure of money to provide a dietary which, although scarcely sufficient, is far beyond that provided for the poor in workhouses, and beyond that obtained by the working classes in general. The different systems adopted in prisons are furnishing some evidence as to the relative value of three plans,—viz., 1st, waste of animal force by the treadwheel and the crank ; 2nd, the use of manufacturing operations; and 3rd, the effect of simple de- tention and instruction without labour; and these, when conjoined with the intelligent efforts put forth in the sister island, may almost suffice to guide those to whom its consideration may be intrusted. It is, however, certain that if much bodily labour be enforced, whether in a profitable or unprofitable manner, there must be an expensive dietary to supply the reparative material ; and no plan can be so wasteful as that which enforces profitless labour, and supplies an expensive diet to meet its demands. The Committee also think that some steps should be taken to ensure uni- ‘ formity in prison discipline throughout the kingdom ; so that not only should great care be exercised (as at present) to apportion the sentence to the crime, but also that wherever the sentence is pronounced the carrying-out ‘of it shall be also proportioned to the crime. This may be effected in the dietary, and yet allow such a variety of food as may be found relatively economical in different parts of the kingdom; for the nutritive value of various kinds of food is now tolerably known, and the quantity of each to give the same nutriment may be estimated. So also in reference to punishments. It is quite possible that the instruments should be of uniform construction, that by supervision they should be kept in uniform order, that the speed at which they are worked should be uniform, and the amount of a day’s work should be universally the same, subject only to the opinion of the Surgeon as to the fitness of any individual to perform the required task. A committee of scientific men would find no difficulty in placing all this upon a satisfac- tory basis, if they were only authorized by the Government to do so. _ It is also easy to estimate the amount of labour required in ordinary ma- nufactures, at least so far to keep within the bodily powers of the prisoners ; for we have the advantage of common experience as to the effect. of such labour in ordinary life. But the Committee are of opinion that, when all the above-mentioned care shall have been taken, the effect of the proper prison punishments, as the treadwheel, crank, and shot-drill, upon the pri- soners will still be very unequal, since it varies greatly with such natural conditions as the height, weight, age, and previous occupation of the person. Hence these punishments must be at all times objectionable. The Committee defer until another occasion their recommendations in reference to the exact adaptation of labour to supply of food; but they take this opportunity of stating that, as it involves the fundamental question of the propriety of making the dietary an instrument of punishment, it will be necessary ¢n limine to decide the latter question. When Sir James Graham appointed the Commissioners to draw up the present scheme of dietary, he expressly directed that the dietary should not be used as an instrument of punishment; but the Committee venture to affirm that the food supplied in _ ‘the lowest scale is so totally unequal to the wants of the system, that it can only be regarded as an instrument of punishment; and that it is so regarded : ace criminals and magistrates may be inferred from the dislike which - 66 REPORT—1861. old offenders have to short imprisonment with its low dietary, and from the value which magistrates attach to this their most formidable agent. Without expressing a strong opinion upon this point, the Committee ven- ture to assert that a dietary of bread and water, or bread and gruel, cannot be enforced without doing serious injury to the prisoner’s health ; and that this is fundamentally recognized may be inferred from the fact that all agree that a high scale of dietary is absolutely demanded in long imprisonments. The Committee assert that the injury is one of degree, and that the shortness of the imprisonment prevents the ill effects being observed, which with a long imprisonment have been proved to increase the mortality in gaols. The Committee hope that, on philanthropic grounds, the principle may be established in prison discipline, that the prisoner shall not be so treated that when he leaves the gaol he shall be less able to earn his living than he was when he entered it, and that, punishment and reformation being sought toge- ther, some plan may be adopted which shall accord with that principle. The fundamental fact of the duty of apportioning food to the labour per- formed needs to be re-established. At present the attempt is nugatory ; but the Committee venture to hope that the principle will meet with universal concurrence, and that their labours afford at least some of the means whereby the estimation may be made. The great value of the system of extra dietary cannot be too highly esti- mated ; but the very admission implies that there is a defective adaptation of the general scheme of dietary to the wants of the system, and that almost the life of the prisoner is, throughout a large part of the imprisonment, at the discretion cr negligence of one officer, viz. the Surgeon. The Committee also venture to affirm that bread is far inferior to milk as an article of extra diet, as the experiments detailed in this report prove. The detention in prisons certainly lessens the power of assimilating food; and hence it is quite possible that whilst a given quantity of food would sustain aman out of gaol, it would not sustain him with the same labour in gaol. The object of extra diet is not so much to give additional material, as to give the kind of food which will aid the system in making a better use of that ordinarily supplied. Extra diet of bread (when the dietary is the highest scale) is in great part wasted, and increases disproportionately the amount of waste passing off by the bowel. In conclusion, the Committee urge the great importance of making better use than heretofore of the unparalleled opportunities which prisons afford of working out the most important and difficult questions in nutrition, with a view to supply information for the more just and economical manage- ~ ment of gaols, and for the advance of a science which is so essentially con- nected with the daily life of the community. Such questions are, the true value of white bread over brown bread in prison and other dietary ; the exact influence of various kind of food, and especially of such as tea, coffee, milk and alcohol, which act chiefly by modifying the action of other food ; the exact relation of a given quantity of food to a given amount of labour; the causes of the defective power of assimilation of food in prisons, and the relation of the elements of the food taken to those which are fixed in and thrown out of the body. The Committee feel that the importance of such inquiries is not by any means so well understood as it should be, and that some officials have a natural repugnance to anything which may interfere with their ordi- nary routine; but they trust that the expression of the opinion of this great Association, and the additional knowledge which they and others have en- deavoured to discover, may open prisons to such inquiries. ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. 67 ' The Committee will cheerfully undertake to lend their aid in further elucidating these matters, if it should be the pleasure of the Association to reappoint them; but they very respectfully represent the urgent necessity which exists for the appointment, by the authority of Government, of one or more Commissioners to reconsider the subject of dietaries, and to recom- mend plans whereby uniformity in the nature and action of the instruments used in prison punishments may be effected throughout the kingdom. APPENDIX I. On the Inequalities in the Dietary of County Prisons ; being an Analysis of the “ Return of Dietaries for Convicts,” $c., issued in 1857*. Forty-three only of eighty-seven county prisons have adopted the scheme of dietary recommended by the Government ; and in reference to the forty- four prisons which dissent from that scheme, it will be evident, from the fol- lowing statement, that much of the inequalities in their various dietaries is attributable to the defects of the Government scheme, much to mere caprice, something to very defective knowledge as to the requirements of the human system, and something more to the absence of a desire to avoid injury to the prisoner. We shall first give in a few words the dietary of the Government scheme, and then describe the dietaries of all the prisons which have striking peculiarities. There are five classes of dietaries recommended by the Government, ac- cording to the duration of the sentence, and such that the quantity and quality of food are increased from the beginning of the imprisonment as the duration of the sentence is increased. Up to twenty-one days, only bread and gruel are given, but under seven days the bread (1 lb.) is given at dinner only, whilst over that period twenty- four ounces are distributed over the three meals. Under seven days, females receive as much bread for dinner as the males; but over that period they receive but half the quantity. . From twenty-one to forty-two days with hard labour, and to four months without hard labour, three ounces of cooked meat with bread and potatoes are given for dinner twice per week, one pint of soup (containing the same quantity of meat) with bread twice, and simply bread and potatoes thrice per week. From forty-two days to four months with hard labour, and beyond four months without labour, three ounces of meat is given daily in soup or other- wise. Beyond four months with hard labour, the quantity of meat is increased four times per week to four ounces, and an increase of half a pound of pota- toes is added,—soup, potatoes, and bread being supplied on the other days. Sweetened cocoa for breakfast is also given thrice per week. _ The erroneous principles upon which this scheme is founded are, the ap- portionment of food according to duration of sentence, the insufficiency for short sentences and for hard labour, and the variation from day to day; but * It is probable that some changes have been made in the dietaries of some of the County Gaols, and particularly in those marked with an asterisk (*), since the réturn of 1857 was issued, and since the following analysis was made; but of this there is no authorized inform. ation. The analysis will, at least, show the state of the dietaries when the return was issued; af F2 68 REPORT—1861. having already pointed them out in a paper published in the Transactions of the Society for the Promotion of Social Science, we shall not pursue that sub-) ject on this occasion, but at once proceed to consider the dietaries opposed to this scheme. The Welsh gaols, as a whole, have a reduced scale of dietary ; but one of them, viz. the Cardiff Gaol*, is the most remarkable in the deficiency ; whilst another, the Brecon Gaol, is nearly equally remarkable for its plenty. It is instructive to notice how widely the schemes differ under different adminis- trations, whilst the condition of the inhabitants of the localities must be much the same. In the Cardiff Gaol there are four classes of prisoners, the highest including all those condemned for periods exceeding fourteen days, a term searcely equal to the second class of the government dietary, and even in that no meat or other animal food in any form is given. For breakfast and supper there is half a.pound of bread and two ounces of oatmeal made into gruel, whilst at dinner there is only half a pound of bread and one pound of potatoes. But if the prisoner should be condemned to hard Jabour he will. receive one pint and a half of soup, made from two ounces of Scotch barley and two ounces of rice, and it is the same whether he is condemned to hard’ labour for fifteen days or fifteen months! If the prisoner is condemned for more than seven and less than fourteen days, he receives for dinner half a pound of bread only. If not exceeding three days or seven days, the break- fast and supper consist of half a pound of bread only, whilst the dinner is composed of half a pound of bread, and in the latter case of one pound of potatoes in addition. Thus, if he be confined for three days or for fourteen days, half a pound of bread only is sufficient for the dinner; but, if it be for seven days, he is supposed to need one pound of potatoes in addition! This is the worst dietary in the whole of the county gaols; but the dietary of the Derby Gaol* shows that Englishmen as well as Welshmen are sometimes fed with the almost entire absence of animal food. The Derby dietary is divided into three classes ; but we are not favoured with the grounds of this division. In the first class there are six ounces of bread and one pint of porridge for breakfast, whilst in the second and third classes the quantities are increased to eight ounces and one pint and a half. The word porridge docs not imply that excellent article which we remember to have enjoyed in boyhood, but it consists of a quarter of a pint of milk and three-quarters of a pint of water, and one ounce and a half of oatmeal, instead of two ounces ordered by the Government to each pint of gruel. The supper consists of four ounces of bread and one pint of gruel (we are not informed as to the ingredients of the gruel) for the first class, six ounces of bread and one pint of porridge for the second, and eight ounces of bread and one pint of porridge for the third. The dinner in the first class is ten ounces of bread only; in the second class there are eight ounces of bread and one pound of potatoes five times per week, and eight ounces of bread and one pint of soup twice per week (the excellence of the soup is not stated); in the third class eight ounces of bread and two pounds of potatoes! twelve ounces of bread and one pint of soup thrice, and twelve ounces of bread and four ounces of meat once per week. The points of greatest interest are the excessive amount of farinaceous food, and the great defect of animal food. There is also a note appended to this return, _ stating that cases do sometimes occur of prisoners losing weight! If in the Wakefield Prison, to which we shall refer presently, a very large number of the prisoners lose weight under the best management, and with a much better etary, it is not wonderful that at Derby they should lose weight sometimes, We should be glad to know if they are weighed accurately and periodically ; if they enter the prison having an average weight; what percentage in each ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. 69 class lose weight during their imprisonment; and what is the tone of their muscular system on discharge? The note also states that when they lose weight the surgeon orders them to have extra milk, or bread, or meat. But essential articles of diet should not be left to the chance of the negligence. or . indiseretion of even the best of men. - The Brecon Gaol offers a contrast to both of the foregoing. Thus, for periods exceeding fourteen days, the prisoner receives six ounces of meat with eight ounces of bread on four days in the week, and also half a pound of potatoes if under, and one pound of potatoes if over, two months. On the other days the dietary is only bread and potatoes. For breakfast and supper the dietary for all periods is eight ounces of bread and one pint of gruel, but on alternate days the oatmeal is boiled in the meat liquor. There is also a further advantage given in substituting for potatoes, when they are bad, four ounces of rice and one ounce of treacle or sugar. The Middlesex prisons also give six ounces of meat at one meal. In the Coldbath-fields Prison, and the House of Correction, Westminster, twenty ounces of bread are equally divided between the three meals. There is also a pint of cocoa to the highest class (exceeding two months) and one pint of gruel to others; for breakfast ; whilst at supper there is one pint of gruel to the highest class, and half a pint to others. The dinner, besides bread, contains, in the highest class, six ounces of meat and eight ounces of potatoes four times per week, or one pint and a half of soup thrice per week. In the second class (two weeks to two months) there is the same quantity of meat and potatoes twice, one pint of soup twice, and one pint of gruel thrice per week. But in the lowest class it consists of bread and gruel only. The Lincoln House of Correction at Spalding has also a dietary better than that recommended by the Government, since, in addition to the meat, ‘there is allowed one pint of soup; but the ingredients of the soup are not stated. It has also the advantage of giving meat daily in the fourth and fifth class, apart from the soup, and thus the important article of diet is evenly distributed ; and since the soup is probably made from the meat liquor, it increases the quantity of fat which is supplied to the prisoners. The Newgate Prison, Lincoln Castle, and the Pembroke Gaol are re- markable in having but one scale of dietary each for all the prisoners, thus . avoiding the fallacy which results from varying the dietary according to the term of imprisonment. They, however, differ very much in the quantity and quality of food which they deem to be proper for their prisoners. Thus the _ Newgate Prison and Lincoln Castle adopt Class 4 of the Government scheme. . The Pembroke Gaol affords only one quart of oatmeal gruel (the quantity of oatmeal is not stated) and three-quarters of a pound of bread for dinner. At breakfast there is a luxury found only at this gaol, viz. tea and butter; so that _the meal consists of a pint and a half of tea, one pound of bread, and one ounce of butter. The supper is composed of one quart of milk pottage (the constituents are not given) and three quarters of a pound of bread. This is a remarkable dietary, and one which on paper must be very satisfactory, except in the absence of animal food. A foot-note states that “the surgeon orders extra food when necessary;” but the nature of the food which he may order is not stated. The largest quantity of bread is contained in this dietary, -viz. two pounds and a half of bread daily. We should like to know the result of the entire avoidance of fresh vegetables, a circumstance also pecu- liar to this prison, if the return be true. _ Another peculiarity is met with in the three Gloucester gaols (one of which, the House of Correction at Horsley, is under the direction of a name 70 REPORT—1861. well known in prison management), viz. the exhibition of the same food on each day of the week. The plan of varying the food with the class is pur- sued, but, with the exception of the third class, the food is not varied from day to day. In the lowest class the food is simply eight ounces of bread at each meal. In the second class one pint of gruel is added to the breakfast and supper. In the third class eight ounces of potatoes are added daily, and three ounces of meat twice in the week. In the fourth and fifth classes the meat is given daily, and in the fifth class the potatoes are increased to one pound. There is also another point worthy of notice which is peculiar to these gaols and the Lincoln House of Correction, Spalding, viz. the admi- nistration of meat on every day in the week to the two highest classes, apart trom or to the exclusion of soup. There are thus two important cireum- stances redounding greatly to the credit of those who have the supervision uf these institutions in the county of Gloucester. The peculiarity of administering the same food on each day of the week is also met with at the Cardiff, Flint, Sussex, and Wilts gaols. The poverty of the Cardiff dietary has already been stated, and the Flint Prison dietary is very far removed from liberality. Thus for fourteen days it affords simply one pound of bread and four ounces and a half of oatmeal daily. For six weeks, one pound and a quarter of bread, four ounces and a half of oatmeal, and half a pint of milk daily, and for all periods beyond six weeks a quarter of a pound of bread is added daily, and two pints of soup per week. The Sussex Prison at Lewes gives to all classes half a pound of bread and one pint of gruel for breakfast and supper. For fourteen days the dinner is eight ounces of bread only ; for six weeks one pint of soup is added on three days per week; for four months the soup is given daily ; and for all periods beyond, one pound of potatoes is added daily. The dietary at Petworth is more liberal. Thus, after one month the dinner consists of half a pound of bread, four ounces of meat, and one pint of soup; and after three months, one pound of potatoes is added daily. The dinner at this prison is therefore very excellent after the expiration of the first month. The two county gaols in Wiltshire have the same dietary. All prisoners not sentenced to hard labour receive one pound and a half of bread and one pint of gruel daily, and after fourteen days have one pint of soup in addition. This is all the dietary with hard labour from fourteen to forty-two days: viz., to fourteen days with hard labour the dietary is simply one pound and a half of bread and one pint of gruel daily; from six weeks to three months one pint of soup is added daily from the commencement ; and when the term exceeds three months, one pound of potatoes is given daily after three months. ‘This scheme is not equal to the Gevernment allowance. The dietary in the Lancaster House of Correction at Preston varies chiefly, but not exclusively, with age, viz. under et. thirteen, under et. seventeen, and over zt. seventeen. In these, the breakfast and supper eonsists of four ounces of bread and one pint of gruel, six and two-thirds ounces of bread and one pint of gruel, and six and two-thirds ounces of bread and two pints of gruel respectively. The dinner of the first class is four ounces of bread and one pint of gruel thrice; four ounces of bread, four ounces of meat, and one pint of soup once; four ounces of meat and half a pound of potatoes once; four ounces of bread and one pint of soup once ; and the singular combination of half a pound of potatoes with one ounce of cheese once per week. In the second ciass the scheme is varied simply by the administration of six and two-thirds ounces of bread daily ; and the third differs from the second in doubling the ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. 71 quantity of potatoes, cheese, gruel, and soup. The soup, however, does not contain meat, and the gruel is very poor. ; There are certain limitations, depending upon the duration of the sentence. Thus, for seven days the diet is twelve to twenty ounces of bread daily. For fourteen days boys and girls receive half of the second-class rations, and for a month adults have half of the third-class rations. There is also a great and unique curiosity in the list of limitations which refer to itch patients, who receive but twelve ounces of bread per diem, whether as a punishment or a cure for their uncleanness is not stated. We cannot but regard this as a meagre dietary, since we cannot tell in what degree the discretionary power, which a foot-note states to rest with the governor and surgeon, in increasing the dietary after three months’ imprisonment, is exercised, and, so far as adults are concerned, it appears that the only increase which can be made extends to ten ounces of bread only. A gaol which has for its governor another gentleman of the name of Shep- herd, viz. the Wakefield Gaol, is also remarkable in its dietary, but in a dif- ferent direction from any of the foregoing. The peculiarity is in the greater variety of food and the care which is taken to make it palateable. The di- stinction into classes is maintained, and in the highest classes is so extended that it begins only after twelve months’ imprisonment. The breakfast and supper are alike, except in the highest class, and consist of one pint of gruel only in the first class (seven days), whilst in the second and third six ounces of bread are added; in the fourth class eight ounces of bread are allowed, and in the fifth class the same quantity of bread is allowed, and milk substi- tuted for gruel for breakfast, but not for supper. The dinner in the first class is one pound of bread. In the second class it consists of half a pound of bread and one pound of potatoes twice, four ounces of bread, with one pint of pea-soup or a pint and a half of gruel twice, plain pudding and one ounce of treacle twice, and twelve ounces of bread alone once per week. In the third class the bread and potatvues alone is restricted to once per week; four ounces of bread, one pound of potatoes, and three ounces of cooked meat are given once; four ounces of bread, a plain pudding, and one ounce of treacle once ; whilst four ounces of bread and one pint of soup, pea-soup, or Irish stew, are given four times per week. In the fourth class the bread, meat, and potatoes are given twice (once being instead of bread and potatoes alone), the other diets remaining the same. In the fifth class the bread, meat, and potatoes are given thrice, the same with half a pint of soup added twice, and bread and Irish stew alone twice per week. The soup does not contain meat, but is made from meat liquor, oatmeal, and vegetables. The pea-soup has the large quantity of six ounces of peas and four ounces of car- rots per pint, with mint and pot-herbs. The Irish stew contains three or four ounces of meat with sixteen ounces of vegetables. The plain pudding is a quart made from eight ounces of flour. As the soup is partly made from bones, which are boiled for twenty-four hours, it contains a very essen- tial article in abundance, viz. fat. Altogether, this is not only the most elaborate dietary in the return, but it seems to be the ultima Thule in that direction, and whatever may be its defects, it certainly evinces an anxious _ desire not only to feed the prisoners sufficiently, but to treat them with the consideration due to beings who have the sense of taste. Yet with this diet- ary, and with the entire absence of the treadwheel and the crank labour, a very large proportion of the prisoners are reported weekly as losing weight. _ The Hertford Gaol at St. Albans * offers some peculiarities by which it might have been ranged with the foregoing, but it has one which is quite 72 REPORT—1861. distinctive, viz. the absence of supper. The hours of meals are not given; but the fact is stated that only breakfast and dinner are allowed, even to those condemned to hard labour, both males and females. Surely this is cruelty, and must result from gross ignorance of the wants of the system and the responsibilities of those who devised and retain the plan. If there is no excess of food left over from the previous day, in those prisons where a meal is given at 6 P.M., upon what do the St. Albans prisoners sustain the exer- tion of hard labour before the breakfast, when the previous meal was the dinner on the previous day? If sleeplessness results from both repletion and want of food, we should like to know how deep is the repose of the Hertfordshire felons. The unenviable refinement to which we have referred is also further seen in the absence of division of the classes by time, so that all the prisoners are fed alike during the first week of imprisonment, whether they are sentenced to hard labour or not, and for whatever duration; aud after the first week the dietary is the same, except that it is varied in refer- ence to labour, and further varied in reference to the sex condemned to hard labour. Thus there is no increase in the dietary, and hence the nature of that dietary is of vast importance. The breakfast uniformly consists of twelve ounces of bread and a pint of gruel, except when associated with hard labour, when there are sixteen ounces of bread for the men. The dinner consists of twelve ounces of bread and one pint of soup (the ingre- dients are not stated) four times, and twelve ounces of bread alone thrice per week. To females condemned to hard labour, the soup is given daily, and there is a further addition for males of four ounces of bread. There are thus one pound and a half or two pounds of bread given daily as in other schemes of dietary, but it is ill distributed, and whilst there are several points in the dietary to be commended, the absence of supper deserves con- demnation. As a contrast to this we may refer to the Welsh gaol at Car- narvor, in which supper is not only allowed, but it is enriched by the addi- tion of a pint to a pint and a half of broth ; but to this we shall again advert. We may now consider certain peculiarities in reference to the articles of food supplied, which have a certain degree of interest, and in a few instances affect an important principle. In the four Northumberland gaols the quantity of oatmeal is increased and given as porridge where the Government has recommended simply gruel. This contains six ounces of oatmeal, instead of two ounces, as ordered for gruel, and milk or treacle water. There is also one pound of suet pudding given in the third, fourth, and fifth classes in place of the meat, bread, and potatoes recommended by Government. It may be questioned if one pound of suet pudding is equal to three ounces of cooked meat without bone, half a pound of bread, and half a pound of potatoes ; and as the quantities of the component articles are not stated, we cannot determine such an inquiry. It has, however, this merit, which involves a principle so much neglected in prison dietary, viz. the administration of fat with the starch, and is therefore so far to be commended. It is also to be noticed to the credit of these in- stitutions, that the dietary of the first two classes is better than that recom- mended by the Government, since in the first class each prisoner receives eight ounces additional oatmeal, besides milk, and in the second class there is an addition of eight ounces of potatoes to the dinner. In the return of the Alnwick House of Correction there is no provision made for prisoners sentenced to a larger term of imprisonment than six weeks, and there is spe- cific mention of half a pint of milk in addition to one pint of porridge for the breakfast and the supper, but no bread is allowed at those meals. ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. 73 The other north-country gaols, of Cumberland and Westmoreland, also make large use of oatmeal and milk in their schemes of diet, and the scheme is the same in both gaols. The quantity of bread is reduced, and to so re- prehensible a degree that, for prisoners confined from seven to fourteen days, four ounces of bread alone constitute the whole dinner,—a quantity of food less than is supplied at any other prison. For seven days six ounces of bread are given at each meal; with hard labour for six weeks, and no labour for three months, one pint of soup is added to the dinner thrice, one pound of potatoes thrice, and three quarters of a pint of milk once per week; and when the terms are increased to three months, and beyond three months re- spectively, three ounces of cooked meat and half a pound of potatoes are given, instead of one pound of potatoes, twice per week. When the sentence of hard labour is beyond three months, four ounces of uncooked meat, four ounces of bread, and one pound of potatoes are given for dinner thrice per week, whilst one pint of soup supplants the meat thrice per week, and three- quarters of a pint of milk and six ounces of bread constitute the Sunday’s dinner. The use of oatmeal is restricted to the breakfast and supper, when four or five ounces, with half a pint of milk, without bread, constitute the meal. : The Monmouth Gaol is also remarkable in the quantity of oatmeal sup- plied to the prisoners, and for the introduction of Indian meal as an article of diet. The two first classes are unchanged, except that the term of the ‘second is extended to four weeks. In the third and fourth classes, which extend respectively to three months and beyond three months, the breakfast consists of no less than eight ounces of oatmeal and half a pint of milk, and ‘the supper of six ounces of oatmeal with half a pint of milk and half a pound of bread. Both of these are largely in excess of the Government allowances, and approach much nearer to the wants of the system. The dinner in the third class consists daily of eight ounces of Indian meal and half a pint of -milk, whilst in the fourth or highest class that food is administered on three _days per week ; four ounces of cooked meat, without bone, and twelve ounces of potatoes twice, and one pint of broth (containing three ounces of cooked “meat without bone) twice in the week. We believe this to be a better diet- ary than that recommended by the Government ; and a foot-note appended to the return is satisfactory on this head. It states: ‘“ The general health of the prisoners is good ; and, for the most part, they leave the prison in better condition than when they came in. Prisoners of the third and fourth class _are weighed on receipt and discharge ; they are kept in association, and they almost invariably increase in weight while in prison.” It would be interest- ing to know if they enter with an average weight. A large division of the gaols which offer peculiarities of detail are the Welsh. We have already remarked that generally the dietary of the gaols of the Principality is less nutritious than that of English gaols, and we may further state that only three of the thirteen county gaols have accepted the Government scheme. In the Carmarthen Gaol the prisoners condemned to hard labour for any term receive meat but twice per week; and that is in the form of soup, of which a quart is given; but the ingredients are not stated ; twelve ounces of bread are given with it for terms exceeding two months. When the term exceeds three months two ounces of cheese and one pound of potatoes, or -one pint of gruel, substitute the meat soup on three days per week; but no cheese is allowed for shorter periods; and thus a prisoner may be kept at hard labour for three months and receive twelve ounces of bread for dinner G4 REPORT—1861. daily, with a quart of meat soup twice, and one pound of potatoes, and one pint of gruel each thrice per week. The breakfast and supper invariably consist of half a pound of bread and one pint of gruel. The Carnarvon Gaol introduces a new article of diet, and is unique in this particular, viz. buttermilk, one pint of which is added to the dinner twice per week. The whole dietary differs from that recommended by the Government, and is a subject on which the authorities of the gaol have either doubt or pride, if we may judge by the multitude of certificates which they have been pleased to append to the return. In all the classes a pint to a pint anda half of broth is administered for supper thrice per week instead of gruel, and given alone in the first two classes, but with six or eight ounces of bread in all the others. This is made from the meat liquor, with two ounces of peas, and with green vegetables, and is, therefore, a very valu- able addition to the dietary. ‘There is a diminution in the quantity of bread and an increase in that of potatoes in the proportion of two ounces of the former to half a pound of the latter. Soup is given on three days per week to prisoners condemned fer periods exceeding twenty-one days; but no meat is allowed separately, except for longer periods than three months, and then three ounces of meat are given separately on three other days per week. Taken as a whole, it is an improved dietary. The dietary of the Merioneth Gaol at Dolgelly is full of peculiarities. It introduces four new articles of diet, viz. cheese, bacon, milk, and boiled rice ; but they are not all given on one day or on any fixed rota, but each is con- tingent: so that three ounces of bacon meat, without bone, may be substi- tuted for eight ounces of bread and four ounces of cheese, or one quart of pea-soup or broth, and four ounces of bread; and one pound and a half of boiled rice is regarded as an equivalent for the bread and cheese in one place, and for half a pound of bread alone in another. One quart of milk and eight ounces of bread may be substituted once per week for any of the above dinners. Excepting these various contingencies, which give a com- plex air, the scheme is simple; for it only provides for two classes, compre- hending prisoners condemned, respectively, to fourteen and exceeding four- teen days, without labour; so that a plain bread-and-cheese dinner, or any of the above-mentioned alternatives, is considered sufficient for dinner for any period, however long. Broth or soup is given for dinner to the first class. The gruel, broth, and pea-soup are each weaker than the gruel and soup re- commended by the Government. We cannot but regard this dietary asdefec- tive in having so many contingencies, and those which differ much in nutri- tive value, whilst they are regarded as good substitutes for each other; but since the average use of each kind of diet is not stated, it is impossible to estimate the true value of this dietary. The extra food allowed for hard labour is ridiculously insufficient, viz. six ounces of bread per day ; and the whole scheme demands immediate revision. The Montgomery Gaol also provides bacon as an article of diet to the highest ciass, or those exceeding three months’ imprisonment. The quantity allowed is two ounces without bone, added to one pound of potatoes and half a pound of bread four times per week, whilst on other days the dinner con- sists of one pint of soup and half a pound of bread. For periods varying from two weeks to three months, the bacon is omitted. In the first class, one pint of soup is given on the Sunday, whilst on other days the dinner consists of half a pound of bread only. Bacon as an article of prison dietary is valu- — able, since it supplies fat, and is also savoury. ‘Lhe Denbigh County Gaol at Ruthen introduces us to another noveltr, ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. 75 ' yiz., scouse, which is composed of beef cut into small pieces, and potatoes, in such proportion that one pound and a half of scouse contains 2°18 ounces -of meat. This has the very patent evil of inaccurate division to each pri- soner. The whole dietary is very meagre, since, for all prisoners condemned to an imprisonment exceeding a month, the dinner thrice per week is one and _a half pound of scouse, half a pound of bread, and one pound of potatoes four times per week. When the term does not exceed one month, the din- ner is composed of five and one-third ounces of bread and one pound of potatoes, whilst for seven days five and one-third ounces of bread only con- stitutes the dinner. In the Glamorgan Gaol at Swansea, the prisoner sentenced to more than one month’s imprisonment receives a bread-and-cheese dinner, as at some other Welsh gaols; but in this one pound of potatoes is added. This is given thrice per week, whilst half a pound of bread and a pint and a half of soup, containing four ounces of coarse meat, are given four times per week. No meat and cheese are allowed for a less period than one month. Space will not permit us to continue the analysis of these returns further ; but we may remark that at the Bucks and some other county prisons no extra food for hard labour is stated in the return; at the Dorset Gaol, a bread- and-cheese dinner is provided three times per week for the highest class; at Durham the dietary is reduced in value for periods up to six months ; at Huntingdon there are some meaningless changes in reference to the quantity of bread allowed; at the Southampton Gaol, three ounces of cheese are considered an equivalent for one pint of soup containing four ounces of raw meat without bone, four ounces of potatoes, one ounce of rice, &c.; and at Devon, the soup contains but two ounces of raw meat per pint. We have thus made it very evident that uniformity in dietary is not one of the characteristics of our prisons, and that those who are condemned to imprisonment receive very different treatment in different parts of the king- dom. Indeed the diversity is so great, that it would be in vain to prepare a tabular statement of the dietary of the forty-four prisons of such moderate dimensions, and with so much approach to uniformity, that even the most painstaking student could study it with the hope of understanding it; for it would be impossible to reduce the return to more general forms, with a view of comparing them and committing them to memory. AprEnpi1x II. Punishments and Dietaries of Prisoners,—Address for Returns of the punish- ments inflicted under sentences to “ hard labour”— Of the working of the treadwheel ; Of the pressure and working of the crank ; Of the weight of Prisoners, and the variations of it due to treadwheel and crank labour ; in the City, Borough, and County Gaols of the United Kingdom: and, of the Dietaries sanctioned for Prisoners in the City and Borough Pri- sons of the United Kingdom, and in those County Prisons of the United Kingdom in which the Dietary has been changed since the Return of “Dietaries for Convicts, &c.” ordered by the House of Commons to be printed, 21st day of March, 1857, or in which the Dietary is not correctiy set forth in that Return:— ‘ REPORT—1861. 76 srnoqey s,Aep aut jo uonvurmsay pue qUAMADUIWIUIOD JO SANOTT *saqoUl UL YURI dy JO a[purvy Jo tyZuary | sroquinu Arvu -Ipio oy} Woy WOeLIeA Ioy AyIIOYINe pu spuno.y i *sanssoid yua 4 -ragip yt Avp sad suonnjoaosr Jo roqrunu savurpag & “IDUOSIL] AY} JO JYSIS UTGATIM Xeput 919 sq | “Iap10 Duryp1om Asvo ur ydoy pue pojoodsur Ayyeorponod syurio oy ory *paqeindsar pue poqeurysa aanssoad ayy st Mozy | *syuedo ayy PAOUT 07 parmba. ‘sq] Ur a.tnssaad Jo syuNOW snoLte A “party skemye Jooya oy} uodn soovjd omy [fe ory | *[aatar 914 jo woynyoaar aya jo Aypider aga SuryeynSor yo apoyw “Aprep joay ory wodn Jouosirg yore sy | = : | r se 3 FS IOJUTA\ UT a Sek 28 E a 3 stouMINg Uy | A “ATIep JaoyA a3 uodn omy yey, | i “UOISSIMII9INT JO SINOTT | BB “INOQV] [YApva.4 JO snoqy | au e Ses 3 “soma uy | Bae Sg z56a 8 ‘rong UT | ‘sayour ur days jo yq3107f | P = : “Udo AA | a “WoW | PI Fs *papIPUL St Yous YoryA Sutinp aury Jo yysuey oy, | x 3 ‘pasn are Ady} YOIYM ut Japso ary, | *padojdma syuomystund oxy, | WEIGHT. Average loss of weight with Treadwheel or Crank 1858, im d risoners receive 1 qt aout 03 pornbar 4ysIem pue ‘soured Jo pury labour of all prisoners 1859, and 1869, of each age 1860, committed with in on entrance. “syjuom fF 03 ¢ *SyQUOUL ¢ 0} Z “st}UOU Z 0} T | sentences of “tapun pue YUOUL T ‘9DAVYOSIP WO *Sq[ UI SSOT [BIO J, | ‘aDIVYOSIp UO *sq] UL UIeS [eI], | “aoUvAZUI WO “Sq UT qq diem (401, | “poysioar qoquunyy | | ‘sprvadn pur of “CP 04 GE "GE 03 GS “GS 07 OT ‘URL @ JIM papeoy uoM *pajonpap sayjo]o at]} JO IYSIOM 9Y4 ST | ‘adIVYSIP UC | *90UR.1VUI UO | ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. 7 Dietaries for Convicted Prisoners, in City and Borough Prisons, and in those County Prisons in which the Dietary has been changed since the Return of _ “Dietaries for Convicts, &c,” ordered the 27th day of February, 1857. Total quantities per week in each Scale of Dietary, in ounces and parts of an ounce. Other Scale Milk. articles of No. dietary. 2 Nos. of scale with treadwheel and crank | Duration of sentence under each scale. 3) = fo) — . ~ S i - S|. o o fo) . ° Peal sy : rH Ae ° = a= ao =|2 Blslsls lee g 22/2 a & C= a a a ira) = | o-5 a oD | wie S als — °o = o emt fem | so ry S)o to elale Se a : ® O|a|2 s/ 2/5 > : See ey 3 Ola|/2& no} Yislisa . 2 ) 3| 2/22 Potties = S -BlFlalg Care Wr, na Slealo n | |S Pp ire SIS sg -|S/)E15 4 -16/S| [slo] 1s slal sis |- =|3 a 3 EISlSl5 = a) s.|2 o|a2\p/c nm) = 3/3 a 3s =H SF 3 Oo ls | = ra Os |/a; es o = . S|. s|.-|2\ole - ale SS iS)0 oS] ll elo/2}) |Slale Blasl[olol/e}ai Sepals S Fle SlsleiSlslSlsislSlolelsis!] Sl sisis Sfx reales Isl e/S“/S/S/S/2/8/ 815 \Sl2/5/-3/ S| s|8| S/S le)e/3 sls &e. |Z |A\S PE |B BIO | | OIA Ie [20 JOE IO |e | he | IE Jen ele AppenpDIx VI.—West-Riding Prison, Wakefield. A Table showing the average Weight of Prisoners on Receipt and Discharge in each Class of Diet. (Taken for Two Years.) Number of Average weight on eh Prisoners ||} —______. | weighed. Receipt. Discharge. | 1856. Ibs. Ibs. Me) Lable 1...........000+0.5. 64 113-7 112-9 PM cecrteesncsensasees 1030 124:3 122-4 | |. SECO ee 757 121-5 119-6 MUN) yy As cesesce Apa cee 156 1285 1294 SD ROSocEs ee seeEen eee 48 127°6 125-9 } 2055 12345 121-80 | 1860. SAHIN acca ctec.o3sas200- 174 128-9 128-0 PeEealsecancssenssccoee 1091 124-1 1218 SPERM cccncasssleccbscnes 799 1211 1183 Petal csacscuscescws-s- 108 126:7 125°4 RL eicsccncecces--tene 72 125-4 126°5 2244 123°50 121-29 A Statement of the Number and Weight of Prisoners employed at the Tread- mill in the West-Riding Prison at Wakefield. (Total of Classes.) Average Weeks on Treadmill. Persons. | Loss in lbs. loss in lbs. One week on Treadmill ........ Al 108 2°63 Two weeks aoa Medeacsce ede 26 119 4:57 BRYCE WEEKS ~~ 5y-— scasceccece: 10 60 6:0 Four weeks a Soot tera 5 38 77 REPORT—1861. 78. F680 86802 = ece'se yAGmal tard sco‘ FPS 0981 69-1 90¥'E 6c0'% 9¢8T 4 0% 629'F OLS 6981 96:3 GL8'F 996% CCgt 0% Glas Ores 8gsI 0-8 L¥6'9 F28S FSsi sereeeeeeees ATBOIUING GFL £29'e- LES LSB 89-2 99F'8 9663 ess ae oce'ce LIFT preMIoF 4y Inorg ¢- 799'8 984% GEST —— ps —_—- SS ‘SSOTT ODBIOAY *sSO'T “Sq *s1oUOSIg ‘ON “B10 X *88Ory OSBIOAY "S807 ‘SQ *‘SIOUOSIIG ‘ON | *s1t0q 1s | gscoe | res || 0-2 G29 | Lez || 0-7 size | oFee || 6F-1 Lege | Lave LI imo og =| at ||: Tt [aren e6 ee | st jmp eee | os |] 9-1 [uo ¢6 8g ¢ ra 6st | 80 || eo |uep ge Tet |] &t1 ist | get || cr [ura o6e | ser | F LG gzee | 66L || 62 6leg | Los || ¥3 rees | 068 || GT fisor | eae | ¢ FS e19 | 1601. || 0% e4ee | SsIL || oS ose | eret || 6-1 986 | 6FIL| & 6-0 wt «| FA || 60 tor | Zot | 90 69 |901 | 91 | ser -| Z6 I ‘0981 “6981 “89ST “£981 eee £9-1 gore | scos joes | cesr |oces| oe | sre9 | przez ||s9-¢ | gore g6ce || oe | F998 | 98te Ll 18 sr || se | 00% 19 || 90 | 19 th || ve | eee 1 | 38 | 108 iz g 60 |ueoger |ger || ez | gce 62 || 93 | tr tt || £8 | Ise wi || se | see Ht | F 61 errr | Lee || Os | Ze9r ees || te | 66cs | sce || 6 | 8z6z cot | oe | voze | sis | e@ 61 e961 | ogor || a | .zoce |crit|| ee | sese | sert|| 4e | resp | Zeer] ee | seep | seer] f 8-0 eg 19 || et | Zet a a 03 || Lt | ost 68 || #1 | Gor ck I > y b> ty b > 7 > F es| FF | 23lg3| $F |f21 88] fe [fei ge] fe | be] Fe] ge | oe | ee Fo # & # ag # 5 # de a * & 2 ae & § op @F 3° 2 2 2 = 2 : a Prd “9S81 “eest “FS8I “e981 “Eos Cppyo rAd ‘uosug Surpry ysoqy) ‘apoya ayy yo Aveuuwng wv yy 1941080) ‘aatsnpour ‘OOST oF GEST svat Supnp Asejzo1q JO ssv[Q yous ur ‘sivax oUINY UI AdUOSIIg oye Jod yYS1oAQ Ul sso'T oSvaoae oy} Surmoys AIaV, W—"]]] XIaNaday ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE: 91 | 84 | 006 | & SFI | Le GSt © [''** StoAveM-3urqye yy sereesresigate[d-t109 sreees STOSIUQ-JOIN *** SIOABIM-SBAUBS) sereee* STOABOM=~JRIN seresere SIONVUI-JU IA | seeneeeeree SIODULM | €-GE 81-0 7 60:9 26S. |0:GZL | — | G-OFLIT} S-STOIT| 2% | 88h | &-9F ~8I | [E61 | Z98T | OOOF TROL 1-09 18:9 ar 76-6 £8-F |0-19Z1} — | O-LPFL | 0-O8T ¥-6€ ell a 16: I¢g |G-pzez] — | &-689 | OSSSh | SF | BEd | OOF 98 | ZSIl | 928 | F90 8-9E = 0G-T F6-G 92-9 — |0-€2€ | 0-289 0-096 9¢ | 8-6& | 9-FS cl | Lol | ZFI | 696 seeeeeees STQIUIGIVD **** SNOQULT[IOST ¥:9Z =) IL-1 96-7 £1-9 — |¢&-L0F8| $1096 | 0.6008 | 6S L-28 | 9-2 GL | feo | 218 | TEVT | 9 7 ssoxeneoys Cer eet trees soe SLO[IV], 8:92 ae €8-T 68:2 6L-L — |0-08L | S18 GII€ | Il | hee | €99 | 8 &6 OF TZ jrveeeetssstayoid-s109 rd ‘poysiom | ‘poysiem | “suISoT ‘Surares F . ‘ 3 ; a 19 douostd | couosiad | aouostd | aouostad | , > , 2 “Law | qyStoM | qysroM | "AIR | -qYSIOM | “QSIOM | S Be 3 gad ssory | aod uiey | rad ssory | aod uep BSONT | Ure qSOrh peurey |-uoyejg| Suisory amtpeD -T01y8}g Fatah Surrey gas MOST YG el MM wo a a ur guourso;dug 5 = a asRIOAy 99N spunog Jo ‘ONT SIOUOKIIT JO osvJMOOIEg | sdoUOstIg JO Toqumm jy ze i . ‘ ; - / , ‘ . - is . y j - « 4 ad) tiie } { inti ; ? wry | at 7 ght tAt J eu si *BtR PS esl ok be 243 i b Phe Pte | A bag OFF Aa) TE Pipes PES TAG) REC NOUNS lems ; SiOt) OS. t Mes { IRS eee) ee TeG! he Ane ees . Wn 29340 hes pest | Dh say fe a WB Bee | 4 AL) ware) ws _—Experiments made at Wakefield Gaol, 1861. [ To face page 81.] Aprenpix X. Pp Two Tarrors.—Light labour. ily Egesta. Daily Ingesta. | pelea Weight of body, | : in Ibs. and ozs, Chloride of Sodium] Water pee quite is, lesen |) Glesac: avoirdupois. ~ | Urea ci besides that in the 7 , juantity. D tol ll ron Bread, esi a La (not in food). | Quantity. Nitrogen. y: | a b. ] | x Per ‘Total in |{n each) Total | eye Iw Jo. | N No. ‘= No. | No. | Aver-| fl, oz. |Total!,,. | urine | fl.oz | daily || No. | No. | Aver- d No. | No. | Aver- | No.| No. No. | No.| Aver- cent. Jdaily.| U™&| and of in 192. | 184. } age. 182, | 184. | age. |182./184./ 48% |182./184.| age. | 182. | 184, ba 182, | 184. | age. acim ily. | pray | aca urine. | iB | | | | | | | | | =S = ica es esi i} j s. | grs. | prs | grs. 124 13 |117 94 161. | ere | ers, | gre. |ers./ ers.| gre. floriflon foe ea | 9:66 S04) %. | So l15i5 125 23|117 8 June 28 | 10,913) 10,898) 10,906]194 | 49 | 121-5 |18 |103) 148 | ABI snes) | ge laze lies 21 » 29 | 10,849 10,338) 10,594)1413 753, 1085 |16 | 17 433 | 719 | ... allies Sindy } 10,792) 11,192) 10,992/2013) 453 1235 |15 |17 271-0 30 se is alae ny July 1 | 10,908) 10,748) 10,828/1873| 87}, 1375 | 4 |10 Bas Bi we Iie Tale 5a 2 (10,988) 10,727|10,858\190 | 86 | 138 | 29 | 31 | aoe eee | a7 | gsr (los 1agiiis 199 "3 | 12,612, 10,500) 11,556/1923, 92 | 1422 10 | 5 2a ote) ge l1g66 lies sills tok ” ‘4 | 9,652| 10,145) 9,899|178 {1024 140:2 | 9 | 34 Boa aullara | yaso}\idemai| t1gnN7 ” 5 | 10.430) 10,446| 10,438|224 |115 | 1695 | 8 | 74 ree aaa ee oor laane7|i2s 16y\i1s 92 m6 | 4,275) 10,095) 10,685)202 1433) 1727 |174 8 3 55 | é oe 10,854) 10,343) 10,599]1903) 423) 166: | 93/11 425 | 37-9 | 144 | 546 | 2555] 28027] 4:0 |1516 126 43/119 3) 3 | gisz7| 9,697\192 | 30 | 39:0 | 38:7 | 17-04| 660 | 307-4] 337°88| 4:0 |1548 [126 0 \119 14{ 12253) 5:38 rate Mase) 11,334] 104381231 ag) ise \18 | 7 415 | 37-65| 18:8 | 708 | 376-6) 401-02) 4-0 | 1506 |125 113/118 9 |192-14) 5:79 a 830) 11, 58 y i "65 | 16: 37| 331-93] 4:0 | 158-6 125 133/119 54/1226 | 5:3 » 10 Beis)izs Gey 40 | 1285 |114) 94 40:0 | 39°65| 164 | 650 | 303:7| 331-93] 4 Two Martinc Weavers.—Heavy labour. f Daily Ingesta. | Daily Egesta. Pace, Weight of body, Chloride of Sodium = Uri Chloride of in Ibs. and ozs. Urea Bread. ae that in the| (9) Vater Seperers |e a matty Urea. | Nitrogen, daily. f avoirdupois. | Date. | lyeadtes (not in food). | Quantity. | Nitrogen. Quantity. D Sodium, to an = body- | Per | Total Per | |Total in |Ineach| Total weight, No. | No. | Aver- | No.| No.| 4 vcraze,| No-| No. | Aver- || No. | No. or daily | No. | No, | Aver-| fl. oz, |Total| t:,¢,| urine | fl. oz. | daily No. No. | Aver- . 7. | 39. | age. | 7. | 39. Be) 7. | 39.| age | 7. | 39. | pon’) quan-| 7. | 39. | age. | of daily. “| and | of | in 7. 39. | age. | oth. tity. urine, feces. | urine. | urine. 1e61. | gr. | gre. | prs. | ers. ra floz|\flen|| sonl| era |\gess |) real |) ges igen 8}147 34] 146-87| ers. June 28 | 12,948) 12,848) 12,918| 864) 38} we 36:8 | 623 | 49°55| 13:74) 671 | 313-4 24 10 |146 65|146°51 £55 » 29 | 14,543] 14,664) 14,604) 88 | 39) | i | 427 | 6115] 57°92] 138 | 717 | 3350) ... | 27 34146 43) 146-25) 4-9 wy 30 | 11,528) 14,305) 12,917| 783)None| ,..... 14 |16 | 15 663 | 5°88 | 1°03 | 26-41 | 41°06) 48°9 | 44°98) 15°36) 691 | 3229) 349:31] 24 64146 11 | 147-1 | 4-7 July 1 | 13,607 13,475) 13,541) 69 | 374) 53:2 [40 | 174) 283 | 2-03 |10:33 | 1-24 34-16 | 53:8 | 40° | 46:9 | 14-76] 692 | 323°3) 35746) 3:3 93/146 11 |147-15) 4-7 » 2) 18,127) 12,407/12,767) 73 | 37 | 55° [40 |29 | 344 |}1011 | 852] 1-15 | 46-26 | 53-9 | 357 | 45:8 | 13°89| 637 | 297°3| 34356) 39 104146 134| 146:75) 4-34 » 3 | 13,629) 13,758) 13,694) 884) 42 | 65:2 |29 |40 | 344 | 80 |13-:0 | 110 | 50-71 | 29-4 | 429 | 4615] 15-42) 558 | 262°6| 313:31| 3:6 03/146 114) 1469 | 3.62 | » 4 | 13,314) 13,412) 13,363105 | 403) 727 |40 |40 | 40 | 5-35 | 9:23 | 1-04 |34-66 | 455 | 45° | 45°25 15:9 | 710 | 331-8) 366-46) 3:6 5} 146 14 | 147-11) 4°83 n 5 29 14,586) 13,709 86 | 41} 635 |40 |40 | 40 || 432 | 7-94 |0°97 | 26:01 | 55° | 44- | 49-5 | 15-45) 765 | 357°3| 385-31] 3:3 2 146 03) 146:58) 5-21 m § | 12,260) 14,050 13,155) 93 | 50 | 71:5 [40 |29 | 344 |10-94| B64 [1-35 |57°8 | 74 | 40S | 57-25| 13:53] 775 | 362-1] 5199 | 27 4 |146 10 | 146-43) 5°29 m7) 18264) 15,540 13,207) 82 | 254) 58-7 |304/14 | 224) 1-72 |14-4 | 1-00 | 35-28 | 48°5 | 37-5 | 43° | 15°87) 683 | 319°1| 354-38) 27 3} 147 124] 147-98) 4°61 Bias 12,687| 12,650) 8554) 745 133 |40 | 36h }10-7 | 5-28 |1-31 | 45°81 | 49° | 44° | 46:5 | 15-2 | 707 | 3303) 376-11] 36 143}147 12 | 147-32) 4:8 I REE ees Ode 88 | 763) 822 |50 |40 | 45 |) 674 |1284 | 1-05 |45°03 | 46° | 46> | 46° | 16:0 | 736 | 343-9) 388-93] 3:6 |165:6 ||144 154)147 114] 146°34) 5:02 i K i 2 66) 73 |40 }29 | 34} | 10-48 | 10-45 |1-05 | 481 | 42° | 465 | 44-25] 17-84] 790 | 369°1| 417-2 | 3:6 | 1593 |144 941147 24| 146-36) 5°39 It 81 ON PRISON DIET AND DISCIPLINE. *poydiom aouosid aod ssory pe 8L-c 81-0 91-6 i 06-2 = 60-2 LT-0 60-€ 61-0 66:6 — 66-3 ae 66-1 ¥00-0 90-2 = 166 as L13 0£-0 60-6 80-0 40-6 6S-0 oE-% 10-0 F266 £0-0 OL-2 — LE. a ¥2-3 = C3-6 “poysiam | -Burs0T azauosiid | aonostid dod urey | aod ssory asB10aAy Fa-% 8-2 60-6 IL-2 GE-6 FPS 90.6 €1-2 F0-2 91-2 ¥S-6 99-6 IL-3 LL% GE-3 PLS 18-1 10-6 92-2 “dares qzouosraid aod urey G-LFLPF | O-9FESF G-ESF06 | S-99F FS 0-88dF¢ | ¢-6/881 ¢-06S01 | ¢-£600T 0-6696 | 0-609TT G-PSLOL| S-LE82L G-Z69E1| 0-848 0-9S€¢ | 0-LEZE G-606E | G-ShEE 0-C06E | 0-G1¢E ¢-080F | 0-€0€€ O-€8F2 | G-6L8F G-GETS | S-93FE O-I8EE | 0-2cES 0-G64E | &-SZ8¢ G-8L9¢ | 0-O1ZE GOles | S-8161 0-1S0F | 0-0F1€ O-FLOP | S-€2Z¢ spuneg jo zaquinyy *u0S¥ag 0} IYSI9AA JO uONRIaI fae | qu dross | -qydiom “qu d1I0M -001484g| Sutso7y |duturey| -u0eg duurey | poysiom srouostad 6 L-9F see 9d DTOU ¢-6 GF syyuow zomumuNg €-6 | 6-6F SYJUOM 19zUT AA 8-6 ¥-9F Joqrenb yIN0, 4-6 9-SF ***soqrenb pny, ¢-6 EP Jaqienb puodag 88 | Seo vee gaqrunb 48x07 6:6 €-LP cesses g9qut909¢] €-OL | SFr seseee JqUIOAO NT 6-6 €-LF “eeeeeeee TOGO} 6-8 T-1S £6 L-¢¢ 8-6 0-FF 9-6 | 0-68 teeseeeeeoee gun p 9.6 L-9F eteeeavereees KETV 6 6-FF sees rudy £8 | 9:29 “oryaTE 1-01 | €-8F * Areniqag 6-8 ¥-6F 50 “ONT Si19uOsIIg JO odujUI0IAg g1ouOsIIg JO cequm yy ay} SuimoygS—y] x1anaaay 82 : REPORT—1861. Freight as affected by Differences in the Dynamic Properties of Steam- ships. By Cuar.tes ATHERTON, Chief Engineer, H.M. Dockyard, Woolwich. THE national importance of steam shipping is a theme which demands no demonstration; and any attempt to originate, promulgate, and popularize inquiry into the comparatively economic capabilities of the steam-ship as devoted to the international conveyance and interchange of the products of nature and of manufacturing art, irrespective of its application as an engine of war, is a task which requires no laboured introduction in support of its being favourably received for consideration by an association devoted to the advancement of science. The former papers on ‘ Tonnage,’ ‘ Steam-Ship Capability,’ and ‘ Mercan- tile Steam Transport Economy,’ which the author of this further communica- tion has been permitted to present to the British Association, and which appear in the volumes of its ‘ Transactions’ for the years 1856, 1857, and 1859, were devoted to an exposition of the technicalities of the subject as respects the mutual quantitative relations which displacement, speed, power, and coal hold to each other in the construction and equipment of steam- ships with a view to the realization of definite steaming results. So far, therefore, these investigations have had reference to the constructive equip- ment of steam-ships; but the course of inquiry now submitted for considera- tion is intended to be a practical exposition of the extent to which the expense per ton weight of cargo conveyed is affected by the various conditions of size of ship, dynamic quality of hull with reference to type of form, weight of hull with reference to its build, the economic properties of the engines with reference to the consumption of fuel, and the steaming speed at which the service is required to be performed, all which circumstances, respectively and in their combinations, affect the economic capabilities of steam-ships for the conveyance of mercantile cargo, and consequently freights charged, to an extent not publicly known because hitherto not specially inquired into nor promulgated by the press, and which in the distinctive details above set forth do not appear to have been duly appreciated even by the parties most deeply concerned in the mercantile control and prosecution of steam-shipping affairs. The aggregate expenses incidental to the prosecution of steam transport service must generally regulate the average rates of freight at. which goods are conveyed; and, seeing to what an extent the ultimate cost of manufactured goods is dependent on the cost of transport, often repeated, as freight charges generally are in the various stages of transition of material from the raw to its manufactured condition and its ultimate consumption as a manufactured article, it becomes evident that this investigation especially concerns the manufacturing interests of the country. Economy of price inducing quantity of consumption, is the characteristic feature of the manu- facturing enterprise of the present day ; and it is the absolute cost of goods which affects consumption, irrespectively of the various causes in detail by which the cost may have been enhanced. Under these circumstances, it is remarkable to what extent the manufacturing interests, though keenly alive to legislative imposts, whether foreign or domestic, affecting the cost of goods, and sensitively. jealous of legislative interference in the control of labour, as affecting the cost of manufacture, pass wholly unheeded deficien- cies and imperfections in the practical control of shipping with reference to freight charges, though equally affecting the ultimate price of manufactures. Such incongruity demonstrates the necessity for popular exposition and inquiry into the various circumstances and combinations of circumstances | ON FREIGHT AS AFFECTED BY DYNAMIC PROPERTIES. 83 which directly affect the expenses incidental to the conveyance of merchan- ilise by steam-ships, and by which the rates of freight are in the aggregate necessarily regulated. Freight, therefore, is the text of the following dis- course, to which attention is directed under the various aspects of steam- ship construction and management, by which freight charge is affected, and which may be classified under ten heads or sections, as follow :— Section A.—Freight, as affected by variations of the size of the ship by which the service is performed. . B.—Freight, as affected by variations in the constructive type of form of the hull. C.—Freight, as affected by variations in the working economy of the engines, with reference to the consumption of coal. D.—Freight as affected by variations in the constructive weight of the hull, with reference to its load displacement. E.—Freight, as affected by variations in the constructive type of form combined with variations in the working economy of the engines. F.—Freight, as affected by variations in the size of ship com- bined with variations in the constructive type of form and in the working economy of the engines. G.—Freight, as affected by variations of the steaming speed at which it is required that the service shall be performed. H.—Freight, as affected by variations of the size of ship com- bined with variations of speed. I.—Freight, as affected by variations of the speed combined with variations of the working economy of the engines. K.—Freight, as affected by variations of the speed combined with variations in the type of form, working economy of the engines, and weight of hull. It will be observed that it is not proposed to determine the actual amount of prime-cost expenses incidental to the prosecution of steam-ship enterprise, by which the scale of freight charge may be chiefly regulated, but it is pro- posed to demonstrate, with reference to a specified unit of performance, the ratio or comparative scale of cost, in which the prime-cost expenses incidental to the conveyance of cargo per ton weight of goods conveyed ona given passage is, ceteris paribus, affected by each of the various circumstances or conditions set forth under the ten different heads above referred to. The fundamental consideration on which it is proposed to base this inves- tigation is this, that, within moderate limits of variation, the investment inci- dental to the fitting-out of steam-ships for commercial transport service is approximately proportional to the quantity of shipping as measured by the constructors’ load displacement of the ships, and the amount of working- power employed as measured by the indicated horse-power, also that the interest on investment, upholding of stock, and all other annual expenses in- cidental to the working of steam-ships, such as coals, stores, and wages, harbour dues, insurance, and pilotage, are approximately proportional to such investment; and further, as the mercantile service of steam-ships employed on a given station generally requires that their passages shall be periodical, it is assumed in the following calculations that the number of passages made annually by each ship is the same in all the different vessels assumed to be employed on the same service and brought into comparison with each other. It is particularly to be observed that these calculations and deductions of comparative freight charges are not of general application to different services, but have reference only to the special service which, as an example ei 84 : REPORT—1S61. of the system of calculation for any service, has been adopted as the unit of performance, namely, the performance of a ship of 5000 tons displacement, employed on a passage of 3000 nautical miles aud steaming at ten knots per V3D2 hour,—the coetficient of performance, by the formula in b= being C=250, and the consumption of coal being at the rate of 2lbs. per indicated horse-power per hour, which data have been assumed as the base of the fol- lowing tabular statement, consisting of 21 columns, the purport of which is as follows :-— Column 1st.—Reference to divisions or sections of the subject under con- sideration. 2nd and 2l1st.—Designations of the vessels referred to in the various sections. 3rd.—Size of the ship as determined by displacement at the draft to which it is intended by the constructor that the ship shall be loaded. 4th.—Steaming speed at which the vessel is required to perform the passage. ' 5th.—Coefficient of dynamic performance of the vessel by the formula Vv? D2 ao ind. h.p 6th.—Consumption of coal per indicated horse-power per hour expressed in lbs. 7th.—Coefficient of dynamic duty with reference to coal consumed by 3Pp2 v*D2 : : , formula AW W being the average consumption of coal expressed in cwts. per hour. 8th.—Power required to propel the vessel at the required speed expressed in indicated horse-power and calculated by the forniula, indicated horse- Vv*D2 C 9th.—Length of passage to be performed by the ship without re-coaling expressed in nautical miles. 10th.— Weight of hull, including all equipment complete for sea (exclu- sive of engines, coal, and cargo), taken at 40 per cent. of the load displace- ment. 11th—Weight of engines and boilers in working order, including all equipment for sea, taken at the rate of 5 ewt. per indicated horse-power. 12th.— Weight of coal required for the passage, calculated on the fore- going data. 13th—Cargo, as determined by the load displacement less the weight of hull, engines, and coal. 14th.—Investment in the hull of the ship, including rigging, furnishing, and all other equipment complete for sea, taken at £50 per ton weight of hull. 15th.—Investment in the engines, including spare gear and all equipment for sea, taken at £15 per indicated horse-power. 16th.—Total investment in hull and engines. 17th.—Comparative rates of freight or ratios of cost expenses per ton of cargo, being proportional to the investment divided by the tons weight of cargo conveyed. 18th.—Ratios of cost expenses per ton of cargo, with reference to that incurred by ship A, taken as the unit of performance, and which is expressed by the number 100, si ~ 19th.—Ratios of cost expenses per ton of cargo with reference to the cost power— | | ON FREIGHT AS AFFECTED BY DYNAMIC PROPERTIES. 85 incurred by ship A, taken as the unit of performance, and which is expressed by £1 per ton. . 20th.—Comparative freight on 100,000 tons of goods, assuming the freight by ship A to be at the rate of £1 per ton of goods conveyed. 2\st.—Designations of vessels referred to in the sections. The table (next page) may be interpreted as follows :— Section A.—Freight, as affected (ceteris paribus) by variations of the size of ship. By reference to the table (next page) it will be observed that as the ship’s size (column 3) is reduced from 5000 tons displacement to 4000 tons, {the expenses per ton of cargo (column 17) become increased in the ratio of 49 to 51, that is, in the ratio of 100 to 104 (column 18), showing an increase of 4 per cent.; or, expressed in money, assuming £1 per ton to be the rate of freight by ship A, of 5000 tons displacement, the rate by ship A,, of 4000 tons displacement will be £1 Os. 10d., and by following the table it appears that the rate of freight by ship A,, of 3000 tons, will, as compared with ship A, of 5000, be increased 8 per cent., amounting to £1 ls. 8d. er ton. J The comparative freight charges on 100,000 tons of goods (column 20) by the vessels A, A,, A,, respectively would be £100,000, £104,000 and £108,000. Thus, in a merely mechanical point of view, and irrespectively of various mercantile and nautical considerations which may limit the size of ships, we see the benefit of performing goods transport service by large vessels in pre- ference to small ones, provided that adequate cargo be always obtained and that no delay be thereby incurred. But it is to be observed that if the 5000-tons ship A, instead of being loaded with its full cargo of 2395 tons, be loaded only with the quantity of cargo (1878 tons) that could be carried by the 4000-tons ship, A,, the freight expenses per ton of cargo would, in this case, be enhanced in the proportion of 63 to 49, that is, in the proportion of 128 to 100, or 28 per cent., or, expressed in money, in the proportion of £1 4s. 10d. to £1, the same being a higher rate by 24 per cent. than the freight charge at which the 4000-tons ship, A,, would perform the service. By pursuing the calculations from the data adduced by the table, it will be found that the economic advantage of the 5000-tons ship, A, as compared with the 4000-tons ship, A,, will be entirely sacrificed if its cargo be reduced from 2395 tons to 2305 tons, or be only 90 tons, or 32 per cent. deficient of its fullload. Also, as compared with the ship A,, of 3000 tons, the advantage of the 5000-tons ship A will be lost if its cargo be reduced from 2395 tons to 2218, or be only 117 tons deficient of its full load. Hence it appears that the superior economic capabilities of large ships in a mechanical point of view for the conveyance of goods may, in a mercantile point of view, be very soon sacrificed by mismanagement in assigning larger vessels for the discharge of mercantile service than is demanded by the trade, notwithstanding the economic superiority of large ships when promptly and fully loaded. Secrion B.—Freight, as affected (eeteris paribus) by variations in the constructive type of torm of the hull. The relative constructive efficiency of mercantile ships in a purely dynamic point of view, as respects type of form (irrespectively of materials and workmanship), is now generally recognized as being determined by their co- efficients (C) of dynamic performance, as deduced from actual trial of the . 73 9 ships, and calculated by the following formula ind Bes =C, which may be expressed as follows :— ce | a | | | | | | a | Constructor’s load displace- ment Designation sof Vessels Tons 5000 A, | 4000 A, | 3000 A 5000 B, | 5000 B, | 5000 A 5000 c, | 5000 c, | 5000 A 5000 D, | 5000 D, 5000 A 5000 E, | 5000 E, | 5000 A 5000 F, | 4000 F, | 3000 A 5000 G, 5000 G, | 5000 A 5000 H, | 4000 H, | 3000 A 5000 I, | 5000 1, | 5000 A 5000 K, | 5000 REPORT—186l. 4 5 6 B | ss les Sa | ea [es eo ar) 25 ga| #e lo" n a V3 Dg Knots. |Ind.h.p.| Lbs. 10 | 250 | 2 10 250 2 10 250 2 10 | 250 10 | 200 10 150 10 250 2 10 250 3 10 250 4 10 250 2 10 250 2 10 | 250 10 | 250 2 10 | 200 3 10 150 4 10 | 250 2 10 | 200 3 10 150 4 12 250 2 14 250 2 10 250 12 250 2 10 250 | 2 12 250 | 3 14 250 | 4 lo | 250 | 2 1 | 225 | 3 14 |200 | 4 Coefficient of dynamic duty. Ww. 14,000 14,000 14,000 14,000 11,200 8,400 14,000 9,333 7,000 14,000 14,000 14,000 14,000 7,467 4,200 14,000 7,467 4,200 14,000 14,000 14,000 14,000 14,000 14,000 14,000 9,333 7,000 14,000 8,333 5,600 Power. Ind. h. p, | N. miles, 1170 1008 832 1170 1462 1950 1170 1170 1170 1170 1170 1170 1170 1462 1950 1170 1260 1386 1170 2021 3209 1170 1702 2283 1170 2021 3209 1170 2245 4012 10 ll : WEIGHT oF | ' : Hull and its equipment Tons. 3000 2000 3000 1600 3000 1200 3000 2000 3000 2000 3000 2000 3000 2000 3000 2000 3000 2000 3000 | 2000 3000 2500 3000 | 3000 3000 2000 3000 2000 3000 2000 3000 2000 3000 1600 3000 1200 3000 2000 3000 2000 3000 2000 3000 2000 3000 1600 3000 1200 3000 2000 3000 2000 3000 2000 3000 2000 3000 2250 3000 | 2500 their equip- ment = e nw eo & fb | | 292 561 | 1003 ON FREIGHT AS AFFECTED BY DYNAMIC PROPERTIES. 87 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 | 21 _ WEIGHT oF INVESTMENT. e863 gees gis ea % os 2 | s3 Gee | tees |Esess] $83 | 35 ds 6 | 283 | sda | a | 225 | S872 |eB353) 28S 188 23 a. |s8s | 84 | 3 BBs | Seas [soa] BSS | ge 25 Chale a2 ogs [FF he “ge s = {4 - Investment i ; Tons. Tons. £ £ £ Cargo. Ratios. | £ s. d. £ $13 | 2395 |100,000 | 17,550 |117,550| 49 100 | 1 0 0)100,000!4 270 | 1878 | 80,000} 15,120] 95,120] 51 104 | 1 0 10/104,000 4, 223 | 1369 | 60,000] 12,480} 72,480| 53 108 | 1 1 §8/108,000'A, 313 | 2395 |100,000| 17,550 |117,550| 49 100 | 1 0 0/100,000;A 392 | 2243 |100,000°} 21,930 |121,930| 54 110 | 1 2 0)110,000/B, , 522 | 1991 | 100,000 | 29,250 | 129,250} 65 132 | 1 6 5/132,000/B, 313 -| 2395 |100,000| 17,550/117,550 | 49 100 {1 0 0/100,000A 470 | 2238 |100,000 | 17,550 |117,550| 52 1066 }1 1 tigress 627 | 2081 |100,000 | 17,550{117,550| 56 114 |} 1 2 10/114,000C, 313 | 2395 {100,000 | 17,550 |117,550| 49 100 | 1 0 0/100,000A4 313 | 1895 |125,000 | 17,550 |142,550 | 75 153 | 110 1|183,000 0, 313 | 1395 |150,000 | 17,550 | 167,550 | 120 245 | 2 9 0/245,000)D, . 313 | 2395 | 100,000! 17,550 |117,550} 49 100 | 1 0 0/100,000.A 588 | 2047 | 100,000 | 21,930 {121,930 | 59 rp PT 2 0/120,000 £, 1044 | 1472 |100,000 | 29,250 |129,250| 88 179 | 1 15 10)179,000E, 313 | 2395 | 100,000] 17,550 /117,550| 49 100 | 1 0 0/100,000A 506 | 1579 | 80,000] 18,900 | 98,900] 62 126 | 1 5 2|/126,000F, 742 712 | 60,000 | 20,790 | 80,790 | 113 230 | 2 6 0/230,000F, 313 | 2395 | 100,000 | 17,550 |117,550 | 49 100 | 1 0 0)100,000/A . 451 | 2044 |100,000 | 30,315 {130,315 | 64 131 |1 6 2/131,000G, 614 1584 | 100,000 | 48,135 | 148,135 93 182 | 116 5/182,000/G, 313 | 2395 | 100,000 17,550 |117,550 | 49 100 | 1 0 0/100,000'A 380 | 1595 | 80,000 | 25,530 |105,530 | 66 134 | 1 6 10134,000;H, 437 792 | 60,000 | 34,245 | 94,245 | 119 243 |2 8 ingen 313 | 2395 | 100,000 | 17,550 [117,550 | © 49 100 |1 0 0 preense 677 | 1818 |100,000 | 30,315 |130,315 | 72 147 |1 9 5/147,0001, 1228 970 |100,000 | 48,135 | 148,135 |. 152 310 | 3 2 0/310,0001, 313 | 2395 |100,000 | 17,550 | 117,550 | 49 100 {1 0 0,100,000, A 751 | 1438 [112,500 | 33,675 | 146,175 | 102 208 | 2 1 8 208,000K,. Tose} Oo] oe, a ui or 3.) iii mee TK et 88 REPORT—1861. Multiply the cube of the speed (V’) by the cube root of the square of the displacement (D2), and divide the product by the indicated horse-power (Ind. h. p.) ; the quotient will be the coefficient (C) of dynamic performance. To enter upon the various uses to which this formula is applied would be irrelevant to the matter now under consideration. Suffice it to say that the numeral co-efficient obtained as above set forth affords practically a means by which the mutual relations of displacement, power, and speed of a steam-ship of given type of form, and of which the coefficient is known, may (ceteris paribus) be deduced, and it affords a criterion indi- cating, whatever be the size of the ship, the constructive adaptation of its type of form for mechanical propulsion, as compared with other types of form tested by the same rule—the condition of the vessels as respects clean- ness of immersed surface, stability, and other essential properties, being assumed to be the same; and we now proceed to show to what extent, under given conditions, freight per ton of goods conveyed is affected by variations of type of form, as represented by variations of the coefficient of performance. By reference to the table (Section B), it will be observed that as the co-efficient of dynamic performance is reduced from 250 to 150, the ex- penses become increased in the ratio of 100 to 132, or 32 per cent., or, assuming the freight by ship A, of which the coefficient of dynamic per- formance is 250, to be at the rate of £1 per ton of cargo, the charge by ship B,, of the same size, but of which the coefficient is 200, will be £1 2s., being an increase of 10 per cent.; and the charge by ship B,, of the same size, but of which the coefficient is 150, will be £1 6s. 5d., being an increase of 32 per cent., as compared with the rate of freight by ship A, of which the coefficient is 250. The comparative freight charges on 100,000 tons of goods by the vessels A, B,, B,, respectively, would be £100,000, £110,000, and £132,000. Seeing, therefore, that variations of the type of form, as indicated by variations of the coefficient of dynamic performance, even within the limits of 250 and 150, which are of ordinary occurrence in steam-shipping, affect the expenses incidental to the conveyance of mercantile cargo, under the con- ditions referred to, to the extent of 32 per cent., the coefficient of dynamic performance which a ship may be capable of realizing, being thus (ceteris paribus) a criterion of the economic working of the ship with reference to power, becomes a highly important matter for directorial consideration in the purchasing or disposal of steam-ships. Section C.—Freight as affected (ceteris paribus) by variations in the working economy of the engines with reference to coal. The relative working economy of marine engines as respects the con- sumption of coal per indicated horse-power per hour is evidently an important element for consideration as affecting freight,—to illustrate which, it has been assumed that variations in mercantile practice extend from 2 lbs. per indicated horse-power per hour to 41bs. The consumption of so little as 2 lbs. per indicated horse-power per hour is not usually attained, but being now ad- mitted to have been achieved, and such having become a matter of contract stipulation, it may be looked forward to as the probable future consumption on board ship generally, although the ordinary consumption of existing steamers cannot at the present time be rated at less than 4lbs. per indicated horse-power per hour. By reference to the table (Section C), it appears that, under the special conditions of the service under consideration (namely vessels of 5000 tons displacement employed on a passage of 3000 nautical miles, and steaming at ON FREIGHT AS AFFECTED BY DYNAMIC PROPERTIES. 89 the speed of 10 knots an hour), by increasing the consumption of coal from 2\bs.to 4\1bs. per indicated horse-power per hour, the expense per ton of goods conveyed becomes increased in the proportion of 49 to 56, that is, in the proportion of 100 to 114, being an increase of 14 per cent., or, assuming the freight by the standard ship A, consuming 2]bs. of coal per indicated horse-power per hour, to be at the rate of £1 per ton of cargo conveyed, the rate of freight by ship C,, consuming 3 lbs. per indicated horse-power per hour, will be £1 1s. 2d., being an increase of 6 per cent., and the rate of freight by ship C,, consuming 4:lbs. per indicated horse-power per hour, will be £1 2s. 10d., being an increase of 14 per cent. per ton of goods conveyed under the conditions referred to. The comparative freight charges on 100,000 tons of goods by the vessels A, C,, C,, respectively would be £100,000, £106,000, and £114,000. Section D.—Freight charge as affected (ceteris paribus) by variations in the constructive weight of hull with reference to the size of the ship as de- termined by the load displacement. To illustrate this matter it has been assumed that the weight of hull, including the whole equipment complete for sea (exclusive of engines, coal, and cargo) may vary from 40 per cent. of the load displacement to 60 per cent., under which limitations, by reference to table (Section D), it appears that, under the special conditions of the service underjconsideration, by in- creasing the weight of hull from 40 per cent. of its displacement to 60 per cent., and assuming the cost of the hull to be in proportion to its weight of materials, the expenses or freight charge per ton of cargo conveyed become increased in the proportion of 49 to 120, that is, in the proportion of 100 to 245, being an increase of 140 per cent., or, assuming the freight charge by the standard ship A, of which the weight of hull is 40 per cent. of the load displacement (2000 tons) to be at the rate of £1 per ton of goods conveyed, the rate of freight by ship D,, of which the weight of hull is 50 per cent. of the load displacement (2500 tons), will be £1 10s. 7d. per ton, being an increase of 53 per cent., and by ship D,, of which the weight of hull is 60 per cent. of the load displacement (3000 tons), the rate of freight becomes £2 Qs. per ton, being an increase of 145 per cent. per ton of goods conveyed under the conditions referred to. The comparative freight charges on 100,000 tons of goods by the vessels A, D,, D,, respectively, would be £100,000, £153,000, and £245,000. Hence, in the construction of steam-ships we see the importance of quality of material and excellence of fastening as a means of reducing weight, and the dis- advantage that attends heavy-built ships, such as war-steamers, for discharging mercantile service. Hence also we see the deficient steaming endurance or limited armament of high-speed armoured ships unless built of enormous size, as measured by their load displacement, and the disadvantage of types of form which require the aid of ballast to insure stability. Section E.—Freight is affected (ceteris paribus) by variations in the constructive type of form combined with variations in the working economy of the engines. By reference to the Table (Section E), it appears, under the special con- ditions of the service under consideration, that by an inferior type of form, as indicated by the coefficient of performance being reduced from 250 to 150, combined with an inferior construction of engines, as indicated by the con- sumption of fuel being increased from 2 lbs. to 4lbs. per indicated horse-power per hour, thereby reducing the coefficient of dynamic duty (column 7) from 14,000 to 4200, the expense or freight charge per ton of goods conveyed becomes increased in'the ratio of 100 to 179, being an increase of 79 per 90 REPORT—1861. cent. ; or, assuming the freight charge by the standard ship A, of which the coefficient of performance is 250 and rate of consumption 2 lbs. per indicated horse-power per hour (giving a coefficient of dynamic duty 14,000), to be at the rate of £] per ton of goods conveyed, the rate of freight by ship E,, of which the coefficient of performance is 200, and consumption of coals 3lbs. per indicated horse-power per hour (coefficient of dynamic duty 7467) becomes #1 4s. per ton, being an increase of 20 per cent., and by ship E,, of which the coefficient of performance is 150, and the consumption of coal at the rate of 4 lbs. per indicated horse-power per hour (coefficient of dynamic duty 4200), the rate of freight becomes £1 15s. 10d., being an increase of 79 per cent. per ton of goods conveyed under the conditions referred to. The comparative freight charges on 100,000 tons of goods by the vessels A, E,, E,, respectively, would be £100,000, £120,000, and £179,000. Hence, in the control of steam-shipping, we see the importance of the co- efficient of dynamic duty (column 7), as indicating the economic efficiency of the ship in a mercantile point of view, with reference to the merits of her hull and engine construction being made a subject of contract stipulation. _ Section F.—Freight as affected (ceteris paribus) by variations in the size of the ship combined with variations in the constructive type of form and in the working economy of the engines. By reference to the Table (Section F), it appears, under the special con- ditions of service under consideration, that by the size of the ship being reduced from 5000 tons displacement to 3000 tons displacement, combined with an inferior type of form, as indicated by the coefficient of performance being reduced from 250 to 150, and an inferior construction of engine, as indicated by the consumption of coals being increased from 2 lbs. to 4 lbs. per indicated horse-power per hour, the expense or freight charge per ton of goods conveyed becomes increased in the ratio of 49 to 113, that is, in the ratio of 100 to 230, being an increase of 130 per cent.; or, assuming the freight by the standard ship A, of 5000 tons, of which the coefficient of per- formance is 250, and the consumption of coal at the rate of 2 lbs. per indicated horse-power per hour, to be at the rate of £1 per ton of goods conveyed, the rate of freight by ship F,, of 4000 tons, of which the coefficient of per- formance is 200 and the consumption of coal at the rate of 3 lbs. per indicated horse-power per hour, will be £1 5s. 2d., being an increase of 26 per cent., and by ship F,, of 3000 tons displacement, of which the coefficient of performance — is 150 and the consumption of coal at the rate of 4: lbs. per indicated horse- power per hour, the rate of freight becomes £2 6s., being an increase of 130 per cent. per ton of goods conveyed under the conditions referred to. The comparative freight charges on 100,000 tons of goods by the vessels A, F,, F,, respectively, would be £100,000, £126,000, and £230,000. Hence also we observe by comparison of ships E, and F,, how important becomes the question of magnitude when ships of inferior dynamic duty are employed on a given service, the comparative freight charges on 100,000 tons of goods conveyed by the vessels E, and F,, on the service referred to, being £179,000 and £230,000, being an increase of 28 per cent. solely in conse- quence of the magnitude of the ship being reduced from 5000 tons displace- ment to 3000 tons, the coefficient of dynamic duty (4200) being in both cases the same. Section G.—Freight as affected (ceteris paribus) by variations of the steaming speed at which it is required that the service shall be performed. It is proposed to illustrate this most important elemental consideration by reference to rates of speed within the range of present practice, namely, from 10. to 14 knots per hour. i ON FREIGHT AS AFFECTED BY DYNAMIC PROPERTIES. 91 _ By reference to the Table (Section G), it appears that, under the special conditions of the service under consideration, by increasing the speed from 10 to 12 knots per hour, the expense or required rate of freight per ton of goods conveyed becomes increased in the ratio of 49 to 64, that is, in the ratio of 100 to 131, being an increase of 31 per cent.; and by increasing the speed from 10 to 14 knots, the expense, or required rate of freight per ton of goods, becomes increased in the ratio of 49 to 93, that is, in the ratio of 100 to 182, being an increase of 82 per cent. Hence, assuming the freight by the standard ship A, of 5000 tons, making a passage of 3000 nautical miles at 10 knots per hour, to be at the rate of £1 per ton weight of goods conveyed, the rate of freight by ship G,, steaming at 12 knots per hour, will be required to be £1 6s. 2d. per ton weight of goods conveyed, and the rate of freight by ship G,, steaming at 14knots per hour, will be required to be £1 16s. 5d. per ton of goods conveyed. The comparative freight charges on 100,000 tons of goods, by the vessels A, G,, G,, steaming at 10, 12, and 14 knots per hour respectively, would be £100,000, £131,000, and £182,000. Hence we see how onerous are the obligations which usually impose on mail-packets a rate of speed higher than that which would be adopted for prosecuting a purely mercantile service ; and as no service can be permanently and satisfactorily performed which does not pay, it follows that the inade- quacy, if any, of a high-speed postal subsidy must be made up by surcharge on passengers and cargo, and is therefore, pro tanto, a tax upon trade. Section H.—Freight as affected (ceteris paribus) by variations of the size of ships combined with variations of steaming-speed. We will suppose the size of the ships to be 5000, 4000, and 3000 tons displacement, and the steaming-speed to be at the rates of 10 knots, 12 knots, and 14 knots per hour respectively. By reference to the Table (Section H), it appears that, under the special conditions of the service under consideration, by reducing the size of the ship from 5000 to 4000 tons, and increasing the speed from 10 to 12 knots per hour, the expense or required freight charge becomes increased in the ratio of 49 to 66, that is, in the ratio of 100 to 134, or 34 per cent.; and by re- ducing the size of ship from 5000 to 3000 tons, and increasing the speed from 10 knots to 14 knots, the required freight charge becomes increased in the ratio of 49 to 119, that is, in the ratio of 100 to 243, being an increase of 143 per cent., or a multiple of 23 times nearly. Hence, assuming the rate of freight by the standard ship A, of 5000 tons, steaming at 10 knots, to be at £1 per ton weight of goods conveyed, the required rate of freight by ship H;, of 4000 tons, steaming at 12 knots, will be £1 6s. 10d., and the required rate of freight charge by ship H,, steaming at 14 knots per hour, will be at the rate of £2 8s. 7d. per ton weight of goods conveyed. The comparative freight charges on 100,000 tons of goods by the vessels A, H,, H.,, respectively, will be £100,000, £134,000, and £243,000. Hence also we observe by comparison of ships G, and H,, how important becomes the question of magnitude when the service demands a high rate of speed, the comparative freight charges on 100,000 tons of goods conveyed by the vessels G, and H,, on the service referred to, being £182,000 and £243,000, being an increase of 33} per cent., solely in consequence of the ship being reduced from 5000 tons displacement to 3000 tons, the coefficient of dynamic duty (14,000) being in both cases the same. Section I.—Freight as affected by variations of speed combined with variations of the working economy of the engines. Assuming the rate of speed to be 10 knots, 12 knots, and 14 knots, and the consumption of coal to be 2 |bs., 3 lbs. and 4 Ibs. per indicated horse-power 92 REPOCRT—1861. per hour respectively, by reference to the Table (Section I.) it appears that by increasing the speed from 10 knots to 12 knots an hour, the rate of con- sumption of coal being also increased from 2 Ibs. to 3 lbs. per indicated horse- power per hour, the required freight charge becomes increased in the ratio of 49 to 72, that is, in the ratio of 100 to 147, or 47 per cent. ; and by increasing the speed from 10 knots to 14 knots per hour, the rate of consumption of coal being also increased from 2 lbs. to 4 lbs. per indicated horse-power per hour, the required freight charge becomes increased in the ratio of 49 to 152, that is, in the ratio of 100 to 310, being an increase of 210 per cent., or more than trebled. Hence, assuming the expense or required freight charge by the standard ship A, steaming at 10knots per hour, and consuming 2 lbs. coal per indicated horse-power per hour, to be at the rate of £1 per ton of goods conveyed, the required freight charge by ship I,, steaming at 12 knots an hour and consuming 3 lbs. of coal per indicated horse-power per hour, will be at the rate of £1 Qs. 5d. per ton of goods, and the required freight charge by ship I,, steaming at 14 knots per hour and consuming 4 bs. of coal per indicated horse-power per hour, will be at the rate of €3 2s. per ton of goods conveyed. The comparative freight charges on 100,000 tons of goods by the vessels A, I, I,, respectively, would be £100,000 £147,000, and £310,000. Hence we see how onerous are the obligations of increased speed, if at- tempted to be performed with engines of inferior contruction, as respects economy of fuel. Section K.—Freight as affected (ceteris paribus) by variations of the speed combined with variations in the type of form, working economy of the engines, and weight of bull. The object of this section is to show the effect even of small differences of practical construction, when operating collectively to the detriment of a ship, combined with the obligation of increased speed. By reference to the Table (Section K) it appears that, under the special conditions of the service under consideration, by increasing the speed from 10 to 12 knots, with a ship of inferior type of form, as indicated by the co- efficient of performance being reduced from 250 to 225, and of inferior engine arrangement, as indicated by the consumption of fuel being increased from 2 to 3 lbs. per indicated horse-power per hour, the weight of hull being also increased 5 per cent., namely, from 40 per cent. to 45 per cent. of the constructor’s load displacement,—by this combination, the expense per ton of goods conveyed becomes increased in the proportion of 49 to 102, that is, in the proportion of 100to208, beingan increase of 108 per cent., or morethan doubled ; or, assuming the freight by the standard ship A to be at the rate of £1 per ton, the rate of freight by ship K,, under the differences above referred to, becomes £2 1s. 8d.; and it is to observed that if the speed be increased to 14 knots, whilst at the same time the coefficient of performance is reduced to 200, the consumption of fuel increased from 2 lbs. to 4|bs. per indicated horse- power per hour, and the weight of the hull increased 10 per cent., namely, from 40 per cent. of the load displacement to 50 per cent.,—under these conditions the entire load displacement of the ship K, will be appropriated by the weight of the hull, engines, and coal, leaving no displacement whatever available for cargo; that is to say, the vessel K, is utterly unable to perform the con- ditions of the service as a mercantile steamer. The comparative freight charges on 100,000 tons of goods by the vessels A and K, respectively would be £100,000 and £208,000. Having thus fully explained the Table, it may be observed that, as re- spects the relation which subsists between the dynamic properties of vessel A, taken as the standard of comparison in the foregoing sections, and the ON FREIGHT AS AFFECTED BY DYNAMIC PROPERTIES. 93° ‘dynamic properties of mercantile steam-ships generally at the present time, it might be regarded as invidious to refer to and particularize the actual per- formances of vessels presently employed on commercial service; but it may be affirmed generally that the ocean performance of mercantile steam-fleets : ae V* Dz does not average a coefficient of economic duty, by the formula Ww 3, exceeding 5600, whilst modern naval architecture and engineering have prac- tically shown that with certain types of form the coefficient of performance may be expected to vary from 250 to 300, and that some engines of modern construction have consumed only from 2 lbs. to 23 lbs. of coal per indicated horse-power per hour, thus practically constituting a possible coefficient of economic duty as high as 14,000, which has therefore been assigned to ship A in the foregoing table, and whereby, under the conditions of the service referred to, viz. ships of 5000 tons displacement steaming at 10 knots per hour on a passage of 3000 miles, the conveyance of goods per ton weight may be expected to be performed at fully 30 per cent. less cost than would be necessarily incurred under the same circumstances by vessels of the same size, but of which the coefficient of economic duty does not exceed 5600; and this comparative difference would be greatly exceeded if the size of ships be reduced, the length of passage increased, or the speed accelerated. From the foregoing statements it appears that public interests in the great matter of Freight demand that steam-ships only of the most effective con- struction, as respects hull and engines, be employed on mercantile service. Bad types of hull and wasteful engines, necessarily, as we have seen, enhance freight, increase the cost of production, and consequently curtail consumption, thus constituting a blight on national industry. A check on these evils, highly conducive to the gradual reduction of freight expenses by steam-ships, would at once be instituted by making it a matter of contract stipula- 3 2 tion that a definite coefficient of dynamic duty, by the formula We should be realized on test trial of the ship, at the builder’s load displacement and steaming at the stipulated speed. Unquestionably, for years past, in our popular marine engineering, prejudice and expediency have retarded pro- gress; marine engineering practice has not duly availed itself of the established truths and science of the times: expansion, superheating, and surface con- densation, now being reanimated as the basis of modern improvements, are but the legacies of a bygone age hitherto neglected. It is only by directing public opinion to bear on such subjects of general interest, that any prevalent evil can be corrected; and surely an appeal on the important subject of “ freight,” as affected by differences in the dynamic properties of steam-ships, cannot be more appropriately made to any public body than to the British Association, under the presidency of a man especially distinguished and honoured in the path of practical science, and assembled at Manchester, the birth-place of free trade, and the manufacturing capital of the world. CHAS. ATHERTON, Chief Engineer, H,M. Dockyard, Woolwich. 94 REPORT—1861,. Report on the Progress of Celestial Photography since the Aberdeen Meeting. By Warren DE ta Rog, F.R.S. Ar the Aberdeen Meeting I had the honour of communicating to this Section a Report on the State of Celestial Photography in England, which has since appeared in the Transactions of the Association. Since that period I have pursued my investigations in this branch of astronomy, and have ascertained some facts which I believe will be of interest to the Meeting. In the first place I beg to recall to the recollection of Members who may have read my paper, and to re-state for the information of those who have not done so, that it was intended at the period of the Aberdeen meeting that the Kew photo-heliograph should be taken to Spain in order, ¢f possible, to photo- graph the luminous prominences, or, as they are usually called, the red flames, seen on the occasion of a total solar eclipse. The words implying a doubt as to the success of the undertaking were advisedly inserted, because very little information could be collected from the accounts of those observers who had witnessed previous total eclipses, as to the probable intensity of the light of the corona and red flames in comparison with that of other luminous bodies. My impression was that I should fail in depicting the prominences in the time available for doing so, because I had had the Kew instrument tried upon the moon and had failed utterly in getting even a trace of her image on the sensitive plate, and the corona and prominences together were not supposed to give as much light as the moon. I therefore pointed out the desirability of other astronomers making attempts to depict the phenomena of totality by projecting the image of the prominences direct on to the collodion-plate without enlarging it by a secondary magnifier, as is done in the Kew instrument. It was fair to assume, with the great experience I had acquired in celestial photography, that I should succeed with the Kew instrument if success were attainable ; and I knew that far more reliable results would be obtained by its means than by the other method, which I recommended simply because it seemed to me to offer a greater chance of at least a partial success. Two theories existed, as is well known, to account for the red prominences. The one, prominently supported by the Astronomer Royal, was that they belonged to the sun; the other, which is still supported even by an astrono- mer who obtained photographs of them at the last eclipse, was that they are produced by the diffraction of the sun’s light by the periphery of the moon. It will be seen, therefore, not only ise essential it was to obtain photo- graphic images of the prominences, but also how important it was to obtain such perfect images of them that they could not be confounded with purely diffractive phenomena if such existed, and that the images should be on such a scale that the defects common to collodion could not be confounded with them. “The pretty near” would have been far more readily accom- plished ; but having the whole bearing of the subject fully impressed on my mind, I preferred to make a bold venture, and either accomplish what I aimed at or fail entirely. Fortunately 1 was successful, and to that success the steadiness of my staff much contributed. We now know that the luminous prominences which surround the sun (for they do belong to him) can be depicted in from 20 to 60 seconds, on the scale of the sun's diameter equal 4 of the object-glass employed. That is to say, an object-glass of 3 inches aperture will give a picture of the prominences surrounding the moon 4 inches in diameter. ON THE PROGRESS OF CELESTIAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 95 _ The next subject to which I have to call your attention is the photographic depiction of groups of stars—for example, such as form a constellation like Orion,—in other words, the mapping down the stars by means of photography. I have made several experiments in this direction, and have obtained satis- factory results, and I believe that at last I have hit upon an expedient which will render this method of mapping stars easy of accomplishment. The instrument best adapted for this object is a camera of short focal length compared with its aperture,like the ordinary portrait-camera,—the size of the lens being selected to suit the scale of the intended photographic map, and the camera, of course, mounted on an equatorial stand with a clock-work motion. The fixed stars depict themselves with great rapidity on a collodion- late; and I have experienced no difficulty in obtaining pictures of the Pleiades by a moderate exposure even in the focus of my telescope ; they would be fixed much more rapidly by a portrait-camera. The difficulty in star-mapping does not consist in the difficulty of fixing the images of stars, but in finding the images when they are imprinted; for they are no bigger than the specks common to the best collodion. It is of no service attempting to overcome the difficulty by enlarging the whole picture; but something may be done by causing the images of the stars, which are mere spots, to spread out into a cone of rays by putting the image out of focus and thus imprinting a disc on the plate instead of a point. Last year was so fully employed that I have not yet had time to develope fully this method, but I have ascertained its practicability. Some curiosity naturally exists as to the possibility of applying photo- graphy to the depiction of those wonderful bodies the comets, which arrive enerally without anything being known of their previous history and abso- utely nothing as to their physical nature. It would be valuable to have photographic records of them, especially of the nucleus and corona, which undergo changes from day to day; and hence such a means of recording these changes as photography offers would be the best, beyond comparison, if the light of the comet were sufficiently intense to imprint itself, _ On the appearance of Donati’s comet in 1858 I made several unsuccessful attempts to delineate it with my reflector on a collodion film, but without success; and on the appearance of the comet of the present year I made humerous attempts to depict it, not only with my telescope, but also with a portrait-camera ; but, even with an exposure of 15 minutes (minutes, not seconds), I failed in getting the slightest impression, even with a portrait- _lens.. Hence the conclusion may be arrived at that the actinic ray does not exist in sufficient intensity in such a comet as that of 1861 to imprint itself, and therefore photography at present is inapplicable to the recording of the Appearances of these wonderful bodies. I now return to Heliography. Experiments conducted at the Kew Observatory by my request have shown that, for an image of the sun of any given size, when once the aperture of the telescope has been ascertained which is sufficient to produce the picture with the necessary degree of Tapidity, it is not beneficial to increase that aperture ; that is to say, no more details are depicted, nor does the picture become sharper, so as to bear a greater subsequent enlargement in copying, than when the smaller aperture is used. It has also been established, experimentally, that it is not well to enlarge the image beyond a certain point by inereasing the magnifying power of the secondary magnifier and thus to cause the Tays to emerge at a very great angle. These results are such as I should have anticipated ; but as it was, nevertheless, desirable to produce pictures of the sun’s spots, with a view to their close study, on a scale considerably greater than the pictures 96 . REPORT—1861,. produced by the Kew instrument, I commenced some preparations at my own observatory for the purnose of trying whether it would be possible to procure such pictures with my reflector. On maturing my plans I found that the apparatus which it would be necessary to use would be so weighty that the telescope would require to be strengthened considerably to support the additional weight in the awkward position in which it would have to be placed ; and it did not at first appear how this could be conveniently done. Ultimately I found the means of adding a radius-bar and of supporting the plate-holder, which carries a plate 18 inches square at a distance of 4 feet from the eye-piece ; but here another difficulty occurred, namely, that the image of the sun was so powerfully heating, that, if allowed to remain fora very short time on the instantaneous slide, it heated it and ultimately set fire to some part of the apparatus. A trap easy to be moved over the mouth of the telescope had to be contrived, so as to open just before the instantane- Ous apparatus was brought into action and shut again immediately after. wards. At last these mechanical difficulties were surmounted, and I commenced my experiments to ascertain the best form for the secondary mag- nifier: these experiments are still in progress, and some important difficulties remain to be overcome before pictures of the sun’s spots will be obtained with that degree of sharpness which shall leave nothing to be desired. With an ordinary Huyghenian eye-piece, employed asa secondary magnifier and placed somewhat nearer the great mirror than would be its position for the most perfect optical picture, in order to throw the chemical rays further on and thus bring them to focus on the plate, Ihave obtained some sun-pictures, of very considerable promise, on the extremely large scale of the sun’s diameter equal to 3 feet. These pictures have only been very recently procured, and I submit then to the Section because I believe that an interest is felt in the progress of celestial photography, and that the Members prefer to take part in the experiments, as it were, by watching their progress, rather than to wait until the most perfect results have been brought about. I may state that the mechanical and chemical difficulties have been surmounted, and that the only outstanding one is the form of the secondary magnifier*. When this has been worked out, perfect sun-pictures 3 feet in diameter will be obtain- able with a telescope of 1 foot aperture, in less than the 20th of a second of time. ‘These pictures, when taken under suitable circumstances, may be grouped so as to produce stereoscopic pictures, which must throw consider- able light on the nature of the spots. It appears to me that such results must be of value to science, and that the records of the state of the sun’s photosphere, both as regards spots and other changing phenomena, which are obtainable by means of photography, are worth collecting and discussing, and that ultimately they will throw con- siderable light on terrestrial meteorology. It is agreeable to me to work at this problem so as to point out the means by which success is attainable, and I may for a time carry on the records ; but it will, on reflection, be seen that these observations (if continued, as they should be, for years) are likely to prove a too serious tax upon the leisure and purse of a private individual. * Mr. Dallmeyer has lately assisted me in working out this problem, and has produced already two new secondary magnifiers, each of asomewhat different construction. With their aid I made a considerable step in advance, but on November 7th, 1861, was stepped by the lateness of the season. ON THE THEORY OF EXCIIANGES, 97 On the Theory of Exchanges, and its recent extension. By Batrour Srewarr, A.M. Ir is now somewhere about seventy years since Professor Pierre Prevost of Geneva conceived the rudimentary idea which ultimately became de- veloped into the Theory of Exchanges. In the ‘Journal de Physique’ for April 1791, we find a memoir by him “On the Equilibrium of Heat ;” and from that period until 1832 he wrote many memoirs in confirmation and extension of his views. The leading feature of this hypothesis is perhaps best expressed in the words which Prevost himself employed to characterize it, when he called his theory that of a moveable equilibrium of temperature. In order to comprehend more precisely the meaning of this phrase, let us imagine to ourselves a large vacuum-chamber, the walls of which are black, and do not reflect light or heat. Lampblack will therefore be the most appropriate substance with which to cover them. Let us also suppose that the whole chamber is kept at a uniform temperature, and that we place a thermometer in the enclosure. It is well known that this thermometer will ultimately denote the same temperature to whatever portion of the enclosure it may be carried, and that this temperature will be that of the walls of the chamber. The bulb of the instrument is therefore in a state of equilibrium with regard to heat,—a condition of things brought about and sustained, not by currents of air, since the chamber is supposed to be a vacuum, but by that faculty called radiation, in virtue of which a hot body communicates its heat to a distant cold one, even through an absolutely vacant space. This equili- brium may be of two kinds. 1. It may be a statical or tensional equilibrium, that is to say, an equili- brium of repose, in which, from the exact balancing of two opposite tendencies, the bulb of the thermometer neither reeeives heat nor gives it away. 2. It may also he an active, or, as Prevost calls it, a moveable equilibrium, in which the bulb is constantly giving away heat to the enclosure and re- ceiving back in return precisely as much as it gives away, so that its tem- perature is neither increased nor diminished. It was this latter view of the subject which Prevost took,—a view which, besides having a certain amount of inherent probability, has, I think, earned a fair claim, from the great number of facts which it groups together under one law, to be viewed as a correct expression of the truth. To return to our thermometer : the bulb,-under the circumstances above mentioned, is supposed by this theory to be constantly giving forth radiant heat at a rate depending only on the temperature of the bulb, and independent of that of the enclosure. On the other hand, it is receiving back from the enclosure an amount of heat depending only on the temperature of the enclosure, and wholly independent of that of the bulb. Thus its expenditure depends upon its own temperature, its receipts upon that of the enclosure, and when these two are of the same temperature, the expenditure of the bulb is exactly balanced by its receipts. The circumstance which seems to have brought this idea vividly before the mind of Prevost, was the well-known experiment by which Professor Pictet* showed what may be termed the reflexion and concentration of cold. That philosopher took two concave reflectors, making them face one another, and while in the focus of the one he placed a thermometer, in that of the other he placed a lump of ice, the effect of which was that the temperature of the thermometer immediately began to fall. If we admit that cold is a ) positive principle, and not a mere negation, we shall of course be able to ex- | / * Essais de Phys. p. 82. 1861. H 98 REPORT—1861. plain this experiment as easily as if a hot bulb had been placed in the one focus, raising the temperature of the thermometer in the other. But this explanation being inadmissible, it occurred to Prevost that the theory of a moveable equilibrium would account for the phenomenon. Let us adopt this hypothesis, and suppose, in the first instance, that a body of the same temperature as the thermometer is placed in the other focus. It is obvious that this body will not affect the thermometer. Heat is doubtless con- tinually leaving the bulb ; but this receives back precisely as much heat as it radiates, a considerable portion of that which it receives being the heat which leaves the body in the opposite focus, and which by the laws of reflexion is concentrated on the bulb. If we next suppose that the other body is of a higher temperature than the thermometer, it is easy to see that the same laws of reflexion will cause an increase of heat to be especially felt by the bulb, since each of the rays of heat which reach it by virtue of the reflector will be more intense than the corresponding ray which it gives away. Should, however, the body in the opposite focus be of a lower temperature than the thermometer, the rays which the former emits, and which, by virtue of the reflector,reach the bulb, willall be lessintensethan the corresponding rays which the bulb gives forth, and thus the same cause which formerly made the ther- mometer peculiarly sensitive to an increase in the temperature of the opposite body, will now make it equally sensitive to a diminution of the same. We are thus furnished by the theory of exchanges with an explanation of this important experiment, which, it is remarked by Prevost in his first memoir of 1791, cannot well be explained by an immoveable equilibrium. When Leslie* published his experiments on Heat, the theory of exchanges was not slow to exhibit that appropriating quality which is ever the mark , of truth. In the hands of Prevost, these experiments, instead of demand- ing a new hypothesis, were easily explained by means of the old one. Let us take, for instance, the fact discovered by Leslie, that good reflectors of heat, such as metals, are bad radiators. Prevost (in a treatise on Radiant Heat, Paris, 1809) shows how this fact follows from his theory, remarking that in a place of uniform temperature a reflector does not alter the distribution of heat, which it would do if, joined to a good reflecting power, it possessed also that of being a good radiator. It is interesting to note Prevost’s mode of expressing himself on this subject, as it shows that he entertained an opinion correct, as far as it went, with regard to internal radiation. He conjectures that a good reflector is a bad radiator, because, as it reflects the heat from without, so it also reflects the heat from within. Lambert+ of Berlin, and Leslie, both proved by experiment that the radia- tion of a heated surface in any direction is proportional to the sine of the angle which this direction makes with the surface ; and it was demonstrated by Fourier{ that this law is the necessary consequence of the theory of ex- changes, in those cases where the reflecting power of the body may be dis- regarded. He shows, in this demonstration, that if we refuse to admit the truth of the law of sines, and suppose that the intensity of the rays emitted does not vary with the obliquity of the surface, a central molecule can only acquire a temperature equal to half that of the surrounding enclosure. Fourier accompanied this proof with an attempt to account for the law of sines, in which he supposes that there is in every case a physical surface of very small thickness, in which surface the radiant heat emitted by a body takes its rise ; but, with the knowledge which we now possess, this cannot, I think, be considered a very happy explanation. * Inquiry into the Nature and Propagation of Heat, 1804. t Pyrometrie. ¢ Translated in the Philosophical Magazine for February 1833. ON THE THEORY OF EXCHANGES. 99 I now come to the researches of Dulong and Petit on Radiation* (trans- lated in the ‘ Annals of Philosophy,’ vol. xiii. p. 241), which afford a peculiar evidence in favour of the theory of exchanges. In order to perceive the bear- ing of this evidence, let us take the case of a black body, say a thermometer with a blackened bulb, cooking in a black enclosure, devoid of air, through the influence of radiation alone. In this case Dulong and Petit proved, by ex- periment, that the velocity with which the bulb cools will be in every instance accurately represented, if we suppose it to radiate heat at a rate depending only on its own temperature, and to receive back heat at a rate depending only on the temperature of the enclosure. Whatever evidence may be derived from this research is therefore wholly in favour of the theory of exchanges. The next step in the progress of this theory was one which led to a truer conception of that law of which the law of sines may be considered an approxi- mate expression, and was made by Provostaye and Desains. In a paper pub- lished in the ‘ Annales de Chimie’ for 1848, these authors prove experiment- ally that which was theoretically recognized by Fourier, viz. that, when there is reflexion, the law of the proportionality of the radiating power to the sine of the angle which the ray makes with the surface becomes altered. In the ease of glass in a field of constant temperature, they show that the sum of the reflected and radiated heat at all angles will be a constant quantity; and equal to 93°9 per cent. of the lampblack radiation of that temperature, the difference, viz. 6-1 per cent., being supposed to be due to diffusion. The idea which pervades this paper is one which had previously been recognized by Prevost and Fourier, but which proved particularly fertile when worked out by Provostaye and Desains. It may be stated thus. Returning to our hypothetical chamber of constant temperature, with a thermometer placed inside of it, this instrument will give the same indication in whatever manner we alter the substance of the walls, provided their temperature be left the same; whence we may infer that the sum of the radiated and reflected heat from any given portion of the walls which strikes the thermometer, will be independent of the substance of which this portion is composed. We thus perceive that it is not precisely correct to assert that the reflective power of a body varies inversely as its radiative power, the proper statement being that, in the case of constant temperature, the sum of the heat radiated and re- flected by a body is a constant quantity. But these authors were aware that something more than this was necessary in order to ensure a complete equilibrium of temperature; they perceived that the sum of the radiated and reflected heat from a body, while equal to the lamp- black radiation, must also be unpolarized, even as the heat from lampblack is unpolarized, in order that both streams under comparison may behave in the Same manner with respect to any surface on which they may happen to fall. Since therefore the radiated and reflected heat taken together must be un- _ polarized, and since the latter portion is at a certain angle polarized in the plane of incidence+ it follows that the former, or the radiated heat, must be partly polarized in a plane perpendicular to that of emission. Experimen® tally this is known to be the case. It had been previously shown by Arago that the rays which leave solid and liquid incandescent bodies obliquely are polarized in a plane perpendicular to that of emission, and Provostaye and Desains found the same law to hold with regard to heat. Their ex- periments are contained in the ‘ Annales de Chimie’ for 1849, their source of heat being a plate of platinum maintained at a red heat by the flame of an | alcohol lamp. _ We thus perceive that at this stage of the inquiry a perfectly distinct con- * Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. vol. vii. p. 113. + Professor Forbes, Edin, Phil. Trans, 1835, H2 100 REPORT—1S6l. ception had been formed of the character, with respect to intensity and polarization, of the heat emanating from the surface of a body in different directions, necessary in order that the condition of equilibrium of tempe- rature be fulfilled. No attempt, however, seems to have been made to split up this body of heat into its constituent wave-lengths, with the view of ascer- taining whether the same laws of equilibrium hold for each of these which hold for the body of heat taken as a whole. Internal radiation, as a subject for experiment, seems also to have been overlooked, and its essential con- nexion with the theory of exchanges does not appear to have been recognized. In March 1858, I communicated to the Royal Society of Edinburgh the results of an éxperimental research having reference to the two points just mentioned. By means of a thermo-electric pile and galvanometer the fol- lowing facts were established :— 1. The radiating power of thin polished plates of different substances was found to vary as their absorptive power; so that the radiation of a plate of rock-salt was only 15 per cent. of the total lampblack radiation for the same temperature. 2. It was shown that the radiation from thick plates of diathermanous substance is greater than that from thin plates, no such difference being manifested when the substances are athermanous. 3. It was found that heat radiated by a thin diathermanous plate is less transmissible through a screen of the same material as the heated plate than ordinary or lampblack heat, this difference being very marked in the case of rock-salt. 4. Lastly, heat from a thick diathermanous plate is more easily transmitted through a screen of the same nature as the source of heat than that from a thin plate. All these facts are easily explained by means of the theory of exchanges. Let us recur to the hypothetical chamber before introduced, the sides of which are covered with lampblack and kept at a constant temperature, and let us hang up in this chamber two slices of polished rock-salt, of which the one is twice as thick as the other ; these plates will ultimately attain the temperature of the sides of the chamber, when their radiation will exactly equal their absorption. Now, since the thick plate will absorb more than the thin one of the heat which falls upon them from the walls, it will therefore also have a greater radiation than the latter; as, however, both plates, being diathermanous, absorb only a small portion of the heat which falls upon them, the radiation of both will be comparatively small. We have thus an explanation of the experimental fact that diathermanous bodies radiate very little heat, and that their radiation increases with their thickness. We see also why in an ather- manous body an increase of thickness does not augment the radiation,—the reason being that, since it is already athermanous, this increase cannot pos- sibly make it absorb more heat, and therefore cannot make it radiate more. We are therefore brought to recegnize internal radiation as a consequence of the theory of exchanges ; but the question now arises, Is the radiation of a particle independent of its distance from the surface? A little reflection will enable us to answer this question in the affirmative; for it is evident (neg- lecting the surface reflexion, which does not really alter the result arrived at) that the amount of heat absorbed by two plates of any substance placed loosely together is not different from that absorbed by a plate equal in thick- ness to the two, and hence the radiation is the same also in both these cases. I have likewise shown experimentally that the heat from two plates of rock- salt placed the one behind the other, is the same as that from a single plate equal in thickness to the two. ON THE THEORY OF EXCHANGES. 101 Presuming therefore that the radiation of a particle is independent of its distance from the surface, let us endeavour to realize what takes place in the interior of a substance of indefinite thickness in all directions, and kept at a constant temperature. Let us suppose that a stream of radiant heat is con- stantly flowing past a particle A in the direction of the next particle B. Now since the radiation of B is by hypothesis equal to that of A, the absorption of B must be equal to that of A. But let us notice what has happened to the stream of heat in passing A. Part of it has been absorbed by A, but on the other hand it has been recruited by the radiation of A, and this being equal to the absorption, the stream of heat when it has passed A will be found unaltered by its passage with regard to quantity. But it must also remain unaltered with respect to quality, otherwise when it falls on B, the amount absorbed by B will be different from that absorbed by A; and hence the radiation of B will be different from that of A, which is contrary to hypothesis. The absorption of A is therefore equal to its radiation in quality as well as in quantity ; or in other words, we have a separate equilibrium for every description of heat. We have thus an explanation of the experimental fact already alluded to, that a body is particularly opake with regard to that heat which it radiates, since we see that a substance is predisposed to radiate that description of heat which it absorbs. It is easy also to perceive why heat from a thick plate may be more easily transmitted through a screen of the same nature as the source of heat, than that from a thin plate, the reason being that the rays from the furthest por- tion of the heated plate have already been sifted in their passage through the plate, and hence that that portion of them which escapes is more easily able to penetrate a screen of the same material. I have before alluded to a conclusion derived by Provostaye and Desains from the theory of exchanges, that in an enclosure of constant temperature the sum of the radiated and reflected heat from any portion of the walls is equal to the lampblack radiation of that temperature. This is a case which evidently comes under the scope of the law, which provides for a separate equilibrium for every description of heat ; hence we may assert that the sum of the radiated and reflected heat is in this case equal to the lampblack radi- ation in quality as well as in quantity; and we are thus also led to perceive why opake bodies heated up to the same temperature always radiate the same description of heat. We come now to the subject of light; and since radiant light and heat have been shown by Melloni, Forbes, and others to possess very many pro- perties in common, it was of course only natural to suppose that facts analo- gous to those mentioned should hold also with regard to light. One instance will at once occur in which this analogy is perfect. For, as all opake bodies heated up to the same temperature radiate the same description of heat, so also when their common temperature is still further increased, they acquire a red heat, or a yellow heat, or a white heat simultaneously. The idea of applying these views to light had occurred independently to Professor Kirchhoff and myself; but, although Kirchhoff slightly preceded me in publication, it will be convenient to defer the mention of his researches till I come to the subject of lines in the spectrum. In February 1860, I communicated to the Royal Society of London a paper in which certain properties of radiant light were investigated, similar to those already treated of with respect to heat. In this paper it was mentioned that the amount of light radiated by _ eoloured glasses is in proportion to their depth of colour, transparent glass giving out very little light; also that the radiation from red glass has a greenish tint, while that from green glass has a reddish tint. 102 REPORT—1861 It was also mentioned that polished metal gives out less light than tar- nished metal, and that, when a piece of black and white porcelain is heated in the fire, the black parts give out much more light than the white, thereby producing a curious reversal of the pattern. All these facts are comprehended in the statement that in a constant tem- perature the absorption of a particle is equal to its radiation, and that for every description of light. It was also noticed that all coloured glasses ultimately lose their colour in the fire as they approach in temperature the coals around them, the expla- nation being, that while red glass, for instance, gives out a greenish light, it passes red light from the coals behind it, while it absorbs the green, in such a manner that the light which it radiates precisely makes up for that which it absorbs, so that we have virtually a coal radiation coming partly from and partly through the glass. In another paper communicated to the Royal Society in May of the same year, it was shown that tourmaline, which absorbs in excess the ordinary ray of light, also radiates, when heated, this description of light in excess, but that when the heated tourmaline is viewed against an illuminated background of the same temperature as itself this peculiarity disappears. It is now time to advert to the spectrum observations which have recently excited so much attention, and which are intimately connected with the sub- ject of this Report. Our countryman Wollaston*, and after him Fraunhofer, were the first to show that in the solar spectrum numerous dark bands occur which indicate the absence of light of certain definite refrangibility. Other new bands were artificially produced by Sir David Brewster in his remark- able experiment, in which the spectrum was made to pass through nitrous- acid gas; and it was thus rendered probable that those which occur in the solar spectrum are also in some way due to absorption. Professor W. H. Miller of Cambridge, and the late Professor Daniell, extended this property to chlorine, iodine, bromine, euchlorine, and indigo. When the spectra produced by the ignition of various substances were examined by Sir D. Brewster§, Sir J. Herschel ||, Messrs. Talbot 4], Wheat- stone**, W. A. Miller++, and others, their contrast to the solar spectrum was exceedingly remarkable. While the latter may be described as a continuous spectrum intersected with dark bands, the spectra of artificial substances are for the most part made up of bright, discontinuous, highly characteristic bands of light in a dark background, and their general appearance is that of the solar spectrum reversed}{. I think Fraunhofer was the first to notice that a bright band corresponding in refrangibility to the double dark band Dof the solar spectrum was produced by the yellow light of a flame containing sodium; and this ray was shown by Professor W. A. Miller§§ to occur in the flames of lime, strontia, baryta, zine, iron, and platinum, while, according to Angstrom, it was found in the electric flames of every metal examined by him. Professor Swan |||| afterwards showed that an exceedingly small proportion of common salt called forth this line. All these philosophers, but particularly Angstrém, * Philosophical Transactions 1802, p. 378. t London and Edinb. Philosophical Magazine, vol. ii. p. 381. t Philosophical Magazine, 1833. § Edinburgh Phil. Trans. 1822. || Edinburgh Phil. Trans. 1822. §[ Brewster’s Journal of Science, vol. v. ** British Association Report for 1835. Tt British Association Report for 1845, or Philosophical Magazine, vol. xxvii. p. 81. t{ Professor W. A. Miller exhibited at this Meeting of the British Association (Manches- ter 1861) photographs of the spectra of several metals, and I have since been informed that he is pursuing the subject with success. §§ Philosophical Magazine, August 1845. ||| Edinburgh Transactions, 1856. ON THE THEORY OF EXCHANGES. 103 seem to have been impressed with the idea that the same physical cause which produces the dark bands of the solar spectrum, produces also the bright bands in the spectra of incandescent bodies. In a paper by Angstrom* (a translation of which will be found in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ for May 1855), the author refers to a conjecture by Euler, that a body absorbs all the series of oscillations which it can itself assume ; “ and it follows from this, says Angstrom, that the same body when heated so as to become luminous must emit the precise rays which at ordi- nary temperatures are absorbed ;” after which remarkable conjecture, now amply verified by experiment, he goes on to say, “I am therefore convinced that the explanation of the dark lines in the solar spectrum embraces that of the luminous lines in the electric spectrum.” In connexion with this subject it may not be out of place to introduce the following extract of a letter from Prof. W. Thomson to Prof. Kirchhoff, dated 1860. Professor Thomson thus writes :—“ Professor Stokes mentioned to’me at Cambridge some time ago, probably about ten years, that Professor Miller had made an experiment testing to a very high degree of accuracy the agreement of the double dark line D of the solar spectrum with the double bright line constituting the spectrum of the spirit-lamp burning with salt. I remarked that there must be some physical connexion between two agencies presenting so marked a characteristic in common. He assented, and said he believed a mechanical explanation of the cause was to be had on some such principles as the following :—Vapour of sodium must possess by its molecular structure a tendency to vibrate in the periods correspond- ing to the degrees of refrangibility of the double line D. , Hence the pre- sence of sodium in a source of light must tend to originate light of that quality. On the other hand, vapour of sodium in an atmosphere round a source, must have a great tendency to retain in itself, 7. e. to absorb and to have its temperature raised by light from the source, of the precise quality in question. In the atmosphere around the sun, therefore, there must be present vapour of sodium, which, according to the mechanical explanation thus suggested, being particularly opake for light of that quality, prevents such of it as is emitted from the sun from penetrating to any considerable distance through the surrounding atmosphere. ‘The test of this theory must be had in ascertaining whether or not vapour of sodium has the special absorbing power anticipated. I have the impression that some Frenchman did make this out by experiment, but I can find no reference on the point.” The experiment alluded to by Professor Stokes in this conversation was made by M. Foucault, who in July 1849 communicated to the Institute the result of some observations on the voltaic arc formed between charcoal poles. He found, to use his own words, that this are, placed in the path of a beam of solar light, absorbs the rays D, so that the dark line. D of the solar light is considerably strengthened when the two spectra are exactly superposed. When, on the contrary, they jut out one beyond the other, the line D appears darker than usual in the solar light, and stands out bright. in the electric spectrum, which allows one easily to judge of their perfect coincidence. Thus the arc, he continues, presents us with a medium which emits the rays D on its own account, and which at the same time absorbs them when they come from another quarter. To make the experiment in a manner still more decisive, Foucault pro- jected on the arc the reflected image of one of the charcoal points, which, like all solid bodies in ignition, give no lines; and under these circumstances the line D appeared as in the solar spectrum. * Poggendorff’s ‘ Annalen,’ vol. xciv. p. 141. 104 REPORT—1861. In October 1859, Professor Kirchhoff of Heidelberg made a communica- tion to the Berlin Academy on the subject of Fraunhofer’s lines, which, along with Foucault’s communication, has been inserted by Professor Stokes in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ for March 1860. Professor Kirchhoff thus de- scribes the result of his experiments :— “On the occasion of an examination of the spectra of coloured flames, not yet published, conducted by Bunsen and myself in common, by which it has become possible for us to recognize the qualitative composition of complicated mixtures from the appearance of the spectrum of their blowpipe-flame, I made some observations which disclose an unexpected explanation of the origin of Fraunhofer’s lines, and authorize conclusions therefrom respecting the material constitution of the atmosphere of the sun, and perhaps also of the brighter fixed stars. ‘“‘ Fraunhofer had remarked that in the spectrum of the flame of a candle there appear two bright lines, which coincide with the two dark lines D of the solar spectrum. The same bright lines are obtained of greater intensity from a flame into which some common salt is put. I formed a solar spectrum by projection, and allowed the solar rays concerned, before they fell on the slit, to pass through a powerful salt-flame. If the sunlight were sufficiently re- duced, there appeared in place of the two dark lines D two bright lines ; if, on the other hand, its intensity surpassed a certain limit, the two dark lines D showed themselves in much greater distinctness than without the employ- ment of the salt-flame. “ The spectrum of the Drummond light contains, as a general rule, the two bright lines of sodium, if the luminous spot of the cylinder of lime has not long been exposed to the white heat; if the cylinder remains unmoved these lines become weaker, and finally vanish altogether. If they have vanished, or only faintly appear, an alcohol flame into which salt has been put, and which is placed between the cylinder of lime and the slit, causes two dark lines of remarkable sharpness and fineness, which in that respect agree with the lines D of the solar spectrum, to show themselves in their stead. Thus the lines D of the solar spectrum are artificially evoked in a spectrum in which naturally they are not present. “Tf chloride of lithium is brought into the fame of Bunsen’s gas-lamp, the spectrum of the flame shows a very bright sharply defined line, which lies midway between Fraunhofer’s lines B and C. If, now, solar rays of moderate intensity are allowed to fall through the flame on the slit, the line at the place pointed out is seen bright on a darker ground ; but with greater strength of sunlight there appears in its place a dark line, which has quite the same character as Fraunhofer’s lines. If the flame be taken away, the line disap- pears, as far as I have been able to see, completely. “I concluded from these observations that coloured flames in the spectra of which bright sharp lines present themselves, so weaken rays of the colour of these lines, when such rays pass through the flames, that in place of the bright lines dark ones appear as soon as there is brought behind the flame a source of light of sufficient intensity, in the spectrum of which these lines are otherwise wanting. I conclude further, that the dark lines of the solar spectrum which are not evoked by the atmosphere of the earth, exist in consequence of the presence, in the incandescent atmosphere of the sun, of those substances which in the spectrum of a flame produce bright lines at the same places): 54... “‘ The examination of the spectra of coloured flames has accordingly ac- quired a new and high interest; I will carry it out in conjunction with Bunsen as far as our means allow. In connexion therewith we will investigate the ON THE THEORY OF EXCHANGES. 105 weakening of rays of light in flames that has been established by my observa- tions. In the course of the experiments which have at present been instituted by us in this direction, a fact has alreacy shown itself which seems to us to be of great importance. The Drummond light requires, in order that the lines D should come out in it dark, a salt-flame of lower temperature. The flame of alcohol containing water is fitted for this, but the flame of Bunsen’s gas-lamp is not. With the latter the smallest mixture of common salt, as soon as it makes itself generally perceptible, causes the bright lines of sodium to show themselves.” This interesting investigation, which was translated by Professor Stokes in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ for March 1860, came before me in time to permit of my adding a supplement to a paper “On the Light radiated by Heated Bodies,” which has been already alluded to. In this supplement it was attempted to explain the fact noticed by Kirchhoff, that the Drummond light requires, in order that the lines D should come out in it dark, a salt-flame of lower temperatnre. This is a phenomenon analogous to that presented when a piece of ruby glass is heated in the fire. As long as the ruby glass is of a lower temperature than the coals behind it, the light given out is of a red description, because the ruby glass stops the green: the green light is therefore precisely analogous to the line D which is stopped by an alcohol flame into which salt has been put. Should, however, the ruby glass be of a much higher temperature than the coals behind it, the greenish light which it radiates overpowers the red which it transmits, so that the light which reaches the eye is more green thanred. This is precisely analogous to what is observed when a Bunsen’s gas-flame with a little salt is placed before the Drummond light, when the line D is no longer dark, but bright. Such was the explanation ; but in the meantime Professor Kirchhoff had not been idle. Pondering on the circumstance that the Drummond light re- quires a salt-flame of lower temperature, in order that the line D should come out in it dark, he was soon led to see the connexion between this fact and _ the theory of exchanges. In a communication laid before the Berlin Academy of Sciences on the 15th of December1859, he had already recognized this con- nexion, and in a subsequent communication to Poggendorff’s ‘ Annalen,’ dated January 1860, he shows it to be a mathematical consequence of the theory of exchanges that a definite relation must subsist between the radiating and absorbing power of bodies for individual descriptions of light and heat. This investigation proceeds upon the assumption that in an enclosure of uniform temperature the distribution of radiant heat will remain unaltered, if any one body be removed and another of a different substance, but similar dimensions, be substituted exactly in its place. The reasoning is somewhat elaborate, but ultimately leads the author to a definite relation between the radiating and absorbing powers of bodies for individual descriptions of light and heat. He has expressed this relation very clearly in the following form. Let R denote the intensity of radiation of a particle for a given description of light at a given temperature, and let A denote the proportion of rays of this description incident on the particle which it absorbs; then ri has the same value for all bodies at the same temperature, that is to say, this quotient is a function of the temperature only. _ Professor Kirchhoff in this communication details some experiments which he had made upon incandescent bodies. In confirmation of his assertion that a body which remains perfectly transparent at the highest temperature never becomes red-hot, he placed in a platinum ring of about 5 millims, diae 106 REFORT—1861. meter a small portion of phosphate of soda, and heated it in the dull flame of Bunsen’s lamp. The salt melted, formed a fluid lens, and remained perfectly transparent ; it, however, emitted no light, while the platinum ring with which it was in contact glowed brilliantly. Kirchhoff also showed that a plate of tourmaline cut parallel to the axis which absorbs the ordinary rays in excess, radiates the same in excess. These results are similar to those which I com- municated shortly afterwards to the Royal Society, and which have been already mentioned. It was likewise stated by Kirchhoff in this paper, that Bunsen and he had reversed the brighter lines of the spectra of potassium, calcium, strontium, and barium, by exploding before the slit of the spectral instrument mixtures of sugar of milk and chlorates of the respective metals during the passage of the sun’s rays, 5 Allusion has already been made to Kirchhoff’s application of this law of reversal, in order to determine the constituents of the solar atmosphere. By means of this principle he has been enabled, he believes, to trace the presence of iron and other metals in the photosphere of our luminary, having found that the bright lines which occur in the electric spectra of those metals cor- respond in position with dark lines in the solar spectrum. Iron,” he says, ‘tis remarkable on account of the number of the lines which it causes in the solar spectrum. Less striking, but still quite distinctly visible, are the dark solar lines coincident with the bright lines of chromium and nickel. The occurrence of these substances in the sun may therefore be regarded as certain. Many metals, however, appear to be absent; for although silver, copper, zinc, aluminium, cobalt, and antimony possess very characteristic spectra, still these do not coincide with any (or at least with any distinct) dark lines of the solar spectrum.” It has been shown, in the course of this Report, how the law which connects together the radiating and absorbing power of bodies for individual deserip- tions of heat or light follows immediately from the theory of exchanges. But physicists have been anxious to establish this law as the result of some simple fundamental property of matter. Euler, we have seen, and Angstrom after him, predicted its existence, assuming as a fundamental principle, that a body absorbs all the series of oscillations which it can itself assume. Professor Stokes also, in commenting on the discovery of Foucault and Kirchhoff (Philosophical Magazine, March 1860), uses these words :—‘ The remarkable phenomenon discovered by Foucault, and rediscovered and ex- tended by Kirchhoff, that a body may be at the same time a source of light giving out rays of a definite refrangibility, and an absorbing medium ex- tinguishing rays of the same refrangibility which traverse it, seems readily to admit of a dynamical illustration borrowed from sound. We know that a stretched string which on being struck gives out a certain note (suppose its fundamental note) is capable of being thrown into the same state of vibra- tion by aérial vibrations corresponding to the same note. Suppose now a portion of space to contain a great number of such stretched strings, forming thus the analogue of a ‘medium.’ It is evident that such a medium on being agitated would give out the note above mentioned, while on the other hand, if that note were sounded in air at a distance, the incident vibrations would throw the strings into vibration, and consequently would themselves be gradually extinguished, since otherwise there would be a creation of vis viva. ‘The optical application of this illustration is too obvious to need coim- ment.” Professor Tyndall also, in the Bakerian Lecture for this year, “On the Absorption and Radiation of Heat by Gases and Vapours, and on the Physical | ON THE THEORY OF EXCHANGES. 107 \Connexion between Radiation, Absorption, and Conduction,” has given a very lucid statement of a hypothesis of this kind, accompanied with a remarkable ‘experimental verification. On the supposition that an ether envelopes the molecules of matter (just ‘as the air surrounds the string of a musical instrument), the author points out 'that the reciprocity of absorption and radiation is a necessary mechanical consequence of this theary, on the principle of the equality of action and foveal He then goes on to say, “the elementary gases which have been examined all exhibit extremely feeble powers, both of absorption and radia- tion, in comparison with the compound ones. In the former case we have oscillating atoms, in the latter oscillating systems of atoms. Uniting the atomic theory with the conception of an ether, it follows that the compound molecule, which furnishes points d’appui to the ether, must be capable of accepting and generating motion in a far greater degree than the single atom, which we may figure to our minds as an oscillating sphere. Thus oxygen and hydrogen, which taken separately or mixed mechanically produce a scarcely sensible effect, when united chemically to form oscillating systems, as in aqueous vapour, produce a powerful effect. Thus also nitrogen and hydrogen, which when separate or mixed produce but little action, when combined to form ammonia produce a great action. So also nitrogen and oxygen, which, as air, are feeble absorbents and radiators, when united to form oscillating systems, as in nitrous oxide, are very powerful in both capacities.” This great absorbing power which belongs to a compound molecule is a yery interesting result, and seems to be well explained by this hypothesis; but whether all compound gases without exception are more absorptive than their components, in the absence of experimental evidence may, I think, admit of being questioned. | It has been shown in this Report that internal radiation follows immediately from the theory of exchanges, and is independent of the distance from the surface. In an unerystallized medium, this radiation will, by the principle of sufficient reason,.be equal in all directions; but here a question arises which shapes itself thus :—Let us suppose a polished surface of indefinite extent, bounding an uncrystallized medium of indefinite thickness ; and placed Opposite to this surface and parallel to it let us imagine an indefinitely ex- tended surface of lampblack ; and finally, let the whole arrangement be kept ata constant temperature. Now we know the quantity of heat which radiates from the lampblack in directions making different angles with the surface ; and since the proportion of this heat which after striking the polished surface penetrates it in a certain direction must be equal to the quantity of heat which leaves this surface from the interior in the same direction, it can be readily conceived how, by means of optical laws, we may be enabled to tell the internal radiation, in different directions, of the solid to which this surface belongs. It is remarkable that the internal radiation deduced by this method for an uncrystallized body is equal in all directions—a result which we have seen may also be arrived at by the principle of sufficient reason. In order to define internal radiation, let us conceive a square unit of sur- face to be placed in the midst of a solid of indefinite thickness on all sides, | and consider the amount of radiant heat which passes across this square unit of surface in unit of time, in directions very nearly perpendicular to the surface, | and comprehending an exceedingly small solid angle 6g. Call this heat Rég, | then R may be viewed as the intensity of the radiation in this direction. Now if R denote the radiation of lampblack, and p the index of refraction | of an uncrystallized medium, it may be shown that the internal radiation as | thus defined is equal to Rp’. | 108 REPORT—1861, Before concluding this Report, there is one fact which I think internal | radiation may serve to explain in some such way as the following. Suppose we have two substances opposite one another, one having the temperature of 0°, and the other of 100°, the latter will of course lose heat to the former; let us call its velocity of cooling 100. Suppose now that, while the first surface still retains the temperature 0°, the second has acquired that of 400°; then we might naturally expect the velocity of cooling to be denoted by 400 ; © but by Dulong and Petit’s law it is much greater. The reason of the increase may perhaps be thus accounted for:—At the temperature of 100° we may suppose that only the exterior row of particles of the body supplies the radia- tion, the heat from the interior particles being all stopped by the exterior ones, — as the substance is very opake for heat of 100°; while at 400°, for the heat of which the particles are less opake, we may imagine that part of the radiation from the interior particles is allowed to pass, thereby swelling up the total radiation to that which it is by Dulong and Petit’s law. On the Recent Progress and Present Condition of Manufacturing Chemistry in the South Lancashire District. By Drs. EK. Scuuncx, R. Aneus Situ, and H. EK. Roscoe. Ir has been frequently suggested by persons engaged in manufacturing che- mistry in this neighbourhood, that, as Manchester is the centre of a large district in which the growth of those branches of industry immediatély de- pendent upon chemical science has been so extraordinarily rapid, and in which their extent is now so vast, it would be fitting and desirable to pre- sent to the Chemical Section of the British Association, at its Meeting in Manchester, a short report on the recent progress and present condition of the chemical manufactures of the South Lancashire district. In drawing up such a Report, thesc to whom the task of collecting and editing the matter was entrusted have endeavoured, in the first place, to give some idea of the progress which has been made in the trade, by describing as concisely as possible those new processes, or those improvements on old ones, in which any point of sufficient scientific interest presented itself; and in the second place, to give a statistical account, as accurate as possible, of the present yield of the very large number of chemical works in the South Lan- cashire district. As a description of the rise of the Lancashire chemical trade from its commencement would have much exceeded the limits of such a Report, the authors decided upon confining themselves, as arule, to the collec- tion of facts regarding the improvements and new processes introduced du- ring the last ten years. Notwithstanding this limitation it has, however, been found that the labour of arranging the matter was much more considerable than was at first supposed ; and the authors feel that, in spite of the great amount of time and trouble they have expended upon it, the Report is still far from complete, and they fear that in one or two minor points inaccuracies may have crept in: they believe, however, that several points of great scien- tific interest will be presented to the notice of the Section—points which hitherto have only been known to the practical manufacturer ; and they feel sure that the statistics they have been able to collect will give to the scientific world a notion of the importance, in a national point of view, of the chemical trade of South Lancashire. The authors wish especially to remark that by far the largest portion of the facts and statements which they are about to lay before the Section have PROGRESS OF CHEMISTRY IN SOUTH LANCASHIRE. 109 been verbally communicated to them by various gentlemen practically engaged in the chemical manufactures of this neighbourhood, who have, in a most liberal manner, not only opened their works to minute inspection, but have themselves devoted a considerable amount of time and personal labour in minutely explaining all those processes which they deemed of scientific in- | terest, thus throwing open their accumulated store of practical as well as theoretical experience. | Where the attention and interest shown by all the numerous gentlemen to whom the authors had occasion to apply has been so great, it appears almost invidious to mention any names; but in thanking all, the authors cannot for- bear to state that to Messrs. Roberts, Dale and Co. of Cornbrook, Mr. Gos- sage and Mr. Deacon of Widnes, Mr. Spence of Pendleton, Mr. Shanks of St. Helens, and Mr. Higgin and Mr. Hart of Manchester they are especially indebted for a large amount of valuable information. In conclusion, it may be stated that it has been the aim throughout the Report to describe the various improvements effected during the last ten years so far only as they are of scientific interest, and carefully to avoid entering into those details of manufacture which to a great extent regulate the economic production of the article, and which, though they are all-important to the trader, are of slight interest to the man of science. | I. Sutpuuric AcIp. No substance produced by the manufacturing chemist is equal in import- ance to sulphuric acid, since it is quite indispensable in the production of ‘many other articles, as well as in many manufacturing processes. In the production of soda-ash, and consequently of-soap and glass, of muriatic, nitric, and other acids, of alum, sulphate of copper, bleaching powder, &c., | in bleaching and dyeing, its use is quite essential. To produce it econo- mically on the large scale is therefore an object of considerable importance, and numerous improvements have consequently been introduced into the manufacture with the view of bringing it to the highest state of perfection. Tn order to give an idea of the degree of economy practised, we may men- tion that an eminent manufacturer informs us that he obtains from 100 parts of sulphur 280-290 parts of sulphuric acid of sp. gr. 1°85, which, even sup- posing the sulphur to be pure, is as near the calculated quantity (306) as can be expected in practice. Very few manufacturers, however, employ sulphur ; most of them use pyrites, the only objection to the latter being that it con- tains arsenic, so that the product is consequently contaminated with arsenious acid. The Irish pyrites contains 33 per cent. of sulphur, whilst the Spanish pyrites contains as much as 46 percent. The ordinary burner for pyrites is well known, and answers sufficiently well when the ore is in large lumps, since the quantity of sulphur left in the residue does not exceed 3 per cent. ; but considerable difficulty is experienced in operating on the smaller pieces and powder, technically called smadls. In burning these in the ordinary way, in the case of Spanish pyrites, from 8 to 10 per cent. of sulphur remains behind and is lost. By mixing them with clay and forming the mixture into balls before burning, this loss may be reduced to about 4 per cent. It is indeed possible to continue the operation until the quantity of sulphur left unconsumed amounts to only 2 per cent., but the time required for this pur- pose is found to be too long to make it worth while to do so. Mr. Spence of Manchester has, however, devised a plan for effecting this object in an economical manner, which may be shortly described as follows :—In the first place the smalls are riddled out, the large lumps being put into the ordinary 110 REPORT—1861; burner. The smalls are then placed on a hearth of firebrick 40 feet long and 6 or 7 feet wide, which is heated from below, and has a current of air passing over it to burn the sulphur and convey the sulphurous acid into the chambers. The material is introduced at the end furthest from the fire, where it only experiences a gentle heat, and is gradually moved forward to where the heat is greatest. If the ore is ground, the sulphur may in this kiln be completely burnt. We may mention, by the way, that the introduc- ~ tion of Spanish and Portuguese pyrites has caused the rise of a new branch of industry in the extraction of the small quantity of copper which these ores contain. The manufacturers do not, however, find it advisable in gene- ral to extract the copper themselves ; they sell it to the smelter. The manufacturers of oil of vitriol have recently availed themselves of another source of sulphurous acid. In Hill’s process of purifying gas, hydrated peroxide of iron is employed instead of lime. After being used for some time the material is exposed to the atmosphere, in order to re-oxidize the reduced oxide of iron. The process is repeated thirty or forty times, after which it can no longer be employed for the purification of gas. It contains, however, 40 per cent. of sulphur, and the manufacturers make use of it in the same way as pyrites for the production of sulphurous acid. From 1 ton of the material they obtain about 1+ ton of hydrated sulphuric acid. Mr. Harrison Blair’s improved sulphur-burner is especially valuable as economizing space in the chambers, by preventing the sulphurous acid from being diluted with too large an excess of air, as is the case with the ordinary sulphur-burners. In this arrangement the sulphur falls into the burner through a vertical hopper, air being admitted by an opening in front in suf- ficient quantity to cause combustion of a portion of the sulphur, and by the heat thus evolved to melt and volatilize the remainder. The vapour of the sulphur is then supplied with a jet of air, from the side, carefully regulated, and burns with a flame of great size. By means of this arrangement, one chamber of a capacity of 25,000 cubic feet is stated to produce weekly 21 tons of rectified acid, whereas, by using the ordinary burner, a chamber of the same capacity would produce only 11 tons. The tendency in this district has been to increase the size of the sulphuric- acid-chambers. ‘The largest that we have heard of has a capacity of 112,000 cubic feet. Many manufacturers employ Gay-Lussac’s method, invented sixteen or seventeen years ago for economizing nitric oxide. Pure sulphuric acid of sp. gr. 1°75 is poured down a column filled with coke, so as completely to moisten it. The waste nitrous fumes from the chambers, which would other- wise be lost, are then passed through the column and absorbed. The liquid is diluted with water to a sp. gr. of 1°50 and heated with steam, nitrous fumes are evolved, which pass off into the chambers and are used instead of — fresh gas. By this means a saving of more than 5O per cent. of nitrate of soda is effected. Others, however, do not employ this method, as they find that with the present low price of nitrate of soda, £12 per ton, it does not pay to collect and absorb the waste oxides of nitrogen. The use of platinum stills for the rectification of sulphuric acid has been almost entirely abandoned, and their place supplied by glass retorts, which are now made mach larger and of better quality than formerly. They are placed either over the naked fire, or else in iron pots containing a little sand ; and when carefully protected from currents of air, the breakage is not found to be excessive. The acid thus obtained is said to be more transpa- rent and less coloured than that prepared with platinum. PROGRESS OF CHEMISTRY IN SOUTH LANCASHIRE, 111 We estimate the weekly production of sulphuric acid of sp. gr. 1°85, in this district, exclusive of that which is used in the manufacture of soda-ash, at about 700 tons. II. Tut MANuFAcTURE OF SoDA. In the most important chemical manufacture of the district, that of soda- ash, but few changes in principle have taken place during the last ten years, the essential points of the original method of Leblanc (1797) being still adhered to; although minor alterations have been introduced in the various processes. The extent of the manufacture has, however, largely increased since the year 1851. The value of alkali made annually in England is estimated at two million pounds sterling; of this, half is made in the South Lancashire and half in the Newcastle district. In the year 1860 the average quantity of common salt (chloride of sodium) decomposed per week in the alkali works of the South Lancashire district amounted to 2600 tons. This quantity of salt requires for its decomposition 3110 tons of sulphurie acid of sp. gr. 1°60, and produces 3400 tons of hydrochloric acid of sp. gr. 1°15. The weight of salt decomposed serves as the simplest measure of the activity of the alkali trade, as this raw material is worked up into a variety of pro- ducts the exact relative quantities of which it is not easy to estimate. Through the kindness of the leading firms in the alkali trade in this neigh- bourhood we are, however, enabled to lay before the Section a reliable approximate estimate of the total quantities of these various products now made in the district ; viz. salt-cake, soda-ash, soda crystals, caustic soda, and bicarbonate of soda :— Statistics of the Lancashire Alkali- Trade, 1861. Tons Common salt (Na Cl) decomposed per week ..........+- 2600 Sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1°6) used .........0s esc ee ce eees 3110 Hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 115) produced ...........+4: 3400 Soda-ash sold per week...... 22: .ecdsecscssecseace -« 1800 Salt-cake sold per week ...........0. sla, aaa ee 2 dscees 180 Soda crystals (NaO CO,+10 HO) sold per week ........ 170 Bicarbonate of soda sold per week........... cacdesiine 225 Caustic soda (solid) sold per week ............05 wezeaa, 90 Since the year 1852 the alkali-trade in the South Lancashire district has more than tripled, in that year only 772 tons of common salt being con- sumed per week. These large quantities of products now manufactured are derived from about twenty-five works, varying from a yield of 175 to 25 tons of ash per week; the chief localities in which the trade is carried on are, St. Helens, Runcorn Gap, and Widnes Dock near Warrington, the neighbourhood of Bolton, and Newton Heath near Manchester*. Some idea may be formed of the extent of the Lancashire alkali-trade when it is stated that two large firms are engaged solely in breaking the limestone used by the alkali makers in the Widnes district alone. _ It would far exceed the limits of this Report were we even to mention the very numerous patents for improvements in the alkali-trade taken out since 1851. Suffice it to say that none have succeeded in materially altering the process. Many plans have been proposed for avoiding the loss of sulphur, _* The numbers here given include the yield of three works beyond the limit of the county—two situated on the Cheshire side of the Mersey at Runcorn, and one at Flint—but all sending their products to the Lancashire markets. were 112 REPORT—1861l. the great drawback of Leblanc’s original method ; but none have been as yet found to be practically successful, if, indeed, we except a process used by the St. Helens Patent Alkali Company, in which the bisulphide of iron (iron pyrites), being roasted in a reverberatory furnace with common salt, yields volatile sesquichloride of iron, salt-cake, and peroxide of iron, which are separated by lixiviation. A process, theoretically most promising, has been proposed by Mr. Gossage, to whom the alkali-trade owes so much, by which all loss of . sulphur is avoided ; but even this plan has not yet been successfully worked. It depends upon the following facts: (1) that moist carbonic acid decomposes sulphide of sodium, forming carbonate of soda and sulphuretted hydrogen ; and (2) that dry peroxide of iron is reduced by sulphuretted hydrogen—tree sulphur, water, and protoxide of iron being formed,—the latter part of the process having been patented by Mr. Thomas Spencer in 1859. The salt- | cake, made in the usual way, is in this process reduced by ccal, and the fused sulphide allowed to flow through a tower filled with heated coke, in which it meets a current of moist carbonic acid; the carbonate of soda runs out at the bottom of the tower, whilst the sulphuretted hydrogen and carbonic acid gases pass upwards through a tower filled with peroxide of iron in porous masses. The sulphur is there deposited upon the oxide of iron, and the mass only needs burning in the ordinary pyrites-kilns to yield sulphurous acid again. The numerous plans proposed for regaining the sulphur from the alkali-waste have also all proved abortive ; nor indeed is this to be wondered at when we consider the mechanical difficulties of dealing with a mass of material amounting in some works to 600 tons weekly, and when we like- wise remember that the waste contains only from 15 to 20 per cent. of sul- phur, which, if it could all be easily extracted, would only make the mass worth about 15s. per ton. The improvements of detail effected in the soda-manufacture since the year 1851 have mainly been the following :— (1) Greater attention to economical working in all the branches than was formerly given, especially in the burning of pyrites, and in the evaporation of the black-ash liquors, which is now wholly effected by the waste heat from the black-ash furnaces. The arrangement for the evaporation of the black-ash liquors by means of the spent heat of the black-ash furnaces was proposed by Mr. Gamble of St. Helens, and by him liberally presented to his co-manufacturers. (2) The process of lixiviation of the black ash is more completely accom- plished than formerly by the employment of the very ingenious and simple arrangement originally proposed by Mr. Shanks, and by him given to the soda-trade. According to Mr. Shanks’s method, all pumping of the liquors or handling of the black ash is avoided, a much more perfect abstraction of the soluble constituents is gained, and a great saving in expense of evapora- tion is effected. (3) In some works the black ash is now made by machinery, under a patent granted to Messrs. Elliot and Russell in 1853, and more recently improved by Messrs. Stevenson and Williamson of the Yarrow Chemical Works, Newcastle. In this method the mixture of salt-cake, coal, and lime- stone is introduced into revolving iron cylinders, lined with firebricks, and heated by a furnace, so that thus the process of manual stirring is avoided. (4) The soda-ash is now in many alkali-works packed into casks by machinery. Since the year 1851 an entirely new branch of the manufacture has been introduced by the preparation of solid caustic soda, an article now largely exported to America and other localities, to which carriage is expensive. PROGRESS OF CHEMISTRY IN SOUTH LANCASHIRE. LVS In the preparation of solid caustic soda advantage is taken of the facts, that in all the black-ash liquors nearly one-third of the total alkali is present as the hydrate, and that on concentrating these liquors by boiling, the whole of the carbonate, and the greater part of the chloride, sulphate, and other neutral salts separate, and may be removed by mechanical means, leaving in solution the caustic alkali with a small quantity of sulphides and cyanides which are oxidized by nitrate of soda, as afterwards described. Sometimes, however, it is found convenient to caustitize with linie the whole of the black-ash liquor before evaporation : the caustic alkali must then be prepared in a dilute solution ; otherwise, as is well known, a complete decomposition does not occur. In order to utilize the heat wasted by the necessary evapo- ration of the lye, Mr. Dale has patented a plan for boiling down the caustic liquors in closed iron boilers, employing the steam for motive power or for heating purposes. . Mr. Dale finds that the liquors may be thus concentrated to sp. gr. 1°30 without in any way injuring the boilers. When the lye has obtained the above strength, it is concentrated in open iron pans, and nitrate of soda is added to oxidize the sulphides and sulphites, large quantities of ammonia being evolved. As soon as the greater portion of the uncombined water has gone off, and the mass begins to undergo igneous fusion, the cyanides are decomposed by the nitrate—nitrogen and oxygen gases being liberated, and the carbon of the cyanogen appearing as a crust of finely divided graphite. This interesting fact of the production of graphite by decomposition, probably, of the cyanides, was first observed by Dr. Pauli of the Union Alkali-works of St. Helens. The caustic soda thus prepared is often perfectly white, although generally of a greenish colour from traces of manganese; it contains neither iron nor alumina, the former being precipitated as an insoluble anhydrous peroxide, and the latter separating out as a crystal- line alkaline silicate of alumina. In concentrating the strong lye, the manufacturers were much troubled by the continual boiling over of the fusing mass, but this has been remedied by an ingenious application of the “Geyser” principle, also used in the kiers employed in bleaching cotton goods, which we saw in operation at Messrs. Gaskell and Deacon’s Works at Widnes. At the bottom of the round pan in which the evaporation is conducted is placed a conical pipe of sheet iron, open at both ends, and reaching about an inch above the level of the fusing mass. This tube does not rest. close to the bottom of the pan, openings being left for the entrance of the liquid. In contact with the heated iron, ‘steam is formed at the bottom of the tube, and the liquid is thus forced out at the top of the tube, preventing altogether any violent ebullition occurring in the other part of the pan, and consequently effectually stopping the boiling over of the fused mass. The proposition recently made by Kuhlmann for the employment of the alkali-waste as a cement is not new, Mr. Deacon of Widnes having used this waste material for making floors twelve years ago. The investigations of Mr. Gossage on the constitution of black ash have been the base of a very important branch of that manufacture. This gentle- man, so long ago as 1838, expressed his doubts as to the correctness of the view taken by Dumas and other chemists concerning the composition of the black ash, namely, that the separation of the soluble carbonate of soda from the compounds of sulphur and lime by treatment with water depends upon the formation of an insoluble oxysulphide of calcium. Mr. Gossage showed that in all the liquors obtained by dissolving the black ash nearly one-third of the total quantity of alkali is present as caustic soda, and that this closely corresponds to the excess of caustic lime practically employed, whereas in 1861. tis? 114 REPORT—1861. the dry substance no caustic soda can be dissolved out by alcohol. Hence he concluded that the black ash consists of a mixture of carbonate of soda, caustic lime, and monosulphide of calcium, and that when the mass is treated with water, caustic soda and carbonate of lime are formed, the monosulphide of calcium itself being insoluble in water. This theory of the composition of black ash is now generally adopted by chemists practically engaged in alkali-making, and has received confirmation by the subsequent paoly ie of Mr. F. Claudet and others. The growth of the soda-ash manufacture has been so rapid, and so many changes have been caused by it in the chemical arts, that a short sketch of its history may with great propriety be added to this portion of our subject— this sketch being in the main an abridgement of Mr. Gossage’s paper read before the Section.. Previous to 1793, soda was made almost entirely from the ashes of sea-weed obtained from Alicante, Sicily, Teneriffe, Scotland, and Ireland. Potash from Russia, France, and America supplied its place to a large extent ; now, however, soda supplies the place of potash, even in those countries from which we formerly obtained potash. In 1794 a French Com- mission decided that Leblanc’s soda-ash process was the best proposed. The Government made it known to the public in 1797. The inventor died in poverty ; but many manufacturers rose up in France and obtained great suc- cess. It was little known in this country till 1823, when the duty of £30 a ton was taken off salt. In connexion with soda, muriatic acid. and chlorine must be named. Although Scheele, a Swede, discovered chlorine, Berthollet discovered its bleaching properties. The process was introduced into Scotland by Professor Copeland of Aberdeen; and in 1798 Mr. Charles Tennant of Glasgow patented a solution of chloride of lime as a bleaching-liquor, which was fol- lowed up by the invention of the present bleaching-powder. When com- mon salt is decomposed by sulphuric acid, the muriatic acid from which the chlorine is obtained is set free ; when this process was performed by bleachers the duty on the salt was remitted, but they were compelled to throw away all the sulphate of soda formed—a strange and most wasteful act. This con- tinued till 1814. About this time occurred the expiration of Tennant’s patent for bleaching ; and crystals of carbonate of soda were gradually introduced at £30 per ton. Mr. Losh, of Newcastle, had made use of Leblanc’s process almost from its publication, but on a small scale. In 1802 he sold soda-crystals at £60 per ton; the. present price is £4 10s. But in 1823 may be dated the commencement of the soda-ash manufacture in this country, when Mr. James Muspratt erected his works at Liverpool. The decomposition of the salt was made chiefly in open furnaces ; so that an enormous amount of muriatic acid was sent into the air, and soda-works were removed from towns when the Woulfe’s apparatus was not used for con- densation. To remedy this loss, Mr. Gossage invented, in the year 1836, the coke tower as at present used. The acid gases percolate through a deep bed of coke, which fills a high tower, and which is supplied with water trickling through the porous material. Mr.Gossage and Mr. Shanks are said to have so purified the gas at Messrs. Crossfield’s works at St. Helens, that it did not-even render a solution of nitrate of silver turbid. In 1838, when the King of the Two Sicilies monopolized the trade in sulphur, it was raised in price from £5 to £14 per ton, when the Irish pyrites began to be used. This again led to the extraction of the copper from the spent pyrites, and also of the silver, a process commenced by Mr. Gos- sage in 1850. Mr. John Wilson began to extract the gold, but without com- mercial success. PROGRESS OF CHEMISTRY IN SOUTH LANCASHIRE. 115 Since Mr. Muspratt began his works the price of soda has been reduced 60 per cent., although the raw materials have fallen only 10 per cent. There are about fifty soda-works in Great Britain; and the following amounts are made, as far as is known :-— 3000 tons of soda-ash per week. 2000 tons of soda-crystals per week. 250 tons of bicarbonate of soda per week. 400 tons of bleaching-powder per week. About 10,000 persons are employed in these operations, exclusive of those engaged in procuring salt, coal, pyrites, and limestone, and in the transporta- tion of the materials. The new French Treaty reduces the import duty into France 15 per cent., or 36s. per ton. At the time of making the Treaty, it was estimated that 59,000 tons of salt were used in France for soda, and 260,000 in Great Britain. The following Table gives the amount of materials used at present for the production of 1 ton of soda-ash, and their prices :— Ege eee A 2 tae-of, Irish, pyrites’ .<.0/<.6 2.0 <0) lea L160 L hewt nitrate of soda. oi. om a6 sci eien) ie 2D 0 14 ton of salt...... pintdlaial oldig dG3.9/m tints We LON ack) 14 ton of limestone .............--. 010 O Sa SONS OL FOL 2). 6. co spasiaw yeven piemane Bosak, O £4 8 0 Chronology of the Soda Trade. Peri - : Quantity . eriod. Raw Materials used and Prices. mianeearede Prices. . 1790 | Barilla and Kelp. Not known. Not known. 1792 | Leblanc’s process invented and ap-|Not known. Not known. plied in France. 1814 | Crystals of soda, made from bleach-|Not known. Soda-crystals £50 er’s residua, and by Mr. Losh from per ton. brine. 1823 | Mr. Muspratt’s Works commenced,|Probably 100 tons per|Soda-crystals £18 and using— weekof crystalsand| per ton. 1824 | Common salt at ......... 15s. per ton.| soda-ash. Soda-ash £24 per MUIDLUGAL anessccnsessee.s< £8 per ton. ton. DANG Hee Weretieet.seces ees 15s. per ton. Woaliatiece, eesc~sss-rc5. 0s: 8s. per ton. 1861 | 50 works in operation in Great Bri-\5000 tons per week. |Soda-crystals £4 tain, using Leblane’s process, raw 10s. per ton. materials in Lancashire costing, ~ |Soda-ash £8 per Common salt .............. 8s. per ton. ton. Sulphur from pyrites...... £5 per ton. Limestone....,......00.- 6s. 8d. per ton. Wael cosas Ge cscepersaneneetesn 6s. per ton. III. Bheacninc-PowreEr. In some alkali-works the waste hydrochloric acid is employed to evolve tarbonic acid from limestone for the manufacture of bicarbonate of soda from soda-crystals; in others the acid is used for the preparation of bleaching-pow- 12 116 REPORT—1861. der and bleaching-liquor, both of which products are made in large quantities in the distriet, 155 tons of bleaching-powder* being made each week. The only points in this manufacture which call for remark are :— (1) An ingenious process for preparing chlorine without the use of binoxide of manganese is used by Mr. Shanks of St. Helens. The process is as follows :—Hydrochloric acid is added to chromate of lime, sesquichloride of chromium and free chlorine are produced, and the free chlorine is used for making bleaching-powder. Then lime is added to the sesquichloride of chromium, and the precipitated sesquioxide reconverted into chromate by heating with lime in a reverberatory furnace. (2) The regeneration of peroxide of manganese from the waste liquors containing chloride of manganese has, as is well known, been performed with success by Mr. Charles Dunlop, so much so that the product obtained is almost pure. Dr. Gerland of Newton-le-Willows has communicated to us the following process for recovering from these liquors not only peroxide of manganese, but also the nickel and cobalt which they contain. The liquors are first neutralized with limestone, and then caustic lime is added until all the iron is precipitated as hydrated peroxide of iron. The precipitate, after washing and drying, may be used as yellow ochre. The filtrate contains manganese, nickel, and cobalt. The two latter metals are precipitated as sulphides by means of a solution of sulphide of calcium (obtained from black- ash waste), which is added until the precipitate ceases to be of a pure black. The precipitate is now collected and subjected to the well-known manipula- tions for separating the metals. The supernatant liquid is siphoned off, and the manganese contained in it is precipitated as hydrated protoxide by adding milk of lime. The oxide is washed by decantation and thrown on calico for draining. It is converted into the higher oxide simply by the agency of heat and air, and is generally obtained as a fine black powder containing 70 per cent. of peroxide. The average quantity of cobalt contained in 1 ton of manganese is 10 lbs., and of nickel 5 lbs. IV. Cuiorate oF PorTasu. From 4 to 5 tons of this salt are manufactured weekly in this district. It is employed for making matches, and also as an oxidizing agent in steam colours on calico. V. HyposuLeHItTE oF SopA. This salt is manufactured by Messrs. Roberts, Dale and Co., to the extent of 3 tons weekly. It is prepared by passing sulphurous acid through a solu- tion of sulphide of sodium, and purified by recrystallization. It is used by paper-makers, by photographers, and by bleachers (known as antichlor). VI. SinicaTEe oF Sopa. The experiments of Fuchs, Kuhlmann, and others have shown that the alkaline silicates may be employed with success for the purpose of coating building-stones of a soft or porous nature, thus enabling them to resist the action both of air and water, Another use has been found for them in this district, viz. as a substitute for cow-dung in calico-printing ; and they are also extensively employed by soap-manufacturers in place of the resinates. Silicate of soda is the compound employed. The process of manufacture is simple. Sand and carbonate of soda are melted together, a sufficient quan- * Of this quantity 70 tons are produced at St. Helens, 40 at Runcorn and Runcorn Gap, and 45 in Flint. : PROGRESS OF CHEMISTRY IN SOUTH LANCASHIRE. 117 tity of the latter being taken to prevent the watery solution afterwards gela- tinizing. The product has the appearance of glass, transparent in thin layers, and variously coloured in mass, from pale yellow to brown or black, the colour being due to the presence of carbon. Occasionally it is of a pale green. As it is difficult to reduce it into fragments by pounding, on account of its extreme brittleness, it is found advantageous to allow the fused mass to run directly into water, by which means it is immediately broken up into pieces of a convenient size. About 10 tons per week are produced in this neighbourhood. VII. ARSENIATE OF Sopa. This salt has of late come into very general use as a substitute for cow- dung in calico-printing, for which purpose it is much better adapted than the phosphate or silicate of soda, as it does not attack the alumina mordants to so great an extent as those salts. It is generally prepared by fusing arsenious acid with nitrate of soda and caustic soda. Without the addition of caustic soda, an acid arseniate would be formed. In this way, however, a considerable loss of arsenious acid takes place. Mr. Higgin, of this city, has therefore invented and patented a process, by which this loss is prevented. He dissolves the arsenious acid in caustic soda, adds nitrate of soda, introduces the mixture into a reverberatory furnace, and allows the heat of the fire to pass over the surface. In the first instance ammonia is given off, then nitric oxide. The heating is continued until the paste is perfectly dry. This pro- _ cess is attended by a saving, not only of arsenious acid, but also of nitrate of soda. The advantages attending the use of arseniate of soda for dung- ing are, that a greater proportion of the mordants becomes fixed, and that the colours are superior and the whites purer after dyeing than with other materials. Its use is also attended with greater economy. It is to be re- gretted that so valuable a substance as this should also be one of so highly poisonous a nature. The quantity produced in this district amounts to 10 or 12 tons per week. VIII. BicuRoMATE oF PoTASH. We have nothing new to report regarding the manufacture of this salt. About 14 tons are produced weekly in our district. IX. PrusstATEs oF PoTasu. From 4 to 5 tons of yellow prussiate of potash and 1 ton of red prussiate are produced in this district per week. X. SuPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME. Weekly production in this district, 500 to 600 tons. XI. SuLPHATE oF BARYTA. Of this salt, which is usually sold under the name of “ blanc fixe,” about 2 tons are made in this district by precipitation. The plan pursued is very simple: Derbyshire heavy spar is heated with carbon, the sulphide of barium thus obtained is decomposed with muriatic acid, and from the solution the baryta is precipitated as sulphate. When prepared in this manner, it is found to be better adapted for the purpose to which it is applied than the ore simply ground, as it possesses more body as a paint than the latter. - XII. Epsom Satts. Weekly production in this district, 20 tons. — 118 REPORT—1861. XIII. ALum. One of the most important improvements introduced into our chemical manufactures during the last twenty years is the new process of making alum, first patented by Mr. Spence in 1845, and carried out on a large scale by Messrs. Spence and Dickson since 1847. Before that time the alum manufactured in this district was confined to a small quantity made from pipeclay, our chief supplies being derived from Whitby. By the old process, 60 tons of the oolitic shale of Yorkshire were required in order to produce 1 ton of potash alum and 1 ton of Epsom salts. By Mr. Spence’s process 50 tons of shale yield 65 tons of ammonia-alum. Mr. Spence employs the shale found underlying the seams of coal in this district. This shale, which is black from the organic matter contained in it, is piled up in heaps about 4. or 5 feet high, and slowly calcined at a heat approaching to redness. Before calcination the alumina of the shale will not dissolve in sulphuric acid; and, on the other hand, if the heat be raised too high, so as to induce a partial vitrification of the clay, the alumina is again rendered quite insoluble in acid. The calcination lasts ten days, the heaps being supplied daily with fresh shale. When sufficiently calcined, the material is soft and porous, and of a pale brick- red colour. The calcined shale is then placed in covered pans, each capable of holding 20 tons of the material, and is there digested from thirty-six to forty-eight hours with sulphuric acid of sp. gr. 1°35. The liquid is kept at a temperature of 230° Fahr., partly by fire underneath the pans, and partly by the introduction of vapour from a boiler containing gas-liquor. This part of the process was patented by Mr. Spence in 1858-59, it having been found unnecessary to treat first with acid and then with alkali, the com- bined treatment answering quite as well, provided there is an excess of acid present. The volatile ammonia-salts of the gas-liquor pass over into the pans and are decomposed by the acid ; the ammonia of the remainder is liberated by the addition of lime. The liquor is now run off into cisterns, and kept continually agitated while it cools, in order to promote the formation of small crystals. The crystals are allowed to drain, and washed with the liquor which runs off from the blocks of alum. No iron is found in the crystals, though there is an abundance in the mother-liquor in the shape of persulphate of iron. To this succeeds the so-called Foching process, which simply consists in rapidly recrystallizing. This is effected by Mr. Spence through the agency of steam, without the addition of water. The crystals are thrown into a hopper, at the bottom of which they come into contact with a current of steam, which dissolves them rapidly, fresh crystals being successively added in quantities sufficient to prevent the escape of the steam. By this means 4 tons of crystals may be dissolved in one half to three quarters of an hour. The solution runs immediately into a leaden tank, where it is allowed to settle for three hours, and deposits a quantity of matter insoluble both in water and acid, supposed to be a compound consisting of, or containing subsulphate of alumina. The clear liquor is now allowed to run into tubs, the bottoms of which are formed of Yorkshire flags each 6 feet in diameter, and the sides of moveable staves 6 feet long, which are kept in their places by hoops and screws. After standing from five to eight days, the hoops are unscrewed and the staves removed, when a mass of crystallized alum of the form of the tub appears. After standing eight days longer, a hole is made at 8-10 inches from the bottom, and a quantity of liquor runs out. The mass is generally 18 inches thick at the bottom, and 1 foot at the sides, and contains 3 tons of marketable alum, while the liquor contains 1 ton, which goes back to the pans. PROGRESS OF CHEMISTRY IN SOUTH LANCASHIRE. 119 Tn 1850-51, Mr. Spence made about 20 tons of alum per week. The quantity now made by him amounts to 110 tons, of which 70 tons are pro- duced in this district. Fully half of the total quantity manufactured in England (300 tons per week) is made by his process. bel XIV. ProrosuLPHATE OF IRON. This salt is manufactured in large quantities in this district, principally for the use of dyers, the amount being about 80 tons per week. The process of manufacture pursued here is as follows :—Iron pyrites, derived from the coal- measures, and commonly called here coal brasses, is piled up in heaps, watered and exposed to the atmosphere. A process of slow oxidation takes place. Sulphate of iron with an excess of sulphuric acid is formed. The latter is removed by means of scrap iron. ‘The salt is obtained by evapora- tion of the liquor, and is tolerably pure. An inferior quality is procured from the mother-liquor, which contains alumina. XV. Comrounns or TIN. Chlorides of Tin.—The quantity of these compounds (estimated as crystal- lized protochloride of tin) manufactured in this district amounts to about 163 tons per week. Stannate of Soda.—This compound has for some time been extensively used for the purpose of preparing calicoes which are intended to be printed with so-called steam colours. It is usually obtained by fusing metallic tin or finely powdered tin ore with nitrate of soda. It has been found that the addition of 5 per cent. of arseniate of soda causes a saving in tin, by render- ing, as it seems, the oxide of tin less soluble in the sulphuric acid, through which the goods are subsequently passed. Stannate of soda is also prepared from scrap tin by Mr. Higgin’s process. Various attempts, with more or less success, have been made at various times to separate the tin and the iron of serap tin, or waste tinned iron, and so utilize the former metal. Mr. Higgin acts on the scrap with a mixture of muriatic acid and a little nitrate of soda. When muriatic acid is used alone, the iron dissolves more rapidly than the tin, but when nitrate of soda is added, the tin is acted on in preference. The whole of the nitrate of soda disappears, ard the resulting products are bichloride of tin, chloride of ammonium, and chloride of sodium, in accordance with the following equa- tion: 4 Sn+10Cl H+ Na NO,=4 Sn Cl,+ NH, Cl+ Na Cl+6 HO. The bichloride of tin is then converted, by the excess of tin present, into protochloride. A little iron dissolves at the same time and is separated by means of chalk, which precipitates the protoxide of tin, leaving the iron in solution. The former is then converted, by fusion with nitrate of soda and caustic soda, into stannate of soda, with evolution of ammonia. The iron stripped of the tin is employed for the precipitation of copper. XVI. Copper OREs. Mr. William Henderson has introduced into this district a mode of dealing with very weak copper ores, which has been found extremely successful at Alderley, where the sandstone contains only 13 per cent. of copper, in the form of carbonate and arseniate. The sand containing the copper is put Into wooden vats with muriatie acid, and fresh sand added until the amount of copper is sufficient for saturation. The solution is then drawn off, and the copper precipitated by waste or scrap iron. In this way ores otherwise use- less have become valuable. 120 REPORT—1S861. Another mode of attaining this object, and one in many cases to be pre- ferred, is by using sulphuric acid and boiling down the solution of sulphate of copper so as to obtain crystals, or still further, viz. to dryness. This is then heated in a furnace having a plate, or floor, of brickwork or tiles, the fire being applied beneath, and not passing over the salt of copper: the sulphate is decomposed, and sulphuric acid passes off. But the decomposi- tion is more effectual when carbon is added ; in this way sulphurous acid is driven off, and it is then led into a chamber, and being treated with nitrous fumes in the usual way, sulphuric acid is formed, which is again used for the solution of the copper in the ore. If the ore contains suboxide of copper, it is previously roasted for oxidation. Phosphates, arseniates, carbonates, and oxides may be treated by this process. For sulphides of copper Mr. Henderson roasts with common salt, having previously reduced the ore to fine powder. The chloride of copper is vula- tilized and condensed in a Gossage coke tower. The sulphate of soda re- maining may be washed out of the non-volatile portion, and the copper pre- cipitated from the solution flowing from the tower. He separates by this means the metals whose chlorides have a different rate of volatilization: chlorides such as chloride of silver are obtained in the flue close to the fur- nace. We do not allude to the other inventions contained in Mr. Henderson’s patents, as we are not aware of any being in use in this district. XVII. Nirric Acip. About 48 tons of nitrate of soda per week are used in this district for making nitric acid. The salt yields its own weight of acid of sp. gr. 1°40. Nitric acid is used here for making the nitrates of copper, lead, alumina, and iron, for oxidizing tin, for etching, and also for making aniline from benzole. XVIII. Oxatic Acip. One of the most important and most interesting of the new manufacturing processes which we have to describe in this Report is one for the preparation of oxalic acid, invented and patented by Messrs. Roberts, Dale and Co., gentlemen to whom we owe a number of highly ingenious and useful prac- tical processes. The method of preparing oxalic acid hitherto employed consists, as is well known, in acting on organic substances, such as sugar or starch, with nitric acid. This process has now been superseded by that of Messrs. Roberts, Dale and Co., which depends on the action exerted by caustic alkalies on various organic substances at a high temperature. That oxalic acid is one of the products formed by this action is a fact well known to chemists, but one that has not until recently been turned to any practical use. In the year 1829, Gay-Lussac published a short memoir*, in which he announced that he had succeeded in obtaining oxalic acid by heating cotton, sawdust, sugar, starch, gum, tartaric acid, and other organic acids with caustic potash in a platinum crucible. Since that time the subject has not been attended to either by scientific chemists or by practical men, so far as we know. Messrs. Roberts, Dale and Co. are, we believe, the first persons who have succeeded in carrying out the process in practice on a large scale. In their attempt to do so they were met by a number of serious obstacles, chiefly of a practical nature. These, however, they have, by dint of uncommon ingenuity, and by the application of an amount of perseverance of which, perhaps, but few men are capable, succeeded in * Annales de Chim. et de Phys, t. xli. p, 398. PROGRESS OF CHEMISTRY IN SOUTH LANCASHIRE. 121 overcoming, and the process is now in full and successful operation at their works at Warrington. With a most praiseworthy liberality, these gentlemen have furnished us with full particulars regarding their process. They have also allowed us to see it in operation, and we are therefore able to lay before the Section all the details necessary for becoming acquainted with its prin- cipal features. The only practical suggestion contained in Gay-Lussac’s memoir, consists in his proposal to convert cream of tartar by this method into oxalate of pot- ash. At that time tartaric acid was cheaper than oxalic acid, and the sug- gestion might therefore, under the circumstances of the time, have proved of some practical value. It was evident, however, that for the purpose of ensu- ring success a cheaper material had to be chosen. Messrs. Roberts, Dale and Co. found woody fibre in the shape of sawdust to answer perfectly. Gay- Lussac states, as the result of his experiments, that potash may be replaced by caustic soda. Mr. Dale found, however, that woody fibre produces hardly any oxalic acid with caustic soda. On the other hand, when potash is used alone, the process is not remunerative. This difficulty was overcome by em- ploying a mixture of soda and potash, in the proportion of two equivalents of the former to one of the latter, which produces the desired effect quite as well as potash alone. In what manner the soda acts in this case can only be con- jectured : whether in conjunction with the potash it takes the place of the latter, or whether it merely promotes the fusibility of the mixture, is merely a matter for speculation. The solution of the mixed alkalies having been evaporated to about 1°35 sp. gr., sawdust is introduced, so as to form a thick paste. This paste is then placed on iron plates in thin layers and gradually heated, the mass being kept constantly stirred. During the heating-process, water is in the first instance given off. The mass then swells up and disen- gages a quantity of inflammable gas, consisting of hydrogen and carburetted hydrogen. A peculiar aromatic odour is at the same time evolved. After the temperature has been maintained at 400° Fahr. for one or two hours, this part of the process may be considered as complete. The whole of the woody fibre is now decomposed, and the mass, which has a dark- brown colour, is entirely soluble in water. It contains, however, only from 1: per cent. of oxalic acid, and about 0°5 per cent. of formic, but no acetic acid. What the nature of the principal product intermediate between the woody fibre and the oxalic acid is has not yet been determined; it seems well worthy of further investigation. The mass is now exposed still longer to the same temperature, care being taken to avoid any charring, which would cause a loss of oxalic acid. When perfectly dry, it contains the maximum quantity of oxalic acid, viz. from 28-30 per cent. (C,O,+3 HO), but still no acetic acid, and very little more formic acid than before. The absence of acetic acid is surprising, as it is generally supposed to be an essential product of this process of decomposition. It is possible that the acetates may be converted into oxalates as they are formed ; but, on the other hand Gay-Lussac states that acetates when heated with caustic alkalies yield chiefly carbonates, and but a trifling proportion of oxalates—a conclusion to which Mr. Dalé has also been led from direct experiments with acetates*. The product of the heating-process, which is a grey powder, is in the next place treated with water heated to about 60° Fahr. In this the whole dissolves, with the exception of the oxalate of soda which is either contained in it, or is formed by double decomposition on the addition of water, and which, on account of its slight degree of solubility, falls to the bottom. ‘The use of the _ * It may be mentioned that the process of decomposition takes place equally well in close vessels. It must therefore be accompanied by a decomposition of water. poy, REPORT—1861. soda in this part of the process is sufficiently apparent. The supernatant liquid is drawn off and evaporated to dryness, and the residual mass is heated in furnaces in order to destroy the organic matter and recover the alkalies which it contains, and which are employed again after being causticized for acting on fresh sawdust. In consequence of the elimination of soda, the relative proportion of the two alkalies recovered from the liquor is, of course, different to what it was at the commencement; and before being used again the quantity of each alkali contained in the mixture must be ascertained. The oxalate of soda, after being washed, is decomposed by boiling with hydrate of lime. Oxalate of lime falls to the bottom, and caustic soda passes into solution, and may be employed again for any purpose to which it is ap- plicable. The resulting oxalate of lime is decomposed by means of sulphuric acid, the proportions employed being three equivalents of acid to one of the oxalate ; and the liquor decanted from the sulphate of lime is evaporated to crystallization in leaden vessels. ‘The crystals of oxalic acid, which are slightly coloured by organic matter, are purified by recrystallization. From about 2 Ibs. of sawdust 1 lb. of crystallized oxalic acid may be obtained. There is no loss of oxalic acid. The only loss experienced is in alkalies. The quantity of acid at present manufactured by Messrs. Roberts, Dale and Co. amounts to 9 tons per week ; and their works are capable of being extended so as to produce 15 tons, which is supposed to be the total quantity consumed throughout the world. Their plant is extensive and costly, and bears evidence of an uncommon spirit of enterprise on the part of the proprietors. “In order to give an idea of the effect which the introduction of this pro- cess has had on the market, it may be mentioned that the selling price of the aeid at this time is 8d. to 9d. per lb., whereas in 1851 it was 15d. to 16d. per lb. Oxalic acid is used extensively in calico-printing, woollen-dyeing, woollen- printing, silk-dyeing with wood colours, in straw-bleaching, and for making binoxalate of potash, the so-called “salt of lemons.” XIX. Pyrotigngous AciIp. The only improvement introduced into the manufacture of this acid during the last few years consists in the use of sawdust instead of wood in the process of destructive distillation. The sawdust is introduced into the front of the retort through a hopper, and is gradually moved to the other end by means of an endless screw, worked by machinery. During its transit it becomes completely carbonized, the gaseous and liquid products escape through a pipe, while the charcoal is allowed to fall into a vessel of water. The latter precaution is necessary, since the carbon is obtained in such a minute state of division that no cooling in the air or in closed vessels would be sufficient to stop the combustion. In other respects the process does not differ essentially from that with wood. No more acid is obtained than with wood, and less naphtha. The quantity of the former varies, however, with the temperature employed. The usual temperature is that of a dull red heat. From 1 ton of sawdust 100-120 gallons of liquid, containing 4 per cent. of glacial acid and 15 gallons of tar, are obtained, and 100 parts of the crude distillate yield 3 of naphtha. The advantage consists in the cheapness of the material employed; but, on the other hand, one of the resulting products, viz. the finely divided charcoal, is comparatively worthless. This invention forms the subject of Mr. Halliday’s patent, which was taken out in the year 1848-49. Quite recently Mr. Bowers has patented another PROGRESS OF CHEMISTRY IN SOUTH LANCASHIRE. 123 plan, which consists in passing the sawdust into the retorts by means of an inclined plane, and a series of scrapers. Quantity of acid manufactured weekly in Manchester :—12,000 gallons, containing about 4 per cent. of glacial acid. The value of the acid is £3 per ton, whilst that of the tar is from £4 to £4 10s. The quantities of red liquor (acetate of alumina) and iron liquor (prot- acetate of iron) made may be stated here, as they are always made by means of pyroligneous acid, and generally by the same parties who manufacture the acid. Red liquor, 12,000 gallons. Iron liquor, 6000 gallons. XX. SrarcH AND ARTIFICIAL Gums. About 20 tons of starch and 34 tons of gum-substitutes, made by roasting farina and other kinds of starch, are produced in this district per week. No change has taken place in the process of manufacturing starch from flour. The old process of fermentation is still adhered to. XXI. PuriFicATIoNn oF Resin. Several very interesting and successful processes have lately been patented by Messrs. Hunt and Pochin of Salford, for the purification of resin. The aim of these gentlemen, who have devoted a large amount of time and atten- tion to this subject, is to produce a bright, nearly colourless, solid and brittle resin from the common dark and impure commercial article. This end they attain by distilling the resin in an atmosphere of. steam at about 10 lbs. pressure. The several resinous acids which on distillation by themselves split up into gaseous products and volatile oils of very variable composition, are mechanically carried over, it would appear, in presence of steam, as is well known to be the case with stearic and the other higher fatty acids; and a solid product, which cannot be distinguished from the finest resin, is obtained from a very impure material. In their patent of 1858, Messrs. Hunt and Pochin specify the formation of three distinct solid products during different stages of the process; these they distinguish as a, (, and. yresin. These three several substances present the characteristics of resins, but clarified and to a great extent deprived of colour. They are either separately or in combination applicable to and useful in the manufacture of several important articles, such as soap, size, candles, paper-size, varnish, and japan; and they may be used for distilling to produce resin-oils. About 60 tons per week of this purified resin are now manufactured in this district under this patent. XXII. Orncanic CoLtourinc-MATTERS. There are few substances of more importance to the manufacturers of this district than those which are employed in imparting colour to the various fabrics, especially those of cotton, produced here. Of these substances the majority are derived from the animal or vegetable kingdom. Indeed, with the exception of oxide of iron and chromate of lead, very few mineral sub- stances are at the present time made use of alone by the dyer or printer. The greater intensity, beauty, and variety of the dyes which are wholly or in part composed of organic matters causes them to be preferred; and the increase of skill and knowledge of scientific principles on the part of dyers and printers has also led to their more exclusive employment. When it is stated that the quantity of dye-woods (logwood, peachwood, sapanwood, barwood, fustic, quercitron bark) consumed weekly by the dyers of this 124 REPORT—1861. district amounts to 300 or 400 tons, that the weekly consumption of the same by printers is about 60 tons, that from 150 to 200 tons are in the same time converted into extracts, and that 150 tons per week of madder are used up, exclusive of what is used for garancine, &c., some idea of the mag- nitude of the interests depending on the employment of these materials may be formed. The chemistry of colouring-matters is still in its infancy. Indeed, so few of them have as yet been prepared in a state of purity, that we have hitherto been able merely to lay down a few general principles applicable to all. The direct applications of science in this branch of the arts are therefore few. The purely practical improvements which have been introduced in dyeing and printing within the last twenty years are, however, numerous and im- portant. Among these may be mentioned the invention of steam colours, which certainly dates from an earlier period, but has of late years received a much more extensive application—the improved methods of preparing extracts of dye-woods—the fixation of insoluble pigments on fabrics by means of albumen—the introduction of artificial colouring matters, such as murexide, and the various colours from aniline. In the present Report we must, however, confine ourselves to the improve- ments which have been made in the preparation of the materials used for the purpose of dyeing, without entering into the subject of the dyeing-processes themselves. No dyeing-material has received so much attention, both on the part of scientific chemists and of practical men, as indigo. The chemical properties of its most important constituent have been fully investigated, and its beha- viour when applied in practice carefully examined. It is perhaps on this very account that we find nothing of importance to report under this head. With the exception of a new method of reducing indigo by means of finely divided metals, patented by Leonard, we do not suppose that any important improvement has been introduced in connexion with this dye-stuff. Of no less importance in the art of dyeing is madder, the material with which the most permanent reds, purples, and blacks are produced. The methods which have been proposed for more effectually utilizing this impor- tant dye-stuff are very numerous indeed, though exceedingly few of them have been found to be of practical value. They may be divided into two classes, viz., those having for their object to render available the greatest amount of colouring-matter, and those which tend to produce more perma- nent or more beautiful colours. The first object seems to be perfectly attained by converting the madder by the action of acid into garancine. This preparation is becoming more and more extensively used. There are printing-establishments in which nothing else is employed in the production of madder colours. Even in turkey-red dyeing it is beginning to be much used, thus proving the fallacy of the opinion formerly entertained, that no preparation of madder could be made to supply the place of the crude mate- rial in this process. The garancine for this purpose is manufactured in Holland. It is said to be made by treating the roots with dilute sulphuric acid containing 35 per cent. of the weight of the madder of concentrated acid (the usual proportion in this country being about 25 per cent.), and boiling for several hours. By this means the pectic acid, one of the most hurtful constituents of the root, is removed. ‘The residue left after the ordi- nary process of madder dyeing still contains a quantity of colouring-matter in a state of combination. By treating it with sulphuric acid a product is obtained called garanceux, which is again used for dyeing. The quantity of garancine manufactured in this district, exclusive of garanceux (which is PROGRESS OF CHEMISTRY IN SOUTH LANCASHIRE. 125 mostly made and consumed by printers themselves), is estimated at about 1200 tons per annum, which would require about three times its weight of madder for its production. Of the second class of inventions bearing on madder, perhaps the most successful is that which was patented by Pincoffs and Schunck in the year 1853. It is well known that in order to produce the finer descriptions of madder colours, such as pink and lilac, on cotton fabrics, it is necessary to subject the dyed goods to a long series of operations, such as soaping, aciding, &c. These processes are always attended with some risk of failure ; and besides that, a very large quantity of madder (an excess, in fact) must be employed in dyeing, in order to obtain the ultimate effect desired. It is evident that, if the impurities (resins, pectine, &c.) accompanying the colouring-matters in the root could be removed or destroyed, the opera- tions necessary after dyeing might be dispensed with or much curtailed, since the object of these operations is precisely the removal of these im- purities from the dyed fabric. In the preparation of ordinary garancine a portion of these impurities is removed, but those which are insoluble, or difficulty soluble in water, remain behind for the most part, and subse- quently exert a prejudicial effect in dyeing. Now the invention referred to above consists in subjecting garancine whilst in a moist state to the influ- ence of an elevated temperature in close vessels (or what comes to precisely the same thing, to the action of high-pressure steam) for several hours. What takes place during this process is not exactly known. According to some experiments undertaken by one of us, if appears that the two red colouring-matters contained in madder, viz. alizarine and purpurine, are not in the least degree affected by it, whereas the pectic acid and some of the resinous colouring-matters are charred, and thus rendered insoluble and inno- cuous. Be this as it may, the result of the process is a product which, when used for dyeing, yields colours requiring very little after-treatment in order to give them the required degree of brilliancy, whilst they are quite as per- manent as those produced by madder itself. The use of this material is attended by a saving in dye-stuff, mordants, and soap, as well as in time and ‘labour. The results are also more certain. Moreover, when other colours, such as brown and orange, are introduced in combination with madder colours, the effect is much superior to that produced with madder, where the soapings required to yield the desirable brightness deteriorate the other colours. _ There are other advantages of a practical nature attending its use which need not be here referred to. It has, however, one disadvantage, viz. that from some unexplained cause it is not well adapted for dyeing pink; and for this colour it is therefore still necessary to employ unprepared madder. The pro- duct has obtained the name of Commercial Alizarine, since the effect in dye- ing is similar to that of the pure colouring matter, alizarine. It is manufac- tured on a large scale by Messrs. Pincoffs and Co. Since its introduction in 1853, more than three million pieces of calico have been dyed with it in our _ district and in Scotland. _ Mr. Higgin prepares commercial alizarine by boiling garancine with water, carbonate of soda, and alittle ammonia. The liquid, which is alkaline at first, is boiled until it becomes acid. A short boiling gives a garancine adapted for dyeing purple, whilst a boiling of twenty-four hours yields aliza- rine. _ We may here mention Messrs. Roberts, Dale and Co.’s process for pre- paring lakes, as the compounds of organic colouring-matters with various bases are usually called. Such lakes, with a basis of alumina, have for a long time been made from peachwood, sapanwood, and other dye-woods; but 126 REPORT—1861. they had several disadvantages, which restricted their use in practice. They were not permanent, they had little body, and they were gelatinous and con- sequently cracked in drying. These disadvantages have been obviated by Messrs. Roberts, Dale and Co., who employ oxide of tin as a base instead of alumina, and produce lakes which, owing partly to their physical condition, and partly to their chemical composition, possess the requisite degree of per- manency and intensity of colour. The lakes prepared by the above-men- tioned firm are sold to the paper-stainers, who make use of them for the manufacture of a peculiar style of paper, called mock flocks, which form an excellent imitation of true flock papers, and are consequently used in large quantities. Messrs. Roberts, Dale and Co.’s process for making a scarlet lake from barwood, which is peculiar, may be here shortly described. The colouring- matter of this wood is very slightly soluble in water. The ground wood is therefore simply treated with boiling water, to which the requisite quantity of precipitated oxide of tin is added. The boiling water dissolves some colouring-matter, which is immediately separated by the oxide of tin, and more colouring-matter then passes into solution to be precipitated as before, the process being continued until the compound acquires the requisite inten- sity of colour, and the wood is exhausted. The whole being now left to repose, the wood, which is heavier than the dyed oxide of tin, sinks to the bottom, leaving the pigment floating in the liquid. The latter is decanted off, passed through fine sieves to separate some woody fibre, and allowed to stand. The lake is deposited, and after being pressed is ready for use. The quantity of this lake manufactured weekly by this firm is 2 tons, and the price 8d. per lb. The production of artificial colouring-matters for practical purposes has of late attracted much attention among scientific men and manufacturers. To this class of products belongs Murexide, a body which, as far as we know, does not occur ready-formed in nature. This substance, which was first discovered by Prout, and subsequently examined by Liebig and Wohler, was until very recently unknown out of the laboratory of the chemist. This arose from the circumstance that uric acid, the only known source of murexide, has not until recently been found to occur anywhere in large quantities. The discovery of large beds of guano in various parts of the world has fur- nished us with a material containing a sufficient quantity, however small, of that acid to render the manufacture of murexide on a larger scale practicable ; and it is now prepared in quantities surprising to those who have only seen it made on the small scale in the laboratory. The process pursued may be shortly described as follows :—The guano is first treated with dilute acid, in order to decompose the ammoniacal salts coutained in it. The residue left by the acid is treated with caustic soda in order to dissolve the uric acid, and the solution, decanted from the insoluble portion (consisting of phosphates, sand, &c.), is supersaturated with muriatic acid. The precipitated uric acid is filtered off, washed with water, and dried, when it has the appearance of a brownish-white crystalline powder. The next part of the process consists in treating the uric acid with nitric acid. Measured quantities of the latter are poured into pots of about 1 gallon capacity, which stand in water for the purpose of being kept cool. A certain weight of uric acid is then introduced, in small quantities at a time, into each pot—a process which occupies about ten hours. The liquid has now a dark-brown colour, and is generally covered with a crystalline crust, consisting of alloxan and alloxantine. It may be remarked that the process does not succeed well unless both these substances are present—a fact already known from the researches of Liebig and Wohler. PROGRESS OF CHEMISTRY IN SOUTH LANCASHIRE. 127 The liquid is then transferred to an enamelled vessel, diluted with water, and mixed with an excess of carbonate of ammonia when the object is to pro- duce murexide or purpurate of ammonia. Generally, however, carbonate of soda is used, and in this case the product is purpurate of soda. The pre- cipitated murexide or purpurate of soda is separated by filtration, washed and dried. It has the appearance of an amorphous, puce-coloured powder. The quantity manufactured by Mr. Rumney, of Manchester, amounted at one time to 12 ewt. per week, for which about 12 tons of guano were re- quired. The price was at first 30s. per lb., but has now fallen to 15s. In printing cotton goods with murexide, nitrate of lead is used as a solvent, the solution properly thickened is printed, and the goods are then passed through a bath of corrosive sublimate. Other methods are employed, but they all depend on the use of salts of lead and mercury. The colour produced by murexide is so brilliant as almost to justify the belief entertained by Liebig and Wohler, that the celebrated Tyrian purple of the ancients was obtained by its means. XXIII. Anrizinge Cotours. The artificial colouring-matters from aniline and other bases have of late attracted much attention, and various plans have been devised for pro- ducing them. The usual method of obtaining aniline-purple, the so-called “Mauve,” consists in submitting salts of aniline in watery solution to the action of oxidizing agents, such as chromates or permanganates, or the peroxides of manganese and lead. To these processes we may add another, patented by Messrs. J. Dale and A. Caro, and carried out in prac- tice by Messrs. Roberts, Dale and Co. This process is based upon the fact that salts of aniline, when heated with solutions of perchloride of copper, completely reduce it to the state of protochloride, with the simul- taneous formation of a black precipitate containing aniline-purple. Messrs, Dale and Caro dissolve one equivalent of a neutral salt of aniline m water, and boil this solution during several hours with a mixture of copper salts and alkaline chlorides corresponding to 6 equivalents of perchloride of copper. After the reaction is completed the mixture is filtered, the black precipitate well washed and dried, and afterwards extracted repeatedly with dilute alcohol in order to dissolve out the colouring-matters, which it con- tains in a remarkably pure state. These manufacturers have also produced aniline-reds by heating anhydrous hydrochlorate of aniline with nitrate of lead at 360° F. The product of this reaction is a bronze-like brittle mass, which contains aniline-red, always accompanied by purple colours. Boiling water extracts the red colouring-matters and separates them from the purple dyes, which after some purification constitute valuable substitutes for the mauve colour. The method of fixing these colouring-matters to cotton, invented by Mr. Dale, jun., which promises to be valuable, may be mentioned here. The goods are prepared with a solution of colouring-matter and tannin, and are then passed through a bath containing tartar emetic. The affinity of the former substances for antimony determines the fixation of the colour on the fabric. XXIV. Disinrecrants. The manufacture of disinfectants has now become a regular and constant one ; and since the inquiries instituted on the subject by one of us and Mr. M‘Dougall of this city, the use of those made in this district has been enormously increased. Mr. M‘Dougall manufactures, near Oldham, a disin- 128 REPORT—1861. fecting-powder, in which the properties of carbolic and sulphurous acid are taken advantage of. This powder is used to prevent decomposition in stables, cowhouses, and among accumulations of putrescible matter, and generally for the prevention of decomposition in manures. A liquid is also prepared with carbolic acid and lime-water, which is applied for the purpose of preventing decomposition in sewers, thus carrying out the idea first started by one of us, of purifying whole cities by preventing the generation of gases in sewer water, or among accumulations of refuse. This liquid is also used to prevent the decomposition of animal matter when it cannot at once be made use of, especially in the case of meat brought to market, or animals that have died in the fields) The powder, which is called “ M‘Dougall’s disinfecting-powder,” is simply a mixture of the sulphites of lime and mag- nesia with the carbolates of the same bases. The carbolates of lime and magnesia are formed by simply boiling carbolic acid for a long time with the bases in a caustic state. The solution consists of carbolic acid dissolved in lime-water. It is extremely bulky ; still -.jth to ;;sth part of the bulk of the sewer water is sufficient to disinfect the latter. The solution of the powder has also been used to some extent in dissecting-rooms, where it immediately destroys any noxious smell, and at once liberates the fingers of the operator from the peculiarly nauseous odour which so often attaches to them. It has also been found useful in the treatment of sores, as well as of dysentery. M. Lemaire has lately read papers on tar oil and phenic acid; but Man- chester claims priority in the application and explanation of these prepa- rations. Mr. M‘Dougall has also applied carbolic acid to the destruction of para- sitic insects on sheep, and has in many districts entirely driven out the arsenical preparations by the use of this acid united with fatty substances. Sheep dipped in it are not liable to be attacked by tick, even when left for some months among other sheep infested with it. Foot-rot and other diseases of sheep are also said to be prevented and cured by its use. Mr. Pochin has introduced lately a very extensive manufacture which has greatly affected the mode of using alumina, and also the manufacture of alum. The substance is called alum-cake, It is sulphate of alumina with about 16 equivalents of water and silica. Very fine white clay is stirred round with sulphuric acid of about 140°0 sp. gravity, then warmed to about 100° F., and poured into a square trough with moveable sides. In a few | minutes the action of the acid on the clay becomes very violent, and a sulphate of alumina is formed with the silica of the clay intimately mixed. If very strong sulphuric acid is used, the action becomes so violent that the whole mass is thrown out of the trough. The whole hardens into a compact mass difficult to break. To facilitate the fracture, wedges of iron were pressed into the mass when soft, the sides of the trough were taken down, and by striking the wedges the whole was broken into pieces. Now, how- ever, a more elaborate machine is used to break it up into small portions. In this manufactured article there is a large quantity of alumina, viz. 12°38 — per cent. in a soluble form; the trouble of crystallizing is avoided, and the © silica is in no way injurious in most cases. In some cases, where alum is — used with resin for paper size, the addition of the silica is indeed consi- dered an advantage. At any rate, the manufacture is constantly increasing ; if silica be objected to, it is allowed to fall down, and a clear solution of sulphate of alumina remains. ON ETHNO-CLIMATOLOGY. 129 On Ethno-Climatology ; 01, the Acclimatization of Man. By James Hont, Ph. D., F.S.A., F.R.S.L., Foreign Associate of the An- thropological Society of Paris, Honorary Secretary of the Ethnolo- gical Society of London. [A communication ordered to be printed among the Reports. ] One of the most important and practical duties of the ethnologist at the present day is the endeavour to discover the laws which regulate the health of man in his migrations over the world. The generally received opinions on this important subject are, however, vague and unsatisfactory. From some cause, it is the popular belief that man stands entirely alone in the animal kingdom with regard to the influence exerted on him by external causes. We are told that man can thrive equally well in the burning heat of the tropics and in the icy regions at the poles. I purpose, therefore, in this paper to examine how far the supposition of man’s cosmopolitan power is warranted by an induction from the facts at present known to us., We can gain nething in Climatology from “a priori” arguments, as it is entirely an experimental science; and hitherto we have not been able to foretell with any certainty the exact effect which any climate would exert on an individual or a race. No one who reflects on the important bearings which the question of man’s cosmopolitanism introduces will be inclined to doubt the gravity of the question, and its claims to the serious attention, not only of ethnologists, but of all who are interested in the great problem of man’s future,destiny. This question then has equal claims on the attention of the philosopher and the statesman. Our data ‘may be at present insufficient to found an exact science of Ethno-Climato- logy, but I trust to be able to show that there exist the outlines of a great science, which bids fair to prevent that waste of human life which has hitherto characterized the reckless policy of British colonization. Dr. Bou- din, who is well known for his researches on this and kindred subjects, has recently called the attention of the Anthropological Society of Paris to the question, and laments the great inattention which public men have hitherto given to such an important and grave subject. He very justly observes, “The problem is certainly one of the most important in the science of ethnology; for it goverus the great questions of colonization, of recruiting men destined for distaut expeditions, and of fixing the duration of the sojourn of foreign troops at certain stations, so as to render them effective in war. This question touches public health and social economy.” Nor will it be necessary for me further to ask attention, when it is considered how largely _ the British nation is practically interested in having a correct and physiolo- gical system of colonization. 1 therefore bring this subject under your con- sideration with a desire of calling public attention to the powers of acclima- tization possessed by the races of man in general, and by Europeans in particular. It is asserted that to man belongs the exclusive privilege of being the denizen of every region; for that with plants and animals such is not the case. This explanation has as often been accepted as satisfactorily showing that man enjoys privileges over the animal and vegetable kingdoms. That races of men are found in every climate is perfectly true; but a slight examination into the differences and peculiarities of the races of men will show that this argument is not so forcible as at first sight it appears. ) Theorists have often indulged in boasting of the superiority of man over the animal kingdom in his migrations over the world; but these writers | have forgotten that it is civilization which greatly aids man to adapt himself | (for a time) to every climate, We have heard much, too, of the acclimati- | 1861. K | i] | 130 REPORT—1861. zation of animals; but there has been great exaggeration as to what has been really effected. No one will attempt to deny that, physically, mentally, and morally, there does exist a very considerable difference between the denizens of different parts of the earth; and it is not proposed to inquire whether the various agents which constitute climate, and their collateral effects, are sufficient to produce the changes in physique, mind, and morals which we find; but, simply taking the various types of man as they now occur on the earth, we have to determine whether we are justified in assuming that man is a cos- mopolitan animal, and whether the power of acclimatization be possessed equally by all the races of man known to us. The conditions which prevent or retard the acclimatization of man are physical, mental, and moral. It is, however, impossible to discuss the effect of climate only on man, because we find that food is inseparably connected with climate, and that both are modified by the physical conformation of the districts inhabited. The exercise or neglect of mental culture must also be considered. It is therefore nearly impossible to decide to which class we must ascribe certain effects ; but there can be little doubt that all these causes act in harmony, and are insensibly bound together. In speaking, therefore, of climate, I use the word in its fullest sense, and include the whole cosmic phenomena. Thus, the physical qualities of a country have an important connexion with climate; and we must not simply consider the latitude and longitude of a given locality, but its elevation or depression, its soil, its atmospheric influences, and also the quantity of light, the nature of its water, the predominance of certain winds, the electrical state of the air, &c., atmospheric pressure, vegetation, and aliment, as all these are connected with _ the question of climate. Now we find man scattered over the globe, and existing and flourishing under the most opposite circumstances. Indeed, there seems no part of the earth in which man could not, for a period at least, take up his dwelling. When Capt. Parry reached 84° of north latitude, it was the ice, and not the climate, which prevented him from reaching the pole. Man may live where the temperature exceeds the heat of his blood, and also where mer- cury would freeze; so man may exist where the atmospheric pressure is only one-half of what it is at the level of the sea. Men have been found permanently residing 12,000 feet above that level. There is a difference between the climate of the N. and S. hemispheres under apparently the same circumstances. ‘Thus, the European cannot live for any time at any great elevation in the northern hemisphere. The highest inhabited place of Europe has generally been considered to be the Casa Inglese, a small building of lava on Mount Etna, near the foot of the uppermost crater, 9200 feet above the level of the sea. There is, however, a house in the Theodal Pass, between Wallis and Piedmont, at an elevation of 10,000 feet*. These buildings are, however, only inhabited during the — summer months. In the southern hemisphere there are permanent inhabit- ants in regions from ten thousand five hundred feet to twelve thousand fect above the level of the sea. Dr. Tschudi, who has himself resided in these regions, describes what is known as the “ Puna sickness,” which is what may be called a mountain-sickness, and very much resembles sea-sickness. The Peruvians live and thrive well at elevations of from seven to fifteen thousand feet above the level of the sea—heights said by some observers to be often destructive to the whites. This difference between the north and south hemispheres is caused, perhaps, by the difference in attraction at the north * Perty, Vorschall der NaturwissenSchaften, 1853. ON ETHNO-CLIMATOLOGY. 131 pole. In the northern hemisphere the ascent of a high mountain causes a rush of blood to the head, and in the southern there is an attraction of blood to the feet; hence the cause of the sickness. Au examination of the human race shows us that every family presents different modifications, which are doubtless connected in some way with the nature of the cosmic influences by which they are surrounded. We know that some plants and animals are peculiar to certain regions, and that if trans- planted to other climates they degenerate or die ; such is the case with man. In every climate we find man organized in harmony with the climate; and if he is not in harmony, he will cease to exist. The general scale of power for enduring change is in certain respects in unison with the mental power of the race, and is also dependent on the purity of blood. Uncivilized and mixed races have the least power, and civilized pure races the greatest. Every race of man, however, has certain prescribed geographical salubrious limits from which it cannot with impunity be displaced. Such, at least, is the lesson I have drawn from existing data. It is civilization which chiefly enables the European to bear the extremes of climate. Indeed, a people must be civilized to some extent before they desire to visit distant regions. The Esquimaux, for instance, is perfectly happy in his own way, and has no desire to move to a warmer climate. His whole body and mind are suited for the locality ; and were he moved to a warm climate, he would certainly perish. The whole organism of the Esquimaux is fitted solely for a cold climate; nor is such a supposition problematical and inexpli- cable by known physical laws. On the contrary, the physiological expla- nation of such a phenomenon is quite simple. Thus, the European going to the tropics becomes subject to dysentery; and-the Negro coming to Europe, to pulmonary complaints. Europeans who have recently arrived at the tropics are instantly known by their walk and general activity. This, however, soon subsides, the organic functions become disturbed, the pulse and circulation are more active, the respiration less so, while the muscular fibre loses its energy ; the stomach also becomes very weak. The action of the skin becomes abnormal, while the heat acts on and excites the liver. It is often stated that tropical climates stimulate the organs of generation, but this is contrary to experience. That there is a low state of morality, and that theinhabitants of these regions are essentially sensual, cannot be denied ; just as the cold region is distinguished by the gluttony of its inhabitants, and temperate regions by increased activity of brain. The geography of disease has a most important bearing on this subject. It is somewhat strange that man suffers more from epidemics than animals, and this is probably owing to his neglect of the laws of diet, which require to be adapted to every climate. Thus we find that the temperate zone, which ought to be by far the healthiest, has more diseases than either the hot or the cold zones. The cold zone has but a small number of diseases ; and in the torrid zone the number is not large, although the diseases are generally very malignant. Attempts have been made to classify diseases into three categories—those of hot, cold, and temperate regions. Such a classification is, however, arbitrary and most unsatisfactory ; for ihe same climate may be found in each of the three regions. In the tropics there are temperate and cold regions, just as there is equatorial heat in the temperate zone. Dr. Fuchs* distinguishes these three regions of disease. The first he ealls the Catarrhal region. This is so denominated because catarrh of the respiratory organs predominates in it. ‘Catarrh,” he says, “is the com- * Medicinische Gecgraphie. By Dr. C. Fuchs, 1853. 132 REPORT—1861. mon cause of disease in the north temperate zone, between 1300 and 3000 fect above the level of the sea; in the central temperate zone, between two and seven thousand; within the tropics, between seven and fourteen thou- sand feet; in the cold zone, near the level of the sea.” The other two regions he calls the Entero-mesenteric region, in which gastric complaints predominate, and the Dysenteric region, in which there is no scrofula or tubercular disease. Without entering into the value of this classification, medical statistics seem to prove that there are three zones:—lst, the cold or catarrhal zone; 2nd, the tropical or dysenteric zone ; and $rd, the tem- perate or gastric and scrofulous zone. This last zone, however, seems to be subject to the diseases of the other two zones, which prevail respectively according to the seasons. The scrofulous zone ceases at an altitude of two thousand feet above the level of the sea; here there is no pulmonary con- sumption, scrofula, cancer, or typhus fever. It has been suggested that the perfection of the races in the temperate zone depends on the conflict to which they are subjected by the irruption of diseases from the other zones,—the unfavourable climatic conditions producing a human organism eapable of resisting them. Dr. Russdorf* says, ‘* The climatic conditions of the temperate zone act in the formation of blood in such a manner that a large quantity of albumen is present in it. This richness in albumen is manifestly requisite to produce and nourish the powerful brain which distinguishes the Caucasian race; for the brain mainly consists of albumen combined with phosphorated fatty matter.” “Tt is the brain of the Caucasian which determines his superiority over the other races; it is the standard of the power of the organism; it might be termed the architect of the body, as its influence upon the formation of matter is paramount. The effect of the atmosphere upon the formative acti- vity of the organism and upon the metamorphosis of matter is so great, that it is, for instance, on the intluence of the oxygen absorbed by the skin and the lungs that the metamorphosis of the albumen into muscle, &c., directly depends. The atmosphere of the temperate zone favours such a change of matter that the blood remains rich in albumen, so that a large brain can be nourished. But this richness in albumen is also the cause of many charac- teristic diseases, when this substance, under the process of inflammation, is morbidly excited in the tissue of the organs and destroys their anatomical structure or organic mechanism. That general condition, in which the con- sumption of the albumen by the organic metamorphosis is deficient, is well known as the scrofulous predisposition of the European, which is unknown among the inhabitants of the tropics and the cold zone.” Two questions then await a solution: 1st, Can any race of men flourish, unchanged both mentally and physically, in a different ethnic centre from that to which it belongs? 2nd, Can any race of men move from its own ethnic centre into another, and become changed into the type of that race which inhabits the region to which it migrates ? Now, races of men moving from one region to another must either dege- nerate and become extinct, or flourish with the same distinctive characters that they have in their own regions, or they must gradually become changed into new types of men suited to their new positions. That new races of men are being formed at this time is highly probable, as where, for instance, we have in a particular region a class of men with the same temperament and character. ‘This may, as in the case of America, * Vortriige zur Forderung der Gesundheitslehre (The Influence of European Climate). By Dr. C. von Russdorf, 1854. Berlin. ON ETHNO-CLIMATOLOGY. 133 give rise to a new race, but still belonging to the European type, just as we have in this country the distinctive class of the Quakers, &c. But this change in the so-called Anglo-Saxon race could have been effected without removing them out of their own region. If these men had congregated together in Europe, we should have had a group of men with different fecl- ings and opinions from our own. The congregation of a number of men and women of similar character would always tend to increase or intensify the special characteristics of the descendants of such people. Some writers, in their anxiety to prove that climate has nothing to do with the varieties of man, deny that there is any change in the European inhabitants of America; but recent events have given strong proof that there is a change, both in mind, morals, and physique; and while this change is not to be entirely ascribed to the climate, there still is good presumptive evidence that the Europeans have changed in America, especially in North America. In the children of the colonists there is a general languor, great excitability, and a want of cool energy. As they grow up, they neglect all manly sports. This general excitability and want of coolness and energy are also seen in the whole Yankee race. The women become decrepit very early, and conse- quently cease to breed while still young. It is also affirmed that the second and third generations of European colonists have small families. Some fifteen years ago, Dr. Knox stated publicly that he believed the Anglo- Saxons would die out in America if the supply of new blood from Europe was cut off. Such an assertion was, indeed, startling for any man to make ; it seemed to bear on the face of it a palpable absurdity. But, as time has passed on, this statement certainly became less baseless, and is now, at least, an hypothesis as worthy of our attention as any other explanation of this difficult question. Emerson has recently remarked on this extraordinary statement of Dr. Knox, that there is more probability of its truth than is generally thought. Emerson* says, “ Look at the unpalatable conclusions of Knox—a rash and unsatisfactory writer, but charged with pungent and unforgetable truths.” He continues, “The German and Irish millions, like the Negro, have a deal of guano in their destiny. ‘They are ferried over the Atlantic, and carted over America to ditch and to drudge, to make corn cheap, and then to lie down prematurely to make a spot of green grass on the prairie.” I do not purpose to give any categorical answers to the queries suggested, but simply to bring forward some facts, and to give the opinions of some men who have paid attention to this and allied questions. Thus I trust to lay a basis for further investigation, and induce more labourers to enter the field for the purpose of developing this important question. We must not take latitude simply as any test of climate; for the general climatological influences are very different in various regions. ‘Thus, it has been noticed that the west coast is colder than the east in the southern hemisphere, while in the northern the cast is colder than the west}. In the French Antilles, the temperature is between 62° F. to 77°F. on the shore, and descends to 55° F. or 60° F, at eight hundred metres above the level of the sea. At Fernando Po, the greatest heat known was from 83° to 100° F.; generally it is about 73°F. So French Guiana is said not to have a higher temperature than Algeria. Some parts of Australia and New Zealand are nearer the equator than Algiers, and yet the temperature and salubrity are very different. ‘The effect of light is also most important, and * The Conduct of Life. By R. W. Emerson, p. 10. + See what Darwin says respecting the fig and grape ripening in South America much better on the cast than on the west coast. 134 REPORT—1861. is not merely confined to the skin, but affects the whole organism. The pre- sence of light modifies the qualities of the air; it also acts on the nervous system. If we look at the analogy of the effect of the absence of light on organized beings generally, we shall readily understand the influence which it exerts on man. Europeans, indeed, who live in darkness have colourless skin, the muscles soft, and the whole body bloated. It is, therefore, a ques- tion which has yet to be decided, how far the Esquimaux’s ill-formed frame may be produced by the want of light. And here we find that insensibly our attention is called to the vexed question of the unity or the plurality of origin of mankind. With that subject, however, we have at present nothing to do. It is, however, on the assumption of unity of origin that the cos- mopolitan powers of man have been imagined to exist. I hold the questions of unity or plurality, however, to be of little or no consequence in the pre- sent state of our knowledge. When we see that plants and animals vary in different climates, we are led to expect that man will also vary with the climate. Plants growing like trees in the tropics, become dwarfed in cold climates. It would, indeed, be strange that, as all animais vary, man should remain unchanged. But while admitting that man exists in harmony with external circumstances, we do not admit that one type of man can be changed into another. As the rose will under no change of external circumstances become a blackberry, so neither will a dog become a wolf, nor a European an African Negro. We shall, therefore, principally confine our attention to the inquiry whether man migrating from one region to another gradually degenerates. If there is degeneration going on, it is simply a question of time, as to how soon his race will become extinct. I shall, therefore, contend that any race migrating from one centre to another does degenerate both mentally and physically. Indeed, the psychical change produced in man by climatological influence is as soon visible as the change produced on his physical frame. When, for instance, the European goes to Africa, he, for a short time, retains his vigour of mind; but soon he finds his energies exhausted, and becomés listless, and nearly as indifferent to surrounding events as the natives. There is, how- ever, a considerable difference in the effects produced both on individuals of the same race, as also on the different races of men. Some are affected im- mediately on their arrival, and then appear to become partially acclimatized ; often the disease increases until it becomes very serious; again, others are attacked, without any warning, with either inflammation of the brain or liver. Others, again, do not appear at first to be at all affected; but gradually the strength gives way, the countenance becomes despondent, and chronic disease of the liver or stomach results. Neither can the inhabitants of tropical regions generally withstand the influence of removal to a cold climate. Much, however, depends on race ; for the different races of man have different degrees of adaptability for change of climate. We cannot, however, yet decide the exact powers of each race, as ethno-climatology is a new study, and a long series of obser- vations is required before a satisfactory answer can be given. Before I proceed to indicate the sort of evidence we can get from that most valuable of all modern sciences, statistical science, I think it will be well that I should quote some few authorities to show that there is an agreement between the most -recent writers on this subject and the lesson we learn from statistics. Dr. A. S. Thomson, who has paid great attention to this subject, observes, “ There is little doubt that the tropical parts of the world are not suited by nature for the settlement of natives of a tem- perate zone. European life is but with difficulty prolonged, much sickness ON ETHNO-CLIMATOLOGY. 135 is suffered, and their offspring become degenerate and cease to propagate their species in a few generations; and should necessity foree Europeans to perform the drudgery of labouring in the field, their lives will be rendered still shorter, and their existence little better than a prolonged sickness.” Dr. Thomson has entered into the various attempts of the Portuguese, Dutch, English, French, and Danes to colonize India. He has also dwelt on the attempts of the Dutch and Spaniards at colonization in the Indian Archi- pelago, and also on the state of European colonies in tropical Africa and tropical America. His conclusion is, “ that man can only flourish in climates analogous to that under which his race exists, and that any great change is injurious to his increase and also to his mental and physical development.” Sir Alexander Tulloch well observes, that military returns, properly orga- nized and digested, serve as the most useful guides “ to point out the limits intended by nature for particular races, and in which alone they can thrive and increase”—boundaries which neither the pursuit of wealth nor the dreams of ambition should induce them to pass, and proclaim, in forcible language, that man, like the elements, is controlled by a Power which hath said, “ Hither shalt thou come, but no further.” Let us glance at the attempts of the French to colonize the North of Africa. The mortality of the civil population in France is about twenty-five in a thousand, while the average mortality of the civil population in Algiers, in 1853, was 43°5, and in 1854, 53°2 ina thousand. “In all the localities of Algiers, without exception,” says M. Boudin, ‘the mortality of the Euro- pean population exceeds by far, not merely the normal mortality of England and France, but even that of the cholera years in these two countries.” Notwithstanding these facts, the population is annually increasing by the influx of immigrants. As regards other colonies, the following table, quoted by M. Boudin from the official report of the Ministry of Algeria, published in 1859, speaks for itself :— Births. Deaths. Vr ee a ie 20,095 20,675 “FATED REE POE ae eI Set 2,333 2,830 MMII LE Tihdh ese uck Be tet oye coeradhis 2 cats sous 18,934 20,775 This would be more satisfactory had the proportion of the women to men been also given. But, before I proceed on this side of the question, I would call attention to the statement frequently made by the President of this Section. On one occasion, for instance, Mr. Crawfurd* said, ‘“‘It has been confidently asserted that the British possessions in India are an unfit residence for the permanent dwelling of Englishmen, although within the same latitudes with the warm parts of America, and portions of it even more distant from the equator.” “No less an authority,” continues Mr. Crawfurd, “ than the late Duke of Wellington gave it as his opinion that Europeans, especially in Lower Bengal, most of which is without the tropics, would die out in a third generation ; but it is certain that this was an hypothesis of His Grace un- supported by facts.” Mr. Crawfurd further contends that the Duke of Wellington's observation was made at an unfavourable time, and that at present the case is very different. Now all recent facts and observations prove that the Duke of Wellington was right. From numerous private in- quiries of residents in India I have obtained confirmation of this opinion. We have, moreover, the most extensive writers and observers on tropical diseases giving exactly similar opinions. * “On the Effects of Commixture, Locality, Climate,” &c., Transactions of the Ethnologi- gal Society, New Series, vol. i. p. 89, 1861. 136 REPORT—1861. Sir Ranald Martin* says, “ Of those Europeans who arrive on the banks of the Ganges, many fall early victims to the climate, as will be shown here- after. That others droop, and are forced, ere many years, to seek their native air, is also well known. ‘That the successors of all would gradually and assuredly degenerate if they remained in the country cannot be ques- tioned ; for already we know that the third generation of unmixed Europeans is nowhere to be found in Bengal.” William Twining also made the same assertion many years ago. Another recent authority on Indiat, Mr. Julius Jeffreys, says, “ Few children of pure English blood can be reared in the plains of India, and of that few the majority have constitutions which might cause them to envy the lot of those who die in their childhood. The mortality of bar- rack children is appalling, especially in the months of June, September, and October. At Cawnpore from twenty to thirty have died in one month. In short, the soldiery leave no descendants of unmixed blood.” Major- General Bagnold{ has also said, that the oldest English regiment, the Bombay “ Toughs,” notwithstanding that marriages with British females are encouraged, have never been able, from the time of Charles II. to this time, to raise boys enough to supply the drummers and fifers. Dr. Ewart § says, “Our race in process of time undergoes deterioration, physically and intellectually, with each succeeding generation, and ultimately ceases to multiply and replenish the earth.” He also says, “that there is a certain deterioration of our race always, under present circumstances, tending to extinction in this country.” It remains, therefore, with Mr. Crawfurd and those who agree with him to accept these facts, or explain what has become of the descendants of the half million of people who have gone to India. It is generally supposed that there is a process of acclimatization going on with Europeans living in the tropics ; but the reverse is rather the case. Itistrue that the mortality is sometimes greater at first, but this is owing to the clearing out of the weakened and other defective constitutions which had been broken down by disease or intempe- rance. When this has taken place, there appears to be an improvement; but after the first year there is a gradual decline in health, and sickness and mortality greatly increase. We have exhaustion and degeneracy, but no real acclimatization. Although Europeans suffer less on going to colder regions, still we observe the same fact in that case. Dr. Armstrong and others have observed that Europeans resist the cold of the polar regions better the first year than they do the second, and that every subsequent year they feel the effects of climate more. This fact can be amply proved by statistics. As age increases, so does mortality in any place out of the native land of a people. Dr. Farr gives the average per thousand of England and Wales as— Ages 20—24, 25—9. 30—34. 35—39. 40 and upwards. Mortality 8-42 9-21 10°23 11°65 13°55 Now, if we compare this with a part of a valuable table prepared by Sir Alexander Tulloch ||, we at once can estimate some of the deleterious effects of change to different climates on Europeans, from January 1, 1830, to March 31, 1837. * Influence of Tropical Climates, &c., 2nd edit., by Sir R. J. Martin, p. 137, 1861. T The British Army in India. By Julius Jeffreys, F.R.S. 1858, p. 172. { Indigenous Races of the Earth. Article “ Acclimatization,” by Dr. Nott, p. 557. § Digest of the Vital Statistics of Europeans in India. By Joseph Ewart, M.D. 1859. | Report of the Commissioners on the Reorganization of the Indian Army. 1859, p.179, ON ETHNO-CLIMATOLOGY, 137 Stations. 18 to 23.| 25 to 33.) 33 to 40. | 40 to 50. UMERUREPECRETA, cSULUD OC bh eateb ies lee ccs ccbecs: 18:7 23°6 29°5 34-4 Malia. .:.iissces Mediterranean......... 13 23:3 34 56°7 BRIMBTISIANGS Jes eceps sce assclepicsss-eenisle 12-2 20-1 24:4 24:2 Mediterranean Stations generally....... 35-5 22-2 28-1 33° DRPMMNAS. cco c ec | an crecccneca ts ccs scacnace 16 42 42 76° Nova Scotia .... } North America..,.... 14 22-5 30'8 41°5 SOTA ccs tee PETER ss kceCeccacteedcuseen 19-7 27°83 37'8 35 Windward and Leeward command .. 50 74 97 123 AUR ds Sava ck seh veh vs ot sabes esac sealer ZO 107 131 128 Cape of Good Hope..... Rracisdtsasskakests 9 20°6 29°7 32 BMMPEDIENSI Nee sScncvecvccccesssseesesaccccacsc 20:8 375 52:7 86°6 1 OLAS GR sgconposcoSeCE Onna aoiebtawese ss 24 55 86:4 126°6 Bombay..... Cree Waccceastesceseesstrecees 18-2 34-6 468 71-1 BRIRALNGS rs cin wadec outs cvadadesscbacuwceats 26 59°3 70:7 86°5 BRIA octal cbs si San vans sce iscacecuacvsess 23°8 50°3 50°6 83°3 A modification of ee same results is found from 1837 to 1847. Age. Age. Age. Age. 90-95. 2530. $0—35. 35—40. 40 and upwards. Mediterranean | 16.3 oo ates (oe 234 344 stations Canada se Dts , ~ 2, E 35° Nara Scotia \ 13°1 17°7 19 20°3 56 Wamaica ...... 60° 50° (ER 83° oT" The following very useful table I have collated from the valuable Army Report for 1859. show the different periods that men had been located at each station. Although this table is valuable, it must be borne in mind that it is only for one year. it would be very desirable if some tables were given to ‘Troops are so continually changing stations that we must only receive the suggestive evidence of such a table for what it is worth. It will be seen that there are no deaths in some stations at forty years of age and upwards ; this is, however, simply because it frequently happens that there are no men in a regiment above that age. Annual ratio of deaths per thousand living, at the following ages, in 1859: eg xt S bo s | Ue | Seep aeer Peis tprhas ; & | & % 3 | + & Healthy districts in England and | 583 | 7:30 | 7-93 | $:36| 9 9:86 DVIGR es assceniccnaasuccectse.es=ses z England and Wales generally ...... 7Al | 8:42 | 9:21 | 10-23 | 11-63 | 13-55 Household Cavalry ......-...seceeeee- ses 3°38 | 6°85 | 9°05 | 16:13 | 15-04 Dragoon Guards and Dragoons.....} 5°07 | 4:0 |12:96 |15°0 | 15°86 | 34:48 POs GUBLON ecctecvgcneserreasesscesses 7:92 | 7:34 | 7:80 | 12-07 | 26-47 | 9:71 Infantry Regiments.......000..-e0+00 5°$2 | 7-21 | 7-80 | 11:97 | 18°31 | 15°50 Depot Battalions.......... =o Gest 6°31 | 20-13 | 12°39 | 20-11 | 37-97 | 44-78 PEK MANGA cies otverddacrecescastcvascess an : : ‘ ; ae Nova Scotia, KC. visssserevssssescsssse j a0 os Newfoundland.. a aoe ; RPANAGD ......00ssreverssecuensy : i : Mediterranean generally F ; : ° Cape of Good Hope ........ceseee “scl Nakecg 7-93 |14:69 | 9:31 |14:78 | -60 Australian Colonies .........++0..+6 an 194 | 691 | 7:06 | 2659 | 23°81 Negro in W. Indies, W. and L. | : 4 ; j X, command...... Sabunendandin esitxe a | See Ceylon Rifles ......,..c0seeseereseveeeee| 10°99 | 8:23 | 8-72 | 9:68 | 11:05 | 14-49 | 138 é REPORT—1861. With officers and the civil servants in Bengal, we also find that the mor- tality greatly increases with length of residence, notwithstanding the great advantage which they have of being able to return to their native country. “ Out of 1184 deaths among officers,” says Sir Ranald Martin*, “the pro- portion occurring annually in each rank, and at each age, has been as follows :— é a . : 42 = aA) 2 6 z 3 #2, is] eo a ys Bo Bo -2 ar Bao 39 2 fo Percentage of oe 3 a ze a £2 ge 8 Be => ~O = deaths. 2h 12 ‘22, a8 ie 2@2 €3 Of Ze ag og 2a 2he gs = Ze = 2 ns bas o 3 AS S Ss io} o Died annually : F per thousand 59°4 48-4 41:0 34°5 275 23:4 31:2 of each class. “ The mortality among the civil servants, for a period of forty-six years, from 1790 to 1836, exhibits almost precisely the same results, viz. :— PEs | 08 22 28 28 28 28 Percentage of =o #8 fe ge S255 £2 2% gs 6 Se _ = =“ aut obe | S2 | Sg | 8g | 82 | 8B | Re B88. |ogke heb | 88 >| Bbedoh ener < s:,0% » 873 55 to | “ Madrasain «cts. fax 6°53 = to 1 ‘ The contrast is sufficiently great with fevers and dysentery ; but it is still more marked with hepatitis :— In Bengal, 60 Europeans die of HEPATITIS to 1 Native. Bombay, 44 =o , igen Bee Madras, 30 os . | et Ey Even in those hot-beds of disease, the Indian jails, we find the inmates are far more free from hepatitis than our own troops in Bombay : the Europeans are attacked thirteen times oftener than the natives; in Bengal, forty-three times; and in Madras, our soldiers one hundred and seventy-eight times oftener. Some writers have endeavoured to show that this disease is produced in Europeans by intemperance. But Dr. Morehead* says, “The evidence that intemperance in drinking exerts a particular influence in the produc- tion of hepatitis is by no means conclusive ;” and he also says, “‘ The occur- rence of hepatitis, on the other hand, in its severest form is not an unusual event in persons of temperate habits,—a statement which practitioners in India generally will, 1 am sure, amply confirm.” With cHoLeERA, the ratio of mortality is in Denpeal ey asses 500 6: Europeans to 1 Native. Bombay............2°6 ” ly» Madvas are F. 25218 99 Lg There is also another fact which demands attention, viz. the increase of mortality in cases attacked with this disease. Whatever may be the cause, there seems to have been far higher mortality in Bengal since 1838, and in Madras since 1842, than before those periods. Thus, the relative mortality to the cases treated in Bengal has risen in each period of five years, from 1818 to 1853, from 26°71, 31:17, 21°80, 26°91, 55°53, 45°22, and 41:92 per cent.; and in Bombay, during the same time, from 18°53, 22°71, 30°58, * Diseases of India. By Charles Morehead. 2nd edit. 1861, p. 363. Longman and Co, ON ETHNO-CLIMATOLOGY. 141 18°87, 37°33, 45°46, and 43°17; and in Madras, from 1829 to 1851, from 27°11, 27°63, 48, and 62°31. There has been an increase of mortality of natives to cases treated, in Madras, of 7°26 per cent.; in Bengal the mortality is about the same; and a decrease of 3 per cent. in Madras. With phthisis (consumption) the percentage of mortality to a given strength is— In Bengal ............11 deaths of Europeans to | Native. Bombay ........ videtitg i Da tg Thus, the deaths of Europeans from phthisis even exceed the native pri- soners in our Indian jails. In the various OTHER DISEASES which have not been mentioned, the mortality is far higher, being, in Bengal, as 3 Europeans to 1 native, and in Bombay as 3:2 Europeans to 1 native. Many writers have observed that, with the natives, those most free from disease are those who toil all day in the burning sun, with no covering at all on the head. Ignorance as to the difference of race has induced some commanders to attempt thus to harden the Europeans, with results some- thing frightful to contemplate. One of the regiments that had been the longest in India, the Madras Fusileers, is stated to have been reduced from eight hundred and fifty to one hundred and ninety fit for duty. Many similar cases have been pro- duced by needless exposure. Mr. Jeffreys says, “that Her Majesty’s 44th Regiment in 1823 were nine hundred strong, and a very fine body of men. The commanding officer insisted that confinement of the men during the day was effeminate, and continued drilling them after the hot season had begun. But the men suffered the penalty of the officer’s ignorance. Tor some months,” says Mr. Jeffreys, “not less than one-third, and for some weeks one-half, of the men were in hospital at once, chiefly with fever, dysentery, and cholera. I remember to have seen, for some time, from five to ten bodies in the dead-room of a morning, many of them specimens of athletes.” Experience has shown that it is not the absolute exposure to the sun from which Europeans suffer; it is the subsequent effects which are to be dreaded. On a march, the European will appear to be equal to the thick-skinned native; but he soon learns that such is not the case. The European soldier is also unfitted to stand the effects of a cold climate after some years’ residence in India, and dreads to return home to encounter the cold and hardships of English peasant-life. With officers, who can return to enjoy all the comforts and luxuries of civilization, the case is dif- ferent. The few soldiers who remain in India have more or less chronic diseases, which, says Mr. Jeffreys, “ would render the attainment of any- thing like longevity out of the question.” Seventy-seven per cent. of the European troops in Bengal are under thirty, twenty-three per cent. above that age; or ninety-four per cent. are under thirty-five, the remaining six above that age. From Dr. Ewart* we learn that the European army has hitherto disap- peared in Bengal in about ten and a half years; in Bombay, in thirteen and a half; in Madras, in seventeen and a hali’; or in all India, in about thirteen and a half years. We find the percentage of deaths to strength amongst European regiments, in Bengal, 6°94; in Bombay, 5°52; in Madras, 3°88. Thus we find that, on adding all these diseases of European troops together, we get a mortality of at least seven per cent. for the whole of India, while * A Digest of the Vital Statistics of the European and Native Armies in India. By Joseph Ewart, M.D., Bengal Med. Staff, - 142 REPORT—1861. with the native troops the mortality does not amount to a half per cent. Sir A. Tulloch says, that “the total loss from all causes has been at least seventy per thousand ;” and that “ the proportion invalided annually may be taken at about twenty-five per thousand more, and twenty-five per thousand to men not renewing their engagements ;” making altogether twelve per cent., or one hundred and twenty per thousand. He further observes, that the number of recruits raised during peace, from 1845 to 1849 inclusive, was less than twelve thousand; and that, with a force of eighty thousand in India, we shall require nine thousand and six hundred of them for India, “ unless,” as he observes, “means can be adopted to reduce mortality and invaliding.” Mr. Jeffreys says, the mortality of troops in India amounts to ten per cent. He observes, “ The casualties amongst the troops have, during peace, amounted per annum to at least one thousand in every ten thousand; in England and her healthy colonies they have ranged from about ninety to a little above two hundred.” Such being the undisputed fact, there is no doubt, as Sir A. Tulloch has observed, that ‘the selection of healthier stations for our troops than those they have hitherto occupied is no longer a matter of choice, but one of necessity, as we cannot hope to keep up the large European army required to hold India without the strictest attention to this important measure.” The late Sir H. Lawrence devoted much of his life to the solution of this question in a practical manner. ‘There is no doubt that removing our military stations to the hills isa measure demanding serious attention. Sir Ranald Martin is of opinion that, in Bengal and the N.W. Provinces, the malaria might be escaped by an elevation of from two thousand five hundred to four thousand feet. That this would be ad- vantageous is quite probable; but we shall not find in the hills the same climate we have in this country. We may escape the influence of malaria- diseases, just as we escape the yellow fever in the West Indies, at an eleva- tion of from two to three thousand feet. The Report for the Re-organization of the Indian Army gives the mortality from 1815 to 1855, exclusive of casualties, at a hundred thousand men, “ the greater portion of whose lives,” the Report says, ‘might have been preserved had better localities been selected for the military occupation of that country.” But are there any places even in the hills in which Europeans can be reared without gradually becoming degenerated? This is a serious question, to which science can as yet give no positive reply. Looking at the wisdom which is displayed in the general distribution of mankind, we shall be inclined to answer in the negative. It has been presumed that, because yellow fever is in a great measure escaped in Jamaica at an elevation of about two thousand five hundred feet, this elevation would be sufficient to escape malarious dis- eases in other parts of the world; but such is not the case. If we ascend to any great height, we often get out of the region of malaria, and into the region of bowel-diseases. It is also affirmed* that “ intermittent fever origi- nates in some of the Himalayah stations. At Aboo also, during the malarious months, ague is very prevalent. Dr. Cooke (Bombay service), in his annual report of the Khelat agency, states that ‘ Khelat, the highest inhabited spot of the Beloochistan table-land, standing seven thousand feet above tlie level of the sea, is also malarious.’” It has also been said by Sir John Lawrence, Brigadier-General Chamber- lain, and Lieutenant-Colonel Edwards, that, besides our soldiers not liking to live in the hills, the natives have not the power of believing in what they * Diseases of India. By Dr. Moore, Bombay Medical Service, and in charge of the Sani- tarium for European troops at Mount Aboo. 1861, p. 48. - ) oe ON ETHNO-CLIMATOLOGY. 143 cannot see; and they join in asserting that “there are sick men whom the hills make worse, and healthy men whom they make sick*.” General Sir A. Tulloch also allows+ that the stations at 8000 or 9000 feet of elevation “are less healthy than was expected, because the men suffer from what is called a hill diarrhoea, which reduces them very much indeed.” Many other authorities and facts tend to show that it is a great fallacy to assume that temperature and climate are at all the same thing. There may be the same ethnic climate, with vast difference of temperature. China, for in- stance, has very different temperatures; but this has hardly a perceptible effect on the race. Dr. Ewart, like many other writers on this subject, has a theory which he believes would enable Europeans to be reared in India. He says, “The average standard of health of our race in this country would bear compa- rison with that of any race on the face of the civilized world, or of any people in Europe, provided the sources of malaria were dried up.” Although this is wholly a gratuitous assumption, we still have evidence to show that a very slight change is sufficient to make a considerable change in the health of soldiers. Mr. M‘Clellandt{ says, “that out of a European force of little more than one thousand, there were four or six funerals daily ; and this great mortality was checked by a change to the hills, which were only one hundred or one hundred and fifty feet high. It is probably a mistake, however, to attribute this favourable change in the mortality to the climate; it was doubtless far more due to the influence on the brain and nervous system. If the cause which produces ennui amongst all classes of European residents in India could be eradicated, then perhaps the case might be different. A number of plans have been proposed to en- able the European to live in India. In 1853-4, the expenditure for cinchona bark and quinine amounted to £11,686. It is now proposed to give quinine as a prophylactic for fevers, and there will be a demand for £46,744 worth§. But the process that is now seriously proposed by Desmartis ||, in harmony with his theory of inoculation, is to transfuse a small quantity of blood taken from the natives into the veins of Europeans visiting such places as India, Brazil, or the West Coast of Africa! I would only beg to express a hope that in transfusing this blood they will not also transfer any of the mental or moral characteristics of these indigenous races into the European. If any process, however, can be devised to make Europeans like the natives, then we must remember that, instead of being able to hold down one hundred and fifty millions of people with about one hundred thousand men, we should want avery different number. It is only possible to hold India as long as Europeans remain the superior race. It has been asserted that, although they cannot bear the sudden change to a tropical climate, they can gradually become accustomed to the change. It seems a fair test of the influence of climate on race, to study its effects on the children of those who have be- come accustomed to the change, or, as it is sometimes falsely called, “ accli- matized.” Here there can be no question as to the effects of climate. We have seen what is the result of attempting to raise European children in India, and nearly the same result meets us elsewhere. Speaking of the effect of climatic influence on such children in Ceylon, Sir Emerson Tennent observes, “If suitably clothed, and not injudiciously fed, children. may remain in the * Papers connected with the Reorganization of the Indian Army. 1859, p. 6. t Minutes of Evidence on the Reorganization of the Indian Army, p. 266. t Medical Topography of Bengal, &c. 1859, p, 135. ; § Ewart, p. 47. || Quelques mots sur Jes Prophylaxies. Par S. P. Desmartis. Paris, 1859, 4] Ceylon. By Sir James Emerson Tennent. 1860, p. 79, “ 144 REPORT—1861. island till eight or ten years of age, when anxiety begins to be excited by the attenuation of the frame and the apparent absence of strength in proportion to development. These symptoms, the result of relaxed tone and defective nutrition, are to be remedied by change of climate, either to the more lofty ranges of the mountains or more providently to Europe.” Many writers, who contend that Europeans can become completely ac- climatized; contradict themselves in their statements respecting the rearing of children. Mr. Robert Clarke, who has some eighteen years’ experience on the Gold Coast and at Sierra Leone, goes so far as to say*, “It is questionable whether persons of colour are better able to bear up against the influence of climate than persons of pure European blood, provided the latter are sober in their habits. There can be no doubt that Europeans, on their first arrival in West Africa, are in greater danger of losing their lives than the former; but when once they have become acclimatized, they seem generally to withstand the influence of the climate better than coloured people, provided, I repeat, they are temperate in their habits.” If this be so, we should not expect to find great mortality amongst children born of ‘ tempe- rate, acclimated Europeans.” But Mr. Clarke says}, “Great difficulty is experienced in rearing European children, They in general thrive admi- rably until teething begins. It is at this epoch they are frequently harassed with intermittent fever, which by repeated occurrence causes enlargement of the spleen and functional disturbance of the stomach and bowels, when they soon became cachectic, and unless removed to a more genial climate drop into an early grave.” Some authors think that the question of the European propagating himself — in the tropics has been settled by the fact that for three centuries the Spanish race has lived and thrived in tropical America. Mr. Crawfurd says, ‘‘ The question whether the European race is capable of living and multiplying in a tropical or other hot region seems to have been settled in the affirmative on a large scalein America. Of the pure Spanish race there are at present probably not fewer than six millions, mostly within the tropics.” But it is a wholly gratuitous assumption, unsupported by facts, to suppose that any- thing like this number of the Spanish race exist in America. If we were to read for Mr. Crawfurd’s “millions” the word “ thousands,” we should per- haps be nearer the truth. In Mexico it is estimated that there are not more than ten thousand of the pure racet, reckoning both creoles and immigrants, What a small proportion is this to those who left their native land and have never returned again! For three hundred years Spain has poured out her richest blood on her American colonies, almost at the price of her own extinction, without the slightest prospect of being able to establish a Spanish race in Central America. Never was there a greater failure than the attempt of the Spaniards to colonize tropical America. Those who have watched the gradual change of the Spanish colonies must be convinced of the fallacy of quoting this as a case of successful colonization of tropical countries by Europeans. When the continual influx of new blood from Spain was taking place, the change was not so much observed ; but, now emigration has ceased, the pure Spanish race is diminishing rapidly. All recent observations show that the Indian blood is again showing out ina most remarkable manner. In- stead of the Spaniards flourishing, there seems every prospect of their entire * Reports of II. M. Colonial Possessions for 1858, Part ii. p. 33. ‘+ Topography and Diseases of the Gold Coast, 161, p. 48, + It has since been asserted in the Cortes, by Don Pachero, that the pure Spanish race in Mexico does not amount to more than eight thousand. In 1793, Humboldt estimated the pure Spanish race in New Spain to consist of 1,200,000, | | ) ON ETHNO-CLIMATOLOGY. 145 extinction, unless fresh blood is sent from Europe. The extinction of the Spanish race in America was likewise predicted more than twenty years ago by Dr. Knox. There is no doubt that this result has been greatly owing to the mixture of Spanish and Indian blood. The laws regulating the mixture of human races do not directly concern the question of acclimatization; it has been found, however, that there is a different vitality between the offspring of the Spaniard and the Indian female, from that between the Englishman and the Indian woman. So also there is a different power of life between the offspring of the Portuguese and English with the negro woman. It can hardly be questioned that the Spanish race, like all other dark Europeans, are better suited for warm climates than the white Europeans. M. Boudin gives some statistics to show that the Spaniards and Italians also suffered less in the Great Russian campaign. Perhaps this may be explained by other causes. On several occasions the Spaniards have attempted to colonize the beau- tiful island, Fernando Po, but have entirely failed. The last trial was made in 1859, when three hundred and fifty colonists were sent out, provided with every necessary; but at the beginning of 1861 they had nearly all died, the few remaining returning home entirely broken down in health. On the change effected in Europeans by a residence in Ceylon, Sir J. Emerson Tennent observes*, “ The pallid complexion peculiar to old resi- dents is not alone ascribable to an organic change in the skin from its being the medium of perpetual exudation, but in part to a deficiency of red globules in the blood, and mainly to a reduced vigour in the whole muscular. apparatus, including the action of the heart, which imperfectly compensates by increase of rapidity for diminution of power.” This author very properly warns all habitual dyspeptics from a long sojourn at Ceylon. Gouty patients are, however, owing to the greater cutaneous excretion, entirely cured. We find that Europeans die mostly of cholera and inflammation of the liver, while negroes die of pulmonary consumption. Ceylon is hot for Europeans, and cold, especially in the forests, in comparison to the coast of Guinea. Of the island of Cuba, Mr. Tylor has just written}t, “ The climate of the island is not unfavourable for a mixed negro and European race, while to the pure whites it is deadly. It is only by intermarriage with Europeans, ce continual supplies of emigrants from Europe, that the white population is kept up.” _ In the Reports of the Colonies for 1858 and 1859, we only find the births and deaths of the different populations of one colony given. From these we learn that, at Antigua, in 1858 the births of white population were 50 deaths 75 1859 os + os 91 + 140 1858 e black ” 952 as 979 1859 as Fe 5 1005 » 894 1858 5 coloured a 238 “> 226 1859 ~ o 49 250 » 205 Although this classification (of white, black, and coloured){ is not very Scientific, yet it would be of very great utility to get such simple returns. from all our colonies, with the percentage of women. _ Our experience of other races than the European is limited. Mr. Craw=, furd contends that the Chinese become easily acclimatized in nearly all ree. * Loc. cit. p. 78. _ fT Anahuac; or, Mexico and the Mexicans. By Edward B. Tylor, 1861, p. 12. { The coloured population are sometimes called brown, These terms are generally used. to “ed a mongrel breed of some sort, . L 146 P REPORT—1861. gions; and Pruner-Bay says “ that the Turanian is, in physical respects, the true cosmopolite.” _ I have already stated that latitude is no test of climate; so I would now state, that as neither heat nor cold is the cause of the physical differences of mankind, so neither is it mere heat or cold which affects man injuriously. That the Chinese have a large range of temperature is true, but they have not the great power of being acclimatized that many imagine. Fifty thou- sand Chinese have gone to Australia, and the same number to California ; and perhaps about twenty or thirty thousand to Cuba, and six thousand to the Mauritius. This is a misfortune for both Australia and California; but there is hope for Cuba, as the Chinese are said not to be able to work there. Mr. Tylor says*, “ Fortunately for them, they cannot bear the severe planta- tion-work. Some die after a few days of such labour and exposure, many more kill themselves; and the utter indifference with which they -commit suicide, as soon as life seems not worth having, contributes to moderate the exactions of their masters. A friend of ours in Cuba had a Chinese servant who was impertinent one day, and his master turned him out of the room, dismissing him with a kick. The other servants woke their master early next morning with the intelligence that the Chinese had killed himself in the night to expiate the insult he had received.” We are at present quite unable to say whether the Chinese will ever be- come acclimatized in California or Australia. It is to be hoped, however, that they will not be able. The Chinese have taken no women with them to either place; but in Australia some of them are living with native women, and this may be the means of producing a hybrid race of Chinese-Aus- tralians. Whether this may stay the current of extinction which seems settling on the Australians, or whether it may aid in their destruction, are questions beyond the limits of this paper. Of the Indian immigrants to the Mauritius, we learn that the deaths exceeded the births by three hundred and eleven, but we are not told of the percentage of women. The mortality generally of the colony was— AT PS54 se seonccs exces denen ecceveensarsosnit. Det Ceuks ESTE cations cocaatinae tian th ase ascase posites ves 1th a9 ap POG snr eavedanstlekeatarnstuya-tcngeteoal hit anales PSO eregeacciisas castes versteacnett nes <43 25 * Ny OIE Get on nis allan tis aain anh d= oig'eb unis sha Kas eet eae In Trinidad, the total Indian population was, in 1859, thirteen thousand four hundred and forty-seven, and the deaths 2-7 per cent. ; but amongst the arrivals from Madras, the mortality was 7-7 per cent. In 1859, the mortality of the Calcutta coolies was 2 per cent. Of the Malays all we know is, that the Dutch took some to the Cape, and the race still remains there, but whether pure or mixed we know very little; we also are not informed if their numbers are increasing or decreas- ing. Of the Red Indians we only know that, on being removed from their native soil, they soon perish: it is ‘uncertain how much of this must be ascribed to the climate, or how much to the inability of the race to alter their manners and customs. The royal family of the Sandwich Islands who visited England in 1827 all died, as did most of their attendants, of tubercular disease, after only three months’ visit. tee So the Andaman Islander taken to Calcutta by Dr. Mouat was soon ce by the climate, and obliged to be returned to his native land to save is life. * Loc. cit. p. 13. ON ETHNO-CLIMATOLOGY. 147 But perhaps the negroes offer the strongest proof of the fallacy of saying that all races of men are cosmopolitan. We have ample and positive evidence that they cannot perpetuate themselves beyond about the fortieth degree of north or south latitude. Indeed, in their own region the ascent of a high mountain will kill them, sometimes nearly instantly. Thus, out of the eight Africans who ascended with Beecroft the Saint Isabel Mountain*, at Fer- nando Po, no less than five died. The negro seems to thrive in the southern states of America; but it is far from probable that he is suited to all tropical countries. Sir A. Tulloch and Dr. Bennett Dowler coincide in opinion that the negro will die out in the West Indies and the Mauritius. At Cuba, Mr. Tylor sayst, “there are fifteen thousand slaves imported annually ;” he also adds, “that the Creoles of the country are a poor degenerate race, and die out in the fourth genera- tion.” The race is only kept up in Egypt and Algiers by constant immigra- tion. In the Mauritius, the deaths in five years exceeded the births by upwards of six thousand, in a population of sixty thousand. Dr. Boudin says, “In Ceylon, in 1841, there was not a trace of the nine thousand negroes imported by the Dutch government before the English domination. Of the five thousand negroes imported by the English since 1803, there remained only, in 1841, about two hundred to three hundred, although females were imported to preserve them.” Of the 4th West Indian Regiment placed, in 1819, in garrison at Gibraltar, nearly all perished of pulmonary disease in fifteen months. The statistics of the mortality of negroes in the different States have clearly shown the influence of climate. The farther they go north, the higher be- comes the rate of mortality ; they seem to die of consumption, just like thé monkeys and lions in the Zoological Gardens. It is difficult to determine the exact amount of influence exerted by race in resisting particular diseases. It has, however, been shown that the negro race on the West Coast of Africa, especially, is exempted from yellow fever, and that a very small portion of African blood is sufficient to resist the influence of this disease. All the dark races seem less liable to yellow fever than thé white man. Both the Red Indian and the Southern European are more exempt than the Englishman. Mr. Clarke} says, that when the yellow fever broke out at Sierra Leone in 1837-8-9, 1847, and 1859, he never knew of a single negro or even of a man of mixed blood being attacked. He also-says, that in 1837 and 1839 small-pox broke out among the negroes, and disappeared at the same times as the yellow fever appeared. With the plague the dark races are affected far more than the white, being the reverse of the law with the yellow fever. Dr. Nott contends that the predisposition to yellow fever is just in proportion to the lightness of the skin; and that with plague the reverse is the case. The Jewish race, and not the Chinese race, are, however, nearest to being eosmopolitan. It is asserted that they live and thrive all over the world. If, however, we come to examine the evidence of this fact, we find that many of the people reputed to be Jews have no claim whatever to that question- able honour ; such, for instance, as the many reputed cases of black Jews. Dr. Boudin, although an advocate for the non-cosmopolitan powers of a The greatest height at which this mountain was ever estimated was that by Consul Hutchinson, who thought it was twelve thousand feet. _ t Loc. cit. p. 12. ~ Remarks on the Topography and Diseases of the Gold Coast, p. 28. L2 148 REPORT—1861. man generally, makes an exception in favour of the Jewish race, and says that this race has settled the question that one race is cosmopolitan. The statistics which have been published respecting the Jews in different countries seem to show that the Jew is subject to different physiological laws from those of the people by whom he may be surrounded. This phenomenon may, however, be explained by other physiological laws. M. Boudin supports his views from the difference in the statistics of disease and death of the Jews and the other colonists in Algeria. But the conditions of these two are very different. The Jews have been in Algeria for a considerable time, while the colonists are going there daily. Had M. Boudin proved that a number of Jews and Frenchmen went to Algeria at the same time, and that the Jews became more easily acclimatized, it might go some way towards showing the advantage of the Jewish race over the Frenchman, if we could not explain the phenomenon on other grounds. Had M. Boudin proved satisfactorily that the Jew was cosmopolitan, we should not easily be in- duced to admit that this was inexplicable by physiological laws. I do not pretend to enter into any of the causes which may have enabled the Jew to appear favoured; but we must not hurriedly admit that there are excep- tional laws in favour of any one race. On the same plea that M. Boudin has claimed an exception in favour of the Jews, we may also advocate one on the part of the Gipsies. The chief cause, however, of the apparent superiority of the Jews over some other races is the fact that they are a pure race. All pure races support the influence of change better than mixed races. The nomadic Arabs, as long as they remain pure, can also live in very differ- ent temperatures and climates. The Chinese are also generally a pure race ; and it is possible that the nearer the race approach the original type, the greater power they have in enduring change of climate. But enduring change of climate is not acclimatization. A process of acclimatization should enable a race to perpetuate itself in a new region, without supplies of new blood from its own region, and without, of course, mixing with the indigenous races of the invaded.country. The recorded historical migrations of nations do not give us sufficient evidence to make us believe in different laws from those which are in existence at this time. I am fully sensible of the great difficulty there is at present of defining the exact limits of the various ethnic centres. When I speak therefore of the European centre, I would also observe that this region is not necessarily confined to the portion of the earth we call Europe; on the contrary, I should include the whole of those original inhabitants of the Mediterranean, such as the Phceenicians, as belonging to the European centre. The modern Jews*, for instance, who are most probably lineal descendants of the old Pheenician merchants, are vastly superior to any purely Asiatic race. Never was the Jew more calumniated than by saying that he is an Asiatic! We all know the distinctive characteristics of the various Asiatic races, and nowhere do we find a people at all resembling the Jews. The only explana- tion I have ever heard given of this contradiction is that by Mr. Burke. That gentleman contends that there is a hierarchy not only in ethnic centres, but similarly in their climates; and that any race coming from an inferior — centre to a higher centre is thereby improved, other conditions being equal, and provided of course that the change be not too violent. Thus he points out the fact that the Jew has not degenerated in Europe, but has greatly improved in spite of all disadvantages. He also very truly observes, that no one will contend that the climate of Palestine will suit an Englishman as * I do not include in this term the fair-haired, blue-eyed race found in the Levant, and who are called Jews by Mr. Layard and Dr, Beddoe, f i ON EFHNO-CLIMATOLOGY. 149 that of England suits a Jew. We have, however, evidence to show that the climate of Palestine does not suit a Jew—a pretty good test that it is not his native land. Many writers have noticed this; but I will only quote the im- partial evidence of Eliot Warburton, who says*, “It is a curious but well- ascertained fact that the Jews do not multiply at present in the native city of their race ; few children attain to puberty, and the mortality altogether is so great, that the constant reinforcements from Europe scarcely maintain the average population.” The great majority of the Jewish race isin Europe. The entire number of Jews, according to M. Boudin, is computed to be four millions three hundred thousand ; and of these there are in Europe three millions six hundred thou- sand, in Africa four hundred and fifty thousand, in Asia two hundred thou- sand, America forty-eight thousand, and in Australia two thousand. Thus, more than three-fourths of the entire number of Jews are in Europe, and only a fraction of 2; in Asia. Mr. Burke conceives it possible that even the Negro might be improved in the long run by coming to Europe under ‘favourable circumstances, “ though this,” says Mr. Burke, “ would not apply to the lower and unprogressive portions of the type, but to its advancing sections.” Our researches have rather tended to show, however, that although they may not degenerate like Europeans going to an inferior centre, they still are incapable of becoming acclimatized anywhere in Europe, and we much doubt if even out of Africa. We are unable, in the present state of our science, to do more than see that ethnic centres do exist, without being able to define their exact linits or their number. In a former part of this paper I incidentally touched on the influence of the mind in conquering physical agents. Maltebrun, Goethe, and Kant have all given their testimony in favour of the power of the mind in resisting disease. And this subject becomes important with reference to some statis- tical facts respecting the difference in mortality between the officers and men in India and elsewhere. Thus, with bowel-complaints in India, there were in Bengal only three more deaths of European officers in a ratio of ten thousand than in the same number of sepoys; and in Madras eighteen fewer deaths took place than in a similar number of sepoys{. Dr. Cameron also affirms that the ravages of cholera did not affect the officers or other Europeans in a like grade of life; and he says that “ the small mortality amongst the officers of European regiments in Ceylon is very remarkable t.” Indeed, the whole medical records teem with instances of the influences which the mind possesses in the production and removal of disease. It is possible that much may be done to enable our troops to-exist in India and else- where by attention to the necessity that exists for mental as well as physical exercise. Much might also be effected were the differences of temperaments more studied, and a judicious selection made of those fitted for hot, and those for cold, climates. Two questions were asked Sir Ranald Martin, who is a great advocate for hill-stations and for other reforms in the army; his answers§ are important. “1st. But is there no such thing as acclimatization ? «© A. No, I believe not. “9nd. Physically, you do not think that acclimatization exists ? « A. I think it does not.” These answers express the result of my own inquiries into this subject. I have endeavoured to show from such facts as are at hand that man * The Crescent and the Cross, 1851, eighth edition, p. 334. + Ewart, p. 122. { A note in Sir E. Tennent’s ‘Ceylon,’ p. 82. § Minutes of Evidence, ‘ On the Reorganization of the Indian Army,’ p. 172. 150 REPORT—1861. cannot be rapidly displaced from one region and located in another without injury. This must be admitted ; but it may be answered that it ean be done slowly—that if it cannot be done in one generation, it may be done in time. Now it is quite evident that “time is no agent” in this case; and unless there is some sign of acclimatization in one generation, there is no such process, A race may be living and flourishing in its own centre, but sometimes a very slight change into a new region will produce the most disastrous results. The Spaniards, for instance, cannot with impunity migrate into the new re- gion on the opposite coast. In Egypt we see exemplified perhaps the most remarkable proof of what I have stated. From time immemorial Egypt has been ruled by foreign races, but not one has left any descendants. Mr. War- burton* has briefly expressed himself on this point in these words :—“ The Turk never or rarely intermarries with Egyptians, and it is a well-known fact that children born of other women in this country rapidly degenerate or die ; there are few indigenous Turks in Egypt. Through the long reign of the Mamelukes there was not one instance, I believe, of a son succeeding to his father’s power and possessions.” These Mamelukes were generally adopted ° Circassian slaves, who adopted others in their turn; and they had plenty of Circassian women imported to perpetuate their race, but with no better results than have met all other invaders. Of the English residents at Cairo the same writer observes, ‘‘The English seem to succumb, for the most part, to the fatal influence of this voluptuous climate, and, with some admirable exceptions, do little credit to the proud character of their country.” The English also, when sent to any part of the Mediterranean, suffer far more than in England. It has been proposed to locate British troops at these stations for a time, before they proceed to India. ‘The caution that a warm climate requires change of habits might do good; but we strongly suspect that if troops were located in the Mediterranean for a few years before pro- ceeding to India, the mortality would be far higher when they arrived there. If also, with a view of colonizing India, we were to send a colony, for a ge~ neration or more, to dwell in the Mediterranean, we should get a degenerate race who would have few of the qualities of the British race. Wherever we go, we may apply the question in a similar manner. The distribution of mankind over the globe is the result of law, order and harmony, and not of mere chance and accidental circumstances, as too many would have us believe. From the earliest dawn of history, races of men existed very much as they do now, and in the same locations. Jewish history, both monumental and written, tells us that the Jew has not changed for the last three thousand years ; and the same is the case with all other races who have kept their blood pure. I would therefore say that it is as difficult to plant a race out of its own centre, as it is to extinguish any race without driving it from its natural centre. The Tasmanians and American Indians have both been extinguished by removal from their native soil; and this is nearly the only process yet discovered of extinguishing any race of man. The object of this paper, however, is simply to suggest to ethnologists and geographers the necessity of a further investigation of the important question of acclimatization. * Loc. cit. p. 67. a ON THE GAUGING OF WATER BY TRIANGULAR NOTCHES. I5I On Experiments on the Gauging of Water by Triangular Notches. By James Tuomson, M.4., Professor of Civil Engineering, Queen’s College, Belfast. In 1858 I presented to thé Association an interim Report on the new me- thod which I had proposed for the gauging of flowing water by triangular (or V-shaped) notches, in vertical plates, instead of the rectangular notches, with level bottom and upright sides, in ordinary use. I there pointed out that the ordinary rectangular notches, although for many purposes suitable and con- venient, are but ill adapted for the measurement of very variable quantities of water, such as commonly occur to the engineer to be gauged in rivers and streams ; because, if the rectangular notch be made wide enough to allow the water to pass through it in flood times, it must be so wide that for long periods, in moderately dry weather, the water flows so shallow over its crest, that its indications cannot be relied on. I showed that this objection would be removed by the employment of triangular notches, because, in them, when the quantity flowing is small, the flow is confined to a narrow and shallow space, admitting of accurate measurement; and as the quantity flowing increases, the width and depth of the space occupied in the notch increase both in the same ratic, and the space remains of the same form as before, though increased in magnitude. I proposed that in cases in which it might not be convenient to form a deep pool of quiet water at the upstream side of the weir-board, the bottom of the channel of approach, when the triangular notch is used, may be formed as a level floor, starting exactly from the ver- tex of the notch, and extending both up stream and laterally so far as that the water entering on it at its margin may be practically considered as still water, of which the height of the surface above the vertex of the notch may be measured in order to determine the quantity flowing. I indicated theo- retic considerations which led to the anticipation that in the triangular notch, both without and with the floor, the quantity flowing would be pro- portional, or very nearly so, to the 3 power of the height of the still-water surface above the vertex of the notch. As the result of moderately accurate experiments which I had at that time been able to make on the flow in a right- angled notch, without floor, I gave the formula Q=0°317 H2, where Q is the quantity of water in cubic feet per minute, and H the head of water, as measured vertically, in inches, from the still-water level of the pool down to the vertex of the notch. This formula I submitted at that time tempo- rarily, as being accurate enough for use for many ordinary practical pur- poses for the measurement of water by notches similar to the one experi- mented on, and for quantities of water limited to nearly the same range as those in the experiments (from about two to ten cubic feet per minute), but as being subject to amendment by future experiments which might be of greater accuracy, and might extend over a wider range of quantities of water. Having been requested by the General Committee of the Association to continue my experiments on this subject, with a grant placed at my dis- posal for the purpose, I have, in the course of last summer and of the present summer, devoted much time to the carrying out of more extended and more accurate experiments. The results which I have now obtained are highly satisfactory. I am confident of their being very accurate. I find them to be in close accordance with the law which had been indicated by theoretical considerations ; and I am satisfied that the new system of gauging, now by these experiments made completely ready for general application, will prove to be of great practical utility, and will afford, for a large class of eases, import- ant advantages over the ordinary method—for such cases, especially, as the very varying flows of rivers and streams, 552-0- REPORT—1861. The experiments were made in the open air, in a field adjacent to a corn- mill belonging to Mr. Henry Neeson, in Carr’s Glen, near Belfast. The water-supply was obtained from the course leading to the water-wheel of the mill, and means were arranged to allow of a regulated supply, variable at plea- sure, being drawn from that course to flow into a pond, in one side of which the weir-board with the experimental notch was inserted. The inflowing stream was so screened from the part of the pond next the gauge-notch, as to prevent any sensible agitation being propagated from it to the notch, or to the place where the water level was measured. For measuring the water level, a vertical slide-wand of wood was used, with the bottom end cut to the form of a hook (as shown in the marginal figure), the £ point of which was a small level surface of about one- eighth of an inch square. This point of the hook, by being brought up to the surface of the water from below, gave a very accurate means for determining the water level, or its rise or fall, which could be read off by an index mark near the top of the wand, sliding in contact with the edge of a scale of inches on a fixed framing which carried the wand. By other experimenters a sharp-pointed hook, like a fishing-hook, has sometimes, especially of late, been used for the same purpose, and such a hook affords very accu- rate indications. The result of my experience, however, | leads me to incline to prefer something larger than the |=>{=————_ sharp-pointed hook, and capable of producing an effect on the water surface more easily seen than that of a sharp-pointed hook ; and on the whole I would recommend a level line like a knife-edge, which might be from one-eighth to half an inch long, in preference either to a blunt point with level top or asharp point. The blunt point which I used was so small, however, as to suit very perfectly. If the point be too large, it holds the water up too much on its top as the water in the pond descends, and makes too deep a pit in the surface as the water ascends and begins to flow over it. The knife-edge would be free from this kind of action, and would, I conceive, serve every purpose perfectly, except when the water has a sen- sible velocity of flow past the hook, and in that case, perhaps, the sharp point, like that of a fishing-hook, might be best. To afford the means for keeping the water surface during an experiment exactly at a constant level, as indicated by the point of the wooden hook, a small outlet waste-sluice was fitted in the weir-board. The quantity of water adinitted to the pond was always adjusted so as to be slightly in excess of that required to maintain the water level in the pond at the height at which the hook was fixed for that experiment. Then a person lying down, so as to get a close view of the contact of the water surface with the point of the hook, worked this little waste or regulating sluice, so as to maintain the water level constantly coincident with the point of the hook. The water issuing from the experimental notch was caught in a long trough, which conveyed it forward with slight declivity, so as to be about seven or eight feet above the ground further down the hill-side, where two large measuring-barrels were placed side by side at about six feet distance apart from centre to centre. Across and underneath the end of the long trough just mentioned, a tilting-trough 6 feet long was placed, and it was connected at its middle with the end of the long trough by a leather flexible joint, in such a way that it would receive the whole of the water without loss, and convey it at pleasure to either of the barrels, according as it was tilted to one side or the other. _WaterLeve — ON THE GAUGING OF WATER BY TRIANGULAR NOTCHES. 153 Each barrel had a valve in the bottom, covering an aperture six inches square, and the valve could be opened at pleasure, and was capable of emptying the barrel very speedily. The capacity of the two barrels jointly was about 230 gallons, and,their content up to marks fixed near the top for the purpose of the experiments was accurately ascertained by gaugings repeated several times with two- or four-gallon measures with narrow necks. By tilting the small trough so as to deliver the water alternately into the one barrel and the other, and emptying each barrel by its valve while the other was filling, the process of measuring the flowing water could be accurately carried on for as long time as might be desired. With this apparatus, quan- tities of water up to about 38 cubic feet per minute could be measured with very satisfactory accuracy. The experiments of which I have now to report the results were made on two widths of notches in vertical plane surfaces. The notches were accu- rately formed in thin sheet iron, and were fixed so as to present next the water in the pond a plane surface, continuous with that of the weir-board. The one notch was right-angled, with its sides sloping at 45° with the horizon, so that its horizontal width was twice its depth. The other notch had its sides each sloping two horizontal to one vertical, so that its horizontal width was four times its depth. In each case experiments were made both on the simple notch without a floor, and on the same notch with a Jevel floor starting from its vertex, and extending for a considerable distance both up stream and laterally. The floor extended about 2 feet on each side of the centre of the notch, and about 23 feet in the direction up stream, and this size was sufficient to allow the water to enter on it with only a very slow motion—so slow as to be quite unimportant. The height of the water surface above the vertex of the notch was measured by the sliding hook at a place outside the floor, where the water of the pond was deep and still. The principal results of the experiments on the flow of the water in the right-angled notch without floor are briefly given in the annexed table, the H. Q. ce. 7 39°6 +3061 6 26°87 *3048 5 LOG "3053 4 9°819 *3068 3 4°780 *3067 2 1°748 "3088 quantity of water given in column 2 for each height of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 inches being the average obtained from numerous experiments comprised in two series, one made in 1860, and the other made in 1861, as a check on the former set, and with a view to the attainment of greater certainty on one or two points of slight doubt. The second set was quite independent of the first, the various adjustments and gaugings being made entirely anew. The two sets agreed very closely, and I present an average of the two sets in the table as being probably a little more nearly true than either of them sepa- rately. The third column contains the values of the coefficient ¢, calculated for the formulaQ=c H2, from the several heights and corresponding quantities of water given in the first and second columns, H being the height, as mea- sured vertically in inches from the vertex of the notch up to the still-water surface of the pond, and Q being the corresponding quantity of water in cubic feet per minute, as ascertained by the experiments. It will be ob- served from this table that, while the quantity of water varies so greatly as 154 REPORT—1861. from 13 cubic feet per minute to 39, the coefficient ¢ remains almost abso- lutely constant; and thus the theoretic anticipation that the quantity should be proportional, or very nearly so, to the 3 power of the depth is fully con- firmed by experiment. The mean of these six values of ¢ is *3064; but, being inclined to give rather more weight, in the determination of the coefficient as to its amount, to some of the experiments made this year than to those of last year, I adopt *305 as the coefficient, so that the formula for the right- angled notch without floor will be & Q='305 H*. My experiments on the right-angled notch with the level floor, fitted as already described, comprised the flow of water for depths of 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 inches. They indicate vo variation in the value of e for different depths of the water, but what may be attributed to the slight errors of observation. The mean value which they show for c is ‘308 ; and as this differs so little from that in the formula for the same notch without the floor, and as the difference is within the limits of the errors of observation, and because some consecutive experiments, made without and with the floor, indicated no change of the coefficient on the insertion of the floor, I would say that the experiments prove that, with the right-angled notch, the introduction of the floor produces scarcely any increase or diminution on the quantity flowing for any given depth, but do not show what the amount of any such small increase or diminution may be, and I would give the formula Q='305 H? as sufficiently accurate for use in both cases. The experiments in both cases were made with care, and are without doubt of very satisfactory accu- racy ; but those for the notch without the floor are, I consider, slightly the more accurate of the two sets. The experiments with the notch with edges sloping two horizontal to one vertical showed an altered feature in the flow of the issuing vein as com- pared with the flow of the vein issuing from the right-angled notch. The edges of the vein, on issuing from the notch with slopes two to one, had a great tendency to cling to the outside of the iron notch and weir-board, while the portions of the vein issuing at the deeper parts of the notch would shoot out and fall clear of the weir-board. ‘Thus, the vein of water assumed the appearance of a transparent bell, as of glass, or rather of the half of a bell closed in on one side by the weir-board and enclosing air. Some of this air was usually carried away in bubbles by the stream at bottom, and the remainder continued shut up by the bell of water, and existing under slightly less than atmospheric pressure. The diminution of pressure of the enclosed air was manifested by the sides of the bell being drawn in towards one another, and sometimes even drawn together, so as to collapse with one another at their edges which clung to the outside of the weir-board. On the full atmospheric pressure being admitted, by the insertion of a knife into the bell of falling water, the collapsed sides would instantly spring out again. ‘The vein of water did not always form itself into the bell; and when the bell was formed, the tendency to the withdrawal of air in bubbles was not constant, but was subject to various casual influences. Now it evidently could not be supposed that the formation of the bell and the diminution of the pressure of the confined air could occur as described without producing some irregular influences on the quantity lowing through the notch for any particular depth of flow, and this circumstance must detract more or less from the value of the wider notches as means for gauging water in compa- rison with the right-angled notch with edges inclined at 45° with the hori- ON THE GAUGING OF WATER BY TRIANGULAR NOTCHES. 155 zon. I therefore made numerous experiments to determine what might be the amount of the ordinary or of the greatest effect due to the diminution of pressure of the air within the bell. I usually failed to meet with any per- ceptible alteration in the quantity flowing due to this cause, but sometimes the quantity seemed to be increased by some small fraction, such as one, or perhaps two, per cent. On the whole, then, I do not think that this cireum- stance need prevent the use, for many practical purposes, of notches of any desired width for a given depth. My experiments give as the formula for the notch, with slopes of two horizontal to one vertical, and without the floor, Q=0°636 H?, and for the same notch, with the horizontal floor at the level of its vertex, zB Q=0°628 H?, In all the experiments from which these formulas are derived, the bell of falling water was kept open by the insertion of a knife or strip of iron, so as to admit the atmospheric pressure to the interior. The quantity flowing at various depths was not far from being proportional to the 4 power of the depth, but it appeared that the coefficient in the formula increased slightly for very small depths, such as one or two inches. For instance, in the notch with slopes 2 to 1 without the floor, the coefficient for the depth of two inches came out experimentally 0°649, instead of 0°636, which appeared to be very correctly its amount for four inches’ depth. It is possible that the deviation from proportionality to the 3 power of the depth, which in this notch has appeared to be greater than in the right-angled notch, may be due partly to small errors in the experiments on this notch, and partly to the clinging of the falling vein of water to the outside of the notch, which would evidently produce a much greater proportionate effect on the very small flows than on great flows. The special purpose for which the wide notches have been proposed is to serve for the measurement of wide rivers or streams in eases in which it would be inconvenient or impracticable to dam them up deep enough to effect their flow through a right-angled notch. In such cases I would now further propose that, instead of a single wide notch, two, three, or more right-angled notches might be formed side by side in the same weir-board, with their vertices at the same level, as shown in the an- nexed figure. In cases in which this method may be selected, the persons using it, or making comparisons of gaugings obtained by it, will have the Satisfaction of being concerned with only a single standard form of gauge- hotch throughout the investigation in which they may be engaged. ~ By comparison of the formulas given above for the flows through the two notches experimented on, of which one is twice as wide for a given depth as the other, it will be seen that in the formula for the wider notch the co- efficient ‘636 is rather more than double the coefficient *305 in the other. This indicates that as the width of a notch, considered as variable, increases from that of a right-angled notch upwards, the quantity of water flowing 16°) ads REPORT—1861. increases somewhat more rapidly than the width of the notch for a given depth. Now, it is to be observed that the contraction of the stream issuing from an orifice open above ina vertical plate is of two distinct kinds at different parts round the surface of the vein. One of these kinds is the contraction at the places where the water shoots off from the edges of the plate. The curved surface of the fluid leaving the plate is necessarily tangential with the surface of the plate along which the water has been flowing, as an infinite force would be required to divert any moving particle suddenly out of its previous course*. The other kind of contraction in orifices open above consists in the sinking of the upper surface, which begins gradually within the pond or reservoir, and continues after the water has passed the orifice. These two contractions come into play in very different degrees, according as the notch (whether triangular, rectangular, or with curved edges) is made deep and narrow, or wide and shallow. From considerations of the kind here briefly touched upon, I would not be disposed to expect theoretically that the coeffi- cient ¢ for the formula for J-shaped notches should be at all truly proportional to the horizontal width of the orifice for a given depth; and the experi- mental results last referred to are in accordance with this supposition. I would, however, think that, from the experimental determination now arrived at, of the coefficient for a notch so wide as four times its depth, we might very safely, or without danger of falling into important error, pass on to notches wider in any degree, by simply increasing the coefficient in the same ratio as the width of the notch for a given depth is increased. AppENDIx.—April 1862. With reference to the comparison made, in the concluding sentences of the foregoing Report, between the quantities of water which, for any given depth of flow, are discharged by notches of different widths, and to the opinion there expressed, that we might, without danger of falling into important error, pass from the experimental determination of the coefficient for a notch so wide as four times its depth, to the employment of notches wider in any degree, by simply increasing the coefficient in the same ratio as the width of the notch for a given depth is increased, I now wish to add an investi- gation since made, which confirms that opinion, and extends the determina- tion of the discharge, beyond the notches experimented on, to notches of any widths great in proportion to their depths. This investigation is founded on the formula for the flow of water in rectangular notches obtained from ela- borate and careful experiments made on a very large scale by Mr. James B. Francis, in his capacity as engineer to the Water-power Corporations at Lowell, Massachusetts, and described in a work by him, entitled ‘ Lowell Hydraulic Experiments,’ Boston, 1855+. That formula, for either the case in which there are no end-contractions of the vein, or for that in which the length of the weir is great in proportion to the depth of the water over its crest, and the flow over a portion of its length not extending to either end is alone considered, is BS gelog Us CMP Nay a eg isso ee et where L,=length of the weir over which the water flows, without end-con- tractions; or length of any part of the weir not extending to the ends, in feet: * This condition appears not to have been generally noticed by experimenters and writers on hydrodynamics. yen MM. Poncelet and Lesbros, in their delineations of the forms of veins of water issuing from orifices in thin plates, after elaborate measurements of those forms, represent the surface of the fluid as making a sharp angle with the plate in leaying its edge. t+ The formula is to be found at page 133 of that work. ON THE GAUGING OF WATER BY TRIANGULAR NOTCHES. 157 H,=height of the surface-level of the impounded water, measured vertically from the crest of the weir, in feet: and Q,=discharge in cubic feet per second over the length L, of the weir. It is to be understood that, in cases to which this formula is applicable, the weir has a vertical face on the upstream side, terminating at top ina level crest ; and the water, on leaving the crest, is discharged through the air, as if the weir were a vertical thin plate. To apply this to the case of a very wide triangular notch:—Let A BC be the crest of the notch, and A C the water level in the impounded pool. Let the slopes of the crest be each m horizontal to 1 vertical; or, what is the same, let the cotangent of the inclination of each side of the crest to the horizon be =m. Let A E, a variable length, =a. Then E D=—. Let EG be an infinitely small element of the horizontal length or width from A to C. Then EG may be denoted by dx. Let g=quantity in cubic feet per second flowing under the length w, that is, under A E in the figure. Then dq will be the quantity discharged per second between ED and GF. Then, by the Lowell formula just cited, we have dq=3'33 dx 2; whence, by integrating, we get 5 g=333+.227+C, mz in which the constant quantity is to be put =0, because when #=0, qg also =0. Hence we have q=2x333- Le? eee, Phtiyt 30 Biiwon's Serials 605 ms . Let now H,= height in feet from the vertex of the notch up to the level surface of the impounded water =B K in the figure. Then A K=m H,. Let also Q, = the discharge per second in the whole triangular notch = twice the quantity discharged under AK. Then, by formula (2), we get 5 Q,=+4 x 3°33 Xx 1m | ly i mz Osa il DE a le able oie eatin tr cdabyent Se, 4 eg ety | To bring the notation to correspond with that used in the foregoing Report, let Q=the quantity of water in cubie feet per minute, and H=the height of the water level above the vertex in inches, or Then Q=7. and kaos and, by substitution in (3), we get C= Sarma eee ne OS Oe 0 ed aan (4) - This formula then gives, deduced from the Lowell formula, the flow in cubic feet per minute through a very wide notch in a vertical thin plate, when H is the height from the vertex of the notch up to the water level, in inches, and when the slopes of the notch are each m horizontal to 1 vertical. 158 REPORT—1861. As to the confidence which may be placed in this formula, I think it clear that, for the case in which the notch is so wide, or, what is the same, the slopes of its edges are so slight, that the water may flow over each infinitely small element of the length of its crest without being sensibly influenced in quan- tity by lateral contraction arising from the inclination of the edges, the for- mula may be relied on as having all the accuracy of the Lowell formula from which it has been derived ; and I would suppose that when the notch is of such width as to have slopes of about four or five to one, or when it is of any greater width whatever, the deviation from accuracy in consequence of lateral contraction might safely be neglected as being practically unimportant or inappreciable. This formula for wide notches bears very satisfactorily a comparison with the formulas obtained experimentally for narrower notches, as described in the foregoing Report. For slopes of one to one the formula was Q="305 H?, and for slopes of two to one the formula’ was Q=-636 H®. To compare these with the one now deduced for any very slight slopes, we may express them thus :— For slopes of 1 to 1 ........0secseccensenseseneseceneee Q= "305 mH” And. for slopes of 2 t0. L:..sccoe-cocestevesdeosses Q='318 m H? While for any very slight slopes, or for any very wide notches, the formula now deduced from 5 the Lowell Oe 18 ....s.dasesssoceccsoessscscsecssens |= Oem as The very slight increase from ‘318 to 320 here shown in passing from i the experimental formula for notches with slopes of two to one, to notches wider in any degree—that slight change, too, being in the right direction, as is indicated by the imerease from 305 to ‘318 in passing from slopes of one to one, to slopes of two to one—gives a verification of the concluding remarks in the foregoing Report; and this may serve to induce confidence in the application in practice of the formula now offered for wide notches. Report on Field Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Con- stituents of Manures essential to cultivated Crops. By Dr. AuGustTus — Voe.tcker, Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. In a Report read at the Aberdeen meeting, and subsequently printed in the — ‘ Transactions of the British Association,’ will be found recorded a number of field experiments on turnips and on wheat. Sirflilar experiments upon these two crops have since been continued from year to year, and a new series of field experiments has been undertaken on the growth of barley. In connexion with these field trials 1 have made numerous laboratory — experiments on the solubility of the various forms and conditions in which — phosphate of lime is likely.to be presented to growing plants, and have likewise studied to some extent the influence of ammoniacal salts and a few other saline combinations on the solubility of the various forms in which — phosphate of lime occurs in recent and fossil bones, in apatite, and other phosphatic materials. The present Report will comprehend two sections. In the first I shall give the results of my field experiments on turnips, wheat, and barley ; im the second section reference will be made to the solubility of phosphatic | materials in various saline liquids. § " , ‘ FIELD EXPERIMENTS ON MANURE CONSTITUENTS. 159 lst Part: Field Experiments. Before giving an account of recent experiments on turnips, wheat, and barley, not incorporated in the Report for 1859, it may appear desirable briefly to state the chief deductions that naturally flow from my previous experiments, extending over five seasons. In these experiments I found that, amongst other particulars— 1. Ammoniacal salts, such as sulphate of ammonia, used alone, had a decidedly injurious effect upon the turnip crop, even when used in small quantities. 2. Purely ammoniacal manures applied to swedes at first checked the growth of the plant, and had ultimately no beneficial effect on the crop, either alone or in conjunction with phosphates. 3. Phosphates used alone, but in a readily available condition, produced a larger increase in the yield of turnips than mixtures of phosphates with ammoniacal matters. 4. Sulphates of potash and soda had no decided effect on turnips. 5. Sulphate of lime likewise was ineffective as a manure for turnips on the soil on which the experiments were tried. * 6, On the other hand, ammoniacal manures, so inefficacious for root-erops, produced a considerable increase in the yield of wheat, grown on a soil similar to that of the experimental turnip-field. 7. Nitrate of soda, applied by itself, and still more soain conjunction with common salt, gave a very large increase per acre, both in straw and corn. These are the principal results of previous field trials. _Chemico-agri- cultural experiments, however, are of little or no practical utility, unless they are continued from year to year for a long period, and tried on a variety of soils, in good and in bad seasons, in a manner which allows us, if not to eliminate, yet clearly to recognize the disturbing influences of climate, sea- son, condition of soils, and other circumstances which often affect the produce in a higher degree than the manures on which we experiment. A single field experiment is as likely to lead us in a wrong as in a right direction. I have therefore continued field experiments similar to those already re- ported upon, and proceed with an account of field trials on turnips made in 1859. Field Experiments on Swedish Turnips made in 1859. The field selected for experimental trials in 1859 was in tolerably good condition. It bore clover in 1857, and wheat in 1858. The soil is mode- rately deep and well drained. A portion of the soil, taken from a large sample from different parts of the field, was submitted to analysis, and the following results obtained :— Moisture (when analysed) ...........2000008 Organic matter and water of combination ...... 9°616 Oxides of iron and alumina .............c00e00000. 19°660 APDONMES GMMMEE ©... oc. sdsesterscde.csisecgecasces , 9'OUD TPO CenNrmMI pes SS erence te sho cesses so tes 345 8 PGS Plieirve meters tre ee eee eee 07 : Mapnesia, neneaer erste: es UO ee AN *783 BOGEAOD css cpp ce ener teesne acs cancs--canseamane) I oOo PPOs. anedhis ous: AMG a BONS wc c's nocd oscoedies snubs “090 ( Insoluble siliceous matter (chiefly clay)...... $0 60'525 100-098. 160 REPORT—1861. t Meta This soil contained hardly any sand that can be separated by the mechanical process of washing and decantation. It contains, like most of the soils on our farm, an appreciable quantity of sulphate of lime and also of phosphoric acid. It is not so rich in carbonate of lime as many others of our fields, and is rich enough in clay to be called a good agricultural clay. An acre of this land was divided into 20 parts. The different manures, after having been mixed with burnt soil for the sake of better distribution, were sown on the 6th of June, the land was ridged up, and the seed (Skirving’s swedes) drilled on the following day. The distance between the drills was 22 inches; the plants were singled out 12 inches apart. The portion of the field on which the experiments were tried was left unmanured. The following list exhibits the arrangement of the experimental field, the kinds of manure employed, and their quantities calculated per acre :— Experiments upon Shkirving’s Swedes, in field No.7, Royal Agricultural College Farm, Cirencester, 1859. er acre. Plot 1 was manured with 15 tons of rotten dung. Plot 2 was manured with 15 tons of rotten dung and 2 ewt. of super-— phosphate. Plot 3 was manured with 3 ewt. of superphosphate. Plot 4 was manuged with 1 ewt. of superphosphate. Plot 5 was manured with 6 ewt. of superphosphate. Plot 6 was manured with 3 ewt. of gypsum. Plot 7 was manured with 2 ewt. of superphosphate and 1 ewt. of guano, s Plot 8 was manured with 3 ewt. of guano. Plot 9 was manured with 1 ewt. of sulphate of ammonia. Plot 10 was left unmanured. Plot 11 was manured with 3 ewt. of fine bone-dust. Plot 12 was manured with 2 cwt. of sulphate of ammonia. Plot 13 was manured with 3 ewt. of turnip manure. Plot 14 was manured with 1 ewt. of nitrate of soda. Plot 15 was manured with 6 ewt. of turnip manure, Plot 16 was manured with 3 ewt. of salt. Plot 17 was manured with 3 cwt. of bone-ash treated with sulphuric acid. | Plot 18 was manured with 3 ewt. of dissolved bone-ash and | ewt. of sul- phate of ammonia. j Pict 19 was manured with 3 ewt. of sulphate of potash. a Plot 20 was manured with 3 ewt. of dissolved bone-ash and 1 ewt, of nitrate of soda. On each plot of the experimental field a remarkably even and good plant_ was obtained. The roots continued to grow as late as November; they were therefore left in the field until the 8th of December, when the crop was — taken up. The roots were topped and tailed and cleaned, and the whole — produce of each plat then carefully weighed, with the following results:— i] ‘Table- showing the produce per acre of swedes, topped and tailed and — cleaned, and increase per acre over the unmanured portion in field No. 7, Royal Agricultural College Farm, Cirencester, 1859. 4 Produce per acre. Increase per acre. Plot. Manure. tons. cwt. qrs. lbs. tons. cwt. qrs. lbs. 1. 15 tons of farmyard manure......... 18 10 2 2&..3 16 1 20° 2. 15 tons of farmyard manure and 2 . ewt. of superphosphate ...... 17 6 8 4.4.2 12 2 @& FIELD EXPERIMENTS ON MANURE CONSTITUENTS. 161 Produce per acre. Increase per acre. Plot. Manure. tons. cwt. gqrs, lbs. tons. cwt. qrs. lbs. 3. 3 ewt. of superphosphate ......... LWP | aie Cig a ly aia RS 4. 1 cwt. of superphosphate ......... Bf Oper meen, | PE) OG 5. 6 cwt. of superphosphate ......... ab eee oS Seeewt. OF Pypsum ................. 16 14 T° "40°22" °0 0 °° 0 7. 2 ewt. of superphosphate and 1 cwt. MePPeruviall PunG cc tee 1S 11 TBO ely OG 8. 3 ewt. of Peruvian guano ......... Ig 1, 2. pe0 ates LD 9. 1 ewt. of sulphate of ammonia ...15 17 3 12..1 3 2 8 PEMA eee es scr cecccescecetescce LA 14 VO! 4 OO OPO Il. 3 ewt. of fine bone-dust ...........18 9 2 16..3 15 1 192 12. 2 cwt. of sulphate of ammonia ... 16 17 3 12..2 3 2 8 13. 3 ewt. of turnip manure ............ Ae thomas oD dO TG 14. 1 ecwt. of nitrate of soda............ 1S yo len Seka. bo OO 15. 6 cwt. of turnip manure............20 7 0 16...5 12 3 12 16. 3 cwt.ofcommon salt ............15 16 1 0O..1 #1 3 Qf 17. 3 ewt. of dissolved bone-ash ...... 20 a a aero hg 18. 3 cwt. of dissolved bone-ash and 1 ewt. of sulphate of ammonia 20 6 3 24...5 12 2 20 19. 3 ewt. of sulphate of potash ...... 1 Nag ld ee se a a a aa | 20. 3 cwt. of dissolved bone-ash and 1 cwt. of nitrate of soda ...... aR On om as Gro) EtG In looking over the list of the different manures employed in these experi- ments, it will be noticed, in the first place, that certain simple salts which commonly enter into the composition of artificial manures have been used separately. It is not likely that we shall ever understand the action of com- plicated manures if we do not carefully study the separate effect of their component parts on vegetation. For this reason one plot was manured with sulphate of ammonia, another with sulphate of lime, a third with sulphate of potash, a fourth with chloride of sodium, and, finally, one with nitrate of soda. In the next place, we have in Plot 17 phosphates chiefly in a soluble con- dition, and free from organic matter or anything else but sulphate of lime, which is necessarily produced when bone-ash is treated with sulphuric acid. In another plot (No. 18) we have the same materials in conjunction with sulphate of ammonia; and in No. 20 we have them united with nitrate of soda. Then with respect to the form in which the nitrogen is applied in these experiments, I would observe that we find it in farm-yard manure, partly as ready-formed ammonia, partly in the stage of semi-decomposed nitrogenized organic matter. In sulphate of ammonia it exists of course as a salt of ammonia; for nitrate of soda, we apply nitrogen in the shape of nitric acid. In guano nitrogen exists, partly, only in the form of ammoniacal salts,—the greater portion of nitrogen being present as uric acid and other organic compounds, which readily yield ammonia on decomposition. And lastly, we have all these different forms in which nitrogen can be conveniently applied to the land combined, together with phosphates, in the turnip manure. The results of these experiments, though unsatisfactory in some respects, are nevertheless interesting and suggestive in others, and worthy of. some comments, Plot 1. Manured with 15 tons of farmyard manure per acre :— tons. cwt. qrs. lbs. Produce’ “uA MPA. 1 Sikes 594 AriereaseonioneAe GA J HLGOTES 20 Plot 2. Manured with 15 tons of farmyard manure and 2 ewt. of super- phosphate per acre :—~ 1861. M 162 REPORT—1861. tons. cwt. qrs. Ibs. Proguéé’ 2oe. stones satel ceellh 0 capes WNGYCASE,) Socacs aerate ree ane ee In comparing the weight of roots from these two plots, it would appear that the additional quantity of supersulphate has had rather an injurious than a beneficial effect. We must, however, not entertain such a view, although the experiments before us appear to favour it; for the common experience of farmers is, that even well-manured land yields a better crop of swedes when the seed is drilled in with 2 or 3 ewt. of superphosphate of lime. I have reason for believing that on plot No. 1 more roots were grown than on plot No. 2; for I find the land on one side of the experimental plots yielded 17 tons 6 ewt. 1 qr. 20 lbs. per acre, and on the other side it gave 17 tons 18 cwt. 24 Ibs. per acre. This land was manured with about 15 tons of farmyard manure and 3 ewt. of superphosphate per acre. This produce agrees well with the weight of the roots on the second plot, manured with dung and superphosphate. Still we have a difference of nearly 12 ewt. of roots in the two plots adjoining the experimental lots; and ought, therefore, to remember that the natural variations of the land, and other purely acci- dental circumstances, may readily give a difference in the produce of differ- ent portions of land which have been treated in every respect alike. Indeed, if the difference in the produce does not amount to more than 1 ton or even 1j ton, I fear we cannot do much with the results. It certainly would be rash to lay stress on such differences, and to use them as arguments in proving or denying the efficacy of certain manuring matters. Plots 3, 4, and 5. Manured with superphosphate of lime. The superphosphate used in these experiments had the following composi- tions :— PANU ete cesciaac Ne est sivas ssaggssss an sapags ottnne dE EU PPA ABBICOD occur asettcaas Bete il ee 4-21 BIPDGSpHste Gr UME... cnc ccarveegenenesssneparsa egal Equal to bone-earth (rendered soluble) ...... (31°63) Endoluble, Phosphates -ia.e sn oesdiiiess ceevonwenkee vdbsee athing on 80 : ‘ae om TStpe UB caves “96 Cambridgeshire coprolites .........ssseseseeeee Pa 5 eabopeiaany fF It appears from these experiments that nitrate of soda has no influence on the solubility of phosphate of lime; forthe differences in the amount of phos- phate of lime obtained from solutions containing 1 per cent. of nitrate of soda, and from distilled water left in contact with phosphate of lime, are too small to be due to any other cause than to the necessary errors which attach to all analytical determinations of this kind. Provisional Report on the Present State of our Knowledge respecting the Transmission of Sound-signals during Fogs at Sea. By Henry Hennessy, F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Catholic University of Ireland. In accordance with a request from the President and Committee of Section A, I have drawn up the following provisional report on the state of our knowledge relative to sound-signals during fogs at sea. It is unnecessary to enter into any details as to the methods in actual use for signalling vessels during fogs. These methods are admittedly imperfect ; they have been devised with little regard to scientific principles, and they do not fulfil the purposes for which they are intended*. The objects to be at- tained by sound-signals during fogs are twofold: first, to reveal the presence of ships to each other, or of light-houses and beacons to ships ; secondly, to * Admiral FitzRoy furnishes an illustration, by an extract from a letter of the late Captain Boyd, relative to a dense fog which prevailed in a part of the Irish Channel on the day be- fore the ‘Royal Charter’ storm. Only a few explosions from guns fired with full charges from the seaward side of the flagship at Kingstown were heard on board the Holyhead packet, when the distance of the latter did not exceed one mile. The fog-bell was heard when the packet was about half a mile distant, but only when the fog had lifted. We may conclude, therefore, that as long as this fog rested on the water the bell was useless, and the heavy firing was only partially useful. See “Storms of the British Isles. Tenth num- ber of Meteorological Papers, published by authority of the Board of Trade,” p. 44. 174 REPORT—1861. reveal the relative directions in which such objects may happen to lie. On both of these points some information has been collected by the recent Commission of Light-houses and Beacons. The amount of this information is, however, remarkably meagre when contrasted with the elaborate details furnished by the portion of the report relative to optical signals. This cir- cumstance is freely admitted ; and at p. xviii of the Report the desirableness of further experiments on the question of sound-signals is distinctly declared, But as the Commissioners received suggestions from several men of science who had paid attention to the phenomena of sound, a condensed sketch of such suggestions will be found to present much of the knowledge we possess upon this question. Before presenting a brief summary of these views, it is right to point out that the earliest experiments which have any important bearing upon the subject were instituted many years ago by M. Colladon, on the Lake of Geneva. I refer to his well-known researches on the pro- pagation of sound in water. The manner in which the acoustical properties of air are diminished by fogs has recently induced men of science (including many of those who communicated their views to the Commissioners of Light- houses) to recommend the employment of water as a medium for the trans- mission of sound. Almost all we know upon this matter is due to M. Col- ladon*. At first he found that subaqueous sounds were totally reflected at the surface, at such angles as rendered it impossible to hear them above water for distances exceeding 200 metres. To remove this obstacle to his researches he contrived a very ingenious apparatus, that we may for brevity call a hydrophone. Its shape resembled that of a common tobacco-pipe, with a broad and very shallow bowl. Its total length was about 5 metres, or a little more than 16 feet. ‘The pipe was about 18 inches in diameter, tapering at the end close to the ear, where it terminated in an orifice of about 8 inches. The mouth of the bowl was closed by a partition, whose surface amounted to a little more than 2 square feet (20 square decimetres). The hydrophone was entirely made of thin sheets of tinned iron. With this ap- paratus M. Colladon could hear a bell under water at a distance of 14,000 metres as well as he could by simply plunging the head at a distance of 200 metres. Subsequent to his earlier experiments, M. Colladon succeeded in transmitting distinctly audible sounds under water to the distance of 35,000 metres. The noise of the waves and wind produced little or no effect in diminishing the subaqueous sound, which could be clearly distinguished even when the observer’s boat had to be held by several anchors in tempes- tuous weather. The intensity of the sound was so little weakened by di- stance, that M. Colladon concludes that the decrease is as the simple distance, and not as the square of the distance, as in the air. This is explained by considering that the propagation of sound takes place in a sheet of water, limited between two surfaces, from which vibrations are totally reflected at acute angles. On these grounds, as well as from his experiments, he foresees the possibility of transmitting sounds at sea to distances of some hundreds of thousands of metres, and of applying such sounds to purposes connected with navigation, such as occupy us in the present inquiry. One of his most re- markable results is that of the existence of an acoustic shadow under water. This was proved by the effect of an interposed wall, in experiments made along the shore of the lake. This result is especially important in assisting in determining the direction of a given sound by the interposition of screens, and on this point water seems to possess decided advantages over air. * Mém. de l’Inst. Savants Etrangers, v. p. 320. Letter to M. Arago, Annales de Chimie et de Physique, p,525, vol. ii. 3° série. ‘ "wed TRANSMISSION OF SOUND-SIGNALS DURING FOGS AT SEA. 175 The suggestions of scientific men to the Commissioners of Light-houses refer principally to sounds propagated in air. Dr, Robinson points out that the sound should be as discordant as possible with that of the wind and waves, which are said to belong to C. He thinks that sound should be pro- duced as near the sea-level as possible. Mr. Mallet calls attention to explo- sive sounds as assisting the ear in ascertaining direction. Admiral FitzRoy suggests sharp high-pitched notes, with trumpet-mouthed devices for ascertain- ing the direction. He thinks that the source of sound should be at a low level. Sir John Herschel recommends the trial of a battery of steam-whistles blown by high-pressure steam; by a combination of three or several sets of three whistles pitched exactly to harmonic intervals (key note third, fifth, and octave), and with a rattle which intensifies the action on the auditory nerve. He also suggests concave reflectors, and the subaqueous propagation of sound by explosions in the foci of large and heavy parabolic reflectors. Professor Potter suggests the use of ear-trumpets, in order to assist observers. Pro- fessor Rankine recommends a parabolic ear-trumpet for the determination of direction. The Abbé Moigno maintains that a continuous grave sound spreads further than a very acute violent sound. Thus he instances the greater distance at which the sound of a cannon can be heard compared to thunder. He suggests resonant tubes like those attached to Savart’s acoustical ap- paratus. He thinks such resonant tubes far more effective than reflectors, He also recommends, for ascertaining direction, the use of a differential ear- trumpet, like Dr. Scott Alison’s stethophone*. He thinks that sound should be produced close to, or even in the water, and that a series of defined sounds could be arranged beforehand, one being assigned to each maritime station. He refers to M. Colladon’s experiments for details relative to subaqueous sounds. Mr. J. Mackintosh, of Liverpool, makes a suggestion in complete accordance with M. Colladon’s conclusions. He suggests a deep well in light-ships, whence the sound of a large bell might be propagated all around through the water. A kind of hydrophone applied from a vessel to the water might enable an observer to find the position of the light-ship. These suggestions contain nearly all the information presented in the Report on Light-houses and Beacons. Remarks made by other gentlemen are either equivalent to some of the foregoing, or have reference only to some improve- ments in the details of the existing system of fog-bells. Professor Wheatstone has informed me that it had been his intention, in co-operation with the late Mr. Robert Stephenson, to institute a series of ex- periments on sound, with reference to fog-signals. For this purpose Mr. Stephenson intended to employ his own yacht ; and had he been spared longer to science, the information we possess would probably have been less meagre than it is. Professor Wheatstone thinks that a battery of shrill whistles very nearly, but not entirely in unison would be most effective in forcing sound through a fog. Liquid and solid conductors should be as much as possible availed of during fogs. Water would be a far better conducting- medium than air for assisting in the determination of direction. If we are entitled to come to any positive decision upon the evidence which we possess, I should say that water seems to present in a higher degree than air during fogs, the qualities required in a sound conductor. High- pitched sounds seem to be generally acknowledged as most penetrating during fogs, but we have little information as to the detection of the direction of such sounds. On the other hand, we already possess a clue to the direc- tion of subaqueous sounds in M. Colladon’s acoustic shadow. Upon the * Proceedings of the Royal Society, and Phil. Mag. May 1858. 176 REPORT—1861. whole, I have been led to the conviction that further experiments are re- quired, which, if properly devised, will not only lead to some important practical results, but perhaps throw light on obscure portions of the theory of sound. I may be permitted to suggest, therefore, that experiments should be made, Ist, on the best kind of sound for penetrating fogs; 2nd, on the adaptation of the principle of interferences for determining directions ; 3rd, - on the best mode of utilizing the sound-conducting properties of water, by the use of screens and hydrophones ; 4th, on the best construction of double ear-trumpets for assisting observers in deciding upon the direction of a given sound; 5th, on the influence of winds in modifying the intensity and ap- parent direction of sounds. Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Birds of the Genus Apteryx living in New Zealand. By Puitie Luriry ScLATER and FERDINAND von HocasTeETTER. THERE appears to be sufficient evidence of the present existence of at least four species of birds of the genus Apteryx in New Zealand, concerning which we beg to offer the following remarks, taking the species one after the other, in the order that they have become successively known to science. 1. APTERYX AUSTRALIS. Apteryx australis, Shaw, Nat. Mise. xxiv. pls. 1057, 1058, and Gen. Zool. xiii. p. 71; Bartlett, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850, p. 275; Yarrell, Trans. Zool. Soc. i. p. 71. pl. 10. The Apteryx australis was originally made known to science by Dr. Shaw about the year 1813, from an example obtained in New Zealand by Capt. Barclay, of the ship ‘Providence.’ This bird, which was deposited in the ~ collection of the late Lord Derby, was afterwards described at greater length in 1833 in the ‘ Transactions of the Zoological Society’ by Mr. Yarrell, and was still at that date the only specimen of this singular form known to exist. Examples of Apteryx subsequently obtained, though generally referred to the present species, have mostly belonged to the closely allied Aptery« mantelli of Bartlett, as we shall presently show, though specimens of the true Apteryx australis exist in the British Museum and several other collections. The original bird described by Dr. Shaw is stated by Mr. Bartlett (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850, p. 276) to have come from Dusky Bay in the province of Otago, Middle Island, where Dr. Mantell’s specimen, upon which Mr. Bart- lett grounded his observations as to the distinctness of this species and Apteryx mantelli, was also procured. Dr. Hochstetter was able to learn nothing of the existence of this Apteryx in the province of Nelson in the same island; and the species is so closely — allied to the Apterya mantelli, as to render it very desirable that further — examples of it should be obtained, and a rigid comparison instituted between — the two. At present, however, we must regard this form of Apleryx as — belonging to the southern portion of the Middle Island. : 2. APTERYX OWENII. Apterya owentt, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1847, p. 94; Birds of Australia, } vi. pl. 3. BREA PM, - . ON THE BIRDS OF NEW ZEALAND. 177 Owen’s Apteryx, which is readily distinguished from the preceding species and A. mantelli by its smaller size, transversely barred plumage and slender bill, was first described by Mr. Gould in 1847, from an example procured by Mr. F. Strange, and “believed to have been obtained from the South Island.” Since that. period other specimens have been received in this country, which have sufficed to establish the species ; and from the informa- tion obtained by Dr. v. Hochstetter, there is no doubt of this being the com- mon Apieryx of the northern portion of the Middle Island. “Jn the spurs of the Southern Alps, on Cook’s Straits, in the province of Nelson,” says Dr. v. Hochstetter, ‘that is, in the higher wooded mountain- valleys of the Wairau chain, as also westwards of Blind Bay, in the wooded mountains between the Motucka and Aorere valleys, Kiwis of this species are still found in great numbers. During my stay in the province of Nelson I had myself two living examples (male and female) of this species. They were procured by some natives, whom I sent out for this purpose, in the upper wooded valleys of the River ‘ State,’ a confluent of the Aorere, ina country elevated from 2000 to 3000 feet above the sea-level. It appears that this Apéeryz still lives very numerously and widely spread in the extended southern continuations of the Alps.” 3. APTERYX MANTELLI. Aptery# australis, Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl.-9. — mantelli, Bartlett, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1847, p. 93. The characters which distinguish this commoner and better-known Aplerya from the true A. australis of Shaw were pointed out by Mr. Bartlett at the meeting of the Zoological Society held on the 10th of December, 1850. “This bird differs from the original Apteryx australis of Dr. Shaw,” says Mr. Bartlett, “in its smaller size; its darker and more rufous colour; its longer tarsus, which is scutellated in front; its shorter toes and claws, which are horn-coloured ; its smaller wings, which have much stronger and thicker quills; and also in having long straggling hairs on the face.” th Mr. Bartlett tells us that, as far as he has been able to ascertain, all speci- mens of Apterya mantelli are from the Northern Island ; and this is completely confirmed by Dr. von Hochstetter’s observations, which are as follows :— “Tn the northern districts of the Northern Island this species of Apterya appears to have become quite extinct. But in the island called Hou-tourou, or Little Barrier Island (a small island, completely wooded, ranging about 1000 feet above the sea-level, and only accessible when the sea is quite calm), which is situated in the Gulf of Hauraki, near Auckland, it is said to be still tolerably common. In the inhabited portions of the southern districts of the Northern Island also, it is become nearly exterminated by men, dogs and wild cats, and here is only to be found in the more inaccessible and less populous mountain-chains—that is, in the wooded mountains between Cape Palliser and East Cape. “But the inhabitants of the Northern Island speak also of two sorts of Kiwi, which they distinguish as Kiwi-nui (Large Kiwi) and Kiwi-iti (Small Kiwi). The Kiwi-nui is said to be found in the Tuhna district, west of Lake Ly a and is, in my opinion, Apterya mantelli. The Kiwi-iti may possibly be Aptery« owenii, though I can give no certain information on this subject.” 4. APTERYK MAXIMA. | ®The Fireman,” Gould in Birds of Australia, sub tab. 3. vol. vi. _ Apteryx maxima, Bp. 861. N ‘178 REPORT—1861. “ Roa-roa” of the natives of the Southern Island. The existence of a larger species of Apferyx in the Middle Island of New Zealand has long ago been affirmed, and though no specimens of this bird have yet reached Europe, the foliowing remarks of Dr. v. Hochstetter seem to leave no reasonable doubt of its actual existence :— “Besides Apteryx owenii, a second larger species lives on the Middle Island, of which, although no examples have yet reached Europe, the existence is nevertheless quite certain. The natives distinguish this species not as a Kiwi, but as a foa, because it is larger than A. owenti (oa meaning ‘long’ or ‘ tall’). rf JohiR aaa Provincial Surveyor in Nelson, who returned from an expedition to the western coast of the province while I was staying at Nelson in his Report, which appeared in the ‘Nelson Examiner’ of August 24th, 1859, describes this species, which is said to be by no means uncommon in the Paparoa chain (a wooded range of about 2000 to 3000 feet in elevation between the Grey and Buller Rivers), in the following terms:—‘ A Kiwi about the size of a Turkey, very powerful, having spurs on his feet, which, when attacked by a dog, defends himself so well as frequently to come off victorious.’ “My friend Julius Haart, a German, who was my travelling companion in New Zealand, and in the beginning of the year 1860 undertook an exploring expedition to the southern and western parts of the province of Nelson, writes to me in a leiter dated July 1860, ten miles above the mouth of the river Buller, on the mountains of the Buller chain (which, at a height of from 3000 to 4000 feet, were at that time—it being winter in New Zealand— H slightly covered with snow), that the tracks of a large Kiwi of the sizeof a Turkey were very common in the snow, and that at night he had often heard the singular cry of this bird, but that, as he had no dog with him, he had not succeeded in getting an example of it. He had, nevertheless, left with some natives in that district a tin can with spirits, and promised them a good reward if they would get him one of these birds in spirits and send it to Nelson by one of the vessels which go from time to time to the west coast.” In concluding this brief Report, we wish to call attention to the importance of obtaining further knowledge respecting the recent species of this singular form of birds whilst it is yet possible to do so. We see that one of them (the Apteryx mantelli) is already fast disappearing, whilst its history, habits, mode of nidification, and many other particulars respecting it are as yet altogether unknown. We therefore trust that such members of this Asso- ciation as have friends or correspondents in any part of New Zealand will impress upon them the benefits that they. will confer on science by endeavouring to procure more specimens of, and additional information con- cerning, the different species of the genus Apéeryx. Report of the Results of Deep-sea Dredging in Zetland ; with a Notice of several Species of Mollusca new to Science or to the British Isles. By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, F.R.S., F.G.S. ; Tue Report was submitted by the author, as one of the General Dredging — Committee, not so much for the sake of announcing his discovery of new species, as of maintaining certain views which he had ventured to suggest on Me ‘ RESULTS OF DEEP-SEA DREDGING IN ZETLAND. 179 former occasions with respect to the geographical distribution of the marine fauna of Europe. A yachting excursion which he had taken in the course of this summer, accompanied by two scientific friends, to the northernmost part of the British Isles, together with an examination of the upper tertiaries in Saffolk and Norfolk which he had since made in company with Mr. Prest- wich, gave the author a better insight into the scope of such distribution than had resulted from his previous researches, and confirmed his belief that the division into separate areas or “ provinces,” which had been proposed by so many systematists (all of whom held different opinions as to the ex- tent and limits of such “ provinces”), was erroneous, and that the present distribution must be referred to a state of things which has indeed passed away, but left a very distinct impress of its action. The author is inclined: to take the Coralline Crag as a starting-point, and to consider the marine fauna of Europe, Northern Asia, the Cis-Atlantic zone of Africa, and part of North America, as having been closely related at a comparatively recent epoch, and as forming one common area of origin. Many species of Mol- lusea once existed at both extremities of this vast district—e.g. Mya trun- cata and Buccinum undatum; and other species hitherto supposed to be restricted to the Mediterranean (viz. Monodonéa limbata and Cerithium vul- gatum, with its variety C.calabrum) have lately been discovered by Professor Sars on the coasts of Finmark. It is also probable that the recent exploration of the Greenland seas by Otto Torell and others may reveal further instances of asimilar kind. Very little has hitherto been done towards the investiga- tion of the Arctic fauna. It by no means follows that an extremely rigorous or “arctic” temperature prevailed in those places where we find the remains of some Mollusca whieh now inhabit only the seas of colder regions, or, vice versd, that the presence in these regions of fossil shells belonging to species which now inhabit only more southern seas indicates the former prevalence of a warm climate. The temperature of the sea at certain depths is well known to be very equable; and it is only littoral or shallow-water species that would be exterminated or affected by a change of climate. Some kinds appear to be more hardy than others, and to have survived considerable and perhaps frequent changes of temperature; while others have undergone a limited modification of form, and are considered by some naturalists as distinct (or “ representative”) species. A great deal, however, yet remains to be done, by accumulating facts, and a critical comparison of recent with fossil species, before a complete or satisfactory theory of distribution can be established. Mr. Jeffreys contrasted his experience of this dredging expedition with those he had made to other parts of the British coasts as well as to the Mediterranean, and also with the accounts he had received of similar expe- ditions to the’ coasts of Norway and Sweden—showing the far greater difficulties which attended an exploration of our northernmost sea, by reason of the variable and often tempestuous weather, and of that line of coast being unsheltered from the prevailing winds. He, however, succeeded in procuring three species of Mollusca new to scicnce, which he proposed to name Mar- garita elegantula, Aclis Walleri, and Nassa? Haliaéti, besides twelve other species which were new to the British Isles. Of these last, ten are Scandi- navian, one is Mediterranean, and the other had hitherto been known only asa Crag fossil. He reserved the description and particulars of these species for a work on British Conchology which he had undertaken. He ascertained that the Gulf-stream never impinges on any part of the coast which he had examined, although the climate was temperate. |The author noticed the occurrence at considerable depths (nearly 80 n2 180° * REPORT—1861. fathoms) of living Mollusca which usually inhabit the shore or very shallow water, viz. Lamellaria perspicua, Nassa incrassata, and Cyprea Europea, all of them being widely diffused species,—thus apparently illustrating the view entertained by the late Professor Edward Forbes, that those species which have the widest horizontal range have the greatest vertical depth. Judging, however, from the great depth at which he found the fossil shells of some Mollusca (e.g. Pecten Islandicus and Mya truncata var. Uddeval- lensis) which inhabit much shallower water in the Arctic zone, the author is disposed to believe that the bed of this part of our Northern Sea has sunk since the so-called “ glacial” epoch, and that this cireumstance may possibly account for the above-mentioned occurrence of sublittoral species at such depths. With respect to the comparative size of those Mollusca which are common to the seas of the North as well as of the South of Europe, the author re- ferred to an observation made by Mr. Salter, in a recent number of the ‘Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society,’ that some fossil shells which Mr. Lamont had brought from Spitzbergen were larger than those of the corresponding species in our own mountain limestone ; and he remarked that the same rule appears to apply also to marine plants, for he never saw such gigantic fronds of the Laminaria saccharina, which fringes all our coast- line, as he did in the voes of North Zetland. The author concluded by paying a just tribute of respect to the labours of Professors Sars and Lovén, Malm, Moérch, Asbjérnsen, and other Scandi- navian naturalists, who were investigating the Mollusca of the Northern seas with a zeal and accuracy worthy of our emulation. Contributions to a Report on the Physical Aspect of the Moon. By J. Puiuuies, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Geology, Oxford. Proressor Puitiips noticed the result of his sketches of parts of the surface of the moon, and also described Mr. Birt’s contributions to a report on seleno- graphy, which had been undertaken by direction of the General Committee at Oxford, with the view of discovering the character of the moon’s surface as influenced by previous physical events. Professor Phillips's observations related especially to the mountain Gassendi, to which his attention had been directed’ by the Comniittee in 1852, but included also drawings of remarkable ‘rills,’ and other interesting peculiarities, in Aristarchus, Archimedes, and Plato. The rills to which Prof. Phillips had given principal attention were—(1) the well-known stag’s-horn rill E. of Thebit, which appeared to be what geolo- gists call a ‘ fault’ or ‘slip,’ one side elevated above the other, and with some inequality in the dislocation when the shadow is accurately inspected; (2) the long rill on which the small crater called Hyginus is situated; (3) the group of parallel rills about Campanus and Hippalus. Regarding these it was remarked that the drawing of Madler, which, like all the work in his great map, was obviously a careful one, differed in one point from that made by Prof. Phillips. This difference may be thus stated. In Madler’s drawing three parallel riills appear in the space between Campanus and Hippalus ; the middle one, shorter than the others, passes between two small hills. Prof. Phillips draws these two hills near to each other, and records no rill, running between them. The rill between these hills and Hippalus appears in ON THE PHYSICAL ASPECT OF THE MOON, 181 both drawings ; but Prof. Phillips continues it further to the south, even into the erater marked A, which is likewise traversed by the longest rill of all, that, viz., nearest to Campanus, Another rill is traced by Prof. Phillips quite across and through the old crater of Hippalus ; and all the rills appear to him to be rifts or deep fissures, receiving strong shadows from oblique light, and even acquiring brightness on one edge of the cavity. Their breadth appears to be only a few hundred feet or yards. He exhibited drawings of these objects on a large scale, one being a section across the crater of Gassendi, another a map of the curious region extending from Aristarchus and Hero- dotus along the interrupted rift or valley which opens by a seeming delta into the seeming dried sea-bed with indented coasts on the south. Speaking of Gassendi, of which he had made drawings under different eonditions of light and shade, from sunrise on the mountains to mid-day, and slighter sketches at later hours, he remarked, in addition to what has been recorded by Madler, the much-varied character of the ‘ rings,’ the deep narrow fissures across the ring on the S.E. side, the rocky character of the central elevations in the interior area, the rough terraces and ridges within the great ring on the east and also the north-west side, the occurrence of only two small craters in the northern part of the area, and the variation of colour on the surface, without shadow, according to the change of the angle of incidence of the sun’s rays. He also drew attention to the existence of delicate ramifications of small ridges and hollows in the S.W. part of the area, which had a marked con- vergence towards the broad lip of the deep-attached cavity known as the Spoon. He expressed his great desire to receive drawings of Gassendi as seen at noon and at later hours of the lunar day, Contribution to a Report on the Physical Aspect of the Moon, By W. R. Brat, F.R.A.S. On the present occasion I propose confining my contribution to the physical features characterizing the well-known spot Plato, some of which are fami- liar to astronomers, while others, I have some reason to believe, have not hitherto been pointed out. I have included all that have come under obser- vation during the twenty-nine months between January 1860 and May 1862, inclusive, in a synopsis of objects suitable for further telescopic observation. This synopsis of objects is necessarily izcomplete. To each object observed I have appended, in italics, the number of times it has been the subject of special observation ; so that every one inserted in the key-plan has been seen by me at some time during the interval of the observations above mentioned. The entire period of the visibility of Plato is embraced in the observations, which are, however, more numerous under the morning and mid-day illumi- nations than under the evening. Those features that have been more fre- quently observed may of course be regarded as being more fully established, at least for the period embraced by the observations; the synopsis forming a groundwork for the more effectual observation of Plato, especially as re- gards the interesting questions of absolute repose now existing on the moon’s surface, or the progress of change such as may be detected by human eyes. Forty-five series of observations contributing to the synopsis, and extending from January 5, 1860, to July 29, 1861, I have arranged in the order of the moon’s age, in a MS, volume which is deposited in the library of the Royal « 182 REPORT—1861. Astronomical Society. The remainder, twenty-three, bringing the observa- tions to May 12, 1862, are at present in my hands, and are intended to form part of a second volume, should I be able to pursue the observations. The arrangement of the volume is such that it can be used as an ephemeris of the successive appearances of the crater, as well as being indicative of those objects that require careful and steady watching. One of the most interesting objects among those newly pointed out is a terrace on the south-west interior slope. It, with a ravine in the same neigh- bourhood, is of an exceedingly delicate character, being brought out (espe- cially the terrace) by the gradual change in the direction of the incident solar ray. Accompanying the synopsis are two illustrative figures. Fig. 1 is a some- what rough key-plan of the crater, the ellipse being that of the greatest open- ing presented by Plato. This key-plan possesses no pretensions either to accuracy of detail or correctness of locality, micrumetrically considered ; it is only offered as a guide to the general and relative positions of the objects included in the synopsis. Fig. 2 is a section indicated by observation of the south-west interior slope of Plato, showing the terrace or ledge Y, one of the new features brought to light by this series of observations. The reader is re- ferred to Beer and Midler’s large map of the moon, and is specially requested to compare the delineation of the crater as they have given it with the key- plan accompanying this Report. A careful comparison of them will show the features they have in common, and the departures that may exist in those determined by the present series of observations from the representations of the same features as given by Beer and Midler. Schréter has given some of the features mentioned, especially the mountain-range (7), which he marks p, the mountain v, the shadows of the three peaks y, 6, and e, the mountain c, which in Schréter’s drawing is marked D, and the crater y, which is no longer in existence—if Schroter really saw a perfect crater as he has deline- ated it. In another delineation of Plato by Schréter, showing the two mark- ings ¢ and & on the interior of the north-east slope as he observed them on December 11, 1788, he also gives a remarkably round cloud-like appear- ance, not unlike in character to the one that has been so constantly a subject of my own observation, marked f in the key-plan. These delineations may be found in his ‘ Selenotopographische Fragmente,’ t. xxi. To render the results of the inquiry of greater value, a careful microme- trical survey of Plato, when presented under the greatest visual angle, would be important. Every well-determined spot would be laid down in its aceu- rate position as seen from the earth under that angle; and if such a survey were executed with the requisite precision, one epoch only being fixed on, and no reduction to a mean state of libration admitted, it would not be dif- ficult, after a few years’ observations, to judge of the probable fixity of aspect presented by the most prominent features, and changes, if any, would soon render themselves apparent. Synopsis of objects in Plato suitable for telescopic observation, with reference to fixity or variability of absolute aspect. By absolute aspect, I mean the aspect dependent on the object itself, its form and constitution,—not an aspect dependent on the variability of the incidence of solar light, or on the variability of the direction of the visual ray as the object is seen from the earth, the one indicated by the moon's age, the other by the libration of the moon. ON THE PHYSICAL ASPECT OF THE MOON, 183 Fig. 1. Key-plan of Plato, from observations by W. R. Birt, F.R.A.S., between January 5, 1860, and October 19, 1861. I. x.—A short range of mountains running at first nearly at right angles to the mountainous rim of Plato, from a break in the northern or, rather, north-western portion of the rim. This range of mountains is of a curved form, and terminates in the mountain ~. It constitutes the western rim of a crateriform formation to the north of Plato. This mountain-range has been the subject of eleven observations between January 1860 and May 1862. Schroter had previously observed it, and marked it ». Under a suitable illumination, a shallow depression is seen westward of this mountain-range, the land rising a little on the westward of it, so that a somewhat narrow valley is enclosed between the two. There are two well-defined peaks on the eastern or highest range, and a small one be- tween them and the rim. II. 72.—A break on the north-western rim of Plato, which is doubtless the continuation of the narrow valley west of the mountain-range (7). It is distant about 0°75 of the longest diameter of the apparent ellipse from the east, and is very distinctly shown in the drawing of Schroter. The observations of this break in the rim of Plato have been numerous. On three occasions the valley-like character of it has been recorded. Under a suitable illumination, a bright streak from Anaxagoras to Plato may be seen terminating near this break. Il. m.—A bright spot on the north-west portion of the rim, close to and east of the valley (7). On the 28th of May, 1860, I have recorded a high alpine mountain in the locality of this spot. ek This bright spot has been observed on nie occasions, and on one occasion as a dusky spot. 1V.—The interior slope of the north and north-east border. This slope undergoes variations of luminosity, according as the incidence of the solar rays vary; it has two dark oval markings. V. 2.—Under a somewhat late illumination, 21-5 days moon’s age, the rim of this part of Plato presents the appearance of a sharp angle in the neighbourhood of the westernmost of the two oval markings, and from this point an irregularly formed crag overhangs the slope. This crag has also been seen under the morning illumination. There are strong indications of a circular range of mountains existing on the north of Plato, of which the range (v) forms the western side: the in- cluded area is crossed by two dark but narrow lines, which appear to be of 184 REPORT—186l. the nature of fissures. They, with the circular range, have only been observed once. (See key-plan, fig. 1.) VI. i—The westernmost of the two oval markings. VII. &.—The easternmost of the two oval markings. Schréter appears to have observed them on December 11, 1788: he has figured them ont. xxi. fig.6. They have been observed by the writer on Jifteen or sixteen occasions at least. VIL. p.—A bay-like indentation in the north-east rim seen under the mid-day illumination. It has been observed on five occasions. It is not shown in the key-plan, but its Jocality is indicated by the letter p. This indentation, which is best seen about full moon, or about fifteen or sixteen days of the moon’s age, marks, I appreliend, the form of the rim of Plato hereabout. It is well shown in a sketch by Webb, under date of 1855, October 24, ten to eleven hours; the sketch is preserved in the volume of Observations on Plato deposited in the library of the Royal Astronomical Society. It is approximately figured at p, detached from the key-plan of the crater, as it is only visible for about two days near the full. IX. g.—A short, light spur in the neighbourhood of p, which, with the shadow within the cavity 2, appears to indicate the existence of a ledge or terrace in this part of Plato. It has only been observed once. X. £.—A bold rock jutting intg the interior, casting a well-defined shadow eastward in the morning and forenoon, and westward on the floor of the crater towards sunset: it is more frequently observed as the eastern extre- mity of the longest diameter of the apparent ellipse. This rock is one of the finest and most conspicuous objects in the neigh- bourhood of Plato during the morning illumination, glowing in the rays of the sun like molten silver. From about 7:5 to 85 days of the moon’s age, it is seen as a very brilliant point at the eastern extremity of the crater; during the next two days (from 85 to 10°5 days of the moon’s age) it is very distinguishable, standing out as a bold rock, and casting a well-defined shadow eastward; during the next three days (from 10°5 to 13*5) it loses its shadow, but continues a perceptibly bright object, imparting to the eastern extremity its peculiar brilliancy at this age of the moon. It is now lost for some time. About nineteen days of the moon’s age it has been seen very distinctly ; two days later, viz. at twenty-one days, its shadow has been seen on the floor of Plato; and about this time, or rather later, it has been seen standing out in fine and bold relief, a magnificent object, its height above the general altitude of the ring being apparent not only by the acuminated character of its shadow on the floor of the crater, but by its towering consi- derably above the general summit. It appears to be a formation in a mea- sure distinct from the ring itself, and greatly allied in its character to that of Pico on the south of Plato; indeed, it deserves as conspicuous a position on a map as Pico. It possesses two bold spurs on the north-east and south- east. Its very appearance is exceedingly suggestive, especially when taken in connexion with a formation immediately south of it. Both should be most carefully and scrupulously watched, in order to determine if any degrading forces are at work hereabout, This rock has been observed under the morning and forenoon illumina- tions on eighteen occasions, and under the evening on jour occasions, Schroter gives a rude figure of it in t. xxiii. XI. s.—A spot situated on the eastern exterior slope of Plato: it is slightly to the north of eastward of the rock Z, and was seen, on October 14, 1861, moon’s age 10°55 days, to be a gently rising protuberance on the eastern slope of the rock @, in the neighbourhood of the north-eastern spur, pevidy ON THE PHYSICAL ASPEOT OF THE MOON. 185 XII. 4£—A small erater south of eastward of the rock ¢: it is deseribed, March 22, 9 30 (1861), to be almost due east of the longest diameter of Plato. It is situated on one of the spurs of ¢. The rock ¢, the spot s, and the crater ¢, form a conspicuous triangle, seen to great advantage on March 21, 1861. They have been observed in con- nexion on three occasions. XIII. A.—The /argest crater in the neighbourhood of Plato, figured by Schroter, t. xxiii... and marked ¢ by him, but A by Beer and Madler. XIV. y.—Schroter also gives another crater of about the same'size, which he marks x, north of Plato. In his delineation it is placed about midway between Plato and the Mare Frigoris. In the whole course of my observa- tions I have not met with this crater, nor have I seen anything similar to that delineated by Schroter. On the night of August 27, 1861, moon’s age 21°53 days, I found a very interesting object on the northern boundary of the bright ground north of Plato. It consisted of a semi-elliptical range of mountains very similar to a half-erater, the existing portion of the ring not greatly elevated above the surface; the south-east side was more elevated than the south-west, so that its external slope caught the rays of the after- noon sun, which rendered it the most brilliant object in the immediate locality. The south-west portion of this half-ring was seen to terminate a little short of the line of junction of the bright ground north of Plato and the dark ground of the Mare Frigoris, the south-east portion being cut off sharply by the south edge of the Mare Frigoris. I did not observe any difference of level between the lighter rugged eround on which the half-ring was seen and the darker and smoother surface of the Mare Frigoris. The situation of this half-ring is very near the locality given by Schroter for the perfect crater. I have indicated it on the key-plan by Schroter’s mark x. I also observed this object on September 13, 1861, under the morning illumination, moon’s age 8°87 days; and again on September 25, moon’s age 21°08 days. It requires the precise angle of illumination and visual ray to catch it. XV. W.—An interesting marking just south of the rock £, somewhat of the character of a crater, apparently triangular in its form, but on closely serutinizing it seen to be a somewhat shallow depression having a gently eurved rampart. Under a suitable illumination, the shadow of this rampart has been seen well defined within the enclosure. The south-east rim of this apparent crater, with the contiguous portion of the rim of Plato, forms the continuation of a chain of mountains which takes its rise at an isolated mountain south-east of Plato (c) (see key-plan, fig. 1). ‘This chain of moun- tains is well seen under the evening illumination about 21°5 days of the moon's age. The position of this depression is on the upper part of the eastern slope of Plato. It is separated from the large crater by a portion of the eastern rim of Plato, which also forms its waster rim. On May 2, 1860, the colour of the interior was very slightly, if any, darker than the surface exterior to Plato, and much lighter than the floor of Plato. It has been observed on Jifteen occasions. XVI. o.—A small crater at the external common base of the rock ¢ and the depression W. It has been observed twice. XVII.—The south-east rim of the crater Plato. XVIII. c.—A mountain south-east of Plato. The chain of mountains, of low altitude, running from it in a eurved direction to Plato formed part of the ring of the ancient crater called Newton by ap bel It has been observed at least on three occasions, 186 REPORT—186l, The existence of this mountain is well established, having been observed by Schroter, and marked by him D; by Beer and Madler, and marked by them ¢; and by the writer, as above. The chain of mountains is given somewhat differently by each observer, but no doubt can be entertained of its existence. XIX. Y.—A very narrow ledge or terrace within the interior of the south- west border of Plato, appearing as a lucid fringe when the shadow of the summit of the border is sufficiently narrow to allow of the illumination of the floor of the terrace. See fig. 2, in which Fig. 2. ® 8 Section of the south-west interior slope of Plato, the Hartwell Ledge, from observations by W. R. Birt, F.R.A.S. F. Represents the floor of the crater. S—S. The south-west interior slope. Y. The terrace or ledge. a. The summit of the slope. Z. A ravine exterior to the crater. S—S. The incident ray when the ledge is in deep shadow, the entire floor being illuminated. S'—S'. The incident ray when the ledge is partly illuminated. S’—S". The incident ray when it is wholly so. On May 18, 7 0, 1861, I observed the interior shadow of the western rim to fine off on the south-west side. It presented the appearance of a very fine line, with avo bright spots, as if there were two small mountains on the ledge or terrace. With Dr. Lee’s permission, I propose to designate this terrace the Hartwell Ledge. This ledge has been observed on seven occasions. XX. aa.—The summit of the south-west slope; observed on_ jive occasions. XXI. Z.—A ravine on the surface exterior to Plato ; observed on thirteen occasions. XXII. y.—A high peak on the south-west wall, recognized in the early morning illumination by its long shadow stretching far along the floor; observed on sta occasions. Schroter has figured the shadow. XXIII. 6—A high peak on the west wall, recognized as above, and figured by Schroter; observed on éwo occasions. XXIV. ¢.—A similar peak on the north-west wall, also figured by Schrier, and observed twice. These three peaks occasion at sunrise a well-marked indented shadow, Oratty 1 ON THE PHYSICAL ASPECT OF THE MOON. 187 which rather rapidly recedes as the sun becomes elevated above their horizon. Beer and Midler have indicated, measured, and marked them respectively y, 5, and e. The shadows have been well seen by the writer on the floor of Plato, with an additional peak. XXV. b.—A dark-black spot in the shadow, most probably the peak é, which under the early morning illumination would present such an appear- ance. My observations under the evening illumination have been too few to recognize it as a bright spot, nor have I noticed either y or e as black spots in the morning shadow. This black spot occupies precisely the position of é, just north of the termination of the longer axis of the apparent ellipse exactly opposite the reck Z. It has been observed on three occasions. XXVI. A.—A conspicuous mountain south-west of Plato, on the ring of Schréter’s Newton, and nearly abutting on the ravine Z (XXI.). Beer and Madler mark it A, but place it too far to the south-east. It has been observed on nine occasions. Under a very early illumination it may easily be mistaken for a crater (see also XXIX.7). There is a gradual rise of the land from the north- west towards the mountain, which itself rises from a depression, the western cliff of which is very abrupt. XXVII. dd.—A group of mountains in the Alps, forming with ) and y an isosceles triangle, A and y being the base. There is a little discrepancy here. The mountain A has been brought nearer to dd on the key-plan than it would be on Beer and Midler’s map, to give it its proper position with regard to Z, aa, and Y (see XXVI.A). It is the author's intention, as early as convenient, carefully to triangulate the most conspicuous objects near Plato. XXVIII. G.—A small crater, a little to the west of 6, somewhat closely abutting on the summit; it is marked G by Beer and Madler. I have observed it twice. It is very probably the same as w, in Schroter’s drawing. _ XXIX. ».—A mountain on the exterior western slope of Plato: it is situated in the line of the longer axis of the apparent ellipse. On March 22, 1861, it was seen with the shadow eastward; it had a rounded summit, and the western slope was shining with considerable brilliancy. It has been observed eight times. Its situation with regard to dd and y (see key-plan) requires to be determined ; also its real character, whether it be a mountain or acrater. On some occasions, under an early illumination, it has been described as a crater; on others, as a mountain. From the description of ~ March 22, 1861, it would appear to be a mountain. It is very conspicuous about the time of full moon as a bright lucid spot. XXX. ee—A considerable depression east of 7, and between it and the western rim of Plato. Observed éwice, under a very early illumination of Plato. XXXI. ce—A somewhat long dark line, in the nature of a shadow with a short spur, apparently the shadow of a mountain across the western wall of Plato; the long dark line observed only once, the spur twice. The exact direction of the line requires determination. XXXII. ».—A conspicuous mountain north-west of Plato, marked » by Beer and Madler; it is figured by Schroter with some smaller mountains and a crater, ¢, north-west of it. It was well seen on May 18, 1861; also on July 15, 1861, when two well-marked, distinct rocks were seen north-west of it. It has been observed on seven occasions. XXXIII. ff-—Three mountain-masses (supposed to be vy and the moun- tains north-west of it; they are not given in the key-plan) in the neighbour- hood of the mountain y. The westernmost of these mountains not over- bright, but the others very bright. 188 MOON REPORT—1861. XXXIV. gg.—A crater figured by Schréter, and marked by him 4, at the western extremity of the three mountains ff. The writer observed and figured it on January 8, 1862; but did not see it on March 8, 1862, when the moon was nearly of the same age. The floor of Plato presents some exceedingly interesting appearances. It is figured by Beer and Midler as being crossed by four streaks of a some- what lighter tint than that of the general surface of the floor (see the large Map). These have not been observed within the epochs limiting the period of the observations forming the basis of this Report, January 1860 and May 1862; but a remarkable, broad, branching, whitish, cloud-like streak, crossing the floor at certain epochs of the moon’s age perpendicularly, and at others when it is more distinctly apparent in a diagonal direction (f’) (see key-plan, fig. 1), has been seen very frequently ; in fact, during the continuance of the observations, it may be regarded as having possessed a decided characteristic of constancy. The change of direction of this marking as the sun passes from west to east in his lunar-diurnal course is very interesting, and is in some measure indicative of the nature of the surface of the floor, the direction being apparently dependent on some peculiarity of reflection in the surface. It appears to be connected with the bright mountain (m) on the north-west rim, as under certain angles of illumination it is seen invariably to take its rise therefrom. This isa feature that requires careful watching. It has more than once been traced to the rayed crater Anaxagoras, and on a very favourable occasion was seen to be connected with the ray that terminates near the bright mountain m. It is only visible during certain. epochs of illumination. Schréter appears to have observed, in December 1788, a somewhat similar marking, but of around form (consult his figs. 6,7 and 8, t. xxi.), Taking the three periods of observation, Schréter’s, Beer and Miidler’s, and the writer’s, it would seem that the markings of the floor are of a variable character. The portion of the floor not covered by this marking, and the whole when it is not visible, undergoes variations of tint, from a decided greenish tint just after sunrise, when it mostly appears with a delicate smooth surface, to a deep- blackish grey, of a diluted inky character, at mid-day, the smoothness of sur- face having considerably disappeared. Beer and Midler have indicated three or four minute specks on the sur- face; Gruithuisen detected seven. One, nearly central, I have more or less constantly observed under suitable angles of illumination. The Rev. T. W. Webb has also observed this central speck, It is marked g on the key-plan. Preliminary Report on the Dredging Committee for the Mersey and Dee. By Dr. Cotytinewoopn and Mr. BYERLEY. Tuis Committee was appointed last year at Oxford, and the present Report was a résumé of all that had previously, and since then, been ascertained concerning the Marine Fauna of that region. The past season having been very unfavourable for dredging operations, several important families still remained unexplored, chiefly among the minuter Crustacea, Annelids, Ento- mostraca and Foraminifera. The following comparison of ascertained species with those of the British Fauna will serve to show some of the results given. 189 ON THE DREDGING COMMITTEE FOR THE MERSEY AND DEE. “eoorued erpuoyoTe yy seeseeseeesrerel. eres eee “MMT UeATGUMOsOUL VIUTOW “SIULOOISSBaO BITRAT,|** ‘suvards Bye A | Bile BIamy exuesy‘snopid oddrpig|"* “RSOUTJLIOS BOPSULOVT V4 *EIOILTIV]Y VIALTNIG) ByLoyey viavnUMyg “eprumd viaemysog] Fp “PSTATPUL BIRBTGN Tet ees “TOMSOUTFBT -93 wantpruo Lory ByCOTIOT BIABTTOUIA) wow eeecveecstccs “STUNUIMOD elreuMony))|*** BlMso.t vutooorgdg ‘suaqna AOISBLTA I" “=e es Eee “TMAQUIYUOA opLayTydary |teesteereeeres *SLIRS ‘opeats vaydiseg|-[NA TosuetD ‘stuLooITMUUY snyepuRg oF “TISMOIPUWY BOTyRTVD “SIULODLSUO] BULT[eOIOg ‘snmMseq| OG ‘snunepaatssen soqsh109 “‘SBURUT SNUTOTED ‘eyelnoue xvpdouoy “coyemdep snunjz10g iG 64 "eprpuro *q ‘eyedstaz0 “RILIOMIVUL ByoNOTD |svpoyg ‘eywounsy vA py ‘eppyos vury ‘eWVAO SNMOA ‘SITMO}TW ‘eNORJHOPT|-[aT, ‘efMpe uMIpaeD ‘st~Mpo sup~yAPT 991 “eUUIONONSI[OT “VyLapenbqus suo. ‘sMOOSALOGAe SNJOTO.Ap ‘epred eruojopqurg ‘eurpedqedonwy|-wog ‘eumrxord *q ‘eyetpoureytq swocy oor ‘eyrode Bey Ng "esnyqo wuts 6 ‘ejOUIA =| “UMyepuN wMULong ‘sniidey vand T ‘AOISSVID VUNOVT “BAPTA VOSSIY)|-IMgG ‘VAN Voss ‘vatoy}IT VULTOITT *BISSONT ‘Stes NA sndoyoO See er eOO Derr eerensesonnes * eoTUEyyE jordeg e L ‘ony ‘stauopy Aosops -uy ‘opadazoy, ‘(nuegnnby) ysy-jos ‘oy “Ysy-Soqy poyodg -uy ‘yedQ ouoseaqy snoomue.y ‘ouryT pueg ‘peoyyng pouty Teyons-duny ‘Aepsuy ‘Uoasinyg)“eyong snonjoug ‘“TeAe\\ aossory OIG =i “soroodg ‘soloods o[qpytemot pur omy ‘sotoods quvUTtMOp IO ONsTAO}OBIVD | “YSHIAT eeeeewere|. wWWP caucuee "MOT seeenmersseeceveos STDNOTG seeneassesleasasananestesaneleeeeeessseeeees VOZONTIOW Sees ghee ous iuny «She taneSevnah | SSeMhen~ Ganilaneg ar £ % wepriaepnurduey % 61 weeeee weperrepnyieg ste reeaeswaseneces L sseeesees ooptukaog —: Vozouda yy g 2 SUC sopaeWWeepes ds oes II “So WLYNUTCONINO “exouad gy joqy “seeeemsens VaTTONN 6 seers eee VOVULSONOLNG Bee ¢ tpodosy “soy INT so" Bpodeuroyg bea £ L sarees “emodR TL 2 $ “" BmMomMOUy g nyi seseeseee wm AT OBI, — VaOVESAID ot - eee eweceeerere VIVOINOT, £ OF *** VIVINONVUGITIONY'T Zz 9 sere") WOVIHONVUATEA NT 2 ra ejerTouvcqoyysidg £ 12 *** equrpouRrqosorg —! S@odOugIsV & 9 vereeeeecee"SadOdOTVHde() z 6L bee ee TT ONIUV]AL “sowedg _ qnoqe “oy oy ‘aoyszodorg | pu Aossayy derati i m The writer avoided enter them for a future and more 10NS, reserving g upon any general cons complete report. 190 $3 REPORT—1861. Third Report of the Committee on Steam-ship Performance. ConTENTSs. Report. Appendix, Table 1.—Table showing the results of the performance of H.M. vessels, fur- nished by the Admiralty. Table 2.—Table showing the results of the performance of six of H.M. vessels under various circumstances. Table 3.—Table showing the results of the performance of H.M.S. ‘ Victor Emmanuel,’ when at sea. Table 4.—Return of seven trials on the measured mile in Stokes Bay of H.M.S. ‘ Victor Emmanuel.’ Table 5.—Table showing the results of the performance of a number of vessels in the Merchant Service under various circumstances. Table 6.—Quarterly returns of the speed and consumption of coal of the London and North-Western Company’s express and cargo boats, under regulated conditions of time, pressure, and expansion ; from January 1st to December 31, 1860. Table 7.—Quarterly verifications of consumption of coal of the above vessels, from January 1 to December 31, 1860. Table 8.—Return from the City of Dublin Steam Packet Company of the average time of passage and consumption of coal of the Mail Steamers for six months ending June 30, 1860. Table 9.—Return from the City of Dublin Steam Packet Company of the average time of passage and consumption of coal of the Mail Steamers for three months ending September 30, 1860. Table 10.—Return of the results of performance of 50 vessels in the service of the Messageries Impériales, 1859. Table 11.—Return of the results of performance of 50 vessels in the service of the Messageries Impériales, 1860. Table 12.—Return of average passages of Mail Packets and consumption of coal for six months ending March 31, 1861. Table 13.—Log of Steam-ship ‘ Ulster,’ April 6, 1861. Table 14.—Log of Steam-ship ‘Leinster,’ on trial from Holyhead to Kingstown, April 4, 186]. Circular as issued from the Committee on Steam-ship Performance. Form as issued from the Committee on Steam-ship Performance. Rervorr. At the meeting of the British Association held at Oxford in June 1860, the Committee was re-appointed in the following terms :— «That the Committee on Steam-ship Performance be re-appointed, to report proceedings to the next meeting. «That the attention of the Committee be also directed to the obtaining of information respecting the performance of vessels under sail, with a view to comparing the results of the two powers of wind and steam, in order to their most effective and economical combination. ** That the sum of £150 be placed at the disposal of the Committee.” The following noblemen and gentlemen were nominated to serve on the Committee :— Vice-Admiral Moorsom, The Hon. Capt. Egerton, R.N. The Duke of Sutherland William Smith, C.E. (formerly Marquis of Stafford). J. E. McConnell, C.E. The Earl of Caithness. Professor Rankine, LL.D. The Lord Dufferin. J. R. Napier, C.E. William Fairbairn, F.R.S. R. Roberts, C.E. J. Scott Russell, F.R.S. Henry Wright Admiral Paris, C.B. (Honorary Secretary). With power to add to their number. The following gentlemen also assisted your Committee as corresponding members ;— ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANGE. 191 Lord C. Paget, M.P., C.B. Captain Hope, R.N. Lord Alfred Paget, M.P. Captain Mangles. Lord John Hay, M.P. T. R. Tufnell. The Earl of Gifford, M.P. William Froude. The Marquis of Hartington, M.P. John Elder. Viscount Hill. David Rowan. The Hon. Leopold Agar Ellis, M.P. J. McFarlane Gray. Captain Ryder, R.N. Your Committee re-elected Admiral Moorsom to be their Chairman, and at his decease the Duke of Sutherland succeeded him. Your Committee having held monthly meetings, and intermediate meetings of a sub-Committee, presided over by the Chairman, beg leave to present the following Reports :— At the last meeting of the British Association, after the Committee’s Report had been presented, Admiral Moorsom read a paper before the Mechanical Section on the Performance of Steam Vessels, and a discussion ensued which demonstrated the great want that is felt by men of science, both in England and in other countries, of definite knowledge based on actual experiment re- specting the resistance offered by vessels of various sizes and types, to being drawn through the water. As the means of trying such experimenis could only be satisfactorily obtained from a Government having every description of vessel in its service, your Committee determined urgently to renew their applications to the British Admiralty, that that body should, for the benefit of science generally, conduct a series of experiments; and to state that the Committee were even prepared to advise upon or conduct such experiments, if the Admiralty so desired. The Chairman accordingly communicated with the First Lord of the Admi- ralty, repeating the various arguments hitherto advanced, with concise state- ments of the general nature of the detailed experiments deemed necessary, and which are briefly as follows :— 1, The specific resistance of certain ships selected as types, and of the fol- lowing displacements, viz.,—about 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, 5000, 6000, 7000 tons, and upwards. Such resistance under traction being measured by dynamometer, and under the three following conditions :— (1.) Of the hull when launched. (2.) Ditto with machinery on board. (3.) Ditto when ready for sea. 2. The thrust of the screw, measured by dynamometer, when propelled by steam under the two last of the above three conditions, and under similar circumstances of smooth water and calm. 3. Full particulars of the dimensions and form of the ships, of the boilers and furnaces, of the engines, and of the propeller. 4. Detailed particulars of the performances of the same or similar ships in snooth water at the measured mile, with the particulars and conditions set forth in a Form of Return which accompanied the memorandum, or any other, more comprehensive or effectual, that might be given. 5. The actual performance of the same or similar vessels at sea, with the particulars and conditions set forth as aforesaid. Your Committee would remark in passing, that from the date of their first appointment, they have not ceased, on every available occasion, to press this subject upon the attention of the authorities ; but, up to the present time, your Committee are not aware that any experiments of the kind have been undertaken. - In the Report presented to your Association at Oxford, it is stated that a 192 a4 REPORT—1861. sy table of certain of Her Majesty’s vessels, seventeen in number, had been con- structed, containing the results of the best trials as conducted by the Govern- ment cfficers, and that it had been forwarded to the Admiralty with the request that the additional particulars of the hull and machinery might be filled in. The table, however, did net arrive in time to be inserted in their Report. Your Committee have great pleasure in being now enabled to lay it before your Association in the state it has been received from the Admiralty. (Appendix, Table 1.) They would remark in connexion with this return, that it appears that the authorities have not been in the habit of recording either the quantity of coals consumed or the evaporation of water, and they have made application to the Admiralty that in future these desiderata may be obtained. In compliance with the terms of the resolution appointing the Committee, viz., “ That the attention of the Committee be also directed to obtaining infor- mation respecting the performance of vessels under sail, with a view to com- paring the results of the two powers of wind and steam,” your Committee have to state that hitherto they have been unable to obtain such comparisons in the case of merchant vessels, but in the Table given in Appendix, Table 2, particulars of one of H.M. vessels are recorded under three conditions, viz., under steam alone, under sail alone, and under steam and sail combined, and of two under the two latter conditions only. These are especially useful, as they show the effects produced by powers brought to bear upon the hulls of vessels under the same conditions as to draft and trim, but differently applied. ; In endeavouring to collect this information from officers in H.M.’s service, the Committee were desirous that the application should be made with the concurrence of the Admiralty, and a circular was accordingly issued to a se- lected number of officers, accompanied by a form, which they were requested to fill up and return. At the request of the Admiralty, copies of these docu- ments were submitted for their inspection. The circular stated that the Committee had apprized the Admiralty of the Committee’s proposal to communicate with such captains and engineers of H.M.’s vessels as might be disposed to assist the British Association in obtain- ing facts for scientific calculations relating to the performance of ships at sea, The form proposed was as simple as was consistent with the object of ob- taining data necessary for calculation, and the Committee conceived that the time required to fill up such forms would not interfere with the duties of the respective officers. It also stated that the Committee invited the co-opera- tion of officers for the benefit of science alone, and that one of the fundamental rules laid down by the Association in directing their labours was as follows:— «The object of the Committee is to make public recorded facts, through the medium of the Association, which, being accessible to the public in that — manner, will bring the greatest amount of science to the solution of the diffi- — culties now existing to the improvement of the forms of vessels and the qua- lities of marine engines. ‘They will especially endeavour to guard against information so furnished to them being used in any other way.” Your Committee issued the Circular and Form of Return (see Appendix, © p- 198) to upwards of 200 of H.M.’s captains in commission, and to their chief engineers through the captains. Numerous replies have ‘been received promising returns; but the distance at which most of the vessels are stationed, namely, China, the East Indies, and America, has precluded our receiving such particulars in time for this Report. Returns, however, of seven vessels have been received, six of which are given in Appendix, able 2; and the seventh vessel, the ‘ Victor Emman- uel,’ being returned in a different form, is given separately in Appendix, PAQUEBOTS. RESULPATS DE LA NAVIGATION DES PAQUEBOTS DES SERVICES MARITI S DES MESSAGERIES IMPERLALES NT L'ANNEE 1859. Coxsomaatiox Coxsomsation Dz Cuannoy, Jo'Hurce sr px Sure, te Moyenne, Total du Parcours Heures de Chauffe. Henrea de Marche, ne par Henre, Amérigne... Thabor Sinai Carmel Danube Cydnns.... Phase Neva... Pausilippe Quirinal .. Euphrate . Gange Indus Hydaspe Simois .. Jourdain .... Méandre Hermus Alexandre. Caire ... Lougsor 1p baer Osiris Capitole Vatican Henry IV. Sully Bosphore Hellespont Oronte ... e000 19,290. 17,889. 19, 19,; 18,488 oF 12,808 13,019 14,518 17,083 20,278. 16,283 21,129 16,141 11,532 12,736 14,803 12,172 16,198 16,910 18, 15,551 13; 22,408 23,356 18,408 Phillippe Auguste Mérorée CHF s.seecsresne Mitidjah ... Balkan .., Taurus .. Sphinx . Tage Télémaque Amsterdam Péricle: Toravx ., Movesnzs.... 19,303 17,104 16,836 23,300 20,664 23,678 17,161 16,605 19,518 22,663, 29,714 801,468 17,423 TABLE 11 ARITIMES DES WESSAGERIES IMPERIALES PENDANT L'ANNEE 1800. RESULTATS DE LA NAVIGATION DES PAQUEBOTS DES SERVICES M Coxposncstion | t F r sl 3 z - Coxsounanion 9e Cnansox. — |ufentwarou Sem] g s 3 € 2 = S > Ey mary g | gg g a E S| 84 a z/3 g | se] 2 EE | = Zi, 2 z/3 z Fs 3 PAQUEROTS, A Ee & 2 3 = 3 Be 2 a / 4, g | Fl ° 2 = = nee o> I Py 3 a5 3 é 4 g 8 2 £3 PH Toratn, & | ee 53 s z 4 g é z al ls ta : é = s a 8 g a | 8” os 3 = & Sau RS; & -' } Cheraur. Chers hom hk. om i c G j Gui oh se ¥ pie co be Metres, Motre Kilo. | Kilo. |Neuds.| Neuds,| Kilo. 1 amiss . 460 18 1640 | 393 2662 36 2318 0 O00 | 0°63 | Engrand| 0°50} 4986 | 0: 29. 7887 0178 9100 iy 650 woaRe Navarre 400 18 1616 | 387 2296 16 2206 10 O81 | 063 o'sl 067 | 405 | 0147 9368 0'221 9:86 671 ah Est Gs 507 85 9098 rian 4 a fe : . 9,726 stramadare 460] 18 | 1607 | 885 | 59003 171 15 | 084 | 064 | Engrana| 0-45} 477 | 0-103 | 2,789,109 | 2378] 711] 51| 61 | 6378 | 0230 | 10:01 75 Ze Béarn 400 | 3s | 1442} 313 | 48703 eareapl larval (ose lle acteawn|hercallitaaatl oan h areon aya "1 3 = eee (PRO LE : 3 a 0 5B | 4 p14 | 3,404,513 | 2264] 7 o| 72] 4306 | o149 | 9:55 : pets Amérique ., 450] 54 | acx0| 390 | 49783 apres hecnlers : pe i aE cd sh y140 | 9'55 | 9100 | 630 | B795 oso | 060} 497] 0905) 2,857,348 | 1855] 573] 41| 47 | 4161 | 0243 | 9°70 404 | ais Thebor 70 4 20:30 | 318 7800 M78 655 06 es 2 E E BAT 097 050 | 416 | 0°08 247,177 | 1996 y, 74 195 Fi a Sinat 37o | 24 | gos} ais | 32343] 1163 35 ey heer Mtacalhaealts BeeT Lg AORN ele BIC ie ATES) | OLB) HAO; een | OSB | LG, OAD szo | 24 | 208s] a2 | 7e03$] 3364 90 Pa ebay ees ois | 1,452,724 | 1463) 450| 39 | 40 | 2732 | 0178 | 977 | .. | 381 | 14576 Sa = ae: 5 I 57 | 390 | O'247] 3,18 : ” 89} = . y 37 | 63 Enea assy 6200 Fon a nee aan eee oo 402 7| 43] 6828 0164 | 10°30 | 10'80 | 308 18,035 e a 2,700,20 653] s519| #2] 40 | 6140 | 0102 y 6 % aro { es | 6o11 {347 | 9808} 2870 2ons-40--|-063-|-0 ~ elas ‘i 3 ja | 9:00) 900 | 510 0,69! ; 63-}-063 oso 0:65} #08 | 1-21 | 2,401,000 | 1146] sag} 1| 3:3} 7498 | 0231 | 986 | 106 + 209 te Phase .... : 370 63 o271 | 368 9542 9350 10 naa . . pic) z ~ S271 | 808 | 9542 | 335 2795 a6 | 065/085 | o83 | 069] 390/133 | 3,908 07 Pileat F : Neva vs 370 | 634 | e1ea| 860 | 10784 | 3221 15 10 | 063 | 065 ose | 068 | 416 | 161 , = Ba AOOAT SES) aaa Re | Boas 2 S10 al cee Euphrate 350 25 sea | 11130}] 4140 35 asc. o | 04 | 067 pie ea lees peau 91 athe 487 | 37 | 3'8' 6657 0142 | 10°67 | 10°82 | 276 20,107 Pausilippo. 320 8704 | 4430 20 | 9514 55 | 063/005 | 075 | 062] 30 6 al ee 4:9 | 62] 9906 | 0202 | 995 | 1050 | 492 | 18,160 : 39 20 | 2514 5 2 | 397 | 0 aia\ |) age Sa Quirinal .., 320 8272 | 3380 paar 40, ||hoea|(oest!) ssa) load realtor I SO EA RM ALE Ye CO Peo ata PELE eo 23 3 2 | 3:86 | 0 9 97 : ; 1B | 036 1,980,960 | 197 300] gp | 44| 3641 0117 | 10°65 | 1095 | 257 21,585 100, 7176 | 2995 45 0°69 | 0:60 5 2035 E a} 065 | 61 2 0205 | 1691 | ary re 300 11088 | 4390 35 053 | 0:83 a. 156 eal ba a eae Pa ks a oa * oe pees ee Bs cer lice eats os ees to | 0:66) 6:01 | 0'80 | 5,703,603 | 1565] 513 62} 60} 0962 | os | 956 456 | 12,180 es SS 3 56 065 | 055] 3:08 | 0:00 | 1,26: 6 f Sh pt 97 ean : Hydaspe ..... 240 8323} | 3388 | os | 067 | Engrand| 063 | 4:01 | 049 | 9,200,03 ae Ue eee sade Boh ats iene Simo a lle | 33) 4 9) 3,300,035 | 119 ( ‘ 77 — Simos 240 is Zeal) See \Iseneie yl) erent of | Heese tease Bon gaa’ laes' lait latte 11 ) 396} 49 | 68] 6770 0207 9:00 | 9:37 | 397 13,985 pene a | aia Ei 8,448,943 | 1035 | go9| 43] #1) 6702 | oor | 1007 | 1050 | 246 | 22,515 oa 240 | 32 | 2586] 216 | 10033 | 4408 40 070 | 08 | En grana} 0°65 a Borysthéne . 240 91338} | 3379 35 | tell arn ee | ) 8,854,902 | 1170] 354] wa | 64 | 4981 0151 916 ros 14,920 : 70 35 | os | 06 5 70 ie f ee 4 || 378 92 Méandre ., 20 | 32 | 2395 83 | 9305 avila | : to 3,470,001 | 1175 | 381 | 4g | 62] 7005 | ov36 p40 | 358° | 15,480 2 eS itt 2 a7 5 ros | o70]| 2.63 909 5 | | x 240) 72 | 6408 7085 | 2647 40 | | 03 | 0°83 | En grand| 050 | Epa 1209} 387] so} 66] 8773 | 0165 . | 850 |] 15,460 3. | En granc ae i , 240 | 73 | e769] 225 | 7561 | 9353 30 hecnilacs |} wes. Wenallaralle Soe 1023} a21| 42} 47} 8898 | 0176 | 9°55 | p95 | oso | 19,385 | 07 6 78 67 | 3°50 | 1°26 8,445 | 92 ; 7 me a 220 | ors ; ¥ | 126) 2,186,445) 021) 288] sa | #0} 4775 | o801 | 968 | 1035 21,676 221 215 | 19°30] 197 54103 2089 0 | 0:39 | 065 052 065 | 408 | 0:075| 2,029,950 220 | 216 | 20:05 | 205 | 20203 os 76) 2,022,050) 968 / s72| 44| 40 | 2864 | O140 | 777 | 9:10 | 600 | 11,070 ayn Pe ete cae , 050 | 400 | 018 838,067 | 916 | . a ues 5 a1 | 2072| 217 | 72054 Peta Werle aig! 41] 44] 1111 | o1s2 | 857 | soo | 63 | 15,735 SP | BU a (20284 )naLIs | C88 043 | 005 3 | 4:12 | 0072) 2,016,707 | 1016 | gea | 4a | 40 | 6008 | o21s | B40 | a7 | 13,015 Bap angel Paeal|! ssa cll saa eae 085 | 045} 400} 013 | 2,905,873] 952| 360/43 461 3327 | oro | 702 | a7 a eu 6} 080} o74 | 061) 408] 009 | 1,109,747] 854] go, 4o|| 9134 CERES eS 201 7 t Fi sn 8) B'S Ord | B46] . 343 | 16,195 200 | 67 | 4920] 172 | 71694] se73 063] 088] ox - on 200 | 67 | 6080} 177 | 40903] 2170 60 | oa | 0-85 it on BY e 2,268/862 | O14) 916 | 45) 53) 4862 | oe | B72 434 | 16,605 200 | 29 180 | 9681 | asso 40 039 | 064 0 a 0 a i ie 211 | 1,540,408] 927) 300/ 46] 62] 216 | o12 | oo | oss | aor 18, F 2 A z i 77 2] 443 | 077 | 3,926,45 ie 5 : y: a 307 ,07 so) 167 | 8798 | 4053 35 GuNeca Nees =|: id 5494] 976] 342| 4g} 64) 8382 | o110 | 855 | s7e | 3 = 200 | 24 160 549 I En grand] 0°65 | 3°43 | 0:087| 8,003,640 | 1075 : 876 | 380 14,590 2 60 85493 | 4080 95 erie si Rakeralecall eee sed 830 | 63! 64) 2046 0126 | 045 | 956 | 309 17,940 098! 2,766,0 4 | 9 i 200 | 45 | 4519 32603 | 1994 40 Ake Tit SBP) MB AO AAO 905 | ... | aeo | 17,395 Ss 200 = 7 165 - - a iy : 200 | 45 | 47-90 65164 | 919 10 aa 80 | 00) gel) 167 | 1.046405 | B23\) 921 lar] 41] 8014 | oss | 77 Bosphore s........./ 180 | 265 | 25 reall trod exes. os | 040| 367 |108 | 1,769,200| a0 | 270] 4o| a7 | a705 | o 70 | ... | 498 Gakiais se ES 059 | 9 (eG Te 270 | 4 207 | 8:00 way '\\"so;100 TOBE eererreensne] 180 | 25 40 Fad) ae oe o81 | oto] 299] 026 | 1,001,026] 854] 970] a | 48 | 260 ‘ ! | 976 | 20,10 Philippe Auguste.., 180 265 42843 2 63 095 047 | 2°91 | 008 1,076,614] Bol si , 5 0196 O45 950 246 22,545 si 1787 060 | En grand] 0:62} 292] 014 | 1, 997,0 12 STEN ed [pata RE PC + i 280) |) 24,180 Métovée ...... 1s0 | 95 123 | 53 M0702 | 877 | 288) va] 1} 1802 | o177 | 906 oss | 10,453 = 2 2 aan RACH allege . | 285 433 Cheliff ........ : } 2 35 | 474 20 | 042 | 0:67 GRE , Mitidjah Beh eepell cae 5010} ] 8231 40 | 2423 0 | Os | O59 3.09 | 009 | 411,000) 860] a30| 48| 64| 770 | on10 | 72 es idjah ., 160 60 43°88 | 156 6409 Bey 30 a 5 Ale 0°60 | 363 | 1:37 | 2,059,100] g50} 368] a7] 61} 2409 0216 | 786 | 800 | 433 12,815 Balkan raarilledai tae 2407 2 0 | 065 | 005 Geral eta 2 0138 | 700 5; A o | 2 2620] 150 | 71293 aie a es ‘65 | 3°72 | 088 | 1,508,783 | Bo. 7 Sais a) 1605 9,165 aa ts caren ere 94 | 3478 50 | 2278 0 | 07 Oe) fro ll/na |e 3) 204! 50] 61} 2847 | o214 | 815 | S27 | geo | 15,305 23 | 2744] 156 | 63934] 2950 49 | 1707 ig 27 2,084, pest ceyedllsealhcte||are 8 5,306 at 28 707 10 | 077 oda tata ll RG Ge LOT Pe a et AS eH 268 | 20,716 Sphinx .. 160 a05 | 2439 oe of 7 400,961 | 746] 931 | ae] £7 | 3072 02 4 26) 20,716, Tag } : 1a7_| 46774) 2489 96 | 1747 40 | 090 | 065 230 | 960] ... | 205 | 27,060 | ee ee alas Sry ll den cll Se 5 | oes | 080) 305/033 | 1,208, a, N# | 1956 20 | 1468 2 5 | 0°65 806,407 | a7 | 270) 40 | 6 8 y “élémaque Sh iea60 me % Saree 20 | 035 | 005 O07 oes | 355 | 09 1 6} 68) 3167 | O70 | B02 aC Ss 2439] 173 | 564393 | 2015 10 | 1810 45 a 5) O21 | 1,093,368 | 732) 276] 46] 6:1] 280 materdam ......| 150 1985 | 194 | 2437 050/067 | 0687 | O62] 361] O82 cae s 2807 | 0287 | B05 Péricld | 985] 124 | 2437 | 1186 10 | 944 50 | 0: me A 27 | 1,417,200} 7s2! 959] 4a] 4 BB rereeseeree| 120 ores | 191 50 | 040/ 0057! oe | oo! a16| 0 - 2 | 25) #6) 2789 | o231 | 9:02 5 278 b) 6110 | 2160 25 | 2008 1 ‘ ‘ 38 688,511] 693} 240} 4 F > 21,410 : 2008 10 | 060/00] oor | o¢o| 298] orc | aeasoss | eis! on | eal col ame || oe gz.000 Topix ey 4 234,085) Bit) 201) 61) 5:0} 2135 | ose | g42 ae Nt 11,748 [328,020 |132,722 25 |108,160 35 as | = | =o = 28,220 coe os : ; ... [126,048,359 |59,00 | cae 39 J69,300|10,200| ... | ... j216,443 | 9:a05 | ws .. [18,807 | 819,448 Movenxes 260 5 56 Ms ‘z qi 23: 6,560 427 518,06; 6 | 60! 4,309 0187 | 92 976 66 2, 2 2,123 12 1 os . . 518, 1,186] 384] 4 5 4¢ 18) 7 80 7 6,389 | | TABLE 3.—PERFORMANCE OF H.MS. “VICTOR EMANUEL” AT SEA. Draught of Water. ENGINES. SCREW. = = He DATE AND NATURE OF EXPERDIENT. g 2 Pe Eee s r 2 a a5 3 Direct on of g g i 5 zg fi | si | ¢ ¥ § F See | ae =a Zig |g | Statoorsea, Wind Ball et, z E . g 2 2 = Se | oss z & g 3 Bes] £8 28 | 5 as regards Ship. si a Stakes" < : Bier me) oni |e te, || ata || cone), |(onge te Knots, | Knots. | Knots Ri evi) ||| Rone.) |) bas || ewks)/ Knots é = sa Trial at Stokes’ Bay, November 98, 1856 { Not} BP] SE] iP] Bes | HS | 2098 | Full speed,. ugg | are2 | 24" | 107 flere ae | ROE ane or sie, [fNot stated ....] 693 | 183 { inet, |} Not stated. Viagoe stated | afons - December 90, 1858....0cc0uene| mo | 17 8 | 2011 | 19 1 | 3516 | 798 | 4 2122 ” 1445 | 12:0 245 | 160 » 5 7 is 3 Fi 2 eis | isa |, * rg Ditto. Trial with four-baded screw, January 15, 1 » | 17 6 | 29011 | 19 2 | 3544 | 800 | 4 2079 ” B16 9) 22698) /) Sk) || 109 » » ” 2 ay # s F ess | ies | 5 By Ditto. 4 s February 15, 1858 ne an ae) 3544 | 800 | 4 Se cab era oe ie i = 1 g » » » i an ip i: 573 | 108 | ,, ‘5 = Ditto, = S February 28, 1858 . Sys BW St 3544 | g00 | 2 250 |) Two pes loo | 993 | 101 92 » » FA 5 _ i z eas | is2 | ,, BS Pech , wal Ditto. Berehaven to Gibraltar, March 9, 1859 10 | 93 1 249 6135 | 1060 | 3 749 | Throttled ... 949 oe 33 341 8500 46 504 | 3:9 = 337 | 163 | 2to3 | Mod. swell ...) 3pointsonbow, Ditto. > = March 16, 1859 - << 10} 23 7 4% 3 4956 1083 8 794 ce Di ah 10°06 Be me 155 8651 45 3°83 62 a ar: 799 224 | 1to2 | Smooth water | 4pointsonbow) Fore & aft sails, Steaming throuzh the Gulf of Gibraltar, March 17,1850}... | 22 7 | o4 3 4936 | 1033 | 3 1195 |f mitment] 3 | 75 | 985 | 243 | 6050 47 | 673 | 20 » __ wsni{! 864 ||| 108) | Gtoe!| Mod. avell ...| Ahead ........|_ None, = 2 > July 12,1859 | 9 | 22 9 | 23 oF 4947 | 1032 | 3 Betis pice aeal pala lu Wl: || S| BEE Ss 49 | 447 | 23 | Good Welsh 744 | 200 Smooth water | Calm... Ditto. Alexandria to Cape Passero, with fleet, August 15,1859] ... | 2210} | 24 7 5067 | 1050 | 2 B41 {think } 722 | 46 262 | 36:3 | 1568 45 | 304] 65 - 220 a4 Bt Wier ollie. Dies = 2 » August 16, 1859} 2210} | 24 7 5067 1050 2 346 tion, & Throt. 7722 60 222 80°7 1904 64 a4 58 S 379 106 7 - alean Ditto, Malta to Gibraltar with fleet, September 18,1859 .....,| .. | 28 6 | 25 1 : 7 | 3 101 a os | 30 | 68 | cow | o672 63 | 1068 | 12 oa 27 | 78] Ttos |{ Hery Sh°P" | 4 pointsanbow} Fore & aft sails, Malta to Gibraltis, Princess Royal in tow, Sept.21,1859 2 | 93 4 | 25 0 1074 | 3 1151 » trop | 80 |) 8:00 | 279 | Bria 49 | 637 | 31 yen 477 | 184 | 1to2 | Smooth. |{ 7 Boint bee}! Ditto, 3 e = Sextma ase! 4: | 23 8 | 9421 sles | 1060 | 8 54 s ooo | 45 479 | 615 | 2956 a8 | 60 | 35 | Wolshverysmau] 114 | 92 | 8 | Mod.swell ...| Sf pointe on 41 Ditto, Corfu to ses, ship's bottom very fonl, June 4,1860......) 74] 2210 | 25 0 6135 | 1001 | 2 519 » 861 58 2 817 | 2240 43 344 | 53 | Welsh very good) 398 | 112 | 1 tog | Slight swell ,.| Apointson bow] Ditto, Zanti to Argostoli, June 11, 1880..... 5 | 23 0 | 4 8 5105 | 1056 | 2 7 » Gey) 20) 80. 806 | 2240 284 | 204 | 68 Fiens 421 | 119 Smooth .........| Calm... None, Steaming out of Argostoli, June 14, 1860 . 23] 29 9 41 5105 1056 2 999 2 10°08 70 3:08 304 2296 23 202 | 68 » » 362 102 Bp = a at, wiscrenenes | eLn eto Malta to Navarino (spare screw), July 4, 1860 8 | 23 1 | 9 65 6255 | 1079 | 2 1108 » iss | 75 334 | gos | 2240 93 | 260 | 75 | Middling Welsh) 412 | 115 | 6 | Mod swell ...|'6} points on b, { ott, plain sail, = 2 » July 28, 1860... 4 | 27 | 46 5000 | 1010 | 2 1461 a 1073 | 76 323 | 308 | 3136 | 250 23 | 373 | 54 | Good Welsh 22 | 906) 2 i Vonshe ela oe 2 5 September 7, 1860 33) 2210 m7 6060 1049 2 677 a 8:69 70 169 194 2240 20:0 33 285 | 70 a 543. On the quarter| { ea } 2 = September 13, 1860...| 10] 23 0 | 2% 3 5030 | 1044 | 2 500 a ei7 | 48 337 | 412 | 2083 | 196 so | 387 | 62 |Smallandbad...| 230 \liereaa eee ee = = » September 14, 1861 1] 210 | 4 6 5045 | 1017 | 2 684 2” 804 4a 454 60'8 | 3808 340 65 773 | 2°68 a 130 366] 4 | Heavyheadsw, Fn wa] Ditto. Beyrout to Corfu, October 14, 1860.........ssessesseseee $3] 23 0 2 8 6105 1056 2 592 ” 869 63 2:39 275 2660 23°75 45 37 53 {eas pat } 446 125 | Oto2 | Smooth........ i val Ditto, Py October 15, 1860 10}| 23 0 | 24 8 6105 1056 | 2 13 8'57 34 562 » 869 61 259 297 | 2716 24°26 48 39 5°03 7 a 426 119 | 1to3 » wes] 5} points on b| All plain sail. : October 17, 1860 5 | 30] 4 8 510 | 1056 | 2 | 14 | 853] 33 512 ; 843 | 6:0 243 | 288 | 2352 | 210 47 | 35 | 57 a 420 | 118 0 9 sevn} Cal, None. Exerses. Nominal horse power Diameter of cylinder Length of stroke 3 feet 6 inches Pressure per square inch on safety valves = 20 lbs. Steam cut off by slides at °653 of the stroke (mean). 764 inches, Screw Prore.rers. Original, Spare, Area of fire-grate ta 436 square feet. ft. in. ft. in. ‘Area of opening over bridges 924 Diameter 18 3 18 1 » throngh tubes Cavey Length 3 1 3.0 Area of chimney 451 Pitch 26 2 25 11 ‘Total heating surface yoo, TABLE 4. RETURN OF SEVEN TRIALS ON THE MEASURED MILE IN STOKES BAY, OF H.M. SHIP “VICTOR EMANUEL.” Borens. EEE cl} 5 5 Bes g E E 5 SEE: me 38 SEE 33 ae =a es 2° Za 3 3 a & Bg 7 =F & | Date of Trial 28 Noy. 1868. | 80 Deo, 1856, 16 Jan, 1858, {15 Feb, 1858,| 26 Fob. 1858. | 9 Sopt, 1868. | 9 Sept. 1858, Trial made in : Stokes Bay. | Stokes Bay. Stokes Bay. | Stokes Bay. | Stokes Bay. | Stokes Bay. | Stokes Bay, Horse Power by Admiralty Rale ... 600 Horses. | 600 Horses, 600 Horses. | 600 Horses.| 600 Horses. | 600 Horses, | 600 Horses. Maker's Name ; Maudslay, | Sons & Sener aaeaereoetie Draught of Water (Forward) 17 ft, 2in, | 17 ft, Bin, 17 ft. 6 in. 17 ft. 5 in. 23 ft. 9 in. 29 ft. 3 in, Ditto (Aft) < oo H 20 ft. 8 in. 20 ft. 11 in. 20 ft. 11 in, 21 ft. O in, 26 ft. O in. 26 ft. Oin. Weight on Safety Valve per square inch 20 Ibs. 20 Ibs. 20 Iba, 20 Ibs. 20 Ibs. 20 Ibs, Pressure of Steam in Boilers (per sq. in.) by Guage 20 Ibs. 18 to 20 Ibs. 20 Ibs. 20 Ibs, 20 to 21 Ibs. | 19 to 20 Ibs, Vacuum in Condensers (Forward) 294 23 22 234 23 py Ditto (Aft)...... = r rere 23h 23 23 22 23 yy Number of Revolutions of Engines, Mean., 654 56 61 61 42:4 66'833 45°875 Mean Pressure on Cylinders per square inch 19°68 Ibs, 19°63 Ibs. 21:12 Ibs. 2'536 Ibs. | 16:28 Ibs. 22°12 Ibs. 1442 Ibs, Indicated Horse Power 2008'28 2122" 20708 2210115 125098 2974 1277°32 Speed of Ship, Knots 11922 12:00 11826 11713 9:939 10874 91075 Weather, Force of .,, No. 3. No.3 to 4, No. 2 to 3 No. 4 to 5. No, 4. No. 4. No.4. Wind by Admiralty Standard ........... Starboard |Port Bow when| Direct ahead when | Ahead when} On port bow | On port bow | On port bow e Beam, —_|downthe course, down the course, | up course, |when up course.| down. course. | down course, State of the Sea acer erin sianatl weucerented Smooth. Smooth. Smooth, , Ship if Rigged, or otherwise .... .| Not Rigged. | Not Rigged, | Not Rigged. | Not Rigged. Not Rigged. | Rigged. Rigged. Weights on Board a ah Not Known. | Not Known, Not Known, | Not Known.} Not Known, | Not Known. | Not Known, Properter. Pees 2Bladed, | 2 Bladed, Slade ive ‘orm ot ee t} 3 Binded, | 2 Blades 182 189 82 182 182 53 Pitch .. 26:2 209 26:0 260 260 262 262 Length .... a 81 81 a1 BL 81 a1 31 Area of Midship Section at Mean Draft of Water of 19 ft. 2 in, Guns, 91. Ditto at Draft of Water of 24 ft. 2in, = 1060°0 square feet. = 78426 equare feet. Breadth (Extreme), 66 ft, 4 in. Length between Perpendiculars, 230 ft, 3in. Tonnage, 3086. Contents of steam space .., ,, Total water at working height 2592 cubic feet, 97°7 tons. Machinery by Maudslay, Sons, and Field, made in 1860, Engines horizontal direct, = 2 “OORT “ASENTIATS TOK ONIGNG ‘SHINOWY STUN], AOA SUANVAIG TV AHL do Tyo) 40 EO Res. 3) Gxy sdovssVg 40 SKI] SOVERAY ANE do NUAISY V 0 $t se0r | OL OT 6tOT *KNVYdNOO LaxOVd KVALS ee gO ALIO—6 ATAVL 4 . 09 () 2 08 0 o | 4 | se 6 st & wy 8 Chor | ems a ‘s cee Tn { og 99 86 0 9 98 ie & % & % OF ve * ki « 404819] oog 09 69 o9 | 9 | or | o9 F or F 9 9 VoL “ us ti WON ose 09 Pe licyeilatel Malena) Ge |) va Seca « “ “ vATosayy 086 oF 99 9 g It ee F or & ee 9 gor | soquioydog par Gsndny ‘Aine | > anyyay eouLty 0 OL se'Zt| 69 & BaPLT os ‘ar Y ‘soon "aq | yma |vsuoy | "uk "Y “uw W pa m9 ar sauog | 97088 vsaputéo ‘esmaay | ouong | yeSn01 | ailov epee tera bere a ta u yoo | wyauoy | anyon paw | a ‘arya ‘BTUs A 82 9T IE ‘wnajg dn Sonyy03 ett uy Sarpnjoot ‘dug, ; IN 2 Be ‘SEXIONG aad paminsuny (vo) “SHOVESVd } 0 9 66h FOL IL 009 We IL fn or "Te saqarasacy |" aL Og zaqumaydog |” vw ~ og aung | Cent SoH a0 2 oP [ 0 9 gor | os mt osty |4 ie ; } 0 6 OOF | 8 SI TE 19 I oL 0 1 gas |98 0 Le0G OPT ON Kare 4OU PICT 098 09 &L * | er.} st 9 ae P9sTe 07 487 Samay wquanjod 4S oe 0 6 gare | & ST sore Halt sg | zt | or | t oF F | i 09 . e | 3 ot |0 oF ¥] ot F fo 9 wet fo Mog ung oF 98T THY a 0 4 Gob | 99°F ALE T cog a) 9 : Lie 6 | 6 Ir }9 oo | ot > | Ot 6 Sites liars 4sTe WouUp 07 9ST Atunucl 99 F LLe 8a us | st | mt | 4 oy ¥IG ae wo om rr n 0 eras | 49 4 0626 Bree { ie | st | st | % oF ¥| Ot F iT 9 | oat moe oun 07 38T [Udy Salis ose 09 89 | P ear aaahee pe aS = 88 & st |0 sb | OL F 03 9 +6 © 481g yorRyy 07 9ST Jaunuee oud aMay'T ‘sat oD Sqr yo L rele | (te ore $232 2 Pe z a — BEES st 3 £ o It ol F 9 rae “wos oun 07 487 [Edy | “ Feze BL Ea = oa oF 99 1 Le 25 g Ey 0 8 rae & Ff 8 Oat fee 488 More oF 9ST Aswnuey e25 Fs a2 3 + YU a Ol ‘my | my Bes 71 35 = ote = 22 3 + Si¢ = =a aopomik F | = 76 peq | -ogeioay | “ys 2095 soot | 2 rte spam oy fois do oh i; cag oy cee “QUST ‘ISTE BATHAOTT ONIASE SISO} EL AML HOS TVOD 40 NOMENASAOD 2d pomaueuy 81009 os ‘SLVOUNVaIS—CVAHATON ONV UAISAHO—4 ATIVE “suxIOXG “sapvesval On OO ee ‘opst “Mog Nn OXIGAG SHINO XG Hod BYANVALS TIVY IHL do TVOQ do igen A) GY aovesYq 40 UNIT AOVATAY AML AO NUAIEY VY ‘ANVANOO LAMOVd WVAIS NIT@AC JO ALIO~8 ATAVL | | OF GI T | 66 9 T | TL 9 BT opuad 487. for | or wat | og 9 | s8 ¢ | OF OL; OF “9A ISTE 93 390 IST BI U1 1 isos © | o4 & IT] oped pugwast | fOr | Gt | sRor | 9s 9 | 9 9 | 2 4 | Bh adog tog 09 Sine 4ST } : pods qyny paw mt te 786 T |el et I | es or or {poets ee fot | ct | opot | 98 9 | of 9 | 09 8 | SZ sung qos oF [Ady 4sT or et T | oy ot T | eg oF TT opusd pug 7st | For | st | coor | os 9 | 26 9 | SE 6 | Fo [> MoMUT asTE oF UU ysT = i cor ar 0 |ae G 1 |e M1 8 IN st | eee oF 4 | 4t 9 | OF or] 2e “aC STE 99-290 BI eo Ti g Tilo 9 8 ae SI | 166 s 4] 0 9 | OF IL] 9% adog TOs 99 SNE IST Wo tio 1 j|oo At 8 uN a | 906 e £] 0 9 | 09 8 | s& | onng qOR OF Edy 4ST (Osi oear 4 8 T/m%o 6 UN for | ct | oss og 4 | St 9 | OP Gr] es | yosVyL a8TE 09 “ULL IST BO T/4 6 1 |98 9 OF UN 1s ot | oor | zo 9 | 09 ¢ | SF S | F | sung qyOg 09 [Ady 357 wily 1 4 Ce net ae UN 18 or | 148 & 8 | OF 9 | O8 OT) OF | qoauyyastE Oy UML 4ST |” of BT T /o 6 & | 19 TE GT te or | 3 Test | Ww 9 | 99 F | SB & | GB |" “VC STS 03 990 48T |” 6 tT |tre 3 | oF F oT tt 18 bie e0.0r | 99 9 | OT 9’ O OL} 4 “90 ISTE 03-290 BL 560 Gloire 6 | 16 8 Tt tt th st oot | vs 9 | 98 9 | 8 8 | BL sydog W308 01 Syne 4ST % O01 Ti 2 & |e 6 TT tt 8 Eis soot | % 09 | w 8 | O B | une TOR OF [Ady 48T BOLT 6 44 9 6/099 0 OT tt 18 a oor | te 9 | GF 9 | SF B | 99 )° WoMUTT ISTE 09 uUL ysT W St &@ | gor ol & | 14 & PT TIN i) or 09.81 we? ol? oe 9 09 “OOCT INTE OF “IO IST vo et so |of 0 & | 16 TT BI TIN 6 or | sont | os » | or ® | BE 9 | OL slog noe 09 Sap 987 oo 6t c |14 9 @ | OL ot WI UN 6 ot | cost | os » | 9 # | 88 B | 4x | oung qos oF Tdy osT ens ot 81 FE pov fF Yer | ot Test | oF P | Br F | M8 Oo | BE “99d STE 09 YO 8T 69 &L 6 ol et FE pu FE er | or e2et | se p | ot p | 9 9 | SP “dog Mg OF Aye AST ow 6 & 6 8 AE paw of tor | at cost | oe p | a & | op 2 | a2 | cane yaog oF [Ely gst | op ol 6 as UY puw $f yal or O8.8E wep] ore | St o | Oo | Youuyy 9876 09 “OME AST |” Fa uo Faoy soyu pu AOyT 04 [oodsvary wory | WOO & Hi tt el cae op o tT Pe dog mog oF Stop a8 0 6 6 AU &r tt cae a 19 go | yoawpy asrg 09 ue aT |” fa 6 6 9 St TE puv gf tr | or ont | oF # | OF DP | OF DO | 09 * 09 ISTE OV 290 AST |" wr eo OL Bt §t & ar Shot 9 9 a) oro 03 sadog tog 09 {yor 3ST 4 8 Lie ot et | 9 Let | 18 9 | G ® | o 9 | 89 orn (OE OF ELV 98 oo 2 8 al tt et | or oget | ob p | 8 FB | 2 0 | OO | HAVIN LE OP “WUE ysT qt 80 00D ‘age | vqr | oe | uy] cue “0ST Peas ee rage b og fae) 2 Wt = b g Le t Ey | efcey a Fy i 4 a Boag |fgeaz| of | 28 ¢ E 8 ‘SMUV WAL E i fe Re d oa Ey rag Bee LF Ere | kb ba | ig| & | _ 4 Nw B = ——————— a saynannog ¥1¥09 5 i] _ senovesra a *poytod pouoyuoUuLopUN on) toy Lod eG, PUN ‘OANA ‘OMYL, JO KHON PUD PoWw[AAor sopuN “#yvoKT OFM) Puw swordygy Ot) JO [WOO Jo VOR dUNAIOD PUY Spoodg ony go mange VW WNANIUVAIG LVOUNVIIS-AVAVIEVG CVSUEVTOI (NV WtSt bs he \ ‘Oo WW BRITISH ASSOCIATION—COMMITTEE ON STEAMSHIP PERFORMANCE, TALE 1—RETURN Of PERFORMANCE OF HER MAJESTY’S VESSELS, FURNISHED BY THE At | PROPELLERS PERPORMANCE UNDER TRIAL ACTUAL MEASUREMENTS OF SILIP, - Ww 4 Paopte, SAME OF VESSEL i = TT : Tas ones ans: Dosen co ENTE 4 Ps E i|i = fs oo E: 4\5 i Z CHINE iH af = a =) Wheel — ee 22 ei z|4 | | 55 Kiled of Engine. Jeet =| Date Pliee | Time occupied ina Te < i PS Ee 5 ts z g|z 3 mn] May & 1880 won) Outside Breakwater (Keyan) See Remarks, Moderate swell 06 | co a” | bra] 209 | a yo | oe: se etal er | Fas) Diet orsoo al P| Bt mn —-| September 18, 1858 Ditto | Not recondal Not reconked 180 0 | 46 0 710] 2 0} ah | Bb | Cyetoitd| 18 5 10 | Dinost a7 | Mack September 1, 1850 Ditto. “4 + = _ a 18 0 | a6 0 7w)2 0) of | é iW | 5 6) Ditto 2 47 | ust March 23, 1853 Hetwirs Sherrnews and Sunk Light | 6 houre 5 a = ; 3 i B 4sa124 | 20 11503 100s | 105 0 | a2 10 70/3 7] 9 | 1b | Vibrating) 0 | 2 8 Side Lever osu 45 | Bot = an] August 6, 1858 Hetwven Sheerness and Mouse Light. ae a 5 5 > a we [Sceremarks} 14 sor2 77% | 15 0 | 3210 70/37] 3 | 1 2 v6 |6 6| Dito : a ” 45 | Dood Gute se = October 22, 1859 ‘Oateate Breakwater (Kesha), - . 5 4 : 5 ) Not ascertalped v 1/3 o| 6 23 | Common| 2625 |6 | Direet 2 & 4 | Boel Tebestry (with common screw) = January 12, 1808 Teas Fes ” ” . » “ ” Dad | 70 | Vertical Oscillating a ” 124 | Tact Sean == jean ie te | : lice 5 he |e real es Sen Waseda) ire aes Alimenelesclies Dickie (si eeees wee) Apel 36, 183 | site Buy \ ous Navy al ; ; r lisa! | 1200 | ee | rrorisontal : Ss ties = (Gx) a | October 80,1 Ditto | Crane No. 3abeum Not recone 5 A qsyoo | 1033 | Ditto sisson 2 » 1204) ihe u (October 21, 1857 Ditto =: | bruns Nearly calm or 5 Se . 19498 11001 | Ditto = a2 sola ” 120 November 7,1 Ditto | 6 runs | catn F A ; 5 Ss 19835 174 es Dit saan . 2 |4 oly z 120 | December 1, 1857 | Ditto, 4 runs No.9 on pe Low down cours A * n 4 13717 a2 Jacl eid Ditto = @ |sola . 120 January 1, 16: Ditto rons Nofev.ousbowspcound as i 5 19702 1809 703 | 10 60 eel Dilia averse s | 0) 5 120 March 23,1560 | Ditto | trun No to3 variable Bs Not recorded = 5 A 130s (| 19200 sas | 39 six elle) eal ; : Ditto = ow |s 0) 7 160 |p | | marks April 9, 1857 — | | | Not recorded | ‘a 5 . aos | 158 10709 0 1615 | 8 ax 0b) iy essed : Horizontal High Pre sure w 1 oO) 2 f fie | Apel 29, 1857 | | ie e ; 5 0 soos | 180 10075 0 iss | 9 A { | Ditto... ; ie (i als | April 13, 1657 s | a 5 S 5 » 5 wooo | 16k 10075, ° 1005 | 8 ah) 4 Ditto ss scayae as, Le ISH at | Es 2 a Es se | 155 10707 aso | 195 0 isos | 7 : | alta 5 wall Ditto “ 1 is |2 6s Wee = : | oruns No.3 5 e i 5 toorss | 7 12429 10701 | 20 0 200 | 10 Eon at party end eso] | } Horizontal si.ssus 53) | 3) 2 | Common... | ~ Ditto SA hres No, 9 on «. bow down couse : a 7 5 7 10800 | 70°75 yeas 11025 0 10 aw w}pim}4olaoxn20]o Niassa Ditto sss | we (Ease with 1 Bake endef 2 fore ah Dae... = | orcs —.. | No. & abiead ap course w bs = : ‘ ys009 | 01 iese | 10008 ry 10 Saar neerll vem eng 2.0 | hare} Dilton 2 = (ties) (Gitte) un] Saly 8, 186 =site Ditto... eon} Grane 2 | No.3 ahead up course S 5 a a % 1i7ess | 80 12710 11085 0 10 95 0F YE #olsanz0] 2 | Ditto = | = (ethecce ers) —| Jaly 10, 1857 one} Ditto ene Pe | 30, 4 aliesd ap course 5 “ 4 es 5 toives | 70 12244 11538 0 10 wom} so} 6 4)30%10) 29 | Ditto sess ae | a | ae i = } a arava saa Verma es - a 118072 | ea | See remarks 0 0 uy} 3 o)64|3 0x16) 2 | | Ee Ditto wines ene } No.2 10 3 up cmurve on «. bl Not recorded oot c ” ® 805420 | 6400 weai7 | 117 6 | o1 24 | r100 | 25 a7 3 | 3 7) 80 }a~2 0) 9 ss i Ditto vase ae i Title ou ® bow down ear recorded ” ” 273804 O 12235 17625 | 245 0 OL 2h | 178 | 95 2 9 310/680 |3l0~80 2 Ditto, = > No. 4.00 bow and quarter " Fy ” » awa | oa yiss = 190 | oo | 2 0 | eva] an xo} 4o]00)30x23]2 F Double Trunk =.= | No. 2 00 port bow up. 5 zi F 5 é ror | 140 9200 sora | 100 0 | 22 0 | 132! 6 8 14) 9:0 | 1 Ob)0 v}e O10 | 9 Donble Trank Iigh Ps esure . X61 00 x Wow dito 1 “ é us — = 2200. nye} wow), | 7219 | ton o | eo | aE] 6 79h) 1th @ote lorem ewe) 2 i a ees Dita asker ramcamaes| Taly 2, 1850... No. 1 on p. bow down cvus 7 = Vs ” “ somis | i746 2 79:0 | 100 0 | 22 0 | 12] 0 o ot} 1 2] 210)0 oxo of] 2 | o | om Ditto October 13, 1860 No.9 to 400 p.b. vp coor “ ” suo Bi ono Suis | 109 0 | 22 o | a2] 0 6 8}| 0 | 1 tb }o1y* o10 | 2 \-o 13) ow i) Dees nna Tune 24, 1857 .. on | Colm Ey ‘ » ewer | 19015 ono 84s2 | 106 0 | 22 0 fiosa| o 6 Os) Ot) 20 |1 eke 1 o | a | o 2) oa | ss cea Ditto series scans : September 10, 1857, No. 2on port Low up cournd 4, ™ amor | 176 87 wuz | 10 | 20 | in| o 5 ok} 0 ot | Naito 0 « 010 | 2 | o of} o2s | i | Ditto. Nize ‘March 90,1558 . Ge . Smoot: ” ” ths 108 omy e564 | 100 Oo 20 We) 0 57 1 of) 210) }1 Bae 1 oO 2 o1 oso \ DiRO evissisnasesncares manne: { Dowie (with ealergel scree SY ia 6 corners ext of).| May 23,1860... No, 2 on port bow op conn) * Not recorded ” ” a0] | 6a nes ioe 0 eo 7H | 10 ai 36 Ce |. Double Trunk ......0... 2 | Common | NO |= en ee April 21, 1859 2 No.3direetlyabesddowne} =, ; i . suave | cies aos — | areas o | 4s 0 | 73a} 10 m2 o|3o}oo0|s6 085 | i Dilan s 3 of) = (enlarged acrow SY dix. with 2 corners cet off.| May 9, 1550 coat Modevyort bow xpooand =, - . 3 sais | oo 1ys7t | 120 | sto 0 | 48 0 | 728 | 10 an|ae|solso | Ditto. z 5 7} ino ee ee nen) May 57, 1560 No.4WSonp.Le ny coun rs 4 iy SOUL | 5825 wias | 12200 | 20 0 | 43 0 | 7H] 10 sao | 40] 510 \3a8 1138 \ ie Ditto | 2 wf 10 ee screw cole 87) ..| May G, 1B m oun] 0, 3 om », Low down ovursel 4 ) " Ss oreas | asa5 vols 11820 | 40 0 | 48 0 | 730] 10 wu|sol}74jao | a Thitte “ 2 » no a on} May 25, 1850 Dita ens rely Ae Go| é A « sono | 4oeay] 19708 © | 191 | ay 0 | 43 0 19 m2} 4a| 610 ]a8 vas aca b ; wmf BMG |S Ole] ya) M0 a eee eS Tene 3, 1600... Ditto., F No, Lt abead down ewaree “ Py 5 " w soos | 6971 Ww ging | sw 0 | 43 0 10 soo] 4] 610 |a 8 1193 | ; —.| E30 | 4 oO} ge » =| U0 Not recorded. iy i n » ” BOLT oo 12628 loess | os 0 oF 1 30 a6 si1ij3ac6 WT Shae |e Oj] ge « «| 00 ‘and Sank Light , or ie " " 27500028) 52185 12088 loss} ou 0 | oF 10 ao} ao] 81 lao 1075 ct ales Soh 38 [4 0} 2 = pu ined Guim middle ..,.......| 6 hoare onder weigh eae x 2 ~ “) » ee 2897/8500! 64a 14007 1205" | au 0 | 65 4 16 golds 0a}/s81is 0 1075 i me] BOW | 4 0} 8 mn «| NO br. ; Downtthe Sein .......... of ee + a “ ~ Py rj 2708 on WseT ies | oo | 6S oo 700 | 16 wo] s 6) ariaa nia . : ‘DiItB0 ns ssnces enesesansen sso 2 |4 0) s = | 10 — LSS ees SS Stokes Bay ooo ssn No, 3 to # wheal down, wbles " ” wtp ” STONOL | oe 19108 lis | shh o | 55 4 | 1080 so/ao|}sijsa Gs 4 sone] DIR seoyiseerinaennnmionmnne| SOF IG |b 0) 8 nn) MO led ae ; Tite en rues | No. 4 slightly on p, b, down) . aa . y ” we | ANG wea 9145 | 2h 0 | GF 4 | 1060 wolso}aijsoa unis ae wssems}) DILL) s-secesorressesinnmmecrmeenest | MON OG, 1G DS = no} MO ° Ditte Bese, Ciro aac eaten] (Maurlv vals! =| : = 5 4 3 5 gio | 605 12005 1616 | os 9 | 65 & | 1082 gsolasa)s8ijae 1076 bSayrcon Paticagh eats Nehvces |e re woernenve] SES | 4 0) 9 » «| 10 | Pateot Le’ ay — [ase ? 4 > 4 Si = = 7 Dimwensons of Grate-Tubs,and | = s re i BS ii H ciber eave sure” | 38 | Sy ds zag : = 5 235 | 3% Say = cd a 28, in |# ie ip : ; Hi) ie is 2 FS B H 4 ze | & H Toon 3 in ol J 7 Common tabular One 09 wish, 707 ie | 10 Speed not ascertained, a eonsoqnenco of tha Sa te ‘One 41 6” high, 6° 0% da. | 11 ‘Trial (or special purposes, not for speod. ed “ 10 Ditto wis 3 7 One 30’ 4" high, 0% dia | 8 ‘Trial interrupted; speed not to be relied uncom. ure 5 a ure % 35 Common tabular 1 12 20 One 47! high, 7/9" dia | 10 rt 20 10}14 110 One 33 0" Wieh, 9°10" di | 12 Paral poche into the arven arn of mii 12 205 1 16 1 Ooe 4770" high, Yoda | ye tection and displacement not knowa, Pt) Shr, 1 18 20 Oue 60’ 0 hist, 8/9 dis | 90 w 1 18 20 ” ” » 100 16} 1 18 20 a F} 20 10) 10 1 To EE 0 10 1h 1 18 20 on 160 134 i 18 20 a my 0 2 1 16823 ‘Tro 4! 0” high, 7/0 dia | 99 Diades of screw bolted on with flanges. ow o 3 2 AL Be ‘One 20° 4" high, 2’ 2" dia | a5 ous o a st 04 5 , o 06 3 Bo re is 3 0 ons « 3 rove FD) 0 “0 20 6 ) » 2 lies toate sy gelupllies 0 1802 6 3 ” ” ” 0 18 to) 6 3 » . » 49 10020 o High Boilers. i q 20 . af 5 Trial for special purposes, not for speed. Laer “0 171020 6 i 1s190 i y » "Ho of stew a uegative quaally. 100 » 6 Pn 19 One 70 0” high, 84" dia. | 29 100 17 to 20 6 a 19 ” ” 0 19" 10} 8 fy a 18 ‘Two 56/0" high, 6'8" dis, | 23, o2s* oo 3 | Cylinde tubular! a on One 21° 0” high, lee oO os =) 3 5 3 ou . » | \ os ow) a 3 a ou ” ” " oo. ‘ oS adhe a (ive ve Bs Tyaunersion of screw a negative quantity, os ©) 0 a : wake ” 5 * o 035 | 3 a ” > 0 5 w) 00 3 a ” " 0 10" feo | 20) ©} Common tubule os | ou vias ras, | One 60’ 0" high, 8” ai, | ap 6 uw | ou 112 ” . oy 108 0 | 10k 6 a bu ow oho Wad as A 4 102 foo} 195 5 | ote et Tia AS Ey as 102 ‘00 ) Boy os | om bis liae2 Im wo) 0 U » 20 » 6 28 | oH os s3 22/1 a 1% me 10 ot rs A | OM os ip Sie » a 20 ry 4 102 | on 9 aos val y One 61 high, 7! 8° dia, 1s" so] 17 6 20 18 5 aa) bee 00 za aafi 2 wo| 19h 0 “ * 20 a E 8 Pi 4 | ot on a3 14/1 z 18 - 103 ao| 2 | 20 a | ow 099 se 7 4) 1 % ' 18 o 10 fo] 29 . a3 12/1 J ps ae 0 os | OM on » ae oy . 1 | 438 i rae ae Fick. ert e 2 16 - doy | 04 eo) i a | os on 23 13a}1 % a 8 ” US | 462 wm) 2 : * includ. acrewshalt | a = Al = {GrateT and Heating |_ £2 z | Taek, iF | i | ‘ | z ; 3 | esr Mets, ¥ f jo:|| 0 ass | Onal0'0” dia, 69’ high. | 90 | Welsh Con Ti bet 106k i ry 1 1 1 1 11 1 ‘ x | 7 ‘ c ‘ 1 171 el ba 1088 i ‘ 10 1711 et eee s BP Ons s h P | 5 ; ser santa ‘ 1 a] 181 1 | tes) (Two 010" 8” 1.09 « Seats ud | la 17 1 a 4) 11 ¢ ul 1 i uo1 add ¢) 1116 6 re \¢ * . Welsh d | Sa 1 1 \ ‘| 1 100 08 1 18 45'8 0 | Welsh (good! if 7 1 17 724] 1 2: c i 1 1 8 34 | 7 rn One?’ 2” dia. 6" 21 | tha 5 lla V Noralers Wheall aes 51a 1 14 | 2h 2 | | ; | i 2 ¢ 107 soldiers with their ba and | | f bet 1 1 } 2145 1 of provisions for the | ho whole of the backs and t if Oro b top farnas d three-quarters of tat a This H. Ps Ls ken 0 practi tal | | | = = a ——— — > a = a Bo | REMARKS, | sa |i Tubs, end 3 Tene 3 = = S 4 | | 5 = | | 5 : = 2 : E < 3 | Ae i sh | 6 ¢ r ‘ 105 9 450 V14)] 14 11 , 13 Tron, j oloo 70 150 > |f Total! oo rant pa) tae ny 12 Two 4’ Gf” dia.; area Fitted ue 4 4 Rid 1/12 2 4 Q 0 |iw0 | 1 ay Ae ‘ Manso] sretnt a/c c 01 fae z | 150 2 a f E A froin Log E et | olin » | 100 |s males ax se 3 0 f 12) t T dia, 24° Consumption of coal per LICE : . i : Extracted from I Pa N ted with Me i oli 0 e o| o « 0 | Td | soon |lessce, 300 2020/1020) ¢ 0 In One 6 6" d ferret are | rut : Extracted from Lox Book of the £ alli : : ‘ : (32) tion of coal per LHI : F akg Extracted from Lag E Y 0/12 of} 10 cals r0.11 eer (Tard) 4 orl n , ron. | $One a4" dia A leseerey F aie j 24 12 5 i s3i47 Sie aD 0/1 0/1 o| o| 36.0 | a9 | 70 | 4: ao | aon of 0 | Morn’s 0 |o40) |Commen fin ‘ : Two d! dia, 20 high F d by the W : oli o| as 0! a0 0 | 10 | 12% 4 0 ow 0240/1020 | % saa wha | a ay Ones W' dia, which | d by tho West India M o}12 o| 24 o 0| 30.0 |1o !is0 | x4 | oa 02.0] 143 0 | 5) ent yy t 2 2 2 1 1 = Dito , is (Lamtapalenk } oy | | 6} 9 6}13-0 ae ena et a o-} stent 9 ‘ send irery i One F'diam,, area 33 wf and S 6} 9 04s dl oiso | 1158 M oe | a : oj} 0 40 oj} » 4 Total 04 » i | | One 8 feet diamet: + DB c i! 0 MN a < (Lamb's palent ¥ | | and Tena ‘ ‘ i r : ean 1 Vr r 2 1 » | Oneo din. a an ofa brid Son, = (4 7 5 Ditto o|m ejay o F u fre ge TM Mtesn 2 4 | Sfeang 8 Sh AL Dag | One 6° 640%, area 3818 | dfewre R. Nay 4 (Extracted from permission = Hlanbspiav | U_ Peninsular and Oriental Company 0/10 o|a7 0 uo « 0 T ‘ ata , st ‘ Vor lps Noo 2 | ffs"thek) ‘Two 680” high 6,07 diaun, |" Furnished by the Peninsular aml Osieatal Cot 0| 10.10) 19-0 taor 0 |l)vas0 f)e5" ? Eis tipped sear Rey lad | a reatar aie § Farnlshed by Thames Ship Buittiog Gage 2 | | Cand from Messrs. Penn and 0! 1910/17 © I 8 Mean 6 | Mean 1 0 2 | isp]o o/"e ae One 8 dia Furnished by Messrs Paweett 2 ¢ | { Butmcted from Loz Book t o| 0 0 7 | 700 | 1 y Mean 2 0" Mon 7 L p s0'| 10 160 One 7’ O° dia, arca44aq.tt.| “Furnished by Mose Cte | Di ol 7 mus 10 0 | 10 | aa 7 2210] 0 7 | 208 0 5/343 } ( Onea'10 2 ‘ 1 4 1 1 nit 2 ‘| tal f ; le sig dices alee ae 6} i110] 19 ol 4 esa} ania | 27 1a | mesrelriia] a 6 Gola a) , lon Dit Qos a 04s) 1 ‘ v4 z 110}1 64] 0 opr 3 1 ools im Ono 12 7Bsbarea | Dit Pito 1 ¢ 0 7 iw 1 7 8 410 i PT 2 18110 sly A oo 3 Chee : : ace) meat Two 1 169ar.| ¢ by Messrs Ji and W. Da 0 |Mlameter 0 7 ) an} wo] a 7 Nea 110h1 ob} 1 7h 1 70 | One18" di.15 1s, 256" area! 1 1 7 1 | 0 ol 13 (0 180 1230 a0 20 Leslanals alinrib od uYerpwaa} [7 PO}, Jonesy’ di, 407g), Sy aes | {Parmbsted by Proteeor J, 2 I D | Lote dB Napier: Bogie by Memes 5 SHEEN are cor H at] u ss Uae | § x47 bighS Pi Lo DSA 1 Oy)" NY area dba y oq Trenech, $4) Faraished hy Mesers. Tam t | | = tt aN" apart 3 The intrestoction of Lamb and Summer's supatheater appears to have elfen x z ; roma ening Wal ix, fore aid aft maine, malo aye fore aad alt foes clase heehee wie ee oe a ee of 19,30 1 speed with £1 revolaions ot screw permalnuie ade weam alone, Ende, Spent sae eat lake hale wh brenag sity wiihts aboot oponteur where fore And aft foresaliand wansgral, wou maln etayual 10'0 knots -Bxpecimeot mgd ou wlstance af 49M bablice alte ey SOR Peo the ini a experira your As: y The L same off Your | owners, of merch the data before lo: thus obta The tl Oriental Pacific S Company Sons, the Fawcett, The Pe spection «Delta, extracts t Copies Calcutta, performar two con Jengthene enable th than heret Tn th fomewhat ing the Tr fitted with cylinder en these condi e hull a ¢ A glance will at on of view The Lon of the sp regulated cember 31 fare contain regularity 1861. BRITISIE RESULT TADLE 2—SHOWING THF ASSOCTATION COMMITTER PRNFORMANOROF) MIX STEAMSHIP PEE HEE MAJESTY nfables 3 and + ighe measured mile Your Committ experiments under our Association, thus obtain The thank Oriental Compa Calcutta, at performances (Appendix, Tal The London Committe ordinary two condition lengthened 4 enable the n/ = good re great capa qualities w than heretofo are contain regularity 1 1861. - rar. i } V 1 . | High Prow I anita ; Vertical Direct Actives ‘ar Inverted Cylind : Lo as 14 { ) | Lhd [ied ban | af) Be = lee Ovelttati a ° r ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 193 Tables 3 and 4. ‘This is the more valuable, as the returns of seven trials on the measured mile are given with it. Your Committee are aware that several officers are conducting a series of experiments under various conditions, which it is their intention to report to _ your Association, through this Committee, on their return home. The Log-book, compiled by your Committee, is also being filled up by the _ same officers, with a similar object. Your Committee have met with great success in their applications to ship- owners, engineers, and builders for information respecting the sea performances of merchant vessels. In no case have they met with a refusal to supply all _ the data in their possession, and your Committee have reason to believe that _ before long the records kept on the voyages will be amplified, and the data _ thus obtained be published periodically by shipowners themselves. The thanks of the Committee are especially due to the Peninsular and Oriental Company, to the London and North-Western Company, to the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, to the City of Dublin Steam Packet Company, to Messrs. Morrison and Co. of Newcastle, to Messrs. Penn and Sons, the Thames Shipbuilding Company, Messrs. R. Napier and Son, Messrs. Fawcett, Preston and Co., and Messrs. J. and W. Dudgeon. The Peninsular and Oriental Company freely offered their books for in- spection, and placed the logs of their vessels ‘Candia,’ ‘Ceylon,’ ‘ Columbia,’ * Delta,’ ‘ Nubia,’ and ‘ Pera,’ in the hands of the Committee, to make any extracts they deemed useful. _ Copies of voyages from Southampton to Alexandria, and from Aden to Calcutta, and return of those vessels respectively, were taken, and the average performances worked out. They are given in the Table of Merchant Vessels (Appendix, Table 5). The London and North-Western Railway Company have furnished your Committee with information of especial value, viz., the trial performance and ordinary working performance of one of their vessels, the ‘ Cambria,’ under two conditions—the first as originally constructed, the second after being lengthened 40 feet. Data of this description are precisely those required to enable the naval architect to judgé what are the qualities which constitute a good vessel, and assist him in designing vessels possessed of high speed, great capacity, limited draught of water, economy of power, and all the qualities which constitute good sea-going ships, with much greater certainty than heretofore. In the same table (No. 5) your Committee have thought fit to repeat a somewhat similar return, given in their last Report, viz., a Table, &c., show- ing the Trial Performance of the steam vessels ‘ Lima’ and ‘ Bogota’ when fitted with single-cylinder engines, and after being refitted with double- cylinder engines; also the sea performances of the same vessels under both _ these conditions of machinery, and on the same sea-service. _ These returns, therefore, show the difference of performance of a vessel _ with the same machinery but lengthened in her hull, and of two vessels with the hull a constant, but with entirely different engines. ___A-glance at the column showing the consumption of coals in each case - once demonstrate the importance of the subject in a commercial point of view. The London and North-Western Company have likewise furnished returns _ of the speed and consumption of coal of their express and cargo boats, under _ regulated conditions of time, pressure, and expansion, from January 1 to De- _ cember 31, 1860 (Appendix, Tabie 6). Similar returns for 1858 and 1859 _ are contained in the two former Reports of this Committee, and show the , ieee. with which the service has been conducted. i ° oO . g | } | / 194 REPORT—1861. - Your Committee would again call the attention of shipowners to the system of trials which has resulted in the combination of perfect regularity and effi- ciency of service with economy (so far as the vessels and machinery would admit) which this series of returns exhibits. In the first Report of this Committee, presented to your Association at the Meeting held in Aberdeen, a series of tables are given, showing the method which was adopted for ascertaining the working capabilities of each vessel. The following explanation was furnished by Admiral Moorsom, and illustrates the means by which the proper service to be obtained from a vessel may be estimated* :— «‘When the four passenger vessels, ‘ Anglia,’ ‘ Cambria,’ ‘ Hibernia,’ and ‘ Scotia,’ were first employed in August 1848, the commanders were autho- rized to drive them as hard as they could, subject only to the injunction not to incur danger.” After some months’ trial the qualities of each vessel and her engines were ascertained, and a system was brought into operation which continues to the present time. (Tables 3-14.) The Returns Nos. 2 and 6 show the results of the hard driving and the commencement of the system periods. ‘The column indicating ‘‘ 'Time,”’ ‘« Pressure,” and ‘‘ Expansion,” is the key to the columns “‘ Average Time of Passage,” “‘Weight on Safety Valves,” and ‘Proportion of Steam in Cylin- der,” and, as a sequence, also to the consumption of coal. «Time a minimum” shows the hard driving. ‘Time a constant ” shows the system. The relations of ‘‘ pressure” and ‘“‘ expansion ” show how, under hard driving, the highest pressure and the full cylinder produced the highest speed the wind and tide admitted, or how, the time being a constant, those two elements were varied at the discretion of the commander, within prescribed limits, to meet the conditions of wind and tide. The result of the system on the coal is a decreasing consumption. The Return No. 1 shows the results of certain trials under favourable con- ditions, but in the performance of the daily passage by four of the vessels, which results are used as the standard tests with which the results of each quarter’s returns are compared. For example, the, ‘Scotia’ at 15-9 statute miles an hour consumes 6840 Ibs. of coal as a standard. (See Table 4.) In the Return No. 3, at the speed of 12°96 miles she consumed 5226 lbs. ; the first at the rate of 430 lbs. per mile (see Table 5), and the second at about 403. : Again, in the succeeding quarter, the ‘Scotia’ consumed 7528 lbs. at 14°65 miles an hour, or more than 518 lbs. per mile. Here was a case for inquiry and explanation. It will be observed that in Return No. 1 the consumption of the ‘Scotia’ at ordinary work at sea is 5820 lbs. per hour, and it is only when the consumption exceeds 6840 Ibs. that it becomes a subject of question, the difference between those figures being allowed for contingencies. No. 4 (see Tables 12, 13) is a Return which shows the difference between the issues of coal each half year, and the aggregate of the returns of con- sumption, the object of which needs no elucidation. . No. 5 (see Table 14) shows the duration of the boilers, with particulars of the work done. The saving in money under the return system, as compared with hard driving, was of course very considerable, and the latter was only justifiable as a necessary means of learning the qualities of each vessel, to be afterwards redeemed by the economy of the system. The ‘ Hibernia,’ it will be seen, was unequal to the service; and I may * See Volume of Transactions of the Aberdeen Meeting, 1859, page 276. ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 195 here observe that experience has shown me that in machinery, as in animal power, it is essential that it should be considerably above its ordinary work. The want of this extra power was a defect of the early locomotive engines, whose cost of working per mile was very considerably higher than that of the engines now in use. This defect, which is that of boiler-power, prevails largely in steam-vessels, and especially in the Queen’s ships. It would be easy to show how system must tend to economy; and the saving of coal is apparent from the returns, and of course all the engine stores ‘are commensurate. But the repairs—the wear and tear—involve a much more important ele- ‘ment of economy than even a reduced consumption of coal. The Return for 1860 is accompanied by a check account of the consumption ‘of coal. (Appendix, Table 7.) The City of Dublin Steam Packet Company have obligingly furnished returns of the consumption of coal and average time of passages of their mail boats ‘ Prince Arthur,’ ‘ Llewellyn,’ ‘ Eblana,’ and ‘St. Columba,’ from Janu- ary 1st to December 30th, 1860, the last quarter embracing the fast vessels ‘Leinster’ and ‘ Ulster.’ (Appendix, Tables 8 and 9.) Your Committee were invited to attend a trial of the latter vessels between Holyhead and Kingstown, and a deputation, consisting of Admiral Moorsom, the Duke of Sutherland, Lord Alfred Paget, Mr. Wm. Smith, C.E., Mr. J. E. M°Connell, and Mr. H. Wright, attended. They were kindly assisted by Mr. Watson, the Managing Director of the Company, in obtaining informa- tion connected with these vessels and their performances. The particulars of these trials will be found in Appendix, Table 5. A deputation from your Committee, consisting of Mr. W. Smith and Mr. Wright, also at the invitation of the London and North-Western Railway Company, attended the trial of the ‘ Admiral Moorsom,’ a new cargo boat built expressly for the conveyance of live stock. The particulars are given in Appendix, Table 5, to which your Committee would direct attention, as the speed obtained, and the steadiness exhibited by the vessel in a very heavy sea, excited considerable surprise. They have received numerous invitations from other companies and shipowners to attend the trials of their vessels. Your Committee have been in correspondence with the Imperial naval authorities of France and of the United States. The latter have already published various trials conducted with admirable skill and precision, and embracing most of the particulars asked for by the ‘Committee. In France, the Company of the Messageries Impériales have for some time given annual averages of the results of the navigation of the vessels in their service, for private use only ; but on the application of your Committee to be supplied with such returns, copies were at once forwarded, with a letter from the President stating that, although it was not the usual custom of private companies to make public the information requested, and although the Report transmitted to them (the Committee’s 2nd Report) contained no analogous comparison of the state of the great English companies who perform similar service, nevertheless they have not hesitated to accede to the Committee’s wish, by contributing as much as lay in their power,—thus proving their cor- dial sympathy with the useful object the British Association have in view. The Tables of Results of their vessels, 50 in number, for the years 1859 and 1860, are given in Appendix, Tables 10 and 11, constituting, with the one given in the last Report, a valuable series extending over three consecu- tive years, o2 196 REPORT—1861. Your Committee take this opportunity of expressing their satisfaction in being able to report, that since the commencement of their labours in 1857, the interest that has been taken in Steamship Performance, and the desire to assist the Association in eliciting information on the subject, not only by officers of the Royal Navy, but also of the merchant service, fully bear out the opinion expressed at the meeting of the Association in Dublin, that this subject was second to none in importance, and that its steady pursuit would tend very materially to the advancement of the science of shipbuilding and marine engineering. The following is a general summary of the results of the Committee’s labours during the past season. They have obtained— 1. The particulars of the machinery and hulls of seventeen of H.M.’s vessels, and the details of 58 trials made during the years 1857, 1858, and 1859, sup- plied by the Admiralty. The Committee are in possession of copies of the diagrams taken during the trials in 1859, with notes of observed facts by the officers conducting the trials. The names of the vessels are the ‘ James Watt,’ ‘ Virago,’ ‘ Hydra,’ ‘ Centaur,’ ‘ Industry,’ ‘ Diadem,’ ‘ Mersey,’ ‘ Algerine,’ * Leven,’ ‘ Lee,’ ‘Slaney,’ ‘Flying Fish,’ ‘ Marlborough,’ ‘ Orlando,’ ‘ Bull- finch,’ ‘ Doris,’ and ‘Renown.’ (Appendix, Table 1.) 2. Returns of seven of H.M.’s vessels when at sea, under various circum- stances, viz., under steam alone, under sail alone, and under sail and steam combined. The names of these are the ‘Colossus,’ ‘ Chesapeake,’ ‘ Flying Fish,’ ‘ St. George,’ ‘ Clio,’ ‘ Sphinx,’ and ‘ Victor Emmanuel.’ 3. Return of the London and North-Western Railway Company’s steamboat ‘ Cambria’s ’ trials and ordinary performances as originally built, and after being lengthened ; also of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company’s vessels ‘ Lima’ and ‘Bogota,’ when fitted with original and other machinery ; also of the new cargo boat, the ‘ Admiral Moorsom.’ 4. Returns of the Peninsular and Oriental Company’s boats ‘ Colombo,’ *‘ Candia,’ ‘ Ceylon,’ ‘ Delta,’ ‘ Nubia,’ and ‘ Pera,’ when on voyages between Southampton and Alexandria, and between Suez and Bombay respectively, together with particulars of their machinery and hulls furnished by the builders and engineers. 5. Returns of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company’s vessels ‘ Guaya- quil’ and ‘ Valparaiso,’ with particulars of trials and sea voyages during 1860. 6. Returns of the trials of the vessels ‘ Leonidas,’ ‘ Mavrocordato,’ ‘ Pene- lope,’ furnished by Messrs. Morrison and Co., and the ‘ Thunder’ and ‘ Midge,’ by Messrs. J. and W. Dudgeon. 7. Tables showing the Results of the Navigation of the steamboats in the service of the Messageries Impériales, during the years 1859 and 1860. 8. Returns of the London and North-Western Company’s steamboats * Anglia,’ ‘ Cambria,’ ‘ Scotia,’ ‘ Telegraph,’ ‘ Hibernia,’ ‘ Hercules,’ ‘ Ocean,’ and ‘Sea Nymph,’ under regulated conditions of time, pressure, and expansion, from January 1 to December 31, 1860. Half-yearly verification of the con- sumption of coals for the same period. 9. Return of the average time of passage and consumption of coal of the City of Dublin Steam Packet Company’s mail steamers ‘ Prince Arthur,’ ‘ Llewel- lyn,’ ‘ Elbana,’ and ‘ St. Columba,’ for six months ending June 30th, 1860. 10. Ditto ditto, with the addition of the fast steamers ‘ Leinster” and * Ulster,’ for three months ending September 30th, 1860. 11. Return of the average passages of the mail packets ‘ Leinster,’ ‘ Ulster,” ‘Munster,’ and ‘Connaught,’ for, six months ending March 3lst, 1860. (Appendix, Tables 12, 13, and 14.) 12. Return of the trial of the ‘ Leinster’ and ‘ Ulster’ between Holyhead and Kingstown. . (Table 5.) ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 197 13. Diagrams or indicator cards* have been received, taken from the fol- lowing ships : :—‘ Cambria,’ ‘ Admiral Moorsom,’ ‘ Leinster’ and ‘ Ulster,’ ‘ Co- lombo’ (lengthened), ‘ Nubia,’ and ‘ Thunder.’ The sum of £150 voted by the Council of the Association to defray the expenses of the Committee has been expended, and the statement of the ex- penditure, which could not be prepared in time for publication with this Re- port, will be presented by the Committee at the Meeting. The thanks of the Committee are especially due to Mr. Wm. Smith, C.E., a member of the Committee, for the large amount of assistance he has ren- dered in collecting information, as also by placing a room in his offices at the disposal of the Committee. Your Committee, in conclusion, have the painful duty to record the death of their late Chairman, Admiral Moorsom, and the regret which they have felt at the melancholy event which has deprived them of their Chairman, and their sense of the great loss which has thus been sustained by your Associa- tion and by the scientific world at large, as well as by the distinguished pro- fession to which he belonged. (Signed) SUTHERLAND, Offices of the Committee, Chairman, 19 Salisbury Street, Adelphi, London. Apprnpix.—TaB.LeE 12. Return of the Average Passages of Mail Packets and Consumption of Coal for Six Months, ending 31st March, 1861. in Coal consumed, including getting up Steam. Name of Vessel. saber t Tey A Trips Fore ae, Anthracite. | Bituminous. } Total, paTupl J heya) 8 tons. tons. tons. | tons. ote. | Leinster............ 183 3 41 5 2437 3956 6393 34 13 POSTON ato ojen a 0 203 3 50 0 4244 2316 6566 32 («6 Munster............ 146 | 3 52 0 2679 | 2718 | 5397 | 36 5 Connaught......... 192 3 42 0 4179 | = 2124 6303 | 32 16 Note.—The ‘ Ulster’ and ‘Munster’ encountered a larger proportion of severe weather and fogs than the ‘ Leinster’ and ‘ Connaught.’ AppenDIx.—TaBLeE 13. Steam-ship ‘Leinster.’ On trial from Holyhead to Kingstown, April 4, 1861. Boiler Gauges. Steam. Barometer. Revolutions. Fore. Aft. lbs inches, First half-hour ......... 25 26 24 27 264 Second) Thy. vesecceee gale 262 234 263 26 Third Cae BOgROOeS | 24% 265 233 26 254 RGUITEA | ieoeewekee | 244 26 233 263 253 Fifth $94 7) Neceneens = 20) 26 234. 26 254 Sixth Sy eo Maceaeeies }* 25 26 233 26 26 Neventh 4, —ssiese- | 25 264 24 264 253 No. of Revolutions as per Counter, 4957. Length of Passage, 3 hours 28 minutes. Total Consumption about 49 tons. * The indicator diagrams may be seen, by any one interested therein, by aye eaoes at the Offices of the Committee. » 198 REPORT—1861. AprENDIX.—TABLzE 14. Steam-ship ‘ Ulster.’ On trial from Kingstown to Holyhead, April 5, 1861. Revolutions. Counter. Vacuum. per min At starting ............ 21 seebwert iN) ateieses 133 First half-hour ......... 223 23 702 \ Bee Second)» eke vetee 223 223 1370 eney Third Py Peace: 23 23 2026 Fourth 55/1) sdeves.s- 23% 223 2716 Fifth ell «tide atnever 233 23 3398 Saxtheee) man ( Veen 22 221 4095 OSAP A i se revace concede 22 224 4792 Time of Passage, 3 hours 30 minutes. Total Consumption, about 36 tons. No. of Revolutions as per Counter, 4792, Circular referred to at page 192. British AssociaTIon.—ComMItTTEE oN STeAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 19 Salisbury Street, Strand, London, W.C. November 21st, 1860. S1r,—Enclosed i is a Form which the Steam-ship Performance Committee of the British Association hope you will kindly fill up at your convenience, and transmit to me. The Committee have apprised the Admiralty of their intention to commu- nicate with such Captains and Engineers of H.M. Ships as may be disposed to assist the British Association in obtaining facts for scientific calculations relating to the Performance of Ships at sea, and have, at their Lordships’ request, sent them a copy of the Form. The Form proposed is as simple as is consistent with the object of obtaining data necessary for calculation, and the Committee are under the impression that the time required to fill up such Forms cannot interfere with the duties of the respective Officers. It is, however, to be clearly understood that it is for objects of science alone that the Officers are invited thus to aid the labours of the British Asso- ciation, one of whose fundamental rules is laid down in the following terms :-— «« The object of the Committee is to make public such recorded facts through the medium of the Association, and being accessible to the public in that manner, to bring the greatest amount of science to the solution of the diffi- culties now existing to the scientific improvement of the forms of vessels and the qualities of marine engines. They will especially endeavour to guard against information so furnished to them being used in any other way, and they trust they may look for the co-operation of Members of the Yacht Club having steam yachts, of Shipowners, as well as of Builders and Engineers.” I am, Sir, your obedient Servant, C. R. Moorsom, Vice-Admiral and Chairman, ERRATA AND ADDENDUM IN TABLE V. Col. 12, last line but one, for “ about 64,700”, read “ total 64,700.” Col. 60, for “2” read “ with.” Col. 14 requires the following explanation :— Actual speed ...........45 dase veadensssasptosts soscseesascee 10°6 knots. Dedueted! for tide <<..2 2... castsacceetucs eter eee 0:6, Speed through the water under sail and steam at 84 revolutions per minute .......1...-ceseeeeeeeeeees 10:0 Previously ascertained speed under steam alone at » 84 revolutions.,,. ceeeeeeeeseeteseeee Se eeeeeeeeteeeereres j ” ? ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. 199 -Brririsn Assocration.—CoMMITTEE ON STEAM-SHIP PERFORMANCE. Return of H.M.’s Steam-ship Date, day, the day of 18 MAGGIE «2.60.0 0c.ccccescsenesesesssesercecss Longitude Ship’s Course........-..scscsesecssccerseesecsensserevsecsscsseeerees Winp :— SPAT enc Ges lc ces iaccecaccctescasdeenersecssfocshan dees EEC ccs dacehe Viddsadicsctadepecvacsvececdudavesveedsdd Bate Of SER lsiiceesccee Poche ha dan cceanectees age yeydtts eee asdirbee UnveEr SAIL ALONE :-— AMI ESEPEADTING 564 cu bse. cdeedasabileveqeucepiaqecs tire fe czar pean SMUT INET AMER re 7 aciad c eu0 eek ies en eaaergh-magsd deans sepaced sass Description of Sail set ........---se-esesseregecessscsscversqeens one Average Speed per hour .............--sssssesecseesecseseereesees Unver Sait AND STEAM COMBINED :— SU MMETIME SETTRE CE Crs tances cece sasiecr scecuseraxceavecs'rateateteacs PPRCHRGETSAIVSEL oiccsoknccececcsececsbidetutasetecscadsceusvecdssdzite Description of Sail set ............ Ge cduceins=eWdles -Ysrhhidabs a> sre Average Speed per hour ......ssesseseeerree quepeesy conseepasey aes ' Unprer STEAM ALONE :— eH OE MELGUEN. ceeus's ce ssdssep scedsoyertsven Vag skooaba oa roe NCA Average Speed per hour .ssssssccceeeeesenr sever Mees sveacenin css ENGINES :— Cut-off in proportion Of Stroke ..secscecesseessseseeseeeeseeeees Lap of Slide Valve............- eerste ahtageats auseeeuen apveeeanaxe Average Revolutions per Minute .......-scsssesseescresseseeeees . Mean pressure of Steam at or near Cylinder .......sssss000, Se Mean pressure in Cylinder .......... sedecnse rrr re * BAROMETER :— Vacuum PTUTTITTT TTT Peeeeerernessrcegasseses eevcrceeeees PEESSUTE ...0cccarercceess-o0e awe staseee™ Srccnaretusdes seen sidehshates Temperature of Sea-water ..ssrccccseereecsessesnseseceeseeserene Slip of Screw..,......++ Ao CORA o sepcebaNas shras epee sapcagene Boiters :— No. of Furnaces at Work ........sssseeesereeee ae cee ee Square Feet of Grate Surface at Works.........0.-sssseeaeeeees Square Feet of Heating Surface at Work............s0s.sseeeeee Weight to which Safety Valve is loaded per Square Inch... Pressure of Steam per Square Inch in Steam Chest ......... Density of Water ...........ssseseeeees dds dadgs Sheets ht pans cabanvs Consumption of Coal per hour..........seeeeseeeeescsceesseecrees Description of Coal during period ...........0.-.sseeeeeeees Soke Indicated Horse-power, with Diagrams .........+ cls daaebieeece Evaporation of Water per hour .........+..+05 abeAsb=dten gant ove Dravueut or WATER :— On Leaving Port—Forward .......sescsesseecseceeccneceseeennerss Ditto ditto Aft....... poaeey ae rel chepeceees adr cf one On Arriving in Port—Forward ........ Gepaceseas ccs. Crees Ditto ditto Ai) sonccecs=se aaeceenaes Kor Heceonce anaes REMARKS ....... Rorecucaneanccess eakcsdeerecenss ScENaahacvaeateecmes Office, 19 Salisbury Street, Strand, London, W.C. Signature Date 200 REPORT—1l1S861. Preliminary Report on the Best Mode of Preventing the Ravages of Teredo and other Animals in our Ships and Harbours. By J. Gwyn JEFFREYS, F.R.S., F.G.S. Since the last meeting, Mr. Jeffreys went to Holland for the purpose of investigating the experiments which are being made there, under the direction of the Academy of Sciences at Amsterdam, and with the sanction of the Dutch Government, in order to check the destructive ravages of the Teredo marina; and he was accompanied by Dr. Verloren, of Utrecht, another member of the Committee. The progress of these different experiments is periodically and carefully recorded ; but it will take many years before the result can beshown. From an elaborate report of the Dutch Commission, published last year, and which was placed by M. Van. der Hoeven in Mr. Jeffreys’s hands, it appears that no efficacious remedy had at that time been discovered. Even the expensive process of creosoting the timber failed in one instance where the piece of wood thus treated was in contact with another piece which had not been creosoted ; the Teredo having indiscriminately per- forated both pieces of wood, first attacking the uncreosoted wood. Mr. Jef- freys had also lately seen a piece of wood used in the construction of harbour works at Scrabster, which, although it had been creosoted to the extent of 10 pounds to the square foot (having been first dressed and cut), was exca~ vated on every side by the Zimnoria lignorum. Iron-headed or scupper nails afford very little protection, as the Zeredo and Limnoria work their way even through the rust, unless it is very thick, the valves of the Teredo becoming stained in consequence. The remedy suggested by Mr. Jeffreys (viz. a coating of some siliceous or mineral composition) had not been tried in Holland or France. Among other communications received by Mr. Jeffreys on the sub- ject was one from Mr. William Hutton, of Sunderland, who had recently taken out a patent “for preventing the destruction of timber from the action of marine animals.” His process is to force into the wood a soluble silex, or water glass, with muriate of lime. If this process is not expensive, it would no doubt answer the desired purpose ; but it is probable that the same object would be attained by merely soaking the wood in a solution of this kind, or even laying it on the wood witha brash. It would seem to be sufficient if the outer layer of the wood were coated or glazed in such a manner that the composition would not crack or peel off. Although the different kinds of Teredo are locally and partially distributed on our coasts, the wood-boring Crustacea (and especially Limnoria lignorum) occur everywhere in countless numbers, and on the whole do the greatest damage to our harbour works. Mr. Jeffreys endeavoured to obtain, through a member of the Committee who resided at Plymouth, permission from the Admiralty to institute some experiments in the Dockyard there, having been informed that very considerable damage had been sustained in that port during many years past from the last-mentioned cause. But, although a copy of the Association’s Praceedings was furnished to the First Lord and Secretary to the Admiralty, and the Port-Admiral expressed his approval of the experiments being tried, and forwarded the application to the Admiralty, permission was refused. It does not appear that the Admiralty or Govern- ment have taken any steps to prevent further loss, or even to inquire into the matter. Notwithstanding this discouragement, Mr. Jeffreys will persevere, with the assistance of the other members of the Committee, in doing all that is possible to ensure such an important and national object as the protection of our ships and harbours from the destructive attacks of these animals. » red 3 ; , prs os ta SM*Report British Arcociation 196) r -- - —————_—_————_- — 4000 2000 Feet O00 HOLYHEAD HARBOUR PLANS, an SOUNDINGS OF J.M.RENDEL, C.E 1850 Line of Soundings am Ynys Gyby Reef “ Inner Platters y Sac QO? SY fics HARBOUR Dry at low water ON THE TRANSIT-VELOCITY OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES. (201 Report of the Experiments made at Holyhead (North Wales) to ascer- tain the Transit-Velocity of Waves, analogous to Earthquake Waves, through the local Rock Fermations: by command of the Royal Society and of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. By Rosert Mater, C.L., F.R.S. In my “Second Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena,” in the Report of the British Association for 1851, the transit-velocities were expe- rimentally determined of waves of impulse produced by the explosion of charges of gunpowder, and these velocities shown to be— In wet sand.............. 824915 feet per second, In discontinuous granite.... 1306:425 feet per second, In more solid granite ...... 1664°574 feet per second, the range of sand employed having been that of Killiney Strand, and of granite that of Dalkey Island, both on the east coast of Ireland. These results produced some surprise on my own part, as well as on that of others, the transit-velocities obtained falling greatly below those which theory might have suggested as possible, based upon the modulus of elasticity of the material constituting the range in either case. I suggested as the explanation of the low velocities ascertained, that the media of the ranges (like all the solids constituting the crust of the earth) were not in fact united and homogeneous elastic solids, but an aggregation of solids more or less shattered, heterogeneous, and discontinuous; and that to the loss of wis viva, and of time in the propagation of the wave from surface to sur- face, was due the extremely low velocities observed. The correctness of this view, and a general corroboration of the correct- ness of the experimental results themselves, have since been made known by the careful determinations by Noggerath and Schmidt respectively, of the transit-velocities of actual earthquake waves in the superficial formations of the Rhine country and of Hungary, and by myself in those of Southern Italy, all of which present low velocities coordinating readily with my previous experimental results. In the Report above mentioned, I suggested the desirableness of extending the experimental determination of wave-transit to stratified and foliated rocks, as likely to present still lower velocities than those obtained for shat- tered granite, as well as other important or suggestive phenomena. The operations in progress at the Government quarries at Holyhead (Island of Anglesea, North Wales), of dislodging vast masses of rock by means of gun- powder for the formation of the Asylum Harbour there, appeared to me to present a favourable opportunity of making some experiments upon the stra- tified rock formations of that locality, by taking advantage of the powerful explosions necessary at the quarries. These quarries are situated (see Map, Pl. II.) on Holyhead Mountain, on its N.E. flank, in metamorphic quartz rock, and in 1852 (a vast mass of material having been already removed) presented a lofty, irregular, and nearly vertical scarp, reaching to 150 feet in height above the floor of the quarry in some places. From this wall of solid rock the process of dislodgement was continued, not by the usual method of blasting, by means of small charges fired in jumper-holes bored into the rock, but by the occasional explosion of large mines, containing at times as much as nine tons of gunpowder lodged in one or in three or more separate foci deep within the face of the cliff, and formed by driving “headings” or galleries from the base of the mural face into the rock. From the charges of powder placed in bags at the innermost extre- mnities of these headings, which were stopped up by several feet of “ tamping ” 202: REPORT—1861. of stone, rubbish, and clay, conducting wires were led out to a suitable and safe distance, so that on making by these the circuit complete between the poles of a powerful Smee’s galvanic battery, a small piece of thin platinum wire adjusted within the charge of gunpowder became heated, and ignited the powder. The explosion thus followed instantaneously the making contact between the poles of the battery. Experience has enabled the engineers charged with the work so exactly to proportion the charge of powder to the work it is intended to perform in each case, that no rock is thrown to any distance; the whole force is consumed in dislocating and dropping down to its base as a vast sloping talus of disrupted rock and stone the portion of the cliff operated on; in fact, at the moment of explosion the mass of previously solid rock seems to fall to pieces like a lump of suddenly slacked quicklime. The shock or impulse, however, delivered by the explosion upon the remaining solid rock, behind and around the focus, and propagated through it in all directions outwards, as an elastic wave of impulse, was at an early stage of the operations remarked to be so powerful, that it could be felt distinctly in the quaking of the ground at distances of several hundred yards, and was sufficient even to shake down articles of delf ware from the shelves of cottages a long way off from the quarries. Early in 1853 I visited those quarries, and examined generally the adja- cent locality and rock formations, and having satisfied myself that these operations could be made available, I applied to my distinguished friend, the late lamented Mr. Rendel, C.E., the engineer-in-chief of the Asylum Harbour, and readily obtained from him permission to make such experiments as should not interfere with the progress of the works. The prosecution of these experiments having been favourably represented to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, and to the Council of the Royal Society, a sum of money was voted by each of these bodies respectively, and placed at the author’s disposal, with the desire that he should undertake and conduct the experiments. It was not, however, until the summer of 1856 that my own avocations and various preliminaries allowed any progress to be made with the experiments themselves. Negotiations had to be entered on with several parties ; with the occupier of some land at Pen-y-Brin, about a mile to the east of the quarries, where the most suitable spot for placing the seismoscope ‘(the obser- ver's station O, see Map) was found, for permission to enter his land, and level down to a horizontal surface the face of the rock here occupying the sur- face of the ground, and to erect an observer's shed over it; and with the Electric Telegraph Company, for the hire of insulating telegraph poles and wires, and for their erection over the range intervening between this spot and the highest reach of the quarry hill. As these great blasts are fired only occasionally and at uncertain intervals, and being prepared must be fired without postponement, and within a given hour of the day, namely, during the workmen’s dinner-hour (12 to 1 P.m.), when the quarries are clear of men, and therefore safe from accident, it became at once obvious that very frequent journeys, both on my own part and on that of such assistants as I should require, would have necessarily to be made to and from Holyhead ; and to economize as much as possible the large expen- diture that must thus arise, I applied to the City of Dublin Steam Packet Company, and to the Chester and Holyhead Railway Company, through their respective Secretaries, representing the scientific character of the un- dertaking, and requesting on their parts cooperation, by their permitting myself and my. assistants, with any needful apparatus, to pass free to and ON THE TRANSIT-VELOCITY OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES. 203 from Holyhead by their respective vessels from Kingstown Harbour. After much fruitless correspondence I regret to say that both these Companies refused to render any assistance whatever, a boon the refusal of which greatly increased the expenditure for these experiments. Lastly, I placed myself in communication with Messrs. Rigby, the contractors for the vast works of the Quarries and Harbour, and in August 1856 received from them the assurance of every assistance that they could afford consistently with the prosecution of the works. To them, to Mr. R. L. Cousens, C.E., the acting engineer for their firm on the works, and to Mr. G. C. Dobson, C.E., chief engineer on the work under Mr. Rendel (since under Mr. Hawkshaw), my thanks are due for the best and most cordial assistance upon all occasions. The position for the observer’s station and seismoscope upon the levelled floor of rock at Pen-y-Brin having been fixed upon, the first operation neces- sary was to obtain an accurate section of the surface in the line between that and the quarries, a geological section of the rock formations along the same line, and with precision the exact distance in a straight line, from some fixed point adjacent to the quarries, to the observer's station. The fixed point chosen at the quarries was the flagstaff at the bell, which is rang whenever a blast is about to be fired, this being so placed that from it measurements and angular bearings, with the line of range O W (Map), from the various sites of future explosions could readily be made, and thus the exact distance of each focus of explosion (to be hereafter experimented on) from the seismo- scope at O ascertained, the flagstaff always remaining undisturbed as a fixed terminal at the quarry end of the range. The whole surface, O to W, was carefully levelled over, and the distances chained, as given in the diagram, Pl. III. section 2. fig. 1. The roughness of the ground and its inclination, however, rendered direct measurement of the range of wave-path with suf- ficient accuracy impracticable, and it was found necessary to obtain it trigo- nometrically. For this purpose a base line of 1432 feet in length was mea- sured off along the rails of the tramroad which connects the quarry with the east breakwater, between the points A and B (Map, Pl. II.), where the road fortunately was found straight and nearly level. This was measured with two brass-shod pine rods, each of 35 feet in length, of the same sort, and applied in the same manner, as I used in 1849 for measuring the base of one mile on Killiney Strand, for the particulars of which the “Second Report on Earthquakes,” &c., Report Brit. Assoc. 1851, p. 274, &c., may be referred to. The base was measured forwards and backwards, with a result differing by less than 3 inches. The flagstaff at the spot marked W in the Map is not visible from the observer's station, owing to some intervening houses and other objects ; a staff was therefore set up at S, upon the hill-side. The point O was connected by angular measurements with the extremities of the measured base A and B; the triangles OBS and OSW were then obtained, whence that OBW was arrived at, from which finally the distance OW (the constant part of the range) was ascertained to be=4584'80 feet. The triangle OBW was used as a check upon that OSW, as the angles at O, S, and W had to be taken, owing to local circumstances, smaller than is desirable. The lengths of the side OW obtained from the two triangles separately closely agreed; and as a further check, the side SW, which gave, trigonometrically, a length of 671°07 feet, when actually measured as a base of verification, gave 67205 feet. I was also enabled to connect the side OS with a trig-point P, upon the western breakwater, and another at R, the positions of which are defined upon the accurate surveys of the harbour in Mr. Dobson’s’ possession, as a further means of verification. We may therefore view the length of the 204 REPORT—1861. constant part of the range between the observing station and the flagstaff, its other permanent terminal, as equal to 4585 feet, neglecting fractions. The base of the staff at S was found to be 68°78 feet above the level of the horizontal surface of the rock at Pen-y-Brin (the observing station O), and the base of the flagstaff at W is 5°70 feet above the same point O. The levelled surface of rock at O is 84 feet above the mean tide-level of the sea in the Asylum Harbour; and the average rise and fall of spring tides at Holyhead is 18 feet; the line of rock, therefore, through which the range passes is, except as respects surface water, permanently dry to a considerable depth. The majority of the headings are driven into the face of the quarry cliff horizontally, at from 10 to 20 feet above the level of the floor of the quarry, which is on nearly the same level as the point W. Hence, prac- tically, the actual range of transmission through the solid rock of the impulse from each heading when fired, to the seismoscope at the observer's station, may be considered as a horizontal line, and no correction of distance is required for difference of elevation at the two extremities of the observing- range in the reduction of our results. The Island of Holyhead, as may be seen on consulting the sheets (Nos. 77 and 78) of the Geological Survey of England and Wales, consists mainly of chloritic and micaceous schist or slate and of quartz rock. The latter forms the north-west portion of the island; and in it alone are situated the Harbour quarries, upon the side of Holyhead Mountain (as it is called), the same rock rising to its summit, which is 742 feet above the sea, mean tide-level. The junction of the quartz and of the schist or slate rock runs in azimuth N. 24° E. where it crosses the line of our range, which it intersects at an angle horizontally of 73° 30’. The schist or slate rocks here overlie the quartz, abutting against the flank of the latter, apparently unconformably, and having an inclined junction whose dip is towards the south-east, and probably, at the place where our range intersects, having an angle of dip of about 65° with the vertical. The point of junction is situated about 900 feet from the flagstaff W ; so that about 2100 feet, on the average, of our actual ranges Jay in quartz rock, and the re- mainder, or 3750 feet, in the schist or slate formation, taking the mean total range at 5851 feet. The general tendency of the schist is to a dip to the north- west, varying from 5° to 20° from the horizontal ; but no well-defined bedding is obvious either in it or in the quartz. Lithologically, the quartz rock consists of very variable proportions of pure white, light grey, and yellowish quartz, and of white or yellowish-white aluminous and finally micaceous clays. In many places the mass of the rock presents to the lens almost nothing but clear and translucent quartz, breaking with a fine waved glassy fracture, striking fire with steel, extremely hard and difficult to break, and showing a very ill-defined crystallization of the individual particles of quartz, which have all the appearance of pure quartzose sea-sand that had become agglutinated by heat and pressure coacting with some slight admixture of the nature of a flux. The specific gravity of such portions, as determined for me by my friend Mr. Robert H. Scott, A.M., Secretary to the Geological Society of Dublin, is 2656. From this the rock passes in many places into a softer and more friable material, consisting, when minutely examined, of the same sort of quartz-grains, with a white pulveru- lent clay, containing microscopic plates of mica disseminated between them ; this fractures readily, but will still strike fire with steel, and its average spe- cific gravity is 2°650. Both, but particularly the harder variety, are found often in very thick masses of nearly uniform quality, separated by great master-joints, though Plate 3 EARTHQUAKE EXPERIMENTS, HOLYHEAD QUARRIES. N22. Section of surface O to S of Map and Geological Section of Range es, Hol head Exper Ut & ms F) iV. Heating N°33. Quarry NE. Exper. Vo Keadin Exper 1. Heading NE 84 Quarry NOF Fase © it Face ef (UIT ILS tect in, hetaht Face CI HS tet iw Dght ON THE TRANSIT-VELOCITY OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES. 205 searcely to be considered as beds; but usually the mass, viewed in the large, is heterogeneous in the highest degree, massive and thick in one place, full of joints and even minutely foliated in others, and everywhere intersected by thin and thick veins of harder quartz, agglutinated sand, and, elsewhere, friable sand, and of soft sandy clay. Both the quartz rock and the schist of the island are intersected by three great greenstone dykes (of inconsiderable thickness, however), none of them interfering with our range, and by one or more great faults, all of which run through nearly the whole island in a N.W. and S.E. direction, and by humerous other minor faults and dislocations, some of which may be seen as cutting through our line of range at f, g, k, J, in Plate III. section 2. No. 11. At a short distance behind the quarry cliff, and seat of our several ex- plosions, a great clay dyke occurs in the quartz rock—a wall, in fact, of. about 20 feet in average thickness, running in the direction marked on the Map (Plate II.), and with a dip of only about 20° from the vertical. This consists of strongly compacted clay, nearly pure white, and more or less mixed with fine sand and grains of mica, but cannot be called rock, though continually passing into stony masses. Lying as it does in rear of our experimental headings, it was of some value, as presenting a dead solid anvil to the pulse from each explosion, in the contrary direction to that of the observed wave of impulse, and hence causing a larger and more distinctly appreciable wave to be transmitted in the direction towards the seismoscope. The schist rock, in colour, passes from fawn-colour and light-greenish ashen-grey into a rather dark tea-green. It owes its colour to disseminated thin layers of chlorite, and probably of black or green mica in minute scales, between which are thicker layers of quartz, presenting identically the same mineral characters as those of the quartz rock beneath. These layers, owing to the small relative hardness and cohesion of the chlorite and mica, present planes of weakness and of separation; the rock is, in fact, everywhere thinly foliated, the average thickness of a plate seldom exceeding 0°2 of an inch, and averaging about one-half that thickness. These foliations are twisted, bent, doubled up, and distorted in every conceivable way: the contortions are often large, the curves having radii of some feet, with minor distortions within and upon them ; but most commonly they are small; so that it is rare to get even a hand specimen presenting flat and undistorted foliations, while, quite commonly, hand specimens may be found presenting, within a cube of four or five inches, two or three curves of contrary flexure, often in all three axes, and with curvatures short, sharp, and abrupt, almost angular. There is a general tendency observable in the greater convolutions to conform more or less to the surface contour of the country; so that the largest and flattest folds are found to occupy, with an approach to horizontality, the topmost por- tions of the great humps or wmbos of schist rock that form the characteristic of the landscape, and so rolling off in folds smaller, steeper, and more con- voluted towards the steeper sides, as though these masses had slipped and doubled upon themselves when soft and pasty. Occasionally, however, where deep cuttings have exposed the interior of such surface-knolls, it is found sharply convoluted and twisted in all direc- tions, and without any relation to the existing surface of the country. Every- where this mass of minutely structured, convoluted, and foliated rock is cut through by joints of separation, with surfaces in direct and close contact, and by thin seams and veins of hard and sometimes pretty well crystallized quartz, now and then discoloured by oxide of iron, and with minute cavities filled with chlorite and mica, and with others of agglutinated quartzose sand, whose 906 ‘ REPORT—1861. bounding-lines pass off rapidly, but gradatim, into the prevailing substance of the rock. It is by no means of equal hardness; some portions (and these occur without any order or traceable relationship throughout the mass) are much thinner in the foliation, and the layers of chlorite and mica nearly as thick as those of the intervening quartz, both being so attenuated, that to the naked eye the edge of the foliation presents only a fine streaky appearance of lighter and darker green-grey tint. The softest, however, readily strikes fire with steel, and throughout the whole mass of the rock (for the length of our range) it is so hard, coherent, and intractable as to be only capable of being quarried by the aid of gunpowder, and with very closely formed jumper-holes. The specific gravity of the densest portions of the schist rock reaches 2°765; that of the softer averages 2-746. When the rock, whether hard or soft, is broken so that the applied surfaces of the foliations are visible, they are often found glistening and greasy to the feel, from flattened microscopic scales of mica, or possibly of talc. The quartz rock fractures under the effect of gunpowder into great lumpy masses, with much small rubbish; the schist under that, from jumper-hole blasts, breaks up into coarse, angular, knotted, and most irregular wedges, the foliations breaking across in irregularly receding steps, and (throughout our range at least) a stone with a single flat bed being perhaps unprocurable. Both rocks are absolutely dry, or free from all perceptible percolations of surface-water issuing as springs, nor does the rain penetrate their substance by absorption for any appreciable depth,—both indications of their generally compact structure. The faults with which our range is intersected, in four places, at a hori- zontal angle of about 75°, are not far from vertical, dipping a few degrees to the N.W. They occur at the points marked f, g, ’, , on the Geological Sec- tion (Plate III. section 2); and the disturbed and shattered plate of rock between each pair respectively appears to have sustained a downthrow (or the rocks at either side the contrary) of a few feet, 10 to 12 probably. The surfaces of the walls of these faults, so far as I can judge from rather imperfect superficial indications, appear to be in close contact; and such is the character of all the small faults that intersect the formation hereabouts. I have been thus tediously minute in describing the character of the rocks throughout our range, because, if experimental determinations of earth-wave transit are to become useful elements of comparison in the hands of the seis- mologists of other countries with the observed transit-times of natural earth- quake-waves, and a means of controlling such observations, it is essential that the means be afforded of accurately comparing the rock-formation tra- versed in both cases. From what has been described, it will be remarked that the rock here chosen for experiment presents in the highest degree the properties capable of producing dispersion, delay, and rapid extinction of the wave of impulse, so far as its structure is concerned, although the modulus of elasticity of a very large proportion of its mineral constituents (silex) is extremely high, and its specific gravity as great as that of Dalkey granite. Added to its minutely foliated and mineralogically heterogeneous character, with its multiplied con- volutions, we have five great planes of transverse separation in the range, one of these forming the plane of junction of the quartz and schist, with innume- rable minor planes of separation at all conceivable angles to each other in both rocks ; and yet we have highly elastic and dense materials forming the substance of both rocks, and their general mass remarkably free from open veins, fissures, or cavities. ON THE TRANSIT-VELOCITY OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES. 207 We have also two different rocks, the one transmitting the impulse into the other, yet neither so widely differing from the other in molecular and other physical characters as to make any great or abrupt effect upon the wave at the junction probable. In fact, widely, to the first glance, as the quartz rock and the schist rock appear to differ, there is less real distinction of physical character between them than would be supposed: both are composed of the same siliceous sand in about the same size of original grains, variously enveloped, in the one in chlorite and mica, and in the other in white or grey clay and mica; both have, in ancient geological epochs, doubtless derived their materials by degradation and transport from a common source, as respects their main constituent, the silex ; both have been submitted to approximately similar pressures, and probably like tem- peratures ; and the agglutinating flux has probably been mainly the same for both, viz. the minute proportions of alkalies derived from the waters of an ancient ocean. The main difference in physical structure, viewed upon the broad scale, between the quartz rock and the slate is this (as regards our experiments ) :—that the great joints and planes of separation on the whole approximate to veréicality in the former, while in the latter, with the ex- ception of some larger faults and dykes, the planes of separation are twisted and involved in all directions, but tend more to approach horizontality. More interesting conditions could thus scarcely be found for experimental determination of the transit-rate of earth-waves, or more desirable for future comparison with that of earthquake-waves themselves ; much more instructive, indeed, were the actual conditions than if the means-of experiment presented by these vast quarry operations had been in the most regular, undisturbed, and horizontal stratified rock, like some of the mountain limestone of Ireland, or the finest and densest laminated roofing-slates of Wales. In such ranges we can predict that the transit-velocity would at least be high. In the medium chosen for these experiments it was impossible even to guess what it might be found. I proceed to describe the instrumental arrangements made for the observa- tion of the impulse-wave transmitted from the blasts chosen, and for the de- termination of the transit-time along the range of wave-path. Over the surface of solid rock that had been chiselled down to a level tabular surface at (O) Pen-y-Brin, a timber-shed was erected, of sufficient size to place the observer, an assistant, and all the instruments proper to that spot, under cover and secured from the wind. ‘The side to the N.W. was open, to permit of observation along the line of range, with the means of partially closing it in high winds. Along the line of the boundary-wall of the railway next Pen-y-Brin, and thence along up to the highest and most distant point of the quarry cliffs, a line of telegraph-posts was planted, and upon these two properly insulated iron wires were hung, in such a manner that at any point along their length over the quarry cliffs, a pair of branch wires (covered with gutta percha) could be led off, and in like manner another pair to the apna- ratus in the observing-shed at Pen-y-Brin, thus giving the means of galva- nically connecting the extremities of the range in any way that might be required. The mines in use at the quarries frequently consist of two, three, or four separate chambers and charges,which are all fired simultaneously (see PI.IV.); but each charge is fired by a distinct pair of wires, igniting a fine platinum wire interposed in the circuit and immersed in one of the powder-bags. The arrangement of this platinum wire in its hollow wooden frame to prevent disturbance, and its connexion with the large conducting wires, are practi- 208 REPORT—1861. cally the same as those adopted by me in 1849 at Killiney, and will be found fully described in ‘Second Report on Earthquakes,” &¢., Report of British Association for 1851, p. 277. When several charges are to be fired simultaneously, all the electro- positive wires from each chamber are collected into one mercury-cup in connexion with one pole of the battery, and all the electro-negative wires into another mercury-cup. Upon making contact between the latter and the second pole of the battery, the current at the same moment ignites all the platinum wires passing through each pair of wires as a separate con- ducting path. This method requires considerable battery power, but is the only certain or reliable one for firing simultaneously a number of separate charges. When an attempt is made to pass the current from one pole of the battery through a single pair of wires, and through all the fine platinum priming wires in succession to the return pole, there is extreme risk that the first or second platinum priming, owing to its attenuated section of wire (in virtue of which indeed alone it becomes ignited at all), may interpose so much resistance to the current as to prevent the ignition of the third, or fourth, or other subsequent primings, or that the first priming-wire may get absolutely fused or broken by the first-ignited powder, and so cut off all communication with the others befvre they have been heated sufficiently. A neglect of this obvious consequence of Ohm's law of resistance appears to have been the cause of failure very recently, in an attempt to ignite a number of mines of demolition simultaneously, at Chatham. From the great magnitude of the charges frequently fired at Holyhead, and the very serious consequences that failure of ignition would involve, the battery power habitually employed is wisely of superabundant power. It consists of a Grove's battery of thirty-two cells, each exposing ninety-six square inches of platinum element. It is but justice to my friend Mr. R. L. Cou- sens, C.E., to whose assistance in these experiments I am so much indebted, to add, that during the several years he has controlled these vast blasting- operations a single failure of ignition has never occurred. For the above reasons, and from the necessity that in the event of any failure of such apparatus as I might require for experiment, in making contact and firing the mine at a given moment, the power should still be reserved to Mr. Cousins to fire it directly afterwards in the usual way, so as not to interfere with the works, I was led, finally, to devise the following magneto-galvaniec arrangement, by which, at a signal given from the sum- mit of the quarry cliff (where the firing-battery is usually placed, nearly above the mine or heading then to be fired, and at a safe distance back from the edge of the cliff, usually about 100 yards) that all was ready, I should myself, stationed at the observing-shed (O), be enabled to com-. plete the contact and fire the mine, and do so in such a way as to register by means of the chronograph the interval of time that elapsed between the moment that I so made contact (or fired) and the arrival of the wave of impulse through the rocks of the range or wave-path, when made visible by, and observed by me in, the seismoscope. For this purpose such an arrangement was required as, upon contact being made by me at the observing-shed (O), should set in motion such a contrivance, situated upon the quarry cliff, at the remote end of the tele- graph wires, as should there instantly close the poles of the great (Grove’s) firing-battery and so fire the mine, and in the event from any cause of this result not taking place at the preconcerted moment, that then it should be free to Mr. Cousens or his assistants to close the poles of the firing-battery by hand in the ordinary way. bi ast abt mi gn pelt ap ¢ eegltier -tel eee aw siede H paved BRAG desl cca ph “wmeodary ji 9 fir : & watt ys t isieis Pay ree Ne yi & hah « Pte m be vttbe ok i - ses ee : i : 4 " = ves ais trie 5 ; P : 7 ra Fiz : , : ta ae se) ; 3 aA as - , ~ ; aan wins Be ait tr lec x B's. Map teeth 9 Pier 4 . hy * 20 PEN hy # Pee A De aay r wits wa | . MMH i itm (ues: xis} typtteads ear w 4 pate psseeet |, 4. gies pO MMT Aiea s18 to Agu sale Cavan aie SEF aut ib ‘ ; ; haiti a iit “et. PE EH et dew “ Bocas ee Deiguierd aks TEINS cite sh he RTE 0 CER Sa ae IHR {4 in worthy ANS bigkts et eae fhe, abet by rk: Shida. fhe bem ode miay dated ‘ieile’ tis ME it crcuyhd i Pirtieanliys yx yido80 he ) phoney only be telnet maka} p iy ehh Mibverdw + y By tamed ; fy 0G POH ites wal dead sis ade anh = P ee MKT paket (} donnoct Bigeionovding: ahi ie Mostly \ciles tbs BOTT

Va=00T “009 “0117 16 15,000 096 “001 - “010 0130 17 16,000 093 003 "013 “0169 18 17,000 “092 “001 “014 “0182 19 18,000 090+ “002+ “014 *0182 20 19,000 “090 “002 “016 0208 21 20,000 Crushed 002 016 0208 TasLEe V.—Experiments E, on Soft Slate; pressure 4 F Soft Slate. transverse to lamination. 1 50 “088 “000 “000 2 1,000 087 “001 “001 3 2,000 “086+ “001+ “001 4 3,000 “086 “001 "002 5 4,000 “085 “001 “002 6 5,000 “085 “001 003 7 6,000 “079 006 “009 8 7,000 077+ “002+ “009 9 8,000 077+ 002+ “009 10 9,000 077 002 “009 il 10,000 °077 002 009 12 11,000 077 "002 O11 13 12,000 075 “002 013 14 13,000 “060 “015 028 15 14,000 “050 “010 “038 16 15,000 Crushed 010 038 Nore.—The cube E was 0°693 inch on the side, and the necessary reductions haye been made in column 2 and subsequent ones. TC ~~ a0 ON THE TRANSIT-VELOCITY OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES. 227 Tasyie VI.—Experiments F, on Soft Slate; pressure parallel to lamination. Soft Kill Slate. ti Number Compression Compression Total compres- | Total compres- of ies geniiphae - readies of the ee ee due to | sions prodaca sions reanned to experi- |°_ : column the successive by the loads in | a column of unit ment, =1 square inch. of 0°707 inch. loads. column of 0°707. | height=1 inch. lbs. in. in. in. in. 1 50 107 “000 “000 “0000 2 1000 “105 “002 002 “0029 3 2000 102+ “003+ 002 "0029 4 3000 "102 “003 002 "0029 5 4000 “102 003 005 *0072 6 5000 099 "003 *008 0115 7 6000 097 "002 ‘010 "0147 8 7000 “089 008 018 0129 9 8000 -080 009 027 ‘0389 10 8000+ Crushed 009 027 0389 Norr.—The cube F was 0°693 inch on the side, and the necessary reductions have been made in column 2 and subsequent ones. Tas Le VII.—Experiments G, on Soft Quartz; pressure 5 z Soft = uartz. transverse to lamination. 2 y 1 50 093 “000 000 “0000 2 1,000 093 -000 “000 “0000 3 2,000 093 “000 ‘000 -0000 4 3,000 “090 7003 003 0043 5 4,000 “086+ “004+ “003 0043 6 5,000 “086+ 004+ 003 0043 7 6,000 086 “004 003 "0043 8 7,000 “086 “004 007 “0101 9 8,000 “085+ ‘001+ 007 “0101 10 9,000 “085+ “001+ "007 “0101 ll 10,000 085 “001 “008 0115 12 11,000 084 “001 “009 “0129 13 12,000 “081 003 “012 *0176 14 13,000 068 013 025 “0359 15 14,000 060 Crushed before being fully wadded. Nore.—The cube G was 0°694 inch on the side, and the necessary reductions have been made in column 2 and subsequent ones. _ Tasxe VIII.—Experiments H, on Soft Quartz; pressure parallel to lamination. Quartz. ] 50 170 000 “000 “0000 2 1000 144 026 026 0374 3 2000 101+ “043+ “069 “0992 4 3000 101 043 "069 0993 5 4000 100 “001 070 "1007 | 6 5000 099 “O01 ‘071 "1021 | 7 6000 098 001 072 1036 | 8 7000 049 049 021 1741 | 9 7000+ Crushed before the increased load was applied. Nore.—The cube H was 0°695 inch on the side, and the necessary reductions have been made in column 2 and the subsequent ones. Qe 228 REPORT—1861. Taser IX.—Slate Rock.—Results of compression compared.—Column of unit length=1 inch. A x B E F Number Pressure in of pounds on unit Hard slate Hard slate Soft slate Soft slate experi- of surface across lamina. with the * across with the ment, =1 square inch. lamina. lamina. lamina. lbs. in. in. in. in. 1 50 “0000 “0000 -0000 0000 2 1,000 *0052 “0130 0014 0029 3 ZOUORUE = vecenss 0390 4 3,000 SAAC 0403 0029 2 5 4,000 ce *0416)/ SRG) Goce “0072 6 5,000 ae i "0043 “0115 7 GRO) es COM "0129 0147 8 7,000 “0104 “0468 \O0H 1 ~peeae 0259 9 8,000 eee "0494 foun “0389 10 9,000 Seen cannes casted Crushed il 10,000 12 11,000 senses sawiss 0158 13 12,000 “0117 eee 0187 14 13,000 wees ooepee 0404 : 15 14,000 ORE 3: | Meanie 0548 | 16 DS O00 A occas 4 +0520 Crushed 17 G00. Kesees 0533 18 17,000 Skaeee 0572 19 PS U00. onal.) ines - “0585 20 19,000 “0130 21 20,000 22 21,000 23 22,000 24 23,000 0143 25 24,000 Crushed *0624 26 25,000 27 26,000 nuaess *0650 28 27,000 eavcee *0689 29 28,000 tase Crushed 30 29,000 in. in. in. in. Mean compression for “0006217 *0025000 *0039144 0037000 each 1000 Ibs. on up to up to up to up to unit of surface ...... 23,000 lbs. 26,000 lbs. 14,000 Ibs. 7000 Ibs. TABLE X. Quartz Rock.—Results of compression compared.—Column of unit length=1 inch. Cc D G H Ree Eessare in = - t) ounds on unit rt: H { Soft experi- . of Shap ee acre iene with the f pepo: Seo 1 ment. | =1 square inch. lamina, lamina. lamina. Ibs. in. in. in. in. 1 1 50 0000 “0000 “0000 -0000 é 2 1000 "0039 ecacee Ub4)l ) aeereee °0374 ; 3 2000 aaeuve fawan coed 0992 é 4 3000 Fach nite "0043 "0993 4 5 4000 Basins soocacuull J eesees “1007 oe “h, ON THE TRANSIT-VELOCITY OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES. 229 Taste X. (continued.) eT El Cc D G H Number Pressure in of pounds on unit Hard quartz Hard quartz Soft quartz Soft quartz experi-~ of surface across lamina. with the across with the ment. =1 square inch. lamina. lamina, lamina. lbs. in. in. in. in. 6 5,000 oseeve “0052 ri 1021 7 6,000 “Ao PP aecoce, ae ts *1036 8 7,000 Senate iti. [ Snares “0101 1741 9 8,000 0065 eeeues eens Crushed 10 9,000 “0078 11 10,000 ee igual “0115 12 he a oe -0078 "0129 13 LOU hy A Peper rare oon "0176 14 13,000 Seana *0104 *0359 15 EEO 0 Pe a Ne : 0117 Crushed 16 TH000% ti! HOS 5 0130 17 16,000 “0091 0169 18 AOU Oa as lan sacs ° 0182 19 18,000 20 19,000 0104 0208 21 20,000 0117 Crushed 22 21,000 "0156 23 22,000 24 23,000 25 24,000 26 25,000 27 26,000 *0221 28 27,000 29 28,000 30 29,000 31 30,000 32 31,000 : 33 32,000 0234 34 33,000 35 34,000 °0247 36 35,000 37 36,000 0260 38 37,000 Crushed in. in. in. in. Mean compression for “0007085 *0010947 -0014666 0172666 each 1000 lbs. on up to up to up to up to unit of surface ....... 35,000 ibs. 19,000 lbs. 12,000 lbs. 6000 Ibs. An examination of these Tables presents some remarkable and, so far as I am aware, now for the first time observed results. As might have been expected, the quartz-rock is much less compressible generally than the slate-rock, with this exception, however, that the softest specimens of quartz-rock, and those alone, are much more compressible than the softest slate, when both compressed in the direction of or parallel to the lamination. : In this direction of compression, the hardest slate is more than double as compressible as the hardest quartz. When compressed transverse to the lamina, however, the hard slate and hard quartz prove to have very nearly the same coefficient of compres- sibility, which is very small for both; while the softest slate. and the softest quartz, compressed in the same way (transverse to lamina), have also nearly _ the same coefficient of compressibility, but one about four times as great as for the hardest like rocks. These facts point towards the circumstance of the original deposit and formation of these rocks as their efficient causes. Both rocks consist of 230 REPORT—1861. particles more or less wedge-shaped and flat, and angular fragments more or less crystalline, deposited together, with their larger dimensions in the planes of lamination, which lamination has been produced by enormous compression in a direction transverse to its planes. Hence the mass of these rocks has already been subjected to enormous compression in the same direction as that in which we now find their further compressibility the least. But, besides that we might from this cause alone anticipate a higher compressibility when the pressure is applied to them parallel to the lamination, another condition comes into play: their aggregation of flat, wedge-shaped particles, when thus pressed edgeways, tends powerfully to their mutual lateral expansion, and hence to their giving way in the line of pressure. The per-saltum way in which all the specimens of both rocks yield, in whatever direction pressed, is another noteworthy circumstance. On examining the Tables I. to VIII., it will be seen that the compressions do not constantly advance with the pressure, but that, on the contrary, the rock occasionally suffers almost no sensible compression for several successive increments of pressure, and then gives way all at once (though without having lost cohesion, or having its elasticity permanently impaired) and com- presses thence more or less for three or four or more successive increments of pressure, and then holds fast again, and so on. This phenomenon is pro- bably due’to the mass of the rock being made up of intermixed particles of several different simple minerals, each having specific differences of hardness, cohesion, and mutual adhesion, and which are, in the order of their resist ances to pressure, in succession broken down, before the final disruption of the whole mass (weakened by these minute internal dislocations) takes place. Thus it would appear that the micaceous plates and aluminous clay- particles interspersed through the mass give way first. The chlorite in the slate, and probably felspar-crystals in the quartz-rock, next, and so on in order, until finally the elastic skeleton of silex gives way, and the rock is crushed. It is observable, also, that this successive disintegration does not occur at equal pressures, in the same quality and kind of rock, when com- pressed transverse and parallel to the lamination. It follows from this con- stitution of these (and probably of all) rocks that very different powers of transmitting wave-impulses must arise when the originating forces vary considerably in amount produced of primary compression. It is almost superfluous also to point out the great differences in wave-transmissive power in directions transverse and paraliel to lamination that these experiments dis- close. They prove to us that, in an earthquake shock of given original power, the vibrations will have the largest amplitude when transmitted in the line of lamination, but may be propagated with the greatest velocity in directions transverse to the same, assuming in both cases the rock solid and unshattered. In Table XII. the general results are deduced, and the mean compressions for each of the rocks calculated, and finally the moduli of elasticity are obtained, in pounds and in feet ; the specific gravities adopted in calculating the latter being those given in the body of the paper, as follows :— Tasie XI. Weight of a prism 1 foot long and 1 inch square. sp. gr. Tbs. Hardest Slate ....... sus Spada UE 2°763 ~ 1°1992 Softest Slate .....-...+6 Bs ee pede 2°746 1:1918 Hardest, Quaxtaeesaserct=sscvepe--s cues 2°656 1:1528 DOLMest, QUALIZ ceetanessretes ers CoPAnebace 2°653 11515 Mean ‘for Slate sesccceesrcccccerstinescck- 2°7545 1°1955 Mean for Quartz .)ci.s.cdec.eccdecacvues 2°6545 1°1522 General mean for both rocks ......... 2°7045 11739 bh 231 ON THE TRANSIT-VELOCITY OF EARFHQUAKE WAVES. 1693-9 O6FF-8 VI6LY OOTL-O1 F6P9-F OLE-G G¢89-€ G{19-11 LYLLG 801Z-1 0&68-F OFE8-1 TPG9-S O€8L-2 GEVGT at § quatro “1y209 G19'680'T BGS ‘Shs 17S‘99S'T F89'SLF SFL‘6FS'T ocr'066E 690'FF8'T LLY‘TSZ PLS‘eel'l 669'096°% 69LTL0'T £10'296'E SLL'199'T SSL‘IZ1'9 FES'90L'9 "4a0y “AL “AyIOTysvya jo sn[npoy, 660°622'1 668216 088‘298'T Lz9'FFS £06°Z19'T 1ol‘L6c'F C8o'F06'S 915'68z Tse‘ 1S¢'T 9FZ GOP'S Ges Lal 19F L9¢°F 000°000‘% e9Z¢0'L FOF'ZFO'S “Sql *AyOyseya jo snjnpoyy 86891 lbawAl #8991 Ica 920'ST BEL‘ZS 11891 8h6‘9 ages SSL‘t 98G‘ST GFE‘ LT G1g'Ss C60'CE ¥10‘02 “qaay *(uoIs -saudai0d) uolsatjoo 0S2'61 OSL'6I OSL‘8I 000‘F1 00081 00S'SZ 00S‘6I 000‘8 000'6 000'FT 000‘ST 000‘0% 000'LZ 000'L8 000'F% “Sql 2005 -Ims jo 41un 9} UO proy jo snjnpoyy | Surqsnag 629'S1 0sZ‘9T 008'F1 000‘ZT 000‘81 00¢'9T 000‘LT 000‘2 000'9 000'TT 00061 000°LT 000'8T 000‘zE 000'ZZ “Sq[ *moIssaad -W09 IOJ UT] ONselA 0606£00- OFETSO0- 0¥89600- 9081600: 0001E00- ¢£80100- 0896600- 999ZL10- 000L€00- 999F 100+ VPI6E00- L¥60100- 000S200- ¢80£000- £129000- “UL “ST OOOT 1OF aoRj.ins yun jo yua1oyyjeog — Le sae puv ¢[ SON) suOoeTpP Y4Oq UT pue Jos pue pavy ‘zz1enb pur oje[s oF Uo [e1oNIy { seeeeanabensceessessensessavasreneessesess (77 DUB OT "SON ) SUOTIDAITP Y}0q 1OJ ULM “yJOs pu pavy ‘zeny { ree ee eT eee reer ere rer rrr rrr rer rrr TT ree Gai pue 6 *SON) SUOTJAIIp YOq 10F UvIUT ‘Jos pue pavy ‘o}eI9 *suvau fo upau paznjnajn) UOTJVUIMIL] 07 7aynLnd 7/08 puv puny IOJ URIUT ‘zjIeNy “MONBUIMILT 02 2ayyvund 2fos puv puny 10} URatA ‘azRIg “** LONVULMR[ ssouoD Pfos puy pany JO; BAU ‘Zq1BUy “""* TOLBUIUIL] SsoLon Zfos puD pany LOY UBAUT ‘d4R[g *subaue paqvjngyvy soteseeevenscoreree TOTQBUTUB] 07 ayvund gsazfos ‘z\1eNe sraseeeeescerereereees TLOTIBUTUIR] OF qaynund ysap fos ‘garg “ TorjeUTMe] ssouon psazfos ‘z,.1eNy sseenesecesecseesssee sees TOT BUIOIG] S80000 qsazfos ‘aqeIS seoeeeeeoneees TOTIVUIMME] Of Jaz/vADd Jsapuny ‘zy1eN * MOIeULUIR] 07 gayDund ysapuvy ‘d4e1S eeneee So Sae ee eo oe OM CMLL I SSOMID psapapy WAR UI) Pe Rome w eee eee erseereeste UOVULWE] SSOu0D psapany ‘a4R1S *OINJONAYS 04 uo uorssaidmos | uorejer ur aInsseid jo uoTjOaIp puB ‘YoY Jo sse[O ‘ZyAUNH pue oyvjg—'o»y ‘Ajo1}sepy JO pue uolsayo) Jo snnpoy “p9onpad s}pnsea [eauary ‘TIX TTAV[—NOIssauaWog A00Y AVAHATOTFT ao = eA H If ONO “ON 232° ‘ REPORT—1861. In Table XII. the load on the unit of surface (1 square inch) at which the elastic limit of the rock is passed, and that at which it is finally crushed, together with the modulus of cohesion or resistance to compression, are also given, and will be useful to the engineer and architect. In the last column, the value of my own modification of Poncelet’s coetficient T, (la force vive de rupture) is calculated in foot pounds, and represents the relative work done at fracture in each case. To apply the results thus obtained to those of experimental wave-trans- mission at Holyhead. Poisson has shown (Traité de Mécanique, vol. ii. p. 319) that the velocity of wave-transmission (sound) in longitudinal vibrations of elastic prisms is vu94 ' Ra ane er ¢ | When g has its usual relation to gravity, 7 and p are thedength and weight of the prism, and =*, A being a weight that is capable of elongating the prism by an amount=<¢/, or extending it to the length i(1xé). Substituting, we have vas é pe’ but A: W::6:1, W being the weight capable of doubling the length of the prism. Therefore or V= VgL- gf 0) Shela a, eee So that L being the modulus of elasticity of the solid, expressed in feet, the velocity of wave-transmission through it, if absolutely homogeneous and unbroken, is V=5674V/L: = «|. «se eel Where, owing tu want of homogeneity, or to shattering, or other such con- dition, as found in natural rock, the experimental value of V differs from the above theoretic one, we may still express the former by the same general form of equation— Via Eo. a in which the coefficient « expresses the ratio to g that the actual or experi- mental bears to the theoretic (or maximum possible) velocity of wave-trans- mission. In the slate- and quartz-rocks of Holyhead, I ascertained the mean lowest velocity of wave-transmission (for small explosions or impulses) to be 1089 feet per second (omitting decimals), the mean highest velocity 1352 feet per second, and the general mean velocity from all, 1220 feet per second. Applying Eq. IV. to these numbers, and adopting the values of L given in Table XII. (mean of Nos. 9 and 10), we obtain —— VL and for the three preceding velocities, « has the following values :— ON THE TRANSIT-VELOCITY OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES. 233 1089 1089 bicolV SS eereee SoS => ———_ = (J ? IDES “= "79917262 1708 9 o> 1352 Bi Va 988 Deis dis eS ee 01 ¥ 2917462 1708 1220 ee ee W2917262 1708" — The actual velocity of wave-transmission in the slate and quartz together, therefore, was to the theoretic velocity due to the solid material as a: Wg or 0°714 : 5°674, or 1:00: 7°946. From which it results, that nearly seven-eighths of the full velocity of wave- transmission due to the material is lost by reason of the heterogeneity and discontinuity or shattering of the rocky mass, as it is found piled together in nature. This loss would be proportionately larger with still smaller originating impulses, and vice versd, but in what proportion we are not at present in a position to know. If we may for a moment allude to final causes, we cannot but be struck with this beneficent result (amongst others) arising from the shatterea and broken-up condition of ali the rocky masses forming the habitable surface of our globe, viz. that the otherwise enormous transit-velocity of the wave-form in earthquake shocks is by this simple means so reduced. That this retardation is mainly effected by the multiplied subdivisions of the rock, and in a very minor degree by differences in the elastic moduli of rock of different species, is apparent on examining the Tables IV. and V. of the previous part of this Report referring to the experiments at Holyhead. Although, therefore, we are now enabled, from what precedes, to calcu- late values for a, for the slate rocks and for the quartz of Holyhead, sepa- rately, and thus obtain separate values for V’, for each of those rocks; the result would probably be more or less delusive, as we have no possible means of deciding what is the relative amount of shattering and disconti- nuity for equal horizontal distances, in each of these two rocks; nor what the relative retarding powers, of planes of separation running in variable directions, and at all possible angles, across the line of wave-transit, as compared with their retarding powers, if either all transverse to, or all in the same direction as, the wave-path. The greatest possible mean velocity of wave-propagation, im rock as per- fectly solid and unshattered as our experimental cubes, is determinable for both slate and quartz in the two directions of transmission, viz. transverse to and in the line of lamination, from Eq. III., and the mean values of L in Nos. 9 and 10, and 11 and 12, Table XII., as follows :-— ft. per sec. - Mean of slate and quartz aaa V=5-674 2917262 =9691 EO SABNAAG ION i oo ti6 56 05500.8, 015 Mean of slate and quartz in line of lamination \ V=5:674/ 910914 =5415, both in round numbers; or the transverse is to the parallel transit-rate nearly as 1°8: [:0. This great difference of velocity, due to the difference in the molecular properties of the material of the rocks in their opposite directions, is, as our Holyhead experiments prove, almost wholly obliterated by the vastly in- 234 REPORT—186l. creased degree of discontinuity and shattering, in the directions approaching that of lamination, or transverse to the wave-path in the first case. It is necessary to guard against any misconception as to the import of this result. The fact ascertained and just enunciated is this, that the velocity of wave-transmission is greater in the material of these rocks in a direction across their lamination than in one longitudinal to the same, provided or assuming the material be perfectly unshattered in both—as homogeneous, in fact, as the small speecimen-cubes experimented upon. And were the whole mass of the rock, as it lies in the mountain-bed, as homogeneous as such cubes, then the velocity of wave-transmission would actually be greater across long ranges of natural lamination, than edgeways to them. The oppo- site, however, is often the case; the wave-transit period is slower as the range of rocky mass is more shattered, discontinuous and dislocated. These conditions most affect rocks in nature in or about their planes of bedding, lamination, &¢., and hence most retard wave-impulses transverse to these planes; so that the more rapid wave-transmissive power of the material of the rock in a direction transverse to the lamination may be more than counterbalanced by the discontinuity of its mass transverse to the same direction. The results of Wertheim, on the transmission of sound in timber, proved the velocity to be greatest in a direction longitudinal to the fibres and annual layers of wood; less in a direction perpendicular to the same, and radially outwards from the centre of the tree towards its exterior ; and least of all in a direction, guam proz., parallel to the annual rings, and per- pendicular to the longitudinal fibres; that is to say, in each case the velocity of sound was rapid in proportion to the less compressibility of the wood in the same direction. His results might seem at first to conflict with those which I have announced. Any such conclusion, however, would be a mistake; on the contrary, my results perfectly analogize with those above alluded to. - The difference between the cases is, that wood in mass, however large, is practically homogeneous and unshattered, and that tts direction of least compressibility is longitudinal to its lamine (or annual layers) ; whereas the direction of least compressibility of rock is transverse to its lamine which have been already powerfully compressed in this direction. In fact, as respects the question here in point, there is no true analogy in strueture between the lamination (by annual rings) of wood, and the lamination or bedding of rock. It follows from what precedes, that earthquakes and rocks, as both ac- tually occur in nature,—the rocks being of a stratified or laminated form (generally all sedimentary rocks),—must present the following conditions as to rate of transit of shock :— Ist. If such rocks were perfectly unshattered, and the beds or lamine in absolute contact, the shock would be transmitted more rapidly across these than in their own direction. The difference is more in favour of the transverse line, in proportion as the rock is made up more of angular sedimentary particles of very unequal dimensions, the longest being parallel to the general lamination, and in proportion as the imbedding paste is softer in relation to such particles. Some sedimentary rocks no doubt exist, made up of particles perfectly uniform and equal in all three dimensions, and without imbedding paste— such as the lithographic stones of Germany, the Apennine marl-beds, &c., in which (assuming the above condition as to continuity) the transit-period would be alike in all directions probably. 2nd. The actual amount of shattering and discontinuity in nature being a tee ON THE TRANSIT-VELOCITY OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES. 235 _ usually greatest, upon the whole, in planes parallel to bedding or lamination, _ the transit-rate of shock is most generally fastest in the line of the beds or lamination, rather than across them. Or, at least, this latter condition may interfere with the former to the extent of partial, complete, or more than complete obliteration. I am not aware that any experiments have previously been made upon the compressibility, &c., of the slate- and quartz-rocks of Holyhead ; and as these rocks are being employed there upon a vast scale for submarine building works, it may not be out of place to draw a few conclusions of a character useful to the practical engineer from the data that have been ob- tained. Some conclusions may be drawn which are applicable to all classes of laminated rocks in the hands of the engineer. It is a very prevalent belief that slate-rock (for example), in the form of the sawed roofing-slate of Anglesea or of Valentia (Ireland), will bear a much greater compressive load when the pressure is in the direction of the lamine, than in one across them. ‘This the preceding experiments prove to be wholly a mistake—one that has very probably arisen from some vague notion of an analogy with timber compressed the end-way of the rain. C It is now certain that Silurian slates and quartz-rock, and probably all sedimentary laminated rocks, whether with cleavage or not, are much weaker to resist a crushing force edgeways to the lamina, than across the same, and that the range of compressibility is much greater, for equal loads, in the former direction. The facts now ascertained as to the great relative compressibility of lami- nated rock in the direction of the laminz also points out the reason of the great bearing power to sustain impulsive loads, which the toughest and most cohesive examples of slate-rocks, such as the slates of Caernarvonshire, present ; for there can be no grounds to doubt that the high compressibility of rocks of this structure in the plane of the lamina is also accompanied with a high coefficient of extensibility, although probably confined within much narrower limits as to inceptive injury to perfect continuity. My experiments point out, that the Silurian slate of Holyhead (the mean both of the hard and the soft) is crushed by a load across the lamina of _ about 1250 tons per square foot, and that its molecular arrangement is per- manently injured at a little more than 1000 tons per square foot. The quartz-rock (the mean of both hard and soft) is crushed by a load, applied in the same manner, of 1630 tons per square foot, and its molecular arrangement is permanently injured at less than 1000 tons per super foot. The quartz-rock gives the highest measure of ultimate resistance, but it is the less trustworthy material when loaded heavily. Neither of these sorts of rock, if loaded so as to be pressed zn the direction of the lamina, would sustain more than about 07 of the above loads at the crushing-point and at that of permanent injary, respectively. From the extreme inequality found within narrow limits in both rocks as quarried, neither should be trusted fer safe load in practice with more than about 5th of the mean load that impairs their molecular arrangement, as ascertained from selected specimens, or (say) not to more than 50 tons per square foot _ for passive or 25 tons per square foot for impulsive loads. The high relative compressibility of laminated rocks in the direction of the lamina might probably be made advantageous use of, where they are employed as a building material, for the construction of revetment or other walls of batteries exposed to the stroke of cannon shot, by building the work (under suitable arrangements to obviate splitting up) with the planes 236 REPORT—1861. of the laminz in the direction of the line of fire, z.e. perpendicular to the faces of the work; for on inspecting the last column in Table XII. which con- tains the values of T, under the several conditions of rock and of compres- sion, it is at once apparent how much greater is the “ work done” in crushing the slates and the quartz in their toughest and most compressible direction, z.e.in the direction of the lamina. Twice as much work is, upon the average, consumed in crushing the rock in this direction, that suffices to destroy its cohesion in the one transverse to the lamina; and the proportion in the two, in the case of the softest quartz (Nos. 5 and 8), is as much as about jive to one. It would be unsuitable, however, to the present memoir to pursue further here such practical deductions suggested by the results obtained experi- mentally. On the Explosions in British Coal-Mines during the year 1859. By Tuomas Dosson, B.A., Head Master of the School Frigate “ Con- way,” Liverpuol. In my Report “On the Relation between Explosions in Coal-mines and Re- volving Storms,” read at the Meeting of this Association, at Glasgow, in 1855, I have given my reasons for thiuking that the freedom of the atmo- sphere of a mine from noxious gases, and the occasional abundant issue of such gases into a mine, are ia a great measure dependent upon certain con- ditions of the pressure and temperature of the external atmosphere. ‘This dependence is, indeed, a consequence so direct and obvious of the first prin- ciples of pneumatics, that we may speak with certainty of the kind of influ- ence exerted by the atmosphere in restraining or augmenting the flow of in- flammable gases into a mine ; and we have only to inquire whether this influ- ence is ever exercised to such a degree as to charge a mine up to the point of explosion. It is, I think, now generally admitted that a high atmospheric pressure tends to check the issue of gases into the workings of a mine, and that a low pressure favours their copious effusion from the broken coal and deserted goaves. It is also evident that a low temperature of the external air makes the ventilation of a mine brisk and effective, while a high temperature of the air above renders the ventilation sluggish, and causes the gases to accumulate below. I have compared the dates of all the fatal explosions in British coal-mines, as given in the Reports of the Government Inspectors of Mines, with the corresponding barographical and thermographical records for several years, and find that this comparison tends to confirm in a very striking manner the conclusions arrived at in my Report of the year 1855. Were the Government Inspectors to give in their Reports the dates of all explosions of gases in mines, whether fatal or not, and also the dates of days when mines have been in a dangerous state from the abundance of gas, but explosion avoided, the evidence of atmospheric influence would soon be placed beyond doubt. Seeing that the great atmospheric disturbances with which we are here concerned generally extend nearly simultaneously over Britain and the adjacent countries of the Continent, I have been at some pains to obtain the dates of all the great explosions in the coal-mines of France and Belgium; but I was told at the Ecole des Mines, in Paris, that they had no a : f cue Fi ¥ " ~ ae . P ‘ x © 7 . : : ~ ; } a fee . e al i ‘ . z i rs a " af hs ja 7 e e: . - i ot © i ' F is i } hj r 5 A ty rf ? _—— § ‘ lt» hee bs - * no eR ies = j trite ye ‘ ‘ > at i, > a ie | ; a aren - en = ' » 2 a . hd yi % , Ss ; * eo woe eo ; ‘ yar 7 . 2 ¢ - : . - ** é +. - a ' ? a me ‘ P * - 7 . : ; § ’ ; ae . ‘ ; * . ak 7 c _ ‘ ' tPA s auth iy. 3 1 ate in on > * . “S “TL GZ “ULOE Of hemor u'r Wosgay OMLOU“T, ‘G AP ‘T99T ‘OOSSK : qT podny Py Te : “Ter ue ed ot ve ausrer : ToOL ON THE EXPLOSIONS IN BRITISH COAL-MINES. 237 such record, and a communication with the director of the mines of Belgium was also fruitless. The dates for the year 1859 ofall the fatal explosions in the coal-fields of England, Scotland, and Wales are marked in the meteorological diagram (Plate V.), in which one day is represented by a horizontal space of one- twentieth of an inch, and 20° Fahr. by a vertical height of one inch. For the meteorological data I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Milner, the surgeon of Wakefield Prison, where the instruments are read every six hours, night and day. The portion of the diagram for the months of October and November, showing the state of the atmosphere during the passage of the ‘ Royal Charter’ storm, has been compared with observations made at Oxford, Kew, Stonyhurst College, Lancashire, and the Bishop’s-rock Lighthouse, Scilly Isles ; and the general agreement fully warrants the selec- tion of the Wakefield curves as a fair type of the state of our atmosphere during the year 1859. The curve of mean temperature is from results in a paper by Mr. Glaisher in the ‘ Transactions of the Royal Society ’ for 1850. If there were no connexion whatever between the weather and the condi- tions that favour an explosion in a coal-mine, it would be found that the 70 or 80 vertical lines that denote fatal explosions would be scattered, as if by chance, over the whole diagram, without any apparent reference to the great depressions in the barometric curve, or to-the great and sudden rises in the thermometric curve, But this is not the case in any of the years that I have examined. On the contrary, it is found that the lines of explosion have a very decided tendency to group themselves about the few great atmospheric perturbations of each year ; and to leave a very conspicuous and highly sig- nificant blank in spaces, of a whole month’s duration oceasionally, where the pressure has been uniformly high and the temperature moderate. In the 68 explosions of 1859 are found three dense groups and a number of equally instructive blanks. The first group falls between the 11th of January and the 17th of Febru- ary, during which period the diagram shows that even the nocturnal tem- perature was considerably above the mean daily temperature, and the baro- metric curve exhibits a succession of deep indentations marking the passage of a series of storms. The dates and localities of the explosions forming this group are :— January 11, Bewdley. January 29, Aberdare, S. Wales. 12, Atherstone. February 2, Dudley. 15, Huddersfield. 3, Coatbridge, Scotland. 17, Ayr, Scotland. 9, Willenhall. 19, Wigan. ——— 12, Wednesbury. 25, Stevenston, Scotland. —— 17, Wigan. 29, Burslem, Staffordshire. Two cases of death from suffocation by gas fall within this group, viz.,— On February 1, at St. Helen’s, and — 18, at Tiviotdale, Rowley Regis. An interval of a fortnight follows, with a high atmospheric pressure, and no fatal accidents in mines from gas. During March, and the first week of April, the temperature is far above the mean, and two well-characterized cyclones send the mercury in the baro- meter at Wakefield down to 28-83 on the 14th, and to 28°91 on the 28th. The second great group of 14 explosions falls in this interval; 8 explosions happening within 8 consecutive days—exactly coinciding with one of the 238 REPORT—1861. greatest disturbances both of pressure and temperature during the whole year. The dates are :— March 3, Fenton. March 29, Dudley. 9, Framwellgate, Durham. 31, St. Helen’s, Lancashire. —— 14, Whiston, Lancashire. April 1, Congleton. —— 17, Sheffield. 1, Merthyr. —— 21, Wrexham. 4, Kilmarnock. —— 24, Coatbridge, Scotland. 5, Hilda, Durham. — 29, Hopton, Manchester. 5, Leeds. A miner was suffocated by gas at Aberdare on the 3rd of March. No more great groups occur until October; but there is scarcely a single explosion that does not point to atmospheric influences, and in some eases in a very unmistakeable manner, as those of the 27th and 28th June, after the maximum thermometer had marked 81° F. and 80°75 F. on the two pre- ceding days, and the minimum thermometer showed 57°25 F. and 58°25 F. ; and the two explosions on the 12th July, the maximum thermometer having marked 85°25 F. and 90° F., and the minimum thermometer 52°25 F. and 67°50 F. on the two preceding days. It will also be observed that there is an entire absence of explosions from July 30 to August 31, a period of high atmospheric pressure and mean temperature. The dates of explosions from April 5 to the end of September are :— April 16, Holywell. N. Wales. June 28, Wigan, Lancashire. — 20, Wakefield. July 12, St. Helen’s, Lane. 97, Aberdare. —— 12, Wakefield. May 9, Airdrie, Scotland. 30, Tolleross, Scotland. 17, Pendleton, Manchester. Aug. 31, Stevenston, Scotland. June 3, Nantyglo, Wales. Sept. 3, Walsall. — 11, Church, Manchester. —— 16, Tipton. — 16, Bilston. — 26, Radcliffe, Manchester. —— 27, Tredegar, Wales. The dates of fatal accidents from suffocation by gas during this period are :— May 18, Bathgate, Scotland. July 8, Halifax. July 5, Chesterton. Aug. 16, Aberdare. In the beginning of October the temperature was unusually high, even the minimum thermometer ranging above the mean for several days. On the 7th and 8th the reading of the minimum thermometer at Wakefield was 56° F., and three fatal explosions happen on the latter day. On the 18th began a remarkable atmospheric paroxysm which lasted until the 10th of Novem- ber, and of which the ‘Royal Charter’ sterm, on the 26th October, was only a portion. During this interval there were lost by shipwreck on the British coasts 877 lives and 77 vessels. On the very day that the ‘ Royal Charter’ steamship was lost in a violent storm, there occurred three fatal ex- plosions, two in England and one in Scotland. The October group contains 14 explosions, to which may be added 4 cases of death from suffocation by gas, of which the respective dates and localities are :— Oct. 3, Walsall. Oct. 8, Robert’s Town, Leeds. 5, Seacroft, Leeds. 12, Newport, Shropshire. —— 7, Dudley (suffocation). ——. 14, Aberdare, South Wales. -—— 8, Prescot, St. Helen’s. — 14, Heaton, Northumber- —— 8, Pendlebury, Manchester. land (suffocation). in orenlin Wes 9 Nn cn aie ™ ON STEAM NAVIGATION AT HULL. 239 Oct. 17, Groveland Pit, Rowley Oct. 22, Washington, Durham. Regis (suffocation). —— 24, N. Bitchburn, Crook. — 18, Tiviotdale Pit, Rowley —— 26, Tipton. Regis. —— 26, Longton. — 20, Hampstead (suffocation). —— 26, Tollcross, Scotland. 22, Dean Hall, Leeds. It is instructive to compare this group of accidents in October, when the atmospheric conditions were highly favourable to the presence of inflam- mable gases in coal-mines, with the entire blank shown by the diagram in August, when the atmospheric conditions were as decidedly of an opposite tendency. The only fatal accidents from gas in mines during November and Decem- ber were by explosions, thus :— Nov. 2, Royton, Manchester. Dec. 1, Burton-on-Trent. 11, Donnington. 6, Walker. — 14, Dukinfield. —— 24, Atherton. —— 924, Royton, Manchester. —— 26, Ormskirk, Lancashire. — 26, Wakefield. —— 28, Leeds. Continuation of Report on Steam Navigation at Hull. By ‘James O.puay, C.E., Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers. In 1853, when I made iny first Report to the British Association on the rise and progress of steam navigation at Hull, we had twenty-one sea-going and twenty-three river steamers; now we have sixty-six sea-going and twenty- five river steamers belonging to the port. There are also belonging to places on the waters of the Humber, more or less, but chiefly trading with our port, twenty-six steam-vessels of different kinds, and there are about twenty to twenty-three steam-ships belonging to other English ports and foreign states regularly trading to Hull, giving a total of about 140 in one way or other using the port of Hull; while in 1853 the total fleet of every class and country amounted to eighty-one, giving an increase of fifty-nine. Notwithstanding the many losses and changes which have occurred amongst our steam-vessels since my Report at Aberdeen two years ago, I am enabled to say that we never possessed so numerous and so fine a fleet as at the present time,—a fleet which, for efficiency and seaworthiness, may compare, tonnage for tonnage, with any other port. It is not, however, the number of steam-ships connected with the port that is the true criterion on which to judge of an advance or otherwise, but the amount of tonnage of actual business performed on which we can draw true conclusions ; and I find as a proof, that while in 1840 the gross tonnage (steam and sailing) on which dock dues were paid amounted only to 652,508, in 1852 it had reached 799,866, and in 1860 it had attained 1,215,203 tons ; and while the actual steam tonnage in 1840 only amounted to 174,832, in 1852 it had reached 305,021, and in 1860 it was found to be 603,328, having within a fraction doubled in eight years. And what is still more remarkable is, that although steam is fast taking the lead, and has so wonderfully advanced, the sailing-ship tonnage has also in a most astonishing ratio increased ; for in 1840 this class of tonnage amounted to 477,676, in 1852 to 494,845, and in 1860 to no less than 611,875 tons. 240 REPORT—1861. The above statements of tonnage relate solely to inward traffic, and not outward. These facts not only justify the Dock Company in the steps they are now taking to extend the dock-space and wharfage-accommodation so imperatively demanded, but will show the necessity of still further providing for the great increase of space which, from the rapidly growing trade, and the increase in number and size of our steam-ships, we may fairly anticipate will shortly be wanted. To check and hold back the supply of necessary water-space is to produce a retrograde effect; and not to meet the wants of the port is to encourage any rivals who may be ambitious enough to attempt to take our trade from us. Great inconvenience has long been felt by steam-ship owners for want of more extended accommodation. At present the total area of the dock is under 43 acres for the whole of the shipping; but to give the facilities required it ought to be double that amount. An extension of 17 acres is, however, at once to be added to the present space in the construction of the Western Dock, specially for the steam-shipping, in addition too of an enlarged entrance tidal basin to be common to the Humber and Western Docks. ~ Let therefore the Dock Company be true to its own real interests and those of the port at large, and long delays and expensive conflicts in obtaining the necessary accommodation for the rapidly increasing fleet of steamers will no longer be known and felt, and Hull, which has long held the proud position of the third British port, will still continue to maintain that honourable post. With the young and vigorous new blood recently imported into the directory of the Company, and with its active, talented, and enterprising officers at the head of its executive, the port asks for and expects extension of dock-space and every modern and improved appliance, to facilitate all the varied opera- tions, and to meet liberally all its rapidly growing wants. I have only to add that during the last ten years upwards of 120 steam- ships have been built and equipped at the port of Hull, several of which are from 1000 to 3000 tons burthen, reflecting the highest credit both on the builders as well as on the port. Austrian Chambers, Hull, August 1861. Brief Summary of a Report on the Flora of the North of Ireland. By Professor G. Dicxigz, M.D. Tue district to which the Report refers comprehends that part of Ireland which lies to the north of a line passing to the west from Dundalk, em- bracing ten entire counties and part. of other two. The information respecting the native flora of this district has been derived mainly from the following sources :—Dr. Mackay’s ‘Flora of Ireland ;’ a valuable list contributed by D. Moore, Esq., of the Glasnevin Botanic Garden ; notes contributed by Mr. Hyndman, of Belfast ; the MSS. of the late Mr. Templeton, of Cranmore, liberally placed at my disposal by Mrs. Templeton; and lastly, records of species observed by myself during ex- cursions to different parts of the north of Ireland. Details will be given in the full Report for insertion in the next volume of the Transactions of the Association. It will be sufficient here to give a summary of the results. The standard adopted is the ‘ British Flora,’ by Sir W. J. Hooker and Prof. Arnott; and in order to bring out the botanical features of the district, the types of Mr. Watson (in his ‘ Cybele Britannica’) afford the best means for comparison. ine lenn eae PSYCHICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE MINCOPIES. 241 The total number of species of Pheenogams in the district may be estimated at 725. In the entire flora of the United Kingdom, those of the English type are 396, the Scottish 68, Highland 108, Germanic 196, Atlantic 60. In the district there are 166 of the English type, 39 Scottish, 22 Highland, 17 Atlantic, and 3 only of the Germanic type; the remainder of course embracing those of general occurrence in Britain, hence called the British type. "The fora therefore is characterized by a large admixture of species belonging to the English and Scottish types, with a fair proportion of those called Western or Atlantic; the number of Highland species is small, as miglit have been expected, owing to the physical characters of the country ; those of the Germanic type are still fewer, only three out of 196 British species being referred to that type. On the Psychical and Physical Characters of the Mincopies, or Natives of the Andaman Islands, and on the Relations thereby indicated to other Races of Mankind. By Professor Owen, F.R.S. &e. [A communication ordered to be printed among the Reports. ] Tur Andaman Islands extend from 10° 32! to 13° 10! N. lat., and are situ- ated in 92° 30' E. long.: they are divided into Great and Little; the former, consisting of three islands, called North, Middle, and South Andamans, are so closely contiguous as to form one tract of 140 miles long, and not more than 20 miles across the greatest breadth, having a surface of 2800 square miles, and inhabited by a race of undersized or dwarf blacks, notorious for their audacity and implacable hostility to all strangers. The skin is of a sooty darkness; the hair of the head black, crisp, apparently short, and growing in small detached tufts; the nose is broad, short, and rather flat, but not parti- cularly widened at the end, with the expanded nostrils of the Guinea negro; the lips are thick, but less prominent than in the Guinea negro: they are said to shave off or eradicate the hair of the face, except the eyelashes; it is doubtful, at least, whether naturally they are devoid, as they appear, of beard, moustaches, and whiskers. The hands and feet are small; but the heel does not project, as in some African negroes. The following notices of the habits and manners of the Mincopies, or natives of the Andamans, are condensed from the ‘‘ Reports’’ of the able Superintendents and Surveyors of the convict settlements recently established by the East Indian Government on these islands; particularly from the state- ment of a Brahmin Sepoy, one of the transported mutineers, who, aiter esca- ping from the convict establishment, passed upwards of a year (from April 23, 1858, to May 17, 1859) with a tribe of Andamaners*. His statement accorded with previous accounts, that the diminutive aborigines of these islands have no notions of a Deity or a future state; that both sexes go naked. _ They generally inhabit the jungle along the sea-coast ; but are migratory, rarely residing many days in one spot. ‘They are divided into parties of from twenty to three hundred, including the usual proportion of males and females, adults and children; all having similar features, colour of skin and eyes, the same language, habits, and customs. After puberty, the females have promiscuous sexual intercourse, save with their own father, until they are chosen or allotted as a wife, when she is required to be faithful to her hus- * Selections from the Records of the Government of India, No. XXV., “ Andaman Islands,” Preface, p.vi. Iam indebted to General Sir Proby Cautley, F.R.S., for a copy of this volume. 1861. R 242 REPORT—1861l. band, whom she serves. Brothers may have connexion with their sisters until the latter are married. Sexual connexion may take place before the men, women, and children of the party. ‘‘ If any married or single man goes to an unmarried woman, and she declines to have intercourse with him, by sitting up or going to another part of the circle, he considers himself insulted, and, unless restrained, would kill or wound her. Ihave seena young woman severely wounded in the thigh in such a case. All the women ran away into the jungle, and the men who restrained the violent man from further wounding her seemed to regard the matter lightly, as they laughed while they held him back*.” The bridegroom and bride smear their bodies in stripes with red earth moistened with turtle-oil, and squat on leaves spread over the ground ten or twelve paces apart. They sit in silence for about an hour. The man who marries them takes the bridegroom by the hand and leads him to where the bride is, and having seated him, without saying a word, presents him with five or six iron-headed arrows, and leaves them sitting in silence by each other until it is dark. A pregnant woman performs her duties almost to the time labour com- mences. The party halts an extra day when she is confined. Several female friends collect around the woman in labour to assist her by punkahing away the flies and mosquitos. When the child is about to be born, she stands up, supported by the females, spreads out her legs, and the child is taken into the hands of one of the women ready to receive it. The umbilical cord is cut, about a finger’s breadth from the body, but no ligature is applied. The afterbirth is allowed to be voided without assistance. Some hours after, the mother is anointed with the usual unguent of red earth and turtle-oil: she eats and drinks as usual. Convalescence is very rapid; and if the party has to move on the morrow, the recently-delivered woman accompanies them on foot. The child is washed in cold fresh water, poured upon it either from a bamboo water-vessel or a shell. Its wet body is dried by the hand, which is heated before the fire, and quickly and repeatedly but very gently applied. Any woman of the party who is suckling gives the new-born child her breast for a day or two untilits mother’s milk comes: children are suckled as long as their mothers have milk to give them. If it rains during a march, a few leaves are sewn together with rattan, and used as a covering for the infant. The parents are fond of the children, and reciprocally. The men go into the jungle to hunt for pigs; the women stay in the en- campment, supply the drinking-water, firewood, catch fish and shell-fish, cook the food ready for the men’s return, make small fishing-nets, baskets, and spin twine. They catch the fish left by the ebb-tide by means of a small hand-net stretched over a hoop, and collect shell-fish from the rocks. They tattoo by incising the skin with small pieces of glass, without inserting colouring-matter, the cicatrix being whiter than the sound skin. ‘The women ‘make a sling, six inches wide, to suspend the infant or young child, which sits in the loose turn, with the legs passing over the mother’s loins or hips. Boys about the age of three years play with little bows and arrows, and when about eight years they are capable of taking a good aim and accom- pany their fathers into the jungle. The girls are very fond of playing with the sand on the beach, raising it into a circle or square around them, calling the interior their house (boov), and imitating the manners of their mothers. In their encampments, which enclose an open central place, there is * Report and evidence of the Brahmin sepoy. PSYCHICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE MINCOPIES, ‘243 usually one hut, square in form, built and roofed in with much more care and attention than the others, and generally richer in pigs’ and turtles’ heads ; it is the residence of the local chief, who issues the orders as to the fight and retreat when necessary. On a death occurring, the corpse is removed from the interior of the hut to a distance of a pace or two, where it remains until burial, which takes place a few hours after. The thighs are drawn up to the belly, the legs flexed upon the thighs; the arms placed straight upon the chest and belly, so that the hands project between the thighs; and thus, enveloped in leaves, the body is tied up like a bundle by cordage of strong creepers, the ends being knotted together to form a sling, which the carrier, with his back turned towards the corpse, puts over his head and shoulders, and with the assistance of two men rises with his burden, and is accompanied by two or three men, relatives of the deceased, to the burial-place. This is usually about a mile inland from the sea-shore. The grave is an irregularly round hole about three feet deep, dug with a pointed piece of stick, the earth being thrown out by the hands. The body is lifted into the grave by means of the sling, the earth filled in and forming a small mound. Before the corpse is prepared for burial, the wife and one or two near rela- tives sit down and weep overit. Two or three months after burial, when the flesh has decomposed and been eaten by land-crabs and ants, some near rela- tives of the deceased proceed to the spot and disinter the bones; and having bound them together with creeper-cords, carry them to the encampment and spread them out, when these are wept over by the relatives, each of whom takes a bone, the nearest relative taking the skull and lower jaw, which may be carried suspended by a cord from the neck for months. ‘The bones are some- times bound to the posts of the hut. The chief weapons of the Andaman race are bows and arrows, the latter with iron heads. A chief has been observed to have a spear, his bow and arrows being carried by a henchman. The hair is shaved, the skin scarified in certain maladies, and the tattooing performed by pieces of glass—chips of bottle-glass skilfully detached by sharp blows of a stone. The materials for the above weapons, viz. iron and glass, are obtained from wrecks. If flint-nodules were present in the Andamans, no doubt the native instinct, and notices of the appearances of accidental fractures of such nodules, would have led to the formation of the primitive knife from flint, as from glass, The Andamaners appear to be devoid of fear; they are powerful for their size; can carry greater burdens than the Hindoos; are swift runners, and clear rapidly, by jumping, the fallen trees of the jungle and rocks of the tidal shore. As climbers they are little inferior to monkeys, being used from child- hood to climb the lofty, straight, unbranched trees of the forest in quest of fruit and honey. They are excellent swimmers from their childhood, and wonderful divers, ‘fishing for shell-fish in deep water.” ‘I have seen,” deposes the sepoy, ‘‘ three or four of them dive into deep water and bring up in their arms a fish, six or seven feet in length, which they had seized.”.... «They could perceive canoes approaching long before they were visible to me, and could see fruits and honeycombs in the jungle which I could not. Their vision penetrates to great depths in the sea, where they could see and shoot fish with arrows, when the object aimed at was not apparent tome. They see well at night, catching fish in the pools left by the tide at that season, and shooting the wild pigs which come to the coast to drink by night.” By their acute sense of smell they often detect afar off the existence of fruit in the neighbouring lofty trees. R2 944 REPORT—1861. In regard to their maladies, the sepoy deposes :—“I never met with any one affected with gonorrhea, syphilis, itch, piles, small- -pox, or goitre; but I have seen them affected with vomiting, colic, diarrhcea, intermittent fever, headache, ear-ache, toothache, abscesses, rheumatism, catarrh, cough, painful and difficult respiration. The only remedies I have seen used are ‘ red earth rubbed up with turtle-oil,’ a cold infusion of certain aromatic leaves, the wetted leaves being applied to the head or other inflamed parts, and local bleedings by sharp splinters of bottle glass.” They spin ropes, make wicker baskets, large nets for catching turtle, smaller nets for catching fishes; and they scoop out their canoes by means of a small kind of adze, tipped by a semicircular blade of iron. Thus, for all their immediate wants, invention has supplied the instruments called for by the nature of the surrounding objects and sources of food. ‘It is impossible,” writes Dr. Mouatt, Inspector- General of Jails, Calcutta, ‘‘ to imagine any human beings to be lower in the scale of civilization than are the Andaman savages. Entirely destitute of clothing, utterly ignorant of agriculture, living in the most primitive and rudest form of habitations, their only care seems to be the supply of their daily food.” Thus the low grade of humanity, hardly raised above that of the brute animal, with the dwarfish stature and dark sooty colour of the Andamaners, have always made a further knowledge of their physical characters peculiarly desirable. I am enabled to contribute the present notice of the osteological and dental characters of the Mincopie race, by the opportunity kindly afforded me by Dr. Fred. J. Mouatt, Inspector of Indian Jails, who brought over the bones of an adult male native of the Andamans, which he has since presented to the British Museum. The proportions of the bones indicate a well-formed, robust, adult male of four feet ten inches in height. The bones present a compact sound texture, with the processes, articular surfaces, and places of muscular attachments neatly defined. The cranium (Plates VI. and VII.) is well formed, not exceeding disproportionately in any diameter ; it might be classed with those of the oval type (Plate VII. figs. 1 and 2). The frontal region is rather narrow, but not very low for the size of the cranium; it recedes or passes by a regular curve from the glabeila (Plate VI. g) upward and back- ward to the vertex, v. The frontal, much of the sagittal, and the upper part of the coronal sutures are obliterated. Part of the lambdoidal suture is very complex, and sinks below the level of the contiguous bones at the lower angle and ‘additamentum,’ /. The alisphenoid (6) joins the parietal (7) on both sides of the head. The glabella is but little prominent; the nasals (15) are not flat, but are moderately developed. The alveolar parts of the upper and lower jaws slightly project. The chin is a little produced, is not deep. The malar bones (2g) are not unusually prominent : in this respect, as well as in the minor breadth of the cranium, the skull departs from the type of the Malay. The zygomatic process of the squamosal (27) is slender. The styliform process of the alisphenoid overlaps the inner angle of the vaginal process. The cranial bones are not above the average thickness. The following are the principal dimensions of this cranium :— in. lin. Length, from inion 7 to premaxillary border (22) (178°0).... 7 0 Do: from ‘do.'to’ glabella (160-0). 2.00.0. 00. 2b es 6 4 Breadth of the cranium (144-0) kee eee eee ee ee es 5 4 Circumference of the cranium (409°0) ... Be SESISG Ante-posterior diameter of the interior of the craniuni (150° 0)... 5 9 Transverse diameter of ditto (145-0) .........0 eee e eee ees soe / Vertical diameter of ditto (115°0) ............ Ie Lens 33! a PSYCHICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE MINCOPIES. 245 The spine of the occiput is not so developed as to interrupt the convex con- tour of the occipital part of the skull; the lower occipital crest is rather more developed than the upper one. ‘The mastoids (g) are moderately developed ; there is no supermastoid ridge, nor any process from the paroccipital (4). The base of the skull offers all the strictly human characteristics. There is no ex- cess in the size of the orbits or of the auditory apertures; a sharp ridge pro- jects from the lower boundary of the anterior nares. ‘The lower jaw shows a variety in the shape of the coronoid process (30) which is occasionally seen in Europeans; it is broader and lower than usual; the front border is more convex at its upper half, and forms with the concave lower part a deeper and more decided sigmoid curve. The ascending ramus forms a less open angle with the horizontal ramus than in most Negro and Australian skulls. The teeth (Plate VII. fig. 3) equal in size the average of those of Indo-Eu- ropeans; they correspond in this respect with those of the European figured in my ‘ Odontography,’ plates 118 and 119. Although they are large in pro- portion to the size of the jaws, they are markedly smaller than are those of the Australian figured in the same plates. In the upper jaw of the male Andamaner the true molars, as in most Europeans, diminish in size from the first (m 1) to the third (m3). The fissure which penetrates the grinding surface from the outer side to the middle of the crown had its end unoblite- rated in m 1, and retained its whole length in m 2. The enamel was worn from the inner half in both teeth, but in a less proportion in m 2; it wasalso slightly worn from the outer tuberclesin m1. The degree of abrasion of the teeth, according to the age cf the individual, is such as might be expected from the mastication of a diet consisting chiefly of fish and fruit. In the lower jaw the dentine is exposed on the three outer tubercles of m 1; the crucial figure is not obliterated in m 2; m 3 is larger, as usual, than in the corresponding tooth above. The upper premolars are implanted by a fang which is divided at its base into an outer and inner root. ‘The undivided fang of the lower premolars is longitudinally grooved on the outer side. In the upper jaw, m1 and m 2 are implanted by one inner and two outer roots, m3 by one antero-external root and one postero-internal root. All the lower molars have distinct anterior and posterior roots. ‘There was no irregularity in the position, nor any sign of decay in the teeth. The articulations of the skull with the vertebral column in the present skeleton of the Andamaner agree with those of the male sex in the highest variety of the human species. One of the most characteristic differences between man and all other mammals consists in the fact that the human head is balanced in the erect posture, only requiring slight muscular action to steady it, while the skull of the chimpanzee and all lower mammals pre- ponderates anteriorly, and needs to be sustained by the action of powerful muscles and elastic structures. To preserve the equilibrium of the human head, the cerebrum in its growth extends more backward than forward, deve- lopes the posterior lobes with their contained structures peculiar to man, and produces a concomitant expansion and production of the occipital part of the cranium during the progress of general growth from infancy to adult age, whereby the back of the head becomes balanced against the increasing weight of the face. All the bones of the trunk and limbs of the male Mincopie present the specific and generic characters of Homo sapiens, Linn. ‘The sigmoid flexure of the clavicle (52) is well marked. The scapula (51) agrees with that variety of form which shows a minor extent of the supraspinal tract, and a greater breadth of the lower part of the subspinal tract, with a more produced angle between the surfaces for the teres major and teres minor muscles, on the inferior costa. 246 REPORT—186l. The inferior costa describes a continuous concave curve from the angle to the base of the coracoid, without any suprascapular notch. The os innominatum, calcaneum, astragalus, and bones of the hallux or great toe, peculiar to man, contrasted as strongly with the quadrumanous characters of those bones as in the highest of the human races. The first lumbar vertebra had the diapophysis, metapophysis, and anapophysis distinct, and almost equally developed, and well illustrated the true serial homology of the longer diapophysis of the suc- ceeding lumbars. In many European skeletons the diapophyses of the first lumbar vertebra are more developed than in that of the Andamaner. The ridges, processes, and surfaces for muscular attachment are well and neatly defined on the several limb-bones of this skeleton, and agree with the charac- ter for agility in running, climbing, and swimming assigned to the Andaman race. The following are the dimensions of the limb-bones :— Scapula. in, lin, Length from end of acromion to inferior angle .......... Satie: AE Breadth from upper and outer angle to lower border of glenoid canmty> aii, 5 ¢ a fee. aes «a efsts, ee)o Walt ty. te (i450 50 Os Innominatum. OUP Cel op sat cet ican eee oR RE e eer err fee! Breadtit.of, tam, ./i6 <,.i 3» << ad peleuatahes te Costas i ta a ote pe Humerus.| Ulna. | Radius. /Femur.} Tibia. | Clavicle. in. lin, | in. lin. her lin. | in. lin.} in, lin.| in. Tin. Aen Cty sk ¥oc -trcmceon sab ae senewareys 12.2 10 8 9 Tb |7. 5) 14. 3) Aor +2 Transverse diameter of upper end 1 10 Ty's 0 10 3 4 (Daron Middle & cn ceecsseetnesseenese ee 0 6 0 63; 011; 1 1 eS 1 3 29 The above dimensions of parts of the skeleton indicate that they are from an individual of four feet ten inches in height. The Andamaners, or Mincopies, are called by most of the observers who have described them ‘“ Negrillos,’ or dwarf Negroes. They have no knowledge, and appear to have no idea, of their own origin. It has been surmised that they might be descendants of African Negroes, imported by the Portuguese for slave labour in their settlement at Pegu, and which had been wrecked on the Andamans. But the recorders of this hypo- thesis allude to it as a mere hearsay—‘‘ We are told that when the Por- tuguese,” &c. (Calcutta Monthly Register, or India Repository, November 1790, pp. 15-17). Neither the skull nor the teeth of the male Andamaner above described offer any of the characters held to be distinctive of the African Negroes. The cranium has not the relative narrowness ascribed to that of the Negro; it presents nothing suggestive of lateral compression ; it conforms to the full oval type, with a slight degree of prognathism, and is altogether on a smaller scale than in the Indo-European exhibit- ing that form of skull. It is to be presumed that the Portuguese would import from the Guinea coast, or other mart of Negro slaves, individuals of the usual stature; and it is incredible that their descendants, enjoying freedom in a tropical locality affording such a sufficiency and even abun- dance of food as the Andamans are testified to supply, should have degene- rated in stature, in the course of two or three centuries, to the characteristic dwarfishness of the otherwise well-made, well-nourished, strong and active hatives of the Andaman Islands. I conclude, therefore, that they are abori- PSYCHICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE MINCOPIES. 247 gines; and merely resemble Negroes in a blackness, or rather sootiness, of the tegumentary pigment, which might be due to constant exposure during many generations of this nude and primitive race. Their prognathism is not more than is found in most of the Southern Asiatic peoples, and indeed in the lower orders of men in all countries, and may be due or relate to the prolonged sucking of the plastic infant. The growth of the short, crisp hair of the scalp, by small tufts, shows a resemblance of the Andamaners to certain Papuans, as, e. g., those of New Caledonia. But the skull and dentition of the Andaman male are as distinct from the Australian type as from that of the West-coast Negro. ‘There is no supranasal ridge due to a sunken origin of the flattened nasal (15) bones; neither the malar (25) nor zygomatic arches show the strength and prominence that mark them in the Australian male; there is no excessive size of molar or other teeth. The styliform processes of the alisphenoid are more produced; the lambdoidal suture is more complex ; the alisphenoids (g) are relatively broader. From the present opportunity of studying the osteology and dentition of the Andamaner, the ethnologist derives as little indication or ground of surmise of the origin of the race in question from an Australasian as from an African continent; and there is scarcely better evidence of his Malayan or Mongolian ancestry. Upon the whole, the skull offers the greatest amount of correspondence with those of such of the dwarfish, dark, and presumed aboriginal inhabitants of the Philippines, Java, Borneo, and Ceylon, which I have had the opportunity of examining. I cite the descriptions of two of these crania from my Catalogue of the Osteolo- gical Series in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. In that of an aboriginal native of Luzon (No. 5531), ‘‘ the cranium is short, moderately broad, rather low, with a narrow and receding forehead. The glabella is prominent through the development of the frontal sinuses; the nasals are moderately prominent, as are likewise the malars and upper jaw. The chin is well developed. The entire skull is rather small. The chief individual peculiarity is seen in the development of the right paroccipital, which is longer than the mastoid, and presents an articular surface for joining its homotype, the diapophysis of the atlas. The left paroccipital tubercle is also well marked. The deviation from the Human type here presented, if compared with the skull of an inferior mammal, e, g. the Bear, or the Dog, will be perceived to be areturn to a more general type, which is manifested by the more constant development, in the Mammalian series, of the paroccipitals or transverse processes of the occipital vertebra.” (Vol. ii. p. 861.) In the cra- nium of a Veddah, or aboriginal of Ceylon (No. 5539), ‘‘the cranial cavity is of small size, with the forehead narrow and receding: the glabella is moderately prominent through the development of the frontal sinuses. The sutures are well marked; that of the lambdoid is particularly complex, and sinks below the level of the contiguous bones at its lower angles*. The supramastoid ridge is well marked; the mastoids are moderately developed: the paroccipitals are rudimentary. The zygomatic processes of the temporals are very slender ; those of the malars have the lower border convex, descending below them. The styliform processes of the alisphenoid are low, or short, subquadrate, but unusually extended backwards and outwards, overlapping the inner angle of the vaginal processes. A trace of the maxillo-premaxillary suture remains on the palate: the maxilla is slightly prognathic: the molar teeth are small. This cranium has probably belonged to a female: it agrees in the chief cha- racters with the skull from the Philippines (No. 5531).” (Ib. p. 863.) I am not cognizant of any anatomical grounds for deriving the Andaman * Mr. C. C. Blake has noticed this character in other Veddah skulls. See ‘ Medical Times,’ May 17, 1862. 248 a REPORT—1861. people from any existing continent; but, in making these remarks, I would offer no encouragement to the belief that they originated in the locality to which they are now limited. It has been said that ‘‘ their language shows them to belong to the same division with the Burmese of the opposite continent.” But late vocabularies oppose this view. ‘The Burmese, moreover, show the average stature ‘of the southern Asiatic men; and it would be as pure an assumption to affirm that they had been derived from the Andamaners, as that these were degenerate descendants of the Burmese. The few undersized, dark-skinned aborigines, as they are termed, of the Great Nicobar, of the Philippines, of Java, Borneo, Sumatra, and Ceylon, are driven furthest into the interior by immigrants of other races, and are the least likely to have emigrated or equipped vessels for the purpose of voyaging to other lands. The average-sized Malay and Chinese, and the like later colonists of the Indian Archipelago, are those that have the command of the sea; and the Andamaners are certainly not their descendants. Combined geological, geographical, and zoological researches have made us cognizant of the fact of the formation and destruction of continental tracts of land in the known course of the earth’s period of existence. The Andaman Islands, like the Nicobar, Java, Sumatra, and Ceylon, may have been parts of some former tract of dry land, distinct from, and perhaps pre-existent to, that neighbouring and more northern continent which has been the scene of the elevation of the Himalayan range of mountains, in part—perhaps a great part—within the tertiary period. ‘This has been the opinion of geologists for some time back, and is alluded to by Professor Ansted in his ‘Ancient World,’ pp. 322, 324. ‘The extensive collections and assiduous comparisons of the animals of Ceylon by Sir J. Emerson Tennent have added valuable evidence in favour of such opinion*. ‘The Andamans are forty miles distant from the nearest islands, the Cocos, on their north, and seventy-two miles distant from the Nicobar Islands on their south. There is a mountain 2400 feet in height called ‘‘ Saddle Peek,” probably volcanic, on the main island ; and there is a volcanic island in the vicinity called ‘‘ Barren Island,” with an active volcano. The whole of the shores of the Andamans are skirted by continuous coral-reefs. It is plain that the Andamans are the active seat of those causes that influence the change in the relations of land to sea. We should doubtless err, therefore, in any speculation on the origin of their popu- lation, if we were to assume that the Andaman Islands were such as they now are when they received their first human inhabitants. The cardinal defect of speculators on the origin of the human species seems to me to be the assumption that the present geographical condition of the earth’s surface preceded or coexisted with the origin of such species. The monogenist, on that assumption, bent on tracing all human races from one source and one existent centre, exaggerates the application and value of casual remarks to show, for example, that ‘the Australians are not a pure race, but hybrids between true Negroes and a Malayan or yellow race.” (See Quatrefages’ ‘ Unité de l’Espéce Humaine,’ 12mo, 1861, p. 173.) And the polygenist invokes a separate creation of each race for each existing continent or island-home of such race. (Agassiz, in Nott and Gliddon’s ‘Types of Mankind.’) The Andamaners are perhaps the most primitive, or lowest in the scale of civilization, of the human race. They have no tradition, and, as has been before remarked, apparently no notion of their own origin. Finding in their bows and arrows and their hand-nets implements that answer for acquiring the principal articles of food which their locality yields, they have carried * Natural History of Ceylon, 8vo, 1861. ee. eee a L9GL Uuomor imp West Ww W +H Ford 31” Report, British Association 186) GH Ford = # —, B = : = ic) — 2 = ol Ay REPORT FROM THE BALLOON COMMITTEE. 249 the inventive faculties no further. At best they may have availed themselves of the wrecks during the last century or two of their insular existence, to barb their arrows with iron instead of fish-bone, and to get from broken bottles such trenchant fragments as our oldest-known Europeans obtained from broken flints. The animal appetites are gratified in the simplest animal fashion; there is no sense of nakedness, no sentiment of shame. The man, choosing promiscuously for one or more years after puberty, then takes, or has assigned to him, a female who becomes his exclusive mate and servant; and the reason assigned for this monogamy is that she may be restricted, while he may continue to select from the unmarried females as before. The climate dispenses with the necessity of any other protection of the body than a paste of earth and oil. Any rudiment of a cincture relates solely to the convenience of the suspension of weapons or other portable objects. They are not cannibals. Implacably hostile to strangers, the Andamaners have made no advance in the few centuries during which their seas have been traversed by ships of higher races. Perhaps the sole change is that of the materials for weapons derived from casua] wrecks, to which allusion has already been made. Enjoying, therefore, the merest animal life during those centuries, why may they not have so existed for thousands of years? The conditions of existence being such as they now enjoy, on what can the ethnologist found an idea of the limitation of the period during which the successive genera- tions of Andamaners have continued so to exist? Antecedent generations of the race may have coexisted with the slow and gradual geological changes which have obliterated the place or continent of their primitive origin, what- ever be the hypothesis adopted regarding it. In every essential of human physical character, however, the present Min- copies or Andamaners participate with their more intellectually gifted brethren. The size of the brain, indicated by the cranial chamber, promises aptitude for civilization. ‘The Andamaners resemble the orangs and chim- panzeee only in their diminutive stature; but this is associated with the well- balanced human proportions of trunk to limbs: they are, indeed, surpassed by the great orangs and gorillas in the size of the trunk and in the length and strength of the arms, in a greater degree than are the more advanced and taller races of mankind. PLATE VI. Side view of the skull of the male native of the Andamans: natural size, a PLATE VII. ne ~ — } of the same skull, on the scale of 4 an inch to an inch. Fig. 3. Bony palate and grinding surface of the teeth of the same skull: natural size. Report from the Balloon Committee. By Colonel Syxxs, M.P.,F.R.S. Proressor WALKER, after the appointment of the Committee at the Aberdeen Meeting, having communicated to Colonel Sykes his inability to undertake any active labours with respect to carrying out the objects for which the Committee was nominated, Colonel Sykes put himself into correspondence with Mr. Langley, a gentleman of Newcastle, who offered to construct a suitable balloon, provided an advance of money were made to him. The cor- respondence however was without result, and Colonel Sykes in consequence thought it unnecessary to invite the opinions of the other members of the Committee with respect to the objects to be sought for in balloon-ascents, 250 REPORT—1861. as means were wanting, whatever those opinions might be, to give practical effect to them. Colonel Sykes was not at the meeting at Oxford last year, and no action having been taken by the Balloon Committee, it has dropped through and is extinct. Within a few months past Mr. Simpson, of Cremorne Gardens, has con- structed a balloon at a cost of £600(the ‘ Normandie’), with a sufficient capacity to carry two persons to great heights, which might be available for the objects of the Association. ‘lhe occasion has therefore arisen when the re-appointment of a Balloon Committee might take place; and as one of the chief objects of the last Balloon Committee, viz. the verification of the former results of the ascents undertaken by the authority of the Association, remains unchanged, Colonel Sykes, with the approval of those members of the late Balloon Committee with whom he has had an opportunity of conversing, will move the re-appointment of the Committee with a grant of £200. Report on the Repetition of the Magnetic Survey of England, made at the request of the General Committee of the British Association. By Major-General Epwarp Sasine, R.A., President of the Royal Society. Tue Magnetic Survey of the British Islands, corresponding to the epoch of January 1, 1837, which had been undertaken in 1836 at the request of the British Association, was completed in 1838, and a coordinated Report of the observatious of the Dip and Force, contributed by each of the five Members of the Association who had cooperated in the execution of the Survey, was pub- lished in the annual volume for 1838, accompanied by Maps of the Isoclinal and Isodynamie Lines embodying the results of the Survey. The observa- tions of the third element, the Declination, which were made chiefly by one of the cooperators, Sir James Clark Ross, were not published until a later date, when, having been reduced and coordinated by myself, they were included in a memoir printed in the Philosophical Transactions for 1849, entitled ‘On the Isogonic Lines, or Lines of equal Magnetic Declination in the Atlantic Ocean in 1840,” in which they completed in a very satisfactory manner the N.E. portion of the map accompanying that memoir. The Magnetic Survey of 1837 deserves to be remembered as having been the first complete work of its kind planned and executed in any country as a national work, coextensive with the limits of the state or country, and embracing the three magnetic elements. The example thus presented was speedily followed by the execution of similar undertakings in several parts of the globe; more particularly in the Austrian and Bavarian dominions, and in detached portions of the British Colonial Possessions, viz. in North America and India. ‘The immediate object of such surveys is to determine for the parti- cular epoch at which they are made, the positions of Lines of equal Declination, Inclination, and Magnetic Force in the area of the Survey; the angles at which the three classes of lines respectively cross the geographical meridians ; and the distances in geographical miles, measured in directions perpendicular to the lines, which correspond to equal increments of each of the magnetic ele- ments. By the extension and multiplication of such surveys far more satis- factory materials are supplied for the construction of general magnetic maps of the globe than are afforded by the desultory observations which had pre- viously formed their only basis, This, as already stated, is the immediate object of such Surveys; but they have in prospect another and a scarcely less important purpose, in contributing by their repetition at stated intervals to ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF ENGLAND. 251 supply the best kind of data for the gradual elucidation of the laws and source of the secular change in the distribution of the earth’s magnetism, perhaps the most remarkable of the yet unexplained natural phenomena of the globe. It was in this view that the General Committee of the British Association, assembled at Cheltenham in 1856, considering that in 1857 twenty years would have elapsed since the epoch of the first Survey, passed the following Resolution,—“ That a Committee, consisting of General Sabine, Professor Phillips, Sir James Clark Ross, Mr. Robert Were Fox, and the Rev. H. Lloyd, be requested to undertake the Repetition of the Magnetic Survey of the British Islands.” The five members of the Association named in this Reso- lution were the same by whom the former Survey had been made, and were all living at the time of the Cheltenham Meeting, Dr. Lloyd and Mr. Phillips being present at it. I was myself on the continent for the recovery of health, but on my return in the autumn of 1856, finding my own name standing first in the list of the Committee, I lost no time in making such arrangements as seemed suitable for the accomplishment of the purpose which the Associa- tion had in view. Dr. Lloyd undertook the Irish portion ; Scotland and the islands to its North and West were placed, with the consent of the Committee of the Kew Observatory, in the able hands of Mr. Welsh, the Superintendent of that establishment, and a grant of £200 was obtained from the Admiralty towards the payment of his travelling expenses. For some time I cherished the hope that the repetition of the English Survey might be accomplished (as on the previous occasion) by the joint labours of the Mem- bers of the Committee: but at length it became evident that circumstances of health or the pressure of other employments and duties stood in the way of a combined operation; which would have necessitated also a great amount of additional labour in the intercomparison of the different instruments and methods employed. I have made therefore the whole of the observations for the isoclinal and isodynamic lines myself; but having only a portion of each year at my disposal, they have required the summers of 1858, 1859, 1860, and 1861, causing January 1, 1860, to become the middle epoch of the Survey, in respect to these two of the three elements. The detail of the observations, the conclusions derived from them, and the maps of the two elements, constitute the two first divisions of the present Report; the third division, containing the observations upon which the map of the isogonic lines for 1857 is based, together with the comparison of these lines with those of the earlier Survey, and the deduction of the mean secular change of this element in the interval, has been contributed by Frederick John Evans, Esq., F.R.S., Superintendent of the Compass Observatory of the Royal Navy at Woolwich. The premature decease of Mr. Welsh, accelerated it is feared by his too persistent exposure in the second year of the Scottish Survey, left the reduc- tion and publication of the northern portion of the British Survey to his successor at Kew, Mr. Balfour Stewart, by whom a report has been presented to the General Committee, which report is printed in the annual volume for 1859. There remains, therefore, now, for the entire fulfilment of the desire embodied in the Resolution of the General Committee at Cheltenham in 1856, only the Irish portion of the Survey, which has been undertaken by Dr. Lloyd, to whom have been added as coadjutors, by his own request, the Rey. Professors Galbraith and Haughton, and George Johnstone Stoney, Esq. Dr. Lloyd has acquainted me that it is his wish, and that of the gentlernen associated with him, that the Irish portion of the Survey should be published in the ‘ Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy.’ The present is there- fore the concluding Report addressed to the British Association of the Committce nominated by them at the Cheltenham Meeting in 1856. S52: ri REPORT— 1861. Division I.—Dip. In selecting an instrument to be employed, in a magnetic survey, for the purpose of determining the position, direction, and distance apart of the isoclinal lines, care must be taken, Ist, that its ‘‘ probable error” be small, so that the observations made at the different stations of the survey may be as far as possible comparable with each other; and 2nd, that what is usually termed the ‘ Index Error” be either so small as to be practically insignificant, or that, if of significant amount, its value should be carefully determined by a sufficient examination at a base station, so that the general conclusions of the survey may be comparable with those of similar surveys made in other countries at the same epoch. The instrument selected for this survey was one of the well-known English pattern which has been adopted for some years past at the Kew Observatory; the circle was 6 inches in diameter, fitted with both verniers and microscopes, and with two needles, each 33 inches in length. An examination of the results obtained with twelve circles of this pattern with their 24 needles in 282 determinations made by different observers at the Kew Observatory, has been published in the 11th volume of the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ pp. 145-162. The circle there distinguished as No. 30 was the one selected for the English survey, and was employed at all the stations of observation in 1858, 1859, and 1860. In the autumn of 1860, the English survey being then supposed to have been completed, No. 30 was sent to the Magnetic Observatory at the Isle Jesus, near Montreal in Canada, on the application of Dr. Smallwood, Director of that observatory ; but the pressure of other avocations having obliged me to defer for a few months the preparation for the press of the results obtained in 1858, 1859, and 1860, I was enabled in the summer of 1861 to add four more stations on the eastern coast of England, and for these observations I obtained from the Kew Observatory the use of the Circle No. 33, which (with its two needles) had been one of the twelve employed in the-com- parison at Kew, of which the account is published in the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society’ as above stated. Referring to that account, it will be seen that 28 of the 282 determinations at Kew with the twelve circles were made with No. 30, and 49 with No. 33; and after the proper corrections for secular change and annual variation, we find the “ probable error” of a single determination to be with No. 30 +1°25, and with No. 33 +118; whilst the “ probable error” derived from the 252 determinations obtained with the twelve circles is +1°45. We may therefore regard Nos. 30 and 33 as instru- ments superior rather than inferior, in the intercomparability of the results obtained with them, to the average of their class; which class is, I believe, unsurpassed by any other form of instruments in use either in our own or in any other country for the determination of the magnetic dip. In regard to the question whether any and what “index correction” should be applied to the results obtained with Nos. 30 and 33, it may be seen by an examination of the results in the ‘Proceedings of the Royal Society’ already referred to, that the mean result of the 28 determinations at Kew with No.30 exceeded the mean of the 282 determinations with the twelve circles by +08, and the mean of the 49 determinations with No. 33 exceeded the mean of the 282 by +07. These differences have appeared too small to require the assignment of a specific index correction to Nos. 30 or 33; it is sufficient to record the circumstance, and to remark that it is possible that the values of the isoclinal lines at the epoch of January Ist, 1860, given in the present memoir, which rest on the results obtained with these circles, may be a fraction of a minute, or even a whole minute too high. ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF ENGLAND. 253 I proceed in the following Table to state the observations of the Dip made with Nos. 30 and 33 at the several stations of this survey: the observations were made by myself, unless where otherwise noted. TABLE I.—Observations of the Magnetic Dip with Circle 30 at Kew. Mean Dip. - Poles re- Date. Needle.| Azimuths. | versed and Needle in- verted. ie} ° ° é‘ 1858. March 30. I |30 and 120] 68 28°3 “1 30. T , |GO8 5, | X50)| (68) 2956 7 BO.) 'r O85; 80)| 168) 23-2 a 30. E iGo 4,0. 250)| G8) 2572 a 30.| 2 © 5 80} 68 25°1 | - 20. || 2) »g0i83, | 120/] 168 26:9 “5 30. 2 |60 5 150] 68 27°0 », June 9. I © , 180] 68 211 i A 9. 2 Ou) 180)! O84 20-Gyl 1859. ,, Jan.11.| 1 © 5 180] 68 23°7 ) “A Pais I © 45 180] 68 24°6 ” 12. 2 © 5, 180] 68 23°7 0 12. 2 © 5 80} 68 24°4 oF 24. I O) 5,2 1c0 || 68) 22-7 x 24. I oO , 180] 68 21°6 7 Aree 2 © 5 180] 68 24°1 a Zine I © 5, | 180.) 163) 22:2 » Mar. 8. 1 o , 180] 68 21°7 a) Say ez © 5 180] 68 22°2 9 17. I © 45 180] 68 21°7 ae 17.| 2 © 4», 180] 68 2474) (1) 1858. Sept. Mean at the Station... 63 23°7 Station and Date. St. Leonards. (2) 1858. June 23. 23. 26. 26. I. re ” ” ” » July Llandovery. (3) 1858. July 21. 21. Stonyhurst. (4) 1858. Sept. 30. Observer. Mr. Welsh. Mr. Chambers. Mr. Welsh. Mr. Chambers. Taste I. (continued). Needle. 1 Direct ... 2 Direct ... 1 Direct... 2 Direct ... t Direct ... 2 Direct ... 1 Direct ... 2 Direct ... 1 Direct ... . | 2 Direct ... x Direct ... .| 2 Direct ... 1 Direct ... * Observed by the Rev. W. Kay. + Since the observations were made at Stonyhurst, I have received a memorandum from the Rey. Alfred Weld, of the results of observations made subsequently by himself and the Rev. W. Kay, in the Gardens of the College, with the Dip Circle and its needles obtained (through the Kew Observatory) for Stonyhurst College, They are as follows :— Marked End. N. Pole. 47°8 416 50°7 41'0 49° 05°3 15°7 03°7 14°2 02°7 12°8 53°3 S. Pole. o7'I \ | | 69 13°70 70 00°2* 70 0o'2T { Place of Observation. In the Magnetic House cf the Observatory. Place of Observation. In the grounds of Dr. Blakis- ton at Holly- bank. [ In the grounds of W. Leeves, Esq.,St.Mary’s Cottage. { \In the gardens of the College. [Over. 254 TaBLE I. (continued). REPORT—186l, Marked End. | Station and Date. Needle. Means. Place of | N. Pole. | S. Pole. Observation. | Glangwnna. BS on ey, au (5) 1858. Oct. 5.| 1 Direct...) 69 52°5 | 70 11°7 | 70 02"1 * 5.| 2 Direct ...| 70 02°8 | 70 00°6 | 7oo1'7 _. | |In the grounds + 8.| 1 Direct ...| 6g 50°6 | 70 10°8| 70 00°7 70 02°04 | of Mrs. Hunt. as 8. | 2 Direct ...! 70 05°2 | 70 02°0 |*70 03°6 tae ve : (6) 1859. June 13.| 2 Direct... 09'2 | 68 06°8| 68 o8'o ae ” 13. | 2 Inverted.) 67.55"1 | 68 071} 68 ort aes Ae ms a of 55 14.| 1 Direct ...| 67 59°4| 68 13°2 | 68 06°3 Oca baa eee a 14.| 1 Inverted.) 67 50°5 | 68 16°6| 68 03°6 oa @) Torquay. 2 ; 7) 1859. June 23.| 1 Direct...) 67 53°3 8 15°3| 68 04° “ 23.| 1 Inverted.| 67 47°5 | 68 13°1| 68 sor naan pers Sas ” 24.| 2 Direct ...) 68 11°7| 67 59°7 | 68 05°7 °3°7 H a Hot fa ss 24.| 2 Inverted.) 68 og*r | 67 59°9 | 68 04°5 PURE SSAGHSS a Edgecombe. (8) 1859. June 25.| 1 Direct ...| 67 59°38 | 68 19°8 | 68 o9°8 + 25.| 1 Inverted.) 67 50°5 | 68 re 68 aie 68onn pole Lit ” 25.| 2 Direct ...| 68 20°9 | 67 59°9 | 68 10°4 °7"9 Edi Ki i i FAA 25.| 2 Inverted.) 68 13°0 | 68 02°2 | 68 07°6 penne: Penjerrick. (9) 1859. June 28.| 1 Direct...) 67 59°4 | 68 19'0 | 68 og'2 ( 7 28.| 1 Inverted.| 67 52°2 | 68 17°8 | 68 =| rr 28.| 2 Direct ...| 68 17°0 | 68 03°4 | 68 10°2 op 28.| 2 Inverted.| 68 12°2 | 68 02°6 | 68 07°4 68 08 | on pelt » July 4.| 1 Direct...) 67 589 | 68 18°5 | 68 08°7 i r ee ies 4.| 1 Inverted.| 67 51°6 | 68 17°2 | 68 0474 | Ore Er 4.| 2 Direct ...| 68 14°1 | 68 o2°1 | 68 o8'1 45 4.| 2 Inverted.| 68 21°0 | 68 03°8 | 68 12°4 L Lew Trenchard. (10) 1859. July g.| 1 Direct ...| 68 o9°6 | 68 27°5 | 68 18°5 In the grounds = g-| x Inverted.) 68 07°4 | 68 22°8 | 68 151 5g ace of Edward Ba- Pe g-| 2 Direct ...| 68 2074] 68 15°6 | 68 18:0 175 ring Gould, 35 g-| 2 Inverted.| 68 22°8| 68 13°8 | 68 18°3 Esq. ( Broome oe Ee : 11) 1859. July 20.| 1 Direct...) 67 51°5 | 68 14°4 | 68 03°0 ; i 20.| 1 Inverted.| 67 48°4| 68 12°5 | 68 ae ee shine 7 20.| 2 Direct ...)67 59°0 | 67 56°4 | 67 57°7 | 6943. eae Cola ey 20. | 2 Inverted.) 68 07°6 | 67 57°5 | 68 02°5 et 2 Brod oan i 21.| 1 Direct...) 67 52°5 | 68 16°7 | 68 04°6 PR ie Bart., FS 21.| Inverted.| 67 48°38 | 68 09°4 | 67 59°1 Seg Note continued. Date. Needle. Dip. Observer. Date. Needle. Dip. Observer ° Se py ° 1858. Nov. 2. Ar. 69 57 44 Weld. 1859. May 12. A2. 70 02 17 Weld. iut4. (Ak. 70103,30 Weld. Nov. 17. Ar. 69 57 48 Weld. » 14 Ar. 70 04 21 Weld. » 24. Ar. 69 56 39 Weld. 1859. Aprilig. Ar. 70 or 13 Kay. Dec. 10. Ar. 69 59 39 Weld. May 8 Ax. 70 03 39 Weld. » 10. Ar. 69 57 38 Weld. Mean of the 10 observations........sse+0+ oO , ut 70° 00’ 27 The results are in every case the mean of Poles Reversed and Needle Inverted. * Observed by Miss Anna Hunt. PN Bm - * ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF ENGLAND. . Station and Date. Jordan Hill. (12) 1859. Sept. 10. 10. 10. 5 10. Fern Tower. (13) 1859. Sept. 30. ; 30. y 30. a 30. pct.» 3. ” 3 Jardine Hall. (14) 1859. Oct. 5 ” 5 ” 5. ” 5. ” 8 8 Scarborough. (15) 1859. Oct. 11. ” Il. m4 II. ” II * 12 12 Cambridge. (16) 1860. May ” ” Llandovery. (17) 1860. July 30. 30. 30. 30. 30. 30. Aug. 1. I. ” Stackpole Court. (18) 1860. Aug. 21. ” ” 10. ” ” ” TABLE I. (continued). Needle. 1 Direct 1 Inverted. 2 Direct... 2 Inverted. 2 Direct ... 2 Inverted. 1 Direct ... 1 Inverted. 1 Direct ... 1 Inverted. -| 2 Direct ... -| 2 Inverted. 1 Direct ... 1 Direct ... 1 Inverted. 1 Direct... 1 Inverted. 2 Direct .. .| 2 Inverted. 1 Direct ... 1 Inverted. 1 Direct ... 1 Inverted. 2 Direct ... 2 Inverted. 1 Direct... 1 Inverted. 2 Direct ... 2 Inverted. *2 Direct... *2 Inverted. *z Direct... *r Inverted. 2 Direct ... 2 Inverted. 1 Direct .. 1 Inverted. 1 Direct... 1 Inverted. 2 Direct ... 2 Inverted. 1 Direct... 1 Inverted. 1 Direct... 1 Inverted. .| 2 Direct... .| 2 Inverted. 1 Inverted.| Marked End. N. Pole. ° wet 7X 71 71 72 s 42°3 40°0 29°7 22°8 ° 71 71 71 71 26°6 19/9 31°8 32°0 32°8 29a. 45°0 39°7 55°7 52°8 52°0 54°8 10°2 O3'1 58°9 52°3 10°O 06"9 58°7 52°4 39°4 3970 19°6 23°4 10°2 09'2 Coe 210 21'0 25°0 53°8 53°5 og’! og"! o6'o 07°8 48°5 50°6 04°0 05°0 18°7 16°7 o1'6 O3°3 Spare needles. S. Pole. 71 30°1 215 or agtg ro amy 70439 70 4I'l | “ie | | | | | 255 Place of Observation. Inthe groundso: James Smith, Esq., F.R.S. F.R.S, Stokes, Lens- fi eld Cottage. St. Mary’s Cot- Cawdor, F.R.S. In the orchard of the Rectory. minus. 256 ; REPORT—1861. TaBLE I. (continued). Marked End. Pace GE Station and Date. Needle. Means. : N. Pole. | S. Pole. Observation. Folkestone. (21) 1860. Oct. 8.| 1 Direct ...! 67 35:2 | 68 04°6 | 67 49°9 - 8.| 1 Inverted.) 67 3379 | 68 oc0°g | 67 4774 On the seabeach west of the a 10.| 2 Direct .../ 67 5071 | 67 45°9 | 67 48°0 Pavilion Hotel. 3 10,| 2 Inverted.) 67 52°7 | 67 48°3 | 67 50°5 Cleethorpe. (22) 1861. Sept. 14.) 1 Direct ...| 69 29°5 | 69 29°8 | 69 29°6 14.| 1 Inverted.| 69 29°5 | 69 27°9 | 69 28°7 14.| 2 Direct ...| 69 28°4| 69 2874 | 69 2874 14.| 2 Inverted.| 69 31°6 | 69 32°2 | 69 31°9 In a field north Circle No. 33- of the village. Lowestoft. (23) 1861. Sept. 23.| 1 Direct ...] 68 34°0 | 68 42°2 | 68 | 2 23-| 1 Inverted.) 68 35°6 | 68 402 | 68 37°9 Circle No. 33. 23.| 2 Direct ...| 68 37°2 | 68 39°4 | 68 38°3 23.| 2 Inverted.) 68 37°8 | 68 42°4 | 68 4074 Denes. Cawston. (24) 1861. Sept. 30.| 1 Direct...) 68 44°5 | 68 57°5 | 68 sr°o 30. | 1 Inverted.) 68 46°0 | 68 57°1 | 68 51°6 30.| 2 Direct ...| 68 49°7 | 68 54°38 | 68 52°2 30. | 2 Inverted.} 68 51°4| 68 55°6 | 68 53°5 ‘ In the orchard Circle No. 33. of the Rectory. Cromer. (25) 1861. Oct. 2.| 1 Direct ...| 68 50°6 | 68 59°4| 68 55° 1 Inverted.) 68 49°4| 68 56:2 | 68 52° 2 Direct ...| 68 54°2 | 68 56°3 | 68 55° 570 2°8 53 1 On the N.W. 2 Inverted.| 68 56°5 | 69 00°6 | 68 58°5 68 55°3 3°4 TO Circle No. 33. Cliff. 2 Direct ...| 68 50°4 | 68 56:4 | 68 53° 2 Inverted.| 68 5175 | 69 02°5 | 68 57° On the Upper 68 38°6 and Lower ay Tas_e I. (continued). Mean Dip. | . P Poles re- Place of Station and Date. |Needle.| Azimuths. | versed and | Observer. Gheecyatinn, Needle in- verted. Kew. ° ° ° / (26) 1860. Oct.22.| 1 oand 180 | 68 18:0 \ - 22. 2 © 5 180] 68 20°6 = 22. 2 oO , 180 | 68 21'2 In the Magnetic 2 22. rt |o ,, 180] 68 14'9 }|Mr. Stewart. House of the as 23. Ty} © 5, @x8o He. 68x76 Observatory. % 29. I © 5 180] 68 19°2 ”» Os) mee © 4 180 | 68 23°0) Mean at the Station... | 68 19'2 Table II. recapitulates the stations of observation, with their latitudes and longitudes taken from the maps of the Society for Diffusing Useful Know- _ ledge, and the mean dips at the respective epochs of observation given in — Table I. reduced to the mean epoch of January Ist, 1860, by the propor- — tional parts of the annual change according to the rates assigned in a sub- sequent page (261). ROI P A yer ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF ENGLAND. 257 TABLE II. Stations. Lat.=A.|Long.=p| Dip=0. Stations. |Lat.=X.}/Long.=p| Dip=9. ° ‘ oOo 4 °o / °o ‘ o4 ° ‘ Kew .....s0000..) 51 29 |0 18 W.] 68 20°3 || Jardine Hall ...) 55 10 | 3 24. W.| 70 4374 St. Leonards .,.! 50 51 |0 33 E. | 67 44°5 || Scarborough ...! 54 17 | 0 23 W.| 69 58°0 Llandoyery...... 52 or |3 45 W.| 69 09°3 || Cambridge...... 52 13 |o O6F. | 68 42°7 Stonyhurst...... 53 51 |2 28 W.] 69 57:2 |) Llandovery...... 52 of | 3 45 W.| 69 112 Glangwnna...... 53 08 |4 14 W.| 69 58°8 || Stackpole Court! 51 38 | 4 55 W.| 68 59°9 Teignmouth ...) 50 33 |3 30 W.| 68 03° || Cawston......... 52 47 | 1 12 E. | 68 5573 Torquay ......... 50 28 |3 32 W.| 68 o2°2 || Margate ......... 51 23. | 1 23E. | 68 07°7 Mt. Edgecombe| 50 21 |4 11 W.| 68 06:4 || Folkestone...... 5105 | 1 10K, | 67 51°0 Penjerrick ...... 50 08 |5 07 W.| 68 06°6 |} Cleethorpe ...... 53 32 |9 00 69 33°4 Lew Trenchard.| 50 39 |4 11 W.| 68 16:1 || Lowestoft ...... 52 30/1 45E. | 68 425 Broome Park...| 51 14. |0 18 W.| 68 oo’o || Cawston.........) 52 47 | 1 12D. | 68 56°1 Jordan Hill...... 55 52 |4 19 W.| 71 29°5 || Cromer .........) 52 56 | 1 17 E. | 68 59°3 Fern Tower...... 56 22 13 50 W.| 71 2374] Kew .......00...] 51 29 | 0 18 W.| 68 2172 Mean epoch 1st January, 1860. Mean latitude, 52° 20’=);. Mean longitude 1° 41’ W.=p. Mean dip at the central station 68° 59’2=6). The stations and dips contained in the preceding Table require to be combined according to the method described in the ‘ British Association Report’ for 1838, p.68 (and adopted in the British Magnetic Survey for 1837), in order to determine (z) the angle which the isoclinal lines in England make with the meridian, and (7) the distance between them corresponding to differences of 1° of dip measured on the normal or perpendicular to the direction of the isoclinal lines themselves. Thus, if we make a and 6 co- ordinates of distance, in geographical miles, of the several stations in lon- gitude and latitude from the central position, and if we put 7 cos uv=z, and rsinu=y, we have from Table II. 26 equations of condition of the form 0—0,=axr-+ by ; combining these by the method of least squares, we find x=+0°:1993; y=+0°5911; w=—71°29'; and r=0'-624. The most probable dip at each station will therefore be given by the formula 6= +68° 59"2+0:1993a+0°59114, a and 6b being the distances in longitude and latitude, expressed in geogra- phical miles, from the central position in 1°41! W. longitude, and 52° 20'N. latitude. Table III. contains in columns 2 and 3 the values of the coordinates a and 6 for the stations named in column 1; in columns 4 and 5 are placed the values of (0—6,), in column 4 as observed, and in column 5 as calculated ; in columns 6 and 7 the dips at each station are shown, viz. the observed dips in column 6 and the calculated dips in column 7; and in the final column the differences are stated between the observed and calculated dips. From these differences we obtain +3!85 as the probable error of the observed dip at a single station in this survey. This small amount of pro- bable error will doubtless contrast favourably with the results in countries where igneous rocks are of more frequent occurrence than they are in England; it includes both station anomalies and the effects of magnetic dis- ao as well as observational and instrumental errors. l. s 258 REPORT—1861. Taste III. (u—p,) cos A.| (A—A,)- 0—6,. 0. Observed Stations eet te SE MN as aN ST . = cu- cu- a. &. |Observed. lated, |Observed. late) lated. (1.) (2.) G@) | @ | G1 @ | @ [-@ Miles. Miles. ; 1 o oy is Kew sasecsccssee — 52 — 5x | — 389 | — 4or5 | 68 2073] 68 18°7| +-01°6 St. Leonards ... — 85 — 89 |— 747 |— 79°5 | 67 44°5| 67 49°7|] —05'2 Llandovery...... + 76 — 19 |+ tor |-+ o4'o | 69 09°3 | 69 03:2 | +-06'1 Stonyhurst......) + 28 + 9r |+ 580 }-+ 594 | 69 57°2 | 69 58°6| —or4 Glangwnna...... + 92 + 48 [+ 59°6 |+ 46°7 | 69 588} 69 45°9 | +12°9 Teignmouth ... + 68 —107 |— 563% | — 49°7 | 68 03°1 | 68 o9°5 | —06%4 Torquay ......... + 70 —1Iz |— 57°90 | — 52°3 | 68 02°2 | 68 069 | —04"7 Mt. Edgecombe + 96 —119 |— 52°38 |— 51'2 | 68 064} 68 o8'0| —o1'6 Penjerrick ...... +131 —132 |— 52°6|— 519 | 68 06°6| 68 07°3 | —oo'7 Lew Trenchard.| + 95 —101 | — 43°1 | — 40°8 | 68 16°12] 68 18:4] —o2°3 Broome Park ... — 52 — 66 |— 59°2 | — 494 | 68 co'0 | 68 09°38 | —og'8 Jordan Hill .,.) -+ 89 +212 | +150°3 | +143°0 | 71 29°5 | 71 22°2| +07°3 Fern Tower...... + 71 +242 | +1442 | +157°1 | 71 23°41 71 363] —12°9 Jardine Hall ... + 59 +170 | + 104°2 | +13112°3 | 70 43°4.| 70 51°§ | —o8°r Scarborough ...| — 46 +117 | + 58°83 |+ 60°0 | 69 58°0! 69 59°72] —or'2 Cambridge ...... — 66 — 7 |— 165 |— 17°2 | 68 42°7| 68 42°0] +00°7 Llandovery...... + 76 — 19 | + 1270 /+ 40 | 69 11°2 | 69 03°2] +08°0 Stackpole Court} +120 — 42 | + 00°7 | — oo'g | 68 59°9| 68 583] +01°6 Cawston ......... — 104 + 27 | — 03°09 | — 04°7 | 68 55°3| 68 54°5| +00°8 Margate .....+... —I115 — 57 |— 51°5 | — 56°6 | 68 07°7] 68 02°6| +05"2 Folkestone ...... —107 — 75 |— 682 }— 65°6 | 67 51:0] 67 53°5| —02°6 Cleethorpe ...... — 60 + 72 |+ 342 |+ 30°7 | 69 3374] 69 29°9| +03°5 Lowestoft ...... —125 + 10 |— 16°7 | — 19°0 | 68 42°5| 68 4or2| +02°3 Cawston........- —I04 + 27 |— 0371 | — 04°7 | 68 56°21} 68 54°5| +01°6 Cromer ..,..0.} —108 + 36 |+ oor | — o0'2 | 68 5973] 68 59°0| +0073 KNEW, csuguxssenas — 52 — 5% |— 37°38 | — 4o°5 | 68 21°21 68 187} +02°5 The direction of the isoclinal lines in England thus found for January 1, 1860, is from N. 71°22’ E. to S. 71° 22'W. The direction found in the previous survey (by observations at 132 stations by five observers) was from N. 65° 05! E. to S. 65° 05! W. (Brit. Assoc. Report, 1838, pp. 85 and 86). The central geographical positions are only a few miles distant from each other, being respectively 52° 38! N., and 2° 07! W. in 1837, and 52° 20' N., and 1°41! W. in 1860. From the large amount of the difference in the direction of the lines at the two epochs (6° 17'), it is scarcely possible to doubt that in the interval between 1837 and 1860 a real change has taken place in this respect, and that the isoclinal lines passing across England have increased the angle which they make with the geographical meridians; a change implying that in the interval the secular diminution of the dip has been greater on the West than on the Hast side of the island. In the survey of 1837, r was found =0'575, and in that of 1860=0'624; the geographical distance between the lines has therefore increased in the interval in the proportion of 0'624 to 0'575; a change implying that the secular diminution of the dip has been greater in the Southern than in the Northern parts of England. The difference in the rate of secular change on the east and on the west sides of England may be also shown directly by the comparison of the obser- vations at two stations, Margate and Lew Trenchard, one on the east and the other on the west side; the stations were common to both surveys, the observer being the same at the two periods and the localities identical: the ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF ENGLAND. 259 instrument employed in the earlier survey was a circle and two needles by Gambey, free from any appreciable error, and in the later survey, No. 30 and its two needles already described: the results were as follows :— ~ Margate. Lew Trenchard. Lat. 51° 23’ N., Long. 1° 23! E. Lat. 50° 39! N., Long. 4°11! W. OE ree 69% 02'-9'|. July $0, 1888, cc scmenece 69° 19"0 tas AGO ....2s pen ccnese 68° 05!-9 | July 9,1859 ...........0002 68° 17!4 Secular changein22‘9 years 57"0 | Secularchangein21 years 1° O1"6 Annual change ..........+. 2''49 | Annual change............ 2""93 This comparison shows that the mean annual secular change in the interval between the surveys was a decrease of 2!:49 at Margate on the east coast, and of 2'-93 at Lew Trenchard on the borders of Devonshire and Cornwall. The amount of the difference in the rate of secular change on the east and west coasts corresponding to the change in the value of wu, may be further and more fully exemplified by comparing the values of the dip at the two epochs 1837 and 1860 at Lowestoft on the extreme east of England, and at the Land’s End at the extreme west; the values in 1837 being taken from the map of the isoclinal lines for January 1837 accompanying the report of the survey of that epoch, and those in 1860 being computed by the formula obtained by the survey of 1860, Lowestoft. Land’s End. Lat. 52° 30’ N., Long. 1° 45! E. Lat. 50° 05! N., Long. 5° 40’ W. Dip in the Isoclinal ae 2 UY Bie Ty ESP ride. ee Master OR BE MT PE Cok lec snabes 69 21:0 Dipin January 1860, com- puted by the formula i , 8=€8° 5924-01993 a EGO y a! os arnt pee en nésievalbaaanpe aqech 68 10°0 +0°591i 6 | ———— —_———— Secular change in 23 years BAB" fice ckscosssviecscscosccocton css 1 11:0 Annual change ............ ESOL ret satdedeoare apes ctie tsetse 3°09 If we now bring together the values of the annual secular change during the 23 years preceding 1860 as shown by these four comparisons, placing them in order from East to West across our island, and introducing in its proper place 2'63, the annual secular change at Kew in the 21 years preceding 1859 as known from other sources (Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol.xi.p.158), we have as follows :— ‘ Lowestoft,.....00006.. 2:36 Lew Trenchard ......... 2°93 MAT AA ciiiekeecciesen,, 249 Land’s End..........006.. 3°09 Wis ndash sles -lossieses) 21GS The increase in proceeding from east to west is shown consistently. The annual values derived from determinations including intervals of above ' 20 years, are of course mean values. The surveys furnish no direct means of judging whether the secular change has been uniform or otherwise at any of the stations. At one of the stations only, i.e. Kew, we have reason to believe, from the observations recorded in the ‘Proceedings of the Royal Society’ referred to above, that the change has been uniform during the whole period from 1837 to 1860 (and also for several years preceding 1837) ; ot are not entitled to assume a similar uniformity at any of the other stations. Proceeding now to the increase in the value of 7 in the interval between the two surveys,—the difference in the rate of secular change of dip in the 82 ’ 260 REPORT—1861, northern and southern parts of England which is implied thereby may be similarly shown, by comparing the dips in 1837 and 1860 at two geographical positions, one in the extreme north, and the other in the extreme south of England. Taking as the northern station the intersection in the map of January 1837 of the isoclinal line of 71°30' with the parallel of 55° N. latitude, which takes place in the longitude of 3° 00! W.,—and for the southern station the intersection of the isoclinal line of 69° in the same map with the parallel of 51°, which takes place in 0° 07’ East longitude,—-and comparing these values with the values computed for January 1860 by the formula cor- responding to that epoch, we have— North Geog. Position. South Geog. Position. Lat. 55°, Long. 3° 00’W. Lat. 51°, Long. 0° 07’ E. Dip in the map corresponding to tO. ents Peer AUN REN ELAS 5 costes seclenmnen tangs } OE 0 ee Dip on January 1, 1860, computed by the formula 107, BOB | \ackimgaatonn kav ae a 0=68° 59'"2+0"1993a+0'59116 —— - = Secular change in 23 years ........... MTD. wasendtics| s Sik neo PTV CHATG. 7 - cicienantis eV dasick ove igs Oe A 2'-68 The comparison shows that the méan annual secular change in the interval of 23 years between the surveys was 205 on the northern border of England, and 268 at a station on the south coast. Thus it is seen that the annual rate of decrease of dip has varied in different parts of England in proceeding from east to west, from 2°36 at Lowestoft to 3°09 at the Land’s End; and in proceeding from north to south from 2°05 at a position in 55° to 2°68 at a position in 51° N. latitude. In viewing the map in which the isoclinal lines for 1837 and 1860 are represented in comparison with each other (Pl. VIII.), it is seen that there are three points where the amount of secular change in the interval must have been the same, viz. the three points where the lines of 68°, 69°, and 70° in 1837 intersect respectively with those of 69°, 70°, and 71° in1860; since at each of these points themean annual change must have been (60' +23 years= ) 262. These three points are seen to be in a curved line which crosses England from the vicinity of Folkestone to the Irish Channel, and would impinge upon the east coast of Ireland a few miles north of Dublin. Kew, also, where the mean annual decrease of the dip in the same interval has been 2'63, is as nearly as may be on the same line. At all stations north and east of the line the mean annual secular change in the 23 years has been less than 2’62, and at all stations south and west of the line greater than 262. Ina pre- ceding page we have the mean annual change at four stations (Lowestoft, Margate, Lew Trenchard, and Land’s End) situated at points on the east’ and west sides of England, and at two geographical positions (55° N. and 8° W., and 51° N. and 0° 07’ E.) at north and south points. An intercom- parison of the respective values of annual change at these six localities with 2-62, and of their geographical distances from the aforesaid line of 262 measured in every case on a perpendicular to that line, shows that an increase of 0’1 in the annular secular change for every 30 geographical miles towards the N.E., and a decrease of 0'-1 for every 30 geographical miles towards the S.W., will represent very approximately the observed values. We are thus furnished with a seale by which the variation in the mean rate of the secular decrease of the dip in different parts of England in the interval between the two surveys may be approximately assigned; the limits being an annual decrease of 3’°1 at the Land’s End, and of 20 at Berwick. If we should per- ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF ENGLAND. 261 mit ourselves to extend the same scale of variation to the north of Scotland, we should find the mean annual decrease reduced to 16. The ‘very small corrections required to reduce the results of the observations of the present survey toa common epoch (January |, 1860), as shown in Table II. p. 257, have been estimated in accordance with this scale of variation : the whole of the observations were made within two years of the common epoch. The line which has been indicated as connecting the intersections of the isoclinals of 68°, 69°, and 70° of 1837 with those of 69°, 70°, and 71° of 1860, is marked on the map by a faintly dotted line. It is in fact a line com- posed of nodal points, on which the isoclinals passing through them may be conceived to have turned, as on pivots, in the interval of 23 years, and (irrespective of their common and uniform movement of translation to the north) to have undergone a change of direction, becoming more southerly on the eastern side of the nodal line, and more northerly on its western side. Division Il.—Jntensity of the Magnetic Force. For the purpose of ascertaining the position, direction, and distance apart of the isodynamic lines, or lines of equal Total Force, two methods were employed, viz. (a) the determination at different stations of the values in absolute measure of the horizontal component of the force, which values, being combined with the dip of the needle observed at the same time and place, give the absolute values of the total force; and (b) the determination of the variations of the total force itself at the different stations, by observing the positions of equilibrium of a dipping-needle between the action of the earth’s magnetism and that of a small constant weight with which the needle is loaded. It may be convenient to discuss these methods and their results separately ; and with this view we may commence with the determinations of the absolute value of the horizontal component of the force. a. Horizontal Force in Absolute Measure —aA full description of the in- “struments, and of the method employed in these experiments, is given in App. I. of the article on “ Terrestrial Magnetism ” in the 3rd edition of the ‘Manual of Scientific Inquiry,’ published under the authority of the Ad- miralty. The collimator magnet employed as a deflector was numbered 5, and was used throughout the experiments. Its moment of inertia (KX), in- cluding the suspending stirrup and other appendages, was determined at Kew, by the late Mr. Welsh, in June 1858, by the mean of experiments with three cylinders B, C, and D, of which the weights and dimensions were respectively as follows— in. in. gTs. 15 pee length 4°0193 ; diam. 0°3917 ; weight 1029,62, oa length 40488; diam. 0°3929 ; weight 104442, 3 peas length 4°0131; diam. 0°3916 ; weight 1029,71, whence K was found =0°73100 at 60° Fahr.; and the log of *#K= 1°72513 at 30° Fahr. 1°72531 at 60° Fahr. 1°72549 at 90° Fahr. 1°72519 at 40° Fahr. 1°72537 at ‘70° Fahr. 1°72525 at 50° Fahr. 1°72543 at 80° Fahr. The correction for the decrease of the magnetic moment of No. 5, produced by an increase of 1° Fahr.=(q)=0:00011 (¢,—é)+°0000006 (¢,—¢)’, ¢, being the observed temperature, andé=45°. The induction coefficient (1) =0°000252. These were both determined at Kew by the same careful experiinentalist. The angular value of one seale-division of the vibration apparatus=2'-27. The graduation of the deflection bar, compared with the verified standard measure of the Kew Observatory, was without error within the limits which were used. The rate of the chronometer and the arc of vibration were too (08 2 el 262 REPORT—1861. small throughout the experiments to require corrections to be applied on their account. The constant P, depending upon the distribution of magnet- ism in the deflecting and suspended magnets (the same magnets having heen used throughout), was determined by the experiments in Table IV. made at Kew by Mr. Chambers :— TaBLeE 1V.—Deflections with Collimator 5 at distances 0°9 ft. and 1:2 ft. to determine the value of P. Observed by Mr. Chambers. Distance o'g ft.=7; 17s 100069 ; £=45°.|| Distance 12 ft.=7r) ; ifs 1'00029; ¢=45°. 0 0 ; m’ 4 m 1859. Temp. |Deflections.| Log xy 1859. Temp. |Deflections.| Log oa ° ° ‘4 “i °o fe} “4 “fl ED. Is. e ce 52°6 23\ XY) 45 g°r2046' | Feb. £7... 52°6 8 45 52 911984 Eat 53°3 21 13 34 912145 “sylks pocdtie 5383 8 52 00 912489 Ps ee 53°1 2115 00 | 912155 ae iReteats 53°1 8 50 25 | 9:12357 Sinica: 41°4 21 15 24 | 9*12096 ib, dinacde 414 8 48 15 | 9g*12z104 oe Re 44°8 21 14 16 9°12076 HOG Macks 44°83 8 48 09 g°12118 PRE a tae 47°3 21 13 34| 9°12070 PaRL it 47°3 8 47 56 | 9'12117 Mar. 2...... 56°5 2I 09 42 9°12007 || Mar. z...... 56°5 8 46 04 9°12027 Pe An canss 63°5 21 07 45 911995 oy) Aveo sis 63°5 8 45 26 9°12028 NICRY co escdaateneysereecess log A=9'12073 Mean .2 ods cacbasdensten log A’=9°12153 , Whence P= (A-a)= (4-3) =—-00337. rT? The experiments detailed in Tables V. and VI. were made with Collimator No. 5, in June 1858, and in January and March 1859, by Messrs. Welsh and Chambers, to determine the value in British units of the magnetic force at the Kew Observatory, adopted as the base station of the Survey. TABLE V. (see opposite page). TasiE VI.—Conclusions from Table V. Date. Distance. X. m. 0. pe» Observers. ft. ott: 1858. June 17...) o'9 3°7894. | °5178| 68 23°3| 10°289 | June 18 ...| o'9 3°7847 | °5177| 68 23°3| 10°276 Mr. Welsh. June 18...) o°9 3°7858 | °5179| 68 23°3] 10°279 J 1859. January 15| "0 3°7918 | *5121| 68 22°4] 10°288 January 15 ro 3°7894 | *5118] 68 22°74] 10°282 January 19} 0o'9 3°7880 | 5126] 68 22°4] 10°278 January 19 12, 3°7930 | *5114.| 68 22°4] r0°292 January 20} 12 3°7993 | °5120| 68 2274] 10°308 January 20} o'9 3°7910 | °5123| 68 22°4} 10°286 Mir. Chambers, March 2...| 09 3°7933 | °5020|] 68 2274] 10°292 March) 2.2) 3°7966 | *5022] 68 22°4| ro‘301 March 4...) 1°2 3°7957 | 5019] 68 22°4] 10°299 March 4...| o'9 3°7953 | °5024| 68 2274] 10°298 Mean corresponding to January 1859............ 10°290 | x=nJ mx 2% maJ mk. ¢=X sec 0. 9 in June 1858 from 115 observations at Kew (68° 23’-2 on July 1, 1858). 9 in January and March 1859, from 54 observations at Kew in those months (Pro- ceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xi. pp. 150, 151 and 152). 263 ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF ENGLAND. yy ong: Sa [0 a sloquivyg ‘ay\l | Vz0gz.o oe Mt ee oer} LL171.6 $v lo 1z S.£9 6.0 COTY ae *sroquieqy “ayy, | £664z.0 aad + ee ce zfr71.6 gz SHg $.£9 7.1 © iS UROL Sake ‘sraqmeyg “ay | 1662z.0 ies we are ct r£1z1.6 to of g S.9S ZI ae a ec *sIaquieyg ‘Ij, | 000gz.0 sss He sled eet 6g17z1.6 zb 60 1% $.9S 6.0 pestss@ OTD TAT 5 x Sg£00, @.05 ZgIz.S oSt £5 gf 1z v.6r 6.0 Erecrdiqg, ste eee { 2600" 2.05 Bgtz.s sm vhot.6 bE gf 12 8.3h 6.0 asigzaatt AERO a Whee n| detec a Psrgapee- | goree’ | eek | lh, sAMBeb dee caeiome Hae a ayer al eee? : : OII00, 6.15 $Szz.$ ogt Lt LS g v.0$ ZI re SEO AML 894880 {ace £.28 Sofz.S eat vL6er.6 {a 9S g 6.6% ZI ESOS de maldo magativho te | SeaeoN reat eel aove de Ul) opel) oSEnemO ae] ge gael ere Lee ele ree ‘woqmong “aw | Soleco| {Zero | oy | eee a veal eo 4 ; ‘ Sof1.6 } ZI £00, bbb 6912.5 o$t % ' sg IB A Raa tere 9.6¢ S917. oSt 6S of Sx o.Lt Ot pesave in ‘uee 6S gr "USM “IN | 6£26z.0 fae om ooo me or 2 1% L.zg ms siti Se : ‘ : bogt1.6 i $17Z00, $.L9 z£oz.S oSz TSIRAS APD 4ikxe6e.0 ene 8-99 $102. o$z GP Zour L.z9 pe perro rise = : £Zzo0, ZL $zo0z.$ oSz bE gb iz Z.EL .0 pepe Lr #9 UST9M “I | $2z6z.0 cidde. bl wont eh 09S £1,6 Ez gh rz etl 6:0 sore Zr oun ° 8 (iene | ° ° "yy "Sor “Xu B07 ‘= dmay| “L= ory, | “siqia jo ‘on x 807 n= uoyoepag |°7= ‘dmoy} ‘“= 4ysIq *T9ATOSIO ue a Jt gt AB ‘aye Ofc. eG os }s en oy ee }{ —07) 54.8 paws <= te PG 9)F— + pol x Tos AY eee pe, "UOTJLIIA JO syusMMTIEd xT ‘uoNoapeq Jo syuowiedxy SE ee ee Se ee at cee) TSF ee ees ee ee | ‘A TIAV], REPORT—1861. 264 $6z00. 9729.0 {| cGro0, £6z00, ob£9z.0 { Caran, gotoo, 8809%.0 { goroo. gztoo, ee { gztoo. ootoo, SvLLz.0 ootoo, ooboo, ogtoo. SggLz.o { etch EGLIp.o { ogtoo. ogfoo, ogfoo, SgLLz.0 { deean, £to0f.0 ogfoo. “xu S07 aL H uU xX 209 gLlZb.s £ogf.S 1£L6.5 £69£.5 zSgE.S £S96.5 ob6z5 3662.S 6997. £697.5 8887.5 Ltgz.S €Lgz.$ 7Lgz.S 0162.$ £062. £6gz.S oLlt1.$ ‘L=omny, oSé oSz oof oSz oSz oz oSz tov oSz o$z oS oSt oSz ost oS% oSt% oS o$% SUOTIBAQIA JO "ON eee 2 cc see L tc see 73 aR Some d “ec “1 990 eee €r “a * €rqdag eee bz “a eee tz “ce . bz “ee "or sé "Or “cc °° OF “ ‘OL “ce “OL “ce “or ‘Sny Ame "Sgt *a4eq fe {Sr4q—90— 241 ba=xu “MOTPeAQIA JO syuatuTedxT ‘sasha Aq opeur jye o1aa. szuottsedxa osoyy, [e1sAVS OY} 4e ‘G Fes om Sz to £z |g.Lv/ 6.0 } ox951.6{ Iv 10 £¢ |1.gb} 6.0 TTT 6b go fz |g.6b| 6.0 } stgsr.6{ gz 60 Ez |g.6b| 6.0 Pew LE fx Sz |6.65|6.0 } z1091.6 1 gz fr Ez |g.bS | 6.0 ooLt1.6 gh go gr: |S.LL] 0.1 } gtlbz.6 < obLt1.6 gS Sz zz |¥.SL)| 6.0 £rb1.6 $v to zr |S.bL} 1.4 saue gbL1.6 €£$ gz zz 0.02 | 6.0 cbltr. gflbr.6 z& gz zz |0.0£| 6.0 \ Lzgtr.6 or 6z zz = {g.£2| 6.0 Sogt1.6 of 62 zz |8.69| 6.0 brghr.6 L6Lb1.6 zi 6z zz |6.69| 6.0 gzghr.6 Sz oz zz 0.69 | 6.0 Okt dt bz 12 |b.95 | 6.0 oggzr.6{ Lz bz 1% |¥.85 | 6.0 “ / ie} ie} . u ca nfo] wl ASE oan et &_X d {@ Mba HT f OU of =a “molayeg jo syuawtsadxy TIA 2T4V oe §& ES 5 seeeeey Aqne "8581 *a}eq POP e ee eeeeeseerees “ SeeeweeeceoeveeeooOUUMOUB[E) eee “ic “4sanqAuoys POP e eer es seers sees “cc “ iT) * Argsopuryy Peete teeeeereeceee ‘treseeeeseeees SHIvHOOTT "4g “1014819 “W9Y] WO POATJap SUOISNPOUOD OY} *T]IT.\ eqeJ, pue ‘Aaaang oy} Jo suoryrys "ON AOPVUITTJOD YPM opvUt ‘UOI}VIQIA PUG UOIZDIHaq JO syusWIedxa ay} Jo s[ivjap ay} suLe}UOD “JJA BqUT 265 ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF ENGLAND. 6£g%z.0 988%z.0 ob£Sz.0 o1bSz.o 7 £Sovz.0 ¥gzLz.0 6z697.0 L1LSz.0 £69Sz.0 £56Sz.0 o9£Sz.0 L6z97.0 aa SS sa 62S bz.0 Q7zz£7.0 SoLLz.o P£ogz.0 $Sogz.o PS7gz.0 691g7.0 LLEgz.0 { mien! ZS 7200. ZS 700. z$ 700. 725700. O1I7Z00, O1IZO0O, OIZOO. 00700, $6100. $6100, gzz00. 97700. £8100. £gr100, Lzzoo. Lzzoo. 06000. 06000, ogf00. ogfoo. 99700. 99700, 1$z00, 1$Zz00, 1$zoo. 1¥z00, 1vzoo, 1vzoo. 1vzoo. 61700, zbzoo, zbzoo, z.69 2.79 £.19 £.19 0.79 0.19 0.65 oS 0.19 0.65 9.6¢ 0.25 g.6S 6.09 L.9S 0.65 0.£9 0.£9 ¥.89 0.L9 .09 29 v.19 8.49 4.99 0.6L 9.%9 z.59 0.9 z.b9 0.69 0.7L PIL¥.S ZOLy.S £99+.S 1vLv.$ Lggt.$ £Lov.S £gfv.S f£ev.s zozS.S tozS.S IEr£.5 bSr£.S oové.s 61v£.S bbrt.$ gS1b.S Lgorv.$ zZ1ov.$ Lofv.S Lotv.S olgf.S £06£.5 96%.$ £1ZS.$ ogZS.$ £00£.5 glgz.S gzlz.$ 0097.S 0997.S o0z$z.$ gz. oz ogf ogf oth oov oz ozb ot ogf ogv oSt ost oS? oSf oSf oSb ost oS& oof oof oof o$z oor oSf oov oSf oS£ oSf oof oS€ oSf oSf + a“ € “ce g “cc £ 00 lz Lt “ tz “ Ez se Li “cb Li 4dag *Iggt 6 “c 6 “ 9 “ 9 *~0 rr, 8 Ir ydag cA ee 77% ‘ONY gt “i gt Ame Lr “ Lr keyg *O9gI CB en Hb; “ L "490 cn 4 I “ec 4 of ot “ gr “cc gi oune *6Sgr een eeeeneee een eeeeraeee see meeweeeee ste eeewenene | } } } } stern ew eeeeenee i } Beer enenree ee ees eeneeseee Coe eerecsere \ J 6L111.6 ooorr.6 grsor.6{ ZL171.6 $6660.64 g6tor.6{ gLL11.6 gzgir.6 €pS11.6 { thier.6 4 bogr.6{ $S6£1.6 $1£51.6 gSbr1.6 767z11.6 LSEr11.6 ggt11.6 1gbrr.6 { 7 Lt vS LE 6£ of Sx ££ 6£ bf 6r zt vz 61 bY gt LY go to Lo So Lo vS zo gt vo Lb tr fv Sr go LS gb 3S ££ 6+ gS 64 zS So gf Lo 1$ ZS St LS Of loy4 o@ ok fey ley4 ley 4 o@ Iz 1% It loys o@ tek o@ ot lor loy4 ley 4 4 1@ le4 loy4 1S Lb gt tb gt ob zr fv Si tr ££ Sb tO ov 5.89 S.L9 S.Lo 0.19 0.19 0.09 $.65 ¢.6S 0.LS 0.L$ 0.LS ¥.£S 0.28 g.6S $.6$ $.9S 1.9$ $.gS ZL 8-29 0.£9 0.09 0.09 L.£9 o.bL z.59 0.79 9.19 $.L9 $.S9 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6,0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6,0 6,0 6.0 6.0 6.0 eee ¢ “ eee ¢ “a eee S "490 eee Lz sc eee Lz “ coe [Z “ eee bz “cc eee tz “a eee Li a“ eee Ltr “cc oo 6 “c Soe SC eee 9 ‘“ “9 400 Cos a ¢ 4c "+ rr qdag OO Ar A +“ “Iz Sny eee 91 “ sgt Ayne ore LT “ ve Lr key CE oon OL ‘“ "8 "490 coo rr “ ory Aine oon of “ce ir ol A “ coe Ly “ * Zr oune 6Sgr see eecceesecereces “ Fe eeoeeeserenerene “ seetesenueereeseesers JOMIOIO eee eeesenteseerese “ Peewee ster eesensees “ see eeeeersonseceesons U0ISMED oe 6“ ** 4J03S907] ad107749919 eecencesteccssvess auoysom]O Pere reassesescere sone HO}8AED weeees 41n0g ejodgoe7s AMAOpULT'T ** gopliqmeg eeeeesece eeeeesensessces seuseusesvectve ysnoroqieosg seeeeeeeseeeeee TET QUIDICS strevesevons NIDUOUALT, MOT se etereeceessecece “ eerereeeeereccvee yorsalueg 6“ ae eeeeeeroeseerece Por eeeeeereseresee “ yynowmusiay, 266 REPORT—1861. TasxeE VIII.—Conclusions from Table VI. and VII. Stations. Date. X. KEW ccccs-cccncanss 1859. January.cs...] seeees St. Leonards ......|1858. July ......... 378670 Llandovery......... Aug. & Sept.) 3°6722 Stonyhurst......... October...... 3°5512 Glangwnna.,,....... October...... 3°5708 Teignmouth ...... 1859. June ......006 3°8388 Penjerrick ......... June & July} 3°8371 Lew Trenchard ,.. Duly scaseveves 3°8128 Jardine Hall ...... October...... 3°4.638 Scarborough ...... October...... 3°5717 Cambridge ........./1860. May ..... sedel on 3° 9G50 Llandovery......... July seh si es 3°6820 Stackpole Court... August ...... 3°7330 Cawston .......0000- September...| 3°7112 Margate .......00. a October...... 3°8252 Folkestone......... October...... 3°8614 Cleethorpe.......+. 1861. September... 376283 Lowestoft ......00. September...) 3°7521 Cawston..e.cceceeee September...) 3°7105 Cromer, s.csccetes ae October...... 3°7008 xa mix; maV mx . 2; ¢=X sec @; 6 from Table I. b. Variations of the Total Force determined by the Statical Method.—This method is described in the ‘Manual of Terrestrial Magnetism,’ 3rd edition, pp- 27 & 28, section B. The Dip Circle No. 30 was furnished with two addi- tional needles, Nos. 3 and 4, the poles of which were at no time reversed or disturbed. No. 3 was an ordinary‘dipping-needle, and No. 4 a similar needle loaded with a small fixed and constant weight, deflecting it from its natural position in the magnetic direction. The frame carrying the microscopes was fitted to receive and retain No. 4 securely in a constant position when used to deflect No. 3. The experiment consists of two processes: the first being the observation of the position of equilibrium of No.3 between the action of the earth’s magnetism and that of No. 4 used as a deflector; the north pole of No. 4 being directed alternately towards the (magnetic) north and south: and the second process being the observation of the position of equilibrium of No. 4 between the action of the earth’s magnetism and that of the small fixed and constant weight with which it is loaded. By the first process we obtain the inclination to the horizon of No. 3 when deflected by No. 4 =w,= half the difference between the readings (ina single position of the circle and needle) with the north pole of No. 4 directed alter- nately north and south ; and by the second process we obtain the inclination to the horizon of the loaded needle observed in the four positions of the circle and needle =n. Then 6—n=w is the deviation of the loaded needle from the position due to the earth’s magnetism alone, @ being the mean dip observed with needles 1 and 2 at the same time and place. We have then the following expression for the total force (#) at each station, cos p = Ang Sons sin @ sin u, 7 oe ve ; re : ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF ENGLAND. 267 where A is a constant obtained by the formula oon sin wu sin v, cos 0 cos 9 ‘ from observations made at a base station where X and 6 have been carefully determined. The Observatory at Kew having been taken as a base station, the experi- ments detailed in Tables IX. and X. were kindly made at my request by Messrs. Stewart and Chambers in January 1859 and October 1860, to de- termine the value of the constant A at those epochs. Tasie [X.—Observations made at the Kew Observatory by Mr. Chambers in January 1859, with needles 3 and 4 of Circle 30, to determine the value of the constant A. X=10:290 (Tables V. & VI.). 0=68° 22’ 18” (Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xi. p. 151). Date. Ne U. Uy. ° U “ ° i “ ° ‘ “ January 13 ...0«-| —17 38 00 | 86 00 18 | 30 27 23 Tye wo: —17 38 17 | 86 00 35 | 30 27 50 seeees] —17 45 22 | 86 07 4O | 30 25 02 we AzD —17 55 30 | 86 17 48 |} 30 25 o9 9 «BX avevee] —1I7 53 54 | 86 16 12 | 30 26 30 Be 22a awewae —18 07 49 | 86 30 07 } 30 26 34 Means ......., »-| —17 49 49 | 86 12 07 | 30 26 25 : Whence A= log 0°87498. TasLe X.—Observations made at the Kew Observatory by Mr. Stewart in October 1860, with needles 3 and 4 of Circle 30, to determine the value of the constant A. X=10-290 (Tables V. & VI.). @=68° 196 (Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xi. p. 154). Date. 7) u. Uy. ° td ° ‘ ° ‘ October 17.........| —22 38 90 57°6 | 29 23°7 Wit A ecseveaes —22 45 gi 04°6 29 24°2 oy UY Parc —22 45 gi 04°6 29 21°5 “ES eee —22 42 gi o16 29 21°7 Heh leanne: —22 34 go 53°6 29 24°5 EE eae ct —22 37 go 56°6 29 24°5 MVIGATISN. 3 cusenesees —22 40°2 90 59°8 29 23°3 Whence A= log 0°87524. It appears, therefore, that the constant A was substantially the same at an early stage and at the close of the survey experiments. The value employed | has been A= log 0°87516. Table XI. exhibits the results of the statical determination of the Total Force at the stations of the survey where that method was employed. 1Sz.or 1$%,0r £.Lb Lg L.gt an oe 3S ae orf.or L.6v Lg g.fo 9.98 gi— 09 sovsee Oy 73 eee eee eeeeeterens “ L1£.01 zz£.0L S.$$ Lg 6.65 8.98 gi— (ole) trees OT 6“ ec encveeneccesccne “eo oz§.or LSS Lg $.6S 0.20 61— 09 ; *#Pheeeres TOISMED, ggt.cr ggf.or Z.1£ 98 9.28 off LrI— GS ese sreenc, nb ane “*"ain0y afodyorig LS£.or LS£.or S.£& L£g z.£S gz gr— 19 wresereeeresens STQAQDURTT S.or Lr— €s . “ brib.or 14.01 £.S1 Lg g.bb a = €S + ySnoxoqaeog goS.or goS.or S.SS Sg g.zt g.1t tet ie Trereseveeee TBTT QuIpIEs @Z.71 °i— steer omeeeeeee “se 979.01 979.01 $.gz $3 eH) 6.95 £1— LS get * JOMOT, Way i £.6£ 61— €Z skin's sips Baaie ‘“ eS Stz.or Stz.01r o.zb Lg Z.1% cep bse EL ssoeessveses $187 OUIOOI a brf.o1r bf.ox 6.6% 98 g.2$ 28 ees He vere" paeyoUady, oT] 1,00 61— ‘ . i. IZz.Ol Igz.0r 1.g0 Lg Z.9t L.6S gr— 69 . tees yorraltiag @Lz.0L 7LZ.01 £.t0 Lg b.07 b.9S gr— 09 reese Gz 66 [esse -QqtODaSpy JUNOT a tbhz.0L zbz.o1r g.gz Lg 9.Sz 1.2 61— 19 eacserpic) (Pai ree staewseevers es ken bIOm, i O8z.O1 g.zo Lg 1.L1 6.25 . a eal LLz.01 4 0gz.or B.S 98 1.61 1.67 gr— 09 tis tL7Z.01 g.S1 Lg o.L1 6.11 61— +9 vrores Or gune “6S gr £fv.or ££b.o1 zS51 Sg 4,20 Zor St $$ "6 490 6gf.01r grb Sg 1.0 gf gI— 09 * £ dag glt.or s Sgf.or 1.£z 98 %.38 tor Li— 89 nconeiee GUM TU? [sesherhs serena ue ogf.01 $.90 98 @.1I S.€S 91— 1g stress Zz bb |neeeeeeeerereee TQAODURTT $zz.01 V.6£ 98 g.oF 6,08 gr— 09 pecsesiS) me Alii = C.6v b gl . oo gz “ac sé bez.org O78 6.6z 98 6.g¢ vv gr— gl reese gz th |estentensene “ £.5¢ Z severe Ez bb soacvececees “ gfz.or L.6z 98 9.0b Z1v st—{ zg [eres €z oume [eeeeeseeeee* spatuoaTy “3g i , ° “gSor fo) —_— —_—— _——— overeat 7 ci) “n "mn lh “dwoy, *21eq u0Neig "IX T1AVL; ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF ENGLAND. 269 The values of the total force at the several stations derived by the abso- lute and by the statical methods are collected in Table XII., together with the latitudes and longitudes of the stations. TABLE XII. Total Force =¢. Station. Lat. N. |Long. W.| Absolute | Statical 8: | Method. | Method. |Adpted. | | eS | a | a KEW cccscovcesccseseee 51 29 o 18 | 10 290 | 10'290 | 10°290 St. Leonards .,,......] 50 51 | —O 33 | 10'225 | 10°224 | 10°225 Llandovery ......... 52 OF 3.45 | 10°349 | 10°378 | 10°363 Stonyhurst ..<...... 53 51 2 28 | 10°385 |.-.-ence 10°385 Glangwnna ..essevee 53 08 4. 14 | 10°448 | 10°433 | 10°440 Teignmouth ..0...... 5° 33 3 30 | 10283 | 10°277 | 10'2g0 TOrquay.......ce-oeeee 50 28 332 |eweceees 10°242 | 10°242 Mount Edgecombe .| 50 21 4 I |-----0e -| t0°272, | 10°272 Penjerrick ........000 50 08 5 07 | 10°303 | 10°281 | 10°292 Lew Trenchard...... 50 39 4 11 | 10°308 | 10°344 | 10°326 7 Broome Park......... 51 14 O 18 |eeseeee o| 1O'245 | 10°245 Fern Tower ....+000- 56 22 3 50 : 10°626 | 10°626 Jardine Hall.........] 55 10 3 24 | 10°496 | so"508 | 10°502 Scarborough ......... 54. 17 © 23] 10°43% | 10°414 | 107423 Cambridge.........++ 52 13 | —o 06 | r0°280 |........- 10°280 Llandovery .........| 52 O1 3.45 | 10°350 | 10°357 | 10°354 Stackpole Court ...| 51 38 4 55 | ro'gor | 10°388 | 10°395 Cawst0n......sscceeee. 247 | —1 12 | 10°307 | 10°317 | 10°312 Margate...... ceneeeees 51 23. | —1 23 | 10°255 | ro'25r | 10°253 Folkestone 51 05 | —I 10 | 10227 |..ceeeee 10°227 Cleethorpe............ 53 32 © 00 | 10°356 |....ceee 10°356 Lowestoft .......000.. 52 30 | —I 45 | 10°303 |.cceeeee 10°303 Cawston....... ae 52 47 | —I 12 | 10°292 |.-.eeeee 10°292 Gromer wcoceess seenens 52 56 | —21 17 | 10'29T |--.eee e+| 10°291 Tas_e XIII.—Differences in the values of ¢ by the Absolute and Statical Methods at Stations where both methods were employed. Station. Absolute—Statical. Station. Absolute—Statical. St. Leonards......... +oor Jardine Hall ......... —"o12 Llandovery ......+.. —"029 Scarborough ....++.4. +017 Glangwnna .,,...... +015 Llandovery ..,...... —‘007 Teignmouth ,,....... +'006 Stackpole Court ... +013 Benjerrick:.......0ice0: +'022 Cawston...... Sprout —‘o10 Lew Trenchard...... —'036 Margate....cccescsoees +004 Sum of the + differences, ‘078; sum of the — differences, 094; excess of — differences, o16 in 12 determinations ; or ‘oor on the average, being about one ten-thousandth of the whole force. The mean latitude of the 24 stations in Table XIL. is 52° 13’, and the mean longitude 1°38’ W. The mean force at the central position is 10°332=9’. The stations, and the adopted values of ¢, contained in Table XII. being com- bined in the usual manner, give (z) the angle which the isodynamic lines make with the meridian= —57°35"7, (or their direction is from N. 57° 35"7 E. to S. 57°35"7 W.;) and 7, or the rate of increase of the total force is a 270 REPORT—1861. normal direction =:00102 (in British units) for each geographical mile. The formula for computing the total force at each station (¢) is ¢=10°332+°000557 a+ °000878 6, a and 6 being coordinates of the distance of the station from the central position, expressed in geographical miles. The observed and computed values of the force at the several stations are shown in Table XIV. Tas_e XIV. 9. Differences. Station. == a | Observed Observed. Computed. | Computed. ———_ | | | IEGW, sna theueishacss sheomie cs 10°290 10°266 +024. St. Leonards ..1,..-2....0. 10°225 10°214 + oI! Llandovery ......+0e..000 10°363 10°363 "000 Stonyhurst ........0...06 10°385 10°435 —=j95e Glangwnna ..... Seheessees|) | (LO'AAO 10°433 +'007 Teignmouth .......... Sicesl, cove a0 10°283 — Helen AEDYOQUAY ce censps sence see ee, 10°242 10°281 —"039 Mount Edgecombe ....-..] 10°272 10°288 —'016 WENJERTICK tpsapates London distance. 2 =1:0000. 5 a. b. (4.)| (5+) (6.) | (7-) Mens I'oo00 | — 57|— 42 R. | 110254 | + 12] +212 P. | orgs | — 10}-+121 P. }| 1.0173 | — xz/|-+165 R. | ror65 |}— 1/4165 S. | 10147 | — 1|-+165 S. | ro1sg |-+ 2] +192 R. | 10173, | + 38] +162 S. | 110176 |+ 38|-+162 P. | ror84 |-+ 38}+147 P. | rorg8 | + 44] +161 P. | ror82 |-+ 45) +129 P. | ror8z | + 45)+139 P. | ror96 | + 51) +129 S. | 110176 |+ 67/-+140 P. | 110208 |+ 99}-+117 P. | 110203 | -+-107]--111 P. | rorg2 | +108} +120 Ba} w:e083 yl —— 53 \- Exar P. | rro103 | — 43] +124 Be parORg5< | — 35) 113.6 P. | 10126 | — 19]-+105 P. | 10096 | — 18}-+ 78 P. | 1:0134 | — 13] +127 P. | 1.0128 | — 12| +129 P. | ro124 |} — 4/-+ 69 Ps.) worog.|-F 9) 4- 35 L. | 1:0077 |+ 41|}-+ 30 S. | 10057 | + 41|+ 30 P. | rto106 | + 45|}-+ 70 L. | rorrz | + 49]/+ 71 S. | rors [+ 49/-+ 71 P. | rorro | + 56|+ 58 S. | roo60 | + 63| — 16 S. | roo81 |-+ 63] — 30 S. | 1.0078 | + 74) — 45 S. | rroroo | + g0|+ 11 L. | 1.0144 | +107|-++ 66 S. | 0°9979 | —113| — 50 S. | 0'9945 | —111]— 65 L. | 10030 | — 74)/+ 34 F. | 09937 | — 72|— 86 L. | r'ooor | — 64 fete) L. | 09955 |— 57|— 83 S. | 1.0006 | — 50}— 50 F. | 0'9993 | — 49| — 56 S. | o'9990 | — 40] — 83 P. | 1.0002 | — 19] — 89 P. | 0'9972 | — 18] — 89 L. | 1.0006 |-+ 6] — 69 F. | 1.0026 | + 35] — 42 L, | rroo30 | + 36] — 46 L. | roog1 | + 39] — 35 L, | 1.0046 | + 41] — 9 S. | roogs | + 96] — 93 F. | roor8 | +133] —124 S. | roorg | +133] —124 Intensity in British] pifrer- Units. Com- Observed. puted. (3.) (9-) 10'280 | 10'270 10°540 |-10°495 10°439 | 10°417 10°457 | 10°454 To"449 | 10°454 TO°43I | 10454 10°443 | 10°475 10°457 | 10°472 10°460 | 10°472 10469 | 10°461 10°484 | 10°474 10°467 | 10°451 10°466 | 10°458 10°48 | 107454 10'460 | 10°471 10°493 | 10°470 10°488 | 10°470 10°477 | 10°477 10°365 | 10°389 10°386 | r0‘402 10418 | 10°415 10°409 | 10°400 10°378 | 10°381 10°417 | 10°419 TO'41r | 10°422 10°407 | 10°381 10°388 | 10°348 10°359 | 10°375 10°338 | 10°375 10°388 | 10°407 10°395 | 10°410 10°428 | 10°410 10°393 | 10°404 10°34 | 10°353 10°363 | 10°343 10°360 | 10°337 10°382 | 10°387 10°428 | 10°437 10°249 | 10'236 10°223 | 10°225 10°310 | 10°317 10'215 | 10'230 10'28r | 10°299 10°233 | ro‘'242 10°286 | 10°269 10°273 | 10°264 10'270 | 10°249 10°282 | 10°256 10°251 | 10°256 10°286 | ro0'284 10°306 | 10°318 10°310 | 10°316 10°322 | 10°326 10°327 | 10°346 10°326 | 10°314 10°298 | 10°309 10°295 | 10°309 Probable error of a single determination --’o12. ence. — Observed —Com- puted. (10.) +o10 +1055 +022 § +1003 | —'005 —'023 —"032 "O15 —"0o12 +008 -+'o10 +'016 +008 +1027 —‘o1l +1023 +:o18 “000 —"024, —'016 +'003 +009 +003 —*002 —‘orr +026 +040 —‘o16 = "O37 4 —‘oIg” —'015 +'018 — —‘oIr —"o12 -+'020 — +1023 —'005 —"009 +1013 —"002 —*‘007 "ors —'018 —"009 +017 +009 +'o21 +:026 —"005 4 +'002 —‘oIz | —*006 — "00m ‘org | +‘o12 —"oIr “| q LU Keport, British Ae ation 1961 T A ne — - y Lye 1 peel Sines Lines of equal Magnetic L ii 4 ES iv bee A : A ’ anuaiylSSjand Januniy lst \ a } ( 4 ba / fs Si " \ ve 2 An "es \ Y) ‘ ) SM | SF =< a: ——— a rN: a k \ \ : a J i= Y ~\ ( ) — ( terpe S Lay : a 2 b~Y Se kt } f | J / af é | rf ) > Gaupbrids i s my = lines are those of 1837. ean * The bro The witroken those of 1860. Went Tongieuile late 9. : Lyd ye WUC S ined 51 OU vied ( og L : a ode on J i equal i Ve Yeevite « Prove oe 7 y . IDsty y iy OGnua oy BY and o Sines TSOO. in British Units. The ‘broken lines are those of 1837. The unbroken these of 1860. East Longitude T.W. Lowry fe- The hroken: lin The unbroken the Wert longi ngrade Wea Lengituls ; Plate 10. Annual decrease Ju W. Lowry fe . Naat y ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF ENGLAND. 273 ei ero surveys. We have no means of estimating with precision the operation . of the secular change in this interval, inasmuch as we have no absolute “measures of the force at so early a date as that of the survey in 1837. The ‘only satisfactory determinations which we now possess, from which an approximate value of the secular change for one particular station, and for a part of the interval, may be inferred, are the absolute measures made monthly ‘at the Kew Observatory since April 1857. From these the force appears to have increased between April 1857and March 1862 at an average rate of 00125 annually. Ifwe assume the same rate of increase to have taken place in the same years at the central position, which is not far distant from Kew, and if we extend the assumption so as to include the whole interval between the tio surveys, the value of the fundamental line of the survey of 1837 would be 10°303 instead of 10°332; and the isodynamies for 10°200, 10°300, 10°400, -10°500, and 10°600 for 1837 in Plate ii., computed by the formula 10°332+ 00052 a+°00074 6 (a and 4 being the distances in longitude and latitude in geographical miles from the central position), and represented in the Plate by broken lines, would each require to be diminished by 0:029. It is obvious, however, from the increase in the value of 7 (viz. ‘00091 in the earlier survey, and ‘00106 in the later), that the secular increase of the force must have been greater in the northern parts of England than at Kew, or generally those in the southern parts of the kingdom. We must recognize also the operation of the increase in the value of w from 54° 54’ to 57° 355 in producing a small diminution in western longitudes of the secular increase observed at Kew, and which has been inferred to have been still greater in the northern and eastern parts. It is to be hoped that the series of monthly determinations at Kew, which appear to give a satisfactory approximate measure of the secular change of this element during the last five years, may be continued until the survey be repeated at the expiration of a third interval; and that in the mean time determinations similar to those at Kew, and equally satisfactory, may be made in other parts of the British Islands ; the present conclusions regarding the secular change of the force in the interval between 1837 and 1860 must be necessarily imperfect. Division IlI.— Declination. [Contributed by Frederick John Evans, Esq., R.N., F.R.S., Superintendent of the Compass | Department of the Royal Navy.] Plate X. exhibits a comparative view of the isogonic lines, or lines of equal magnetic declination, corresponding to the epochs 1837 and 1857. The lines corresponding to the first of these epochs have been drawn in con- formity with a map of the isogonic lines crossing the British Islands in 1840, published in plate 23 of ‘ Johnston’s Physical Atlas’ (2nd edition), contributed to that work by Major-General Sabine. The authorities on which the lines for 1840 were drawn may be found in a memoir in the Philosophical Transactions for 1849, art. xii. The small corrections required to reduce these lines to the epoch of 1837 have been made. _ The isogonics corresponding to the later epoch (1857) rest on the autho- rity of the observations contained in the subjoined Table (No. XVI.). The instruments chiefly used were either the Admiralty Standard Compass, or - Kater’s Azimuth Compass; all of which had undergone previous examina- } Hoey adjustment at the Compass Observatory at Woolwich. . Fe 274 REPORT—1861. TasLe XVI.—Magnetic Declinations. ' aE ea meet Seale pre ee d Station. Lat. Long. Date. ° ‘ ° / Bridlington ......ccccccssasecuessveresecere 54 5N. o 12 W. | 1856. Sept. 2 PSLOUMP EON sensor eetssvaageeseceaeeanaecun: 54 5 oO 12 1856. Sept. 3 MGIUNUREY cess pve ausarecurceashaessopavensess 53 34 aaa 1856. Sept. 4 Woolwich, Compass Observatory ...... 51 29 o 2K. | 18s75 Jan. ae. | Shoreham .............-.sssssseseseseesesvees 5° 51 o 15 W. | 1857. July 8 ... 4 1858. Sept. 24x... Start POWMIE. «<. 27 21°3 Commanders R. Beechey © 40P.M 2722 27 19 and A, G. Edye, R.N. 440 P.M 27 32 27 29 4 40 P.M 27 28 27 25 i 32 | : 40 P.M 27 27 27 231 27 29 | 55 P.M 27 37 27 35 I 15 P.M 26 38 26 31 i} I 10P.M 26 45 26 40+ 26 38 2 10F.M 26 47 26 43 3 OPM, 26 56 26 50] 2 10P.M, 26 54 26 47 Commander W. H. Church, R.N. 3 25P.M. 27.03 26 58 : 3 40P.M 26 35 26 30 | a6 42°5 2 40P.M 26 42 26 36 3 10P.M 26 39 26 34 o 8PM ZT am N sisie ce cis 27 44 3 37P.M by fs (hae I 27 41 4 32M aatiseee|| - eieie whe 5739 Commander A. G. Edye, R.N. ir 8am 26 36 cece MOT 2 10 304.M DOL we I). siaels a's 26 53 2 23P.M 25 54 25 43 \ II 23 A.M 26 8 2ST ra Ge BATH: olit IO 23 A.M 25 42 26 4 z sy Josoog AS apy Mls enoode 26 34 } Mr. H Hoskyn, RNs ec essees 26 25 seeeee 26 30 ee ccccee 25 48 covves 25 53 7 10 25 A.M. ZG TAO. |) stewie = me 25 As Rev. J. Galbraith, M.A. the construction of the Chart. 278 : REPORT—1861. TasB_LE XVIII.—Magnetic Declinations. “Station. Lat. Long. Date. N W. ° va ° / ThursO -.6..ccesesese Assevevereceees five dnasceat 58 36 2 35 1856. June 25 Loch Eribol, Hoan Island.................. 58 34 4 40 n June 27 An Mp0 bfaaaesaansenaenseceee as 5) » dune 28 Hebrides, Carloway «..0<:0s......-..:-2000 58 17 6 47 ». | Auge at A CON) CROCE ORCEY CAA Ere eiaeras i * » Aug. 26 CUI RAKIM pascisvasans staremnceaseaehok-reace 57 16 5 44 no) \AUge:2 Hebrides, North Uist, Loch Maddy ...| 57 36 7 8 1858. Nov. x Hebrides, Monach Islands, Shillay...... 57 ax 7 42 1859. Aug. * Hebrides, North Uist, Loch Eport ...... G7 ae 7 11 390 PO Ghee ae Barra Sound, Friday Island............... 57.3 7 23 1861. Oct. 15% Little Loch Shell 58 1 6 26 1856. Sept. 18 . Hy 4 oh » sept. 19 .. Oban, Dunolly Hill 56 25 5 27 ee fs es ” ” ” ” ” Jan 2s ” ” ” ” ” Jan 3+ ” ” ” ” » Jan 4.. ” ” ” ” ” Jan 7 + ” f it i #9: aaaibee > Gres ” ” ” ” ” Jan. 11 .. » Kerrera Island 56 25 5 30 yn) ete ae - Firth of Forth, near Dunbar............... 56 o 2 32 1855. Oct. 24 ... n IBEX UUM wosewancs loses teams Fe 2 29 1856. June 23 ... ” WONG eneprscvess sncddeWaas 55 57 Bex » Aug. 23 «.. + Redheughieie.c.0c0-- cones. BP Gs 2 16 “1 a a: w Fast Castle .....:.....-... =F 2 14 ” ” : PU PATDS iis cscenctacsccceparss msl oacdatateasn ay 4% » — pepts 16", ” Coldingham shore ............ 55 54 2 8 ” ” * Observations not employed in TasLe XIX.—Magnetic Declinations observed at Sea 28E. | 1856. Apr. 16 ... i ” ” ‘2 dD DDH OWUNN DAD ON THE MAGNETIC SURVEY OF ENGLAND. 279 Coasts of Scotland. Declination. Greenwich Mean Time of Observer. ; Reduced to Observation. | Observed. January 1, 1857. West West. h m ° a“ ° é ° / II I5 A.M. i at ne HR 26 1 \ 2 48 P.M. 27 18 27° 7 2 6 45 P.M. 27 16 27 16 ad 2% 4 27 P.M. 28.7 27 59 27 $7 BXi27, P-M» 28 3 27 55 Captain H. C. Otter, R.N. 4 om on 21 Fe ie tied ef Fe Observations made with Adie’s ; Hea pu ds pe ey 3 Variation Needle. 3 15 P.M. 28erG.6i|y, aete 28 31 © 30 P.M. Dr oAti ely Gos ates) 27 50 2 OPM. 27 24 27 17 9 45 P.M. 27 20 27 19 sae ) 2 22 P.M. apis 273 2 22 P.M. 27°65 29005 I 55 P.M. awe 27.0 I 55 P.M. Sy 26 56} 27 06 1 50 P.M. a7 4 26 67 Commander E. Bedford, R.N. 2 20 P.M. 27 6 27 2 2 IO0P.M. 27 6 apt 2 22 P.M. SOTAG. © Shire Wihses 26 39 Il IOA.M. 24 56 24. 50 \ II IO A.M. 24 36 24 30 al II IOA.M. SAO met) astess= 24 31 Lieut. F. Thomas, R.N. 2 10 P.M. 24 37 2422) 3, a Observations made with Adie’s | 4 IO P.M. 24 29 24 22 4 Variation Needle. oO IOP.M. 24 28 24 20| 3,30 10 10 A.M. 24 23 24. 20 | the construction of the Chart. off Coasts of United Kingdom. 4 5AM. 19 44 | eeeeee 19 41 : ! 6 25 A.M. LO 5a 5. | wieeds 19 56 Captain H. C. Otter, R.N., in 5 OP.M. 20% SLUG} qistengey 2052 H.M.S. ‘ Porcupine.’ 5 40 P.M. TORSZ ONT le aies=noe 19 50 6 oT. 26 B7C oe 2 Baan 20 34 Nort.—The ship’s head in each 7 304M. 23 2Gr. |) >) obese 23 26 case was placed on the point 3 10 P.M. 25530 || fences Se Meine of no deviation, and the engines 7 45 P.M. Ce ty Amal emery tr 28 18 eased. 7 25 A.M. Be LON tons autsec 28 13 = hee ee eee 280 REPORT—1861. Interim Report of the Committee for Dredging on the North and East Coasts of Scotland. Art the Aberdeen Meeting of the British Association, a Committee was ap- pointed for the purpose of carrying on a system of dredging on the North- eastern Coast of Scotland, consisting of Dr. Ogilvie, Dr. Dickie, Professor Nicol, Dr. Dyce, and Mr. Peach ; and £25 was granted for that purpose. Of this sum £5 was allotted to Mr. Peach, to enable him to conduct investi- gations at Wick. In 1860 the few weeks available for dredging, before the meeting of the Association in July, were so tempestuous and generally unfavourable, that no part of the grant was expended ; but in the course of the autumn, a trial was made off the coast of Banffshire. During the past summer, 1861, several dredging expeditions were planned and completed off the Bay of Aberdeen and adjacent coasts, none exceeding a distance of twelve miles from land. The Committee in Aberdeen considered it advisable to receive the aid of others besides Mr. Peach, and to have trials made at points intermediate between Aberdeen and Wick, in order to render the investigations as complete as possible; and with this view the assistance of the Rev. W. Grigor, of Macduff, was asked, and readily accorded, a.part of the grant being allotted to him. They have also secured the cooperation of another zealous naturalist, Mr. Dawson, of Cruden. This gentleman has just put at their disposal a valuable and interesting report on the Mollusca of Cruden Bay; but the others have not yet had sufficient time to allow of any report ; and at Aber- deen, the examination of the materials collected being still in progress, the Committee are under the necessity of reserving the details for a further report. The general results, however, have been such as to lead them to hope that the sum of £25 will be granted for one year more, in order that the dredging may be further carried on, and at greater depths and distances from land. No regular dredging has previously been conducted on this part of the Scottish coast; but the Committee have now the satisfaction of observing that, owing mainly to the admission of parties of students of the University to the dredging excursions, a feeling of interest has been awakened in the pursuit, from which the best results may be anticipated, and there can be no doubt that several ardent young men have thus been thoroughly trained in carrying on such operations in the open sea. ; The Committee would urge these as reasons for a renewal of the grant, that they may be thus enabled to procure materials for a complete report at the meeting of the Association in 1862. GEORGE OGILVIE, for the Commitiee. August 31, 1861. On the Resisiance of Tron Plates to Statical Pressure and the Force of Impact by Projectiles at High Velocities. By Witu1aM Fair- BAIRN, Esa., LL.D., F.R.S., &c., President of the Association. Tue discovery of the application of iron plates as a means of defence against ordnance of great power and force are of recent date, and are attributable to His present Majesty the Emperor of the French. Since 1858 numerous experiments have been made to test the quality of the iron, and to determine the thickness of the plates employed for that purpose; but it is only of late years that the value and importance of this description of defence has been SD Oe See 6 ke reo, Ss. Le os : RESISTANCE OF IRON PLATES TO PROJECTILES, 281 " qscertained as a covering for the sides of ships of war. The very powerful _ resistance of iron to projectiles at high velocities has directed most of the maritime powers of Europe to the advantage of armour-plating ships for the purpose of protecting them from the destructive effects of shot; and it has now been proved that a sheathing of plates 43 inches thick, covering the sides of a ship, extending to a depth of six feet below the water-line, is a sufficient protection against existing guns of the heaviest calibre. It is true that more powerful ordnance may be successfully tried against plates from 5 to 53 inches thick, but they are too heavy for general use on board ship; and as vessels of the present tonnage are not calculated to carry plates of greater thickness than 43 or 5 inches, it is more than probable that the country must be content with such protection as plates of these dimensions can afford. Much, however, depends on the quality of the material of which they are composed; and the object of this communication is to furnish not only data for the manufacture of them, but to point out their mechanical properties and the best mode of attaching them to the ship. There are two descriptions of vessels to which armour-plates may be applied, namely, those of iron, and the present existing vessels, composed entirely of wood. In the present state of our knowledge, it is desirable that all vessels of war should be formed of iron; but the transfer is a work of time, and the question now for consideration is, how to make our present wooden ships invul- nerable, and how to apply the material to effect a maximum power of resistance toshot. This is the great question for solution, and the Admiralty, fully alive to the importance of the change, has instituted a long and laborious series of experiments to determine these results. It is well known that all substances of a brittle nature are easily broken by impact, and the best kind for resisting blows is a tenacious, tough, and ductile material. To secure all these properties is a desideratum in the manufacture of iron plates, and one which never ought to be neglected. In submitting the following results obtained from the experiments, it may be interesting to show the chemical compositions of some of the best irons ex- perimented upon, and those marked with the letters A, B, C, and D, when carefully analysed, were found to contain the following ingredients :— Mark. Carbon. Sulphur. Phosphorus. Silicon. Manganese. A. 001636 0-104 0-106 0°122 0:28 B. 0:03272 0-121 07173 0-160 0:029 4 0-023 0-190 0-020 0°014 0°110 D. 0:0436 0-118 0:228 0°174 0°250 E. 0170 0:0577 0-0894 0-110 0°330 Comparing the chemical analysis with the mechanical properties of the irons experimented upon, we find that the presence of ‘023 per cent. of carbon causes brittleness in the iron; and this was found to be the case in the ho- mogeneous iron plates marked C*; and although it was found equal to A plates in its resistance to tension and compression, it was very inferior to the others in resisting concussion or the force of impact. It therefore follows, that toughness combined with tenacity is the description of iron plate best adapted to resist shot at high velocities. It is also found that wrought iron, which exhibits a fibrous fracture when broken by bending, presents a widely * Homogeneous iron is that description of iron or steel which is not rolled or manufac- tured from piled bars, but obtained by the boiling process from the furnace, where the amal- gamation is complete; or, in other words, it is obtained from cast ingots according to the Bessemer process, or direct from the bloom as it leaves the puddling furnace. 282 REPORT—1861. different aspect when suddenly snapped asunder by vibration or a sharp blow from a shot. In the former case the fibre is elongated by bending, and becomes developed in the shape of threads as fine as silk, whilst in the latter the fibres are broken short and exhibit a decidedly crystalline fracture. But, in fact, every description of iron is crystalline in the first instance; and these crystals, by every succeeding process of hammering, rolling, &c., become elongated, and resolve themselves into fibres. There is, therefore, a wide difference in the appearance of the fracture of iron when broken by tearing and bending, and when broken by impact, where time is not an ele- ment in the force producing rupture. The mechanical properties of iron best calculated to resist the penetration of shot at high velocities are enumerated as follows. The plates were subjected to statical tensile strain, to compression, and to punching, with the following results. 1. Specific Gravity. The mean specific gravity of the 13, 2, 23, and 3-inch plates of each series were as follows :— 2 A) EO ee 7°8083 Bs OUAUGS oe 0. oe 7°7035 A DIKES sins) aan nsege ek 7°9042 TD Piaf eS es oeinia 9xcsl eeunk Ce The order of merit is therefore C, A, B, D. These results coincide with the following tests. 2. Tensile Strength. The statical resistance to tensile strain was as follows :— Tensile strain per square inch in tons. Thinner plates. Thicker plates. PL DIGSES Pe duns anigte ts Ny eS 24°64 4 B plates . ° pe OUD 5 0//niE, = 23°354 GC DIBROMs ac ici t gine 80) OLN vo eis Se Bee th aa De bain Mies 24°171 The general order of merit in this case is C, A, B, D. The homogeneous metal plates have the highest tenacity, but decrease in strength progressively as the plates increase in thickness. 3. Ductility of the Plates. A measure of the ductility of the plates is afforded by the ultimate elongation under tensile strain. Ultimate elongation per unit of length. Thinner plates. | Thicker plates. A DIRECE 9 osc niriadsan& OBS trace a2 2723 kc ee ae (OSG Geese 2459 CDIALOB ss ots. sinlsbaw dic) LBS O mater x .< °2725 LD FS eee 0 ES Aer aa 1913 Here the order of merit is nearly the same as that for density and tenacity. On the whole the elongations increase progressively with the thickness for iron plates, and decrease for homogeneous metal plates. But with iron the ductility is nearly the same for 2, 23, and 3-inch plates. 4. Resistance to Impact. Mr. Mallet has pointed out that the product of the tensile breaking weight RESISTANCE OF IRON PLATES TO PROJECTILES. 983 and the ultimate elongation of iron indicates its resistance; or, in other words, the product of the tenacity and ductility of iron affords a measure of the dynamic resistance of the material, or its resistance to impact. The following numbers give this coefficient of rupture : — Mallet’s coefficient in foot pounds. Thinner plates. Thicker plates. Ab plateyis hace ktis say BOA ak Darna 7544 B plates dine Wee et bias PAG ane. 8% 6476 @iplatesy se fo cs. eualeae = MODOO wees LOO LOG oer Sat ean: SS ee Pi Al ae 5115 To ascertain this coefficient with accuracy, rather longer specimens should have been tested ; but, bearing in mind this source of inaccuracy, the numbers strikingly correspond with the results obtained by impact. It is not of much use to compare directly the resistances obtained with those givenabove, because the former were made with such large intervals (half-inch) in the thickness _of the plates that they afford no criterion of the relative values of the dif- ferent descriptions of iron. But we may compare the iron and steel plates, where the difference of resistance, being greater, is to some extent indicated in the experiments with ordnance. Dynamic resistance. Thickness of plates. Tron plates. Steel plates. ERA Ran ch tivated wi secnattacites ert LOOM sees le ce One and a half inch ......... WMICO Ve Gare 119 wane hesnx <1 geile dea alae 2 ot ls OGni es see 20: iEwovand: avhalfiinches..5 204.8% | 1°00) ..5. 5 ii le) SHMCE INCHES: seyind we eros seated s wie OO Mame ese 0°88 With these results obtained by simple pressure, we compare those obtained by ordnance. The resistance of the iron plates being again taken as unity, the resistance of the steel plates was as follows :— Weight of Mean thickness Dynamic resistance. projectile. of plates. Iron. Steel. OS Rie Saad ao, © Tiel Socase ae STON Aso Was 1EOT Bettas. E20 os caste t POO on Vevey WLS OCH ere e iss. Lalo! clove «/<.0t.- FO) vate cee LOU Ace eres: oats, = 40s exeemeeueg UUM A crusenen ie) | From the above it will be seen that there is quite as close an approximation in the ratios in these two tables, for corresponding thicknesses of plate, as could be expected from the nature of the experiments. Both the series of experiments (viz., that with dead pressure and that with ordnance) indicate the same increasing resistance of the iron plates, and decreasing resistance of the steel plates; and the ratios of their relative resistances are nearly the same. In making the comparison, the resistance to ordnance is assumed to be as the square of the thickness of the plates—a law which will here- after be demonstrated. The relative values of the plates in resisting shot are, according to the ex- periments with dead pressure, as follows :— ; POEMS ac atas «ccm. asp F 1000 BgPlSteS | Nai pe cae dea cw «aide 858 © plates. oewan sees. oe 1095 1 plates: 42 dottgtate..'2 Be 688 These numbers are deduced from the results on the 13, 2, 24, and 3-inch plates. With 3-inch plates the iron is much stronger than the steel. 284 REPORT—1861. 5. Resistance to Compression. The results on compression have no direct bearing on the resistance to projectiles ; it is not therefore necessary to give an abstract. 6. Statical Resistance to Punching. These experiments were arranged in three series with a view to determine the resistance to punching with different sizes of shot, with different thick- nesses of plate, and with flat- and round-faced punches. First Series of Experiments. In this series the punch was flat-faced, and in all respects similar to the projectile of the wall-piece employed at Shoeburyness. ‘The resistance of the plates was as follows :— Thickness of Mark of Statical Resistance Plates in inches. Plates. to punching in lbs. HAS Siew oye 0 ove Pkeieuaie,s gue alae BE cscs tren. Sekeieioe 19,428 0°25 «0.06. nee Baste: 5h 31,604 1D) 3 Sepécarstocapseseueretarae 18,980 BAL y svawates/sibiorsy siaele . 57,956 DS ser starseege. sue eee eee 57,060 MU Sarin “(7 Rey ORI 2:8 71,035 Dis. sfc Sok arene eaeks 49,080 he |e: ERE Cer 84,587 Cre R { Tig i. atlas 82,381 The shearing strain varied from 13 to 20 tons per square inch in the case of iron, and from 21 and 23 tons with homogeneous metal. Second Series of Experiments. Punch flat-faced, and half an inch in diameter. Holein die-block beneath 14 inch diameter. The resistances to punching were as the following numbers :— Thickness of Mark of Statical Resistance Plates in inches. _ Plates. to punching in lbs, ; PAGE? Arch chatuptateiteh vkdle 33,980 Sse raiete areiale’s > @ aGsreenOn OTe 0'50....:. pian Agneta HOS Lise eink 48,100 ' Dies cir Serenade hemes 31,345 Be ee eee 46,996 OT Die oeee Re te lana coe Rote a 48,788 1D Ae i hI 48,146 | Been gos oF ees A 62,584 Bice wm sani pee oe Ba ne ». 60,696 In this case the shearing stress per square inch of section varied from 17 to 193 tons in the case of iron, and from 183 to 27 tons in the homogeneous metal. In both these series the plates stand in the same order of merit, which is also identical with that in which they were placed as regards tenacity and density, viz. C, A, B, D. Their relative value is as follows :— PE ee 06 8,0 0 sje OUD BS PES ane cia fo) cee 0°907 PRES lee oie Cass pee 1168 Pr paces ey oe as ae eee ratte 0°873 RESISTANCE OF IRON PLATES TO PROJECTILES. 285 Third Series of Experiments. In this series a punch of the same diameter as the bullet of the wall-piece was employed, but it was round-faced, like the cast-iron service shot. The same die was employed, the object being to determine the difference of pene- trating power of round- and flat-faced projectiles. In the following table the resistances are given, and those of the flat-faced punch of the first series are placed. beside them, for comparison. Statical Resistance to punching in Ibs. Flat-faced punch. Round-faced punch. Pepiates sis «ass BS TGBGiL os viele ts 61,886 Half-inch ) B plates ........ BT.0GQc5, 32/./d 48,788 plates. | C plates ....... oh TRO SGe ote dst hran 85,524 Diplates/s3 5 «2% 49'OSO) aaa nei. . 43,337 Three-quarter- { B plates ........ SELDON Lawl anh « 98,420 inch plates. | D plates ........ yee el beets byes .e- 98,571 Meansoan!accits se OOOLE 72,754 These figures show that the statical pressure required to punch plates of the same thicknessis about the same, whether the punch be round- or flat-faced. It is further shown in a detailed manner that, for the same pressure, the volume displaced by indentation is the same for flat- and round-faced punches. Thence it follows that, where the plate does not exceed in thickness the diameter of the punch, the depth of indentation is much greater with round- than with flat-faced punches. And lastly, since the dynamic resistance which corresponds with the resist- ance to projectiles, varies as the product of the statical pressure and the depth of indentation, it thence follows that the dynamic resistance to round-faced projectiles is much greater than the resistance to flat-faced projectiles. The general laws indicated in these experiments are as follows :— 1. Size of shot or punch.—The resistance varies directly as the circum- ference of the shot. 2. Statical resistance of plates of different thickness.—With plates of different thickness the statical resistance varies directly as the thickness. If the thicknesses be as 1, 2, 3, &c., the resistances will be as 1, 2, 3, &c. 3. Indentation.—The ultimate indentation can only be approximately ob- tained during experiments on punching; it varies directly as the thickness of the plates. For flat-faced punches we may assume it to be one-half the thickness, and for round-faced punches the whole thickness of the plate, when the thickness of the plates is less than the diameter of the shot. 4. Dynamic resistance, or resistance to projectiles —The dynamic resistance varies as the product of the statical resistance and the ultimate indentation of the plates. But both these quantities vary nearly as the thickness of the plates, directly. Hence the dynamic resistance varies in a ratio which is nearly that of the squares of the thicknesses of the plates. So that if the thicknesses be as 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., the dynamic resistances will beas i, 4, 9, 16, - &c. And the dynamic resistances will be nearly twice as great for round- as for flat-faced projectiles. 7. Computation of a general Formula for the Resistance of Iron Plates to Progectiles. Assuming the laws stated above as the result of the experiments on punch- ing, the following formula has been deduced by equating the dynamic re- sistance to the work accumulated in the shot. 286 REPORT—186]. Let ¢ be the thickness of the plate in inches, w the weight of the shot in lbs., v the velocity of the shot at the moment of impact in feet per second, r the semidiameter of the shot; then, from the experiments at Shoeburyness, 2 WV i= S38 74OLO Pi PS SON ate iS wees (1.) w 33749400 SSF a ee pile a dia )e Oi ele id tiv idiie Bins eal ole (2.) fi v From the first of these formule we can find the greatest thickness which will be penetrated by a shot of a given size and at a known velocity. From the second we obtain the coordinate values of the weight and size of the shot necessary to punch a plate of a given thickness. The formule are only approximate, but they are as accurate as is necessary until the velocity of the shot at impact has been more closely ascertained. It will then be time to determine what modification is necessary to secure an entire agreement with the experimental results. It may be stated, however, that the formule do not apply to those cases in which brittle plates break up by transverse flexure. As respects the fastening of armour-plates, the Committee on Iron have been inundated with schemes from all quarters, but none of them have as yet met the requirements of the case; and until further experiments are tried to equalise the resistance of the fastenings to the resistance of the plates, we are unable to look forward to anything approaching satisfactory results. Bolts and nuts have been tried, and found defective. Strong countersunk rivets have been used, with better success when the plates are attached without wood or any other intervening substance to the skin of the ship; but even these have been found defective, and are inadmissible when a lining of oak or teak intervenes between the armour-plates and the sides of the ship. An ingenious contrivance has been recommended by Mr. Scott Russell for attaching the armour-plates to the ship, and that is a series of bars, in the form of the letter T,, along the sides of the vessel, between the joints of the armour-plates and the web part a, projecting about an inch and a half beyond the thickness of the plates, heated by a large blowpipe and riveted continu- ously over the edge of each plate. This system of fastening answers well, but can only apply to ships composed entirely of iron, and when the shield- plates rest directly upon the sides of the ship. Extended experiments are yet required to solve this difficult question, and we have every reason to believe they will not be wanting, when other conditions connected with the changes now in progress have been realized. Continuation of Report to determine the Effect of Vibratory Action and long-continued Changes of Load upon Wrought-Iron Girders. By WixuiaM Farrsairn, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., &¢., President of the Association. Ar the close of the Oxford Meeting it was announced that the experiments . on this important subject were still in progress, and that hopes were enter- tained that they might be completed in time for the Manchester Meeting. Confirmatory of that promise, we have now to submit the results of a still more extended inquiry into the effects of vibratory action on molecular con- struction. It will be in the recollection of the Meeting that, fifteen years ago, experiments were made which led to the designs and construction of the Conway and Britannia Tubular Bridges, on the Chester and Holyhead . - 4 ‘ EXPERIMENTS UPON WROUGHT-IRON GIRDERS. 287 Railways. Since that time some thousands of bridges have been built en- tirely of wrought iron. The introduction of a new material, and the uncer- tainty of its durability, led the Board of Trade to determine that the strain should not exceed 5 tons per square inch on any part of the structure. These requirements appeared to be founded on no fixed principle; and the bridge recently erected across the River Spey having been objected to as not in accordance with this standard, it was resolved (with the consent and at the expense of the Board of Trade) that the question whether the conti- nuous changes of load, and the vibration by which they were accompanied, did or did not lead to fracture. This was the question for solution; and the experiments now recorded have ina great measure determined to what extent bridges of this kind can be loaded without incurring danger from fracture. It is well known that the power of resistance to strain of wrought-iron plates in combination depends upon the principle on which they are united ; and unless the parts are permanently established, the five-ton tensile strain per Square inch might lead to error. For the purpose of ascertaining the effects of the changes of load and vibration causing rupture, a small iron-plate beam of 20 feet clear span, and 16 inches deep, representing the proportions of one of the girders of the Spey Bridge, was constructed, and exposed to strains and conditions similar to those produced by the passage of heavy trains over a girder bridge. The beam, as already described (page 46 of the Report of the Oxford Meeting), was first loaded with one-fourth its breaking weight, and with this load it sustained about one million changes without injury. The load was then increased to nearly one-half the breaking weight, when it broke after 5175 changes. From this it appeared that bridges were not safe when loaded to one-half the weight that would break them*. Having arrived at this result, the beam was taken down and repaired, and the experiments renewed with two-fifths the breaking weight, when 158 changes were made to bring the parts repaired to their bearing. The load was then reduced from 4-6785 tons to 3°54 tons, when 25,900 changes were effected. After this the load was again reduced to 3 tons, one-fourth the breaking weight, when 3,150,000 changes were recorded. Ultimately the load was increased to 4 tons, or one-third the breaking weight, when it broke by tension across the bottom flange after sustaining 313,000 changes of that load. In calculating the strain on the area of the metal after deducting the rivet- holes, which, it must be remembered, were larger in proportion in the small beam than in bridges full size, it was ascertained that the beam suffered no deterioration with strains of 74 tons per square inch; but with 10 tons it broke with only 5172 changes, as may be seen in the following Tables of ex- periments. Taste I1V.—Beam repaired. The beam broken in the preceding experiment was repaired by replacing the broken angle-iron on each side, and putting a patch over the broken plate equal in area to the plate itself. Thus repaired, a weight of 3 tons was placed on the beam—equivalent to one-fourth of the breaking weight ; that is, eGvegiec ata acieees tes ss . 4470 lbs. Shaekless. just cee... ate (cn Half weightof beank iv. os... .20) SEBS 5, Scale,and, 8 -Ubsacep esc c cesseecteiee 434 4, 6793 With this weight the experiments were continued as before. * See Report of Thirtieth Meeting, page 48. 288 TABLE IV. REPORT—1861. Me EET SET RSET GSE GR a a ee | es 1860. Aug. 9 Aug. 11 » 13 Number of changes of load. 158 12,950 25,900 Deflection in inches. 22 ee cs | es ec a a | Aug. 13 » 16 » 20 ae » 20 » dl Sept. 1 » 8 » 15 » 22 » 30 Oct. 6 » 13 » 20 » 27 Nov. 3 » 10 » 17 » 23 Dec. 1 ” 8 ay, AD 5) 22 » 29 1861. 25,900 46,326 71,000 101,760 107,000 135,260 140,500 189,500 242,860 277,000 320,000 375,000 429,000 484,000 538,000 577,800 617,800 657,500 712,300 768,100 821,970 875,000 929,470 1,024,500 1,121,100 1,214,000 1,278,000 1,342,800 1,426,000 1,485,000 1,543,000 1,602,000 1,661,000 1,720,000 1,779,000 1,829,000 1,885,000 1,945,000 2,000,000 2,059,000 2,110,000 2,165,000 2,250,000 2,727,754 3,150,000 18 18 "18 cress 18 18 18 "18 18 18 Remarks. ee The load, during these changes, was equivalent to 10,500 lbs., or 4°6875 tons, at the centre. During these changes the load on the beam was 8025 lbs., or 3°54 tons. Load reduced to 3 tons, or one- fourth the breaking weight. en ee cerearnnntereneinnennenentnntiinemnmttteeteerecetnenetuteereatrts teeters . EXPERIMENTS UPON WROUGHT-IRON GIRDERS, 289 TABLE V. Number of changes} Deflection in of load. inches. 0 2 The weight was again changed, 4,000 “2 being increased to 4 tons on 2 2 Remarks. 126,000 the beam, equal to + of break- 237,000 : ing weight. Beam broke across 313,000 the bottom web. Summary of Results. Ratio of load| Number of | Total number Deflection ; Table. | to breaking | changes with jof changes of | ~° eae a Remarks. weight. each load. load. i hag No. I. 1:4.9 596,790 596,790 0°17 Il. 1:3°4 403,210 1,000,000 0:22 III. 1:2°5 5,175 1,005,175 0°35 Broke. IV 1: 2°56 12,950 12,950 | Not recorded +7 1:3°39 12,950 25,900 0°22 f 1: 4:00 3,124,101 | 3,150,000 0°18 Vi 1: 3°00 313,000 3,463,000 0:28 Beam broke across the bottom web. From the above it would appear that, within the limits of one-fourth the breaking weight, wrought-iron beams are perfectly safe, as may be seen from the results of Tables I. and II., where 1,000,000 changes were effected with- out any visible deterioration of the material ; and if we add to this the results of Table IV., we have upwards of 4,000,000 changes, which, at 30 trains per diem over the Spey Bridge, would be equivalent to the prolonged period of 400 years. Now as we do not advise bridges to be loaded beyond one-sixth of the load that would break them, we may reasonably consider them per- fectly secure for a much longer period of time. Much, however, depends on the quality of the material, and a sound principle of uniting the joints, all of which have been determined by experiment when devising the plans and designs for the Britannia and Conway Tubular Bridges. To these we may safely refer, and above all to the selection of the material, which in those parts of girders subjected to a tensile strain should be of the best double wrought plates, and equal to a test of 22 to 24 tons per square inch. The use of this superior quality of iron for the bottom flanges of girders would give an increase of one-tenth of strength to that of common boiler plates. There is no economy in the use of inferior material for this purpose; as its employment is attended not only with loss of character, but is highly dan- gerous as regards the public safety. The Law of Patents. Mr. James Heywoop, M.A., F.R.S., read the Report of the Committee on the Patent Laws, which was founded upon, and embodied the following re- solutions, agreed upon by the Patent Committee in London :— 1. That all applications for grants of letters patent should be subjected to a preliminary investigation before a special tribunal. 1861. U 290 REPORT—1861. 2. That such tribunal shall have power to decide on the granting of patents, but it shall be open to inventors to renew their applications notwith- standing previous refusal. 3. That the said tribunal should be formed by a permanent and salaried judge, assisted when necessary by the advice of scientific assessors, and that its sittings should be public. 4. That the same tribunal should have exclusive jurisdiction to try patent causes, subject to a right of appeal. 5. That the jurisdiction of such tribunal should be extended to the trial of all questions of copyright and registration of design. 6. That the scientific assessors for the trial of patent causes should be five in number (to be chosen from a panel of thirty to be nominated by the Commissioners of Patents), for the adjudication of facts, when deemed neces- sary by the judge or demanded by either of the parties. 7. That the right of appeal should be to a Court of the Exchequer Cham- ber, with a final appeal to the House of Lords. 8. That for the preliminary examination, the assessors (if the judge re- quires their assistance) should be two in number, named by the Commis- sioners of Patents from the existing panel; the decision to rest with the judge. : 9. That the Committee approve of the principle of compelling patentees to grant licenses on terms to be tixed by arbitration, or in case the parties shall not agree to such arbitration, then by the proposed tribunal or by an arbitrator or arbitrators appointed by the said tribunal. It would be seen, Mr. Heywood said, that the recommendations of the Com- mittee were very important, as they proposed the appointment of a special tribunal. He presumed the cost would be defrayed out of the £70,000 which was annually realized by the granting of patents, after the law officers of the Crown and other officials had received their fees ; but at the present time a large proportion of this sum was, he believed, applied to the reduction of the taxation of the country. Resolutions passed at a meeting of the Committee of the Manchester Patent Law Reform Association, held on the 30th of August, 1861, the Mayor of Manchester in the chair. Communicated by N. S. Hughes. “ That in consequence of very peculiar views propounded by certain per- sons, that inventors have no claim to remuneration for their inventions, how- ever good and useful; that the value of an invention must not be considered in reference to the benefit of the inventor, but its utility to the public; and that the inventive genius of man does not require any stimulus nor deserve any reward, These novel doctrines, in connexion with the Meeting of the British Association and the Great Exhibition of next year, have caused the Committee of the Manchester Patent Law Reform Association to reconsider the views and resolutions they have so often discussed and adopted at their numerous meetings since 1850. Without intending to justify the present laws in all their details, knowing the many defects which this Committee advocated previous to the alteration in the Patent Laws in 1852, but which, owing to the mischievous opinions of misdirected parties, were overthrown, and consequently remain to be remedied, they consider it their duty to record a few of the Resolutions extracted from the minutes of their proceedings, which have been discussed and considered in every shape and form, both in committee and in public meetings assembled frequently in the Town Hall in this city :— “}, That it is universally acknowledged that discoveries, inventions, and THE LAW OF PATENTS. Sor improvements relating to mechanical and chemical science have very greatly conduced to the civilization of mankind, the progress of commerce, and the wealth of nations. “2, That the ingenuity of Englishmen especially has effected many valu- able inventions and improvements in almost every department of science and manufactures, whereby the commerce, wealth, and power of the British dominions have been promoted to an extent unparalleled in the annals of any other nation. **3. That in order to develope to the fullest extent the inventive talents of our countrymen, every encouragement and security should be given to in- yentors consistent with the public welfare. “4, That the present very heavy expenses, loss of time, and other incon- veniences, occasioned by the intricate routine or operation of passing through a great number of useless forms to which the inventor is subjected in obtain- ing letters patent, exhibit a tendency not calculated to encourage, but abso- lutely to baffle and paralyze the efforts of a class so essential in maintaining the commercial pre-eminence of this kingdom. “5. That for many of the most valuable discoveries and inventions, this country is indebted to the expansive minds of operatives and individuals in humble life, who are prevented from securing to themselves the advantages of their inventions on account of the present expensive process of obtaining protection by royal letters patent. “6. That inventors should not, in obtaining patent right for their inven- tions, be burdened with any more expenses than such as may be absolutely necessary for the establishment and maintenance of one government office and for publishing full particulars of all patents granted. “7, That for want of an official record of patents easy of access to the public, many patents are taken out for the same invention, to the serious loss and discouragement of pateutees and manufacturers. ‘8. That the practice of allowing six months to specify the particulars of inventions, for which letters patent have been granted, operates very injuri- ously both to patentees and the public, is a source of constant annoyance to persons contemplating patents for inventions, and gives rise to much useless, frivolous, and expensive litigation. “9. That the present state of the law involves an expensive, dilatory, in- convenient and uncertain mode of obtaining redress in cases of infringement of patent right ; that the Judges of the land have been frequently at variance in their decisions, and that juries are seldom found qualified to understand the matters in dispute. 10. That Commissioners be substituted for the law officers of the Crown, to consist of one person eminently conversant with mechanics, and one con- versant with chemistry ; the third, in order to form a quorum, to be a bar- rister, or, if necessary, one of the law officers. *‘]1. That the juries to try patent cases shall be scientific men, conversant with the subject in dispute. “Tt will be seen from the above extracts that some of the suggestions were embodied in the Patent Law Amendment Act of 1852, viz. a very great re= duction in the cost of obtaining letters patent, a simplification of the process of application, and the publication of all specifications recorded, forming one of the most complete libraries of invention and scientific progress extant; but still this Committee is well aware that further improvements are neces- sary; and, in considering such further improvements, the interests of the public and the inventor must be taken jointly, and not separately.” u2 292 REPORT—1861, Report on the Theory of Numbers.——Part Ill. By H. J. Srepuen Smita, M.A., F.R.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry in the Univer- sity of Oxford. (B) Theory of Homogeneous Forms. 79. Problem of the Representation of Numbers.—A rational and integral homogeneous function (a guantic according to the nomenclature introduced by Mr. Cayley), of which the coefficients are integral numbers, is, in the Theory of Numbers, termed a form (Disq. Arith. art. 266). The form is linear, quadratic, cubic, biquadratic or quartic, quintic, &c., accord- ing to its order in respect of the indeterminates it contains; and binary, ternary, quaternary, &c., according to the number of its indeterminates. Thus 2’?+y’ is a binary quadratic form, 2°+y°+2°—3ayz a ternary cubic form. A form is considered to be given, when its coefficients are given numbers; and a number is said to be represented by a given form, when integral values are assigned to the indeterminates of the form, such that the form acquires the value of the number. If the values of the indeterminates are relatively prime, the representation is said to be primitive; if they admit any common divisor beside unity, it is a derived representation. Thus 13 and 8 can be represented by a*+y’; for 3°+2°=13, 2°+2°=8 ; and the first of these representations is primitive, the second is derived. The first general problem, then, that presents itself in this part of the Theory of Numbers, is the following, “To find whether a given number is or is not capable of representation by a given form, and, if it is, to find all its representations by that form.” The number of different representations of a given number by a given form may be either finite or infinite; in the former case the complete solution of the problem of representation consists in the actual exhibition of the different sets of values that can be given to the indeterminates of the form: in the latter case it consists in assigning general formule, in which all those values are comprised. It is in either case sufficient to consider primitive representations only; for if the given form f be of order m, and the given number N be divisible by the m'” powers d,”, d,",...++, the derived representations of N by f coincide with the widwet . N primitive representations of dm qm" by the same form. 80. Problems of the Transformation and Equivalence of Forms.—A form Sa, Wa, «+++ &'n) is said to be contained in another form f,(2,; @) «+++ &x)s when /, arises from f, by a linear transformation of the type — U U ' LAA, UTA, Vater eves +a, 0 ro ped ' “ 1 UA UF Ay ol ote eeeee $y, 0 y — ! U U 0, =A, 1% 1G, ot at: ops! eae +4, n? in which the coefficients a; ; are integral numbers and the determinant is different from zero*. This transformation we may, for brevity, describe as the transformation |a|. When |a| is a unit-transformation, z.e. when the determinant of |@|is a positive or negative unit, the inverse transformation * Gauss says that fy is contained in A, even when the determinant of transformation is zero (Disq. Arith. art. 215). _ But we shall find it more convenient to retain the restriction specified in the text, ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 293 of |a|, which will be a transformation of the same type as {a}, will have all its coefficients integral numbers ; so that in this case f,, which contains f,, is also contained in it. When each of two forms is thus contained in the other, they are said to be equivalent. If f, contain f,, and f, contain f,, f, will con- tain f,; for if f, be changed into f, by the transformation |q@|, and f, into f, by the transformation |b|, it is clear that f, will be changed into f, by a transformation |T|, of which the constituents are defined by the equation T; 5=4),101,5 + 4,260, + Srerraaere + Fj Pn, js The transformation | T | is said to be compounded of the transformations | a| and |6|, and this composition is expressed by the symbolic equation |T|=la|x|2, in which it is to be observed that the order of the symbols |@| and | 5| is not, in general, convertible. When, in particular, f, is equivalent to f,, and f, to ft, f, is equivalent to f,; z.e. forms which are equivalent to the same form are equivalent to one another. All the forms, therefore, which are equivalent to one and the same form, may be considered as forming a class. All the invariants of any two equivalent forms have the same values; but it is not true, conversely, that two forms which have the same invariants are necessarily equivalent. Nevertheless it may be conjectured that all forms of the same sort (z.e. of the same degree, and the same number of indeter- minates), the invariants of which have the same values, distribute themselves into a finite number of classes ; and this conjectural proposition is certainly true for binary forms of all orders, and for quadratic forms of any number of indeterminates. It is readily seen that if a number be capable of representa- tion by one of two equivalent forms, it is also capable of representation by the other; and that the number of representations is either finite for both, or infinite for both, and, if finite, is the same for each. The general problem, therefore, of the representation of numbers (which we have already enunci- ated) suggests naturally the following, which we may term that of the equivalence of forms: ‘‘ Given two forms (of the same sort), of which the invariants have equal values, to find whether they are, or are not, equivalent, and if they are, to assign all the transformations of either of them, into the other.” The number of transformations may be either finite or infinite; if finite, the transformations themselves, if infinite, general formule containing them, are required for the complete solution of the problem. When f, is not equivalent to, but contains f,, the invariants of f, are derived from those of f, by multiplication with certain powers of the modulus (i.e. of the determinant) of the transformation by which f, is changed into f,; viz. if I be an invariant of f; and if ¢ and m be the orders mi of I, and of f, or f,, the corresponding invariant of f, is a” I, a denoting ; mi, , , the modulus of transformation, and the number ~~ being always integral. This observation enables us to enunciate with precision a problem in which the preceding is included: “Given two forms, of which the invariants have values consistent with the supposition that one of them contains the other, to find whether this supposition is true or not, and, if it is, to find all the transformations of the one form into the other.” But, in every case, the solution of the problem in this more general form may be made to depend on the solution of the problem of equivalence. For every transformation of order m, and modulus a, arises, in one way and in one only, from the com- position of two transformations |@| and |v|, of which the latter is a unit- 294 REPORT—1861. transformation, and the former one of the finite number of transformations included in the formula Py Fy Fy 3. +. Pa AP -wken -- hy. ak Scere thoes. n O, po Rey gees OS Osmp ia cc .2 3's O30 a0 Atos Ba in which p, Xp,X.-.... Xp,=a, and 0%; automorphic of a*—3y*. When every invariant of a form is zero, the form may pass into itself by transformations of which the modulus is different from unity; for example, z°—4ay+4y*, a binary quadratic form of which the discriminant is zero, passes into itself by the transformation is ak of > which the modulus is 4. In like manner it is to be observed that when two forms of the same sort have all their invariants equal to zero, it may happen that each of them passes into the other by transformations of which the modulus is not a unit. But in this Report we shall have no occasion to consider these exceptional cases, whether of equivalence or of automorphism, and we shall therefore employ these terms with reference to unit-transforma- tions exclusively. If |T,| and | T,| be automorphiecs of a form f, | T,|x|T. 2 and | T, |x| T,| are also automorphics of f; so that, in particular, every power Cin a Him" 256 Cina ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 295: of an automorphic is also an automorphic. (The positive powers of a trans- formation are, of course, the transformations which arise from compounding it continually with itself; its negative powers are the positive powers of its inverse. See Mr. Cayley’s Memoir on the Theory of Matrices, Phil. Trans. vol. exlviii. p.17.) Hence, if a form have a single automorphic, of which no two powers are identical, it will have an infinite number of automorphics. The importance of automorphic transformations in the solution of the problems of equivalence and transformation will be apparent from the following considerations. If 7, and f, be two equivalent forms, |/| a given transformation of f, into f,,|,| and |a,| the general formule representing all the automorphics of f, and f, respectively, all the transformations of f, into f, will be represented by either of the formule |«,|x|/| or |A|x\a,|. And again, if f, contain f,, and if we represent by |, |, |%,|,..-: certain particular transformations of f, into f,, obtained by compounding each transformation (C), which gives a form @ equivalent to f,, with some one transformation of ¢ into f,, then all the transformations of f, into ff, will be comprised in a finite number of formule of the type Ie let, |B Mae fe, | ob aie en ce ; |, | still denoting indefinitely any automorphic of f,. Or, if we employ the second method of the preceding article, the same transformations will be represented by [a,|x]A,] Ja|x[Atb lal |x|a"h oe. , where |@, | is any automorphic of f,, and |%,'|, |f,'|, |f,'|, ...... are certain particular transformations of f, into f,, obtained in a manner sufficiently in- dicated by the method itself. It appears, therefore, that when we know all the automorphics either of f, or f,, we can deduce all the transformations of f, into f,, from une of those transformations when f, is equivalent to f,, and from a certain finite number of them when f, contains, but is not equi- valent to, f,. We may add, that when one transformation of two equivalent forms, and the automorphics of either of them are known, those of the other are known also, for we evidently have the equation —|,\-1 |, |=|4|~" x|a,|x|2|- 82. Problem of the Representation of Forms.—We give the enunciation of one other general problem, which may be said to occupy a middle place between the problems of the representation of numbers, and of the equi- valence of forms. By using a defective substitution of the type Ay TA, oH 00 eee Dy poh np il i ee gg oh gigs UU U U Ly Ay UE Ay gh oF... esses Bann np a form f,(x,,x,,...+.2,,) may be changed into another f, (z’,, 2',,...-. z!,,_,) of the same order but containing fewer indeterminates. The form f, is said to be represented by f,; and the representation is proper or improper accord- ing as the determinants of the system do not, or do admit of any common divisor besides unity. Our third general problem therefore is, ‘Given two forms of the same order, of which the first contains more indeterminates than the second, to find whether the second can be represented (properly or improperly) by the first, and, if it can, to assign all the representations of which it is susceptible.” If the second form contain only one indeterminate 296 REPORT—1861. (i.e. if it be an expression of the form Az”), the problem reduces itself to that of the representation of the number A by the form f,. If, again, f, contains as many indeterminates as f,, the problem becomes that of the transformation of f, into f,. We may add that the problem of improper representation may be made to depend on that of proper representation, by methods analogous to those by which the problem of transformation depends on that of equiva- lence. (See Disq. Arith. art. 284, where Gauss treats of the improper re- presentation of binary by ternary quadratic forms.) 83. It is hardly necessary to state that what has been done towards obtaining a complete solution of these problems is but very little compared with what remains to be done. Our knowledge of the algebra of homogeneous fornis (not- withstanding the accessions which it has received in recent times) is far too incomplete to enable us even to attempt a solution of them co-extensive with their general expression. And even if our algebra were so far advanced as to supply us with that knowledge of the invariants and other concomitants of homogeneous forms which is an essential preliminary to an investigation of their arithmetical properties, it is probable that this arithmetical investiga- tion itself would present equal difficulties. The science, therefore, has as yet had to confine itself to the study of particuiar sorts of forms; and of these (excepting linear forms, and forms containing only one indeterminate) the only sort of which our knowledge can be said to have any approach to completeness are the binary quadratic forms, the first in order of simplicity, as they doubtless are in importance. Of all other sorts of forms our know- ledge, to say the least, is fragmentary. We shall arrange the researches of which we have now to speak in the following order, according to the subjects to which they refer :— 1. Binary Quadratic Forms. - Binary Cubic Forms. . Other Binary Forms. . Ternary Quadratic Forms. . Other Quadratic Forms. . Forms of order 2 decomposable into x linear factors. D Or Oo dO The theory of linear forms (7. e. of linear indeterminate equations) we shall refer to hereafter. That of forms containing only one indeterminate will not require any further notice. (1) Binary Quadratic Forms. 84. Instead of confining our attention exclusively to the most recent researches in the Theory of Quadratic Forms, we propose, in the following articles, to give a brief but systematic réswmé of the theory itself, as it appears in the Disq. Arith., introducing, in their proper places, notices, as full as our limits will admit, of the results obtained by later mathematicians, We adopt this method, partly to render the Jater researches themselves more easily intelligible, by showing their connexion with the whole theory; but partly also in the hope of facilitating to some persons the study of the Fifth Section of the Disq. Arith., which, probably owing to the obscurity of certain parts of it, is even now too much neglected by mathematicians. This section is composed, as Lejeune Dirichlet has observed (Crelle, vol. xix. p- 325), of two very distinct parts. The results contained in the former of the two (arts. 153-222) are for the most part those which had been already obtained by Euler, Lagrange, and Legendre; but they are completed in many respects; they are derived, in part at least, from different principles, ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS, 297 and are expressed in a terminology which has been adopted by most sub- sequent writers. The second part (arts. 223-307) is occupied, after some preliminary disquisitions (arts. 223-233), with the ulterior researches of Gauss himself. We proceed then tu give a summary of the definitions and theorems contained in the first of these two portions. 85. Elementary Definitions. —The quadratic form aa*+2bxry+cy’ is symbolized by the formula (a, 5, c) (2, y)°, or, when it is not necessary to specify the indeterminates, by the simpler formula (a, 6,c). The second coefficient is always supposed to be even; and an expression of the form px’+qazy+ry? (in which g is uneven) is not considered by Gauss as itself a quadratic form, but as the half of the quadratic form (2p, g, 27). The discriminant 6°—ae of the form (a, b, c) is called by Gauss the determinant of the form; an expression which at the present time it would be neither possible nor desirable to alter. When two forms are equivalent, they are said to be properly equivalent if the modulus of transformation is +1, but improperly equivalent if it is —1. Only those forms which are properly equivalent to one another are considered to belong to the same class; two forms which are only improperly equivalent are said to belong to opposite classes. This distinction between proper and improper equivalence is due to Gauss, and is of very great importance. In what follows, unless the con- trary is expressly specified, we shall use the terms equivalence and auto- morphism to denote proper equivalence and proper automorphism. It is readily seen that the greatest common divisors of a, 2b, c, and of a, b, ¢ are the same for (a, 6,¢) and for every form equivalent to (a, b,c) ; if each of those greatest common divisors is unity, (a, b,c) is a properly primitive form, and the class of forms equivalent to (a, b,¢)a properly primitive class; if the first greatest common divisor be 2, and the second 1, the form, and the class of forms equivalent to it, are termed improperly primitive. Every form which is not itself primitive, is a numerical multiple of some primitive form of a less de- terminant, and is therefore called a derived form. Thus x*+3y? is a pro- perly primitive form of det.—3, 2x°+2ay+2y’ is an improperly primitive form of the same determinant ; while 22°+6y*, 4a°+4ay+4y" are derived forms of det. —12. In all questions relating to the representation of numbers, or the equiva- lence of forms, it is sufficient to consider primitive forms, as the solution of these problems for derived forms is immediately deducible from their solution for primitive forms; but in certain investigations connected with the trans- formation of forms the consideration of derived forms is indispensable. (The problem of art. 82 coincides with that of the representation of numbers, in the case of binary forms of any order.) The nature of the quadratic form (a,b,c) depends very mainly on the value of its determinant, which we shall symbolize by D. (1) If D=0, the form (a, 6,¢) reduces itself to an expression of the type m(px+qy)’, p and qg denoting two numbers relatively prime, and m being the greatest common divisor of a, b,c. The arithmetical theory of such expressions, which are not binary forms at all, since they are adequately represented by a formula such as mX*, is so simple, and at the same time diverges so much from that of true binary quadratic forms, that we shall not advert to it again in this Report, and in all that follows the determinant is supposed to be different from zero. (2) When D is a perfect positive square, the form (a, b,c) reduces itself to an expression of the type m(p,7+q,y) (P.t+qey), i.e, it becomes a product of two linear forms, Owing to this cireum- stance the theory of forms of a square determinant is so much simpler than that of other quadratic forms, that we shall not enter into any details 298 REPORT—1861. with regard to them, though it is not necessary to exclude them (as is the case with forms of determinant zero) from those investigations which relate simultaneously to the two remaining kinds of quadratic forms; viz. (3) those of a negative determinant, and (4) those of a positive and not square determinant. An essential difference between these two kinds of forms is, that whereas both positive and negative numbers can be represented by any form of positive and not square determinant, forms of a negative deter- minant can represent either positive numbers only, or negative numbers only. For if the roots of a+2b0+¢8°=0 be real, it is clear that ax*+2bay+ cy’ will have values of different signs, when the ratio y: 2 falls between the two roots and when it falls outside them’; but if the roots be imaginary, the form will always obtain values having the same sign (viz. that of a or c), whatever the ratio y:x may be. If (a, b, c) be a positive form (7.e. a form repre- senting positive numbers only) of a negative determinant D=—A, (—a, —b, —c) is a negative form of the same determinant, and can repre- sent negative numbers only. We see, therefore, that there are as many positive as negative classes for any negative determinant; and as everything that can be said about positive forms or classes may be transferred at once, mutatis mutandis, to negative forms and classes, we shall in what follows exclude the latter from consideration, and, when we are speaking of forms of a negative determinant, confine ourselves to the positive forms. Since 2? — Dy’, or(1, 0,—D), is a form of determinant D, we see that one class at least of properly primitive forms exists for every determinant; and the class containing the form «*—Dy’ is called the principal class. Improperly pri- mitive forms only exist for those determinants which satisfy the condition D=1, mod 4; since, if (a, 6, ¢) be improperly primitive, we have 5=1, mod 2, a=c=0,mod 2. But for every determinant satisfying this condition, one class at least of improperly primitive forms exists; for (2 1, —25*) is an improperly primitive form of determinant D, and the class containing it may be called the principal class of improperly primitive forms. 86. Reduction of the Problem of Representation to that of Equivalence.— The problem of the representation of numbers depends, first, on the solution of a quadratic congruence, and, secondly, on the solution of a problem of equivalence. This dependence is established by the two following theorems:— (i.) When the number M admits of a primitive representation by (a, 0, c), the quadratic congruence 27—D=0, mod M, is resoluble.” For if am?+2bmn-+en?=M be a primitive representation of M, let p, v be two numbers satisfying the equation my—ny=1; we then find (am? + 2bmn + en*)(ap? + 2bpy + ev”) = (amp +b[ my +np] +env)’—D; or =D, mod M; if Q=amp+b[my+np]+eny. We have already referred to this result in art. 68. The representation am? + 2bmn + cn* of the number M by the form (a, d, c), is said by Gauss to appertain to the value © of the congruential radical WD, mod M. To understand this definition with precision, it is to be observed that if in the expression of Q we replace p and » by any two other numbers satisfying the equation my—nyu=1, the new value of Q will be of the form ©+M; and conversely, values for » and » can always be found which shall give to amp+b[mv+mp]+enyv any assigned value of the form Q+kM. Two different representations of M appertaining to the same value of 4 D, mod M, are said to belong to the same set. ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 299 (ii.) “If M admit of a primitive representation by the form (a, 4, c) apper- taining to the value © of D, mod M, the two forms (a, 6, c) and °—D (ma? are equivalent ; and conversely, if these two forms are equivalent, M admits of a primitive representation by (a,5,c) appertaining to the value Q of WD, mod M.” To establish the first part of this theorem, we observe that the assertion that M admits of a primitive representation by the form (a, 6, c) appertaining to the value @ of /D, mod M, implies the existence of four numbers M, N, 1, v, satisfying the equations mv—np=l, am? +2bmn+en>=M, Mess han ta ebb old a (k) amp+b[my+np] +env=Q. If, therefore, we apply to (a, 6,c) the transformation i | the resulting ? form will have M and Q for its first and second coefficients respectively ; its third coefficient will therefore be oa) , because its determinant must be o—D M conversely, the equivalence of the two forms (a, b,c) and o_D M, Q, —-—— ( dela D; i.e. the two forms (a, ,c) and (a, Q, ) are equivalent. And, implies the existence of a transformation Mm, pL Vv a: of (a, , c) into O?—D\, (a, o, ; i.e. it implies the existence of four numbers m, 7, p, v, satisfying the equa- tions (k); or, finally, of a primitive representation of M by (a, 6, ¢) apper- taining to the value © of /D, mod M. _ If (A, B, C) be a form equivalent to a form (a, 6, ¢) by which M=am’?+2bmn+en? is represented, and if a8 be a transformation of (A B C) into (a, 4, c), it Pp y3 is clear that (A, B, C)(am+ Bn, ym+in)?=(a, b, c)(m, nyP=M. Two such representations of M by equivalent forms are called corresponding representations ; and we may enunciate the theorem, ‘ Corresponding repre- sentations of the same number M by equivalent forms appertain to the same value of the expression / D, mod M,” the truth of which is evident from the nature of the function Amu+B[mv+np]+Cny, which is a covariant (in respect of m,n and p, v) to Az’+2Bay+ Cy’. To obtain, therefore, al! the primitive representations of a given number by a given form (a, 6, c), we investigate all the values of the expression / D, mod M. If Q,,Q,,.... be those values, we next compare each of the forms ?—D (a1, 2, -F- 300 REPORT— 1861. with (a,6,c). If none of them be equivalent to (a, b,c), M does not admit of primitive representation by (a,6,¢); but if one or more of them, as 22—D (1, 2“ biting all the transformations of (a,b, c) into (a OQ, ) be equivalent to (a,b, ¢), let be 7 be the formula exhi- o7—D ): then all the primitive representations of M by (a, }, ¢), which appertain to the value Q, of 4/D, mod M, are contained in the formula (a, b, c)(a, y)P=M. 87. Determination of the number of Sets of Representations.—It appears from what has preceded, that if S denote a system of representative forms of determinant D (i. e. a system of forms containing one form, and only one, for every class of forms of determinant D), the number of different sets of pri- mitive representations of M by the forms of S is equal to the number of different solutions of the congruence #°==D, mod M. If, in particular, M be uneven and prime to D, it is clear that M can only be represented by properly primitive forms; and in this case the number of solutions of the congruence z°==D, mod M, z.e. the number of sets of primitive re- presentations of M by the properly primitive forms contained in S, is expressed by either of the two formule n(1+(2)) or (3) in which p and 6 denote respectively the prime divisors of M, and those divisors of M which are divisible by no square; while (9) and (2) are the quadratic P symbols of Lagrange and Jacobi (see arts 16, 17, 68,76). If » denote the num- ber of different primes dividing M, the common value of the two expressions a(1 +(5)) and 2(3) is 2" or zero, according as the condition (G)=! is satisfied by every prime divisor of M, or is not satisfied by one or more of them. When D is =1, mod 4, § will certainly contain improperly primitive forms; and the unevenly even number 2M (where M is still sup- posed prime to D) will admit of primitive representation only by the impro- perly primitive forms contained in S (for if © denote any root of the con- a gruence 2°==D, mod 2M, © will be uneven, sie even, and the form 2 20 ee (aL oe 2M primitive representations of 2M by these improperly primitive forms will be the same as the number of sets of primitive representations of M by the pro- perly primitive forms in S. The problem of obtaining the derived representations of M by (a, 6, c) depends on that of finding the primitive representations of a given number by a given form (see art. 79). Two derived representations of M are said to belong to the same set, when the greatest common divisor of the indetermi- nates, which we will symbolize by w, is the same for each, and when the two ) will be improperly primitive). And the number of sets of bier ; M : : , primitive representations of —, from which they are derived, appertain to we the same value of ,/D, mod et Adopting this definition, we may enunciate Ww the theorem, “If M be an uneven number prime to D, the whole number of ‘she ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 301 sets of representations of M (and if D=1, mod 4, of 2M) by a system of re- presentative forms of determinant D is zi d denoting any divisor of D.” We may add that, as before, M will be represented only by properly primi- tive forms; and, when D=1, mod 4, 2M only by improperly primitive forms*. 88. Reduction of the Problem of Transformation to that of Equivalence.—- It has been shown in art. 80, that the general problem, “ Given two forms of unequal determinants, to decide whether one of them contains the other, and if so, to find all the transformations of the containing into the contained form,” can be reduced to the simpler problem of the equivalence of forms, For the sake of clearness we shall here point out how the first of the two general methods of that article is to be applied to quadratic forms. If of two forms f and F the former contain the latter, the determinant of F is a multiple of that of f by a square number, viz. by the square of the modu- lus of transformation. Let the determinant of f be D, and that of F, De’; also let m and p be any two conjugate divisors of e, so that #pu=e. Then every transformation of which the modulus is e may be expressed in one way, and one only, by the formula ia x es , in which & denotes one of the > ’ a, B Y é If, therefore, we apply to the form fall the transformations included in the m,k 0, p we shall obtain a series of forms ¢,, %,,.... of determinant De®. If none of these forms be equivalent to F, F is certainly not contained in f; but if one m, k : 0, p is equivalent to F, let | hs | represent indefinitely any transformation of ¢ ? numbers 0, 1, 2, 3,....m—1, and is any unit-transformation whatever. formula (of which the number is equal to the sum of the divisors of e), or more of them, for example, ¢, arising from the transformation into F; then f passes into F by any one of the transformations included in m, kh a, | 0, pe 9 the series ¢,, ¢,,.... which is equivalent to F, it is readily seen that the transformations of f into F, which are thus obtained, are all different, and that they include all possible transformations of f into F. We have supposed the number e to be positive, 7.e. we have supposed that f contains F properly. To decide whether f contains F improperly, we have only to examine whether any of the forms ¢,, 9,.... be improperly equivalent to F; and if any one of them be so, to combine the transforma- tion of f into it, with its (improper) transformations into F. 89. Problem of Equivalence.—It remains to speak of the problem of equivalence. Of the three parts of which this problem consists, viz. (1) to decide whether two given forms are equivalent or not, (2) if they are, to the formula x . If we take in succession for ¢ every form in * The theorems of this article will not be found in the Disq. Arith. If, in their expression, we transform the symbols (7): (3) by the law of reciprocity, we obtain results which co- incide with those given by Lejeune Dirichlet in his memoir, “ Recherches sur l’application etc.,” sect. 7 (Crelle, vol. xxi. p. 1-6). 302 REPORT—1861. obtain a single transformation of one form into the other, and (3) from a single transformation to deduce all the transformations, the last only admits of being treated by a method equally applicable to forms of a positive and negative determinant. We shall therefore consider it first. The solution which Gauss has given of it (Disq. Arith. art. 162) depends on principles which are concealed (as is frequently the case in the Disquisitiones Arithmeticz) by the synthetical form in which he has expressed it. We shall not therefore repeat the details of his solution, but shall endeavour to point out the basis on which it rests. Let f=(4, b,c) (x,y)? be transformed into F=(A, B, C) (a, y)? by two Ao B, and Ife B, Yo 9 Yv 6 transformations of which the determinants are equal in sign as well as in magnitude to the same positive or negative number e. Let also, for brevity, X,=a,c+By, Y= yot+oy, X,=a,e+B,y, Yi=y.2+6,y, so that f(X,, Y,)=f(X,, Y,) =F(a,y); we have then the algebraical theorem— “The homogeneous functions F(2,y) and X,Y,—X,Y, differ only by a numerical factor, not containing z or y.” The truth of this theorem is independent of the supposition that the coefficients of the given forms and given transformations are integral num- bers. Its demonstration is implicitly contained in the formule given by Gauss; or it may be verified more indirectly by the consideration, that if w be a root of the equation a+ 2bw+ew*=0, we have, simultaneously, different, but similar transformations, ; t.e. by two & + BQ’ ~~ a,+B,07 © denoting in each case the same root of the equation A+2BQ+CO?=0, an assertion which would not be true, if the equal determinants @,8,—B,y, and Yo+ GQ _ %1+6,0 a,+BQ a,+p,0 coincides with the equation A-+2BQ+CQ?=0; i.e. X,Y,—X,Y, is identical (if we neglect a factor not containing x or y) with F(a, y). Comparing this conclusion with the identity [F(2,y) =X, Y,) xf(X,, Y= : DCO yg - (A) @,6,—f,y, were of opposite signs. Hence the equation we obtain a second result of the same kind— “ The function aX,X,+0(X,Y,+X,Y,)+cY,Y, differs from F(a, y) only by a numerical factor not containing z or y.” Let m be the greatest common divisor of A, 2B, and C; U and T the greatest common divisors of the coefficients of 2*, ay, and y? in X,Y,—X,Y, and aX,X,+6(X,Y,+X,Y,)+eY,Y, respectively ; m being a positive integer, but the signs of U and T being fixed by the equations aX,X,+0(X,Y,+X,Y,)+eY,Y, . he ey (r) SS YS which are implied by the two algebraical theorems that have preceded; the numbers T, U, and m will satisfy the equation T’—DU*=m’, which is obtained ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 303 by combining the equations (A) and (), and will serve to express the relation Qo» B, G1, 1 3 : 0 “Oo which subsists between the transformations and Solving the iD equations U U X,Y,—X,Y,= at y) =— fio ¥,) aX,X,+5(X,Y,+X,Y,)+ceY,Y, =a, y)= = f(X» ¥,) for X, and Y,, we find mX,=(T—6bU)X,—cUY,, mY, =aUX,+(T+8U)Y,; or, finally, equating the coefficients of w and y, @,,|__ 1 se Ta,—U(ba,+cy,), Teaues ta Ym” |Ty,+U(ae,+by,), Td, + U(as, +69, 1 T—4U, —cU ay B | Ciek visgl laa A HAA oad aedletneatinn coscacckt va nae If we suppose the complete solution of the indeterminate equation T’—DU’=m’* to be known, the formula (C) supplies us with a complete solution of the problem, ‘‘ Given one transformation of f into F, to deduce all the similar transformations of f into F.” For if we suppose in that formula that T and U denote indefinitely any two numbers satisfying the indeterminate equation, it will appear (1) that every transformation of f into F is contained in (C) ; (2) that every transformation contained in (C) is a transformation of f into F ; (3) that no two transformations contained in (C), and corresponding to different values of T and U, are identical. Only it is to be observed that the transformations (C) are not, in general, all integral. They are so, however, when e, the modulus of transformation, is a unit, a supposi- tion which we have not yet introduced; i.e. when the forms f and F are either properly or improperly equivalent ; because < =a and a are then evidently integral; whence it may be inferred that tees and oe are So too. 90. Expression for the Automorphics of a Quadratic Form.—To find the automorphies of any quadratic form it is sufficient to consider the case of a Go» B, Yo 9 i 1 , we obtain from the formula (C) the following general ex- > the identical trans- primitive form. Putting thenf=F, and taking for formation pression for the automorphies of f, a, B on 1 x T—6U, —cU El m aU, T+éU where m=1, or 2, according as f is properly or improperly primitive. The nature of this expression for the automorphics depends on the value of D. If D be positive and not square, let us represent the least positive numbers satisfying the equation T’-DU’=m’* by T, and U,; we then have, by a Nee ak dec aia what iy 304 REPORT—1861. known theorem, the following formula for all the solutions in which T is positive, T,+U.¥ oe pallet m m k denoting any positive or negative integral number. From this we can can infer that if a | be the automorphic in the Bey formula (D), arising from the values T,, U, of T and U, all the other proper , and are included in the formula ay B, Ya» 0, | e| representing one or other of the identical transformations 1,0 1) Joa {amd | ot If D be a negative number, the only solutions of the equation T7— DU*=m? (except in two cases presently to be noticed) are T=+m,U=0. Hence the only proper automorphics of a form of negative determinant are the two automorphics are powers of | Ms Bs Yr Or k > |e| x identical transformations i | and a A The two excepted cases ? ts are (1) D=—1, m=1; (2) D=—3, m=2. In the former case we have for T and U the four values +1, 0, and 0, +1; whence the proper auto- morphies of a form of det. —1 are the four transformations supplied by the k formula | gine silanes six in all, viz +2,0; +1,1; and +1, —1; whence six automorphics, comprised in the formula If D=—3, m=2, the solutions of T°+3U°=4 are 3(1—), —}e/" 2a, 2(1+8) |’ exist for an improperly primitive form of det. —3. We may add that in each of these two cases, in addition to the proper automorphics we have found, there exist an equal number of improper automorphics. From the formula (C), compared with the theory of representation con- tained in art. 86, it follows that if (a, b,¢) («, y)"=M be any representation of M by (a, 6, c), all the representations of the same set are included in the formula [etn Typha thy] . For forms of a positive and m m not square determinant the number of representations in each set is there- fore infinite. For forms of a negative determinant the number of represen- tations in each set is, in general, two; and if [«, y] be one of them, the other is [—a, —y]. Butif the determinant be —1, or if the form be derived from a form of det. —1, the number of representations in each set is four; and if the form be an improperly primitive form of det.—3, or be derived from such a form, the number of representations in each set is six. 91. Expression for the Automorphics—Method of Lejeune Dirichlet We have inferred the expression (D) of the automorphics of f, from the formula (C) of which it is a particular case. But it is plain, from the general theory of art. 81, that, when f and F are equivalent, we can conversely infer the formula (C) from (D). This method has been preferred by Lejeune Dirichlet, who obtains the automorphics of a primitive form f=(a, 8, ¢), of ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 3805 which the determinant is not a positive square, by the following process (Crelle, vol. xxiv. p. 324). If ee have evidently a(aa? + Qbay +ey*)=[art+(b+VD)y] [axt+(b—VD)y], =[(aa+[b+ 7 Djy)x+ (48+ [6+ 7D ]o)y] x [(aa+ [6— VD] y)x+ (48+ [6—VD]6)y], an equation which, for brevity, we may write (petqy) (p+ qy)=(PxtQ,x) (Pe+Qy), and which implies one or other of the two following systems :-— ap pict PL. i. eee (1) PiP2 |e 2? P Q, ? P, Q,’ =PpPP-: Pi %. P. Yo (2) PiP2 P, 2? P. Q,’ P, Q, » if a Y 0 P—1(T—UyD], T and U denoting rational numbers, and m still repre- be any rational automorphic of f, we If (1) be the system which is satisfied by , let .=1(T+UyD} Re, senting the greatest common divisor of a, 2b,c. These assumptions are “y: D. . : . . legitimate, because £ and o contain no irrationality but »/ D, and are con- . . 1 2 . . . . jugate with regard to /D. Substituting in the equations P,_Q_1 Gg tae WN PP. Qed =2=— 2 — - (T—U D), Pz WG ms ne for P,, P23 Gy» 23 Py» P,; Q,, Q,; the expressions which these letters represent, and equating the rational and irrational parts, we find a,6|_ 1. |T—&bU, —ceU ¥5 3| Sans La, F eeU In this expression T and U satisfy the equation T’—DU’=m’, because P,P.=P,P,. From this we infer that 2a—Sy=1 ; further, if we now introduce the condition that a, 8, y,d are to be integral and not merely rational numbers, it will follow, because y, d—@, —£ are integral, that oa 0, Let, then, (a,, 6,,a,) be the given form of det. —A, which is supposed not to satisfy the general conditions for a reduced form. Let 6,+6,=p,a,, —), denoting the minimum residue of b,, mod a,, so that [26,] if |T| be the general expression of its proper automorphics, all its improper x|T|. Every ambiguous automorphics are included by the formula ia = ? form belongs to an ambiguous class, and, as we shall presently see, every ambiguous class contains ambiguous forms. To complete the theory of equivalence, we shall here briefly indicate the solution of the problem, “To decide whether a given form is improperly equivalent to itself or not, and if it is, to find its improper automorphics.” When the determinant is negative, it follows from the principle that two re- duced forms cannot be equivalent, that no reduced form, the opposite of which is different from it and is also a reduced form, can be improperly equivalent to itself. Hence the only reduced forms which have improper automorphies are those in which 6=0, or 2b=a, or a=c. In the two former cases the reduced form is ambiguous, in the latter it has the improper automorphic 0, 1 7,0 biguous form (2a—2b,a—b,a). These considerations supply a sufficient criterion for deciding whether a form of negative determinant is equivalent to itself or not. If it is, its improper automorphics are given by the formula |T|x|7r|x|T|-*; |T| denoting the reducing transformation of the given form, and |7|any improper automorphic of the reduced form. For forms of a , and is moreover contiguous and therefore equivalent to the am- positive determinant, we observe that if (a,, B,» @,), (@» —Byp%)y- ee eee (Go, 1» —Bo,_1» %) be the period of (a, b,c), the period of (a, —3, c) is Os — Pap 19 Sap—1)2 (%op—1; Paya» %ap—a)> + *°>** (@,,8,,%,)» For (a, —6,c) is equivalent to (a, —,, 1) % 1), because (a, b, c) is equivalent to (G5, 4» —Pox—1> &,); and by a known theorem, the period of equations in the development of the second root of (a, b,c) is [a.. —By_y> %z_1]> [ep_1» — Popa» Capo ]s+++++ [a,,—f,, a], the equation [a,,—Box_» %z_1] occupying an even place in the development; this period is therefore the period of equations in the development of the first root of [@,,—Py,_ > %ox_1] 3 i.e. the period (a, — [az y» %p_1)» (%2%-1» Pox—o» %on—2)s ++ (> Bos a,) is the period of (a,, —.,_ 1» %,_1)» OF, which is the same thing, of (a, —b,c). If we now suppose that (a, 4, c) is improperly equivalent to itself, it will be properly equivalent to (a, —6, c); and these two forms will have the same period, 312 REPORT—1861. which we shall represent by (po Yo» P:)> (Py Yy» Po)» &e. If pys Qo Py) be any form of this period, the associate of (p,, 4,» P,4,) % e the form (lP,4.19 Yx» Pa)» Will also be a form of the period, and the indices of these two forms in the period will differ by an uneven number, because the signs of the numbers p, P,,;.-+-are alternate. From this we can infer that there will be two different forms in the period, each of which will be immediately pre- ceded by its own associate; so that the type of the period will be (Po Yor Pids (Pv Uv Pods s+» (Prev Ue—v Pr)» (Pp W—v Peo)» (Pe U2 Pea)» + © + (Pr Yo» Po)s where for simplicity we have supposed that (p,, ¢,, p,) is one of the two forms which is preceded by its associate; the other is (py, Qu_y Pp_y): These two forms are ambiguous, for it follows from the contiguity of each form to that which precedes it, that 27, = 0, mod p, ; 2g,_,==0,mod p,. We arrive therefore at the conclusion that the period of every ambiguous class contains two ambiguous forms; either of which enables us, as in the case of forms of a negative determinant, to obtain all the improper automorphics of any form of the class. Gauss has shown (Disq. Arith. art. 164), by an analysis which it is not necessary to explain here, that if f contain F both properly and improperly, an ambiguous form contained inf, and containing F, can always be assigned. This theorem comprehends the result which we have incidentally obtained in this article, that every ambiguous class contains ambiguous forms. (See also a note by Dirichlet, in Liouville, New Series, vol. ii. p. 273.) 95. The important theorem, that for every positive or negative determi- nant the number of classes is finite, is a consequence of the theory of reduc- tion. To establish its truth, it is sufficient to employ the reduction of Lagrange (art. 92), which is applicable to forms of a positive determinant having inte- gral coefficients no less than to forms of a negative determinant, and which shows that in every class of forms of determinant D there exists one form at least the coefficients of which satisfy the inequalities [26]<[a], [26]<[e]. These inequalities give, if D be negative, acs— 5 D, [vl=v—2; and if D be positive, [ac]—2v,v,—40,°=1, (3) V,<0,<20, 5 let Vv, =U, +P; 3 —3y, +40,v, + as 1, (4) v, T= "(up P2> a Pox) A,= "(wp Ba + Pode? * This notation is due to Euler (see Nov. Comm. Pet. vol. ix. p. 53, and the memoir already cited, “‘ De usu novi algorithmi in Problemate Pelliano solvendo.” Comment. Arith. vol. i, p.316). The convenient term “ cumulant ” has been introduced by Professor Sylvester (Phil. Trans. vol. exliii. p. 474), who has also suggested the use of accents to indicate the omission of initial or final quotients. : 316 REPORT—1861. and «,+2(,0+a ,6°=0 is the quadratic equation determining the quotient p,, in which we suppose for simplicity that a, is positive. If, in particular, we consider the quadratic equation 6>—D=0, or rather a?>—D—2a0+0°=0, where a’, a m U,v”D Ts P T : we have evidently —!=cos —=siny, —“= cosx Yn % mt vs m ¥ The analogy implied by these formule enables us to transform many trigono- metrical identities into formule containing T, and U,. For example, from the formule cos (¢+0)=cos ¢ cos O+Fsin ¢ sin 8, sin (¢+6)=sin ¢ cos 0+ sin 0 cos ¢, we have, putting g=ap, 0=y), where w and y are any positive or negative integers, mt = sina. Tesy= 2[Ts Ty £DUz Uy], Usay=—(Ts U,+ Ty Uz]. (iv.) It is also found that x(a—1) 2 T OAT aN b QT Te=(-1) * (2, -20,2%,...(-1)*4 53), m m” m U mi 1. QT 2 (a ee —D@—2) f S21» Sel a (=) Sa U, (1) ( mm’? - m’ or. m ) (v.) If g be any integral number whatever, we can always find a solution [T,, U,] satisfying the congruences T, = T,=m, mod g, and U. = U,=0, mod g. If [T,, U,] be the least solution satisfying these congruences, A will be less than 2g, and the residues (mod qg) of the terms of the two series T, and U,, will each form a period of A terms, so that we shall always have Trtna = Ty Ui a= Up mod g ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 317 If U,, be the first number of its series which is divisible by g, we shall have either \'=A, or 2\!=.. In either case, the only numbers U which are divisible Tek! by q, are those whose indices are divisible by \’; and the formula | T;,., =a] comprises all the solutions of the equation T?—Dg*U’=m’?. Thus, in solving the equation T?—DU?=m?, we can always substitute for D its quotient when divided by its greatest square divisor. (See Lagrange, Ad- ditions to Euler’s Algebra, art.78. Gauss, Disq. Arith.art.201.Obs. 3 and 4.) We may add, that if g be a prime (an uneven prime when m=2), and if ~g* and q be the highest powers of g, dividing U, and m respectively, q*** will be the highest power of g dividing Un. (Dirichlet, in Liouville’s Journal, New Series, vol. i. p. 76.) (vi.) The methods of Lagrange and Gauss are applicable to the equation T’—DU?*=4, only when D=1, mod 4; because they suppose the existence of an improperly primitive form of det. D. In all other cases the equation T’—DU*=4 may be divided by 4, and reduced to the form T?—DU?=1 : viz. if D=0, mod 4, T is even; and if D = 2, or = 3, mod 4, Tand U are both even. A similar reduction takes place if D=J1, mod 8; the equation T’—DU*=4 admitting in that case only even solutions. Butif D = 5, mod 8, T’—DU*=4 may or may not have uneven solutions; and no criterion is known for distinguishing @ priori these two cases, If T?—DU?=4 admit of uneven solutions, its least solution [T,, U,] will be uneven ; its even solutions will be comprised in the formula ['Ts,, Usn], and consequently [4T3n, $U3n] will represent the solutions of T*—DU*=1. (vii.) The equations T?—DU’*=—4, T7—DU’= —1 are not resoluble for all values of D, but only for those values for which —1 is capable of represen- tation by the principal form of det. D. Whenever the period of integral quo- tients in the development of D consists of an uneven number of terms, these equations will be resoluble, and conversely. This will always happen when D is a prime number of the form 4n+-1, and may happen in many other cases, but never can happen when D is divisible by any prime of the form 4n+3. If T’—DU*=—1 be resoluble and [T,, U,] be its least solution, the formula [T2n+1, Usr+1] contains all its solutions, and [T2,, Usn] all the solu- tions of T7—DU’=1. If, in addition to the supposition that T7—DU?=—1 is resoluble, we suppose that T?—DU*=4 admits of uneven solutions, T’—DU*=—4 will also admit of uneven solutions; and if [T,, U, ] be its least solution, [Ton+1 Uen+i]5 [Tons Ven], [Z Tén+3, 3 Usn+3]> [z Tény + Ten] will represent all the solutions of T?’—DU*=—4, =4, =—1, and =1, respectively. It is evident that these considerations will frequently serve to abbreviate the process of finding the least solution of T’—DU’=1. (See a memoir of Euler’s in the Comment. Arith. vol. ii. p. 35. (viii.) The “Canon Pellianus” of Degen (Havniz 1817) contains a Table, giving for every not square value of D less than 1000, the least solution of the equation T°—DU*=1, together with the development of /D in a con- tinued fraction. Its arrangement will be seen in the following specimens :— 357 18, 1, 8, (2) 133, 4, 17 180 3401 97 OS 18s 1,1, Cb) 1, 16, 3, 11, 8, (9, 9) 6377352, 62809633. 318 REPORT—1861. The numbers in the third and fourth rows are the least values of U and T in the equation T7—DU?=]. The first row of numbers is the period of in- tegral quotients in the development of /D: it is continued only as far as the middle quotient, or the two middle quotients, after which the same quo- tients recur in an inverse order. Thus, 180=(1, 8, 2, 8, 1); 3401 =(18, 1, 8, 2, 8, 1); 6377352=(1, 5, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 5, 1, 18, J, 5,1, 1, 1,1, 1, 1, 5, 1); 62809633=(9, 1, 5, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 5, 1, 18, 1, 5, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 5, 1). The numbers in the second row are the denominators of the complete quotients ; 2. e. taken alternately positively and negatively, they are the ex- treme coefficients in the equations of the period. Thus the period of equa- tions for 357 is [—33, —18,1], [1, 18, —33], [—33, —15, 4], [4, 17, —17], [—17, —17, 4], [4,15, —33]. The first half of the period of equations for 97 is [—16, —9,1], [1, +9, —16], [—16, —7, 3], [3; 8, +11], [—11, —3, 8], [8, 5, —9], [—9, —4, 9], [9, +5, —8], [—8, —3, 11], [11, 8, —3], [—3, —7, 16], the second half being composed of the same equations in the same order but with their signs changed. The middle coefficients of the equations are not given in the Table; but if [a , Bry @r41]5 [or+1, Pati, +2] be two consecutive equations, of which the former determines the integral quotient pa, they may be successively cal- culated by the formula Aj41=pa %41+fa- Lagrange has proved that if a#’—Dy°=H, and H be < VD, — “is always a convergent to D; so that a number less than ¥ D is or is not capable of representation by the principal form of det. D, according as it is or is not in- cluded among the numbers of the second row. The second Table of the “ Canon” contains the least solution of the equa- tion T’—DU’=—1 for those values of D less than 1000 for which that equa- tion is resoluble. Mr. Cayley (Crelle, vol. liii. p. 369) has calculated the least solution of the equation T’—DU*=4, or Te DU*’=—4, for every number D of the form 8-+5 less than 1000, for which those equations are resoluble in uneven numbers. ‘This Table, as well as Degen’s second Table, is implicitly con- tained in the first Table of the ‘‘ Canon,” as appears from the theorem of Lagrange just cited. (ix.) The theory of the equations T7—DU’=1 and =4 is connected in a remarkable manner with that of the division of the circle*. Let X=2u+1 represent an uneven number divisible by & unequal primes, but having no square divisor; let also the numbers less than d and prime to it be repre- sented by a or 4, according as they satisfy the equation ({)=1, or ()= —1; and let X=O be the equation of the primitive Ath roots of unity. The form of 2air Qhir this equation (seeart.59) implies that Se * +Ze * =(— 1)"; we have also the 2air Qhir relation Xe * —Ze * =i" av) \, which is easily deducible from the formule of * See Dirichlet, “ Sur la maniére de résoudre ]’équation 2?—yu?=1 au moyen des fonctions circulaires,”’ Crelle, vol. xvii. p. 286. Also Jacobi’s note:on the division of the circle, Crelle, vol. xxx. p. 173. : —— eee ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 319 Gauss (see arts. 20 and 104 of this Report, or Dirichlet, Crelle, vol. xxi. pp. 141, 7 2air 2bir 2air 142). From these values of Xe * and Ze * we infer that on(e—e* ) 2Qbir and ance a ) are two quantities of the form Y+7°Z /A, and Y—#°Z VX, Y and Z denoting integral functions of w with integral coefficients; i. e. that 4K=Y?—(—1)"A’Z*. From this equation, which is a generalization of that obtained by Gauss for the case when 2X is a prime (Disq. Arith. art. 357), we can deduce a solution of the equation T7—AY’=4. In the Qaim’ formula on(v—e ‘ Javsiez VX, let us first write 7 for x, and then —7 for 7, and let us denote by X,, Y;, Z, X_, Y_, Z_; the values which X, Y, and Z acquire when 7 and —: are written for z. We thus find, denoting the number of numbers less than ) and prime to it by A’, oe (-.*) (syangrra) =2v+11008(G+5) =[Y:Y-:+AZiZ-—i] + VALE Ze ZV] : or, writing T for 3, Y,Y_,+AZ,Z_;], Ufori[i”’Z,Y_,4+0-”Z_Y,]; and observing that X;X_,=1, (T+U VA) =20 co'($ +2), TAU 4, where it is easily seen that T and U are integral numbers. When yp is even, we may obtain a solution of the equation more simply by writing +1 or —1 for x. (See the notes of Jacobi and Dirichlet already referred to.) It is to be observed, however, that the solution obtained by these methods is not in general the least solution. Its ordinal place in the series of solutions depends (as we shall hereafter see) on the number of classes of forms of det. D. 97. Solution of the General Indeterminate Equation of the second degree.— The solution of the indeterminate equation ax* + 2bay+ cy’ + 2dx + 2ey+f=0 depends on the problem of the representation of a given number by a qua- dratic form. We confine ourselves to the case which presents the greatest complexity, that in which b°-—ac=D is a positive and not square number. The methods of solution contained in Euler’s Memoirs relating to it (see Comment. Arith. vol. i. pp. 4, 297, 549, 570, vol. ii. p. 263; and the Algebra, vol. ii. cap. vi.) are incomplete in several respects: first, because Euler always assumes that a single solution is known, and only proposes to deduce all the solutions from it; secondly, because it is not possible, from a given solution, to deduce any other solutions than those which belong to the same set with the given solution, whereas the equation may admit of solutions be- longing to different sets; and lastly, because he gives no method for distin- guishing between the integral and fractional values contained in the formulz by which w and y are expressed. The first complete solution of the problem was given by Lagrange in his Memoir “ Sur la solution des Problémes Indé- terminés du second degré” (Hist. de l’Académie de Berlin for 1767, vol. xxiii. p. 165-311). But the following method of solution, which is different in some respects and much simpler, will be found in a subsequent memoir, “Nouvelle méthode pour résoudre les problémes indéterminés en nombres entiers” (Hist. de l’ Académie de Berlin for 1767, vol. xxiv. p. 181); and in the Additions to Euler’s Algebra (paragraph 7). If we multiply by aD and write p for ax + by +d, g for (b?—ac) y+ (bd—ae), M for (6d—ae)*—(6’—ace) (d’—af ), the given equation becomes g’—Dp*=M. _ Confining ourselves 320 REPORT—1861. to the primitive representations of M by g*— Dp’ (the derived representations, corresponding to the different square divisors of M, are to be treated sepa- rately by the same method), we see that, since p and M are prime, q is of the form M7r+Qp, where 7 and © are two new indeterminates of which the latter may be supposed <[ZM]. On substituting this value for g, it will appear that N= is necessarily integral, z. e. that QO is one of the roots of M the congruence Q’—D ==0, mod M;; and the equation will assume the form Np’?+20pr + M?r*=1, in which every admissible value of Q is to be employed in succession. The development of either root of the equation N+200+ Mé’=0 will give all the values of p and 7 which satisfy the equation Np?+20pr+Mr?=1, because 1 is the minimum value which the form (N, ©, M) can assume. (See the Additions, paragraph 2, and especially arts. 33-35.) Or again, if we apply the transformation of art. 92 to the form (N, ©, M), we obtain an equation of the type Pa”? +2Q2' y'+Ry"’=1, in which Q*—PR=D, and P< /D; wheuce, if #!'=P2!+Qy/, we finally deduce 2!?— Dy”=P, all the solutions of which (see art. 96, viii.) are neces- sarily given by the development of »/D in a continued fraction. Applying either of these methods (the latter is not given in the Memoir, but only in the Additions to Euler’s Algebra) to every equation of the form Np?+2Qp*+ Mr’=1 which can be deduced from the equation g’—Dp*=M, or from the equations of similar form obtained by replacing M by the quotient which it leaves when divided by any one of its square divisors, we obtain a finite number of formule of the type aT+BU+y a'T+B'U+y! Ca 3 a a ? [T, U] denoting any solution of the equation T?7—DU’=1. These for- mule are fractional ; but by attending to the principle of art. 96, v., we can ascertain for each pair of formule whether they contain any integral values or not, and if they do contain any, we can substitute for the single pair of fractional formule a finite number of pairs not containing any fraction. The form in which the solution of this problem has been exhibited by Gauss is remarkable for its elegance. Let a, b, d ¢, f =A, and 6 representing the greatest common divisor of b7—ae, ep cd —be, ae—bd, let ,=D! += " 2S Balog then putting D'e= X+p, D'y=Y-+q, we find aX?+26XY+cY’=D'A'’. If [Xz, Yn] denote indefinitely any representation of D‘A! by (a, b,c), we have only to separate (by Lagrange’s method) those values of X,, Yn which satisfy the congruences Xn+p=0,Y"+qg=0, mod D’, from those which do not, and we shall obtain a finite number of formulz, exhibiting the complete solution required. 98. Distribution of Classes into Orders and Genera.—The classes of forms of any given positive or negative determinant D, are divided by Gauss into Orders, and the classes belonging to each order into Genera. Two classes, represented by the forms (a, b, c), (a', b', c!), belong to the same order, when the greatest common divisors of a, b,c and a, 2b, ¢ are respec- tively equal to those of a!, b!, c', and of a’, 2b',c!. Thus the properly primi- tive classes form an order by themselves; and the improperly primitive classes form another order. To obtain the subdivision of orders into genera, it is only necessary to consider the primitive classes ; because we can deduce the subdivision of a derived order of classes from the subdivision of the - fll rn ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 321 primitive order from which it is derived. The subdivision into genera of the order of properly primitive classes depends on the principles contained in the following equations, in which g is an uneven prime dividing D, mand m! uneven numbers prime to g, and capable of representation by the same properly primitive form of determinant D. 0 OG) (i) IED=, mod 4, (—1) ? =(—1) (iii.) If D=2, mod 8, (Lyf Qe. (iv.) If D=6, mod 8, (Qive ' See (v.) If D=4, mod 8, (ip 7eOiy = (vi.) If D=0, mod 8, gay Sy, and m2—1 m'2—1 (—1) * =(—1) ®. The interpretation of these symbolic formule is very simple. Thus, the formula (i.) expresses that— “The numbers prime to any prime divisor g of D which can be represented by f the same properly primitive form of det. D are either all quadratic resi- dues of g, or else all quadratic non-residues.” Again, the formula (iv.) expresses that “if D be of the form 8n+6, the uneven numbers that can be represented by f are either all included in one of the two forms 8z+1, 82+, or else in one of the two 82—1, 82—3.” All the formule are deducible by the most elementary considerations from the three equations =ax*+2bry+cy*, m!=azx'+2ba'y! + cy", (ax* + 2bary + hart + 2bx'y'+ cy") = (ava! + b[ay!+aly] +eyy')? —D(ay'—2"'y). Thus we find immediately mam! =1, or (™\=(™). And again, if D=6, q q q : mod 8, the last equation shows us that axa! +b[ay!+2'y]+cyy! is uneven ; and consequently mm! = 1—6(xy'—2'y)’, mod 8, i. e. mm! =+3, or =+1, mod 8, according as zy'!—z'y is uneven or even; whence m and m/ are either both of the forms 8x+1, 82+, or else both of the forms 8n—1, 8n—3. The form f is said to have the particular character he =F], or f 1) —1, according as the numbers (prime to g) which are represented by it satisfy the equation (=)=1, or EG =—1; and we are to understand in q q pal the same way the expressions that f has the particular character(—1) ® =-+1, or =—1, &c. Every particular character of a form belongs equally to all forms of the same class, and is therefore termed a particular character of the class. The complex of the particular characters of a form or class constitutes its complete or generic character ; and those classes which have the same com- plete character are considered to belong to the same genus: so that the complete character of a form is possessed not only by every form of the same class, but by every form of any class belonging to the same genus. 1861. % 322 REPORT—1861. To enable the reader to form with facility the complete character of any given properly primitive class, we add the following Table, taken from Dirichlet (Crelle, vol. xix. p. 338), in which S? denotes the greatest square dividing D; P or 2P is the quotient = according as that quotient is uneven or even; p,p'... are the prime divisors of P; and 7,7! the uneven primes dividing S, but ‘not P. I. D=PS*, P=1, mod 4. (a) S=1, mod 2. GG 1G) & (B) S=2, mod 4. Z (O44 (-1)?, (4). (4) (y) ) so, mod 4. a i @) &- | av ae © O- II. D=PS’, P=3, mod 4. (a) S=1, mod 2. . HO O-1O ©: (8) S=2, mod 4. je Oe © Lm | Oem (y) ees dre ¥ fina 3 © Oem oO Oe Il. D=2PS*, P=1, mod 4. (a) S=1, gaol 2. eas: FOO 10: O- (GC) S=0, mod 2. IO Oe Lo O O-- IV. D=2PS, P=, mod 4. (a) S=1, mod 2. EO Col © 8 (8) S=0, pan 2. IO DQ | O Oro It appears from this Table, that if be the number of uneven primes which ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS, 323 divide D, the total number of generic characters that can be formed by com- bining the particular characters in every possible way is 2” when D=1or 5, mod 8; 2"*? when D=0, mod8; and 27" in every other case. But it follows from the law of quadratic reciprocity, that one-half of these complete characters are impossible ; 7. e. that no quadratic form characterized by them can exist. To see this, we observe that if m be a positive and uneven num- ber prime to D, and capable of primitive representation by f, the congruence 0O?—D =0, mod m, is resoluble ; and consequently D =+1. Therefore m E 2P also Gr =1, or (= =1, according as D is of the form PS* or 2PS’. P m mm m In the first case we have (3) (1 oF P)\p) = (+1 M-VE-D; INR a in the other case (=) (=) =1,¢6 (5) = (—1)m-9e-0+ tg m?—1 (=) (5) daa Lyra aaee a A comparison of these equations with the preceding Table will show that the product of the particular characters which stand before the line of division in the Table is equal to +1 in the case of any really existing genus; 7.e. that precisely one-half of the whole number of complete generic characters are impossible. We shall hereafter see that the remaining half of the generic characters correspond to actually existing genera, and that each genus con- tains an equal number of classes. That genus, every particular character of which is a positive unit, is called the principal genus; it evidently contains the principal class, and is therefore, in every case, an actually existing genus. Since the extreme coefficients of a form are numbers represented by it, and since, further, if the form be properly primitive, one or other of them is prime to 2 and to any prime divisor of the determinant, we see that the generic character of a form can always be ascertained by considering the values of its first and last coefficients. Thus the complete character of the form (11, 2, 15), of which the det. is —161=—7 x23 (case II. (a) in the f-1 Table), is (f)=1, (f =+1, (—1)? ==1; that of (5, 2, 98) is f-1 (a=. Ganon Two forms, which have different generic charactet's, cannot be equivalent ; nor can a number be represented by a form if its character is incompatible with the generic character of the form. It is therefore convenient, in any problem of equivalence or representation, to begin by comparing the generic characters of the given forms with one another, or with the characters of the given numbers. The uneven numbers prime to the determinant, which are represented by forms of the same genus, are contained in one or other of a certain number of linear forms. If R denote the product of the primes 7, 7’, .. already de- fined, and if @ be any term of a system of residues prime to 2*PR, where k is 1, when D =1 or 5, mod 8, 3 when D= 2, 6, or 0, and 2 in every other case, the numbers contained in the formula 2*PR+6 can be represented only x¥2 324 REPORT—186]. by forms belonging to that genus the character of which coincides with the character of the number 0. It is clear that one half of the linear forms, in- cluded in the formula 2*PR +6, do not satisfy the condition of possibility in- dicated in the Table, and are therefore incompatible with any quadratic form of determinant D ; while the remaining half of those linear forms will be equally distributed among the actually existing genera; so that there will be either [13(p—1)3(r—1) or 211}(p—1)3(r—1) linear forms proper to each genus. But although no number contained in any one of the first-named linear forms ean be represented by a form of determinant D, yet it is not to be inferred that every number 2 contained in the other half of the linear forms is capable of such representation ; for from the linear form of m, we can indeed infer the equation j= ; but, if m be not a prime, or at least i} the product of a prime by a square, we cannot from this equation infer the resolubility of the congruence Q? = D, mod m, or of any congruence of the form Q? = D, mod a We may add. that if we assume the theorem that every arithmetic progression, the terms of which are prime to their common difference, contains prime numbers, the consideration of the case in which m is a prime establishes the actual existence of every genus the character of which satisfies the condition of possibility. (Crelle, vol. xviii. p. 269.) If m be an uneven number not divisible by g, a prime divisor of D, and if the double of m can be represented by an improperly primitive form f of det. D, we attribute to f the particular character (f)=+hor =—], according as * = +1, or =—1; and to form the complete character of f, we may use the Table D=PS?, P=l1,mod4, S=1, mod 2. G. OT Os. Oe 99. In the preceding articles we have briefly recapitulated the definitions and principles which constitute the elements of the theory of quadratic forms. We have hitherto followed closely the 5th section of the Disq. Arith. (arts. 153-222 and 223-233); but before we proceed to an examination of the re- mainder of that section, it will be convenient to place before the reader an account of the method employed by Lejeune Dirichlet in his great memoir, “ Recherches sur diverses applications de l’analyse infinitésimale a la théorie des nombres,” for the determination of the number of quadratic forms of a given positive or negative determinant. * A}l the results of this article are given in the Disq. Arith. arts. 223-232; but as Gauss does not employ the symbol of reciprocity, we have preferred to follow the notation of Di. richlet. It is also to be noticed that Gauss does not use the law of quadratic reciprocity to demonstrate the impossibility of one-half of the generic characters; for, as we shall here- after see, this impossibility is proved in the Disq. Arith. (art. 261) independently of the law of reciprocity, and is then employed to establish that law. (Gauss’s second demonstration, see Disq. Arith. art. 262.) There is also an unimportant difference between Dirichlet and Gauss with respect to the definition of the generic character of an improperly primitive form ; for Gauss obtains the generic character (see art. 232) by considering the numbers repre- sented by the form, and not the halves of those numbers. But he also observes (art. 227, and 256, VI.) that each improperly primitive class is connected in a particular manner (to which we shall again refer) with one or with three properly primitive classes; and that this consideration may be employed to divide the improperly primitive classes into genera. And it will be found that the complete character which Dirichlet’s definition attributes to an im- properly primitive form is, in fact, the complete character of the properly primitive class or classes with which it is connected. ON THE. THEORY OF NUMBERS. 325 It appears from the Additamenta to art. 306, X. of the Disq. Arith., that Gauss, at the time of the publication of that work, had already succeeded in effecting this determination ; and the method by which he effected it will at length appear in the second volume of the complete edition of his works, the publication of which is now promised by the Society of Gottingen. Nevertheless the originality of Dirichlet in this celebrated investigation is unquestionable, as there is nothing whatever in the Disq. Arith. to suggest either the form of the result, or the method by which it is obtained *. We propose, in what follows, to give as full an analysis as our limits will permit of the contents of the memoir, Its first section contains certain prin- ciples relative to the theory of series. (i.) “If hk, =, =k, =k, ... be a series of continually increasing positive n Rn is to say, if, 0 denoting a given positive quantity, however small, we can always assign a finite value of »=N, such that for all values of x surpassing N, the inequalities quantities; and if the ratio — continually tend to a finite limit a (that a—s<*» ——_ +p ———, N denoting a finite Ricca ais n=] hy te m==1 fn't? n=N+14n'*t° number ; and by virtue of the inequalities written above r= ii = Bre Mie A cag fm) edt vate hs usishiaced NF n=N+1 "7 n=N-+1 4a m=N+1 ”™*° * The following is a list of the papers of Lejeune Dirichlet which relate to the theory of quadratic forms :— 1. Sur l’usage des séries infinies dans la théorie des nombres.—Crelle, vol. xviii. p. 259. 2. Recherches sur diverses applications de l’analyse infinitésimale 4 la théorie des nombres. —Crelle, vol. xix. p. 324, and xxi. pp. 1, 134. 3. Auszug aus einer der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin am 5 Mirz 1840 vorge- lesenen Abhandlung. (Crelle, vol. xxi. p. 98, or the Monatsberichte for 1840, p. 49.) This paper is an abstract of an unpublished memoir containing the demonstration of the theorem that every properly primitive form represents an infinite number of primes. 4. Untersuchungen iiber die Theorie der complexen Zahlen. (Crelle, vol. xxii. p. 375, or in the Monatsberichte for 1841, p. 190.) An abstract of the following memoir. 5. Recherches sur les formes quadratiques a coéfficients et a indéterminés complexes.— Crelle, vol. xxiv. p. 291. 6. Sur un théoréme relatif aux séries. (Liouville, New Series, vol. i. p. 80, or Crelle, vol. liii. p. 130.) 7. Sur une propriété des formes quadratiques 4 déterminant positif. (Monatsberichte for July 16, 1855, or Liouville, New Series, vol. i. p. 76, or Crelle, vol. liii. p. 127.) 8. Vereinfachung der Theorie der binaéren quadratischen Formen von positiver Determi- nante. (Memoirs of the Berlin Academy for 1854, p. 99, or, with additions by the author, in Liouville, New Series, vol. ii. p. 353.) 9. Démonstration nouvelle d’une proposition relative 4 la théorie des formes quadratiques. —Liouville, New Series, vol. ii. p. 273. 10. De formarum binarium secundi gradus compositione.—Crelle, vol. xlvii. p. 155. The three last papers contain important simplifications of theories which appear in a very complicated form in the Disq. Arith. To two of them we have already referred (arts, 93, 94). t This theorem is a generalization of that in the memoir (Crelle, vol. xix. p. 326). It is given by Dirichlet in No. 6 of the preceding list. 326 REPORT—1861. n=0 Observing that lim p = nx is intermediate between n=N+1”7° . neh LE : dl lime (as and lim p fhrsace. and is consequently unity, we infer from the last inequalities that n= lim p = m=N-+1 and therefore also =O; 1 Bite’ which is identical with it, because n=N lim p ep : =a n=n differs from « by a quantity comminuent with 4; 7, e. limp = a” n=l] “™ since by hypothesis 6 is a quantity as small as we please. (ii.) A convergent infinite series may be convergent in two very different ways. It may be convergent, and always have the same sum irrespective of the arrangement of its terms; or it may be convergent for certain arrangements of its terms, giving the same or different sums for these different arrangements, and divergent for other arrangements. We suppose, however, that we con- sider only such different arrangements of the terms of a series as are compa- tible with the condition that any term which occupies a finitesimal place in any one arrangement should occupy a finitesimal place in every other arrange- ment*. Thus the series 1 1 1 poet gitet sitet a ses-pDs is convergent, and has the same sum in whatever order we sum its terms; but of the two series 1 1 1 1 J [hSS SS SS eS te. gigi 4h gt oft 1 1 1 1 1 1 a a | ah sy 7 Sen iy ade rs aa aa ae a * This condition is necessary, because without it the sum of no series whatever would be independent of the arrangement of its terms, if by the sum of a series we understand the limit te which we approximate by the continual addition of its terms in the order in which they are given. For example, the series cited in the text, ‘ 1 1 1 pret ytet gist +P > % is convergent, and its sum is irrespective of the arrangement of its terms, provided that arrangement satisfy the condition enunciated in the text. But if we were to arrange the terms of the series in an order regulated (say) by the number of primes dividing their deno- minators, the limit to which we should continually approach by adding together the terms . . 1 ema taken in their new order, would be = seo in which p denotes any prime, and not = pte? p in which n denotes any integer. i ee ie ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 327 only the first is convergent; while the two series bissk SP elo 1 a ay un a a “Bog we age Hered | I43—gt3tq—gt are both convergent, but have two very different sums *. These observations will show the importance of the following prpoosition t. ““If c, be a periodic function of 7, satisfying the equations Cn+k=Cn) eC, +e,+¢,+.. +e,=0, m= co Cn the series = a in which the terms are taken in their natural order, is con- uw vergent for all values of s superior to zero, and its sum is a continuous func- tion of s.” - For if we add together the & consecutive terms c, c, Ck (in Fly" (im fay! ade we obtain a fraction of which the denominator is of the order és in respect of m, while the numerator is only of the order (k—1)s—1, because the co- efficient of ms is zero. We may therefore replace the given series by a M= series of the form m=1 in respect of m. This series is always convergent for positive values of s ; its convergence is irrespective of the arrangement of its terms, and its sum is a continuous function of s, because ¢(m) is a continuous function of s. The given series is therefore also convergent, and its sum is a continuous function of s. 100. The second section of the memoir refers to the symbols of recipro- city of Jacobi and Legendre (arts. 15, 16, and 17 of this Report). The third and fourth sections contain the principal theorems relating to the generic characters of quadratic forms, and to the representation of numbers. There is only one of these theorems to which we need direct our attention here, as the others have already come before us in the preceding articles. Let (a, 6, ¢) be a primitive form of the positive determinant D ; (a, 6, c) (2, ¥.) =M a positive number represented by (a, b, c); m the greatest com- mon divisor of a, 2b, c; [T, U] the least positive solution of T?—DU2=m:?; so that if a= [Trx,—Un (b2,+cey,)], Yo=L[Tayyt Un (axz,+by)], the two formulz [2, Yn] and [—2n, —Yyn] will together express every repre- sentation of M, which belongs to the same set as [z,, y,]. Similarly, let [2'ny yn], [—2'n, —y'n] denote a complete set of representations of the posi- tive number M’ by (a, 3, c). If we trace the hyperbola represented by the equation ax®-+ 2bry+cy?=1 J y in which ¢(m) is a function of the order 1+0, yn>0, Yn —— Tne, It is in this form that the theorem appears in Dirichlet’s memoir. We may add that any values of x and y which satisfy these inequalities will give a positive value to (a, b, c); for such a pair of values will correspond to a point situated in the internal angle between the asymptotes of the hyperbola. The fifth section contains the demonstration of the theorem, that if A de- note the absolute value of D, and (2A) be the number of numbers less than 2A and prime to it, a properly primitive form of determinant D will acquire a value prime to 2D, if its indeterminates 2 and y satisfy any one of a certain set of 2AYy(2A) congruential conditions included among the 4° conditions represented by the formule x=a,mod2A; y=, mod 2A, in which both « and # represent any term of a complete system of residues, mod 2A; but will acquire a value not prime to 2D, if x and y satisfy any of the other congruential conditions. If the form be improperly primitive, the number of congruential conditions that will render its value unevenly even and prime to A will be Ay(A), or 3AU(A), according as D = 1, or = 5, mod 8. These theorems are easily demonstrated by considering separately the prime divisors of A. For example, if the form (a, b,¢) be improperly primitive, and p be a prime divisor of D, since either a@ or ¢ is prime to p, let a@ be prime to p; then (ar+by)’—Dy? will be prime to p, when ax+by is so; t.e. it will be prime to p, for p(p—1) combinations of the . ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS, 329 residues (mod p) of x and ¥; or, if p” be the highest power of p dividing D, for p*"-! (p—1) combinations of the residues of z and y, mod p”. Again, the 4 combinations of residues for the modulus 2 will give 3 (a, 6,c) the va- lues 0, 3 a,, 3.c,,4 a+6+ Zc, of which it is easily seen that one or three will be uneven, according as ac == 0, or 4, mod 8; 7. e. according as D = 1, or 5, mod 8, The combination of these results will give Dirichlet’s theorem. 101. Series expressing the number of Primitive Classes.—The sixth section of the memoir contains the demonstration of the formule which express in the form of an infinite series the number of classes of properly and improperly primitive quadratic forms of a given determinant. We shall abbreviate the demonstration of these formule by using the theorem of art. 87. Let hf be the number of properly primitive classes of determinant D; we shall first suppose D to be negative, and =—A;; let also (a,,,,¢,), (@,, b,,¢), +++ (an, bp, cn) be a system of forms representing the properly primitive classes of that determinant; and let us consider the sum 1 1 eee ee ee "(4,0 + 2b,cy+e,y°)§ sa (ae +2bay toy y +h ane? + QWyay + ony)” the sign of summation %, extending to all values of w and y from —o to +, which give the form (a,, 5,, ¢,), a value prime to A. By the theorem of art. 87, any uneven number 2 prime to A is capable of 23(7) repre- sentations by the properly primitive forms of determinant D (for there are (7) sets of representations, and each set contains two*). We have there- — s=22[2(7)"] ee Er Sher, hay (the inner sign of summation referring to every divisor d of n; and the outer sign extending to every positive value of x prime to 2A). If we write n for d, and mn! for n, so that 2 and z! each represent any positive number prime to 2A, this equation assumes the simpler form 8=22 (2) Gane AY 7. 9 Neagle tt ln the sign = indicating two independent summations with respect to m and n’; or, if we perform the two summations separately, and omit the accent, saan in(e)e ee ee ee © fore the equation To deduce an expression for f from this equation, we write 1+) for s, and multiplying each side by p, we suppose p to be positive and to diminish without limit. In order to find the limit of pS on this supposition, we con- , of which it sider separately the partial sums, such as p= Gaara bere is composed. . * If A=1, each set contains four representations. To obtain a correct result in this case, we must therefore double the right-hand members of the equations (a), (4), (c), and (A). 330 REPORT—1861. If aS be the mth term of the series 5 be ceca a ve lebepreaesta in which we cP (ax + Qbay+cy")'*? n suppose that the terms are so arranged that no term surpasses any that precedes it, it can be shown that lim c= mye. For if 245+£,,.2An+n, represent generally any one of the 2Ay(2A) systems of values that can be attributed to x and y consistently with the condition that (a, b,c) assumes a value prime to 2A, the number of terms up to /, inclusive (7. e. the number 7) is evidently equal to the number of points having coordinates of any one of the forms [24£+£,, 24n+7,] that lie within the ellipse aa°+2bay+cey’=k,, together with one, or all, or some of the similar points lying on the contour of the ellipse, according as ame is the first or the last, or neither the first nor k Pp nu the last of the terms equal to it in the series. The area of the ellipse is kn Va ; whence, if 2 be very great, the number of the points we have defined is spritositantely ee the error being of the same order as Vk, ; 3. es ie Ha a we. Hence by Dirichlet’s first Lemma (art. 99) lim pS= a Again, by the same Lemma, the expression p= a has —_ for its limit, when p sfonde : ee te : DY Fr: diminishes without limit. And, lastly, the limit of the series 3 (pas is : D\ 1 : the series = (2) , in which the terms are taken in their natural order. To : D establish this, we observe that the symbol (2) is a periodic function of x, and that the sum of the terms of which one of its periods is composed is zero. Using the notation of art. 94, and attributing the value +1 or —1 to the symbol 6 according as P==1 or =8, mod 4, and to the symbol e according as D=PS? or =2PS’, we have, by Jacobi’s law of reciprocity, D) ser (” Cab, Hence G)=@) if n =n’, mod 2*PR*; or i is a periodic function of x. Again, if a and b denote the general terms of a system of residues prime to 2* and p respectively, we find n—1 n?—1 a—1 a—1 eat =) eet b B38 er 8 (5)=23 4a xm.2(5)x0(r—1), where in the left-hand member the summation extends to every value of x prime to 2*PQ and less than it, while in the right-hand member the signs of summation refer to a and 6, and the signs of multiplication to p and r respec- * The index & is not the same as in art. 98; it is 1 when 0=1, e=1; 2 when 0=—1, e=1; and.3 when e=—1. ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. que tively. This equation is easily verified ; for if ma, mod 2*, =6, modp, = 6’, mod p’, ... we have m—1 n?—1 a—1 a2—1 IFT 5) =32 «* (2) (=) eA so that each member of the equation consists of the same units. But one at least of the factors of which the right-hand member is composed is zero ; unless we have simultaneously 5=1, e=1, P=1, a supposition which is inad- missible, because it implies that D is a perfect square. We infer there- fore that =(3)=0 t. e. that the sum of the terms of a period of the symbol . e . . D 1 () is equal to zero. If, then, we suppose the terms of the series = (>) aes to be taken in their natural order, it will follow from Dirichlet’s second Lemma (art. 99) that its sum represents a finite and continuous function of p for all values of p superior to —1; i.e. the limit of the series 5 (>) n /nire for p=0 is the series = (2 Ve in which the terms are taken in their natural order. We thus obtain the equation peg NE ces vie cen T n/n Secondly, let the determinant D be positive; and let us retain the same notation as in the former case. If in the series 1 43 1 ‘ (a,2° ¥ 2b,xy+c,y") *(a,x" + 2b,2y+¢,y")* 1 (apa? +2bpay + ery’)? (in which it is convenient to suppose that the forms (a, 6,, ¢,), representing the properly primitive classes of determinant D, have their first coefficients positive, and their last coefficients negative) we suppose the sign of double summation %, to extend only to those integral values of x and y which render the value of the form (a,,,,¢,) prime to 2D, and which further satisfy the inequalities => a eevee +2, . z>0, y>0, yx ee we obtain, by a comparison of arts. 87 and 100, the equation 1 DY oF — _ > — j-— ; . e ° e ° ° . e ° q es ns G ne () in which m denotes any positive number prime to 2D, and which corresponds to equation (c). 1 . ji ; If ae be the mth term of the series aps Peta nm is equal to the number of points having coordinates of any one of the forms [2A5+£, 2An+n]; ; 332 REPORT—1861. which lie in the interior of the sectorial area, bounded by the positive axis of «, the arc of the hyperbola aa’?+2bay+cey’=k,,, and the straight line aU aS wv; FT 60 together with one, all, or some of the similar points on the contour of the sector. The area of the sector is ken i zit log (T+U WD); whence, reasoning as before, we find 27D D\1 SS > —_— i— . . « . e . . log [T+UVD] G a (B) for the number of properly primitive forms of a positive determinant D. The corresponding formula for improperly primitive forms are obtained by a precisely equivalent process. The results are, if D=—A, D?~1 oe OT rca Fe ee D\1 [2 (-1) 3 Jasevas(Z) i ae eS and if D=+4, D?—1 ey a eee 27D D\I CGM Were cecaurintacy meme [T’, U'] denoting the least solution of the equation T?—DU’=4. 102. Proof that each Genus contains the same number of Classes.— The sixth section of the memoir also contains a demonstration of the pro- position to which we have already referred (art. 98), that all the possible genera actually exist, and contain an equal number of classes. This demonstration is not deduced from the expression for the number of properly primitive forms, but depends on an equation between two infinite series similar to the equation (a) of the last article. Let y denote any one of the particular characters proper to the determinant, and let ¢ be any term in the product Il(1+ x), with the exception of the first term, which is unity, and also of that particular combination of the values of x, the value of which, by the condition of possibility, is also a positive unit. If A be the number of parti- cular characters, 2\—2 will be the number of expressions symbolized by 9. Let H and H! be the numbers of classes satisfying the conditions ¢=1 and g¢=—1 respectively. It can be shown, as follows, that H=H’. Confining ourselves, for perspicuity, to the case of forms of a negative determinant, we have, by the principle of art. 87, px $2 = SS + z. TS are 7) ae Te econ (ae t+zbay+ey)y *(a,x FO,xy+e,y)* + Nia Quay Fen)? = d 2 aP oe etre ee ( ) where in the right-hand member é is +1 or —1, according as the num- ber 2 satisfies the condition ¢=1 or ¢=—1; and similarly, in the left-hand member ¢,=—1 or = +], according as the generic character cf the form (as 5,5 ¢,) satisfies the condition ¢=1 or ¢=—1. In this equation the * If A=3, we must triple the right-hand member of this equation; as each set of repre- sentations of a number by a form of determinant —3 contains six representations, instead of two. ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 333 signs of summation have the same signification as in the similar equation (a) of the last article ; and, as in that equation, the right-hand member may be expressed in the simpler form 2) If we now write 1+ for s, and, multiplying by p, allow p to converge to zero, the limit of the left-hand number is (H—H’) ea) The series »(>) ({\o5 converges to a finite limit; for (>) and 2) are each of them n]}\nJnite n n m—1l n?—1 . rat -Anie hae . 4° * ; expressions of the form 6 ? e ® (—), 6 and e denoting positive or negative units, and Q an uneven number composed of unequal primes dividing D ; their product is therefore another expression of the same form, in which 6, e and Q are not simultaneously equal to 1, because we have expressly excluded that combination of the particular characters which causes (£) to coincide n with ah It can therefore be shown, by reasoning as in the last article, n that the second Lemma of art. 99 is applicable to the series, and that it con- verges to the finite limit 2(?)(¢):. Similarly, it may be shown that =(2 - converges to a finite limit. The limit of the right-hand member n}n of the equation (d) is consequently zero on account of the evanescent factor p; from which it follows that H=H!. Let G,, G,,..be the different possible genera; h,, h,,.. the number of classes they severally contain ; (&) thevalue of ¢ for the genus G. The equation H—H’=0 comprises 2\—2 equations of the type oN, ?\;, i 6 (e) : (&) ae ; corresponding to the Z\—2 different expressions symbolized by ¢. If we mul- tiply each of these equations by the coefficient of A, in it, and add the pro- ducts to the equation 2h, +2h,+2h,+...=2h, we arrive at the conclusion 2\4,=2h. For the coefficient of h, in the re- sulting equation is the product II [ +(&\E)] ; and this product is 2, r k. ‘ if G, and G, are identical, but is zero in every other case, as one at least of the factors will be zero. 103. The seventh section (Crelle, vol. xxi. p. 1) commences with the proof of the theorem that the number of sets of representations of any number M prime to 2D by quadratic forms of determinant D, is equal to the excess of the number of those divisors d of M which satisfy the equation pee gro STE (5)=1 ) above the number of those divisors which satisfy the equation Goh Balid Py 2 € 2 (5)--1 334 REPORT—1861. the symbols 6 and e having the same signification as in art. 101. Of this theorem, which coincides with that of art. 87, since D\) #1 @1/¢4 (7)=8* «= (0) two demonstrations are given, one purely arithmetical, the other derived from the equation (4) of art. 101, the proof of which in Dirichlet’s memoir does not involve the theorem of art. 87, but is deduced from the arithmetical principles on which that theorem itself depends. We have already referred (art. 95) to some of the particular results which can be deduced from the general theorem. It is evident from the mode of formation of the equation (4), or of the cor- ‘responding equation for a positive determinant, that it may be generalized by taking instead of the power (aa*+2bry+cy)-%, any function of ax? + 2bxy + cy? which renders the two members of the equation convergent ; z.e. we may write, in the case of a negative determinant, 2, - o(a,7* 2 5 2b,2y i cy?) si 2, 2d o(a,x* ss 2b,.2y T cy”) ai be tad =25 ¢) o(nn’). Dirichlet illustrates this observation by giving to ¢ the exponential form 9*, which satisfies the condition of convergence, if the analytical modulus of g be inferior to unity. Each double sum, such as 3q7*+2zy+ey* in the left- hand member of the equation 2 2 Dg + ety toy =e Bgae t dbaty + cay +., D\ ees — 2 (> )e" wv, ean then be replaced by 2aAy(2A) (or sometimes by fewer) products of the form V=0 Leapvtnt Y=O Aaavtyys Ns | ited. ee - vw=-—-D v=—@ in which each simple series such as 2 zi (2aAv+ 9)? v=—o can be expressed by means of the elliptic function ©; the right-hand mem- ber can also be expressed by means of elliptic series. If, for example, D=-—3, we have the equation v= e=+0 v=+0 v=0 SH gG&t BF gi Corp By gOt27*~ B G34) C=— 0 v= — © vw=—@ v= -— © 5? egg _*S gk +5 4 g5(6R+5) keg IPODS peg 1—-ghttt It does not appear that this remarkable transformation, which is only very briefly noticed by Dirichlet, has been further examined. (See a note by Mr. Cayley in the Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical Journal, vol. ix. p- 163.) In the eighth section Dirichlet assigns the relation between the numbers of properly and improperly primitive classes. Wheri the determinant is ne- ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 335 gative we find, by a comparison of the formule (A) and (C), A=’, or. h=Sh', according as D==1, or = 5, mod 8; observing only that if D=—3 we have, exceptionally, A=’. When the determinant is positive, we infer from the formule (B) and (D), nals $(T’'+U'VD) i, log (T+U¥VD) 3 log 3(T’'+U' WD) I! log(L+UVD) ”’ according as D==1 or = 5, mod 8. Comparing these expressions with the observations in art. 96 (vi.), we find, if D=1, mod 8, h=h’; and if D=5, mod 8, A=h’, or h=3h’, according as the least solution of the equation T2—DU?=4 is uneven or even. Dirichlet also deduces from the formule (A) and (B) the relation which subsists between the numbers of properly primitive classes for any two determinants which are to one another as two square numbers. It is suffi- cient to consider two determinants such as D and DS’, of which the former is not divisible by any square. If and H be the numbers of classes for these two determinants, we have evidently, when the determinants are negative, 2(2)! ee fe n. cei 2(s)s 2u/7n the two series in the numerator and denominator not being identical, because in the one x is any number prime to 2DS*, in the other any number prime to 2D. But, by a principle due to Euler, 1 D\!l_,, —.—, 2(n)e= (DP de od Pp representing any prime, except those dividing 2DS? or 2D. Hence H=ASU (-(7)) if s denote any prime dividing S but not’ dividing D. For a ‘positive deter- minant we find D\\ log (TU VD) = og (I+ H=ASm(1—(2) eens Uy DY ['T’, U'] denoting the least solution of the equation T?—DS’U?=1; i.e. the least solution [T;, Uz] of T’—DU’=1, which satisfies the condition U,=0, mod S; so that we may write n=afa(-@)) In a subsequent note (No. 7 in the list) Dirichlet infers from this ex- pression that, given any positive determinant D, we can always deduce from it an infinite number of determinants of the form DS? having all the same numbers of classes. For if we attribute to S a series of values of the form II.s*, all composed of the same prime numbers s, and having continually increasing numbers for the indices of those primes, it appears from a remark or h= to which we have already referred (see art. 96, v.), that the quotient ; will 336 REPORT—1861. eventually be constant; 2. e. there will exist an infinite series of determinants, all composed of the same primes, and all having the same number of pro- perly primitive classes. As it is possible to find determinants contained in a series of this kind, and having only one class in each genus, it appears that the number of the positive determinants, which have only one class in each genus, is infinite. This result, which was anticipated by Gauss (Disq. Arith. art. 304), is remarkable, because it is probable, from the result of a very extensive induction, that there are but 65 negative determinants, of which the greatest is —1848, having the same property. 104. Summation of the series expressing the number of Properly Primitive Classes.—It appears from the last article that, to obtain expressions in a finite form for the number of classes, we may confine our attention to the order of properly primitive forms, and may suppose that the determinant is not divisible by any square. To sum the series = Gs upon this supposition, Dirichlet employs the formule given by Gauss in his memoir, “ Summatio Serierum quarundam singularium,” to which we have already referred in this Report (art. 20). The ninth section is occupied with the demonstration of these formule ; in the tenth they are applied to the summation of the series x5 . Two different methods are given by Dirichlet, by either of which this summation can be effected. : : ee D D \i 75 (i.) If & be the index of periodicity of () so that (=)=() and [k k D t >(7) =0, the summation indicated by the symbol = extending to all values 1 of z prime to 2D from 1 to k, we have, writing V for 2 (3) vf FO a 0 x—1 dz, k where KOs (>) a",so that f(1)=0. Integrating by the ordinary method of decomposition into partial fractions, we find lee Zest - mr\ , Qm prfice He gis E ) [tog (2 aoe HF (1-3 |. To simplify this complicated expression, it is requisite to transform the symbol (>) by the law of reciprocity, and to consider separately the eight cases which arise from every possible combination of the hypotheses (a) D positive or negative, (8) D even or uneven, (y) D, or } D, =1, mod 4, or= 3,mod4. As an example of the process, we shall take the two cases ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 337 n—1 in which D = 3, mod 4, so that (2)=( —1)? (=) k=4A, Astill denoting 2mr . the absolute value of D. The value of plea" is assigned by the formulze m—t1 Eran . 2 mila . * * of Gauss; it is 23°” (—1) ? (va or zero, according as m is, or is not, prime to4A*. We thus find 1 m—1 nm . mr Tv. m —4AV=9i'" +4” Ax(—1) 2 (5) [los (2sin FS )+ 51-5) ], the summation extending to all values of m prime to 4A and less than it. In * If p be any prime divisor of A, an uneven number admitting of no square divisor, and if, for brevity, Paes we have, by Gauss’s formula, 2kmPr . k=p—1,,. ——i ies ane (5)¢ : = (3) GF? gees! he eee k=1 P P/ \P according as m is or is not prime to». If we multiply together the equations of this type, corresponding to every prime divisor of A, and observe (1) that 9==. /P? represents a system of residues prime to A, (2) that ()=(5) (2) a (=) (=) - ++, (3) that A Pi! \P2 Pi/ \P2 II ) P= _ (1) 34 P11) jBAP— V2. ABP-VP AAV? we find 9 20mm 4 as 2 (5)¢ A (gear? VA, or =0, . Oe Se her Jee peo age (2) according as m is or is not primeto A. We have already met with this equation in art. 96, ix. If in the equations (1) we write 4P for P, and join to them the equation at a m—1 4Azl =(-]l “« in which / is either term of a system of residues prime to 4, we obtain after multipli- cation the equation which is employed in the text. And similarly may the function 2mn. —i 1h r k ) be evaluated, whatever be the form of D. The formulz (A) ana (A’) of art. 20 are only particular cases of the general result obtained by Gauss in the ‘ Summatio Serierum, &c.’ The general formula, including (A), is k=n—1 2 h 3(n—1)2 u = rh =(7)i : Nn, h denoting any number prime to n. When nis even, the k=0 formula (A’) of art. 20 is similarly included in the following, h—-1\2 Erhk? = 0, or =(}) i Hea (1+i) Vn, according as n is unevenly or evenly even. When 2 is uneven and not divisible by any square, the two sums k=n—1 = or ana (7) 78 k=0 sf are identical, as appears from a comparison of (2) with the generalization of (A), and as has been already observed in the case when 7 is a prime (art. 21). 1861. Z =2i(—1) . 8 (m uneven), or =0 (m even), 338 REPORT—1861. this expression the sum 2(—1) * (5) is zero, because the terms corre- sponding to m and 2A+m destroy one another ; so that —4av=20te” Vv AZ(— 1)? ine 7) [08 (sin at) ite Distinguishing the two cases D=A, and D=—A, and observing that the imaginary parts vanish identically, as they ought to do, because V is real, we have, finally, if D=A, m—1 —4DV=2/7D—1) 2? (2 in(@™ ¥ Dx —1) (5) !ssin(F5 ) D . mr =2/D>s{(=)1 et v G) a ee ie age 7 =5553(2)m (ii.) The series = (=); can also be summed by substituting for (2) its and if D=—A, trigonometrical value deducible from the formule of Gauss. We will take as an example the case in which D=—A==3, mod 4. Writing m for m, and m for n, in the equation pla SL Filed Es, yr = (iva we find, observing that 3(1+ A) is uneven, n—1 D)\ 7 inh, zee (>)=( 4) G)=a0x? = ai =(2)si n (A) ee the summation extending to every value of m prime to 4A and less than it. = i Substituting this expression for (?) in V, we have hy >» (>) = 1 sin (7), QVA my n 4A Since the expression which we lave substituted for (>) is zero, when 7 is n not prime to 4A, we may attribute to 7, in the series > i sin = ) n 4A either all uneven values, or all integral values. The sum of the series +... sing , sin 32, sin 5x 1 t 3 + 5 ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 339 is, by a known theorem, 7 or > according as O<2#<7, or r<2<2r. Hence attributing to ” only uneven values, and denoting by m! and m"' the values of m inferior and ay to 2A, *=9932(@)-@) “i2() wane (8)--(2) If we attribute to ~ all integral values, the equation 2 hoe ft sing , sin2e , sin 3x a Oraringae some tty which subsists for all positive values of «x less than 27, will give the value already obtained for V by the former method, viz., D — V= kl = e 4A aVA G yn The mode of application of this method may be still further varied ; for, n—1 n—1 instead of substituting for (—1) ” (3) we may leave the factor (—1) ? unchanged, and substitute for G A} by means of the equation )-ss2()(°2) which, as well as the substitution which we have employed, is deducible from the formule of Gauss*. We should thus obtain a third expression for V, different in form from both of those which we have already found. The forms which the expression of h can assume are very numerous; we select the following as examples, D still denoting a determinant not divisible by any square. I. If D=1, mod 4. For a positive determinant, D=A, =(5) =(7) log tan s D/tog (T+UVD)~ \m 2D For,a negative determinant D=— 4, (20) A m the summations extending to every uneven value of m prime to A and less than A. II. If D be not =1, mod 4. For a positive determinant, enna >» () log sin (75) * See equation (2) of the preceding note. z2 340 REPORT—1861. For a negative determinant, Oo Ae Sr PE ne oval i=—h2(2)n=4}2(2) the summations with respect to m and m/! extending to all values prime to 2A, and inferior to 44 and 2A respectively. Dirichlet observes that when the determinant is positive, the coefficient of 1 ‘ : SS o o = iog (T+ UV D) is a logarithm of the form log(Ta+UnWD); (Ta, Un) being one of those solutions of the equation T?7—DU’=1 which are deducible from the theory of the division of the circle. Thus / is in fact determined as the index of the place occupied in the series of solutions of T?—DU’?=1, by an assigned trigonometrical solution. (See a note by M. Arndt in Crelle, vol. lvi. p. 100.) In the particular case in which the determinant is a prime of the form 4n-+3 taken negatively, an expression for the number of classes had already been given by Jacobi (Crelle, vol. ix. p. 189). It would seem, from his note on the division of the circle (Crelle, vol. xxx. p. 166), that the unpublished method, by which his result was obtained, formed a part of that theory. NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS OF MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. Bes Wika Or. torre, “ey . em ‘ “pe ’ ; i < aie 4" ‘a mee aS et ( = 4 Al ee i ate at oy ae Re Rae = 4, i ‘ _— a z y Pe is ‘ Sr | ee had * ’ 7 > " t PF. 7 * + P - ) scum x . f Ls . .. se = i aut ‘ i 4 * . * + i . " "ke 3 \ \ ; eet ahh + ree SS ‘ int: Gee? ‘ . es ea 1a a@ { @ ‘ a , ? ule OF i ¥ ‘gee .~. ee -TOTORNTATA AYA caOTEO# : mw 5 Aeroriias auth oF Morteorinntes 20g eee - of “ ! sad ’ NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS OF MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. MatTHEMATICS. " Address by G. B. Arry, M.A., F.R.S., Astronomer Royal, President of the Section. Tue President said it was usual, in opening the ee of this Section, to commence with a few words, stating generally the object for which they were met, and the way in which they proposed to carry it out. That Section was one which dealt with Mathematics and Natural Philosophy, and under these heads they in- cluded everything which was not of a technical nature, and which was the subject of mathematical treatment. Everything which was reducible to measures or forces came properly under their consideration, if it were not expressly a subject belonging to some technical Section. Cosmology, or the changes which the world has under- gone, came properly before them ; and that Section might be considered as dealing with the germs of all the sciences which were subjects of measure or number, Its subjects might be compared with those which most of our Universities made the foundation for the important degree of Arts, and which are understood to be the best foundation of education possible to provide for the human mind. It was to those subjects that the early efforts of the Association were directed, and in a great measure it was those subjects that had enabled the Association to acquire its pre- sent importance. It was well known to members of that Association that its earliest efforts were directed to astronomy; almost the earliest expenditure of money by the Association was in reference to astronomy, and the works the Asso- ciation had published at its own expense had been amongst the most valuable con- tributions to that science. By the expenditure, of money in that way, the Associa- tion had acquired a command over the Government which had enabled it to call for assistance in very important matters. The reduction of the lunar observations at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich was undertaken in consequence of the urgency of the representations made by the British Association, and anybody who Imew the history of science would admit that that great work was one of the most ~ important services that had been rendered to astronomy. There were other sub- jects to which benefit had been derived from the representations of the Association, amongst which he might mention the great magnetic expeditions under the direc- tion of Major-General Sabine. These expeditions, which had been effected at the expense of the Government, had made us acquainted with magnetism all over the earth, and had given us information such as we could not have got in any other way. In speaking thus of the importance of these subjects, and of their proper connexion with that Section, he had only to say that they should be happy to receive any communication bearing upon similar subjects. = dealing with them, it was desirable in all cases that they should consider themselves as treating ques- tions strictly of science. In the next place, he hoped that those who made com- munications would bear in mind that their time was to be used, and not wasted. _ Tt was desirable that nothing should be brought before the Meeting that would not be understood, ipso facto, from the reading of the paper or oral communication, by the majority of the persons present. There was no use in gentlemen bringing com- 1861. ere " 2 REPORT—1861. plicated technical papers which could not be understood without a month’s study of a printed book. In the next place, recapitulations of what had been done before ought to be as brief as possible. And whilst he hoped that the papers would be well discussed, he trusted that personality of every kind would be strictly eschewed. It was known to those present that great ingenuity had been employed upon cer- tain abstract propositions of mathematics which had been rejected by the learned in all ages, such as finding the length of the circle, and perpetual motion. In the best academies of Europe, it was established as a rule that subjects of that kind should not be admitted, and it was desirable that such communications should not be made to that Section, as they were a mere loss of time. The President then stated that at the last meeting Professor Stokes was requested to make areport, at the instance of the Committee of that Section, on “The present state of Physical Optics.” He had written to say that he had been prevented by a eat quantity of public business from preparing a report in time for that meeting, (ou he engaged to prepare it in time for the next meeting of the Association, and the Committee ha requested him to doso. He had to make a similar explanation with reference to a report that had been promised by Mr. Cayley on the solution of specific problems of dynamics. The Committee had requested him to prepare his report in time for the next meeting of the Society. ¥ On Curves of the Third Order. By A. Caxtey, F.R.S. A curve of the third order, or cubic curve, is the section of a cubic cone, and such cone is intersected by a concentric sphere in a spherical cubic. It is an obvious consequence of a theorem of Sir Isaac Newton’s, that there are five principal kinds of cubic cones, or, what is the same thing, five principal kinds of spherical cubics; but the nature of these five kinds of spherical cubics was first distinctly explained by Mobius. They may be designated the simplex, the complex, the erunodal, the acnodal, and the cuspidal; where crunode, acnode denote respectively the two species of double points (nodes), viz. the double point with two real branches, and the conjugate or isolated point. The foregoing results are known; the special object of the paper was to establish a subdivision of the simplex kind of spherical curves. The simplex kind is a continuous re-entering curve cutting a great circle (to fix the ideas say the equator) in three pairs of opposite points, which are the three real inflexions of the curve. The three great circles, which are the tangents at the inflexions, and the equator, divide the entire surface of the sphere into fourteen regions, whereof eight are trilateral, and the remaining six quadrilateral. The curve may lie entirely in six out of the eight trilateral regions, and it is in this case said to be simplex trilateral; or it may lie entirely in the six quadrilateral regions, and it is in this case said to be simplex quadrilateral: and there is an intermediate form, the simplex neutral; viz. in this case the three great circles, tangents to the in- flexions, meet in a pair of opposite points, and there are in all only twelve regions, all trilateral; the curve lies entirely in six of these regions, On the General Forms of the Symmetrical Properties of Plane Triangles. By Tuomas Dosson, B.A. This paper establishes among the distances from an indefinite plane of the sym- metrical points connected with a plane triangle certain general relations, which yield several corresponding cognate plane properties when different definite i are assigned to the plane of reference. In the plane triangle A BC, let O be the centre of the inscribed circle, O, O, O, those of the escribed circles touching BC, CA, AB; and let OO, cut BC in D. Denote, as usual, the radii of these circles by 7 7, 7, 7, the sides opposite to A, B, C by a, b,c, and a+b+e by 2s, From A, B,C, O, 0,, O,, O,, and D let perpendiculars «, 8, y, 6, 8,, 6,, 5,, and m be drawn to any plane. Then, by similar triangles, m—-a# AD 25° . y-m_CD_b 6,-« AO, 5s SS = 4—~__ >—_ =-; and =——=izn = 6—a« AO b+c’ .m—8 BD ce’ 8—« AO s—a’ eliminating m, &e., 28 = ae+lB+ cy ; 2 (s—a) 8, = —aa+bB+cy; 2 (s—b) d,=aa—bB8+cy; 2 (s—c) 6,=aa+bB—cy. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 3 If S be the area of the triangle ABO, and p, p, p, the perpendiculars from A, B, C, on a, 6, ¢, 2S=ap,=bp,=cp,; and S=rs=r, (s—a)=r, (s—b)=r, (s—c). Hence, if the plane of reference be perpendicular to the plane of the triangle, and intersect that plane in a tangent to any of the circles r, r,, 7,, 7,, 80 that 6=r for instance, then 28S=ae+bB+cy; «, 8, y having the proper algebraical signs for each case. The above equations are now readily transformed into 8_«# By 61 a By rv Py Ps Ps’ ne Pi Po Ps Bois 1 Bey ei Seid » Oty Be % Pi Po Ps’ 7s Pi P. Ps Whence are derived 8 8,5), 20 8, be Ue) 7? Pi Bie 26h, 2y_8 4% ody 8. Oa) =a rs? Po a r Py %) Us, If the plane of reference is parallel to the plane of the triangle, 2—B—=y—0—0,—0,—0, F eRe Syme oe vgs) wisi 5 wise (A) and the above eight equations give corresponding plane theorems. When the ordi- nates are referred to the plane which is tangential to the three spheres of which the centres are O,, O,, O,, and radii 7, ,, 7, we have 8,= ry O,= Py O5=7s 5 } “0 =37r, a =p,, B=p,, and y=p, J ** The plane (B) is therefore tangential to the seven spheres of which A, B, C, O,, O., O., and O are the centres, and p,, p,, P53, "yy Ts) 1°35 and 3r the radii. Let Q be the centre of the circle circumscribing the triangle A BC, R its radius, and A the distance of Q from the plane of reference. Then, proceeding as before, it is found that 4sinA sin Bsin C. A=2sin2A+sin2B+ysin2C; A R= 58 A+ 3 cosB+2 cosO; Pr Pr Ps i (8 == 21 A B 2121p. Y cos2iC: 3 3) = sin? 2448 sin? 2 B+ sin?1C. r R Pi Po Ps For the plane (B) the second equation gives A=R+7. The circumscribing circle bisects 0, O,, 0, 0,, 0, O, in A’, B’, C’; and if a’ B’ y' be for A’ B'C' what «By are for ABC, 2a’=8,+6,; also Z A’=Z O,=3 (w—A). Applying the first of the above theorems to the triangle A’ B’ C’, and reducing, we et . 4A=5+46,+6,+8,; and if this be referred to the plane (B), we have the well-lmown plane theorem, 4R=—r4r,47,475: Applying the same general theorem to the triangle O, O,0,, we have A'+6=24, where A’ is for 0,0, O, what Ais for ABC. Also td OY cia if this be referred to the plane (B), for which A'=2R—r, we get the plane theorem 2k Pole Tar ie pee) AN AE a = r Pi Po Ps : Let 8’ be the distance from the plane of reference of the point of intersection of 1* 4 REPORT—1861. Pyy Po Pz; and A" the distance of the centre of the circle through the feet of p,, p., p;; then by what precedes, : 2A+8'=a+fh+y; 2A"=A+3'; 4A"=S' +a+8+y ; and Let A,, A,, A,, A’), A’,, A';, be the distances from the plane of reference of the centres of the circles circumscribing the component triangles of the complete quadri- laterals of which O, O,, O,, O., are the vertical points; then 2A,=6,4+6,, &., 2A,'=8+5,, &e. ; “Ay +A, +A, +A,'+4,'+A,'=6A, Equating two values of A’, we have 814 8s, By _—84+3,48,438, ILS SL 2r Let O97, '03— Pos Og == Diteha mee totes ee eee (C) and this becomes Pi P Ps_Pit PotPs, g_¢, a a ae r Again, let HT aml RN ment are RL Ee tdae Bice Son (D) and the same formula gives oe ae: a(2 Z £)=5 itp. pst Wy tr te) An Inquiry into the Fundamental Principles of Algebra, chiefly with regard to Negative and Imaginary Quantities. By C. ¥. Exwan, On Definite Integrals. By Brerens DE Haan. On Geometrical Rests in Space. By Sir W. R. Hamirr0on, MR.LA. On the Roots of Substitutions. By the Rev. T. P. Krrxman, W.A., F.R.S., Honorary Member of the Literary and Philosophical Societies of Manchester and Liverpool. The group given at page 6 of the “Transactions of the Sections of the British Association for 1860” is one of the equivalents of a grouped group, which is of the class described by M. Camille Jordan in the 4th chapter of his Thése “ Sur le Nombre des Valeurs des Fonctions” (Paris, Mallet-Bachelier, 1860, or Journal de l’Ecole Polytechnique, 1861). The first four substitutions of that group form one of the grouped groups described by Cauchy in his “ Mémoire sur les Arrangements,” &c. (Exercices d’Analyse et de Physique Mathématique, tome troisiéme). M. Jordan’s group is formed by writing in the auxiliary group 1234 2143 3412 4321, for 1, ip for 2, ree for 3, ae for 4, & This gives a grouped group G, from which is obtained the equivalent G' =54127856 G 34127856, in page 6 quoted above. he two groups of Mr, Cayley at page 5 of the same Report, are grouped groups TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 5 whose general theory has not, so far as I know, been given. In fact the auxiliary groups on which they are constructed are of a kind entirely new, of which-a brief account may be seen at the end of my memoir “On the Theory of Groups and many-valued Functions,” in the forthcoming volume of the ‘Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester,’ 1861. These auxiliaries are, 1234 1234 2143? 271493, (2). 324219 se4ya2 () 437212, 4°32], The peculiarity of these groups (h, h’) is that the four elements therein are affected with different exponents, which are essential to the groups, and cannot dis- appear from them or from their equivalents. hus (A) and (h') give the two groups 12345678 12345678 21436587 21436587 43127865 43128756 34218756 34217865 65871234 65781245 56782145 56872154 78653421 87653412 87564512 78564521 which are equivalent to the two groups at page 5 above quoted. Thus we have, by a direct tactical process, found the 12 regular square roots of the substitution 21436587. What has just been done is a case of a more general theorem. If we define that Des 8 id pe 324-1 =3, 424-1 =4, and that the addition of the same number to all the exponents of the elements of a substitution makes no change in the substitution, we find that the two following are true groups, by the usual test, that the product of any two substitutions of the group is a substitution of the group H. H. 1934 1234 2°143, 2014%3 374712 374197 43°21" 493°21 7 Pam ge: bh? al aaa a A a7 ae 3747 12, 437217 =217 4° 374-1 = 91° 47 8 = 9% 1437, We may substitute in either H or H’ for each one v of the four elements a group wu of 2a—2 powers made with 2a—2 elements, and for v@ the result of a—1 cyclical permutations of the vertical rows of vu. The constructed is always a grouped group, which is no group of powers, nor equivalent to that built on the auxiliary with a=1, if we take @ such that it shall not be prime to 2a—2, that is, if we take for @ any even value. When a is odd, H and H’ are still groups, and proper auxiliaries; but I believe that the grouped group constructed will always be equivalent to the one formed by taking a=1, that is, the two groups will differ neither in the number nor in the orders of the circular factors of their substitutions. : There is but one square root of unity in the group given by H when a=4, of which the group contains twelve 6th roots of the 12th order, with all their powers. It is perfectly easy to write out by a direct tactical method the eighteen cube roots, and the eighteen 6th roots of the substitution @=251564897, all of the 9th order, considered in page 6 of last year’s Report, : 6 REPORT—1861. For this purpose we employ the groups 128 123 193 128 193 123 231 231 9877 9312 = BBs 3712, 3123, 89199, 889, B82, 831593, which are all easily proved to be groups. For example, in the second, 2931 . 39123 = 132333 = 123. 37123 , 2°31 =1°2°33 = 123, We readily formed the grouped groups, 123456789 123456789 123456789 231564897 231564897 231564897 312645978 312645978 312645978 564789123 645789123 456897 123 645897251 456897231 564978231 456978312 564978312 645789312 897123456 978123645 897231456 978231564 789231456 978312564 789312645 897312564 789123645, &e. There are six groups, each containing three cube roots of 231564897 and three cube roots of 312645978, that is three 6th roots of 231564897. All these are mere groups of nine powers, and are therefore no addition to our knowledge of groups; but they are formed by the process of evolution, as grouped groups of roots, comprising of necessity all powers of those roots, whereas such groups are usually formed by the process of involution. Every group of powers of a substitution which has two or more cireular factors of the same order can be written out either by the process of involution, beginning with a principal substitution next to unity, or by the process of evolution, beginning next to unity with a substitution of a lower or of the lowest order, by means of an auxiliary group. For example, the eight cube roots of 214365 are written by the auxiliary groups 123 123 128 123 231 231 2371 2312 312 39122 S712 31722, which are all that we can employ, as 1°=1, 2°=2, 3°=3, when the elementary groups represented by 1, 2, and 3 are of the 2nd order. When the circular factors of the auxiliary group are‘of an order prime to that of those of the elementary group represented f 123.. in the auxiliary, all the auxiliaries formed by different systems of exponents give grouped groups equivalent to that given when all the exponents are unities in the auxiliary. We ave just had proof of this, in the three groups last constructed. But when the circular factors of the auxiliary are not prime to those of the elementary groups, we obtain by certain systems of exponents grouped groups not equivalent to that given by the auxiliary whose exponents are all unity, If, for example, we mean Ee by 1 and oa by 2, the two auxiliaries a a give the groups 1234 1234 2143 2143 3412 4312 4321 3421, which are not equivalents, The Influence of the Rotation of the Earth on the Apparent Path of a Heavy Particle. By the Professor Pricr, M.A., F.RS., Oxford. The problem of the apparent path of a heavy particle as affected by the diurnal rotation of the earth, of course comes within the grasp of the general equations of relative motion, As these last will be found in treatises on mechanics, where such TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 7 subjects are considered, it is unnecessary to do more than insert the forms of them which express the circumstances of our problem, and explain the symbols em- ployed. A particle is supposed to be projected with a given velocity (which in the case of a falling particle may be zero) im a given direction. The place on the earth’s surface, whence the particle is projected, is taken as the origin; the axes of « and of y are taken in the Earabatal plane, and are respectively north and south, and east and west, the positive direction of x being taken towards the south, and - that of y towards the west; and the z-axis is the vertical line measured upwards from the earth towards the zenith of the place; and this line may be assumed with- out sensible error to pass through the earth’s centre. The latitude of the place is A; and o is the angular velocity of the earth; gis the force of gravity of the earth, and is considered to be constant for all points of the path of the particle (m). Then the equations of motion are oe 20 (sin X)*—z.0" sin cosh+2o sind Y=0, :} Py ye (si yz Ne l aR yo? —2o(sin ge tS) ez . mate - dy _ | =a win A cos A—2 @? (cos A) +2ecosh—= —g. Now ao is a very small quantity; to determine its value I will take a second to be the unit of time: then, as a mean sidereal day contains 86164:09 seconds, 2 1 ©= 56164007 18713 OO Consequently ?, which enters into the preceding equations, is an extremely small fraction. Also in the present problem, notwithstanding the increase of range now obtained by the improved weapons of projection, z, y, z are all very small parts of the earth’s radius ; and therefore in the first approximate solution of the preceding equations, I will neglect those terms which contain products of these coordinates and of #*; so that the equations become &. 1 at? sind a =U; ze ay ( daz dz I =! pues pzsz) |S Ti w {sind "i +cosr 5) 0, Pz dy ried ap t2ecosh a7 =-g | As these are linear equations of the first order, they are easily integrated ; and if u=the velocity of projection, and «, 8,y are the direction-angles of the line of projection, we have r=utcosz—uosindrcosP e, y=utcos 8+ @ (cos « sin A-+cos y Cos A) #— wg cosd o k=utcosy— (Z+wocosr cos 8) #5 which three equations give the place of the projectile at the time 4 Now, without proceeding further at present in the process of approximation, let us consider two particular cases and results, which are of considerable interest. (1) Let the body fall, as e. g. down a mine, without any initial velocity ; then w=0; cos «=cos B=0; cos y=—1; » z=0, e Y= —@G COSA ay reteg z= a9 The first equation shows that there is no deviation in the line of the meridian: from the second we infer a deviation towards the east; that is, in the direction 8 REPORT—1861. towards which the earth is moving; which varies as the cube of the time of falling; and that this deviation is greatest at the equator, where A=0: and the last equa- tion shows that the earth’s rotation does not produce any alteration in the time of falling. ; If we eliminate ¢, and take z downwards to be positive, 8 w (cosh)? ae wale 2 which is the equation to a semicubical parabola, and shows that the square of the deviation towards the east varies as the cube of the space through which the par- ticle has fallen. (2) Let the particle be projected due southwards at an angle of elevation equal to 6; then cos 2=cos 6, cos 8B=0, cos y=sin 6; and x=ut cos 6, 3 y=uw sin (O6+d) #2 —wgcosr > ~ut sin g—% | z=ut sin 6 os J From the first and the last of these equations we infer that neither the time nor the range on the meridian is altered by the rotation of the earth. -Also when z=0, 2usin 6, . : =————; in which case that is, when the projectile strikes the ground, ¢= _ 44 @ (sin 6)? 39° and therefore the point where the projectile strikes the ground is west of the meri- dian so long as 6 is less than 180°—tan~ (8 tan dA): and the deviation vanishes if 6=180°—38 tan~1 (3 tan A). The deviation is eastwards if @ is greater than 186°—3 tan 1 (3 tan A). Now these results, which have herein been applied to the motion of a material particle, are also true of that of the centre of gravity of a body. Neglecting there- fore the resistance of the air, and the action due to the rotation of a ball or bolt, they are applicable to rifle and cannon practice, and we have the following results. When the shot is fired due north or south, the range in that direction is not altered, but there is always a deviation of the shot, the value of which at the point of impact on the ground is given in the last equation. : Also from the preceding equations the following results may be deduced :— When the shot is fired due east, the range eastwards is increased or diminished according as the angle of elevation of the gun is less than or greater than 60°; and the deviation is southwards for all places in the northern hemisphere, and north- wards for all places in the southern Peratet Hoes When the shot is fired due west, the range is increased or diminished according as the angle of elevation is greater than or less than 60°; and the deviation is northwards for all places in the northern hemisphere, and southwards for all places in the southern hemisphere. So that for firme from a place in a direction coincident with the parallel of lati- tude, and with an elevation less than 60°, the range is increased or diminished according as we fire eastwards or westwards; and the difference between the two ranges {sin 6 cos XA+3 cos Osind}; 8 u? @ cosh ; Trem (cos 6)?— (sin 6)?}; and if the place is in the northern hemisphere, the deviation parallel to the meri- dian is north or south, according as we fire west or east. Now these effects have been inferred from the equations of motion, simplified by the assumption that products of w?, and one of the relative coordinates of m, are small quantities, and are to be neglected. Let us now retain these quantities, and ‘assume that products of * and of a small variable are to be neglected; and that “small quantities of a lower order are to be retained. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 9 We shall suppose the values of 2, y, z given above to be approximate solutions of the first order of the equations; and if, according to the general method of solution adopted in such cases, we substitute these values in terms involving ez, wy, and oz, that is in the smallest terms which we intend to retain, and, omitting terms of higher orders, then integrate the simultaneous differential equa- tions thus formed, the results are z=utcosa—uo sind cosB # 3 4 —u w* sin d (cos # sin A+ cos y cos A) Stge sin A cosA 53 y=ut cos B+uw (cos # sinX+cos y cos d) # 8 8 _ Og COSA ——Uw cos B 5; e=uteosy—59l—wecosr cos B ¢” 3 4 —u @ Cos (cos # sin A+Cos y Cos A) St9 @” (cos d)? z These equations, of course, give results corresponding to particular initial cireum- q ns, 18 5 stances. I will take only two. (1) Let the body fall without any initial velocity; then w=0, cos z=cos B=0, cos y= — il 5 # fi : waa" g sind cosr ©, | y=—o@gcosh —, S re siya! 2 2 ott s— 59% +7 g (cosh) 5 The first equation shows that there is a deviation of the falling particle in the line of the meridian towards the south ; and the second shows that the deviation in the arallel of latitude is towards the east; so that the resulting deviation of the falling ody is towards the south-east. This result is in accordance with the case many years ago investigated by Hooke, the contemporary of Sir I. Newton. From the last equation it appears that the space due to a given time is less than it would be if there were no rotation. (2) Let the body be projected due southwards at an angle of elevation equal to 6, so that cos 2=cos 6; cos8=0; cos y=sin 6; then a=utcosé—o sind sin (A+6) 5 +g o°sin d cosh © | y=uosin (A+6) ?—wg cosr E ( exutsind—L wat cosdsin ate) o + 9a" (cosh)? ©. ] When the projectile strikes the ground, z=0; and approximately t= 2usin 6 ; in g — 4 o (sin 6)? which case y a {sin 6 cosA+8 cos 8 sind}; which is the same expression as that just now interpreted. Consequently the aim of a long-range gun pointed due north or south must be in accordance with the preceding explanations. On the Calculus of Functions, with Remarks on the Theory of Electricity. By W.H.L. Russert, A.B. ___ The object of this paper was to give some account of a method discovered by the author for the solution of functional equations with rational quantities, known ‘functions of the independent variable, as the arguments of the unknown functions. ‘The solutions were given by series, and also in terms of definite integrals, 10 REPORT—1861. On Petzval’s Asymptotic Method of solving Differential Equations. By Wiu1am Srorriswoopr, M.A., F.RS. The researches of M. Petzval here brought under notice are directed to the solu- tion of those linear differential equations with variable coefficients which have reference to motions, themselves small, but propagated to great distances. In such equations y usually represents the disturbance, and z the distance from the origin. Tf then the solution y=f(z) be considered as the equation to a curve, the method proposed by the author will give the values of y corresponding to large values of x; in other words, the asymptotes to the curve in question. Hence the name “ Asym- ptotic Solution.” With a view to this object M. Petzval proposes the following question: Can any general laws be established, with respect to the coefficients of a differential equa- tion, capable of furnishing criteria for determining the nature of the particular in- tegrals which satisfy it? Having first made such a classification of functions as renders his conclusions capable of conversion, in the logical sense of the term, he pro- ceeds to form, from a given equation of the degree x, Xny™+Xn-1y-D +... Xoy=(X, y=, - the equation of the degree (n+r), (Z,z)™+7)=0, arising from the introduction of r particular integrals of a given form. Passing over the case of algebraic integrals, some of the criteria of which are com- mon to exponentials, the more important cases are as follow :— I. Particular integrals of the form e#*Q, where Q is an entire algebraic poly- nomial. (1) To a level (7. e. an equality of degrees among consecutive coefficients) in (X, y)™=0, there corresponds in general a level among those of (Z,z)@+HD=0, (2) Toa level among Xz47-1, X44r~2, .. Xx, followed by a continuous fall among Xz—1, Xz-2, .. Xo, of (X,¥)™=0, there Patbee ipee a level among Zi+r; Zr+r—1, «. Zp, followed by a similar fall among Zz—1, Zz—2, ... Zo, of (Z, z)@+)=0, II. Of the form e%*+¥(@) Q, or e£z Q, where (x) is defined to belong to the author’s first class. : (1) To a continuous rise among Xz, X*—-1,.. Xn—r41, of (X, y)™=0, there corresponds in general a similar rise among Zp, Zn—1, .. Zn—r, of (Z,z)@+D =0. (2) To a continuous fall among Xz—-1, Xz-2,.. Xo, of (X,y)™=0, there cor- responds in general a similar fall among Zz—1, Zx—2, .. Zo, of (Z,z)@+D=0. II. Of the form < Wet hole, 7 men sinking. » 19.| 589 71% SOvi| Redtrocktscc-ts:steccerens Wet hole, 7 men sinking. Oct. 3.| 597 721 | 120 |Grey red rock............ Dry hole, in dust, 7 men sinking. » 17.| 608 724 | 150 |Rusty mine roof ......... Wet hole, a little gas escaping. » 27.) 6134 723 | 180 |Rusty mine floor......... Wet hole, 7 men sinking. 1858. Mar. 22.) 621 72 90 |Strong grit shale......... Dry hole, in dust, 7 men sinking. ae PA amy | 713 | 90 |Dark blue shale ......... Dry hole, in dust, 7 men sinking. April 23.) 6453 | 721 | 140 |Gritty shale............... Dry hole, in dust, 6 men sinking. May 1.} 651 72% | 150 |Gritty shale............... Dry hole,in dust, 7 men sinking. » 19.} 658 724 | 120 |Dark blue shale ......... Dry hole, in dust, 7 men sinking. June 9.| 669 731 | 150 |Bituminous shale ........ Dry hole, in dust, 7 men sinking. » 19.| 673 74% | T85 |Grey rock..........-ccseee Dry hole, in dust, 7 men sinking. July 17.| 683 754 | 180 |Dark blue shale...... ....|Dry hole, in dust, 7 men sinking. » 21.} 685 75% | 180 |Dark blue shale.......... Dry hole, in dust, 7 men sinking. |. 1859. Mar. 5.| 717 75 | 1200 |Black mine roof......... 120 yards down Engine Brow Works. Standing. The increase of temperature with the depth, as exhibited in the preceding Table, is shown graphically in Plate I. The irregularly curved line takes a course which is approximately a mean of the results ; the straight line is that which shows the in- crease of tenrperature on the assumption that it varies directly as the depth. On examining the Table or the diagram, it will be seen that the experiments in- dicate some considerable irregularities ; nor is this greatly to be wondered at, if we consider the difficulties of the inquiry, and the liability to error in assuming the temperature of a single bore-hole as the mean temperature of the stratum. At the same time it is not probable that the temperature in the mine shaft has in any degree affected the results, and we must therefore accept the observations as a whole, and attempt to ascertain their general bearing. As to the rate of increase, they appear to confirm previous experiments, in which it has been shown that the temperature increases directly as the depth. The rate is at first rather less than this, pean somewhat greater, and at last again less ; but, on the whole, as will be seen in the Plate, the straight line, on which the temperature increases as the depth, nearly expresses the mean of the experiments. The amount of increase indicated in these experiments. is from 51° to 572°, as the depth increases from 52 yards to 231 yards, or an increase of 1° in 99 feet. But if we take the results which are more reliable, namely, those’ between the depths of 4 See. wit aa “ap a Pe vs Pe ek ng the Deep Min sinha nda LYNE ISHTON tt Wi AWA ARAN OR VA AY A TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 55 231 and 685 yards, we have an increase of temperature from 577° to 753°, or 173° Fahrenheit. That is a mean increase of 1°in 76°8 feet. This rate of increase is not widely different from that observed by other authorities. Walferdin and Arago found an increase of 1° in 59 feet in the artesian well at Grenelle. At the salt- works at Rehme, where an artesian well penetrates to a depth of 760 yards, or yather more than the Dukinfield mine, the increase is 1° in 54°7 feet. MAL pe la Rive and Marcet found an increase of 1° in 51 feet at Geneva. Other experiments have given an increase of 1° in 71 feet. In one respect the observations in the Dukinfield mine are peculiarly interesting, as they give the temperature in various descriptions of rock, which appear to prove what has hitherto been partially sus- pected, that the conducting powers of the rocks exercise a considerable influence on the temperature of the strata. If we add to this the influence of the percolation of water, we shall probably have a sufficient explanation of the irregularities observed in the experiments. In Plate I. I have attempted to show graphically the results obtained between the depths of 231 and 717 yards. The dots show the actual experimental relation of depth and temperature, arranged on a Table in which the ordinates are depths and the abscisse temperatures. Between these I have drawn a line of variable cur- vature, which expresses approximately the rate of increase in descending through the strata. Between the extreme indications which are most reliable I have drawn a straight line which expresses the theoretical rate, or a uniform increase of 1° in 76°8 feet of vertical descent. Beside the Table of curves is placed a section of the strata of the mine. Since the above was written I have received from Dukinfield some further expe- riments obtained in the same manner in a new shaft which is being sunk at no great distance from the former. The following Table gives the results of these experiments :— Taste I.—Observations of the Increase of Temperature in the Dukinfield No. 2' Pit. Tempe- | No. of Date. Depth, | rature |minutes Strata. Remarks. Fahr. |in hole. Oe | 1858. | yds. *s June 22.| 167% | 58 180 |Blue shale................. In this Table the thermometer » 29.| 174 578 | 200 |Blue shale................. was always placed in a dry July 21.) 1853 | 584 } 200 /Blue shale................. sump hole, except on April 1859. ‘ 12, 1860, when the hole was Jan. 7.| 239% | 59 | 150 |Blue shale.................| wet. Up to April 30, 1859, » 29.} 254 582 | 140 {Strong grey shale........ five men were at work in the Feb. 17.| 267 59% } 150 |Strong grey shale........ pit at the time of making the Mar. 5.| 277 60 180 |Strong grey shale ...... observations, and after that April 2.) 295 60 | 120 |Huncliffe red rock....... time six men. sy 30.| 308 60 130 |Huneliffe red rock....... May 26.) 315 614 | 155 |Huncliffe red rock....... June 16,| 329 613 | 150 |Grey shale.............00+ Oct. 10.) 358 62 150 |Grey shale under T. Nov. 7.| 3823 | 6323 | 150 Lane Mine......... aches ay 29s) O98 634 | 150 |Grey shale under T. Lane Mine.............. Dec. 11.| 419 632 | 180 | Bituminous shale ........ 1860. Feb. 6.| 4363 | 654 | 120 /Bituminous shale........ » 29.| 4552 | 66 120 |Bituminous shale ........ April 12.| 467 664 | 120 |Grey rock ..............-.- . This Table shows an increase of temperature of 1° Fahrenheit for every 106 feet descent. From the above and similar observations we have evidence of the existence in the earth of internal heat, the baits so far as can be ascertained, increasing in the simple ratio of the depth. I do not, however, presume to offer an opinion 56 REPORT—1861. as to whether this increase continues to much greater depths than we have yet enetrated, as observations upon this point are still imperfect. But, assuming as an Pe othess that the law which prevails to a depth of 700 yards continues to operate at still greater depths, we arrive at the conclusion that at a depth of less than two and a half miles the temperature of boiling water would be reached, and at a depth of 40 miles a temperature of 3000°Fahrenheit, which we may assume to be sufficient to melt the most refractory rocks of which the earth’s crust is composed. If, therefore, no other circumstance modified the conditions of liquefaction, all within a thin crust of this thickness would be in a fluid state. This, however, is not the case. At these depths the fusing-point is modified by the pressure and conductivity of the rocks. We know that in volcanic districts, where the great subterranean laboratory of nature is partially opened for our inspection, the molten mass, relieved from pres- sure, pours forth from volcanic craters currents of lava which form a peculiar class of rocks. Besides this, it has been ascertained by experiment on soft substances, such as spermaceti, wax, and sulphur, that the temperature of fusion increases about 1°35 i ahrenheit for every 500 lbs. pressure per square inch,—that is, in other words, that the temperature of fusion under pressure is increased in that ratio. If we assume this to be the law for the materials of the earth’s crust, and correct our previous calculations in accordance with it, we find that we shall have to go to a depth of 65 miles, instead of merely 40 miles, before the point of fusion of the rocks is reached. It must, however, be observed that Mr. Hopkins’s later experiments with tin and barytes do not show such an increase of the point of fusion in consequence of pres- sure, and he is led to the belief that it is only in the more compressible substances that the law holds true. Independently of this, however, Mr. Hopkins points out to me that in the above calculation it is assumed that the conductivity of the rocks is the same at great depths as at the surface. In opposition to this he has shown experimentally that the conducting power for heat is at least twice as great for the dense igneous rocks. as for the more superficial sedimentary formations of clay, sand, chalk, &c. And these close-grained igneous rocks are those which we believe must most resemble the rocks at great depths below the surface. Now Mr. Hopkins shows that if the conductive power were doubled, the increase of depth, corresponding to a given increase of temperature, would be doubled, and we should probably have to descend 80 or 100 miles to reach a temperature of 3000°, besides the further increase which investigation may show to be due to the influence of pressure on the tempe- rature of fusion. Mr. Hopkins therefore concludes that the extreme thinness of the crast assumed by some geologists to account for volcanic phenomena is untenable. Calculations on entirely independent data led him to conclude that the thickness did not fall short of 800, instead of 30 or 40 miles. If it be so much, he is further led to be- lieve that the superficial temperature of the crust is due to some other cause than an internal fluid nucleus. It remains a problem, therefore, which my friend Mr. Hopkins is endeavouring to solve, as to what is the actual condition of the earth at great depths, and the relation of terrestrial heat to volcanic phenomena. Tidal Observations. By Rear-Admiral FrrzRoy, F.R.S. Since the publication of Dr. Whewell’s invaluable essays on Tides, much addi- tional information has been collected by the Admiralty, through various surveying expeditions in many parts of the world, respecting tides. he accompanying volume of tide-tables shows to what extent our acquaintance with the facts of the subject goes at present. However extended a knowledge of tidal facts may be now, compared with that of the earlier of those past years (some thirty), in which all maritime nations have benefited from light thrown on the subject by that “Essay towards an approxima- tion,” which enabled seamen to discriminate between features until then viewed in only a confused manner, and taught them clearly how and what to observe, there is still very much to be learned. The useful, indeed now indispensable, yearly volume published by the Hydro- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 57 aie on the tides of the world, which, like the Nautical Almanac, is a text-book or the seamen of all nations, owes the truth of its principles, .and great increase of its detailed facts, chiefly to Dr. Whewell, and, no doubt, ie will cordially add sug- gestions, if he concurs in the belief that more still should be done. In the central parts of the Pacific Ocean, and at numerous isolated points seldom visited for expressly tidal objects, exact details about the tides are wanting; but they are unlikely to be ascertained, except by a vessel employed specially for that uurpose. 4 i osuces natural if not artificial, at such selected places, away from continents and near the deepest seas, should be watched adequately during a sufficient time, in order that their results, and a-few comparative observations at known places, might enable Dr. Whewell to put the finishing hand to his comprehensive works on Tides, and to leave them completed for the general benefit of posterity. On the Distribution of Fog around the British Isles. By J. H. Guapstonz, Ph.D., F.RS. Among the returns asked for Ly the Royal Commissioners on Lights, Buoys, and Beacons, and embodied in the Appendix of their Report laid before Parliament last session, was “The number of days in 1858 on which fogs were noted in the meteorological register.”. This question was asked in respect to each lighthouse or floating light in the United Kingdom. The author had gathered together the information thus obtained, and had constructed tables of 200 different sites, geogra- phically arranged, with the frequency of fog at them in the year mentioned. 100 of these sites are in England and Wales, 48 in Scotland, and 52 in Ireland. The following conclusions were drawn from the tabulated numbers :— Ist. The average number of days in 1858 on which fogs were noted in the dif- ferent parts of the United Kingdom is :— On ms Maca a is BnglandiandWw ales)... 5.22 46 s+ afeeasorere PICOtL aN epee ste) «ores «\=jo/=! eh oxckatepoi aegis 22 17 Ireland aioe py. aicietnia's; cious Sdtanacraereee 19 16 General average ........... csc rneneees 24 20 2nd. The distribution of fog over different parts of a sea varies little, even though it varies greatly on different parts of the adjoining coast. Between the River Humber and the Straits of Dover there are 23 stations at sea which returned num- bers ranging between 15 and 32, and nearly all included between 18 and 24; while the stations on the coast returned numbers irregularly distributed between 7 and 45, and in one instance 81. There are indications that fogs are about equally fre- quent in other parts of the sea surrounding England and Scotland, but only half as numerous on the west of St. George’s Channel. 3rd. The frequency of fogs on the coast is in many places far less than on the neighbouring sea. ‘Thus, on the southern and eastern coasts of England there are 14 stations where less than 15 days were noted. Every one of these is a station near the sea-level; and among them are the sandbanks at the mouth of the es and the breakwaters. Promontories of low land are not very often visited ogs. Vath Two stations very near one another, but differing in their elevation above the sea, often differ widely in the frequency of fog, the lower site having generally the smaller number. Thus the station on the beach at Lowestoft gives 7 days, while that on the cliff gives 27. At North Shields, however, it is the reverse. 5th. When the land rises to a considerable height, and is so situated that it meets the south-westerly winds directly after they have traversed the ocean, a frequent deposition of moisture is the result—either “fog” or “cloud.” The high points along the south and south-west coasts of England and Wales all give large numbers, especially the Start, 79 days; Needles, 75; St. Catherine’s Point, 76; and Lundy Island (the highest station in England), 76. The lighthouse at the Needles has on this account been recently removed from the cliff to a low rock. Tn Ireland, the greatest frequency of fog noted in 1858 was at Ballycotton, 55 days, a high station on the southern coast, The west of Ireland appears not to be visited by fog so often as the west of England. The greatest eles in the whole list is 58 REPORT—1861. ~ 126, at Barvahead, in the Hebrides; and this appears the more remarkable, & the neighbouring lighthouse at Skerryvore returns the very low number of 6 days; but the Skerryvore is a low rock many miles from land, while the station at Barrahead is the highest in the United Kingdom, on the southernmost po‘nt of a range of large islands, and near the Gulf-stream. The eastern side of the Hebrides is not foggy. The southernmost point of the Shetland Islands likewise returns a high number. The smallest number noted is at Troon in Ayrshire, viz. 4. 6th. Where a large area of sea is surrounded on most s‘des by land, fogs are infrequent—at least this seems to hold good on the coasts of the Moray Firth, the Minch, the Firth of Clyde and neighbouring sea, the Solway Firth, and Donegal and Sligo Bays. It is otherwise in the Bristol Channel. The Irish shore of St. George’s Channel returns also small numbers, except at Dublin Bay. On a Deep-Sea Thermometer invented by Henry Johnson, Esy., 39 Crutched Friars. By James Guatsuer, F.R.S. The deep-sea thermometer is intended to be used in experiments made with the deep-sea pressure-gauge, to ascertain how much of the variation in volume indicated by the gauge is caused by variation of temperature. In several experiments made by Mr. Glaisher in the year 1844 upon the tempe- rature of the Thames water, at different seasons of the year, it was found that the indications of temperature were very materially affected by the pressure of water upon the bulbs of the thermometers used, even at the depth of 25 feet. This circumstance demonstrated the importance of a thermometer for deep sound- ings without liability to derangement of indication from pressure of water, and led A. The cylinder. B. Stem with graduated scale. C. Flat elastic ring or index. D. Elastic stopper. E. Metal frame lined with caoutchoue. F. Caoutchoue rings protecting glass gauge from concussion. G. Caoutchouc rings, in the’case, securing gauge in position. H. Metal hook in the door of case securing the top. I. Clasp to door, let in to avoid projection. K. Vent, or grooved needle inserted with stopper. L. Brass hook to draw up needles. TRANSACFIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 59 to the construction of the instrument now described, the indications of which are regulated by the lateral motion of compensation bars, composed of thin bars of two metals riveted together that expand and contract in different ratios with change of temperature. Upon one end of a narrow plate of metal about a foot in length (a) are fixed three scales of temperature (2) ranging from 25° to 100° Fahrenheit. Upon one of these scales, as shown in the drawing on an enlarged scale, the pre- sent temperature is indicated by the point of a needle (E), which turns upon a pivot in its centre, and on the other scales register indices (g, f) are pushed by a pin on the needle (e) to the maximum and minimum temperatures, where they are retained by stiff friction. ; To the needle are attached at equal distances from the centre, by connecting wel (d d), the free ends of two compensation bars (66), the other ends of the bars eing attached by the plate (c) to the above-mentioned plate (a). The motion of the needle is regulated by the lateral motion of these bars with change of temperature. In order to avoid disturbance of indication by lateral con- cussion, two bars are used in lieu of one bar only. The compensation bars are composed of brass and steel, in the proportion of two- thirds of brass (which is the more dilatable metal) and one-third of steel, and have sufficient lateral motion to admit of legible scales of temperature, and also sufficient power to overcome the stiff friction of the indices. The specific gravity of brass being 8:39, and that of steel 7:81, it is obvious that no pressure of water can have any effect upon the motive power of the bars, or upon the indications of temperature, as under hydraulic pressure equal to that of a depth of 6000 fathoms of water it acquires a density of 1-06 only. he compensation bars are strongly tinned as a protection against sea-water, and the pivots on which the needle and indices move are strongly gilt. In surveying expeditions this instrument may be serviceable in giving notice of a variation of depth of water, and of the necessity for taking soundings. A diminution of temperature of water has been observed by scientific voyagers to accompany a diminution of depth, as on approaching hidden rocks or shoals, or nearing land, and also on approaching icebergs. The instrument has been suspended by Mr. Glaisher on a thermometer-stand for a period of six months, and read daily in connexion with standard meteorolo- gical instruments, and during this time its readings were approximate to those of the best instruments. The case of the instrument has been improved at the suggestion of Admiral FitzRoy, and now presents to the water a smooth cylindrical surface with rounded ends, and without any projecting fastenings. On a Deep-Sea Pressure-Gauge invented by Henry Johnson, Esq. By James Guatsuer, F.2.S. In deep soundings the pressure of water is too great to admit of measurement by a highly elastic fluid in a small portable instrument. A slight degree of elasticity has been discovered in water itself, and which admits of a vessel of water being used as a measure of the amount of pressure at great depths. Mr. Canton, whose experiments were communicated to the Royal Society on Dee. 16, 1762, found, in water subjected to the pressure of an additional atmosphere, a diminution in volume of one part in 21,740; and in water placed under a receiver he found an increase of one part in 21,740 when the air was exhausted. Mr. Perkins found a diminution of ;&>th parts in the volume of water subjected to o pressure equal to 1120 atmospheres, or about one part in 19,000 for one atmo- sphere. oA ressure-gauge of metal was exhibited at the Meeting of the British Associa- tion in 1860, and is described at page 203, consisting of a cylinder filled with water, with a solid piston or ram, with a graduated scale, and an index to mark the length of piston forced into the cylinder, compressing the water in it by the greater den- sity of the surrounding water. As, however, it is found that air-bubbles adhere to the inner surface of the metal cylinder, and the exclusion of air is important, a pressure-gauge is now exhibited composed entirely of glass, which is not liable to this disadvantage. Tt consists of a cylindrical glass vessel with a finely graduated long stem or 60 REPORT—1861. neck, within which are placed a flat elastic rig and an elastic stopper. When the water in the gauge is compressed, the stopper and ring are pressed down the stem towards the cylinder; and when it expands, the elastic stopper is pressed back, the elastic rg remaining as an index of compression. Some few precautions are necessary before use, viz. the gauge should be well rinsed with boiled water for the purpose of preventing the adhesion of air to its inner surface. It should then be filled, to the top of the stem, with sea-water boiled to free it from air. The elastic ring should now be inserted, and then the stopper, with a vent or small grooved needle at the side, to allow superfluous water to escape, and it should be pressed down the stem until its lower edge and the point or zero-line marked 2000 are coincident. The grooved needle should then be withdrawn, and the stopper will tightly fit the stem. The stopper should be slightly lubricated to pre- vent excessive friction. On descending into water of greater density the water in the gauge is compressed until equally dense, and the elastic stopper and elastic ring are pressed down the stem towards the cylinder. On ascending to water of less density the water in the gauge expands, and the stopper is pressed upwards, leaving the elastic ring behind. Upon regaining the surface after the experiment, the water in the gauge should press the stopper nearly back to its former position on the zero-line, a small dif- ference being caused by friction. The elastic ring marks the extreme compression at the greatest depth attained. This depth should be determined by the sounding line, to which the instrument should in these experiments be for some time attached. The volume of the water in the cylinder and stem is considered to be divided into 2000 parts, of which the stem contains one-tenth or 200 parts; these are num- bered from 1800 to 2000. Each part on the stem may be easily read to a tenth, or a 20,000th part of the whole quantity. A compression of sea-water of one part in 20,000 is caused by a pressure of 158 lbs. avoirdupois per square inch, or a depth of 35,456 feet, or nearly six fathoms. The experiments of Mr. Canton and Mr. Johnson confirm this estimate of pres- sure, so that it appears to afford a basis for the compilation of tables for the com- parison of pressure and depth. Table of Variation in the Volume of Sea- Water, boiled to free it from Air, with Change of Temperature. Degrees.| No. of Parts. |/Degrees.| No. of Parts. ||Degrees.| No. of Parts. ||Degrees.| No. of Parts. Fahr. Fahr. Fahr. 86° | 20000: 69° | 19942°5 538° | 19905:0 198830 85 | 19996: 68 19940:0 52 199030 19882°5 84 | 19992°5 67 | 19937°5 51 19901:0 19882-0 83 | 19989-0 66 | 199350 50 19899:0- 198815 82 | 19985°5 65 | 199325 49 19897:0 19881:0 81 19982:0 64 | 19930:0 48 19895:0 19880°5 80 | 199785 63 | 19927°5 47 19894:0 19880:0 ' 79 | 19975-0 62 19925:0 46 19892°5 19880:0 78 | 19971:5 61 19922°5 45 19891:0 19880:0 77 | 19968-0 60 | 19920:0 44 19890-0 19880:0 76 | 19964:7 59 | 199175 43 19889:0 19880:0 75 | 199615 |} 58 | 199150 42 198880 19880:0 74 | 19958°25 57 | 19913-0 41 19886:7 19880:0 73 | 199550 56, | 19911-0 40 19885°5 19880:0 72 | 19951°5 55 | 19909:0 39 198845 19880:0 71 | 19948:0 54 | 19907:0 38 19883°5 19880:0 * A gentle motion kept up to equalize the temperature of the sea-~water has prevented its freezing at 28°. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. . 61 It is, however, very desirable that depths thus estimated should be tested by attaching the instrument to sounding lines, and that any necessary corrections should be made in the tables. Such a comparison and correction would render the indications of the gauge valuable when strong currents make the use of the lead uncertain. A correction is required for friction, yet to be determined, and a correction for the variation of volume with change of temperature, as shown in the preceding Table, which is based upon very numerous and accurate experiments. On a Daily Weather Map ; on Admiral FitzRoy’s Paper presented to Section A. relative to the Royal Charter Storm; and on some Meteorological Documents relating to Mr. Green’s Balloon Ascents. By J. Guatsuer, F.R.S. On the Cloud Mirror and Sunshine Recorder. By J.T. Gopparp. The Cloud Mirror was simply a mirror of a circular -form with the points of the compass marked on its frame; this being presented face upwards to the sky, and haying its centre correctly marked and placed horizontal with the north point of instrument towards the south meridian, enabled a person to observe the direction from which the clouds were moving. The Sunshine Recorder was a piece of pho- tographic paper placed in the bottom of a box blackened inside, the top of which had in the centre a small circular hole, through which a slender beam of sunlight could be admitted to pass on to the photographic paper. When the sun did not shine, no mark was left on the paper; when it did, its varying diurnal course left a corresponding line on the paper, its position marking the hours of sunshine, and its breadth and depth of shade indicating the greater or less radiating power of the sun. By inserting a thick glass disc or plano-convex lens in the box, the number of hours’ registry would be made equal to a summer day’s sunshine. On the Connexion between Storms and Vertical Disturbances of the Atmosphere. By Professor Huynessy, 7.R.S. As storms are usually preceded by the contact of masses of air of different den- sities and different degrees of elasticity, it follows that anterior to such storms a process of connexion may exist between the heterogeneous columns of the atmo- sphere. Under such circumstances, the sudden indraught of smoke in chimneys and the whirling about of light objects near the ground had frequently been noticed. The author endeavoured to make more precise observations ie the aid of a vane, which shows the presence of upward and downward currents in the atmosphere, while also indicating the horizontal direction of the wind. During the winter of 1860-61, he found that most of the storms were preceded by more or less violent vertical movements of the atmosphere. Such movements were especially obser- vable before the great gale of February 9*. The analogy between some of the vertical motions observed in the vane and those of the water-barometer formerly erected by Professor Daniell in the apartments of the Royal Society was pointed out, and fresh results were anticipated from the renewed erection of this kind of instrument by Mr. Glaisher. The general conclusion to which Professor Hennessy has been led, is, that during the comparative absence of horizontal motion in the air, energetic vertical currents may be grouped among the most certain symptoms of approaching disturbances on a grander scale. On the Theories of Glacial Motion. By Wit114M Horxis, M.A., LL.D., F-R.S. The author first gave distinct definitions of terms designating those properties of bodies with which we are necessarily concerned in investigations connected with glacial phenomena, such as solidity, viscosity, extensibility, elasticity, and the like. According to those views, which rested on Dr. Tyndall’s experiment of regelation, ice must necessarily be considered as solid. Proceeding on this hypothesis, Mr. Hop- kins stated the pressures and tensions to which a glacial mass must be subjected at any internal point. He showed how the internal tensions would exactly account for the formation of open fissures or crevasses, according to the law which they were * Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, vol. vii. p. 494. 62 REPORT—186]1. observed to follow ; and also that the internal pressures were exactly such as were consistent with Dr. Tyndall’s views of the cause of the laminar structure of glacial ice, so far as it was a necessary condition, according to those views, that the struc- tural lamina should be perpendicular to the direction of maximum pressure. Moreover he showed that the internal action was inconsistent with Principal Forbes’s theory, which attributed the laminar structure to a differential motion of the contiguous lamina. He also explained the importance of the sliding of glaciers over the beds of their containing valleys, not only as the cause of a large portion of the whole observed motion, but also as increasing in a large degree the efficiency of the internal tension and pressure in producing the dislocation and crushing which were necessary for the general motion of the glacier. On the Deficiency of Rain in an Elevated Rain-gauge, as caused by Wind. By W.S8. Jevons, B.A. When wind meets any obstacle, those strata of air which are near to the obstacle must be compressed, and must move with greater rapidity, just as a river moves most quickly in the narrowest parts of its channel. Thus, wind blowing against a house or tower has a greater velocity just above the summit of the building, than where there is no disturbance. Now a rain-drop, when falling through the wind, describes the diagonal of the rectangle of which the sides represent the velocities due to gravity and the impulsion of the wind. The path of a rain-drop then is in- clined at an angle from the vertical direction of which the tangent varies nearly as the velocity of the wind. Two equal rain-drops, therefore, falling into a current of air at points where the velocity is not the same, will not pursue parallel paths. The one drop will either approach to or recede from the other, and the effect will be to increase or diminish the quantity of rain falling in the intermediate space. A dia- gram or a slight calculation will show this effect to be considerable, so that when a shower of rain falls through wind upon any obstacle, such as a house, a large 3k of the rain-drops will be blown beyond the obstacle by the increased velocity of the wind, and less rain will fall on the windward part of the top of the obstacle than elsewhere. An ordinary rain-gauge, even when suspended in mid-air, will likewise act as an obstacle in the same manner, but in a less degree. Until, then, this effect of the wind upon the amount of rain collected in a gauge, either suspended in the air or placed upon a building, be properly allowed for, no conclusion can be drawn from any rain-gauge observations as to a real variation of the rainfall according to elevation. Observations by Luke Howard, by Boase of Penzance, and by others clearly exhibit this influence of the wind. Other published observations, even those at the Green- wich Observatory, exhibit such great and irregular individual discrepancies, that no valid conclusion can be drawn from them. To take an average under such circum- stances, it is argued, gives a purely fallacious appearance of uniformity and law. The possibility of a real variation of rain with elevation is then treated on a priori grounds, and it 1s concluded that the condensation theory, first sp once by Benja- min Franklin, and the only one of the least validity ever offered to account for the apparent variation of rain, will never, under the real circumstances of the atmo- sphere, account for more than an almost infinitesimal increase of the rain-drops in the last few hundred feet of descent. Observations on the coldness of rain when it reaches the surface oppose, instead of supporting, the theory of condensation, since the coldness of the rain-drop proves that it has condensed little or no vapour throughout its descent. Arago’s argument in favour of the increase of rain-drops near the surface, founded on the disappearance of the supernumerary rainbows near the ground, is also quite inconclusive, since the rain-drops probably become irregular in size by coalition, and would not become irregular by condensation of vapour. All observations by rain-gauges much elevated or exposed to wind are to be rejected as fallacious, and in accurate rain-observations it is reeommended to place a very flat collecting vessel of considerable area in the centre of a flat surface upon the ground, in an open place, so that no appreciable obstacle may be opposed to the wind, and the splashing of the rain-drops within and without the collecting vessel may compensate one another. (See Lond. & Edinb. Phil. Mag. Dec. 1861.) TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 63 On a Solar Halo observed at Sydney,Cape Breton, Nova Scotia; August 13,1861. By H. W. Crawzey. This day I witnessed, as well as all our household, a remarkable phenomenon. The sun appeared as if in mourning. At twelve o’clock I first observed it. An immense dark flo surrounded the sun, as dark as a thunder-cloud; the outer edge of it was iridescent, appearing like a circular rainbow. A ring of bright white light, of greater diameter than the halo, intersected it, passing through the sun; and two other rings of the same sort, but fainter, of still larger diameter, intersected the first ring and each other, in the manner I have attempted to show in the accompanying sketch, in which I have preserved, as nearly as I could judge, the relative proportions of the halo and rings to each other and to the sun. It was a bright day, the sun bla zing directly overhead, out of a clear blue sky, but there were hard, electric-looking cl ouds in other parts of the sky; and from these were drawn out long, attenuated, fleecy, ribbon-like appendages, which all took a circular form, having the sun appar ently for a centre. The halo and rings first appeared about an hour before noon, and con- tinued as long after noon. Throughout the remainder of the day the clouds were in circular tiers or ranges about the sun, which became obscured. The weather for several days previously had been uncommonly cold and unsettled for the season, and the clouds rushed confusedly in all directions against each other; before which time there had been a protracted term of very hot and dry weather, thermometer ranging ’ from 80° to 90° in the shade. August 17.—The bad weather prevented my sending this letter over the water to the post-office last post-day (15th), there having been two days of a cold easterly storm of wind and rain following upon the before-described phenomenon, but to-day and yesterday all bright and warm again. (Signed) H. W. Craw ey. Appearance of the Sun with Halo and Rings at Noon, August 13, 1861. The sun appeared as dazzling as usual, and could not be gazed at steadily ; but the sun- shine on the ground and surrounding objects was fainter, or in some way differing from its ordinary appearance. a. Iridescent margin of the dark halo round the sun. b. Ring of white light passing through the centre of the sun. c,d. Two fainter rings of light, of which the interrupted or broken parts nearest to the sun (f and g) appeared to converge toward the sun and fade away. 4. A node of light at the intersection of the three rings. &. This end terminated here. m. This end broken off, or faded away. (I had no instruments, and am not certain as to the magnitude of the halo and rings, nor as to the centres of the rings c and d.) 64 REPORT—1861. Description of a Mercurial Barometer, recently invented by Mr. Richard Howson, Engineer of Middlesborough-on-Tees. By Peter J. Livsey. This barometer consists of a straight tube, called in this paper “the tube,” similar to that used for the common straight barometer, but somewhat longer, and a hollow stalk nearly the same length as the tube, but of such smaller diameter that it will pass 1 the bore of the tube and leave an annular space of about ~5th or 3th of aninch. ‘The lower end of the stalk is surrounded and united with a short tube called “the cistern,” sufficiently large in diameter to allow the tube to pass into it and leave an annular space. When the barometer is in working order, “the tube ” is suspended freely in a vertical position with its open end downwards, the stalk passing up the bore of the tube till the lower end of the tube enters the cistern; and the annular spaces between the stalk and interior of tube, and the stalk and cistern, are filled with mercury, the cistern containing sufficient mercury for the immersion of the lower end of the tube when the stalk and cistern are at their lowest position. The tube and cistern are filled with mercury to form a vacuum at the upper end of the tube, so that the pressure of the atmosphere alone will sustain the weight of the stalk, cistern, | mercury. The stalk has a buoyant power sufficient to carry its own weight, the cistern, and the mercury in the cistern, at the lowest pressure of the atmosphere. The pressure of the atmosphere will be shown by this barometer, by the difference be- tween the level of the mercury in the cistern and that in the tube, by the position of the top of the column in the tube, and by the position of the stalk and cistern. Barometers may be made upon this principle, haying a long range or moyement for a small change of pressure, by which such changes may be measured with great delicacy; and this advantage, without the inconvenience of a very long scale, may be obtained by using weights which can be added or removed as required for, say, the whole inches, reading the fractions of the inch from the scale. One advantage of this barometer is the comparatively small quantity of mereury required. Tubes of large diameter may therefore be employed, and thus instruments having great power and accuracy may be obtained, as a small change of pressure will be multiplied by the large area, and the ae or change of pressure acting to produce a movement in the barometer will thus be great in proportion to the fric- tion resisting the movement. The formula for calculating the rise of the top of the column of mercury in the tube for any given increase of pressure is R=G +P. The formula for the movement of the cistern for any given rise, when the mer- cury extends above the stalk and fills the entire bore of the tube at the lowest sit A pressure, is R=G ; but when the stalk extends above the column of mercury and into the vacuum space, it is R= ee is obtained by the formula R=D-—R; when the top of the stalk is always below the mercury and it fills the entire bore of the tube, the depth of the cistern is uni- form for all pressures. In the above formula R is the total rise of the top of the The increase in the depth of the cistern column in the tube for any given increase of pressure, R rise of cistern, R rise of level of cistern, T area of the bore of the tube, G area of the glass or material pro- ducing displacement in the tube, P pressure in inches of mercury, C area of cistern, C area of cistern minus G, T area of annular space between interior bore of the tube and the stalk, Dae In these formule it is supposed that the tube, stall, and cistern are perfect tubes or cylinders uniform in area throughout their entire lengths. On the Great Cold of Christmas 1860, and its destructive Effects. By E. J. Lowe. ‘ The author said that the excessive cold of Christmas 1860, near Nottingham, being TRANSACTIONS OF THB SECTIONS. 65 perhaps as great, if not greater than had ever occurred in England since the inven- tion of the thermometer, it sp see desirable to record so unusual a degree of cold, together with its destructive effects in the midland counties. Some idea of the fear- ful ravages amongst trees and plants might be gathered from the fact that not only had numerous branches of the oak been damaged, but in some instances large trees themselves had been killed. The summits of hills had escaped much of the ravages of the frosts that had been so seriously felt in the valleys. He gave a long list of the destruction of trees and plants as recorded in the report at the Highfield. House Observatory, and stated that the destruction of birds and insects was also very great. One circumstance with regard to this excessive cold, which he recorded at the time, he wished to repeat. He alluded to large icicles which he had seen formed at the nose of a horse. Turning to the temperature, there were frosts every night from the 12th of December to the 19th of January, the temperature on the ass on the coldest nights being from 21° 5' on the 18th ef December, down as ow as 17° 5’ on the 10th of January. At four feet above the ground the greatest cold was on the 24th of December, 0° 5’, and on the 25th—8-0. ‘The mean tempe- ratures of the coldest days were 13° 3’ on the 24th, 4° 0' on the 25th, 22° 6’ on the 26th, 23° 6’ on the 28th, and 21°7' on the 29th. The greatest heat only reached 12° on the 25th, and only 16° in full sunshine. During this excessive cold wea- ther he had delicate thermometers placed at various heights above the ground, up to 27 feet. These instruments were used constantly. ‘The thermometers were all compared with the standard presented to him by the British Association. He named this, as he was aware that some meteorologists conceived that the records iven were impossible for the climate of England. Nevertheless he had the con- irmation of 27 instruments placed on and above the ground, and also on his observatory, and giving a temperature of from 7° to 14° below zero, according to the circumstances under which they were placed. He could vouch for the accuracy of the readings of his instruments; and as he had an equal number of mercurial and spirit thermometers, it could scarcely be possible for the temperature given to be far from the truth. Whatever might be the opinion as regarded the actual temperature, there could be no doubt as regarded the destruction, which exceeded anything remembered by the oldest person. In 1854 temperature of 4° below zero destroyed many trees, but the destruction in 1860 was very much greater. Letter from Captain Maury. (Communicated by the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty). Admiralty, September, 1861. Srr,—I am commanded by My Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty to transmit to you herewith copy of a letter, dated April, 1861, from Commander Maury, of the United States, which has been referred to their Lordships by Her Majesty’s Under Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, urging the importance of an Expedi- tion to the Antarctic Regions, for meteorological and other scientific purposes ; and I am to request that you will lay the same before the proper Section of the British Association, at its Annual Meeting at Manchester. I am, Sir, your obedient Servant, W. G. Romane, The General Secretary of the British Association. Observatory, &c., Washington, April, 1861. My prar Lorp Lyons,—You are no doubt aware that all, or nearly all the States of Christendom that use the sea, have practically agreed to unite in carrying on, through their Navies at sea; a series of observations for the improvement of navigation and the benefit of commerce, and that men learned in the physics of the sea and air have been appointed in Norway and Sweden, in Russia, Denmark, Holland, France, England, Spain, Italy, and Portugal, to take charve of these ob- servations, and either to discuss them themselves, or so to dispose of them that they may be treated by experts and the results made known to all concerned ; and that from the Bureaus established for this purpose in Holland, London, and Paris, highly important results have been already obtained and given to the world as the aa property of all, These results, by rendering navigation less dangerous and 66. REPORT—1861, spendin, have conferred numerous benefits upon all those of every nation who follow the sea, Thus a sort of maritime and scientific confederation of the principal commercial nations has been practically formed, for the purpose of carrying on certain inyesti- gations concerning the physics of the sea, in which all the world has a stake. During these investigations, it has fallen to my lot to be led, by the paths of in- duction thus opened, to certain conclusions that are of general concern—not indeed to the pesnle of any one nation alone, but to all who own ships,—and. which I beg to lay before you, with the hope that you will deem them of sufficient consequence to be brought to the notice of the Government you so worthily represent, to the end that such further steps may be taken in the premises as the increase of our knowledge concerning the planet we inhabit and the good of mankind may seem to require. : I may be permitted to remark, that though this system of research upon which we are engaged presents the most extensive combination that has ever been formed among navies, and though it giyes employment to the largest corps of observers that has ever been known to unite in any one plan of physical research, yet it is almost literally without cost; at least the expenses are so divided between the observers and the public exchequers of the States concerned, that the chief expense consists in discussing and publishing the observations after they are made, In fact, the obseryers are quite willing to render their services upon the simple condition that they may have the free use of the results obtained. Thus all the great na- tions have been brought to unite and cooperate in a uniform system of physical research at sea, In the course of these investigations, facts and circumstances have been brought to light which afford grounds for the belief that the Antarctic winter is by no means as severe as that of the Arctic. This belief, connected with the fact that there is about the South Pole an unexplored area that in extent can compass Europe more than twice, induces me to lay the matter before yourself and others at this time, trusting that by bringing the subject to such notice, as well as to that of my own Government and others equally interested and concerned, measures looking to fur- ther examination and exploration of those unknown regions in the South may be set on foot. Reasons for believing the Antarctic to be much less severe than the Arctic winter, have been stated at some length in a work on the ‘ Physical Geography of the Sea and its Meteorology,’ recently published in London ; but as that work may not have fallen under your notice, I beg leave to call your attention to the Tables, Diagrams, and Plates in the accompanying Nautical Monograph, No. 2, on ‘ THE BAROMETER AT Sx,’ still more recently issued by this office. Our observations on the barometer at sea are numerous and abundant. They reach from the parallel of 60° S. to the ice-hound seas of the North ; they are for all seasons, months and days of the year. They have been made oyer and over again; some by German, some by Russian, some by English, Dutch, French, Spanish, Danish, Swedish, Portuguese, Italian, Austrian, Chilian, Siamese, Sandwich Islands, Brazilian and American navigators, They have been repeated and multiplied by so many, by such factors, and so often, that they leave but little room for doubt as to the approximate mean pressure of the atmosphere on every square foot of ocean surface within the range of modern nayi- gation, They enable us for the first time literally to gauge and weigh the atmo- sphere that rests upon the sea; they also afford us data for computing its pressure upon every square foot of sea surface from pole to pole. A patient discussion of these observations has reyealed a wonderful degree of atmospherical attenuation within the Antarctic Circle. They indicate that the average quantity of air super- incumbent upon a square foot of the earth’s surface there, does not weigh as much, by about 180 Ibs., as that which is superincumbent upon a square foot here. The unexplored regions environing the South Pole embrace in round numbers an area of eight millions of square miles, The quantity of atmosphere that rests upon these eight millions lacks then, according to these observations and this computation, no less than 12,945,500,000,000 tons in weight, of being as much as usually rests upon an area of like extent in these northern latitudes, This is an inconceiyably great mass, whether we attempt to comprehend it by its weight or its yolume, ° TRANSACTIONS OF THE SE@TIONS. 67 The force of gravity, if left free to act, would distribute the air in equal quanti- ties and alike about both poles, and make the barometric pressure nearly the same for all latitudes, There must, therefore, be some force exerted upon the air, or in the air of these unknown Austral regions, which counteracts gravity to that enor- mous extent, and prevents such equal distribution. What the nature of this force may be is matter of conjecture, but we think it may surely be traced to heat. “ What!” I almost hear you say, “heat enough in perpetual development about the South Pole to exert a ceaseless lifting force of 130 lbs. upon every square foot of surface within an area of 8,000,000 square miles ?” Be not startled ; but freeing your mind from all bias, give me, I pray you, your attention while I endeavour to show that in this theory of a constant play of heat about the South Pole there is nothing either very startling or paradoxical. Under the equatorial cloud ring, the mean barometric pressure is 20 Ibs. less to the square foot than it is in the calm belt of Cancer. This fact is familiar to sea- men, and well Inown to meteorologists. To this diminished pressure we owe the trade-winds, as Captain Sir James ‘Ross and others have alrea y remarked. More than this: in the centre of the cyclone the atmosphere is so attenuated, that its pressure is sometimes diminished below the mean pressure of the place by more than 200 Ibs. to the square foot. To what, if not chiefly to heat, shall we attribute this? But whence comes the heat at such times and places? Clearly, it is not direct heat impressed upon the air then and there by the rays of the sun. The equatorial cloud ring overhangs a region of constant precipitation, and the low barometer in the vortex of a tornado is always attended by deluges of rain. Here then we have a condition that accompanies the place of low barometer, both in the calm belt and the vortex. During this heavy i 2 pela that takes place in the centre of the storm, immense volumes of heat, that is always latent in aqueous vapour, are set free among the clouds; it warms and expands and drives off the upper air. Thus, that below is made to rush in at the surface, either, as the case may be, with the constancy of the gentle trades, or the violence of the hurricane, according to the extent and manner of the rarefaction. Moreover, the vapour before it is formed into rain, being lighter than the air, also assists to drive it away, so that the barometer would stand higher under air that is dry, than under air that is damp, even were there no vapour condensed. Now then survey, if you please, on . achart or globe, the Austral regions on the solar side of 40° 8., and tell me what do you see? Why, all the way around, between that parallel and the Antarctic Circle, you see an almost uninterrupted expanse of water. Indeed, with the ex- ception of Patagonia, and a few comparatively small islands here and there and far between, we have nothing but one continuous evaporating surface. Throughout this entire expanse the prevailing winds are from the northward and westward. These are the “ brave west winds” of the southern hemisphere. They are strong winds ; they suck up from the sea moisture as they go ; ae pees immense clouds of it over into the unexplored regions that encircle the pole. This vapour is to the winds what fuel is to the steamer; the latent heat contained in it being developed, is at once the source of power in the air, and the means of locomotion for the blast, Thus loaded, these winds impinge, with their vapour and its latent heat, upon the icy barrier or upon the mountains there, where it is condensed, and its heat set free to become sensible heat. Thus the severity of the Antarctic winter is mitigated by heat that is rendered latent by the processes of evaporation in warm latitudes, and conveyed to the south by invisible couriers through the air. This heat being thus conveyed and liberated, warms and expands, and causes the polar air to ascend, as the same kind of heat causes the air in the céntre of the cyclone to ascend and flow off, creating, like a huge stack to some immense furnace, a draught and inrush of air on the surface, from the distance of miles around. This draught into the Antarctic unknown, extends from the South Pole all around to the distance of 3000 miles towards the Equator. About the North Pole we have no such expanse of water, no such wafting of vapour, no such low barometer, no such inrush of “ brave west winds,” and conse- quently no such mildness of climate, Behold all the rivers of Arctic America, Europe, and Asia! The rains that feed them are but occasional and gentle showers in comparison with those for which 5 68 REPORT—1861. the great expanse of southern waters affords the vapours; and yet, in the conden- sation of the vapour for the rains to feed these rivers, heat enough is set free in the clouds to raise from the freezing- to the boiling-point, and as fast as it flows, more than five times the volume of water that the said rivers discharge into the sea. But how the latent heat of vapour when set free in the clouds may reach down and warm the earth, may perhaps be understood by referring to a meteorological necessity, which requires, when the windward side of the mountain ts rainy, the lee side to be warm. To illustrate this, let us suppose a gossamer sack, capable of being hermetically sealed; that it is impervious to heat, and elastic as the air itself; that with the barometer at 30 in., the temperature at 60°, and the dew-point the same, this sack be filled with air; that then it be attached to a balloon and sent up in the sky, to a height where the barometric pressure is only 15 in., and where the temperature of the air in the sack, by reason ot this diminished pressure, and by virtue of the ex- pansion of the air within and its consequent cooling, is reduced to zero. By this process, the vapour with which the air was loaded when it was admitted into the sack has, let it be assumed, been condensed, and consequently its latent heat set free in the sack, Suppose now the sack be hauled down to the surface again, where the barometric pressure is 30 in., as before, and what have we? The sack is reduced to its former dimensions you will perceive, but instead of damp air we now have it filled with dry ; moreover, there is at the bottom a measure of water—the condensed vapour. This dry air, instead of being at the temperature of 60°, has a temperature of 60° plus the quantity of heat that it would require to raise 53 such measures of water from the freezing- to the boiling-point. In other words, we have but illustrated a natural process that is continually going on and well-understood, by which heat is bottled away in vapours, wafted by the winds from clime to clime, liberated, and finally, in the processes of vertical circulation, drawn down from the crystal reservoirs of the sky to temper and warm the surface of the earth. When the vapour-laden west winds of the South Pacific strike against the wind- ward side of the Patagonian Andes, are they not by nature herself subjected to a rocess precisely analogous to that of vapour-laden air in the hypothetical sack ? Striking against the western ‘slopes of the mountain, they are forced up to the top of the snow-capped range. Here condensation .of vapour and the liberation of its latent heat take place; and though the cold be extreme at the top, in consequence of the state of aérial rarefaction there, yet the winds haying received the heat libe- yated from their vapours, are, before it canbe dispersed by radiation, forced over from the eastern slopes. Here descending into the valleys, and being again com- ee by the full weight of the barometric column, the heat they have received is ully developed, and they are felt as warm winds, just as the air brought down in the sack was warm. The mild climate of Eastern Patagonia and the Falkland Islands is due to caloric thus conveyed, developed and dispersed. To appreciate the amount of heat thus conveyed and distributed, let us compare the climate of Eastern Patagonia, between the parallels of 50° and 52° south, with the climate of Labrador, between the corresponding parallels north. Those who would judge of climate, as philosophers formerly did, viz. according to latitude, would say these two climates are duplicates of each other, for the two places are equidistant from the Equator, and in both countries west winds are the prevailing winds; they both also lave a continent to windward, an ocean to leeward ; flowing in from each and along their eastern shores, there is likewise an ice-bearing current. But what do modern researches show? They show that the winter climate of Labrador is ice-bound, bitter in the extreme, and incapable of affording vegetable subsistence for man and beast; that that of Patagonia in the corresponding latitude south is, on the other hand, quite open and mild, affording grasses for cattle all the winter through. How is this? The two places, though on opposite sides of the Equator, are, let it be repeated, equidistant from it. They are on the same side of the continent, and the same shore of the ocean ; then why should there be such a difference in their winter climate? Investigation answers, simply because of the difference in the quantity of moisture which the prevailing winds, which also are the same, bring near the two places for condensation, The west winds of Labrador, as they cross the Rocky TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 69 Mountains, are robbed of their moisture which they sucked up from the Pacific, and the heat sct free in the process is dispersed by condensation and radiation long he- fore the winds can convey it to Labrador. Butin East Patagonia and the Falkland Islands, the air, charged with heat received from the heavy precipitation on the top of the Andes, is brought directly thence to the plains below, and before it has had time to grow cold. The influences to which is due this great difference between the winter climate of Labrador and of Patagonia are even more marked in their effect upon the Arctic as contrasted with the Antarctic winter. The Patagonian-like climate of the south is repeated in the north along the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains. On their western slopes, the vapours from the Pacific are condensed into rains for the Columbia and Frazer and other rivers. The heat that is there liberated in this process is sufficient to raise from the freezing- to the boiling-point all the water that could be supplied by a quintuple set of such rivers. This heat makes green pastures on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Moun- tains, where the buffalo, in herds of countless numbers, finds winter pasturage. Now, along the same parallels in Labrador it is simply impossible, on account of the ex- treme cold, for a buffalo or any other graminivorous animal to find other winter subsistence than mosses and lichens. A still more striking instance of the climatological influence of continental, in comparison with oceanic winds upon countries in high latitudes, is afforded by Ireland and Labrador, between the parallels of 51° and 53° N. In both countries the prevailing winds are also from the west. But those in Ireland come laden from open sea with vapours, which, being condensed upon the hill-sides, liberate their heat and dispense warmth, which gives to that “Gem of the Ocean” its name of Emeratp. The same difference of climate, owing to wet winds from the sea and winds from the land prevailing at places having the same latitude, is repeated upon the N.W. coast of America and the N.E. coast of Asia. The unexplored regions of the South Pole are surrounded by open water; those of the North for the most part by land. The winds that blow into the Frozen Ocean of the North are continental winds; the climate there, like that of Labrador and Siberia, is proportionably severe. The winds that blow in upon the unknown South being therefore oceanic winds, there is probably as much difference of winter climate between the two polar regions as there is between the winters of Labrador and of Ireland, or the Falkland Islands. Now then, with these facts and suggestions impressed upon our mind, let us once more turn to the unknown regions of the Antarctic. They are fringed with icy barriers abutting, as far as exploration has reached, up against lofty peaks and mountain ranges. The air that strikes upon their northern face is heavily laden with vapour. Traversing that immense waste of waters, it impinges upon those slopes completely saturated with moisture. Here all that moisture is wrung out of it. The heat that is liberated by the process is sufficient to attenuate the air in the remarkable manner indicated by the barometer, exhibited by observations, and repeated in the Tables and Plates of this Monograph. If we would know how heavy this precipitation is, how high the mountains, steep the declivities, and great the development of latent heat there, let us consult the icebergs—they afford unmistakeable indications upon the subject. The Antarctic icebergs are of fresh, not of salt water. Towering 200 or 300 feet above the sea and reaching 600 or 800 feet below*, as many of them do, they literally dot with their huge masses an extent of ocean that embraces no less than 17,000,000 square miles in its superficial area. As much heat as it takes to melt and convert into vapour again all these immense masses of ice, is set free on those un- known hill-sides, when the water to form them of was wrung out of the clouds. Doubtless this vapour with its heat impresses characteristic features upon the winter climate of the South Pole; and thus we are EAE: by the winds, persuaded by the barometer, nay, urged by the longings of the human heart, and encouraged by the great laws of Nature herself to venture and explore. To sum up, the physical features of the northern hemisphere indicate that the climate of the Arctic regions is continental, for they are surrounded by land ; explo- ration confirms it. On the contrary, those of the southern hemisphere indicate that * Sir James Ross estimated an ice-barrier that he saw to be a thousand feet thick. 70 REPORT—1861. the climate of the Antarctic is marine, for those regions are surrounded by water. No explorer has spent a winter there to prove it, but all the known facts and cir- cumstances seem to confirm it. An example or two will make it plain that if must be so. Labrador is the type of a continental climate; Ireland of a marine in the same latitude. As the summer of Ireland is cooler than that of Labrador, so may the Antarctic summer climate be cooler than the Arctic. The average mid-winter temperature of Iceland is but 15° colder than its average July temperature; whereas the difference between the mean winter and summer temperature of Fort Simpson is 70°. But this Fort, great as is this contrast of climate, is situated within the sweep of the S.W. winds from the N. Pacific, and therefore its climate is only semi-continental. Nevertheless its summer tempera- ture is 15° higher than that of Iceland. Now these two places are in about the same latitude north, but with this striking difference—one is surrounded by water as the Antarctic is, the other by land, as the Arctic. The islands of the sea, and the interior of continents throughout the world in high latitudes, abound in such climatic contrasts. The difference between the mean winter and summer temperature of the marine climates of the south is probably, and for obvious reasons, not so great as it is in corresponding latitudes north. The lowest point reached by a self-registering ther- mometer, not for a season or a month, but in the coldest day during a period of several years at the South Shetland Islands, in 63° S., was 5° Fahr. At Yakoutsk, on the other hand, which in Asia is about as far from the North as the South Shet- lands are from the South Pole, and in a truly continental climate, the thermometer i down in winter to 70° Fahr.*, while for July its mean temperature is 60°F. hus, though 10° of lat. further to the north, it receives the same amount of heat in summer that is felt at Dublint; one place being near to and surrounded by sea, the other far removed from open water and the influences of the copious discharge of latent heat which attends the heavy condensation of aqueous vapour. In winter, however, and owing to the same influences, the thermometer at Yakoutsk, annually for about two weeks, sinks full 100° below the mean winter temperature in Iceland. The difference between continental and marine climates becomes more marked, not only as we approach the Pole, but as the places are more or less contiguous to the open sea, and exposed to west winds from the ocean or dry winds from the land. Indeed, the summers of Yakoutsk are warm enough to grow vegetables, ripen fruits, and afford grass for cattle. The climates of all the lands which have been visited in high southern latitudes are eminently marine. In marine climates the summer is cool, the winters warm ; take for types the British Isles and Canada. There is not, during the Antarctic summer, warmth enough in the solar ray to call into play any vegetable forces be- yond the feeble energies of mosses and lichens. There, as in Iceland and all other marine places, there is comparatively but little difference between the summer and winter climates. The mean difference between the average winter and average summer temperature in the Antarctic, as indicated by the South Shetland observa- tions, is less than the change often experienced with us here between the tempera- ture of the evening and the morning of the same day. Cool summers, warm winters, and evenness of temperature the year round being the characteristics of marine climates, we should look for great uniformity in those of high southern latitudes. It is their extraordinarily cool summers, as reported by navigators, which have created the impression in nautical circles that the cold of the Antarctic winter is far more extreme than that of the Arctic. This was the im- pression made upon the mind of Cook, the bravest of the brave. He was a close observer, and there is no authority which to this day has more weight in seafaring circles, and none which requires more stubborn facts to set aside. On the 14th of January, eighty odd years ago, that accomplished navigator dis- covered (it being then midsummer of the southern hemisphere) an island in lat. 54° and 55°8., which corresponds in lat. with Ireland. On the 17th he landed to take possession of it. He called it Georgia, but did not think “any one would ever be benefited by this discovery,” for its “ valleys lay covered with everlasting snow,” * Erman. t Dove. The mean temperature for January is 40°. ¢ Colonel Sir Henry James, Ordnance Survey. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 71 and & not a tree was to be seen, not a shrub even big enough to make a tooth- ick. : Contemplating this, to him, strange climate, he remarks, “whowould have thought that an island of no greater extent than this, situated between the latitude of 54° and 55°, should, in the very height of summer, be in a manner wholly covered many fathoms deep with frozen snow ?” But pushing on still further, with that prowess and intrepidity which makes his history so romantic and himself the picturesque man of the sea, he discovered Sand wich Land, in lat. 59°-60°, when he made “bold enough to say that no man would. ever venture further; that the lands to the south would never be explored, for they were doomed by nature to perpetual frigidness, never to feel the warmth of the sun's rays ; whose horrible and savage aspect” he had not words to describe. In all these speculations, however, he was mistaken, for other explorers have gone further south ; and the very islands that in his opinion were never to benefit any one, have afforded to commerce seal-skins and oil to the value of many millions of dol- lars, and, with the island that he named Desolation, from its aspect, still give em- ployment annually, or did a few years ago (Weddell), to 2000 tons of shipping and 200 or 300 seamen. No explorer has yet tried the Antarctic winter. There is, my investigations lead me to believe, no great difference between it and the Antarctic summer; and the erroneous impression that has fastened itself on the public mind as to the extreme severity of winter about the South Pole, has no doubt its root in the low summer temperatures that prevail there. it in pleading the cause of Antarctic exploration, I be required to answer first the question of ew bono? which is so apt to be put, I reply, it is enough for me, when contemplating the vast extent of that unknown region, to know that it is a part of the surface of our planet, and to remember that the earth was made for man 5 that all knowledge is profitable ; that no discoveries have conferred more honour and glory upon the age in which they were made, or been more beneficial to the world, than geographical discoveries; and that never were nations so well prepared to undertake Antarctic exploration as are those that I now solicit. The last who essayed it reached furthest; they were Billinghausen of Russia, forty years ago, Admiral d’Urville of France, Ross of England, and Wilkes of America,—all about the same time, and nearly a quarter of a century ago. But since that time the world has grown in knowledge, and man has gained wonderfully in his power for conquest in this field of research. We have now the sea-steamer, which former Arctic explorers had not; the experience acquired since their day, in polar explora- tion about the Arctic regions, enables us to overcome many an obstacle that loomed up before them in truly formidable proportions. The gold of Australia has built up among the antipodes of Europe one of the most extensive shipping ports in the world. By steam, it is within less than a week’s sailing distance of the Antarctic Cirele; and thus those unknown regions of the south, instead of being far remote, as in the time of all previous explorers they were, have, since exploration was last attempted there, been actually brought within a few days’ sail of a great commercial mart, with its stores, its supplies, and resources of all kinds. The advantages and facilities for Antarctic exploration are inconceivably greater now than in the days of Cook and others. They are greatly enhanced by the joint system of national cooperation for the purpose of searching out the mysteries of the sea, now recognized and practised by all maritime nations. In this beautiful and beneficial cooperation, officers of the different nations have learned to pull and work together for a common good and acommon glory. This habit would be carried to the South Pole by co- peeeon among the different nations concerned in sending out vessels for explora- tion there. Nay, that great unexplored area lies at the very doors of one of the powers that is most renowned in this field of discovery. She too has taken a prominent part in this joint system of philosophical research, which has converted our ships of war into temples of science as well, and literally studded the sea with floating observa- tories. France, also renowned for the achievements won by her navy in peace as well as in war, is also, with her colonies, but a little further off; and the hardy Dutch are hard by. They, too, as well as the Portuguese, Spaniards, Russians, and Italians, have won renown in the field of maritime exploration. Their traditions now help 72 REPORT—1861. me to plead the cause of Antarctic exploration. For them, with all the facilities with which we are now surrounded, with their accomplished officers and daring seamen who have given lustre to their flags, both in peace and in war, it would be an easy task now to wnbar the Gates of the South. But in this, men and officers in other navies will also claim the privilege to join; and since all flags are alike interested and concerned in developing the physics of the sea, and in bringing to light its hidden things, it is but fair that all who are cooperating in this system of research should have “chance and opportunity” for the laurels that are to be gathered there. Therefore, instead of confining my appeals upon this subject to my own or any one government, I venture respectfully to bring it to the attention of all. The first step, I submit, should be to send a steamer down from Australia to search for one or more ports or places where the exploring vessels that are to follow may find shelter, and whence they might despatch boat- or land- or ice-parties, accord- ing to circumstances. This reconnaissance alone would occupy one season. The next season, vessels suitably equipped for two or three years might bo sent to take up their position, where at the return of summer they might be visited from Melbourne again, and arrangements made for the next season. For many seasons this exploration should be a jot one among the nations that are most concerned in maritime pursuits. The advantages are manifold: each one of the cooperating powers, instead of equipping a squadron at its own expense, would only furnish one or two steamers; and these should not be large, nor should their cost be extravagant. Thus the expenses of a thorough Antarctic exploration, like those for carrying on the ‘ Wind and Current Charts,” may be so subdivided among the nations concerned as literally to be “almost nothing.” It would also be at- tended by this further and great advantage—such an expedition could have several centres of exploration. The officers and men under each flag would naturally be incited by the most zealous and active emulation. They would strive so much the more earnestly not to be outdone in pushing on the glorious conquest. Now the question is, what mode of procedure is best calculated successfully to bring this subject to the notice of the proper authorities in your apes, iF I leave that to you and other friends, trusting to them to invoke such means and to take such steps as, to them, the importance of the subject and the interests of the joint system of research, in which we and our flags are enlisted for the increase of nowledge among men, may seem to require. Very truly, yours, &c., His Excellency the Lord Lyons, M. F. Maury. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Great Britain, Washington. On an Anemometer for Registering the Maximum Force and extreme Variation of the Wind. By Joun EK. Morean, M.A., MLB. Oxon., MRCP. The author described the instrument as consisting of an iron stand supporting a spindle. On the top of the spindle revolves a boss, on which rests a frame 13 inches in length by %° in width. This frame is maintained in the direction of the wind by means of two vanes, facing each other at an angle, the more open end of the angle being directed towards the spindle. A small car with flanged wheels traverses the frame. ‘To the face of the car is attached a thin metal plate 6 inches square, and to the back a catch playing freely over some rack-work. This catch permits the car to move towards the vanes, but checks its return to the spindle. ‘The face of the car is connected with a balance contrived on a somewhat novel principle by means of a loaded wheel, and a lever with a weight at its lower end. By means of this balance the resistance to the progress of the car increases with its advance. The ratio of this increase is expressed in ounces and pounds engraved on one side of the frame. A hand projecting from the car moves over the scale on the dating index. The scale rises from } of an ounce to 7 lbs. As the surface presented to the wind is 6 inches square, the pressure on the square foot will be exactly four times that indicated on the frame. The amount of variation in the direction of the wind, in a given space of time, is shown by means of two hands, which project from the spindle, and are capable of being directed to any part of a dial plate, on which the points of the compass are engraved by means of a rod, which is attached to, and revolves with TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 73 the boss. To set this part of the instrument, it is merely required to bring one hand in contact with either side of the rod; the distance to which they are parted denoting the amount of variation in the wind. This wind-gauge may prove useful in rifle practice and on numerous other occa- sions when it is important to be acquainted with the actual pressure of the wind. Meteorological Observations at Huggate, Yorkshire. By the Rev. T. Rankin. This was a continuation of meteorological tables and notes of weather and all remarkable meteorological occurrences during the year 1860+61, which the author has annually presented to the Association for upwards of twenty years. On a Bathometer, or Instrument to indicate the Depth of the Sea on Board Ship without submerging a Line. By C. W. Stemens. Those who are acquainted with the difficulties and expense attending the taking of deep-sea soundings by means of a weighted line, will readily perceive that an instrument capable of indicating depths upon a graduated scale without submerging any apparatus would be of great advantage as a means of extending our knowledge of ocean geography. In laying submarine telegraph cables through deep seas such an instrument would certainly be invaluable. It occurred to Mr. Siemens that the total attractive force of the earth must be sensibly influenced by the interposition of a comparatively light substance, such as sea-water, between the vessel and the solid portion of the earth below. This he demonstrated geometrically as follows :— Assuming the earth to be a perfect sphere of uniform density, two lines are drawn from a point on the surface, so as to intersect the circumference at the semicircles. A line 1s then drawn through the two points of intersection, which passes through the earth’s centre, and a second line parallel to it, touching the circle at its lowest point. It was next demonstrated that in dividing the solid cone represented by these lines into a number of slices of equal thickness, in a direction perpendicular to its axis, each slice would exercise the same amount of attractive force upon a body at the apex of the cone, the reason being that the mass of each slice increases in the proportion of the square of its distance from the apex, and the attractive force diminishes in the same ratio. It was thus demonstrated that the true centre of gravity of the earth, in reference to an attracted body on its surface, does not reside in its geometrical centre, but in a variable point between the centre and the attracted body. In dividing the sphere itself into slices of equal thickness, a mathematical expression was obtained representing the attractive force of any of these slices; and in integrating this expression for a series of slices commencing from the point of attraction, a formula was arrived at, showing that for moderate depths the attrac- tion of the earth may be represented by a very obtuse cone with two-thirds of the earth’s radius for its height If sea-water were of no weight, the total attraction of the earth would be diminished upon its surface in the proportion of the depth to two-thirds of the earth’s radius; but considering that sea-water has about one-third the weight (bulk for bulk) of the generality of rock, the actual diminution of gra- aa was shown to take place in the proportion of the depth to the radius of the earth. Accordingly 1000 fathoms of depth would produce a diminution by ;,'5;th part of the total gravitation—a difference so small that it appears at first sight impossible to construct an instrument capable of indicating it with sufficient accuracy. The second part of the paper described the instrument designed for this purpose, which consists of a tube containing mercury, diluted spirits of wine, and coloured juniper oil. The mercury column, about 30 inches high, ascends in a tube from the bottom of a large bulb containing imprisoned air, and terminates in the middle of a second bulb, The remainder of the second bulb is filled with the diluted spirits, which reach upward into a narrow tube provided with a scale. Upon this rests a column of the coloured oil, which terminates in a third bulb,—the remaining space being vacuous, or nearly so. This gauge is enclosed in a glass tube filled with distilled water, which in its turn is surrounded with ice contained in an outer casing. The latter is suspended by a universal joint. The air in the lower bulb 74. REPORT—1861 being maintained in this way at a perfectly uniform temperature, will oppose a uniform elastic force against the column of mercury, which latter, being removed from all atmospheric influences, fairly represents the gravitation of the earth. In moving this instrument from shallow water upon a sea of 1000 fathoms depth, the mercury column would rise z;,;th part of its length in the second bulb; but before any sensible alteration has taken place in the mercury level, the upper surface of the spirits of wine terminating in the narrow tube will have risen sufficiently to restore the balance of pressure, and the spirits being twenty times lighter than mercury, the scale of observation will be increased twentyfold. But the spirit column, in rising, displaces oil of very nearly the same specific gravity, which causes another increase of scale at least twentyfold. By these means a scale of 3 inches per 1000 fathoms of depth is obtained. An instrument of this description was tried, by permission of the Admiralty, and although it was still imperfect in some respects, its indications agreed generally within 10 per cent. with the results of actual soundings. In the course of the in- teresting discussion which ensued, Professor Tyndall suggested that the instrument would be equally applicable for measuring heights, and he proposed to try it with Mr. Siemens on the Cumberland Hills at some future time. On a New Minimum Mercurial Thermometer proposed by Mr. Casella. By Barrour Srewart, A.M. Branching off from the side of the stem of this instrument and connected with the capillary bore, we have a chamber the diameter of which is much wider than the capillary bore. This chamber is abruptly attached at its extremity to another chamber of smaller bore than itself, but still wider than the capillary tube. To set this instrument, incline it slightly until the mercury in the side chamber comes to the abrupt termination between the two chambers. The mercury in the capillary tube will now denote the true temperature. Let this be 60°. If the temperature rise above 60°, the rise will take place in the side tube, and if it then begin to fall, the fall will also take place in the side tube until it reaches 60°; but below that the fall will take place in the capillary tube, as there is a disinclination of the mercury to recede from the abrupt termination between the two chambers towards the capillary tube. The instrument thus acts as a minimum thermometer. On British Rain-fall. By G. J. Symons. The author directed attention to the very contrary statements current on the ques- tion—Is there any secular variation in the amount of British rain-fallP After quoting several of the most important opinions, he stated that, in the hope of finally settling the question, he had commenced collecting all known rain-registers, and had already tabulated more than 6000 years’ observations. He proceeded to invite criticism on the mode of discussion which he intended to adopt, and also on a proposed method of delineation,—the rain-fall in 1860, at 241 stations in Great Britain, being laid down on a large map as a specimen. On some Signs of Changes of the Weather. By the Rey. W. Warton, IA., FBS, Se. The author combated nearly all the commonly known rules by which changes of the weather have been anticipated, and gave a few rules which he believed might be depended upon, chiefly derived from the barometer—especially if the exceptions to the general rules, which he clearly explained, were understood and attended to as they ought to be. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 45 CHEMISTRY. Address by W. A. Miter, MD., FBS. &c., Professor of Chemistry, King’s College, London. In opening the proceedings, the President said that in the home of Dalton, in the focus of applied chemistry, very few words would be necessary. They could not but remember that, on the last occasion when the Meeting of the British Asso- ciation was held in Manchester, that illustrious philosopher was still amongst them ; and he trusted that the same spirit which actuated Dalton still remained in Man- chester to enlighten his native county. Without saying more by way of intro- duction, he would call their attention to one or two points of progress during the ae year. In calling attention to these subjects, he must necessarily refer to de- batable ground in science,—but it was in debatable land that progress was neces- sarily made. He would only touch upon two or three practical applications of chemistry, and two or three theoretical ideas which had been propounded since they last met. The Professor then alluded to the new methods of preparing oxygen and hydrogen, proposed by Deville, which admit of application on such a scale as to allow of the generation of oxygen for manutacturing purposes, and the employment of the oxyhydrogen blast as a source of heat in metal- lurgical operations. The novelty in the preparation of oxygen consists in decom~ posing the vapour of sulphuric acid, and, by a further process, storing up the oxy- gen in gas-holders. The preparation of hydrogen required more care. The metal- lurgy of platinum had already experienced a remarkable modification, owing to the application of the intense but manageable source of heat obtained by the combus- tion of these gases. In connexion with oxygen might be mentioned a singular circumstance regarding ozone, which, according to the observation of Schrotter, had been found in a peculiar species of fluor spar, from Wolsendorf, which, when rubbed or broken, emitted a peculiar odour of ozone. The active chemist Deville, in following his researches, had discovered a variety of means of obtaining artifi- cially, crystallized minerals of great regularity and beauty. The methods adopted were chiefly by heating the amorphous substances in a slow current of some gas, such as hydrochloric acid, which was not an unfrequent natural product in volcanic districts. No discovery, however, had made a greater impression upon the popular mind than that of the remarkable alkaline metals czesium and rubidium by Kirch- hoff and Bunsen. These eminent men, in investigating the appearances presented by flames coloured by various metallic salts when analysed by the prism, were led, from the appearance of certain bright lines in the spectra, produced whilst they were examining a saline residuum from the waters of the Diirkheim spring, to infer the existence of a substance hitherto unknown. It was found that caesium was present in such minute quantity, that a ton of that water, which was the most abundant source of cesium yet known, contained only 3 grains of its chloride. Taking into account the minuteness of the quantity, and its striking resemblance to potassium, it was not too much to say that the discovery of cesium would have been impossible by any other known method than that which was actually em- ployed. The other metal, rubidium, was somewhat more plentiful; but rubidium also so closely resembled potash that it would not have been discovered but for the peculiarity of its spectrum. Referring to the revision of the atomic weights of sulphur, silver, ‘nitrogen, potassium, sodium, and lead, by Stas, Professor Miller said that chemist had come to the conclusion that it was not proved that the ele~ mentary bodies were multiples of the unit of hydrogen, and, in opposition to the opinion of Dumas, he had pronounced the law of Prout as imaginary. Every dkemist would read with interest the paper by Graham upon the application of liquid diffusion to analysis. The remarkable conclusion to which the author arrived was, that the process of diffusion separated all substances into one or other of two classes, which he distinguished as crystalloids and colloids. The rapid improve- ment in the method of analysis, though not admitting on that occasion of detailed mention, must not be overlooked. A variety of bodies, formerly supposed to be of Tare occurrence, were now found in minute quantities, ‘idetpoulttls , but widely diffused. The discovery of these small quantities was by no means unimportant, for they might aid in solving problems of great interest. Glancing only for a. 76 REPORT—1861. moment at the important practical subject of the formation of steel, Professor Miller referred to the activity employed in the pursuit of the organic department of chemical science ; remarking upon two lines of research as important from their theoretical bearings, namely the investigation of polyatomic compounds, and the process of oxidation and of reduction, applied by various chemists, and by Kolbe in particular, to the investigation of the organic acids, The labours of Hofmann upon the polyatomic bases showed completely the principle upon which these bodies might be formed, and he had been enabled to group an unlimited number of atoms of ammonia into one compound molecule. Great progress had also been made in our knowledge of the relations of the organic acids. On the Constitution of Paranaphthaline or Anthracene, and some of its Decom- position Products. By Professor AnvEnson, F.R.S.L. The author, after referring to the previous investigations of Laurent and Dumas, which indicated the isomerism of naphthaline and anthracene, detailed the results of his own researches, which have established for the latter substance the formula C,, H,,.. Anthracene, when treated with nitric acid, undergoes a decomposition entirely different from that of naphthaline under similar circumstances, and yields an oxidized compound, oxanthracene, C,, H, O,, which is volatile without decom- position, and crystallizes in fine needles of a pale buff colour. Bromine gives C,, H,, Br, in small hard crystals apparently rhombohedral, which when digested with alcoholic potash give’ C,, H, Br, in fine sulphur-yellow crystals. Chlorine gives C,, H,, Cl,, and this with alkalies yields C,, H, Cl. These and other details contained in the paper show that anthracene is not isomeric with naphthaline, but they connect it with the benzoyl series, and more especially with stilbene, from which it differs by H, ; while oxanthracene and benzil are similarly related to one another, as shown by the following comparison of their formule :— Oxanthracene ...... OB: 2 1B LES OA Phen) epty eee oie (OA 5 La Os The author proposes to prosecute the investigation of these relations. On the Effect of Great Pressures combined with Cold on the Six Non- condensable Gases. By Professor AnpREws, M.D., F.R.S. - In this communication the author gave an account of some results already obtained in a research with which he is still occupied on the changes of physical state which occur when the non-condensable gases are exposed to the combined action of great pressures and low temperatures. The gases when compressed were always obiathed in the capillary end of thick glass tubes, so that any change they might undergo could be observed. In his earlier experiments the author employed the elastic force of the gases evolved in the electrolysis of water as the compressing agent, and in this way he actually succeeded in reducing oxygen gas to ;1,th of its volume at the ordinary pressure of the atmospkere. He afterwards succeeded in effecting the same object by mechanical means, and exhibited to the Section an apparatus by means of which he had been able to apply pressures, which were only limited by the capability of the capillary glass tubes to resist them; and while thus compressed the gases were exposed to the cold attained by the carbonic acid and ether bath. Atmospheric air was compressed by pressure alone to =, of its original volume, and by the united action of pressure and a cold of — 106° F. to =4,th, in which state its density was little inferior to that of water. Oxygen gas was reduced by pressure to ;3;th of its volume, and by pressure and cold to =3;th; hydregen by the united action of cold and pressure to ;},th; carbonic oxide by pressure to si,th, by pressure and cold to s+,th; nitric oxide by pressure to ;4,;th, by pres- sure and a cold of—160° F. to ;3,th. None of the gases exhibited any appearance of liquefaction even in these high states of condensation. The amount of contrac- tion was nearly proportional to the force employed, till the gases were reduced to from about 34,th to ;1,th of their volume ; but, beyond that point, they under- went little further diminution of volume from increase of pressure. Hydrogen and carbonic oxide appear to resist the action of pressure better than oxygen or nitric oxide. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 77 . On the Chemical Composition of some Woods employed in the Navy. By Dr. Cracr Canverr, FIRS. The author thought that it might prove interesting to ship-builders if he were to investigate the chemical composition of the various woods employed in the Navy; especially when this important adjunct of England’s wealth is undergoing such extensive modifications, and when it is of such paramount importance to know which is the best wood to be used in the construction of the new iron-plated frigates. He had examined ten different woods, and the superiority of some foreign woods over English oak could not be too strongly expressed. If English oak has hitherto stood so high, it must have been owing to our ignorance of the valuable properties of some of the woods grown in tropical climates, in which the soluble and hiehly decomposable tannin of oak is replaced in some instances by resins, and in others by substances similar to caoutchouc. This is the case with Moulmein teak, Santa Maria, Moira wood, and Honduras mahogany, which gives to them a great advantage over oak for iron ship-building. Thus he has found that in the same time, and under similar circumstances, oak will attack iron twice and three times as rapidly as the woods above-mentioned. He has also remarked that if cubes of the same dimensions of the various kinds of wood remain in contact with water for five months, they lose respectively the following per-centages of their sub- stance :—Unseasoned oak, 24; seasoned oak, 12; African teak, 33; Moira wood, 4; Honduras, 83; Santa Maria, 1:6; Gyreenheart, 5-6; Moulmein teak, 1:7. The facility of mildewing or decaying is as follows :—Unseasoned oak, rapid ; seasoned oak, much less; African teak and Honduras mahogany, limited; Moira-wood, Santa Maria, and Moulmein teak, none. For further details Mr. Crace Calvert would avail himself of an early opportunity of publishing a complete paper; but there was one point which he deemed it his duty to mention at once. During his researches he had found a great difference between oak felled in summer and that felled in winter, viz. that the oak felled in winter was rich in tannin, while the oak felled in summer contained little or no tannin, but a large quantity of gallic acid; and on examining some specimens of wood from unsound gun-boats furnished to him by some of Her Majesty’s Officials, he found that the chemical composition of the wood of the sound eun-boat was identical with that of well-seasoned oak, while the composition of the wood of the unsound gun-boat was identical with that of unseasoned summer-felled oak. On the Chemical Composition of Steel. By Dr. Cracn Carver, 7. B.S. The author entered into some detail respecting the interesting discussion which has lately taken place before the French Academy of Science, between MM. Fremy and Caron, on the chemical composition of steel, the former contend- ing that nitrogen is essential to the conversion of iron into steel, the latter that carbon alone is sufficient to effect that object. But an observation that Mr. Crace Calvert has made, tends to show that the molecular condition of steel has a great deal to do with}the nature of its chemical composition ; for if a piece of soft steel be divided into two portions, and one of these is hardened or highly tempered, the slow action of acetic acid proves to be quite different ; and whilst soft steel is scarcely acted upon by weak acetic acid, hard steel is rapidly dissolved. Further, the soft steel leaves a homogeneous grey carburet of iron, similar in its texture to the pra- phitoid compound lately described by him (Mz. Calvert), whilst that.of tempered steel is black, possesses no cohesion, and has the appearance of pure carbon. On the Evolution of Ammonia from Volcanos. By Professor Dausuny, M.D., FBS. This phenomenon had been ascribed by Bischof to the decomposition of bitu- minous matters by volcanic heat; by Bunsen to the lava flowing over herbage, and disengaging its nitrogen, which exhibited itself in the form of ammonia; and on former occasions, by the author of this paper, to the direct union of hydrogen and nitrogen in the interior of the earth under an enormous pressure. Now, however, that Wohler has shown the affinity which subsists between nitrogen and certain of the metals and simple combustibles, some of which, as titanium or boron, combine with it directly with such avidity that the union is attended with combustion; 78 REPORT—1861. and that he has also proved the nitrides formed to be decomposed by the hydrated alkalies, ammonia being thereby generated,—it has occurred to the author that a more probable explanation of the occurrence of ammonia in volcanos might be afforded by supposing such combinations to take place in the interior of the earth, and there to be subsequently decomposed by the alkalies which are usually present wherever volcanic action is taking place. In confirmation of this view, he appealed to alate observation made by Signor Guiscardi, a distinguished naturalist at Nanles, namely, that metallic titanium was found to be evolved from the crater of Vesuyius during a late eruption. On a particular Decomposition of Ancient Glass. By H. Duanz, The author’s object was to show, first, that an incrustation observed within a glass ampulla from the ancient Christian catacombs of Rome was not organic matter, as had been supposed ; and secondly, that it was the result of a decomposition of the glass itself, probably originally coloured with peroxide of iron. This in the course of time had separated, like the other ingredients of the glass, and found its way to the surface in a spheroidal and arborescent form, similar to what may be observed in moss agates. ‘That it was not a mere extraneous deposit was obvious from the fact of its being chiefly in the substance of the glass itself, and nearly equally distributed on both inner and outer surfaces. He had observed precisely the same condition in some ancient glass from Nineveh. On Morin, and the non-ewistence of Morotannic acid, By Dr. Drtrrs. M. Wagner published in the year 1850 an investigation on the wood of Morus tinctoria, and stated that this wood contains two peculiar and isomeric matters, morin and morotannic acid, the latter of which differs from all other tannic sub- stances by being able to crystallize, Since that time no other chemist has discussed the same subject. The author thought, therefore, a repeated investigation on morin and morotannic acid would not be superfluous, and dnd that morotannic acid is only morin in an impure state, and that an often-iterated crystallization suffices to convert it into a white substance possessing all the properties of pure morin, The composition of morin corresponds to the formula CH’ O°+2HO. M. Wagner gives the formula C'* HO", Morin most resembles catechin: it giyes, when heated above its melting-point, pyrocatechic acid ; the colour produced in the solu- tion of catechin by chloride of iron is nearly identical with that which is caused by the same test in the solution of impure morin; and a comparison of the com- position of catechin, which Dy. Delffs found seventeen years ago (Jahrbuch fiir praktische Pharmacie, vol. xii. p. 162), and that of morin will show that the differ- ence between both is not very great. The author tried, therefore, to convert catechin by repeated crystallization into morin, but without result, and he is quite convinced that these two substances are not identical. On Piperic and Hydropiperic Acids. By G. C. Foster, B.A., F.CS. The analysis of piperic acid and of the piperates of potassium and barium led to the formula C1” H?° O!* for the acid, and to the formula C!* H® MO? for the salts; thus confirming Strecker’s formulz +. A warm aqueous solution of piperate of potassium is converted, by treatment with sodium-amalgam, into hydropiperate of potassium. Hydropiperic acid melts to a transparent oil under hot water, and dissolves in all proportions in alcohol: it contains C H'? O04, The following hy- dropiperates were analysed :— Hydropiperate of ammonium ...... OFF (8 H*): 0% i t . C2 FH Ot Acid hydropiperate of potassium, . C2 H™ Ko! f' Hydropiperate of calcium......... C!? H™ CaO? (at 100°). Hydropiperate of barium.......... CY H® BaOt Hydropiperate of silver.......... CH" AgOt * O=12, H=1, O=16, + Ann, Chem, Pharm. cy, 517. eee TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 79 On the Composition and Valuation of Superphosphates. By Professor GaLtoway, On an Aluminous Mineral from the Upper Chalk near Brighton, By Dr. J. H. Guapstone and Mr. G. GuapsTone. In an old chalk-pit at Hove there are many faults, and some of these are filled up with a white soft mineral that runs along the broken layers of flint and imbeds the fragments. It appears in agglomerated masses, which easily fall to powder, and are porous. Sp. gr. 1-99. One piece that was analysed proved to be the hydrated disilicate of alumina, that has received the name of Collyrite, with no other im- purity than one per cent, of carbonate of lime. Another piece contained 13 per cent, of carbonate of lime, and 5 per cent. additional of carbonic acid, which was supposed to be combined with alumina. As the silicic acid was proportionally smaller in quantity, this piece was viewed as collyrite in which about half the silicic acid had been replaced by carbonic acid, On the Emission and Absorption of Rays of Light by certain Gases. ‘By Dr. J. H. Guansrone, F.R.S, This communication arose out of an attempt to determine what constituents of the air give rise to the ‘atmospheric lines” of the solar spectrum, of which a ma had been exhibited by the author at the Leeds Meeting of the Association, an which had been since published in a more complete form by Sir David Brewster and. himself. A comparison of the bright rays emitted by nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, carbonic acid, and water, when strongly heated, had shown that they do not coin- cide with the absorption-bands of the atmosphere. It is possible that the three bright lines of the hydrogen spectrum, as given by Angstrom and Pliicker, may be in the same position as Cl, F’, and p of the atmospheric spectrum. Yet the author inclined to the belief that these absorption-bands are due to two or more different constituents in varying proportions, more abundant in some places than in others, and probably in very minute quantities, The following facts were mentioned among others :—The flame of carbonic oxide burning in air gave a continuous spectrum from about C to about /, where it ceased rather abruptly: it was without either bright or dark lines, The alcohol flame shows four fC decie first faint in the yellow, nearly midway between D and E; the second brighter, green, just beyond 4, with the refractive index 1:6254 for glass, which gives as the refractive index of 6 16249; the third faint and blue, about half-way between F and G; the fourth a more luminous double line, violet, with the refractive index 1:6415, that of the line G being 16404, The oxyhydrogen flame gave a continuous spectrum principally green and blue, extending to about G 33, with no lines corresponding to the hydrogen lines of Angstrém and Pliicker, The lightning flash gave a continuous spectrum, showing all the colours from red to violet, with doubtful indications of more luminous bands. -That there is no necessary eerorpondance between the lines of absorption of a gas at the ordinary temperature, and the rays emitted by it at a high temperature, is strikingly proved by iodine, where the absorption-bands delineated by Professor Miller, the groups of green and blue bands produced when the vapour is introduced into a Bunsen’s flame, and the lines of the rarefied gas as observed by Pliicker, are perfectly dif- ferent. By the prismatic analysis of solar light, the absence of the coloured gases from the air can be proved, even in very minute quantity. Thus the author _ observed that about ;4,th of an inch of bromine vapour interposed between the eye and the object-glass of the refraction goniometer was sufficient to exhibit the absorption-bands; and from this he had reckoned that if free bromine constituted one thousand millionth part of the atmosphere, it would betray its presence in the solar spectrum when the sun was on the horizon; but there is no such indication, This, ceyer, rests on the unproved assumption that a gas almost infinitely diffused along a given line will produce the same absorbent effect as if its particles were all close together at some point along that line, ae 80 REPORT—1861,. On the History of the Alkali Manufacture. By W. Gossacr. The author believed that the manufacture of soda in Great Britain, by the special decomposition of common salt, had its commencement in Lancashire ; at any rate, its largest development had taken place in this county. Previously to the esta- blishment of the French republic, in 1793, soda was obtained almost entirely from the ashes of marine plants growing at Alicante in Spain, Sicily, Teneriffe, and on the coast of Great Britain. Large quantities of potash were also imported from Russia and America, but now soda was exported to those countries which formerly sent us potash, The importation of alkali into France being stopped by the French re- volution, a committee was appointed by the French conyention to discover means of supplying the article from France itself. The process suggested by Le Blanc was approved of; but it was erroneous to suppose that his process was not invented before the committee was appointed. Having given an account of Le Blanc’s invention, Mr. Gossage said that it was very complete, and was the same as now used in both England and France. This invention had done more to promote civilization than any other chemical manufacture. The poor inventor, however, met with the too common reward of talent, and after great privations died in an asylum for paupers. Sundry alkali works were erected in France ; but the process was not introduced into England until some years afterwards. - In 1787 Messrs. Gordon, Barron, and Co., of Aberdeen, applied chlorine, then recently discovered, to the process of bleaching. A large establishment was in the following year established at Bolton. At first chlorine was used in the state of solution in water, but the inconvenience of using it in that manner was overcome by the addition of potash to the water. The next step was to substitute lime for potash, producing solution of chloride of lime. This was the invention of Mr. Charles Tennant, of St. Rollox, who afterwards manufactured chloride of lime in the state of powder. This manufacture was carried out to a great extent. A great obstruction to the manufacture, however, was the high excise-duty on salt, which operated most in- juriously. When Mr. Tennant’s patent for manufacturing bleaching powder expired, other parties began the same manufacture. Attention was directed to the utiliza- tion of the mixed sulphate of soda and sulphate of manganese resulting from this manufacture, and carbonate of soda, in crystals, was gradually introduced into the market. During the same period Mr. Losh was making crystals of soda, and might be considered the father of the soda trade in this country. Mr. Losh finished his education on the continent, where he learnt Le Blanc’s processes. After his return, he obtained permission of Government to work a spring of weak brine discovered at Walker, on the Tyne, for the manufacture of soda, He there manufactured soda crystals ; but notwithstanding these essays, 1823 might be considered the natal year of the soda trade as a special manufacture in Great Britain. In that year common salt being relieved from fiscal impost, Mr. James Muspratt commenced the manufacture of sulphate of soda at Liverpool, to be used for the manufacture of carbonate of soda. Mr. Muspratt adopted Le Blanc’s processes in their entirety. He had to contend with many difficulties, but he overcame them all, and reaped a satisfactory reward. Other manufacturers also commenced to make sulphate of soda, by the special decomposition of common salt for the purpose of making soda ; and it had since been found advantageous to adapt this method of working to the production of bleaching powder, by using the hydrochloric acid so obtained to generate chlorine by its action on manganese.- In the early days of the soda trade no attempt was made to condense the liberated hydrochloric acid gas. The old apparatus of cylinders and Woulfe’s bottles was totally inadequate for the condensing. Many plans were suggested, and amongst others he (Mr. Gossage) obtained a patent in 1836. Having demonstrated the practicability of effecting a complete condensation of hydrochloric acid, by the erection and working of a set of apparatus at the soda works with which he was then connected, he introduced the plan to the trade, and it had been subsequently adopted by every manufacturer. ‘The principle of the invention consists in causing the acid gas to percolate through a deep bed of coke, in small lumps, contained in a high tower, at the same time. that a supply of water flowed very slowly over the surface of the pieces of coke. By this means an almost unlimited extent of moistened surface was presented to the gas for effecting its absorption, and as the same fluid descended through the tower, it met with more gas and gradually became charged to saturation; whilst, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 81 at the upper portion of the tower, any gas which might otherwise escape was ex- posed to the absorbing power of unacidulated water. In 1838, a French house, Messrs. Taix and Co., of Marseilles, obtained a monopoly from the King of Sicily for the export of sulphur. This caused an advance in price to £14 per ton, from the previous rate of £5 per ton. It was found that in our Cornish mines and in those of Wicklow in Ireland, we possessed an inexhaustible supply of sulphur in the form of pyrites; and our practical chemists soon availed themselves of this source for the manufacture of sulphuric acid. In working with pyrites it was found that this mineral contained sulphide of copper as well as sulphide of iron, and at an early period he commenced to extract the copper from the burnt residuum by smelting. At the present time, the products obtained by the soda manufacturers were soda ash, worth £8 per ton; soda crystals, about £4 10s. per ton; bleaching powder, £9 per ton; bicarbonate of soda, £10 per ton; whilst the cost of raw materials, now used in Lancashire, is—sulphur, £8 per ton, for which was substi- tuted pyrites at a cost equivalent to £5 per ton; common salt, 8s.; limestone, 6s. 8d.; fuel, 6s. per ton. Thus, with a reduction in the cost of raw materials not more than equal to 10 per cent. the public was supplied with the products of the soda manufacturer at a reduction of at least 60 per cent. As nearly as he could obtain information, there were 50 establishments in Great Britain in which soda was manufactured by Le Blanc’s process, producing about 8000 tons of soda ash, 2000 tons of soda crystals, 250 tons of bicarbonate of soda, and 400 tons of bleaching powder per week. The total amount of these products might be estimated as exceeding two millions sterling, which was so much entirely added to the annual income of the country, excepting about £100,000 paid for materials obtained from other countries. He must not omit to notice the prospect of a new market for British-made soda which had been opened by the successful labours of Mr. Cobden, in negotiating the commercial treaty with the French government. Many attempts had been made to supersede Le Blane’s process, by some more direct means of operating on salt, so as to eliminate its soda at once. Up to the “aya time, the result of all these attempts had been the wasteful expenditure of arge sums of money. Two-fifths of the total cost for raw materials was incurred for pyrites from which to procure a supply of sulphur; and it was a well-lnown fact that more than nine-tenths of this sulphur was retained in the material called “ alkali waste,” which was thrown away by the manufacturer. Thus was presented a problem which, if it could be solved, would effect a large reduction in the cost of soda. Many chemists, both scientific and practical, had given a great amount of attention to the subject. He had been so unfortunate as to be amongst the number, as he had devoted a great proportion of his time, during a quarter of acentury, and a large amount of both money and labour to this hitherto delusive subject. He commenced by demonstrating, in 1888, that one equivalent of carbonic acid would decompose one equivalent of sulphide of calcium, producing monocarbonate of lime and sulphide of hydrogen. This decomposition was contrary to the received views of scientific chemists of that day, as it was held that an excess of carbonic acid was needful to effect the perfect decomposition of sulphides. He was convinced that whenever the utilization of the sulphur in alkali waste should be effected, it would be by means of this action of carbonic acid. He demonstrated also, at the same time, that one equivalent of carbonic acid would decompose one equivalent of sul- phide of sodium, producing monocarbonate of soda and sulphide of hydrogen. His present impression was that Le Blanc’s processes would be modified by the omis- sion of lime when decomposing sulphide of soda, thus producing sulphide of sodium; and that the carbonic acid evolved by this decomposition would be applied to decompose the sulphide of sodium, producing carbonate of soda, and eliminating sulphide of hydrogen, which would be absorbed by peroxide of iron, and the pro- duct used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid. He had proved the correctness of all those decompositions and actions ; but the ideas had still to be worked into a practical operation. On the Construction of Gas-Burners for Chemical Use. By J. J. Guirvin, FCS. The authorexhibited aseriesof gas-burners adapted to pee the different degrees of heat that are required for the usual operations of the experimental chemist. 1861. 6 82 ‘ REPORT—1861.- They were all formed for burning a mixture of coal-gas and atmospheric air, so regulated as to produce great heat and no light. The construction of the burners was explained, and the methods of securing the proper results. The same burner could be made to give a single large flame for the ignition of a crucible, or a great number of small flames proper to warm a current of air to effect evaporations, &c. Jackets or furnaces were used for applying the heat produced by the burmers so as to combine the greatest effect with economy in the use of gas. With one of these burners (the third in the series) five gallons of water could be readily boiled; a 5-inch clay crucible could be raised to a full red heat in less than half an hour; or 30 Ibs. of lead or 20 Ibs. of zinc could be kept in constant fusion. For very high temperatures a blast gas furnace is required. The burner belonging to this appa- ratus contains sixteen or twenty-six blowpipes which are acted on by a bellows. With this furnace, a quarter of a hundredweight of cast iron, and smaller quantities (two or three pounds) of such metals as malleable iron and nickel, can be com- pletely fused in about an hour. Note on the Sulphur Compound formed by the Action of Sulphuretted Hydro- gen on Formiate of Lead at a High Temperature. By W.J. Horst, Student of Owens College, Manchester. In 1856, Limpricht* assigned to the above body, as the result of his sulphur determinations only, the formula C, E oi S,, and the name thioformic acid, from a supposed analogy to the thiacetic acid of Kekulét, CH, 0, S,. I lately un- dertook, at Professor Roscoe’s suggestion, the following further examination of its properties and mode of formation. (1.) When anhydrous formic acid is acted on by pentasulphide of phosphorus, as in Kekulé’s experiment, sulphuretted hydrogen is continually evolved, and the distillate contains no sulphur in combination. (I.) When the mixture is heated in closed tubes to 106° C., or (IIL) to the same temperature under a pressure of three atmospheres, carbonic oxide and sulphuretted hydrogen are evolved, with similar negative results. So (IV. and V.) when formiate of lead and pentasulphide of phosphorus are distilled together both in the dry and moist state. These facts seem to point to a decomposition of the thioformic acid, if formed, at the temperature of the experi- ments, Thus, C, HO, H 8,=C,0,+77{ S.. I obtained Limpricht’s body by his method, but in much smaller quantities than he mentions. After purification by repeated crystallizations from hot formic acid, and drying in vacuo over sulphuric acid, analyses yielded the following results :— Found. Calculated for the formula C, HO,] g (1.) (IL.) III.) (IV.) H } a C 27:93 29:25 8:21 a 19:3 -H 470 483 65:25 i 32 S 58-11 ake 56:7 55:15 516 LO yaae ic oF os 25'9 Limpricht’s numbers were— L, ug oan C 26-1 25:7 23°4 A 56 4:7 63 5 51:2 52°5 ar T estimated the sulphur by oxidation with warm nitric acid, observing the neces- sary precautions; the carbon and hydrogen after Carius’{ method; and after the * Ann. Chem. Pharm. xcyii. 361. t Ann. Chem. Pharm. xe, 309; and Phil. Mag. [4] vii. 518. } Ann, Pharm. exvi. 1. , ose TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 83 combustion the water of the chloride-of-calcium tube was found to be quite free from sulphurous acid. Although these analyses, in the absence of a vapour-density or atomic weight determination, which the small quantity of the substance did not permit, yield no definite formula, yet they and the previous experiments show clearly that the body is not thioformic acid. It crystallizes readily in white shining needles from hot alcohol, ether, acetic or formic acids, the alcoholic solution being neutral to test-papers. The crystals melt at about 120° C., and sublime unchanged at higher temperatures, depositing in long silky needles,—are unacted on by hot or cold hydrochloric acid, solutions of carbonate or hydrate of potassium and sulphide of ammonium,—are decomposed by nitric and sulphuric acids, yielding a heavy white precipitate with nitrate of silver, but none with chloride of barium, when dry have little odour, but in solution in formic acid a strong penetrating sulphur smell. On the Thermal Effects of Elastic Fluids. By Dr. Journ, F.R.S., and Professor W. Tuomson, FBS. In the year 1844, Mr. Joule showed that the thermal effects of compressing an elastic fluid and of allowing a compressed elastic fluid to expand, were to be explained on mechanical principles. He demonstrated by experiment that the heat evolved by the compression of an elastic fluid was proportional and equivalent to the force employed ; and 2nd, that the cold occasioned by the dilatation of a gas was in con= sequence of heat turned into work. He also showed that if the dilatation of a gas is managed so as to give out no external work, no sensible thermal effect is produced: Professor Thomson showed that these results were probably only approximate to the truth, and would differ from it in proportion as the gas did not observe the so- called gaseous laws, and he devised the plan of experimenting, which the authors have since carried on in concert, in order to show the small but certain thermal effect of expanding elastic fluids without giving out work. The method the authors employed is to allow an elastic fluid confined at high pressure to escape through a _ porous plug. It is obvious that if the gas obeyed the gaseous laws accurately, no change of temperature would be occasioned by this process, for the cold of dilatation would be exactly balanced by the heat arising from the friction of the air in the plug. This is evident from the circumstance that the product of the pressure through the space would be the same on both sides of the plug. Their first expe riments, on a very small scale and with a very imperfect apparatus, decisively ex- hibited a lowering of temperature of air on passing through the plug, thus showing a non-observance of exact gaseous law, which was with difficulty detected by Reg nault by the use of a very elaborate and costly method, only applicable to certain gases under peculiar conditions. The method they employed, though so extremely simple, required several pre= cautions. In particular it was requisite to employ a porous plug of considerable thickness ; forif a thin one was employed there was arapid conduction of heat from the high- to the low-pressure side, and also an irregular effect arising from the action of numerous jets of air instead of a tranquil flow on the low-pressure side. Hence they found a too large cooling effect when a diaphragm of leather was used, in which case even hydrogen showed a slight cooling effect. The phenomena of a jet of air are highly interesting. Issuing at a high velocity from a vessel in which it is confined at high pressure, its actual temperature may readily be made 200° below the zero of Fahr. But this very low temperature cannot be easily exhibited, because if a thermometer is immersed in the jet the friction of the air gives rise to heat which nearly neutralizes the cold. The tem- perature of one Ital of a jet may thus be hundreds of degrees different from that of another part. The authors have, in fact, shown that a thermometer may be so placed in a jet as to experience either cold or extreme heat. Hence the absolute necessity in their experiments of a porous plug, which will allow the air to issue in a tranquil flow without jets or rapids. A general result they have arrived at on transmitting elastic fluids through a porous plug, is, that the thermal effect is proportional to the difference of pressures on the opposite sides. A diminution of temperature takes place in all the gases tried except hydrogen ; and this diminution or cooling effect is decreased when the temperature by raised, ak 84 REPORT—1861l. in such sort as to make it certain that at 800° or 400° it would vanish altogether and be followed by a heating eflect, as is observed in hydrogen at low temperatures. In different gases the cooling effect is very various. It is 5 times as great in carbonic acid as in atmospheric air at low temperatures, and 4 times as great at the boiling temperature. A very remarkable fact which has been elicited by these experiments, is that a gas mixed with another does not exhibit the same thermal effects as it does when undiluted. In general a mixture of gases gives a smaller cooling effect than would be deduced from the cooling eftects of the constituents. This has been verified in the dilutions of carbonic acid and hydrogen and in atmospheric air, of which each of the component gases has a larger cooling effect than itself. The authors regret that they have not been able as yet to extend the experiments so as to show the point at which the cooling effect ceases and is followed by a heating effect in the different gases. On some points in connexion with the Exhaustion of Soils. By J. B. Lawes, F.R.S., F.C.S8., and Dr. J. WH. Guperr, .B.S., FCS. The question of the exhaustion of soils was one of peculiar interest at the present time, not only on account of the great attention now paid to the waste of manuring matters by the discharge of the sewage of towns into our rivers, but also from the fact that Baron Liebig has recently urged that our soils are suffering progressive exhaustion from this cause, and predicted certain, though it may be distant, ruin to the nation, if our present modes of procedure be persevered in. The question was one of chemical facts; and the authors had intended to treat it much more comprehensively than they were able to do on the present occasion. They proposed, by way of illustration, to bring forward one special case of pro- gressive exhaustion, occurring in the course of their own investigations; and then to contrast the conditions of that result with those of ordinary agriculture. They had grown wheat for eighteen years consecutively on the same land, respect- ively without manure, with farm-yard manure, and with different constituents of manure, and they had determined the amounts of the different mineral constituents taken off in the crop from the respective plots. Numerous Tables of the results were exhibited. The variations in the composition of the ash of both grain and straw, dependent on variations of season and consequent character of development and maturity, were first pointed out. The general result was, that, with an unfayour- able season, there was a slight though appreciable decrease in the percentage of lime and potass, and increase in that of magnesia; and again, an increase in the percentage of phosphoric acid and of silica; and, especially in the case of the straw-ash, a decrease in that of sulphuric acid. Turning to the bearing of the results on the main subject of inquiry, it appeared that when ammonia-salts were used alone, year after year, on the same land, the composition of the ash, both of grain and of straw, showed an appreciable decline in the amount of phosphoric acid, and that of the straw a con- siderable reduction in the percentage of silica. j When ammonia-salts alone were used, the amount of mineral constituents in the crop of a given area of land was very much increased—much more so than when a liberal supply of mineral constituents alone was used. But in neither of these cases was there anything like the amount of mineral constituents obtained in the crop, that there was when the ammonia-salts and mineral manures were used to- gether, or when farm-yard manure was employed. The greatest deficiency indi- cated was in the silica and the phosphoric acid, and next in order came potass and magnesia. The exhaustion here apparent was, however, not to be wondered at, when it is considered that, in these experiments in which both corn and straw were annually removed without the usual periodical return of farm-yard manure, there had been on the average annually taken from the land by the use of ammonia-salts, about twice as much phosphoric acid, about five times as much potass, and about twenty-five times as much silica, as would be removed under a system of ordinary rotation with home manuring, and selling only‘corm and meat; in fact, in sixteen years there had been taken from the land as much phosphoric acid as would require thirty-two years, as much potass as would require eighty-two years, and as much silica as would require 400 years of such ordinary practice to remoye, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 85 Again, the authors estimated that in the experiments of the Rey. Mr. Smith of Lois Weedon, on the growth of wheat year after year on the same land, without manure, there had been an annual extraction from each acre of land of about three and a half times as much phosphoric acid, about seyen times as much potass, and about thirty-seven times as much silica, as there would be iti the ordinary course of practice; yet, after some fifteen years the crops at Lois Weedon were said not to be at all failing. The authors did not recommend such exhaustive practice as that quoted from their own, or the Rey. Mr. Smith’s experiments. But the instances given showed the capabilities of certain soils; and in one case the conditions under which the point of comparative exhaustion had been reached. It was, of course, impossible to state the limits of the capability of soils generally, so infinitely varied was their composition ; but it would be useful to give an illustration on this point. Reckon- ing the soil to be one foot deep, it was estimated that it would require, of ordi- nary rotation with home manuring and selling only corn and meat, about 1000 years to exhaust as much phosphoric acid, about 2000 years to exhaust as much potass, and about 6000 years to exhaust as much silica, as, according to the average results of forty-two analyses* relating to fourteen soils of very various descriptions, had been found to be soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid. Many soils had, doubt- less, a composition inferior to that here supposed. In a large proportion, however, the amounts of the above constituents assumed to be soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid would probably be available for plants long before the expiration of the periods mentioned ; whilst, in a large proportion, there would still be further stores even= tually available within a greater or a less depth from the surface. But the exhaustion of mineral constituents by the sale of corn and meat alone was in reality not so great, in the ordinary practice of this country, as has been assumed for the purpose of the above illustrations. Where there was no purchase of cattle-food, or of artificial or town manures, the sales of corn and meat would on the average be much less than were taken in the authors’ estimates ; and where such materials were purchased with any degree of judgment in the selection, there would always be much more phosphoric acid (otherwise the most easily exhausted con- stituent) so brought upon the land, than would be obtained from it in the increase _ of produce yielded; in fact, under such conditions, in many soils potass was more likely to become deficient. Again, by no means the whole of the mineral consti- tuents sent from the farm in the form of corn and meat will reach the sewers of our towns, and thence our rivers; a not inconsiderable portion finding its way back to the land in some form; in addition to which, imported corn, meat, and other materials will contribute something to the restoration of our own cultivated land. It is at the same time certain that so much of the refuse matters of our towns as becomes diluted with water in the degree recognized under the present sewerage system will be applicable as manure, on the large scale, only to succulent crops, and especially to grass-land; and, so far as this is the case, they will of course not _ directly contribute to the restoration to the land under tillage, of the mineral con- stituents sent from it in its produce of corn and meat. When other descriptions of produce than corn and meat, such as roots, hay, or straw, are largely sold, compen- sation is generally made by the return to the land of stable- or town-manures of some kind. If this be not done, the loss of mineral constituents may indeed be very considerable. In conclusion, whilst the authors insisted upon the importance of applying to agricultural purposes as much as possible of the valuable manuring matters of our towns, they at the same time believed that modern practices, taken as a whole, did not tend to exhaustion in anything like the degree that had been supposed by some. On Purifying Towns from Sewage by means of Dry Cloace. By Dr. J. H. Lioyn. On the Proportion of Tin present in Tea-Lead. By Dr. 8S. Macapam, * The accuracy of some of these analyses, however, is admitted as open to question: see Report by Magnus, Ann. d. Landwirthschaft, xiv. 2. 86 REPORT—1861. On the Proportion of Arsenic present in Paper-Hangings. By Dr. 8. Macapam, The author had been led to the investigation of this subject by hearing of cases of arsenical poisonings through remaining in rooms with green paperhangings. In all these cases of which he had heard, the patients soon recovered on being removed from one room to another. The question whether the arsenic in green paperhangings was injurious to health very much resembled the question regarding lead, in which it had been stated that a small quantity, though not atiecting one person, might act very injuriously upon another. In most of the green paper- hangings the arsenic was present in the condition of a rough powder. In some cases the paper was glazed, which had the effect of protecting the arsenic. He had examined several green flock papers, and asa general rule he believed they did not contain arsenic; but all the common descriptions of green paperhangings did, He purchased two packets of envelopes, the bands around which were coloured green. In these two bands he found 3:3 grains of arsenic. The common green paperhangings contained an amount of arsenic varying from 1 to 40 grains per square foot. Taking the mean quantity at 20 grains, a large-sized room would per- haps contain 20,000 grains of arsenic in the paper; a small room 10,000 grains—a quantity capable of producing very serious symptoms. With regard to the mode in which this arsenic could be introduced into the system, it was a question whe- ther arsenic volatilized at ordinary temperatures ; but he thought it was not carrying the point too far to suppose that during the damp condition of the paper when being hung, a certain proportion of the arsenic was carried off with the water in the shape of vapour. It was likely to occur also during the night, when the exha- lation of the animal system would produce a moisture on the walls as well as the windows, and when a draught was created by the opening of the door in the morning a certain portion of the arsenic might be volatilized. Itwas possibly more liable to be disturbed by mechanical action, such as dusting, or the rubbing of dresses against the wall, or the grazing of bedhangings against the paper. In such cases the arsenic fell in fine dust upon the carpets, and whenever the carpets were brushed the small particles would fly about and be inhaled. He had not met with any case of death through arsenical poisonings from paperhangings, but he believed it was a medical fact that arsenic taken into the system, even in very small quantities, would soon undermine the health. : } On an Economical Mode of boiling Rags, Se. with Alkaline Ley. By Dr. 8. Macapam. On the Separation of Ammonia from Coal-gas. By W. Marrtorr. In the manufacture of coal-gas a large quantity of ammonia is generated along with the permanent gases, The ereater portion of the ammonia is separated by. cooling or scrubbing, but still a considerable portion passes through the lime or oxide purifier, and so passes along with the gas as caustic ammonia. Gas-managers are fully aware of the desirability of removing the ammonia, and many processes have been devised for this purpose, some of which are in operation in different gas-works. Of all the substances which have been used for this purpose sulphuric acid is” perhaps the simplest in its application, and, space and economy considered, the quickest in its removal of the ammonia. But there is one great objection in the — use of strong sulphuric acid, namely, that it diminishes the illuminating power of © the gas by absorbing the rich hydrocarbons. If gas is allowed for a length of time to pass through sulphuric acid, a point is reached when no more of the hydrocarbons are absorbed, after which the gas may be passed through the acid without injury to its illuminating power. Acid so prepared is saturated with carbonaceous matter, and if filtered and evaporated to (aed a mass of carbon is left in the dish. ow, sulphuric acid so prepared, though it has lost its injurious action on the gas, retains its affinity for the ammonia. It is the above principle of saturating the sulphuric acid with carbonaceous TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 87 matter which is applied in the material we now use extensively for oa the ammonia from coal-gas, with this improvement, that the acid instead of being in the liquid state is solid, and is at once in the purifier converted into crystallized sul- phate of ammonia. In saturating sulphuric acid with carbon it is not necessary to use the gaseous hydrocarbons, as almost any vegetable matter will do; sawdust is used. The material is prepared by heating together, at a temperature of about 280° Fahr., equal weights of sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1700, and sawdust. At that temperature the organic matter of the sawdust is broken up, and the carbon eliminated solidifies the acid ; at the same time the acid dissolyes as much carbonaceous matter as it will take up. The author cannot say what is the organic compound dissolved by the acid, only that in this form of saturation the acid does not in the least injure the illuminating power of the gases passed through it. _~ On account of the immense surface of acid exposed to the gas when so prepared, we are not surprised to find that the ammonia is separated from the gas instantly it comes in contact with it; in fact, where we are passing from 1 to 3 millions feet of gas in 24 hours, we cannot detect any ammonia until the material is satu- rated to within 1 or 2 inches of the surface. The material being very porous, offers very little obstruction to the passage of the gas, and so scarcely increases the pressure. All those who are engaged in the manufacture of sulphate of ammonia from the ammoniacal liquor obtained from gas-works, well know the great loss of this salt carried away by the steam, either in evaporating a solution to the crystallizing point, or in passing the ammoniacal vapours through the acid. On the large scale the loss is from 10 to 20 per cent. ’ In the acid prepared as already stated, and converted into sulphate of ammonia, at the temperature of the gas as it passes through the purifier there is no loss ; for every equivalent of sulphuric acid used, an equivalent of sulphate of ammonia is received. In an economical point of view this is a great saving; but there is still further economy in the labour, because the very process of removing the ammonia from the gas converts it into sulphate of ammonia ready for the market. The material as discharged from the purifier contains from 50 to 60 per cent. of 2 aed of ammonia applicable for manure purposes. ' The author claimed no novelty, either in the use of sulphuric acid alone or mixed with sawdust, but thought its application as a free acid, when saturated with car- honaceous matter, might be of interest to the Section, On Madder Photographs, By Joun Mexcer, F.R.S, On Photographic Spectra of the Electric Light. By Professor W. A. Muitmr, M.D., F.R.S. The appueins by which the spectra may be photographed consists of an ordinary camera obscura attached to the end of a long wooden tube, which opens into a cylindrical box, within which is a prism glass, or a hollow prism filled with bisul- P ide of carbon. If the prism be so adjusted as to throw the solar rays, reflected rom a heliostat, upon the screen of a camera, and the wires which transmit the sparks from Ruhmkorff’s coil are placed in front of the uncovered portion of the slit, the two spectra are simultaneously impressed. The solar beam is easily inter- cepted at the proper time by means of a small screen, and the electric spectrum is al- lowed to continue its action for two or three, or six minutes, as may be necessary. The author did not find that anything was gained in distinctness by interposing a lens of short focus between the slit and the wire which supplied the ae with the view of rendering the rays of the electric light parallel like those of the sun, owing to the absorbent action of the glass weakening the photographic effect ; and the flickering motion of the sparks being magnified ie the lens, rendered the lines less distinct than when the lens was not used. Although with each of the metals (including platinum, gold, silver, copper, zinc, aluminum, magnesium, iron), when the spark was taken in air, he obtained decided photographs, it appeared that in each case the impressed spectrum was very nearly the same, proving that few of 88 REPORT— 1861. the lines produced were those which were characteristic of the metal. The pecu- liar lines of the metal scemed chiefly to be confined to the visible portion of the spectrum, and these had little or no photographic power. This was singularly exemplified by repeating the a aa upon the same metal in air, in a continu- ous current of pure hydrogen. _ [ron, for example, gave, in hydrogen, a spectrum in which a bright orange and a strong green band were yisible, besides a few faint lines in the blue part of the spectrum. - Although the light produced by the action of the coil was alved to fall for ten minutes upon a sensitive collodion surface, scarcely a trace of any action was procured; whilst, in five minutes, in the air, a owerful impression of numerous bands was obtained. It was remarked by Mr. albot that, in the spectra of coloured flames, the nature of the acid did not influ- ence the position of the bright lines of the spectrum, which he found was dependent upon the metal employed; and this remark has been confirmed by all subsequent observers. But the case is very different in the absorption-bands produced by the vapours of coloured bodies,—there the nature of both constituents of the com- pound is essentially connected with the production of absorptive bands. Chlorine, combined with hydrogen, gave no bands by absorption in any moderate thickness. Chlorous acid and peroxide of chlorine both produced the same set of bands, while hypochlorous acid, although a strongly coloured vapour and containing the same elements, oxygen and chlorine, produced no absorption-bands. Again, the brown- ish-red vapour of perchloride of iron produced no absorption-bands ; but when con- verted into vapour in a flame, the iron showed bands independent of the form in which it occurred combined. These anomalies appear to admit of an easy expla- nation on the supposition that, in any case, the compound employed is decomposed in the flame, either simply by the high temperature, just as water is, as shown by Grove, or in other cases by the reducing action of the burning bodies, which supply the flame, upon the metallic salt introduced into the flame. In the voltaic pile the decomposition must of necessity take place by electric action. The compound gases, rotoxide and binoxide of nitrogen, give, when electrified, the same series of bright tauts (as Pliicker has shown) which their constituents when combined furnish. Aqueous vapour always gives the bright lines due to hydrogen; and hydrochloric acid the mixed system of lines which would be produced by hydrogen and chlorine. The reducing influence of the hydrogen and other combustible constituents of the burning body would decompose the sait, liberating the metal, which would imme- diately become oxidized or carried off in the ascending current. There was obvi- ously a marked difference between the effect of intense ignition upon most of the metallic and the non-metallic bodies. The observations of Pliicker upon the spectra of iodine, bromine, and chlorine show that they give, when ignited, a very ditferent series of bands from those which they furnished by absorption, as Dr. Gladstone has already pointed out; but it is interesting to remark that in the case of hydrogen, which, chemically, is so similar to a metal, we have a comparatively simple spec- trum, in which the three principal bright lines correspond to Fraunhofer’s dark lines C, F, and G. It was, however, to be specially noted that the hydrogen occa- sioned no perceptible absorption-bands at ordinary temperatures in such thickness as we could command in our experiments, and the vapour of boiling mercury was also destitute of any absorptive action, although, when ignited by the electric spark, it gave a characteristic and brilliant series of dark bands. The following experi- ment suggested itself as a direct test of Kirchhoff’s theory. Two gas-burners, into which were introduced chloride of sodium on the wick of the spirit-lamp, were placed so as to illuminate equally the opposite sides of a sheet of paper partially greased. The rays of the electric light screened from the photometric surface, suit- ably protected, were made to traverse one of the flames. If the yellow rays of the light were absorbed by the sodium flame, the light emitted laterally by the flame should be sensibly increased. The experiment, however, failed to indicate an such increase in the brilliancy of the flame, possibly because the eye was not ae ficiently sensitive to detect the slight difference which was to be expected. On Atmospheric Ozone. By Dr. Morrar. The results given were from the observations of ten years, taken at Hawarden at a height of 260 feet above the level of the sea. The quantity of ozone is greater with TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 89 decreasing readings of the barometer and when the readings are below the mean, than with increasing readings and when they are above the mean, and greater when the range of the barometer and the number of its oscillations are above the mean. It is greater when the mean daily temperature and dew-point temperature are above the mean. Ozone is at a minimum with the wind from points north of 8.E. and N.W., and at a maximum with the wind from points south of these ; it isalso at a maximum when the wind is above its mean force. When rain is above the mean quantity ozone is also above the mean, and also with hail; but it is below the mean with snow and sleet. With fog it is below the mean, above it with cirri, halos, aurorz, and the zodiacal light, but below it with thunder. It is in greater quantity with negative than with positive electricity. Ozone periods so frequently commence with the wind from 8.E. points of the compass, and so often terminate with the wind in N.W. points, that these may be called their points of commencement and termination. ‘They may also be said to commence with decreasing readings of the barometer and increase of temperature, and to terminate with increasing readings and decrease of temperature. The quantity of ozone is also greater in the night than in the day. It is greater with new and full moon than during the first and last quarters ; and it also varies with the seasons, being greater in the winter and spring months than in summer and autumn. The quantity of ozone varies with the locality ; it is greater on the sea-shore than at inland places, and it also increases in quantity with increase of elevation. It is greater in the open country than in towns and villages; and it is at 0 in drains and cesspools and their vicinity, and, in short, at every place where the products of putrefaction or combustion are in sufficient quantity to decompose it. Although these results are from Hawarden obser= vations only, they are supported by observations taken at other places. Differences at individual stations may be attributed to purely local causes. Ozone is a highly oxidized body, and it is easily decomposed by oxidable substances. If test-paper prepared with iodide of potassium be exposed in a locality where these substances are at a minimum, it will in time become brown, and vzone will be at its maximum. If a similar paper be placed in a locality where the quantity of oxidable substances is at its maximum, it will remain white, and ozone will be at a minimum; and if a brown paper be put in the latter place, it will lose its colour, sulphuretted hydro- gen being the decolorizing agent. On the sea and the sea-shore ozone is at its maximum, because the products of putrefaction are there small in quantity, and the wind which blows over the ocean is the ozoniferous current. On the land the products of decomposition are at their maximum, hence the current of air that passes over it is non-ozoniferous. Indeed all the conditions of an ozone period are those of the equatorial or ocean current of the atmosphere, and the conditions of a no-ozone period are those of the polar or land current. Medico-meteorological results give the maximum of diseases with the ozoniferous current, and the maximum of deaths with the no-ozone current, but the diseases may be attributed rather to the vicissitudes of weather than to ozone. As the land or polar current of the air is the lower strata in motion, and the ocean or equatorial current the motion of the higher strata, there ought to be an analogy in a medico- meteorological sense between them, and sowe find that the maximum of deaths takes place in the lower strata with minimnm of ozone, and the minimum of deaths in the higher strata with maximum of ozone. The calm is also a no-ozone period. During continued calms the products of putrefaction accumulate in the lower strata of the atmosphere and produce diseases of an epidemic nature. A cholera period is a calm and a no-ozone period ; and cholera periods terminate with the setting in of the ozoniferous current. In conducting ozone observations, it must be borne in mind that light causes coloration of the test-papers, and that moisture, sul- phuretted hydrogen and ammonia cause loss of colour. On Sulphuretied Hydrogen as « Product of Putrefaction. By Dr. Morrat. The author had enclosed portions of animal and vegetable matter in tin boxes, and through slits in the lids, test-papers prepared with carbonate of lead and with iodine were introduced to half their length. The action of sulphuretted hydrogen was decisively shown, both in the case of the animal and the vegetable matters. 90 REPORT—1861. Dr. Moffat had found the iodine test-paper the most sensitive, and by means of it he had often detected the gas in sick rooms and fever rooms. On the Solvent Power of Strong and Weak Solutions of the Alkaline Carbonates on Uric Acid Calcul. By Wrt11am Rozerts, B.A., M.D, Lond., Physician to the Manchester Royal Infirmary. The design of the author was to show the fallacy of certain experiments that had been made on the solubility of uric acid calculi in solutions of the alkaline car- bonates, and to furnish some exact data on which to estimate the rate at which it is possible to effect dissolution of these calculi by alkaline carbonates. About twenty years ago the French Academy appointed a Commission, composed of MM, Gay-Lussac and Pelouze, to inquire and report on a number of conflicting communications that had been made to it by the advocates of solvents for urinary calculi and their opponents. This Commission reported in 1842 to this effect :—They exposed numerous urinary ealculi for a whole year to the contact of solutions of the alkaline carbonates con- taining from 273 to 546 grains to the pint. None of these were dissolyed; and sone: eno not diminished in bulk. Their loss of weight varied from a quarter to one-half, __ In another experiment they passed 110 gallons of a solution containing a twen- tieth of its weight of carbonate of soda, in the course of three months, over a num- ber of fragments placed at the bottom of a glass funnel. The bulk of most of these was not diminished, and their loss of weight varied from 10 to 60 per cent, They then tried experiments on the living body, by passing currents of the sol- vent through the bladder at blood-heat by the double catheter. Here is a sample of their results, A patient who had been subjected to lithotrity, and whose stone was known to be uric acid, had at different times 55 gallons of a solution of carbo- nate of soda containing 132 grains to the pint, passed over a large remaining fragment which had been carefully measured. ‘This enormous mass of liquid produced no diminution in the bulk of the fragment ; its only effect was to soften the surface*. The conclusions of this report were wholly adverse to the advocates of solution ; and they were formally adopted by the Academy. The experiments, however, haye a defect—the solutions used were too concen- trated, and this circumstance vitiates the whole inquiry. The author found that very weak solutions of the alkaline carbonates dissolved uric acid calculi with con- siderable rapidity, while stronger ones altogether failed. In order to decide what strength of solution had most solvent power, fragments of uric acid, weighing from 40 to 112 grains, were placed in 10-oz, phials, and solutions of carbonate of soda and potash of various strengths were passed over them at blood-heat. The expe- riments were continued day and night; and the daily flow of solyent varied from six to fifteen pints, Operating in this way, it was found that aboye a strength of 120 erains to the pint there was no dissolution ; and even with 80 grains to the pint there was only a little; but solutions of 50 and 60 grains to the pint dissolved the fragments freely. The cause of this difference was found to lie in a coat or crust of white matter which encased the stone in the stronger solutions. At and above 120 grains to the pint, this coat was dense and tough, and could not be wholly detached from the subjacent surface. With 80 grains to the pint it was brittle, and easily detached like a layer of whitewash, With 60 grains to the pint and under, either no crust formed at all, and the stone was dissolved clean with a water-worn appear- ance, or it was only represented by a few loose flakes scattered here and there over the surface, and jieting no impediment to dissolution. This coating or crust was found essentially to consist of biurate of potash or soda, and its formation depended on the fact that the alkaline biurates are almost insoluble in any but very weak solutions of the alkaline carbonates. In the strong solution, the biurate remains undissolved and encases the stone in an insoluble investment, while in weaker ones it is dissolved as fast as it is formed, the surface of the stone remains clean, and dissolution proceeds without impediment. * Comptes Rendus, 1842, p. 429. Seas TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 91 The following Tables exhibit the results of forty-eight day experiments :— TasieE I.—Uric Acid and Carbonate of Soda (Sod. Carb, Exsiccat, of the shops), Strength of Flow per | No. of | Daily average loss of ae 24. Ae Obs. aan a cent. seamarke: 240 grains per| 6 pints 2 0 Covered with a dense pint, coating of biurate. 120 ” 6 » 2 0 Coyered with a dense white coat. 60 ” 14 , 2 14:8 per cent.|Covered with a loose white crust, which was remoyed before weighing, 30 + ipsee 4 | 10-9 | 30 ” By 2 |102$103. ,, |Dissolved clean. 30 ”? 5 ” 2 9°8 TABLE I,—Uric Acid and Carbonate of Potash. Strength of the | Flow per | No. of | Daily average loss of solution. 24 hours. | Obs. weight per cent. Remarks. 240 grains per | 6 pints 1 0 Covered with a tena- pint. cious white coat as if , of paint. 120 ” 6 , 3 0 Covered with a less dense coating. After detaching this and wiping, there was a loss of weight of 7:1 per cent. 80 7 Gy, 2 98 Covered with a loose de- tachable white crust. 60 ” 14s Ma il Sv Cr aa Surface clean. 20:2 60 x cf Ce 2 lane AAO Loose flakes in spots. 40 i 6 55 3 156 Sometimes a few loose flakes where the frag- ment rested, = zy ae 2 = a Dissolved clean: o¢ca- 30 + Set, 2 | 15:0 4 : wr lho sionally a few loose 30 ra END 2 95 flak 30 33 ey, 4 | 10-2 Sasibip 20 oS 65 3 11:0 Dissolved clean. 10 ne Gitivs 3 65 Dissolved clean, On Perchloric Acid and its Hydrates. By Professor Roscon, All the*knowledge we possess of the quantitive relations of perchloric acid is the determination of the composition of the potassium salt, first analysed by Stadion, 1816, and afterwards by many other chemists. The perchloric anhydride has not been isolated, and no analysis of the aqueous acid has ever been made, We can only account for the neglect with which chemists have treated the highest and yet the most stable of the oxides of chlorine by the fact that the preparation of the acid in larger quantities has been attended with great difficulties. The best method for preparing aqueous perchloric acid is to decompose chlorate of potassium with -hydrofiuosilicic acid, and to boil down the chloric acid thus obtained ; this splits up into lower oxides of chlorine, which escape in the gaseous state, impure perchloric 92 REPORT—1861. acid being left behind, which is purified by distillation. The acid thus obtained is in appearance not to be distinguished from oil of vitriol, being a colourless, heavy, thick, oily, corrosive liquid, giving off on heating dense white fumes. By heating the aqueous perchloric acid with four times its volume of concentrated sulphuric acid, the latter takes water from the first, dense white fumes are evolved, a yellow mobile liquid distils over, and afterwards thick oily drops appear, which, when coming in contact with the yellow liquid, form the white crystals, previously obtained by Serullas, but in such small quantities that he was unable to analyse the substance, which prepared in this way always contains sulphuric acid, and is therefore not fit for analysis and requires redistillation. Heated, however, to 110°C., the cry- stals decompose and split up again into the yellow liquid, which distils over at a low temperature, and the thick oily liquid, which remains in the retort. The yellow liquid thus obtained is pure perchloric acid, Cl O, H, a body not known before, which can be obtained also by distilling one atom of perchlorate of potassium with four atoms of sulphuric acid. In the pure state it is perfectly colourless, but as com- monly prepared it is slightly yellow, owing to the presence of lower oxides of chlorine. fetichlenid acid is one of the most powerful oxidizing agents Inown: a single drop brought into contact with charcoal, paper, wood, alcohol, &e., imme- diately causes explosive combustion, in violence not falling short of the decomposi- tion of chloride of nitrogen; and brought on the skin wounds are produced, which do not heal for weeks. Like nitric acid it cannot be distilled without decompo- sition, but it darkens, and ultimately decomposes with explosion. It cannot be kept for any length of time; for even when sealed up in glass bulbs which are placed at the ordinary temperature in the dark, it decomposes suddenly after some time, breaking the vessel containing it. It mixes with water with a hissing noise and evolution of heat, forming the same crystals which were mentioned before, and were used for preparing the pure acid. These crystals are the monohydrated perchloric acid, Cl 0, H+H, O,. They melt at 50° C., and heated to 110° C. split up in pure perchloric acid, which distils over, and an oily liquid boiling at 200°, which is also obtained by boiling aqueous perchloric acid till dense white fumes are given off. This oily acid has a constant composition, containing 72°3 per cent. of pure per- chloric acid and 27°7 per cent. of water. This per-centage corresponds, however, to no definite hydrate of simple atomic composition; and therefore this acid fol- lows the same general relations respecting composition and boiling-point which, as I have shown previously, hold good for so many other aqueous acids, namely, that the phenomenon of constant boiling-point and constant composition depends chiefly upon physical and not upon chemical attractions. On Vesicular Structure in Copper. By Drs. Russert and Marruressen. The authors proved by numerous experiments that the vesicular structure is caused by the action of carbon or sulphur on the suboxide dissolved in melted copper. On certain Difficulties in the way of separating Gold from Quartz. By Dr. Sauarm of Sydney. In Australia the usual plan is to reduce the quartz to powder by Cornish stampers, a stream of water being allowed to flow through the stamp box during the opera- tion. The pounded quartz is carried by the stream through fine gratings, and then along an inclined plane supplied with various contrivances, such as blanket stuff and plates of copper rubbed over with mercury, for detaining the gold. The stream is next candela into the basin of a Chilian mill, where the “pulp” is ground up with mercury. These operations are for the most part so successful as to leave not more than half an ounce of gold in a ton of “ tailings.” But this successful result is only attained when the quartz is free from pyrites. When pyrites is present, particularly a black ee variety (found by Dr. Leibius to contain disulphide of copper and sesquisulphide of iron), there is a notable loss both of gold and mercury in the process of amalgamation. In the basin of the Chilian mill a greyish- black scum might then be seen, which contains mercury and gold in fine division, together with various components of the pyritous quartz, buoyed up by the en- tanglement of air. The action upon the mercury appeared to be chiefly mechanical, a TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 93 but also in some degree chemical, a small portion of sulphide of mercury being found in the scum, while the gold extracted contained a much larger proportion of copper than is usual with Australian gold. The Australian miners appeared to have hit on no economical mode of separating the gold from pyritous quartz, so as to avoid this loss, On a Specimen of Meteoric Iron from Mexico. By Professor Tennant. On the Cohesion-Figures of Liquids. By Cuartes Tomurson. Regarding solution as a case of adhesion, the author showed that when a drop of an independent liquid (7. e. not a solution) is placed on the surface of another in- dependent liquid, such as water, a struggle takes place between them. The par- ticles of the drop endeavour to maintain their cohesion, the adhesion of the surface tends to overcome it; hence a well-defined figure, named by the author a cohesion- Jgure, and regarded as the resultant of the cohesion of the liquid, its density, and the adhesion of the surface. For example, if a drop of oil of lavender be gently delivered to the surface of water in a chemically clean glass, about 3} inches in diameter, it is spread out by the adhesion of the surface into a well-defined film ; cohesion then endeavours to reassert itself, and a struggle takes place between the two forces, the result being a beautiful complicated pattern resembling Carrigeen moss. ‘The cohesion-figures of other oils, fixed and volatile, of creosote, ether, alcohol, naphtha, &c. were shown experimentally, or in the form of large diagrams. In order to produce these figures, the glass vessels and the water must be chemically clean. The figures present a variety of novel and beautiful effects, both as to form and colour, and are likely to prove highly suggestive to the pattern-designer. Moreover, the forms being typical of the substances, a ready means is thus afforded of detecting adulteration, a On the Composition of Crystallized Moroxite, from Jumillo, near Alicante. By Dr. Vortcxer, F.C.S, Beautifully crystallized moroxite occurs in large quantities at Jumillo in Spain. Selected crystals of this mineral, analysed by the author, give the following re- sults :— Water oF combination 0175/0 tesa dete sop emenee 298 Pihasphorie acid’ 4 Fo eo rT, Oe eR CS 37-024 Wine, Sipe as we Sat geen emane erties oe ee 52-954 NESE Sac via es A eiaabetmaate rn Totes sh Eeldate’ « 269 Ee oP are a i a 1:170 CREME Seana fis 2 SR Rope Cre CM ee Sola aoc Bercy 943 Oxides of cerium (impure oxides). ..........000008 1-790 Fluorides of sodium and potassium .............6.5 1033 PAIS ah acs Cae ee cama et tens alae wath oere trace PEMGHI Ses i's bce ae oie s Paieperelee ale & giccorate 4 score atiere ‘340 Fluorine and loss ......., DEO ticut cu mieucrt 4179 100-000 These constituents, combined with each other, give— Wester, OF COMMMALION, 5 ix. ssleirannsdiaee asad Sees ben 298 Tribasic phosphate of lime............ oe Hae 80-218 BUS PRE RIA cs midis s ature Wevaate Vacs etleten ieee ed 269 Clee OM aes wc eaceiaeteti ane coe oes 1:170 SULTING, nines at i sic CyatDOCMOHS are teins sinh oat 1 3 i Eg ciirigs) ach) Rane el wt 1 Gilaweconome ss. ee...) eteye o, 50s ; 1 Meéenéstella’. 3 eng. Sek coke bee 1 %, (GHONGtOS sate soa lestre dee 2 TOUUCUUIS Seb at's & sv cis oats oe 1 3 Modtola nec fe cade gals ee dees i ite AKIN Hee eek bah coh ee eens 1 s, @ypricardia: ten. pect ao 1 Nagle? oS Be tin oe oe he 4 Sanguinolites. . 2.0.5... see 4 2 TiGROMETIG ay ye ER wee «ote 3 a Maerocheilusi, iii). wets ale o's os 1 INGEUEUELUES 1% ashe Peete oc nememarclitets 1 . Motala ow. Gs. eeev MeN 10 19 From the Table we learn that nine of these genera are found in Barnstaple and not in Petherwin, or are more largely represented in the former than in the latter ; and that nineteen species represent the ten genera found in the former area, whilst no more than ten the eight genera of the latter. Hence the genera, like the species, suggest that the Barnstaple beds are somewhat more modern than those of Petherwin, We are prepared, by even a slight acquaintance with the geographical distribu- tion of existing organisms, to find that deposits strictly contemporary, lithologically similar, and closely connected geographically, have certain fossils peculiar to each. But unless we recognize time as a factor, it will be difficult to explain the facts that Petherwin and Barnstaple have together yielded as many as 151 species of fossils, yet have no more than seventeen in common; that the fossils belong to forty-six genera, of which twenty-five are restricted to one or other of the two areas, having amongst them the rich genus Clymenia with its eleven species, all closely con- fined, in Britain, to Petherwin, yet occurring in Continental Europe; that the remaining twenty-one genera are represented, in the two areas, by eighty-six species ; ‘hut the representatives are rarely identical in the two sets of beds, the peculiar being to the common as 69 to 17, that is about 4to 1, Contend that these beds are strictly contemporary, and the facts remain to puzzle; grant but the lapse of time, and, at least, part of the difficulty disappears, and thereby furnishes an argument in favour of the opinion now advocated, Returning for a moment to Tables I. and III, it will be seen that the Barn- staple beds have a smaller number of species in common with the Lower Devonian TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 127 and even the Petherwin beds, than with the Carboniferous; hence they may be considered as belonging rather to the last than to the Devonian series, or possibly they may have to be regarded as “‘ Passage beds’’ between them. On the Age of the Granites of Dartmoor. By W. Prnextty, F.GS. It has long been well known that the Dartmoor granites haye sent veins into the culmiferous rocks of North and Central Devon, and that the latter are much bent and contorted, probably by the intrusion of the former*; consequently the granites are more aa than the rocks they have thus invaded and disturbed. Geologists, however, are by no means agreed respecting the age of the granites telatively to that of the deposits of the county more modern than the culmiferous beds, Sir H. De la Beche regards them as more ancient than the red conglomerates and sandstones of South Devon, but says, “The evidence is not always so clear as could be desired ; for among all the pebbles of the red conglomerate extending from Torbay to Exeter, we have not been able to detect any portion of it, though the granite ranges so near that part of the red conglomerate. In the tongue of red sandstone and conglomerate which runs from Crediton by North Tawton and Samp- ford Courtney to Jacobstow, we have, however, detected pebbles like some varieties of Dartmoor granite}.”’ This is certainly not a very pronennegt opinion in favour of this evidence; in another place, however, he speaks somewhat more decidedly in favour of the pebbles{; but he appears to base his chronological opinion mainly on the fact that the red sandstone series are found resting quietly on the basset edges of the upturned culmiferous beds§. Mr. Godwin-Austen, however, is of a different opinion, “ Asno granite pebbles,” he says, “have been found among the various materials of which the new red con- glomerate is composed, we may conclude that at the period of its accumulation the granite of Dartmoor could not have been exposed, particularly when we bear in mind that the two formations are at present separated only by the valley of the Teign. “The beds of the Greensand of the Haldons and the Bovey Valley, in the thin mica, sharp quartzose crystals and seams of felspar, suggest that they may have re- sulted from a decomposed granite district; but here, again, although fragments of all the older rocks occur in the conglomerate beds at the base of the Greensand, granitic pebbles are altogether wanting; nor do we meet with them until we arrive, in ascending order, at those superficial accumulations which cap the Haldons. Pos- sibly, then, the rise of the granite of Dartmoor in its present form may belong to a period comparatively modern ||”. : Happening a few years ago to be at North Tawton, I mentioned the subject to Mr. Winn. Vicary, then resident there, who at once took me to the conglomerate, and in a very few minutes extracted two or three pebbles, which we both regarded as of Dartmoor derivation. Whether they were strictly granite in the technical sense of the word may possibly be questioned; and it is certain that much of the gianitic mass of Dartmoor will not pass muster as true graniteG ; but that the pebbles ound at North Tawton were of Dartmoor extraction, and can be matched by thousands in the rivulets and torrent-courses of the Moor, I haye no manner of doubt, In August 1861 I met Mr, Vicary at Exeter, where he now resides, and again spoke of the Tawton pebbles. He informed me that he had found unmistakeable gra- nite pebbles in the red conglomerate at the base of Haldon, a well-known hill about five miles south of Exeter. He also informed me that since his discovery his attention had been called to the fact that Mr. Brice, in his ‘History of Exeter,’ mentions the occurrence of pebbles of granite in the red conglomerate at Haldon**, We at once started for the spot, and passing through Alphington and Kennford, * Sir H. De la Beche’s “ Report,” p. 165; Professor Sedgwick and Sir R. I. Murchison in Geol. Trans. vol. v. pt. 38. p. 686-7; Mr. Godwin-Austen, Geol. Trans. vol, yi. pt. 2. p. 477; and Mr. Ormerod in Quart. Journ, Geol. Soe. vol. xy. p. 492. + Report, p. 166. t Mem. Geol. Survey, vol. i. p. 228. § Report, p. 166; see also ‘Geol. Observer,’ p. 648. || Geol. Trans. vol. vi. pt. 2. p. 478. {| See Sir H. De la Beche’s “ Report,” p. 158. ** History of Exeter, by Thomas Brice, 1802, p. 114. 128 REPORT—1861. and leaving the great road from Exeter to Plymouth, on the right, for that which passes over Haldon, in a more easterly direction, to Newton Bushel, reached our: round about five miles and a half from Exeter. Mr. Vicary at once pointed out in the red conglomerate one or two well-marked fragments of the true Dartmoor series of rocks, but so far disintegrated that it was impossible to extract them in their integrity; a further search was soon rewarded with several less perishable specimens, and amongst them representatives of each of the three kinds of granite described by Mr. Godwin-Austen as ocewring on Dartmoor: there were samples of schorlaceous granite, porphyritic granite, and elvan*. On our way back to Exeter we detected several well-marked specimens near Peamore, about two miles and a half from the city. Though granite pebbles may not have been met with in the conglomerates and sandstones of Torbay, it by no means follows that these rocks are destitute of Dart- moor detritus. Every one who has paid attention to these sandstones must be well aware that in many cases they are eminently micaceous—doubtless a result of the destruction of a large amount of pre-existing rock, such as granite, of which mica was aconstituent. Nor is it difficult to understand that whilst boulders and pebbles might be unable to force a passage to what is now the South Devon seaboard, com- ey small thin flakes of mica might succeed in accomplishing the journey. e may have here an indication that the direction of the prevailing and powerful currents was not eastward, but north-east and northerly—not from Dartmoor to the coast of South Devon, but towards Haldon and North Tawton. The granites of Dartmoor, then, are limited in age, on the side of antiquity by the culmiferous beds of Devon, and on the modern side by the red conglomerates: what is the place of these in the chronological scheme of the geologist ? "The answer has long been given respecting the first: “The upper division of the culmiferous beds contains fossils identical with those in the upper division of the coal-measures}.” But the age of the conglomerates is less easily determined. That they belong to the New Red Sandstone there can be no doubt, since they are above the Upper Coal- measures and underlie the Lias ; but whether Upper or Lower New Red, that is, Tri- assic or Permian, is not so certain as could be wished. They are entirely destitute of fossils, excepting such only as occur in the pebbles. The sandstones are evidently of littoral origin ; their surfaces frequently display fossil sea-ripples, sun-cracks, and impressions of rain-drops ; but no footprints or organic traces have ever been detected on them; there are no paleontological indications of their age. More than one eminent geologist has been struck by the aneular character of the fragments composing the conglomerates (more correctly breccias), and has remarked that, in its physical character and general appearance, the formation is rather Permian than Triassic. It is, as is well known, coloured in our geological maps as on the horizon of the Lower Trias. The granite pebbles of Haldon may perhaps go far to confirm this decision. Whatever may be our opinions respecting the origin of granite, whether we hold it to be a strictly igneous or a thermo-aqueous product, an original or a superim- sto phase of rock existence, there is probably no doubt that it was formed in lutonic depths, a hypogene formation requiring enormous pressure for its elabo- ration, Mx. Sorby estimates the pressure under which the St. Austel granite was formed as equivalent to that of 32,400 feet of rock{. He gives no estimate for Dartmoor, but we shall probably not exceed the truth in taking this, his lowest Cornish estimate, which gives us a pressure equivalent to that of a pile of rock six miles in thickness ; but as the pressure was probably due to the expanding power of some agency acting beneath or within the granitized mass, requiring resistance and not pressure, strength and not weight in the overlying crust, we may content ourselves with a small fraction of this. Still there must have been a crust of very great thickness at and after the close of the Carboniferous period, or the granitic form could not have been assumed by the mass beneath ; and this crust must have been stripped off and the granite laid bare before the era of the accumulation of the red conglomerates, or * Geol. Trans. vol. vi. pt. 2. p. 477. t Prof. Sedgwick and Sir R. I. Murchison in Geol. Trans. vol. v. pt. 3. p. 687, t Quart, Journ, Geol, Soc. vol, xiy. p. 494. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 129 no pebble could have found its way to Haldon. Evenif some paroxysm be supposed to have uplifted the granite in a solid state, so as to shiver the overlying crust and thereby to facilitate the work of denudation, still the time required, even thus, appears to be so very great, so completely overwhelming, so entirely incapable of compres- sion, that it is impossible to regard the red conglomerate as belonging to the Per- mian formation, the representative of the period next succeeding the Carboniferous. Indeed if we conceive of the Dartmoor granite being called into existence, as such, at or subsequent to the close of the Carboniferous period, and laid bare prior to the era of the Se Trias, and that, during the interim, a pile of rocks of considerable thiclmess, covering an area of 200 square miles, had been stripped off, we get a rough yet overwhelming measure of the chronological interval, the Permian period, The facts of the case appear to require the helief— ; 1st. That the Dartmoor granite is not older, at most, than the close of the Car- boniferous period. 2nd. That it was exposed at the earth’s swface when the materials of the red conglomerate were being accumulated. 3rd. That the conglomerates are not of higher antiquity than the Lower Trias. 4th. That the Permian period was one of great duration. Notice of the Post-glacial Gravels of the Valley of the Thames. By Professor Purxirs. On the Gold of North Wales. By 'T, A. Reapwin, F.G.S. The author confined his observations in this paper to an area of about twenty square miles, situated north of the turnpike road leading from Dolgelly to Barmouth, Professor Ramsay has ably described the geology of this district in a communica- tion to the Geological Society of London in 1854, entitled “The Geology of the Gold-bearing Districts of Merionethshire.” The Dolgelly district is bounded by the river Mawddach, the great Merioneth anticlinal range, and the little river Camlan. In this district are found the Cambrians, overlaid by the Lower Silurian Lingulas. The Cambrian rocks are coarse greenish-grey grits, and the Lingula-flags are arenaceous slaty beds, interstratified with courses of sandstone. Caleareous and greenstone dykes frequently penetrate both the Cambrian and the Silurian rocks, The metalliferous products are chiefly argentiferous galena, copper pyrites, blende, manganese, and mundic, associated frequently with gold. According to Sir Rk, Murchison, “the most usual position of gold is in quartzose veinstones that traverse altered palzeozoic slates, frequently near their junction with eruptive rocks, whether of igneous or of aqueous origin, The stratified rocks of the highest antiquity, such as the oldest gneiss or quartz rocks, have seldom borne gold; but the sedimentary accumulations which followed, or the Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous (parti- cularly the first of these three), have been the deposits which, in the tracts where they haye undergone a metamorphosis or change of structure, by the influence of igneous agency or other causes, have been the chief sources whence gold has been derived.” After referring to the opinion of Professor Ramsay that gold in the Ural Mountains, Australia, &c. occurred in rocks of a similar age and character, the author stated that Sir R. Murchison’s statement is singularly corroborated by the position of the quartzose vein in the Clogau Mine, distinguished as the “Gold Lode,” which traverses altered paleozoic slates near the junction of an eruptive bar of porphyritic greenstone ; and the same law appears to obtain also with respect to all old-bearing quartzose veins of the Dolgelly district, upon the ores of which he ad made a very large number of experiments during the past eight years. There are in this district about twenty localities in which gold has been discovered visible in quartz, or associated more or less with galena, blende, copper-pyrites, telluric bismuth, carbonate of lime, schist, baryta, iron-pyrites, &c. By far the richest dis- coveries of gold have been made at the Dol-y-frwynog, Prince of Wales, Cambrian, and the Clogau mines. Gold has also been found in the “ Marine drift” by the Hon. F, Walpole, Sir Augustus Webster, the author, and others, a piece of which was exhibited. Mr. Arthur Dean, in a paper read before the British Association in 1844, stated that a complete system of auriferous veins exists throughout the whole of the Snowdonian or Lower Silurian formations of North Wales. Upon the faith of ros re. “9 ; 1861. 130 REPORT—1861. this, much money was spent at the Cwmheisian mines, and very little gold obtained by smelting operations, for reasons which are now not very difficult to understand. Much money was also spent about ten years afterwards at the same place, after setting the most eminent assayers to work, to prove the truth of Mr, Dean’s state- ment, in erecting machinery, which produced even less gold by amalgamation than the former method. Although it was then held as an axiom that gold always exists in a metallic state, that mercury has always an affinity for gold, and therefore, wherever gold is present in minerals, mercury will necessarily dissolve it, in this instance, however, it did not prove the case, and the result of operations upon 150 tons came at length to be considered as an enigmatical failure, as the following extracts from the experiments made at the time will show. Here followed a detailed account of experiment No.7, made on 43 tons of metalliferous minerals which were triturated in 42 lbs. of mercury. Ten ree of this on distillation gave 70 grains residual metal, containing 18-4 grains of gold. A qualitative analysis of this residual metal gave gold, silver, lead, bismuth, zine, arsenic, and also traces of copper and iron, The distilled mercury contained traces only of zinc and arsenic, It had been proved before the experiment, and also since, that the 43 tons of mine- ral contained several ounces of the “ Royal metal,” but the quicksilver neglected it for associates of less dignity, though intrinsically of more real utility. This, how- ever, was not the result expected. At the Dol-y-frwynog mine, about two years afterwards, Sir Charles Price operated similarly upon several tons of material, but with the same provoking failure as before. At present the Clogau mine is the most interesting and profitable. It stands at an elevation of 1000 feet above the level of the sea. The “Saint David’s” or “Gold Lode” is the most remarkable feature. After giving some descriptions of this mine, he desired to notice espe- cially that this lode is at the junction of the Cambrian sandstones and the Lingula flags of the Lower Silurian rocks. A quantity of what was called “poor copper ore ” was raised from this lode and sold many years since; but in 1854 the refuse of this “ poor copper ore ” was examined, and indications of native gold in con- siderable quantities were found. Some of this refuse ore was put to the test, and in one instance, to his knowledge, 100 Ibs. weight yielded 143 ounces of gold. Many other experiments have been made by various persons with equal success; but owing to the uncertainty of the operation of amalgamation on the one hand, and the mines themselves being subject to two Chancery suits on the other, the general value of the lode, in bulk, has not until recently been determined. After some observations on the processes of assay—which he did not think would give the approximate value of auriferous minerals, notwithstanding that the contrary had been asserted by many eminent men—he referred to a series of thirteen experiments made by himself last autumn upon 112 pounds of auriferous quartz from the Clogau mine, duly prepared and aeaaden by Johnson and Son, of London. The whole quantity gave 25 02. 16 dwts. 7 grains of amalgam, and of fine gold, 8 oz. 5 dwts. 19 grains. An authority in such matters had declared the value of the gold by assay to be £9 per ewt., while he declared it to be £30; in the latter case samples of 7 Ibs. each, instead. of the usual 400 grains, had been operated on. He would now state the result of actual working operations for gold at the Clogau mine since the beginning of the year. This statement showed that 207 tons 8 cwt. of quartz gave 1314 oz. of fine gold; 3 tons of the best of this quartz gave no less than 976°6 oz. of gold. If they added 56 ounces obtained from 5 tons in 1860, it showed a total quantity of 1370 ounces of gold from 212 tons of auriferous mineral, being at the rate of 63 ounces per ton. This, he believed, was the first instance of a hundredweight of gold having been obtained from the crown lands of this country, the value of which was £5300. This “Royal Mine” paid a royalty of =; to the crown. The cost of extraction had been very inconsiderable, and there was a probability of an equal yield of gold for some time to come. a The total amount raised from this lode to 19th May, 1862, is three hundred- weight. On the Details of the Carboniferous Limestone, as laid open by the Railway Cutting and Tunnel near Almondsbury, north of Bristol. By — Ricwarp- son, C.E. (Communicated by Sir R, Murcutson.) : Geologists obtained a great deal of yery available and useful knowledge from the TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 131 examination of the cuttings and tunnels in railroads; and they had not of late years derived more information from a single cutting than that to which he would point their attention. There was a branch railway making from Bristol, from the Great Western line, and which was to traverse the Severn. In making this traverse, it was necessary to cross a ridge of limestone near Almondsbury, the railroad cutting through the carboniferous limestone. In one part strata were subject to very great contortions. In some parts there were broken bands of coal, thrown about in an extraordinary way. The whole of the highly inclined strata were surmounted by new red sandstone. It was remarkable that there was in this cutting an enormous amount of calcareous and other grits which seemed to form a regular part of the mountain limestone, There were also large red masses, evidently formed by con- cretion. Sir R. Murchison exhibited a detailed diagram prepared by Mr. Richardson, and, haying visited the‘locality, explained the chief phenomena to the Section, romising that the tract should be examined carefully by one of the Geological uryeyors. On the Nature of Sigillarie, and on the Bivalve Shells of the Coal. By J. W. Satrer, A.LS., F.GS. The object of the communication was to describe some specimens of Sigillaria which have the appearance of having grown in water, inasmuch as they have the stem swelled at short intervals, and show scars like those of the rootlets of Stig- maria at these swollen varices. The scars in question appear between the ridges on which the rows of leaf-scars are arranged, and terminate where the swelling ceases. Such swellings are seen in several fine specimens, in the Manchester Museum, of Sig. (Favularia) tessellata, S. nodosa, and S. hexagona. That the Sigillarie grew in water has long been the opinion of Mr. Binney (1840), and (independently) also of Professor H. Rogers (1842). The tracks of large worms in the sediment, the spiral annelides (Spirorbis), and the very frequent in- termixture of undoubted sea-shells, have led the former author to speculate freely on their growth in sea-water. And the presence of very salt water in coal-mines, and of ae in all coal, as Dr. Percy affirms, is a confirmation of this belief. The freshwater character of the coal-growths has been assumed chiefly from the occurrence of shells like Unio in it (Anthracosia of King), These, however, differ in some important particulars from true Unio, and they are found associated with shells (Anthracomya) which appear, from their wrinkled epidermis, to be-related to the Myade. They occur, too, though much less frequently, with true marine forms, Productus, Spirifer, &c., in the ironstones; and one, the common Anthra- cosia acuta, is even found in the mountain limestone shale, where the fossils are all marine. On the Granitic Rocks of Donegal, and the Minerals associated therewith, By R. H. Scorr, M.A. The author gave a short account of a mineralogical tour made by him, in com- pany with Professor Haughton, in the course of the summer, the results of which seemed to throw some light on the possible origin of granite. The district visited was Donegal, which county consists mainly of gneiss and mica-slate, and is traversed in aN.E. direction by an axis of granite. This granite is of a peculiar composition, containing two felspars, one orthose, and the other, not albite, as in the granite of the Mourne mountains, but oligoclase—a mineral whose occurrence in the British Islands had only been noticed within the last twelve months. Professor Haughton, to whom this discovery is due, was unfortunately unable to attend the Meeting. The facts were briefly these:—The granite contains oligoclase and quartz, which combination appears to be a proof that the rock never was in a melted condition, as in that case these two minerals would have acted on each other and formed com- mon felspar. It lies in beds corresponding to the general lie of the strata of the country, and in its character is essentially gneissose ; and, lastly, at points inside the area of the granite, metamorphic rocks (limestones and slates) are found with Q* 132 REPORT—1861. their bedding, which is nearly vertical, unchanged. The condition of these rocks is very similar to that of the same rocks outside the granite area; and it is a point of great interest to determine how they got there. The solution of this offered by the author of the paper was that the whoie of the rocks had been originally stratified, and had been subjected to some actions which are termed metamorphic. The result of such action was to conyert some into granite, some into gneiss, and some into cry- stalline limestone and mica-schist,withoutvery much altering their relative positions. The possibility of granite being produced by other means than simple heat seemed to them to be proved by the occurrence of felspar in quartz veins, which are usuall admitted to have been filled by means of infiltration. The author stated that there were several points in connexion with these granites which showed a close relation between them and the granites of Norway. The whole question required a careful chemical and mineralogical examination, which could not be concluded for some time. Among the types of rock found in Donegal is a syenite, the felspar of which is oligoclase. The origin of this rock the authors are disposed to attribute to the addition of limestone to the granite. A similar syenite occurs at Carlingford, but contains anorthite, a felspar which would result from the admixture of a larger quantity of limestone than is necessary to produce oligoclase, and has been proved by eats Haughton to have such an origin. The anorthite syenite never occurs unless limestone is present in large excess, which is not the case in Donegal. In conclusion, Mr. Scott mentioned that the district described by him was very rich in minerals, some of which were extremely rare, and that he entertained no doubt that a more careful examination would largely increase their number. On the Elsworth Rock, and the Clay above it. By Harry Surrey, The Elsworth rock is a limestone somewhat oolitic and pyritous, divided by a dark clay into upper and lower beds characterized by different fossils. At the vil- lage of Elsworth the entire thickness is not more than 14 feet, a thickness which a well-sinking three miles 8.8.W. showed it still to retain. The dip being in this direction, and of about 1 foot in 200, it followed that another stone band found at St. Ives, 43 miles north, would be 130 feet lower down. This rock, at a point midway between St. Ives and Elsworth, was found in a well to be some 6 feet thick ; at St. Ives what remains of it is rather thicker. It is more earthy than the Els- worth beds, has similar fossils, and is often divided by a thin parting of clay. At Bluntisham, two miles N.N.E. of St. Ives, the Elsworth rock is again met with, the St. Ives rock therefore coming up in a saddle. Another rock is found at St, Neots. As the St. Ives rock occurs at Papworth, little more than two miles west of Elsworth, and St. Neots is six miles west of Papworth, this stone band is re- garded as greatly below the other beds. A similar conclusion would be drawn from the fossils of the adjacent clay. At Tetworth, seven miles 8.W. of Elsworth, and therefore above the Elsworth rock, a thin limestone of a foot and a half was found. These rocks mark zones in the clay all distinguished by differing groups of fossils : the St. Neots zone has Ammonites Duncani, A. spinosus, A. athletus, A. coronatus, &e. ; the St. Ives zone A. Eugenti, A. Maria, A. cordatus, A. Goliathus, &c.; in the next zone are A. Babeanus and A. alternans; and in the Tetworth zone A. Achilles, Be- lemnites excentricus, Lima pectiniformis, Gryphea dilatata, Ostrea deltoidea, &e. Above this latter zone no stone bands are known, there being a great thickness of clay which appears to pass gradually into the Kimmeridge clay, the coral rag being wanting. But as there is not the usual break in life, but a blending of the fossils of two clays hitherto distinct, and with them some forms of the coral rag, the coral rag was still present as a period, though under a new form. Proyisionally this stratum is called the Tetworth clay*. The Elsworth rock is at its base; its upper limit is unknown; in it are very few new and peculiar forms. he Elsworth rock abounds in fossils, a careful examination of which showed it to be rather the uppermost part of the Oxford clay than a representative of the calcareous grit at the base of the Tetworth clay. A few of the species are—Am- * At the Meeting it was called Bluntisham clay, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 133 monites vertebralis, A. biplex, A. perarmatus, A. Henrici, A. canaliculatus, A. Go- liathus, Belemnites tornatilis, B. hastatus; the only described gasteropod, Plewroto- maria reticulata. Bivalves: Pecten fibrosus, P. lens, P. vimineus, Gryphea dilatata, Lima pectiniformis, Avicula expansa, A. ovalis, A. elliptica, Trigonia costata, T. cla- vellata, Astarte ovata, A. lurida, &c. Many new species were noticed ; among others, a elongata, Avicula pterosphena, Pleurotomaria amphicelia, Littorina peror- nata, &e. On some Phenomena connected with the Drifts of the Severn, Avon, Wye, and Usk. By the Rev. W. 8. Symonns, GS. Alluvial Deposits.—-The first point we remark is the great difference which at present occurs in the deposition of silt and alluvium by such rivers as the Severn and Avon, compared with swift-flowing streams like the Wye and Usk, which have a fall of as much as 23 feet in a mile along their general course. In some localities the Wye has shifted its course, filled up its former channel, and cut out a new bed, within the memory of man, as proved by an old map, which gives the position of the celebrated Ross Oak, now known as the “ Burnt Oak,” and the river as it flowed a century and a half ago. A broad surface of meadow-land now sweeps where the Wye then flowed, and the river now runs some 70 or 80 yards from the former bank on which that old oak stood. This is not the case with respect to the smoothly flowing Severn and sluggish Avon to anything like the same extent. The point, however, to which the author would direct attention is, that all these rivers may and do alter their courses, and destroy and re-form their alluvia over and over again, for age after age, without in the slightest degree changing their courses, save as regards the level alluvial land. The Lake Period.—It is well known that there was a time, antecedent to the present configuration of land and river surface, when the Severn, Avon, and Wye flowed, as the river Shannon does now, through a chain of lakes of various sizes, and which lakes are now silted up and form the celebrated “holmes” or river- meadows. The author formerly inferred that the relics of the great quadrupeds found so abundantly on the banks of the Avon, at Bricklehampton and Cropthorne, at Kempsey and other localities on the Severn, were disinterred from banks of mud, silt, and gravel, which were formed on the shores of the ancient lakes. It is here that he would correct the inferences that might be drawn from any correlation of these drifts, which contain the remains of the hippopotamus, rhinoceros, elephant, cave-hyzena, and extinct oxen and deer, with the deposits of the Lake-epoch. They belong to a distinct epoch, and offer a distinct history. Low-level Drift—My. Prestwich has shown that certain drifts and gravel beds above the Avon, Severn, and other rivers, which he designates as “low-level drifts,” are altogether antecedent to, and independent of, the detritus which fills up the beds of the former lakes. They belong to a distinct epoch, and represent an entirely different water surface. Instead of dipping under or into the lacustrine deposits, in many localities they dip away from the old lake silts, and are slightly upheaved. They are, in fact, the relics of broad and, probably, rapid rivers, of which bos former channel must have been 30 or 40 feet above the level of the silted-up akes. The period of the “low-level drift” was, then, anterior to that of the Lake epoch in this part of England; and it is in these beds, and not in the lacustrine drifts of Worcestershire, that the explorer finds such numerous relics of the extinct mam~ a. These beds are well developed near the Avon at Bricklehampton and Cropthorne, and near the Severn at Upton-on-Severn, and near the Ox-eye Gate, about a mile from Tewkesbury, on the Ledbury high road. Near Worcester they may be seen in various localities ranging above the margins of the former lakes. These drifts are also well developed on the banks of the Wye, near Hereford, as at Broomy Hill and the Infirmary. At Brecon, Mr. Symonds found a most interesting old river-margin of well-stratified sand with rolled pebbles, on the slope of a hill, and at a height of 50 or 60 feet above the river Usk. High-level Drift—Certain gravels and drifts are found at a much higher level above the river-courses than the drifts just alluded to, These gravel-beds cap the 134. REPORT—1861. summits of very considerable hills in the vale of Worcester. They occur on Tunnel Hill at Upton-on-Severn, on the summit of Corsewood Hill, on Ryal Hill, Twining near Tewkesbury, and at Elmore near Gloucester. They are found along the flanks of the Malverns, where they have yielded the remains of Elephas antiquus and Rhinoceros tichorhinus, animals that lived during the glacial period, and are there- fore properly associated with the northern drift. A fine molar tooth of Elephas antiquus has lately been found by Henry Brooks among the gravel which overlies the great masses of angular blocks heaped against the side of a hill, known as Clincher’s Mill Wood, near Ledbury. ' The author also observed the high-level drift at several points in Herefordshire, the principal of which is an excellent section, near the Kite’s Nest, on the Hay road, about four miles west of Hereford, and a still better one at Wilcroft near Lug- wardine, Another fine molar of E. primigenius has been brought to the author of the paper since it was read at Manchester. This fossil is from the high-level drift, 75 feet above the Severn, and is from Twining gravel-pits between Tewkesbury and Brockeridge Common on the Worcester road. On Subterranean Movements. By Professor Vavewan, of Cincinnati. The author stated that the definite relations recently discovered between calorific and mechanical action seemed to haye an important bearing on questions relating to the secular refrigeration of the earth and the high temperature of its inten regions, even at the present time. The vast amount of heat supposed to have escaped from our planet during past ages might be reasonably expected to call into existence forces of much greater efficiency than those indicated by the upheaval of lands, or by the violence of earthquakes and mechanical eruptions. Our terrestrial fabric had a strength too limited for the full development of such great calorific powers by the unequal contractions of its different parts; and in a cooling globe com- ound gases could not be expected to produce any decided mechanical effect, at toast without materially altering the composition of the atmosphere. But, apart from these causes, the transition of the igneous rocks from a fluid to a solid state would be attended with occasional paroxysmal movement and change. Being de- pendent on hydrostatic conditions for stability, the different parts of the earth’s crust must extend into the great reservoir of lava to a depth in some measure pro- portionate to the elevation above its surface, Continents must rest on solid foun- dations far deeper than those which supported the body of the ocean; and the violence which subterranean forces ae a in seyeral islands might be ascribed in part to the weakness of the barriers which restrained them. Inequalities in the solid envelope of our globe were indicated with some certainty by local forces of gravity. The anomalous character of the vibrations of the pendulum, when applied im some ye justified the conclusion that the invisible side of the earth’s crust contained the greatest irregularities, and that our continental tracts of land rest on the bases of gigantic subterranean mountains, whose tops might be depressed even three or four hundred miles below the mean level of the vitrified matter. The accumulations of solid matter on the internal mountains must ultimately be crushed by the strain which their augmented size occasioned; a mighty avalanche of rock would then tumble to the thinner part of the earth’scrust. Regarding these masses as the cause of earthquakes, they might account for the instantaneous manner in which the shocks of earthquakes occurred, their extreme violence and destructive character near the coasts of continents and on adjacent islands, while they were almost imperceptible in the interior of continents. It was probable that the ascend- ing movements of silica, and perhaps of other isolated matter, might serve to bring the heavy metallic deposits from the central to the superficial regions of our planet, and the general occurrence of gold in auriferous quartz rock might thus it of plausible explanation. On the Red Crag Deposits of the County of Suffolk, considered in relation to the finding of Celts, in France and England, in the Drift of the Post-Pliocene Period. By W.Wuuvcorr. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 135 On the Burnley Coal-field and its Fossil Contents. By J. T. Witxrnson and J, WuiraKer. Although of limited area, the Burnley coal-field is uncommonly rich, not only in fossil fuel, but also in organic remains. ‘It comprises within itself a complete series of the middle and lower coal-measures. It is surrounded by ranges of hills; the principal of them being Pendle on the north, Boulsworth on the east, Gorple to- wards the south, and Hambleton on the west, several of them being nearly 2000 ft. above the sea-level. Geographically, the field occupies the lowest portion of the _yalley; but, geologically, it is the highest, when considered with reference to the stratification of the district. The most productive part of the field underlies the town of Burnley, where it assumes the form of a long trough, bounded on the east and west by two faults, running nearly parallel. The greatest depth to which the strata has been pierced occurs on the Fuledge estate, near the centre of the basin, where a depth of nearly 300 yards has been obtained. There have been found the following seams:—The Dog Hole Mine, or top bed, 6 ft. thick ; Kershaw Mine, 3 ft.; Burnley Old Five-feet Mine (the main coal of the field), 5 ft.; Higher Yard Bed, 3ft.; Lower Yard Bed, 3ft.; Low Bottom Mine, 4ft.; Cannel Bed, 2} ft. ; Thin Coal Mine, 23 ft.; Great Mine, or King Bed, 4ft. These are locally called “The top beds,” and they include about 40 ft. of coal, imbedded in strata about 600ft. deep. For a depth of 240 ft. below these no coal occurs. Then come the Arley series, or Habergham Mines, consisting of the following working seams :— China, about 2 ft. thick; Dandy Bed, 3 ft.; Arley, or Habergham Mines, 4 ft. : giving a total of 9 ft. of coal to about 445 ft. of intermediate strata. Strata not containing coal here again form another awkward division of the measures. The Gannister Mines follow next, comprising the Foot Mine, with a hard Gannister bed; the Spa Clough Top Bed, 24 ft.; Spa Clough Bottom Bed, 4 ft.; or a total of 8 ft. of coal, with 684 ft. of intervening strata. From these measures to the Rough Rock, the highest part of the Millstone-grit formation, the distance is something more than 300 ft. Omitting many seams less than 1 ft. thick, there is, from the highest mine in the Burnley measures, to the highest member of the Millstone-grit formation, a total of 50 ft. of coal, for a depth of 2026 ft. of strata. None of the thin seams in the Millstone-grit have been worked in the Burnley district. The authors describe in detail the various seams mentioned, and the fossil remains found in each. In conclusion, they state that seven large specimens of Sigillarie were found in the limited space occupied by a small cotton-mill recently erected in Church Street, Burnley ; and others have been found in Mill Lane during the construction of a common sewer. The whole of these were in an upright position, and several had Stigmarian roots adhering, giving the best possible evidence that they had grown and flourished on the spot. The whole of the overlying rock may be described as an immense fossil forest, occupying the central part of the Burnley coal-field ; and that town itself is situated on what was one of its richest lagune jungles, replete with the flora of a former geological age. On the Geology of Knockshigowna in Tipperary, Ireland. By A. B. Wynne, F.G.S. In this paper the position of Knockshigowna, a conspicuous object in the Lower Ormond part of Tipperary, was first alluded to ; and the author proceeded to describe it as a somewhat ridge-shaped elevation, rising to 701 feet above the level of the sea, and 400 feet above that of the surrounding limestone plain, with a gentle slope on the south-east and a steep declivity to the north-west. Its structure was then explained, and it was stated to be formed of Silurian rocks overlaid by the Old Red Sandstone, which is unconformable tothe Silurian, and is denuded at the top of the hill so as to expose these underlying rocks. The Old Red is entirely absent along the greatest part of the north-western base of the ridge, in consequence of the occur- rence of a fault, by which it is buried beneath the outcrop of the Silurian rocks. The position of this fault is marked out and its existence proved by the near approach of the Carboniferous limestone and Silurian formations at two points along the line of fracture, space not being left between them for the thickness of the Old Red Sandstone as exposed upon the opposite flank of the hill. 136 r REPORT—1861. The Silurian rocks consist of grey grits, slates, shales, flagstones, and coarse con- glomerates, the latter occurring as a wide interstratified band, and taking a peculiar red colour as they approach their junction with the overlying, unconformable Old Red Sandstone. Fossils were stated to have been found by the author and W. H. Baily, Esq., F.G.S., in these Silurian rocks, and a list of them (by the latter gentle- man) was given, including two corals, six kinds of trilobites, two sorts of grapto- lites, and twenty-five shells, belonging to the orders called Brachiopoda, Conchifera, Gasteropoda, and Cephalopoda. : From the paleontological evidence afforded by these, the rocks which contained them were supposed by Mr. Baily to belong to the lower Llandovery subdivision. After stating the general similarity of all the rocks of Knockshigowna beneath the Old Red Sandstone as one group, and their resemblance to other Lower Silurian rocks in the south of Ireland, the discovery of the characteristic Cambrian fossil, Oldhamia radiata, by J. Darby, Esq., which is believed to have been found in situ in these rocks, was incidentally mentioned. And in conclusion, the Old Red Sand- stone, carboniferous shale and limestone of the locality were each described; and the absence of the drift, except in a few places in the neighbourhood, was pointed out, On the Excess of Water in the Region of the Earth about New Zealand : its Causes and Effects. By J. Yates, MA., F.RS., F.GS. The author of this memoir endeavours first to ascertain, from the best authorities, the proportion of land and water on the surface of the globe. He finds that the estimates vary between 100 land to 256 water, which is Berghaus’s last estimate, and 100 land to 289 water, which is the computation of Professor Link. It is remarkable that these numbers are the squares of 10, 16, and 17, and of this cireum~ stance the author avails himself in his subsequent arithmetical calculations. Such being the proportion of land to water, the next question is, where to fix the centre of the water so far as it is now collected on the surface of the globe. On the authority of Berghaus, who laboured with the concurrence and advice of Humboldt and Ritter, the author assumes this centre to be 40°S. of the Equator, and on a meridian which touches upon the islands of New Zealand, although his conclusions would not be materially affected, if, following Ansted and some others, he were to fix the point 5° nearer to the south pole. For the sake of simplicity and clearness in computation, he supposes all the water to be collected around its centre in a uniform mass, instead of being distributed and ramified into oceans, seas, bays, and straits. ‘Thus a small circle divides the entire mass of land from the entire mass of water. This circle is delineated on the globe by taking the centre of the land and drawing a circle round it with 62° 30! as radius, this radius being assumed on the supposition that it is safest to take a mean between the two extreme proportions of land and water. In addition to these data respecting the proportions and the centres of the land and water, the author shows that the mountains in the so-called Land Hemisphere greatly surpass in elevation those of the Water Hemisphere ; and presuming that the mountains in the Water Hemisphere are the highest points of submerged con- tinents, he uses the mountains of the Land Hemisphere as gauges for measuring the general depth of the water, which he finds to be nearly two kilometres. - By a subsequent investigation he finds the general elevation of the continents above the level of the water to be about one-third of this quantity. To explain his theory the author employs a diagram, which is a section of the earth through the meridian of New Zealand. A diameter is drawn from the centre of the ocean and is intersected by a perpendicular, which is the chord of the before- mentioned are of 125°, and which divides the collected land from the collected water. By the use of this diagram, and proceeding from one step of mathematical reasoning to another, haying likewise assumed that the hemisphere of the solid earth contiguous to the great mass of water is heavier than the other hemisphere, and that the solid earth has consequently a centre of gravity lying to the south- eastward of its centre of magnitude, the author computes the distance between these two centres to be about 1260 metres. From this apparent fact, coupled with the general permanency of the surface of the terraqueous globe, he infers that the interior TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 137 of the globe must be in the main solid, and of this he further avails himself to explain the phenomena of earthquakes and the so-called “magnetic storms.” ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. Tue CuarrMaNn (Professor Babington), in opening the Meeting, made some re- marks on the advantages of meetings like those of this Association. The great object of science was the unfolding the laws by which the universe was governed, and one of the greatest encouragements to this study was the assembling together of men of kindred minds and similar pursuits. Sometimes difference of opinion engendered feelings of an unpleasant kind, which personal intercourse served to re- move; and thus these meetings, on account of their scientific and social value, had become increasingly appreciated. On some Points in the Anatomy of Cyprea. By T. Axcocr, M.D. Examinations of numerous specimens of Cyprea, received from the Smithsonian Institution, have led me to the conclusion that the oral organ in this genus is a rostrum, capable, however, of complete retraction. The food found in the stomach of the animals consists almost entirely of sponge. The teeth differ considerably from one another in different species, but all have the essential characters of those of the Rostrifera. The gills are two in number: one large, semicircular, and pectinate; the other trefoil-shaped and plume-like. The whole roof of the branchial chamber behind the gills is occupied by a very large mucus-gland. On the Cosmopolitan Operations of the Smithsonian Institution. By Purr P. Carrenter, B.A., Ph.D. An account is given of this Institution at page 109 of the last volume of ‘Trans- actions.’ At a time when political convulsions are throwing such great impedi- ments in the way of Transatlantic science, it is satisfactory to know that it is only in pecuniary resources that its operations have received a check. The U.S. Govern- ment are simply the trustees of the fund, not its owners; and the stores of scientific material are equally available for students in all parts of the world. The policy has been inaugurated of always depositing the first duplicate of type specimens on the other side of the Atlantic. The accumulation of a large museum at Washing- ton is not the object of the Directors, but rather the distribution of the duplicate materials, wherever it can be shown that they will promote the “increase and dif- fusion of knowledge among men.” On the Variations of Tecturella grandis. By Puiu P. Carpenter, B.A., Ph.D. Of the score of so-called species of Acmezeidz described from the Californian coast, there are seven which are tolerably well established. ‘The species of Acmea, how- ever, run into each other by so many intermediate forms that their determination is very difficult. The amount of variation of which one species is susceptible is well shown in Zecturella grandis, which presents well-marked characters to separate it from all other species of limpets; and yet, in about thirty specimens examined, the ratio of the anterior portion in front of the apex to the entire length (generally a constant quantity in each species) was found to vary from 1:7 to 1:20, In this, as in similar cases, the facts should be tested both by the Darwinian theory and by the theory of specific permanence. It is not to be expected, in the present state of our knowledge, that either theory alone will afford a satisfactory explanation of all the facts as they arise. \ 138 ; REPORT—1861. On the Anatomy of Orthagoriscus Mola, the short Sunfish. By Joun Cretanp, M.D The integument of this fish is a dense substance of great thickness, consisting of felted fibres, whose meshes are filled with a copious jelly-like matter containing cells. There are imbedded in it, on the front of the head and in common with the caudal fin rays, hard plates presenting a peculiar structure, composed of intercommunicating tubes, which contain masses of crystalline matter, and lie in a hyaline matrix. The skeleton can only be studied in the recent state, on account of important masses of cartilage entering into its structure. There are no ribs. The interspinous bones of the long and pointed dorsal and anal fins are of great size; those of the caudal fin are crowded between the last osseous vertebra and the superior and infe- rior spines of the vertebra preceding. Every fin-ray is composed of a pair of osseous slips, arising one on each side of a cartilaginous basis. Those of the dorsal as well as those of the anal fin are crowded together into a compact mass, which moves in a groove on a large block of cartilage into which the interspinous bones are in- serted. The caudal fin rays are isolated from one another, each imbedded sepa- rately in the integument; their cartilaginous bases are short and thick; and ina line with them is a similar cartilage without any fin-ray attached, which is appa- rently vertebral in its nature, but which is placed, not in direct continuation with the last osseous vertebra, but on a slightly higher level, reminding one of the upward tendency exhibited by the last vertebra of most osseous fishes. The muscular masses on each side of the body consist entirely, as was pointed out by Mr. Goodsix, of immensely developed fin-muscles. The abdominal cavity lies in immediate contact with the integument, there being only two very small vestiges of abdominal muscles. The vertebral column, there- fore, is not used as an instrument of motion, but only supports the dorsal and anal fins, which, together with the short tail, are the organs of progression. As was pointed out by Arsaly, the spinal cord of the Sunfish is extremely short, and terminates within the cranial cavity. The spinal canal is occupied by a large cauda equina. The nerves, after emerging from the spinal canal, are joined together by a communicating cord and ganglia. As if to compensate for the want of muscular parietes to the abdomen, the intes- tines have very thick muscular coats. They are coiled closely together into a mass, which is tightly invested by a single fold of peritoneum, and the spaces between the coils are entirely occupied by large lymphatic sinuses. There is a marked circular fold of the mucous membrane a few inches above the rectum, which may be considered as a rudimentary cecum. The heart presents eleven semilunar valves: three protect the entrances of veins into the auricle; four guard the auriculo-ventricular opening ; and other four, two of them very small, the bulbus arteriosus. The ear has no otoliths, and only two semicircular canals. The nostrils are ex- tremely small. The eye is very large. A number of other peculiarities, relating to the bones of the head and to the viscera, were pointed out. ’ This paper is published in full in the Nat. Hist. Review, April 1862. A Scheme to induce the Mercantile Marine to assist in the Advancement of Science by the intelligent Collection of Objects of Natural History from all parts of the Globe. By Curnpert Cottinewoon, M.B., M.A., F.L.S., Liver- pool, The British Association at Manchester had appointed a committee to report upon the subject, and requested him to take the direction of it. It consisted of the fol- lowing gentlemen :—Dr. Collingwood, Liverpool ; John Lubbock, F.R.S., London ; R. Patterson, F.R.S., Belfast; J. Aspinall Turner, M.P., Manchester; Rey. P. P. Carpenter, Ph.D., Warrington ; and the Rey. H. H. Higgins, M.A., Liverpool. The mercantile marine of Liverpool, engaged in foreign and colonial trade, amount- ing to 4500 sail, measuring 23 millions of tons, and employing many thousands of men, exhibits an amount of enterprise such as probably no other age and no other place has ever before shown. The whole globe is scoured by these men and ships, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 139. in search of whatever may conduce to civilization and to the wealth of the country which is the centre of this yast and important combination. Nor is the port of Liverpool, although the largest (representing one-third of the commerce of Eng- land), the only one to which a similar remark is applicable ; and it therefore becomes a question worthy of consideration—How is it that such a vast staff of enterprising men, constantly sailing to all parts of the globe, do so little to add to our know- ledge of the natural productions, which they, of all men, are in the best position to explore and to provide for the investigations of scientific naturalists at home ? y do these men, confining their attention to the immediately useful results of the trade in which they are engaged, altogether pass by natural objects, the collec- tion of which could not fail to be a source of interest, and which, to men with a moderate degree of education, would, it might be imagined, afford the stimulus of arzational pride? One thing is certain, namely, that no accessions of importance are derived to our museums and collections from the labours of seafaring men. piece of coral, a shell or two, or something which has received attention from its oddity, is occasionally brought by the sailor from the rich and interesting regions which he has visited; but, as a general rule, anything of value or importance is not even to be looked for. There are, however, a few, a very few, honourable excep- tions, in men whose intelligence leads them to see the value of the opportunities they enjoy, and to make use of them, as far as in them lies, for the improvement and advancement of knowledge. But the willingness of these gentlemen to render their assistance in any direction in which their scientific friends ashore point out that they can be useful, only serves to place in the strongest possible light the immense value which would accrue to science were a large body of such men, instead of one or two, constantly employing themselves in a similar manner. We cannot expect all captains of vessels, or, indeed, perhaps any, to use in this direction the intelligence of a Darwin or a Huxley; but it is not, perhaps, too much to look for that they should exercise a moderate degree of interest in the acquisition of rudi- mentary information, and a certain amount of capacity in the selection and collec- tion of the multifarious objects which daily come under their notice. The difficul- ties which are wriformly brought forward against the idea of seamen turning their attention to natural history are chiefly on the score of want of time to attend to anything except their own business. But those who are best competent. to judge give a different account. They tell us, indeed, that the seaman, during his passage through subordinate grades, has his hands full, and his attention fully occupied by his ship duties. But when he is entrusted with a command, the case is different. He is no longer a servant on board his vessel, but a master. His life of active employment is changed for one of comparative idleness, and it is well if the time thus left on his hands is not put to an evil use. Sailors have not the advantages which the mechanic enjoys upon shore. None of the ordinary rational modes of spending his hours of leisure are open to him. He is dependent upon himself for amuse ment, and this is more particularly the case with the captain. How often, unfor- tunately, do we hear of captains of vessels being charged with intemperance, cruelty, and the long train of evils resulting from an unoccupied mind, and an absence of sufficient employment for the energies of mind and body. The ship is not ahcays in a gale—she does not always require the close supervision which is doubtless often necessary. There are abundant seasons of repose, and ample time which might be employed in the pursuit of those rational amusements or studies which would be of so vast a benefit to science. Again, a captain naturally feels that, should he devote any attention to natural history, he may lay himself open to the charge of neglect-= ing his ship’s duties. His owner may possibly be narrow-minded enough to con- demn him for allowing anything to occupy his mind besides the routine of his ship work; or he may even be shortsighted enough to imagine that a man with an object in his moments of leisure is less fitted to occupy a place of trust than a mere ma- chine who has no idea beyond the mechanical duties of his profession. And not without reason has the seaman this fear—a fear which, I know, weighs considerably with conscientious captains, who would, if they received the sanction of their owners, do great service to science, without abating one jot of their vigilance and activity in their primary duties. "The main point, then, to be considered is—how shipowners soiled can be induced to sanction in their masters the cultivation of those tastes which they often possess, and which cannot but have a beneficial effect upon their 140 REPORT—1861,. character, and the improvement of those opportunities which they so abundantly enjoy. This is the great desideratum, and until this is done, no great good can be effected. The ship-captain of intelligence must know that his attention to natural history, or any other branch of science not immediately connected with ship duties, is not only not looked upon with suspicion by his owner, but is encowraged by him. He must feel that his master regards his scientific studies and attainments, not as unfitting him for command and full confidence in the management of the import- ant interests entrusted to him, but as absolutely rendering him more trustworthy, on the principle enunciated by a well-known member of the mercantile marine service, that “a man with a hobby is always safer both at sea and on shore than a thoroughly idle man.” The advantages which might be expected to accrue from such a plan are manifold. Museums such as those of Liverpool and Manchester should not lack specimens in any department, with such a staff of industrious and intelligent collectors constantly bringing contributions. But by no means the least important result would be the elevation of the mercantile marine service as a body, and their emancipation from the evils too often looked upon as inseparable from their habits of Tif, by giving them a rational object upon which they may expend their energies, when not called upon by pressing duties on board ship. They have no resources such as those possess whose life is passed on shore, and it cannot be otherwise than that, herding together, as they do, for months at a time, with scarce any of the amenities of life, their minds should degenerate to a dull blank, or even to a worse condition; and it too often happens that in this respect the captain is in no degree superior to his crew. Regarded, therefore, from a philanthropic point of view, it is a subject worth inquiring into, whether or not some scheme may be rendered feasible by which this opprobrium may be removed. No shipowner will deny that such an amelioration of the seaman’s character would be ultimately fol- lowed with advantage to his own personal interest ; but that advantage is not “to be reaped suddenly, and it is too distant in its prospect to offer much inducement to take much trouble to accomplish it. The direction which I have here supposed the ship-captain’s energies to take is, however, by no means the only one which may be followed with usefulness and advantage. I have made it prominent be- cause I believe it would, in a vast number of instances, be adopted with most useful results. But men’s tastes, doubtless, differ considerably, and the study of natural history would not commend itself to all. Various subjects of study might be fol- lowed out advantageously, and the sciences of navigation, meteorology, &c. would receive important accession from the intelligence which a higher standard of edu- cation would develope among our mercantile marine. Some stimulus, however, would undoubtedly be needed to carry on this work; and the nature of the rewards which might be offered to induce the cooperation of seamen should occupy our careful attention and consideration. Among the commanders of the mercantile marine there are many intelligent men, who would gladly embrace the opportunity, if it were offered to them, of distinguishing themselves in the walks of science, and raising themselves above the level to which they are at present doomed. Whether this stimulus should be in the way of honorary certificates, pecuniary or honorary rewards, association with scientific bodies already in existence, or of any other kind, would be an important matter for after consideration. I have said, however, enough to bring the matter fairly before you, and in your hands I now leave it, hoping it may not be permitted to fall to the ground, but may be taken up by the influential members of the Association connected either with science or with commerce, my own humble cooperation being always at their service. On the Culture of the Vine in the Open Air, By J. Covsurn, On Barragudo Cotton from the Plains of the Amazon, and on the Flax-fibre Cotton of North America. By W. Danson, of Liverpool. The writer states that he has known the vegetable substance called Barragudo cotton for more than twenty years, a small import having been received from Peru vid Cape Horn about that time. It was represented as the produce of a very large tree, 30 feet to 40 feet high, and the cotton, when ripe, hangs down to the ground TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 141 by its own fibres connected. Yet the consumers state it will not spin—a customary objection to anything new. More recently a similar import (about half a dozen bags of 70 lbs. each) came from the River Plate xd Pernambuco. Any quantity can be had from the east side of the Andes and the plains of the Amazon. As to the staple of the cotton, it is very silky and short; but -by grafting, or superior technical cultivation known to naturalists, it might no doubt be improved. Large quantities must be brought to market, and then machinery will be altered to suit its working, as was the case with alpaca, which has a silky fibre. He sold one bag of the Barrugudo cotton at 3d. per lb.; but, as the Yorkshire buyer did not accept delivery, the whole of the last lot was taken by the importer for stuffing sofa cushions and mixing in feather beds, instead of purchasing swandown at 1¥s. 6d. per lb. Here is a large field for the use of such fibres; and if brought to this country in large quantities, it must be mixed with cotton, like Mingo or deyil’s dust, or be spun up with sheep’s wool. Through the kindness of Mr. M. J. Whitty, of the ‘ Liverpool Daily Post,’ the writer was authorized to exhibit a sample of new fibre from the wild flax of North America. Millions of bales, he states, can be obtained at a cost of less than 4d. per lb., so profusely does the wild flax exist. These new fields ought to command attention when there is so much anxiety to increase the supply of cotton. The author contends that six million acres of land in Ireland can be had at a nominal rent, on which good cotton can be grown, the land never having been grazed, scratched, or nibbled by cattle. On the Functions discharged by the Roots of Plants ; and on a Violet peculiar to the Calamine Rocks in the neighbourhood of Aix-la-Chapelle. By Professor Daupeny, LL.D., M.D., F.R.S. This violet, although its petals are of a uniformly yellow colour so long as the roots are in contact with the zinc, seems to be a mere variety of the common Viola lutea, which has purple petals when it grows on ordinary soil; and accordingly, on the confines of the two strata, the petals of the plant are partly yellow and partly urple. The author made some further remarks upon the absorption of mineral atites by the roots of plants, and in conclusion gave it as his opinion, that the selective power possessed by them indicated a force independent of any physical cause, and which he therefore regarded as of vital origin. On the Influence exerted by Light on the Function of Plants. By Professor Davsrny, LL.D., M.D., F.R.S. The author referred to certain principles established by him in a paper published in the ‘Philosophical Transactions’ for the year 1836, in which it was laid down, first, that the decomposition of carbonic acid and the consequent disengagement of oxygen was influenced by the luminous rays of the spectrum, and not by the calorific or actinic ones; secondly, that under particular circumstances nitrogen is emitted during sunlight from the leaves of plants; and thirdly, that other functions of plants, such as the greenness which the leaves assume, the peculiar property which belongs to certain ones, as to the sensitive plant, of collapsing on the appli- cation of stimuli, the exhalation of water from the leaves and its absorption by the roots, are probably dependent upon the same influence. On the Method of Mr. Darwin in his Treatise on the Origin of Species. By H. Fawcerr, MA. He said that, as he could not conform to what he believed was the rule, that communications should be read (Mr. Fawcett being blind), he would promise to keep as close to his subject as though he had written his paper. The title which he originally fixed upon was, “That the method of investigation pursued by Mr, Darwin, in his Treatise on the Origin of Species, is in strict accordance with the principles of logic.” He feared that he might be charged with presumption in attempting to say anything on Mr. Darwin’s great work, which had already en- gaged the attention of the most accomplished naturalists of the day. He had been 142 ‘ REPORT—1861. assured that the discussion on the subject at the last Meeting of the Association had never been surpassed in the interest it excited or in the talent which it called forth. Indeed, the work had divided the scientific world into two great sections; Darwinite and anti-Darwinite were almost the badges of opposite parties. Professor Owen, Professor Sedgwick, and Mr. Hopkins had given to the new theory a decided opposition ; Sir Charles Lyell, Professor Huxley, and Dr. Hooker had given to it a support more or less decided. All who took an interest in the subject had a right to inquire whether the theory—whatever might be thought of its details—had been logically brought forward. The province of logic was not to discover new facts, but to decide whether facts were legitimately used to establish that which it was pretended they proved. It was constantly alleged that Mr. Darwin was illogical ; that he had not followed the Baconian method. The ‘ Quarterly Review’ assured us that Mr. Darwin had not followed in the steps of Newton and of Kepler; but nothing was more easy than to make such charges, which often only concealed pre- tentious assumptions of scientific knowledge. It was more pertinent to inquire— What is the method of solution of which such a problem admits? He insisted that if ever solved it could only be by a method analogous to that attempted by Mr. Darwin. It could only be solved in this way :—An hypothesis, resting: upon more or less perfect induction, must be started; from that hypothesis certain deductions must be drawn; these deductions must be tried, by seeing whether they would explain the phenomena of nature, and they must be verified by seeing whether they agreed with what can be observed in nature. If this explanation and verification was complete, the hypothesis was advanced from an unproved to the position of a proved and established theory. The Bishop of Oxford last year said that the theory was so absurd that no scientific man could for a moment think that it was in any degree worth considering. But Dr. Hooker, than whom a more eminent authority could not be quoted, at once disposed of the Bishop by saying, that as he believed the theory worth considering, he ought to “apologise for addressing the meeting as a man of no scientific authority.” Dr. Hooker added that he knew of the theory five years before; that, at first, no one more opposed it; but five years’ devotion to natural history had convinced him that the theory was worthy of the most careful consideration and examination. Myr. Darwin, with the most perfect candour, ex- plained in his work that his theory did not yet explain all the facts of nature; but it must not be supposed that his twenty years’ labour had done nothing to advance the ends of science. Me Darwin had strictly followed the rules of the deductive method. as laid down by John Stewart Mill. When Kepler inferred his law of the connexion between the major axis of the planets and the times of their revolution, he so in- ferred from observation, which We could strictly verify by mathematical calculation. The origin of species does not admit of such a verification. In chemistry there was much more power of proof or verification by experiment than was possible in phy- siology ; so with other sciences. When laws of nature cannot be ieened by experiment, we are obliged to go to deductive reasoning. Newton had only an hypothesis, and not a theory, as to the law of gravitation; the law he first tried was an incorrect one. He tried again; and then, as Professor Whewell said, by a tentative pavcens he discovered the correct law. Mx. Darwin had told him (the speaker) that his hypothesis was not at once suggested to him. He found in his studies that there was something wanted to explain many of the observed pheno- mena; years passed, and at length his hypothesis was very indirectly suggested— for he said that it came from reading Malthus’s ‘Essay on Population.’ Twenty years of unremitting labour he had devoted to the endeavour to verify the conclu- sions which might be deduced from this hypothesis by the facts observable in nature. He believed that Mr. Darwin’s second rae for which the author had accumulated a great mass of knowledge, would prove beyond doubt that no one could haye been a more conscientious or laborious observer than he had been. Newton could verify his hypothesis by the simplest experiment—he had but to drop a stone from a tower and to note the time occupied in its descent. But the problem of the origin of spe- cies is concerned with an epoch of time associated with geological epochs ; there- fore experiment could only be made during so short a time, that nothing more could be obtained than an argument resting on a, comparatively speaking, unsatisfactory analogy. Darwin had heen able to show that by a system of artificial natural selec- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 143 tion two organisms, originally descending from the same form, could bé made to differ so much, that if they were found as fossils they would undoubtedly be classed as distinct species; and, therefore, how a morphological species could be produced, But his experiments had failed to show how a physiological species could be produced; for no one could show that two varieties from the same form could be made to differ so much that they would possess the quality of infertility. This was too often forgotten by objectors. The Egyptian sculptures were pointed to to prove that during 3000 years the causes looked to by Darwin had done nothing to alter the form of animals. But what would he said to him who, by discoverin that 3000 years ago Mont Blanc was of the same altitude as now, should think that he had thus disposed of the theories of modern geology, that the stupendous peaks of ear were lifted from their ocean bed, and that every change on the surface of the earth had been produced by an indefinite continuation of physi- cal causes which are in ceaseless operation? Mr, Darwin admitted that eology did not show that in animal life there had been those transitional links that ought to exist according to his theory, and according to any other of gradual transmutation. He (the author) could not see that this theory detracted one iota from any of the attributes of the Creator. If we suppose that the introduction of every new species required a distinctive act of creative will, then, of course, the Creator must have interposed every time a new species was introduced. But, if we supposed that every living organism has eee from those forms in which life was first placed upon this planet, it does not in the slightest degree dispense with the necessity of supposing that life could only first be so placed by the act of Omnipotent Creative Will. It was a favourite illustration in religious works, the discovery of Newton which explains how planetary motions are produced ; and he (Mr. Fawcett) believed that if ever the day came when the origin of species should be explained in fulness and simplicity, he who so explained it would be considered not only to have advanced science, but to have conferred a benefit upon religion. The attackers of Darwin forget that he has not attempted to displace a theory received as right, but merely to throw some light where all before was dark, We “earn therefore, be all the more ready to welcome the conscientious labours of one who like Mr. Darwin had unremittingly devoted himself to explain to some extent what had been aptly termed the “mystery of mysteries.” On the Arrest of Puparial Metamorphosis of Vanessa Antiopa or Camberwell Beauty. By Groner D. Gren, W.D., MA., F.GS. After making a few remarks upon deforniities and arrést of development amongst the insect tribe, the author proceeded to describe some examples occurring in the Vanessa Antiopa, which were exhibited to the Section. Of twenty-eight specimens which he had obtained in the month of July, all underwent complete metamor- phosis, with three exceptions. These to some extent illustrated the progress of the process of emersion of the imago from the pupa-case. Tn the first specimen, the first stage of emersion was accomplished, ¢. e. a part of the wings had protruded from each lateral fissure throughout its whole length to the extent of =8,ths of an inch, permitting a view of the anterior part of the thorax. Metamorphosis then became arrested, and existence feichtnnjedl In the second example emersion was more advanced ; the left wings had emerged a ; of an inch only, whilst the right almost wholly protruded, but remained in contact with one another. The puparial case is on the point of freedom, and the lower part of its abdominal segment is empty. Here further metamorphosis became arrested, and life ceased. Tn the third, emersion was complete; metamorphosis, however, was not so, and it was associated with malformation. The right anterior wing was fully expanded, whilst the posterior was crumpled i The left anterior wing was almost wholly wanting ; a mere rudimentary appendage existed two lines long. The left posterior ‘wing was only partly expanded posteriorly, the remainder being crumpled up. The author entered into the probable causes of these arrests of change and deve= lopment, and believed that they did not depend upon injury, from the care taken ition the chrysalides were first collected. 144 , REPORT—1861. On the Height of the Gorilla: a Letter from Dr. J. E. Gray, F.RS. Much difference occurs in the statements of travellers and others with reference to the height of the great African ape. Bowdich, the first traveller by whom it was mentioned, under the name of the Zngefa, states it, on the authority of the natives of the Gaboon, to be generally 5 feet high; but in some recent notices it has been asserted to reach the height of 6 feet 2 inches; and the specimen exhibited at the meeting of German naturalists at Vienna is said, on good authority, to have measured more than 6 feet in height. The measurement of a stuffed skin without bones is necessarily delusive, depending as it does, first, on the mode in which the skin has been originally prepared, and, secondly, on the extent to which the artist may be disposed to stretch it. Such measurements are not to be relied on unless they are in accordance with those of the bony skeleton; and it therefore occurred to me that it would be desirable to measure the long bones of the limbs of the dif- ferent skeletons existing in the British Museum, the osseous structure giving the only certain dimensions on which reliance can be placed. The skeletons in the British Museum are six in number, viz.—l. A skeleton, obtained from Paris by Prof. Owen, and mounted in the best French manner. 2, 3, 4. Skeletons of male, female and young, purchased from M. Du Chaillu. 5. A skeleton of a male,purchased at Bristol, of hide we have also the stuffed skin. 6. An imperfect skeleton, pur- chased from M. Parzudaki, of Paris. The measurements of the several bones of each of these skeletons are given in the following Table :— Humerus na Radius Femur, Tibia. Fibula. Articulated specimen from Paris ........ 17 | 14 | 13 | 142 | 112 | 102 Skeleton from Du Chaillu’s stuffed speci- men (called the “ King of the Gorillas”)) 16} | 14 | 131 | 133 | 11 92 Skeleton of young male, from the specimen purchased/at -Dristole, 1. cee. seh. eee 142]... ee ali Pe 92 Imperfect skeleton, purchased of M. Par- PEGA SS So: Goch A sews stu Ras 12> (PLE S| 0 Sse 93 Skeleton of female, purchased of M. Du OEE LT ERCP REE ROM Sa AE A 13 {11 | 102 | 11 9 7 Skeleton of young male, purchased of M. Du Chaillu ..... Sacagsnagan, ACIS RY 12 | 113] 923] 10 83] 7 They were taken by Mr. Gerrard with a tape measuring inches and quarters of inches only, but ave quite sufficient for a comparison between the specimens themselves, and as affording materials for determining the actual height of the animal. As the largest of these (viz. the Paris specimen, photographed for the Trustees of the British Museum by Mr. Fenton) stands 5 fect 2 inches in height, we are justified in concluding that to be in all probability the extreme natural height of the full- grown animal. A letter was read from Dr. Gray, of the British Museum (dated Sept. 6, 1861), to Professor Babington, in reference to Professor Owen’s paper on the Gorilla, in which it was stated that the skin of the great Gorilla, now in the British Museum, exhibits two opposite wounds, the smaller in front of the left side of the chest, the larger close to the lower part of the right blade bone. ‘Two of the ribs in the skeleton of this animal are broken on the right side, near where the charge has passed through the skin in its course outwards. Dr. Gray and other naturalists having examined the specimen, found two holes in the nape of the neck (now filled with putty) 3, there are also two large holes in the thin portion of the hinder part of the skull belonging to the same skin which pass through the bone, and are quite sufficient to have caused death. In neither skin nor skeleton is there any evidence of a gun-shot entering on the left side of the chest; and the fracture of three (not of two) ribs on the right TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 145 side, and the supposed corresponding rent in the skin, are so utterly unlike the effects of a gun-shot, that no sportsman could possibly so consider them, On the Flora of Manchester. By L. H. Gutiyvon. After some observations on the climate and soil of Manchester, the author re- marked :—“The positive character of the Manchester Flora consists in the presence or 370 or 380 British plants, which are indifferent to the soil they grow upon, and which clay and sandstone suit as well as any other. These are, of course, the com- mon plants of the country in general ; and were it not that the peat-bogs furnish many species peculiar to such habitats, and that the low level of the country and the abundance of moisture combine to the production of innumerable marshy hol- lows, in which plants are found plentifully that the limestone districts afford penu- riously or not at all—were it not for these, the Manchester Flora would be no more than a list of cosmopolites. The ponds of the district, locally called ‘ pits,’ are in- numerable. In Cheshire they often become enlarged into beautiful sheets of water, called ‘meres,’ which greatly enhance the picturesque character of the northern oS of that county. South-east Lancashire contributes also a peculiar class of abitats in its innumerable and very pretty little winding ravines, locally called ‘cloughs,’ the sides clothed with trees, and a stream running along the bottom. These, like the marshy hollows, supply many plants in great abundance that districts more favoured in soil and climate fail to offer, and, along with the peat- mosses, supply the principal part of what is locally interesting. Of rare and extra- ordinary plants we do not possess a single instance, except when they appear, as in other places, adventitiously. We have no permanent treasures or rarities, such as give celebrity to St. Vincent’s Rocks, the Great Ormshead, and the Scotch moun- tains. If a claim to such a character can be asserted by any of our plants, that claim must come from Carex elongata.” In conclusion, he noticed some of the more remarkable and conspicuous plants of the district. He added that, on a review of the whole subject, it appears that the Manchester district, although exposed to some great disadvantages, is quite as productive of interesting plants as any other. They are fewer in number and they are less brilliant in appearance ; nevertheless the botanist who would wish to enjoy himself, and to find everything necessary to intimate acquaintance with the types of the British Fiora, needs not to distress himself at the seeming dearth of Manchester. If he will seek he will find, his reward augmenting in the ratio of his philosophy. On the Arrangement of Hardy Herbaceous Plants adopted in the Botanic Gardens, Liverpool. By the Rey. H. H. Hiaers. On the Development of the Hydroid Polyps, Clavatella and Stauridia, with Remarks on the Relation between the Polyp and its Medusoid, and between the Polyp and the Medusa. By the Rev. 'l. Hrncxs, B.A. The author, after describing the characters of the Medusoid of Clavatella, and comparing it with Stawridia, went into the question of whether the polyp, or stock which bore the medusoids, or the medusoid itself, which bore the eggs, should be regarded as the perfect animal. Quatrefages and others regarded the medusoid as the perfect form ; but the author-was inclined to recognize the medusoid-hearing individual (the stock) as the perfect animal. On the Ovicells of the Polyzoa, with reference to the Views of Prof. Huxley. By the Rey. T. Hinexs, B.A, In this paper the author gave the results of his study of the Polyzoan oyicells, and showed, in opposition to the view of Professor Huxley, that these organs are not “marsupial pouches” into which the ova pase to complete their development. Repeated observations had convinced him that the ovum, which was ultimately developed into the ciliated embryo, was produced within the ovicell, in an ovarian sac, which ode from the endocyst at the upper extremity of the capsule, This sac, from 1861. 10 146 REPORT—1861. its first differentiation, might be detected without difficulty. There were also ova which were produced within the cells. These were never ciliated, and only escaped after the death of the polypide. Their history required further investigation. The Rey. A. Ruxy Hogan, M.A., exhibited living specimens of Mphargus fontanus taken by himself at Puddletown, near Dorchester, from the water of a. ump. A mene on the subject of this and allied species had been read by Mr. legen at the Meeting of the British Association held at Oxford, but these Crus- tacea were not before exhibited alive. On Daphnia Scheefferi, with a Diagram. By the Rev. A. R. Hogan, M.A. So few observers have paid any attention to the family to which this little ani- mal belongs that any fresh notes on its habits or economy are acceptable. In com- mon with several other allied Entomostraca, Daphnia Schefferi bears the English name of “ Water-flea,” and German of “ Wasserfloh ;” but I have not been able to discover any peculiar suitability in the appellation, there being nothing in common between it and its terrestrial namesake, except restlessness, Professor Ehrenberg’s celebrated discovery of the corneous integuments of Ento- mostraca, which occur in millions in some of the rocks of Germany, well illustrates the important part assigned to these creatures on our globe. My first acquaint- an¢e with the species of which this paper is the subject was made at Shaftesbury in Dorsetshire, where they are found abundantly in the water artificially supplied to the town for drinking purposes. On the 15th of February, 1861, I received six apparently full-grown specimens; these I placed in a vessel which admitted of my observing their reproduction and subsequent development. Within a day or two afterwards, the water in which the D. Schefferi were placed appeared to swarm with young, exceedingly minute, yet visible not only in the water, but also within the parents’ shelly integuments, where, through the semitransparent valves, they might easily be seen moving about, and seemingly trying to effect an exit. Those which had already escaped were all performing the same curious gyrations which distinguish the mature individuals. It is the habit of these crea- tures to keep unceasingly swimming round and round in a vertical circle, and no one who has ever seen it can avoid being struck with its gracefulness. When- ever they wish to change the locality of their revolutions, they swim by sudden and rapid jerks, but in a direct line, to another place, and then recommence wheeling up and down. Sometimes, however, they rest from motion entirely. ight weeks after the birth of their young, all the original Daphniz were dead, but the former had not yet attained more than half their size, nor shown any signs of reproduction. At this time I had about thirty-five specimens. But another six weeks sufficed to bring about the complete transformation; and after seeing them for the last time cast their exuyiz, I had the satisfaction of observing that the full size of the original specimens was in some instances attained, and some young again produced. They were, however, not at all so prolific as those which had been captured full-grown; and as the whole life of the Daphniz had passed under review, I did not care to retain them longer alive, but placed the bred specimens, which had already reached maturity, in alcohol for exhibition to the Association. Further observation will no doubt reveal many more details of interest regarding these animals. , Extracts from a letter from Professor Huxley to Dr. Rolleston, in reference to the brains of the Quadrumana, were read by Dr. Rolleston. On an Abnormal Form of Cyathina Smithii. By J. Gwyn Jerrneys, F.R.S., F.GS. Mr. Jeffreys exhibited specimens of Cyathina Smithii, which he had dredged at a depth of nearly 90 fathoms in sandy ground, about 25 miles N.E. of the Unst lighthouse in Zetland. The peculiarity of the specimens consisted in their being inversely conical, instead of their having the usual form of that coral, which is TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 147 cylindrical, and this appeared to be owing to their having been attached to cases of the Pomatocerus arietinus (sometimes called Ditrupa subulata), a Dentalium- like Annelid. One specimen was attached to a perfect case, others adhered to fragments of cases, while the rest bore no trace of attachment and were quite free. In the last-mentioned state they appeared to oe with a drawing and description given by Dr. Johnston, in his admirable work on British Zoophytes, of a spe- cimen received by him from Professor Edward Forbes, who considered it to be the Turbinolia borealis of Dr. Fleming. The specimens now exhibited had much the aspect of Turbinolie or Sphenotrochi. Cyathina Smith is not uncommon in the same seas where these specimens were obtained, but at a less depth than is above stated, and its usual habitat is on rocks and stones, to which it is permanently attached by its entire base. The explanation offered by Mr. Jetfreys for the abnormal form of his specimens is, that they had attached themselves to empty cases of the Poma- tocerus, being the only hard and stationary substances they could find in their unusual habitat (sand), and that when these cases were broken off, the base of the corals became rounded by attrition against the sand, and they thus assumed their present shape. The first-formed layers, which constitute the base of the coral, are soon deserted by the animal; and there appear to be no means of repairing any injury to that part, much less of the coral reaffixing itself to another prop. Speci- mens of Cyathina sometimes have also a very narrow base when they are attached to other corals. Mr. Jeffreys observed, that the peculiarity in question appeared to be the result of a well-known law, or inherent principle of organization, by which a change of external conditions influences to a certain extent the form of animals and plants, and that such modification of form is not due to what has been called “natural selection.” Absorbing Power of the Roots of Plants. By Dr. Jussun. Dr. Daubeny had established that different species. of plants, growing in the same soil, take up therefrom different foods, and contain minerals in different proportions. This selection, it will be said, is made through “ vital force ”—a conyenient phrase for hiding anything that you cannot or have not inquired into. If we went down to the elementary composition of the living body, the term might be defined as meaning the formation and.combination of cells. In this sense it corresponds with, and has comparatively the same range as, the term “crystallizing force” as regards minerals. The force that puts together crystals and that which puts together cells and forms them into living bodies, is equally an unknown force; we use for each the term mentioned. Taking “vital force” to mean the formation and combina- tion of cells, the secretive power of plants was thence to be explained. Some ancient philosophers held that plants desired and selected food nearly in the same way as animals. That opinion was long ago given up; but where is the difference between animals and plants? Men and animals move to food that they want; plants grow for it. This was a point too often overlooked. But animals can moye away or cease to take food when satisfied; plants advance their roots amongst their food, and they cannot use the same parts of the same root for obtaining that food a second time. They have, so to speak, to throw out new fibres every time. they want food. A sound rootlet took up fluid, whether nutritive or not, in a man- ner different from an injured one; and many physiologists and nearly all chemists have experimented on wounded plants, without knowing it, owing to the delicate handling which rootlets require. The absorption goes on by endosmosis through the bark-cells. Dr. Graham says that by every such process the membrane of these cells is thinned and dissolved; that the endosmosis is different for every different. membrane; and that the force of endosmosis is altered not only by the different nature of the substances going into the cell, but also by the nature of the sap in the cell itself. The author considers these facts, as made out by Mr. Graham, to be the starting-point of a new era in the physiology of nutrition. No one has yet taken up the matter and pointed out the value of these discoveries; and it was sufficient at present to point out that Dr. Graham shows that any slight difference in the composition of the membrane, or of the contents of a cell, will be a sufficient cause for a decided difference in the nature of the food introduced into it. The point of a rootlet is of a very different structure from its upper part. It serves only 10* 148 REPORT—1861. for the rowing out of the rootlet, whose cells are ormed in the upper patt. Many of the ce!ls run into short hollow hairs, which, like the cells, have a very thin mem- brane. The fluid taken in by the rootlet after a time destroys the outer layer of cells, and the second layer comes into play; but the constant production of new cells in the interior causes the rootlet to increase in size. Passing from cell to cell, the fluid becomes changed into sap; but the sap differs in every cell, and each ceil, around one well filled, gets out of it a different kind of food. The author contends that it is not possible to get into a plant anything that is a poison to it. The result will be, if poisonous matter is present, that the outer layer of cells will be destroyed, succeeding layers presenting themselves, and also being destroyed, so long as the poison exists around. If the poison gets into the outer cells before they are wholly destroyed, it will not be taken up so readily as nutritious liquid; and in any case, after traversing a few rows of cells, all poison will be retained, while other portions of the plant will remain uninjured. On the Relation between Pinnate and Palmate Leaves. By Maxwett T. Mas- ters, F.L.S., Lecturer on Botany, St. George's Hospital, London. It is now generally admitted that the different forms of leaves, in spite of their immense number, may be reduced to one or two primary forms, the deviations from which are to be accounted for by such circumstances as increased growth in one direction as contrasted with that in another, arrest of development at particular places, and the like. The ensuing remarks merely tend to confirm this opinion and to add additional illustrations of it. There are many circumstances leading to the inference that trae palmate leaves, as well as those that are palmately divided, are but modifications of true pinnate leaves, or of pinnately divided ones; that in the palmate leaf growth takes place more in a lateral direction than in a vertical one, whereas growth in length at the expense of growth in breadth is the guiding principle in pinnate leaves; the one, so to speak, is a broad leaf, the other a long leaf. Again, in the palmate leaf there is an arrest of development in the portions of the leaf intermediate between the lobes or leaflets according as the leaf is simple or compound, and thus the palmate leaf may be regarded as a contracted pinnate leaf. In support of these assertions the writer may refer to the fact, that pinnate and palmate leaves exist in the same genera; compare the leaves of Acer pseudo-platanus, for instance, with those of Acer Negundo, the leaves of Rubus micranthus with those of Rubus fruticosus; indeed the circumstance is of such common occurrence that it is unnecessary to give further illustrations of it. Of ereater value for our present purpose are those instances where we have both kinds of leaf on the same plant; tale, for instance, Pyrus trilobata; trace the transition of the leayes from pinnate to palmate in Anthyllis vulneraria or the various species of Lotus, wherein the lower leaves are pinnate, the upper palmate. The common raspberry, Fwbus ideus, will furnish another example ; the lower leaves have several pairs of pinnz, the upper have but three leaflets ; in such cases as this (and they are numerous), the two conditions merge one into the other, so that it is difficult, without taking analogy as our guide, to determine whether a ternate or a temmately divided leaf belongs to the pinnate or to the palmate series. The writer has frequently observed in the oriental plane, Platanus orientalis, leaves of almost every variety of shape and marginal inc’sion, from obiong or lance-shaped and entire to palmatisect, the latter being the usual form of the leaves of this tree. In the entire long leaves there is but a single large rib, the lateral ones being much less in size, whereas in the fully developed condition there are three to five main ribs diverging one from the other at an acute angle, a short distance above the base of the leaf (tripli- or quintupli-costate). In the ‘ Linnea,’ vol. xi. 1829, is mentioned the case of some horse-chestnut leayes which had assumed more or less of a pinnate character ; and this season the writer has been fortunate enough to find several pre- senting similar changes from their ordinary condition, and manifesting almost every intermediate stage between pinnate and palmate leaves; similar instances not unfre- quently occur in the leaves of the common white clover, Trifolium repens. Were it necessary to do so, many additional instances might be cited leading to the same conclusions, that pinnate and palmate leaves are merely modifications of the same type; that the ternate leaf isan impari-pinnate leaf; the binate leaf is the simplest ——— Yo TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 149 form of a pari-pinnate leaf; that a palmate leaf is a contracted pinnate leaf, hearing the same relation to the pinnate leaf that opposite leaves do to alternate ones, &c. On the Migration of the Herring. By J. M. Mrrcnett, F.R.S.S.A., PAS., Fe. In a former paper read at the Economical and Statistical Section last year at Oxford, the wealeee pointed out the great pational importance and growing pros- perity of the British herring-fishery ; in tlte present paper he restricted himself to that important part of the natural history of the herring connected with its migra- tion, with the view of proving that the herrings visiting the various coasts are undoubtedly natives of the said coasts and the adjacent seas, and that they do not come from any distant part of the ocean. The fact once satisfactorily established, | that the herrings belong to the adjacent seas or coasts may direct public attention more closely to the importance of thoroughly investigating their natural history. The “coanant of controverting the statements as to the migration of the herring must e obvious when we find Pennant’s account of its progress from the arctic regions continued in each new edition of several works of high authority. Such works state that “the herring comes from the arctic circle, in large shoals of some leagues extent, dividing into lesser shoals on coming towards the north of Scotland, one body proceeding to the west coast of Scotland and to Ireland, and another to the east coast, each directing its course southward.” Others state that, although herrings do not come from the arctic circle, they at least come from a considerable distance northward of Scotland. He, however, considered that as the herrings spawn upon our coasts, or in the rivers and hays, they are consequently natives, and that, after spawning, the full-sized herrings proceed to sea in the neighbour- hood of the coasts, where they continue, and where they feed until the spawning- season again approaches; while the young on being vivified continue near the spawning-ground until they become of mature size.. This is the most natural con- clusion ; and after several other remarks he said— 1. We find every year, at a certain period of the year, a particular size of her- ring generally resorting to the same place: for example, the size of the herrings caught off the projecting coast of Stadtland, in Norway, is much larger than the size of those caught on the west coast of Shetland; which kind, again, is nearly twice as large as the first-caught Thurso herrings; and these are smaller than the Isle of Man, Minch, and Loch Fyne herrings, smaller than the Caithness and Banff herrings, and much smaller than the herrings caught off Aberdeenshire, Fifeshire, and Berwickshire. Again, the Yarmouth herrings are smaller than those of Aber- deenshire and Berwickshire ; andin the West Highland lochs the size of the her- rings is distinctly seen and known; for instance, in some of the Highland lochs for years large quantities have been caught, uniformly of the 10th class, which are of a very superior quality. A size of herrings similar to those of Yarmouth till lately visited Liimfiord in Denmark, and still visits the coasts of that country ; while on the Mecklenburg coast, in the Baltic, the size of the herrings is larger than those of Denmark; and proceeding up the Baltic coast above Mecklenburg, namely on the Pomeranian and part of the Prussian coasts, the herrings are fully one-third smaller, and again still further up they are larger, and about the size of the Moray Firth herrings. Thus, those who argue that the herrings come from the north must furnish two kinds of herrings, namely, one kind which in its progress ood smaller on its journey, and another which grows larger. Even in the English hannel the varieties may be easily distinguished in the neighbouring localities; for instance, Professor Valenciennes, in his edition of Cuvier’s ‘Natural History of Fishes,’ vol. xx. p. 47, says, “It is not difficult, with a little practice, to dis- cover the difference which exists between the herrings fished near Calais and those fished near Dieppe; those fished near Calais have the body longer and more flat and compressed on the sides than those of Dieppe, which are rounder and shorter. 2. As to quality, nothing so much proclaims the error of the tale of their all coming from the north as the general state of the herring. For instance, as already mentioned, those caught off Shetland are not nearly so fat as those caught about the same time on the coast from Thurso to Loch Broom, In the first of the season, 150 REPORT—1861. those caught in Loch Fyne are not so extremely fat or oily as the early Thurso herrings, and the herrings of Loch Fyne are superior in quality to those of the east coast. Again, there is a marked difference in appearance and quality (and this is easily distinguished by those accustomed to see them) between those caught near Caithness and Morayshire, and those caught off Aberdeenshire and Berwickshire. The quality of the Danish and Baltic herrings is inferior to the Moray Firth and West Highland herrings; and those caught. on the coast of Holland are so inferior as not to be pickled at all by the Dutch. The Yarmouth herrings are inferior in some respects to those of the north of Scotland; and the herrings got on the French coasts are also of inferior quality. 3. As to the time of appearance, we find much to prove that the herrings are natives of the seas adjoining the coasts on which they spawn. As a few instances, it may be stated as well known that herrings are caught in Loch Fyne before any are caught near Cape Wrath, and off Berwickshire and Aberdeenshire by the Dutch before any are caught off Caithness ; and even off Yarmouth herrings have been caught in May. We find they are not generally caught on the Atlantic side so early as on the east coast of Scotland; and the various times of their approaching the coasts of the Baltic, as already stated, prove the fixity of their places of resort. 4. No well-authenticated instance has been given of the herrings having been seen approaching the south in a high northern latitude. Indeed, although we have conversed with intelligent masters of the Dutch herring-busses, we could not find any one who ever saw any considerable shoal in the northern part of their fishing- grounds ; none of the seamen of our Greenland whale-ships ever saw any of those shoals of the magnitude so fabulously described proceeding southwards; and Scoresby, who is of high authority on such a question, made the same statement to ourselves, namely, that he had not, in his many voyages, ever seen any shoals of herrings proceeding southwards. 5. No shoals of herrings have ever been ascertained to exist in the Greenland seas, and no herrings have ever been found in the stomachs of the whales caught there. The food of the Balena mysticetus, or common whale, consists of Actiniz, Sepize, Medusee, Cancri, and Helices. The Narwhal inhabits the seas near Spitz- bergen ; but only remains of Sepize were found in the stomachs of several examined by Scoresby. The Zrichecus rosmarus (walrus or sea-horse) inhabits the icy seas adjacent to Spitzbergen; in the stomachs of those examined, only shrimps, craw- fish, and young seals were found. Of other marine animals examined by him, Scoresby says the Alca arctica (auk or puffin) feeds principally upon shrimps and a small species of Helix; of the Alea alca (little auk), that it also feeds on shrimps ; of the Colymbus Gylde (Guillemot), it feeds on shrimps and small fishes; of the Squalus borealis (Greenland shark) he says, “ A fish resembling a whiting was found in the stomach of one that I killed.” Captain Phipps only caught the Cyclopteris viperus (sucker) and the Gadus carbonarius (coal-fish), and no herrings, when fishing near Spitzbergen. Moreover, Scoresby, in his list of “ Fishes found in the Arctic Regions,” does not include herrings (Arctic Regions, vol. i. p. 540). Egede, who resided fifteen years in Greenland, after enumeratiug various kinds of fish caught there, says, “ No herrings are to be seen” (Natural History of Greenland). 6. We find that those species of whales that feed principally on herrings frequent our own shores and those of Norway. Scoresby says of the Balena musculus, “This species of whale frequents the coasts of Scotland, Ireland, Norway, &c., and is said principally to feed on herrings” (Voyages, vol. i. p. 482); and the Balena rostrata inhabits principally the Norwegian seas. 7. Bloch, the celebrated naturalist (with whom Lacépéde in this particular state- ment coincides), has established that fishes of a similar size, even in fresh water, could not make, from spring till autumn, the long voyage attributed to the herring. 8. The same naturalist further states that “herrings may be found in certain localities all the year through,” and this coincides with the opinion of the expe- rienced fishermen at Loch Fyne and other places; and it is well ascertained that herrings, either young or old, may be caught in the Forth any month in the year, 9. The herrings mentioned as coming from the north are never known to return, or even to proceed southward, but when proceeding to some coast for the purpose of spawning. 10. And we may ask why, in some cases, the smallest herrings proceed ‘to the TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 151 Baltic, and the larger to the North Sea; and as it is asserted that the whales are the cause of their flying south, why do we not see the whale on every coast every year? Myr. Yarrell, in his valuable work on Fishes (vol. ii. p. 112), truly says, “There can be no doubt that the herring inhabits the deep water all round our coast, and only approaches the shore for the purpose of depositing its spawn within the immediate influence of the two principal agents in vivification—increased tem- perature and oxygen; and as soon as that essential operation is effected, the shoals that haunt our coast disappear, but individuals are to be found, and many are caught throughout the year.” 11. Various other fishes have similar habits in spawning. The salmon ascends the rivers from the sea at particular periods for the purpose of spawning: for . this fish no distant seas have, however, been assigned. The sprat appears in shoals in various localities of the coasts of the British Islands from November to March. The shad or Alosa is found in shoals in some of our rivers from May to July—in the Severn generally in May, and it continues there about two months; in the Mediterranean, near Smyrna and Rosetta; and it ascends the Nile as high as Cairo in December and January. The pilchard appears in shoals on the coast of Cornwall from June to the end of the year; and tite tunny comes in-shore on the coasts of the Mediterranean in summer. Al] these fishes appear to haye the same habit of gregariously visiting various coasts and rivers at particular seasons for a similar purpose; but no one would on this account pronounce them natives or inhabitants of a distant quarter of the globe. In short, from all the circumstances known of the natural history of the herring, in regard to its visits on our own coasts and the coasts of other countries, it is reasonable to conclude that it inhabits ‘the seas in the neighbourhood of the coasts on which it spawns, and that it arrives at particular seasons near the coasts for the purpose of spawning, the shoals leaving the coasts immediately thereafter; and the early or late, and distant or near approach to the coasts in different years perhaps depends, as before remarked, on the clear and warm or dark and cold weather of the season, as well as upon the depth of water at the feeding- and spawning-grounds. On the Crustacea, Echinodermata, and Zoophytes obtained in Deep-sea Dredging off the Shetland Isles in 1861. By the Rev. Atrrep Mente Norman, 1/.A. This paper was supplementary to that of Mr. Jeffreys, and contained an account of the Crustacea, Echinodermata, and Zoophytes obtained during the same dredging- expedition. Mr. Norman mentioned that about 140 species of Crustacea were met with. Eighteen of these, viz. 7 Podophthalmia and 11 Edriophthalmia, were new to Britain. The Podophthalmia consisted of Portunus pustulatus (Norman, n. sp.), distinguished by its pustular carapace, by the latero-anterior teeth, which in form resemble those of longipes, and by having the swimming-blade of the last pair of feet sculptured with a raised longitudinal and a marginal line; Pagurus ferrugineus (Norman, n. sp.); Crangon serratus (Norman, n. sp.), allied to spinosus, but fur- nished with seven rows of teeth on the carapace, haying an acutely pointed simple rostrum (without the lateral denticular processes which are present in spinosus), and a central keel on the fifth segment of the abdomen (instead of diverging lines) ; Sabinea septemearinata (Sabine) ; Hippolyte polaris (Sabine); Hippolyte securifrons (Norman, n.sp.), nearest akin to the Californian H. affinis (Owen), having the rostrum in the form of a broad flat plate armed with eleven teeth above, four or five of which are on the carapace and four below, three pairs of spines on the carapace, the first on each side of the base of the rostrum, the second on the anterior margin just below the eye, the third, very minute, at the junction of the anterior and lateral margins, and three snes of spines on the telson; Ctenomysts alata (Norman), a new genus of Mysidz allied to Noctiluca, Ctenomysis has six pairs of thoracic feet, fur- nished on their inner base with large scales, which serve to protect the external branchiz situated beneath them; the subabdéminal legs are bifurcate and multi- articulate ; and the species is easily distinguished by the remarkable form Of the antennal scales, which are broad and triangular, and instead of being porrected, are spread at right angles to the body. The front margin of the carapace terminates in five spine-like processes, three frontal, and one on each side below the eyes. 152 : REPORT—1861. The Edriophthalmia new to Britain which were discovered consist of diceros parvimanus (Spence Bate, n.sp.), the genus also new to Britain; Dexamine tenui- cornis (Rathke) ; Lijeborgia Shetlandica (Spence Bate, n.sp.); Aréyera altamarina (Spence Bate, n. sp.); Calliope Fingalli (Spence Bate, n. sp.); Amphithoé alboma- cula (Kroyer) ; Stphoneccetus typicus (Kroyer) ; Dexamine Vedlomensis (Spence Bate, n.sp.); Megamera ; Heisclados longicauda (Spence Bate, n.sp.), a new genus differing from Amphithcé in haying only one branch to the last pair of pleopoda; and Bopyrus Galathee (Spence Bate, n. sp.). The author also gave an account of the other rare Crustacea—Podophthalmia, Edriophthalmia, and Entomostraca (including fish-parasites)—which were met with. Mr. Norman next proceeded to notice the Echinodermata, and stated that forty- seven species were found. ‘The rarer of these were—Comatula rosacea (Link) and Sarsti (Lovén) ; Ophiura ,n.sp.; Ophiocoma Goodsiri (Forbes) and jiliformis (Miller) ; Ophiopeltis securigera (Von Diiben and Koren) ; Asterias , perhaps distinct from aurantiaca, having shorter arms, less flattened spines on the under surface, and fewer tubercles on the margin than in the ordinary form; it was dredged in great abundance sixty miles from land in 70-90 fathoms; Echinus virens (Von Dib. and Kor.), Flemingit (Ball), neglectus (Lamarck), and Norvegicus (Von Diib. and Kor.), the last very abundant on the Outer Haaf; Cidaris papillata(Leske), spines only; Amphidotus ovatus (Leske); Brissus lyrifer (Forbes); Cucumaria frositess (Gunner) and fucicola (Forbes and Goodsir)?; Psolus phantopus (L.); Ocnus brunneus (Forbes) and lacteus (Forbes and Goodsir) ; Thyone raphanus (Von Diib. and Kor.) ; Synapta digitata (Montagu), a vinous purple variety from 70fathoms; Phascolosoma radiata (Alder), and two or three species of Sipencedlus. The Zoophytes were next passed in review. The author stated that fifty-nine Polyzoa and fifty-three Hydrozoa and Actinozoa were observed. Among the former were—Onchopora borealis (Busk) ; Cellularia Peachii (Busk) ; Membranipora Flemingii (Busk), Rosselii (Audouin), and rhynchota (Busk), and an undescribed species; Lepralia concinna (Busk), violacea var. cruenta, punctata (Hassall), grani- Jera (Johnst.), wnicornis (Flem.) var., and monodon (Busk) ; Alysidota Alderi (Busk); Tubulipora truncata (Jameson) ; Jdmonea Atlantica (Forbes); together with a Celle- pora, a Hornera, and an Alecto not yet determined. Of Tiydrozoa there were— Clava multicornis (Johnst.) and cornea (Wright); an undescribed Hydractinia, which My. Alder has also taken at Cullercoats ;-an undetermined Atractylis; Coryne implexa (Alder) ; Eudendrium ——,n.sp.; Tubularia gracilis Tarvey), variety ; Sertdaria tenella (Alder), Gayt (Lamx.), gracilis (Hassall), alata (Hincks), pinaster (Ell. and Sol.), and tamarisca (L.); Plumalaria myriophyllum (L.) and frutescens (Ell. and ‘Sol.) ; Laomedea flexuosa (Hincks) and Lovént (Aman); Campanularia Johnstoni (Alder); Calicella gracillima @Alder); Reticularia serpens (Hassall); and Gram- maria ramosa (Alder). Among the Actinczoa were—Tealia digitata (Miill.), which was abundant on shells of Fast (antiquus, gracilis, propinquus, and Norvegicus), and on Buccinum Dalci on the Outer Haaf, in from 70-80 fathoms water; Zoanthus Couchit (Johnst.), the simple attached and also the free branching state; the splendid Ulocyathus arcticus (Sars) in 65 fathoms sand, Outer Haaf; Caryophyllea Smithit (Tlem.) var. [the Zrubinolia borealis (Flem.)];.Pennatula phosphorea (L.); Virgu- laria mirabilis (L.), and Sarcodictyon catenata (Forbes). With reference to the Sponges, the author remarked that a considerable number had been collected, especial attention having been paid to the small encrusting forms, and that they had been placed in Dr. Bowerbank’s hands for examination and description. On the Cervical and Lumbar Vertebree of the Mole (Talpa Europea, Z.). By Professor Owen, M:D., LL.D., F.RS. Few of our native quadrupeds have had their osteology more frequently described and studied than the common mole, by reason of the singular and extreme modi- fications of certain parts of the skeleton, and their readily recognizable adaptation to the peculiar sphere and habits of life of the animal. The author had not anti- cipated, therefore, in making a recent scrutiny of the skeleton, finding anything worth special notice that had not been noticed before, and could scarcely persuade TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 153 himself that the fact he was about to commmnicate had escaped all previous obser- vers. Had it heen mentioned, however, in any special monograph on the Talpa Luropea, which might have escaped his research, he thought it would have been considered worthy of a reference by the comprehensive and industrious Stannius, and might have led the sharp-sighted De Blainville to a more rigorous scrutiny of the vertebral column than he had bestowed upon it in his Monograph on the Oste- ology of the Mole—the last on that subject with which comparative anatomy has been enriched. Jacobs, in his generally minute and accurate monograph, when treating of the cervical vertebré, notices only their spinous processes, and, after describing the large one of the Epistropheus, proceeds,—“ Vertebree colli ceterze processum spinosum habent nullum, et magis annulis similes sunt, quorum inter- Stitia asperee arteriz interstitiis similes sunt” (p. 14), and this description has been geneally repeated. Cuvier writes,—“ Dans les Taupes, elles (les cing autres cervi- cales) ne forment également que des simples anneaux entre lesquels il y a beaucoup de jeu.” So likewise Professor Robert K. Grant writes,—“ The remaining cervical vertebra are behind, like so many loose rings, shorn of their spinous and transverse rocesses, to allow of the freest motion with safety to the spinal chord.” Professor ell more accurately states, “that in the Talpide and the Soricide the cervical vertebrae have strong transyerse processes, and, excepting the second, do not pos Sess any spinous processes.” Professor De Blainyille, in a more detailed account of the skeleton, having express reference to the species under consideration (Zalpa Europea), says, “ Les quatre derniéres (vertébres cervicales) se ressemblent en ce que leur are, fort étroit, ne présente aucune trace d’apophyse épineuse; les trans- verses sont également peu marquées, sauf le lobe inférieur de celle de la sixiéme, assez dilaté, du moins transyersalement.”’ Tf the cultivators of other, and more particularly of the exact, sciences were to judge of zootomy by the discrepancy of the testimonies adduced by some of the hishest names in this science, as to a simple fact, easily determinable by observa- tion, of one of our commonest native quadrupeds, they might conclude that the foundation of our generalizations in comparative anatomy reposed upon an insecure basis, and that the method of obtaining the materials for such basis by the first rocess of induction—the simple exercise of the eyes—stood in need of much Improvement. For while one anatomist implies the absence of transverse pro- cesses in the cervical vertebrae of the mole by his silence, and another directly aflirms their non-existence, a third describes them as being “ strong,” and a fourth as being “little marked.” The fact is, that these so-called “transverse processes” are not only present in all the cervical vertebrae, but are variously and peculiarly developed, so as to give the mole the same advantage in strengthening and stiffening its neck, and imped- * ing its lateral inflexions, which the crocodile derives from a similar modification of what might, with equal propriety, be termed in it the “ transverse processes of the cervical yertebree,” viz. by their intricate or reciprocally overlapping arrangement, due to the shape and size of the costal elements of such transverse processes. But the mole has so far the advantage over the crocodile in this arrangement as that, whereas the costal part of the transverse process retains its foetal separation in the cold-blooded Reptilia, it becomes firmly anchylosed to the other parts of the trans- verse process in the small warm-blooded mammal. In a former memoir, “On the Processes of Vertebrxe,” Professor Owen had given the results of an analysis of the “cervical transverse process,” showing it to consist of the autogenous “ pleurapo- physis,” combined with the exogenous “ parapophysis” and “ diapophysis.” In the mole the pleurapophysis joins the diapophysis, circumscribing the vertebrarte- rial foramen, and developing a short process from the point of junction. In the third vertebra the pleurapophysis, or costal part of the “transverse process,” is compressed and produced backwards and a little outwards and downwards, over- lapping the anteriorly produced part of the pleurapophysis of the fourth cervical. This portion of the “ transverse process” much resembles the corresponding but separate element in the same vertebra of the crocodile, except that it is “ sessile,” instead of being supported on a short peduncle; it is, for example, broad, com- pressed, and produced downwards, forwards, and backwards—its larger and longer posterior portion overlapping the anterior end of the pleurapophysis of the fifth vertebra, as the same part of itself is overlapped by the pleurapophysis of the third 154 REPORT—1861. vertebra. The posterior part of the pleurapophysis of the fourth cervical of the mole is further interlocked between the einige of the fifth cervical below, and the anterior zygapophysis of the same vertebra above. The pleurapophysis of the fifth cervical resembles that of the fourth. In the sixth cervical it is much more developed, both forwards, backwards, and downwards, the pair forming the sides of a deep and wide channel on the under part of that vertebra. In the seventh cervical the pleurapophysis is not developed; the diapophysis forms a small obtuse prominence below the anterior zygapophysis, and, in the ordinary language of anatomy, its “transverse process’? would be said to be “imperforate.” With re- gard to the common description of the cervical vertebrae of the mole as mere rings of bone, the term is applicable only to the neural arches of the five last vertebrae, none of which have a spine, except the third and seventh, and in these it appears as a mere tubercular beginning. The bodies of the vertebre are subdepressed, but otherwise are well-developed quadrate bones, closely united, so as to concur with the peculiar size, shape, and arrangement of the “transverse processes” above de- scribed, to give strength to the neck and impede any lateral inflexions. It is easy to show on a recent mole, when the cervical vertebra are exposed by removal of the enormous masses of muscles with which they are surrounded, that the lateral inflexions of the neck are confined to movements between the atlas and dentata, the dentata and the third vertebra, and between the sixth and seventh vertebrie, but are as effectually impeded in the intervening vertebree as in the crocodile itself. Nor is the movement upwards and downwards between the same vertebra of more than a limited extent. The osseous style developed in the ligamentum nuche, co- extensive with the cervical series, and running’ parallel with the course of their undeveloped spines, stiffens the neck in respect of its vertical inflexions beyond the atlas, as well as augments the lever power of the muscles which raise the head. If the service to the mole of a stiff neck in the fossorial applications of the snout and head had been called to mind, the analogy of the more efficient modification to that end in the burrowing armadillos, might have led to an examination of the actual structure of this part of the skeleton of the mole, which would have ren- dered unnecessary the present communication on the subject. One of the objects Professor Owen had in view in troubling the Section with what some might deem too trifling a matter, was to encourage younger compara- tive anatomists to exercise their skill on indigenous subjects which may any day be brought within their reach. Their organization is far from being exhausted by direct and original scrutiny, and the highest generalizations in comparative anatomy might be tested and illustrated by the anatomy of our commonest fishes, reptiles, birds, and mammals, independently of rarities from foreign shores. In conclusion, he might further state respecting the mole, that its loins were strengthened by superadditions to their vertebrw, precisely like those discovered by Sir Philip Egerton in the cervical vertebrae of the Ichthyosaurus, viz. by a series of “subvertebral wedge-bones” inserted into the inferior interspace between each of the six lumbar vertebree, as well as between the first lumbar and last dorsal, and between the last lumbar and the first sacral. These, which Professor Owen had determined to be “autogenous hypapophyses,” have their broad, rhomboidal, smooth and slightly convex base downwards, and their narrower end wedged upwards into the lower part of the intervertebral substance. It is obvious that the lumbar re- gion, cooperating with the pelvis, as the fulcrum during the vigorous actions of the hind feet by which the loose earth is kicked out of the burrow, must derive an advantage from this superaddition to their fixation, analogous to that which the Ichthyosaurus derived from the wedge-bones of its cervical vertebrae. The lumbar hypapophyses of the mole had not escaped the notice of the sharp-sighted Jacobs, who speaks of them as “ ossicula sesamoidea” (Joc. cit. p. 17); but he deduces no physiological consequence from the fact ; and his passing notice of the structure had not been recognized by any subsequent writer on the osteology of the Insec- tivora. From no systematic work or monograph on comparative anatomy, indeed, could the student acquire any hint of so curious a fact that the vertebral column of the mole combined two peculiarities which are separately given in the reptilian class, viz. to the Crocodilia and the Enaliosauria respectively. This paper was illustrated by diagrams of the structures described. i TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 155 On some Objects of Natural History from the Collection of M. Du Chaillu. By Professor Owen, M.D., LL.D., FBS. The author’s first knowledge of this zoological collection was derived from a letter sent by M. Du Chaillu, dated Gaboon, June 13, 1859, and received in the British Museum in August 1859, in which M. Du Chaillu specified the skins and skele- tons of the gorilla or n’gena, kooloo-kamba, nschiego, and nschiego-mbovie which he had collected, offering them for sale, with other varieties, to the British Museum. Professor Owen replied, recommending the transmission of the collection to London for inspection, with which recommendation M. Du Chaillu complied, bringing with him, in 1861, all the varieties he had named, with other objects of natural history, from which he permitted selections to be made. The skins of the adult male and female of the young of the Troglodytes gorilla afforded ample evidence of the true coloration of the species. In the male, the rufo-griseous hair extends over the scalp and nape, terminating in a point upon the back. The prevalent grey colour, produced by alternate fuscous and light-grey tracts of each hair, extends over the back, the hair becoming longer upon the nates and upon the thighs. The dark fuscous colour gradually prevails as the hair extends down the leg to the ankle. The long hair of the arm and forearm presents the dark fuscous colour; the same tint extends from below the axilla downwards and forwards upon the abdomen, where the darker tint contrasts with the lighter grey upon the back, The scanty hair of the cheeks and chin is dark; the pigment of the naked skin of the face is black. The breast is almost naked ; and the hair is worn short or partially rubbed otf across the back, over the upper border of the iliac bones, in eonsequence, as it appears, of the habit ascribed by M. Du Chaillu to the great male gorilla of sleeping at the foot of a tree, resting its back against the trunk. Professor Owen proceeded to describe the colour of the female gorilla, which, it appears, was generally darker and of a more rufous tint than the male. In one female the rufous colour so pre- vailed as to induce M. Du Chaillu to note it as a ‘red-rumped variety.’ In the young male gorilla, 2 ft. 6 in. in height, 1 ft. 7 in. in the length of the head and trunk, and 11 inches across the shoulder, the calvarium is covered with a well-de- fined “skull-cap” of reddish-coloured hair. The back part of the head, behind the ears, the temples, and chin are clothed with that mixture of fuscous brown and grey hair which covers with a varying depth of tint the trunk, arms, and thighs. The naked part of the skin of the face appears to haye been black, or of a very dark leaden-colour; a few scattered straight hairs, mostly black, represent the eyebrows. A narrow moustache borders the upper lip ; the whole of the lower lip and sides of the head are covered with hair of the prevailing grey fuscous colour. The rich series of skulls and skeletons brought home by M. Du Chaillu illustrate some important phases of dentition. These phases were specified by Professor Owen at length. The deciduous or milk dentition, it was remarked, was, in the youngest specimen of the gorilla, something similar to that of the human child, but an interspace equal to half the breadth of the outer incisor divides that tooth from the canine, and the crown of the canine descends nearly two lines below that of the contiguous milk molar. The deciduous. molars differed from those of the human child in the more pointed shape of the first, and much larger size of the second. The dentition of the young gorilla corresponds best with that exemplified in the human child between the eighth and tenth years; the difference, however, is shown in the complete placing of the true molar, whilst the premolar series is incomplete. It was worthy of remark, also, that in both specimens ex- amined the premolars of the upper jaw had_ preceded those of the lower jaw, and that the hind premolar had come into place before the front one. In the later de- velopment of the canines and the earlier development of the second molars of the second dentition the gorilla differs, like the chimpanzee and the orangs, from the human order of dental development and succession. An opportunity of observing this order in the lower races of mankind is rare. Professor Owen availed himself of the opportunity in the case of the male and female so-called. dwarf Earthmen from South Africa, exhibited in London in 1855. He found their dentition re. spectively at the phase indicative of the age of from seven to nine in the English child; other indications agreed with this evidence of immaturity.. The children were of the dwarf Boschisman race, and were dressed. and. exhibited as adults, 156 REPORT—1861. Both showed the same precedency in development of canines and premolars which obtains in the higher races of man. Referring next to the variety of the chim- anzee brought by M. Du Chaillu from the Camma Country and from near Cape opez, Professor Owen remarked that this species accords specifically in its osteo- logical and hirsute development with the Zroglodytes niger. It is stated by M. Du Chaillu to be distinguished by the natives of Camma as the nschiego-mbovie, from the common chimpanzee ( Troglodytes niger), called by them the nschiego. From the character of the skins of the male and female specimens of this species brought by M. Du Chaillu to London, Professor Owen would have deduced evidence of a distinct and well-defined variety of Troglodytes, Statistics of the Herring Fishing. Communicated by C. W. Pracu. [Compiled by Mr. Peter Reid, and published in his paper the “John o’Groat Journal.”’] Quantity Branded in Wick District during the past Six Years, to 30th September in each year. Year. Barrels. Year. Barrels. ESS wahvatsstenis eas 19,713 1858 weg eiabrewe ... 54,348 IBD GS yagieeete aie 60,017 1859) ise dee . 50,256 LBSY oige saw serie, 48j612 1SGOM ica 60,559 Number of Boats, Yearly Average, and Total Quantity caught annually at Wick since 1836. Year. Boats. Average. Total. 1837454 sme, 2600. 100 60,000 SSS Kee .». 550 135 74,250 1889. ...5...0., 620 110 68,200 SHOW pate ae 720 91 65,520 LEA eee 750 126 94,500 NSADs er Alot 800 125 100,000 icy Bee 820 107 87,740 1844... 0.005 900 100 90,000 1845 ........ 960 96 92,160 1846......... 900 103 92,700 TBAT). se'ese .. 765 110 84,150 1848 ..... 813 114 92,682 1849 ....0.0. 800 140 112,000 1850 ....,.... 804 100 80,400 ite oy Pe a 1000 100 100,000 LBD vee es BE 1000 75 75,000 1853.... 960 120 115,200 1854..... 920 104. 95,680 T85B.. estii.4 . 952 141 134,232 1856 ........ 1050 86 90,300 LSS Tesh sibs .. 1100 73 80,300 TSB igi ltebee 1061 80 84,880 1859 ........ 1094 79 86,426 1860 ........ 1080 92 99,254. LEG cae Sieh 1100 87 95,700 Number of Boats Fishing at each Station during the past Five Years. District. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1858. 1860. Wickashigenienine < sees 1050 1100 1061 1094. 1080 Lybster ...... fl otohiIuees 265 259 228 200 Horse). veisgadiiets st Sifecous 36 B85 36 35 36 Latheronwheel ...... se ree 28 28 80 28 Dunbeath............. 80 83 96 97 95 Helmsdale ........ Homer ai beta) 210 240 218 185 Brora .15 sweeteners . 385 28 21 30 21 Cromarty piasisgiielsts iss s 148 170 154 150 156 Findhem|psecsh¥p ney my 16 18 24 24 19 TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 157 District. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860 Burghead. .jc¢v.ci.0s 0. . 65 68 66 46 60 Hopeman...........+. 38 45 52 41 51 Lossiemouth. .......... 107 90 106 104 116 Buckie district......... 201 250 264 208 214 Whitehills ............ 24 22 30 28 27 ISU TO tio Ono Gooner 21 19 22 13 18 Li levets Holt ocr). 4 AO OES 67 62 64 58 58 Gardenstown .......065 44 48 54 54 48 Fraserburgh. .......... 243° 331 334 378 328 Peterhead. «........0.. 239 245 268 271 294 Anstruther ........+04. 290 300 300 400 360 MOET Soe owicnevcees 220 183 174 190 150 Eyemouth....... Saent . 140 120 130 154 158 North Sunderland ...... 74 78 86 70 78 IERMOV as apc) ¢ «1p 0,050) 60's stale 360 380 370 330 347 Lewis (early fishing).... 260 300 420 460 475 Average in each District from Orkney to Northumberland for the past Five Years, WICK ieee stein nc ems ~ 86 73 80 79 92 Lybster 0 ccc cceeeeeces 91 75 623 432 94 BOER lated fale; sus. 24,000 70,544 28,000 83,000 Dumabar,..ciev.,./)s tens. 11,254 30,624. 11,020 23,304. Eyemouth............ 15,240 14,950 15,862 16,906 North Sunderland..... 5,709 4,300 7,630 6,591 Onkney .. i. . oos Bads. 11,590 13,320 11,550 11,798 Lewis (early fishing) .. 15,500 7,140 18,170 28,875 Total Catch of Herrings for the past Hight Years, from Northumberland to the Lewis, excluding Zetland and the Ayrshire and Argyleshire Coasts. Year. Barrels. Year. Barrels. SESE FF etsetcutecnte 348,881 [ bolatS ees BSE 393,035 WOOD she ete te 461,549 HS ia eda ensenass 294,143 1856.52 S202 Be 337,443 TEGO sks Laan 439,879 S57 cE Bb sc...oben 329,251 HBG Se cece 467,966, Remarks on the late Increase of our Knowledge of the Struthious Birds. By P. L. Scuater, M.A., Ph.D., FRS. After pointing out the general characters of the birds of the order Struthiones, and the peculiarities displayed in the structure of the two families, the Struthionide and Apterygide, of which alone recent representatives were known, Dr. Sclater called the attention of the Meeting to the large increase in our knowledge of the species of this group of birds which had recently taken place. Until lately, each of the types, Struthio, Rhea, Casuarius, Dromeus, and Apteryx, had been supposed to be represented by a single species. There now appeared to be indications, more or less precise, of the existence of twelve species of Siruthionide, and (as the author has already shown in his joint Report with Dr. Hochstetter on the genus Apterya*) four species of the family Apterygide. The following Table was exhibited, giving the names of these species and their localities, as far as they were known. TABULA AVIUM STRUTHIONUM. Fam. I, StruTHIoNID®. a. Struthionine. a. Struthio. 1. camelus, ex Afr. et As. Oce. B. Rhea. 2. americana, ex rep. Argent. 8. macrorhyncha, ex rep. Argent. (?). 4, darwini, ex Patagonia. b. Casuariine. y. Casuarius. 5. galeatus, ex ins. Ceram. G6. bicarunculatus, ex patr. ign. 7. kaupi, ex ins. Salawatty. 8. uni-appendiculatus, ex patr. ign. 9. bennettii, ex Noy. Britann. 10. australis, ex Noy. Holl. Bor. 6. Dromzus. 11. nove: hollandix, ex Austr. Or. 12. irroratus, ex Austr. Occ. * See. anted, p. 176. . . TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 159 Fam. I. Arpreryama”. Apteryx. 1. australis, ex Noy. Zeland. ins. bor. 2. mantelli, ex Nov. Zeland. ins. media. 3. owenli, ex Nov. Zeland. ins. med. 4, maxima, ex Nov. Zeland. ins. med. Dr. Sclater illustrated his remarks by exhibiting a series of drawings taken from examples in the Gardens of the Zoological Society of London, which, he stated, contained living specimens of no less than ten out of these sixteen species, On a New Mining Larva, recently discovered. By H. T. Sratnton, F.L.S. The author remarked that it had long been notorious that larve of several orders of insects lived between the two surfaces of leaves of plants, forming tracks in the fleshy substance of the leaf, and hence termed leaf-miners; that from the time of Reaumur, nearly 150 years ago, observers had often paid considerable attention to this class of insects, and that latterly a continued attempt had been made, both here and in Germany, to discover all the species of leaf-mining larve which be- longed to the order Lepidoptera, Amongst the leaf-mining larvee were representatives of the four orders, Coleo- ptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, and Diptera; but at present few entomologists attempt to study more than one order, and hence a collector of Coleoptera would naturally neglect all Lepidopterous larvee and those he suspected to be Lepido- pterous; in like manner a collector of Lepidoptera would reject all Coleopterous larvee and those he suspected;to belong to that order. Hence the same larva might be suspected by both parties and peglected accordingly. A larva which had lately attracted considerable attention had in this way been noticed long ago, both here and abroad, by Lepidopterists, but, being reputed by them a Coleopterous larva, had been neglected accordingly. Herr Kaltenbach of Aix-la-Chapelle, who had been devoting his attention to mining-larve of all orders, had met with this larva, and reared from it aMcropterya; and last spring Dr. Hofmann, of Ratisbon, had also reared a larva of the same genus. The genus Micropteryx is a genus of small moths of the group Tineina; but the structure of the palpi is so singular, the neuration of the wings so peculiar, and the wings so slightly clothed with scales, that some authors were disposed to question their right to be considered Lepidoptera. Westwood, in 1840, had expressed his regret that the transformations of so anomalous a genus had not been detected. The larvee of Micropteryx had now been found very plentifully, and had clearly established that the genus was truly Lepdopterous, as the only group of insects to- which they could otherwise have been referred, the Trichoptera, have larve of a yery different structure. The most striking peculiarity of these Micropteryx-larvee is a slight lateral protu-. berance on the fifth segment, which has been noticed in several species. These larvee are totally devoid of legs, and the hinder segments are much attenuated, On Varieties of Blechnum Spicant collected in 1860 and 1861. By A, SransFre.p. The Blechnum Spicant of Linnzeus, Lomaria Spicant of Hooker, is one of the commonest of all known ferns. Its range of elevation extends from the sea-level to the summits of the highest mountains, though it flourishes most in the subalpine regions. It is found in greater or less abundance in most of the geological formations, most frequently of all in the siliceous formations of the Silurian, Old Red Sandstone, and the Coal-measures, and is least plentiful on the mountain limestone and the chalk. From its extensive diffusion we might be led to expect that varieties would be numerous, but till within a very late period these seem not to have been recognized by the British botanists. Bentham, in his recent work on British plants, says it is one of the most constant of all known ferns. Sir W. J. Hooker, in his ‘Species Filicum,’ notices but one variety, found near Warrington, Lancashire, hy Mr. Hobson of Manchester, about 160 REPORT—1861. forty years ago. It is to Mr. Moore, of the Botanic Garden, Chelsea, in the “ Nature-printed Ferns,” that we are indebted for the bringing of the varieties of this fern most prominently before the British pteridologist. ™ During the last three years I and a few friends haye examined some millions of lants of the Blechnum Spicant in yarious parts of the United Kingdom, collecting all the abnormal forms we could meet with, afterwards carefully growing them, watching sedulously their development, and noting their peculiarities. This, speak- ing for myself, whilst it has afforded me a fund of innocent enjoyment, has enabled me to report on the permanency of some forms and the fugacity of others, and on the general characters of the whole. I purpose here noticing only the more striking among the permanent forms that have stood the test of cultivation, some of them for two and others for three years. These have perfectly distinct and fixed characters, like species; and in those that have been raised from spores, the complete identity of the parents has been main- tained. For instance, out of ninety plants raised from the spores of Blechnum Spi- cant subserratum, no difference from the parent plant could be detected, whilst the minutest peculiarities were faithfully repeated. Thus a few of the lobes, both of the fertile and barren fronds of the parent plants, were twins, or bilobate: the young plants have all the same peculiarity. Out of seventy plants raised from spores of Blechnum S. imbricatum, every plant seemed perfectly identical with the parent. Out of 100 plants raised from spores of Blechnum S. ramosum, all had the same ramosely cristate termination of the parent. Our ideas of species are exceedingly vague and indefinite, and indeed it may be questioned whether they have any real foundation in nature. Doubtless great numbers of plants now regarded as species are merely variations of other forms. Be this as it may, we know that, the forms of Blechnwm Spicant, to which I am about to refer, are variations from a primary type, though they possess specitic differences which in other genera would, [ apprehend, be sufficient to constitute them species. But in whatever light we regard them, it is quite essential that we should give distinct names to obviously distinct and permanent forms. The form of Blechnum Spicant which first arrested my attention was the B. S. concinnum of Moore. It was so essentially distinct from the common type, and so beautiful an object, that it determined me at once to give the Blechna a thorough investigation. It was gathered in the valley of the Conway in North Wales early in 1859. I subsequently gathered it near the foot of Twelve Pins, Connemara, Ireland, and in Thieveley Scouts, near Burnley, Lancashire. Fronds linear, from 6 to 12 inches in length, and from ; to 3 inch in breadth ; lobes very short, subrotund, and beautifully crenated on the margins. Fertile frond: lobes little more than nodes bearing sori. In cultivation the linear outline of the frond is maintained, but when liberally supplied with water the lobes become enlarged, so as to make a slight approach to B, S. strictum, from which, however, it remains quite distinct. Blechnum Spicant strictum (Moore). Fronds ovate-lanceolate, from 6 to 12 inches in length, and from 3 to 1 inch in breadth; lobes mostly recurved, and distinctly serrated on the margins. Fertile frond longer than the barren, lobes short and ser- rated on the margin. I have gathered this beautiful form in the valley of the Conway, and near the Pass of Nant Francon in Wales, in Connemara, Ireland, Vale of Todmorden, Lancashire, and some other localities. It is perfectly constant under cultivation, and a most interesting object. Blechnum S. lancifolium (Moore). Somewhat less than the normal type ; fronds acutely lanciform, entire from the apex to jrd their length; fertile fronds still more acutely lanciform, lobes much abbreyiated above and below. ‘This has been gathered near Todmorden, Lancashire, Trefriw, North Wales, and in Connemara, Blechnum S. subserratum (Moore). Size of the normal type; fronds rather nar- rower; lobes ascending, serrated on the inferior, and frequently auricled on the superior margin ; fertile fronds longer than the barren, lobes deeply serrated on the inferior limb, frequently all but bipinnatifid. Gathered near Todmorden, and near Castle Howard, Yorkshire. Blechnum 8S. imbricatum (Moore). Fronds from 4 to 6 inches long, and from 1 to 2 inches broad, nearly ovate in outline, thick and leathery in texture; lobes closely imbricated, recurved, the apical lobe twisted; fertile fronds very little longer than the barren. Gathered in the Vale of Todmorden, in Rossendale, Lane. ; TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 161 near Barnstaple, Devon, and some other places. It is quite constant under cul- tivation; of seventy plants raised from spores, all inherited the characteristics of the parent. ¥ Blechnum S. imbricato-subcrenatum. Fronds ovate-lanceolate in outline, 6 to 9 inches long, from 1 to 2 inches broad; lobes closely imbricated and recurved, sub- crenate on the lower limb. Gathered in Connemara, Ireland, in 1860. Blechnum S. anomalum (Moore). Fronds from 6 inches to a foot in length, and 1 inch or a little more in breadth; lobes very narrow, distant, attenuated ; all the fronds fertile halfway down, barren below. This is certainly a very strikin anomaly, and one that could not have been anticipated by those best canilen with the normal type. I at first attributed the change to the situation of its growth, the ground on which it was first found growing being very wet; but I have since found it on dry hedge-banks and near dry walls, where the condition before mentioned was altogether absent. Whatever may have been the cause, the change is very wonderful, and two plants can scarcely be more unlike than the Blechnun S. imbricatum and the B. S. anomalum. About three-fourths of the plants hitherto gathered have been constant. It has been found near Todmorden, in Connemara, Ireland, in North Wales, and some other places. ; Blechnum S. projectum (Moore). This is a most heterodox variety, not at all conforming to any law of regular development. Fronds from 4 to 10 inches long, some of them almost entire, being little more than a winged rachis, others with here and there a projecting lobe beyond the rachidal membrane, and others again with large projections in lieu of lobes starting from the middle of the frond, others, still, bearing projections or branches near the terminations in the most irregular manner, Fertile fronds much longer than the barren, little more than a branched rachis bearing sori without the intervention of the usual side lobes. This bears very little resemblance to the typical form, and is altogether a most singular and grotesque plant. It was gathered near the foot of Ben Lawers, Scotland, and, as described above, is permanently irregular in its development. Blechnum 8, variabile. “Fronds the length of the normal type, variously furcate, and ramose terminally ; lobes below very much depauperated for more than half the leneth of the frond. Gathered in the Clova Mountains, Scotland. Blechnum S. caudatum (Moore). Fronds 4 or 6 inches long, and 1 to 13 inch broad, contracted below, and terminating in a cauda more than one-third the length of the frond. Gathered in North Wales. Blechnum 8. diversifrons (Moore). Fronds less than the common type, very much abbreviated below ; lobes suddenly starting to the full length in the middle of the fronds, distant. Some of the fronds perfectly linear, being little more than % inch in breadth, whilst others, again, have projecting lobes variously distributed ; fertile frond being little more than a winged rachis bearing the sori. Found in the Vale of Todmorden. Blechnum 8. latifrons (Moore). Fronds 6 to 9 inches long, and 2 to 8 inches broad, distinctly caudate at the end, very coriaceous in texture. Gathered in two or three places within the Vale of Todmorden. Blechnum S. brevilobum (Moore). Fronds from 3 to 6 inches long, and from } to $ inch broad; lobes rather distant, very short, like blunt triangular teeth on each side the rachis. Found in the Vale of Rossendale. Blechnum S, ramosum (Moore). Fronds from 6 to 9 inches long, and from 3 to 1 inch broad, every frond terminating in large crests or ramose. cristations, these crests 7s producing other crests. Gathered near Todmorden, also in Connemara, Treland. Blechnum 8. heterophyllum (Moore). Fronds exceedingly varied, some nearly normal, others depauperated throughout, others, again, having lobes projecting be- a the margin intermixed with abbreviated and normal ones. Gathered in the ale of Todmorden. Blechnum S. erosum. Less than the normal type; fronds very narrow; lobes scarcely developed at all, very much eroded, Gathered near ‘Todmorden. Blechnum 8. polydactylum (Moore), ‘Less than the normal type, all the fronds ending in fingered terminations. Gathered in Connemara, and also near ‘Todmorden, Blechnum 8. crispum (Moore), Rather less than the species; lobes very much 1861. 11 162 - REPORT—1861.: crisped and twisted ; fronds sometimes terminating in crispy furcations, Gathered in North Wales. Blechnum 8. trinervium (Moore). Nearly the size of the species, characterized by the lowest pair of lobes being developed into miniature fronds. Found in Ive- land. Blechnum S&. multifurcatum (Moore). Distinguished by the fronds, both barren and fertile, being variously branched and furcate at the ends, Gathered near Tod- morden, in Rossendale, and other places. The forms previously mentioned are all distinct from one another, and are beau- tiful and interesting objects, either for pot culture or fern houses, for Wardian cases or rockwork in the hardy fernery. The following varieties (many of them gathered during the past season) I have submitted to Mr. Moore, who considers them quite distinct and permanent forms, and has named them accordingly. Most of them are Sscaeedinghy interesting, but my acquaintance with them is not sufficiently extended to enable me to youch for their permanency. ‘ Blechnum §. serratum. Blechnum §. variegatum. —— repandum. — cristatum. — mundulum. deficiens. ne eo detealy — fureatum. —— aberrans. subcrenatum, — porrectum. —- tridactylum. auperculum. —— premorsum. —— Imparatum. — dentigerum. — mininum. —— abruptum. Observations on the Development of Synapta inheerens. By Professor Wrvirtz Toomson, LL.D. On some Points of Interest in the Structure and Habits of Spiders. By Turren Wust, F.L.S8. The object of this paper was stated to be, rather to dissipate erroneous opinions commonly held, by the mention of facts, than to set forth novelties; and by adverting to some of the many points of interest in the structure and habits of spiders, to lead to their being regarded with better feelings, and perhaps more attended to by students of Natural History. A more favourable opportunity could not present itself than such an occasion, when those who professedly study science are met and listened to by the intellectual and the highly cultivated, with whom rests the privilege of giving to the age its prevailing tone of thought. The colouring of spiders is seldom other than rich in its tones; in making figures of them great dif- ficulty is experienced in getting colours of sufficient brightness. That there is an adaptation of the general tone of colouring to the places inhabited by different spiders is certain ; ‘how far individuals that. have arrived at maturity may be able on changing their abode to modify their colours is not known, though it is probable, from the great variety readily observable in this respect, that during growth at any rate there may be some such adaptive power. The alterations in colour of the anterior pair of eyes in some spiders, from ruby-red or emerald-green to golden- yellow, by a perpap ale internal motion, are very remarkable, and the means by which such change is effected deserve careful study. In the instincts of spiders there is much to interest. The intimate structure of the web of the Diadem- spiders is known to most as a favourite microscopic object; the radii in this web are cords serving Petnaipally for the support of the highly elastic spiral line, with its drops of viscid material. In the Ciniflonide none of the lines forming the snare are viscid, but insects are quite as effectually entangled by a pair of fine double lines, so disposed. an a framework as to form very numerous double loops. The apparatus employed in the construction of these loops is composed of a double row of spines on the metatarsus of each hind-leg. Some of the tent-forming spiders in fine weather make their covering of a very slight texture, but in wet TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 163 gusty weather this is strengthened by additional layers of silk, to which are added legs, wings, &c., the refuse of their prey. Many spiders manifest proofs of great action for their offspring : the female Lycos@ carry their cocoons constantly about with them, attached to their spmners; and when the young are hatched, they affix themselves to the hairs on the legs, abdomen, &e. of their parent. Pholeus phalan- gioides carries its cocoon in its mouth: Dolomedes mirabilis also, attaching a few lines from the spinners as well; it is only left to take food. The young of many species of Zheridion live with their parent for some time in a tent constructed by her, and are, till able to shift for themselves, supplied by her with food. The structure of many spiders presents numerous points of interest. In typus Sulzeri, our only British yepresentative of the great Bird-catching Spiders of the tropics, the jaws are so enormously developed as to render necessary an unusual elevation of the front of the cephalothorax, at the highest part of which, on a short column, the eyes are seated. This spider constructs a long tube of silk in a burrow formed in sloping banks, like its relative the “Trap-door spider;” the entrance, how- ever, is protected in a different way—the end of the tube, hanging outin a collapsed state, lies concealed amongst grass, &c, Several remarkable yarieties in the form of the cephalothorax in species belonging to the genera Walckenaéra, Neriene, &c., were mentioned, details respecting which will be found at length in the second part of Mr. Blackwall’s ar on our native species, shortly to appear under the auspices of the Ray Society, The extraordinary difference in size between the males and females of many spiders was alluded to: in some, as the Diadem-spider of our gardens, the female is three or four times as large as the male, and powerful in proportion; wayward and capricious, she is apt to seek to enjoy by making a meal of him, hence the disproportionate length of the limbs. Some spiders, how- ever, especially amongst the smaller species, are gregarious and social, Many other interesting circumstances respecting spiders might have been men- tioned but for the fear of taking up too much time; as the habits of Argyroneta aquatica, which, though an air-breathing spider, lives habitually in water, carrying an extempore diving-bell about with it, and forming a habitation by imprisoning air at the bottom of the water by fine silken lines. The power of restoring ampu- tated limbs, of sustaining entire abstinence from food for very lengthened periods, the probable duration of life, the graceful form of the cocoons, were pointed out as well worthy of attention, _ Some interesting facts respecting the spiders found in coal-mines were then alluded to, Some months ago it was publicly stated that7spiders’ webs occurred in the abandoned workings of the Pelton Colliery, near Chester-le-Street, county of Durham; specimens of the architects of these webs, on being submitted to careful examination, proved to be Wervene errans, a small spider met with occasionally about the time of the hay-harvest. It appears probable that some individuals were carried down into the pit with the provender for the horses, of which about seventy are constantly employed in the workings, There they have bred freely. Mr. West found their cocoons in great quantity on the roof of the working, and obtained some little insight into the nature of their food by finding entangled in a portion of web, a specimen of the brown plume-moth, one of the midges, and a number of serrate hairs from a hairy caterpillar. The special point of interest, however, is that with altered circumstances 4 modification appears to have taken place in the instincts of these spiders, In their natural state they are only known as solitary wanderers, making no web of any kind, further than a few scattered lines. Have their instincts so changed by scantiness of and difficulty in securing prey that in the coal-mine they become gregarious, and live in large colonies? from being neither spinners nor weayers, they take to constructing sheets of web of compara- tively vast size. Myr. West saw one 30 feet long by 4 feet 6 wide, hanging from about the middle of the roof; and Mr. David P. Morrison, who lives at Pelton, and was the first to carefully observe them, has recorded the occurrence of many nearly as large. Is any alteration in the structure of the spiders taking place? Are the optic nerves becoming atrophied, the number of the spinnerets increasing, and the lands secreting the silk increasing in size? Here is a fine opportunity afforded or practically testing Mr. Darwin’s theory of the origin of species, since we know, from the time the pit has been worked, that it cannot be long since the first indivi- duals were taken underground, Will the naturalists who may follow us have the ed 164 REPORT—1861, opportunity of observing the formation of a blind variety, differing in so many respects from its original, that, had it not been certainly known whence it sprung, it would have ranked without hesitation as a distinct species, analogous to the Cave Crastaceans, &c.? The fact that all the examples brought from the pit die very shortly after their removal thence, may have a close connexion with the altered barometric pressure, and is not without interest. PuysIoLoey. On the Structure and Growth of the Elementary Purts (Cells) of Living Beings. By Professor Lionen 8. Beate, M.B., F.R.S. The object of the author was to prove, amongst other points, that all tissues consist of elementary parts, and that each elementary part (cell) is composed of matter in two states—germinal matter within, and formed material externally. The only part of the matter of which living structures are composed which possesses the power of selecting pabulum, and of transforming this into various substances— of growing, multiplying, and forming tissue—is that which he terms germinal mat- ter. The powers of growth of this matter are infinite; but for the manifestation of the powers, even in a limited degree, certain conditions must be present. Growth always occurs under certain restrictions. Germinal matter is composed of spherical articles, and each of these of smaller spherules. New centres of growth originate an the spherical masses. Nuclei therefore are not formed first, and other structures built up around them; but nuclei are new centres, originating in pre-existing cen- tres. All tissue (cell-wall, intercellular substance, &c.) was once in the state of germinal matter, and resulted from changes occurring in the oldest particles of the masses of germinal matter. What is termed the “intercellular substance” corre- sponds with the cell-wall of a single cell; and there is no more reason for believing that this structure results from any inherent power to form matrix, or that the in- tercellular substance is simply deposited from the nutrient fluid, than for believing that the capsule of mildew can grow independently of the matter it encloses, or be formed by being precipitated from the medium which surrounds it. There is a period in the existence of cartilage and allied structures in which there is no true “ intercellular substance.” In nutrition, the inanimate matter permeates the formed material, and passes into the germinal matter, where it undergoes conversion into this substance. The old particles of germinal matter become converted into formed material. Growth, therefore, always takes place from centre to circumference. The relative proportion of germinal matter and formed material varies greatly in different elementary parts, in the same elementary part at different periods of its growth, and in the same tissue under different circumstances. The more rapidly growth pro- ceeds, the larger the amount of germinal matter produced in proportion to the formed material. In all living beings, the matter upon which existence depends is the germinal matter; and in all living structures the germinal matter possesses the a general characters, although its powers and the results of its life are so very different. On a Method of Craniometry, with Observations on the Varieties of Form of the Human Skull. By Joun Crrtanp, M.D. The author remarked that, notwithstanding the great interest which attached to the changes of form which the human skull undergoes in the passage from infancy to old age, and the varieties of its appearance in different nations, little had been done as yet to determine what the various superficial appearances indicated as to the exact form of the skull. It wasasif artistic views had been taken of the brain’s habitation from various points, but as yet no ground-plan attempted. And this apparently resulted from the skull being shaded eather as an object of physiogno- mical interest than as an anatomical structure. He then pointed out the method which he had invented for making accurate measurements of the relations of any series of points on the circumference of the cranium. The instrument consisted of a framework and bars, by which the vertical and horizontal distance of any spot TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 165 from a fixed point could be determined. By means of a short series of figures it was thus possible to convey to persons at a distance materials for making perfectly accurate measurements of skulls which they had not even seen a drawing of. The reader of the paper then went on to show that, although there was great difference between savage and cultivated nations in the relative breadth of the cranium and of the face, yet that, as regarded the proportions in the mesial plane of the front, middle, and back parts of the head, there was no characteristic difference of size or shape even between the European and the African. The peculiar appearance of the skuils of Negroes, Australians, Caribs, &c., compared with civilized nations, depended on the way in which the teeth were set, on the development of the fron- tal ridge to the extent of giving the appearance of a retreating forehead, and on the manner in which the whole head was balanced on the vertebral column, but not on diminished size of the anterior lobes of the brain. Dr. Cleland pointed out that one of the most characteristic differences between man and all other mammals con- sisted in the fact that the human head was balanced in the erect posture, and only required muscular action to steady it; while in the chimpanzee and all lower mam- mals the head was constantly suspended by the action of muscles and elastic structure. To preserve the balance of the human head, it was necessary that a change in the joint which articulated it to the neck should accompany the growth of the individual in such a manner as to tilt the skull further and further backwards on the vertebral column from infancy to adult age, that the back of the head might be balanced against the increasing weight of the forehead and face ; and he demon- strated that such a change really took place. Hence also the feminine head, there being a smaller development of the face-hones, had a characteristic position in rela- tion to the neck, distinguishing it from the masculinely developed head. He showed that in the discussions which had lately taken place to such an extent among anato- mists as to the degree in which the cerebellum was covered by the brain proper, in man and in monkeys, everything depended upon the level on which the skulls were placed, for that in all mammals the anatomically superior aspect of the cere- bellum was separated from the cerebrum by the tentorium only, and the real difference lay, not in any disproportionate addition to the posterior part of the human cerebrum, but in this, that the human skull, together with the contained cerebrum, was much more curved upon itself in man than in any other animal. Thus, if the back of a sheep’s skull were placed in the same position as the back of a human skull situated as in the erect posture, the nose of the former would be di- rected upwards. On the Action of Lime on Animal and Vegetable Substances. By Joun Davy, ID., F.BS. Se. In this paper the author shows by a number of experiments that quicklime ex- ercises on most animal and vegetable substances a preservative, and not a destruc- tive power according to popular belief; and, consequently, that it may be used with propriety, not for the purpose of consuming dead bodies, but for that of arresting their putrefaction and the disengagement of offensive gases. When the lime becomes converted by the absorption of carbonic acid into car- bonate of lime, it no longer possesses the same antiseptic quality : hence, if moist- ure with atmospheric air be present, the bodies buried in lime will undergo change and decomposition, but this slowly and gradually, as the lime itself becomes neutra- lized and inert. On the Blood of the Common Earthworm. By Jonn Davy, M.D., FBS. &e. The fluid in question was collected from the cardiac organs, and was carefully freed from the perivisceral fluid. It was found to have an alkaline reaction,—to be coagulable by heat and by nitric acid, very much in the same manner as the serum of the blood of the mammalia,—to contain red corpuscles (these, taking the average, about ;;1,,th of an inch in diameter), and to yield, when chemically ex- amined, traces of iron. Possessing these qualities, the author has come to the conclusion that this red fluid is blood, and, as such, that it performs a double function, one of nourishing, the other of aiding, by absorbing oxygen, in aérating the body. Its relation to the 166 REPORT—1861, erivisceral fluid—that also probably a nutritive fluid—he has not attempted to etermine, On the Question whether the Hair is subject or not to a sudden Change of Colour. By Joun Davy, M.D., FLBRS. Se. The conclusion arrived at by the author respecting this question is negative, partly founded on defective historical evidence, none of the instances adduced of sudden change, according to him, being of a satisfactory kind, and partly on physiological data, the human hair, after it has sprung from the bulb, the gland which secretes it, being “ anorganic,” destitute of any circulating fluid, and remarkable for its power of resisting change when exposed to the action of chemical agents. The attempts made to support the popular notion that hair may suddenly, even in a night or in a shorter space of time, become grey, by reference to change of colour of the coats of certain of the mammalia, and of the plumage of certain birds on the approach of winter and of summer, are objected to on the ground that in all these instances the change of colour is, as far as he has been able to ascertain, associated with a change of hair and feathers, that is, with a new growth, the old being shed. Observations on the Encephalon of Mammalia. By R,. Garner, F.L.S. In this ca the author adverted to the extreme doubt still dwelling in the minds of physicians and physiologists with respect to the functions of the different parts of the brain. He took up the theory that the cerebellum is not the organ of amativeness, as maintained by Gall, but the distributor of the motive impulse de- scending from the cerebrum. His proofs were derived from comparative anatomy, and from the development of the cerebellum at different ages, as well as from a re- markable case of disease. He also endeavoured to localise the sources of its different kinds of influences, whether they are exerted upon the head, trunk, or limbs, or in flexion and extension. The cerebellum seems to be as often a separator as a combiner of cerebral impulse ; for instance, the motores oculorum are given off above the cerebellar connexion, and we have no power of separate action in these nerves, whilst it is the reverse in both respects with the abducentes. With respect to phrenology, he observed that its list of faculties and feelings is very complete, whilst one-half of the convolutions, their supposed seats, do not appear on the upper sur- face of the brain at all; or influence the form of the skull. He next endeavoured to prove the functions of the component aoe of the brain, and traced the develop- ment of the convolutions from the smooth brain of the rodentia to that of the ape and man. The distinction and description of these folds is not without the pale of anatomy, and their consideration forms the transcendental plan of arranging the Mammalia. He made a few observations on the general form of the cranium. Females, he thinks, have by no means, comparatively speaking, low foreheads, but the reverse, at least centrally; their skull is also more lozenge-shaped, a little pro- minent at the sides. He thinks men of low or moderate stature have commonly an advantage in cerebral development; but the convolutions in a small brain are oftener richer or more numerous and tortuous in their divisions than in the other case ; and some eminent men have had very small heads. With regard to the boat- shaped or long-head skull, from before to behind, and the rounder and broader form, the differences, sometimes perhaps national, may be in others only individual; the author thinks that the former variety has in some respects (the exact studies for instance) very frequently the advantage. Twins have been noticed by the author, one having the elongated head, the other the broad. In the case above alluded to of cerebellar disease, it was a cyst without any other lesion of the encephalon, and locomotion was greatly interfered with, unless the cerebrum was brought into action; the abducentes were paralysed, the motores not. The paper was illustrated with life-size photographs of brains of healthy persons of different ages, of a woman of a hundred, of a deaf mute, and of idiots and epileptics. On certain points in the Anatomy and Physiology of the Dibranchiate Cepha- lopoda. By Atpany Hancock, The author confines his observations in this paper almost entirely to the so-called TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 167 water-system, and to the blood-system ; and, after entering at some length into the anatomy of the parts, concludes his remarks with the following summary, giving the results at ih he had arrived, though in some respects they are not to be considered final. First, That the so-called abdominal or visceral chamber, in the Dibranchiate see ered, is a veritable venous sinus, formed by the expansion of venous trunks ; and that it is provided with proper walls. Second, That, apparently, capillary vessels exist, uniting the arterial and venous branchlets; and that the blood-system is composed of vessels and sinuses with proper walls, therefore constituting a closed system. hird, That the so-called water-system, for the ingress of water from the exte- rior, does not exist; but that the chambers to which this function has heen attri- buted compose a diffused. kidney—the glandular appendages in the renal chamber being for the purpose of eliminating peculiarly urinary matters, while the fluids pass off throug ‘i agency of the capillaries of the various organs that lie in the several chambers. Fourth, That a rudimentary absorbent system exists in these animals, the in- testinal veins assuming, in addition to their own, the function of lacteals, and the so-called fleshy appendages of the branchial hearts acting, probably, in the capacity of a general lymphatic system. Fifth, That there is no pericardium properly so called, Sixth, That the muscular fibre of the systemic heart is of the striated variety, as is also, apparently, that of the branchial hearts. Seventh, That the cephalic arteries and those supplying the fins are provided with bulbous muscular enlargements, probably for the purpose of regulating the flow of the blood. . Eighth, That the surface of the brain of Octopus vulgaris exhibits inequalities resembling rudimentary convolutions, and that the pedal nerves arise by double roots; both conditions approximating to the higher standard of the Vertebrata. Ninth, That the results of analysis of the nervous system corroborate the de- ductions derived from embryology as to the homological import of the parts. On Nerves without End. By Professor Hyrtt. On the Pneumatic Processes of the Occipital Bone. By Professor Hyxtt. On Portions of Lungs without Blood-vessels, By Professor Hyntt. On Chloroform Accidents, and some new Physiological Facts as to thetr Explanation and Removal, By Cuartes Kinp, M.D. The author held that “there is every reason to hope that, in consequence of more correct opinions now entertained in hospital practice on the administration of chloroform, the deaths from that agent will disappear altogether, as they have been manifestly diminishing in proportionate frequency during the last twelve months, now that these accidents are better understood.” His conclusions were— “ All which the author submits goes to prove that in place of attending solely to the pulse, as hitherto, those who administer chloroform should for the future pay equal attention to the respiration of the patient, and in case of accident direct hee first attention to it. The corroborative facts as bearing on his former views, as ex~ lained at Oxford, which the author wished to submit, were the following :—Ist. hat from a large number of experiments since published on animals, there is now no reason to doubt that cardiac syncope is a mere accident, The death arises, as carefully observed in such animals, by a form of tetanic fixture of the respiratory muscles in the early stages of the chloroform administration ; and the best means of saving the life of such a patient is founded on that view of such accidents, namely, by the immediate adoption of such means for resuscitation as artificial respiration, tracheotomy, with the intermittent ‘F' aradisation’ electric current, to imitate or assist respiration. 2ndly. Respiration has its earliest point of departure, not from the phrenic nerve and diaphragm directly, but from certain fibres in the 168 REPORT—1861. superior laryngeal nerve, which are distributed to the laryngeal mucous mem- brane, which seem to act in a reflex manner on the diaphragm—stopping its action if the action be too great, as from impure or pungent chloroform acting on the membrane, or possibly from idiosyncrasy; as it has been a long time observed, in France especially, that it is dangerous to administer chloroform where irritable larynx exists, or emphysema or other extensive lung-disease. That such irritation, under other circumstances, of other branches of the eighth pair produces permanent closure of the glottis till relieved by tracheotomy—a very formidable remedy no doubt, but one never to be lost sight of in accidents from chloroform.” On the Physical and Physiological Processes involved in Sensation. By J. D. Morrtzt, MA., DLD. When an appropriate stimulus is applied to any of the organs of sense, a feeling is produced in the mind which is termed, in the language of mental science, a sen- sation. A pin driven into any of the nerves which extend themselves immediately under the surface of the skin produces pain,—a ray of light falling on the retina ee vision,—a sapid substance put into the mouth produces taste, and so forth. ow it has always been a puzzle amongst mental philosophers to understand how it is that we can come to a consciousness of external objects at all. Theories without number have been formed, from the time of Plato downwards, to bridge over the gulf which lies between matter and consciousness, between objects of sense around us and the fact of sensation within us. This chasm in our knowledge we do not a te wholly to fill. At the same time, so many facts bearing on the question ave been brought to light by the progress of physical science on the one side and by physiology on the other, and so much has been added by the mental analyst, likewise from his peculiar point of view, that the distance between the outer world and our own inner consciousness has been vastly diminished, and the mystery driven back to that one point of connexion between the brain and the human soul which no analysis appears likely fully to solve. Let us attempt then to strip away all that is mixed up with sensation naturally, and all that is added to it by our sub- sequent mental activity, so as to analyse the bare fact itself and reduce it to its simplest elements. Looking to the physical and external parts of the process, we must consider, first of all, what it is that the nerves convey from the world without to the mind within. Let us take as an example the sense of hearing, as presenting the greatest degree of simplicity. We know, from the investigation of physical science, that the sole medium of sound is the atmosphere. Where there is no atmosphere, there can be no sound; and where the atmosphere is perfectly still, perfect silence is the necessary result. The real cause of sound, therefore, externally considered, is found in the motion of the atmosphere ; and the variations in the acuteness or gra~ vity of sound, we know by experiment, arise from the greater or less rapidity of the oscillations. The deepest note which the human car appears capable of perceiving as a continuous sound is that produced by sixteen oscillations in a second; the acutest, that which is produced by about 48,000 oscillations in the same time. The differences in the quality of sounds arise, in like manner, from the peculiarway inwhich the atmo- sphere is affected by the object that sets it in motion, and the corresponding pecu- harity of the atmospheric waves that reach the ear. What we really sensize, there- fore, through the car is simply the motion of the atmosphere, and nothing more. The human ear is an apparatus beautifully formed for receiving the vibrations on which all sound depends, and the auditory nerve conveys them, in some manner, to the sensorium. With regard to the way in which this latter effect is brought about we have as yet very little insight. The soft texture of the nerves, and the manner in which they are imbedded in the surrounding materials, would naturally suggest a total inaptitude for propagating vibrations in the ordinary sense of that term. It seems more probable that the flow of life through the body is accom- panied with a constant thrill and movement in every part of the nervous system, forming what is technically termed the canesthesis, or common sensibility; so that the outward oscillations do not so much originate wholly new vibrations as enter into conflict with the nervous action already going on, and give it that peculiar de- termination which is necessary to create any given sensation in the mind. This is, perhaps, as far as it is possible to go in our analysis of the physical process. How —_— —_ TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 169 the vibration of the air comes into conflict with the living thrill of the nerve, and how the result of this conflict reaches the mind, we are at present unable to com- prehend. It is one of those hidden secrets of nature which science has not yet been able to unfold. Turning from the sense of hearing to that of sight, a precisely simi- lar analysis holds good. Here the vibrating medium is not the atmosphere, but a universally diffused ether which is set in motion by what are called luminous bodies. Just as atmospheric oscillations form the external cause, and sound the internal result, in the case of hearing, so in sight the oscillations of the light-bearing ether form the outward condition, and colour, in all its various shades, the inward result. Here, accordingly, as before, it is simply motion in nature giving rise to motion in the nerve-world with which we have immediately to do in vision; while, to kee up the analogy, it is the difference in the rapidity of the oscillations that creates a. the infinite variations of hue. The red rays, it is calculated, require 458 billions of oscillations in a second, the violet rays 727 billions, and all the other colours and shades of the spectrum some intermediate number. That the phenomena of sound and sight spring physiologically out of particular states of the corresponding nerves is clear from the fact that pressure on the eye, or any artificial irritation, produces the perception of light as strongly as the normal impulses derived from the vibrating ether, and that any artificial excitement of the auditory nerve will produce noise in the head. Ghost-seeing often arises in the same way—that is, when the conditions of sight are brought about by the nerves being affected through some other than the ordinary and legitimate stimuli. Whatever, in a word, can affect the regular vital movements of the nerves, and put them into a condition at all similar to that produced by the proper external stimuli of sensation, will, of necessity, bring about similar phenomena of consciousness. We come next to the sense of feeling. This sense comprehends two apparently distinct series of sensations, namely, those of touch, oe ted so called, and those of heat. With regard to the latter, it has been pretty well established that the phenomena of heat originate in the oscillations of a subtle fluid similar to that of light. The sensation of heat may, therefore, be brought under the law of motion just as much as that of light or hearing, and may be regarded in every respect as analogous. The phenomena of touch, we know, are produced by impact in various ways; and it is just in accordance with the nature of that impact, whether harder or softer—more rapid or more slow—that the result- ing sensations are determined. A blow is a sudden affection produced by the rapid motion of some object against a considerable surface of the body. Pressure is a more continuous affection of the same kind. A prick is the motion of some object against one minute point of the skin. If the act of pricking be repeated rapidly, it produces a feeling of burning, and, if it be very soft, at the same time of itching. An extremely light and gentle motion over the body produces tickling. In every instance the peculiar kind of sensation is determined by the nature of the motion and the consequent impact. The only two senses left, accordingly, are those of taste and smell. In both these cases the process by which the nerves are affected is of a chemical nature. The substances received upon the surface of the tongue or the internal membrane of the nostril are subjected to the action of saliva or mucus, and, being thus dissolved, produce a chemical action on the nerves, which gives rise to the phenomena of taste and smell. All chemical action, however, arises, as far as it can yet be ascertained, from certain relative movements in the ultimate atoms of bodies, and it is these movements which, in the case of taste and smell, really give rise to the peculiar sensations so designated. One striking proof of this is, that'a similar atomic action can be produced by magnetism, and that various tastes, par- ticularly that of phosphorus, can be produced by the introduction of magnetic plates into the mouth; thus most obviously proving that the phenomena of taste are really produced, like those of heat, by the motion of certain minute particles, whether of some magnetic fluid or of anything else, when subjected to chemical action. By these atomic movements the nerves are affected, Just as they are affected by the infinitesimal oscillations of light and heat, so that the same law holds good through- out, and thus enables us to connect the phenomena of sensation universally with motion as its immediate external antecedent and exciting cause. Looking now from the physical side of sensation to the mental, we shall find that the view we have just taken solves or dissipates many of the difficulties in which the question has always seemed to be involved. First of all, it makes the external cause and 170 REPORT—1861. the effect upon the nervous system quite homogeneous. Outward motion is the cause, inward motion is the effect. Instead of having the solid forms of the out- ward world standing as it were face to face with the nervous energy, and being obliged to consider how it is possible for two things so entirely heterogeneous to come into so close a state of mental action and reaction, we have now the whole problem reduced to two developments of motion: first, motion in the fluids around us; and secondly, a certain determination given, by their means, to the atomic movements or vibrations of the nerves. How the movements of the nerve-force are converted into those of mind-force we cannot say, any more than we can explain how it is that mechanical motion is converted into heat, or vice versdé; but the out- ward phenomena are traced, in the way we have now indicated, as far back to the inward consciousness as seems possible, without breaking through the last film of separation that divides the conscious from the unconscious world. Secondly, the theory we have adopted enables us to draw a clear line of separation between sen- sation (properly so called) and all the subsequent mental phenomena which attach themselves to it. Thus, taking the sense of hearing, we can now easily strip away every possible association which connects itself with what we hear, and understand that the sensation of hearing itself simply implies the nervous effect of certain atmo- spheric vibrations, and nothing more. Taking the sense of sight, we can at once negative the possibility of sensizing size, shape, thickness, distance, or any other of the ele ee of bodies: all we see sensationally is colour, as being the direct result in the consciousness of the luminous vibrations which affect the optic nerve. And so in like manner does every sense confine itself to one single and peculiar series of phenomena, which are not by any means to be confounded with the mental acts and associations afterwards connected with them. Thirdly, the same theory in- troduces unity into the entire sphere of sensational phenomena. The whole of these phenomena are reduced to the single principle of motion, as the invariable antecedent; this motion, as it exists in external nature, exciting a corresponding action in the nerves, and then, through the nerve-force, affecting the mind. Thus, then, we find, by the combined aid of physics and physiology, (1) that man pos- sesses a nervous system pervaded by a force which can pass freely from every point in the human system to the centre, and from the centre to every point in the cir- cumference; (2) that he is placed in a universe palpitating with countless millions of vibrations, of which vibrations the nerves of the different sense-organs are directly susceptible; (8) that the whole connexion which the mind has, or can possibly have, with the external world is formed by the motion of the fluids around us, or the motion of the particles of bodies that come into chemical contact with the nerves; (4) that the material universe, therefore, makes itself known to us entirely through the medium of motion; (5) that this motion expresses itself in the nervous system by modifying the regular vital action which is always going on there; and (lastly) that this modification of the nerve-force manifests itself to our conscious- ness in the varied phenomena of what we term sensation. Thus the world com- municates with the consciousness wholly through motion as a link of connexion, and out of the experiences thus formed our whole intelligence is subsequently built up by the laws of mental development. On Prison Dietary in India. By Dr. Movarr. The author commenced by giving a brief history of the successive dietaries in use in Bengal, and then proceeded to detail the results of an inquiry which had been made into the sanitary influences of the existing dietary. He stated subse- quently the principles that should guide the formation of a prison dietary, applied those principles to the dietary in use, and concluded by suggesting the remedies necessary to correct the errors of that scale of food, without losing sight of the pri- mary objects it is intended to fulfil, namely, to maintain the health of prisoners at the lowest possible cost to the State, so as, on the one hand, to avoid improper in- dulgences, and, on the other, to secure a sufficiency of food to preserve health and eta disease. Facts and figures were produced to show connexion between the iet-scales and the mortality Bosh diseases most nearly associated with the func- tions of digestion—dysentery, diarrhcea, scurvy, phthisis, and cholera, of which the connexion was helieyed to be very doubtful, The dietetic value of the chief arti- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 177 cles used as food in the prisons of Bengal was given on the authority of the analysis propounded by Dr. Forbes Watson, and four different scales of diet were recom- mended: 1, for Bengalese and Assamese; 2, for natives of Behar, the North-west Provinces, and the Punjab; 3, for Coles, Sontals, Garrows, and Hillmen generally ; and 4, for Mughs and Chinamen. The last-named were fond of cats, dogs, rats, or any animal food, and mere vegetable diet never satisfied them. The scales referred to were all for long-term convicts, and were stated to be the minimum to maintain health and strength. On the Existence and Arrangement of the Fovea Centralis Retine in the Eyes of Animals, By Prof. H. Mixunr, The fovea centralis and macula lutea have generally been regarded as a peculiarity of man and quadrumana, The physiological dignity of the spot, and the power to see an object at the same time with the two foves, seemed to secure to the organ of vision of these beings an exceptionally high position. But this is not true. I can say, for the moment, that the chameleon and at least many birds which possess the oe. for optic accommodation so highly developed are also endowed with the delicate nervous apparatus represented by the fovea and the thicker parts surround- ing it. The extent of surface which presents this peculiar organization is found sometimes so great, that a very considerable part of the retina may be compared to the macula lutea of the human eye. There is in this part of the retina of these animals the peculiar arrangement of the bundles of nerves, which are curved round, so that many fibres come into, but none pass over it. There is the accumulation of ganglion-cells, which form several layers in the circumference of the fovea. There is the peculiar conformation of the external layer of the retina, in which the elements sensible to light are thinner and longer than elsewhere; so that in the fovea this layer, necessary for the first reception of light, alone is thicker, while the other layers are attenuated. There is, finally, the oblique course of the fibres in the granular layer, which put in communication the enormous quantity of sen- sible elements in and next the fovea with the ganglion-cells in the neighbourhood. It is at the same time very interesting, that the two species of radial fibres in the retina of which I treated (‘On the Retina,’ 1856, p. 72), namely, of nervous and connective tissue, have in those animals a different course—in the granular layer the one sort running obliquely, the others running perpendicularly to the external surface of the granular layer. The fovea centralis is ordinarily to be found in the eyes of birds next to the posterior pole of the sclerotica, but sometimes excentri- cally therefrom towards the temporal part of the eyeball. In owls the excentricity is so great, that a common act of vision in the two fovex is very reconcileable with the position of the eyes in these animals. In some mammalia, besides quadrumana, there exists at least an area centralis which approaches the arrangement of the ellow spot; the course of the vasa centralia, wanting in birds, at the same time Comes more like the human eye.” On the Influence of the Sympathetic Nerve on Voluntary Muscles, as witnessed in the Treatment of Progressive Muscular Atrophy by Secondary Electric Currents. By Professor Remax. Physiological Researches on the Artificial Production of Cataract. By B. W. Ricwarpson, M.D., M.A. Tn the course of his remarks the author said that syrup of sugar injected into the circulation of a frog would produce cataract, and he exhibited a number of living frogs in which he had graders the disease by this means, The same injection produced the same result on both guinea-pigs and rabbits. An injection of com- mon salt also acted like sugar, the only difference being that it produced harder cataract. If any of the soluble salts of the blood were present in excess, they would produce this condition. In 1838, at a meeting of that Society, Sir David Brewster had said that cataract was caused by the disarrangement of the fibres of the lens of the eye, and his theoretical notion had now turned out to be quite cor- rect. In reply to a number of questions put to him, Dr, Richardson said that the. 172 REPORT—186l. lens might be cataractous without the patient being quite blind. Where a patient laboured under diabetes he had never seen a perfect lens. Von Greefe had demon- strated that one case out of every four of diabetes was accompanied with visible cataract. He (Dr. Richardson) had never failed in producing cataract in an animal by the means he had described. If they would give him an animal and the mate- rials, he would tell them when the total eclipse of the eye of the animal would take place almost to a second. Occasionally, when sugar was present in the blood, the retina became aflected. Frogs fed on sugar would become cataractic, but in animals that had active digestive organs the condition was not so easily produced. He had fed an animal on sugar for six weeks without producing any marked effect. After he had produced cataract in an animal, he sondd cure it. The cataract he produced in the frog and the cataract in the human subject were the same, with this exception, that in the human subject the exciting cause, the production of sugar, was constantly going on, whereas in the frog experimented on the effect was temporary. Physiological Researches on Resuscitation. By B. W. Ricnarpson, M.D., M.A. The modes of death to which alone the author’s remarks applied were such as involved no organic lesion, and had not extended to putrefaction or coagulation of the blood; and by death he meant cessation, not of respiration only, but also of the heart’s action. As to coagulation of the blood, 700 observations had convinced him that it did not usually take place for pens minutes after death. The modes of resuscitation he dwelt upon were—1, artificial respiration ; 2, galvanism; 3, injection into blood-vessels; and 4, artificial circulation. Amongst the conclusions, stated as the results of many experiments, were these :—that artificial respiration is useless if the heart’s action has ceased; that the heart’s action may be prolonged by artificial re- spiration in a temperature of 130 degrees, where it would cease at once in an ordinary temperature ; that when the heart has ceased to act in these cases, the right side of the organ is full of blood, and the left nearly empty ; that then the column of blood which should pass from the right side to the left is broken, the hydrostatic law is violated, the two sides of the heart are in opposition, and the right side has not only to get over the weight of the column of blood, but also the contractile power of the left side—a thing it cannot do; that galvanism applied in any way to stimu- late the heart hastens thecessation of the heart’s motion, and that galvanism cannot be applied in any known way to resuscitate without injury; that injection of water at 130° Fahr. into the large blood-vessels of a dog will produce the muscular actions of life an hour after the muscles haye been rendered torpid by prolonged galvanism, and two hours and a half after death; that this result, however, is not useful for the real recovery of life; and that the great desideratum now is some simple me- chanical means of effecting artificial circulation. Dr. Richardson showed an appa- ratus of his own by which artificial circulation can be brought about, but not, unfortunately, without opening arteries too large to make the process useful. In cases of suspended animation, he recommended that if any respiration, however feeble, exists, no attempt should be made to interfere with it; that the patient should be placed in a de atmosphere, at 130° of heat; that artificial respiration should always be set up where no breathing exists, as it is possible there may still be some cardiac motion; that electricity and galvanism are worse than useless; and that injection of arterial blood into arteries might be useful in many cases, if such blood could be obtained. On the Cervical and Occipital Vertebree of Osseous Fishes. By Cuartzs Rosertson, Demonstrator of Anatomy in the University of Oxford. The author gave a description of the cervical vertebrae and their appendages in a few osseous fishes not before described, and important in considering the vertebral theory. He then proceeded to show that the same kind of modifications are met with in the grouping of the elements of the occipital segment of fishes and in the skull, as in the vertebral column the same elements are not invariably present, but are subject to variations. The conclusions arrived at were these :—1. The partition- wall of the cranial cavity protecting the cerebellum is not invariably formed by two pairs of neurapophyses, exoccipitals, and epiotic: when the exoccipitals take a TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 173 large share in the formation of the cranial walls, the epiotic are excluded ; and when the epiotic are large and admitted into the cranial walls, the exoccipitals are excluded. 2. The neural spine is only present in the active species which have a large cerebellum to protect, aud it is never divided. 3. The detached petrosal of Professor Owen is found in all species having the pectoral fin attached to the occi- pital segment, and always receives the lower prong of the suprascapula. The paper was illustrated with photographs of the skulls and vertebrae alluded to. On the Connewion between the Functions of Respiration and Digestion. By Gzorae Rozrnson, M.D., Newcastle-on-Tyne. Tn a paper “ On the Nature and Source of the Contents of the Foetal Stomach,” communicated to the Royal Society of London in 1847, and published in the ‘Edinburgh Monthly Journal of Medical Science’ in the same year, I described certain observations on the contents of the stomach in fcetal and newly born rab- bits, which seemed to me to prove the existence of a direct connexion between the function of respiration and the secretion of the gastric juice. I am not aware that the vital law thus indicated has yet received much attention either from physiolo- gists or medical practitioners ; and as I believe it to be one of some importance in the animal economy, I hope to be excused for now desiring to submit it to the con- sideration of this Association. The facts which, in my opinion, establish this prin- ciple are very simple, and can readily be examined by any one. Immediately before birth, the stomach of the fcetal rabbit contains a dark-ereen, viscid, highly albuminous liquid, which scarcely affects litmus-paper; but after respiration has been established a few hours, the same substance is found firml coagulated, and the whole contents of the stomach are strongly acid. This for- mation of acid gastric juice does not take place immediately after birth ; for I have then observed the lungs inflated, and the contents of the stomach nevertheless unchanged. ‘The process of respiration must continue for a certain time—a few hours—hefore the coagulation of the albuminous matter by an acid gastric secretion is accomplished. The chemical changes therefore which occur in the stomach of the rabbit conse- quent on the performance of respiration, and the very circumstance of a certain in- terval elapsing between the commencement of the oxygenation of the blood and the appearance of the proper gastric juice, seem to me conclusive as to the connexion between the latter function and the former. Now assuming for the present the correctness of this principle, some interesting questions arise. If the secretion of the acids of the gastric juice be thus dependent on the oxygenation of the blood, to what extent is the formation of the other ani- mal acids also influenced by the action of respiration? And if a certain degree of oxygenation of the blood be requisite for the natural secretion of gastric juice, will not defective oxygenation impair the quality of the latter liquid, and so tend to connect some forms of indigestion with the imperfect performance of respiration ? Tn this way, the improved appetite and digestion which we often observe to follow change of residence may really be a direct effect of the more complete purification and oxygenation of the blood by increased exercise and the inhalation of a purer air. I can only hope that these and similar questions will be studied by competent chemical physiologists, and that the result of their researches will be still further to establish the mutual relation and dependence of the great functions of life ; for at the present time, when physiological and pathological inquiries are so intensely localized, it becomes peculiarly important to recall to mind the essentially compound unity of the living animal. On the Anatomy of Pteropus. By Professor Rottxston, M.D.,°F.R.S. On some Points in the Anatomy of Insectivora. By Professor Rotteston, M.D., F.R.S. The author confined his attention chiefly to the mole, the shrew, and the hedge- hog—the three species found in this kingdom, The subject, he said, enabled us to 174 : REPORT—1861. illustrate principles of first-rate importance. He gave a number of details as to the osteological, digestive, circulatory, generative, and nervous systems of the In- sectivora, dwelling eapediely upon the instances of variability of organs not sub- seryient to special habits which this family furnished, and upon the variations to be found in individuals belonging to the same species. Referring to Gratiolet’s classing the Lemurs amongst the Insectivora, Dr. Rolleston said that this arrange- ment might seem to be justified by the fact that the Lemurs differed from other Quadrumana by their non-possession of the hippocampus minor and of an oyer- lapped cerebellurh, and by their possession of a large olfactorylobe. In these points, also, the higher apes resembled the human species, whilst differing from the lower members of their own family. On the Homologies of the Lobes of the Liver in Mammalia. By Professor Rottestoy, M.D., F.R.S. In descriptions of the internal anatomy of rare animals, it is usually easy, even without the aid of figures, to compare the accounts given of the arrangement of their organs with the arrangement of similar structures in animals more familiar to us. To this statement the descriptions given of the lobes and lobules of a multifid liver form an exception; and the purport of this paper is to furnish the zoologist with a convenient and readily applicable system of nomenclature for the several divisions which the liver may be found to present in the mammalian series. The umbilical view of the foetus, preserved for us in the adult in the so-called “suspensory ligament,” furnishes us with our first landmark. The lobe to which it is attached we may call the “suspensory lobe ;” it is very commonly, though not in the human anja trifid_—the suspensory ligament having one lobule to its left subequal with a second to its right, which is bounded in that direction by the cystic fossa where the gall-bladder exists, and this second lobule, the “suspensory central,” haying the third lobule lying upon its right, between the indentation (when it exists) for the gall-bladder and the free right edge of the entire lobe. The “ suspensory lobe” overhangs the two other lebes into which the mamma- lian liver is divisible. To the left it overhangs a lobe which is very rarely if at all deeply incised or indented; this lobe we would call the “left lobe.” The lobe which it overhangs to the right is very frequently lobulated somewhat complexly. This “right lobe” is divisible into three secondary lobules, the “superior right lobule,” the “right kidney lobule,” and the “lobulus Spigelii.” The “superior right lobule” is frequently in relation with the pylorus, and in some animals, as the rabbit, is deeply excavated for the lodgment of that portion of the stomach: immediately overhung itself by the Sp subdivision of the suspensory lobe, it again overlies the “right kidney lobule,” which is very commonly either deeply fissured or greatly excavated for the reception of the organ after which it is named. The “superior right lobule” and the “right kidney lobule” are often found to be fused into one mass in animals such as the hedgehog, Erinaceus europeus, and the long-eared bat, Plecotus auritus, in which they are usually distinct. Lastly, we have the “lobulus Spigelii,” which (with two exceptions in the Marsupial series, viz. the Phalangista vulpina and the Macropus giganteus) we have found to be more directly in connexion with, and sessile upon, the “right kidney lobule” than upon any other portion of the liver. The bile-duct and the afferent blood-vessels of the liver pass in front of the origin of this lobule. It may effloresce into two rocesses distally and to the left, one of which may pass before and the other fohind the cardiac end of the stomach, as in Mus decumanus; or it may give off a process near its origin and towards the right, which may interpose itself between the “right kidney lobule” and the “superior right lobule,” as in the shrew, Sorex vulgaris. In the nomenclature suggested by M. Duvernoy (Ann. des Sciences Naturelles, sér, ll. tom. iy.), the left division of the suspensory lobe is named “lobe principal gauche ;” but its diminished proportions, as compared with those of the “left lobe” in some of the Insectivora and lower Quadrumana, incline us to consider it as wholly lost in such livers as those of man and the ruminants, and to assign it, when TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 175 it does exist, to the “suspensory lobe.” Without, however, positively pronouncing oc ays convenience of description induces us to name it “ left suspen- sory lobule.” It is proposed, then, to speak of the liver as divisible into three principal lobes, two of which frequently admit of further subdivision—at the most, however, into not more than three lobules each, The “ left lobe.” a left suspensory lobule, The “suspensory lobe,” which may be divided into {a central ,, Fe a right ” ” a superior right lobule, The “right lobe,” which may be divided into....,, {ari tht kidney lobule, a lobulus Spigelii. On the Influence of the Season of the Year on the Human System. By Evwarp Suita, I.D., FBS. The author said that he only proposed to give a brief outline of a series of observa- tions he had made upon himself, and to mention one or two deductions he had drawn from these observations, The observations he had made were to show the variations of the vital actions in the human system, and his two rincipal inquiries referred—the one to the respiratory functions, and the other to the elimination of nitrogen. In reference to respiration, the amount of carbonic acid evolved varied from day to day with the cycle of the seasons. He had found that there was a definite variation in the amount of vital action proceeding within the body at the different periods of the year, and that this followed a well-marked course. Thus, at the beginning of June a fall commenced, and this continued and pro- peovaly increased through June, July, and August, until the commencement of eptember, when the lowest point was attained. After this period, in October an upward tendency was manifested, and it continued through October, November, and December, until January, when a point was attained from which there was little change in January, February, and March, In April and May the amount of carbonic acid evolved was yet further increased, until the point was reached whence he started. The extreme amount of change observed was a loss of three grains of carbonic acid per hour from the commencement of June to September; and the extreme quantities recorded were in May 10-26 grains, and at the lowest period between 6 and 7 grains. The rate of respiration, the mee | of air inspired, and the quantity of carbonic acid exhaled, followed the rule he had explained. It had been proved by several series of experiments that the rate of pulsation was in- creased by heat, whilst the rapidity of pulsation was the reverse of the rate of respi« ration. With reference to the evolution of nitrogen, the conditions were the opposite of those of the elimination of carbonic acid. The general results he had arrived at were, that there was a greater amount of fluid evolved in the summer months than in the winter. The carbonic acid evolved decreased with the increase of tempera- ture. On a sudden increase of temperature there was a large decrease of vital action, and on a fall of temperature there was an increase of vital action. The greatest growth of animals would occur at that period of the year when there was the largest amount of vital action; and in this respect they were connected with the yegetable kingdom. He believed that it was a fact with regard to the growth of children, that they grew at a greater rate in spring than in winter. From facilities which the Registrar-General had afforded him, he had ascertained that a much larger number of those children born at the latter part of the summer died within a year of birth than took place amongst those born at other periods of the year, The children born in the winter and spring periods were less subject to disease, and in all probability had stronger constitutions than those born in the summer season. These variations in the increase and decrease of the vital power of the system seemed to him to be the origin and the cure of diseases, especially those that were chronic. All epidemics to a large extent, in whatever part of the world they occurred, took place at the period when the human system was decreasing in vital action. This rule applied to cholera especially, which generally attained its 176 REPORT—1861. greatest height in July and August, in October diminished, and in November dis- appeared, On the Action of the Eustachian Tube in Man, as demonstrated by Dr. Politzer’s Otoscope. By J. Tornsrr, F.R.S. From the time that the celebrated anatomist, Eustachius, in the 16th century, discovered the tube leading from the cavity of the fauces to that of the tympanum, this Eustachian tube has been usually described as constantly open, and the air in the two cavities has consequently been looked upon as constantly continuous. Although Mr. Wharton Jones in 1841, and M. Hyrtl in 1845, spoke of the faucial orifice of the Eustachian tube as having “the property of a weak valve opening either way,” their opinion did not alter the views entertained by physiologists re- specting the functions of the Eustachian tube, and its constantly open condition was considered essential to the due performance of the function of hearing. In the year 1853 I laid before the Royal Society a paper, the object of which was to demonstrate, firstly, that the faucial orifice of the Mustachian tube is always closed, except momentarily during the act of deglutition or when air is forcibly blown through it; secondly, that the Eustachian tube is opened by the muscles of the palate, the tensor and levator palati; thirdly, that, contrary to the preconceived opinion of physiologists that “if the Eustachian tube is closed the hearing is lost at once,” in order that the function of hearing may be duly performed, it is abso- lutely requisite for the Eustachian tube to be closed, otherwise the sonorous undu- lations, which ought to be confined to the tympanic cavity in order that they may be concentrated upon the membrana fenestre rotunde, are lost in the fauces, and the sounds from the fauces also enter the tympanum and produce the most distressing discord. In proof that the faucial orifice of the Eustachian tube remains closed after the act of swallowing, the experimenter has but to swallow some saliva while the nostrils are closed by the finger and thumb: a sensation of pressure is produced in each ear, which disappears only when the act of swallowing is again performed without the pressure of the nose. It is also well Imown that unless the act of de- glutition be frequently practised during the descent in a diving-bell, so that the Eu- stachian tube may be opened and air allowed to enter the tympanum, great deafness and a feelino of pressure in the ears are produced. Further, in cases where the membrana tympani is lax, it is seen to move outwards when air is blown into the tympanic cavity, and it returns to its natural position only on the act of swallowing being performed. In order to demonstrate this function of the Eustachian tube, and also to dia- gnose its condition in disease, I suggested the use of an otoscope, consisting of an elastic tube about eighteen inches long and a quarter of an inch in diameter, each end being tipped. with an ebony tube. Upon the introduction of one end of this tube into the ear of the experimenter, while ‘the other is placed in that of the person experimented upon, if the latter distends the tympanum by a forcible attempt at an expiration while the nose and mouth are closed, the air is heard to enter and to distend the tympanum, and the cavity remains distended until the act of swallowing is performed, when the drum is heard to recede as the air makes its egress. The views on the physiology of the Eustachian tube advanced by me before the Royal Society having attracted the attention of Dr. Politzer of Vienna, that gen- tleman performed a series of experiments with the object of testing their accuracy. The result is that Dr. Politzer came to the same conclusion as I had done, and he invented a simple and ingenious instrument, by means of which the action of the Eustachian tube can be seen. This instrument, which I have called Dr. Politzer’s otoscope, consists of a rounded portion of cork or india rubber, about an inch and a half long, and about half an inch in diameter; in the centre of this is a glass tube about two lines in diameter, which externally is disposed in the form of an elbow. When used, the rounded and free portion of the cork or india rubber is moistened, and introduced into the external meatus, care being taken that it fits, so as to pre- vent the outer air from passing between the instrument and the walls of the meatus. ‘When this has been accomplished, a drop of water is allowed to enter the tube so as to fill half the elbow, and to be on the same plane jn each portion of it, The TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. Avy person experimented upon is now to close the nose with his finger and thumb, and (the mouth being shut) to force air into the tympanum. Immediately this takes lace, the water is seen to descend in the inner portion of the elbow and to ascend in the outer portion. The finger and thumb are now to be removed from the nose, when no movement of the water is observed to take place in either elbow; but as soon as the act of swallowing is performed, the water is observed to return to its original position, the drum having receded on the opening of the Eustachian tube. On the Physiological and Medicinal Properties of Sulphate of Aniline, and its Use in the Treatment of Chorea. By Dr. J. Turnsuxt, Liverpool. The author observed that medical men had not acquired a knowledge of new re= medies commensurate with the improvements which had been made in other branches of medical science. The progress of organic chemistry had brought to light many new bodies worthy of investigation, and there could be little doubt that many of them would, if their properties were examined, be found to prove remedies of utility. The artificial alkaloids were a numerous class, and from their resemblance in che- mical constitution to the vegetable alkaloids, it might reasonably be expected that some of them should have powerful and useful properties. He had been led to make trial of the sulphate of the artificial alkaloid, aniline, in cases of nervous dis- order, and had treated with it successfully six cases of chorea, or St. Vitus’s dance. In regard to its physiological action, he stated that aniline appeared to act directly on the nervous system as a sedative. The most remarkable effect, however, which it produced was a transient alteration in the colour of the skin and lips, which be- came of a bluish hue; and this he attributed to oxidation of the aniline and the formation of a colouring-matter in the blood. As a therapeutic agent, he expressed the opinion that it would be found by the profession to be a valuable new remedy. GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY. On the Connewion between Ethnology and Physical Geography. By Joun Crawrurp, F.R.S., President of the Section. Ir has been the practice of my predecessors to open the meetings of this Section by a short address, and I gladly follow their example, choosing for my subject one which I hope you will consider suited to the occasion—the connexion between eth- nology and physical geography. Man will be found savage, barbarous, or civilized, in proportion to the quality of the race to which he belongs, and to the physical character of the country in which his lot has been cast. Beginning with the con- ditions least favourable to his progress, and rising to those which are most auspi- cious, I proceed at once to illustrate this principle by a few examples: such a step may perhaps be useful in showing the scope of our science—the knowledge of the earth considered as the habitation of man. Mere intemperance of climate, inde- pendent of any other obstacle, is sufficient to prevent man from making any advance towards civilization, and to hold him permanently in the savage state. “The con- dition of the inhabitants of the Arctic, sub-Arctic, Antarctic, and sub-Antarctic regions are examples. The Esquimaux is the most striking: dwelling where the year consists but of one day and one night, where snow and glaciers are substituted for the green earth, where no plant yielding food for man will grow, and, save the dog, no domestic animal live, advancement is impossible. The Esquimaux alone can live in such a region, and this only as hunters and fishermen, leading a nomadic life over its vast surface. Under such adverse circumstances, we only wonder at the progress they have made in the arts, with stones, bones, sinews, skins, and drift-wood their sole appliances, There are lands, indeed, which, from mere inclemency, seem incapable of sup- orting human life at all, and which seem never to have been inhabited. The islands of Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla within the Arctic, and New Shetland within the Antarctic Circle, are examples, Eyen more temperate Iceland had no abori- 1861. 12 178 REPORT—1861. ginal inhabitants, and was unpeopled until colonized about 1000 years ago, and this by one of the most highly-gifted races of man—the same which twice conquered France and England. I take my next illustration from a country of a very different character, Austra- lia. The great mass of this continent lies in a temperate region, with well-marked seasons, and the rest in a tropical one. The climate of that portion of it which has been tested is one of the finest in the world, and the land is not encumbered with forest, always so formidable an obstacle to the early advancement of civilization. ‘With these exceptions it possesses no peculiar advantages: it has no great range of high mountains, and hence no great navigable rivers, while, from the same cause, a vast extent of its surface is an arid desert of sand. Compared to its area, it has uta small extent of coast-line, because little indented by gulfs, bays, or inlets, and hence it is wanting in facility of intercommunication. It contained no native plant available to cultivation for human food, and no native animal amenable to domes- tication, the dog excepted, of small value in such a climate. Under such dis- couragements, and without communication with strangers, any advancement in civilization would have been impossible, even had its native inhabitants been of the most highly-gifted races of man. Mentally and physically they are, on the contrary, among the feeblest, consisting of hordes of black, ill-formed, unseemly naked savages, possessed of no arts, except those which enabled them to maintain a bare existence from the spontaneous productions of the earth or the water. Equal in extent to China, the whole population of Australia did not, probably, exceed in number that of a single town in that empire. Little more than seventy years ago this distant and unpromising land was selected as a place of punishment for English felons; in due time it was found excellently well adapted for the sheep, although no native animal of the family it belongs to existed in it, and chiefly by its help the population of the strangers rose to half a million. Ten years ago it was found to be rich in gold, a fact which the natives had not discovered; and if they had, the precious metal would have been of no more value to them than the quartz rock which contains it. The gold has doubled the civilized population, and, with the wool of the sheep, is exported, to the enrichment of the colonists and the world at large, to the yearly value of fifteen millions. At evenlessthan its recent rate of increase, Australia will, in a century’s time, contain a population equal to that of the United Kingdom,—a wealthy, proud, and formidable nation of Anglo- Saxons—mighty conquerors and troublesome neighbours. The tropical Andaman Islands, in the Gulf of Bengal, are an example of a land éyen more inauspicious than Australia itself. With the exception of external form and of climate, not, however, specially favourable, every other condition indispen- sable to human progress seems here wanting. It produces no plants fit for human food, and not one animal amenable to domestieation—except, perhaps, the hog; indeed, with the exception of these and of apes and reptiles, hardly any large animals at all. The aborigines are a small, feeble race of black negroes, in phy- sical form much below even the unpromising Australians. In the same Southern Hemisphere with Australia lies a land of less extent, but of far higher attributes than Australia, New Zealand. The two islands which mainly compose it lie within the similar latitudes with Italy, Greece, and the Archipelago. The soil is fertile, and high mountains secure a perennial supply of water, With these natural advan- tages, however, they possessed when discovered no native plant amenable to eulti- vation, or animal capable of domestication; for the yam, the batata, and the taro were imported exotics; and the dog—for want of suitable food, small and few— also an imported stranger. The inhabitants themselves were emigrants from the intertropical isles of the Pacific, as attested by the identity of their physical form and language with those of these islands, For lack of animal food—for they had destroyed the gigantic struthious birds of their country before they were known to Europeans—the ‘New Zealanders betook themselves to eating one another, and were the most open and avowed cannibals on record. They would have been even more abject savages than they were, had they not brought with them the above-named cultivated plants. Notwithstanding this, our experience of the New Zealanders has shown them to possess more couxage and capacity than Europeans have ever found in any other wild race. In these qualities they are a contrast to the feeble and effeminate people of the tropics from whom they sprang—a difference of chas TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 179 racter which can hardly have arisen from any other cause than that of a compara- tively rigorous climate, necessitating exertion. - The vast continent of America, temperate, tropical, and equatorial, naturally ream many of the essential properties requisite for the promotion of a high civi- ization—deeply indented coasts, high mountain-chains, and the greatest rivers of the world, with lakes equivalent to inland seas. It was for the most part covered with deep forests, unconquerable by the feeble efforts of savages, clear mountain’ lateaux and prairies being the exceptions. Instead of the many cereals of the 1d World, had but a single corn. It had no domestic beast of draught, and virtually but a single beast of burden, of about one-sixth part of the power of the camel, and even this one confined to a mountain region, for which alone it was fit. But the greatest defect of America consisted in the race of man—below the negro of Africa in physical strength, and below the Malay in intelligence. The same race, with inconsiderable varieties, pervaded the whole continent from Terra del Fuego to the confines of the Esquimaux. The highest civilization reached by the American race was that which existed on the high plateau of the Andes but even that was far below the degree which had been attained by second- and third-rate nations of Asia—the sufficient proof of which is, that the Mexicans and Peruvians had not invented letters, nor discovered the art of making iron malleable, as had: all of these. In that portion of America extending from the great chain of lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, where about two centuries and a half ago savage hunters alone wandered, there now exists, planted within that comparatively brief period, an Anglo-Saxon population as numerous as that of the country which colonized it,- and of the same rank of civilization,—a fact which attests beyond all question the’ natural capacity of this region for developing the highest powers of man, This’ great and prosperous people imitates the country from whence it sprang in all things, virtues, vices, and follies. In obedience to this example it is at the present moment: shedding its blood and wasting its wealth to no rational purpose. The huge mass of land which we call Africa, extending over seventy degrees of: latitude, although almost an island, has a coast less indented than any other of the great quarters of the globe. It has no high chain of mountains comparable to those of Europe, Asia, and America, and hence no great navigable rivers like theirs, It wants also their inland seas and great lakes. Much of its area consists of wild” sandy deserts, and much of primeval and perennial tropical forest, more difficult, of transit than the sandy desert itself. These natural obstacles are hindrances to intercommunication, and therefore to social progress. The races of man which inhabit Africa correspond with the disadvantages of its physical geography. Taking the capacity to invent written letters, to construct durable architectural monuments, and to form powerful states as tests of capacity for civilization, Africa may be briefly sketched. to the north of the chain of the Atlas and bordered by the Mediterra- nean, we have a narrow slip of land in climate and production far more European than African. The aboriginal people of this region, the Numidians and Maurita-' nians, the ancestors of the present Kabyles and Berbers, were in physical form and: mental endowment more European, or perhaps Asiatic, than African. The coun-: trymen of Jugurtha had invented letters, built durable monuments, and acquired- such military skill and power as to enable them to defeat Roman armies. Their territorial limits, however, were too narrow, and their political skill too small,- to enable them to construct an empire, and for 2000 years they have been subju-- gated by a succession of invaders. Egypt, like Barbary, has the advantage of a temperate climate, and of the peculiar and perennial fertility conferred by the Nile, without which its narrow valley would, like the country on both sides of it, bea’ mere desert of sand. The race which inhabited it was less European or African than Asiatic, and in capacity bore a considerable resemblance to Chinese. In so favoured a locality, and with such a people, an early social advancement was inevitable ; but the Egyptian civilization was not a vigorous or an enterprising one. The Egyptians were a home-keeping people, who never left their own country, and who, unable to defend it, have been subdued by a succession of invaders for now thirty” ages. Had the Jews, a people far more highly endowed, been sufficiently nume- rous and powerful, which their poor and limited territory forbade, I am of opinion’ that instead of the bondsmen they would have been the masters of the Egyptians, After referring to the Nubian and Abyssinian races, he continued :— ; , 12* = 180 y REPORT—1861. From the southern limits of the Sahara to the extremity of the continent, Abys- sinia excepted, but the great island of Madagascar included, no race of man exists that has invented letters, built durable architectural monuments, or founded power- ful commonwealths. Of the races inhabiting this territory, extending over twenty degrees of latitude, by far the most numerous and to us the most interesting is the Negro, too well known to need any description. Possessed of great bodily strength and power of supporting toil, the history of the Negroes would seem to show that their understandings are not quite in proportion to their physical qualities. No systematic and consistent form of religious belief has ever originated with a Negro eople, and the object of their belief is merely a mischievous magic. This in- feriority of the Negro can only be satisfactorily attributed to lack of mental power. It is this inferiority, combined with eminent capacity for mechanic labour, that has induced the powerful among themselves to make a trade in the weaker, just as other races do in cattle, and which has seduced foreign nations in all ages to engage in the hateful traflic, to abstain from which demands an amount of moral restraint not yet attained by all the nations of Europe, and reached by none of those of Asia. 10,000,000 of these negroes are now in the New World and its islands, 7,000,000 of whom are slaves, to the great detriment of civilization, whether as regards the slave or his owner. The great Malayan and Philippine Archipelagos afford many striking illustra- tions of the connexion between physical geography and ethnology, and I shall adduce a few examples. The Island of Java, of volcanic formation, has a range of high mountains extending from one end to the other. These supply rich plains and valleys with an abundant perennial irrigation, making this island one of the most fertile spots on the globe. In form, Java is a long narrow island; and although of half the size of Britain, no part of it is above fifty miles distant from the sea, Its peaceful and docile inhabitants, at present about 12,000,000 in number, have immemorially been in possession of letters of their own invention, and their coun contains beautiful architectural monuments, while the political institutions of the Javanese prove by their results that they gave no inconsiderable amount of pro- tection to life and property. After referring to the contrast shown by Borneo, another of the eae of the Archipelago, owing to its physical inferiority, he con- tinued :— The Malay peninsula, fully double the size of Java, with some advantage over it in shape, is generally of the same geological formation with Borneo; and as to minerals, it is rich in tin, iron, and gold. Like Borneo, it is covered by a dense tropical forest, always, as already stated, a serious and almost insuperable obstacle to the early progress of civilization. The native inhabitants are of the same race as the Borneans, but eyeu lower in the order of civilization. Immediately east of Java are two small islands, Bali and Lombok, of the same geographical formation with that island, and, like it, having high ranges of mountains, the source of an abundant irrigation. Of the same race with the Javanese and Borneans, they have letters and monuments, and are virtually in the same state of advancement as the Javanese. Their population, computed at 1,000,000, is probably equal to that of all Borneo, The Malayan peninsula and some of the Philippine Islands exhibit a phenomenon unknown in any other part of the world—that of two distinct races of men, dwelling, but not intermixing, in one and the same land. These are the Malayan and a diminutive Negro, the latter leading an erratic life in the mountains, in as wild a state as that of any tribe of Americans, and the first with more or less civilization—even possessing a knowledge of letters. The islands of the Pacific, from New Guinea to the Feejee group, are peopled by negroes, always in a lower condition than the brown race which panies the neighbouring islands, and the greater number of their inhabitants are certainly cannibals. Voyagers have noticed one favourable distinction between these negroes and the brown and more civilized race—they were always found honest, while the fairer people were invariably incorrigible thieves. The brown race in question, proved, by identity of physical form and language, to be the same from the Sandwich to the New Zealand Islands, were found on their discovery (the last-named islands excepted) in a higher state of civilization than any native people of America, except those inhabiting the plateau of the Andes: This advancement they owed to the possession of such cultivated plants as the yam, the batata, the bread-fruit, the taro or caladium, the TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 181 ¢ocoa-nut, and the sugar-cane, with such domestic animals as the dog, the hog, and common fowl. But, like the rudest Americans, they had no domestic animals for labour, and were ignorant of iron and every other metal. Notwithstanding, there~ fore, a fertile soil and mild climate, cut off, as they were, from all intercourse with more civilized strangers, they could not be expected to have gone beyond the point of civilization which they were found to have attained when Europeans first saw them. Such of them as had no domestic animals, or not an adequate supply of them, were undoubtedly cannibals. The people of the Sandwich Islands—now Christians —certainly were so but eighty years ago. Advancing to higher civilizations, I may begin with the Persian. Persia is a plateau generally rising about 3000 feet above the level of the sea. The greater part of it is within the temperate region, but a considerable portion subtropical. It has many deserts and salt lakes. In these deserts the fertile spots, that is, those that are supplied with water, are few in comparison. To this general character, however, the lands bordering on the Caspian, copiously irrigated from a range of high mountains, are an exception, for they are eminently fertile. The Persian race is a peculiar one, and among Asiatics a highly endowed one, personally and intel- lectually. For five-and-twenty centuries, and probably even a longer time, it has been in possession of letters and the skill to erect durable monuments. But the ea geography of the country is certainly a serious impediment to a stable and asting civilization, for it not only encourages the invasion, but the permanent set~ tlement within its borders of pastoral tribes, still retaining their nomadic habits. These wandering tribes, differing in language and manners from the Persians, are estimated to amount to a fourth part of the population. This is as if one-fourth part of the population of England were to consist of armed gipsies. My next example is the country of the Hindus, a land which nourishes twohundred millions of men, but which, like much of Africa and of Australia; would assuredly have been but an arid desert, with pastoral tribes wandering over it, had it not been for the Hi- malayas and the Ghauts, the sources of those great rivers which have given it soil, irrigation, and means of intercommunication. Hindustan is almost as unbroken a mass of land as Africa itself, and more so than Australia; and the amount of this disadvantage may be estimated by the fact that its coast-line is less than that of Britain, of one-fifteenth part its extent. Throughout Hindustan the race of man is probably, in all essentials, the same, with such varieties only as prevafl among Europeans, Negroes, and the red man of America. The Hindus are a black people, of a deeper tint than any other race of man, the African and Oriental Negro and Australian excepted. The form of the head and features is European—even of the highest type, the Grecian; but experience teaches us that there must be an essen~ tial difference in the quality of the two brains, although too subtle for anatomy to detect. There is, in fact, no rational foundation for the extravagant theory which would make Hindus and Europeans to be of one and the same race, under the absurd and hypothetical designation of Caucasian: twenty centuries of history belie the assertion. Above two thousand years ago the Hindus were, according to the mea- sure of Asiatic civilization, a highly advanced people, and possessing the evidences of it in indigenous written language, architectural monuments, and institutions of some skill and great persistency. We come next to the highest civilization of Asia, that of China, the joint result. of superiority of race and favourable physical geography. The high mountain- chains of China, often rising to the snow-level, and chiefly lying to the west, are the sources of the great rivers which fertilize spacious alluvial plains, and nourish mil= lions of men. It was no doubt in these plains that first sprang up the peculiar civilization which has spread over a region twenty times the extent of Britain, and numbering fully sixteen times its population. With respect to the quality of the race itself, it far exceeds all other Asiatic ones in bodily strength, in capacity for labour, in ingenuity, and in power of supporting vicissitudes of climate, for we find it thriving alike under the heat of the equator and the cold of the fiftieth degree of latitude. It is almost superfluous to add that their eri A of letters, peculiarly their own, is of immemorial antiquity. For ages, too, they have had the capacity to erect great and enduring structures. Their foolish wall, to keep out the shepherds of Tartary, and compared to which, in magnitude at least, the Pyramids of ‘ane are but mole-hills, was constructed two hundred years before the birth of Christ. oe 182 REPORT—1861. The superiority of their political institutions is proved by its fruits—a progress in the useful arts and an accumulation of wealth which have never existed in any other Asiatic nation. In China, as in India and asin the region which lies between both, we find rude, unlettered tribes, who, although of the same race as the Chinese, have not participated in their civilization. These mountaineers—for such they ne- cessarily are—chiefly abound in the less favoured provinces of the west, where the great rivers have not yet attained the magnitude which confers fertility and means of internal communication. From the Sea of Japan to the Caspian there exists a vast region, for the most part steppes and sands. This is the native country of the Tartars and Turcomans—of men who, for the most part, dwell in tents, and whose normal condition is as migratory as that of birds of passage. Immemorially in possession of the horse, the camel, and the sheep, the very ae character of their country would seem to condemn them in perpetuity to the pastoral condition. The huge peninsula of Arabia, although a tropical or subtropical country, much resembles Fartary, in the frequency of its deserts and the fewness of its fertile or watered spots. The habits of its inhabitants, therefore, were generally pastoral, like those of the Turks and Tartars. The highest civilization which the Turks ever attained was in Eastern Europe and in Northern India; the highest which the Tar- tars reached was in China, and of the Arabs in Spain. Europe is the quarter of the globe which, through the great advantages of supe- rior physical geography and superior quality of race, has attained the highest mea- sure of civilization. Its extensive seaboard, caused by deep gulfs and inland seas; its numerous lakes and rivers; its many islands, with a temperate climate, afford it means of industry, commerce, and intercommunication possessed by no other part of the world. The superiority of its races of man is attested by an experience of three thousand years. iin the quality of these races among themselves there is, pro- bably, no material difference; sufficiently proved by the fact that no deterioration follows their intermixture, as shown in the instances of the very bastard people whom we call French and English. The term Europe, however, is but a conventional and not a very well-defined one, and the advantages of physical geography and race which I have ascribed to it belong especially to the southern portion, always its only seats of high civilization. The sterile and oft ice-bound far North has never pro- duced,and seems incapable of producing, a pes and powerful civilization. Yet from the rigorous North has emanated one of the most highly-endowed races of man— that which overthrew the huge structure of the Roman Empire, which in later times conquered a large portion of France and the whole of Britain, and to which, above all other causes, is owing the vigorous civilization of modern Europe and Northen America. The vast superiority of the European over the other races of man, and especially over the precocious but soon stagnant races of Asia, need not be insisted on at length, and I shall confine myself to a few modern instances. Thus, but for the European race, the old and new world would have been unknown to each other: that race has conquered the whole new world and largely Lew it with men more civilized, more powerful, and far more numerous than its aboriginal inhabitants. But for the European race, China would have been known to the rest of the world only by report, and Japan and the great Indian Archipelago as unknown as Ame- rica. While the European nations have virtually subdued all America, discovered: and conquered a fifth quarter of the globe, Australia, and conquered and occupied a considerable part of Asia, no foreign race can be said to have invaded and perma- nently settled in Europe. The Turks conquered the weakest and most degenerate portion of Europe, and beyond this they have never succeeded in penetrating, not- withstanding many attempts. They have been in Eastern Europe about half the time that the Saracens had been in Spain, but, in the true character of an Oriental race, they either refuse or are unable to keep pace with the European races, and, ae existing only by their sufferance, absorption or expulsion is their inevitable ate. : The races of Asia (and it affords incontestable evidence of incapacity and inapti- tude) have borrowed little from Europe. Ican quote but two notable exceptions— fire-arms and tobacco, both of which they promptly adopted on the first opportunity. They reject the printing-press, obstinately persevering in the slow and expensive manuscript teva in Europe impeded the progress of knowledge 500 years ago. They. very rarely use the mariner’s compass, but steer along the shore, or. trust te TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 183 the stars and the monsoons. The European races have, on the contrary, borrowed freely from every country that had anything good to give. From Asia the list of our adoptions is large, for from it we have derived cotton and the cotton manufac- ture, silk and the silk manufacture, paper, without which the printing-press would be worthless, the sugar-cane and its extracts, tea, coffee, spices, and opium. Nor must the domestic fowl be omitted, for that valuable acquisition is of Asiatic origin. To America we owe the potato, maize, the cinchona, the tobacco, and the turkey, and to Asia and America jointly all our most valuable dyes. To Africa our obligations are smaller; but palm oil, the galline, and the ass may be named with respect. As to the invention of written language and to monuments of a high order, the only parts of Europe which boast of having possessed them are Greece and Italy, which in the march of civilization had so long preceded all the rest. The nations of Europe, now the foremost in letters, were (the Runic characters excepted, which probably never extended beyond the priesthood) as ignorant of them 2000 years ago as were the Mexicans when first seen by Europeans. In this respect, as indeed in architecture, they have been but dextrous imitators. This is a striking contrast to- the precocious races of Asia, many rude tribes of whom, less civilized than ancient Gauls, Germans, and Britons, haye been in possession of alphabets of their own in- vention from time immemorial. The most favoured parts of Europe, even those which are now the seats of the highest civilization, afford, like India and China, examples of civilization retarded through disadvantage of physical geography, without any proved inferiority of race. Our own island yields two signal instances, Wales and the Highlands of Scotland. Had the whole area of Britain been no better than they, it is quite certain that we could not have been what we are—powerful, opulent, populous, and great. Their inhabitants, compared with those of the fruitful parts of the island, were as the Gonds and Garrows of India to the Hindus, or the Myo-tse of China to the Chinese. From their courage and locality they were difficult to subdue, and their unavoidable poverty offered no temptation. It is only by slow degrees, and the influence and example of a more advanced nation, that a people so circumstanced is brought within the pale of civilization. The process is, at present, in rapid advancement in the mountains of Wales and Scotland, even to the extinction of their barbarous although. masculine and forcible tongues; but it has taken eighteen centuries to bring the Welsh and Highlanders to their present state from that which they were in when Gibbon describes one of them (and the other was probably little better) as consist- ing of “troops of naked barbarians,” who “ chased the deer of the forest over cold and lonely heaths, amid gloomy hills and lakes covered with a blue mist.” Journey in the Interior of Japan, with the Ascent of Fusiyama, By R. Aucocks The paper commenced with a description of the difficulties which the writer encountered in Yeddo, in the early part of his journey in Japan. A large retinue accompanied him. The journey was begun in September 1860. On their way they had to cross the river Saki on the shoulders of porters, who were made re- aoe for the safety of the passengers ; if any accident occurred to the travellers, the men had nothing to do but to drown themselves, as no excuse was taken. At first their way up the mountain lay through waving fields of corn, succeeded by a belt of high rank grass. Soon, however, they entered the margin of the wood which surrounded the base, and which crept high up the side of the mountain. At first they found trees of large growth—goodly timber of the oak, the pine, and _ the beech. At Hachimondo they left their horses and the last trace of permanent habitations and the haunts of men. Soon after the wood became thinner and more stunted in growth, while the cork and birch took the place of the oak and the pine. Just before they entered the forest-ground a lark rose on the wing—the first the author had ever seen or heard in Japan. As a general rule, the birds had no song, the flowers no fragrance, and fruit and vegetables no savour or delicacy. In the wood-belt were deer, wild boars, and horses. They soon afterwards lost all traces of life, vegetable or animal. On their journey they rested a little in huts or caves, partly dug out of the side and roofed. There were eleven of these resting-places, which were one or two miles apart, between Hachimondo and the summit of the mountain. The latter half of the journey was the most arduous, Qn the top of 184 “REPORT—1861. the mountain was a yawning crater—a great oval opening with jagged lips, estimated at about 1100 yards in length, with a mean width of 600, and about 350 in depth. Looking from the mountain, the country below was hid by a canopy of cloud. The estimated height of the edge of the crater above the level of the sea was 13,977 feet, and the highest peak 14,177 feet. The Japanese who performed the pilgrimage were generally dressed in white vestments, which on the summit were stamped with various seals and images by the priests located there during the season. As far as the writer could learn, a very holy man, the founder of the Sintoo religion, took up his residence on the mountain, and his spirit was still held to have influence to bestow health and other blessings on those who made the pilgrimage. The volcano had long been extinct. The latest eruption recorded was in 1707; and the tradition was that the mountain itself rose in a single night from the bowels of the earth, a lake of equal dimensions appearing the same hour at Miaco. The time occupied by the ascent of the mountain was eight hours, and the descent was ac- complished in little more than three hours. The party slept two mghts on the mountain, and had greatly to congratulate themselves on the weather. On Australia, including the Recent Explorations of Mr. Macdonald Stuart. By the Hon. J. Baxrr, P.R.GS. Mr. Baker gave a rapid sketch of the rise of the colonies of Australia and the habits of the aboriginal inhabitants. During the last year or two, the amount of gold discovered had rather diminished than increased; and a considerable number of hands were now employed in cuitivating the soil who were previously engaged in the diggings. All other exports were gradually increasing, and only population was required to enlarge them to an almost unlimited extent. There were numerous vich mineral deposits, and many places in which cotton might be grown with ad- vantage. There was not a more loyal people under the sun than the Australian colonists. Mr, Baker then gave a few extracts from Mr. Stuart’s journal of his last expedition into the interior. After noticing the starting of the expedition, on the -2nd March, 1860, and the successive visits to Mount Hamilton, and Beresford, Williams, Milne’s, Keckwick, and other springs, the character of the country at the West Neale, Frero, the Stevenson, Mount Humphries, the High Gum Creek, &c., the arrival of the traveller at a small eum-creek under Mount Stuart on the 22nd of April was referred to—that being found, from observation of the sun, to be the centre of Australia. A tree was there marked, and the British flag planted. It was a mistake to suppose that the flowers in that country had no smell, a rose being found with a ‘sweet, strong perfume. Subsequent interesting adventures were sketched, and the third unsuccessful attempt of the traveller to make the Victoria River was alluded to, the journal concluding with the arrival of the party at Cham- bers Creek. On the Mountains forming the Eastern Side of the Basin of the Nile, and the Origin of the Designation ‘ Mountains of the Moon,’ as applied to them*. By Cuartes T. Bexz, Ph.D., PS.A., F.R.GS. Se. This paper was in continuation of the author’s communications to the British Association in the years 1846, 1848 and 1851+. It commenced by stating that the great additions made to our geographical knowledge since the date of the author’s previous communications have all tended to establish the substantial truth of the opinions therein expressed. In 1846 Dr. Beke described the Abessinian table-land as having its summit-line towards the sea-coast, and thence falling gradually towards the Nile ; which river skirts the western flank of the high land, and is the sik into which all the rivers flowing over the table-land are received. The fall of the Nile is so small, that Dr. Beke then estimated its absolute elevation, in the fifth parallel of north latitude, * Printed in extenso in the ‘ Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal’ for October, 1861, new series, vol. xiv. pp. 240-254. + See ‘Report of the British Association ’ for 1846, Transactions of the Sections, pp. 70- 72; Report or 1848, Transactions of the Sections, pp. 63, 64; Report for 1851, Trans- actions of the Sections, p. 84. ‘ TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 185 at not more than 2000 feet. It is now found that at Gondékoro, in 4° 44’ N. lat., the elevation of the bed of the Nile is only 1911 feet. On the other hand, the mountain-range of Eastern Africa, forming the anticlinal axis between the ocean and the basin of the Nile, which in 1846 could only be traced as far as 9° 80' N. lat., may now be regarded as extending beyond the sixth parallel of sowth latitude, in a line running from N.N.E. to 8.8.W. between the 40th and 35th meridians. Tt was next stated that the snowy mountains, Kilimandjaro, Kenia, and Doengo- Engai, which in 1846 were unknown, are portions of this mountain-range of East- ern Africa, to which Dr. Beke attributes the name of the “ Mountains of the Moon,” the snows of which are described by Ptolemy as flowing into the two lakes of the Nile—the lakes intended being Tanganyika and Nyanza, recently discovered by Captains Burton and Speke. With reference to the derivation of the designation “ Mountains of the Moon” from the name of the country, U-Nyamwezi, in the vicinity of those lakes, the author showed in the first place how the Indian name of the island of Java—Jara- dvipa—was translated into Greek Kp:@js vicos or Barley Island, just as the Latin name of the Etruscan city and port of Luna was translated SeAjnvy; though there is reason for believing that such significations did not belong to the words Java and Luna in their respective aboriginal languages, but were merely mistransla- tions, or rather misapprehensions, by the Indian conquerors of Java in the one. case, and by the Romans in the other. In the same way, the native African name U-Nyamwezi, having become known to the Greeks through the Sawihilis, or people of the coast, in whose language mwezt means moon, may have heen supposed to have some connexion with the name of that planet. Dr. Beke argued, however, that Mwezi, as a component part of the name U-Nya- mwezi, does not necessarily mean moon in the aboriginal language of the country. All the Kafir tongues have certain prefixes, distinguishing singulars from plurals, adjectives from substantives, and one kind of substantive from another. Thus Ki- Nyamwezi is the language spoken by the Wa-Nyamwezi, which people dwell in the country called U-Nyamwezi, one of them being a M’Nyamwezi or Mu-Nyamwezi (whence our “ Monomoezi”). It appears then that the root is not Mwezi, but Nyamwezi; and though it may be that the natives themselves never use the root without some prefix, strangers might not unreasonably do so, and eyen contract Nyamwezi into Mwezi, as the Sawahilis and Arabs, according to Captain Burton, actually do; and from this con- traction, the translation into the Greek Selene would have followed as a matter of course. What the theoretical root may mean in the Nyamwezi language has yet to be ascertained. Meanwhile the rendering of U-Nyamwezi into “ Possession of the Moon,” or “ Land of the Moon,” may well be questioned. Should it prove to be erroneous, the designation “ Mountains of the Moon,” as applied to the great moun tain-range of Eastern Africa in which are the sources of the Nile, will have origi- nated in a mistranslation or misconception. Still, this well-known name has been in use during so many ages, that it could hardly be practicable, and certainly would not be judicious, to supersede it now. The paper concluded thus :—“ The entire eastern side of the basin of the Nile appears to be auriferous, the gold collected in various parts of it since the earliest ages being brought down by the tributaries of that river; so that there is reason to consider the Mountains of the Moon as a meridional metalliferous cordillera, similar in its general characters to the Ural and the corresponding mountain-ranges of America and Australia... .. Whenever the discovery shall be made in Eastern Africa of some of the chief deposits of that precious metal, the influx from all parts of the civilized world to the ‘diggings’ in the Mountains of the Moon will be such as to occasion a more rapid and complete revolution in the social condition of those hitherto neglected regions, than could be caused by commerce, by missionary labours, by colonization, or by conquest; as we have witnessed in other quarters of the globe, where the auri sacra fames has collected together masses of the most daring and energetic of human beings. We shall then, too, doubtless see in Eastern Africa, as in California and in Australia, the formation of another new race of mankind.” 186 REPORT—1861. Notice of a Voleanie Eruption on the Coast of Abessinia. By Cuanres T. Bexz, Ph.D., PSA., F.R.GS. &e. During the ge of the 7th or morning of the 8th of May, 1861, a volcanic erup- tion took place from Djebel Dubbeh, in about 13° 57' N. lat., and 41° 20' E. long., accompanied by loud shocks resembling the discharge of artillery and immense clouds of dust. The noises were distinctly heard both at Massowah and at Perim, places nearly 400 miles apart, and the dust fell for several days over a vast extent of the Red Sea, and on the coast of Arabia as far as the mountain-range of Yemen. At Edd, on the Abessinian coast, a day’s journey from Djebel Dubbeh, the dust was knee-deep, and its fall during the first day caused total darkness. The erup- tion continued at intervals for three or four days. There is no remembrance of any previous eruption. Djebel Dubbeh is distant about 230 miles, in a direction almost due north, from the great extinct volcano Aiyalu or Azalo, mentioned in Dr. Beke’s aper “ On the Mountains forming the Eastern Side of the Basin of the Nile ;” and, Fike Aiyalu and also Kilimandjaro, it forms a portion of the mountain-system to which he attributes the designation of the Mountains of the Moon*, Remarks on the Glacial Movements noticed in the Vicinity of Mount St. Elias, on the North-west Coast of America. By Admiral Sir E. Betcuer, O.B., F.RAS. Early in September 1837, Sir Edward's expedition ran down the coast of North America, between ports Etches and Mulgrave, in order to fix the position and de-~ termine the height of Mount St. Elias. The icebergs which hung about the coast were much larger than those which he had seen in Behring’s Strait and northerly, or off the mouths of the fiords in the vicinity of Port Etches. The icebergs presented a beautiful appearance. He (Sir Edward) believed that in the upper valley of Icy Bay the lower bodies of the ice were subject to slide, and that the entire substratum, as frequently found within the Arctic Circle, was composed of slippery mud. In Icy Bay the appa- rently descending ice, from the mountains to the base, was in irregular broken masses, which tumbled in confusion. The motion was clearly continuous. As to the causes which operated in producing the constant displacements of the glacier, and the protrusion of the bergs to seaward, many theories had been pro- posed. His (Sir Edward’s) impression was that, whatever was the intensity of cold under which congelation had taken place, the actual temperature due to the ice was merely that of 32° Fahrenheit, and that self-registering thermometers, properly buried in ice or snow, subject even to the very low temperature of 62° 5’ elow zero on the external skin of snow, only indicated the proper temperature of freezing water. Salt-water ice has a temperature or 28°. In the very high latitudes of 66° to 76° north, the snow on the surface of the snow-clad elevations furnished sufficient water to undermine the lower beds of snow- ice, and bore a passage to the sea. However firm the crust might be in certain positions, a furious torrent had been at work beneath. They were thus driven to the conclusion that the temperature of the earth must in some degree aid in keeping up a temperature sufficiently high to prevent the congelation of the water hidden from light or the sun’s rays. The advance of vege- tation was another proof, the ground-willow, saxifrages, and mayflower, and many other plants, producing their shoots before light caused the immediate expansion and colouring of the leaf. The earth’s temperature, acting on the lower portions next to the soil, aided in facilitating the travel of the slip of the snow-ice of which these glaciers were com- osed to lower levels. In all ice-formations might be noticed, at the season which ollowed the period of day frost or preceded the spring, a peculiar dryness, the re- sult of evaporation of the superfluous water, attended by dense fogs. An ominous cracking was then experienced, which had been misrepresented by some of the first Arctic explorers as the breaking of the bolts of their vessels; no bolt was ever traced to have been so broken! He imagined that the soil on which masses of eter- * Various particulars respecting this eruption are given by Dr. Beke in The Times of- the 20th and 21st June, 24th September; and 16th October, 1861. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 187 nal or eternally-shifting ice reposed must be, from never being exposed to the sun’s rays, of a loose, boggy, or muddy nature, which facilitated slipping. The under- mining facilitated cracking; and the very action of alternate freezing and thawing between the exposed surfaces, serving as aqueducts along the upper portions into which water would flow, must produce compact ice; and its power in that very action was quite adequate, by comparison, not only to remove ice, but even moun- tains of earth, provided the point d’appui be afforded. - It was evident with respect to the lower portions supporting Mount St. Elias, and which were subject to a summer heat which ripened strawberries, and was even more oppressive than we experienced in England, with the rapid thaws of the inferior levels, that repeated fracture and avalanches occurred. They must calcu- ‘late on sudden tremendous concussive force, by the breaking away of whole ranges and their precipitation on the lower strata. His opinion was that the shocks of the avalanches communicated laterally had produced such fractures as had been noticed in those peculiar pyramidal forms near Mount St. Elias. These fractures, epened, were filled by water, which probably froze at night or when the sun was pent and expansion drove the exterior masses, which were termed bergs, into the sea. - Such was his theory, founded on severe thought over a period of thirty-five years, under frequent contact with nature in actual operation, The Great Earthquake at Mendoza, 20th March, 1861. Extracts from a Letter written by R. Bripex to W. Bottarrr, F.GS. This catastrophe, the writer said, was treated by all as an earthquake ; and, in the simple sense of the word, it might be classified as such, as the writer found in Mr. Bollaert’s work on Earthquakes ; but he distinguished between an earthquake and an internal irruption. The latter had evidently been the case at Mendoza, since its effects had been felt north, south, east, and west of the city, at Valparaiso, Coquimbo, in Chili, San Juan (north of Mendoza), and El Rosario (east of Mendoza), more or less equidistant. It was deficient in many of the characteristics of the earth- quakes experienced in Chili, not having followed a line, no rain having fallen, and differences of time not having been observable. In fact, it appeared to have been. simultaneous at all places; to have been an upheaving exclusively at Mendoza, and between that and the Andes. No volcano had, however, been found. The walls of the buildings had fallen, indicative of having been rent in every direction, none in- dicating any horizontal motion ; indeed, had there been any such, the loss of life, estimated at 10,500 out of 15,000, would not have been so great, as the means of escape would have been facilitated by different fallings. Cromleachs and Rocking-stones considered Ethnologically. By P. O’Catta- eHAN, B.A., Honorary Secretary to the Philosophical and Literary Society of Leeds. The author observed that no stone object of human veneration or superstition was so universally distributed over the face of the globe as the Cromleach. He then gave the Celtic derivation of the word, implying “crooked” or “inclining stone.” He stated that, in consequence of its cumbrous obstruction, it has been for the most part removed or broken up in the cultivated parts of Europe, and was con- sequently now seldom seen but in desolate and secluded places, except where it had some peculiar local protection. From this circumstance, and tapers from its rude and massive proportions, its construction was vulgarly ascribed to supernatural agency. After noticing the researches of Mr. Lukis and Sir R. Colt Hore, he said that it was now conceded on all hands that the Cromieach was originally a tomb or grave. He then described the manner in which he saw the Caribs dispose of their dead—doubling up the body into the smallest possible compass, and depositing it in a narrow excavation under one or more large stones, to conceal and protect it from the carnivorous animals of the surrounding forests. He thought that this was in all robability the most primitive, as it was the most natural, way of disposing of the. juman dead body, in man’s savage state, all over the world. He inferred from this that. the original Cromléach was of natural. or accidental formation, and- showed’ 188 REPORT—1861. drawings of several which he said must have been thus formed. Two especially, of vast size, he thought were boulders dropped from ice-floes, which in falling upon others broke them, and remained ever since securely supported upon these rude props. They would then become ready-made and secure tombs, and would be con- tinually used for such a purpose from the remotest ages. On this supposition he thought that the relics of various and successive races, which are occasionally found in such Cromleachs, could be easily accounted for. He observed that it was not surprising that these large blocks of stone, so mysteri- ously disposed, should have produced a feeling of awe and veneration, and that they should even come to be regarded as objects of superstitious fear or ultimately of religious worship, such as that practised by the Druids. He said that he did not mean to assert that all Cromleachs were so formed; on the contrary, he thought that the greater number, especially of the smaller ones, were evidently artificial. All he meant to contend for was, that the original Cromleach was of natural or accidental formation, and used as a grave for countless ages before its artificial imi- tation, which ultimately assumed the form of arudetomb. He considered that the universal distribution of the Cromleach should not be looked upon as a conclusive proof of an identity of origin of the various races of man, but rather as an indica- tion of an identity of the instinctive resources of the human intellect under similar circumstances. He instanced the curious similarity, almost amounting to identity, of two stone hatchets in the Museum at Leeds, one of which was brought from Otaheite, and the other found, with ancient British relics, in a cave near Settle. He thought that when the materials of a Cromleach were light and easily dis- placed, the instinctive resource under such circumstances would be to conceal it under a mound of earth or stones, as the locality could afford. This he believed to be the true history of the original tumulus or cairn, which were the probable pains of those stupendous pyramidal structures of the more civilized gyptians. He considered this a more natural explanation of those universal structures than the dreamy visions of certain ethnologists, who will only see in them the vestiges or landmarks of improbable human migrations, of which they offer us no more satisfactory evidence than the ingenious speculations of philolo- gists, who find in language such a plastic material that they can mould it into any orm to suit their own preconceived theories. Amongst the other megalithic wonders, the erection of which has been popularly ascribed to supernatural agency, he remarked that none was more striking than the “ Rocking-stone.” He quoted a passage from Wilson’s ‘ Prehistoric Annals of Scotland,’ in which the writer graphically describes the engineering science and mechanical skill evinced in their erection. He thought that the theory advanced by him for the formation of the primitive Cromleach would easily remove all these mechanical difficulties. He observed that if the glacial flood, of which we have everywhere such manifest indications, had borne away upon its enormous ice-rafts vast blocks of stone, torn from the abraded sides of the valleys as they drifted through them, these masses of rock must have been all deposited on the bottom of this icy sea, on its increase of temperature and subsidence. Now, many of these floating boulders must, he thought, have fallen upon others, and rested upon the broken fragments, as in the instance of the Cromleach. He considered that it was not unreasonable to suppose that occasionally others may have been deposited quietly upon the very pivot of their centres of gravity, where they would remain curiously balanced, on the retreat of the waters. They would there naturally be- come objects of wonder and awe to the savage human creatures who first beheld them, and to all succeeding generations. He stated that the Pheenicians and Greeks assigned to the Rocking-stone divine power, and that the priests everywhere availed themselves of this superstitious fear. The author exhibited a sketch of the famous Logan Stone of Cornwall, to show how impossible it was to look upon it as the work of human hands. He described another sort of Rocking-stone, which he thought to have been formed by the gradual wearing of the narrow base of the overlying stone. In illustration of this latter idea, he exhibited a sketch of an “ erratic block ” near Settle, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, which is figured in Professor Phillips’s interesting work on that county. He thought that it was not difficult to foresee that, in the lapse of time not very remote, the small base upon which this rock now rests securely may be scaled off by rain and frost, until TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 189 the huge mass becomes detached, or poised upon a pivot so small as to allow it to oscillate as a Rocking-stone. Notices on the Ethnology, Geography, and Commerce of the Caucasus. By Caprain Cameron, The locality referred to was the Caucasian Isthmus. Hercules, Castor and Pollux, Ulysses, and other Greek worthies were all said to have done something towards opening the Caucasus to the enterprise of their countrymen, It grew to be pre-eminently a land of marvels. After reference to the ancient traditions of the Amazons, it was stated that the Caucasus had played its part in history, and especially made itself felt in the movements of the two important continents which it both separated and linked together. The Caucasus was a laboratory in which nature Bal been working on the largest scale, and magnificent results were given in its varied geological formation, &c. The beginning of the establishment of the Cossacks in the Caucasus dated some centuries back, and their numbers were systematically augmented by Peter the Great and his successors. After a reference to the various Tartar tribes, and to the Tcherkissis, whose habits were graphically described, other portions of the inhabitants of the Caucasus were similarly noticed. So far from Shamil being the chief of the Circassians, they looked upon his “ level- . ling” system of government with suspicion and dislike; and it was only amon the Tchetchess and Lesghins that Shamil had any power. The Caucasus possesse every diversity of soil; it was capable of producing indigo and cotton. The silk trade had received a stimulus by the failure of the supply in other quarters. During the Irish famine, 125,000 bushels of Indian corn were exported to this country. In the Caucasus, as elsewhere in the East, Swiss manufactures were gaining rapidly on those of England, a fact which Mr. Herries ascribed to the circumstance that hand-loom patterns and colours could be constantly jvaried without difficulty or expense, which, he said, was not the case with power-loom weaving. In the bazaars in Mingrelia, however, the average of British goods-as against Swiss was generally as three to two. Steam had been introduced both on the Black and Caspian Seas and elsewhere, On the Geography and Natural History of Western Equatorial Africa. By P. B. Du Cuamtv, This singular region, explored by the author during the years 1856-7-8-9, lay within two degrees on either side of the equator, and extended for 400 miles into the interior. Having described its peace! features, its partly swampy, partly mountainous character, and its dense forests, which ascend to the very tops of the mountains ; its rivers, the Muni, the Moondah, and the Gaboon, all rising in the range of mountains known as Sierra del Crystal, 60 or 80 miles from the west ; also the Nazareth, the Mexias, and the Fernand-vaz, the latter chiefly fed by the Ogobai, and this last fed by the Rembo Ngouyai and the Rembo Okanda ; the traveller, re- verting to the mountains, said, ‘ 5 udging from my own examination, and from the most careful inquiries among the people of the far interior, I think there is good reason to believe that an important mountain-range divides the continent of Africa nearly along the line of the equator, starting from the west from the range which runs along the coast north and south, and ending in the east, probably in the coun- south of the mountains of Abyssinia, or perhaps terminating abruptly to the north of the lake Tanganyika of Captains Burton and Speke.” To the existence of this range, and of the flat, wooded, damp country at its foot, he attributed the fact that Mahometanism had never in Africa spread south of the equator. The natural history of the country was next referred to at some length, With regard to the gorilla, he considered it probable that its range was coextensive with the dense jungle of the interior. He had no doubt that with the advance of civilization in that region this monster would disappear ; and it was a great satisfaction to the scientific world and to himself to know that, whatever might happen, the world would have, from the pen of one of its most illustrious zootomists, Professor Owen, an imperishable record of the most wonderful anthropoid animal yet described. ——S eee 190 f ~REPORT—1861. ‘On the People of Western Equatorial Africa. By P.B. Dv Cuarty. His travels extended from two degrees north to two degrees south of the equator. He doubted whether there is another district of the same size as that which he explored in Western Equatorial Africa, holding so many varieties of tribes, all thinking themselves separate nations and possessing different names, though many speak the same language or dialect. One of the great peculiarities of most. of these tribes is that their villages are intermingled with each other. There are no landmarks assigned to each tribe; every village squats and settles where the people choose, and every now and then the traveller will be astonished to see @ village belonging to a certain tribe far removed from it. This habit of selecting land wherever the people of a village like is owing to the vast extent of unoceupied territory. He found that the cannibals are the tallest and handsomest of these tribes; many were of athletic forms—in fact, magnificent savages; but he had found Fans near the equator, at the head-waters of the Gaboon River, who had not the fine appearance of these mountaineers. They even eat the dead. With the exception of these cannibals, the other tribes seem to be intermediate in stature, between the tall and slim. Yolof and other tribes of North Africa, and the small- sized men of the Congo and of the more southern tribes of that continent, accord- ing to the specimens he had seen, are small and ugly, but the Kaffirs are tall and handsome negroes. These equatorial people are well-proportioned, not stout, but built as if capable of enduring great fatigue. They may, as a whole, be called middle-sized men. Among the cannibals the females appeared in many instances smaller in proportion to the males. According to the commonly received notion, the negroes dwelling under the line, or near to it, ought to be darker than those removed from the line. This is a mistake. The countries he had visited do not possess what we should call black negroes, with the exception of the Ashira tribe, who are in contrast with the tribes surrounding them. He had come to the con- clusion, from his observations, that the negroes who inhabit a damp and moist country, and especially mountainous countries, are less black, though they possess all the negro features, than those belonging to an open country, where a dry atmosphere is prevalent. In fact, the equatorial negroes are far from-being as dark as the negroes he had seen living near the great desert in the Senegal country. Among the cannibals, but more especially among the Apingi, he had found persons looking almost like mulattoes. Albinos are rather common in the tribes he had visited. In this part of equatorial Africa the negroes inhabiting the sea-shore are a shade darker than those of the interior. The negroes of this part of equatorial. Africa do not belong to the lowest type of the Western coast ; they are superior to those of the Congo or more Southern-African tribes. The cannibals may be con- sidered as among the best blacksmiths in Africa. They work iron in a most beautiful manner. They make knives, spears, axes, and hammers, many of which are good and beautifully shaped. The cannibal tribes are the only ones he had seen using the poisoned arrows. The tribes he visited south of the equator possess a loom, and weave the fibres of a species of palm into cloth of considerable fineness_ and tenacity. Among the people of the same tribe intelligence varies considerably. These negroes possess an imaginative mind, are astute speakers, sharp traders, ereat. liars, possessing great power of dissimulation, and are far from being in many re- plist the stupid people they are believed to be. In making bargains they are as shrewd as any European. In everything that does not require mental labour and forethought they seemed to learn as fast as any among the intellectual races, to a certain point. When he had to rely on them for anything that required the exercise of memory or forethought, anything on which the power of reflection was required, then they failed; partly, perhaps, through laziness. Though often treacherous, they have noble qualities, are given to hospitality: food is never bought; the rich and the poor have food enough to satisfy their hunger. The women show great tenderness of heart, especially when one takes into account how harshly they are treated. Many times he had been under great obligations to them when sick for their kind care. They built houses either with the bark of trees or a species of wild bamboo : the houses are small, and there is no other opening than a door; sometimes, however, they possess two doors. With reference to the law of intermarriage, the author read a long extract from his published work on that sub- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 191 ject. A universal belief existed m good and evil spirits, and in the een of charms, called Monda, made with a variety of objects. ey also believed in the power of witchcraft and the significance of dreams. He had come to the determined con- viction that, though these people lay offerings upon the graves of their friends, though they even sometimes shed the blood of slaves on the grave of a chief or that of a father of a family, though they fear the spirit of the recent dead, they have no definite idea as to the state of the soul after death, It is true they fear the spirit or ghost of the recently departed, and place furniture, dress, and food on their graves, and return from time to time with fresh supplies of food. The spirits of the victims slain at the graves, whether women or men, it is believed join that of him who has departed, During the season appointed for mourning, the deceased is remembered and feared; but when once his memory grows dim, fear gradually lessens, presents of food over the grave become more and more scarce, and the gene ration that comes afterwards, and who never saw the man, abstain from giving any present whatever, and take no concern about such spirit. The burial-ground exists only among a very few tribes ; but among many, as soon as a person has died, the corpse is left under a tree, and the village is removed to a far distance. Ask the negro where is the spirit of his great grandfather: he says he does not know; it is one. Ask him about the spirit of his father or brother, who died yesterday ; then e is full of fear and terror; he believes it to be generally near the place where the body has been buried. There is, as he had mentioned above, a total lack of gene- ralization. Thus some will believe that a certain man’s soul, after he died, went into the body of a bird, beast, or gorilla; but ask them concerning the transmigra- tion of souls in general, they will say they know nothing. They fear the spirit of the recently departed; they think of it asa vindictive thing which must be con- ciliated. All the tribes he had visited had faith in the power of existing spirits, generally called Obambou, or Oconcou, and the other Mbuiri; they have other names in various tribes which come near to these names; both appear to have power to do good or evil. They are not represented by idols, but in many villages have houses built for their occupation when tired of wandering, and food is offered to them. In some tribes they are believed to be married to two female spirits; they are said sometimes to walk in the street of the village and to speak to those they meet. They believe in idols, and each clan and head of a family possesses one, These idols are believed to have the power to keep the clan out of evil, and to be able to foretell events. The people, the author continued, are totally ignorant of God or a Supreme Being. Witchcraft was believed in; polygamy was very prevalent ; and slavery an institution of the land. Slaves were the money of the country, the standard of valuation. Many of these African tribes are fast disappearing; their languages or dialects will disappear with them, On the Antiquity of Man, from the Evidence of Language. By Joun Crawrvrn, F.B.S, The periods usually assigned for man’s first appearance on earth necessarily dates only from the time when he had already attained such an amount of civili- zation as to enable him to frame some kind of record of his own career, and take no account of the many ages which must have passed away before he could have attained that power. Among the many facts which attested the high anti- quity of man was the formation of language. Language was not innate, but adventitious—a mere acquirement, having its origin in the superiority of the human understanding. The prodigious number of languages which existed was one proof that language was not innate,—some with a very narrow range of articu- late sounds, others with a very wide one; some confined to single syllables, while others had many; some being very simple and others of a very complex structure, thus implying that each tongue was a separate and distinct creation, or that each horde formed its own independent tongue. A whole nation might lose its original tongue, and in its stead adopt any foreign one. The language which was the ver- nacular one of the Jews 3000 years ago had ceased to be so above 2000 years ago, and the descendants of those who spoke it were now speaking an infinity of foreign tongues—sometimes European and sometimes Asiatic. Languages derived from a single tongue of Italy had superseded the many native languages which were 192 REPORT—1861. once spoken in Spain, in France, and in Italy itself. A language of German origin had nearly displaced not only all the native languages of Britain and Ireland, but the numerous ones of a large portion of America. Some eight millions of negroes were planted in the New World, whose forefathers spoke many African tongues, which tongues had nearly disappeared, having been supplanted by idioms derived from the German and Latin languages. It necessarily followed that man, when he first appeared upon earth, was destitute of language. Each separate tribe formed its own language; and there could be no doubt that in each case the framers were arrant savages, which was proved by the fact that the rudest tribes ever discovered had already completed the task of forming a perfect language. The first rudiments of language must have consisted of a few articulate sounds, in the attempts made by the speechless but social savages to make their wants and wishes known to each other; and from those first efforts to the time in which language had attained the completeness which it was found to have reached among the rudest tribes ever kmown to us, countless ages must be presumed to have elapsed. The Egyptians must have attained a large measure of civilization before they had invented symbolic or phonetic printing, and yet these were found in the most ancient of their monuments. Dr. Adam Smith divided all languages into two classes, com- plex and simple; the complex being considered the primary form of all languages, and the simple but derivations, the products of the intermixture of nations speaking different tongues, and striving to make themselves intelligible to each other. In this case, one tongue would be adopted ; and, to make it easy of mutual use, it would be stripped of its inflections, easy prepositions, &c., being substituted for them. It was certain, however, that the principle could not be of universal or even general application, and that there were many languages of simple structure just as primi- tive as those of complex formation. One language might receive even a consider-= able infusion of another without undergoing any change of structure. There were cases in which, from several causes, even the conquest of one people by another, and the long possession of the conquered territory, might produce no change in the structure of language. In some cases the invaders might be so overwhelming as to be able to supplant the language of the conquered by their own, without the latter undergoing any change. In this way the Saxons substituted their own language for the native idioms of Britain, that language not losing its inflections until it after- wards came to be intermixed with the speech of a new set of conquerors. The sub- stitution of the languages of Europe for those of the New World was a case of the same description—eyen a stronger one. It was quite certain, however, that many languages existed which never could have been formed by inflections. It appeared that the structural character which languages originally assumed would in a great measure depend on the whim or fancy of the first rude founders. No doubt there were facts in reference both to pronunciation and structure very difficult to account for, and which might possibly have some relation to physical differences of races. No monosyllabic language, whether in the Old or New World, seemed eyer to have existed west of the nations whom we called Hindu-Chinese. Consonants, and especially eutturals and other rough sounds, abounded in the languages of North Europe. The structure of the ancient languages of Europe, and erhaps of Central Asia, appeared to have been formed by inflections, while the Malayan and Poly- nesian tongues were inyariably of yery simple structure. The American tongues, even the language of the Esquimaux, were formed by agglutination—the combining in one word an aggregation of several words—often to the formation of a word comprising the meaning of an entire sentence. Adam Smith supposed (and he, Mr. Crawfurd, thought justly), that the first attempts to form language would con- sist in giving names to familiar objects; that was, in forming nouns substantive. Words expressing quality would naturally be of later invention. Verbs, or words expressing affirmation, must (according to the writer he had quoted) have been nearly coeval with nouns themselves, since without them nothing could be affirmed; and pronouns were not likely to have existed at all in the earlier period of language. The same author said that number, considered in general, without relation to any particular set of objects numbered, was one of the most abstract and metaphysical ideas which the mind of man was capable of forming, and consequently was not an idea which “would readily occur to rude mortals who were just beginning to form alanguage,” The truth of this view was corroborated by our observation of rude TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 193 languages, in which the process seemed to be going on. Among the Australian tribes “ two,” or a pair, made the extent of their numerals. Some other tribes had advanced to count as far as “five” and “ten.” The Malayan nation had native numerals extending to a thousand, above which they borrowed from the Sanscrit. The rude and imperfect numerals of some tribes would seem to have been superseded by the more comprehensive ones of more advanced nations, a remarkable example of which was the general prevalence of the Malayan numerals among all the nations of the Malayan and Philippine Archipelagos, among the tribes, whether fair or negro, of the islands of the Pacific, and even among the negroes of Madagascar. The Roman numerals had been adopted, to the supercession of their own, by the Celtic nations. The two hands and the ten fingers seemed to have been the main aids to the formation of the abstractions which Adam Smith considered so subtle. This would account for the numeral scale being sometimes found binary, some- times quinary, but generally decimal. However great the difficulties of construct- ing languages, there was no doubt they were conquered by mere savages. Language was even brought to perfection as to structure, and for the expression of ordinary ideas, by men who were but barbarians. The poems of Homer, composed before the invention of letters, were as perfect Greek as any that were ever after written. The Sanscrit language, in all its complexity and perfection of structure, was spoken and written at least three thousand years ago by men who, compared with their posterity, were completely barbarian. The Esquimaux had a language of great complexity and structure. Languages, then, were formed everywhere by rude savages, and time alone seemed to have been sufficient to enable them to elaborate a system perfect for its purpose with every race of man. The vocabulary of the rudest tongue probably embraced not fewer than 10,000 wards, every one of which had to be invented. These words, in order to form a coherent system, had often to undergo modifications of form, and some of them, besides their literal meaning, had to receive metaphorical ones. What ages, then, must not have elapsed from the first attempts to assign names to a few familiar objects, to that in which language had attained the completion at which it had arrived, as we find it even among cannibals! Between the completion in question and the discovery of the art of writing, made only here and there, under very favourable conditions as to race and locality, how many additional ages must not have transpired! That discovery implied an advanced civilization, the fruit of very long time. If we considered the introduction of the art of writing among the Jews, for example, to have been coeval with the Pentateuch, this alone would carry us back in the history of language for near 3500 years, according to the usual computation. But at the time at which the Pentateuch was written, the contemporary Hgyptians were a far more civilized eople than the Jews, and had been long in possession of the art of writing. He thought the conclusion was inevitable that the birth of man was of vast antiquity. He came into the world without language, and in every case had to achieve the arduous and tedious task of constructing speech, which, in the rudest form in which it was now found, it must have taken many thousands of years to accomplish. On the Antiquity of the Aryan Languages. By R. Curt, On the Ethnology of Finnmark, in Norway. By L. Daa, of Christiania. The district of Finnmark was situated at the extreme north of Norway and Sweden, Its population was very scanty, but was also very diversified; there were three great divisions :—the aboriginal Laps; the Norwegians, being immigrants from Norway; and the Fins, from Finland in Russia. The former were chiefly nomade, and the others were almost exclusively fishermen, living on the coast and banks of the rivers. In 1855 the population of Finnmark proper was 15,385 souls, and consisted of 5300 Norwegians, 1425 Nomades, 5786 settled Laps, and 2305 Finlanders. ach of the three nationalities spoke a different tongue. Mr. Freiss, of Norway, had lectured upon the Laps and Fins, and from inquiries con- ducted under his superintendence a map was constructed, and from this and some statistics which had been given, the author drew conclusions to the eftect that the Norwegians and Fins were the more civilized, and that while the Laps were learn- 1861. 13 194 REPORT—1861. ing their languages, the Norwegians and Fins Inew nothing of the language of the Laps, and that the connexion between the Laps and the Fins was more intimate than between the Norwegians and the Laps. New Commercial Route to China. By Henry Ducxwortu, .L.S., F.GS., PRGS. The object of this communication was to give a summary of a project recently placed before the Government and commercial community of this country by Cap- tain Richard Sprye and the writer of this paper. In his prefatory remarks the author observed that our most recent acquisitions of territory in Burmah had brought us within 250 miles of the Chinese frontier. There being no direct communication between the two countries, it became a most important question whether it would be possible and profitable to establish one. The seven most western and inland provinces of China proper are situated between about 22° and 42° north latitude, and lie far west of the extreme point to which Lord Elgin proseaion up the Yang-tze-kiang. The chief natural productions of Yun-nan (area, 107,969 square miles; population, 8 millions) are rice, silk, musk, various kinds of drugs, and tea. Gold, copper, lead, cinnabar, and orpiment are abundant ; indeed, Yun-nan excels all the other provinces in its mineral wealth. Kwangsee (area, 78,250 square miles ; population, 10} millions) produces abun- dance of rice, cassia, ang, valuable furniture-woods. Gold, silver, and quicksilver are the principal metals. Kweichoo (area, 64,554 square miles; population, 73 millions) yields wheat, rice, musk, tobacco, cassia, and precious timber. Lead, copper, iron, and quicksilver are found in its mountains. Hoonan (area, 73,000 square miles; population, 33 millions), one of the richest rovinces in the empire, produces immense quantities of grain, principally rice. ts teas are said to be remarkably fine. Iron, lead, and coal are abundant; and the mountains produce pine, cassia, and various other kinds of timber. __ Sze-chuen (area, 166,800 square miles; population, 304 millions) is the largest and, according to Abbé Hue, the finest province in China. Its fertility is such that, it is said, the produce of a single harvest cannot be consumed in it in ten years. Its principal productions, besides grain, are indigo and various tinctorial plants, fine teas, silk, sugar, grass-cloth fibre (Bahmeria nivea), and many kinds of valuable drugs. Shensee (population, 143 millions) is too cold for rice and silk; wheat and millet supply their place. Rhubarb, musk, wax, red-lead, coal, and nephrite are the principal articles of exportation. Kansu (area, with the last, 154,000 square miles; population, 22 millions) pro- duces wheat, barley, millet, and tobacco of very superior quality. A large traffic is carried on between this province and Tartary in hides and coarse woollen cloths. The means of reaching these seven rich and densely-populated provinces from the Bay of Bengal is very simple. Paling Rangoon as the starting-point, it is proposed to connect that port with an emporium in the north-east corner of Pegu, i.e. under the magnificent Karen Hills. From this emporium, which would be almost equidistant from Rangoon and the Chinese frontier, the line of communication would pass through Burman- shan territory to Esmok (or Sze-maou), a border-town of Yun-nan, and a point at which several caravan-roads converge directly from various parts of the province, and indirectly from the whole of the western half of the empire. In order to take-in chief towns and our military stations, the line would proceed thus :—Ist stage, Rangoon to the ancient city of Pegu, the intervening country being almost level; 2nd stage, from Pegu, over flat land across the Sittang to Shoe- eyen; 3rd, Shoe-gyen, up the left bank of the Sittang and Kyoukkee rivers to Baukatah, a distance of 35 miles; 4th, from Baukatah up the left bank of that river and its tributary, the Peemabhu, to Thayet-peen-keentat, also 35 miles; 5th, across TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 195 the watershed between the Sittang and Youngsalen to the Kweestookee branch of the Thaiboot river, and down their right or left banks to the Youngsalen, down and across which to Tzeekameedac ; 6th, thence over the watershed between the Youngsalen and the Salween to our frontier-line under the Karen Hills, where we are within reach of all the Chinese and Shan caravans which traverse the country north-west of that point. Another most important feature in the project is the establishment of an electro- telegraphic communication along the whole route. The line, once brought to Esmok, could be easily carried across country to the Pearl river, and down the lower valley of that stream to Canton and Hongkong, and thence, taking in Eepencipal towns along the coast (Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo, and Shanghai), to ekain. In like manner, by extending the communication to Niew-chiang, and down the Corea, the open ports of Japan might be brought to the very door of Rangoon, which already possesses telegraphic connexion with Calcutta, On the Capabilities for Settlement of the Central Parts of British North America, By James Huctor, M.D., F.GS., F.R.GS. The region noticed by the author extended from Lake Superior to the Pacific Ocean, lying immediately north of the boundary-line of the United States, and was drained principally by the river Saskatchawan. A considerable amount of agita- tion had been employed in Canada and at home, in order to have this country thrown open for settlement ; the whole, with the exception of that portion which fell within ritish Columbia, being under the direct control of the Hudson’s Bay Company for the purposes of a ftir-trading monopoly. It had been placed beyond doubt, princi- pally through the labours of several government expeditions, to one of which he was attached, that there existed within these territories extensive areas, with good and yaried soil, adapted for agricultural colonization, but which, from their geogra- phical position, were necessarily subject to all the advantages and defects of a tem- perate continental climate. The winter was long and severe, the spring short and uncertain, and the summer tended to scorch the vegetation. The winter, however, was not more severe than that which was experienced in Canada and elsewhere, Many crops which were readily raised in Canada would not meet with equal suc- cess in the Saskatchawan ; but all common cereals and green crops had been grown successfully. The depth of the snow was never excessive, while in the richest tracts the natural pasture was so abundant that horses and cattle might be left to obtain their own food during the greater part of the winter; and there was no doubt that sheep might be reared, were it not for the immense packs of wolves which infésted the country. These remarks applied more especially to the “Fertile Belt.” The Saskatchawan country offered a most desirable field to the settler who was deficient in capital, and who had no desires beyond the easy life and moderate gains of simple agricultural occupations. It was only the diffi- culty of access to it that prevented its immediate occupation. One route from Hudson’s Bay, by a broken land and water carriage, was now almost abandoned. A second route was from Lake Superior to Lake Winnipeg, which had the same disad- vantages. The third line of ingress, undoubtedly the natural one, passed through American territory, up the valley of the Mississippi river to the Red River settle~ ment, by way of St. Paul’s, Crow Wing, and across the low watershed which there divided the waters of the Mississippi from those flowing to Hudson’s Bay. The progress of the adjoining American settlements was then noticed. In therug- ged country which lay between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific coast, no oubt all the valleys were filled with rich auriferous deposits; diggings were con- stantly being discovered in fresh localities. The formation of a line of railway through British Columbia would involve great difficulties. Throughout the Sasq katchawan country there were deposits of coal of considerable value, though not to be compared with that which was common in England. Coal of somewhat better quality also occurred at Vancouver's Island ; and that colony was a valuable link in a chain of communication with China and the East Indies, by way of a line of route across the North American continent, : 13* 196 REPORT—1861. On the Relations of the Population in Ireland, as shown by the Statistics of Religious Belief. By the Rev. A. Hume, LL.D., D.O.L. This paper was in continuation of an analysis which the writer had made of part of the Ecclesiastical Census of Ireland for 1834. It referred to the two counties of Down and Antrim ; and the results were published, with curious ethnological maps in illustration of them, Of 155 benefices, some one class of the people rose to more than 50 per cent. in 117 instances; viz., Presbyterians in 70, Roman Catholics in 36, and Established Church in 11. Looking only to the geographical counties (except in the cases of Dublin, Bel- fast, and Carrickfergus), and omitting decimals, every 100 people are divided as follows :—Roman Catholics (or Celts) 78, Churchmen (or Nonnaes and English Saxons) 12, Presbyterians (or Scottish Saxons) 9, minor sects of Protestants mixed) 1. ¢ The Liedbytavia are most coneentrated, 94 per cent. of their number being in Ulster, 3 in Leinster; 2 in Munster, and 1 in Connaught; indeed, 60 per cent. are situated in Down and Antrim, including Belfast; and if we add London- derry and Tyrone, 81 per cent., or more than four-fifths, are in those four shires. The Established Church has 58 per cent. of its members in Ulster, 25 in Leinster, 11 in Munster, and 6 in Connaught. It is therefore better distributed. The Roman Catholics are best distributed; viz., Munster, 31; Leinster, 28; Ulster, 22; and Connaught, 19. The great towns, being recruited from the rural population round them, will in time become more Celtic or Roman Catholic, just.as Belfast, which was originally English, has become Scotticised by the influx of neighbouring Presbyterians. The three classes of population attain their highest and lowest relative pr or- tions at different points of the country ; and in general the explanation of the facts is simple. The Roman Catholics reach 97-71 in Clare, and shade off in Mayo, Kerry, Roscommon, Galway, &c., not falling below 90 per cent. in sixteen counties. The Established Church is highest in Fermanazh, where it rises to 39 per cent. of the gross population; then in Armagh, 31; softening down in Belfast, Tyrone, Dublin city, and Down county, in none of which do its numbers fall below 20 per cent. Presbyterianism reaches its maximum at Carrickfergus, 59 ; descending by Antrim, 53; Down, 45; Belfast, 36; and Londonderry, 85; but in twenty-two counties, embracing nearly the whole of three provinces, it does not reach 1 per cent. of the gross population. In general the numbers representing Churchmen (or English Saxons) and Roman Catholics (or Celts) are the complements of each other, the descending figures in the one case nearly corresponding with the ascending ones in the other. But five or six of the lowest Roman Catholic numbers are baanced, not by Churchmen, but by Presbyterians, as given in the previous paragraph ; all the examples lying in the three shires of Down, Antrim, and Londonderry, where the Scottish element is strongest. Since 1834 the Presbyterian element has diffused itself, though still greatly con- centrated. In general it is represented at the new points in the south and west by a preponderance of males ; while the instances in which Roman Catholic males ex- ceed the females are remarkably few. Persons of the former class find new homes by the demands of trade and agriculture ; persons of the latter class serve to swell the tide of emigration which flows westward, the males being usually the pioneers. These are only a few of the inferences suggested by the figures already given to the public as anticipatory of the general census, A Letter from Sir Hercules Robinson, Governor of Hongkong, relating to the Journey of Major Sarel, Capt. Blakiston, Dr. Barton, and another, who are endeavouring to pass from China to the North of India. By Sir R. 1. Morcuison, D.C.L., F.RS. These travellers ascended the Yang-tse-kiang to 800 miles above Hang-kow, found much coal with limestones and conglomerates in the cliffs forming the banks of that mighty stream, had travelled in their European dresses, and had encountered no great difficulty until they were near the capital of the great province of Sze- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 197 chuen (population 15 millions), and in which French Jesuit missionaries have long been settled. The country towards the frontier of Tartary was in such a disturbed state, and for the most part overrun by multitudes of rebels (not the Tae-pings), that the travellers, being unsupported, were obliged to return by the river to Hang- kow and thence to Shanghai. A Letter from the Colonial Office, on the Exploration of N.W. Australia, under Mr. Grucory. Sir R. I. Murchison communicated the substance of a letter he had received from his Grace the Duke of Newcastle (Colonial Office), assenting to the recommenda- tions of the Royal Geographical Society, that a sum of money exceeding that which was originally contemplated would be guaranteed te Mr. Frank Gregory to complete his explorations of North-Western Australia. That traveller was to go northwards, turn the north-west corner of the continent, and proceed as far as possible east- wards towards Cambridge Gulf. The colonists of Western Australia who first re- commended this exploration had a more limited object in view, wishing merely to extend their feeding-grounds. The proposed exploration was one of the utmost national importance at the present moment; for the land thus explored was where cotton grew as a native plant, and in abundance. It was partly with a view to ascertain some of the cotton-growing capabilities of this neighbourhood that the exploration was about to be undertaken. The feat of M‘Douall Stuart in crossing the continent from South Australia to the northern watershed was one which the Royal Geographical Society had recompensed by awarding to him their gold medal. Remarks on the Proposal to form a Ship Canal between East and West Loch Tarbert, Argyllshire. By Joun Ramsay. The length of the proposed canal from high-water mark on the one side to high- water mark on the other would be 1600 yards. On the voyage between the Clyde and West Highlands the distance saved would be fully sixty miles. Eighty years ago the difficulties and dangers of the navigation had led to the consideration of this proposal, and it was again brought forward in 1846, when the probable expense was estimated at £101,267 18s. 9d. On the Direct Overland Telegraph from Constantinople to Kurrachee. By Colonel Sir Henry C. Rawirnson, K.C.B., D.C.L., FRSA. In 1858 the Turkish Government undertook to execute, at its own expense, a line of telegraph from Constantinople to Bussorah, which would form an integral ortion of the great line connecting India with Europe. It was foreseen that the ine would be convenient both for the requirements of the Turkish trade and the purposes of the Turkish Government, and would thus benefit the empire; but the money return for the outlay was to be sought in the tariff established for British messages transmitted along the line towards India. The British Government en- gaged, as soon as there was a fair prospect of the completion of the Turkish under- taking, to carry on the communication from Bussorah to India at its own expense. Some of the officers originally engaged in the undertaking had retired; but three of Lieut. Holdsworth’s employés, Mr. Carthew and the brothers M‘Cullum, remained in the country, and, mainly owing to their zeal and skill, the line was now in a working and efficient state the whole way from Constantinople to Bagdad. The Porte had declined to accede to a proposition that Her Majesty’s Government should incur half the expenses of the improvements, but had formally engaged to carry out all Col. Kemball’s recommendations for giving greater efficiency to the line at his own expense. A submarine cable from Pera across the Bosphorus haying been frequently damaged by the anchors of vessels, it was proposed to suspend a wire from the European to the Asiatic side at the narrowest part of the strait—a distance of not more than 1000 yards. Precautions had been taken as security against interruption from the Arabs, Kurds, &c., by the line of telegraph being taken from Marden along the chain of the Masius, where there are located a great body of Jacobite Christians. Col. Kemball reported favourably of the pro- 198 REPORT—1861. gress of efforts to conciliate the Arab chiefs living near the outer ranges of the Kurdish mountains. The telegraph consisted of two distinct wires, one of which was reserved for the exclusive use of the British Government; and a convention was about to be signed with the Turkish Government for the regulation of the respective shares of the expense to be incurred in keeping the line in working order, for fixing the tariff for the transmission of messages, &c. With reference to the Persian section of the line, attention was being more immediately directed to a continuation of the land-line from Bagdad, through Persia, towards India. Political and physical arguments showed the desirability of taking a northward line, and the author believed that it had been decided to continue the line, in the first instance, directly from Bagdad to Teheran, thence to Khanikeen and Kermanshah. From the latter place it would continue to follow the great high road from Babylon east- ward. At Teheran the line would join another system of telegraphs which had been organized in Persia itself. From Bagdad it was proposed to continue the line to Bunder Abbas; and it was almost certain that the Shah would enter cordially into the scheme. The Commissioner in Scinde, the agent for the Government of India, and the Imaum of Muscat had reported as favourably as could be wished. They were working in what he believed, in the present state of oceanic telegraphy, to be the only practicable direction, On the Spitzbergen Current, and Active and Ettinct Glaciers in South Grreen- land. By Colonel Suarrner. In June 1777, ten whaling vessels were beset in the ice about lat. 76° north, between Spitzbergen and Jan Mayen. They endeavoured in vain to escape, were carried by the ice in a south-western direction between Iceland and Greenland, and by degrees the vessels were all lost; only 116 of the 450 men who composed the crews escaping, they having reached the South-Greenland coast. Little was known of the loss of these vessels; but it might be supposed that the floe ice was not compact, and that they were chafed until their hulls were worn, so as to permit the water to enter them. On the 22nd of June, 1827, Captain Parry started on a boat expedition from Spitzbergen towards the North Pole—one of the most hazardous efforts known in Arctic annals; but he was obliged to put back on the 24th of the following month, and return to his ship at Spitzbergen, the drift or current haying carried him 14 miles to the southward in the last two days of the journey. South of Spitzbergen and Jan Mayen the ice sometimes spread and came south upon North Iceland, the gales north of Iceland and south of Spitzbergen spreading the ice in detached pieces or small bergs eastward, from 100 to 200 miles from the current track, which runs southward along the Greenland coast. Directly west of Iceland, the floe ice had seldom been seen from the highest mountains. South of Iceland, the ice-floe was in the direction of Cape Farewell. Timber was often found drifting near the east and west coasts of Greenland. The width of the Greenland cwrent did not, in his (Col. Shaftner’s) opinion, exceed 50 miles; it carried with it floe ice and berg ice. It was not known that much of the floe ice came from the icy seas north of Russia. The year 1860 was remarkable for the great quantity of ice brought by the Greenland current, and, added to that brought south by the Baffin’s Bay and other currents of Dayis’s Strait, produced the unusual dangers experienced in navigation from America to Europe in 1861. More ice had been seen in the usual track of the steamers during this year than at any previous period. This was to be expected after the reports from the ‘Bulldog’ and ‘Fox’ expeditions of 1860. Captains of vessels from Greenland reported that there had been but little ice in the Greenland current this year; and it might be expected that navigation between America and Europe would be but little hindered by the ice in 1862. When north-east winds blew, the coast was free from ice; a west wind drove the ice upon the coast. It might be safe to estimate the velocity of the Greenland current at 10 nautical miles per hour from north of Spitzbergen and Cape Farewell, and then northward to about latitude 64° north, where it began to spread and joi with the northern or Baflin’s Bay current. The length of this current beg about 1600 nautical miles, and supposing its width to be 50 miles during four months of the year, they might estimate the decay of ice from 75,000 TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 199 to 80,000 square miles, within the track of the Greenland current. On the subject of glaciers, the Colonel expressed his opinion that the “ Igalikko” was once an ice- fiord,—that the glacier extended where water was now seen, the water reaching even more into the interior than the edge of the present glacier—the moving of the ice having ground up the rocks, and the earth and the small particles gradually filling up the fiord. The supposed ice-area of Greenland bemg about 400,000 square miles, such an area ought, if all of it were ice, to give off more upon the known coast than was seen. It was reasonable to doubt the existence of such an extent of ice. The English Gipsies and their Dialect. By Baru C. Smarr. The author of this paper was careful to explain in the outset that he did not aay to deal with comprehensive questions relating to the Gipsy race as a whole, ut that his observations were limited to his own personal experience among the English Gipsies. He began with a short description of the chief physical and psychological characteristics of the Romany people as they are now to be met with in England. In addition to their swarthy skin and black hair and eyes, he re- marked the prevalence among them of a well-marked aquiline nose, and the obliquity of the orbital arches, which slant upwards to the elabella or root of the nose, combining together into one common arch, instead of appearing to be seg- ments of two separate circles, these several features forming a tout ensemble having an oriental cast strikingly different from the Anglo-Saxon physiognomy, or that of any other British race. The latter and by far the larger portion of the paper was devoted to the linguistic peculiarities of the English Gipsies. His remarks under this head were based on a vocabulary, which accompanied the paper, of upwards of 800 words collected by himself during actual intercourse with members of various Gipsy families. These words had all been minutely compared with Grellmann’s and eigiews German and Spanish Gipsy Dialects, and their homologies traced wherever it was possible. The following is a brief sketch of the remarks made on the composition of words and of the various parts of speech and their inflections :— A peculiarity of the Gipsy language wherever spor is the number of words terminating in engro or mengro, escro or mescro, but the English dialect seems especially rich in these compounds; e. 7., Bockoromengro .......... A shepherd. From Bolkoro (sheep). Boshomengro ........ .... A fiddle. | From Bosh (to fiddle). Cooromengro ......... ... A-soldier. From Coor (to fight), NIG PSSOFOT iets ois, hone tie: seiar's A butcher. From Mass (meat). Sastermescro ............ A blacksmith, Fyrom Saster (iron). Poggeromesty........ .... A hammer, From Pogger (to break). But perhaps the most characteristic termination of all is ben, or pen, added to ad- jectives and verbs to form substantives. This affix is also of frequent occurrence in Hindustani :— HRC EP OTA) wishin’ o/a'si<\ale/sange Truth. From Tatcho (right). Hobben (for Holben)...... Victuals. Fxom Hol (to eat). Naffilopen .............. Sickness. From Naffilo (ill). The Gipsies have manufactured and adopted a class of words, generally appella- tives, which are essentially of the nature of puns. They consist of words in which a fancied resemblance of sound has suggested their translation into Romanes; e. 7., Lalopeero (red foot) ...... iaTehaselsieragayefeaehe pe. 2. Redford. Milesto-gay (donkey-town) ....cssceeeseeeees Doncaster. Interchanges of certain letters frequently occur in Gipsy words, but always accord- ing to rules; and this must be borne in mind in tracing their derivations. Inter- changes take place between the following letters—K and H, K and T, G and D, F and §, &c., and the liquids are very often confounded, GRAMMAR. Masculine nouns generally end in a consonant or o. 200 REPORT—1 861. Feminine nouns nearly always end in 7 or y; e. %., Gaixroy otee snen aw Man. Grainy: jvfarecvhersis xfs Woman. Kralllis.s.cyo sisigs- stalebents King. Krallissy’ ......4. Queen. The genitive case singular is formed by adding esto or esko; e. 9., Genitive. aha (tons) MRS SER Peto em ose no = Givesto or Givesko. Veer (Gyamiter,) jcereiasaieneye) cio imfeile sipieiel stay» ale xe Venesko or Venesto, The plural is formed by adding yor or or to the singular :— Skamimin (CHAT). sh. . va etebls vie ptafele dis Skamminyor, hack (cabbage) ss sped wide te eiers's ote Cielo ie wie enol Shockyor. a STG LNG) ocetoga pet atele re peteel stslatelyseieh tian Palor. The Gipsies as often use the English plural in s:— Joovvel (woman)-...... meeceletets ci tuo Joovvels. Pert (SISHCE) so ejek a eis ne te > ol wine nv eelme ns Pens. Adjectives end in o or y, agreeing in this respect with masculine or feminine NOUNS: 6. J5 Mas. Fem. Rinkenno (pretty) .......0005. TLADASUC Rinkenny. Wlircllor Gishey,) Wire valapaledec.\ators aiavleeoid ete Chickly. The comparative degree is formed by adding dair or dairo; but no peculiar form is met with for the superlative :— 1D oyehe CEN Racine Cate intra Gree Doordair (further). The comparative degree is sometimes formed irregularly :— Cooshkan(eoad)\s ai aeetle scene ele cree Fetterdairo (better). The English Gipsies still use a great many of their peculiar pronouns; e. g. Mandy (I), too (thou), yov (he), yoi (she), yaun (they), adoovvo (that), acoovoo (this), &c. The second and third personal pronouns in the English dialect are thus declined, viz.— Thou. He. She. Nishida ste dite eat TE Too, Yoy, Yoi. TAD ghde Kellar ad « Tooty, Lesty, Latty. INGA. els aittels) -iehe alee Tooty or Toot, Les, Aiiizns ia foleieiaih aa ie Tooty, Lesty, Latty. According to Grellmann, the German and Hungarian Gipsies have a peculiar conjugation of their own. The Gitanos of Spain assimilate their verbs to the Spanish conjugation. In this country the Gipsy dialect still exhibits remnants of . its ancient mode of conjugating the verb, although it generally conforms to the English method in preference. ‘Thus, the termination ed/a often appears in the third person singular of the present tense, and the past participle ends in 0 or do:— Nasher (to lose) .. Nasherella (he loses) .. Nasherdo (lost). Impersonal verbs always en@in ella in the present tense; ¢. 7., riginmella (Te TAMIS) —, resistance to impact, 282. ——, resistance to compression, 284. ——,, statical resistance to punching, 284. » computation of a general formula for the resistance of, to projectiles, 285, Jeffreys (J, Gwyn), report of the results INDEX I. of deep-sea dredging in Zetland, 178; preliminary report on the best mode of preventing the ravages of Teredo and other animals in our ships and har- bours, 200. Lowe (E. J.), report on observations of luminous meteors, 1 Magnetic declination, on the lines of equal, 273. dip, on the, 252. — force, on the intensity of the, 261. — survey of England, General Sabine’s report on the repetition of the, 250. Mallet (Robert) on the experiments made at Holyhead (North Wales) to ascertain the transit-velocity of waves, analogousto earthquake waves, through the local rock formations, by command of the Royal Society and of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 201. Man, Dr. James Hunt on the acclima- tization of, 129. Mangles (Capt.), third report on steam- ship performance, 190 Manures, report on field experiments on the constituents of, by Dr. A. Voelcker, 158. M°‘Connell (J. E)., third report on steam- ship performance, 190. Mersey, Dr. Collingwood and Mr. Byer- ley’s report on the dredging com- mittee for the, 188. Meteor, remarkable, observations of a, 0 Meteors, luminous, report on observa- tions of, by J. Glaisher, Dr. Gladstone, R. P. Greg, and E. J. Lowe, 1. —, list of, 2; appendix, 28. Milner (W. R.), report on the action of prison diet and discipline on the bodily functions of prisoners, pt. 1, 44. Mincopies, or natives of the Andaman Islands, Prof. Owen’s report on the psychical and physical characters of the, 241. Moon, contributions to a report on the physical aspect of the, by Prof. Phil- lips, 180; by W. R. Birt, 181. Moorsom (Vice-Admiral), chairman of the committee on steam-ship perform- ance, third report, 190, Napier (J. R.), third report on steam- ship performance, 190 New Zealand, report on the present state of our knowledge of the birds of the genus Apteryx living in, by P. L. Sclater and F’, von Hochstetter, 176. 1861. 273 Numbers, Prof. H. J..S. Smith’s report on the theory of, 292; theory of ho- mogeneous forms, 292; problem of the representation of numbers, 292; of the transformation and equivalence of forms, 292; automorphic transforma- tions, 294; problem of the representa- tion of forms, 295; binary quadratic forms, 296; elementary definitions, 297; reduction of the problem of re- presentation to that of equivalence, 298; determination of the number of sets of representations, 300 ; reduction of the problem of transformation to that of equivalence, 30]; problem of equivalence, 301; expression for the automorphies of a quadratic form, 303; expression for the automorphics—me- thod of Lejeune Dirichlet, 304; pro- blem of equivalence—forms of a nega- tive determinant, 306; problem of equivalence for forms of a positive and not square determinant, 308; im- proper equivalence—ambiguous forms and classes, 310; positive or negative determinant, 312; the Pellian equa- tion, 313; solution of the general in- determinate equation of the second degree, 319; distribution of classes into orders and genera, 320; onthe determination of the number of qua- dratic forms of a given positive or negative determinant, 324; series ex- pressing the number of primitive classes, 329; proof that each genus contains the same number of classes, 332; summation of the series ex- pressing the number of properly pri- mitive classes, 336. Ogilvie (George), interim report of the committee for dredging on the north and east coasts of Scotland, 281. Oldham (James), second report on steam navigation at Hull, 239, Owen (Prof.) on the psychical and phy- sical characters of the Mincopies, or natives of the Andaman Islands, and on the relations thereby indicated to other races of mankind, 241. Paget (Lord Alfred), third report on steam-ship performance, 190. Paget (Lord C.), third report on steam- ship performance, 190. Paris (Admiral), third report on steam- ship performance, 190. Patents, the law of, James Heywood’s report of the committee on, 289. Phillips (Prof, John), contributions to a 18 274 report on the physical aspect of the moon, 180. Photography,. celestial, report on the progress of, by Warren De la Rue, 94. Prison diet and discipline, report on the action of, on the bodily functions of prisoners, part 1, by Dr. Edward Smith and W. R. Milner, 44 ; appendices, 67. Plato, synopsis of objects in, suitable for telescopic observation, 182, Rankine (Prof.), third report on steam- ship performance, 190. Resin, purification of, Drs. Schunck, R. A. Smith, and H. E. Roscoe on the, 123. Roberts (H.), third report on steam- ship performance, 190. Roscoe (Dr. H. E.), report on the recent progress and present condition of manufacturing chemistry in the South Lancashire district, 108. Rowan (David), third report on steam- ship performance, 190. Russell (J. Scot), third report on steam- ship performance, 190. Ryder (Captain), third report on steam- ship performance, 190. Sabine (General), report on the repeti- cen of the magnetic survey of England, 250. Schunck (Dr. E.), report on the recent progress and present condition of ma- nufacturing chemistry in the South Lancashire district, 108. Sclater (Philip Lutley), report on the present state of our knowledge of the birds of the genus Apteryx living in New Zealand, 176. Scotland, report of the committee for dredging on the north and east coasts of, 280. Ships, steam-, on freight as affeeted by differences in the dynamic properties of, by Charles Atherton, 82. Smith (Dr. Edward), report on the action of prison diet and discipline on the bodily functions of prisoners, part 1,44. Smith (Prof.H.J.S.), report on the theory of numbers, part 3, 292. Smith (Dr. R. Angus), report on the recent progress and present condition of manufacturing chemistry in the South Lancashire district, 108. Smith (William), third report on steam- ship performance, 190, REPORT—1861. Soda, Drs. E. Schunck, R.A. Smith, and H. E. Roscoe on the manufacture of, 109; silicate of, 116; arseniate of, U7. Sound-signals, on the transmission of, during fogs at sea, provisional report by Prof. Hennessy, 173 Steam-navigation at Hull, James Old- ham’s report on, 239. Steam-ships, on freight as affected by differences in the dynamic properties of, by Charles Atherton, 82. Steam-ship performance, third report of the committee on, 190. Stewart (Balfour), report on the theory of exchanges, and its recent extension, 9 Sutherland (Duke of), third report on steam-ship performance, 190. Sykes (Colonel), report from the balloon committee, 249. Teredo, preliminary report by J. G. Jef- freys on the best mode of preventing the ravages of, in our ships and har- bours, 200. Thomson (Prof. James), report on the gauging of water by triangular notches, 51 Tin, compounds of, Drs. E. Schunck, R. A. Smith, and H. E. Roscoe on the manufacture of, 119. Tufnell (T. R.), third report on steam- ship performance, 190. Voelcker(Dr. Aug.), report on field expe- riments and laboratory researches on the constituents of manures essential to cultivated crops, 158. Wakefield Prison, experiments at, on prison diet and discipline, 62. Water, experiments on the gauging of, by triangular notches, by Prof. James Thomson, 151. Waves, Robert Mallet’s report of the ex- periments made at Holyhead (North Wales) to ascertain the transit-velocity of, analogous to earthquake waves, 201. Wright (Henry), Hon. Secretary of the committee of steam-ship performance, third report, 190. Zetland, J. G. Jeffreys’s report on deep- sea dredging in, 178. INDEX II. 275 INDEX I. TO MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. ABESSINIA, Dr. Beke on a volcanic eruption on the coast of, 186. Adler (M. N.) on the almanac, 12. Aérolites, R. P. Greg on M. Haidinger’s communication on the origin and fall of, 13. Africa, Western Equatorial, P. B. Du Chaillu on the geography and natural history of, 189. , on the people of, 1990. Airy (G. B.), his address as President of Section A, 1; remarks on Dr. Hincks’s paper on the acceleration of the moon’s mean motion as indicated by the records of ancient eclipses, 12 ; on spontaneous terrestrial galvanic currents, 35; on the laws of the principal inequalities, solar and lunar, of terrestrial magnetic force in the horizontal plane, from ob- servations at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, from 1848 to 1857, 36. Aix-la-Chapelle, Dr. Daubeny on a violet peculiar to the Calamine rocks in the neighbourhood of, 141. Alcock (Dr. T.) on some points in the anatomy of Cyprea, 137. Alcock (R.), journey in the interior of Japan, with the ascentof Fusiyama, 183. Alkali-manufacture, W. Gossage on the history of the, 80. Almanac, M.N. Adler on the, 12. Amazon, W. Danson on Barragudo cotton from the plains of the, 140. America, North, W. Danson on the flax- fibre cotton of, 140. » Admiral Sir E. Belcher on the gla- - cial movements in the vicinity of Mount St. Elias, on the N.W. coast of, 186. , British North, Dr. J. Hector on the capabilities for settlement of the central parts of, 195. Ammonia, Dr. Daubeny on the evolution of, from volcanos, 77. , W. Marriott on the separation of, fom coal-gas, 86. Anderson (Prof.) on the constitution of paranaphthaline or anthracene, and some of its decomposition products, 76. Andrews (Dr.) on the effect of great pressures combined with cold on the six non-condensable gases, 76. Anemometer for registering the maximum ~ force and extreme variation of the wind, John E. Morgan on an, 72. Aniline, sulphate of, Dr. J. Turnbull on. the physiological and medicinal pro- perties of, and its use in the treatment of chorea, 177. Antarctic regions, Capt. Maury on the importance of an expedition to the, for meteorological and other scientific purposes, 65. Anthracene, Prof. Anderson on the con- stitution of, 76. Arctic explorations, on the geographical science of, and the advantage of conti- nuing it, Capt. W. P. Snow on, 201. Armour-plates for ships, Dr, Eddy’s sug- gestions for fastening on, 257. Armstrong (Sir W. G.) on the patent laws, 252. Arnott (Dr. G.) on railway accidents from trains running off the rails, 252. Arsenic, Dr. S. Macadam on the propor- tion cf, present in paper hangings, 86. Artillery versus armour, Captain Blakely on, 255. Aryan languages, R. Cull on the anti- quity of the, 193, Ashe (Isaac) on the causes of the pheno- mena of cyclones, 266. Ashworth (Henry) on capital punish- ments and their influence on crime, - 203; on the progress of science and art as developed in the bleaching of cotton at Bolton, 204. Aston (T.) on elongated projectiles for rifled fire-arms, 253. Asymptotic method of solving differential equations, on Petzval’s, by William Spottiswoode, 10. Atmosphere, Prof, Hennessy on the con- 18* 276 nexion between storms and vertical disturbances of the, 61. Australia, J. Bonwick on the extinct vol- canos of, 109, , the Hon. J. Baker on, 184. —, N.W., letter from the Colonial Office on the exploration of, 197. Baily (W. H.), paleontological remarks upon the Silurian rocks of Ireland, 108, Baker (the Hon. J.) on Australia, inclu- ding the recent explorations of Mr. Macdonald Stuart, 184. Bakewell (R. H.) on the influence of density of population on the fecundity of marriages in England, 206. Barometer, mercurial, description of a, by P. J. Livsey, 64. Barrow (T. W.), remarks on the bone- caves of Craven, 108. Bateman (J. F.), his address as President of Section G, 250; on street-pipe ar- rangements for extinguishing fires, 255. Bateson (S.) on an improved feed water- heater for locomotive and other boilers, 269. Bathometer, C. W. Siemens on a, 73. Bazley (Thomas), a glance at the cotton trade, 206. Beale (Prof. Lionel 8.) on the structure and growth of the elementary parts (cells) of living beings, 164. Beke (Dr. C. T.) on the mountains form- ing the eastern side of the basin of the Nile, and the origin of the designation “« Mountains of the Moon” as applied to them, 184; on a volcanic eruption on the coast of Abessinia, 186. Belcher (Admiral Sir E.) on the glacial movements noticed in the vicinity of Mount St. Elias, on the N.W. coast of America, 186. Belihouse (Edward T.) on the applica- tions of the hydraulic press, 255. Binney (E.W.) on the geological features of theneighbourhood of Manchester, 109. Binocularlustre, Sir David Brewster on,29. Birds, P. L.'Sclater’s remarks on the late increase of our knowledge of the stru- thious, 158. Blakely (Captain) on artillery versus ar- mour, 255. Blechnum Spicant, A. Stansfield on, col- lected in 1860 and 1861, 159. Bollaert (W.), extract from a letter to, by R. Bridge on the great earthquake at Mendoza, 187. Bolton, Henry Ashworth on the progress of science and art as developed in the bleaching of cotton at, 204. REPORT—1861. Bone-cave at Brixham, W, Pengelly on a new, 123. Bone-caves of Craven, T. W. Barrow’s remarks on the, 108, Bonwick (J.) on the extinct volcanos of Australia, 109. Brady (Mr. Antonio) on flint implements from St. Acheul, near Amiens, 110. Break, railway, James Higgin on a sledge, 262. Brewster (Sir David) on photographic micrometers, 28; on the compensation of impressions moving over the retina, 29; on the optical study of the retina, 29; on binocular lustre, 29. Bridge (R.) on the great earthquake at Mendoza, March 20, 1861, 187. Bright (Sir Charles) on the formation of standards of electrical quantity and re- sistance, 37. Brighton, Dr. J. H. Gladstone and G. Gladstone on an aluminous mineral from the upper chalk near, 79. British army, Dr. W. Farr on the recent improvements in the health of the, 219. British Isles, Dr. J. H. Gladstone on the distribution of fog around the, 57. British navy, E. J. Reed on the iron-cased ships of the, 232. Brixham, W. Pengelly on anew bone-cave at, 128. Broun (John Allan) on the supposed connexion between meteorological phe- nomena and the variations of the earth’s magnetic force, 49. Bryson (Alexander) on the aqueous ori- gin of granite, 110. Burnley coal-field and its fossil contents, J. TI. Wilkinson and J. Whitaker on the, 135. Caine (Rev. William) on ten years’ statis- tics of the mortality amongst the orphan children taken under the care of the Dublin Protestant orphan societies, 208. Calculi, uric acid, Dr. Roberts on the sol- vent power of strong and weak solutions of the alkaline carbonates on, 90, Calvert (Dr. Crace) on the chemical com- position of some woods employed in the - navy, 77. Cameron (Captain) on the ethnology, geography, and commerce of the Cau- casus, 189. Carboniferous group of Britain, Edward Hull on the relative distribution of the calcareous andsedimentary strata of the, 116, INDEX II, Carpenter (Philip P.) on the variations of Tecturella grandis, 137; on the cosmopolitan operations of the Smith- sonian Institution, 137. Casella (Mr.) on arew minimum mercu- rial thermometer proposed by, 74. Cataract, Dr. B. W. Richardson on the artificial production of, 171. Caucasus, Captain Cameron on the ethno- logy, geography, and commerce of the, 189. Cayley (A.) on curves of the third order, 2 Cells of living beings, Prof. L. S. Beale on the structure and growth of the ele- mentary parts of, 164. Census of the United Kingdom in 1861, James T. Hammick on the general results of the, 220. Cephalopoda, dibranchiate, Albany Han- cock on certain points in the anatomy and physiology of the, 166. Chadwick (David) on the progress of Manchester from 1840 to 1860, 209; on recent improvements in cotton-gins, 256. Charmouth, Prof. Owen on a dinosaurian reptile (Scelidosaurus Harrisoni) from the lower lias of, 121. China, Henry Duckworth on a new com- mercial route to, 194. to the North of India, letter from Sir II. Robinson, relating to. the journey of Major Sarel, Capt. Blakiston, Dr. Barton, and another, who are endea- vouring to pass from, 196. — and India, Andrew Henderson on the rise and progress of clipper and steam navigation on the coasts and rivers of, 258. Chloroform accidents, Dr. Charles Kidd on, 167. Chorea, Dr. J. Turnbull on the physiolo- gical and medicinal properties of sul- phate of aniline, and its use in the treatment of, 177. Chromascope, and what it reveals, by John Smith, 33; the prism and chro- mascope, 33. Clark (Latimer) on the formation of stand- ards of electrical quantity and resist- ance, 37. Clarke (Dr. W.) on a revision of national taxation, 216. Cleland (Dr. John) on the anatomy of Orthagoriscus mola, the short sunfish, 138; on a method of craniometry, with observations on the varieties of form of the human skull, 164. Cloth, printing-, Alderman Neild on the 277 price of, and upland cotton from 1812 to 1860, 229. Cloud-mirror, J. T. Goddard on the, 61. Coal, J. W. Salter on the bivalve shells of the, 131. Coal-field, Burnley, and its fossil contents, J.T. Wilkinson and J. Whitaker on the, 135. = Coal-gas, W. Marriott on the separation of ammonia from, 86. Cold of Christmas 1860, and its destruct- ive effects, E. J. Lowe on the, 64. Collingwood (Cuthbert), a scheme to in- duce the mercantile marine to assist in the advancement of science by the in- telligent collection of objects of natural history from all parts of the globe, 138. Colour, observations upon the production of, by the prism, by J. A. Davies, 31. » presentations of, produced under novel conditions, 32. ; Comets and planets, on the resistance of the ether to the, and on the rotation of the latter, by J. S. S. Glennie, 13. Commerce, Charles Thompson on some exceptional articles of, 247. Compass, Archibald Smith and F.J. Evans on the effect produced on the deviation of the, by the length and arrangement of the compass needles, 45. Constantinople to Kurrachee, Col. Sir H. C. Rawlinson on the direct overland telegraph from, 197. Cooperation at Rochdale, the Rev. W. N. Molesworth on the progress of, 225. and its tendencies, Edmund Potter on, 230. Cooperative stores, their Athenzums, &c., 248. Cotton, W. Danson on Barragudo, from the plains of the Amazon, and on the flax-fibre, of North America, 140. , Henry Ashworth on the progress of science and art as developed in the bleaching of, at Bolton, 204. trade, Thomas Bazley on the, 206. , upland, Alderman Neild on the price of, from 1812 to 1860, 229. Cotton-gins, David Chadwick on recent improvements in, 256. Couburn (J.) on the culture of the vine in the open air, 140. Craniometry, Dr. John Cleland on a me- thod of, 164. Craven, ‘I’. W. Barrow’s remarks on the bone-caves of, 108. Crawfurd (John) on the connexion be- tween ethnology and physical geogra- phy, 177; on the antiquity of man from the evidence of languages, 191. bearing on 278 Crime, Henry Ashworth on capital punish- ments, and their influence on, 203. Cromleach and rocking-stones considered ethnologically, P. O'Callaghan on, 187. Cull (R.) on the antiquity of the Aryan languages, 193. Curves of the third order, A. Cayley on, 2. Cyathina Smithii, J. G. Jeffreys on an * abnormal form of, 146. Cyclones, Isaac Ashe on the causes of the phenomena of, 266, Cyprea, Dr. T. Alcock on some points in the anatomy of, 137, Daa (L.) on the ethnology of Finnmark, in Norway, 193, Danson (J. T.) on the growth of the human body in height and weight in males from 17 to 30 years of age, 216. (William) on the law of universal storms, 52; on Barragudo cotton from the plains of the Amazon, and on the flax-fibre cotton of North America, 140; on the manufacture of the human hair as an article of consumption and general use, 217. Daphnia Schefferi, Rev. A. R. Hogan on, 146. Dartmoor, W. Pengelly on the age of the granites of, 127. Darwin (Mr.), H. Fawcett on the method of, in his treatise on the origin of spe- cies, 141. Daubeny (Dr.) on the evolution of am- | monia from volcanos, 77; on the func- tions discharged by the roots of plants; and on a violet peculiar to the calamine rocks in the neighbourhood of Aix-la- Chapelle, 141; on the influence exerted by light on the function of plants, 141. Davies (J. Alexander) on the production of colour by the prism, the passive mental effect or instinct in compre- hending the enlargement of the visual angles and other optical phenomena, 31. Davy (Dr. John) on the action of lime on animal and vegetable substances, 165; on the blood of the common earth- worm, 165; on the question whether the hair is subject or not to a sudden change of colour, 166. Deane (H.) on a particular decomposition of ancient glass, 78. Delffs (Dr.) on morin, and the non-exist- ence of morotannic acid, 78. Digestion, Dr. G. Robinson on the con- nexion between the functions of respi- ration and, 173. Dobson (Thomas) on the general forms | REPORT—1861. of the symmetrical properties of plane triangles, 2. Donegal, R. H, Scott on the granitic rocks of, 31. Donnelly (Capt.) on the nature and results of the aid granted by the State towards the instruction of the industrial classes in elementary sciences, 217. Dredging, deep-sea, off the Shetland Isles, Rey. Alfred Merle Norman on the crustacea, echinodermata, and zoo- phytes obtained in, 151. Drifts of the Severn, Avon, Wye, and Usk, Rev. W. S. Symonds on some phenomena connected with the, 133. Dublin Protestant orphan societies, the Rev. W. Caine on ten years’ statistics of the mortality amongst the orphan children under the care of the, 208. Du Chaillu (P. B.), Prof. Owen on some objects of natural history from the col- lection of, 155; on the geography and natural history of Western Equatorial Africa, 189; on the people of Western Equatorial Africa, 190. Duckworth (Henry), new commercial route to China, 194. Dukinfield, William Fairbairn on the tem- perature of the earth’s crust, as exhi- bited by thermometrical returns ob- tained during the sinking of the deep mine at, 53. Earth, on the influence of the rotation of the, on the apparent path of a heavy particle, by Prof. Price, 6. Earth’s crust, William Fairbairn on the temperature of the, as exhibited by thermometrical returns obtained during the sinking of the deep mine at Dukin- field, 53. magnetic force, John Allan Broun on the supposed connexion between meteorological phenomena and the va- riations of the, 49. Earthworm, Dr. John Davy on the blood of the common, 165. Eddy (Dr.) on a class of gun-boats ca- pabie of engaging armour-plated ships at sea, with suggestions for fastening on armour-plates, 257. Educational institutions, J. Heywood on the inspection of endowed, 222. Effertz(Peter) ona brick-making machine, 258. Ekman (C. F.) on the fundamental prin- ciples of algebra, chiefly with regard to negative and imaginary quantities, 4. | Electric light, Dr. Miller on photographic spectra of the, 87, INDEX II. Electrical discharge in vacuo, J, P. Gas- siot on the deposit of metals from the negative terminal of an induction coil during the, 38. Electrical quantity and resistance, Latimer Clarke and Sir Charles Bright on the formation of standards of, 37. coreg W.H.L. Russell on the theory -wrol, 9. Elsworth rock, and the clay above it, Harry Seeley on the, 132. Embroidery manufacture of Scotland and Treland since 1857, John Strang on the altered condition of the, 2438. Engine, direct action, W. B. Johnson on the, 263. Equations, differential, William Spottis- woode on Petzval’s asymptotic method of solving, 10. Ether, on the resistance of the, to the comets and planets, and on the rotation of the latter, by J. S. Stuart Glennie, 13. Ethnology and physical geography, John Crawfurd onthe connexion between, 177. of Finnmark, L. Daa onthe, 193. Eustachian tube in man, J. Toynbee on the action of the, 176. Evans (F. J.) on the effect produced on the deviation of the compass by the length and arrangement of the compass needles; and on a new mode of cor- recting the quadrantal deviation, 45; remarks on H.M.S. Warrior’s com- passes, 45. Eyes of animals, Prof. H. Miiller on the existence and arrangement of the fovea centralis retine in the, 171. Fairbairn (William) on the temperature of the earth’s crust, as exhibited by thermometrical returns obtained during the sinking of the deep mine at Du- kinfield, 53. Farr (Dr. W.) on the recent improvements in the health of the British army, 219. Fawcett (Henry) on the method of Mr. Darwin in his treatise on the origin of species, 141; on the economical effects of the recent gold discoveries, 269. Finnmark in Norway, ethnology of, L. Daa on the, 193. Fire-arms, elongated projectiles for rifled, T. Aston on, 253. Fires, C. W. Siemens, ona system of tele- graphic communication adopted in Ber- lin in case of, 264, , J. F. Bateman on street-pipe ar- rangements for extinguishing fires, 255. Fishes, Charles Robertson on the cervical and occipital vertebrz of osseous, 172. 279 Fison (Mrs.) on sanitary improvements, 220. FitzRoy (Rear-Admiral) on tidal observa- tions, 56. Flora of Manchester, L. H. Grindon on the, 145. Fluids, Dr. Joule and Prof, W. Thomson on the thermal effects of elastic, 83. Fog, Dr. J. H. Gladstone on the distribu- tion of, around the British Isles, 57. Force, on the application of the principle of the conservation of, to the mechani- cal explanation of the correlation of forces, 26. Foster (G. C.) on piperic and hydropi- peric acids, 78. Functions, W. H. L. Russell on the cal- culus of, 19. Fusiyama, R. Alcock’s journey in the in- terior of Japan, with the ascent of, 183. | Galloway (Prof.) on the composition and valuation of superphosphates, 79. Galvanic currents, on spontaneous terres- trial, 35. Garner (K.) on the encephalon of mam- malia, 166. Gas-burners, J. J. Griffin on the con- struction of, for chemical use, 81. Gases, Dr. Andrews on the effect of great pressures combined with cold on the six non-condeusable, 76. , on the emission and absorption of rays of light by certain, Dr. J, H. Glad- stone on, 79. Gassiot (J. P.) on the deposit of metals from the negative terminal of an induc- tion coil during the electrical discharge in vacuo, 38. Gauge,deep-sea pressure-,James Glaisher on a, 59, Geography, physical, John Crawfurd on the connexion between ethnology and, 177. Gibb (Dr. George D.) on the arrest of puparial metamorphosis of Vanessa Antiopa or Camberwell beauty, 143. Gilbert (Dr. J. H.) on some points in connexion with the exhaustion of soils, 84, Gipsies, B, C. Smart on the English, and their dialect, 199. Glacial motion, William Hopkins on the theories of, 61, Glaciers, active and extinct, in South Greenland, Colonel Shaffher on, 198. Gladstone (G.) on an aluminous mineral from the upper chalk near Brighton, 79. Gladstone (Dr. J. H.) on the distribution of fog around the british Isles, 57; on the emission and absorption of rays of 280 light by certain gases, 79; on an alu- minous mineral from the upper chalk near Brighton, 79. Glaisher (James) on a deep-sea thermo- meter invented by Henry Johnson, 58 ; ona deep-sea pressure-gauge invented by Henry Johnson, 59; on a daily weather map, on Admiral FitzRoy’s paper on the Royal Charter storm, and on some meteorological documents relating to Mr. Green’s balloon ascents, 61. Glass, H. Deane on a particular decom- position of ancient, 78. Glennie (J. S. Stuart) on the resistance of the ether to the comets and planets, and on the rotation of the latter, 13; on the application of the principle of the conservation of force to the me- chanical explanation of the correlation of forces, 26. Goddard (J. T.) on the cloud-mirror and sunshine-recorder, 61. Gold, Dr. Smith on certain difficulties in the way of separating, from quartz, 92. of North Wales, T. A. Readwin on the, 129. Gordon (Rev. C. R.) on the laws dis- coverable as to the formation of land on the globe, 112. Gorilla, Dr. J. E. Gray on the height of the, 144, Gossage (W.) on the history of the alkali manufacture, 80. Gould (C.), results of the geological survey of Tasmania, 112. Granite, A. Bryson on the aqueous origin of, 110. , J. G. Marshall on the relation of the Eskdale granite at Bootle to the schis- tose rocks, with remarks on the general metamorphic origin of, 117. Granites of Dartmoor, W. Pengelly on the age of the, 127. Granitic rocks of Donegal, R. H. Scott on the, 1381. Gray (Dr. J. E.) on the height of the Gorilla, 144. Green (A. H.) on the faults of a portion of the Lancashire coal-field, 113. Greenland, South, on active and extinct glaciers in, by Colonel Shaffner, 198. Greg (R. P.), some considerations on M. Haidinger’s communication on the origin and fall of aérolites, 13. Gregory (Frank), exploration of N.W. Australia, 197. Griffin (J. J.) on the construction of gas- burners for chemical use, 81. Grindon (L. H.) on the flora of Man- chester, 145. REPORT—1861. Gun-boats, Dr. Eddy on a class of, capable of engaging armour-plated ships at sea, 257. Haan (Bierens de) on definite integrals, 4. Hagen (Dr.), comparison of fossil insects of England and Bavaria, 113. Haidinger, R. P. Greg on his communi- cation on the origin and fall of aéro- lites, 13. Haidinger (Professor W.), an attempt to account for the physical condition and the fall of meteorites upon our planet, 15; on the present state of the Imperial Geological Institution of Vienna, 121. Hair, Dr, John Davy on the, being sub- ject or not to a sudden change of colour, 166. , human, W. Danson on the manu- facture of the, as an article of consump- tion and general use, 217. Hamilton (Sir W. R.) on geometrical rests in space, 4. Hammick (James T.) on the general results of the census of the United Kingdom in 1861, 220. Hancock (Albany) on certain points in the anatomy and physiology of the dibranchiate cephalopoda, 166. Harkness (Prof.) on the old red sandstone of South Perthshire, 114; on the sand- stones and their associated deposits of the valley of the Eden and the Cumber- land plain, 115. Haworth (John) on a perambulator and street railway, 258. Hector (Dr. James) on the capabilities for settlement of the central parts of British North America, 195, Henderson (Andrew) on the rise and progress of clipper and steam navigation on the coasts and rivers of China and India, 258. Hennessy (Professor) on a probable cause of the diurnal variation of magnetic dip and declination, 39; on the con- nexion between storms and _ vertical disturbances of the atmosphere, 61. Herring, J. M. Mitchell on the migration of the, 149. fishery, statistics of the, 156. Heywood (J.) on the inspection of endowed educational institutions, 222, Higgins (Rev. H. H.) on the arrangement of hardy herbaceous plants adopted in the Botanic Gardens, Liverpool, 145. Hincks (Rev. Edward) on the quantity of the acceleration of the moon’s mean motion, as indicated by the record of certain ancient eclipses, 22; remarks INDEX II. on his paper by the Astronomer Royal, 12. Hincks (Rev. T.) on the development of the Hydroid Polyps Clavatella and Stauridia, with remarks on the relation between the polyp and its medusoid, and between the polyp and the medusa, 145; on the ovicells of the Polyzoa, with reference to the views of Prof. Huxley, 145. Hogan (Rev. A. Riky) on Niphargus fontanus, 146; on Daphnia Scheefferi, 146. Home (D. Milne), notice of elongated ridges of drift, common in the south of Scotland, called ‘ Kaims,’ 115. Hopkins (William) on the theories of glacial motion, 61. Howson (Richard), Peter Livsey on a mercurial barometer invented by, 64. Hull (Edward) on isomeric lines, and the relative distribution of the calcareous and sedimentary strata of the carboni- ferous group of Britain, 116. Human body, on the growth of the, in height and weight, in males from 17 to 30 years of age, J. T. Danson on, 216. — system, Dr. Edward Smith on the influence of the season of the year on the, 175. Hume (Rev. A.) on the relations of the population in Ireland, as shown by the statistics of religious belief, 196 ; on the condition of national schools in Liver- pool as compared with the population, 223. Hurst (W. J.) on the sulphur compound formed by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen on formiate of lead at a high temperature, 82. Huxley (Prof.), the Rev. T. Hincks on the ovicells of the Polyzoa, with reference to the views of, 145. Hydraulic press, Edward T. Bellhouse on the applications of the, 255. Hyrtl (Prof.) on nerves without end, 167; on the pneumatic processes of the occi- pital bone, 167; on portions of lungs without blood-vessels, 167. Ichthyosauri, C. Moore on two, 121. Income-tax, Rev. Canon Richson on the, 240. India, Dr. Mouatt on prison dietary in, 170. India and China, Andrew Henderson on the rise and progress of clipper and steam navigation on the coasts and rivers of, 258, Industrial classes, Capt. Donnelly on the 281 nature and results of the aid granted by the State towards the instruction of the, in elementary science, 217. Insectivora, Dr. Rolleston on some points in the anatomy of, 173. Insects, fossil, of England and Bavaria, comparison of, by Dr. Hagen, 113. Invention, T. Webster on property in, and its effect on the arts and manufactures, 266. Ireland, W. H. Baily’s remarks upon the Silurian rocks of, 108. , on the relations of the population in, as shown by the statistics of religious belief, Rev. A. Hume on, 196. Iris, J. J. Walker on an, seen in water, near sunset, 35. Iron construction, and on the strength of iron columns and arches, F. W. Shields on, 265. Iron girders, B. B. Stoney on the deflec- tion of, 265. Isomeric lines, Edward Hull on, and the relative distribution of the calcareous and sedimentary strata of the carboni- ferous group of Britain, 116. James (Colonel Sir Henry) on photo- zincography, by means of which photo- graphic copies of the Ordnance maps are chiefly multiplied, either on their original, or on a reduced or enlarged scale, 262. Japan, journey in the interior of, with the ascent of Fusiyama, by R. Alcock, 183. Jeffreys (J. G.) on an abnormal form of Cyathina Smithii, 146. Jenkin (Fleeming) on permanent thermo- electric currents in circuits of one metal, 39. Jessen (Dr.) on the absorbing power of the roots of plants, 147. Johnson (Henry), James Glaisher on a deep-sea thermometer invented by, 58; on a deep-sea pressure-gauge invented by, 59. Johnson (W. B.) on the application of the direct-action principle, 263. Joule (Dr.) on the thermal effects of elastic fluids, 83. Jukes (Professor) on the progress of the survey in Ireland, 117, ‘Kaims,’ D. Milne Home on elongated ridges of drift, common in the South of Scotland, called, 115. Kew observatory, B, Stewart on the pho- tographic records given at the, of the great magnetic storm of the end of Aug. and beginning of Sept, 1859, 47, 282 Kidd (Dr. Charles) on chloroform acci- dents, and some new physiological facts as to their explanation and re- moval, 167. Kirkman (Rev. T. P.) on the roots of sub- stitutions, 4. Knockshigowna in Tipperary, A. B. Wynne on the geology of, 135. Lancashire coal-field, A. H. Green on the faults of a portion of the, 113. Language, John Crawfurd on the anti- quity of man from the evidence of, 191. Larva, H: T. Stainton on a new mining, recently discovered, 159. Lawes (J. B.) on some points in connexion with the exhaustion of soils, 84. Lead, formiate of, W. J. Hurst on the sulphur compound formed by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen on, 82. Leaves, Maxwell T. Masters on the rela- tion between pinnate and palmate, 148. Lens, panoramic, Thomas Sutton on the, 33. Light, on the emission and absorption of rays of, by certain gases, by Dr. J. H. Gladstone, 79. Lightning figures, Charles Tomlinson on, 48 Lime, Dr. John Davy on the action of, on animal and vegetable substances, 165. Limestone, carboniferous, Mr. Richard- son on the details of the, as laid open by the railway cutting and tunnel near Almondsbury, 130. Liverpool, G. H. Morton on the pleisto- cene deposits of the district around, 120. , Rev. A. Hume on the condition of national schools in, as compared with the population, 1861, 223, Liquids, Charles Tomlinson on the cohe- sion-figures of, 93. Liver, Dr. Rolleston on the homologies of the lobes of the, in mammalia, 174. Livsey (Peter J.) on a mercurial baro- meter invented by R. Howson, 64. Lloyd (Dr. J, H.) on purifying towns from sewage by means of dry cloace, 85. Lloyd (Rev. H.) on the secular changes of terrestrial magnetism, and their con- nexion with disturbances, 41. Loch Katrine, Dr. Wallace on the com- position and properties of the water of, 94. Tarbert, East and West, John Ram- say on the proposal to form a ship canal between, 197. Lowe (E. J.) on the great cold of Christ- _ mas 1860, and its destructive effects, 64. REPORT—1861. Lustre, binocular, Sir David Brewster on, 29 Lyons (Lord), letter from Capt. Maury to, on the importance of an expedition to the antarctic regions for meteorological and other scientific purposes, 65. Macadam (Dr. S.) on the proportion of . tin present in tea-lead, 85; on the pro- portion of arsenic present in paper- hangings, 86; on an economical mode of boiling rags, &c. with alkaline ley, 86 Macfie (R. A.) on patents considered in- ternationally, 263. Macqueen (C. E.) on the true principles of taxation, 225. Magnetic dip and declination, Prof. Hen- nessy on a probable cause of the diurnal variation of, 39. effect of the sun or moon on instru- ments at the earth’s surface, G. John- stone Stoney on the amount of the di- rect, 47. force, terrestrial, on the laws of the principal inequalities, solar and lunar, of, by the Astronomer Royal, 36. force, on the supposed connexion between meteorological phenomena and the variations of the earth’s, by John Allan Broun, 49. storm of the end of August and be- ginning of September 1859, B. Stewart on the photographic records given at the Kew observatory of the great, 47. Magnetism, terrestrial, Rev. H. Lloyd on the secular changes of, and their con- nexion with disturbances, 41, Malay peninsula. H. Wise on a proposed railway across the, 201. Mammalia, R, Garner on the encephalon of, 166. , Dr. Rolleston on the homologies of the lobes of the liver in, 174. Man, John Crawfurd on the antiquity of, from the evidence of language, 191. Manchester, E. W. Binney on the geolo- gical features of the neighbourhood of, 109. ——., L. H. Grindon on the flora of, 145. , on the progress of, from 1840-60, David Chadwick on, 209. gas-works, John Shuttleworth on the, 240. Marriott (W.) on the separation of am- monia from coal-gas, 86. Marshall (J. G.) on the relation of the Eskdale granite at Bootle to the schis- tose rocks, with remarks on the general metamorphic origin of granite, 117. INDEX II. Mason (Septimus) on a locomotive for common roads, 269. Masters (Maxwell T.) on the relation between pinnate and palmate leaves, 148. Matthiessen (Dr.) on vesicular structure in, 92. Maury (Captain) on the importance of an expedition to the Antarctic regions for meteorological and other scientific pur- poses, 65. Mendoza, R. Bridge on the great earth- quake at, March 20, 1861, 187. Mercer (John) on madder photographs, 87. Metal, Fleeming Jenkin on permanent thermo-electric currents in circuits of one, 39. Metals, H, H. Vivian’s microscopic obser- vations on the structure of, 34. , J. P, Gassiot on the deposit of, from the negative terminal of an induction coil during the electrical discharge in vacuo, 38. Meteorites, W. Haidinger’s attempt to account for the physical condition and the fall of, upon our planet, 15. , formation of, 21. Micrometers, Sir David Brewster on pho- tographic, 28. Miller (Dr.), his address as President of Section B, 75; on photographic spectra of the electric light, 87. Mineral, aluminous, from the upper chalk near Brighton, Dr. J. H. and G. Glad- stone on, 79. Mitchell (J. M.) on the migration of the herring, 149, Moffat (Dr.) on atmospheric ozone, 88; on sulphuretted hydrogen as a product of putrefaction, 89. Mole, Prof. Owen on the cervical and lumbar vertebre of the, 152. Molesworth (Rev. W. N.) on the progress of cooperation at Rochdale, 225. Moon, mountains of the, Dr. Beke on the origin of the designation, 184. Moon’s mean motion, Rev. E. Hincks on the quantity of the acceleration of the, as indicated by the records of certain ancient eclipses, 22; G. B. Airy’s re- marks on, 12. Moore (C.), notes on two ichthyesauri to be exhibited to the Meeting, 121. Morell (J. D.) on the physical and phy- siological processes involved in sensa- tion, 168. Morgan (John E.) on an anemometer for registering the maximum force and ex- treme variation of the wind, 72, Morin, Dr. Delffs on, 78, | 283 Morotanniec acid, Dr. Delffs on the non- existence of, 78. Moroxite, Dr. Voelcker on the composition of crystallized, 93. Morton (G. H.) on the pleistocene depo- sits of the district around Liverpool, 120. Mouatt (Dr.) on prison dietary in India, 170. Miiller (Prof. H.) on the existence and arrangement of the fovea centralis re- tinze in the eyes of animals, 171. Murchison (Sir R. I.), his address as Pre- sident of Section C, 95; onthe maps and sections recently published by the Geo- logical Survey, 121; letter from Sir H. Robinson relating to the journey of Major Sarel, Capt. Blakiston, Dr. Bar- ton, and another, who are endeavouring to pass from China to the North of India, 196. Navigation, Andrew Henderson on the rise and progress of clipper and steam, on the coasts and rivers of China and India, 258. Navy, Dr. Crace Calvert on the chemical composition of some woods employed in the, 77. Neild (Alderman) on the price of print- ing-cloth and upland cotton from 1812 to 1860, 229. Newmarch (William), his address as Pre- sident of Section F, 201; on the extent to which sound principles of taxation are embodied in the legislation of the United Kingdom, 230. New Zealand, Prof. Owen on the remains of a Plesiosaurian reptile (Plesiosaurus Australis) from the oolitic formation in the middle island of, 122. , J. Yates on the excess of water in the region of the earth about, 136. Nile, Dr. Beke on the mountains forming the eastern side of the basiv of the, 184, Norman (Rey. Alfred Merle) on the crustacea, echinodermata, and zoo- phytes obtained in deep-sea dredging off the Shetland Isles in 1861, 151. O'Callaghan (P.) on cromleachs and rocking-stones considered ethnologi-. cally, 187. Old red sandstone of South Perthshire, Prof, Harkness on the, 114. Orphan children under the care of the. Dublin Protestant orphan societies, on ten years’ statistics of the mortality amongst the, by the Rev. W. Caine, 208. Orthagoriscus mola, Dr. John Cleland on the anatomy of, 138. 284 REPORT—1861. Otoscope, Dr. Politzer’s, J. Toynbee on | Plants, Dr. Daubeny on the functions the action of the eustachian tube in man, as demonstrated by, 176. : Owen (Prof.) on a dinosaurian reptile (Scelidosaurus Harrisoni) from the lower lias of Charmouth, 121; on the remains of a Plesiosaurian reptile (Ple- siosaurus Australis) from the oolitic formation in the middle island of New Zealand, 122; on the cervical and lumbar vertebrze of the mole (Talpa Europzea), 152; on some objects of natural history from the collection of M. Du Chaillu, 155. Ozone, Dr. Moffat on atmospheric, 88. Panoramic lens, Thomas Sutton onthe, 33. Paranaphthaline, Prof. Anderson on the constitution of, 76. Patents—can they be defended on econo- mical grounds? by Prof. J. E. T. Rogers, 240. Patent laws, Sir W. G. Armstrong on the, 252. tribunals, W. Spence on, 265. Patterson (W.) on certain markings in sandstones, 123. Pauperism of England, Scotland, and Treland, 1851 to 1860, Frederick Purdy on the relative, 231. Pengelly (W.) on a new bone-cave at Brixham, 123; on the relative age of the Petherwin and Barnstaple beds, 124; on the recent encroachments of the sea on the shores of Torbay, 124; on the age of the granites of Dartmoor, 127. Perambulator and street railway, John Haworth on a, 258. Perchloric acid and its hydrates, Prof. Roscoe on, 91. Perthshire, South, Prof. Harkness on the old red sandstone of, 114. Petzval’s asymptotic method of solving differential equations, W. Spottiswoode on, 10. Phillips (Prof.) on the post-glacial gravels of the valley of the Thames, 129. Photographic micrometers, Sir David Brewster on, 28. records given at the Kew observa- tory of the great magnetic storm of the end of August and beginning of Sep- tember 1859, B. Stewart on the, 47. spectra of the electric light, Dr. Miller on, 87. Photozincography, Colonel Sir Henry James on, 2638. Piperic and hydropiperic acids, G. C. Foster on, 78, discharged by the roots of, 141. , Dr. Daubeny on the influence exerted by light on the function of, 141. , Dr. Jessen on the absorbing power of the roots of, 147. Pleistocene deposits of the district around Liverpool, G. H. Morton on the, 120. Plesiosaurus Australis, Prof. Owen on the remains of, from the oolitic formation inthe midde island of New Zealand, 122, Polyps, the Rev. T. Hincks on the deve- lopment of the hydroid, Clavatella and Stauridia, 145. Polyzoa, Rev. T. Hincks on the ovicells of the, with reference to the views of Prof. Huxley, 145. Population, John Strang on the compara- tive progress of the English and Scot- tish, as shown by the census of 1861, 243. Porter (H. J. Ker) on farm labourers’ cottages, 230. Potter (Edmund) on cooperation and its tendencies, 230. Price (Prof.) on the influence of the rota- tion of the earth on the apparent path of a heavy particle, 6. Prideaux (‘I’. S.) on economy in fuel, 269. Prism, J. A. Davies’s observations upon the production of colour by the, 31. and chromascope, John Smith on the, 38. Prison dietary in India, Dr. Mouatt on, 170. Punishments, capital, and their influence on crime, Henry Ashworth on, 203. Purdy (Frederick) on the relative pau- perism of England, Scotland, and Ire- land, 1851-1860, 231. Putrefaction, Dr. Moffat on sulphuretted hydrogen as a product of, 89. Quantic, W. Spottiswoode on the reduc- tion of the decadic binary to its cano- nical form, 11. Quartz, Dr, Smith oncertain difficulties in the way of separating gold from, 92. Railway, H. Wise on a proposed railway across the Malay peninsula, 201. , street, John Haworth on a, 258. accidents, Dr. G. Arnott on, from trains running off the rails, 252. break, sledge, James Higgin on a, 262. Rainfail, British, G. J. Symons on, 74. Ramsay (John) on the proposal to form a ship canal between East and West Loch Tarbert, 197. INDEX II. Rankin (Rev. T.), meteorological obser- vations at Huggate, Yorkshire, 73. Rankine (Prof. W. J. M.) on the resist- ance of ships, 263, 264. Rawlinson (Col. Sir H. C.) on the direct overland telegraph from Constantinople to Kurrachee, 197. Readwin (IT. A.) on the gold of North Wales, 129. Reed (E. J.) on the iron-cased ships of the British Navy, 232. Reid (Peter), statistics of the herring fishery, 156. Remak (Prof.) on the influence of the sympathetic nerve on voluntary mus- cles, as witnessed in the treatment of progressive muscular atrophy by se- condary electric currents, 171. Respiration and digestion, Dr. G. Robin- son on the connexion between the functions of, 173. Resuscitation, Dr. B. W. Richardson’s physiological researches on, 172. Retina, Sir David Brewster on the com- pensation of impressions moving over the, 29; onthe optical study of the, 29. Revenue, Charles Thompson on some ex- ceptional articles of commerce, and un- desirable sources of, 247. Richardson (Dr. B. W.) on the artificial production of cataract, 171; researches on resuscitation, 172. Richardson (Mr.) on the details of the carboniferous limestone, as laid open by the railway cutting and tunnel near Almondsbury, North of Bristol, 130. Richson (Rey. Canon) on the income-tax, 240. Roberts (William) on the solvent power of strong and weak solutions of the alka- line carbonates on uric acid calculi, 90. Robertson (Charles) on the cervical and occipital vertebrz of osseous fishes, 172. Robinson (Dr. George) on the connexion between the functions of respiration and digestion, 173. Robinson (Sir Hercules), letter from, rela- ting to the journey of Major Sarel, Capt. Blakiston, Dr. Barton, and another, who are endeavouring to pass from China to the North of India, 196. Robinson (J.) on the application of work- shop tools to the construction of steam- engines and other machinery, 264. Rochdale, the Rev. W. N. Molesworth on the progress of cooperation at, 225, Rogers (Prof. J. E. T.), can patents be defended on economical grounds? 240; on the definition and incidence of taxa- tion, 240; on prices in England, 1582- 285 1620, and the effect of the American discoveries upon them during that pe- riod, 269. Rolleston (Dr.) on the anatomy of Ptero- pus, 178; on some points in the ana- tomy of Insectivora, 173; on the homo- logies of the lobes of the liver in Mam- malia, 174. Roscoe (Professor) on perchloric acid and its hydrates, 91. Rose (Thomas) on presentations of colour produced under novel conditions, with their assumed relation to the received theory of light and colour, 32. Russell (Dr.) on vesicular structure in copper, 92; on an apparatus for the rapid separation and measurement of gases, 95. Russell (W. H. L.) on the calculus of functions, with remarks on the theory of electricity, 9. Rotation, Professor Sylvester on the in- volution of axes of, 12. Salter (J. W.) on the nature of Sigillariz, and on the bivalve shells of the coal, 131, Sandstones, Prof. Harkness on the, and their associated deposits of the Valley of the Eden and the Cumberland plain, 115. Scelidosaurus Harrisoni, Prof. Owen on, from the lower lias of Charmouth, 121. Schools, national, in Liverpool, Rev, A. Hume on the condition of, as compared with the population, 1861, 223. Science, elementary, Captain Donnelly on the nature and results of the aid now granted by the State towards the instruction of the industrial classes in, 217. Sclater (P. L.) on the late increase of our knowledge of the struthious birds, 158. Scott (R. H.) on the granitic rocks of Donegal, and the minerals associated therewith, 131, Sea thermometer, on a deep-, 58; pres- sure-gauge, 59. , C. W. Siemens on a bathometer, or instrument to indicate the depth of the, on board ship without suhmerging a line, 73. Seeley (Harry) on the Elsworth rock, and the clay above it, 132. Sensation, J. D. Morell on the physical and physiological processes involved in, 168. Shaffner (Colonel) on the Spitzbergen 286 ~ eurrent, and active and extinct glaciers in South Greenland, 198. Shaw (William Thomas) on the method of interpreting some of the phenomena of light, 33. Shetland Isles, Rev. Alfred Merle Nor- man on the crustacea, echinodermata, and zoophytes obtained in deep-sea dredging off the, in 1861, 151. Shields (F. W.) on iron construction, with remarks on the strength of iron columns and arches, 265. Ship canal, John Ramsay on the proposal to form a, between East and West Loch Tarbert, 197. Ships, armour-plated, Dr. Eddy on a class of gun-boats capable of engaging, 257. , iron-cased, of the British navy, E, J. Reed on the, 232. , W. J. M. Rankine on the resist- ance of, 263; appendix, 264. Shuttleworth (John), some account of the Manchester gas-works, 240. Siemens (C. W.) on an electric resistance thermometer for observing tempera- tures at inaccessible situations, 44; on a bathometer, or instrument to indicate the depth of the sea on board ship without submerging a line, 73; on a system of telegraphic communication adopted in Berlin in case of fires, 264. Sigillarie, J. W. Salter on the nature of, 131. Silver (Messrs.) on telegraphic wires,269. Skull, human, Dr. John Cleland on the varieties of form of the, 164. Smart (Bath C.) on the English gipsies and their dialect, 199. Smith (Archibald) on the effect produced on the deviation of the compass by the length and arrangement of the com- pass needles, and on a new mode of correcting the quadrantal deviation, 45 Smith (Dr.) on certain difficulties in the’ way of separating gold from quartz, 92. Smith (Dr. Edward) on the influence of the season of the year on the human system, 175. Smith (John) on the chromascope, and what it reveals, 33; on the prism and the chromascope, 33. Smithsonian Institution, Philip P. Car- penter on the cosmopolitan operations of the, 137. Snow (Capt. W. P.) on the geographical science of arctic explorations, and the advantage of continuing it, 20]. REPORT—1861. Soils, J. B. Lawes and Dr. J. H. Gilbert on some points in connexion with the exhaustion of, 84. Species, H. Fawcett on the method of Mr. Darwin in his treatise of the origin of, 141. Spence (W.) on patent tribunals, 265. Spiders, Tuffen West on some points of interest in the structure and habits of, 162. Spitzbergen current, Colonel Shaffner on the, 198. Spottiswoode (William) on Petzval’s asymptotic method of solving differen- tial equations, 10; on the reduction of the decadic binary quantic to its cano- nical form, 11. Stainton (H. T.) on a new mining larva recently discovered, 159. Stansfield (A.) on varieties of Blechnum Spicant collected in 1860 and 1861, 159. Stars, Daniel Vaughan on cases of pla- netary instability indicated by the ap- pearance of temporary, 24. Steam-engines and other machinery, J. Robinson on the application of work- shop tools to the construction of, 264. St. Elias, on the glacial movements in the vicinity of, on the N.W. coast of America, by Admiral Sir E. Belcher, 186. Steel-pipe arrangements for extinguish- ing fires, J. F. Bateman on, 255. Stewart (Balfour) on the photographic records given at the Kew observarory of the great magnetic storm of the end of August and beginning of September 1859, 47; on a new minimum mer- curial thermometer proposed by Mr. Casella, 74. Stone (Daniel) on the Rochdale co- operative societies, 269. Stoney (B. B.) on the deflection of iron girders, 265. Stoney (G. Johnstone) on the amount of the direct magnetic effect of the sun or moon on instruments at the earth’s surface, 47. Storms, Professor Hennessy on the con- nexion between, and vertical disturb- ances of the atmosphere, 61. , universal, William Danson on the law of, 52. Strang (John) on the comparative pro- gress of the English and Scottish popu- lation as shown by the census of 1861, 248; on the altered condition of the em- broidery manufacture of Scotland and Ireland since 1857, 243. INDEX II. Strikes, Dr. J. Watts on, 249. Stuart (Mr. Macdonald) on recent ex- plorations in Australia, 184. Substitutions, Rev. T, P. Kirkman on the roots of, 4, Subterranean movements, Prof, Vaughan on, 134. Sulphur compound, W. J. Hurst on the, formed by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen on formiate of lead at a high temperature, 82. Sun or moon, G. Johnstone Stoney on - the amount of the direct magnetic effect of the, on instruments at the earth’s surface, 47. Sunfish, the short, Dr. John Cleland on the anatomy of Orthagoriscus mola, 138. Sun’s heat, Prof. W. Thomson on the physical considerations regarding the possible age of the, 27; on the origin and total amount of the, 28. Sunshine recorder, J.T. Goddard on the, 61. Sutton (Thomas) on the panoramic lens, 33 Sykes (Colonel) on the progress and pro- spects of the trade of England with China since 1833, 246. Sylvester (Prof.) on the involution of axes of rotation, 12. Symonds (Rev. W. 8.) on some pheno- mena connected with the drifts of the Severn, Avon, Wye, and Usk, 133. Symons (G. J.) on British rainfall, 74. Talpa Europea, Prof. Owen on the cer- vical and lumbar vertebre of the, 152. Tasmania, results of the geological survey of, by C. Gould, 112. Tate (W.) on Bailey’s steam-pressure gauge, 266. Taxation, national, Dr. W. Clarke on a revision of, 216. ——, C. E. Macqueen on the true prin- ciples of, 225. , on the definition and incidence of, by Prof. J. E. T. Rogers, 240. Tecturella grandis, Philip P. Carpenter on the variations of, 137. Telegraph, overland, Col. Sir H. C. Raw- linson on the direct, from Constanti- nople to Kurrachee, 197. Temperatures, C. W. Siemens on an elec- tric resistance thermometer for observ- ing, at inaccessible situations, 44. Tennant (Prof.) on a specimen of mete- oric iron from Mexico, 93. Terrestrial galvanic currents, G. B. Airy on spontaneous, 35. —— magnetic force, on the laws of the 287 principal inequalities, solar and lunar, of, by the Astronomer Royal, 36. Thermo-electric currents in circuits of one metal, Fleeming Jenkin on _per- manent, 39. Thermometer, C. W. Siemens on an elec- tric resistance, for observing tempera- tures at inaccessible situations, 44. -—, deep-sea, James Glaisher on a, invented by Henry Johnson, 58. ,» On a new minimum mercurial, proposed by Mr. Casella, by Balfour Stewart, 74. Thompson (Charles) on some exceptional articles of commerce and undesirable sources of revenue, 247. Thomson (Professor W.), physical con- siderations regarding the possible age of the sun’s heat, 27; on the thermal effects of elastic fluids, 83; on the de- velopment of Synapta inherens, 162. Thorburn (Rev. W. R.), cooperative stores, their bearing on Athenzums, &c., 248. Tidal observations, Rear-Admiral Fitz- Roy on, 56. Tomlinson (Charles) on lightning figures, chiefly with reference to those tree-like or ramified figures sometimes found on the bodies of men and animals that have been struck by lightning, 48; on the cohesion-figures of liquids, 93. Torbay, W. Pengelly on the recent en- croachments of the sea on the shores of, 124, Toynbee (J.) on the action of the Eu- stachian tube in man, as demonstrated by Dr. Politzer’s otoscope, 176. Trade of England with China since 1833, Colonel Sykes on the progress and pro- spects of the, 246. . Triangles, plane, Thomas Dobson on the general forms of the symmetrical pro- perties of, 2, Turnbull (Dr. J.) on the physiological . and medicinal properties of sulphate of aniline, and its use in the treatment of chorea, 177. Twining (Miss) on the employment of women in workhouses, 248. United Kingdom, James T. Hammick on the general results of the census of the, in 1861, 220. Valpy (Richard) on the commercial re- lations between England and France, 269. Vanessa antiopa, on the arrest of pupa- 288 rialmetamorphosis of, by Dr. George D. Gibb, 143. Vaughan (Daniel), cases of planetary instability indicated by the appearance of temporary stars, 24. Vaughan (Professor) on subterranean movements, 134. Vienna, Prof. Haidinger on the present state of the Imperial Geological Insti- tution of, 121. Violet, Dr. Daubeny on a, peculiar to the calamine rocks in the neighbourhood of Aix-la-Chapelle, 141. Vivian (H. H.), microscopic observations on the structure of, 34, . Voelcker (Dr.) on the composition of crystallized moroxite, from Jumillo, near Alicante, 93. Volcanos, Dr. Daubeny on the evolution of ammonia from, 77. of Australia, J. Bonwick on the extinct, 109. Wales, North, T. A. Readwin on the gold of, 129. Walker (J. J.), observations on an iris seen in water, near sunset, 35. Wallace (Dr.) on the composition and properties of the water of Loch Katrine as supplied in Glasgow, 94. Walton (Rev. W.) on some signs of changes of the weather, 74. Warrior’s compasses, F. J. Evans’s re- marks on H.M.S., 45. Water, J. Yates on the excess of, in the region of the earth about New Zealand, 136. Watts (Dr. J.) on strikes, 249. Weather, Rey. W. Walton on some signs of changes of the, 74. Webster (T.) on property in invention, and its effects on the arts and manu- factures, 266, REPORT—1861. Welton (J. A.) on the increase of density of population in England and Wales, 1851-1861, 269. West (Tuffen) on some points of interest in the structure and habits of spiders, 162. Westgarth (William) on the commerce and manufactures of the colony of Vic- toria, 269. Whincopp (W.) on the red crag deposits of the county of Suffolk, considered in relation to the finding of celts, in France and England, in the drift of the post- pliocene period, 134. Whitaker (J.) on the Burnley coal-field and its fossil contents, 135. Wilkinson (F. T.) on the Burnley coal- field and its fossil contents, 135. Williamson (Dr.) on an apparatus for the rapid separation and measurement of gases, 95, Wind (John E. Morgan) on an anemo- meter for registering the maximum force and extreme variation of the, 72. Wise (H.) on a proposed railway across the Malay peninsula, 201. Wollaston (Dr. R.), some account of the Romans in Britain, 201. Women, Miss Twining on the employ- ment of, in workhouses, 248. Woods, Dr. Crace Calvert on the che- mical composition of some woods em- ployed in the navy, 77. Workhouses, Miss Twining on the em- ployment of women in, 248. Wynne (A. B.) on the geology of Knock- shigowna in Tipperary, Ireland, 135. Yates (J.) on the excess of water in the region of the earth about New Zea- land, its causes and effects, 136. BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. The Published Reports of Proceedings at the Meetings of the Association may be obtained by Members on application to the under-mentioned Local Treasurers, or Agents appointed by them, at the following prices, viz.—Reports for 1849, 1850, 1851, 1852, 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856, 1857, 1858, 1859, at two- thirds of the Publication Price; and for the purpose of completing their sets, any of the first seventeen volumes, of which more than 100 copies remain, at one-third of the Publication Price. TREASURER. DEPOT FOR THE REPORTS. LONDON ...........John Taylor, Esq., F.R.S. Messrs. Taylor & Francis, Printing 6 Queen Street Place, Upper Thames Street. Office, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street. LOCAL TREASURERS. DEPOTS. YorK...........2.-. William Gray, Esq., F.G.S. ..,........ Yorkshire Museum. CAMBRIDGE ,,....C.C, Babington, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. ... House of the Philosophical Society. EDINBURGH...... William Brand, Esq. .......seeesee+eeeee Union Bank of Scotland. DuBLIN............John H. Orpen, LL.D. ......+0....008e13 South Frederick Street. BRISTOL .......... William Sanders, Esq., F.G.S. ........Philosophical Institution, Park Street. LIVERPOOL ..,,...Robert M¢Andrew, Esq., F.R.S. .....7 North John Street. BirMINGHAM ...W. R. Wills, Esq. .....s.sseeeeeeeeesss Birmingham. GLASGOW.........Professor Ramsay, M.A. .....0.00+ «eee The College. MANCHESTER....R. P. Greg, Esq., F.G.S........000008 .-Chancery Lane. SWANSEA .........John Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq., F.R.S. ...Swansea. IPSWICH.. «.......0. B. Alexander, Esq. ....++...e+se00s+» North Gate House. BELFAST .........RoObert Patterson, Esq., M.R.I.A.....High Street. HULL ...000..c0eeeeeAmund Smith, Esq. cecscccccceeseeee ull, CHELTENHAM .,.Richard Beamish, Esq., F.R.S. ......Cheltenham. Associates for the Meeting in 1858 may obtain the Volume for the Year at the same price as Members. PROCEEDINGS of tut FIRST anp SECOND MEETINGS, at York and Oxford, 1831 and 1832, Published at 13s. 6d. ConTENTS :—Prof. Airy, on the Progress of Astronomy ;—J. W. Lubbock, on the Tides —Prof. Forbes, on the Present State of Meteorology ;—Prof. Powell, on the Present State of the Science of Radiant Heat ;—Prof. Cumming, on Thermo-Electricity ;—Sir D. Brewster, on the Progress of Optics;—Rev. W. Whewell, on the Present State of Mineralogy ;—Rev. W. D. Conybeare, on the Recent Progress and Present State of Geology ;—Dr, Prichard’s Review of Philological and Physical Researches. Together with Papers on Mathematics, Optics, Acoustics, Magnetism, Electricity, Chemistry, Meteorology, Geography, Geology, Zoology, Anatomy, Physiology, Botany, and the Arts; and an Exposition of the Objects and Plan of the Association, &c. PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRD MEETING, at Cambridge, 1833, Published at 12s. ConTENTs :—Proceedings of the Meeting ;—John ‘I'aylor, on Mineral Veins ;—Dr. Lindley, on the Philosophy of Botany ;—Dr. Henry, on the Physiology of the Nervous Sy- stem ;—P. Barlow, on the Strength of Materials ;—S. H. Christie, on the Magnetism of the Earth ;—Rev. J. Challis, on the Analytical Theory of Hydrostatics and Hydrodynamics ;— G. Rennie, on Hydraulics asa Branch of Engineering, Part I. ;—Rev. G. Peacock, on certain Branches of Analysis. Together with papers on Mathematics and Physics, Philosophical Instruments and Mecha- ‘nical Arts, Natural History, Anatomy, Physiology, and History of Science, 1861. 19 290 4 PROCEEDINGS or tHE FOURTH MEETING, at Edinburgh, 1834, Published at 15s. Conrrents:—H. G. Rogers, on the Geology of North America ;—Dr. C. Henry, on the Laws of Contagion ;—Prof, Clark, on Animal Physiology ;—Rev. L. Jenyns, on Zoology ;— Rev. J. Challis, on Capillary Attraction ;—Prof. Lloyd, on Physical Optics ;—G. Rennie, on Hydraulics, Part II. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or tut FIFTH MEETING, at Dublin, 1835, Pub- lished at 13s. 6d. ConTENTSs :—Rev. W. Whewell, on the Recent Progress and Present Condition of the Mathematical Theories of Electricity, Magnetism, and Heat; — A. Quetelet, Apergu de Etat actuel des Sciences Mathématiques chez les Belges;—Capt. E. Sabine, on the Phe- nomena of Terrestrial Magnetism. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Sir W. Hamilton’s Address, and Re- commendations of the Association and its Committees, PROCEEDINGS or tHe SIXTH MEETING, at Bristol, 1836, Pub- lished at 12s. ConTENTS:—Prof. Daubeny, on the Present State of our Knowledge with respect to Mine- yal and Thermal Waters ;—Major E. Sabine, on the Direction and Intensity of the Terrestrial Magnetic Force in Scotland ;—J. Richardson, on North American Zoology ;—Rev. J. Challis, on the Mathematical Theory of Fluids ;—J. T. Mackay, a Comparative View of the more remarkable Plants which characterize the neighbourhood of Dublin and Edinburgh, and the South-west of Scotland, &c.;—J. T. Mackay, Comparative Geographical Notices of the more remarkable Plants which characterize Scotland and Ireland ;—Report of the London Sub- Committee of the Medical Section on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart ;—Second Report of the Dublin Sub-Committee on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart ;—Report of the Dublin Committee on the Pathology of the Brain and Nervous System ;—J. W. Lubbock, Account of the Recent Discussions of Observations of the Tides ;—Rev. B. Powell, on determining the Refractive Indices for the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in various media;—Dr. Hodgkin, on the Communication between the Arteries and Absorbents;—Prof. Phillips, Report of Experi- ments on Subterranean Temperature ;—Prof. Hamilton, on the Validity of a Method recently proposed by G. B. Jerrard, for Transforming and Resolving Equations of Elevated Degrees. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Daubeny’s Address, and Recommen- dations of the Association and its Committees. ~ PROCEEDINGS or rot SEVENTH MEETING, at Liverpool, 1837 Published at 16s. 6d. ConTENTS :—Major E. Sabine, on the Variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at dif- ferent points of the Earth’s Surface ;—Rev. W. Taylor, on the various modes of Printing for the Use of the Blind;—J. W. Lubbock, on the Discussions of Observations of the Tides ;— Prof. T. Thomson, on the Difference between the Composition of Cast Iron produced by the Cold and Hot Blast ;—Rev. T. R. Robinson, on the Determination of the Constant of Nutation by the Greenwich Observations ;—R. W. Fox, Experiments on the Electricity of Metallic Veins, and the Temperature of Mines ;—Provisional Report of the Committee of the Medical Section of the British Association, appointed to investigate the Composition of Secretions, and the Organs producing them ;—Dr. G. O. Rees, Report from the Committee for inquiring into the Analysis of the Glands, &c. of the Human Body ;—Second Report of the London Sub-Com- mittee of the British Association Medical Section, on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart ;— Prof. Johnston, on the Present State of our Knowledge in regard to Dimorphous Bodies ;— Lt.-Col. Sykes, on the Statistics of the Four Collectorates of Dukhun, under the British Go- vernment ;—E. Hodgkinson, on the relative Strength and other Mechanical Properties of Iron obtained from the Hot and Cold Blast ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Strength and other Properties of Iron obtained from the Hot and Cold Blast ;—Sir J. Robison, and J. 8. Russell, Report of the Committee on Waves ;—Note by Major Sabine, being an Appendix to his Report on the Variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at different Points of the Earth’s Surface ;— J. Yates, on the Growth of Plants under Glass, and without any free communication with the outward Air, on the Plan of Mr. N. J. Ward, of London. f Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Traill’s Address and Recommenda- tions of the Association and its Committees. ; 291 - PROCEEDINGS or tur EIGHTH MEETING, at Newcastle, 1838, Published at 15s. CoNnTENTS :—Rev. W. Whewell, Account of a Level Line, measured from the Bristol Chan- nel to the English Channel, by Mr. Bunt ;—Report on the Discussions of Tides, prepared under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell;—W. S. Harris, Account of the Progress and State of the Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;—Major E. Sabine, on the Magnetic Isoclinal and Isodynamic Lines in the British Islands ;—D. Lardner, LL.D., on the Determi- nation of the Mean Numerical Values of Railway Constants ;—R. Mallet, First Report upon Experiments upon the Action of Sea and River Water upon Cast and Wrought Iron ;—R. Mallet, on the Action of a Heat of 212° Fahr., when long continued, on Inorganic and Organic Substances. _ Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison’s Address, and Recommen- dations of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or tue NINTH MEETING, at Birmingham, 1839, Published at 13s. 6d. ConTEnTs :—Rev. B. Powell, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of Refractive Indices, for the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in different media ;—Report on the Ap- plication of the Sum assigned for Tide Calculations to Rev. W. Whewell, in a Letter from T. G. Bunt, Esq. ;—H. L. Pattinson, on some Galvanic Experiments to determine the Existence or Non-Existence of Electrical Currents among Stratified Rocks, particularly those of the Moun- tain Limestone formation, constituting the Lead Measures of Alton Moor ;—Sir D. Brewster, Reports respecting the two series of Hourly Meteorological Observations kept in Scotland ;— Report on the subject of a series of Resolutions adopted by the British Association at their Meeting in August 1838, at Newcastle ;—R. Owen, Report on British Fossil Reptiles ;—E. Forbes, Report on the Distribution of Pulmoniferous Mollusca in the British Isles;—W. S. Harris, Third Report on the Progress of the Hourly Meteorological Register at Plymouth Dockyard. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt’s Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or tHe TENTH MEETING, at Glasgow, 1840, Published at 15s. ConTENTs :—Rev. B. Powell, Report on the recent Progress of discovery relative to Radiant Heat, supplementary to a former Report on the same subject inserted in the first volume of the Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of Science ;—J. D. Forbes, Supple- mentary Report on Meteorology ;—W. S. Harris, Report on Prof. Whewell’s Anemometer, now in operation at Plymouth ;—Report on ‘‘ The Motion and Sounds of the Heart,” by the London Committee of the British Association, for 1839-40 ;—Prof. Schonbein, an Account of Researches in Electro-Chemistry ;—R. Mallet, Second Report upon the Action of Air and Water, whether fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at various temperatures, upon Cast Iron, ‘Wrought Iron and Steel ;—R. W. Fox, Report on some Observations on Subterranean Tem- perature ;—A. F. Osler, Report on the Observations recorded during the years 1837, 1838, 1839 _and 1840, by the Self-registering Anemometer erected at the Philosophical Institution, Bir- mingham ;—Sir D. Brewster, Report respecting the two Series of Hourly Meteorological Ob- servations kept at Inverness and Kingussie, from Nov. Ist, 1838 to Nov. Ist, 1839 ;—W. Thompson, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Vertebrata ;—C. J. B. Williams, M.D., Report of Experiments on the Physiology of the Lungs and Air-Tubes ;—Kev. J.S. Henslow Report of the Committee on the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances, Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison and Major E. Sabine’s Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or tote ELEVENTH MEETING, at Plymouth, 1841, Published at 13s. 6d. ConTrents :—Rev. P. Kelland, on the Present state of our Theoretical and Experimental Knowledge of the Laws of Conduction of Heat ;—G. L. Roupell, M. D., Report on Poisons ;— T. G. Bunt, Report on Discussions of Bristol Tides, under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell; —D. Ross, Report on the Discussions of Leith Tide Observations, under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell;—W. S. Harris, upon the working of Whewell’s Anemometer at Plymouth during the past year ;—Report of a Committee appointed for the purpose of superintend- ing the scientific co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Obser- vations in Terrestrial Magnetism and Meteorology ;—Reports of Committees appointed to pro- - vide Meteorological Instruments for the use of M, Agassiz and Mr. M‘Cord ;—Report of a Com~ 19* 292 mittee to superintend the reduction of Meteorological Observations;—Report of a Com- mittee for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars ;—Report of a Committee for obtaining In- struments and Registers to record Shocks and Earthquakes in Scotland and Ireland ;—Report of a Committee on the Preservation of Vegetative Powers in Seeds ;—Dr. Hodgkin, on Inquiries into the Races of Man ;—Report of the Committee appointed to report how far the Desiderata in our knowledge of the Condition of the Upper Strata of the Atmosphere may be supplied by means of Ascents in Balloons or otherwise, to ascertain the probable expense of such Experi- ments, and to draw up Directions for Observers in such circumstances ;—R. Owen, Report on British Fossil Reptiles ;—Reports on the Determination of the Mean Value of Railway Constants ;--D. Lardner, LL.D., Second and concluding Report on the Determination of the Mean Value of Railway Constants;—-E. Woods, Report on Railway Constants ;—Report of a Committee on the Construction of a Constant Indicator for Steam-Engines. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Whewell’s Address, and Recommen- dations of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or tur TWELFTH MEETING, at Manchester, 1842, Published at 10s. 6d. CoNnTENTS :—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;— J. Richardson, M.D., Report on the present State of the Ichthyology of New Zealand ;— W.S. Harris, Report on the Progress of Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;—Second Report of a Committee appointed to make Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds; —C. Vignoles, Report of the Committee on Railway Sections ;—Report of the Committee for the Preservation cf Animal and Vegetable Substances ;—Lyon Playfair, M.D., Abstract of Prof. Licbig’s Report on Organic Chemistry applied to Physiology and Pathology ;— R. Owen, Report on the British Fossil Mammalia, Part I.;—R. Hunt, Researches on the Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants ;—L. Agassiz, Report on the Fossil Fishes of the Devonian System or Old Red Sandstone ;—W. Fairbairn, Ap- pendix to a Report on the Strength and other Properties of Cast Iron obtained from the Hot and Cold Biast ;—D. Milne, Report of the Committee for Registering Shocks of Earthquakes in Great Britain ;—Report of a Committee on the construction of a Constant Indicator for Steam-Engines, and for the determination of the Velocity of the Piston of the Self-acting En- gine at different periods of the Stroke ;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Committee on the Form of Ships ;—Report of a Committee appointed “to consider of the Rules by which the Nomencla- ture of Zoology may be established on a uniform and permanent basis ;”"—Report of a Com- mittee on the Vital Statistics of large Towns in Scotland ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals, Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Francis Egerton’s Address, and Re- commendations of the Association and its Committees, PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTEENTH MEETING, at Cork, 1843, Published at 12s. ConTENTS:—Robert Mallet, Third Report upon the Action of Air and Water, whether fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at Various Temperatures, upon Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, and Steel ;—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the co-operation of the British As- sociation in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., Report of the Committee appointed for the Reduction of Meteoro- logical Observations ;—Report of the Committee appointed for Experiments on Steam- Engines ;—Report of the Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds ;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Series of Observations on the Tides of the Frith of Forth and the East Coast of Scotland ;—J. S. Russell, Notice of a Report of the Committee on the Form of Ships;—J. Blake, Report on the Physiological Action of Medicines; —Report of the Committee on Zoological Nomenclature ;—Report of the Committee for Registering the Shocks of Earthquakes, and making such Meteorological Observations as may appear to them desirable ;—Report of the Committee for conducting Experiments with Captive Balloons; —Prof. Wheatstone, Appendix to the Report ;—Report of the Committee for the Translation and Publication of Foreign Scientific Memoirs ;—C. W. Peach on the Habits of the Marine Testacea ;—E. Forbes, Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the Aigean Sea, and on their distribution, considered as bearing on Geology ;--L. Agassiz, Synoptical Table of British Fossil Fishes, arranged in the order of the Geological Formations ;—R. Owen, Report on the British Fossil Mammalia, Part II.;—E. W. Binney, Report on the excavation made at the junction of the Lower New Red Sandstone with the Coal Measures at Collyhurst ;—W. 293 Thompson, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Invertebrata ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Earl of Rosse’s Address, and Recommen- dations of the Association and its Committces. PROCEEDINGS or tut FOURTEENTH MEETING, at York, 1844, Published at £1. ConTENTS :—W. B. Carpenter, on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—J. Alder and A. Hancock, Report on the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca;—R. Hunt, Researches on the Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants ;—Report.of a Committee appointed by the British Association in 1840, for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on the Meteorology of Toronto in Canada ;—J. Blackwall, Report on some recent researches into the Structure, Functions, and Giconomy of the Araneidea, made in Great Britain ;—Earl of Rosse, on the Construction of large Reflecting Telescopes ; —Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Report on a Gas-furnace for Experiments on Vitrifaction and other Applications of High Heat in the Laboratory ;—Report of the Committee for Registering Earthquake Shocks in Scotland ;—Report of a Committee for Experiments on Steam-Engines; —Report of the Committee to investigate the Varieties of the Human Race ;—Fourth Report of a Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds;—W. Fair- bairn, on the Consumption of Fuel and the Prevention of Smoke ;—F’. Ronalds, Report con- cerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew ;—Sixth Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the Co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simulta- neous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—Pror. Forchhammer on the influence of Fucoidal Plants upon the Formations of the Earth, on Metamorphism in general, and par- ticularly the Metamorphosis of the Scandinavian Alum Slate ;—H. E. Strickland, Report on the recent Progress and Present State of Ornithology ;—T. Oldham, Report of Committee appointed to conduct Observations on Subterranean Temperature in Ireland ;—Prof. Owen, Report on the Extinct Mammals of Australia, with descriptions of certain Fossils indicative of the former existence in that continent of large Marsupial Representatives of the Order Pachydermata ;—W. S. Harris, Report on the working of Whewell and Osler’s Anemometers at Plymouth, for the years 1841, 1842, 1845 ;—W. R. Birt, Report on Atmospheric Waves; —L. Agassiz, Rapport sur les Poissons Fossiles de 1’Argile de Londres, with translation ;—J. S. Russell, Report on Waves ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progressin Special Re- searches entrusted to Committees and Individuals. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dean of Ely’s Address, and Recommenda- tiens of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or tHe FIFTEENTH MEETING, at Cambridge, 1845, Published at 12s. ContTENTs :—Seventh Report of a Committee appointed to conduct the Co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observa- tions ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on some points in the Meteorology of Bombay ;—J. Blake, Report on the Physiological Actions of Medicines ;—Dr. Von Boguslawski, on the Comet of 1843; —R. Hunt, Report on the Actinograph ;—Prof. Schonbein, on Ozone ;—Prof, Erman, on the Influence of Friction upon Thermo-Electricity;—Baron Senftenberg, on the Self- Registering Meteorological Instruments employed in the Observatory at Senftenberg ;— W. R. Birt, Second Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress and Pre- sent Extent of Savings’ Banks in the United Kingdom ;—Prof. Bunsen and Dr. Playfair, Report on the Gases evolved from Iron Furnaces, with reference to the Theory of Smelting of Iron ;—Dr. Richardson, Report on the Ichthyology of the Seas of China and Japan ;— Report of the Committee on the Registration of Periodical Pheenomena of Animals and Vege- tables ;—Fifth Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Appendix, &c. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir J. F. W. Herschel’s Address, and Re- commendations of the Association and its Committees, PROCEEDINGS or tue SIXTEENTH MEETING, at Southampton, 1846, Published at 15s. ConTENTS:—G, G. Stokes, Report on Recent Researches in Hydrodynamics ;—Sixth Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Dr. Schunck on the Colouring Matters of Madder ;—J. Blake, on the Physiological Action of Medicines ;—R. Hunt, Report on the Ac- tinograph ;—R. Hunt, Notices on the Influence of Light on the Growth of Plants ;—R. L. Ellis, on the Recent Progress of Analysis ;—Prof. Forchhammer, on Comparative Analytical 294 Researches on Sea Water ;—A. Erman, on the Calculation of the Gaussian Constants for’ 1829;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress, present Amount, and probable future Condition of the Iron Manufacture in Great Britain ;—W. R. Birt, Third Report on Atmospheric Waves ;— Prof. Owen, Report on the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton ;—. J. Phillips, on Anemometry ;—J. Percy, M.D., Report on the Crystalline Flags;—Addenda to Mr. Birt’s Report on Atmospheric Waves. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir R. I. Murchison’s Address, and Re- commendations of the Association and its Committees. : PROCEEDINGS or toe SEVENTEENTH MEETING, at Oxford, 1847, Published at 18s. ConTENTS :—Prof. Langberg, on the Specific Gravity of Sulphuric Acid at different de- grees of dilution, and on the relation which exists between the Development of Heat and the coincident contraction of Volume in Sulphuric Acid when mixed with Water ;—R. Hunt, Researches on the Influence of the Solar Rays on the Growth of Plants ;—R. Mallet, on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Prof. Nilsson, on the Primitive Inhabitants of Scan- dinavia ;—W. Hopkins, Report on the Geological Theories of Elevation and Earthquakes; —Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Report on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—Rev. W. Whewell and Sir James C. Ross, Report upon the Recommendation of an Expedition for the purpose of completing our knowledge of the Tides ;—Dr. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—Seventh Re- port of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—J. Glynn, on the Turbine or Horizontal Water-Wheel of France and Germany ;—Dr. R, G. Latham, on the present state and recent progress of Ethnographical Philology ;—Dr. J. C. Prichard, on the various methods of Research which contribute to the Advancement of Ethnology, and of the relations of that Science to other branches of Knowledge ;—Dr. C. C. J. Bunsen, on the results of the recent Egyptian researches in reference to Asiatic and African Ethnology, and the Classification of Languages ; —Dr. C. Meyer, on the Importance of the Study of the Celtic Language as exhibited by the Modern Celtic Dialects still extant;—Dr. Max Miller, on the Relation of the Bengali to the Arian and Aboriginal Languages of India;—W. R. Birt, Fourth Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—Prof. W. H. Dove, Temperature Tables, with Introductory Remarks by Lieut.-Col. E. Sabine ;—A. Erman and H. Petersen, Third Report on the Calculation of the Gaussian Con- stants for 1829. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Robert Harry Inglis’s Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or toe EIGHTEENTH MEETING, at Swansea, 1848, Published at 9s. ConTrents:—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;— J. Glynn on Water-pressure Engines ;—R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns ;—Eighth Report of Committee on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—W. R. Birt, Fifth Report on At- mospheric Waves ;—E. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—J. P. Budd, on the advantageous use made of the gaseous escape from the Blast Furnaces at the Ystalyfera Iron Works;—R. Hunt, Report of progress in the investigation of the Action of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Plants allied to those of the Coal Formations ;—Prof. H. W. Dove, Supplement to the Tem- perature Tables printed in the Report of the British Association for 1847 ;—Remarks by Prof. Dove on his recently constructed Maps of the Monthly Isothermal Lines of the Globe, and on some of the principal Conclusions in regard to Climatology deducible from them; with an in- troductory Notice by Lt.-Col. E. Sabine ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the progress of the investigation on the Influence of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Ferns ;—J. Phillips, Notice of further progress in Anemometrical Researches ;—Mr. Mallet’s Letter to the Assistant-General Secre- tary ;—A. Erman, Second Report on the Gaussian Constants ;—Report of a Committee relative to the expediency of recommending the continuance of the Toronto Magnetical and Meteorological Observatory until December 1850. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Marquis of Northampton’s Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. ; PROCEEDINGS or tut NINETEENTH MEETING, at Birmingham, 1849, Published at 10s. ‘ ConTENTs :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Earl of Rosse, Notice of Nebule lately observed in the Six-feet Reflector ;—Prof. Daubeny, on the Influence of Carbonic Acid Gas on the health of Plants, especially of those allied to the Fossil Remains found in the Coal Formation ;—Dr. Andrews, Report on the Heat of Combination ; =—Report of the Committee on the Registration of the Periodic Phenomena of Plants. and- 295 Animals ;—Ninth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ; —F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from Aug. 9, 1848 to Sept. 12, 1849 ;—R. Mallet, Report on the Experimental Inquiry on Railway Bar Corrosion ;—W. R. Birt, Report on the Discussion of the Electrical Observations at Kew, Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. T. R. Robinson’s Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or tHE TWENTIETH MEETING, at Edinburgh, 1850, Published at 15s. Contents :—R. Mallet, First Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Rev. Prof. Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Dr. T. Williams, on the Structure and History of the British Annelida ;—T. C. Hunt, Results of Meteorological Observations taken at St. Michael’s from the Ist of January, 1840, to the 3lst of December, 1849;—R. Hunt, on the present State of our Knowledge of the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;--Tenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Major-Gen, Briggs, Report on the Aboriginal Tribes of India;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Ob- servatory of the British Association at Kew ;—E. Forbes, Report on the Investigation of British Marine Zoology by means of the Dredge ;—R. MacAndrew, Notes on the Distribution and Range in depth of Mollusca and other Marine Animals, observed on the coasts of Spain, Por- tugal, Barbary, Malta, and Southern Italy in 1849 ;—Prof. Allman, on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Freshwater Polyzoa ;—Registration of the Periodical Phenomena of Plants and Animals ;—Suggestions to Astronomers for the Observation of the Total Eclipse of the Sun on July 28, 1851. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir David Brewster’s Address, and Recom- mendations of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or true TWENTY-FIRST MEETING, at Ipswich, 1851, Published at 16s. 6d. ConTENTs :—Rev. Prof. Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Eleventh Re- port of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Dr. J. Drew, on the Climate of Southampton ;—Dr. R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns: Action of Porous Strata, Water and Organic Matter ;—Report of the Committee appointed to consider the probable Effects in an GEconomical and Physical Point of View of the Destruction of Tro- pical Forests ;—A. Henfrey, on the Reproduction and supposed Existence of Sexual Organs in the Higher Cryptogamous Plants;—Dr. Daubeny, on the Nomenclature of Organic Com- pounds ;—Rev. Dr. Donaldson, on two unsolved Problems in Indo-German Philology ;— Dr. T. Williams, Report on the British Annelida;—R. Mallet, Second Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Letter from Prof. Henry to Col, Sabine, on the System of Meteoro- logical Observations proposed to be established in the United States ;—Col. Sabine, Report on the Kew Magnetographs ;—J. Welsh, Report on the Performance of his three Magneto- graphs during the Experimental Trial at the Kew Observatory ;—F'. Ronalds, Report concern- ing the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from September 12, 1850, to July 31, 1851 ;—Ordnance Survey of Scotland. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Airy’s Address, and Recom-~- mendations of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or tHzE TWENTY-SECOND MEETING, at Belfast, 1852, Published at 15s. ConTENTS :—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Twelfth Beport of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Rev. Prof, Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1851-52 ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the In- fluence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants ;—A Manual of Ethnological Inquiry ;—Col. Sykes, Mean Temperature of the Day, and Monthly Fall of Rain at 127 Sta- tions under the Bengal Presidency ;—Prof. J. D. Forbes, on Experiments on the Laws of the Conduction of Heat;—R. Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Dr. Hodges, on the Composition and CEconomy of the Flax Plant;—W. Thompson, on the Freshwater Fishes of Ulster;—W. Thompson, Supplementary Report on the Fauna of Ireland;—W. Wills, onthe Meteorology of Birmingham;—J. Thomson, on the Vortex-Water- Wheel ;—J. B. Lawes and Dr. Gilbert, on the Composition of Foods in relation to Respiration and the Feeding of Animals. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Colonel Sabine’s Address, and Recom- mendations of the Association and its Committees. 296 PROCEEDINGS or tHe TWENTY-THIRD MEETING, at Hull, 1853, Published at 10s. 6d. Contents :—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1852-53 ; —James Oldham, on the Physical Features of the Humber ;—James Oldham, on the Rise, Progress, and Present Position of Steam Navigation in Hull;—William Fairbairn, Experi- mental Researches to determine the Strength of Locomotive Boilers, and the causes which lead to Explosion ;—J. J. Sylvester, Provisional Report on the Theory of Determinants ;— Professor Hodges, M.D., Report on the Gases evolved in Steeping Flax, and on the Composition and CEconomy of the Flax Plant ;—Thirteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Robert Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations; —John P. Bell, M.D., Observations on the Character and Measurements of Degradation of the Yorkshire Coast; First Report of Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Sur- face, as compared with that of the Earth ;—R. Mallet, Provisional Report on Earthquake Wave-Transits; and on Seismometrical Instruments ;—William Fairbairn, on the Mechanical Properties of Metals as derived from repeated Meltings, exhibiting the maximum point of strength and the causes of deterioration ;—Robert Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earth- quake Phenomena (continued), Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Hopkins’s Address, and Recommenda- tions of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or rut TWENTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Liver- pool, 1854, Published at 18s. ConTENTs:—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena (continued) ; —Major-Gencral Chesney, on the Construction and General Use of Efficient Life-Boats;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Third Report on the present State of our Knowledge of Radiant Heat ;—Colonel Sabine, on some of the results obtained at the British Colonial Magnetic Observatories ;— Colonel Portlock, Report of the Committee on Earthquakes, with their proceedings respecting Seismometers ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants, Part 2;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1853-54 ; —Second Report of the Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Surface ;—W. G. Armstrong, on the Application of Water-Pressure Machinery ;—J. B. Lawes and Dr. Gilbert, on the Equivalency of Starch and Sugar in Food ;—Archibald Smith, on the Deviations of the Compass in Wooden and Iron Ships ;—Fourteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Earl of Harrowby’s Address, and Re- commendations of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or true TWENTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Glasgow, 1855, Published at 15s. ConTENTS:—T. Dobson, Report on the Relation between Explosions in Coal-Mines and Revolving Storms;—Dr. Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants growing under different Atmospheric Conditions, Part 3;—C. Spence Bate, on the British Edriophthalma ;—J. F. Bateman, on the present state of our knowledge on the Supply of Water to Towns ;—Fifteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report en Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1854-55 ; —Report of Committee appointed to inquire into the best means of ascertaining those pro~ perties of Metals and effects of various modes of treating them which are of importance to the durability and efficiency of Artillery ;—Rev. Prof. Henslow, Report on Typical Objects in Natural History ;—A. Follett Osler, Account of the Self-Registering Anemometer and Rain- Gauge at the Liverpool Observatory ;—Provisional Reports. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Duke of Argyll’s Address, and Recom- mendations of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or tHe TWENTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Chel- tenham, 1856, Published at 18s. Contents ;—Report from the Committee appointed to investigate and report upon the effects produced upon the Channels of the Mersey by the alterations which within the last fifty years have been made in its Banks;—J. Thomson, Interim Report on progress in Re- searches on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards ;—Dredging Report, Frith of Clyde, 1856 ;—Rev. B. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1855-1856 ;—Prof. Bunsen and Dr. H. E. Roscoe, Photochemical Researches ;—Rev. James Booth, on the Trigo- 7. 297 nometry of the Parabola, and the Geometrical Origin of Logarithms ;——R. MacAndrew, Report on the Marine Testaceous Mollusca of the North-east Atlantic and Neighbouring Seas, and the physical conditions affecting their development ;—P. P. Carpenter, Report on the present state of our knowledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of North America ;— T. C. Eyton, Abstract of First Report on the Oyster Beds and Oysters of the British Shores ; —Prof. Phillips, Report on Cleavage and Foliation in Rocks, and on the Theoretical Expla- nations of these Phenomena: Part I. ;--Dr. T. Wright on the Stratigraphical Distribution of the Oolitic Echinodermata ;—W., Fairbairn, on the Tensile Strength of Wrought Iron at various Temperatures ;—C. Atherton, on Mercantile Steam Transport Economy ;—J.S. Bowerbank, on the Vital Powers of the Spongiadz;——Report of a Committee upon the Experiments conducted at Stormontfield, near Perth, for the artificial propagation of Salmon ;—Provisional Report on the Measurement of Ships for Tonnage ;—On Typical Forms of Minerals, Plants and Animals for Museums ;—J. Thomson, Interim Report on Progress in Researches on the Measure- ment of Water by Weir Boards;-—-R. Mallet, on Observations with the Seismometer ;—A. Cayley, on the Progress of Theoretical Dynamics ;—Report of a Committee appointed to con~ sider the formation of a Catalogue of Philosophical Memoirs. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Daubeny’s Address, and Recom- mendations of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or tur TWENTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at Dub- lin, 1857, Published at 15s. Contents :—A. Cayley, Report on the Recent Progress of Theoretical Dynamics ;—Six- teenth and final Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ; —James Oldham, C.E., continuation of Report on Steam Navigation at Hull;—Report of a Committee on the Defects of the present methods of Measuring ard Registering the Tonnage of Shipping, as also of Marine Engine-Power, and to frame more perfect rules, in order that a correct and uniform principle may be adopted to estimate the Actual Carrying Capabilities and Working-Power of Steam Ships;—Robert Were Fox, Report on the Temperature of some Deep Mines in Cornwall ;—Dr. G. Plarr, De quelques Transformations de la Somme = A%qtlt+1 Be+19¢/+1 eo 0 yél+iytl+tetl+! est exprimable par une combinasion de factorielles, la notation ati+1 désignant le produit des t facteurs a (a+1) (a+2) &c....(a-+-¢—1);—G. Dickie, M.D., Report on the Marine Zoology of Strangford Lough, County Down, and corresponding part of the Irish Channel ;—Charles Atherton, Suggestions for Statistical Inquiry into the extent to which Mercantile Steam Trans- port Economy is affected by the Constructive Type of Shipping, as respects the Proportions of Length, Breadth, and Depth ;—J. S. Bowerbank, Further Report on the Vitality of the Spon- giade ;—John P. Hodges, M.D., on Flax ;—Major-General Sabine, Report of the Committee on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain ;—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1856-57;—C. Vignoles, C.E., on the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to sustain the passage of Railway Trains ;—Professor W. A. Miller, M.D., on Electro-Chemistry ; —John Simpson, R.N., Results of Thermometrical Observations made at the ‘ Plover’s’ Wintering-place, Point Barrow, latitude 71° 21’ N., long. 156° 17’ W., in 1852~54 ;—Charles James Hargrave, LL.D., on the Algebraic Couple ; and on the Equivalents of Indeterminate Expressions ;—Thomas Grubb, Report on the Improvement of Telescope and Equatorial Mountings ;—Professor James Buckman, Report on the Experimental Plots in the Botanical Garden of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester ;—William Fairbairn on the Resistance of Tubes to Collapse ;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Proceedings of the Belfast Dredging Committee ;—Peter W. Barlow, on the Mechanical Effect of combining Girders and Suspen- sion Chains, and a Comparison of the Weight of Metal in Ordinary and Suspension Girders, to produce equal deflections with a given load ;—J. Park Harrison, M.A., Evidences of Lunar Influence on Temperature ;—Report on the Animal and Vegetable Products imported into Liverpool from the year 1851 to 1855 (inclusive) ;—Andrew Henderson, Report on the Sta~ tistics of Life-boats and Fishing-boats on the Coasts of the United Kingdom. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. H. Lloyd’s Address, and Recommen- dations of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or tue TWENTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Leeds, September 1858, Published at 20s. ContTENTS:—R. Mallet, Fourth Report upon the Facts and Theory of Earthquake Phe= nomena ;— Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1857-58 ;—R. H. Meade, on some Points in the Anatomy of the Araneidea, or true Spiders especially on the a étant entier négatif, et de quelques cas dans lesquels cette somme 298 internal structure of their Spinning Organs ;—W. Fairbairn, Report of the Committee on the Patent Laws ;—S. Eddy, on the J.ead Mining Districts of Yorkshire ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Collapse of Glass Globes and Cylinders ;—Dr. E. Perceval Wright and Prof. J. Reay Greene, Report on the Marine Fauna of the South and West Coasts of Ireland ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on Experiments on the Measurement of Water by Triangular Notches in Weir Boards ;—Major- General Sabine, Report of the Committee on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain; —Michael Connal and William Keddie, Report on Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Substances imported from Foreign Countries into the Clyde (including the Ports of Glasgow, Greenock, and Port Glasgow) in the years 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856, and 1857 ;—Report of the Committee on Ship- ping Statistics;—Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., Notice of the Instruments employed in the Mag- netic Survey of Ireland, with some of the Results ;—Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Dredging Committee, appointed 1857-58 ;—Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Report on Crustacea of Dub- lin District ;—Andrew Henderson, on River Steamers, their Form, Construction, and Fittings, with reference to the necessity for improving the present means of Shallow-Water Navigation on the Rivers of British India;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Belfast Dredging Com- mittee ;—Appendix to Mr. Vignoles’ paper ‘‘ On the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to sus- tain the passage of Railway Trains;’’—Report of the Joint Committee of the Royal Society and the British Association, for procuring a continuance of the Magnetic and Meteorological Ob- servatories ;—R. Beckley, Description of a Self-recording Anemometer. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Owen’s Address, and Recommenda- tions of the Association and its Committees, PROCEEDINGS or rue TWENTY-NINTH MEETING, at Aberdeen, September 1859, Published at 15s. ConTENTs :—George C. Foster, Preliminary Report on the Recent Progress and Present State of Organic Chemistry ;—Professor Buckman, Report on the Growth of Plants in the Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ;—Dr. A. Voelcker, Report on Field © Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of Manures essential to cultivated Crops ;—A. Thomson, Esq. of Banchory, Report on the Aberdeen Industrial Feeding Schools ; —On the Upper Silurians of Lesmahago, Lanarkshire ;—Alphonse Gages, Report on the Re- sults obtained by the Mechanico-Chemical Examination of Rocks and Minerals ;—William Fairbairn, Experiments to determine the Efficiency of Continuous and Self-acting Breaks for Railway Trains ;—Professor J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee for 1858-59 ;—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors for 1858-59 ; —Professor Owen, Report on a Series of Skulls of various Tribes of Mankind inhabiting Nepal, collected, and presented to the British Museum, by Bryan H. Hodgson, Esq., late Re- sident in Nepal, &c, &c. ;—Messrs. Maskelyne, Hadow, Hardwich, and Llewelyn, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge regarding the Photographic Image ;—G. C, Hyndman, Report of the Belfast Dredging Committee for 1859 ;—James Oldham, Continuation of Report of the Progress of Steam Navigation at Hull;—Charles Atherton, Mercantile Steam Trans- port Economy as affected by the Consumption of Coals;—Warren de la Rue, Report on the present state of Celestial Photography in England ;—Professor Owen, on the Orders of Fossil and Recent Reptilia, and their Distribution in Time ;—Balfour Stewart, on some Results of the Magnetic Survey of Scotland in the years 1857 and 1858, undertaken, at the request of the British Association, by the late John Welsh, Esq., F.R.S.;—W. Fairbairn, The Patent Laws; Report of Committee on the Patent Laws;—J. Park Harrison, Lunar Influence on the Tem. perature of the Air ;—Balfour Stewart, an Account of the Construction of the Self-recording Magnetographs at present in operation at the Kew Observatory of the British Association ;— Prof. H. J. Stephen Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers: Part I. ;—Report of the Committee on Steam-ship performance ;—Report of the Proceedings of the Balloon Committee of the British Association appointed at the Meeting at Leeds ;—Prof. William K. Sullivan, Preliminary Report on the Solubility of Salts at Temperatures above 100° Cent., and on the Mutual Action of Salts in Solution. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prince Albert’s Address, and Recommenda- tions of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or tHe THIRTIETH MEETING, ar Oxford, June and July 1860, Published at 15s. ' CONTENTS :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1859-60 ;— J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee ;—Rev. J. Anderson, Report on 299 the Excavations in Dura Den ;—Professor Buckman, Report on the Experimental Plots in the Botanical Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ;—Rev. R. Walker, Report of the Committee on Balloon Ascents;—Prof. W. Thomson, Report of Committee appointed to prepare a Self-recording Atmospheric Electrometer for Kew, and Portable Apparatus for ob- serving Atmospheric Electricity ;—William Fairbairn, Experiments to determine the Effect of Vibratory Action and long-continued Changes of Load upon Wrought-iron Girders ;—R. P. Greg, Catalogue of Meteorites and Fireballs, from A.D. 2 to a.p. 1860 ;—Prof. H. J. S. Smith, - Report on the Theory of Numbers: Part II. ;—Vice-Admiral Moorsom, on the Performance of Steam-vessels, the Functions of the Screw, and the Relations of its Diameter and Pitch to the Form of the Vessel ;—Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Report on the Effects of long-continued Heat, illustrative of Geological Phenomena ;—Second Report of the Committee on Steam-ship Per- formance ;—Interim Report on the Gauging of Water by Triangular Notches ;—List of the British Marine Invertebrate Fauna. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Wrottesley’s Address, and Recom- mendations of the Association and its Committees. : a ptr ua ier a Jt Si acerca rot Bs ail See, 99th a derecine ser t ce. , L:GRplip thoy >: 9 Mind ‘sey pe eh Vt gait aia: to arent dla Morey itil sls Dare rhs sanaat ae chat ' Pr Farge ite rh NAG bagi nt lg peo PAIN i aha Hi, ihe ema | “wt) #3 Rea Fok ——) = i wt wih ile-Ss Inte ony bai Se syed me 4’: th: SEW we eth , i! bSiAD net-aniaF ae tlh f 3G 1 Fteih .Y2i Ge .meS ac er raid M vib ae Seb Ss penlowl wap Ryes rt ool ici " +f aaa { Asteignaanay oe ws? eehaecA ond dt bses deh mat 9 es hatin & . ne 2288 APRESS Sith OAD praia alt Rie 5 pa a aa . : ae Tere &rybistadDist ae yoluthoné % 6 iat alee u +e J . , bd Mics 6 te Be yb amines Rod uy were Gt iat heh Nac A-edn eke inten We «Oh Shi, Ege el ee ee , bate Ned! eS Ye Fogeas rae, flelisens \ tip} bu 1a a ’ Ad , z= rr 4 +t) -A a) ai re Pt $i inte tig ti-pe roe Uxtinys lame Sri apy y caged aye ; t 4 ‘ r 7 Pd PIG ‘ < ~% ort! Jus ae tet et Adattiee ie’ acess || wabgalh * . phen pileec nS sama rs oe Yt) SRT, TOR Ee ORR s) a nee sc ete ay! aad 3 Bad Se atm & rh A a i kin? Es higk er ae a oe aera » PIA {nobaidedy Ata’ Le dowre't : 2. OS ight yo igdat pf sot 4) cosnte it AY (ort) ree tT Ad odd be ier ttt ; 3 “iyi t wef re capes! ‘ ete FP oy f a VERE ITA nated wr tetrar reece ae , . . en) nied a ie + Pike aes 2 Acai Pee (salto BT ad be ks BA Ps Ans us ‘ “a f : ais hile ada a ohe bayn Bh ae ite ebhioeree Nadal ~ 7 Tedarpudiads Riljas (eteti mw : “ Uuletis co idialll a vt Bd, rhea ide fie tyedian 2» iy aa onal teres eee dirt hn ariangibs of Lonmin d+ beste j ‘ot an: asi tantd aWeotecer~a hpi Gengtey . 8 tet ihe a hee Wo candle eee = $9 4 ae aie? % pat tt A] pel Aj a anh? P wy 4, ay Bt is ogy" Nout “> “hey ‘ “§ 7) Riel inl? ; sult sien 2 al 7 is Wives f a7 Tf. er r a” 4 bia ra pe ta aa Ph i? be, bin hns ee BS put gece bg! oe tS ah heet pies! a Peet cx ave te ae’ Ad A as oi lat, saptt "Y en Pralahlse: wea haed) 4 tne i wh, i ‘sed 5 i Avie cr a ihhed nade yep oh © bac he msl AR Z bid icheang 1 Pabiplly pt thid cpne 1 , Reepestutrs Lage |: ; Pade co ae Areas iho) euro? a nae eat vrverr Seat nee: titan int ee Ee apnat 1S See ae “2 ‘wei (Mogny rk i | wiky vata plies List of those Members of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, to whom Copies of this Volume [for 1861] are supplied gratuitously, in conformity with the Regulations adopted by the General Committee. [See pp. xvii & xviii. ] [It is requested that any inaccuracy in the Names and Residences of the Members may be communicated to Messrs. Taylor and Francis, Printers, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street, London, ] LIFE MEMBERS. Adair, Colonel Robert A. Shafto, F.R.S., 7 Audley Square, London, W. Adams, John Couch, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and Geometry in the University of Cambridge; Pembroke College, Cambridge. Adie, Patrick, 16 Sussex Place, South Kensington, London, W. Ainsworth, Thomas,The Flosh, Egremont, Cumberland. Alcock, Ralph, 47 Nelson Street, Oxford Street, Manchester. Aldam, William, Frickley Hall near Don- caster. Allen, William J. C., Secretary to the Royal Belfast Academical Institution ; Ulster Bank, Belfast. Allis, Thomas, F,.L.S., Osbaldwick Hall near York. Ambler, Henry, Watkinson Hall, Oven- den near Halifax. Amery, John, F.S.A., Park House, Stourbridge. Anderson, William (Yr.), Glentarkie, Strathmiglo, Fife. Andrews, Thos., M.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., Vice-President of, and Professor of Chemistry in, Queen’s College, Bel- fast. Ansted, David Thomas, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Impington Hall, Cambridge. Appold, John George, F.R.S., 23 Wilson Street, Finsbury Square, London, E.C. Archer, T. C., Professor of Botany in Queen’s College, Liverpool; New Museum, Edinburgh. Armstrong, Sir William George, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., Elswick Engine Works, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Arthur, Rev. William, M.A., 26 Campden Grove, Kensington, London, W. Ashburton, William Bingham Baring, Lord, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Bath House, Piccadilly, London, W.; and The Grange, Alresford, Hants. Ashton, Thomas, M.D. Ashworth, Edmund, Egerton Hall, Turton near Bolton. Atkinson, John Hastings, 14 East Parade, Leeds. Atkinson, Joseph B., Cotham, Bristol. Atkinson, J. R. W., 38 Acacia Road, Regent’s Park, London, N.W. Auldjo, John, F.R.S. Austin, Rev. William E. Craufurd, M.A., New’College, Oxford. Ayrton, W. S., F.S,A., Allerton Hill, Leeds. : Babbage, Charles,'M.A., F.R.S., 1 Dorset Street, Manchester Square, London, W. Babington, Charles Cardale, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Botany in the University of Cambridge; St. John’s College, Cambridge, (Local Treasurer). Baddeley, Captain Frederick H., R.E., Ceylon. Bain, Richard, Gwennap near Truro. Bainbridge, Robert Walton, Middleton House near Barnard Castle, Durham. Baines, Edward, Headingley Lodge, Leeds. Baines, Samuel, Victoria Mills, Brig- house, Yorkshire. Baker, Henry Granville, Bellevue, Hors- forth near Leeds. Baker, John, Dodge Hill, Stockport. Baker, John (care of R. Brooks and Co., St. Peter’s Chambers, Cornhill, Lon- don, E.C.). Baker, William, 63 Gloucester Place, Hyde Park, London, W. Baldwin, The Hon. Robert, H.M. Attor- ney-General, Spadina, Co. York, Upper Canada, 302 Balfour, John Hutton, M.D., Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh, F.R.S. L. & E., F.L.S.; Edinburgh. Ball, John, M.R.I.A., F.L.S., 18 Park Street, Westminster, S.W. Ball, William, Rydall, Ambleside, West- moreland. Barbour, George, Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall, Chester. Barbour, Robert, Portland Street, Man- chester. Barclay, J.Gurney, Walthamstow, Essex. Barclay, Robert, Leyton, Essex. Barker, Rev. Arthur Alcock, B.D., Rec- tor of East Bridgeford, Nottingham- shire. : Barnard, Major R. Cary, Cambridge ’ House, Bays Hill, Cheltenham. Barnes, Thomas, M.D., F.R.S.E., Carlisle. Barnett, Richard, M.R.C.S., Cumberland House, Worcester. Barr, W. R., Norris Bank, Heaton Nor- ris, Stockport. Bartholomew, Charles, Rotherham. Bartholomew, William Hamond, 5 Grove Terrace, Leeds. Barton, John, Bank of Ireland, Dublin. Barwick, John Marshall, Albion Street, Leeds. Bashforth, Rev. Francis, B.D., Minting near Horncastle, Lincolnshire. Bateman, Joseph, LL.D., F.R.A.S., J.P., Walthamstow, N.E. Bateman, J. F., C.E., 16 Great George Street, Westminster, S.W. Bayldon, John, Horbury near Wakefield. Bayley, George, 2 Cowper’s Court, Corn- hill, London, E.C. Beale, Lionel S., M.B., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology and of General and Mor- bid Anatomy in King’s College, Lon- don; 61 Grosvenor Street, London, W. Beamish, Richard, F.R.S., 2 Suffolk Square, Cheltenham. Beatson, William, Rotherham. Beaufort, William Morris, India. _ Beaumont, Rev. Thomas George, But- terleigh Rectory near Collumpton. Beck, Joseph, 6 Coleman Street, London, ~~ HC, Beckett, William, Kirkstall Grange, Leeds. Belcher, Rear-Admiral Sir Edward, R.N., F.R.A.S., Union Club, Trafalgar Sq., London. Bell, Matthew P., 245 St. Vincent Street, Glasgow. : ; Bennoch, Francis, The Knoll, Blackheath, Kent, S.E. Bergin, Thomas Francis, M.R.1.A., Upper Pembroke Street, Dublin. MEMBERS TO WHOM Berryman, William Richard, 6 Tamar Terrace, Stoke, Devonport. Bickerdike, Rev. John, M.A., Leeds. Binyon, Thomas, Henwick Grove, Wor- cester. Bird, William, 9 South Castle Street, Li- verpool. . Birks, Rev. Thomas Rawson, Kelshall Rectory, Royston. Birley, Richard, Seedley, Manchester. Birt, W. Radcliff, F.R.A.S., lla Wel- lington St., Victoria Pk., London, N.E. Blackie, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S., 10 Kew Terrace, Glasgow. Blackwall, John, F.L.S., Hendre House near Llanrwst, Denbighshire. Blackwell, Thomas Evans, F.G.S., Mon- treal. Blake, Henry Wollaston, F.R.S., 8 Devon- shire Place, Portland Place, London, W. Blake, Wm., South Petherton, Ilminster. Blakiston, Peyton, M.D., F.R.S., St. Leonard’s-on-Sea. Bland, Rev. Miles, D.D., F.R.S., 5 Royal Crescent, Ramsgate. Blythe, William, Holland Bank, Church near Accrington. Bohn, Henry G., F.R.G.S., York Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C. Boileau, Sir John Peter, Bart., F.R.S., 20 Upper Brook Street, London, W.; and Ketteringham Hall, Norfolk. Booth, John, Monton near Manchester. Booth, Councillor William, Dawson St., Manchester. Bond, Walter M., The Argory, Moy, Ireland. Borchardt, Dr. Louis, Bloomsbury, Ox- ford Road, Manchester. Bossey, Francis, M.D., 4 Broadwater Road, Worthing. Bowerbank, James Scott, LL.D., F.R.S., 3 Highbury Grove, London, N. Bowlby, Miss F. E., 27 Lansdown Cres- cent, Cheltenham. Bradshaw, William, Mosley Street, Man- chester. Brady, Antonio, Maryland Point, Essex. Brady, Cheyne, M.R.I.A., 54 Upper Leeson Street, Dublin. Brakenridge, John, Wakefield. Brandreth, Henry, Trinity College, Cam- bridge. Brebner, James, 20 Albyn Place,Aberdeen. Brett, John Watkins, 2 Hanover Square, London, W. Briggs, General John, F.R.S., 2 Tenter- den Street, London, W. Brodie, Sir Benjamin Collins, Bart., Pendleton, BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. D:C.L.; -V.P.R.S., Park, Betchworth, Surrey. Brooke, Charles, B.A., F.R.S., 16 Fitzroy Square, London, W. Brooks, Samuel, King Street, Manchester. Brooks, Thomas, (Messrs. Butterworth and Brooks,) Manchester. Broun, John Allan, F.R.S., Astronomer to His Highness the Rajah of Travan- core; Observatory, Trevandrum, India. Brown, Samuel, F.S.S., The Elms, Lark- hall Rise, Clapham, London, S. Brown, Thomas, Hardwick House, Chep- stow. Brown, William, 3 Maitland Park Villas, Haverstock Hill, London, N.W Bruce, Alexander John, Kilmarnock. Buck, George Watson, Ramsay, Isle of Man. Buckman, James, F.L.S., F.G.S., Profes- sor of Natural History in the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. Buckton, G. Bowdler, F.R.S., 55 Queen’s Gardens, Hyde Park, London, W. Budd, James Palmer, Ystalyfera Iron Works, Swansea. Buller, Sir Antony, Pound near Tavistock, Devon. Burd, John, jun., Mount Sion, Radcliffe, Manchester. Busk, George, F.R.S., Sec. L.S., Exami- ner in Comparative Anatomy in the University of London, 15 Harley St., Cavendish Square, London, W. Butlery, Alexander W., Monkland Iron and Steel Company, Cardarroch near Airdrie. Butterworth, John,58 Mosley Street, Man- chester. Brootme Caine, Rev. William, M.A., Greenheys, Manchester. Caird, James Key, Finnart on Loch Long, by Gare Loch Head, Dumbartonshire. ‘Caird, James T., Greenock. ; Campbell, Dugald, F.C.S., 7 Quality Court, Chancery Lane, London, W.C, Campbell, Sir James, Glasgow. Campbell, William, 34 Candlerigg Street, Glasgow. Carew, William Henry Pole, Antony House near Devonport. Carpenter, Philip Pearsall, B.A., Ph.D., Cairo Street, Warrington. Carr, William, Blackheath. Carrick, Thomas, 37 Princess Street, Manchester. Carson, Rev. Joseph, D.D., Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin, M.R,I.A., 18 Fitzwilliam Place, Dublin. 303 Cartmell, Rev. James, B.D., F.G.S., Master of Christ’s College, Cambridge. Cassels, Rev. Andrew, M.A., Batley Vi- carage near Leeds. Chadwick, Charles, M.D., 35 Park Square, Leeds. Challis, Rev. James, M.A., F.R.S., Plu- mian Professor of Astronomy in the University of Cambridge; 13 Trumping- ton Street, Cambridge. Chambers, Robert, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., 3 Hall Place, St. John’s Wood, Lon- don, N.W. Champney, Henry Nelson, St. Paul’s Square, York. Chanter, John, 2 Arnold Terrace, Bow Road, Bromley. Chapman, Edward, Hill End, Mottram, Manchester. Chapman, John, Hill End, Mottram, Manchester. Cheetham, David, Staleybridge, Man- chester. Chesney, Major-General Francis Rawdon, R.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Ballyardle, Kil- keel, Co, Down, Ireland. Chevallier, Rev, Temple, B.D., F.R.A.S., Professor of Mathematics and Astro- nomy in the University of Durham. Chichester, Ashhurst Turner Gilbert,D.D., Lord Bishop of, 31 Queen Anne Street, Cavendish Square, London, W.; and The Palace, Chichester. Chiswell, Thomas. Christie, Samuel Hunter, M.A., F.R.S., Ailsa Villas, St, Margaret’s, ‘Twick- enham, S.W. Clark, Rev. Charles, M.A., Queen’s Col- lege, Cambridge. Clark, Henry, M.D., 74 Marland Place, Southampton. Clarke, J. H., Earnscliffe, Alderley Edge. Clay, Joseph Travis, F.G.S., Rastrick, Yorkshire, Clay, A ee 4 Park Hill Road, Liver- ool. Cihpbdiy David Shaw, Norbury, Stock- port, Cheshire, Clifton, Professor R, B., B.A., Owens College, Manchester. Clouston, Peter, Glasgow. Coats, George, 6 Park Terrace, Glas- gow. Coats, Peter, Woodside, Paisley. Coats, Thomas, Fergeslie House, Paisley. Cobbold, John Chevallier, M.P., Tower Street, Ipswich. Cocker, Jonathan, Higher Broughton, Manchester, Coe, Rev, Charles C., Leicester. 304 Cole, Henry Warwick, 3 New Square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C. Colfox, William, B.A., Bridport, Dorset- shire. Collie, Alexander, 23 Sussex Square, Hyde Park, London, W. Collingwood, J. Frederick, 54 Gloucester Street, Belgrave Road, London, S.W. Compton, Lord Alwyne, Castle Ashby, Northamptonshire. Compton, Lord William, 145 Piccadilly, London, W. Conway, Charles, Pontnwydd Works, Newport, Monmouthshire. Cook, Henry, Overstone Terrace, Cheet- ham Hill, Manchester. Cooke, Arthur B., 6 Berkeley Place, Con- naught Square, London, W. Cooke, William Fothergill, Telegraph Office, Lothbury, London, E.C, Cooke, William Henry, Elin Court, Tem- ple, London, E.C. Corbet, Richard, Adderley, Market Dray- ton, Shropshire. Cotton, Rev, William Charles, M.A., New Zealand, Courtney, Henry, M.R.I.A., 34 Fitz- william Place, Dublin. Cox, Joseph, F.G.S., Wisbeach, Cam- bridgeshire. Crampton, The HonourableJustice, LL.D., M.R.1.A.,St. Valarie, Bray, Co. Dublin. Crewdson, Thomas D,, Dacca Mills, Man- chester, Crichton, William, 1 West India Street, Glasgow. Crompton, Rev. Joseph, Norwich. Cropper, Rev. John, Stand near Man- chester, Cunliffe, Edward Thomas, Handforth. Cunliffe, Peter Gibson, Handforth. Curtis, John Wright, Alton, Hants. ” Cuthbert, J. R., 40 Chapel Street, Liver- pool. Dalby, Rev. William, M.A., Rector of Compton Basset near Calne, Wilts. Dalton, Rev. James Edward, B.D., Seas grave, Loughborough. Dalzell, Allen, The University, Edinburgh. Danson, Joseph, F.C.S., 6 Shaw Street, Liverpool. Darbishire, Robert Dukinfield, B.A., ¥.G.S., 21 Brown Street, Manchester. Darbishire, Samuel D., Pendyffryn near Conway. Daubeny, Charles Giles Bridle, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Botany in the University of Oxford; Oxford. Davis, Sir John Francis, Bart,, K,C,B., MEMBERS TO WHOM F.R.S.,* Hollywood, Compton Green- field near Bristol. Davis, Richard, F.L.S., 9 St. Helen’s Place, London, E.C. Dawbarn, William, Wisbeach. Dawes, John S., jun., Smethwick House near Birmingham. Dawes, Rev. William Rutter, F.R.A.S., Haddenham near Thame, Oxon. Dawson, Christopher H., Low Moor, Bradford, Yorkshire. Dawson, Henry, 14 St. James’s Road, Liverpool. Dawson, William G,, Plumstead Common, Kent, S.E. Deane, Sir ‘Thos., Kingstown, Co. Dublin. De Grey and Ripon, George Frederick, Earl, 1 Carlton Gardens, London, S.W. De la Rue, Warren, Ph.D., F.R.S., Cran- ford, Middlesex ; and 110 Bunhill Row, London, E.C, pane es Ribston Hall, Wetherby, ork, Devonshire, William, Duke of, K.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Chancellor of the University of Cambridge; Devon- shire House, Piccadilly, London, W.; and Chatsworth, Derbyshire. Dickinson, Joseph, M.D., F.R.S., Great George Street, Liverpool. Dickinson, W. L., 1 St. James’s Street, Manchester, Dikes, William Hey, F.G.S., Wakefield. Dilke, Sir C. Wentworth, Bart., F.G.S., 76 Sloane Street, London, S.W. Dilke, Charles W.,76 Sloane Street, Lon- don, S.W. Dingle, Rev. J., Lanchester, Durham. Dobbin, Leonard, jun., M.R.1.A., 27 Gar- diner’s Place, Dublin. Dodsworth, Benjamin, St. Leonard’s Place; York, Dodsworth, George, Clifton Grove near York. Donaldson, John, Professor of the Theory of Music in the University of Edin- burgh; Edinburgh. Donisthorpe, George Edmund, Holly Bank, Moortown, Leeds. Donnelly, William, C.B., Auburn, Mala- hide, Ireland. Downie, Alexander, Ducie, Henry, John Reynolds Moreton, Earl of, F.R.S., 30 Princes Gate, Lon- don, 8.W.; and Tortworth Court, Wot« ton-under-Edge. Duncan, Alexander, Rhode Island, United States, Duncan, James, M.D., Farnham House, Finglass, Co, Dublin. BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. Dunlop, William Henry, Annan Hill, Kilmarnock. Dunraven, Edwin, Earl of, F.R.S., Adare Manor, Co. Limerick; and Dunraven Castle, Glamorganshire. Earnshaw, Rev. Samuel, M.A., Sheffield. Eddison, Edwin, Headingley Hill, Leeds. Eddison, Francis, Headingley Hill, Leeds. Eddy, James R., Carleton Grange, Skip- ton. Edmondston, Rev. John, Ashkirk by Hawick. Edwards, J. Baker, Ph.D., Royal Insti- tution Laboratory, Liverpool. Egerton, Sir Philip de Malpas Grey, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S., Oulton Park, Tarporley, Cheshire. Eisdale, David A., M.A., 38 Dublin St., Ediaburgh. Ellesmere, George Granville Francis Egerton, Earl of, F.R.S., Bridgewater House, Cleveland Sq., London, S.W.; and Worsley Hall, Lancashire. Elliot, Walter, Wolflee, Hawick. Ellis, Rey. Robert, A.M., Grimstone House near Malton, Yorkshire. Enys, John S., F.G.S., Enys, Cornwall. Erle, Rev. Christopher, M.A., F.G.S., Hardwick Rectory near Aylesbury. Evans, George Fabian, M.D., Waterloo Street, Birmingham. Evans, John, F.S.A., F.G.S., Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead. Ewing, Archibald Orr, Clermont House, Glasgow. Ewing, William, 209 Brandon Place, West George Street, Glasgow. Eyre, George Edward, F.G.S., Warren’s . Stoney Cross, near Lyndhurst, Hants. Fairbairn, William, C.E., LL.D., F.R.S., Manchester. Faraday, Michael, D.C.L., F.R.S., Ful- lerian Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Institution of Great Britain; 21 Albemarle Street, London, W. Farren, Edwin James, Hanover Cham- bers, Buckingham Street, Strand, Lon- don, W.C. Faulkner, Charles, F.S.A., F.G.S., Ded- dington, Oxon. Fawcett, Henry, Trinity Hall, Cambridge. Fischer, William L. F., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of St. Andrew’s, Scotland. Fleming, William, M.D., Rowton Grange near Preston. Fletcher, Samuel, Ardwick Place, Man- chester, 1861. 305 Forbes, David, F.R.S., F.G.S., A.I.C.E., 7 Calthorpe Street, Birmingham. Forbes, James David, LL.D., Principal of the University of St. Andrews, Sec.R.S.E., F.R.S., St. Andrews, Forrest, William Hutton, Stirling. Forster, Thomas Emerson, 7 Ellison Place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Forster, William, Ballynure, Clones, Ire- land. Fort, Richard, Read Hall, Whalley, Lan- cashire. Foster, Charles Finch, Mill Lane, Cam- bridge. Foster, George C., Sabden near Whalley, Lancashire. Foster, H. S., Cambridge. Foster, John, M.A., The Oaks Parsonage, Loughborough, Leicestershire. Foster, Michael, .R.C.S., Huntingdon, Foster, S. Lloyd, Five Ways, Walsall, Staffordshire. Fowler, Robert, Rathmolion, Co. Meath, Treland. Fox, Charles, Trebah, Falmouth. Fox, Rev. Edward, M.A., New College, Oxford. Fox, Joseph Hayland, Wellington, So- merset. Fox, Robert Barclay, Falmouth. Fox, Samuel Lindoe, ‘Tottenham. Frankland, Rev. Marmaduke Charles, Chowbent near Manchester, Frazer, Daniel, 4 La Belle Place, Glasgow. Freeland, Humphrey William, F.G.S., The Athenzum Club, Pall Mall, Lon- don, S.W. Frerichs, John Andrew, 1 Keynsham Bank, Cheltenham. Frith, Richard Hastings, C.E., 51 Lein- ster Road, Rathmines, Dublin. Froude, William, Elmsleigh Paignton, Torquay. Fullarton, Allan, 19 Woodside Place, Glasgow. Fulton, Alexander, 7 Woodside Crescent, Glasgow. Gadesdev, Augustus William, F.S.A., Leigh House, Lower looting, Surrey, S. Galton, Douglas, Captain R.E., F.i.S., F.G.S., 12 Chester Street, Grosvenor Place, London, S.W. Galton, Francis, F.R.S., F.G.S., 42 Rut- land Gate, Knightsbridge, London, W. Gaskell, Samuel, 19 Whitehall Place, London, S.W. Gething, George Barkley, Springfield, Newport, Monmouthshire, Gibson, George Stacey, Saffron Walden. 306 Gilbart, James William, F.R.S., London and Westminster Bank, Lothbury, Lon- don, E.C. Gilbert, James Montgomery, Bowdon, Cheshire. Gilroy, George, Hindley House, Wigan. Gladstone, George, F.C.S., Clapham Common, London, S. Gladstone, John Hall, Ph.D., F.R.S., 28 Leinster Gardens, Hyde Park, Lon- don, W. Gladstone, Murray, Broughton, Manches- ter. Glaisher, James, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., 1 Dartmouth Place, Blackheath, S.E. Goodrnan, John, M.D., The Promenade, Southport. Goodsir, John, F.R.S. L. & E., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Edin- burgh ; Edinburgh. Gordon, James, Bristol College, Nairn, Scotland. Gordon, Rev. James Crawford, M.A., De- lamont, Downpatrick, Downshire. Gotch, Rev. Frederick William, LL.D., 7 Brunswick Square, Bristol. Gotch, Thomas Henry, [Iford, E. Graham, Thomas, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Master of the Mint, London. Grainger, John, Rose Villa, Belfast. Gratton, Joseph, 32 Gower Street, Bed- ford Square, London, W.C. Graves, Very Rev. Charles., D.D., M.R.I.A., Dublin Castle, Dublin. Graves, Rev. Richard Hastings, D.D., Brigown Glebe, Michelstown, Co. Cork. Gray, John, Greenock. Gray, John Edward, Ph.D., F.R.S., Keep- er of the Zoological Collections of the British Museum; British Museum, W.C. Gray, William, F.G.S. (Local Treasurer), Minster Yard, York. Grazebrook, Henry, jun., 37 Falkner Square, Liverpool. Greenaway, Edward, 40 Kensington Park Gardens, Notting Hill; London, W. Greenhalgh, Thomas, Astley House near Bolton-le-Moors. Greg, Robert Philips, F.G.S., Outwood Lodge near Manchester, (Local Trea- surer). Gregson, Samuel, M.P., 32 Upper Harley Street, London, W. Greswell, Rev. Richard, B.D., F.R.S., Beaumont Street, Oxford. Griffin, John Joseph, F.C.S., 119 Bunhill Row, London, E.C. Griffith, Sir Richard, Bart., LL.D., M.R.I.A., F.G.S., Fitzwilliam Place, Dublin, MEMBERS TO WHOM Griffiths, S. Y., Oxford. Guinness, Rev. William Smyth, M.A., Beaumont, Drumcondra, Co. Dublin. Gurney, Samuel, M.P., F.G.S., 25 Princes Gate, London, S.W. Gutch, John James, 88 Micklegate, York. Hailstone, Edward, Horton Hall, Brad- ford, Yorkshire. Hall, T. B., Coggeshall, Essex. Hambly, C. H.B., 6 Taptonville, Sheffield. Hamilton, Mathie, M.D., Warwick Street, Glasgow. Hamilton, William John, F.R.S., For. Sec.G.S., 5 Lyall Place, Belgrave Sq., London, S.W. Hamilton, Sir William Rowan, LL.D., Astronomer Royal of Ireland, and Andrews’ Professor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin, M.R.I.A., F.R.A.S.; Observatory near Dublin. Hamlin, Captain Thomas, Greenock. Harcourt, Rev. William V. Vernon, M.A., F.R.S., Bolton Percy, Tadcaster. Hardy, Charles, Odsall House, Brad- ford, Yorkshire. Hare, Charles John, M.D., 41 Brook Street, Grosvenor Square, London, W. Harley, John, Ross Hall near Shrewsbury. Harris, Alfred, Ryshworth Hall near Bingley, Yorkshire. Harris, Alfred, jun., Bradford, Yorkshire. Harris, George William. Harris, Henry, Heaton Hall near Bradford. Harrison, James Park, M.A., Garlands, Ewhurst, Surrey. Harrison, William, F.S.A., F.G.S., Gal- ligreaves Hall near Blackburn, Lanca- shire. Hart, Charles, 54 Wych Street, Strand, London, W.C. Harter, J. Collier, Chapel Walks, Man- chester. Harter, William, Hope Hall, Manchester. Hartley, Jesse, Trentham St., Liverpool. Harvey, Joseph Charles, Cork, Harwood, John, jun., Mayfield, Bolton. Hatton, James, Richmond House, Higher Broughton, Manchester. Haughton, William, 28 City Quay, Dublin. Hawkins, Thomas, F.G.S., Down Court, Isle of Wight. Hawkshaw, John, F.R.S., F.G.S., 43 Eaton Place, London, 8.W. Hawthorn, Robert, C.E., Newcastle-upon- Tyne. Hay, Sir John D., United Service Club, London, S.W. Hayward, Robert Baldwin, M.A., Har- row-on-the- Hill, BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. Heald, James, Parr’s Wood, Didsbury near Manchester. Heape, Benjamin, Northwood near Man- chester. Hemans, Geo. William, C.E., M.R.I.A., 32 Leinster Gardens, Hyde Park, Lon- don, W. Henry, Alexander, Portland Street, Man- chester. Henry, William Charles, M.D., F.R.S., Haffield near Ledbury, Herefordshire. Hepburn, J. Gotch, Clapham Common, Surrey, S. Herbert, Thomas, Nottingham. Heywood, Arthur-Henry, Sedgley Park, Manchester. Heywood, Sir Benjamin, Bart., F.R.S., 9 Hyde Park Gardens, London, W. ; and Claremont, Manchester. Heywood, James, F.R.S., 26 Palace Gar- dens, Kensington, London, W. Heywood, Oliver, Acresfield, Manchester. Heywood, Robert, Bolton. Higgin, Edward, Liverpool. Higgin, James, Hopwood Avenue, Man- chester. Higgins, James, Stocks House, Cheetham, Manchester. Higson, Peter, Irwill Terrace, Broughton, Manchester. Hill, Rev. Edward,M.A.,F.G.S.,Sheering Rectory, Harlow. Hill, Sir Rowland, K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Secretary to the Post Office, General Post Office, London. Hindmarsh, Frederick, F.G.S., 17 Buck- lersbury, London, E.C. Hindmarsh, Luke, Alnwick. Hinmers, William, Farnworth, Bolton. Hirst, Thomas Archer, Ph.D., F.R.S., 14 Waverley Place, St. John’s Wood, N.W. Hoare, Rev. George Tooker, Tandridge, Godstone. Hodgkin, Thomas, M.D., F.R.G.S., 35 Bedford Square, London, W.C. Hodgson, Adam, Everton, Liverpool. Holden, Moses, 13 Jordan Street, Preston. Holditech, Rev. Hamnet, M.A., Caius College, Cambridge. Holland, P. H. Hollingsworth, John, Greenwich, S.E. Hone, Nathaniel, M.R.I.A., Doloughs Park, Co. Dublin. Hopkins, William, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Cambridge. (General Secretary.) Horner, Leonard, F.R.S., Pres. G.S., 17 Queen’s Road West, Regent’s Park, London, N.W. Horsfall, Abraham, Leeds, Lower Londen Street, 307 Houldsworth, Henry, Newton Street, Manchester. Hoyle, John, Brown Street, Manchester. Hudson, Henry, M.D., M.R.I.A., Glen- ville, Fermoy, Co. Cork. Hull, William Darley, F.G.S. Hulse, Sir Edward, D.C.L., 4 New Bur- lington Street, London, W.; and Brea- more House, Salisbury. Hunter, Thomas C., Greenock. Hurst, William John, 2a Victoria Street, Manchester. Hutton, Robert, M.R.I.A., F.G.S., Put- ney Park, Surrey, S.W. Ibbetson, Captain L. L. Boscawen, Cheva- lier Red Kagle of Prussia with Swords, Chevalier de MHohenzollen, F.R.S., F.G.S. Ingram, Hugo Francis Meynell, Temple Newsam, Leeds. Inman, Thomas, M.D., Rodney Street, Liverpool. Jackson, James Eyre, Tullydory, Black- water Town, Ireland. Jacob, John, M.D., Maryborough. Jamieson, Thomas F., Ellon, Aberdeen- shire. Jardine, Sir William, Bart., F.R.S.E., Jardine Hall, Applegarth by Lockerby, . Duntfriesshire. Jarratt, Rev. John, M.A., North Cave near Brough, Yorkshire. Jee, Alfred S., 2 Oxford Square, Hyde Park, London, W. Jeffray, John, 8 Elmbank Crescent, Glasgow. Jeffreys, J. Gwyn, F.R.S., F.G.S., 25 Devonshire Place, Portland Place, Lon- don, W. Jenkyns, Rev. Henry, D.D., Professor of Divinity and Ecclesiastical History in the University of Durham; Durham. Jenyns, Rev. Leonard, M.A., F.L.S., 1 Darlington Place, Bathwick, Bath. Jerram, Rev. 8. John, M.A., Chobham Vicarage, Bagshot, Surrey. Jerrard, George Birch, B.A., Long Strat- ton, Norfolk. Johnson, Thomas, The Hermitage, Frod- sham, Cheshire. Johnstone, James, Alva near Alloa, Stir- lingshire. Johnstone, Sir John Vanden Bempde, Bart., M.P., M.A., F.G.S., 27 Gros- venor Square, London, W.; and Hack- ness. Jones, Christopher Hird, 2 Castle Street, Liverpool, 20* 308 Jones, Major Edward. Jones, Josiah, 2 Castle Street, Liverpool. Jones, Robert, 2 Castle Street, Liverpool. Jones, R. L., Princes Park, Liverpool. Joule, Benjamin St. John B., Thorncliffe, Old Trafford, Manchester. Joule, James Prescott, LL.D., F.R.S., Thorncliffe, Old ‘l'rafford, Manchester. Joy, Rev. Charles Ashfield, Grove Parson- age near Wantage, Berkshire. Jubb, Abraham, Halifax. Kay, John Robinson, Boss Lane House, Bury, Lancashire. Kay, Rev. William, D.D., Lincoln Col- lege, Oxford, Kelsall, Henry, Rochdale, Lancashire. Ker, Robert, Auchinraith, Glasgow. Keymer, John, Parker Street, Manches- er. King, Mervyn Kersteman, 1 Rodney Place, Clifton, Bristol. Knowles, Edward R. J., 23 George Street, Ryde, Isle of Wight. Knowles, William, Newport, Monmouth- shire. Knox, G. James, 2 Finchley New Road, St. John’s Wood, London, N.W. Kyllmann, Max, 28 Brazennose Street, Manchester. Laming, Richard, 10 Clifton Villas, Maida Hill West, Loudon, W. Langton, William, Manchester. Lansdowne, Henry, Marquis of, K.G., D.C.L., F.R.S., Trust. Brit. Mus., 54 Berkeley Square, London, W.; and Bo- wood Park, Wiltshire. Larecom, Colonel Thomas A., R.F., LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.I.A., Phoenix Park, Dublin. Latham, A. G., Cross Street, Manchester. La Touche, David Charles, M.R.I.A., Castle Street, Dublin. Leatham, Charles Albert, Wakefield. Leatham, Edward Aldam, Wakefield. Leather, John Towlerton, Leventhorpe Hall near Leeds. Le Cappelain, John, Highgate, London, N. Lee, John, LL.D., F.R.S., 5 College, Doctor's Commons, London, E.C.; and Hartwell House near Aylesbury. | ¢ . Lee, John Edward, F.G.S., The Priory, Caerleon, Monmouthshire. ee. Leese, Joseph, jun., Glenfield, Altrin- cham. Leeson, Henry B., M.A., M.D., F.R.S., The Maples, Bonchurch, Isle of Wight. Lefroy, Colonel John Henry, R.A., F.R.S., War Office. MEMBERS TO WHOM | Legh, George Cornwall, M.P., High ~ Legh, Cheshire. Leigh, Henry, The Poplars, Patricroft near Manchester. Leinster, Augustus Frederick, Duke of, M.R.I.A., 6 Carlton House ‘T'errace, London, S.W. Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., F.R.S., Car- clew near Falmouth. Lindsay, Charles. Lindsay, John H., 317 Bath Street, Glas- gow. Lingard, John R., F.G.S., Stockport, Cheshire. Lister, John, F.G.S., Shibden Hall near Halifax. Lister, Joseph Jackson, F.R.S., Upton, Essex, I. Liveing, G. D., M.A., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Cam- bridge ; 12 Hill’s Road, Cambridge. Lloyd, George, M.D., F.G.S., Stank Hill near Warwick. Lloyd, Rev. Humphrey, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E., M.R.I.A., Trinity Col- lege, Dublin. Lloyd, John Buck, Liverpool. Lobley, James Logan. Locke, John, Royal Dublin Society, Kil- dare Street, Dublin. Lockey, Rey. Francis, Swainswick near Bath. Loftus, William Kennett, F.G.S., Cal- cutta. Logan, Rev. Thomas, M.A., The Manse of Haggs, Stirlingshire. Logan, Sir William Edmond, F.R.S., F.G.S., Director of the Geological Sur- vey of Canada; Montreal, Canada. Lord, Edward, York Street, Todmorden. Lubbock, John, F.R.S., Lamas, Chisel- hurst, Kent, S.E. Lubbock, Sir John William, Bart., M.A., 'F.R.S., High Elms, Farnborough, Kent, S.E. Luckcock, Howard, Oak Hill, Edgbaston, - Birmingham, Lundie, Cornelius, Perey Main, Newcas- tle-upon-Tyne. Lupton, Arthur, Newton Hall, Leeds. Lyell, Sir Charles, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S., 53 Harley Street, Cavendish Square, London, W. Macadam, Stevenson, Ph.D., F.R.S E., Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh. McAll, Rev. Edward, Rector of Brigh- stone, Newport, Isle of Wight. M‘Andrew, Robert, F.R.S., Isleworth House, Isleworth, Middlesex, W. BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. MacBrayne, Robert, Messrs. Black and Wingate, 9 Exchange Square, Glasgow. McConnel, James, Bent Hill, Prestwich near Manchester. M‘Connell, David C., F.G.S., 12 Claren- don Crescent, Edinburgh. McCulloch, George, M.D., Cincinnati, United States. MacDonnell, Rev. Richard, D.D., Provost of Trinity College, Dublin, M.R.I.A.; Dublin. M‘Ewan, John, Glasgow. Macfie, R. A., 72 Upper Parliament Street, Liverpool. M°Gee, William, M.D., 10 Donegall Square East, Belfast. Maclver, Charles, Abercromby Square, Liverpool. Mackenzie, James, Glentore, Scotland. Mackinlay, David, Pollokshields, Glas- gow. Maclure, John William, 2 Bond Street, Manchester. Macrory, Adam John, Duncairn, Bel- fast. Macrory, Edmund, 7 Fig Tree Cowt, Temple, London, E.C. Malahide, Talbot de, Lord, F.R.S., Mala- hide Castle, Malahide, Ireland. Malcolm, Frederick, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire. Mallet, Robert, F.R.S., M.R.LA., 11 Bridge Street, Westminster, S.W.; and the Grove, Clapham Road, S. Manchester, James Prince Lee, D.D., Lord Bishop of, F.R.S., F.G.S., Maul- dreth Hall, Manchester. Marling, Samuel S., Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucesterhire. Marshall, James Garth, M.A., F.G.S., Headingley near Leeds. Martin, Francis P. Brouncker, 14 Bruten Street, Berkeley Square, London, W. Martindale, Nicholas, Peter Lane, Ha- nover Street, Liverpool. Martineau, Rev. James, 10 Gordon Street, Gordon Square, London, W.C. Mason, Hugh, Ashton-under- Lyne. Mason, Thomas, York. Mather, Daniel, 58 Mount Pleasant, Liver- ool. Mather, John, 58 Mount Pleasant, Liver- ool. Mathews, Henry, 30 Gower Street, Lon- don, W.C. Matthews, William, jun., F.G.S., Edg- baston House, Birmingham. Maxwell, James Clerk, M.A., F.RS., Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in King’s College, London ; 309 8 Palace Garden Terrace, Kensington, London, W. Maxwell, Sir John, Bart., F.R.S., Pollok House, Renfrewshire. Maxwell, Robert Percival, Finnebrogue, Downpatrick, Ireland. Mayne, Rev. Charles, M.R.I.A.,22 Upper Merrion Street, Dublin. Meadows, James, York Place, Rusholme near Manchester. Meynell, Thomas, The Fryerage near Yarm, Yorkshire. Michell, Rev. Richard, B.D., Praelector of Logic, Lincoln College, Oxford; St. Giles’ Street, Oxford. Miller, Patrick, M.D., Exeter. Miller, Robert, 30 King Street, and Whal- ley Range, Manchester. Miller, William Allen, M.D., Treas. and V.P.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in King’s College, London. - Mills, John Robert, Bootham, York. Milne-Home, David, M.A., F.R.S.E., Wedderburn, Coldstream, N.B. Milner, W. Ralph, Wakefield, Yorkshire. Milner, William, Liverpool. Moffat, John, C.E., Ardrossan. Moore, John Carrick, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Corswall, Wigtonshire. Moore, Rev. William Prior, The College, Cavan, Ireland. Morris, David, 1 Market Place, Man- chester. Morris, Rey. Francis Orpen, B.A., Nune buruholme Rectory, Hayton, York. Morton, Francis, Hermitage, Oxton, Cheshire; and James Street, Liver pool. Morton, Henry Joseph, Garforth House, West Garforth near Leeds. Moss, W. H., Kingston Terrace, Hull. Mouat, Frederick John, M.D., Inspector- General of Prisons, Bengal. Mountcastle, William Robert, 22 Dorking ‘Terrace, Cecil Street, Manchester. Murchison, J. H., F.G.S., Surbiton Hill, Kingston, S.W. Murchison, Sir Roderick Impey,G.C.St.S., M.A., D.C.L., Oxon., LL.D., Camb., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Director- General of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom; 16 Belgrave Square, London, S.W. Murray, John, C.E., 11 Great Queen Street, Westminster, London, S.W. Murton, James, Silverdale near Lancaster. Muspratt, James Sheridan, Ph.D., F.C.S., College of Chemistry, Liverpool. Napier, Captain Johnstone. 310 MEMBERS Napier, Right Honourable Joseph, 4 Merrion Square, Dublin. Nasmyth, James, Patricroft near Man- chester. Nelson, William, Rosin-hal-les, Cheetham Hill, Manchester. Newall, Robert Stirling, Gateshead-upon- Tyue. Newlands, James, 2 Clare Terrace, Liver- ool. mera! Francis William, Professor of Latin in University College, London ; 10 Circus Road, St. John’s Wood, Lon- don, N.W. Newman, William, Darley Hall, near Barnsley, Yorkshire. Nicholson, Cornelius, F.G.S., Wellfield, Muswell Hill, London. Nicholson, Edward, 28 Princess Street, . Manchester. Nicholson, John A., A.M., M.B., Lic. Med., M.R.1.A., Balrath, Kells, Co. Meath. Nicholson, William Nicholson, Roundhay Park, Leeds. Nolloth, M. S., Captain R.N., F.R.G.S., St. Mary’s Cottage, Peckham, S.E., and United Service Ciub, London. O'Callaghan, Patrick, B.A., Cookridge Hall, Leeds. Odling, William, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S., Sidenham Road, Croydon, S. Ogilvie, George, M.D., Lecturer on the Institutes of Medicine in Marischal College, Aberdeen. Ogle, William, M.D., M.A., Derby. Oldham, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.I.A., F.G.S., Superintendent of the Geological Survey of India; Cal- cutta, Ommanney, Erasmus, Captain R.N., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., 40 Charing Cross, S.W., and United Service Club, Pall Mall, London. O’Reardon, John, M.D., 24 Upper Glou- cester Street, Dublin. Osler, A. Follett, F.R.S., Hazelwood, Edgbaston, Birmingham. Oxford, Samuel Wilberforce, D.D., Lord Bishop of, F.R.S., 26 Pall Mall, Lon- don, S.W.; and Cuddesdon Palace, Wheatley, Oxon. Palmer, William, 12 North Parade, Bath. Parker, Alexander, M.R.I.A., William Street, Dublin. Parker, Charles Stewart, Liverpool. Patterson, Robert, M.R.1.A. (Local Trea- surer), 6 College Sq., North, Belfast. TO WHOM Pearsall, Thomas John, F.C.S.,Mechanics’ Institution, Southampton Buildings, London, W.C. Pease, Thomas, F.G.S., Henbury near Bristol. Peckover, Alexander, F.R.G.S., Wis- beach, Cambridgeshire. Peckover, Algernon, F.L.S., Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire. Peckover, Daniel, Woodhall Calverley, Leeds, Peckover, William, F.S.A., Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire. Pedler, Lieut.-Colonel Philip Warren, Mutley House near Plymoutb. Peel, George, Soho Lron Works, Ancoats, Manchester. Peile, George, jun., Shotley Bridge near Gateshead-on-Tyne. Peiser, John, St. Peter’s Square, Man- chester. Perigal, Frederick, 28 Hereford Square, Brompton, London, S.W. Peters, Edward, temple Row, Birmingham. Petit, Rev. John Louis, 9 New Square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C. Pender, John, Mount Street, Manchester. Perry, S. G. F., M.A., Tottington Par- sonage near Bury. Petrie, John, Rochdale. Philips, Edward, 35 Church Street, Man- chester. Philips, Herbert, 35 Church Street, Man- chester. Philips, Mark, The Park near Manchester. Phillipps, Sir Thomas, Bart., M.A.,F.R.S., Middle Hill near Broadway, Worces- tershire. Phillips, John, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the University of Oxtord ( Assistant General Secretary) ; Museum House, Oxford. Phillips, Major-General Sir Frowell, United Service Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W. Philpott, Rev. Henry, D.D., Master of St. Catharine’s Hall, Cambridge. Pike, Ebenezer, Besborough, Cork. Pitt, George, 11 Pembridge Villas, Bays- water, London, W. Pochin, Henry Davis, F.C.S., Oakfield House, Salford. Pollexten, Rev. John Hutton, M.A., Rec- tor of St. Runwald’s, Colchester. Pontey, Alexander, Plymouth. Poppelwell, Matthew, Rosella Place, Tynemouth. Porter, Henry John Ker, Brampton Park, Huntingdon. Portlock, Major-General Joseph Ellison, R.E., LL.D., F.RS., VoPGS, 1 , BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 311 Whitehall Yard, and 58 Queen’s Gar- dens, Hyde Park, London, $.W. Potter, Edmund, F.R.S., 10 Charlotte Street, Manchester. Pounden, Captain Landsdale, Junior United Service Club, London; and Kildare Street Club, Dublin. Poynter, John E., Clyde Neuck, Udding- ston. Pratt, Samuel Peace, F.R.S., F.G.S. Prestwich, Joseph, F.R.S., Treas. G.S., 2 Suffolk Lane, City, E.C.; and 10 Kent Terrace, Regent’s Park Road, London, W Pretious, Thomas, H.M. Dockyard, De- vonport, Price, Rev. Bartholomew, M.A., F-R.S., F.R.A.S., Sedleian Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford; Pembroke College, Oxford. Pritchard, Andrew, 2 St. Mary’s Place, Canonbury, London,N. © Prower, Rev. J. M., M.A., Swindon, Wiltshire. Pumphrey, Chas., Stroud, Gloucestershire. Pusey, J, E. Bouverie. Pyne, Joseph John, 63 Piccadilly, Man- chester. Radford, William, Sidmouth. Ramsay, William, M.A., F.S.S., Professor of Humanity in the University of Glas- gow, (Local Treasurer) ; The College, Glasgow. Ramsbotham, John Hodgson, M.D., 16 Park Place, Leeds. Rance, Henry, Cambridge. Randolph, Rev. Herbert, M.A., Marcham near Abingdon. Ransome, Robert, Iron Foundry, Ipswich. Ratcliff, Charles, F.L.S.,F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Downing College, Cambridge. Rawlins, John, Birmingham. Rawlinson, Colonel Sir Henry C.,K.C.B., LL.D.,F.R.S., 39 Hill Street, Berkeley Square, London, S.W. Rawson, Thomas William, Halifax. Read, W. H. Rudston, M.A., F.L.S., Hayton near Pocklington, Yorkshire. M.D., Sidmount, Reade, Rev. Joseph Bancroft, M.A., F.R.S., Ellesborough Rectory, Tring. Redfern, Professor Peter, M.D., 4 Lower Crescent, Belfast. Rée, H. P., 27 Faulkner Stt., Manchester. Renny, Lieut. H. L., R.E. Rhodes, John, Leeds. Richardson, SirJohn, C.B.,M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Lancrigg, Grasmere, West- moreland. ; Riddell, Colonel Charles J. B., R.A., F.R.S., India. Riddell, H. B., The Palace, Maidstone. Rideout, William J., Farnworth near Manchester. Rinder, Miss, Gledhow Grove, Leeds. Roberts, Richard, C,E., 10 Adam Street, Adelphi, London, W.C. Roberts, William P., 50 Ardwick Green, Manchester. Robinson, H. Oliver, 16 Park Street, Westminster, S.W. Robson, Rev. John, D.D., Glasgow. Roget, Peter Mark, M.D., F.K.S., 18 Upper Bedford Place, Russell Square, London, W.C. Roscoe, Professor Henry Enfield, B.A., Owens College, Manchester. Ross, James Coulman, The Lodge, Louth. Ross, Thomas, Featherstone Buildings, High Holborn, London, W.C. Roundell, Rev. Danson Richardson, Gledstone, Skipton. Rowland, John,30 Terminus Road, Brigh- ton. Rowney, Thomas H., Ph.D., F.C.S., Pro- fessor of Chemistry in Queen’s College, Galway. Rowntree, Joseph, Leeds. Royle, Peter, L.R.€.P., M.R.C,S., 27 Lever Street, Manchester. Rumney, Robert, Ardwick, Manchester. Rushout, Capt. the Hon. George, F'.G.S., 10 Bolton St., Piccadilly, London, W. Russell, Norman Scott, 37 Great George Street, Westminster, S.W. Russell, William J., Ph.D., 22 Morning- ton Crescent, Hampstead Road, Lon- don, N.W. Ryland, Arthur, Birmingham, Rylands, Thomas, Glazebrook, War- rington. Sabine, Major-General Edward, R.A., D.C.L., President of the Royal Society, 13 Ashley Place, Westminster, S.W. Salt, Charles F., 24 Grove Street, Liver- pool. Salt, Titus, Crow Nest, Lightcliffe, Halifax. Salt, William, 20 Lombard Street, Lon- don, E.C. Sandeman, A., M.A., Owens College, Manchester. Sanders, William, F.G.S., (Local Trea- surer), 21 Richmond Terrace, Clifton, Bristol: Satterthwaite, Michael, M.D., Lindow arr Alderley near Wilmslow, Che- shire. 312 Saunders, William, Manor House, Iffley near Oxford. Schemman, J. C., Hamburgh. Schlick, Commandeur de, 15 Rue Belle- chasse, Faubourg St. Germain, Paris. Schofield, Robert, Vicar’s Walk, Rochdale. Scholes, T. Seddon, 16 Dale Street, Lea- mington. Scholey, William Stephenson, M.A., Clap- ham, London, S. Scholfield, Edward, M.D., Doncaster. Schwabe, Edmund Salis, Rhodes House near Manchester. Sedgwick, Rev. Adam, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Woodwardian Professor of Geo- logy in the University of Cambridge, and Canon of Norwich; Trinity College, Cambridge. Seeley, Harry, Woodwardian Museum, Cambridge. Senior, George, Barnsley. Seymour, Henry D., M.P., 389 Upper Grosvenor Street, London, W. Shaen, William, 8 Bedford Row, London, W.C. Sharp, William, M.D., F.R.S., Rugby. Shaw, Bentley, J.P., Woodfield House, Huddersfield. Shaw, C. Wright, 3 North View, Mount Vernon, Liverpool. Shaw, John, City Road, Hulme, Man- chester, Sherrard, David Henry, 88 Upper Dorset Street, Dublin. Shortrede, Colonel Robert, F.R.A.S., 6 Medina Villas, Brighton. Sidebotham, Joseph, 19 George Sireet, Manchester. Sidebottom, James, Portland Street, Man- chester. Sidebottom, James, jun., Spring Bank Mills, Stockport. Sillar, Zechariah, M.D., Rainford near Liverpool. Simpson, Rev. Samuel, Douglas, Isle of Man. Simpson, T., M.D., Minster Yard, York. Sirr, Rev. Joseph D’Arcy,D.D.,M.R.1.A., Castle Hill, Winchester. Slater, William, Princess St., Manchester. Smith, Charles Edward, F.R.A.S., Fir Vale near Sheffield. Smith, Rev.Geo. Sidney, D.D., M.R.I.A., Professor of Biblical Greek in the Uni- versity of Dublin; Aughalurcher, Five- mile-Town, Co. Tyrone. Smith, Henry J. Stephen, M.A., F.R.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry in the University of Oxford; Balliol College, Oxford. MEMBERS TO WHOM Smith, Heywood, 25 Park Street, Gros- venor Square, London, W. Smith, James, Berkeley House, Seaforth near Liverpool. Smith, John, Shelbrook House, Ashby- de-la-Zouch. Smith, John Metcalfe, (Bank), Leeds, (Local Treasurer). Smith, Rev. J. D., Kingstown near Dublin. Smith, Rev. Philip, B.A., St. James’s Lodge, St. James’s Road, Croydon, Surrey, S. Smith, Protheroe, M.D., 25 Park Street, Grosvenor Square, London, W. Smith, Robert Mackay, Bellevue Cres- cent, Edinburgh. Smyth, C. Piazzi, F.R.S., Astronomer Royal for Scotland, Professor of Prac- tical Astronomy in the University of Edinburgh; 1 Hill Side Crescent, Edinburgh. Smyth, John, jun., M.A,, C.E., Milltown, Banbridge, Ireland. Solly, Edward, F.R.S., Holme Court, Isle- worth, near London, W. Solly, Samuel Reynolds, M.A., F.R.S., 10 Manchester Square, London, W. Sopwith, Thomas, M.A., F.R.S., 43 Cleve- land Square, London, W. Sorby, H. Clifton, F.R.S., Broomfield, Sheffield. Spence, Joseph, Pavement, York. Spencer, Joseph, 27 Brown Street, Man-- chester. Spiers, Richard James, 14 St. Giles’s Street, Oxford. Spottiswoode, William, M.A., F.R.S., (General Treasurer), 19 Chester Street, Belgrave Square, London, S.W. Sprague, Thomas Bond, M.A., 40 Bles- sington Road, Lee, S.E. Squire, Lovell, Falmouth, Stainton, Henry Tibbats, I'.1..S., Mounts- field, Lewisham, Kent, S.E. Stainton, James Joseph, F.L.S., F.C.S., Horsell near Ripley, Surrey. Stanley, Lord, M.P., LL.D., F.R.S., St. James’s Square, London, S.W. Stern, S. J., 833 George Street, Manches- ter. Stevens, Henry, F.S.A., F.R.G.S., 2 Byng Place, Gordon Sq., London, W.C. Stewart, Henry Hutchinson, M.D., M.R.I.A., 71 Eccles Street, Dublin. Stirling, Andrew, Lower Mosley Street, Manchester. Stokes, George Gabriel, M.A., D.C.L., Sec.R.S., Lucasian Professor of Ma- thematics in the University of Cam- bridge ; Pembroke College, Cambridge. BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. Stoney, George Johnstone, M.A., F.R.S., M.R.I.A., Secretary to the Queen’s University, Ireland; Dublin Castle, Dublin. Strickland, Arthur, Bridlington Quay, Yorkshire. Strickland, Charles, Loughglyn, Ballagh- adereen, Ireland. Sutherland, Duke of, Stafford House, London, S.W. Swan, Patrick D. S., Kirkaldy. Sykes, Colonel William H., M.P., F.R.S., 47 Albion St., Hyde Park, London, W. Symonds, Frederick, F.R.C.S., Beaumont Street, Oxford. ‘ Symons, William, 17 St. Mark’s Crescent, Regent’s Park, London, N.W. Tarratt, Henry W., Bushbury Lodge, Leamington. Tate, Alexander, 41 Upper Sackville St., Dublin. Tatham, George, Leeds. Tayler, Rev. John James, B.A., Principal and Professor of Ecclesiastical History in Manchester New College, London ; 22 Woburn Square, London, W.C. Taylor, James, Culverlands near Read- ing. Taylor, John, F.R.S., 6 Queen Street Place, Upper Thames Street, E.C.; and Chester Terrace, Regent’s Park, London, S.W. Taylor, John, jun., F.G.S., 6 Queen Street Place, Upper Thames Street, London, E.C,. Taylor, John, jun., 6 Queen Street Place, Upper Thames Street, London, E.C. Taylor, Richard, F.G.S., 6 Queen Street Place, Upper Thames Street, London, Taylor, Vice-Admiral J. N., C.B. Taylor, William Edward, Millfield House, Enfield near Accrington. Tennant, James, F.G.S., Professor of Mineralogy and Geology in King’s College, London; 149 Strand, London, W.C. Thompson, Frederick, South Parade, Wakefield. Thompson, Joseph, Southbank, Downs, Bowdon near Manchester. Thomson, Corden, M.D., Sheffield. Thomson, Professor James, M.A., C.E., 2 Donegall Square West, Belfast. Thomson, James Gibson, Edinburgh, Thomson, William, M.A., LL.D.,F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow ; The College, Glasgow. 313 Thornton, Samuel, The Elms, Highgate, Birmingham. Thorp, The Venerable Thomas, B.D., F.G.S., Archdeacon of Bristol; Ke- merton near Tewkesbury. Tidswell, Benjamin K., 243 Lord Street, Southport. Tinné, John A., F.R.G.S., Briarly Aig- burth, Liverpool. Topham, John, A.I.C.E., 2 Paget Villas, Shrubland Grove East, Dalston, Lon- don, N.E. Trevelyan, Arthur, Wallington, Newcas- tle-upon-Tyne. Tuckett, Francis Fox, Frenchay, Bristol. Tulloch, James, F.R.S., 16 Montagu Place, Russell Square, London, W.C. Turnbull, Rev. Thomas Smith, M.A., F.R.S., Blofield, Norfolk. Turner, James Aspinall, M.P., Pendle- bury near Manchester. Tyndall, John, Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Royal In- stitution of Great Britain, Albemarle Street, London, W. Tysoe, John, Sedgley Road, Pendleton, near Manchester. Vallack, Rev. Benj. W. S., St. Budeaux near Plymouth. Vance, Rev. Robert, 16 Montpelier Hill, Dublin. Vaux, Frederick, Central Telegraph Office, Adelaide, South Australia, Vernon, G. V., F.R.A.S., Piccadilly Mills; and Old Trafford, Manches- ter. Vernon, John, High Lee, Woolton, Liver- ool. Vignoles,Charles,C.E,,F.R.S.,M.R.LA., 21 Duke Street, Westminster, S.W. Vivian, H. Hussey, M.P., F.G.S., 5 Up- per Belgrave Street, London,S.W.; and Singleton House, Swansea, Waldegrave, The Hon. Granville, 26 Port- land Place, London, W. Walker, Joseph N., F.L.S., Caldeston near Liverpool. Walker, Rev. Robt.,M.A., F.R.S., Reader in Experimental Philosophy in the Uni- versity of Oxford, Wadham College, Oxford ; and Culham Vicarage, Abing- don. Walker, Thoinas, 10 York Street, Man- chester. Ward, William Sykes, F.C.S., Claypit House, Leeds. Waterhouse, John, F.R.S., Wellhead, Halifax, Yorkshire. 314 MEMBERS TO WHOM BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. Watson, Henry Hough, F.C.S., The Folds, Bolton-le-Moors. Way, J. Thomas, F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry, Roya! Agriculturai Society of England ; 15 Welbeck Street, Caven- dish Square, London, W. Webb, Rev. Thomas William, M.A., Hardwick Parsonage, Hay, South Wales. Western, T. B., Felix Hall, Kelvedon, Essex. Westhead, Joshua Proctor, York House, Manchester. Westley, William, 24 Regent Street, London, W. Whewell, Rev. William, D.D., F.R.S., Master of Trinity College, Cambridge ; Lodge, Cambridge. Whitaker, William, B.A., F.G.S., Geolo- gical Survey Office, 28 Jermyn Street, London, S.W. Whitehead, J. B., Oakley Terrace, Raw- tenstall, Manchester. Whitehead, Peter Ormerod, Holly House, Rawtenstall, Manchester. Whitehouse, Wildman, 8 Bexley Place, Greenwich, S.E. Whiteside, James, M.A., Q.C., M.P., 2 Mountjoy Square, Dublin. Whitty, John Irwine, D.C.L., LL.D., M.A., Civil Engineer, Ricketstown Hall, Carlow, Whitworth, Joseph, F.R.S., The Firs, Manchester, and Stancliffe Hall, Derby- shire. Wilkinson, Eason, M.D., Greenhays, Manchester. Willert, Paul Ferdinand, Manchester. Williams, Caleb, M.D., Micklegate, York, Williams, CharlesTheodore, B.A., 40 Up- per Brook Street, London, W. Williams, Harry S.,49 Upper Brook St., Grosvenor Square, London, W. Williams, William, Crosby Hall, Bishops- gate Street, London, E.C. Williamson, Alex. W., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Practical Chemistry in University College, London; 16 Pro- vost Road, Haverstock Hill, London, N.W Williamson, Rev. William, B.D., Datch- worth, Welwyn, Hertfordshire. Wills, Alfred, 4 Harcourt Buildings, Inner Temple, London, E.C. Wiison, Alexander, F.R.S., 34 Bryan- ston Square, London, W. Wilson, F., Dallam Tower, Milnthorpe, Westmoreland. Wilson, John, Bootham, York. Wilson, John, jun., West Hurlet near Glasgow. Wilson, John, Seacroft near Leeds. Wilson, Rev. Sumner, Horton Heath, Bishopstoke. Wilson, Thomas, M.A., Crimbles House, Leeds. Wilson, William Parkinson, M.A., Pro- fessor of Pure and Applied Mathematics in the University of Melbourne. Winsor, F. A., 57 Lincoln’s Inn Fields, London, W.C. Wollaston, Thomas Vernon, M.A., F.L.S., Southernhay House, Kingskerswell, Newton Abbot, Devon. Wood, Rt. Hon. Sir Charles, Bart., M.P., 10 Belgrave Square, S.W., and Hickles- ton Hall, Doncaster. Wood, Edward T., Brinscall Hall, Chorley. Wood, George B., M.D., Philadelphia, United States. Wood, Rev. H. H., M.A., F.G.S., Holwell Rectory, Sherborne, Dorset. Wood, John, St. Saviourgate, York. Wood, Rev. William Spicer, M.A., Oak- ham, Rutlandshire. Wood, William, Monkhill House, Ponte- fract. Woodd, Charles H. L., F.G.S., Roslyn, Hampstead, London, N.W. Woodhead, G., Mottram near Manches- ter. Woods, Edward, 5 Gloucester Crescent, Hyde Park, London, W. Worcester, Henry Pepys, D.D., Lord Bishop of, 24 Grosvenor Place, Lon- don, S.W. Wormald, Richard, 10 Priory Road, Kil- burn, London, N.W. Worthington, Rev. Alfred William, B.A., Mansfield. Worthington, Robert, Cheetham Hill near Manchester. Wright, E. Abbot, Castle Park, Frodsham, Cheshire. Wright, Robert Francis, Hinton Blewett, Somersetshire. Yarborough, George Cooke, Mount, Doncaster. Yorke, Colonel Philip, F.R.S., 89 Eaton Place, Belgrave Square, London, S.W. Younge, Robert, M.D., Greystones near Sheffield. Camp’s i ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 315 ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS, Abernethy, Robert, Ferry Hill, Aberdeen. Agnew, Thomas, Fair Hope, Eccles near Manchester. Airston, Dr. William Baird, 29 South Street, St. Andrews, Fifeshire. Alcock, Thomas, M.D., Upper Brook Street, Manchester. Allen, Richard, Didsbury near Manches- ter. Allman, George James, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.I.A., Professor of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh; 21 Manor Place, Edinburgh. Anderson, Patrick, Dundee. Andrew, Jonah, 31 Market Street, Man- chester. Andrews, William, M.R.I.A., Ashton on the Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin. Argyll, George Douglas, Duke of, LL.D., F.R.S., Campden Hill, Kensington, London, W., and Inverary Castle, In- verary, Scotland. Armitage, William, Meal Street, Man- chester. Aspland, Alfred, Dukinfield, Cheshire. Asquith, J. R., Infirmary Street, Leeds. Aston, Theo., 4 Elm Court, Temple, London, E.C. Atherton, Charles, H. M. Dockyard, Woolwich, S.E. Atkin, Eli, Newton Heath, Manchester. Atkinson, Rev. J. A., Longsight Rectory, Manchester. Atkinson, James, Bayswater, London, W. Baily, William H., F.G.S., Acting Pa- leontologist to the Geological Survey of Ireland, 51 Stephen’s Green, Dub- lin. Balding, James, M.R.C.S., Barkway, Hertfordshire. Bannerman, James Alexander, Limefield House, Higher Broughton, Manches- ter. Barrett, T. B. (Surgeon), Welshpool. Barrington, Edward, Fassaroe, Bray, [re- land. Barrington, Richard, 8 Trafalgar Terrace, Monkstown, Co. Dublin. Bass, J. H., F.G.S., 2 Picton Villas, Camden Road, London, N.W. Baxendell, Joseph, F.R.A.S., 108 Stocks Street, Manchester. Bean, William, Alfreton, Derbyshire. Becker, Ernest, Ph.D., Buckingham Pa- lace, London, S.W. Beckles, Samuel Husbands, F.R.S., F.G.S., 9 Grand Parade, St, Leonard’s- on-Sea. Beke,CharlesT., Ph.D., F.S.A.,F.R.G.S., Bekesbourne House near Canterbury. Bell, George, Windsor Buildings, Dum- barton. Billings. Robert William, (Architect,) 4 St. Mary’s Road, Canonbury, Lon- don, N. Bird, James, M.D., F.R.G.S., 27 Hyde Park Square, London, W. Birley, Thomas Thornely, Highfield, Heaton Mersey. Blakeley, Captain A. T., 34 Montpelier Square, London, S.W. Blakiston, Matthew, 8 Waterloo Road, Dublin. Blunt, Captain Richard J., Bretlands, Chertsey, Surrey. < Booth, James, Rochdale. Botterill, John, Burley near Leeds. Brazier, James S., F.C.S., Lecturer in Agriculture, Marischal College, Aber- deen. Brett, George, Whalley View, Whalley Range, Manchester. Brewster, Sir David, K.H., D.C.L., F.R.S., V.P.R.S. Ed., Principal of the University of Edinburgh; Allerly by Melrose, N.B. Bright, Sir Charles, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., 12 Upper Hyde Park Gardens, W. ; and 1 Victoria St., Westminster, S.W. Bright, Edward B., 2 Exchange Build- ings, Liverpool. Brodhurst, Bernard E., 20 Grosvenor Street, Grosvenor Square, London, W, Brooke, Edward, Marsden House, Stock- port, Cheshire. Brooke, Peter William, Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire. Brown, Alderman Henry, Bradford. Brownlee, James, 173 St. George’s Road, Glasgow. Bryce, James, 76 Oldham Street, Man- chester. Cail, John, Stokesley, Yorkshire. Calvert, Professor F.Crace, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Royal Institution, Manchester. Carlton, James, Mosley St., Manchester. Carte, Alexander, A.M., M.B., F.L.S., Director of the Natural History Mu- seum of the Royal Dublin Society, Dublin. 316 Carter, Richard, C.E., Long Carr, Barns- ley, Yorkshire. Cayley, Arthur, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., 2 Stone Buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, Lon- don, W.C. Chadwick, David, 75 King Street, Man- chester. Chadwick, Thomas, Wilmslow Grange, Cheshire. Christie, Professor R. C., M.A., 7 St. James’s Square, Manchester. Church, William Selby, B.A., Christ Church, Oxford. ; Clapham, Samuel, 17 Park Place, Leeds. Clark, Latimer, 1 Victoria Street, West- minster, S.W. Claudet, A., F.R.S., 107 Regent Street, W.., and 11 Gloucester Road, Regent’s Park, London, N.W. Clay, Charles, M.D., 101 Piccadilly, Manchester. Cleland, John, M.D., 181 Pitt Street, Elgin Place, Glasgow. Coleman, J. J., F.C.S., 24 Johnson St., Queen’s Road, Manchester. Collinge, John, Saddleworth. Corbett, Joseph Henry, M.D., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology in Queen’s College, Cork. Corner, C. Tinsley, Arlington Terrace, Broughton near Manchester. Cranage, Edward, Ph.D., The Old Hall, Wellington, Shropshire. Cross, Rev. John Edward, M.A., Appleby Vicarage near Brigg. Crowley, Henry, Cheetham Hill Road, Manchester. Crum, Walter, F.R.S., Thornliebank near Glasgow. Cull, Richard, 13 Tavistock Street, Bed- ford Square, London, W.C. Cunningham, James, F.R.S.E., Queen Street, Edinburgh. Cunningham, William: A., Manchester and Salford Bank, Manchester. Dancer, J. B., F.R.A.S., Old Manor House, Ardwick, Manchester. Darbishire, Charles James, Rivington near Chorley. Dashwood, Charles, Thornage near Thet- ford, Norfolk. Da Silva, Johnson, Burntwood, Wands- worth Common near London, S.W. Davis, J. Barnard, F.S.A., Shelton, Staf- fordshire. Davy, John, M.D., F.R.S. L. & E., Lesketh How, Ambleside. Deacon, Henry, Runcorn Gap. Dean, Henry, Colne, Lancashire. ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS, Deane, Henry, Clapham, London, S. Dennis, J. C., F.R.A.S., 122 Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C. Dibb, Thos. T., Little Woodhouse, Leeds. Dicker, J. R., 29 Exchange Alley North, Liverpool. Dickson, Peter, 28 Upper Brook Street, London, W. Dixon, W. Hepworth, F.S.A., F.R.G.S., Essex Villa, St. John’s Wood, Lon- don, N.W. Domvile, William C., Thorn Hill, Bray, Dublin. Donnelly, Capt. R. E., South Kensington Museum, London, W. Dove, Hector, 71 Hope Street, Glasgow. Drummond, James, Greenock. Dufferin, Viscount, F.G.S., Dufferin Lodge, Highgate, London, N.; and Clandeboye Down, Ireland. Duncan, James, Greenock. Duncan, John W., Grove End Road, Regent’s Park, London, N.W. Duns, Rev. John, F.R.S.E., Torphichen, Bathgate, Scotland. Eadson, Richard, 13 Hyde Road, Man- chester. Ecroyd, William Farrer, Spring Cottage, near Burnley. Edge, John William, Percy Street, Hulme, Manchester. Edgeworth, M. P., F.L.S., F.R.A.S., Anerly near London, 8. Ekman, Charles F., 36 George Street, Manchester. Elder, John, 12 Centre Street, Glasgow. Elliot, Robert, Wolflee, Hawick. Evans, Griffith F. D., M.D., St. Mary’s, Bedford. Everest, Colonel Sir George, Bengal Artil- lery, F.R.S., 10 Westbourne Street, Hyde Park, London, W. Farr, William, M.D., Southlands, Brom- ley, Kent. Ferguson, James, Auchinheath and Craig- nethan Gas Coal Works, Lesmahago, Glasgow. Fielding, James, Mearclough Mills, Sow- erby Bridge. Findlay, A. G.,F.R.G.S., 53 Fleet Street, London, E.C. Fishwick, Captain Henry, Carr Hill, Rochdale. FitzRoy, Rear-Admiral Robert, F.R.S., 38 Onslow Sq., Brompton, London, S.W. Foster, Peter Le Neve, M.A., Society of Arts, Adelphi, London, W.C. Fowler, Richard, M.D., F.R.S., Salisbury. — ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. Fraser, James P., 2 Laurence Place, Dowanhill, Partick by Glasgow. Furness, William, Monmouth Street, Rusholme, Manchester. Gages, Alphonse, Museum of Irish In- dustry, Dublin. Galbraith, Andrew, Glasgow. Galloway, Charles J., Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester. Galloway, John, jun., Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester. Gassiot, John P., F.R.S., Clapham Com- mon, London, S. Gerard, Henry, 13 Rumford Place, Liver- pool. Gibb, George D., M.D., M.A., F.G.S., Portman Street, Portman Square, Lon- don, W. Gibson, Thomas F., 124 Westbourne Terrace, Hyde Park, London, W. Gibson, William Sydney, M.A., F.S.A., F.G.S., Tynemouth, Northumberland. Gifford, The Lord. Glennie, J. S. Stuart, F.R.G.S., 6 Stone Buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C. Grafton, Frederick W,, Park Road, Whal- ley Range, Manchester. Grant, Robert, M.A., F.R.A.S., Professor of Astronomy in the University of Glasgow; Observatory, Glasgow. Greene, Professor J. Reay, M.R.I.A., Queen’s College, Cork. Greenwood, William, Stones, Todmorden, Lancashire. Gregson, Samuel Leigh, Aigburth near Liverpool. Griffith, George, M.A., F.C.S., Jesus College, Oxford. Hall, Hugh F., 17 Dale Street, Liverpool. Hall, John Frederick, Ellerker House, Richmond, Surrey, S.W. Hall, Walter, 10 Pier Road, Erith, S.E. Halliday, James, Whalley Cottage, Whalley Range, Manchester. Hancock, John, Lurgan, Co. Armagh. Hancock, Walter, 10 Upper Chadwell Street, London, E.C. Harcourt, A. Vernon, New College Street, Oxford. Harkness, Robert, F.R.S., F.G.S., Profes- sor of Geology in Queen’s College, Cork. Harman, H. W., C.E., 16 Booth Street, Manchester. Hartnup, John, F.R.A.S., Observatory, Liverpool. Hay, Sir Andrew Leith, Bart., Rannes, Aberdeenshire. 317 Heathfield, W. E., 20 King Street, St. James’s, London, S.W. Hector, James, M.D., 13 Gate Street, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C. Hennessy, Henry, F.R.S., M.R.I1.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Catholic University of Ireland, Dublin; Wynnefield, Rathgar, Co. Dublin. Hepburn, Robert, 8 Davies Street, Berke- ley Square, London, W. Hertz, James, Sedgley Park, Prestwich near Manchester. Hervey, The Rev. Lord Arthur, Ickworth, Suffolk. Heywood, Councillor John, Deansgate, Manchester. Higgins, George, Mount House, Higher Broughton, Manchester. Higgins, Rev. Henry H., M.A., Rainhill, Liverpool. Hill, Laurence, Port Glasgow. Ilincks, Rev. Edward, D.D., Killyleagh, Ireland. Hirst, John, jun., Dobcross, Saddle- worth. Hitchman, John, Leamington. Hogan, Rev. A. R., M.A., Puddletown, Dorchester. Holcroft, George, C.E., Red Lion Street, St. Ann’s Square, Manchester. Hollond, Loton, 41 Kensington Park Gardens, Notting Hill, Londen, W. Hooper, William, 7 Pall Mall East, London. Hopkinson, Joseph, Britannia Works, Huddersfield. Hough, Joseph, Wrottesley Hall near Wolverhampton. Hudson, Robert, F.R.S., Clapham Com- mon, London, S. Huggon, William, 30 Park Row, Leeds. Hume, Rev. A., D.C.L., F.S.A., Liver- pool. Hunt, James, Ph.D., F.S.A., Hon, Sec. Ethnol. Soc.; Ore House, Hastings. Hunt, Robert, F.R.S., Keeper of Mining Records, Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn Street, London, S.W. Hutton, T. Maxwell, Dublin. Iles, Rev. J. H., Rectory, Wolverhampton. Jack, John, Belhelvie, Aberdeen. Jacobs, Bethel, Hull. James, Edward, 9 Gascoyne Terrace, Plymouth. James, Edward H., 9 Gascoyne Terrace, Plymouth. James, William C., 9 Gascoyne Terrace, Plymouth. Jennings, Thomas, Cork. 318 Johnson, Richard, 27 Dale Street, Man- chester, ° Johnson, William Beckett, Woodlands Bank near Altrincham. Johnston, A. Keith, 4 St. Andrew Square, Edinburgh. Jones, John, 28 Chapel Street, Liverpool. Jones, T. Rupert, F.G.S., Professor of the Natural Sciences in the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, near Farnborough. Kay, Alexander, Atherton Grange, Wim- bledon Park, Surrey, S.W. Kaye, Robert, Mill Brae, Moodiesburn by Glasgow. Ker, A.A. Murray, D.L., Newbliss House, Newbliss, Co. Monaghan, Ireland. Kinahan, John R.,M.D., St.Kilda, Sandy- cove, Dalkey, Kingstown, Ireland. Kingsley, John, 30 St. Ann’s Street, Manchester. Kirkman, Rev. T. P., M.A., F.R.S., Croft Rectory, near Warrington. Kirkwood, Anderson, 246 Sauchiechall Street, Glasgow. Lace, Francis John, Stone Gappe, Cross Hills, Leeds. Ladd, William, 11 & 12 Beak Street, Regent Street, London. Lalor, John Joseph, 2 Longford Terrace, Monkstown, Co. Dublin. Lankester, Edwin, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., 8 Savile Row, London. Lassell, William, jun., The Brook near Liverpool. Latham, R. G., M.D., F.R.S., Greenford, Middlesex. Lee, Henry, Irwell House, Broughton, Manchester. Lees, Samuel, Portland Place, Ashton- under-Lyne. Lennox, A. C, W., 21 Ovington Square, London, S.W. Leppoc, Henry Julius, Kersal Crag near Manchester. Lister, Rey. William, Bushbury, Wolver- hampton. Lowe, Edward Joseph, F.R.A.S., High- field House Observatory, Nottingham. Lower M‘Connell, J. E., Wolverton Park, Buck- inghamshire, Maclaren, Charles, Moreland, Grange Loan, Edinburgh. Marriott, William, Leeds Road, Hud- dersfield. Matthews, Rev. Richard Brown, Shal- ford Vicarage near Guildford. ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. Medcalf, William, 58 Brown Street, | Manchester, ’ Melly, Charles Pierre, Riversley, Liver- pool. Miles, Rev. C. P., M.D., Principal of the Malta Protestant College, St. Julian’s, Malta. Mirrlees, James Buchanan, 128 West Stor. Tradeston, Glasgow. Mitchell, John Mitchell, Mayville, Edin- burgh. Moffat, T., M.D., F.R.A.S., Hawarden, Chester. Moir, James, 174 Gallowgate, Glasgow. Molesworth, Rev. W. N -, Spotlands, Rochdale. Moore, Arthur, Bristol and Exeter Rail- way, Bristol. Moore, Charles, F.G.S., Cambridge Place, Bath. Morewood, Edmund, Stratford, Essex, E. Morris, William, The Grange, Salford. Morton, George H., F.G.S., 9 London Road, Liverpool. Muir, William, Britannia Works, Man- chester. Musgrove, John, jun., Bolton. Mylne, Robert W., F.R.S., F.G.S., 21 Whitehall Place, London, S.W. Neild, Alfred, Dingle Bank, Bowden, Manchester. Neild, Alderman William, Manchester. Neville, Thomas Henry, 17 George St., Manchester. Newmarch, William, Globe Insurance, Corrhill, London, E.C. Newton, Alfred, M.A., F.L.S., Elvedon Hall, Thetford, Norfolk. Norfolk, Richard, Messrs. W. Ruther- ford and Co., 14 Canada Dock, Liver- ool. Niethcute. A. Beauchamp, F.C.S., Rose Hill Terrace, Worcester. Noton, Thomas, Priory House, Oldham. Nunneley, Thomas, Leeds. Mayfield, Oldham, James, C.E., Austrian Cham- bers, Hull. O’Leary, Purcell, M.A., Sydney Place, Cork. Ormerod, Henry Mere, Clarence Street, Manchester. Ormerod, T. T., Brighouse near Halifax. Outram, Thomas, Greetland near Ha- lifax. Parkes, Alexander, 8 Bath Row, Bir- mingham. i} - ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 319 : Patterson, Andrew, Deaf and Dumb | Rogers, James E. Thorold, Professor of . School, Old Trafford, Manchester. Peach, Charles W., Custom House, Wick. _ Pengelly, William, F.G.S., Lamorna, Torquay. Percy, John, M.D., F.R.S., Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn Street, London, S.W. Perkins, Rev. George, St. James’s View, Dickenson Rd.,Rusholme, Manchester. Perring, John Shae, M.I.C.E., 104 King Street, Manchester. Pickstone, William, Radcliffe Bridge near Manchester. Pincoffs, Simon, Crumpsall Lodge, Cheet- ham Hill, Manchester. Procter, William, 24 Petergate, York. Purdy, Frederick, F.S.S., Principal of the Statistical Department of the Poor Law Board, London; Victoria Road, Kensington, London, W. Rafferty, Thomas, 13 Monmouth Terrace, Rusholme, Manchester. Ramsay, John, Kildalton, Argyleshire. Randall, Thomas (Mayor of Oxford), Grandpont House, Oxford. Rankin, Rev. Thomas, Huggate, York- shire. Rankine, W. J. Macquorn, C.E., LL.D., Professor of Engineering, F.R.S.L.&E., 59 St. Vincent Street, Glasgow. Ransome, Arthur, M.A., St. Peter’s Sq., Manchester. Reed, Edward James, 7 Adelphi Terrace, Strand, London, W.C. Reynolds, Richard, F.C.S., 13 Briggate, Leeds. Ricardo, David, 29 Piccadilly, London, W. Richardson, Charles, Almondsbury, Bris- tol. 3 Richardson, William, Greenacres Road, Oldham. Richson, Rev. Canon, M.A., Shakespeare Street, Ardwick, Manchester. Ridley, John, Stagshaw, Hexham. Ritchie, George Robert, 24 Stockwell Park Road, Stockwell, London, S. Roberton, James, Gorbals Foundry, Glasgow. Roberts, John, 101 Upper Parliament Street, Liverpool. Robinson, Enoch, Dukinfield, Cheshire. Robinson, John, Atlas Works, Man- chester. Robinson, Samuel, Wilmslow, Cheshire. Rofe, John, F.G.S., 15 Abbey Place, St. John’s Wood, London, N.W. Rogers, Professor H. D., The University, Glasgow. Economic Science and Statistics in King’s College, London. Rolleston, George, M.D., F.R.S., Lee’s Reader in Anatomy in the University of Oxford ; New Inn Hall St., Oxford. Ronalds, Francis, F.R.S. Rose, C. B., F.G.S., Great Yarmouth, Norfolk. Round, Daniel George, Hange Colliery near Tipton, Staffordshire. Routh, Edward J., M.A., St. Peter’s Col- lege, Cambridge. Rowan, David, St. Vincent Crescent,’ Glasgow. Saul, Charles J., Smedley Lane, Cheet- ham Hill, Manchester. Scott, Robert H., Trinity College, Dublin; 18 Ranelagh Road, Dublin. Scott, Rev. Robert S., M.A., 7 Beaufort Terrace, Cecil Street, Manchester. Sharp, Samuel, Dallington Hall, North- ampton. Shaw, Norton, M.D., Secretary to the Royal Geographical Society, London, 15 Whitehall Place, London, S.W. Shewell, John T., Rushmere, Ipswich. Siemens, C. William, F.R.S., 3 Great George Street, Westminster, S.W. Sleddon, Francis, 2 Kingston Terrace, Hull. Slesser, G. M., Queen’s College, Bel- fast. Sloper, George Elgar, jun., Devizes. Sloper, S. Elgar, Winterton near South- ampton. Smeeton, G. H., Commercial Street, Leeds. Smith, Brooke, Birmingham. Smith, Edward, M.D., F.R.S., 6 Queen Anne Street, London. Smith, Professor J., M.D., The Univer- sity, Sydney. Smith, Robert Angus, Ph.D., F.R.S., 20 Grosvenor Square, Manchester. Smith, William, C.E., F.C.S., 10 Salis- bury Street, Adelphi, London, W.C. Sorensen, Le Chevalier B., Norway. Spence, Peter, Pendleton Alum Works, Newton ‘Heath, Manchester. Spencer, John Frederick, Newcastle- upon- Tyne. Steinthal, H. M., Hollywood, Fallowfield near Manchester. Stevelly, John, LL.D., Professor of Na- tural Philosophy in Queen’s College, Belfast. Stewart, Balfour, F.R.S., Kew Observa- tory, Richmond, Surrey, S.W, 320 Stoney, Bindon B., M.R.I.A., 89 Wa- terloo Road, Dublin. Story, Jas.,17 Bryanston Sq., London, W. Stuart, William, 1 Rumford Place, Liver- pool. Stuart, W. D., Philadelphia. Symonds, Rey. W. S., F.G.S., Pendock Rectory, near Tewkesbury. Symons, G. J., 129 Camden Road Villas, London, N.W. Talbot, William Hawkshead, Southport, Lancashire. Teschemacher, E. F., 1 Highbury Park North, London, N. Thompson, George, jun., Pitmedden, Aberdeen. Thorburn, Rev. William Reid, M.A., Starkees, Bury, Lancashire. Townsend, William, Attleborough Hall near Nuneaton. Toynbee, Joseph, F.R.S., 18 Savile Row, Burlington Gardens, London, W. Tristram, Rev. H. B., M.A., F.L.S., Greatham Hospital, Stockton-on-Tees. Turnbull, John,. 276 George Street, Glasgow. Tuton, Edward S., Lime Street, Liverpool. Varley, Cornelius, 7 York Place, High Road, Kentish Town, London, N.W. Voelcker, J. Ch. Augustus, Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of Agricultural Chemistry, Royal Agricultural College, Ciren- cester. Waddingham, John, Guiting Grange, Winchcomb, Gloucestershire. Walker, Charles V., F.R.S., Fernside Villa, Red Hill near Reigate. Wallace, William, Ph.D., F.C.S., Che- mical Laboratory, 38 Bath Street, Glasgow. Walton, Rev. W., M.A., F.R.S., Great Moulton, Norfolk. Wardle, Thomas, Leek Brook, Leek, Staffordshire. Warington, Robert, F.C.S., Apothe- caries’ Hall, London, E,C. Watts, Sir James, Abney Hall, Cheadle near Manchester. ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. Watts, John King, F.R.G.S., St. Ives, Huntingdonshire. Webster, John, 42 King Street, Aber- deen. Webster, John, Broomhall Park, Shef- field. Weston, James Woods (Mayor of Sal- ford), Seedley House, Pendleton, Man- chester. Whitehead, James, M.D., 87 Mosley St., Manchester. Whitford,J.,Grecian Terrace, Harrington, * Cumberland. Wight, Robert, M.D., F.L.S., Grazeley Lodge, Reading. Wilde, Henry (Engineer), Manchester. Wilkinson, Robert, Totteridge Park, Herts. Williams, R. Price, 22 Ardwick Green, Manchester. Wilson, Alex. Stephen, Mains of Dyce, Dyce, Scotland. Wilson, George Daniel, 24 Ardwick Green, Manchester. Wilson, Thomas Bright, 24 Ardwick Green, Manchester. Wiltshire, Rev. Thomas, M.A., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., Rectory; Bread Street Hill, London, E.C. Wood, Samuel, F.S.A., The Abbey, Shrewsbury. Wood, William Rayner, Singleton Lodge near Manchester. Woodall, Captain John Woodall, F.G.S., St. Nicholas House, Scarborough. Woolley, Thomas Smith, South Colling- ham, Newark. . Worthy, George S., 32 Park Street, Bristol. Wright, E. Percival, M.A., M.B., ° M.R.I.A.,F.L.S., Lecturer on Zoology, University of Dublin; Museum, Tri- nity College, Dublin. Wright, Henry, Stafford House, Lon- don, S.W. Wright, Thomas, F.S.A., 14 Sydney St., Brompton, London, S.W. Yates, Edward, 30 Compton Terrace, Islington, London, N. Printed by Taylor and Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street. ie Js ts