car eel settee = a as ia ‘Ws ‘hina a n hy I } u 4 7 ie j . Act ema,” * | an é ae ; ‘ a i" ~ , vy ; LY . es * ie A by} AR j He A, sp | : y — ! ; it ry] Ph \ Daa Dea | \ f afb ) oy . sé be oie ; Vb Re eae ' ak | 4 eh F F] >) | Chas gece tit rer , iF ie ; D4 | Se ry | inde MY: aoe a J We fy) eet, 4 »! cL 3 j i thew ¥f ies My Py Kh, abeleies ey ae te 7 REPORT OF TILE THIRTY-FIFTH MEETING BRITISH ASSOCTATION ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE; TIELD AT BIRMINGHAM IN SEPTEMBER 1865. LONDON: JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 1866. PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLERT STREET. CONTENTS. nnn Oxssecrs and Rules of the Association............ 0.00. cece eee ivi Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement .............. EK SE es a > crags epm a kre.- tha WE ances ct XXV Members of Council from commencement .................2-005 XxXyl enna Connell, VSG65-66.) v0.5 oo ee ie geld icc we vias s XXX Oiicers of Sectional Committees ....... 2, 0.05008 n cer rageee ces XXx1 Pommeenenting Morabers 00.05.0600. 0004 pee See die ees ea es XXxil Report of the Council to the General Committee ................ XXXiil Report of the Kew Committee, 1864-65 .............. 0.02005. XxXxill Report of the Parliamentary Committee.....................00- XXX1X Recommendations of the General Committee for Additional Reports gum@mveseatchos im Beienge oe ete eee mune oumorey GIANG. 555). oer s vegies segs owe peas emeiess xliv General Statement of Sums paid on aecount.of Grants for Scientific Eo. Preis Seas ie de, eT eR as xlv Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee ............ 1 Arrangement of the General Meetings <1. 3................--- 1 Address of the President, Jonny Purztrps, ByeNe on Dual Amthmetic® . 2)... <<... otto cee») oh tee ws 6 Professor A. H. Curtis on certain Theorems in Laplace’s Discussion of the Figure of the Earth and Precession and Nutation ................0000- Rey. R. HarueEy on the Theory of Differential Resolvents................ Professor T. A. Htrst on Chasles’s Method of Characteristics on QtadreTranstormation =)... 2... ces See Dr. C. M. Inexresy on a Method of discovering Remainders in Arithmetical Division o': Ose) wee vb © Professor PLickER on a New Method in Geometry ...................... Professor Prick on the Extension of Taylor’s Theorem by the Method of De- rivations 2s 6 Owe ms aa 6 0 2s @ 8 eS 8 06,0 6 0 00 00 6 6 wb olen 2s 8 ove ce 0 810 0 0 o © ales ie sisie CONTENTS. vil ; P Mr. W. H. L. Russexx on the Calculation of the Potential of the Figure of 7 8 dine TROUT. on caBIG See isles ime ean. . Saas a prune Dr. SrEVELLY on the application of D’Alembert’s Principle to the Rotation of IS A Ao CR rnenOnnenbDe ning § uneiceitr in iaciinaradne Professor SYLVESTER on a Special Class of Questions on the Theory of Pro- MEME = sods cis cie)si cr coe ot le a RE SONG Sete ss oa ort eitele wena nosis — on Professor Price’s Modification of Arbogast’s Method LicHt. Mr. A. Cuavper on Moving Stance Figures, illustrating some Pheno- mena of Vision connected with the Combination of the Stereoscope and the Phenakistoscope by means of Photography...............eeeeeeeeeeeee Mr. F. Gatton on Spectacles for Divers, and on the Vision of Amphibious MUERTE Lee) oc ocaye clei at srayv sielcyh WaMtiets GVRGHE RAR hss a \alelevelsrar sd) dela vies s@ueletetaye Dr. J. H. GuapsTone on the Refractive Equivalent of Carbon ............ Mr. H. C. Sorsy on a New Form of Spectrum-Microscope..............45 Heat. Principal Forsxrs’s Experimental Inquiry into the Laws of the Conduction of Heat in Bars, and into the Conducting-Power of Wrought Iron.......... Mr. W. J. Macquorn RanxkrneE on the Second Law of Thermodynamics... . ELECTRICITY. Mr. W. Farrparren on India-Rubber and Gutta Percha as Insulators for Sub- Paminiowlelemta phic Caples... ct «). ojaie}= s:cra)eisie wise sbs\eisjauaheun elec eie teas ats Mr. J. P. Gasstor on the Change of Form and Colour which the Stratified Discharge assumes when a Varied Resistance is introduced in the Circuit of an Extended Series of the Voltaic Battery ............... 00 0c eee eens Mr. R. Saprne on a New Method, introduced by Messrs. Siemens, for the Megsnrement of Hlectrical Resistances......... 6.62.0 c seen eve mcie pp ee Captain SELWyn on some New Arrangements of the Poles of Magnets...... MerrroroLoey, Mr. F. W. Brearry’s Remarks upon Aérial Navigation, suggested by Mr. Glaisher's late Balloon Ascents ssc. 0050s ia ibn wold ee eas veld lbladiaaenls Mr. J. B. CarPetto on the Great Storm of December 1864, on the Coast of the acmamowlas $c. \sigh sie BEG a ee tue ap os sna iyee dhl sapatey vee ® eee eee et SEPARA sc aid SOS MR Wen RM. Nh es ee he tact bes ob uN dus) ae cd ti Mr. ALFRED Kryé on the Self-Registering Barometer at the Liverpool Obser- BGOL YY! ining + Bes Woe eR Se wied csc nti wip oo ssp op ce ae ene es tec aie oe Mr. A. Fottett Oster on an Anemometer for the Registration of Cyclones ematgr a rommeal Harr iagneitieg, srs ae iene sgh. fivip in (sic p'e\s ona ay veins po sey Mr. T. L. Puant on the Anomalies of our Climate ..........00.0eseeeees Mr. D. Smirx on the Meteorology of Birmingham ............6...eseeee Mr. J. B. Capetto and B. Stewart's ao aoe of the Magnetic Storm of the Beginning of August 1865, as recorded by the Self-recording Magneto- graphs at the Kew and Lisbon Observatories ...........-000ee eee eeeees Mr. W. Symons’s Improved Standard Barometer .........-2025e0eceeee 12 13 vill CONTENTS. Hyprostatics, Mr. L. OrRTLING on the Hydrometer and its Adaptation to the present re- quirements of the Board of Inland Revenue ........... io) ekate\s pleas iegetgiagate INSTRUMENTS. Mr. 8. B. Howxerr on a Self-recording Anemometer ........0+eseeereees Captain Lenpy on the Topograph, a new Surveying Instrument............ Mr. Cornetius Vartey on an Instrument by which any Rainbow that can possibly appear within the area of any picture, may be indicated in its right place and of the true size ........ sUs lates ¥ «folehs (eretloy ote aictoesiaksy de iaiaie Manish: CHEMISTRY. Address by Professor W. A. MitiEr, M.D., LL.D., Treas. & V.P.R.S., P.C.S., Premident of phe, SeCaweige nd ceneieins a i.e LTB ivy Ve deen SR OF Mr. F. A. ABEL’s Notes on Compounds of Copper and Phosphorus ........ Mr. H. Brrn’s observations on the Utilization of Sewage, as conducted at Stroud, and on the Growth of the Sewage Plant ............eseeeeeees Mr. J. C. Bowrine on the Preservation of the Sheathing of Ships, and Ex- traction of Silver from Sea- Water by means of Electricity ..........++64 on the Direction of the Electric Current ............. : Dr. CRacE-CALVERT on the Action of Acids on Metals and Alloys ........ Mr. T. Farrtry on the Reactions of Cyanogen. Note on Glycocine, with Perea sila Wineia a Teaeisl ss elake ais a iiRgMe ss eeie 65 snd b5.2.e8 clo > pELP Mp ele Mr. W. PENGELLY on the Insulation of St. Michael’s Mount in Cornwall.... Mr. Lovisonp Prercrvat on a Recent Example of the Formation of Pyrites in ¢ South Staffordshire Coal Pit... ...scececticssavetescustensbtocs Professor Puriires on Glacial Striation .......... Es PER Rn ret oeieehehe Rey. W. Purron on the Geology of Coalbrook Dale ............. ceca aee Mr. T. A. REapwrn on the Recent Discovery of Gold at Gwynfynydd, North Walos. Qin tine cee dvie's See rece veteevess Chis oO Gest eNeens Ok ee Mr. Grorcer E. Rosrrts’s Notes on the Theory of Repulsion as illustrative of Physical Geology propounded by Dr. Winslow of Boston.............4 Professor Frrp. RorMER on a Fossil Spider lately discovered in the Coal- measures ot Upper Silesia (Prussia)... 3... RAN A Oe es Mr iG. Ro RoMNEY on-2 Coal Rield in Brazil) .\ 5-525... 4.05.0 es Oooo Mr. J. W. SattrEer’s Explanation of a Map of the Faults in the Gold District ordolvelivs Tes iasmrrt necktie ros cece ss ctr ceed ta eee eee Mr. A. Srartrn on the Drift in the Parish of Exhall, North of Coventry.... Rey. W. 8S. Symonps on some Ancient Drifts and Old River Beds of Siluria Mr. J. E. Taytor on Contortions in the Chalk at Withingham, near Norwich Professor Tennant on the Agates found in England, with specimens from dif- erent COURMICR. cain KhW EAN nd > ah eee nh AGHA a coFeheWkevrs. sreVoK~/ ate BOER ‘age CONTENTS, Rey. J. D. La Toucue on the Nodules in the Limestone of Wenlock Edge. . Mr. C. Twamiry on the Faults in the South Staffordshire Coal Field, and their relation to the Igneous Rocks of the District...............00.000. Mr. Epwarp WuymMPreEr’s few Notes on the Structure of the Matterhorn... . Mr. W. Marrrev Wii11aMs on the ancient Glaciers North and East of Llan- gollen, and more particularly of the Neighbourhood of the Hope Mountain on some Vegetable Deposits in the Aachensee. . Mr. C. J. Woopwarp on a Deposit near Lilleshall, Salop, containing recent WinsHe SHELA His ee PEE ies CH. hfe res Ee TR che ods BOTANY ann ZOOLOGY, tnctuptne PHYSIOLOGY. Borany. Dr. CLEGHORN on the Deodar Forests of the Himalaya .......... Reinisiigy viet Mr. W. Hiern on Ranunculus radians (Revel) as a British Plant .......... Dr. W. Hinps on the Identity of Origin of Starch and Chlorophylle......., on a, Monstrosity of the Rose. 0.3.65 .icscscb ect ces aebendas Dr. W. Lauper Liypsay on the Relations of the Southern to the Northern BIST TOME Urea OB IMPC 4.1655. i el gncaud dio cisi men eie ead gait teeta SIT Grae Cl otle' oe ates Mr. E. J. Lowe on the Propagation of Ferns by means of Spores ........;. ZooLoey. Mr. Spence Bate and Professor WEstwoop on the Genus Anceus (Anceus ERIN D2 27:7 WENT C1) AOR Se Rial Ato a Ge Si See Oey Rae SRA ar Dr. P. P. CarPENTER on the regard due to Usage and Utility, as well as mere Priority in fixing Zoological Nomenclature Dr. Carte’s Notes on the Voracity of Chiasmodus ee re | ee ee a Dr. Epwarps Crisp on the Relative Weight of the Brain, and on the Exter- nal Form of this Organ, in relation to the Intelligence of the Animal...... ——_—___—_——— on the Food and Habits of the Mole, Sparrow, and of the "CE TTILEUTB: “0. ofcyeiieR Ee SRNR Re 2 ee, A ea ae RN cS AG ——_—_—__———— on the External Form of the Hand and Brain of the Res (SAGAEVT US) The kee AS FOSS SEN LET ES ooty tree Dr. Duncan’s Description of Two New Species of Aporose Madreporaria, from RAUSPHRON THe cierscaltsrsieleists HG Ne ER ad © Relates Sa ea. Obs Me UTA ER th ed Rey. F. HEwiett on the Occurrence of the Bones of Extinct Struthious Birds in New Zealand in the same Oven with those of the Dog...........5.... Mr. W. R. Hueues’s Notes on the Development of a Deep Sea Sponge .... Dr. G. M. Humpnry on the Homologies of the Lower Jaw, and the Bones connecting it with the Skull in Birds, Reptiles, and Fishes.............. Dr. Jorpan’s Examination of the British Lepidoptera, with a view to inves- Sreate the Origin, Of Speties oes sswsaws, weber seh valeleas or ga8saes%8 354% Sir Jonn Lussocx on the Transformations of Chloéon (Ephemera) dinudiatum Miss Inpy and Miss Mackenzie on the Characteristics of the South Sclavonic AEG UE AE) Pee es Ue OS Oe SOT de, Daly WOO Be ea els Rey. A. W. M°Kay on the Turdus migratorius ......ccccccc ce veteaseeees Mr. C. R. Marxnam on the Arctic Highlanders ............00.0c eee eee Dr. J. Morrat on Phosphorescence, Storms, and Disease.............+0045 xi Page 76 Xl CONTENTS. P Dr. Morcu on the Scope of Conchological Inquiries ..........00. ce eens te 91 ~ on the Classification of the Mollusea, ...........00seseeeesses 91 on the Zoological Affinities of the Mollusca ..............0005 91 Mr. Tuomas J. Moorr’s Remarks on some Improved Methods of Displaying Birds in Public Museums, illustrated by specimens from the Derby Museum Did Di Ghe 06) Lab on aio do cos D aoe pcecn GAO Aono paloniArigi: Obi Goan soto 92 Mr. Epwarp NEwrTon on a remarkable Discovery of Bones of Didus in the island jot VOM TACT Oz peters to).ds se acarars sisourltin cuss cls leleelateieue ese (ole Giaote te ree 92 Rey. A. M. Norman on the Structure and Development of Salpa spinosa, Otto, HS OUSLY CUlgecuin MOL CW yale varviateRetai che sitheladeieletels luvs, sie lied -eleis erate stent eyeereene 92 Dr. PripEAvx, Phrenology, or the Physiology of the Brain, the most impor- Le AG SMALL ST EIO PILI LOY. wapsrslalessfele.cystors)+, ster» ois st etelolsuers elejeiogel niseaeeeLtets 92 Dr. P. O’CaLraGHan’s Remarks on a curious preserved Specimen of the Black- LICL. Geen bo DRI, Bo ODO BNBN Goines 2500 CD MEDC MEERA OPP TE xcs oe 92 Dr. P. L, Scrater on the Birth of a young Hippopotamus in the Zoological Society siGandens at AMBstordaMI sii. oe) ones a cweleiee wisleie soi oten « sopiials 95 Dr. W. R. Scort on the Occurrence of Orcynus alalonga on the Coast of Devon 93 Mr. H. T, Srarnron on the extraordinary partiality shown by Insects of the Genus Laverna for Plants of the Order Onagrace@... 1... cece eeve ee neees 93 Rey. W. H. Sterxine on the Natives of Patagonia and Terra del Fuego.... 94 Mr. J. Torupp on the Domestication of certain Animals in England between thewseyenth and sbleventh (Centuries .).\.)2. sic ess vets) sels eo ale» eae meeiners 94 PuystoLoey. Address by Henry W. Acuanp, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Regius Professor of Medicine in the University of Oxford, President of the Subsection........ 94 DrBlnonnT Ss, BEATE On Wifes (\5(../5 2. etacta ele selvenereleis's sie atehe Meee 101 Dr. J, HucHEs Bennett on the Formation of Pus, in reference to the doc- trinetol © ell sPatholopiy eek. s'st.. soso o's capers toratele isha serena clele # aan Rea ea Ee 101 Dr. Copsoxp on Beef and Pork as Sources of Entozoa...........eeeeeeeee 102 ——’s Remarks on Specimens of Hntozoa ....... ccc eceee eeu eee 102 Dr. Joun Davy on the Effects of Scanty and Deficient Diet ............. . 102 Is the Opinion that a Diet of Animal Food conduces to Lean- mess) well toundedson Mache P11... , ss sls, setale ints ola leineetal tists et iene eee 104 Dr. W. DickEenson on the Functions of the Cerebellum ............0.+00: 106 Dr. Fremrne on the Prevalence of Tapeworm in Birmingham, and its Causes 106 Dr. A. GAMGEE on Experiments confirmatory of those of Kiihne on the Non- existenceof-Ammonialin Blood 5,-1.1, sk «sterieis teins aie be ele eee 107 Dr. GrorcE Duncan Grsp’s Refutation of the View recently propounded that the Food comes into contact with the Vocal Cords in Deglutition ........ 107 Dr. G. M. Humpury’s Remarks on the Skeleton of a Woman et. 104 ..... . 108 Dr. W. H. Licgurzopy on the Vascular Arrangements of the Cornea ...... 108 Professor MacDONALD on the Development of the Vascular System of the Foetus in the Vertebrata, with the view to determine the true course of the Circulation through the Veins and Arteries of the Human Feetus in utero.. 108 Dr. R. Norris, Rigor Mortis not Muscular Contraction ...............00- 109 Mr. Samurt H. Parkers on the Early Development of Organs in Embryonic MEAL OM sceltein tals acetal NG ala tectat 6, <. 5.6 «aps a3 + 9 ,0:07a\0 00a eee 109 CONTENTS. xlil Dr. RorzEsTon on certain Points in the Anatomy of Lumbricus terrestris. . 10 —_—_—— on certain Points in the Anatomy of Two Animals from the Mammoth Cave, Kentucky. ........ eee ce cere net e enna te rene ee nes 110 Dr. B. W. Rrcwarpson on certain Physiological Experiments with Ozone .. 110 Dr. SHeTTe’s few Remarks on the Causes of the Cattle Murrain.,........ 111 Mr. Wittram Turner on Variability as manifested in the Construction of the WTA BODY conc ence ene ns cee ence t te seen tnt ns cm tagesenesanoase GEOGRAPHY axp ETHNOLOGY. Mr. T. Barves on the Victoria Falls of the River Zambesi .....+.+-.+5++ 112 Letter from Mr. Samvrt Baker to Sir R. I. MURCHISON ......+-+0+ ++ es 112 Dr. C. Carter Buakn on certain Simious Skulls, with especial reference to a Skull from Louth, in Ireland .....- eee cece rece eee teen een eens 114 Mr. R. Brown’s Explorations in the Interior of Vancouver Island.......... 116 Mr. W. Cuanptess on the Ascent of the River Purus .......eeseeeeeees 116 Dr. CHarnock on the Origin of the Gipsies ......seeeeeeeee i abe ah hana teRe es 117 Dr. R. 8S. Cuarnock on Cannibalism in Europe ........ see eee e cree reese 117 Mr. J. CRAwFURD on the Oriental Negro... ese cee eee e cece renee eee nes 117 —___________— on the Physical and Mental Characteristics of the African or Occidental Negro .....e cece eee cece rete nena een erenes Galette iets ais 117 on Cannibalism in Relation to Ethnology .......+++++++ 118 Dr. Cunxen on the Isthmus of Panama and Inter-Oceanic Ship Canal Routes 118 on the Darien Indians .........scccceeceeseneececceseeeres 119 Mr. Ropert Duyn on the Influence of Civilization upon the Development of the Brain in the different Races of Man ..........eeeeeeeees aki dstape/entos 119 Mr. J. Evans on the Worked Flints of Pressigny le Grand........++s+ee0 120 Rev. Freperic W. Farrar on Language and Ethnology....... aisharoretetete 120 Mr. Gzorce Grove on the Exploration of the Holy Land, as proposed by the Palestine Exploration Fund ........sseseeeereeeeeetereeenrereenenes 121 Mr. D. Mackrnrosi on the Comparative Anthropology of England and Wales 122 Mr. C. R. Marxuam on North Polar Exploration. ........... esse eeeeeees 125 Capt. T. M°Nercx and Capt. Wixson’s Results of Surveys relating to the Water Supply of Jerusalem ...s.sse.eeee ainideLae Sd GUNGoO bbiot how .. 128 Dr. F. Mvgtier on M«Intryre’s Journey across Australia, and Discovery of Traces of Leichhardt ..........sseeeeeee Fae ask sen er bib a cisterns 124 Rear-Admiral Ommraney on Arctic Exploration .....sssee eee eerneeeeees 125 Lieut.-Col. Lewis Petry on the Seychelle Islands ...........4 esses cence 126 on the Shores of the Persian Gulf .,.,.......+.55 . 126 73 Notes on Arabia. ...00cs neces cceseesans coe cerns 126 on the Comoro Islands ..... Ae naO.Gncicrs| pte PERO 127 Col. Prayre on the Ethnology of the Hindti-Chinese Nations .........+-+ 128 Sir H. C. Rawnrnson’s Notes on the Russian Frontiers in Central Asia .... 128 Mr. A. Apams-Retity on a Recent Survey of the Chain of Mont Blanc .... 128 Professor STEENSTRUP and Sir J. Lupsock on the Flints of Pressigny le Grand 129 Mr, R. Swrxnor’s Notes on the Aborigines of Formosa pisses ereereeeees 129 xiv CONTENTS. P Mr. E. B. Tytor on the Negro-European Dialects of Surinam and Curagao.. 130 M. Vampiry on the Origin of the Hungarians ..........2+esereeeeeees sen 30 Dr. A. Vampeéry on the City Life of Bokhara ........:seeeseeeccresenes 131 Mr. Toomas Wricut on the true Assignation of the Bronze Weapons, &c., supposed to indicate a Bronze Age in Western and Northern Europe...... 131 ECONOMIC SCIENCE anv STATISTICS. Address by The Right Hon. Lord Sranuey, M.P., F.R.S., the President of HD SEUNG. SUBbn Do bo bdG450 0550 CODER DOS Mir TUM DOO mT G coon oss 131 Mr. W. B. Apams on the Division of Labour..............cccceeeeeneees 185 Mr. J. T. Antics on the Duration of Life, the Prevailing Diseases, and the Wanses of Denth of POLbets: *f ri. ve ce. soles oale bee 2 Hho cle sale or eiemnen are 135 Mr. Tuomas Avery on the Municipal Expenditure of the Borough of Bir- MPIMOGAM 5 cd ees oka s esate thet ese veceey ote beedebepuens s CemBmne 135 Rey. W. J. Barn on the Social, Educational, and Religious Position of the Working Population of South Staffordshire ......... cscs ese eee ees 140 Professor John H. Bennert’s Statistics of Pheumonia...........0eeeeeeee 144 Mr. J. Taackray Bunce on the Statistics of Crime in Birmingham, as com- matcdewanh oiler lanse TOWNS... ee gas nese es sas near sa eee 145 Mr. F, P. Fr~iows on the Practical Advantages of the Metric System of Siete teen e Weastitenge rr. clei s circ wletel= co arsie croc fis i cieiel ates telerst stele arnenetete 147 Mr. G. B. Gattoway on Intercommunication between Railway Passengers.. 150 —________——— on the Means of saying Life from Buildings which may 5) OD LENE. Algo ping OOD COMO EREU TE COO GRU OU ROR atic. Oils de Sino dias «sate 150 —____—____——’s Suggested Improvements applicable to the City of London and other large Towns, to improve Health and preserve Life .... 150 ’ Mr. J. D. Goopman, Statistics of the Small Arms Manufacture of Birming- DEON CUR RSG Rk kk ok so RR I ee oO hehe tela kts co. 150 Mr. Atrrep H111, Statistics of the Post-Office Savings’ Banks ............ 152 Mr. G. J. Jonson, Statistics of the Benefit Building and Freehold Land ; Pocetes of Birmingham, ..vis csi cvs ssc rsd vs cw were ese bcp eels Be RB 154 Professor LronxE Levy, Statistical Data in relation to the Representation of BheMeOple sie). sie ny cles co's sos as sieihale wee ip ee pe ET mecttelemise lel SRR 154 Dr. T. pr Mescutn on the proposed Extension of Government Administration POMEL ELMVAIVE ooo) ¢.s1a« pols ©ic'e aie t-sys. vie eisie aise eis peo ech ee 154 Mr. D. Morris on the Past and Present Productive Power of Cotton Ma- WADED Virals oie gus. gicic ee 'e es 0:0 see sie eis sis. net are Gee Ee peep DD Professor RoGErs on Patents and Copyrights........ceeseeescescccsevses 155 Mr. Henry C. Roper on the Physical and Geographical Features of the Country ten miles round Dudley, with remarks upon the natural drainage area, as they bear upon the Sanitary Condition of the district ............ 155 Mr. W. L. Sareant on the Vital Statistics of Birmingham, and seven other MOWNS sis cetcveves Bials Wola sit.ohe A ORee hE est Sie S eT VeN Sve ee ee 155 Mr. E. Vivian on the Admission of Iegitimate Children into Workhouses, as a moans.of preventing: Infanticide 5...» < +05 09s shapewccacpeehe® 156 Mr. R. Wukinson’s Statistical Review of the Police-recognized Drunkenness BE EO NINES ees cin c's icate vos ives sae 12s R Ee aaa é bus 156 Mr. James Yares on Mural Standards for exhibiting the Measures of Length legalized in the United Kingdom ..............0008 UR ati enw ae CONTENTS. XV Pag Dr. Leone Lev, Statistical Data in Relation to the Representation of the Paiyl@ oop dce eco D EDO ORDER SOBODGCDOODSESORO: aduddnc sucha Stirs, ai: MECHANICAL.SCIENCE. Address by Sir W. Armstrone, K.C.B., F.R.S., President of the Section .. 164 Sir W. G. AnmsTRONG on Chain-testing Machines ...,.....-..eeeeeeeeee 165 Mr. Henry BesseMER on the Manufacture of Cast Steel, its Progress, and Employment as a Substitute for Wrought Iron ............0 esse eee eee 165 Mr. F. I. Bramwett on Weldless Tyres, Circular Rolling, and Railway HEI. 96 Se Cad BOS pObeni0 been poorer Sind HnodOb.onGoruaOcnn ta’ 173 General Sir J. F. Burgoyne on Railways in War ...........ceeeeeeeeee 173 MraG. BuRT ons Pneumatic Hammer .. 0.05.00 0.cscssessccecessvecece 175 Mr. D. K. Crarxk on Torbite (a new Preparation of Peat) and its Uses...... 175 Mr. J. M. Crements on a Machine for stitching Button-holes ............ 176 Mr. E. A. CowPer on a new Cotton Gin for separating Cotton Fibre from the . @ 2. GHog pp BBDOOORODBEnsar Wha 3 8 SeRersooce coponco ence enn. 176 —— - on the Effect of Blowing Blast Furnaces with Blast of very Mee P CMM ORACUEOS 21-15). 66.4 6 ok ale sence easieciepe teow ne ne sesct neces: 177 Mr. S. N. F. Cox on Siemens’s Regenerative Gas-Furnaces and Producers .. 177 Mr. Wri11am Farrparen on some of the Causes of the Failure of Deep-sea Cables, and Experimental Researches on the Permanency of their Insulators 178 Mr. GrorGE Fawcus’s Suggestions for Improvements in Blocks for Lowering Ships’ Boats, and for Improvements in Boats ............0esseeeeeeeees Mr. Natu. J. Hotmes on District Private Telegraphs ..........000eeeeeee 184 My. W. Hooper on the Applicability of India-rubber as an Insulator for Tele- aR IGACLOLONIEHOTS 52518 9 oxi. torkolcnsieicle 2 DR) +. ZiT, o.o,elaj gue S\0, 0.0 syepdya lores cabbies 184 My. T. Levick on Machinery for Compressing Air, and the Applicability of such Compressed Air for working Coal-cutting and other Underground Mr A Stocco c's ci Sieg «hls so nate A eceks' ec, s Sysinhlela ec ojsiaek ss 185 Mr. J. Ropinson on some Developments of and Improvements in Giffard’s Tee OR RBS Ra ae A Ae ee ea 186 Mr. C. W. Stemens on the Outer Covering of Deep-sea Cables .........+.. 187 Mr. W. Stssons’s description of a Patent Steam Pile-Driver ....... spiaietiit a 190 Mr, B. Sarr on Warming, Lighting, and Ventilating the Birmingham Town VL peal cana st eae CbiceBiong cx. orion taco ks OogIOKN 190 List of Papers of which Abstracts have not been received ..........00e008 191 ERRATA. In the present volume. Reports, page 72. Column 7. Position, &e. :— 17th line from bottom, for } read e. 13th 2 5 for Lreadyp. 11th A s; for «read 7. 6th Bs oi for 30° read 3°. 5th * » for 8. of Cassiopeize read §. of a Cassiopeix. Sections, page 62, line 1, for Glyptolepis beds read Caithness Flags. In the volume for 1864. Sections, page 20,17 lines from bottom, for The time the sound takes vead The time the electric current takes. Sections, page-188, line 1, for 0:5 read 0:05. OBJECTS AND RULES THE ASSOCIATION. a OBJECTS. Tur Assocratton contemplates no interference with the ground occupied by other institutions. Its objects are,—To give a stronger impulse and a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire, with one an- other, and.with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress. RULES, ADMISSION OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES. All persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to be- come Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to con- form to its Rules. The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical So- cieties publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Members of the Association. The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees, of Philosophical Institutions, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem- bers of the Association. All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Council or Managing Committee, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem- bers of the Association. Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the General Committee or Council, to become Life Members of the Association, Annual Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the approval of a General Meeting. COMPOSITIONS, SUBSCRIPTIONS, AND PRIVILEGES. Lire Memerrs shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be pub- lished after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the offices _ of the Association. rs Awynvat Susscrisers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds, and in each following year the sum of One Pound. They shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this Subscription in any particu- lar year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and all future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association gratis : but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any sub- sequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the sum of One Pound. They are eligible to all the Offices of the Association. AssocratEs for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound. They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be cee to serye on Committees, or to hold any office. 1865, b Xxvlil RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. The Association consists of the following classes :— 1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid on admission Five Pounds as a composition. 2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on ad- mission Ten Pounds as a composition. 3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to the payment of One Pound annually. [May resume their Membership after in- termission of Annual Payment. | 4. Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the pay- ment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each following year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of Annual Pay- ment. Oo. tie for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound. 6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council. And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’) price, according to the following specification, viz. :— 1. Gratis.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo- sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845, a further sum of Five Pounds. New Life Members who haye paid Ten Pounds as a compo- sition. Annual Members who haye not intermitted their Annual Sub- scription. 2, At reduced or Members’ Prices, viz. two-thirds of the Publication Price.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a composition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a Book Subscription. Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Subserip- tion. Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the yolume for that year only. ] 3 Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any of the first seventeen volumes of Transactions of the Associa- tion, and of which more than 100 copies remain, at one-third of the Publication Price. Application to be made (by letter) to Messrs. Taylor & Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet St., London, Subscriptions shall be receiyed by the Treasurer or Secretaries. MEETINGS. The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General ‘Committee at the pre- vious Meeting ; and the Arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Officers of the Association. GENERAL COMMITTEE. The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the following persons ;— 1. Presidents and Officers for the present and preceding years, with authors of Reports in the Transactions of the Association. 2. Members who have communicated any Paper to a Philosophical Society, which has been printed in its Transactions, and which relates to such subjects as are taken into consideration at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. Xix 3. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, altogether not exceed- ing three in number, from any Philosophical Society publishing Transactions. 4, Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, not exceeding three, from Philosophical Institutions established in the place of Meeting, or in any place where the Association has formerly met. 5. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and who are specially nominated in writing for the Meeting of the year by the Presi- dent and General Secretaries. 6. The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the Sections are ex-officio members of the General Committee for the time being. SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. The General Committee shall appoint, at each Meeting, Committees, con- sisting severally of the Members most conversant with the several branches of Science, to advise together for the advancement thereof. The Committees shall report what subjects of investigation they would particularly recommend to be prosecuted during the ensuing year, and brought under consideration at the next Meeting, The Committees shall recommend Reports on the state and progress of particular Sciences, to be drawn up from time to time by competent persons, for the information of the Annual Meetings. COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS, The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Comthittee, which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science. All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re- searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects, shall be submitted to the Com- mittee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the General Committee, unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recom- mendations. LOCAL COMMITTEES. Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings. Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those Members of the Associatién whose assistance they may desire, OFFICERS, A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries, and a Treasurer, shall be annually appointed by the General Committee. COUNCIL, In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the Meeting. PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS, é The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve his right of property therein. ACCOUNTS. 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II. Table showing the Names of Members of the British Association who have served on the Council in former years, Aberdeen, Earl of, LL.D., K.G., K.T., F.R.S. (deceased). Acland, Sir T. D., Bart., M.A.,D.C.L.,F.B.S. Acland, Professor H. W., M.D., F.R.S. Adams, Prof. J. Couch, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. Adamson, John, Hsq., F.L.S. Adderley, The Right Hon. O.B., M.P. Ainslie, Rev. Gilbert, D.D., Master of Pem- broke Hall, Cambridge. Airy,G.B.,M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Astr. Royal. Alison, ProfessorW. P.,M.D.,F.R.S.E. (dec‘). Allen, W. J. C., Esq. Anderson, Prof. Thomas, M.D. Ansted, Professor D. T., M.A., F.R.S. Argyll, G. Douglas, Duke of, F.R.S. L. & E. Armstrong, Sir W. G., F.R.S. Arnott, Neil, M.D., F.R.S. Ashburton, William Bingham, Lord, D.C.L. (deceased). Atkinson, Rt. Hon. R., late Lord Mayor of Dublin. Babbage, Charles, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. Babington, Professor C. C., M.A., F.R.S. Baily, Francis, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). Baines, Rt. Hon. M. T., M.A., M.P. (dec*). Baker, Thomas Barwick Lloyd, Esq. Balfour, Professor John H., M.D., F.R.S. Barker, George, Hsq., F.R.S. (deceased). Bath, The Most Noble the Marquis of. Bath, The Venerable the Archdeacon of. Beamish, Richard, Esq., F.R.S. Beechey, Rear-Admiral, F.R.S. (deceased). Bell, Isaac Lowthian, Esq. Bell, Professor Thomas, V.P.L.S., F.R.S. Bengough, George, Esq. Bentham, George, Esq., Pres.L.8. Biddell, George Arthur, Esq. Bigge, Charles, Esq. Blakiston, Peyton, M.D., F.R.S. Boileau, Sir John P., Bart., F.R.S. Boyle, Right Hon. D., Lord Justice-General . (deceased). Brady, The Rt. Hon. Maziere, M.R.1.A., Lord Chancellor of Ireland. Brand, William, Esq. Breadalbane, John, Marquis of, K.T., F.R.S. (deceased). Brewster, Sir David, K.H., D.C.L., LL.D., E.RS. L. & E., Principal of the Uni- versity of Edinburgh. Brisbane, General Sir Thomas M., Bart., K.C.B., G.C.H., D.C.L., F-R.S. (dec®). Brodie, Sir B. C., Bart., D.C.L., P.R.S. (deceased). Brooke, Charles, B.A., F.R.S. Brown, Robert, D.C.L., F.R.8. (deceased). Brunel, Sir M. I., F.R.S. (deceased). Buckland, Very Rev. William, D.D., F.R.S., Dean of Westminster (deceased). Bute, John, Marquis of, K.T. (deceased). Carlisle, G. W. Fred., Earl of, F.R.S. (dec*). Carson, Rey. Joseph, F.T.C0.D. Cathcart, Lt.-Gen., Earlof, K.C.B., F.R.S.E. (deceased). Challis, Rev. J., M.A., F.R.S. Chalmers, Rey. T., D.D, (deceased). Chance, James, Esq. Chance, J. T., Esq. Chester, John Graham, D.D., Lord Bishop of (deceased). Chevallier, Rey. Temple, B.D., F.R.A.S. Christie, Professor 8. H., M.A., F.R.S. (dec*). Clapham, R. C., Esq. Clare, Peter, Esq., F.R.A.S. (deceased). Clark, Rev. Prof., M.D., F.R.S. (Cambridge.) Clark, Henry, M.D. Clark, G. T., Esq. Clear, William, Esq. (deceased). Clerke, Major 8., K.H., R.E., F.R.S. (dec*). Clift, William, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). Close, Very Rey. F., M.A., Dean of Carlisle. Cobbold, John Chevalier, Esq., M.P. Colquhoun, J. C., Esq., M.P. (deceased). Conybeare, Very Rey. W. D., Dean of Llan- daff (deceased). Cooper, Sir Henry, M.D. Cork and Orrery, The Rt. Hon. the Earl of, Lord-Lieutenant: of Somersetshire. Corrie, John, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased), Crum, Walter, Esq., F.R.S. Currie, William Wallace, Esq. (deceased). Dalton, John, D.C.L., F.R.S. (deceased). Daniell, Professor J. F., F.R.S. (deceased), Darbishire, R. D., Esq., B.A., F.G.S. Dartmouth, William, Earl of, D.O,L., F.R.S. Darwin, Charles, Hsq., M.A., F.R.S. Daubeny, Prof. C. G. B., M.D.,LL.D., F.R.S. DelaBeche, Sir H. T., C.B., ¥.R.8., Director- Gen. Geol. Surv. United Kingdom (dec*). De la Rue, Warren, Ph.D., F.R.S8. Derby, Earl of, D.C.L., Chancellor of the University of Oxford, Dévonshire, W.,Duke of, M.A.,D.C.L.,F.B.S. Dickinson, Francis H., Esq. Dickinson, Joseph, M.D., F.R.S. Dillwyn, Lewis W., Hsq., F.R.S. (deceased). Donkin, Professor W. F., M.A., F.R.S, Drinkwater, J. E., Esq. (deceased). Ducie, The Earl of, F.R.8. Dudley, The Right Hon. the Earl of. Dunraven, The Earl of, F.R.S. Egerton,Sir P. de M. Grey, Bart.,M.P.,F.RB.S. , ad MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. Eliot, Lord, M.P. Ellesmere, Francis, Earl of, F.G.S8. (dec*). Enniskillen, William, Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S. Estcourt, T, G. B., D.C.L. (deceased). Eyans, The Rey. Charles, M.A. Fairbairn, William, LL.D., C.E., F.R.S. Faraday, Professor, D.C.L., F.R.S8. Ferrers, Rey. N. M., M.A. FitzRoy, Rear-Admiral, F.R.S. (deceased). Fitzwilliam, The Earl, D.C.L., F.R.S. (dec*). Fleming, W., M.D. Fletcher, Bell, M.D. Foote, Lundy E., Esq. Forbes, Charles, Esq. (deceased). Forbes, Prof. Edward, F.R.S. (deceased). Forbes, Prof. J. D., LL.D., F.RB.S.,Sec. R.S8.E., Principal of University of St. Andrews, Fox, Robert Were, Esq., F.R.S. _ Frost, Charles, F.S.A. Fuller, Professor, M.A. Galton, Francis, F.R.S., F.G.S. Gassiot, John P., Hsq., F.R.S. Gilbert, Davies, D.C.L., F.R.S. (deceased). Gladstone, J. H., Ph.D., F.R.S. Goodwin, The Very Rev. H., D.D., Dean of Ely. valea William, Esq. (deceased). Graham, T., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Master of the Mint. Gray, John H., Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S. Gray, Jonathan, Esq. (deceased), Gray, William, Esq., F.G:S. Green, Prof. Joseph Henry, D.C.L., F.R.S. (deceased). Greenough, G. B., Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). Griffith, George, M.A., F.C.S. Griffith, Sir R. Griffith, Bt., LL.D., M.R.1.A. Grove, W. R., Esq., M.A., F.R.S. Hallam, Henry, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. (dec4), Hamilton, W. J., Esq., F.R.S., Sec. G:S. Hamilton, Sir Wm. R., LL.D., Astronomer Royal of Ireland, M.R.I.A., F.R.A.S. (deceased). Hancock, W. Neilson, LL.D. Harcourt, Rev. Wm. Vernon, M.A., F.R.S. Hardwicke, Charles Philip, Earl of, F.R.S. Harford, J. 8., D.C.L., F.R.S, Harris, Sir W. Snow, F.R.S. Harrowby, The Earl of, F.R.S. Hatfeild, William, Esq., F.G.S. (deceased). Henry, W. C., M.D., F-.RB.S. Henry, Rey. P.8., D.D., President of Queen’s College, Belfast. Henslow, Rey. Professor, M.A., F.L.S. (dec*). Herbert, Hon. and Very Rey, Wm., LL.D., F.L.S., Dean of Manchester (dec*). Hereford, The Very Rey. the Dean of. Herschel, Sir John F.W., Bart., M.A., D.C.L., E.R.S Heywood, Sir Benjamin, Bart. F.R.S. (deceased). Heywood, James, Esq., F.R.S. Hill, Rey. Edward, M.A., F.G-S. Hincks, Rev. Edward, D.D., M.R.I.A. Hincks, Rey. Thomas, B.A. XXVI1l Hinds, §., D.D., late Lord Bishop of Norwich (deceased). Hodgkin, Thomas, M.D. Hodgkinson, Professor Eaton, F.R.S. (dec4), Hodgson, Joseph, Esq., F.R.S. Hogg, John, Esq., M.A., F.L.S. Hooker, Sir William J., LL.D., F.R.S. (deceased). Hope, Rey. F. W., M.A., F.R.S. (deceased.) Hopkins, William, Esq., M.A., LL.D., F.R.8. Horner, Leonard, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased), Houghton, Lord, D.C.L. Hoyenden, V. F., Hsq., M.A. Hugall, J. W., Esq. Hunt, Aug, H., Esq., B,A., Ph.D. Hutton, Robert, Esq., F.G.S. Hutton, William, Esq., F.G.S. (deceased). Ibbetson,Capt.L. L. Boscawen, K.R.E.,F.G.S8. Inglis, Sr R. H., Bart, D.C,L., MP. (deceased). Inman, Thomas, M.D. Jacobs, Bethel, Esq. Jameson, Professor R., F.R.S. (deceased), Jardine, Sir William, Bart., F.R.S.E. Jeffreys, John Gwyn, Esq., F.R.S. Jellett, Rev. Professor. Jenyns, Rev. Leonard, F.L.S. Jerrard, H. B., Esq. Jeune, The Right Rey. F., D.C.L. Johnston, Right Hon. William, late Lord Provost of Edinburgh, Johnston, Prof. J. F. W., M.A., F.R.S. (dee*). Keleher, William, Esq. (deceased), Kelland, Rey. Prof. P., M.A., F.R.S. L. & BE. Kildare, The Marquis of. Lankester, Edwin, M.D., F.R.S. Lansdowne, Hen., Marquis of, D.C.L.,F.R.S. (deceased). Larcom, Major, R.E., LL.D., F.R.8. Lardner, Rey. Dr. (deceased). Lassell, William, Esq., F.R.S. L. & E. Latham, R. G., M.D., F.R.S. Lee, Very Rey. John, D.D., F.R,S.E., Prin- cipal of the University of Edinburgh (deceased). Lee, Robert, M.D., F.R.S. Leigh, The Right Hon. Lord. Lefevre, Right Hon. Charles Shaw, late Speaker of the House of Commons. Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., F.R.S. Lichfield, The Right Hon. the Harl of. Liddell, Andrew, Esq. (deceased). Liddell, Very Rev. H. G., D.D., Dean of Christ Church, Oxford, Lindley, Professor John, Ph,D., F.R.S. (deceased). Listowel, The Earl of, Liveing, Prof. G. D., M.A., F.C.S8. Lloyd, Rey. B., D.D., Provost of Trin, Coll., Dublin (deceased). Lloyd, Rev. H., D.D., D.C.L., F.R,8, L.&E., M.R.I.A. Londesborough, Lord, F.R,S. (deceased). Lubbock, Sir John W,, Bart., M.A., F.R.S. (deceased). XXVH1 Luby, Rev. Thomas. ; Lyell, Sir Charles, Bart., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., E.R.S Lyttelton, The Right Hon. Lord. MacCullagh, Prof., D.C.L., M.R.1.A. (dec). MacDonnell, Rev. R., D.D., M.R.1.A., Pro- vost of Trinity College, Dublin. Macfarlane, The Very Rey. Principal. (dec*). MacGee, William, M.D. ‘MacLeay, William Sharp, Esq., F.L.S. MacNeill, Professor Sir John, F.R.S. Malahide, The Lord Talbot de. Malcolm, Vice-Ad. Sir Charles, K.C.B. (dec*). Maltby, Edward, D.D., F.R.S., late Lord Bishop of Durham (deceased). Manchester, J. P. Lee, D.D., Lord Bishop of. Marlborough, Duke of, D.C.L. Marshall, J. G., Esq., M.A., F.G:S. “May, Charles, Esq., F.R.A.S. (deceased). Meynell, Thomas, Hsq., F.L.S. Middleton, Sir William F. F., Bart. Miller, Prof. W. A., M.D., Treas. & V.P.R.S. Miller, Professor W. H., M.A., For. Sec.R.8. Moggridge, Matthew, Esq. Moillet, J. D., Esq. (deceased). Monteagle, Lord, F.R.S. (deceased). Moody, J. Sadleir, Esq. Moody, T. F., Esq. Moody, T. H. C., Esq. Morley, The Earl of (deceased). Moseley, Rev. Henry, M.A., F.R.S. Mount-Edgecumbe, ErnestAugustus, Karl of. Murchison, Sir Roderick I., Bart., G.C. St.S., D.C.L., LL.D., F.B.S8. Neild, Alfred, Esq. Neill, Patrick, M.D., F.R.S.E. Nelson, The Rt. Hon. Earl Nicol, D., M.D. Nicol, Professor J., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Nicol, Rev. J. P., LL.D. Noble, Capt. A., R.A. Northampton, Spencer Joshua Alwyne, Mar- quis of, V.P.R.S. (deceased). Northumberland, Hugh, Duke of, K.G.,M.A., F-.R.S. (deceased). Ormerod, G. W., Esq., M.A., F.G:S. Orpen, Thomas Herbert, M.D. (deceased). Orpen,’ John H., LL.D. Osler, Follett, Esq., F.R.S. Owen, Prof., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. Oxford, Samuel. Wilberforce, D).D., Lord Bishop of, F.R.S., F.G.S8. Palmerston, Visc., K.G.,G.C.B., M.P., F.R.S. (deceased). Peacock, Very Rey. G., D.D., Dean of Ely, F.R.S. (deceased). Peel, Rt.Hon.Sir R.,Bart..M.P.,D.C.L.(dec*), Pendarves, E. W., Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). Phillips, Professor John, M.A., LL.D.,F.R.S. Phillips, Rey. G., B.D., President of Queen’s College, Cambridge. Pigott, The Rt. Hon. D. R., M.R.1.A., Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer in Ireland. “Porter, G. R., Esq. (deceased). Portlock, Major-General,R:E.,LL.D., F.R.S. (deceased). REPORT—1865. Portman, The Lord. Powell, Rey. Professor, M.A., F.R.S. (dec"), Price, Rey. Professor, M.A., F.R.S. Prichard, J. C., M.D., F.R.S. (deceased). Ramsay, Professor William, M.A. Ransome, George, Esq., F.L.S. Reid, Maj.-Gen. Sir W., K.C.B., R.E., F.R.S. (deceased). Rendlesham, Rt. Hon. Lord, M.P. Rennie, George, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). Rennie, Sir John, F.R.S. Richardson, Sir John, C.B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (deceased). Richmond, Duke of, K.G., F.R.S. (dec?). Ripon, Earl of, F.R.G.S. Ritchie, Rey. Prof., LL.D., F.R.8. (dec*). Robinson, Capt., R.A. Robinson, Rev. J., D.D. Robinson, Rey. T. R., D.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S8. Robison, Sir John, See. R.S.Edin. (deceased). Roche, James, Esq. Roget, Peter Mark, M.D., F-R.S. Rolleston, Professor, M.D., F.R.S. Ronalds, Francis, F.R.S. Roscoe, Professor H. E., B.A., F.R.S. Rosebery, The Earl of, K.T., D.C.L., F.R.S. Ross, Rear-Admiral Sir J. C., R.N., D.C.L., F-.R.S. (deceased). Rosse, Wm., Earl of, M.A., F.R.S., M.R.1.A. Royle, Prof. John F., M.D., F.R.S. (dec*). Russell, James, Esq. (deceased). Russell, J. Scott, Esq., F.R.S. Sabine, Lieut.-GeneralHdward,R.A., D.C.L., LL.D., President of the Royal Society. Sanders, William, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S. Scholefield, William, M.P. Scoresby, Rev. W., D.D., F-R.S. (deceased). ‘Sedgwick, Rey. Prof., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S8. Selby, Prideaux John, Esq., F.R.S.E. Sharpey, Professor, M.D., Sec.R.8. Sims, Dillwyn, Esq. Smith, Lieut.-Col. C. Hamilton, F.R.S.(dec4). Smith, Prof. H. J. 8., M.A., F.R.S. Smith, James, F.R.S. L. & E. Spence, William, Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). Spottiswoode, W., M.A., F.R.S. Stanley, Edward, D.D., F.R.S., late Lord Bishop of Norwich (deceased). Staunton, Sir G. T., Bt., M.P., D.C.L., F.B.S. St. David's, C.Thirlwall, D.D.,LordBishop of. Stevelly, Professor John, LL.D: Stokes, Professor G.G.,M.A.,D.C.L.,Sec. B.S. Strang, John, Esq., LL.D. Strickland, Hugh E., Esq., F.R.S. (deceased). Sykes, Colonel W. H., M.P., F.R.S. Symonds, B. P., D.D., Warden of Wadham College. Oxford. Talbot, W. H. Fox, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. Tayler, Rev. John James, B.A. Taylor, Hugh, Esq. Taylor, John, Hsq., F.R.S. (deceased). Taylor, Richard, Esq., F.G.S. Thompson, William, Esq., F.1.S. (deceased). Thomson, A., Esq. Thomson, Professor William, M.A., F.R.S. Tindal, Captain, R.N. (deceased). MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. XX1x Tite, William, Esq., M.P., F.R.S. Tod, James, Hsq., F.R.S.E. Tooke, Thomas, F.R.S. (deceased). Traill, J. S., M.D. (deceased). Trevelyan, Sir W. C., Bart. Turner, Edward, M.D., F.R.S. (deceased). Turner, Samuel, Hsq., F.R.S., F.G.S. (dec*). Turner, Rev. W. Tyndall, Professor John, FE.R.S. Vigors, N. A., D.C.L., F.L.S. (deceased). Vivian, J. H., M.P., F.R.S. (deceased). Walker, James, Esq., F.R.S. Walker, Joseph N., Esq., F.G-S. Walker, Rev. Professor Robert, M.A., F.R.S. ~ (deceased). Warburton, Henry, Esq.,M.A., F.R.S.(dec*). Ward, W. Sykes, Esq., F.C.S. Washington, Captain, R.N., F.R.S. Way, A. E., Esq., M.P. Webster, Thomas, M.A., F.R.S. West, William, Hsq., F.R.S. (deceased). Western, Thomas Burch, Esq. Wharncliffe, John Stuart, Lord, F.R.S.(dec*). Wheatstone, Professor Charles, F.R.S. Whewell, Rey. William, D.D., F.R.S., Master of Trinity College, Cambridge. (dec*). White, John F., Esq. Williams, Prof. Charles J. B., M.D., F.R.S. Willis, Rev. Professor Robert, M.A., F.R.S. Wills, William, Esq., F.G.S. (deceased). Wilson, Thomas, Esq., M.A. Wilson, Prof. W. P. Winchester, John, Marquis of. Wood, Nicholas, Esq. (deceased). Woollcombe, Henry, Esq., F.S.A. (deceased). Worcester, The Rt. Rey. the Lord Bishop of. Wrottesley, John, Lord, M.A.,D.C.L., F.R.S. Yarborough, The Earl of, D.C.L. Yarrell, William, Esq., F.L.S. (deceased). Yates, James, Hsq., M.A., F.R.S. Yates, J. B., Esq., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. (dec). OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1865-66. TRUSTEES (PERMANENT). Sir RopERick I. Murcuison, Bart., K.C.B., G.C.St.8., D.C.L., F.R.S. - Lieut.-General EDWARD SABINE, R.A., D.C.L., Pres. B.S. Sir PuHiuir DE M. GREY EGERTON, Bart., M.P., F.R.S. PRESIDENT. JOHN PHILLIPS, Esq., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.8., Professor of Geology in the University of Oxford. VICE-PRESIDENTS. : The Right Hon. The EArt oF Licurie tp, Lord- |The Right Reverend The Lorp BisHop or Wor- Lieutenant of Staffordshire. CESTER. The Right Hon. The EARL oF DUDLEY. The Right Hon. C. B. ADDERLEY, M.P. The Right Hon. Lorp Le1GH, Lord-Lieutenant of | WILLIAM SCHOLEFIELD, Hsq., M.P. Warwickshire. J. T. CHANCE, Esq., M.A. The Right Hon. Lorp Lyrrenton, Lord-Lieute- | F. OSLER, Esq., F.R.S. nant of Worcestershire. The Rey. CHARLES Evans, M.A. The ight Hon. LorD WRorTESLEY, M.A., D.C.L., E.R.S., F.R.A.S. PRESIDENT ELECT. WILLIAM R. GROVE, Esq., Q.C., M.A., F.R.8. VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT. His Grace The DuKkre oF DEVONSHIRE, Lord- | The Rt. Hon. J. E. Dentson, M.P. . Lieutenant of Derbyshire. J.C. WEBB, Esq., High-Sheriff of Nottinghamshire. His Grace The DUKE OF RUTLAND, Lord-Lieute- | THOMAS GRAHAM, Esq., F.R.S., Master of the Mint. nant of Leicestershire. JosEPH Hooker, M.D., D.C.L., F.B.S8., F.L.S. The Rt. Hon. LorD BELPER, Lord-Lieutenant of | Jonn RusSELL Hinps, Hsq., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Nottinghamshire. T. CLOSE, Esq. LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT NOTTINGHAM. Dr. ROBERTSON. Epwarp J. Low®;, Esq., F.R.A.S., F.L.8. The Rey. J. F. M‘CaLyan, M.A. 7 LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT NOTTINCHAM. I. E. WRIGHT, Esq. ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. BaBInGTOoN, Prof. C. C., F.R.S. ODLING, WILLIAM, Esq., M.B., F.R.S. BatEMAN, J. F., Esq., F.R.S. PRICE, Professor, M.A., F.R.S. CRAWFURD, JOHN, Esq., F.R.S. ScLaTER, P. L., Esq., F.R.S. DE LARUE, WARREN, Esq., F.R.S. SmyTH, Prof. WARRINGTON, F.R.S. Foster, PETER LE NEVE, Esq. STANLEY, Rt. Hon. Lord, M.P., F.R.S. Gatton, Capt. DouGuas, R.E., F.R.S. Sroxkes, Professor G. G., Sec. F.R.S. Gassio7, J. P., Esq., F.R.S. Sykes, Colonel, M.P., F.R.S. Huron, Rovert, Esq., F.G.S. SYLVESTER, Prof. J. J., LL.D., F.B.8. nm JEFFREYS, J. Gwyn, Esq., F.R.S. WHEATSTONE, Professor, F.R.S. LuBBOCK, Sir Joun, Bart., F.R.S. WEBSTER, THOMAS, Hsq., F.R.S. MILLER, Prof. W.A.,M.D., F.R.S. WILLIAMSON, Prof. A. W., F.R.S. EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. The President and President Elect, the Vice-Presidents and Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant-General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and the Presidents of former years, viz.— Rey. Professor Sedgwick. Sir David Brewster. The Rey. H. Lloyd, D.D. The Duke of Devonshire. G. B. Airy, Esq., the Astronomer | Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. Rey. W. V. Harcourt. Royal. The Lord Wrottesley. The Earl of Rosse. Lieut.-General Sabine, D.C.L. William Fairbairn, Esq., LL.D. Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. | William Hopkins, Esq., LL.D. The Rey. Professor Willis. Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart., K.C.B.| The Harl of Harrowby. Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B., LLE.D The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. The Duke of Argyll. Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A.,. Professor Daubeny, M.D. LL.D. GENERAL SECRETARY. FRANCIS GALTON, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G-.S., 42 Rutland Gate, Knightsbridge, London. ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY. GEORGE GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., 5 Park Villas, Oxford. GENERAL TREASURER. WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE, Hsq., M.A., F.R.S., F-R.G.S., 50 Grosvenor Place, London, 8.W LOCAL TREASURERS. William Gray, Esq., F.G.S., York. Robert Patterson, Esq., F.R.S., Belfust. Prof. C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S., Cambridge. Edmund Smith, Esq., Hull. William Brand, Esq., Edinhurgh. Professor W. Thomson, Glasgow. John H. Orpen, LL.D., Dublin. Richard Beamish, Esq., F.R.S., Cheltenham. William Sanders, Esq., F.R.S., Brostol. John Medealfe Smith, Esq., Leeds. Robert M‘Andrew, Esq., F.R.S., Liverpool. John Forbes White, Esq., Aberdeen. William Holliday, Esq., Birmingham. Rey. John Griffiths, M.A., Oxford. Robert P. Greg, Esq., #.G.S., Manchester. Thomas Hodgkin, Esq., Wewcastle-on-Tyne. John Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq., F.R.S., Swansea. Thomas Gill, Esq., Bath. AUDITORS, James Heywood, Hsq., F.R.S. Robert Hutton, Exsq., F.G.S. Dr. Gladstone. OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. XXX1 OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE BIRMINGHAM MEETING. SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. President.—W. Spottiswoode, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. Vice-Presidents.—W. R. Grove, Q.C., Ph.D., F.R S.; Professor Sylvester, F.R:S. ; Professor Tyndall, F.R.S.; J. P. Gassiot, F.R.S.; Dr. Lloyd, F.R.S. ; Professor Price, F.R.S.; Professor Stevelly, LL.D.; Principal Forbes, F.R.S. - Secretaries.—Professor H. J. S. Smith, M.A., F.R.S.; J. M. Wilson, M.A.; Fleem- ing. J nt F.R.S.; G. 8. Mathews, M.A.; Rey. T. Neville Hutchinson, M.A., SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY, INCLUDING THEIR APPLICATIONS TO AGRICULTURE AND THE ARTS. President.—Professor W. A. Miller, M.D., V.P.R.S., Pres. Chem. Soc. Vice-Presidents—Professor A. W. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S.; J. H. Gladstone, Ph.D., F.R.S.; Sir R. Kane, M.D., F.R.S., President of Queen’s College, Cork ; G. Shaw, F.G.S.; Dr. A. W. Hofmann, F.R.S. Secretaries —A. Vernon Harcourt, M.A., F.C.S.; Professor Wanklyn, F.C.S.; H. Adkins; A, Winkler Wills. SECTION C.—GEOLOGY. President.—Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart., K.C.B., G.C.St.S., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director-General of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. Vice-Presidents.—Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., F.R.S., F.G.S.; Principal Dawson, of Montreal; Professor Jukes, F.R.S.; Professor Harkness, F.R.S.; Rev. W. S. Symonds, F.G.S.; W. W. Smyth, F.R.S. Secretaries—H. ©. Sorby, F.R.S.; W. Pengelly, F.R.S.; Rey. P, B, Brodie, M.A,, F.G.S.; J. Jones, F.G.S.; Rey. Edward Myers. SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY. President.—T. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Professor Babington, F.R.S.; Professor Balfour, F.R.S.; G. Ben- tham, F.R.S., Pres. Linnean Soc.; Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S.; Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.; J. Gwyn Jefireys, F.R.S.; P. L. Sclater, Ph.D., F.R.S, Secretaries—E. Perceval Wright, M.D., F.L.S.; Rey. H. B, Tristram, M.A., F,L.S.; John Anthony, M.D.; Rey. Charles Clarke. SUB-SECTION D.—PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCE, President.—Professor Acland, M.D,, LL.D., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Jobhn Davy, M.D., F.R.8.; Professor Rolleston, F.R.S. ; Profes- sor Lionel Beale, F.R.S.; Professor Van Der Hoeven; Edward Smith, M.D., F.R.S., LL.D. ; Professor John Hughes Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E. Secretaries —W illiam Tumer, M.B., F.R.S.E.; Alexander Fleming, M.D,; Thomas P, Heslop, M.D. ; Oliver Pemberton. SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY. President.—Major-General Sir Henry Rawlinson, M.P., K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents—Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart., K.C.B., G.C.St.8., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.; Major-General Sir A. S. Waugh, R.E., F.R.S.; John Crawfurd, F.R.S., Pres. Ethnolog. Soc.; Dr. Bosworth, F.R.S. * Secretaries.—Clements R. Markham, F.R.G.S.; H. W. Bates, Assistant-Secretary R.G.S.; Thomas Wright, M.A.; G. Jabet; Sebastian Evans, M.A. SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. President.—The Right Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Vice-Presidents.—The Right Hon. Sir John Pakington, M.P.; Sir John Bowring, F.R.S.; William Farr, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. ; Professor Fawcett, M.P. ; William Newmarch, F.R.S. ; Professor Rogers, of Oxford; W. L. Sargent. Seeretaries,—Edmund Macrory, A.M.; J. D, Goodman; G, J, Johnson. XXX11 REPORT—1865. SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE. President.—Sir William George Armstrong, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—J. F, Bateman, F.R.S. ; : Galton, R.E., F.R.S.; William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S.; J. R. Admiral Sir E. Belcher; Capt. Douglas apier; J. Nasmyth, F.R.S.; Professor Rankine, LL.D., F.R.S.; Charles Vignoles, F.R.S. Secretaries.—P, Le Neve Foster, M.A.; W. P. Marshall; Walter May; Henry Lea. = CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. Professor Agassiz, Cambridge, Massa- chusetts. M. Babinet, Paris. Dr. A. D. Bache, Washington. Captain Belavenetz, R.I.N. Dr, H. D. Buys Ballot, Utrecht. Dr. D. Bierens de Haan, Amsterdam. Professor Bolzani, Kasan. Dr. Bergsma, Utrecht. Mr. P. G. Bond, Cambridge, U.S. M. Boutigny (d’Evreux). Professor Braschmann, Moscow. Dr. Carus, Leipzig. M. Des Cloizeaux, Paris. Dr. Ferdinand Cohn, Breslau. M. Antoine d’Abbadie. Geheimrath von Dechen. M. De la Rive, Geneva. Professor Wilhelm Delffs, Heidelberg. Professor Dove, Berlin. Professor Dumas, Paris. Dr. J. Milne-Edwards, Paris. Professor Hhrenberg, Berlin. Dr. Wisenlohr, Carlsruhe. Professor Encke, Berlin. Dr. A. Erman, Berlin. Professor A. Escher von der Linth, Zurich, Switzerland. Professor Esmark, Christiania. Professor A. Favre, Geneva. M. Léon Foucault, Paris. Professor E. Fremy, Pavis. M. Frisiani, lan. M. Gaudry. Dr. Geinitz, Dresden. Professor Asa Gray, Cambridge, U.S. Professor Grube. M. E. Hébert, Paris. Professor Henry, Washington, U.S. Dr. Hochstetter, Vienna. M. Jacobi, St. Petersburg. Prof. Jessen, Med. et Phil. De., Griess- wald, Prussia. Professor Aug. Kekulé, Ghent, Belyium. M. Khanikof, St, Petersburg. Professor Kiepert. Prof. A. Kolliker, Wurzburg. Professor De Koninck, Liége. Professor Kreil, Vienna. Dr. Lamont, Mamich. M. Le Verrier, Paris. Baron von Liebig, Munich. Professor Loomis, New York. Professor Gustav Magnus, Bertin. Professor Matteucci, Pisa. Professor P, Merian, Bale, Switzerland. Professor von Middendortf, S¢. Petersburg. M. VAbbé Moigno, Paris, Dr. Arnold Moritz, Tiflis. Chevalier C. Negri. Herr Neumayer, Mimich. ’ Professor Nilsson, Srweden. Dr. N. Nordenskiold, Helsingfors. M. E. Péligot, Paris. Prof. B. Pierce, Cambridge, U.S. Gustay Plaar, Strasburg. Professor Pliicker, Bonn. M. Constant Prévost, Paris. M. Quetelet, Brussels. Professor W. B. Rogers, Boston, U.S. Professor F, Romer. Herman Schlagintweit, Berlin. Robert Schlagintweit, Berlin. M. Werner Siemens, Vienna. Dr. Siljestrom, Stockholm. Professor J, A. de Souza, University of Coimbra. Professor Adolph Steen, Copenhagen. Professor Steenstrup. Dr. Svanberg, Stockholm. M. Pierre Tchihatchef. Dr. Otto Torell, University of Lund. Dr. Van der Hoeven, Leyden. M. Vambéry, Hungary. M. de Verneuil, Paris. Baron Sartorius von Waltershausen, Gottingen. Professor Wartmann, Geneva. Dr. Welwitsch, : REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE, XXXlii Report of the Council of the British Association, presented to the General Committee, Wednesday, September 6, 1865. 1, The Council has received a Report from the Treasurer, W. Spottiswoode, Esq., at each of its meetings, and his General Report for the year ending September 6, 1865, will be presented to the Committee this day. 2. The Report of the Parliamentary Committee has been received for pre- sentation to the General Committee this day. 3. The Kew Committee has presented a Report to the Council at each of its meetings, and the Report for the year 1864-65 will be laid before the General Committee this day. 4, In addition to the Noblemen and Gentlemen elected at Bath, the Council propose the names of the Right Hon. the Earl of Dudley ; the Right Hon. the Lord Lyttelton, Lord-Lieutenant of Worcestershire; A. Follett Osler, Esq., F.R.S. ; and the Rey. Charles Evans, M.A., Head Master of King Edward’s School, as Vice-Presidents of the present Mecting; and the Rey. G. D. Boyle, M.A., as Local Secretary. 5. The Council have added to the list of Corresponding Members the names of the following Foreign Men of Science, who have been present at Meetings of the Association :—M. E. Hébert, Dr. Arnold Moritz, Herr Neumayer, M. Vimbéry, Dr. Welwitsch. 6. The Council learn with deep regret that the prolonged illness of Mr. Hopkins renders him unable to continue his valuable services in the office of General Secretary. 7. The Council have been informed that invitations will be presented to the General Committee at its meeting on Monday, September 11, from Nottingham, for the year 1866; from Dundee, for the year 1867; and from Norwich and Southampton for an early meeting. Report of the Kew Committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science for 1864-65. The Committee of the Kew Observatory submit to the Council of the British Association the following statement of their proceedings during the past year :— A short time before the Meeting at Bath, it had been decided by the Secretary of State for India, on the recommendation of the President and Council of the Royal Society, that pendulum observations should be made in India, and that the officer appointed to conduct this experimental inves- tigation might receive instruction at Kew Obseryatory, which might form the base-station of the Indian series. In consequence of this decision Captain Basevi, R.E., first assistant in the Indian Trigonometrical Survey, received instruction at Kew Observatory in the method of making and reducing pendulum observations, and in that of taking transits. Colonel Walker, R.E., Superintendent of the Survey, also attended, in order to make himself acquainted with the details of the appa- ratus and the method of observing. The pendulums used were those marked No. 1821 and No. 4, used formerly by General Sabine in different parts of the globe. The former was also used by Mr. Airy in his Harton Colliery experiments. A receiver, by means of which these pendulums might be vibrated in vacuo, was constructed by Mr. Adie, optician, London. A convenient room for pen- dulum observations was likewise fitted up in the Observatory, the expense ihe defrayed from the Government Grant Fund of the Royal Society ; 65, i: XXXiv REPORT—1865. and in this room the preliminary observations were made for determining the constants of the two pendulums about to be used in India. These observa- tions were made by Mr. Loewy, and the results have been communicated to the Royal Society by the Superintendent, in conjunction with the observer. The pendulums and other apparatus were subsequently taken to India by Mr. J. Hennessey, and have arrived safely at the head quarters of the Trigo- nometrical Survey. General Sabine has been informed by Mr. Meldrum, Director of the Mauritius Observatory, that the necessary funds have been voted by the Government of that colony for hourly meteorological and magnetical observa- tions; and that he may shortly be expected in this country, in order to become acquainted with the working of the Kew instruments. In consequence of this communication, Mr. Adie has constructed a set of self-recording mag- netographs, in readiness for Mr. Meldrum’s arrival. A Dip Circle and Unifilar have been verified at Kew, and will shortly be dispatched to Mr. Ellery, Director of the Observatory, Melbourne, Australia. Two Dip Circles and two Unifilars, ordered by Colonel Walker, R.E., Super- intendent of the Indian Survey, have been verified in the presence of Colonel Walker, who has received instruction in the method of observation with these instruments. They have since been sent to India, where they have safely arrived. Three Dip Circles and three Unifilars, ordered by Colonel Strange, are being verified at the Observatory, and likewise one Dip Circle and one Unifilar re- cently ordered by Captain J. Belavenetz of the Russian Navy, for the Compass Observatory just built at Cronstadt. Mr. E. Walker (who has received the Cambridge Adams prize for his essay on terrestrial magnetism) has been at Kew Observatory, receiving instruction in the use of magnetical instruments. ; The usual monthly absolute determinations of the magnetic elements con- tinue to be made; and the self-recording magnetographs are in constant operation, as heretofore, under Mr. Whipple, magnetical assistant, who has displayed much care and assiduity in the discharge of his duties. The meteorological work of the Observatory continues to be performed by Mr. Thomas Baker, who likewise takes charge of the photographic depart~ ment connected with the self-recording instruments, and executes both offices very satisfactorily. Since the Meeting at Bath, Senhor da Souza, of the University of Coimbra, has ordered a self-recording barograph and thermograph, an anemometer and electrograph, tubes for filling by Mr. Welsh’s process in order to obtain a standard barometer, and a cathetometer. These instruments haye been con- structed by opticians, and forwarded to Coimbra. During the past year, 88 barometers and 420 thermometers have been veri- fied, and 6 standard thermometers have been supplied to men of science and opticians ; 3 sets of measures of capacity have likewise been verified. The Self-recording Barograph continues in constant operation, and traces in duplicate are obtained, one set of which has been regularly forwarded to the meteorological department of the Board of Trade. At the request of Mr. Charles Cator, an anemometer of his construction has been tested at the Observatory, and the results communicated to him. Also, at the request of Professor Roscoe, the photographic action of total daylight is daily registered by an apparatus of his construction. The Kew Heliograph, in charge of Mr. De la Rue, continues to be worked by a qualified assistant, who gives much satisfaction. During the past year 243 negatives. have been taken; on 146 days, and four sets of positives REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XXXV have been printed from each, some of which have been given to men of science interested in this branch of research. The negatives are being reduced under the superintendence of Mr. De la Rue, and by means of an instrument of his own construction, which he has generously presented to the Kew Committee. Mr. B. Loewy has. been engaged in the reduction, which he is executing satisfactorily. ’ It was mentioned in last Report that an addition to the Micrometer was in the course of construction, by means of which the proportion of the sun’s disk obscured by spots might be conveniently measured. This arrangement is now completed; and the materials for measurement have been greatly in- ereased through the kindness of Mr. Carrington, who has placed his original drawings, in which the size and appearance of the spots are delineated with great fidelity, at the disposal of the Kew Observatory. It may be desirable to state in a few words the proposed method of exhibiting the results of these reductions. In the progress of this branch of knowledge observers have been led to recognize certain laws which represent the average behaviour of sun-spots ; but to all of these laws there are individual exceptions. In this state of things it is probable that our knowledge of the subject will ulti- mately be advanced, not only by a study of those groups which behave in a normal manner, but also by a study of those which are exceptions in their behaviour to the general rule; and on this account it has been thought desi- rable to publish the results in such a way that anyone may be able to study the appearance and behaviour—in fact the whole history—of any one group. In order to accomplish this, a lens is being made by Dallmeyer, by means of which individual groups may be magnified to a scale on which the diameter of the sun will be equal in size to two feet. The sun-spots continueto beobserved after the method of Hofrath Schwabe, of Dessau. As Kew is the first public institution which has taken up the subject of sun-spots, and as it is intended to continue the method of numbering groups so long and successfully adopted by Hofrath Schwabe, it was thought desirable to endeavour to procure, if possible, for this country the original drawings made by this eminent and assiduous observer during a course of about forty years. A joint letter by Mr. De la Rue and Mr. Stewart was consequently addressed to Hofrath Schwabe; and the following answer to it was soon received. c GuntTLEMEN,—The request contained in your letter, although in the highest degree honourable and complimentary to me, and although it gives me an op- portunity to show the Royal Astronomical Society my gratitude for the Royal Medal granted to me, has still cost me some struggle before complying with it; for it is not easy to part with what has given me very often much pleasure and enjoyment as a compensation for the labour devoted to the work. ** But in complying with your desire I do so on one condition, viz. that you _ would grant me permission to obtain the observations back again at any time ' that I should be desirous of looking into them, during the short time of life still left to me. I do not think that I shall have an occasion to avail myself of the permission asked for; but permit me kindly to believe that it isin my power to do so. After my death you may consider the whole of the observa- tions as the property of the Royal Astronomical Society. “ Please to write me if you are willing to agree to the above desire, and Tshall then immediately send you my astronomical diaries, &c. from 1825 to the end of 1864. “T vemain, Gentlemen, “Yours very faithfully, “S$, H. Scuwase.” c2 XXXV1 REPORT—1865. In order to realize this generous bequest of Hofrath Schwabe, Mr. Loewy of the Kew Observatory went to Dessau, taking with him a selection of dupli- cate negatives and prints of the sun, which he presented, in the name of the Association, to that gentleman. After receiving Mr. Loewy most courte- ously, Hofrath Schwabe expressed his gratification at the high degree of perfection attained in photoheliography, which surpassed his most sanguine expectations ; he also handed over to Mr. Loewy’s trust not only his valu- able collection of sun-drawings, but also all his astronomical observations. Some of these will be exhibited at the Association. It has long been a desideratum in photoheliography, with the view of ob- taining the apparent diameter of the sun’s disk, to ascertain the absolute values in arc of the divisions of the measuring-instrument (Mr. De la Rue’s Micro- meter), and preliminary experiments were made with that object during the period that the Heliograph was at the Cranford Observatory. These were only partially successful. The mode of operation was this: a suitable object suffic- ently distant was photographed by means of the Kew instrument, with the lenses in the same positions as when solar pictures were taken. Different por- tions of the object (windows, doors, &c. of a house, for example) were then care- fully measured so as to ascertain their value in minutes and seconds of are; and by measuring the pictures of these several portions with the arbitrary scale of the Micrometer, the value of the latter in are could be calculated. The experi- ments did not succeed so well as could have been desired, in consequence of the disturbance of the images by the undulations of the atmosphere, nene but very low objects coming within the desired range. More recently, how- ever, the experiments have been taken up again with great promise, and excellent photographs of the Kew Pagoda have been obtained, which possess the requisite sharpness. The object itself, on account of its numerous galleries, is peculiarly fitted for such observations, as it will be possible to ascer- tain and allow for any optical distortion of the photographic image. Thus it is not improbable that the Pagoda will afford the means of ascertaining, photographically, with the greatest accuracy, the angular diameter of the sun, and will give data for correcting the assumed semidiameter of ‘the moon, by the discussion of photographic pictures of solar eclipses. M. Gussew has informed Mr. De la Rue that the Wilna Heliograph is now at work under his direction, during the absence, on account of ill health, of the Director, Prof. Sabler. At present he experiences some difficulty in obtaining perfect photographs, and he has been invited to receive instruction at the Kew Observatory. It is considered to be desirable on other accounts that M. Gussew should be able to avail himself of the advantage thus offered to him, as an arrangement might then be made for the division of the labour of reducing the Heliographic observations. An apparatus will shortly be added to the Kew Observatory for the important object of the ready verification of sextants; the system of distant mirrors now in use, designed by Mr. Galton and erected at his own cost, being only available in steady sunshine. The new apparatus has been designed by Mr. Thomas Cooke, the well- known optician. In principle, it consists of four collimators fixed radially, at various angles apart, round the table on which the sextant is to be laid for examination. The cross wires of the collimators in each of their com- binations are to be brought successively into contact by the sextant. Then a comparison of its readings with the constant angles of construction of the apparatus determines the error of the sextant at various points of its are. Howeyer, in practice, to ayoid the cost of very large collimators, whose REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XXXVI object-glasses would suffice to include the rays proceeding both to the index and to the horizon-glasses of large sextants, Mr. Cooke employs double colli- mators of moderate size; and he adjusts each pair to strict parallelism by aid of a detached telescope. The coloured shades of the sextant are readily examined by strongly illu- minating the fields of two of the collimators, after contact of their cross wires has been made in the ordinary manner. On the application of Mr. Galton, backed by the recommendation of the Kew Committee, the Council of thé Royal Society has allotted £80 from the Government Grant, to defray the estimated cost of Mr. Cooke’s apparatus, and its establishment in the Observatory at Kew. The apparatus will be erected in the basement-hall of the Observatory; and when the arrangement is complete it is hoped that the Observatory will become a place where quadrants and sextants can be verified with great facility, and where scientific travellers or officers in Her Majesty’s Service may receive instruction in the use of geographical instruments. The solar spectrum is being mapped by the spectroscope belonging to the Chairman. All the measurements for the region between D and E have been made and carefully verified ; and a map of this region, in accordance with these measurements, has been constructed by Mr. Loewy. Many more lines are exhibited in this map than in that lately made by Professor Kirch- hoff. Observations made by this instrument have likewise brought out seyeral new lines in the spectrum of ignited sodium. At the joint suggestion of Professor Tait of Edinburgh and the Superin- tendent, an ingenious apparatus has been constructed by Mr. Beckley, by means of which a disk can be made to revolve in vacuo with great velocity ; and a short description of some experiments performed by means of this instrument, with the view of ascertaining whether visible as well as mole- cular motion is dissipated by a medium pervading space, has been commu- nicated to the Royal Society by the Superintendent in conjunction with Professor Tait. The instrument devised by Mr. Broun, for the purpose of estimating the magnetic dip by means of soft iron, remains at present at the Observatory. The Superintendent has received grants from the Royal Society for special experiments ; and when these are completed, an account will be rendered to that Society. It will be seen from the foregoing Report, that many other experiments and observations, of a nature to advance science, are made under the sanc- tion of the Committee, besides those which form the ordinary work of the Observatory; it is, however, always stipulated that the cost of such experi- ments shall be defrayed by their promoters, J. P. Gasstor, Chawman. Kew Observatory, dlst August, 1865. "NOLLOA “T 8 FL 92 op Rehayeus eas aranes to sons esomagns saree sereeeeesercog SuTUNOWe PULY UI sdUE[eq B SurAvarT sen eeeeesvoecrrecvecassseensesevscnereneesereers Tat oud Io} aingipuedx 7 ]e}04 aL QUT Steak 4SeT “CEST PRONE Y26G susnigavnns oesestlaancution tsaiigtehabsior-sansangseyestan¥pensoeeci'ny.vasebvenpsresssders* AR TOTIBATORNG) UEN{IPUB] IEA payeemean sasuadxa Ioy puy euvere oe - aeenee ais cio Usisinpis Min adune ee ecsicitnas ope 0 sicssiedtamapetleas apa cee sco ssh ees onessvemey sms cesses sur use ODOM ‘200 o1sojor -09}9JW OY} 0} yUas saAIND Ydvisoreg OF PO Dente a o2 Se ISL 7 IO SIGIR 207 sueioi4dg Wo.ly 6 GI OL ca angineceacaacvewencss es ekqTe TITLE. aq} WO.y “ G Pp ‘opery, Jo prvog ay} Woy ‘sjuduIN.4s ‘Ss FF -UT [CoBo[O109}0T] JO MOIFOYMAA oy} 10z —“ ** JIIMSVIL], [RIIUIH IY} WOA poateooy se eeeeeeee “SLd I DOT "GggT ‘9 waquiagday 02 FOST “PTL eaquagdag mouf uonprossp ysing ay3 fo aajrmuog may ayy fo spunovp REPORT OF THE PARLIAMENTARY COMMITTEE. XXXIX Report of the Parliamentary Committee to the Meeting of the British Association at Birmingham, September 1865. The Parliamentary Committe have the honour to report as follows :— By a Resolution passed at Bath your Committee were requested to press on the Government the expediency of instituting a series of experiments om Fog Signals, but on consulting some of the Members of the Committee appointed for the purpose of making experiments on the transmission of sound under water, your Committee were informed that no action on the part of the Government was at present necessary. * Your Committee brought under the notice of the Council the unsatisfactory character of the provisions of the Public Schools Bill of last Session, so far as they affected the interests of Science. Your Committee advocated such alterations therein as they believed would ‘be most likely to promote these interests ; and it was at the suggestion of one of their members that Professors Sharpey, W. A. Miller, Huxley, and Tyndall were applied to, and gave the admirable evidence on the extent to which Physical Science might with advantage be introduced into the studies of our great Public Schools, which will be found in the Appendix to the Report of the Committee of the House of Lords on the Bill above referred to, and to which the attention of all engaged in the instruction of youth may be usefully directed. Some valuable remarks on the same subject by our President Elect had been previously referred to in the course of the Debate ; and the evidence of our President, Drs. Carpenter and Hooker, the Astronomer Royal, and others, before the Public School Commissioners, furnishes an additional proof, if any were wanting, of the zeal and energy with which the Cultivators of Science continue to remonstrate against the system, which still unhappily prevails in many of our Schools, of ignoring the claims of Science. Wrotrestey, Chairman. 31st August, 1865. we. REPORT—1865. . RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE BIRMINGHAM Meerine In SEPTEMBER 1865. [When Committees are appointed, the Member first named is regarded as the Secretary, except there is a specific nomination. | Involving Grants of Money. That the sum of £600 be placed at the disposal of the Council for main- taining the Establishment of the Kew Observatory. That the Lunar Committee, consisting of Mr. J. Glaisher, Lord Rosse, The Rev. T. W. Webb, Mr. W. R. Birt, Dr. Lee, Mr. J. N. Lockyer, Rey. W. R. Dawes, Sir J. Herschel, Bart., Professor Phillips, Mr. J. Nasmyth, Mr. Warren De la Rue, and Mr. H. 8. Ellis, be reappointed, with the object of making further progress in mapping the surface of the Moon; that Mr. W. R. Birt be Secretary, and that the sum of £100 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That the Committee on Electrical Standards, consisting of Professor Williamson, Professor Wheatstone, Professor W. Thomson, Professor W. A. Miller, Dr. A. Matthiessen, Mr. Fleeming Jenkin, Sir Charles Bright, Pro- fessor Maxwell, Mr. C. W. Siemens, Mr. Balfour Stewart, Dr. Joule, and Mr. C. F. Varley, be reappointed, with power to add to their number ; that Mr. Fleeming Jenkin be the Secretary, and that the sum of £100 be placed at their disposal for the purpose. That the Committee on Luminous Meteors and TO 0 Thermometric Observations, &c. 50 0 0 Experiments on long-continued Heat ..... Rsvltcasescscaccccconcorss Life sie 30 Rain-Gauges...cccccersscseceeeeceee 913 0 Refraction Experiments ..,...... 15 0 0 Lunar Nutation...........0ss00ee 60 0 0 Thermometers .......sseeeesesseee one GeO) £434 14 0 1837. Tide Discussions .........- sesaceeemod. — le Chemical Constants ....... Missetas, Bete lo lO Lunar Nutation..........seceeceeee Faw lL gall Vil Observations on Waves..........+. 100 12 0 MAGES Al BristOl .....2scccsesesceses S150 "O" 2G Meteorology and Subterranean PEMPeratures:.cccsccccectaceese 89 5 O Vitrification Experiments......... 150 0 0 Heart Experiments ........+++008 Fie shes: SA Barometric Observations ......... 30 0 0 (BATGMICLETS: ~scecessees ese seveeeee pee Se 6 £918 14 6 1838. Tide Discussions ..........00000.. 29 0 0 British Fossil Fishes ............ 100 0 0 Meteorological Observations and Anemometer (construction)... 100 0 0 Cast Iron (Strength of) fevers (CON *OO Animal and Vegetable Substances (Preservation Of) .......se..eeee 19E 'T°10 Railway Constants ............... 41 12 10 Bristol Tides........ Passlas cishto aeccaew 0 0M a0) Growth of Plants ............ voure 19 O 0 PMOUATWILIVENS Sc...cccseseeeescces, 38 6 6 Education Committee ............ 50 0 0 Heart Experiments .......... deteecopcamn 0 Land and Sea Level........ Sees ti pet We Subterranean Temperature ..... an, Sai 6h, 0 Steam-vessels.......scccseeessseereee 100 0 0 Meteorological Committee ...... SLRS PERETMMOMICEELS, aca scesssaceseeess 16 4 0 “£056 129 1252 1839. Fossil Ichthyology..........s000084 110 0 0 Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ..sc00cs.2..°5° Vitality of Seeds....... seeeaeeslS4a 2 Ol 7 | iality, of Seeds: Co c....ccssendene ae ae onan a Vitality of Seeds............... 1844 7 0 0 | OnGrowth of Plants.............4 5 0 0 Marine Zoology of Cornwall..... -. 10 0 0} Registration of Periodical Phe- Physiological Actionof Medicines 20 0 0O MOMENA suecctaccsccccunsssnsavcaes 10-0” '0 Statistics of Sickness and Mor- Bill on account of Anemometrical ‘ BAUEVEAIDOY OL S505 2.20 scccasass 20 0 0 Observations wecccesssscececscece HATS 9-0 Earthquake Shocks ...... 1184315 14 8 £159 19 6 £830 9 9 SR oe S\estaei aoe | 1850. 1846. | Maintaining the Establishment at British Association Catalogue of | Kew Observatory ......... waved ODED a7 O > SEALS cs. ..sceeeeessceeeseeeeeL844 211 15 0 | Transit of Earthquake Waves... 50 0 0 xlvii REPORT—1865. a5 Oy UE : Ls da. Periodical Phenomena ............ 15 0 0 1856. Meteorological Instrument, Maintaining the Establishment at PAZ OLE Silas eens sue scns ain clesed as ons 25 0 0 Kew Observatory :-— “£345 18 0 1854.....8 75 0 0 wip ee TIS rsaiermes 7 Sr me pd eg i Pe 1851. Strickland’s Ornithological Syno- Maintaining the Establishment at DYMISisaes vakiosssecpnswenns seseoceee 100 0. 0 Kew Observatory (includes part | Dredging and Dredging Forms... 9 13 9 of grantin 1849) .....sseeeees 309 ~ | Chemical Action of Light ......... 20 0 0 Theory of Heat ........s00004 sevens 20 | Strength of Iron Plates............. 10 0 0 Periodical Phenomena of Animals Registration of Periodical Pheno- PU AWES emt Werecastea ves oeee> Dae] Semen aie. dee, oe ee 10 0 0 Vitality of Seeds seteeteceeeen eens 5 6 41 Propagation of Salmon v.00... 10 0 0 Influence of Solar Radiation...... 50 0 0 £734.13 9 Ethnological Inquiries ............ 10s a — Researches on Annelida ,,....... TORO 0 1857. “£391 9 7 | Maintaining the Establishment at = Kew Observatory .s..es.s00- «.. 350 0 0 Ap « 40 1852. Earthquake Wave Experiments... 40 0 0 Maintaining the Establishment at Dredging near Belfast ............ 10 0 0 Kew Observatory (including Dredging on the West Coast of balance of grant for 1850) ... 233 17 8} — Scotland........ baa nar oka Weegee 10 0 0 Experiments on the Conduction Investigations into the Mollusca of Heat Sette teeeeeeeeeeeseseeanens mead of California ......... Pasenanc cas) Oe OEIC Influence of Solar Radiations ... 20 0 Experiments on Flax ......seeeee 5 0 0 Geological Map of Ireland ...... 15-0 0) Natural History of Madagascar.. 20 0 0 Researches on the British Anne- Researches on British Annelida 25 0 0 Nida, Bie. cicccecncesence eee itr CO SO" Report on Natural Products im- Batany of Seeds ....,..... teeeees - 10 6 2) ported into Liverpool ....... 10 0 0 Strength of Boiler Plates ......... 10 0 0} Artificial Propagation of Salmon 10 0 0 _£304 6 7) Temperature of Mines ............ 7 8 0 1853. = Thermometers for Subterranean Maintaining the Establishment at Observations seiecessereeeee 5 7 4 Kew Observatory ........ sues ens 165 0 0| Life-Boats Pebenesenebesonseregeonmige le lly MY Experiments on the Influence of £507 15 4 Solar Radiation ....ss+sesseeses 15 0 0| ' 1858.10 Lokal ie ches on the British Anne- Maintaining the Establishment at lid Devseeescrececncersecesceseeeerees 10 0 0 Kew Observatory sse.seeeeeee «. 500 0 0 Dredging on the East Coast of | Earthquake Wave Experiments... 25 0 0 : Scotland saaeawe sv des'd Relea ccetenee oy LO) ONO Dredging on the West Coast of Ethnological Queries ............ > 0" 0! se 'Scotland’. 222. sscsccsccsccecee 10.0 O £205 0 0 | Dredging near Dublin ............ 5 0 0 =| Vitality of Seeds .......00045 apie hie D 1854. y TE eae Maintaining the Establishment at Dredging mean Beeah ceeoieatee AR ie Kew Observatory (including Report on the British Annelida... 25 0 0 balance of former grant) ...... 330 15 4 ps the production : Investigations on Flax ..........., ito 6 of Heat by Motion in Fluids... 20 0 0 Effects of Temperature on Report on the Natural Products Wirought Irony ts, snes 10) 00 inputted Anto Scotlamaiss eas at) ie Registration of Periodical Phe- £618 18 2 MOM CUAR Meseeaaenssssectacn-eecees LOTROL 70 1859. Ha ee SACHS ESSE EAN + 10 0 0] Maintaining the Establishment at if . WpOb Seeds tre sisisesecsescee eS: Kew Observatory ....... seseeeee 000 0 0 onduction of Heat ............. + 4 2 0] Dredging near Dublin .......... «~ 15 0 0 £380 19 7 | Osteology of Birds..... aesacacaneen > 120; 10) 0 Irish Tunicata .,. See BRGCcOn Bs O70 1855. A etter ore Maintaining the Establishment at Menpire Experiments, ...-- spe githg 0 Kew Observatory ... x ios G0 British Medusidz ......,.....0++. i OO Earthquake Movements ......... 10 0 0 Orepging (Comunittee +2... ree se Physical Aspect of the Moon... ll 8 5 Steam-vessels’ Performance ...... 5 0 0 Vitality of Seeds oi a ee 10 z 1 Marine Fauna of South and West Map of the World......... sl ile 15 6 0 of Treland Saseaswatev tes coneasss ose 10 0 0 Ethnological Queries .,........ Se 701.10), ate fant ety erie ea eee Dredging near Bel dee uanarkshire Fossils ...sees.s.0: «- 20 0 21 Bing r Belfast rrmnss Oo Balloon’ Ascents,...cestesseedeere Oe le £684 111 GENERAL STATEMENT, S 1860. & 8 a, Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Observatory.......... --. 000-0 0 Dredging near Belfast............+ 16 6 0 Dredging in Dublin Bay....... ox atpnrylOn* Oy, 00 Inquiry into the Performance of Steam-vessels......+ssseeereesere . 124 0 0 Explorations in the Yellow Sand- stone of Dura Den............--- 20 0 0 Chemico- mechanical Analysis of Rocks and Minerals..........+++ 25 0 0 Researches on the Growth of MANES ser ecs cr cccscrescaessuncoseies 10 0 0 Researches on the Solubility of Behe ridden ccersscccee.nseeua 30 0 0 Researches on the Constituents Of Manures ...........cccseeesseees 25 0 0 Balance of he Balloon Ac- COUNES,.. cerenvecesscecccccecersrers 113 6 £1241 7 0 See 1861. Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Observatory ......sees08 500 0 0 Earthquake Experiments......... 25 0 0 Dredging North and East Coasts IP SCOUANG.c0..0cescsccccscaccesces 23 0 0 Dredging Committee :— 1860 ...... £50 0 a 79 TSG dace. Soo Or 0 Excavations at Dura Den...... 20 Solubility of Salts .............eeeee 20 Steam-vessel Performance ...... 150° Fossils of Lesmahago ......s00.0. 15 Explorations at Uriconium ...... 20 Chemical Alloys .........+00 a 20 Classified Index to the Transac- CISTI. oP GO Sc CH RBOEE BOC EEC CUOAAT 100 Dredging in the Mersey and Dee 5 Dip Circle.......... paeaebeps obubere Photoheliographic Observations Aonrcocooocooco ecoccooo © — ococooceo © cjormocoocoeco Prison Diet ..........5 Soca QIeCEC 20 Gauging of Water.........sess.000- 10 Alpine Ascents ......seccecsesssesee 6 Constituents of Manures .,....... 25 £1111 1862. Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Observatory ............ 500 Patent LAWS: 0... ..c..e0cc eee. seeaeets aL Mollusca of N.-W. America...... 10 RBDPSUNE MS on lon ccusdaasessidoeseeees 5 Tidal Observations ...........6068 25 Photoheliometer at Kew ......... 40 Photographic Pictures of the Sun 150 Rocks of Donegal ...............06 25 Dredging Durham and North- umberland............ Saeed evans 2D Connexion of Storms......... seeeay 20 Dredging North-East Coast of Scotland......... edesevcssaccecsess 6 Ravages of Teredo .........400 3 Standards of Electrical Resistance 50 Railway Accidents ........ceeeeas 10 1865, oocoo ooo oo eoooon} ‘al Ere wi & 8d Balloon Committee ......s..s.s00s 200 0 0 Dredging Dublin Bay ............ 10 0 0 Dredging the Mersey .........+.. 5 0 0 PYISOMPOICEEM.. .cctaviuinccececienidece see 20 0 0 Gauging of Water...............00. 12 10 0 Steamships’ Performance ......... 150 0 0 Thermo-Electric Currents ...... 5 0 0 £1293 16 6 1863. Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Ubservatory............ 600 0 O Balloon Committee deficiency... 70 0 0 Balloon Ascents (other expenses) 25 0 0 EMUOZOMmacsoccsscaresatiemeagesss es si 25 0 0 Goal Fossils) s:2.<..essesaes s.r 36 20 0 0 Flerning sis. sa. .tseeecees ce stare yards 20 0 0 Granites of Donegal............... 5 0 0 Prison Diet............+« Hon Asaee 20 0 0 Vertical Atmospheric Movements 13 0 0 Dredging Shetland ............... 50 0 0 Dredging North-east coast of SeOtland perce senectendass nase 25 0 0 Dredging Northumberland and DyathaMis. s7ececrisseh ance te ese <0 17 3:10 Dredging Committee superin- tendence ...........5. bigeansssoaen 10 0 0 Steamship Performance ......... 100 0 O Balloon Committee ...........60 200 0 0 Carbon under-pressure............ 10 0 0 Volcanic Temperature ............ 100 0 0 Bromide of Ammonium ......... 8 0 0 Electrical Standards.............+. 100 0 0 Construction and distribu- UIE) Tamban ces 4 Cad AAAnSCOCHUa Heads 40 0 0 Luminous Meteors .............4. 17 0 0 Kew Additional Buildings for Photoheliograph ...,....0...006 100 0 0 Thermo-Electricity ....... CPechoce 15 0 0 Analysis of Rocks ............... 8 0 0 FAV OMOTOS wrccs «cares setdscnsares demic 10 0 0 £1608 3 10 1864. Maintaining the Establishment of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 0 GoalsHossilsve cer uevieecaesdeetes 20 0 0 Vertical Atmospheric Move- MEN ESie-wersceaes-asenawecaicev esses 20 0 0 Dredging Shetland .............. . 72 0 0 Dredging Northumberland ...... 25 0 0 Balloon Committee ............... 200 0 0 Carbon under pressure............ 10 0 0 Standards of Electric Resistance 100 0 0 Analysis of Rocks............ ater 340 [0 0 TAN O1d a, Aescyaee vacsunescsnevenes Fen pLOr OF 2 Askham’s Gift ...............06 «. 50 0 0 Nitrite of Amyle ............. rege LOMO 0 Nomenclature Committee ...... 5 0 0 Rain-Gauges ..........c+.c.s.seeee «7 to la 8 Cast Iron Investigation ......... 20 0 0 Tidal Observations inthe Humber 50 0 0 Spectral Rays ..........cceeeeaee 45 0 0 Luminous Meteors .............05 20 0 0 £1289 15 8 d 1 REPORT—1865. 1865, fess 1a Ce a Maintaining the Establishment Oyster Breeding ............0..06- 25 0 0 of Kew Observatory ...........- 600 0 O | Gibraltar Caves Researches ... 150 0 0 Balloon Committee ............+.+ 100 0 O | Kent's Hole Excavations......... 100 0 0 LER GROICEY, Socahasseeoso iapge iSanancoc 13. 0 O | Moon’s Surface Observations... 35 0 0 Rain-Gauges ...........-:00seeceeee 30 0 O | Marine Fauna ...................0. 25 0 0 Tidal Observationsinthe Humber 6 8 O | Dredging Aberdeenshire ......... 25 0 0 Hexylic Compounds............... 2) 0 0 | Dredging Channel Islands ...... 50 0 0 Amy! Compounds............++-++ 20 0 0 | Zoological Nomenclature......... 5 0 0 Trish Flora ....0-,cesercee---esseee 25 O O | Resistance of Floating Bodies in American Mollusca .......00..-+++ 5 9.00 Wiater" soc te seasteettinesmancreeees 100 0 0 Organic ACIGS ........-..eeeeeeees 20 0 O | Bath Waters Analysis ............ 810 0 Lingula Flags Excavation ...... 10 0 O | Luminous Meteors ............... 40 0 0 Burypterus «..........cseeseesseees 50 0 0 a EA Te SA Pent setiads 100 0 0 aaa Malta Caves Researches ......... 30 0 0 Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee. Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money for scientific pur- poses have been entrusted, are required to present to each following meeting of the Association a Report of the progress which has been made; with a statement of the sums which haye been expended, and the balance which re- mains disposable on each grant. Grants of pecuniary aid for scientific purposes from the funds of the Asso- ciation expire at the ensuing meeting, unless it shall appear by a Report that the Recommendations have been acted on, or a continuation of them be ordered by the General Committee. In each Committee, the Member first named is the person entitled to call on the Treasurer, William Spottiswoode, Esq., 50 Grosvenor Place, London, 8.W., for such portion of the sum granted as may from time to time be required. In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contemplate the payment of personal expenses to the members. Tn all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua- tion of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named shall be deemed to include, as a part of the amount, the specified balance which may remain unpaid on the former grant for the same object. General Meetings. On Wednesday Evening, September 6, at 8 p.m., in the Town Hall, Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A.,D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., resigned the office of President to Professor John Phillips, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.8., who took the Chair, and delivered an Address, for which see page li. On Thursday Evening, September 7, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place in the Town Hall. On Friday Evening, September 8, at 8.30 p.m., in the Town Hall, Joseph Beete Jukes, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.8., delivered a Discourse on the “ Probabili- ties as to the Position and Extent of the Coal-Measures beneath the Red Rocks of the Midland Counties.” On Monday Evening, September 11, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place at the ‘Exhibition of the Society of Artists. On Tuesday Evening, September 12, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place in the Town Hall. On Wednesday, September 13, at 3 p.m., the concluding General Meeting took place, when the Proceedings of the General Committee, and the Grants of Money for Scientific purposes, were explained to the Members. The Meeting was then adjourned to Nottingham*. * The Meeting is appointed to take place on Wednesday, August 22, 1866. * ADDRESS OF JOHN PHILLIPS, M.A. OXON.; LL.D. DUBLIN; F.R.S.; F.G.S.; ETC. AssemBieD for the third time in this busy centre of industrious England, amid the roar of engines and the clang of hammers, where the strongest powers of nature are trained to work in the fairy chains of art, how softly falls upon the ear the accent of Science, the friend of that art, and the guide of that industry! Here, where Priestley analyzed the air, and Watt obtained the mastery over steam, it well becomes the students of nature to gather round the standard which they carried so far into the fields of know- ‘ledge. And when, on other occasions, we meet in quiet colleges and Aca- demic halls, how gladly welcome is the union of fresh discoveries and new inventions with the solid and venerable truths which are there treasured and taught. Long may such union last; the fair alliance of cultivated thought and practical skill; for by it labour is dignified and science fertilized, and the condition of human society exalted ! Through this happy combination of science and art, the young life of the British Association—one-third of a century—has been illustrated by. disco- veries and enriched by useful inventions in a degree never surpassed. How else could we have gained that knowledge of the laws of nature which has added to the working strength of a thousand millions of men the mightier power of steam*, extracted from the buried ruins of primeval forests their treasured elements of heat and light and colour, and brought under the con- trol of the human finger, and converted into a messenger of man’s gentlest thoughts, the dangerous mystery of the lightning +? How many questions have we asked—not always in vain—regarding the constitution of the earth, its history as a’planet, its place in creation ;—now probing with sharpened eyes the peopled space around—peopled with a thou- sand times ten thousand stars ;—now floating above the clouds in colder and clearer air ;—now traversing the polar ice—the desert sand—the virgin forest—the unconquered mountain ;—now sounding the depths of the ocean, or diving into the dark places of the earth. Everywhere curiosity, every- * The quantity of coal dug in Great Britain in the year 1864 appears by the returns of , Mr. R. Hunt to have been 92,787,873 tons. This would yield, if employed in steam- engines of good construction, an amount of available force about equal to that of the whole human race. But in the combustion of coal not less than ten times this amount of force is actually set free—nine-tenths being at present unavailable, according to the state- ment of Sir William Armstrong, in his Address to the Meeting at Newcastle in 1863. t The definite magnetic effect of an electrical current was the discovery of Oersted in 1819; Cooke and Wheatstone’s patent for an Electric Telegraph is dated in1837 ; the first message across the Atlantic was delivered in 1858. ante molis erat. d 2 li REPORT—1865. where discovery, everywhere enjoyment, everywhere some useful and there- fore some worthy result. Life in every form, of every grade, in every stage ; man in every clime and under all corfllitions; the life that now surrounds us, and that which has passed away ;—these subjects of high contemplation have been examined often, if not always, in the spirit of that philosophy which is slowly raising, on a broad security of observed facts, sure induc- tions, and repeated experiments, the steady columns of the temple of physi- cal truth. Few of the great branches of the study of nature on which modern philo- sophy is intent were left unconsidered in the schools of Athens; hardly one of them was or indeed could be made the subject of accurate experiment. The precious instruments of exact research—the measures of time, and space, and force, and motion—are of very modern date. If instead of the few lenses and mirrors of which traces appear in Greek and Roman writers *, there had been even the first Galilean or the smallest Newtonian telescope in the hands of Hipparchus, Eratosthenes, or Ptolemy, would it have been left to their remote successors to be still struggling with the elements of physical astronomy, and waiting with impatience till another quarter of a century shall have rolled away and given us one more good chance of measuring the distance of the Sun by the transit of Venus? Had such instruments as Wheatstone’s Chronoscope been invented, would it have been left to Foucault to condense into his own apartment an experimental proof of the velocity of light, and within a tract of thirty feet to determine the rate of its movement through all the vast planetary space of millions and thousands of millions of miles, more exactly than had been inferred by astronomers from observa- tions of the satellites of Jupiter t? By this experiment the velocity of light appears to be less, sensibly less, than was previously admitted; and this con- clusion is of the highest interest. For, as by assuming too long a radius for the orbit of Jupiter the calculated rate of light-moyement was too great; so now by employing the more exact rate and the same measures of time we can correct the estimated distance of Jupiter'and all the other planets from the sun. We have in fact a really independent measure of planetary space ; and it concurs with observations of the parallax of Mars, in requiring a con- siderable reduction of the assumed diameters of the planetary paths. The distance of the earth from the sun must be reduced from above ninety-five to less than ninety-three millions of miles, and by this scale the other space- measures of the solar system, excepting the diameter of the earth and the distance and diameter of the moon, may be corrected ¢. * The effect of lenses or globes of glass or crystal (%aXos) in collecting the solar rays to a point are familiarly referred to by Aristophanes in the Nubes, 766 ; and the orna- mental use of convex and concave reflectors is known by the curious discussions in the IVth Book of Lucretius. + Fizeau performed experiments on the velocity of ight between Suresnes and the Butte Montmartre, by means of the oxyhydrogen light, reflected back in its own path. 1 The space was 28,324 feet Engl. Twice this distance was traversed in Ts.000 Of @ second = 167,528 geogr. miles ina second. From observations of Jupiter's satellites De- lambre inferred 167,976 miles, Struve 166,096. The experiment of M. Foucault gives 298,000,000 metres = 160,920 geogr. miles. ¢ Estimates of the earth’s distance from the sun have varied much. Cassiniand Flamsteed, using observations of the parallax of Mars, ascribe to it 10,000 or 11,000 diameters of the earth=79 or 89 millions of miles. Huyghens estimated it at 12,000= 95 millions of miles. In 1745, Buffon reported it as the common opinion of astronomers at 30 millions of leagues (Fr.)=90 millions miles (Engl.), but after the transit of Venus ADDRESS. lin The light and heat which are emitted from the sun reach the earth without great diminution by the absorptive action of the atmosphere; but the waste of heat from the surface of our planet through radiation into space is pre- vented, or rather lessened by this same atmosphere. Many transparent bodies admit freely heat-rays derived from a source of high temperature, but stop the rays which emanate from bodies only slightly warmed, The atmo- sphere possesses this quality in a remarkable degree, and owes it to the pre- sence of diffused water and vapour; a fact which Dr. Tyndall has placed in the clear light of complete and varied experiment *. The application of this truth to the history of the earth and of the other planets is obvious. The yaporous atmosphere acts like warm clothing to the earth. By an augmented quantity of vapour dissolved, and water suspended in the air, the waste of surface-heat of the earth would be more impeded; the soil, the water, and the lower parts of the atmosphere would grow warmer; the climates would be more equalized; the general conditions more like what has been supposed to be the state of land, sea, and air during the geological period of the Coal- _ measures. Such an augmentation of the watery constituents in the atmosphere would be a natural consequence of that greater flow of heat from the interior, which by many geologists, mathematicians, and chemists is supposed to have hap- pened in the earlier periods of the history of the earth. By the same considerations we may understand how the planet Mars, which receives not half so much heat from the suny as the earth dues, may yet enjoy, as in fact it seems to enjoy, nearly a similar climate, with snows alter- nately gathering on one or the other of its poles, and spreading over large spaces around, but not, apparently, beyond the latitude of 50° or 40°; the equatorial band of 30° or 40° north or south being always free from snow- masses bright enough and large enough to catch the eve of the observer. Mars may therefore be inhabited, and we may see in the present state of this inquiry reason to pause before refusing the probability of any life to Jupiter and eyen more distant planets. The history of suns and planets is in truth the history of the effects of light and heat manifested in them, or emanating from them. Nothing in the universe escapes their influence; no part of space is too distant to be penetrated by their energy; no kind of matter is able to resist their trans- forming agency. Many if not all the special forces which act in the parti- cles of matter are found to be reducible into the general form of heat; as this is convertible and practically is converted into proportionate measures of special energy. Under this comprehensive idea of convertibility of force, familiar to us now by the researches of Joule +, the reasonings of Grove§ and Helmholtz, and the theorems of Rankine ||, it has been attempted by Mayer, Waterston, and Thomson § to assign a cause for the maintenance of the heat- giving power of the sun in the appulse of showers of aérolites and small in 1769, he allowed 33 millions. Such was the effect of that now supposed erroneous ex- periment on the opinions of astronomers. (Epoques de la Nature.) * Proc. of Roy. Soc. 1861. The Rumford Medal was adjudged to Dr, Tyndall in 1864. + The proportion is about 322 according to the received measure of the mean Gis- ce. { Phil. Mag. 1843; Reports of the British Association, 1845; Trans. of the Royal Society, 1850. § Grove on the Correlation of Physical Forces, 1846. || Rankine, Trans. of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1850-51 ; Phil. Trans, 1854, {| Communication to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1854. liv REPORT—1865. masses of matter, and the extinction of their motion on the surface of the luminary. By calculations of the same order, depending on the rate of radi- ation of heat into space, the past antiquity of the earth and the future duration of sunshine have been expressed in thousands or millions of centu- ries *. In like manner the physical changes on the sun’s disk, by which portions of his darkly heated body become visible through the luminous photosphere, have been connected, if not distinctly as a cause, certainly as a coincident phenomenon, with particular magnetic disturbances on the surface of the earth; the solar spots and the magnetic deflections concurring in periods of maxima and minima of ten or eleven years’ duration. Thus even these aberrant phenomena become part of that amazipg system of periodical ' variation which Sabine and his fellow-labourers, British, French, German, Russian, and American, have established by contemporaneous observation over a large part of the globe f. With every change in the aspect and position of the sun, with every alte- ration in the place and attitude of the moon, with every passing hour, the magnetism of the earth submits to regular and calculable deviation. Through the substance of the ground, and across the world of waters, Nature, ever the beneficent guide to Science, has conveyed her messages and executed her purposes, by the electric current, before the discovery of Oersted and the magical inventions of Wheatstone revealed the secret of her work. Even radiant light in the language of the new Philosophy is conceived of by Maxwell ¢ as a form of electro-magnetic motion. And thus the impon- derable, all-pervading powers, by which molecular energy is excited and exchanged, are gathered into the one idea of restless activity among the particles of matter :— . eterno percita motu: ever-moving and being moved, elements of a system of perpetual change in every part, and constant preservation of the whole. What message comes to us with the light which springs from the distant stars, and shoots through the depths of space to fall upon the earth after tens, or hundreds, or thousands of years? It is a message from the very birthplace of light, and tells us what are the elementary substances which have influenced the refraction of the ray. Spectral analysis, that new and powerful instrument of chemical research for which we are indebted to Kirchhoff, has been taught by our countrymen to scrutinize not only planets and stars, but even to reveal the constitution of the nebule, those mysterious masses out of which it has been thought new suns and planets might be evolyed—nursing-mothers of the stars. For a time, indeed, the resolution * Professor Thomson assigns to the sun’s heat, supposing it to be maintained by the appulse of masses of matter, a limit of 300,000 years ; and to the period of cooling of the earth from universal fusion to its actual state, 98 million years. These are the lowest estimates sanctioned by any mathematician. + Among the interesting researches which have been undertaken on the subject of the spots, may be mentioned those of Wolf (Comptes Rendus, 1859), who finds the number and periodicity of the spots to be dependent on the position of Venus, the Earth, Jupiter, and Saturn. Stewart has made a special study of the relation of the spots to the path of Venus (Proc. of the Roy. Soc. 1864) ; and Chacornae is now engaged in unfolding his conception of the spots as the visible effect of volcanic excitement. The peculiar features of the solar surface are under examination by these and other good observers; such as Dawes, Nasmyth, Secchi, Stone, Fletcher, Howlett, and Lockyer. t Proc. of Roy. Soc. 1864. The elder Herschel appears to have regarded the light of the sun and of the fixed stars as perhaps the effect of an electro-magnetic process—a per- petual aurora. ADDRESS. lv of some nebuli, by the giant mirror of Lord Rosse, afforded ground for opposing the speculation of Herschel and the reasoning of Laplace, which required for their very starting-point the admission of the existence of thin gaseous expansions, with or without points or centres of incipient condensa- tion, with or without marks of internal movement. The latest results, how- ever, of spectral analysis of stars and nebule by Mr. Huggins and Professor W. A. Miller, have fairly restored the balance. The nebule are indeed found to have in some instances stellar points, but they are not stars; the whole resembles an enormous mass of luminous gas, with an interrupted spectrum of three lines, probably agreeing with nitrogen, hydrogen, and a substance at present unknown*. Stars tested by the same accurate hands are found to have a constitution like that of our own Sun, and, like it, to show the pre- sence of several terrestrial elements—as sodium, magnesium, iron, and very often hydrogen. While in the Moon and Venus no lines whatever are found due to an atmosphere, in Jupiter and Saturn, besides the lines which are identical with some produced in our own atmosphere, there is one in the red, which may be caused by the presence of some unknown gas or vapour. Mars is still more peculiar, and enough is ascertained to discountenance the notion of his redness being due to a peculiarity of the soil f. To aid researches into the condition of celestial bodies, the new powers of light, discovered by Niepce, Daguerre, and Talbot, have been employed by Bond, Draper, De la Rue, and other astronomers. To our countryman, in particular, belongs the honour of successful experiments on the rose-coloured flames which extend from certain points of the sun’s border during an eclipse ; as well as of valuable contributions through the same agency to that enlarged survey of the physical aspect of the moon, which, since 1852, the Association has striven to promote. By another application of the same beautiful art, in connexion with clock-work, the momentary changes of magnetic force and direction, the variations of temperature, the fluctuations of atmospheric pressure, the force of the wind, the fall of rain, the propor- tion of ozone in the air, are registered in our observatories; and thus the inventions of Ronalds and his successors have engaged the solar rays in measuring and comparing contemporaneous phenomena of the same order over large parts of the globe—phenomena some of which are occasioned by those very rays. As we ascend above the earth, heat, moisture, and magnetic force decrease, the velocity of wind augments, and the proportion of oxygen and nitrogen remains the same. The decrease of heat as we rise into the air is no new subject of inquiry, nor have the views respecting it been very limited or very accordant. Leslie considered it mathematically in relation to pressure ; Humboldt gave the result of a large inquiry at points on the earth’s surface, unequally elevated above the sea; and finally, Mr. Glaisher and Mr. Coxwell, during many balloon ascents to the zones of life-destroying cold, far above our mountain tops, have obtained innumerable data, in all seasons of the year, through a vast range of vertical height. The result is to show much more rapid decrease near the earth, much slower decrease at great elevations ; thus agreeing in general with the decrease of density, and yet throwing no discredit on the determinations of Humboldt, which do not refer to the free atmospheric ocean, but to the mere borders of it where it touches the earth, and is influenced thereby ¢. * Proc. Roy. Soc. and Phil. Trans. 1864. + Phil. Trans. 1864. + Reports of the British Association for 1862, 1863, 1854. lvi REPORT— 1865. The proportion of carbonic acid gas in the atmosphere at great heights is not yet ascertained : it is not likely to be the same as that generally found near the earth; but its proportion may be more constant, since in those regions it is exempt from the influence of the actions and reactions which are always in progress on the land and in the water, and do not necessarily compensate one another at every place and at every moment. Other information bearing on the constitution of the atmosphere comes to us from the auroral beams and other meteoric lights known as shooting-stars. For some of these objects not only appear at heights of ten, fifty, and one hundred or more miles above the earth, but at the height of fifty miles it is on record that shooting-stars or fire-balls have left waving trains of light, whose changes of form were in seeming accordance to varying pressure in the elevated and attenuated atmosphere *. Researches of every kind have so enriched meteorology since our early friend, Professor J. Forbes, printed his suggestive reports on that subject, and . So great have been the benefits conferred on it by the electric telegraph, that at this moment in M. Leverrier’s observatory at Paris, and the office so lately presided over by Admiral FitzRoy in London, the messages are arriving from all parts of Europe to declare the present weather, and furnish grounds for reasonable expectation of the next probable change. Hardly now within the seas of Europe can a cyclone begin its career of devastation, before the warning signal is raised in our sea-ports, to restrain the too confident sailor. The gentle spirit which employed this knowledge in the cause of humanity has passed away, leaving an example of unselfish devotion, in a work which must not fail through any lack of energy on the part of this Association, the Royal Society, or the Government. We must extend these researches and enlarge these benefits by the aid of the telegraph bringing the ends of the world together. Soon may that thread of communication unite the two great sections of the Anglo-Saxon race, and bring and return through the broad Atlantic the happy and mutual congratulations for peace restored and friend- ships renewed. The possible combinations of force by which, in the view we have been considering, the characteristic forms and special phenomena of solid, liquid, and gaseous matter are determined, may be innumerable. Practically, how- ever, they appear to be limited, as natural products, to less than one thousand distinguishable compounds, and less than one hundred + elementary sub- stances. Of these elements the most prevalent are few on the earth; as of gases, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen ; of solids, silicon, calcium, magnesium, sodium, iron; and it is interesting to learn by analysis of the light of stars and planets, that these substances, or some of them, are found in most of the celestial objects yet examined, and that, except in one or two instances, no other substances have been traced therein. Even the wandering meteoric stones, which fall from their courses, and are examined on the earth, betray only well-known mineral elements, though in the manner in which these are combined, some differences appear, which by chemical research and the aid of transparent sections Professor Maskelyne and Mr. Sorby are engaged in studying and interpreting +. * This is the result of a careful discussion made by myself of observations on a meteor seen from Rouen to Yorkshire, and from Cornwall to Kent, Jan. 7, 1856. + At the present moment the number of “ elementary substances” is sixty-one. { Professor Maskelyne has made a convenient classification of the large collection of meteorites in the British Museum, under the titles of “ Aérolite or Meteorie Stone ;” ** Aérosiderite or Meteoric ron ;” and “ Aérosiderolites,” which includes the intervening ADDRESS. lvii By the labours of Lavoisier and his contemporaries, Chemistry acquired a fixed logic and an accurate nomenclature. Dalton and the great physicists of the early part of this century gave that law of definite combination by proportionate weights of the elements which is for chemistry what the law of gravitation is for celestial mechanics. A great expansion of the meaning of the atomic theory took place, when Mitscherlich announced his views of isomorphous, isomeric, and dimorphous bodies. For thus it came gradually to appear that particular forces resided in crystals in virtue of their struc- ture, lay in certain directions, and exhibited definite physical effects, if the chemical elements, without being the same, were combined in similar propor- tions, and aggregated into similar crystals. Some years later, ozone was discovered by Schénbein, and it concurred with a few other allotropic sub- stances in reviving, among philosophic chemists, the inquiry as to the relative situation of the particles in a compound body, and the effects of such arrangements: an idea which had been expressed by Dalton in diagrams of atoms, and afterwards exercised the ingenuity of Exley, MacVicar, and others *. ’ Everything connected with this view of the modification of physical pro- perties by the arrangement of the particles—whether elementary or com- pound—is of the highest importance to mineralogy, a branch of study by no means so much in favour even with chemists as its own merits and its col- lateral bearings might justly deserve. Yet it isin a great measure by help of this branch of study that the opinions now current regarding metamor- phism of rocks in situ, and the formation of mineral veins, must acquire that solid support and general consent which at present they do not possess. Crystals, indeed, whether regarded as to their origin in nature, their fabrica- tion by art, or their action on the rays of light, the waves of heat and sound, and the distribution of electricity, have not been neglected by the Association or its members. In one of the earliest Reports, Dr. Whewell calls attention to the state of crystallographical theory, and to the artificial production of erystals; and in another Report, Professor Johnston notices epigene and pseudomorphous crystallization ; and for many years, at almost every meet- ing, new and brilliant discoveries in the action of crystals on light were made known by Brewster t, and compared with the undulatory theory by Herschel, MacCullagh, Airy, Hamilton, Whewell, Powell, Challis, Lloyd, and Stokes. The unequal expansion of crystals by heat, in different directions, first observed by Mitscherlich, has been carefully examined in the cases of sulphate and carbonate of lime by Professor W. H. Miller+, who has also considered their elasticity, originally measured in different relations to the axis by Savart. These-and many other interesting relations of crystals have varieties. Mr. Sorby, whose latest results are unpublished, but will be communicated to the Royal Society, is of opinion that the substance of meteorites has undergone changes due to physical conditions in some ancient period not now to be paralleled on our planet, or on the moon, but rather to be looked for only in the immediate neighbourhood of the sun. Professor Haidinger has also made a special study of meteorites. * Dalton, Chemistry, vol.i. 1808. A clear view of the simpler applications of Dalton’s ideas is given by the illustrious author in Daubeny’s Treatise on the Atomic Theory, 1850. Exley, Nat. and Exp. Philosophy, 1829. MacVicar, Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1855; Trans. Roy. Soe. Edinb., &e. + “Sir David Brewster must be considered as in a degree the creator of the science which studies the mutual dependence of optical properties and crystalline forms.” (Whewell, in Report on Mineralogy, Brit. Assoc. 1832, p. 336.) ft Rep. Proc. 1837, pp. 48, 44. lini REPORT—1865. been attended to; but the Association has not yet succeeded in obtaining a complete digest of the facts and theories connected with the appearance of crystals in nature—in the fissures of rocks; in the smaller cavities of rocks ; in the solid substance or liquid contents of other crystals. Such an inquiry, however, it did earnestly demand, and some steps have been taken by our own chemists, mineralogists, and geologists. But more abundant information on this class of subjects is still needed, even after the admirable contributions and recent discoveries of Bischof, Delesse, and Daubrée *. Within our Association-period both the nomenclature of chemistry and the conception of the atomic theory have received not indeed a change, but such an addition to its ordinary expression as the more general language and larger meaning of Algebra have conferred on common arithmetical values. The theory of compound radicals, as these views of Liebig, Dumas, and Hof- mann may be justly termed, embraces the consideration of groups of elements united in pairs by the ordinary law, these groups being for the purpose in hand treated as single elements of combination. The nomenclature which attempts in ordinary words to express these relations grows very unma- nageable even in languages more easily capable of polysyllabic combinations than ours; but symbols of composition—the true language of chemistry— are no more embarrassed in the expression of these new ideas than are the mathematical symbols which deal with operations of much greater com- plexity on quantities more various and more variable +. The study of these compound radicals comes in aid of experimental research into those numerous and complex substances which appear as the result of chemical transforma- tions in organic bodies. Thus in some instances the very substances have been recomposed by art which the vital processes are every moment pro- ducing in nature; in others the steps of the process are clearly traced ; in all the changes become better understood through which so great a variety of substances and structures are yielded by one circulating fluid; and the result is almost a new branch of animal and vegetable physiology, not less import- ant for the health of mankind than essential to the progress of scientific agriculture. The greater our progress in the study of the economy of nature, the more she unveils herself as one vast whole ; one comprehensive plan ; one universal rule, in a yet unexhausted series of individual peculiarities. Such is the aspect of this moving, working, living system of force and law: such it has ever been, if we rightly interpret the history of our own portion of this rich inheritance of mind, the history of that Earth from which we spring, with which so many of our thoughts are coordinated, and to which all but our thoughts and hopes will again return. How should we prize this history! and exult in the thought that in our own days, within our own memories, the very foundations of the Series of Strata, deposited in the beginning of time, have been explored by our living friends, our Murchison and Sedgwick, while the higher and more complicated parts of the structure have been minutely examined by our Lyell, Forbes, and Prestwich +! How instructive the history of that long series of inhabi- * Bischof, Chemical Geology (published by the Cavendish Society, 1856). Delesse, Etudes sur le Métamorphisme, 1858, and other works. Daubrée, Sur la Relation des Sources Thermales des Plombiéres, avec les Filons Metal- liféres et la Formation des Zeolithes, 1858, and other works. + On the Nomenclature of Organic Compounds, by Dr. Daubeny. Reports of British Association, 1851. ¢ The investigations of Murchison and Sedgwick in the Cambrian and Silurian Strata began in 1831; the views of Sir C. Lyell on Tertiary periods were made known in 1829. ADDRESS. lix tants which received in primeval times the gift of life, and filled the land, sea, and air with rejoicing myriads, through innumerable revolutions of the planet, before in the fulness of time it pleased the Giver of all good to place man upon the Earth, and bid him look up to Heaven, Wave succeeding wave, the forms of ancient life sweep across the ever- changing surface of the earth; revealing to us the height of the land, the depth of the sea, the quality of the air, the course of the rivers, the extent of the forest, the system of life and death—yes, the growth, decay, and death of individuals, the beginning and ending of races, of many successive races of plants and animals, in seas now dried, on sand-banks now raised into mountains, on continents now sunk beneath the waters. Had that series a beginning? Was the earth ever uninhabited, after it became a globe turning on its axis and revolving round thesun? Was there ever a period since land and sea were separated—a period which we can trace—when the land was not shaded by plants, the ocean not alive with animals? The answer, as it comes to us from the latest observation, declares that in the lowest deposits of the most ancient seas in the stratified crust of the globe, the monuments of life remain. They extend to the earliest sedi- ments of water, now in part so changed as to appear like the products of fire, What life? Only the simpler and less specially organized fabrics have as yet rewarded research among these old Laurentian rocks—only the aggre- - gated structures of Foraminifera have been found in what, for the present at least, must be accepted as the first deposits of the oldest sea. The most ancient of all known fossils, the Eozoon Canadense of Sir W. Logan, is of this low, we may even say lowest, type of animal organization. Then step by step we are guided through the old Cambrian and Silurian systems, rich in Trilobites and Brachiopoda, the delights of Salter and Da- yidson ; with Agassiz and Miller and Egerton we read the history of the strange old fishes of the Devonian rocks; Brongniart, and Géppert, and Dawson, and Binney, and Hooker unveil the mystery of the mighty forests now converted to coal; Mantell and Owen and Huxley restore for us the giant reptiles of the Lias, the Oolite, and the Wealden; Edwards and Wright almost revive the beauteous corals and echinodermata ; which with all the preceding tribes have come and gone before the dawn of the later periods, when fragments of mammoths and hippopotami were buried in caves and river sediments to reward the researches of Cuvier and Buckland, Prestwich and Christy, Lartet and Falconer. And what is the latest term in this long series of successive existence ? Surely the monuments of ever-advancing art—the temples whose origin is in caverns of the rocks; the cities which have taken the place of holes in the ground, or heaps of stones and timber in a lake; the ships which have out- grown the canoe, as that was modelled from the floating trunk of a tree, are sufficient proof of the late arrival of man upon the Earth, after it had under- gone many changes and had become adapted to his physical, intellectual, and moral nature. Compared with the periods which elapsed in the accomplishment of these changes, how short is the date of those yet standing monoliths, cromlechs, and circles of unhewn stone which are the oldest of human structures raised in Western Europe, or of those more regular fabrics which attest the early importance of the monarchs and people of Egypt, Assyria, and some parts of America! Yet tried by monuments of natural events which happened within the age of man, the human family is old enough in Western Europe to have been sheltered by caverns in the rocks, while herds of reindeer roamed in lx REPORT—1865. Southern France*, and bears and hyenas were denizens of the South of England+. More than this, remains of the rudest human art ever seen are certainly found buried with and are thought to belong to races who lived contemporaneously with the mammoth and rhinoceros, and experienced the cold of a Gallic or British winter, from which the woolly covering of the wild animals was a fitting protection. Our own annals begin with the Kelts, if indeed we are entitled to call by that historic name the really separate nations, Belgian, Iberian, and Teu- tonic, whom the Roman writers recognize as settlers in Britaint; settlers among a really earlier family, our rudest and oldest forefathers, who may have been, as they thought themselves to be, the primitive people of the land§. But beyond the KeAraé who occupied the sources of the Danube and the slopes of the Pyrenees, and were known to Rome in later days, there was present to the mind of the father of Grecian history a still more western race, the Cynetew, who may perhaps be supposed the very earliest people of the extreme west of the continent of Europe. Were those the people, the first poor pilgrims from the East, whose footsteps we are slowly tracing in the valleys of Picardy and the south of England, if not on the borders of the lakes of Switzerland? Are their kindred still to be found among the Rheetic Alps and the Asturian cliffs, if not amid the wilds of Connemara, pressed into those mountainous recesses by the legions of Rome, the spear of the Visigoth, and the sword of the Saxon? Or must we regard them as races of an earlier type, who had ceased to chip flints before the arrival of Saxon, or Goth, or Kelt, or Cynetian? These questions of romantic interest in the study of the distribution and languages of the families of man are part of a large circle of inquiry which finds sympathy in several of our Sections, especially those devoted to Zoology, Physiology, and Ethnology. Let us not expect or desire for them a very quick, or, at present, a very definite settle- ment. Deep shadows have gathered over all the earlier ages of mankind, which perhaps still longer periods of time may not avail to remove. Yet let us not undervalue the progress of ethnological inquiry, nor fail to mark how, within the period to which our recollections cling, the revelations of early Egypt have been followed by a Chronology of the ancient kingdoms on the Tigris and Euphrates, through the same rigorous study of language. Thus has our Rawlinson added another page to the brilliant discoveries of Young and Champollion, Lepsius and Rosellini. Nor, though obtained in a different way, must we forget the new know- ledge of a people nearer home, which the philosophic mind of Keller has opened to us among his native mountains. There, on the borders of the Alpine lakes, before the great Roman general crossed the Rhone, lived a people older than the Helvetians; whose rude lives, passed in hunting and fishing, were nevertheless marked by some of the many inventions which everywhere, even in the most unfavourable situations, accompany the least civilized of mankind. Implements of stone and pottery of the rudest sort belong to the earliest of these people ; while ornamented iron weapons of war, and innumerable other fabrics in that metal, appear about the later habita- * See the Memoirs of M. Lartet on the Caves of the Dordogne, 1863-64. + = the caves of Gower, Devon, and Somerset, flint flakes occur with several extinct animals. { Gallic or Belgian on the south-east coast; Iberian in South Wales; German at the foot of the Grampians. (Tacitus, Vita Agricole.) § “Britannice pars interior ab iis incolitur, quos natos in insula ipsa memoria pro- ditum dicunt.” (Cesar, v. 12.) ADDRESS. lxi tions, and correspond probably to the period of the true Helvetii, who quitted their home and contended with Cesar for richer settlements in Gaul. The people of whom these are the traces on almost every lake in Switzerland are recognized as well in the ancient lake-basins of Lombardy and among the Tyrolean Alps, and further on the north side of the mountains ; and probably fresh discoveries may connect them with the country of the Sarmatians and the Scythians. Thus at length is fairly opened, for archeology-and palzontology to read, a new chapter of the world’s history, which begins in the pleistocene periods of geology, and reaches to the prehistoric ages of man. Did our ancestors really contend, as the poets fancied*, with stones and clubs against the lion and the rhinoceros, and thus expel them from their native haunts, or have they been removed by change of climate or local physical conditions? Was the existence of the hyena and the elephant only possible in Western Europe while a climate prevailed there such as now belongs to Africa or India? and was this period of high temperature reduced in a later time for the elk, rein- deer, and musk ox, which undoubtedly roamed over the hills of England and France? If we think so, what a vista of long duration stretches before us, for no such changes of climate can be supposed to have occurred except as the effect of great physical changes, requiring a lapse of many thousands of years. And though we may think such changes of climate not proved, and probably careful weighing of evidence may justify our disbelief, still, if the valleys in Picardy have been excavated since the deposit of the gravel of St. Acheulf, and the whole face of the country has been altered about the caverns of Torquay since they received remains of animals and traces of man{—how can we admit these facts and yet refuse the time required for their accomplish- ment? First, let us be sure of the facts, and especially of that main fact upon which all the argument involving immensity of time really turns, viz. the contemporaneous existence of man with the mammoth of the plains and the bear of the caverns. The remains of men are certainly buried with those of extinct quadrupeds ; but did they live in the same days, or do we see relics of different periods gathered into one locality by natural processes of a later date, or confused by the operations of men? : Before replying finally to. these questions, further researches of an exact kind are desirable, and the Association has given its aid towards them, both in respect to the old cavern of Kent’s Hole, and the newly opened fissure of Gibraltar, from which we expect great results, though the best of our la- bourers has ceased from his honourable toil§. When these and many other researches are completed, some future Lyell, if not our own great geologist, may add some fresh chapters to the ‘ Antiquity of Man.’ In judging of this antiquity, in counting the centuries which may have elapsed since smoothed flints fitted with handles of wood were used as chisels and axes by the earliest people of Scandinavia or Helvetia, and flakes of flint were employed to cleanse the skins of the reimdeer in the eaves of the Dor- dogne, or stronger tools broke up the ice in the valley of the Somme, we must be careful not to take what is the mark of low civilization for the indi- cation of very remote time. In every country, among every race of men, * Lucretius, v. 964-1283. t Prestwich, Transactions of the Royal Society, 1860, and Proc. of Roy. Inst., Feb. 1864. {t Pengelly, Reports of the British Association, 1864. § The late Dr. Hugh Falconer, whose knowledge of the fossil animals of caves was re- markably exact, took a great share in these examinations. xii REPORT—1865. such rude weapons and tools are used now, or were used formerly. On the banks of the Ohio, no less than on the English hills, mounds of earth, rude pottery, and stone weapons occur in abundance; and indicate similar wants, contrivances, customs, ideas, in different races of men living in different periods. Even when in the same country, as in Switzerland, or England, or Denmark, successive deposits of instruments of stone, bronze, or iron; suc- cessive burials of pines, beeches, and oaks ; successively extinguished races of elephants, elks, and reindeer, give us a real scale of elapsed time, it is one of which the divisions are not yet valued in years or centuries of years. Toward a right judgment of the length of this scale of human occupation, two other lines of evidence may be thought worthy of notice; one founded on the anatomical study of the remains of early men, the other on the laws of language. If the varieties of physical structure in man, and the deviations of language from an original type, be natural effects of time and circumstance, the length of time may be in some degree estimated by the amount of the diversities which are observed to have happened, compared with the varia- tion which is now known to be happening. This process becomes imaginary, unless we assume all mankind to have had one local centre, and one original language. Its results must be erroneous, unless we take fully into account the superior fixity of languages which are represented in writing, and the greater tendency to diversity of every kind which must have prevailed in early times, when geographical impediments were aggravated by dissocial habits of life. It appears, however, certain that some differences of language, organization, and habits have separated men of apparently unlike races during periods longer than those which rest on historical facts*. Ever since the days of Aristotle, the analogy existing among all parts of the animal kingdom, and in a general sense we may say among all the forms of life, has become more and more the subject of special study. Related as all living beings are to the element in which they move and breathe, to the mechanical energies of nature which they employ or resist, and to the molecular forces which penetrate and transform them, some general confor- mity of structure, some frequently recurring resemblance of function, must be present, and cannot be overlooked. In the several classes this analogy grows stronger, and in the subdivisions of these classes real family affinity is recognized. In the smallest divisions which have this family relation in the highest degree, there seems to be a line which circumscribes each group, within which variations occur, from food, exercise, climate, and transmitted peculiarities. Often one specific group approaches another, or several others, and a question arises whether, though now distinet, or rather distinguishable, they always have been so from their beginning, or will be always so until their disappearance. Whether what we call species are so many original creations or derivations from a few types or one type, is discussed at length in the elegant treatise of Darwin?, himself a naturalist of eminent rank. It had been often discussed before. Nor will any one think lightly of such inquiries, who remembers the essay of Linnzeus, “ De Tulluris orbis incremento,” or the investigations of Brown, Prichard, Forbes, Agassiz, and Hooker regarding the local origin of different species, genera, and families of plants and animals, both on the land and in the sea. Still less will he be disposed to undervalue its import- ance, when he reflects on the many successive races of living forms more or less resembling our existing quadrupeds, reptiles, fishes, and mollusca, which * Max Miller on the Science of Language. t On the Origin of Species, 1859. ADDRESS. lxili appeared to have occupied definite and different parts of the depths of an- cient time ; as now the tiger and the jaguar, the cayman and the gavial, live on different parts of the terrestrial surface. Is the living elephant of Ceylon the lineal descendant of that mammoth which roamed over Siberia and Eu- rope and North America, or of one of those sub-Himalayan tribes which Dr. Falconer has made known, or was it a species dwelling only in circumpolar regions? Can our domestic cattle, horses and dogs, our beasts of chace and our beasts of prey, be traced back to their source in older types, contempo- raries of the Urus, Megaceros, and Hyena on the plains of Europe? If so, what range of variation in structure does it indicate? if not so, by what characters are the living races separated from those of earlier date ? Specific questions of this kind must be answered before the general pro- position, that the forms of life are indefinitely variable with time and cir- cumstance, can be even examined by the light of adequate evidence. That such evidence will be gathered and rightly interpreted, I for one neither doubt nor fear; nor will any be too hasty in adopting extreme opinions or too fearful of the final result, who remember how often that which is true has been found very different from that which was plausible, and how often out of the nettles of danger we have plucked the flowers of safety. At the’ present moment the three propositions which were ever present to the mind of Edward Forbes may be successfully maintained, as agreeing with many observed phenomena ; and around them as a basis of classification may be gathered most of the facts and most of the speculations which relate to the history of life*. First, it may be admitted that plants and animals form many natural groups, the members of which have several common characters, and are parted from other groups by a real boundary line, or rather unoccu- pied space. Next, that each of these groups has a limited distribution in space, often restrained by high mountains or deep seas, or parallels of tem- perature, within which it has been brought into being. Thirdly, that each group has been submitted to, or is now undergoing, the pressure of a general law, by which its duration is limited in geological time; the same group never reappearing after being removed from the series. How important, in the view of this and many other questions, is that never-tiring spirit of geographical and maritime discovery, to which through four hundred years Europe has sent her noblest sons and her most famous expeditions; sent them, alas! too often to an early grave. Alas! for Franklin, who carried the magnetic flag into the Icy Sea from which he had ‘already brought trophies to Science! Alas! for Speke, who came home with honour from the head waters of the Nile! Forgotten they can never be, whenever, on occasions like this, we mourn the absence of our bravest and our best ; praise, never-ending praise be theirs, while men retain the generous impulse which prompts them to enterprises worthy of their country and bene- ficial to mankind! e co , Ael ogwy KXéos Eoerat Kar’ aiay. _ If it be asked, what share in the discoveries and inventions of the last thirty-three years is claimed for the British Association ; let us answer fear- lessly—We had a part in all. In some of them we took the foremost place by the frequency of our discussions, the urgency of our recommendations, the employment of our influence, and the grant of our funds. For others we gave all our strength, to support the Royal Society and other institutions in _ __* See the remarkable Essay of E. Forbes on the distribution of the existing Fauna and Flora of the British Isles, in Memoirs of Geol. Survey of Britain, vol. i. p. 336. lxiv REPORT—1865. their efforts to accomplish purposes which we approve. In all instances our elastic system responds quickly to pressure, and returns the friendly impulse. If we look back on the work of previous years, it is easy to mark the special action of the Association in fields which hardly could be entered by any other adventurers. — Many of the most valuable labours of which we are now reaping the fruits, were undertaken in consequence of the reports on special branches of Science which appear in the early volumes of our Transactions—reports in which particular data were requested for confirming or correcting known genera- lizations, or for establishing new ones. Thus a passage in Professor Airy’s report on Physical Astronomy* first turned the attention of Adams to the mathematical vision of Neptune ; Lubbock’s Report on Tidest came before the experimental researches and reductions, which since 1834 have so often engaged the attention of Whewell and Airy and Haughton, with results so valuable and so suggestive of further undertakings. Among these results may be placed additional knowledge of the probable depth of the channels of the sea. For before the desire of telegraphic communication with America had caused the bed of the North Atlantic to be explored by soundings to a depth seldom exceeding three miles, there was reason to conclude from the investigations of Whewell on Cotidal Linest that a depth of nine miles was attained in the Sonth Atlantic, and from the separate computations of Airy and Haughton that a somewhat greater depth occurred in a part of the course of the tide-wave which washes the coast of Ireland§. The greater portion of the sea-bed is within reach of soundings directed by the superior skill and greater perseverance of modern scientific navigators; a depth of six miles is said to have been reached in one small tract of the North Atlantic; depths of nine or ten miles in the deepest channels of the sea are probable from consi- dering the general proportion which is likely to obtain between sea-depths and mountain-tops. Thus the data are gradually being collected for a com- plete survey of the bed of the sea, including among other things information, at least, concerning the distribution of animal and vegetable life beneath the waters. Waves—their origin, the mechanism of their motion, their velocity, their elevation, the resistance they offer to vessels of given form, these subjects have been firmly kept in view by the Association, since first Professor Challis || reported on the mathematical problems they suggest, and Sir J. Robison and Mr. Scott Russell undertook to study them experimentally Y. Out of this in- quiry has come a better knowledge of the forms which ought to be given to the ‘lines’ of ships, followed by swifter passages across the sea, both by sailing vessels and steamers, of larger size and greater lengths than were ever tried before**. One of the earliest subjects to acquire importance in our thoughts, was the unexplored region of meteorology laid open in Professor J. Forbes’s ReportstT. Several of the points to which he called attention have been successfully at- tained. The admirable instruments of Whewell, Osler, and Robinson have réplaced the older and ruder anemometers, and are everywhere in full opera- * Reports of the British Association for 1832, p. 154. Laplace had indeed observed that “the planet Uranus and his satellites, lately discovered, give reason to suspect the existence of some planets not yet observed ;’’ thereby encouraging the search for new dis- coveries in our own system. (Exp. du Syst. du Monde, 1799, 4to, p. 350.) + Reports of the British Association, 1832. t Trans. of Roy. Soc. 1833. § Trans. of Roy. Irish Acad. 1855. || Reports of the British Association, 1833, 1836. {| Ibid. 1837 and following years. ** Thid. 1840-1843. tT Ibid. 1832-1840. ADDRESS, lxv tion, to record the momentary variations of pressure, or sum the varying velocities of the wind. No small thanks were due to Mr. Marshall and Mr. Miller* for their enterprise and perseverance in placing rain-gauges and thermometers amidst the peaks of Cumberland and Westmoreland. These experiments are now renewed in both counties and in North Wales; and I - hope to hear of similar efforts among the mountains of the West of Ireland and the West of Scotland. Our meteorological instruments of every kind have been improved ; our system of photographic registration has spread from Kew into other observatories; and our corresponding member, Pro- fessor Dove, has collected into systematic maps and tables the lines and figures which represent annual and monthly climate over every land and sea. In the same manner, by no sudden impulse or accidental circumstance, rose to its high importance that great system of magnetic observations, on which for more than a quarter of a century the British Association and the Royal Society, acting in concert, have been intent. First, we had Reports on the mathematical theory and experimental researches of magnetism by Christie (1833), Whewell (1835), and Sabine (1835) :—afterwards, a magnetic survey of the British Islandst ; then, the establishment of a complete obser- vatory at Dublin, with newly arranged instruments, by Dr. Lloyd, in 1838. On all this gathered experience we founded a memorial to Her Majesty’s Government, made a grant of £400 from our funds for preliminary expenses, and presented to the Meeting of this Association in Birmingham, in 1839, a Report of progress, signed by Herschel and Lloyd. From that time how great the labour, how inestimable the fruits! Ross sails to the magnetic pole of the south; America and Russia cooperate with our observers at Kew, Toronto, and St. Helena; and General Sabine, by combining all this united labour, has the happiness of seeing results established of which no man dreamed—laws of harmonious variation affecting the magnetic elements of the globe, in definite relation to the earth’s movement, the position of the sun and moon, the distribution of temperature, and the situation in latitude and longitudet. Our efforts have not been fruitless, whether with Mr. Mallet we make ex- periments on artificial earth-shocks at Dalkey, or survey the devastations round Vesuvius, or tabulate the records of earthquakes since the beginning of history§ ; or establish the Kew Observatory as a scientific workshop where new instruments of research are made and proved and set to work||; or dredge the sea with Forbes, and Brady, and Jeffreys]; or catalogue the stars with Baily** ; or investigate electricity with Harris, Ronalds, Thomson, * Mr. Marshall’s observations were made in Patterdale, Mr. Miller’s about Wastdale Het (British Association Reports for 1846, and Royal Society’s Transactions, 850. + The survey was begun in Ireland in 1835, by Lloyd, Sabine, and Ross; and com- pleted in England, Wales, and Scotland in 1837, by the same magneticians, assisted by Fox and Phillips. It was repeated in 1857 and following years by Sabine, Lloyd, Welsh, Haughton, Galbraith, and Stoney. { Trans. of the Royal Society for many years; Reports of the British Association, 1840 and following years; Rede Lecture, 1862. § British Association Reports ; Experiments at Dalkey, 1853 ; Report on Earthquakes, 1840-1858. See also the excellent communications of M. Perrey to the Memoirs of the Academy of Dijon. || The Kew Observatory became a part of the system of the Association in 1842. ‘| See Reports of the Dredging Committees from 1842 to 1864; Nat. Hist. Trans. of Northumberland and Durham ; J effreys’s British Conchology. . 5 a Association Catalogue of Stars, 1845, ‘ é Ixvi REPORT—1865. and Jenkin*; or try the action of long-continued heat with Harcourtt: in these and a hundred other directions, our attempts to gain knowledge have brought back new facts and new laws of phenomena, or better instru- ments for attaining or better methods for interpreting them. Even when we enter the domain of practical art, and apply scientific methods to test a great process of manufacture, we do not fail of success; because we are able to join in united exertion the laborious cultivators of science and the scientific employers of labour. Am I asked to give an example? Let it be iron, the one substance by the possession of which, by the true knowledge and right use of which, more than by any other thing, our national greatness is supported. What are the ores of iron—what the peculiarities and improvements of the: smelting processes—what the quality of the iron—its chemical composi- tion—its strength in columns and girders as cast iron; in rails and boiler plate, in tubes and chains, as wrought iron—what are the best forms in which to employ it, the best methods of preserving it from decay ;—these and many other questions are answered by many special Reports in our volumes, bearing the names of Barlow, Mallet, Porter, Fair- bairn, Bunsen, Playfair, Perey, Budd, Hodgkinson, Thomson; and very nu- merous other communications from Lucas, Fairbairn, Cooper, Nicholson, Price, Crane, Hartley, Davy, Mushet, Hawkes, Penny, Scoresby, Dawes, Calvert, Clark, Cox, Hodgkinson, May, Schafhaeutl, Johnston, Clay, and Boutigny. Beyond a question, a reader of such of these valuable documents as relate to the strength of iron, in its various forms, would be far better in- formed of the right course to be followed in experiments on armour-plated ships and forts to resist assault, and in the construction of ordnance to at- tack them, than he is likely to be from merely witnessing a thousand trials of the cannon against the target. Anyone who remembers what the iron furnace was forty years ago, and knows its present power of work, or who contrasts the rolling mills and hammers of other days with the beautiful ma- chines which now, with the gentlest motion but irresistible force, compel the strong metal to take up the most delicately moulded form, will acknowledge that, within the period since the British Association began to set itself to the task of reconciling the separated powers of Theory and Experience, there has been a total change in the aspect of each, to the great advantage of both. Our undertakings have not been fruitless. We attempted what we had well considered, and had the power to accomplish ; and we had the more than willing help of competent persons of our own body, the friendly aid of other Institutions, and the sanction of the Government, convinced of the sincerity of our purpose and the wisdom of our recommendations. The same work is ever before us ; the same prudence is always necessary ; the same aid is always ready. Great indeed should be our happiness, in reflecting on the many occasions, when the Royal Society in particular, and other Institutions older than our own, have readily placed themselves by our side, to share our re- sponsibility and diminish our difficulties. But for this, our wishes might not al- ways have prevailed ; and the horizon of science would not have been so clear as now it is. Of late years, indeed, Societies formed on our model have taken up special parts of our work ; and thus to some extent have relieved us of the pressure of communications relating to the practice of particular professions and the progress of some public questions. Not that scientific agriculture, social statistics, or physiology are neglected in our meetings, but that these and * The latest result of these researches is an instrumental standard of electrical resist ance. (Reports of the British Association, 1863-1864. + Reports of the British Association, 1846-1860. ADDRESS. Ixvil other practical subjects are found to have more than one aspect, and to re- quire more than one mode of treatment. With us, facts well ascertained, conclusions rightly drawn, will ever be welcome, from whatever quarter of the horizon of science they make their appearance. Whatever societies cul- tivate these objects, they are our allies, and we will help them, if we may. With pleasure we receive proofs of the good work done in limited districts by the many admirable Field Clubs formed by our countrymen; whether, like those of Tyneside and the Cotswolds, and in this immediate vicinity those of Warwickshire, Worcestershire, and Dudley, they explore the minutest re- cesses of our hills and glens ; or, like the rangers of the Alps, bring us new facts regarding glaciers, ancient climate, and altered levels of land and sea. By these agreeable gatherings natural history is most favourably com- mended ; and in the activity and enlarged views of the officers who conduct them, the British Association recognizes the qualities by which the vitality of scientific research is maintained, and its benefits diffused among the pro- vincial Institutions of the Empire. Such, Gentlemen, are some of the thoughts which fill the minds of those, who, like our Brewster, and Harcourt, and Forbes, and Murchison, and Dau- beny, stood, anxious but hopeful, by the cradle of this British Association ; and who now meet to judge of its strength, and measure its progress. When, more than thirty years ago, this Parliament of science came into being, its first child-language was employed to ask questions of Nature; now, in riper years, it founds on the answers received further and more definite inquiries directed to the same prolific source of useful knowledge. Of researches in science completed, in progress, or in beginning, each of our annual volumes contains some three hundred or more passing notices, or full and permanent records. This digest and monument of our labours is indeed in some respects incomplete, since it does not always contain the narrative or the result of undertakings which we started, or fostered, or sustained; and I own to haying experienced on this account once or twice a feeling of regret. But the regret was soon lost in the gratification of knowing that other and equally beneficial channels of publication had been found; and that by these ex- amples it was proved how truly the Association kept to the real purpose of its foundation, “the Advancement of Science,” and how heartily it rejoiced in this advancement without looking too closely to its own share in the triumph. Here, indeed, is the stronghold of the British Association. Where- ever and by whatever means sound learning and useful knowledge are ad- vanced, there to us are friends. Whoever is privileged to step beyond his fellows on the road of scientific discovery, will receive our applause, and, if need be, our help. Welcoming and joining in the labour of all, we shall keep our place among those who clear the ways and remove the obstacles from the paths of science; and whatever be our own success in the rich fields which lie before us, however little we may now know, we shall prove that in this our day we knew at least the value of knowledge, and joined hearts and hands in the endeavour to promote it. at HE YR son testis sft: Wee’ ar sued } > pba baa bral bs Sao Uudeaiora: # Th atenbesaedt. 1a! prety ‘Ro ie otmeni’ * obi! (ie: coward. 7 Rena pee THE, oe eoet : a etticers rex obey navi igen Litsaitr, reoush iD ri Laat id, = wth ais ae te LY ibssate ed weedeat ; drnsdt @ * aaa ng ay Piste 7 i ver » obi: to dies y + gael) rtiiieel ach sods rw pee sh , tified rerte | : nant bie abate tosh . SE whe z te TTR) wai ts : Hie PTVTOM a ohitaaid in te é $i t ; anit) i. Bea gaia ies FO aly onl ‘guoutp ~yitiata’ yey: fad 4 fas {OND ian [pits sprwoll vere ul dat worl’ » uw Tm £ af “otmebie Ao ah a eos: REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. Report on Dredging among the Channel Isles. By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, F.R.S. Our dredgings, which occupied six weeks, were confined to the coasts of Guernsey and Jersey. Owing to the rocky nature of the sea-bed, and to the extraordinary rapidity of the tides, the work was very difficult and unsatis- factory; and one of my dredges was unavoidably lost, notwithstanding the rope was a new one and every precaution had been taken to prevent an accident of this kind. The depth of water seldom exceeded 30 fathoms ; although there was one remarkable exception in a long submarine trough, called Hurd’s Deep, lying about fifteen miles north of Guernsey, and having a depth of 60 fathoms and more. As regards the Mollusca (to which I shall, as in former Reports, confine myself), they exhibit somewhat of a Mediterranean or South-European cha- racter. This will appear from the accompanying lists. No new species were procured; but scientific research does not consist entirely of such discoveries. It may be well questioned whether the reduction of some forms, which have heretofore been regarded as species, to the rank of varieties may not be of equal importance. The sexual relation of known species, their development, mode of growth, food, habits, economy, geographical and bathymetrical dis- tribution, are all matters which require careful investigation. I had likewise an opportunity of observing for the first time the animals or soft parts of several species of shell-bearing Mollusca, and of rectifying the published descriptions of other species. In the first of these categories I would enumerate Cardiwm papillosum, Rissoa crenulata, R. striatula, Defrancia _ Philberti, and Mangelia levigata. In the second category may be placed Galeomma Turtoni, Chiton discrepans, C. cancellatus, and T'rochus exasperatus. _ Among the rarer or more local species taken by us were Argiope capsula, Cardium papillosum, Tellina balaustina, and Crimora papillata. It was also noteworthy that Aplysia depilans and A. punctata (usually considered distinct Species) copulated when a pair was placed in a vessel of sea-water. This aie not hermaphrodite in the same sense as Heliv, inasmuch as each : B 2 REPORT—1865. individual of Aplysia performs the functions of one sex only, while each snail is at the time of sexual union both male and female. The tide ebbs far on the coasts of the Channel Isles, especially during the equinoxes ; at Guernsey the reflux extends about 30 feet, and at Jersey up- wards of 40 feet. This is very different from what takes place in the Medi- terranean, and it occasions a remarkable variation of habitat in many species. Psammobia costulata lives at Herm in the sand which is laid bare at low water, but in Shetland it occurs at a depth of between 80 and 90 fathoms. Hence we may infer that the depth of water cannot always be safely pre- dicated from a cursory examination of shells either in a recent or fossil state. Their comparative solidity and size afford better criteria *. A collection of the shells obtained on the present occasion has been placed in the British Museum. We were indebted to Mr. Lukis, Mr. Gallienne, Mr. Macculloch, Mr. Le Lievre and Mr. Cooper, of Guernsey, and to Mr. Piquet and Mr. Rose of Jersey, for much assistance and pleasant companionship. From the first- named of these gentlemen I received Purpura hamastoma, from the second Emarginula cancellata, and from the third Triton (or Murew) cutaceus, all of which had been taken alive at Guernsey and Herm. There cannot be the slightest reason to doubt that Triton nodiferus, as well as 7’. cutaceus, inhabit this part of our seas. MM. Cailliaud and Taslé have recorded the latter species, and M. Caillaud the former, as natives of the coast of Brittany. Off Jersey were dredged a few worn specimens of Cerithium vulgatum, a species which does not seem to have been observed in a living state anywhere on the shores of the North Atlantic. It is common throughout the Medi- terranean and Adriatic. M. Cailliaud has included it in his list of shells from the Loire-Inférieure, but only in a dead and rolled condition. From careful inquiries which I made at Jersey, I am enabled to state with some degree of certainty that no ballast containing shells has ever been brought there. I should be disposed to attribute the presence of C. vulgatwm (as a semi- fossil shell) on the coasts of Jersey and Lower Brittany to an ancient sub- mergence of the land, at a period probably anterior to that when submarine forests and peat-beds were formed on the shores of the north of Europe, and when the bays of St. Aubin and St. Michel were produced. Fossil shells, of Eocene species, were likewise met with; and they will be noticed in the Geological Section of this Meeting. The following Tables. may be useful to show which species are apparently restricted to the more southern limits of Great Britain. I, Species found in the Channel Isles but not in Shetland :— Aroiope decollata, Cardium tuberculatum. capsula. papillosum. Mytilus barbatus, Tapes aureus. Adriaticus. Gastrana fragilis. Modiolaria costulata. Psammobia vespertina. Crenella rhombea, Donax vittatus. Avea lactea. politus. Galeomma Turtoni. Amphidesma castaneum. Lepton squamosum. : Mactra glauca. sulcatulum. Lutraria oblonga. Loripes lacteus. Scrobicularia tenuis. Diplodonta rotundata. Solen vagina. Cardium aculeatum. Mya Binghami. * See ‘British Conchology,’ vol. iii. p. 27. ON DREDGING AMONG THE CHANNEL ISLES. 3 Gastrocheena dubia. Pholas dactylus. candida, parva. Teredo pedicellata. Dentalium Tarentinum,. Chiton discrepans. Emarginula rosea. Fissurella Greeca (probably). Calyptrea Chinensis. Haliotis tuberculata. Cyclostrema Cutlerianum. Trochus umbilicatus. — lineatus, striatus. —— exasperatus. eranulatus. Phasianella pulla. Rissoa calathus. costulata. crenulata. lactea. — pulcherrima. striatula. Aclis supranitida. ascaris. Scealaria Turtoni. Chemnitzia simillima. Chemznitzia scalaris. fenestrata. excavata. Odostomia dolioliformis. Warreni. conspicua. Lukisi. Barleeia rubra. Tanthina Britannica. Triforis pulchella. adversa. Nassa pygmeea. Lachesis minima, Murex corallinus, Triton cutaceus. nodiferus. Trophon muricatus. Defrancia Philberti. Mangelia rufa. Ovula patula, Bulla cornea. hydatis. Aplysia punctata. Pleurobranchus plumula. Otina otis. Melampus denticulatus. Sepia elegans. Tn all, 81 species of Testaceous Mollusca. About the same number of species are found in Shetland but not in the Channel Isles. The greater part of the British Mollusca are common to both extremities. I estimate the total number to be 520. Of these may be reckoned 80 as peculiar to each extremity (and 80 more as inhabiting the intermediate area only); so that 360 is the probable number of species belonging to the Channel Isles and Shetland. The Mediterranean has from 700 to 800 species. II. Species not observed north of the Channel Isles :— Rissoa lactea, Purpura hemastoma?, Murex corallinus, Argiope decollata, Lepton sulcatulum, Cardium papillosum, Teredo pedicellata, Chiton discrepans (probably), Emarginula cancellata?, Triton cutaceus, nodiferus, Bulla hydatis, Rissoa pulcherrima, Sepia elegans, being 14 species, of which 2 are doubtful as natives of the British seas. Report on the Cultivation of Oysters by Natural and Artificial Methods. By Franx Bucxuann, M.A., M.R.CS., &e. Feerie highly honoured with the confidence you have placed in me to in- quire into this subject—important not only in a physiological but also in a. commercial bearing—I have since the last Mecting used my best endeavours to obtain all the facts and all the information circumstances and labour would — allow—and this not only near at home, but also at distant localities. would B 4 REPORT—1865. beg to state that the facts hereafter mentioned are in no ease derived from books, but from actual observation and experiment. I have found that there is an amazing amount of most valuable informa- tion, because the result of practical experience, afloat. This information has, however, never yet been properly collected, sorted, and reduced to a scientific bearing. The further, moreover, that I investigate the question of that most mysterious mollusk the Oyster, the more I find that, after all, we know little or nothing at all about it. The cultivation of the full-grown oyster is indeed pretty well known after it has arrived over the state of “ brood ;” but in its earliest stages of deve- lopment comparatively little or nothing is known. It is the more important therefore to turn our attention in this direction, as legislation is actually at fault in the matter, and, as recent events have proved, those whose duties it is to make laws for the fisheries hardly know what laws to make. I would propose to divide my Report under several heads— . The cultivation of the oyster by natural means. The cultivation of the oyster by artificial means. . Experiments in hatching by artificial heat. Experiments on a large scale on the fore shore. The chemical analysis of the oyster. On dredging. Comparison of the French and English system of oyster-culture. . Experiments on oyster-spat. . On the cause of greenness in oysters. Although we know not as yet the actual process by means of which the delicate and thin-shelled young spat manages to cling to various substances, yet we can by observation find out the objects which it seems to prefer; and these I would place in order as follows :— 1. The shell of the living oyster. 2. The shell of the dead oyster, technically called “ Culch.” 3. The shells of mussels, periwinkles, whelks, clams. 4. Pieces of crockery, glass, tiles, tobacco-pipes. 5. Iron. 6. Wood. I would propose to examine these in rotation. 1. The Shell of the Living Oyster.—In the natural state, when not dis- turbed by the hand of man, we find that the tendency of the oyster is to accumulate in large groups, crowded and packed together in the most fan- tastic shapes. You find them of all ages, the nucleus of the group being a very old oyster, and around it oysters of ages varying from six or eight years to spat of as many months. It is curious to remark that these oysters have a tendency to accommodate each other; for I find that very seldom is there a dead one among the group, but that they are for the most part alive and thriving. There is a locality in the North Sea, known to the deep-sea trawlers, not far from the island of Heligoland, in lat. 54° to 55°, long. 5° to 6°: the trawlers avoid this spot, because the great clumps of oysters cut their nets and do much damage. By the kindness of my friend Mr. Thomas, owner of the trawling-smack ‘ Hurricane,’ I am enabled to show samples of these oysters; and I cannot but think that, were capital provided, and if expe- rienced men undertook the task, the fishing of this oyster-bank, at the present high price of oysters, would turn out to be a remunerative speculation, The 00 1. OVS 09 NO CULTIVATION OF OYSTERS BY NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL METHODS. 5 oysters are exceedingly thin, but, as direct experiment proves, they are capable of being fattened if placed in a favourable locality. 2. The Shells of the Dead Oyster, technically called * Culch.”—I look upon the study of the culch and its management as one of the most important things in oyster-culture ; for upon its state, whether abundant or not abun- dant, whether clean or dirty, depends the detaining or the loss of the young oysters after they are emitted from the mother’s shell, and also the important question as to whether the public grounds (or commons) should or should not be taken by private companies. We start the question with two facts :— 1. That the oyster will adhere to dead oyster-shells in preference to any other substance, even the shells of the living oyster. 2. That in order that the spat may adhere, the culch must be perfectly clean and free from mud and weed. There are but few localities where the shells of the dead oysters have ac- cumulated in sufficient quantity to give the spat a chance of adhering; it is therefore necessary to collect these shells from elsewhere and throw them down upon localities where the spat is likely to fall. This process is carried out by oyster-culturists on a pretty large scale; and it seems almost provi- dential that beds of oyster-shells should be found in the neighbourhood of the grounds which are cultivated. Thus, for instance, you will see on the map a place called the “ Pan Sand,” at the mouth of the Thames. Now, near this spot there is an accumulation of oyster-shells ; and dredging-boats from various localities dredge up these shells and carry them on to places nearer inshore, and throw them again to the bottom of the sea, knowing full well that, if there be spat floating about, and if they be in a proper condition to adhere, these shells will assuredly catch it. How this Pan Sand oyster-bed came into existence I am quite unable to tell you; but, from the appearance of the oysters themselves, I can assert that the oysters were of great age, that they had lived there many years undisturbed by dredges, and that a con- siderable time has elapsed since they thrived in this locality. Hence we learn an important fact, viz. that the spat seems to prefer adher- ing toa shell that is partially decayed, and softened, rather than to a new shell lately placed down. So great is the value of oyster-shells as “ culch,” that I have often cast a longing eye upon the shells which are carted away in large quantities from the oyster-shops in London and thrown on dust-heaps. They would be of much greater value if thrown on to the bottom of the sea, where they would certainly, if the season were favourable, form a trap for the floating spat. Such, however, is the abundance of old oyster-shells on the Pan Sand, that having, with the officers of the oyster-fishery with which I am connected, considered the idea, we find it would be cheaper to fetch them from the Pan Sand. I cannot, however, quit the subject of oyster-shells without lamenting that no use has yet been found for them on land. They are now to lands- men but waste material; and I cannot help thinking that, if technology were to throw her lamp upon the matter, a use might be found for them. True it is that they make good lime; but lime can be obtained from other materials at a less expense. The fact, however, of the lime of the oyster-shell being so very good has led my friend Mr. Bartlett, Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, to give them in a burnt state to poultry and the more valuable breeding pheasants. The birds seem to like it much, and it certainly is be- neficial to laying hens and growing chicks. Another use of oyster-shells I have lately heard of. Mr. Browning, of Paglesham, tells me that the poor 6 REPORT—1865, people grind the shell and take as much of the powder as will cover a four- penny piece as a cure for ague. 3. We will now consider the third materials the spat loves to fasten itself to. The most prominent of these is “ mussels.” Iam enabled to show you several fine specimens where oysters have adhered to mussels. The reason of this is obviously that the shell of the mussel presents the two requisites for the adhesion of the spat—perfect cleanliness and great smoothness. Oyster-proprietors should treasure this fact carefully in their memory, and should apply it. Mussels in beds form one of the greatest enemies to oysters, for they spin their web over them, accumulate mud, and suffocate the oysters beneath. They should therefore be dredged up, placed on the foreshore to die and decay, and the shells thrown back into the sea at the places where the spat is expected to fall. For some reason or other the spat seems to like the shell of the common whelk, especially when the animal is dead. I now show you several specimens to prove this fact. Whelks, however, are far too valuable, not only as human food, but also as a bait for the cod in the North Sea cod-fishery, to which locality they are annually sent in quantities of such enormous money-value, to prevent our ever thinking of using whelk-shells as culch in large quantities, The spat will also adhere to clams and to cockles. There isa large bed of these shells outside the mouth of the River Crouch in Essex; and friends of mine who have oyster-fisheries in this region dredge large quantities to place down on their grounds. I show you samples of all these facts. 4, We cannot be too observant of facts. I now show you a common saucer, on which oysters of three years old have fastened themselves. It was dredged up at a place called the Sandheads, at the mouth of the Thames; it is marked Queen’s Channel in the maps. The French oyster-culturists have long been aware of the fact shown by the saucer, and in their oyster-parks place down all the broken potteryware they can find; and to these the oysters will adhere in considerable numbers—that is, in France. Unglazed earthenware has also attractions for the oyster ; and upon this fact is founded the whole system of catching oysters by means of earthenware tiles, as I shall state hereafter. 5. It has often been a question as to whether oysters will or will not adhere to iron. Iam able to answer this in the affirmative. The piles which sup- port the pier at Herne Bay are covered over with broad-headed iron nails, and upon these, when the tides are very low, I have frequently found oysters adhering. A dredgerman, moreoyer, lately brought me in an exceedingly fine specimen, viz. the square bit of iron that was used formerly to go round the head of the wooden stock of an anchor; upon this square bit of iron I found no less than twenty-four oysters of various sizes and ages. 6. Oysters will also adhere to wood. Much has been said lately upon the advantage of placing down fascines or faggots for the use of the young oyster. I at once pronounce this to be a delusion and a snare, and I entreat those interested in the matter never to go to any trouble or expense in placing down fascines for this purpose. The experiment has been tried over and over again in England, and with the simple result that the fascines are ex- cellent collectors of mud and seaweeds, sometimes of barnacles, but hardly ever of spat. I now show you two solitary specimens, one from the Isle of Ré, and the other from Mr. Wiseman’s grounds at Paglesham; but the failures in this direction so much preponderate over the successes that I should never adyise their use. In the experiments now under my charge at Herne Bay, it is true, I have CULTIVATION OF OYSTERS Bi NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL METHODS. 7 used fascines very largely, and this for two reasons—first, to try the expe- riment of catching oysters with them; and secondly, to make the fascines do the very work they seemed most inclined to do, viz. to collect the weeds and the mud. I made with these fascines enclosures of various sizes and shapes, and inside them I placed the tiles, which were thus guarded both from the mud and also from the long belt-weed, which bothered me much by floating among the tiles and upsetting them. This is a good example of one of the difficulties of oyster-culture, and a proof that he who undertakes such matters must closely observe the actions of various materials when placed in the sea, and use these natural tendencies to the advancement of the object he has in view. Ishow a water-colour drawing of my works at Herne Bay. On Dredging. The subject of dredging has occupied my most serious attention. It isa question upon which legislation is at fault, or rather those who make the laws know not what laws they ought to make, as they have not studied the natural history of the animal which they wish to protect from injury. Dredging consists in sailing over the grounds and scraping the ground with an instrument called a dredge ; it is made chiefly of iron: the front part of it has a sharpish edge to pick up the oysters, which are received into a network, the network being of chain in the deep-sea dredging-boats, of cow’s hide-in those boats which fish in more shallow water. ; As the dredge passes over the bottom of the sea it performs two opera- tions : 1st. It picks up what oysters it may happen to meet with in its course. 2nd. It clears away the mud and dirt from the stones over which it passes. The failure of spat has been popularly attributed to over dredging, 7. e. the ground has been so much worked that all the oysters have been taken off from it, and none left for breeding-purposes. This theory I hold to be some- what fallacious. True it is that the Jersey beds are now unproductive; but I fear that unless they are regularly dredged they will remain for ever un- productive. It is well known—and it is one of the first principles in oyster- culture—that in order to enable the spat to adhere the culch must be perfectly clean ; if it is not dredged the mud will quickly accumulate on it, and there will be no places left fit for the reception of spat, should there happen to be spat. It has been argued that if no parent oysters are left on the bed to spat there can be no young ones born to adhere to the culch. The answer to this is, that no number of dredges can pick up all the oysters on a given space of ground, and that there will be enough left to stock the ground should there be “a fall of spat,” in other words, should the spat live after it has been emitted from the mother’s shell. Supposing the ground to have but few oysters left on it on account of the place being so much worked with the dredge, the young oysters (should it be a favourable year for them) would find plenty of harbour on the clean eulch, and the grounds would be restocked. Supposing, on the contrary, that the ground is thoroughly stocked with oysters, and has not been dredged for some time, they must all of them inevitably perish, on account of the culch pine covered with mud, even though the year has been favourable for their ving. I would, however, draw a serious distinction as regards locality. In the case of the deep-sea oyster-beds, I should certainly not permit any dredging to go on during the months that the oysters are spatting, for the simple rea- 8 REPORT—1865. son that there is but very little mud and dirt about, and that therefore it cannot collect to a great extent upon the culch. In the case, however, of oyster-beds, whether common or private, situated in rivers or near the mouths of rivers, I should advise the dredging to be continued with the greatest vigour up to the time that the first spat is seen on the culch, and then, and not till then, should the beds be allowed to re- main quiet. ; It has been proposed to stop the dredging during the months of May and June. What would be the inevitable consequence? It is during the months of May and June that the sea flora is most luxuriant; every stone and shell would become coated with weed and slime-like- material of some kind or another, and this vegetable varnish upon it would entirely prevent the young oysters adhering to the culch, and they would inevitably perish. If, on the contrary, the dredges are kept well going during these two months, the culch will become thoroughly clean, and the spat will be able to adhere to the sur- face thus prepared for them. The dredge in going over the ground would not, I feel convinced, do injury either to the spawning oyster or to the young spat. The former may be knocked about without any injury to its constitution, and the latter are so very minute that they would escape destruction by the dredge. Should, however, even the dredge destroy numbers of them, the mischief done would be well compensated by the space of ground cleaned and got ready for others ; for it must be recollected that when the oysters on a well-stocked bed are at the height of spatting the water must be perfectly full of them. Some friends of mine, whose living depends upon oysters, never think of taking off the dredges from their best spatting-ground until they see the spat fixed upon the culch. The theory that dredging during spatting-time injures the spat, they know perfectly well; they have therefore tried the experiment of leaving certain portions of the ground untouched ; the conse- quence has been that less spat was found upon this ground than upon the neighbouring grounds where dredging was going on all the time; the grounds, in fact, which had been most dredged had most spat upon them. The case of the flats outside Whitstable is very remarkable. Large numbers of boats from Whitstable and other parts have for many years past been in the habit of diedging these flats every day in the year, and all the year round; it follows to reason that, unless it paid the men to go there, they would resort to other places. They, however, keep to the flats—a plain proof that oysters are there. They are there; and the reason is, that perpetual dredging has kept the ground clean, and that the spat floating about from the oysters on the neigh- bouring beds, these flats, and other places find a place suited for them, and adhere there. Could we look at the bottom of the sea at the mouth of the Thames, we should find a well-marked spot covered with oysters more or less, whereas all the ground surrounding it would be blank, containing no oysters at all. In illustration of this fact, I would imagine a large number of corn seeds thrown from the sky on to Salisbury Plain: should there happen to be a ploughed field in the plain, the seed would fall into the earth prepared for its reception, would germinate and grow; whereas if it fell on the ground not so prepared it must inevitably perish. This question of dredging very seriously affects the taking in of common ground and applying it to private purposes. Two cases lately occurred—the one where Parliament granted the Herne Bay Company a considerable tract which had hitherto been common ground; the other case is that of the Roach © River Fishery, where Parliament refused to give over the commons to a pri- CULTIVATION OF OYSTERS BY NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL METHODS. 9 vate company. I premise by stating that commons are absolutely necessary for the stocking of private beds; they are generally in the neighbourhood of private beds, and the spat which falls upon them is the produce of the oysters upon the private bed. These commons are worked by poor men to obtain what they can upon them, and sell them to the owners of the beds; in so doing they keep the ground clean for the reception of spat. In the case of the Roach River Fishery, the commons are situated in a comparatively narrow river, and the commons adjoin the private beds almost as near as the various paving stones in the streets. The spat, therefore, which are born on payving-stone A (which is private) are very likely to fall on the neighbouring paving-stone B (which is “‘ commons ”); anyhow the spat is carried up and down by the tide, and must of necessity fall in the river. The dredgermen perpetually work these commons, and in so doing keep them ready for the reception of spat. When the spat falls, they pick it up in the form of brood, and sell it to the oyster-proprietors, from whose oysters it ori- ginally came. Now it would not be right that oysters belonging to Mr. A should become the property of Mr. B, because they happen to swim over an imaginary line and settle on the adjoining ground; it would be just the same thing as if, a farmer breeding a number of lambs in a private field, these lambs, because they happen to get over into a common where donkeys and geese are feeding, should become the property of the gipsies. The case of the Herne Bay Fishery is different from that of the Roach River. Here, as will be seen from the map, the oysters may come from anywhere. The Whitstable people said they came from their ground; a few of them might possibly have done so, but experience shows that the set of the tides is towards the flats out to sea, and there oysters are always found. The authorities who laid down the Admiralty Charts gave their evidence before the House of Commons, that the set of the tide at Herne Bay was from east to west; in fact their evidence was hardly needed, as the drift of the shingle along the shores of Herne Bay amply proves it. Whitstable being to the westward of Herne Bay, the prevailing set of the tide would carry the spat back to their ground, and not on to that of the Herne Bay ground. There was not very long ago a large number of spat picked up on the Herne Bay ground, and I learnt from observant persons living at Herne Bay that at that time the wind was from the eastward. Periwinkles.—To those who lay oysters on the foreshore I would now ven- ture to give a valuable hint, which they may possibly know before. Between high- and low-water mark green weed is very apt to accumulate; this col- lects mud, and in other respects does injury to the oysters. No amount of dredging or other cleaning will keep this green weed off; it is nevertheless very desirable to get rid of it; and this would form an excellent problem for those who are in the habit of studying what is called the police of nature— that is, to mark the way in which the undue increase of one animal is kept down by the increase of another. Everybody knows that periwinkles are of great use in keeping clean the walls of an aquarium. My friends Mr. Wiseman and Mr. Browning of Paglesham, who are proprietors of large oyster-fisheries, have applied the observed fact of periwinkles eating weeds to a practical operation on a large scale. The foreshore where their oysters are laid is very subject to this green weed; they have therefore turned out large numbers of periwinkles upon it, and these, eating up the green weed, clean the foreshore in the most wonder- ful way. It is curious to remark how periwinkles, obeying their apparently natural instinct, are in the habit of climbing up poles which are put in as 10 REPORT—1865. beacons; they crawl up these poles as far as they can, and then, remaining out of water till they are nearly dried up, drop back again. Experiments on the Foreshore on a large scale. The Herne Bay Oyster Company haying deputed me to carry out experi- ments on their grounds at Herne Bay according to the much talked-of French system of oyster-culture, I have since the month of May last been almost exclusively occupied in these experiments. Having carefully studied the whole system of tiles and fascines as adopted in the Isle of Ré, actual ex- perience has shown me that the French system cannot be adopted on the English foreshores in exactly the same manner as it has been in France; almost at every point minor puzzles occur, which require much foresight and per- petual contriving to overcome. The Kemmerer tiles are, as is well known, coated with cement on the under side, so that, the oyster having fixed itself, the cement can be broken in pieces, and the oyster, when arrived at the age of one year, immediately let free. I have not adopted this system, prin- cipally on account of the expense it would necessarily entail. I have, how- ever, with the assistance of an ingenious brick-maker, contrived a tile of such a size and such a consistency, that the necessity of having cement is avoided, and the oyster will be able to be set free without fracturing its shell. At a comparatively small cost, but with great personal labour, I have laid down four thousand of these tiles on the foreshore at Herne Bay. Three great difficulties have occurred: these are, firstly, to keep the tiles from being knocked over by the waves; secondly, to obviate their unaccountable desire to sink into the mud, and in consequence become useless ; and thirdly, the inconvenience of the very short time allowed by the tides to place the tiles in their proper position on the foreshore. Most of these matters I have, however, seriously considered, and, with the able help of Mr. Dilnot, a trades- man of Herne Bay, have overcome. The tiles I placed down at three different periods in the year, viz. in June, July, and beginning of August ; I examined them carefully every spring tide: the waves have displaced them but very slightly, and broken hardly any. It is as yet (September) rather early to report the actual result of the ope- ration, as the spat would not yet be sufficiently large to be easily appreciable ; I therefore hope that the present warm weather may encourage what is called the Michaelmas spat, and that the tiles may be found to have caught some. In their present condition the tiles are covered with what are locally called “Nuns,” in other words balani or acorn-shells; but no young oysters are to be seen as yet. In accordance with the French plan, I have placed in my submarine parks and gardens broken pieces of glass, earthenware, pottery, &c. In France these objects would have become covered with oysters. At the locality, however, where we placed them the nuns took the place of the oysters. The numbers of numerous marine creatures which have adhered to the tiles amply prove that their structure is most favourable for the catching of spat, should there be any to catch; and the local fishermen, who first laughed at my operations, no longer laugh, but express their opinion that the tiles would be capital things, should there be any spat about. Anxious to ascertain the fact whether the tiles did not catch spat because they were not in structure adapted so to do, or because the spat perished be- tween the time of its being emitted from the mother’s shell and in fixing itself, I devised the following experiments :—I procured large glass jars and bottles, and, placing m these oysters which I could see to be in a spatting SO CULTIVATION OF OYSTERS BY NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL METHODS. 1] condition, covered over the top with a material which would admit the water freely into the bottle, and placed it at the bottom of the sea; defended from injury by fascines. Upon subsequent examination I found that the young oysters had not adhered to the sides of the glass, though, in my opinion, there was no reason why they should not do so, except the temperature of the water surrounding the bottle. Experiment No. 2.—I obtained wooden boxes, and, without injuring them, placed in each one or two spatting oysters; I placed tiles over these oysters, and over the tiles a covering of coarse canvas, the meshes of the canvas being large enough to let in water, but not let out the oyster-spat. My idea in doing this was to prove whether, or not, as has been supposed by some, the spat immediately on being emitted from the parent fixes itself. These boxes were placed on the foreshore in such a locality that they would never be dry; after they had been down one month I cut off the canvas and examined the tiles, but not one single trace of oyster-spat could be seen, the oysters which had been shut up in the box underneath the tiles I found to be quite hearty, and to have got very fat on their captivity. I tried the same idea in closing the spatting oyster between two flower-pots wired together; here again the results were nil. To my mind these experi- ments prove conclusively that the young ones cannot survive the state of things favourable to their parent, and that they certainly do not adhere the moment they are sent forth from their mother’s shell. Comparison of the French and English System of Oyster-culture. I have now examined both methods very carefully, and have come to the conclusion (and I am bound in honesty to state it) that in my humble opinion the French system has been much overrated; or at least the idea that the system is applicable to this country is more or less fallacious. The public seem to haye got it into their heads that our English system is faulty, because for several successive years it failed to produce any large number of oysters; at the same time highly favourable reports were issued of the success of cultivating oysters in France by what is called the artificial system. I candidly confess I was one of the first to fall into the trap, and to imagine with others that, because the tiles, fascines, &c. were placed in the sea, therefore the oysters could be made to breed, and that if you placed tiles you would have oysters, if you placed no tiles you would have no oysters. As I have explained before, the English system is to catch the spat upon eulch, the French to catch it upon tiles. I have examined both systems, and come to the conclusion that the tiles will (except under certain fayourable circumstances) never beat the culch. I have been to the Isle of Ré, and have seen (through the great kindness of Dr. Kemmerer) the whole system; and the long and short of it is this :— For many years the oyster-spat in France was totally neglected, and the in- habitants thought nothing about turning their beds to profitable account. The learned pisciculturist, M. Coste, suggested the idea of tiles being placed down, the idea haying, I believe, been first suggested by a poor mason, M. Beuf, with whom I have had a long conversation. The tiles, fascines, &c. were placed down under the patronage of the government, and they were picked up covered with young oysters. The success was pronounced complete, fascines and tiles were all the rage, and all those who had oyster-fisheries thought their fortunes were made. The fact of the matter is, that the first year these various oyster-catching implements were laid down happened to be a year famous for an exceed- ingly heavy fall of spat; in other words, a vast majority of the young spat 12 : REPORT—1865. born lived, thrived, and ultimately adhered to whatever they could find to adhere to. They found the fascines and tiles, and covered them as bees cover the boughs of a tree at swarming-time; and the idea was at once started that these fascines and tiles were the means, as it were, of creating the oysters which otherwise would not have been created. The first two or three years after these tiles, &c., were laid down happened to be good years for the spat living; but for the last few years the spat has not lived, and the natural consequence has been that they have not been found on the tiles in very large quantities. Oysters, in fact, are just as scarce this year in France as they are in England. If the artificial system with tiles had been such a great success, and had the tiles caught the spat when culch would not catch the spat, it would of necessity follow that oysters in France would have been very cheap, whereas in fact they are quite as dear as in England, and there are so few of them to be had that French agents are at this moment in this country buying all they can get hold of. There can, however, be no doubt whatever that as a rule the oysters spat much more freely on the west coast of France than they do at the mouth of the Thames and the adjoining coasts of Essex. The reason of this is, to my mind, obvious. Oysters require heat, or rather warmth, in their younger state. From the nature of the vegetation the general state of the climate can be pretty well ascertained. Now at the headquarters of artificial breeding, at the Isle of Ré, the temperature is so great that vines grow Iuxuriantly. In England the temperature is such that we can only grow corn, turnips, &e. The latitude of the Isle of Ré, which is situated in the Bay of Biscay, is about 46°, whereas the mouth of the Thames is about 513°; it is natural therefore to suppose (as indeed the facts show) that in ordinary years there should be a much larger fall of spat at the Isle of Ré than on the east coast of England. The state of things on the west coast of Ireland seems to confirm this con- clusion ; for here, again, the oysters breed much more freely than they do in England, the cause being the warm moist climate and the even temperature of the air. In accordance with hydrographical facts, the oysters bred both in Ireland and Ré are taken elsewhere to fatten ; those from Ireland are brought round by vessels or else in boxes by railway and laid down at the mouth of the Thames, where in a year or so they increase greatly in the quantity of meat contained in the shells. The shell, too, seems inclined to take on the cha- racteristics of the oysters natural to the place, though direct observation will not as yet enable me to be sure about the fact “ whether the young of trans- ported oysters will, if born in the locality where a purer breed of oysters exist, assume the character of the natives of the place :” this is a subject of the highest importance, about which no facts are yet known. In Ré the lean oysters are placed in what are called clares—that is to say, mud ponds; in . these mud ponds they find food, and certainly become fatter than at the place where they were first born. Chemical Analysis. The object of this investigation is, first, to ascertain whence the oyster obtains the mineral material to secrete his house, and, secondly, what those materials are; for, commercially speaking, the proportion of the meat to the shell is of the greatest importance to the merchant who has to pay high prices for the transport of oysters long distances. If he buys oysters with a thick shell, containing a large proportion of mineral, he cannot possibly ob- tain as much profit as if there were more meat than shell at a given weight. CULTIVATION OF OYSTERS BY NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL METHODS. 13 With this idea, I have, with the assistance of my clerk, ascertained the pro- portion of meat to shell in nearly forty kinds of oysters. I am indebted to Mr. Moore, of the Derby Museum, Liverpool, for many specimens of these oysters; and I shall be exceedingly obliged to any gentleman who will give me any specimens to enlarge my table. Proportion of Meat to Shell in different kinds of Oysters, ascertained by Mr. Frank Buckland. MrWeHCstehuets cc ccx en cist ate eee tts 5 gpg aera EF ARE } pos gga oe _-) »_ 2? DS cae Seta bat eae ei ae gibedets MMRIIR EN Mere ee et cone cee ae i os EMIGHUUS ete et cee hat eo oes DATALIEE ER Ee bah Alle ccd il ea Ee cin One-sixth. Meroe s bank, Galway... T. 2 So ee MMIETEEEE PL RE MS PS ay. ons ye einen en ate i memmore Bay, Ireland... 2-2 sen ee te iHasipourne, Sussex)... eee. el ees One-seventh. Widiorgs Wales 23. ee ee She OR ee ie ees ire ee he Red Bank Burrin, Collare, Ireland ........ Sandheads, Mouth of Thames ............ Sir W. Wallace’s, Loch Ryan, Scotland . ING HarpOun ss Soc Secces ek cones : Deetore tretand 2) SO TE Ne 7 One-eighth. Baraay. Wrens. t., ses ola ca cee ahs Skibbereen, Cape Clear.................. Penmaenmawr, Wales meena bay, Treland’ 2.) ee. Boston, Lincolnshire ........... rte, es 0 th Ross Muck, co. Clare, Ireland ............ ea Weatertord) Ireland’ “o..920. 008. 22 PE: Channel between Dover and France ...... Hayling Island, near Portsmouth.......... One-tenth. feommaris, Wales’ ./°r. et ete). EER eet: See, eek Le UN SS Put th Mow Bank, Ireland: 2)... ..05 0.005.055 } Mee ee Mout of the Humber =.’ °, 500. 2 ooo 8 One-twelfth. eenenrtet! te se ek So ODT Se a OT One-fifteenth. Hisievor Rey Hrance oo 8 Oe See, One-twentieth. It struck me that, whereas the oysters were very different in appearance, _ their mineral ingredients would differ correspondingly. I have therefore obtained the assistance of Mr. A. P. Tarner, F.C.S. He finds that the chemical ingredients composing the oyster-shell are three—animal matter, phosphate of lime, and carbonate of lime. Six different kinds of oysters were taken from localities widely apart ; and the result (given in the Table) proved directly that, as I had supposed from theory, the more animal matter there was in an oyster-shell, and the less mineral, the greater value it would be for the market; it is very satis- factory to find that the chemical ingredients of the shell of the oyster tally almost exactly with the prices they bear at the market. I have not as yet had time to examine the meat of the oyster, but propose to report on this at a future time. ee 14 REPORT—1865. Animal matter. Phosphate of lime, Carbonate of lime. Herne Bay Native...| ‘096 | Rivedoux Rocks ...| ‘075 | North Sea ............ 948 Rivedoux Rocks ...| ‘087 | Herne Bay Native...| 047 | Red Bank Burrin...| -943 Paglesham............ 075 | Colchester ............ 028 + Colchester .....+....-. 910 Colchester ............ 062 | Paglesham............ ‘020 | Paglesham............ ‘905 INOLDM SCAN s scans ecasce 041 | Red Bank Burrin...| ‘020 | Herne Bay Native...| :857 Red Bank Burrin ...} ‘037 | North Sea ...........- ‘O11 | Rivedoux Rocks ...| -838 Experiments on the Hatching of Oyster-spat. It is my firm conviction that one of the chief reasons why the young spat haye died in such countless numbers in the open sea is, that the water is not of a sufficient temperature to allow them to live and thrive during the period in which the process of adhesion takes place. Sudden alterations of tempe- rature, especially from warm to cold, are also particularly fatal in their re- sults. I have therefore instituted a series of experiments to endeavour, if possible, to give the young spat a continuous supply of water at a constant and unvarying temperature. In doing this I have gone to some considerable expense; but, as a set-off against this, I have been greatly aided by Mr. Dilnot, a tradesman of Herne Bay, who has most kindly placed his premises at my disposal. By a somewhat complicated bit of machinery we have been enabled to keep up a constant supply of sea-water continually flowing for several weeks, the temperature being arranged by an application of artificial heat. Upon exa- mining the stones, shells, and other materials in this artificially warmed water we were much pleased to find the shells adhering in the position usually chosen by the young oyster itself, viz. the underside of the shell, The adhesion was pretty firm, but as the water dried the shell became loose. and ultimately fell off. I cannot, however, but look at this as a partial ap- proach to success. It appears to me that the young creatures had taken up the position they intended to occupy, and that they died from some other causes. What those causes were I am hardly at present able to state; but I am quite certain and positive that I know what two of them were, and trust to be able to meet the difficulties in future trials. The task of applying heat artificially is no easy one, and presents many mechanical difficulties, which at present I can hardly see how to meet. I do not, however, despair, and propose further experiments during the next season. I mentioned this idea at the last Meeting of the Association, at Bath, and have since endea- voured to carry it out. Experiments of a similar kind have, I have heard, been instituted by Mr. William Crofts; but I have not seen his apparatus. Experiment has shown me the exact temperature the spat like best. The Question of Green Oysters. This is, both commercially and socially speaking, a most important ques- tion. The River Roach, situated on the coast of Essex, has for a hundred years or more produced large quantities of oysters; but, strange to say, none of these oysters are ever sent to the English market, being all, with- out exception, sent to the markets at Dunkirk and Ostend, and thence to Paris, Berlin, and even, I believe, as far as St. Petersburgh. The reason why they are not sent to the English market is simply that they are green in appearance. I have examined into this question with very great care, and in doing so have been greatly assisted by my friend Mr. W. Wiseman, of Paglesham. ‘The oysters, strange to say, are only green in the winter, and ; CULTIVATION OF OYSTERS BY NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL METHODS. 15 - notin the summer. The greenness does not extend throughout the whole of their body, but simply to their beard or fin. The cause is totally unknown: some attribute it to the green weed among which the oysters are placed ; others to the infusoria upon which they feed: for all practical purposes suffice it to say, they are most excellent and nutritious food to the human frame. Dr. Letheby has made an analysis of them for Mr. Wiseman, and reports that they are perfectly wholesome and contain no copper. Practical experience, more- over, proves that they are wholesome, and many dozens of them may be eaten with impunity. The oysters at Marennes, in France, are so highly esteemed by the French people on account of their greenness, that the oyster-culturists at Marennes placed them in pits in order that they might become green. From all that I can observe or ascertain, my present opinion is (and is fur- ther confirmed by experiments which I have carried out), that the cause of the greenness is the presence of chlorophyll in the beard of the oyster. From this fact we may deduce an important practical conclusion, viz. that, if it be desirable to get off the greenness from the oysters, all that is required will be to place them in pits, and place a covering of hurdles, brands, or other materials over them, so as to prevent the action of light, the chloro- phyll will, I believe, not be formed, and the oyster in consequence not be able to take it up. This isa practical suggestion which I have made to Mr. Wise- man, and which he has promised at once to experiment on. Falmouth Green Oysters. The green oysters from Falmouth have undoubtedly a bad reputation, on account of their being said to contain copper. Mr. Fox, of Falmouth, has been good enough to send me samples of these oysters. I have submitted them to the analysis of Mr. Tarner, who reports the presence of copper in them, but in very minute quantities, hardly sufficient, I should imagine, to do injury to the human system ; still that it is present there can be no doubt. It may be that the oysters obtain the copper from a solution in sea-water, or from the fresh water running from the copper-mines. I propose, if oppor- tunity serves, to visit Falmouth, and inquire more minutely into this fact. Falmouth oysters are imported in considerable quantities to the mouth of the Thames ; and practical experience shows that they lose all their green colour on being exposed for a few months in water suited to their fattening. The bodies of these Falmouth oysters when first caught are almost as green as arsenical paper ; the shells also look green in external appearance. Upon placing them in spirits of wine the spirits become dark green; there can be no doubt whatever that this is caused by the presence of chlorophyll. In conclusion, I would remark that so anxious am I about the cultivation of the waters, especially with reference to the Salmon and the Oyster, that I have established, at my own expense, at the Royal Horticultural Gardens, under the Science and Art Department of the South Kensington Museum, a ** Museum of Economic Fish-culture,”’ in which I have exhibited drawings and preparations illustrating the habits and natural history of the salmon, together with samples of oysters from many parts of the United Kingdom. The development of the young oyster from its embryonic state to the time that it is fit for market, together with the various modes of its cultivation, both by ordinary and by artificial methods, is fully illustrated. Samples of oysters, alive or dead, from any part of the world will be most thankfully received ; for any fact, however insignificant it may seem to be, is valuable. 16 REPORT—1865. First Report of the Committee for exploring Kent’s Cavern, Devon- shire. The Committee consisting of Sir Cuartes Lysrt1, Bart., Professor Puinures, Sir Jonn Luszock, Bart., Mr. Joun Evans, Mr. Epwarp Vivian, and Mr. Witt1amM Pencetty (Reporter). Tue celebrated Kent’s Cavern, or Kent’s Hole, is about a mile due east from Torquay harbour. It is situated in a small, wooded, Jimestone hill on the western side of a valley which, about half a mile to the south, terminates on the northern shore of Torbay. The hills which surround the district consist of limestone, greenstone, clay-slate, and a reddish grit or compact sandstone. The two last are tra- versed by veins of quartz; and, with the possible exception of the green- stone, they all belong to the Devonian system. Indeed the entire Torquay peninsula is exclusively made up of rocks of this age. According to tradition, there were formerly four or five entrances to the cavern, of which two only were generally known, the others being merely narrow apertures or slits through which, until they were blocked up from within, the initiated were wont to enter clandestinely. The remaining two are about 50 feet apart, and occur in the face of one and the same low natural cliff, running nearly north and south, on the south-eastern side of the hill. The northern entrance is in form a rude triangle, about 6 feet high and 8 feet wide at the base. The southern is a natural and tole- rably symmetrical arch, 93 feet wide at the base, and 6 feet high. Its form is due partly to a gentle curvature of the strata—the apex of the opening being in the anticlinal axis—and partly to the actual removal, by natural causes, of portions of the limestone beds; the base of the opening, or chord of the arc, consists of undisturbed limestone; so that the entrance may be aptly compared to the mouth of an oven. From the time of the researches and discoveries which, forty years ago, rendered the cavern famous, to the commencement of the exploration under the auspices of this Association, the southern entrance has been blocked up, the northern alone being used by visitors. The base of the latter is about 189 feet above the lovel of mean tide*, whilst that of the former is about A feet lower. The Cavern has been known from time immemorial. Even tradition fails to reach back to the date of its discovery. It did not, however, attract the attention of scientific inquirers until September 1824, when Mr. Northmore visited it with the double object, as he stated, “ of discovering organic remains, and of ascertaining the existence of a temple of Mithras,” and he declared himself‘ happy to say that he was successful in both objects.”” He was speedily followed by Mr. W. C. Trevilyan, who, according to the Rev. Mr. M‘Enery, “was the first that obtained any results of value to science.” Mr. M‘Enery, whose name must be for ever associated with the cayern, first visited it in the summer of 1825. He was at that time quite inexperienced in cavern re- searches ; for he states that the party which he had been induced to accom- pany was a large one, and that on entering the cavern he “ was the last of the train, for he could not divest himself of certain undefinable sensations, it being his first visit to a scene of this nature.” The visit was a memorable one ; for, separating himself from his companions, and devoting himself to — * A “bench mark” of the Ordnance Survey in the road from Torquay to Tlsham farm, and which is at no great distance from the cavern, is, as Col. Sir H. James kindly informs me, 131:629 feet above the level of mean tide at Liverpool. By pocket aneroid, the base of the northern entrance of the cavern is 57°5 feet above this mark.—W. P. ON EENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 17 what he conjectured to be a favourable spot, he found several teeth and bones. He thus describes his feelings on the occasion :—‘‘ They were the first fossil tecth I had ever seen, and as I laid my hand on these relics of extinct races, and witnesses of an order of things which passed away with them, I shrank back involuntarily ; though not insensible to the excitement attending new discoveries, I am not ashamed to own, that in the presence of these remains I felt more of awe than joy.” He at once communicated his discovery to Dr. Buckland, and with great energy followed up his “ good fortune” for several years. So far as can be ascertained from his memoranda, the date of his latest visit was August 14th, 1829. Though he at one time intended to publish a narrative of his labours and discoveries, and had made arrangements for the requisite illustrations, the intention was unfortunately abandoned. After his decease, it was~ feared that his manuscripts had been destroyed or lost; but after experiencing a variety of fortune they passed into the hands of Mr. Vivian of Torquay, who from them compiled a Memoir which was published in 1859*, In 1840, Mr. Godwin-Austen read a paper before the Geological Society of London, on the ‘‘ Bone Caves of Devonshire,” when he described the results of his investigations in Kent’s Hole. In 1846, the Torquay Natural History Society appointed a Committee to conduct an exploration of a small portion of the cavern. Though their object was mainly to obtain specimens for the Society’s Museum, very ‘careful atten- tion was given to the positions and associations of all the articles found. A paper embodying the results of this investigation was drawn up by Mr. Vivian, a member of the Committee, and read in 1847 before the Geological Society of London. A mention of this communication appeared in the 3rd volume of the Quarterly Journal of the Society. Though it may be doubted, perhaps, whether any of the foregoing explora- tions were conducted with that rigid observance of method which is now held to be necessary, all the explorers are unanimous in stating that they found flint “‘ implements” mixed up with the remains of extinct animals. In 1858, the results of the systematic and careful exploration of Brixham Cavern, on the opposite shore of Torbay, induced the scientific world to sus- pect that the alleged discoveries which, from time to time during a quarter of a century, had been reported from Kent's Hole, might, after all, be en- titled to a place amongst the verities of science ; and from that time various proposals for further investigations have been made. As is well known, these suggestions took a definite form at the last Meeting of this Association, when a liberal grant of money was made, and a Committee was appointed for the purpose of further exploration. It is the object of this communica- tion to state what up to this time the results have been, so far as they are at present determined. The Committee have great pleasure in stating that, in reply to their appli- eation for permission to make the proposed investigation, the proprietor, Sir L. Palk, Bart., M.P., assured them most promptly that it would “ give him great pleasure to place every facility in their hands.” He placed the cavern in their exclusive custody, and suggested the most satisfactory arrangement for the ultimate disposal of such objects of interest as might be found. Though large portions of the deposits were broken up by Mr. M‘Enery and his successors, there is still within the cavern a very considerable amount of virgin ground. The Committee, however, were desirous of selecting an area in which not only were the deposits certainly intact, but which would * Cavern Researches, Simpkin, Marzhell and ©o., 1859, 1865, (0 18 REPORT—1865. not present any very great difficulties in working. After a visit of inspec- tion it was decided to undertake the exploration of the large chamber into which the southern entrance immediately opens. The mode of investigation was laid down, trustworthy and intelligent workmen were engaged (Mr. Charles Keeping, brother of the well-known fossil collector, being the chief), and the work, consigned to the superintendence of the two resident members of the Committee, Mr. Vivian and the Honorary Secretary, was commenced on March 28th of the present year. Immediately outside the cave lay a considerable talus of earth and stones, the upper portion of which, at least, is believed to have been thrown out by Mr. M‘Enery, who conducted his researches through the northern opening. It was necessary to cut through this mass in order to reach and make avail- able the entrance which the Committee had selected for their operations. This material was very carefully examined, partly for the purpose of detect- ing any objects of interest which it might contain, and partly as an initiatory exercise for the workmen, The cavern is in no part subject to any considerable amount of drip; and no portion of it is drier than the chamber selected for exploration, Since the commencement of the work unusually heavy rains have fallen in the district, but water has entered through the roof at a very few points only, and in no instance in such an amount as to produce discomfort or inconvenience. The following is the succession of deposits, in descending order, which the chamber contained. Ist. Huge blocks of limestone which had manifestly fallen from the roof. Many of them required blasting to effect their removal; and in several instances it was necessary to blast even the masses into which they were by this means divided. One of the blocks measured 11 feet long, 53 half broad, and 24 thick; hence it contained upwards of 100 cubic feet, and must have weighed fully 7 tons. In some cases two or three of them lay one on another, and, in a few instances, were firmly cemented together by a separate cake of stalagmite between each pair; whilst others lay unconformably with considerable interspaces. Occasionally, what appeared to be a boss or dome of stalagmite proved to be a block, or two or three small blocks, of limestone invested on all sides with a stalagmitic sheet. Certain masses, lying at some distance from a drop, were without eyen a trace of stalagmite. 2nd. Beneath these limestone blocks there was a layer of mould of an almost black colour. It varied from a few inches to upwards of a foot in depth. 3rd. Underneath the black soil came a cake of stalagmitic breccia, made up of comparatively small fragments of limestone so very firmly cemented to- gether with carbonate of lime as occasionally to require blasting. It was rarely less, but not unfrequently much more, than a foot thick. Everywhere it was firmly attached to the walls, and it occasionally extended completely across the chamber. Not unfrequently, however, the centre of the chamber was altogether destitute of this breccia, in some instances, because there is no drip near the area, in others, because it was intercepted by an overlying limestone block. 4th. The breccia is succeeded by the ordinary reddish caye-loam, which contains a large number of limestone fragments, varying in dimensions from bits not largerthan sixpences, to masses but little smaller than those which lay on the surface. They lie at all angles without anything like symmetrical arrangement. In fact the entire deposit is without any approach to strati- fication, Many of the stones are partially encrusted with calcareous matter, ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 19 and not unfrequently loam, stones, and splinters of bones are cemented by the same substance into a very tough breccia. The presence of a calcareous drip is more or less traceable everywhere. Hitherto the cave-earth has been excayated to the depth of 4 feet only. How far it extends below this, or what may be beneath it, is at present unknown. Where it is not covered with the stalagmitic breccia, the black soil lies immediately on it; but the line of junction is everywhere sharply defined. In no instance do the two commingle. : Since the large masses of limestone occur at all levels in the cave-earth as well as everywhere above it, it is obvious that whatever may be the cause to which their fall is attributable, they cannot be referred to any one and the same period. They fell from time to time throughout the accumulation of the cave-earth, they continued to fall whilst the stalagmitic breccia was in process of formation, as well as during the introduction of the black mould, and they are amongst the most recent phenomena which the cavern presents. And even of those which lie on the surface, there is conclusive evidence that in some cases a considerable interval of time must have elapsed between the fall of two blocks lying one on the other—an interval sufficiently great for the formation of the cake of stalagmite between them, and which is some- times fully 6 inches thick. There can be little doubt that some of them fell very recently, even when measured by human standards. It is by no means easy to determine the cause which threw them down. To call in the aid of convulsion seems undesirable, since it would be necessary to do so very frequently. Moreover, it may be doubted whether anything short of a violent earthquake would be equal to the effect. Though the roof of the chamber is of very great span and entirely unsupported, and though it presents appearances which are not calculated to inspire confidence, the violent concussions produced by the frequent blastings already mentioned, blastings which not unfrequently throw masses of limestone, weighing up- wards of a ton, to a distance of several feet, have never brought down even a splinter. The fall of the blocks has sometimes been attributed to changes of dimen- sions in the roof arising from changes of temperature ; but the fact that the cavern temperature is all but constant throughout the year, seems fatal to this hypothesis. The masses lying on the surface were a sufficient guarantee that the de- posits beneath them remained intact. There can be no doubt that they are at once a proof and the cause of the undisturbed character of the soil they cover. A portion of the cavern so easily accessible as is this chamber, would not have been spared by Mr. M‘Enery, but on account of some great diffieulty or discouragement ; and in fact he states that the fallen masses completely foiled him in his attempts to make explorations in it, excepting in one branch some distance south of the area selected by the Committee. Their own characters, moreover, render it absolutely certain that the deposits haye never been violated. The following is the method of exploration which has been observed from the commencement, and which it is believed affords a simple and correct ; i of determining the exact position of every object which has been und, 1st. The black soil accessible between the masses of limestone on the sur- face was carefully examined and removed. _2nd. The limestone blocks occupying the surface of the deposits were blasted and otherwise broken up, and taken out of the cavern. 02 20 REPORT—1865. 3rd. A line, termed the ‘datum line,” is stretched horizontally from a fixed point at the entrance to another at the back of the chamber. 4th. Lines, one foot apart, are drawn at right angles to the datum line, and therefore parallel to one another, across the chamber so as to divide the surface of the deposit into belts termed “ parallels.” 5th. In each parallel the black mould which the limestone masses had covered is first examined and removed, and then the stalagmitic breccia, so as to lay bare the surface of the cave-earth. 6th. Horizontal lines, a foot apart, are then drawn from side to side across the vertical face of the section so as to divide the parallel into four layers or “levels,” each a foot deep. Finally, each level is divided into lengths, called “yards,” each 3 feet long, and measured right and left from the datum line as an axis of abscisse. In fine, the cave-earth is excavated in vertical slices or parallels 4 feet high, 1 foot thick, and as long as the chamber is broad where this breadth does not exceed 30 feet. Each parallel is taken out in levels 1 foot high, and each level in horizontal prisms 3 feet long and a foot square in the section, so that each contains three cubic feet of material. This material, after being carefully examined in situ by candlelight, is taken to the doorway and reexamined by daylight, after which it is at once removed without the cavern. A box is appropriated to each yard ex- clusively, and in it are placed all the objects of interest which the prism yields. The boxes, each having a label containing the data necessary for defining the situation of its contents, are daily sent to the Honorary Secre- tary of the Committee, by whom the specimens are at once cleaned and packed in fresh boxes. The labels are numbered and packed with the speci- mens to which they respectively belong, and a record of the day’s work is entered in a diary. The same method is followed in the examination of the black mould, and also of the stalagmitic breccia, with the single exception that in these cases the parallels are not divided into levels and yards. With very rare exceptions the cavern’ has been visited daily by one, and frequently by both of the Superintendents ; and Monthly Reports of progress have been regularly forwarded to Sir Charles Lyell, the Chairman of the ~ Committee. Though it would be premature to attempt anything like an exhaustive list, it may be of interest to furnish a brief and general account of the objects which have been found. Of the articles met with in the black mould, those occurring between the fallen masses of limestone have been kept distinct from such as have been detected beneath them. ' Such a division, however, is not rendered necessary by the characters of the objects themselves, and will not be attended to on the present occasion. In this category also may be placed the greater num- ber of the specimens found in the talus outside the cavern. The collection is of a various miscellaneous nature. It consists of stones of various kinds, human industrial remains, charred wood, bones of various animals, marine and land-shells, and the broken shells of hazel-nuts. It passes from the Rabbit’s nest lined with clean dry fur and containing a couple of fresh green ivy-leaves, and numberless fragments of wine and porter bottles flung away by parties who have visited the cavern mainly from a love of frolic, back to the age of bronze implements and of flint flakes, and probably repre- sents from fifteen hundred to two thousand years. The stones are in most cases well rounded, and, at least, some of them are ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 21 of marine origin, since they are distinctly lithodomized. They consist of limestone, quartz, red grit, greenstone, and flint ; all except the last derivable from the rocks of the immediate district, and were probably obtained from the neighbouring beaches, where also the flints were perhaps found; for though there is no flint 7m sitw within five miles; it is a well-known fact that such pebbles are met with on existing beaches at much greater distances from any known accumulation of flints in place. The rounded stones are extremely numerous in the black mould, and were undoubtedly selected and taken to the cavern; but for what purpose it may not be easy to determine. There are also several pieces of hard greenish-grey grit of an elongated form, which were perhaps used as whetstones. Angular pieces of slate are also numerous. They are probably fragments of articles fashioned by man, as occasionally a piece is met with which is obviously a portion of a curvi- lineal plate. Such plates are mentioned by Mr. M‘Enery, who supposes them to have been used as covers for earthenware vessels. The human in- dustrial remains consist of articles in bronze and in bone, pottery, spindle- whorls, and flint-flakes. The bronze articles are a fibula, the bowl and part of the stem of a spoon, a spear head, a fragment of a socketed celt, two or three rings, one coil of a helical spring, a pin about 3? inches long, and and an object resembling a horseshoe in form, but not more than an inch long. In this connexion may be mentioned a lump of metal which, from its general appearance, would be termed copper ore, but from its interior, a small portion of which has been exposed accidentally, itis probably native copper, or a mass of metal which has been smelted. A similar mass mentioned by Mr. M‘Enery, is said to have been analyzed “ by Mr. Phillips and found to be pure virgin ore.” Much of the pottery, excepting one small piece, undoubt- edly Samian, is extremely coarse, and in most cases it is unglazed. A large number of fragments have been found, but nothing approaching a perfect vessel. They are generally ornamented, and from the different ,patterns, as well as from other facts, it may be concluded that they represent a consider- able number of utensils. One piece probably formed part of a vessel in which things were burnt, as on its inner surface there is a firm admixture of clay and small bits of charcoal. Much of the pottery is without doubt of Roman age. The objects fashioned in bone are a comb, which in size and outline resembles a common shoe-lifter having teeth cut in the broad end; a oH neatly formed of a portion of a rib, and oe about 6 inches long and §,ths of an inch broad; a chisel about 2,6ths inches in length, and at its broad end ;4,ths of an inch in width ; a wedge, somewhat rudely fashioned out of a horn or antler ; two small fragments which appear to be portions of combs, and one of which bears traces of ornamentation ; and an article about 3 inches long, apparently the handle of some tool. The spindle-whorls are formed of different materials, such as Devonian red grit, one of the harder varieties of Triassic sandstone (rocks abundant in the neighbourhood), a somewhat coarse, greenish, schistose rock not found near the district, and Kimmeridge coal. They differ somewhat in dimen- sions and in . workmanship ; some being well finished, whilst others are so roughly made as to render it safer perhaps to call them simply “ holed stones.” With them may be mentioned a large bead, which appears to con- sist of amber or some analogous substance; and a small, holed, ellipsoidal fragment of limestone, which was perforated probably by some lithodomous mollusk. The flint-flakes are four in number, two of dark and two of light or white 22 REPORT—1865. flint, the latter bemg the best formed. The light colour is more or less superficial, the centre being of a dark grey. The charred wood is very abundant. Some specimens are undistinguish- able from prepared charcoal, whilst others are obviously nothing more than partially burnt sticks, some of them of considerable size. Bones are extremely numerous. They are more or less discoloured, and have lost a considerable portion of their weight. It may-be doubted whether the entire elements of any skeleton haye been found lying together. Amongst them there are the relics of pig, deer, sheep, fox, wolf (?), bat, hare, rabbit, with smaller rodents, birds, and various kinds of fish. Some of them appear to have been exposed to the action of fire. The land shells are principally various kinds of snail, the larger forms being the most prevalent. They occur in all stages of growth, and thus render it probable that they had established a colony in the cavern. Amongst the marine shells are the limpet, whelk, oyster, cockle, mussel, pecten, solen or razor-shell, and the internal shell of the cuttle-fish, Sepia officinalis, From the unrubbed condition of the last, it was probably not found cast ashore on the beach, but taken directly from the cephalopod to which it belonged. The source of the shells of hazel-nuts is not far to seek. They were no doubt obtained from the wood in which the cavern is situated, and were perhaps carried in by small animals whose homes were under the fallen masses of limestone where the shells were found. Most of them are per- forated at one end. In passing below the black mould we first encounter the stalagmitic breccia. This the workmen carefully break into small fragments, in order to detect any articles of interest imbedded in it. The search, though not very productive, has not been quite fruitless. In the breccia have been found charred wood, marine and land shells, and bones of various animals, some of which perhaps are extinct. Immediately beneath this cake we enter the red caye-loam, and at once find ourselves amongst the relics of several species of extinct animals. The only differences in the four successive levels in which, as already stated, the red loam is taken out are simply that the first or uppermost is the poorest, and the third, perhaps, the richest in osseous remains; and that the three lower levels contain a large amount of minutely comminuted bone, of which there.are very few instances in the uppermost foot. In other respects the . levels are the same—everywhere the same in the materials which form the staple of the deposit; in the occurrence of pebbles of various kinds of rock, which differ from those in the overlying black mould only in being less numerous ; in the presence of bones in the same condition and representing the same species of animals; and in yielding “flint implements” of the same types. It will not be necessary, therefore, to describe each level sepa- rately or in detail. The bones found below the stalagmite are heavier than those met with above it. This distinction is so well marked and so constant as to be cha- racteristic. It would be easy to assign them to their respective deposits by their specific weights alone. Most of those from the red loam are but little discoloured, indeed some of them are of a chalk-like whiteness. A few, however, occur here and there which have undergone a considerable amount of discoloration, a consequence, probably, and also a proof of a greater degree of exposure before their inhumation. On most of the latter, certain lines and patches of lighter colour not unfrequently present themselves, which ON KENT'S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 23 may be likened to such as are sometimes left by mosses or lichens on objects on which they have grown. A large number of bones, including jaws, teeth, and horns, are scored with téeth-marks, clearly the work of animals of different kinds. Some of the long bones are split longitudinally. Many appear to have been rolled, including most of those which have been gnawed; and in the case of the latter, it is tolerably obvious that the rolling was subsequent to the gnawing. Some of those found beneath the large masses of fallen limestone are in a crushed condition, and thus apparently attest the fact that the deposit on which they lay, and on which the blocks fell, was of a compact nature, and capable of a firm resistance. The minutely comminuted bone already spoken of, is commonly found converted with loam and stones into a firm breccia. Not unfrequently, however, it occupies the hollow cavities of some of the larger bones. With it there sometimes occurs a cream-coloured substance, which in a few instances has been met also in the form of small detached lumps having a low specific gravity. This, as well as some of the comminuted bone, has been supposed to be of féecal origin. In cleaning the bones it is frequently found to be impossible to remove entirely the earthy matter from them. They are at least partially invested with a thin film, which defies the brush and water. On drying, however, this matter commonly scales off, and proves to be a paste or paint composed of loam and carbonate of lime, the latter probably derived from drip from the roof. Large portions of the osseous remains occur i the forms of fragments and mere splinters. The identifiable parts are chiefly teeth, which are ex- tremely numerous. Amongst the Mammals represented, there are certainly the Cave-bear, Cave-lion, Cave-hyzena, Fox, Horse (probably more than one species), Ox, several species of Deer, the tichorhine Rhinoceros, and Mammoth. Remains of the Hyzena are probably the most abundant, after which come those of Rhinoceros and Horse. The relics of the Mammoths (both molars and tusks) are those of very young individuals. It has already been hinted that “flint implements” occur everywhere in the cave-earth mixed up with the remains of extinct Mammals. Several of them were found in the presence of, and some of them by, the Superin- tendents. Like the bones, they are least abundant in the uppermost foot, and occur in greatest numbers in the lowest zones. Altogether, and without reckoning doubtful specimens and numerous chips, nearly thirty “implements” have been dug out. Though the designation of “ flint” is given to all, some of them are perhaps of chert. Of the flints properly so called, some are of a dark, and others of a light-grey colour, whilst a third kind are almost white, and have a porcellanous aspect. With the exception of three, they are all of the kind known as flakes—flat on one side, and more or less carinated on the other. Some of them are fragments only, others were found broken in the deposit with the parts lying in contact, whilst others again are perfect. Some of the broken specimens of the white variety show that they are not of this colour throughout their entire mass, but have a dark central axis of core. The flakes agree in character with those in the black overlying mould. The excepted three are of chert, and are worked on both sides. They were found in the second, third, and fourth levels ; one in each. That from the second foot is about 42 inches long, and, where widest, 23 broad. At one end it tapers to a point, and narrows to no more than 3 of an inch at the other. In outline it is rudely a segment of a 24, REPORT—1865. curvilineal figure, and is slightly falciform. The inner or concave margin is the cutting edge. Unfortunately the tip of the pointed end was broken off after exhumation. Those from the third and fourth levels are more highly wrought “implements.” They are worked to an edge around the entire perimeter. In outline they are rather ovoid than elliptical, being narrower at one end than at the other. That from the third foot measures 4} inches im length, and its greatest breath and thickness are respectively 31 inches and # of aninch. ‘That found in the fourth zone, the lowest yet reached, is the most elaborately finished “implement” of the series. It is lighter in colour and somewhat smaller than the preceding two, its dimensions being 33 inches long, 24 broad, and 2 in thickness. Without intending at present to enter on the consideration of all the bearings of the entire evidence produced, the Committee feel at liberty to express their conviction that it is totally impossible to doubt either the human origin of the “implements,” or their inosculation, in undisturbed soil, with the remains of the Mammoth, the Cave-bear, and their extinct contem- poraries. Nor are these the only indications of human existence found in the cave- earth. Several small pieces of burnt bone have been met with in the red loam, some of them loose and detached, others of small size and incor- porated in the breccia composed of loam, stones, and comminuted bone. Mention has been made already of the occurrence in the caye-earth of rounded stones not derivable from the limestone hill in which the cavern is situated. Itseems probable that at least some of them were selected and taken there by man; though it may not be easy, perhaps, to determine in all cases for what purpose. But, waiving this point, there are two stones which must not be hastily dismissed. The first of them is 42 inches long, and something less than 1 inch square in the section. It is a mass of hard purplish-grey grit, and is undoubtedly a whetstone, or rather a portion of one. It was found in the first level of the cave-earth, in a small recess or cavity in the northern wall of the chamber, immediately beneath a projecting stratum of limestone in situ. In this cavity the stone stood with its longest axis vertical. The Superintendents were inclined to the opinion that it had slipped through a hole into the cavity at a comparatively recent date; and they diligently set to work to find the means of its ingress. Here, however, they were com- pletely foiled. There was no hole or passage, vertical or lateral, by which the cavity could have been entered. Not only, as has been said, was there a thick stratum of limestone in situ immediately over the recess, but over this again, as well as over the red loam, there was a thick com- pact mass of stalagmitic breccia, consisting of large and small pieces of lime- stone firmly cemented, and haying a height of fully 8 feet; the whole of which was removed before the cavity was disclosed or its existence suspected. The second stone is a rude flattened spheroid, formed from a pebble of coarse, hard, red sandstone, and apparently used for breaking or crushing. Its diameters measure 2? and 13 inches. It was found in the second level of the red cave-earth, over which lay an enormous block of limestone, but no stalagmite. In addition to the pleasure which always attends scientific discovery, the Committee have had the gratification of confirming most of the statements of their predecessors. Any differences observable between the statements now made and those of the earlier investigators arise from defective, not conflicting evidence. For example, the Committee have not yet been so fortunate as to find the remains of Machairodus latidens, mentioned and RULES OF ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 25 figured by Mr. M‘Enery *, nor of Hippopotamus major, alluded to by Prof. Owen + as occurring in the cavern; nor have they found anything in the least degree calculated to bring the statements alluded to into discredit. Again, so far as their researches have gone, the Committee have not, like Mr. Godwin-Austen, found the bones of man mixed up, in undisturbed soil, with those of extinct animals +; it will be seen, however, that there is no a priori improbability in the statement of the distinguished geologist just mentioned; and the Committee would remind such as may be disposed to attach importance to the fact that men’s bones are not forthcoming as readily as their implements, that in the black mould, as well as in the red loam of the cavern, the only indications of man’s existence are remnants of his handi- work. Pottery, implements and ornaments in bone, metal, and stone, the remnants of his fires, and the relics of his feasts are numerous, and betoken the lapse of at least two milleniums ; but here, as well as in the older de- posits below, the Committee have met with no vestige of his osseous system. In conclusion, the Committee would observe that the value of their labours is not to be measured by the discoveries, or rather the rediscoveries, which they have made. They have not only disinterred a valuable body of fact, but with it a confirmation of the concurrent statements of M‘Enery, Godwin-Austen, and the Committee of the Torquay Natural History Socicty ; and have thereby more than doubled the amount of trustworthy evidence which they have themselves produced. Report of a Commitiee “ appointed to report on the changes which they may consider desirable to make, if any, in the Rules of Zoolo- gical Nomenclature drawn up by Mr. H. EH. Strickland, at the instance of the British Association at their Meeting in Manchester in 1842.” _ Rerorm of the Nomenclature of Zoology was a subject which occupied much of the time of the late Hugh EH. Strickland§. It was his object that this reform should be brought forward under the auspices of the British Asso- ciation, and at a meeting of the Council of that body, held in London upon 11th of February, 1842, it was resolved—“ That with a view of securing attention to the following important subject, a Committee, consisting of Mr. C. Darwin, Professor Henslow, Rey. L. Jenyns, Mr. W. Ogilby, Mr. J. Phillips, Dr. Richardson, Mr. H. E. Strickland (reporter), Mr. J. O. Westwood, be appointed, to consider of the rules by which the nomenclature of zoology may be established on a uniform and permanent basis; the Report to be presented to the Zoological Section, and submitted to its committee at the Manchester Meeting” . This Committee met at various times in London, and the following gen- tlemen were added to it, and assisted in its labours:—W. J. Broderip, Professor Owen, W. E. Shuckard, G. R. Waterhouse, and W. Yarrell. An outline of the proposed code was drawn up and circulated, and many valuable * Cavern Researches, p. 32, and plate ¥. (8vo Hdition). + British Fossil Mammals and Birds, p. 410 (1846). t Trans. Geol. Soc., Second Series, vol. vi. part 2. pp. 444 & 446. § See Memoirs of Hugh Edwin Strickland, by Sir W. Jardine, Bart., pp. clxxv. and 3875. §| Report of Twelfth Meeting of the British Association held at Manchester, June 1842, 26 REPORT—1865. suggestions were received from eminent zoologists at home and abroad. The “plan” was further considered by the Committee during the Meeting at Manchester, “and the Committee having thus given their best endeavours to maturing the plan, beg now to submit it to the approval of the British Association under the title of—‘Series of Propositions for rendering the nomenclature of zoology uniform and permanent’”*. The propositions were printed in the Reports of the British Association, and a grant of money was voted to print copies for circulation. The rules thus laid down were very generally adopted by zoologists, both in this country and abroad; but in Great Britain having been printed only in the volumes of the British Association, ‘Annals of Natural History,’ and ‘Philosophical Magazine’}, or depending on private circulation, it was deemed advisable that greater publicity should be given to them, and at the Meeting at Oxford in 1860 it was resolved, that “‘ The surviving members of the Committee appointed in 1842, viz., Mr. C. Darwin, Rey. Professor Henslow, Rev. L. Jenyns, Mr. W. Ogilby, Professor Phillips, Sir John Richardson, Mr. J. O. Westwood, Professor Owen, Mr. W. E. Shuckard, and Mr. G. R. Waterhouse, for the purpose of preparing rules for the esta- blishment of a Uniform Zoological Nomenclature, be reappointed, with Sir W. Jardine, Bart., and Dr. Sclater. That Sir W. Jardine, Bart., be the Reporter, and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the pur- pose of revising and reprinting the Rules”. From the difficulty of bringing such a Committee together, nothing was done since the time of its appointment; but the resolution and a grant of money were again renewed at the late Meeting in Newcastle, as follows :— “That Sir W.-Jardine, A. R. Wallace, J. E. Gray, Professor Babington, Dr. Francis, Dr. Sclater, C. Spence Bate, P. P. Carpenter, Dr. J. D. Hooker, Professor Balfour, H. T. Stainton, J. Gwyn Jeffreys, A. Newton, Professor T. H. Huxley, Professor Allman, and G. Bentham, be a Committee, with power to add to their number, to report on the changes, if any, which they may consider it desirable to make in the Rules of Nomenclature drawn up at the instance of the Association by Mr. H. E. Strickland and others, with | power to reprint these Rules, and to correspond with foreign naturalists and others on the best means of ensuring their general adoption, and that the sum of £15 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.” Accordingly the Rules, as originally approved of, were reprinted, and zoologists were requested “ to examine them carefully, and to communicate any suggestions for alteration or improvement, on or before the 1st of June, 1864, to Sir William Jardine, Bart., Jardine Hall, by Lockerby, N. B., who will consult with the members of the Committee, and report upon the sub- ject at the next Meeting of the British Association appointed to be held at Bath.” From the press of business at Bath the Committee did little there to com- plete further the code of Zoological Nomenclature, and I was directed to take some opportunity while in London to call together as many members of the Committee as possible. Accordingly in the month of June last I sent * Report of Twelfth Meeting, 1842, p. 106. + At the Scientific Congress held in 1843 at Padua, the late Prince C. L. Buonaparte submitted to the meeting an Italian translation of the ‘ British Association’s Code of Rules,’ which was generally approved of. A French translation of the Report appeared in the scientific journal ‘ L’ Institut,’ in which paper much stress was laid on the importance of the measure. A review of it was also printed in the ‘ American Journal of Science.’ + Reports of the British Association held at Oxford, 1860, p. xlvi. RULES OF ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 27 a circular to the following members that I considered were within compara- tively easy reach, and who I thought might be able to attend in London without much inconvenience, viz., Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys, Mr. Wallace, Dr. Gray, Professor Babington, Dr. Francis, Dr. Sclater, Dr. J. Hooker, Mr. Stainton, Professor Huxley, Mr. A. Newton, and Mr.G. Bentham. Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys kindly permitted this meeting to be held at his house in Deyonshire- place, and it was attended by myself, Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys, Mr. Wallace, and Dr. Sclater ; the other gentlemen who had been invited sending apologies that from various causes they were unable to come up to London or to attend. They, however, expressed themselves generally favourable to some code of rules being adopted. Professor Babington having returned his printed copy of the rules with his observations written on the margin, the Committee were fully in posession of his views. Mr. Wallace had brought with him a written memorandum containing notes of what he thought could be altered or modified with advantage. The members present then read over the printed rules and recommendations one by one, and carefully compared them with the memo- randa above mentioned, as well as with many letters from other naturalists, and the observations made upon each were taken down at the time. The re- commendations of the Committee, which I shall presently read to you, have been based upon these observations, and upon the conferences and discussions held at Birmingham during the present Meeting. Since the time that Mr. H. E. Strickland’s Rules and Recommendations were printed in the Reports of the British Association, zoological nomen- clature has not been improved. Whether it is from the rules and recom- mendations not being sufficiently well known, or from an idea that no one has any right to interfere with or make rules for others, many gentlemen appear to cast them away, and do not recognize them at all, while others accept or reject just what pleases themselves ; in consequence many very objectionable names have been given, and a very base coinage and spurious combinations have been going on. The Committee does not allude to very long or harsh sounding names, though they are much to be deprecated even when classically compounded ; but they object to indelicate names, or to such compounds as Malherbipicus, Kaupifalco, Zebrapicus, &c.; or, When a new form in the genus Procellaria is thought to be discovered, and honour is intended to be done to a distinguished navigator, such a word as Cookilaria is proposed ; or, when provincial names are attempted to be Latinized, as in the case of a fish commonly known as the “ Yom Cod,” which is entered in our systems under the scientific (?) name of Morrhua tomcodus. These may be said to be extreme examples, but hundreds might be given, and it is the opinion of the Committee that the only way to deal with such names is to reject them altogether. In this condition of our zoological nomenclature, then, it is of the greatest importance that some general code of rules should be adopted and acted upon. The Committee were perfectly agreed upon this point, but on calling them together during the present Meeting of the British Association, the botanists arrived at the conclusion that, having long acted in concert upon the rules laid down by Linneus in the ‘ Philosophia Botanica,’ and by Sir James E. Smith, Decandolle, and others, it was unnecessary for them to have Botany included in the Stricklandian code ; at the same time they were sen- sible that some generally recognized code would be of the utmost importance to zoology. The Committee therefore are of opinion and recommend :— 28 REPORT—1865. I. That Botany should not be introduced into the Strickland rules and recommendations. II. That the permanency of names and convenience of practical appli- cation being the two chief requisites in any code of rules for scien- tific nomenclature, it is not advisable to disturb by any material alterations the rules of zoological nomenclature which were au- thorized by Section D at the Meeting of the British Association at Manchester in 1842. III. The Committee are of opinion, after much deliberation, that the XII th edition of the ‘Systema Nature’ is that to which the limit of time should apply, viz. 1766. But as the works of Artedi and Scopoli have already been extensively used by ichthyologists and entomologists, it is recommended that the names contained in or used from these authors should not be affected by this provision. This is particularly requisite as regards the generic names of Artedi afterwards used by Linnzeus himself. In My. H. E. Strickland’s original draft of these Rules and Recommen- dations the edition of Linneeus was left blank, and the XIIth was inserted by the Manchester Committee. This was done not as being the first in which the Binomial nomenclature had been used, as it commenced with the Xth, but as being the last and most complete edition of Linnzeus’s works, and containing many species the Xth did not. For these reasons it is now confirmed by this Committee, and also because these rules having been used and acted upon for twenty-three years, if the date were altered now, many changes of names would be required, and in consequence much confusion introduced. IV. In Rule 13th, “ Specific names, when adopted as generic, must be changed.” The Committee agree that it is exceedingly injudicious to adopt a specific name as a generic name, but they are of opinion that where this has been done, it is the generic name which must be thrown aside, not the old specific name, and that this rule should be so altered as to meet this. VY. The recommendations under ‘ Classes of objectionable names,” as already pointed out, cannot be too carefully attended to. Specific names from persons have already been sufficiently prostituted, and personal generic names have increased to a large and undeserving extent. The handing down the name of a naturalist by a genus has always been considered as the highest honour that could be given, and should never be bestowed lightly*. VI. The recommendation, ‘ Specific names to be written with a small imitial.”” The Committee propose that this recommendation should be omitted. It is not of great importance, and may be safely left to naturalists to deal with as they think fit. These are the chief alterations and modifications the Committee have to suggest. It is scarcely possible to make any code of rules for a subject so extensive as zoology either perfect in itself or such as will meet the opinions of every one. It must be a matter of compromise, and as working by no rules is creating great confusion and an immense increase in synonymy, the Committee would ask this Section to approve their present report or finding, * “Hoe unicum et summum premium laboris, sancte servandum, et caste dispen- sandum ad incitamentum et ornamentum Botanices.”—Phil. Botan., p. 171. RULES OF ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 29 and to give their sanction to these Rules and Recommendations as now pro- posed to be modified. Signed on the part of the members of Committee present at Birmingham * by Wa. Jarping, Reporter. On the preceding Report being read to Section D, upon Tuesday, 19th September, the following motion was made and carried unanimously :— Moyed by Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys, seconded by Dr. Sclater,—That the Re- port now read be approved of and adopted by the Section, and that the Rules or propositions, as thereby altered and amended, be printed in the Reports of the British Association and recommended for the general use of zoologists. PARE’ T: RULES FOR RECTIFYING THE PRESENT ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. [Limitation of the Plan to Systematic Nomenclature. | In proposing a measure for the establishment of a permanent and uni- versal zoological nomenclature, it must be premised that we refer solely to the Latin or systematic language of zoology. We have nothing to do with vernacular appellations. One great cause of the neglect and corruption which prevails in the scientific nomenclature of zoology, has been the frequent and often exclusive use of vernacular names in lieu of the Latin binomial designations, which form the only legitimate language of systematic zoology. Let us then endeavour to render perfect the Latin or Linnwan method of nomenclature, which, being far removed from the scope of national vanities and modern antipathies, holds out the only hope of introducing into zoology that grand desideratum, an universal language. [Law of Priority the only effectual and just one. | It being admitted on all hands that words are only the conventional signs of ideas, it is evident that language can only attain its end effectually by being permanently established and generally recognized. This consideration ought, it would seem, to have checked those who are continually attempting to subvert the established language of zoology by substituting terms of their own coinage. But, forgetting the true nature of language, they persist in confounding the name of a species or group with its definition; and because the former often falls short of the fulness of expression found in the latter, they cancel it without hesitation, and introduce some new term which appears to them more characteristic, but which is utterly unknown to the science, and is therefore devoid of all authority}. If these persons were to object to such names of men as Long, Little, Armstrong, Golightly, &c., in cases where they fail to apply to the individuals who bear them, or should complain of the names Gough, Lawrence, or Harvey, that they were devoid of meaning, and should hence propose to change them for more characteristic appella- tions, they would not act more unphilosophically or inconsiderately than they do in the case before us; for, in truth, it matters not in the least by what conventional sound we agree.to designate an individual object, provided the sign to be employed be stamped with such an authority as will suffice to * The Members of the Committee present at Birmingham were A. R. Wallace, Professor Babington, Dr. Francis, Dr. Sclater, C. Spence Bate, P. P. Carpenter, Professor Balfour, H. T. Staton, J. Gwyn Jeffreys, A. Newton, G. Bentham, and Sir W. Jardine, Bart. (Reporter). t Linneus says on this subject, ‘‘ Abstinendum ab hac innoyatione que nunquam cessaret, quin indies aptiora detegerentur ad infinitum,” 30 REPORT—1865. make it pass current. Now in zoology no one person can subsequently claim an authority equal to that possessed by the person who is the first to define a new genus or describe a new species; and hence it is that the name originally given, even though it may be inferior in point of elegance or expressiveness to those subsequently proposed, ought as a general principle to be permanently retained. To this consideration we ought to add the injustice of erasing the name originally selected by the person to whose labours we owe our first knowledge of the object ; and we should reflect how much the permission of such a practice opens a door to obscure pretenders for dragging themselves into notice at the expense of original observers. Neither can an author be permitted to alter a name which he himself has once published, except in accordance with fixed and equitable laws. It is well observed by Decandolle, “ L’auteur méme qui a le premier établi un nom n’a pas plus qu’un autre le droit de le changer pour simple cause d’impro- pricté. La priorité en effet est un terme fixe, positif, qui n’admet rien, ni darbitraire ni de partial.” For these reasons, we have no hesitation in adopting as our fundamental maxim, the “law of priority,” viz., § 1. The name originally given by the founder of a group or the describer of a species should be permanently retained, to the exclusion of all subse- quent synonyms (with the exceptions about to be noticed). Having laid down this principle, we must next inquire into the limitations which are found necessary in carrying it into practice. [Not to extend to authors older than Linneeus. | As our subject matter is strictly confined to the binomial system of nomen- clature, or that which indicates species by means of two Latin words, the one generic, the other specific, and as this invaluable method originated solely with Linneus, it is clear that, as far as species are concerned, we ought not to attempt to carry back the principle of priority beyond the date of the 12th edition of the ‘Systema Nature, 1766. Previous to that period, natural- ists were wont to indicate species not by a name comprised in one word, but by a definition which occupied a sentence, the extreme verbosity of which method was productive of great inconvenience. It is true that one word sometimes sufticed for the definition of a species, but these rare cases were only binomial by accident and not by principle, and ought not therefore in any instance to supersede the binomial designations imposed by Linnzeus. The same reasons apply also to generic names. Linneus was the first to attach a definite value to genera, and to give them a systematic character by means of exact definitions ; and therefore, although the names used by pre- vious authors may often be applied with propriety to modern genera, yet in such cases they acquire a new meaning, and should be quoted on the authority of the first person who used them in this secondary sense. It is true, that several of the old authors made occasional approaches to the Linnzan exact- ness of generic definition, but still these were but partial attempts; and it is certain that if in our rectification of the binomial nomenclature we once trace back our authorities into the obscurity which preceded the epoch of its foundation, we shall find no resting-place or fixed boundary for our researches. The nomenclature of Ray is chiefly derived from that of Gesner and Aldro- vandus, and from these authors we might proceed backward to Aélian, Pliny, and Aristotle, till our zoological studies would be frittered away amid the refinements of classical learning*. * “Quis longo wvo recepta vocabula commutaret hodie?”—Linneus. RULES OF ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 3l We therefore recommend the adoption of the following proposition :— § 2. The binomial nomenclature having originated with Linneus, the law of priority in respect of that nomenclature, is not to extend to the writings of antecedent authors, and therefore specific names published before 1766 cannot be used to the prejudice of names published since that date. [It should be here explained, that as the works of Artedi and Scopoli have already been extensively used by ichthyologists and entomologists, the names contained in or used from these authors should not be affected by this provi- sion. This is particularly requisite as regards the generic names of Artedi, afterwards used by Linneeus himself. Brisson also, who was a contemporary of Linnzus and acquainted with the ‘Systema Nature,’ defined and pub- lished certain genera of birds which are additional to those in the twelfth edi- tion of Linnzus’s works, and which are therefore of perfectly good authority. But Brisson still adhered to the old mode of designating species by a sentence instead of a word, and therefore while we retain his defined genera, we do not extend the same indulgence to the titles of his species, even when the latter are accidentally binomial in form. For instance, the Perdix rubra of Brisson is the T'etrao rufus of Linnzus ; therefore as we in this case retain the generic name of Brisson and the specific name of Linneus, the correct title of the species would be Perdia rufa (Linn.). [Generic names not to be cancelled in subsequent subdivisions. | As the number of known species which form the groundwork of zoological science is always increasing, and our knowledge of their structure becomes more complete, fresh generalizations continually occur to the naturalist, and the number of genera and other groups requiring appellations is ever becom- ing more extensive. It thus becomes necessary to subdivide the contents of old groups, and to make their definitions continually more restricted. In carrying out this process, it is an act of justice to the original author ‘that his generic name should never be lost sight of; and it is no less essential to the welfare of the science, that all which is sound in its nomenclature should remain unaltered amid the additions which are continually being made to it. On this ground we recommend the adoption of the following rule :— § 3. A generic name, when once established, should never be cancelled in any subsequent subdivision of the group, but retained in a restricted sense for one of the constituent portions. [Generic names to be retained for the typical portion of the old genus.) When a genus is subdivided into other genera, the original name should be retained for that portion of it which exhibits in the greatest degree its essential characters as at first defined. Authors frequeutly indicate this by selecting some one species as a fixed point of reference, which they term the ‘type of the genus.” When they omit doing so, it may still in many eases be correctly inferred that the first species mentioned on their list, if found accurately to agree with their definition, was regarded by them as the type. A specific name, or its synonyms, will also often serve to point out the particular species which by implication must be regarded as the original type of a genus. In such cases we are justified in restoring the name of the old genus to its typical signification, even when later authors have done otherwise. We submit therefore that § 4. The generic name should always be retained for that portion of the original genus which was considered typical by the author. Example—tThe genus Picumnus was established by Temminck, and in- 82 REPORT—1865. cluded two groups, one with four toes, the other with three, the former of which was regarded by the author as typical. Swainson, however, in raising these groups at a later period to the rank of genera, gave a new name, Asthe- nurus, to the former group, and retained Picumnus for the latter. In this case we have no choice but to restore the name Picuimnus, Temm., to its cor- rect sense, cancelling the name Asthenurus, Sw., and imposing a new name on the three-toed group which Swainson had called Picwmnus. [ When no type is indicated, then the original name is to be kept for that subsequent subdivision which first received it. | Our next proposition seems to require no explanation :— § 5. When the evidence as to the original type of a genus is not perfectly clear and indisputable, then the person who first subdivides the genus may affix the original name to any portion of it at his discretion, and no later author has a right to transfer that name to any other part of the original genus. [A later name of the same extent as an earlier to be wholly cancelled, | When an author infringes the law of priority by giving a new name to a genus which has been properly defined and named already, the only penalty which can be attached to this act of negligence or injustice, is to expel the name so introduced from the pale of the science. It is not right, then, in such cases to restrict the meaning of the latter name so that it may stand side by side with the earlier one, as has sometimes been done. For instance, the genus Monaulus, Vieill. 1816, is a precise equivalent to Lophophorus, Temm. 1813, both authors having adopted the same species as their type, and therefore, when the latter genus came in the course of time to be di- vided into two, it was incorrect to give the condemned name Monaulus to one of the portions. To state this succinctly :— § 6. When two authors define and name the same genus, both making it exactly of the same extent, the later name should be cancelled in toto, and not retained in a modified sense*. This rule admits of the following exception :— § 7. Provided, however, that if these authors select their respective types from different sections of the genus, and these sections be afterwards raised into genera, then both these names may be retained in a restricted sense for the new genera respectively. Example—The names Gdemia and Melanetia were originally coextensive synonyms, but their respective types were taken from different sections which are now raised into genera, distinguished by the above titles. [No special rule is required for the cases in which the later of two generic names is so defined as to be less extensive in signification than the earlier, for if the later includes the type of the earlier genus, it would be cancelled by the operation of § 4; and if it does not include that type, it is in fact a distinct genus. | But when the later name is move extensive than the earlier, the following rule comes into operation :— [A later name equivalent to several earlier ones is to be cancelled. | The same principle which is involved in § 6 will apply to § 8. * These discarded names may, however, be ¢olerated, if they have been afterwards proposed in a totally new sense, though we trust that in future no one will knowingly apply an old name, whether now adopted or not, to a new genus, (See proposition, q: mfra.) RULES OF ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 33 § 8. If the later name be so defined as to be equal in extent to two or more previously published genera, it must be cancelled i toto. Example.—Psarocolius, Wagl. 1827, is equivalent to five or six genera previously published under other names, therefore Psarocolius should be cancelled. If these previously published genera be separately adopted (as is the case with the equivalents of Psarocolius), their original names will of course prevail; but if we follow the later author in combining them into one, the following rule is necessary :— [A genus compounded of two or more previously proposed genera whose cha- racters are now deemed insufficient, should retain the name of one of them. | It sometimes happens that the progress of science requires two or more genera, founded on insufficient or erroneous characters, to be combined toge- ther into one. In such cases the law of priority forbids us to cancel all the original names and impose a new one on this compound genus. We must therefore select some one species as a type or example, and give the generic name which it formerly bore to the whole group now formed. If these original generic names differ in date, the oldest one should be the one adopted. § 9. In compounding a genus out of several smaller ones, the earliest of them, if otherwise objectionable, should be selected, and its former generic name be extended over the new genus so compounded. Example—The genera Accentor and Prunella of Vieillot not being consi- dered sufficiently distinct in character, are now united under the general name of Accentor, that being the earliest. We now proceed to point out those few cases which form exceptions to the law of priority, and in which it becomes both justifiable and necessary to alter the names originally imposed by authors. [A name should be changed when previously applied to another growp which still retains tt. | It being essential to the binomial method to indicate objects in natural history by means of two words only, without the aid of any further designa- tion, it follows that a generic name should only have one meaning—in other words, that two genera should never bear the same name. For a similar reason, no two species in the same genus should bear the same name. When these cases occur, the later of the two duplicate names should be cancelled, and a new term, or the earliest synonym, if there be any, substituted. When it is necessary to form new words for this purpose, it is desirable to make them bear some analogy to those which they are destined to supersede, as where the genus of birds Plectorhynchus, being preoccupied in Ichthyology, is changed to Plectorhamphus. It is, we conceive, the bounden duty of an author, when naming a new genus, to ascertain by careful search that the name which he proposes to employ has not been previously adopted in other departments of natural history*. By neglecting this precaution he is liable to have the name altered and his authority superseded by the first subsequent author who may detect the oversight, and for this result, however unfortu- nate, we fear there is no remedy, though such cases would be less frequent * This laborious and difficult research is now greatly facilitated by the very useful work of M. Agassiz, entitled “ Nomenclator Zoologicus,” and “Index Universalis” to that work, 1865. D 384 REPORT—1865. if the detectors of these errors would, as an act of courtesy, point them out to the author himself, if living, and leave it to him to correct his own inad- vertencies. This occasional hardship appears to us to be a less evil than to permit the practice of giving the same generic name ad libitum to a multi- plicity of genera. We submit, therefore, that § 10. A name should be changed which has before been proposed for some other genus in zoology or botany, or for some other species in the same genus, when still retained for such genus or species. [A name whose meaning is glaringly false may be changed. | Our next proposition has no other claim for adoption than that of being a concession to human infirmity. If such proper names of places as Covent Garden, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, Newcastle, Bridgewater, &c., no longer suggest the ideas of gardens, fields, castles, or bridges, but refer the mind with the quickness of thought to the particular localities which they respectively de- signate, there seems no reason why the proper names used in natural history should not equally perform the oftice of correct indication, even when their etymological meaning may be wholly inapplicable to the object which they typify. But we must remember that the language of science has but a limited currency, and hence the words which compose it do not circulate with the same freedom and rapidity as those which belong to every-day life. The attention is consequently lable in scientific studies to be diverted from the contemplation of the thing signified to the etymological meaning of the sign, and hence it is necessary to provide that the latter shall not be such as to propagate actual error. Instances of this kind are indeed very rare, and in some cases, such as that of Monodon, Caprimulgus, Paradisea apoda and Monoculus, they have acquired sufficient currency no longer to cause error, and are therefore retained without change. But when we find a Batrachian reptile named in violation of its true affinities Mastodonsaurus, a Mexican species termed (through erroneous information of its habitat) Picus cafer, or an oliye-coloured one Muscicapa atra, or when a name is derived from an accidental monstrosity, as in Picus semirostris of Linnzus, and Helix dis- juncta of Turton, we feel justified in cancelling these names, and adopting that synonym which stands next in point of date. At the same time we think it right to remark that this privilege is very liable to abuse, and ought therefore to be applied only to extreme cases and with great caution. With these limitations we may concede that § 11. A name may be changed when it implies a false proposition which is likely to propagate important errors. [Names not clearly defined may be changed. | Unless a species or group is intelligibly defined when the name is given, it cannot be recognized by others, and the signification of the name is conse- quently lost. Two things are necessary before a zoological term can acquire any authority, viz., definition and publication. Definition properly implies a distinct exposition of essential characters, and in all cases we conceive this to be indispensable, although some authors maintain that a mere enu- meration of the component species, or even of a single type, is sufficient to authenticate a genus. To constitute publication, nothing short of the inser- tion of the above particulars in a printed book can be held sufficient. Many birds, for instance, in the Paris and other continental museums, shells in the British Museum (in Dr. Leach’s time), and fossils in the Scarborough and other public collections, have received MS. names, which will be of no RULES OF ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 35 authority until they are published with characters*. Nor can any unpub- lished descriptions, however exact (such as those of Forster, which are still shut up in a MS. at Berlin), claim any right of priority till published, and then only from the date of their publication. The same rule applies to cases where groups or species are published, but not defined, as in some museum catalogues, and in Lesson’s ‘Traité d’Ornithologie,’ where many species are enumerated by name, without any description or reference by which they can be identified. Therefore,— § 12. A name which has never been clearly defined in some published work should be changed for the earliest name by which the object shall have been so defined. [Specific names, when adopted as generic, must be changed. | The necessity for the following rule will be best illustrated by an example. The Corvus pyrrhocorax, Linn., was afterwards advanced to a genus under the name of Pyrrhocorax. Temminck adopts this generic name, and also retains the old specific one, so that he terms the species Pyrrhocorax pyr- rhocorax. ‘he inelegance of this method is so great as to demand a change of the generic name. We propose, therefore, that § 13. A specific name must not be altered in order to use that name for the genus ; where this has been already done the old specific name must be restored, and a new generic name given to prevent an unharmonious repetition. V.B.—It will be seen, however, below that we strongly object to the further continuance of this practice of elevating specific names into generic. [Latin orthography to be adhered to. | On the subject of orthography it is necessary to lay down one proposi- tion,— § 14. In writing zoological names, the rules of Latin orthography must be adhered to. In Latinizing Greek words there are certain rules of orthography known to classical scholars which must never be departed from. For instance, the names which modern authors haye written Aipucnemia, Zenophasia, poro- cephala, must, according to the laws of etymology, be spelt Apycnemia, Xenophasia, and peeocephala. In Latinizing modern words the rules of classic: usage do not apply, and all that we can do is to give to such terms as clas- sical an appearance as we can, consistently with the preservation of their etymology. In the case of European words whose orthography is fixed, it is best to retain the original form, even though it may include letters and com- binations unknown in Latin. Such words, for instance, as Woodwardi, Kmighti, Bullocki, Eschscholtzi, would be quite unintelligible if they were Latinized into Vudvardi, Cnichti, Bullocci, Essolzi, &e. But words of bar- barous origin, haying no fixed orthography, are more pliable, and hence, when adopted into the Latin, they should be rendered as classical in appear- ance as is consistent with the preservation of their original sound. Thus _ the words Tockus, awswree, argoondah, kundoo, &c., should, when Latinized, have been written Toccus, ausure, argunda, cundu, &c. Such words ought, in all practicable cases, to have a Latin termination given them, especially if they are used generically. In Latinizing proper names, the simplest rule appears to be to use the termination -us, genitive -i, when the name ends with a consonant, as in * These MS. names are in all cases liable to create confusion, and it is therefore much to be desired that the practice of using them should be ayoided in future. p2 36 REPORT—1865. the above examples ; and -ius, gen. -i?, when it ends with a vowel, as, Latreille, Latreilli, &c. In converting Greek words into Latin the following rules must. be attended to :— Greek, Latin. Greek. Latin. ac becomes «x. 6 becomes th. et . ae ¢ 33 ph. os terminal, us. > ae ch. ov * um. K A c. ov becomes u. POMZ nch. ou ” ee. PW ” ng: v ” y- S ” h. When a name has been erroneously written and its orthography has been afterwards amended, we conceive that the authority of the original author should still be retained for the name, and not that of the person who makes the correction, PART II. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING THE ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE IN FUTURE. The above propositions are all which, in the present state of the science, it appears practicable to invest with the character of laws. We have endeavoured to make them as few and simple as possible, in the hope that they may be the more easily comprehended and adopted by naturalists in general. We are aware that a large number of other regulations, some of which are here- after enumerated, have been proposed and acted upon by various authors who have undertaken the difficult task of legislating on the subject; but as the enforcement of such rules would in many cases undermine the invaluable principle of priority, we do not feel justified in adopting them. At the same time we fully admit that the rules in question are, for the most part, founded on just criticism, and therefore, though we do not allow them to operate re- trospectively, we are willing to retain them for future guidance. Although it is of the first importance that the principle of priority should be held para- mount to all others, yet we are not blind to the desirableness of rendering our scientific language palatable to the scholar and the man of taste. Many zoological terms, which are now marked with the stamp of perpetual cur- rency, are yet so far defective in construction, that our inability to remove them without infringing the law of priority may be a subject of regret. With these terms we cannot interfere, if we adhere to the principles above laid down ; nor is there even any remedy, if authors insist on infringing the rules of good taste by introducing into the science words of the same inele- gant or unclassical character in future. But that which cannot be enforced by law may, in some measure, be effected by persuasion; and with this view we submit the following propositions to naturalists, under the title of Recom- mendations for the Improvement of Zoological Nomenclature in future. [The best names are Latin or Greek characteristic words. | The classical languages being selected for zoology, and words being more easily remembered in proportion as they are expressive, it is self-evident that § A. The best zoological names are those which are derived from the Latin or Greek, and express some distinguishing characteristic of the object to which they are applied. RULES OF ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 37 [ Classes of objectionable names. | It follows from hence that the following classes of words are more or less objectionable in point of taste, though, in the case of genera, it is often neces- sary to use them, from the impossibility of finding characteristic words which have not before been employed for other genera. We will commence with those which appear the least open to objection, such as a. Geographical names.—These words being for the most part adjectives can rarely be used for genera. As designations of species they have been so strongly objected to, that some authors (Wagler, for instance) have gone the length of substituting fresh names wherever they occur; others (e. g. Swainson) will only tolerate them where they apply exclusively. We are by no means exposed to go to this length. It is not the less true that the Hirundo javanica is a Javanese bird, even though it may occur in other countries also, and though other species of Hirundo may occur in Java. The utmost that can be urged against such words is, that they do not tell the whole truth. However, as so many authors object to this class of names, it is better to avoid giving them, except where there is reason to believe that the species is confined to the country whose name it bears. b. Barbarous names.—Some authors protest strongly against the introduc- tion of exotic words into our Latin nomenclature, others defend the practice with equal warmth. We may remark, first, that the practice is not contrary to classical usage, for the Greeks and Romans did occasionally, though with reluctance, introduce barbarous words in a modified form into their respec- tive languages. Secondly, the preservation of trivial names which animals bear in their native countries is often of great use to the traveller in aiding him to discover and identify species. We do not therefore consider, if such words have a Latin termination given to them, that the occasional and judi- cious use of them as scientific terms can be justly objected to. c. Technical names.—All words expressive of trades and professions have been by some writers excluded from zoology, but without sufficient reason. Words of this class, when carefully chosen, often express the peculiar cha- racters and habits of animals in a metaphorical manner, which is highly elegant. We may cite the generic terms Arvicola, Lanius, Pastor, Tyrannus, Regulus, Ploceus, &c., as favourable examples of this class of names. d. Mythological or historical names.—When these have no perceptible re- ference or allusion to the characters of the object on which they are conferred, they may properly be regarded as unmeaning and in bad taste. Thus the generic names Lesbia, Leilus, Remus, Corydon, Pasiphae, have been applied to a Humming bird, a Butterfly, a Beetle, a Parrot, and a Crab respectively, without any perceptible association of ideas. But mythological names may sometimes be used as generic with the same propriety as technical ones, in cases where a direct allusion can be traced between the narrated actions of a personage and the observed habits or structure of an animal. Thus when the name Progne is given to a Swallow, Clotho to a Spider, Hydra to a Polyp, Athene to an Owl, Nestor to a grey-headed Parrot, &c., a pleasing and beneficial con- nexion is established between classical literature and physical science. e. Comparative names.—The objections which have been raised to words of this class are not without foundation. The names, no less than the defini- tions of objects, should, where practicable, be drawn from positive and self- evident characters, and not from a comparison with other objects, which may be less known to the reader than the one before him. Specific names ex- pressive of comparative size are also to be avoided, as they may be rendered inaccurate by the after discovery of additional species. The names Picovdes, 38 REPORT—1865. Emberizoides, Pscudoluscinia, rubeculoides, maximus, minor, minimus, &e., are examples of this objectionable practice. f. Generic names compounded from other genera.—These are in some degree open to the same imputation as comparative words; but as they often serve to express the position of a genus as intermediate to, or allied with, two other genera, they may occasionally be used with advantage. Care must be taken not to adopt such compound words as are of too great length, and not to cor- rupt them in trying to render them shorter. The names Gallopavo, Tetrao- gallus, Gypactos, are examples of the appropriate use of compound words. g. Specific names derived from persons.—So long as these complimentary designations are used with moderation, and are restricted to persons of emi- nence as scientific zoologists, they may be employed with propriety in cases where expressive or characteristic words are not to be found. But we fully concur with those who censure the practice of naming species after persons of no scientific reputation, as curiosity dealers (e. g. Cauniveti, Boissoncuuti), Peruvian priestesses (Cora, Amazilia), or Hottentots (Alass:). h. Generic names derived from persons.—W ords of this class have been ex- tensively used in botany, and therefore it would have been well to have excluded them wholly from zoology, for the sake of obtaining a memoria technica by which the name of a genus would at once tell us to which of the kingdoms of nature it belonged. Some personal gencric names have, how- ever, crept into zoology, as Ouvierta, Mulleria, Rossia, Lessonia, &c., but they are rare in comparison with those of botany, and it is perhaps desirable not to add to their number. i. Names of harsh and inelegant pronunciation.—These words are grating to the ear, either from inelegance of form, as Huhua, Yuhina, Crawirex, Esch- scholtzi, or from too great length, as chirostrongylostinus, Opetiorhynchus, bra- chypodioides, Thecodontosaurus. It is needless to enlarge on the advantage of consulting euphony in the construction of our language. As a general rule it may be recommended to avoid introducing words of more than five syllables. k. Ancient names of animals applied in a wrong sense.—It has been cus- tomary, in numerous cases, to apply the names of animals found in classic authors at random to exotic genera or species which are wholly unknown to the ancients. The names Cebus, Callithria, Spiza, Kitta, Struthus, are ex- amples. This practice ought by no means to be encouraged. ‘the usual defence for it is, that it is impossible now to identify the species to which the name was anciently applied. But it is certain that if any traveller will take the trouble to collect the vernacular names used by the modern Greeks and Italians for the Vertebrata and Mollusca of southern Europe, the mean- ing of the ancient names may in most cases be determined with the greatest precision. It has been well remarked that a Cretan fisher-boy is a far better commentator on Aristocle’s ‘ History of Animals’ than a British or German scholar. The use, however, of ancient names, when correctly applied, is most desirable, for “in framing scientific terms, the appropriation of old words is preferable to the formation of new ones’”’*. l. Adjective generic names.—The names of genera are in all cases essen- tially substantive, and hence adjective terms cannot be employed for them without doing violence to grammar. The generic names Hians, Criniger, Cursorius, Nitidula, &c., are examples of this incorrect usage. m. Hybrid names—Compound words, whose component parts are taken from two different languages, are great deformities in nomenclature, and naturalists should be especially guarded not to introduce any more such terms * Whewell, Phil. Ind. Se. yol. i. p. Ixvii; Nov. Org. Ren. iv. iii. RULES OF ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 39 into zoology, which furnishes too many examples of them already. We have them compounded of Greek and Latin, as Dendrofalco, Gymnocorvus, Mono- culus, Arborophila, flavigaster ; Greek and French, as Jacamaraleyon, Jaca- merops; and Greek and English, as Bullockoides, Gulbertsocrinites. n. Names closely resembling other names already used.—By Rule 10 it was laid down that when a name is introduced which is identical with one pre- viously used, the later one should be changed. Some authors have extended the same principle to cases where the later name, when correctly written, only approaches in form, without wholly coinciding with, the earlier. We do not, however, think it advisable to make this law imperative, first, because of the vast extent of our nomenclature, which renders it highly difficult to find a name which shall not bear more or less resemblance in sound to some other ; and, secondly, because of the impossibility of fixing a limit to the degree of approximation beyond which such a law should cease to operate. We content ourselves, therefore, with putting forth this proposition merely as a recommendation to naturalists, in selecting generic names, to avoid such as too closely approximate words already adopted. So with respect to species, the judicious naturalist will aim at variety of designation, and will not, for example, call a species virens or virescens in a genus which already possesses a viridis. o. Corrupted words.—In the construction of compound Latin words, there are certain grammatical rules which have been known and acted on for two thousand years, and which a naturalist is bound to acquaint himself with before he tries his skill in coining zoological terms. One of the chief of these rules is, that in compounding words all the radical or essential parts of the constituent members must be retained, and no change made except in the variabie terminations. But several generic names have been lately intro- duced which run counter to this rule, and form most unsightly objects to all who are conversant with the spirit of the Latin language, A name made up of the first half of one word and the last half of another, is as deformed a monster in nomenclature as a Mermaid or a Centaur would be in zoology ; yet we find examples in the names Corcoraw (from Corvus and Pyrrhocorax), Cypsnagra (from Cypselus and Tanagra), Merulavis (Merula and Synallaxis), Lowigilla (Lowa and Fringilla), &c. In other cases, where the commence- ment of both the simple words is retained in the compound, a fault is still committed by cutting off too much of the radical and vital portions, as is the pee in Bucorvus (from Buceros and Corvus), Ninoa®(Nisus and Noc- tua), &e. p. Nonsense names.—Some authors having found difficulty in selecting generic names which have not been used before, have adopted the plan of coining words at random without any derivation or meaning whatever. The following are examples: Viralva, Xema, Azeca, Assiminia, Quedius, Spisula. To the same class we may refer anagrams of other generic names, as Dacelo and Cedola of Alcedo, Zapornia of Porzana, &e. Such verbal trifling as this is in very bad taste, and is especially calculated to bring the science into contempt. It finds no precedent in the Augustan age of Latin, but can be compared only to thé puerile quibblings of the middle ages. It is contrary to the genius of all languages, which appear never to produce new words by spontaneous generation, but always to derive them from some other source, however distant or obscure. And it is peculiarly annoying to the etymologist, who, after seeking in vain through the vast storehouses of human language for the parentage of such words, discovers at last that he has been pursuing an ignis fatuus. 40 REPORT— 1865. q. Names previously cancelled by the operation of § 6.—Some authors con- _sider that when a name has been reduced to a synonym by the operations of the laws of priority, they are then at liberty to apply it at pleasure to any new group which may be in want of aname. We consider, however, that when a word has once been proposed in a given sense, and has afterwards sunk into a synonym, it is far better to lay it aside for ever than to run the risk of making confusion by re-issuing it with a new meaning attached. rv. Specific names raised into generic.—It has sometimes been the practice in subdividing an old genus to give to the lesser genera so formed, the names of their respective typical species. Our Rule 13 authorizes the forming a new generic name in such cases; but we further wish to state our objections to the practice altogether. Considering as we do that the original specific names should as far as possible be held sacred, both on the grounds of justice to their authors and of practical convenience to naturalists, we would strongly dissuade from the further continuance of a practice which is gratuitous in itself, and which involves the necessity of altering old names or making new ones. We have now pointed out the principal rocks and shoals which lie in the path of the nomenclator; and it will be seen that the navigation through them is by no means easy. The task of constructing a language which shall supply the demands of scientific accuracy on the one hand, and of literary elegance on the other, is not to be inconsiderately undertaken by unqualified persons. Our nomenclature presents but too many flaws and inelegancies already, and as the stern law of priority forbids their removal, it follows that they must remain as monuments of the bad taste or bad scholarship of their authors to the latest ages in which zoology shall be studied. [Families to end in idee, and Subfamilies in ine. ] The practice suggested in the following proposition has been adopted by many recent authors, and its simplicity and convenience is so great that we strongly recommend its universal use, § B. It is recommended that the assemblages of genera termed families should be uniformly named by adding the termination ide to the name of the earliest known, or most typically characterized genus in them; and that their subdivisions, termed subfamilies, should be similarly constructed, with the termination ine. These words are formed by changing the last syllable of the genitive case into ide or ine, as Striv, Strigis, Strigide, Buceros, Bucerotis, Bucerotide, not Strivide, Buceride. [The authority for a species, exclusive of the genus, to be followed by a distinctive eapression. | The systematic names of: zoology being still far from that state of fixity which is the ultimate aim of the science, it is frequently necessary for correct indication to append to them the name of the person on whose authority they have been proposed. ' When the same person is authority both for the specific and generic name, the case is very simple; but when the specific name of one author is annexed to the generic name of another, some difficulty occurs. For example, the Muscicapa crinita of Linneeus belongs to the modern genus Tyrannus of Vieillot; but Swainson was the first to apply the specific name of Linnzus to the'géneric one of Vieillot. The question now arises, Whose authority is to be quoted for the name Tyrannus crinitus? The expression Tyrannus crinitus, Linn., would imply what is untrue, for Linneus did not RULES OF ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 41 use the term Tyrannus; and Tyrannus crinitus, Vieill., is equally incorrect, for Vieillot did not adopt the name crinitus. If we call it Tyrannus crinitus, Sw., it would imply that Swainson was the first to describe the species, and Linnzeus would be robbed of his due credit. If we term it Tyrannus, Vieill., crinitus, Linn., we use a form which, though expressing the facts correctly, and therefore not without advantage in particular cases where great exact- ness is required, is yet too lengthy and inconvenient to be used with ease and rapidity. Of the three persons concerned with the construction of a bino- mial title in the case before us, we conceive that the author who Jirst describes and names a species which forms the groundwork of later gene- ralizations, possesses a higher claim to have his name recorded than he who afterwards defines a genus which is found to embrace that species, or who may be the mere accidental means of bringing the generic and specific names into contact. By giving the authority for the specific name in preference to all others, the inquirer is referred directly to the original description, habitat, &e., of the species, and is at the same time reminded of the date of its dis- covery ; while genera, being less numerous than species, may be carried in the memory, or referred to in systematic works without the necessity of per- petually quoting their authorities. The most simple mode then for ordinary use seems to be, to append to the original authority for the species, when not applying to the genus also, some distinctive mark implying an exclusive re- ference to the specific name, as Tyranius crinitus (Linn.), and to omit this expression when the same authority attaches to both genus and species, as Ostrea edulis, linn. Therefore, § C. It is recommended that the authority for a specific name, when not applying to the generic name also, should be expressed thus, (Linn.), as Tyran- nus crinitus (Linn.). [New genera and species to be defined amply and publicly. ] A large proportion of the complicated mass of synonyms which has now become the opprobrium of zoology, has originated either from the slovenly and imperfect manner in which species and groups have been originally de- fined, or from their definitions having been inserted in obscure local publica- tions which have never obtained an extensive circulation. Therefore, although under § 12 we have conceded that mere insertion in a printed book is sufficient for publication, yet we would strongly advise the authors of new groups always to give, in the first instance, a full and accurate defini- tion of their characters, and to insert the same in such periodical or other works as are likely to obtain an immediate and extensive circulation. To state this briefly, § D. It is recommended that new genera or species be amply defined, published, and extensively circulated in the first instance. [The names to be given to subdivisions of genera to agree in gender with the original genus. | In order to preserve specific names as far as possible in an unaltered form, whatever may be the changes which the genera to which they are referred may undergo, it is desirable, when it can be done with propriety, to make the new subdivisions of genera agree in gender with the old groups from which they are formed. This recommendation does not, however, authorize the changing the gender or termination of a genus already established. In brief, § E. It is recommended that in subdividing an old genus in future, the 42 REPORT— 1865. names given to the subdivisions should agree in gender with that of the ori- ginal group. [Etymologies and types of new genera to be stated. | Tt is obvious that the names of genera would in general be far more care- fully constructed, and their definitions would be rendered more exact, if authors would adopt the following suggestion :— § F. It is recommended that in defining new genera the etymology of the name should be always stated, and that one species should be invariably selected as a type or standard of reference. In concluding this outline of a scheme for the rectification of zoological nomenclature, we have only to remark, that almost the whole of the propo- sitions contained in it may be applied with equal correctness to the sister science of botany. We have preferred, however, in this essay to limit our views to zoology, both for the sake of rendering the question less complex, and because we conceive that the botanical nomenclature of the present day stands in much less need of distinct enactment than the zoological. The admirable rules laid down by Linnzus, Smith, Decandolle, and other botanists (to which, no less than to the works of Fabricius, Illiger, Vigors, Swainson, and other zoologists, we have been much indebted in preparing the present document), have always exercised a beneficial influence over their disciples. Hence the language of botany has attained a more perfect and stable condi- tion than that of zoology; and if this attempt at reformation may have the effect of advancing zoological nomenclature beyond its present backward and abnormal state, the wishes of its promoters will be fully attained. Report of the Committee on the Distribuiion of the Organic Remains of the North Staffordshire Coal-field—Concluding Report. By a Committee, consisting of Sir Purtie pe M. Grey Eeurton, Bart., F.R.S., Professor T. H. Huxtny, F.R.S. Reporter, Witt1am Mo- LYNEUX, F.G.S. Tue coal-measures of North Staffordshire may be divided into four distinct groups, namely, feet. feet. The Lowest Measures .......... from about 800 to 1000 The Lower Thick Measures ...... = 2000 to 2500 The Upper Thick Measures ...... ee 1400 to 1800 The Upper Measures . 2... 2. ~~: = 1000 to 1200 giving a total vertical thickness of from 5200 to 6500 feet. The divisional formations of the lowest and lower thick measures in the Cheadle-field consist of shaly coarse and fine sandstones, which, although not proved by actual workings, would appear to be from 300 to 400 feet thick. The extension of these sandstones northwards is checked by an upthrow of Millstone-grits near Consall in the Churnet valley, and their place is occupied in the Knypersley and Biddulph districts of the extreme northern point by masses of black and brown shales and clayey laminated sandstones. The divisions of the other groups correspond with this in some respects, but they are less marked and massive, ach of these groups is characterized by the NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE COAL-FIELD ORGANIC REMAINS, 43 presence of a distinct series of beds of coal and ironstone of greater or less value and persistency. The lowest measures contain seven seams of coal, three of which are worked for local use only, but the base is occupied by a most valuable bed of Hydrate, known as the Froghall ironstone. The lower thick measures contain all the best and thick coals, but only one band of ironstone (the Burnt Wood) of sufficient thickness or quality to be worked. The upper thick measures afford a remarkable contrast, as containing nearly all the workable bands of ironstone, while the upper measures contain thick masses of brick clays, with a few thin seams of coal, and but one or two bands of ironstone to which any attention has been paid. It is probably a somewhat remarkable feature in connexion with these great divisions, that in no instance have the two middle groups been found to contain deposits showing an extended continuous water-action of a turbulent character; but in the upper part of the lowest measures, and the top beds of the upper measures occur rocks resembling in every particular those of the Millstone-grit. It may, however, be mentioned that instances have come under notice of the occurrence of large rounded quartz pebbles in shales and ironstones, lying near the base of the upper thick measures at Apedale ; and in another case a large siliceous water-worn boulder, some pounds in weight, was met with at considerable depth near a fault in one of the pits of the Cheadle coal-field. It not unfrequently happens, however, that large masses, composed of ‘fragments of plants, broken shells, and other organic remains, intermixed with subangular pieces of ironstone, coal, and shaly sandstones, cemented together by a hard paste, are met with in sinkings and workings in the neighbourhood of faults, but as a rule the enormous stratigraphical deposits of these fields evidence tranquillity of action extending over a very long period of time. This conclusion is borne out by the nature and condi- tion of the organic remains imbedded in the shales and ironstones of the different measures, which are not only exceedingly numerous, but of a most remarkable and interesting order; and it may here be stated as evidence of the results of an extended paleontological inquiry, that before the commence- ment of a systematic course of research with reference to the subject, the known species of fish-remains were limited to the number of nine, with about the same number of shells, including those of a marine type then sup- posed to be confined to a single bed belonging to the lowest measures of the Churnet valley and its representative at Wetley Moor. The fish-remains are, however, now found to consist of from 35 to 40 genera, embracing upwards of 80 species, while the mollusca range out into upwards of 22 genera, represented by about 60 species; the marine forms extend at intervals upwards from the lowest to the upper thick measures, while the frequent occurrence of reptilian remains, and the vast number of the smaller crusta- ceans indicate the extended range and variety of the organic life of these fields during the period of their formation. These reptilian remains consist of single internal bones, with occasionally roughly ornamented external bones of the head. The range of these animals has been traced from the horizon of the Stinking Coal of the lowest beds, here and there up through the whole of the measures, to the chalky mine ironstone of the upper thick group. ‘They are generally found in association with fish-remains, and appear to have been more numerous during the formation of the New Ironstone, the Knowles, and the Brown Mine ironstones of Kidsgrove, Fenton, Longton, Silverdale, and Apedale. They are, however, by no means confined to these localities, traces of them being found over the greater part of the area in- cluded in these fields, and also in direct association, both with shells referable DD 4A, . REPORT—1865. to marine conditions, and those assumed to be of brackish or freshwater origin. Of all the forms of life met with in these fields the little Cytheropsis is the most numerous and persistent. It occurs in almost every distinct mineral deposit, and sometimes forms compact masses several inches in thickness, and entirely separated from all other organisms; at others it appears in associa- tion with Microconchus alone, or is mixed indiscriminately with fish and shells, or forms a thin layer’or parting between beds of shale or ironstone, or the nucleus of ironstone nodules. It is, however, a fact of some importance in the question referable to the conditions under which certain coal and iron- stone beds were deposited, that the little fossil has never been found in the fields under notice im direct association with shells known to be marine. A most interesting example of this severance oecurs in the shales of the Stinking Coal at Windsend, in the Churnet valley. The lower parts of these shales im- mediately overlying the coal are remarkable for the immense number of Avi- culopectens they contain in a compressed form, and associated with Groniatites, Orthoceras, and Posidonia. In various instances the same shale-bed has yielded Cytheropsis and Beyrichia, and occasionally Anthracosia ; but these three latter fossils are always separated from the former. After repeated examinations, it has been ascertained that about two feet above the coal a well-defined division occurs in the form of a bone-bed, containing teeth, scales, coprolites, and other remains, with frequent concretionary nodules, distinctly compressed into the under surface of the shales. Above this line the Aviculopecten never passes, and in no instance have the Cytheropsis or Anthracosia been found below it; but each organic deposit is separated from the other as clearly and distinctly as could have been effected by the intervention of thick masses of strata. With Cytheropsis are frequently found Beyrichia, Microconchus, and Ser- pula, but the latter genus is by no means so generally distributed. Beyrichia occurs in great numbers in the shales of the Cockshead ironstone at Adderley Green, in association with Cytheropsis and Microconchus ; but Serpula, so far as has been proved, is confined to the shales of the Woodhead coal in the Cheadle field. Each of these forms, like Cytheropsis, is confined to the beds. containing Anthracosia; they never pass into the marine horizons of either the upper or lowest measures. Until the present year these fields were not known to contain any of the higher order of Crustacea; recently, however, a fragment of Limelus has been met with in a small nodule of the Hard Mine ironstone at Adderley Green ; and more recently still a curious ironstone deposit, lying near the base of the lowest measures of the Churnet valley, has been found to contain Macruran remains of an interesting form associated with Cytheropsis and Anthracoptera. It is by no means unlikely that these latter organisms may be found to pass into the higher strata; but so far they appear to be con- fined to the particular bed in question. The fish-remains of these fields are of an exceedingly interesting character, and in certain beds occur in great numbers, and in a most beautiful state of preservation. Many new forms have been met with, and individual speci- mens of well-known speeies occasionally come to hand, by which some im- portant anatomical points have been satisfactorily established. The whole of these remains are now undergoing examination, and ere long a more complete knowledge of their specific character will be arrived at. Of the Ganoid fishes, the most commonly distributed are the Palconisct, which range throughout the whole of the four great divisions of the fields, NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE COAL-FIELD ORGANIC REMAINS. 45 and pass downwards into the shales of the Millstone-grit and the grey iron- stone nodules of the Carboniferous shales. In the Aviculopecten shales of the Stinking Coal two or three at present undetermined species are imbedded, but rarely in a well-preserved condition. The species of this bed are inter- mixed with the marine shelis, and appear to be different to those so largely distributed amongst the beds of the upper thick measures ; and in no instance have they been found in this deposit to pass above the line of the bone-bed alluded to, where detached scales are largely intermixed with Lingule and other organisms in a fragmentary condition. Towards the upper part of these lower beds a small species, tolerably per- fect, is occasionally found imbedded in nodules of clay ironstone ; but, gene- rally speaking, between this point and the shales of the Ash Coal, the base of the upper thick measures, evidence of the existence of these fish seldom occurs, except in the form of detached scales, scattered over the face of the numerous intervening bone-beds. In the Ash-coal shales, however, they appear in a more perfect form, and attain their maximum development in the shales of the Deep Mine ironstone, 200 yards above it. This latter iron- stone is at Longton, on the extreme western boundary of the proved measures, 1 foot 3 inches thick, and divided into four bands overlaid by a bed of black shale, hard, clean, and easily split into thin slabs. As an ichthyolitic depository it is one of the most interesting met with, and affords in addition some curious data referable to the range of animal life in one distinct horizon, This stone is worked at Longton, Fenton, Shelton, Berryhill, Sneyd Green, Golden-hill, and other places, but not always under the same name. ‘The Longton bed is opened at two points communicating with each other, and from the shales of these two workings have been collected, in a remarkable state of preservation, specimens of eighteen genera, and about twenty-six species of fish. One new genus, under the name of Cycloptychius, occurs in great numbers and the most perfect condition; but beyond the limits of the two pits at Longton it has never as yet been known to pass ; and in each direc- tion from this point, where the stone has been worked, the whole of its organic remains die gradually out to a few detached scales and isolated teeth. The restriction of the Paleonisci of this deposit to a definite range would appear to indicate the prevalence of either deep or shallow water along this particular line; but it is in the character of its organic contents that this peculiarity is the more observable; the stone itself, where it has been pierced, although showing a tendency to thin out towards its eastern out- crop, retains over the greater part of the field a tolerably uniform thickness and character. Of Calacanthus there are two species, C. lepturus and C. granulatus, the former being the more common, and of greater range. Detached scales are met with in the Hydrate shales, and here and there in the fossiliferous beds of the lowest measures, including the Stinking Coal shales. In the Wood- head coal-shale of the lower thick measures, C. leptwrusis occasionally found in a fair state of preservation, and also in the nedular grey ironstones inter- mixed with the grey shales above it. More frequently, however, it occurs as detached scales; and in this form, wherever Palconiscus is detected, both Celacanthus and Platysomus are generally in association with it. The Deep Mine ironstone contains numerous fine specimens, and it not unfrequently occurs in the Cockshead, Knowles, and Brown Mine ironstones and shales, Platysomus, of which there are two species, has a somewhat similar range ; but in certain deposits, in different localities, each species appears to be a characteristic feature, 46 REPORT—1865. Many of the coal and ironstone beds are either of local extent, or evidence a variation of condition of deposit within a limited area, and con- sequently the measures of one district are no sure guides in engineering to those of another. This more frequently happens in the upper thick beds with the ironstone group, and it is found that this diversity in the character of the mineral deposits is partaken of in a somewhat similar degree by the forms of life directly associated with them. Taking the Longton and Fenton beds as one example, the Deep Mine shales show the predominating form to be Palgoniscus, the Knowles ironstone Platysomus, and the New Ironstone Megalichthys. At Silverdale and Apedale Paleoniscus is rare, while the Brown Mine teems as it were with Platysomi. Passing to the Kidsgrove district, the Brown Mine becomes the New Mine, and Platysomus gives place to Rhizodopsis, and passing downwards to the Woodhead coal, Celacanthus appears as the characteristic fossil of its bed. The life-zone, as it were, of each of these deposits also varies. In the case of the Deep Mine, it is con- fined to a few inches of black shale immediately overlying the stone, and in no known instance passing into the mineral itself. In the Knowles ironstone shales the same conditions are observable; but the life-zone extends down- wards into the stone, fine specimens of Rhizodus, Colacanthus, Acanthodes, and Megalichthys being of frequent occurrence in the upper division of the bed. The Brown Mine of Silverdale and the New Mine of Kidsgrove present parallel conditions ; but in the Brown Mine of the latter district the shales form only the matrix of its interesting organisms. The beds of ironstone and coal enumerated—the Woodhead and Ash coals, and the Cockshead, Knowles, Deep Mine, Brown, and New Mine ironstones—appear to be the great fish-zones of these fields ; but it may be accepted that the whole of the mineral beds contain the remains of either fish or shells, generally both. These remains, as previously stated, are rare in certain localities ; but no bed has hitherto been found totally unfossiliferous over the whole of its proved area. It is also worthy of note, that in almost all, if not every case, the divisional line between each seam of coal and band of ironstone and their associated shales or bass, consists of a thin film, as it were, of detached scales and teeth of fishes or compressed mollusks, showing in a simple but conclusive manner that whatever may have been the condition under which each bed of coal was formed, it was immediately after its formation covered by water con- taining the ordinary forms of life of that period, and which by its agency were spread over the surface of each coal-bed before becoming charged with the mud now forming its superimposed shales. Frequently the ironstones are immediately overlain by thin beds of coal; and in the case of the New Mine at Kidsgrove, this coal is largely intermixed with fragments of Gyra- canthus, Megalichthys, and other fish-remains ; but this is the only instance in the field in which such fossils have been detected within the body of coal itself; and in this case the coal which forms a parting between two bands of stone is not of the ordinary character of coal-deposits, but evidently the aggregated parts of an older bed brought from another point, and redeposited by aqueous agency. In addition to the Ganoid fishes enumerated, Acanthodes, Acrolepis, Gyrolepis, Pygopterus, Diplopterus, and: Megalichthys are forms more or less familiar to these beds, most being represented by two or more species, which appear here and there at intervals throughout the entire vertical strata. Megalichthys Hibberti is by far the most common form; but hitherto no perfect specimen has been met with. The New Ironstone of Fenton Park, the Gubbin ironstone shale of Shelton, and the Chalky Mine ironstone of NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE COAL-FIELD ORGANIC REMAINS. 47 Silverdale, have yielded fine examples of this fish—in the latter case a frag- ment of a jaw 16 inches in length. With this fish are frequently associated in the New and Knowles ironstones large jaws referred to Rhizodus, and others as yet not satisfactorily determined. The small cycloidal-scaled fish assigned to Rhizodopsis is also of common occurrence, and with it are occasionallyfound large circular scales,with concen- tric and radiating lines of ornamentation. Acanthodes is also of wide range, being more abundant in nodules of the Cockshead ironstone, and in the Knowles and Deep Mine ironstone shales, which also contain Gyrolepis and Pygopterus. Strepsodus, a long somewhat curved tooth with parallel lines, also ranges from the Stinking Coal to the upper beds, but always in detached forms. Amblypterus so far appears to be extremely rare in these fields. The Placoid order of fishes is freely represented, and possesses an equally determinate range with the ganoid forms of the field. Plewracanthus, or the old Diplodus gibbosus, occurs in thousands in the New Ironstone at Fenton Park, making its first appearance in the shales of the Stinking Coal, and ranging upwards to the Red Shag ironstone of the upper beds. The spine described as Pleuracanthus, is frequently found associated with the teeth and dermal covering of the fish,in a manner which confirms the now received opinion of their common origin. Plewracanthus minutus is not so common, but it has a wide and general range, and another species is not unfrequent in the New Ironstone of Fenton Park, but it is rarely found to pass from this horizon. Of the large dorsal spines, Ctenacanthus, the species hybodoides is the most familiar, but it is seldom found out of the New Ironstone, Deep Mine, Knowles and Brown Mine shales. Gyracanthus formosus is of far wider distribution, being found in twelve different beds of the lower and upper thick measures. G. tuberculatus is frequently associated with it, but it is of less vertical range. Orthacanthus cylindricus is also confined to the upper part of the thick coal and the lower part of the ironstone groups, but, like Ctenacanthus and Gyracanthus, the finest specimens are obtained from the New Ironstone of Fenton Park. The fossil known as Onchus is remark- ably persistent in its distribution, being plentiful in the Stinking and Wood- head coal-shales, and in nearly the whole of the coal and ironstone beds of the succeeding measures. A form resembling Leptacanthus, and others with double or single rows of curious hooked teeth, are not unfrequently met with, especially in the New Ironstone, which appears to have been the great life-centre of the singular animals to whom those defensive weapons belonged. The remainder of the Placoid fish consist of the genera Cladodus, Peta- lodus, Ctenodus, Orodus, Ctenoptychius, Archodus, Pecilodus, Helodus, some forms resembling Cochliodus, a small tooth with numerous branching cusps, and others as yet undetermined. Ctenodus appears to be limited to the New, Brown Mine, Knowles, and Black-band ironstones, and is of somewhat rare occurrence. Petalodus is of similar range, and Cladodus extends to the Woodhead coals, and is frequently found in groups on slabs of the Knowles ironstone and Ash-coal shales. Orodus is confined to the Stinking Coal of the lowest measures, and also anotherform of an exceedingly interesting character, of which but two specimens have been detected. Ctenoptychius is represented by three or four species, of which apicalis is the most common, the New Ironstone containing remarkably fine examples. Archodus is a rare form, and appears to be confined to the latter bed. To Helodus no limit can well be given, it being met with in almost all the beds, and in the Knowles is frequently of large size. The tooth resembling Cochliodus is rare, and has - 48 REPORT—1865. not been met with in other beds than the Stinking Coal, and in the stony 8-foot ironstone at Kidsgrove. Pecilodus is a common form in the Cockshead ironstone shales, and has a tolerably wide range from the Stinking Coal upwards. The little tooth with numerous cusps is confined to the New and Deep Mine ironstones, but is frequent in the former bed. In addition to these, there is a fine lancet-shaped tooth rarely found in the Deep Mine, Wood’s Mine, New, Bassey Mine, and Gubbin ironstones, to which at present no name has been assigned. The Mollusca of these fields may be divided into three distinct groups— the Aviculopecten and Goniatite group of the lowest measures, the Spirifer and Discina group of the middle, and the Anthracosia of the entire fields. The Aviculopecten of the lowest measures is represented simply by the species papyraceus, and is confined to two horizons, that of the Stinking Coal about 100 feet above the Millstone-grit, anda Ida grey ironstone siiiaed: the same distance above the Stinking Coal. In the latter bed it is associated with Goniatites, Posidonia, Oxiiictein and Lingula, each of which are invariably found to occupy different and successive levels in the deposits to which they are confined. Immediately upon the coal, which is strongly sulphureous, comes a bed of Aviculopectens, from 6 to 8 inches thick; this is succeeded by a layer of Goniatites of similar thickness; then odin and Orthoceras ; the black shales containing fish, and at the top of all comes Lingula mixed with scales of Paulwoniscus. The Avicwlopecten, Goniatites, Posidonia, and Ortho- ceras bands are generally dovetailed, as it were, into each other, but each contains nevertheless its characteristic features. Lingula is, however, always sharply cut off from them and confined to one definite line on the top of the shales immediately below the bone-bed which separates these fossils from the on-coming Cytheropsis and Anthracosia. The Aviculopecten-bed is of great areal extent, and retains a remarkable degree of uniformity in whatever district it is found, and in more than one important case the existence of certain valuable mineral deposits have been determined by its presence alone. In the Goldsitch-moss basin, 10 miles direct north from Ipstones, it forms one of the coals worked there under the name of the Thin Seam; at Wetley Moor it is represented by the Four-foot coal, at Biddulph by the Biddulph Moor coal, and in each locality it contains its characteristic tranquilly deposited fossils, in equal numbers and corresponding conditions. The other Avieulopecten- -bed is a thin grey laminated ironstone about 100 feet above the Stinking Coal, and hitherto has not been detected beyond the limits of the Churnet valley. Its fossils are in a fine state of preservation, but so far it has not been found to contain other remains than Aviculopecten papyraceus and Posidonia. The base of the lowest measures of the Churnet valley is a clayey marl, which reposes directly upon the upper beds of the Millstone-grit, and varies in thickness from a thin film to 15 feet. This is succeeded by the well- known Hydrate, a most curious and remarkable deposit, varying from an inch to 2 feet 6 inches. The shales in contact with this ore, and the stone itself in certain localities, contain great numbers of Anthracosia acuta—a form of life which takes precedence of all others in the history of the period represented by these rocks. Between this bed and the Stinking Coal the only recognizable fossils are scanty remains of fishes; but here, as before stated, Anthracosia again comes in, and again gives place to the Aviculo- pecten of the laminated ironstone. In the succeeding clay ironstone nodules it is accompanied by other species, but from this point up to the marine bed NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE COAL-FIELD ORGANIC REMAINS. 49 opened up at Hawley’s sinkings, there are no known indications of the intro- duction of other forms of life than those of which this genus is the type. In the Woodhead coal-shales of the Cheadle field, and other basement beds of the lower thick measures at Norton and Bucknall, Anthracomya and An- thracoptera are found in association with Anthracosia, the latter being repre- sented by the species subconstricta, robusta, ovalis, and others ; Anthracomya by Adamsii, and Anthracoptera by two new species, and others. In the Bullhurst coal and its succeeding shales these bivalves frequently occur in immense num- bers, especially in the Cockshead ironstone, the Hard Mine, Little Mine, and the various Banbury coals of the Silverdale and Kidsgrove districts, and in the Bassey Mine, Gutter Mine, Cannel Mine, and Black-band ironstones of the upper thick measures. It is however remarkable that, where they are unusually abundant, fish-remains become scarce and fragmentary ; in fact none of the deposits which retain their original condition afford conclusive evidence of other than the occasional commingling of these vertebrate and invertebrate animals in the waters of the period, and it is only in the aggre- gated bone-beds that their remains are associated in anything like equal proportions. In many cases the bone-beds covering the surface of coal pass into thick irregularly-deposited masses of shells, which by their persistency become valuable guides in mining operations. Not unfrequently, however, they are confined to a definite horizon, the shales above them being destitute of other remains than those of plants matted together and imperfectly preserved. As a rule the coal-beds are of greater extent and of a more uniform character than ironstone deposits. In the upper measures both are usually but slightly divided, and, generally speaking, where the ironstone thickens the coal becomes inferior. The Longton ironstone-beds in many instances die out altogether, or are but obscurely represented in the Silverdale and the more easterly districts, and this is in fact the case with the coal in many eases. The position of the shells varies according to the character of their matrix ; in some instances they appear in situ, smoothly laid out, and rising layer upon layer to the thickness of several feet. In this form they are generally compressed, but in many others, such as the Moss coals, Hard Mine, and Cockshead ironstone-shales, they retain their original shape. Until within the last two or three years there was no published evidence to show that the generally received opinion of the restriction of marine fossils to the lower measures of the British coal-fields was incorrect; but some sinkings at Longton in the spring of 1863 revealed the existence of a series of such remains in the shales of a thin unworked coal called the Bay Coal, situated towards the base of the upper thick measures. These remains consisted of Aviculopecten, Goniatites, Lingula, Orthoceras, Spirifer, Ctenodonta, Macrocheilus, Naticopsis, Nautilus, Lowonema, and Discina. The discovery of Lingula, which at the time was the only form met with, was announced in the Report of your Committee read at the Meeting at New- castle, and the occurrence of the additional forms was also noticed in their Report read at Bath last year. It has, however, been subsequently found that, about eight years ago, Discine were discovered in nodules of the Priors- field ironstone at Fenton Park. From the Bay Coal not being a workable seam, its extension can only be proved by sinkings in other parts of the field, where it will have to be looked for under different names and position, no other section appearing to agree with the one at Longton. The Priors-field ironstone, which lies below the Bay Mine, also yielded at the same sinkings Lingule and Discine, but, 50 REPORT—1865. except in one instance, of the association of the young of Discina with An- thracoptera, none of the other forms were found in direct contact with them. Discine have recently been met with at Kidsgrove in grey ironstone nodules, which would appear to be representatives of the Longton Priors-field bed. The Bay Coal fossils appear to be confined to a thin stratum of shale, containing grey flattish nodules of lean ironstone overlying the coal. The Lingule were never known to pass into the ironstone, but appeared to lie near the top of the shales in association with Discine. Below these come Orthoceras, Spirifer, and the others, and the nodules were generally taken up with Aviculopecten, Spirifer, and Productus. Immediately above these shales came another nodular bed of ironstone and thick shales, and these were the depositories of several species of Anthracosia with Cytheropsis; but here, as in the Stinking Coal, the line of demarcation was in no case passed by either of the forms above or below it. The Priors-field group appears to be equally defined, Anthracoptera and Cytheropsis overlying the Lingule and Discine. This isolation of Zingule from all other than Discine is a somewhat curious fact, but the cases cited are not the only ones which have come under notice. It occurs in the shales of a coal worked on the western flank of Axedge, and referred to the middle beds of the Millstone-grit. In June and July of the present year a bed of greyish shale, lying a few feet above the Gin Mine coal, belonging to the upper part of the lower thick mea- sures, was sunk through on the hill which divides Longton from Adderley Green. These shales far surpass the Bay Mine in the number and variety of their organic contents. They contain Productus, Chonetes, Lingula, Aviculopecten, Ctenodonta, Avinus, Naticopsis, Chemnitzia, Loxonema, Platyschisma, Pleu- rotomaria, Discites, Goniatites, Nautilus, Orthoceras, and others, most of them being represented by two or more species, some of which are new. More than one of these forms are common in the carboniferous rocks of Scotland, and others are found abundantly in the Millstone-grits of Stafford- shire. It is an interesting feature in these deposits that they contain Pro- ductus, Spirifer, and Nautilus, which are absent in the lowest measures of these fields. The occurrence of this bed is important as showing that the two great divisions of the upper and lower thick measures are at widely separated intervals, interlined by deposits which point to the sudden cessa- tion of one order of natural operations, and the introduction of another, which obtained for a comparatively short period and then passed away, to be repeated long after in two distinct but less important forms, but still equally elear and equally conclusive. Whether there are other instances of these isolated marine conditions in the middle measures, or whether they stretch into the upper strata of the coal-field,a careful examination of beds passed through in future sinkings will alone determine. On the extreme western outcrop of the coal strata at Longton a bed of limestone, supposed to be of freshwater origin, overlies the Bassey Mine ironstone at a distance of about 30 feet. Recent sinkings on the Longton Hall estate have revealed a second band of limestone 30 feet below the other, and like it divided into three beds by thin partings of clayey shale. The upper bed has long been known, but in no other instance has the second bed been met with, although there are several pits within the space of 300 yards. Far above this, however, a little below the base of the brick clays of the upper measures, a third, if not a fourth bed of similar limestone has been exposed at distant points, in each of which the fossil contents specifically agree. The lower beds are the more fossiliferous, and include great numbers of Cytheropsis, Microconchus, Anthracosia Phillipsii, with scales and teeth of MARINE FAUNA AND FLORA OF SOUTH DEVON AND CORNWALL. 51 Ceelacanthus, Platysomus, Rhizodopsis, Megalichthys, and Pleuracanthus. Anthracosia Phillipsii is also remarkably abundant in the Bassey Mine and the Gutter Mine ironstones, the latter being composed almost wholly of compressed forms of this shell. The Black-band ironstone of Apedale is also extremely rich in similar species, and contains, in addition, Sanguinolites, with thick masses of Oytheropsis. Anthracosia Phillipsii appear to be the characteristic shell of these upper thick measures, occurring abundantly in the Cannel Mine and other beds worked in different localities, until it dies out in the yalueless coal-seams which interline the arenaceous shales of the upper beds of Hartshill and Neweastle-under-Lyne. It may be stated in conclusion that, in drawing up their Report, your Committee have confined themselves as much as possible to the more strik- ing particulars of the inquiry. The subject is in itself of too voluminous a character for detailed treatment, and a great amount of interesting matter has been necessarily omitted. Much of this, however, will be supplied by carefully prepared lists of the whole of the fossils found in the various measures of the field, which will be arranged in stratigraphical order for future publication. Report of the Committee appointed to explore the Marine Fauna and Flora of the South Coast of Devon and Cornwall.—No. 1. Consist- ing of J. Gwyn Jurrreys, F.R.S., Rev. Tuomas Hincks, JonatHan Covucn, F.L.S., Cuartes Stewart, J. Brooxine Rowsz, F.L.S., and J. Rarrs, F.L.S. Reporter, C. Spence Bare, F.R.S. &c. In presenting the first Report of the results of the Committee formed for the purpose of dredging the southern coast of Devon and Cornwall, we think it undesirable to repeat the full list of animals as recorded in our Dredging Tables. We shall therefore mention only those species that are either new or rare, or exhibit some especial interest from observation of some hitherto unre- corded peculiarity of habit or structure. We cannot communicate the result of our labours without expressing our appreciation of the service that we received from Her Majesty’s Gunnery Ship ‘Cambridge.’ Capt. Ewart, C.B., haying kindly offered any assistance that we might require on the water, we were not slow to ayail ourselves of the ship’s launch and crew for the purpose of dredging, and were on those occasions accompanied by Dr. Forbes of the ‘Cambridge,’ a gentleman known to science for an excellent memoir on the History and Topography of Vancouver’s Island. Piscus. In reporting on the Fish, Mr. Couch says that although our success in this quarter has not been very abundant, still however our labour has not been without some considerable amount of success. Among the ordinary inhabitants of our coast we scarcely expected to have found the Twat shad, so near the bottom, in rather deep water, as to be taken in the trawl; we were also enabled to obtain a knowledge of the ordinary food of the Megrim or scaldfish, P. arnoglossus, of which the examples were numerous: small specimens of Galathew were in their stomach. We were also fortunate enough to obtain a specimen of the Filefish, Balistes capriscus, the second on record as having been taken in England, and offering in some respects a different appearance from the figures given of E2 52 REPORT—1865. it by Willughby and Yarrell; but the particulars of this difference, as well as the way in which it was caught, it would be tedious to give now, and Mr. Couch reserves them for his work on our native fishes that is now pub- lishing. Also an account of another fish which we have obtained within a few days (Aug. 18th), and now report for the first time as a visitor to our coasts. This is the Short-finned Tunny, Thynnus brachyterus of Cuvier; an example of which we procured from Mevagissy, and a second from Polperro ; Mr. Couch has made drawings of both these rare fish. We also obtained from the trawl a specimen of Myliobates aquile, or Eagle Ray. Mot.vsea. Among the Mollusca of more or less interest the following are recorded :— An exceedingly fine specimen of Octopus vulgaris, as well as of Loligo media, Sepia elegans, and S. officinalis. Also the ova of a Sepia, containing the rudimentary shell, apparently differing from those of S. officinalis, but of what species we have not yet been enabled to determine. A beautiful specimen of Jdalia elegans, far more brightly rose-coloured than the figure given by Messrs, Alder and Hancock, from which our specimen also differed in the posterior extremity of the foot, terminating in three in- stead of a single point. We might also mention a specimen of Avicula being taken about half an inch longer than the greatest length ascribed to it by Prof. Edward Forbes. CRUSTACEA. The first species of crab to which we shall allude is that of Acheus cranchii, spoken of by Bell as being rare; two specimens only being re- corded, one from Falmouth, the other from the South of Ireland. Certainly this little crab is by no means uncommon off the coast of South Devon, in depth from six to twenty fathoms. This circumstance enables us to state that the second and third pairs of pereiopoda are not drawn of suffi- cient length in proportion to the two posterior, in both Prof. Bell’s and Dr. Leach’s figures of the species. Among the specimens that we dredged, we took two from six fathoms of water near the Knapbury, that possibly may be a second species. Our atten- tion was first drawn to the circumstance from observing a peculiarity in its habits from that of the known species, which is that it covers itself with weed as we know is done by those of the genus Pisa. In Pisa this is no accidental occurrence, since all the spines are sharp- pointed and curved; and my friend Mr. Whitford has informed me that he has observed specimens in his aquarium which soon after having cast their exuvi, pick up with the claws pieces of weed and place them on the spine. In Acheeus cranchii the spines are straight, a circumstance that gives the animal generally a hairy appearance. In the second form the spines are not visible to unassisted observation, and the legs of the animal look smooth and free from hairs, but a nearer and closer inspection shows that the spines are all hooked as in Pisa. The form of the eye somewhat varies also; but whether these are sufficient to ground a specific distinction of the two ani- mals, we have not quite determined, particularly as we have observed among the mass of straight hairs in A. cranchii a few hooked ones also. Of the interesting genus of soldier-crabs, Pagurus, we have taken six or seven species, viz.— P. bernhardus. P. hyndmanni. P. levis. prideauxii. dillwynii. ulidianus. cuanensis. | MARINE FAUNA AND FLORA OF SOUTH DEVON AND CORNWALL. 53 Of the last species we have some doubt, as Mr, Bell remarks, it is ex- tremely like the young of P. bernhardus, and certainly until we can capture @ specimen bearing ova we are much inclined to believe that it is so. We are glad to be able to record P. dillwyni from the south coast of Devon. It is now about fifteen years since the first and only specimen was taken on the coast’of South Wales. No other naturalist appears to have fallen in with it, and we found it necessary to take an occasional look at the original specimen to assure ourselves that we had not committed a mistake in considering it to be distinct. A few weeks since, seeing a woman shrimping on the sandy beach at Teignmouth, we requested to have a look into her net, and among the com- mon shrimp we saw to our great pleasure numerous specimens of P. dillwynii ; after purchasing her entire stock we hastened to the beach, and with the in- coming tide took numerous specimens which we kept alive for a short time. This, the prettiest of all the pretty genus, has the habit of burrowing in the sand, and it is probably to this circumstance that it has not been met with before ; but, curious enough, we have since taken it with the dredge in about four fathoms of water in Bigberry Bay, and again one specimen in six fathoms as near to Plymouth as the mouth of the river Yealme. An interesting point in the history of this genus we have been enabled to make out relative to the development of the young. The end of April or the beginning of May is the period when the young appear to be most abun- dant. Early in June we were enabled to capture-many specimens of the young animal in various degrees of progressive development, a circumstance that has enabled us to determine that the species Glaucothoé peronii, described by Prof. Milne-Edwards in the Annales des Sc. Nat. for March 1830, is none other than an immature stage of the genus. At this period the little crea- ture swims freely in the ocean, until obliged by increasing age to take refuge in a shell, when he settles down and becomes a hermit crab. Of the genus Palinurus we would desire to point out a curious and in- teresting structural condition of the inferior antenne. In all macrourous decapods the inferior pair of antennz is furnished with a lateral scale, or ar- ticulated process. This is invariably situated at the extremity of the third joint of the peduncle; now in Palinurus this scale or squamiferous process ' 1s incorporated with the walls of the peduncle, the third and fourth joints being fixed together, and the squamiferous process exists in form only as a figure impressed against the sides of the antenne. In the elaborate memoir of Prof. Kinahan on the genus Crangon, we think that he has erroneously figured the common shrimp, or that the common shrimp of the Irish, differs from those of the English, shores. The small and delicate second pair of pereiopoda that Mr. Bell describes as being “ nearly as large as the third,” and figures rather shorter than the first, Dr. Kinahan makes as long again as the first pair. Prof. Kinahan’s figure is also more slender than that of our edible shrimp; neither can we see the desirability or convenience of the generic separation which he has made between those hav- ing the second pair of pereiopoda short from those that have them a little longer. This being only variation in degree, and not structurally important, we consider as being only of specific and not generic value. Among the prawns we are enabled to add a new genus to the British fauna, namely, Caradina of Prof. Milne-Edwards. In making this interest- ing addition, we must remark that it is one of name only, since it is, we be- lieve, the same that Dr. Leach described under the name of Hippolyte va- rians, which has remained so long misinterpreted. We have occasionally 5A REPORT—1865. taken this species when dredging in Plymouth Sound, but never so abun- dantly as of late. We have previously observed the peculiar robust looking second pair of pereiopoda, but it was not until recently we discovered that it had the pecu- liar structural formation peculiar to the genus Caradina, in which the pro- podos articulates with the carpus, not at the centre, but at the infero- anterior angle, and thus appears as a partially dislocated joint. There is a second specimen that appears to me to be specifically distinct from the preceding ; it is more slender, and has the rostrum long and slight. The teeth are two above, the one at the base flanked by a lateral tooth on each side, and one near the apical extremity ; on the under side there is a tooth immediately under the anterior upper tooth, and a second posterior to it: to this species we provisionally give the name of Caradina tenuis. Among the sessile-eyed Crustacea we have added to our local fauna Mono- culodes stimpsoni and Amphithoé albomaculata ; of the latter we took but a single specimen, and remarked the similitude of its colouring to that of half- grown specimens of Amphithoé rubieaudata. Considerable numbers of Tanais have been captured deeply inserted in the crevices of the slate rocks of the coast, a habitat that is also favourable for the residence of Anceus, a genus whose sexes have long been placed in sepa- rate genera. These we have been enabled to work out with great care, a circumstance that enables us to support some of the views of M. Hesse, and unite the two supposed genera as the male and female of one. We have only to add the peculiar circumstance of our having captured Chondrocantha zeia attached parasitically to a specimen of Synapta. ANNELIDA. Among the Annelida, Mr. J. Brooking Rowe remarks that the following have keen made out, but we have many specimens as yet undetermined. Gen. Serpentaria. Gen. Psamathe. S. fusca. Gen. Pontobdella. P. muricata. P. verrucata. Gen. Tomopteris. T. onisciformis. Gen. Aphrodita. A. aculeata. A. hystrix, Gen. Lepidonotus. L. squamatus. Gen. Sigalion. S. boa. Gen. Lunice. KE. sanguinea. Gen, Northia. N. tubicola. N. conchylega ? Gen. Nereis. N. breyimana? N. pelagiea. Gen. Heteronereis. H. longissima ? P. fusca, Gen. Glycera. Twospecies not yet determined. Gen. Cirratulus, C. borealis. C. tentaculatus ? Gen. Chetopteris. C. insignis. Gen. Arenicola A. piscatorum. A. ecaudata. Gen. Terrebella. Three species, which appear to differ from any previously described as British. Gen. Pectinaria, P. belgica. Gen. Sabella. S. penicillus, 8. savignil. Gen. Serpula. 8. vermicularis. MARINE FAUNA AND FLORA OF SOUTH DEVON AND CORNWALL. 55 ALCYONIDIAD®. Among the Alcyonidiade we have taken two species, in addition to gelatinosum, to which we do not find any reference in the first edition of Dr. Johnston’s ‘Natural History of British Zoophytes.’ One of these resembles so much the coral Hschara cornu-cervi, that but for its soft texture and flexibility it might be compared to it. The other resembles a short club, almost an oval mallet, on the top of a slender footstalk. Figures of these have been taken. EcuInoDERMATA. Amongst the Echinodermata may be mentioned Echinus flemingii, Spatan- gus purpureus, Porania pulvillus (Goniaster templetoni of Forbes), and Pal- mipes placenta: these specimens are often brought in by the trawlers, but some- times a maund containing little else than the Palmipes is procured at one time, the others being rather rare. Amongst these and their more common associates we have on three occasions found a specimen of Luidia savignit about eight inches in the greater diameter, and twice asingle ray of what we believe to be Luidia sarsvi. It is seven inches long, more abruptly tapering than in the other species; its upper surface orange, with purplish-brown spots at the base of the spines of the paxille ; in all other respects it answers the description given of the species by the Rey. A. M. Norman in his paper on the genera and species of British Echinodermata published in the ‘ Annals of Natural History.’ This is, we believe, the first notice of a western locality for this interesting animal, which must have been fifteen inches in its greater diameter. On the inner side of the eastern end of the Breakwater, where grey mud has collected, six specimens of Amphiura filiformis, remarkable for its pickaxe-shaped spines, occurred in one haul of the dredge. This species also has not been noticed here before, the Durham and Northumberland coasts being the only English localities yet given. Antedon rosaceus is common in the Sound, where it is found principally on the rocks that project from the mud and rubble of the bottom; of late years they have greatly extended their colonies, owing probably to the injured specimens having been thrown overboard whilst the boat was moving to a different spot. Ophiothrix fragilis (Ophiocoma rosula, Forbes) is common everywhere, its colours being most varied. We only mention it here to point out an important modification of the spines nearest the cirrhi, they being converted into hooks of two or three points, which must greatly assist them in maintaining their hold of the rocks on which they live ; and more especially must these be use- ful in the young star-fish, whose life is for some time spent on sponges, from which it is, indeed, often difficult to remove them without injury. Ophio- coma nigra often occurs mixed with the last species, but is never so numerous. Specimens of AHolothwia nigra are sometimes dredged, and Ocnus brunneus is not uncommon in the Sound. We have also obtained Pen- tacta hyndmanni deeply wedged into the holes made by Sa«icava in the rocks outside the Breakwater. Sipunculus bernhardus, Thalassema neptuni, and one example of Syrinx nudus have also been found here. From Polperro we have received a specimen of Synapia, but was unable to determine its species as the preservative fluid had destroyed its anchors and plates. Some years since one was also obtained in the Sound, but was not, I believe, preserved. Before concluding this Report it may be interesting to briefly describe a curious, and probably unique abnormal growth found on the oral surface of an Echinus sphera. On opening the shell the inner surface of this part ‘appeared as if sand or some foreign substance had got under the perisoma, but on closer examination this was found to be owing to a growth from the 56 REPORT— 1865. shell, principally occurring at the lines of junction of its separate plates. It was in the form of short columns and fungoid masses, on the tops of which the perisoma rested : this outgrowth presented, on microscopical examination, a calcareous network, finer and more loose than the other portions of the shell. The Echinus was not altered in form externally, but it seems pro- bable that such a growth, by uniting the plates composing the shell and so preventing the increase at that part, should ultimately cause some distortion. Interim Report of the Committee on the Resistance of Water to Floating and Immersed Bodies. By W.J.Macquorn Ranxinz,C.E., LL.D., F.R.S., Joan Scorr Russrry, C.H., F.R.S., James R. Napier, Marine Engineer, and Witu1aM Frovps, C.E. 1. The following Interim Report describes the experiments made by the Committee up to the day before the commencement of the present Meeting. Those experiments are still in active progress. 2. The Committee held several meetings in the course of the past winter and spring, and agreed to a programme of experiments of which the follow- ing is a summary. 3. Two models to be made of painted wood, designated respectively as A and B. The models to be ship-shape, and each of them to consist of two equal and similar halves joined together at the middle water- line. Elements of Models. A. B. (bin OME * yee eee te 4-000 feet 4-000 feet TST VERGIEN Gialo o oe. Cre POR eRonC uate 0-571 foot 0:571 foot MEME) ees ss ++ ss wine vas OTL «ss 0:364 ,, Form of Midship Section. Circle. Ellipse. Area of Midship Section .... 0°256 sq. feet .... 0-163 Form of Water-lines of fore-body...... Harmonic curves. Form of Water-lines of after-body ....Trochoids. Stem and stern-post vertical straight lines. Length of fore-body : Length of after-body :: 3:2 .... 3:2 Wire ania ert. tear. Si iwe als olde v6 Ss 1:45 foot.. 1 foot. Model A to be in two parts joined at the circular midship section, so that by turning the after-body through a right angle about a longitudinal axis the water-lines can be converted into buttock-lines, and vice versd. 4, Experiments to be made according to the method formerly put in prac- tice by Mr. Scott Russell, in which the uniformity of the propelling force is maintained by means of a regulating weight hanging from a pulley under which the hauling cord passes ; the model to be guided in a straight course by means of a stretched wire. 5. Those experiments to be made principally at speeds not exceeding the natural speed of the wave corresponding to the length of the model, viz., about two knots per hour; but a few experiments may be made at higher speeds. 6. The experiments to be made on each model under two circumstances, viz., with the model immersed as nearly as may be to the middle water-line, and with the model totally immersed. 7. The programme of experiments having been thus drawn up by the Com- mittee, the superintendence of its execution was undertaken by Mr. Scott Rus- sell, as being the only Member of the Committee resident in or near London. A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 52 8. Full-sized drawings of the models having been prepared in conformity with the programme, the models were made from those drawings. Both drawings are now exhibited, and also model B; model A, being now in use, has not been sent to Birmingham. 9. The actual performance of the experiments was entrusted by Mr. Russell to Mr. J. Quant, Naval Architect, who has performed that duty with great skill and assiduity. 10. Twenty-eight experiments have already been made on model A, upon a run of about 98 feet in length on a lake in Blackheath Park, the use of which for that purpose has been liberally granted by Dr. Joseph Kidd. Further experiments on model A are in active progress ; and when they are finished those upon model B will be begun. 11. The Committce deem it advisable to defer giving a detailed account of those experiments until the whole series shall have been completed, because the separate publication of the portion of that series which has hitherto been made would be but imperfectly useful, and also because, having only yesterday (11th Sept. 1865) received the account of those experiments, they have not had time to give them due consideration. 12. The following general results, however, may be stated :— I. The resistance of model A when immersed so as to be just covered with water, and no more, is more than double of its resistance when half immersed at the same speed. II. When the after-body of model A is turned so as to convert the water- lines into buttock-lines, its resistance is increased, and that whether the model is half immersed or just covered. Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1864-65. By a Committee, consisting of JamMus GuatsHEer, F.R.S., of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, Secretary to the British Meteorological Society, &c. ; Rosert P. Gree, F.G.S., &c.; E. W. Brayrey, F.R.S., Professor of Physical Geography and Meteorology in the London Institution, &c.; and Avexanver S. Herscuet, B.A. Tae Chairman, in presenting the Report, said, The class of phenomena known as Luminous Meteors includes the familiar appearances of shooting- stars and fireballs—in the words of M. Quetelet, “‘a much despised phe- nomenon, long neglected by astronomers,” but which now justly claims their attention, and, as shown by the papers contained in this Report, commands the consideration of those best able to speculate upon cosmical phenomena. The number of meteors observed during the past year has been unusually small, partly owing to the cloudy state of the sky, partly owing to the absence this year of certain acknowledged star-showers, namely, those of January, April, and August. The November shower, although concealed in England by clouds, did not disappoint expectation. It attracted attention, and was observed with considerable interest at Malta, as described in the Report. If the sky is clear, the circumstances are altogether favourable for its reappear- ance in the present year and the next, in the morning of the 13th of No- vember. Its greatest display is expected to visit us in 1866 ; but even in the present year it is advisable to be prepared for its appearance by organizing a competent staff of observers, and furnishing them with the proper means for determining the radiant-point, and the heights and. velocities of the meteors. The British Association in the past year having sanctioned a set of Maps to be . for the use of the Committee, which are now completed and are ‘ f 58 REPORT—1865. presented with this Report, every means will be provided to Members of the Association willing to take part in the observations of this shower, to enable them to record their observations with facility, and to reduce as far as pos- sible the inevitable uncertainty of cloudy nights, which attaches to our in- sular climate in November. A shower of remarkable meteors obseryed on the 18th of October last (of which a map, showing the radiant-point, was exhibited), coincided with a date at which fireballs have made their appearance in more than average numbers. The radiant-point of this shower was perfectly defined in Orion, and illustrates well the manner in which these maps may be employed. A star- shower Jess conspicuous, on the 28th of July last, was observed with a radiant- point equally distinct, close to Fomalhaut, the most southerly star observed on our meridian. These and other accurate observations of star-showers are included in the Report. Continued observation will doubtless reveal other radiant-points, and at the same time will lead to determining more exactly the position and character of those already known. Of large meteors, the greater number described in the Catalogue took place in December last. Two detonating meteors were also observed. The first occurred in England on the 20th of November last, the second in Scotland on the 21st of February. Observations show that on the first of these nights shooting-stars were extremely scarce, so that at Weston-super-Mare and Hawkhurst only one or two meteors could be counted in an hour. This fact, of which the description is contained in the Catalogue, illustrates in a re- markable manner the adventitious character of large meteors. Nevertheless the 20th of November is one among the well-known dates preferred by fire- balls. A third detonating meteor, on the 30th of April, was doubly observed at Manchester and Weston-super-Mare, and its height was well determined. The nearest approach of this meteor to the earth was thirty-seven miles. Startling as are the accounts of detonations heard from such a height, it is yet more surprising that the report from such a distance should be brief and momentary. The sounds caused by meteors yet offer much which, it is hoped, will be explained and illustrated by further observations. Interesting papers appear in the Report, “On the Origin of Meteorites, the series of Physical Processes of which they are the result, and their functions in Nature,” by Professor Brayley ; and “ On the Physical History of Meteorites,” by Mr. Sorby. It appears from a microscopic analysis of their structure by Mr. Sorby, that when aérolites resemble in their appear- ance igneous terrestrial rocks, the evidence of their previous history has been more or less obliterated, while characteristic peculiarities in their structure evince that they could not have originated in the volcanic action of the - moon or any planet. Mr. Brayley infers that they originate in gaseous matter projected from the equator of the sun, and condensed to the solid form in its passage through interplanetary space. A gradual condensation from a vaporous state is said by Mr. Sorby also to represent more nearly than any other the conditions under which they must have been consolidated. In this view of the origin of meteorites (including in the term Meteoric Irons), their source is considered to be unique, and they are traced to the energetic forces whose modes of action are considered in Solar Physics. The bodies thus arising are termed by Mr. Brayley Metcoritic Masses, to di- stinguish them emphatically from all other members of the solar system, as well as from fallen meteorites. In another paper contained in this Report, which is an abstract of a ‘Memoir on Sporadic Shooting-stars,’ Mr, Newton, basing his conclusions upon a certain knowledge of their height, arrives at some interesting results A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 59 regarding the number and distribution of these bodies in space. The average height of the centres of their visible tracks is sixty miles above the earth. Their number in the atmosphere daily is seven and a half millions, and, if not intercepted in their flight, there would be found in the space occupied by the earth at any instant in its orbit, 13,000 of such bodies pursuing different orbits. Of shooting-stars visible in telescopes, Mr. Newton calculates that the number is at least fifty times as great as the number of those visible to the naked eye. Indeed there appears to be no limit to their minuteness or to theirnumbers. Their velocity is greater than the velocity of the earth in its orbit, ard Mr. Newton supposes that they are grouped together according to sore law, probaoly that of rings encompassing the sun, resembling in their inclinations and dimensions the orbits of the comets. Mr. Newton, in con- clusion, supposes that these bodies, which he terms Meteoroids, are not frag- meats of a former world, but rather materials from which new worlds are forming ; the latter view is taken by Mr. Brayley. Meteoroids and meteoritic masses constitute the two classes of bodies which have to be considered in Meteoric Astronomy. It is, however, reasonable to suppose that the same forces which in the phase of greatest concentration of the solar system give rise to “ meteoritic masses,” might in a phase of vastly greater antiquity, and of greater extension of the solar orb, have given rise in a similar manner to the rings of “ meteoroids.” Continued observations directed to the phenomena of shooting-stars will end by remov- ing doubt from this province of astronomy, and throw new light ou certain difficult questions in cosmical philosophy—such, for example, as the existence of organic matter (a kind of peat or humus) in the meteorites of Orgueil. At the request of the Committee, the following Report for the past year has been drawn up by Alexander 8. Herschel :— The Committee have the satisfaction to present in this Report several descriptions of large meteors; of which the details are given in the Cata- logue, and have led in some instances to determining their real heights and velocities. In investigating the path of the detonating meteor of the 30th of April last (Monthly Notices, R.A.S., 1865, June 9), although resting on two observations only, a high degree of accuracy was attainable. The Com- mittee take this opportunity of congratulating Members and other observers on the increasing precision of their observations, by which this satisfactory result could be obtained (Appendix I. 6). A few observations of old date, not previously recorded, are entered in the Catalogue, together with extracts from authentic foreign sources, Obser- vations of several star-showers are included, of which the results are col- lected in Appendix II. Recent additions of meteorites to museums, and remarkable meteors, are described in the third and fourth appendices of the Catalogue. A number of contributions to literature in meteoric astronomy are either noticed or given in full in Appendix V. ; Sky-maps prepared especially for observations of shooting-stars, and par- ticularly of their radiant-points, have been placed for constant use in the hands of observers. Dr. Heis, of Miinster, warmly seconding the appeal of the Committee, has lithographed copies of these charts, by which the meteors observed in the same latitude* at Miinster are conveniently compared with those observed at Greenwich. To his courteous zeal and devoted labours, the Committee are indebted for the heights of shooting-stars observed at Miinster in July and August 1864 and 1865, contained in Appendix VI. _ * The latitude of Greenwich Observatory is 51° 28’ 38”: that of Miinster Observatory is 51° 58’ 10”. The difference is therefore 29’ 32’, or not quite half a degree—about the average error unavoidably committed in copying, and producing a requisite quantity of lithographic impressions of the maps. F2 shire). 60 REPORT—1865. ; A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS Blaneist Position, or Date. | Hour. Gecaion Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and 3 Azimuth. 1784.) h m Feb. 23/11 59 (sid.'Slough (Bucks)..|Diameter 15” or}........ seeveeesccccee|eoes time.) 16”. 1840. July 28\Night ...... H.M.S. ‘Erebus.’)........ sachecer caer Riltsoesiesons'sbacasna| oameceeees sotedeed|siui'sbsmacbang viaceeeae S. lat. 47°, E. long. 97°. 1841. ‘Aug. 9] 8 20 p.m./H.M.S. ‘Erebus.’! Brilliant meteor ...|.coccscssserseeceslecescseenecscerees|eeeees siehintnd iapeveweae (local time.)| E. long. 164° 18’, S. lat. 33° 40’. WDECoNOWearenccresnacs Hawkhurst =Qnd Magee css feereerrrererseresefenes eaeeisaisied «....{Near @ Hydre..... (Kent). 1842. Oct. 5] 9 12 p.m. |[bid ..1...sceceeee-|=JUpiter.cccssssocee[ereeereerereeere|enses wanrgee veee(From 9 Pega across 6 Aquarii 1858. : May 31/11 12 p.m.|[bid ...ceccceeeeeee/d diameter of fulll-seeseeseseeeees } second ..... At the same alt moon. tude as #, an the sameazimut as « Lyre. Aug. 9/11 0 p.m. H.M.S. § Fury.’ Magnificent meteor Blue and serene eeereseee In the N.N.E...... to 10} 1 O am.| Off Jedo (Ja- orange. pan). 1860. . OCH S| ccecceeer myetanl Baffin’s Bay...... Large Be Ait oa 9 BB eats ed bil fees te aasebneael From near Cassi peia, across Urs Minor, and losin itself in the fold of Draco. | 1861. Aug. 6|About 10 |Kidderminster |Large ....cccssssssclecceccesseeveseees About 4 secs../At an altitude 0 pam. (Warwick- about 50°. A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, OF LUMINOUS METEORS. Appearance; Train, if any,) Length of and its Duration. Path. A telescopic meteor with]............... a lunula. EP RE HERETO OEE E EEE e eee H eH eeeeeelseseneneaees fee Senne eee eneeeees Peet eeeeeeeeeee FOOTE e ere se eP OO eee eee eeeeeeeslieesesessene seft a long broad spark- ling train for 5 seconds. Se eeeeeenenee weft a patch of light of its own size at the place for 2 seconds. Surst. Left atrain which)...,...., lasted a minute. sees ‘ollowed by a tail of light|.......... 20° in length. eee Direction ; noting also whether Horizontal, * Perpendicular, or Inclined. eee eee eee rere reer errr ..|Fell in a curve with one luminated the whole district with its light. Miediccnaseses S. to N.; horizontal ... or two bends. a POO Oe rece ree eeeeeternns thease Pomerat eeenee Stationary .|Fell in the N.N.E. ......) Proce eee eee err - alter eeeeee see eneee OOo eee enene 61 Remarks. V—_—_—— “* Meteors in great num- bers were seen darting about in all direc- tions.” Fine starlight night, no In one hour fifteen fall-| ing stars. Flexure not great, but certainly not straight. SP eee ea eeeeeeeererseeeey TOO e eee Ores eeeeeereneeeeeseee Hundreds of meteors| overhead shooting from N.E. to W. Crossing the beams of an aurora. wind, 'H. W. Johnston. Observer. W. Herschel (Journal of Observations). J. C. Ross, ‘Voyage to the Southern Seas.’ Id. J.F.W. Herschel, MS. Id. Id. Sherard Osborne (Japanese Waters). C.F. Hall. Place of : Date Hour Observation. Apparent Size. Colour. 1862.|h m s IVER Seowescacecen ssn Brisbane Observatory (Australia). June23].....0.seeereee UT Lerssatinsncene ss 1863. Oct. 30} 8 to9 p.m.|Hawkhurst = [Small ...eeeeeeessseeleeeeeeeeeeeneeeees (Kent) Pe este UL... nos nile | SMnaMl iesess cexsniclsvasecesdeubetguse Gree SOL LO) (LIC cercesnpavesancltacsontbssececneesavssas|snenercvecetwsaven 2 a.m. QlL1 tol Zp.m.|Ibid ..,....eeseeeeelecceseccaceecereeerscseelecceeasosseeevens 1864. Aug. 3) 7 50 p.m.|Cherbourg Very large, produ-/Yellow ...... (France). cing a_ strong light. 8/10 7 p.m.|London ......... =2nd mag.* ....... Ruddy white 10 9 5 p.m,|Eastbourne Much brighter than}.....+.. sadesesaes (Sussex). Jupiter. 16About 0 40)Altanca (St. (Large fireball ......|... a.m. Gotthard). 29| 9 24 p.m.|Weston - super -)—]st mag.x......... Orange ...... Mare. Sept. 2) 8 16 30 |Greenwich ...... = Ist mag.+.........|Bluish white... p.m. ; : ’ 5/10 21 p.m,|Ibid ............... Greater than 1st)/Bluish white...|....... mag.* 6 8 55 p.m./West Linton [Large oo... BInish. ecteeesae (Scotland). 619 5 p.m.|[bid........0..s00 Liat@e Weac-ecsesaseens|ae eeetenaentcsnead 11) 8 26 p.m.|Hawkhurst —=3rd magix ...s.. WiIKGE Sysuctnes (Kent). 12) 0 41 a.m.|Wolverhampton |=2nd mag.x ...... Bee veee sas oe 14/11 51 p.m.|Weston - super -|=Sirius ............ Bright white Mare. 19/11 40 p.m.) Hawkhurst =3rd mag.* ...... Yellow ...... (Kent). 20) 8 21 p.m.|Ibid ............... =—LGG MALY. .0cce ass Orange........- REPORT—1865. ../% second Duration. alten nent ence eeenaes Very slow mo- tion. seeeee About 3 secs... +..../2 or 3 seconds eeeeee wen eee Aten eee eee eneees 0:8 second ; rapid. A few Piscium. Between E. S.E. ...Centre of the path at o Cephei. ../From & Persei to @ Ursz Majoris. © Began at 25 Lyncis Lacerte. towski). Position, or Altitude and Azimuth. above the SE. horizon. From 3 (7, &) Herculis to € Corone. | Passed through the Lynx Peet w eee eeeeeeeeeeee From 8 Persei to ¢ From direction of ¢ 5 Cygni to « Pegasi. Disappeared near Bootis ; pointof ap- pearance not seen, TnythesN. iscsees p Cygni and From % Herculis to (« Ophiuchi, S Tauri Ponia- and + Appearance ; Train, if any,) Length of Onical figure. Increased]..........+.0+ in size until it burst with a shower of sparks like a rocket. eft a train the length as the path. 5° or a little urst like a shell, illu-|.......s..0.... minating the heavens with a brilliant light. eft a long train of light, which remained visible after the meteor itself had disappeared. RRR Reet ener areseteereneeeese see tetee see F teeter eeeeee see nee Pease eeeeees =———- Hen eceeceessnceeceeteeescescses|O sessebencane 0 train or sparks ......... 4d THOTT e rw ene e nearest eseeenaaeeel sets eeeesessseslene more. eft a white streak for|........ Brag atl tlcRUOANME Ds cat cadcsa-naeeeas several minutes: broad and long, and chan- ging its form and colour to yellow and red. eddish train, 15°in length)...... Bede reneatarsoes Sveneiccissficve Savweateus “ee POR ee scccconttes a .../Perpendicular ....... saead Ree sictaswevesiene sesseeees[O °F eeeeeeses| Nearly perpendicular ... Sete eerereeeeen | seeeereee Direction ; noting also whether Horizontal, .|In one hour no meteor A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. meteor seen; clear sky. seen; clear sky. The meteor (? the train) remained visible one minute. In twilight ...0+..ses0s0. Sky cloudless; the light of the meteor re- sembled _noonday; dazzling. Slow motion eee eeeetees 63 and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer. Inclined. ee UaFaepoccasb Gn’ seashathedeascaaetesssatatecs Shooting-stars frequent|Pugh’s Directory through the night. (1864). Be ciccuecssccecsossese-|.c0 gaceetias castes agaagcuscndsxuameracas ......|Frequent shooting-stars|Id. on the 22nd and 27th. SPE T SAGA Yeicecssvcscecc|sseseoee stetseslscesenseeseeseseoessseseesees(L One hour, one meteor|A. S. Herschel. only ; clear sky. IEERECEM Tiesto ves ccc udi|scesedabeesesee Geadise shenvassucates -++.-./In one hour six meteors ;/Id. clear sky. SMMEERERU Esa scccsesascsccsse]-e° Secontansestlsseets Bert ssencseschts wane: In thirty minutes noj[d. ‘ The Times.’ T. Crumplen. G. F. Chambers. Modena paper. News- W. H. Wood. W. C. Nash. Slow motion ............ Id. Walter Bell. On the same night a number of other me- teors were mostly large. seen, Downwards towards the right 20° from per- pendicular. Almost stationary Seca teen enoes Moonlight .....csssas62 No other shooting-star in 50 minutes. ANE e eee eee eee eee eeeaeene A. S. Herschel. T. M. Simkiss. W. H. Wood. A. S. Herschel. Id. 20 22 22 23 23 23 24 24 10 ll 58 52 59 36 48 49 50 54 55 59 54 20 26 p.m. p-m. p-m. p-m. p-m. p-m., p-m. p-m p-m. p-m. p.m.) p-m. a.m. p-m. p.m. p.m. p-m. p.m. p-m. Place of Observation. Hawkhurst (Kent). eee ane eee hee eenee COO eeteneeneee ‘Mont de Marsan (S. France). Hawkhurst (Kent). eee eee ee eaee seat et eneeeeees REPORT—1865. Apparent Size. =Capella, then= 2nd or 3rd mag.* =2nd mag.* = 2nd mag.x =3rd mag. seeee eee =3rd mag.* =3rd mag. eeeeee =3rd mag.x =3rd mag.x =3rd mag.x =drd mag.x Fireball; large, like a bombshell. =Ist mag.x =3rd mag.* =3drd mag.x ...... shee =3drd mag.* =3rd mag.* ... = @ Lyre, then= 2nd or 3rd mag.x Colour. White, then red. White senteenes ee en eens eeenereee wean eeeee White White ee nee nee Yellow eee emma tenet eee sen eeeeee White, red. Duration. 3 seconds ; very slow. 0°8 second ; rapid. 0°6 second .. 0°7 second ... 1-2 second .. 1:2 second .. 1 second 1 second 1 second 1 second 1-4 second ... 0°5 second ; rapid. Moved rapidly 0°6 second ... 12 second .. 0°5 second ... 94 second ... 0°6 second ... then|3°4 seconds... Position, or Altitude and Azimuth, .|From ctoX Piscium |Centre of path at ..From Q Camelo- From o Persei to 4 (a, n) Aurige. To2(aAndromede, y Pegasi), = off} the way from) | a Triangule. Began at 6 Arietis a Cygni; disap- peared between vy and & Cygni. ---/Disappeared mid-| | pardi to « Urse| | Majoris. From y Urse Mi- noris to $(g, 7) Draconis. way between and e Pegasi. Midway between ¢ and g Pegasi. to 4° beyond #} Cygni. From « Androme- de to 2 Pegasi. .|From 4 (0 Corone, From 2° W. of gCa- | melopardi, half- way to c Lyncis. m Serpentis) to} Draconis. Disappeared at (K_ Cerberi, Cygni). From 4 (2, 4) Urse Minoris to K Ca- melopardi. A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 65 : Direction ; noting also Appearance ; Train, if any,| Length of whether Horizontal : - Sis Duration. | Path. Perpendicular, or. Remarks. Observer. Inclined. Diminished in midway|15° ........./Radiant, 0 Ceti ..seceeeleeescccceee a Rese ASSL ‘A. S. Herschel. to a dull red_ star, drawing a tail of red sparks. ‘ PROPetEAIN OF SPArks .....5...|20° seveosss-|ecessccnssscecnessceeses eh shit intB ion dacsaade scence eeeee dl MONOUUSHATICS -cscscccc.|ssescccencscses [sist oaisieialsinoie Qan.d)oceueOennesvslece cB¥aciwassescécceects snob a Td. ee ee She sconecasee| Winected from) a Drianslt), 22 sss kesccscs csi k BITS gule. o train or sparks ......... as akc or Bec err Cane cr) eaxecers sean disebets |eseceesanaes pdseesaecee venese|ld. No train or sparks ......... ceesssancconces|tteees Peet econ eeeee esse sees es teeseesensesenees Retenstenetcs ‘Id. © train or sparks .........|eccssssssserens|sereteereeeerereeens teereeeeeed aa, Beabeecteoa wevierttl & Jd. © train OY Sparks ...secc.\scsscscsceecee | ttttttteeerereeees sesenear GRR tudae diode sud HG wwe ‘Id. EN.............. 18°...-.s-eesee|Direction from 4 (t, £)|esectss.ssescecsssssseceseee Id. Pegasi. ee ees sencecccecscoee[StAtiONALY secssccescesees [Benidisige axle niseiaia easecseemnen, ‘Id. ‘intermittent HEHE (cess Sil a sinate aicinla'nie|v ieil'iniaejaraicle veisctsisisis wekisc eee Ont Cigcck ¢ COBECCOCL OBOE SRerrEET ee Id. No train or sparks ......... Wes eayccecs Rad tani, (5 Anni ore aso sclteuveeensssseaseses seeneaense Id. SPAMEGERALC 8595s. 000s 0hes| saeveudcescoess N. £0 S. seess seeesseeeees A report equal to‘ La Gironde’ twenty pieces of Newspaper. cannon fired off to- gether, followed the meteor, lasting 10 seconds. During suushine. (See Ap- pendix III.) RMAURSTADICR. 52 5sc10s|sescovevesconeslscossvcsesscsue Sacsns¥eaauesles|racrsdsdessssces sesseseeseeeee A. S. Herschel. / ME MMUCTE ec csc-|> co sctsccenseselccccesesedcdeseuvececcoasvececlicacodses austessaesuarearcatsa lds REEMA ocdstscces Bateadacsiscr |Ovessiecdessicnn Directed from eHerculis,|............sssseeesecceneeees Id. Radiant, 8 Aurige. MINISIEU Ss suldvvescscsccesss. FE OE OHO HOO OE perenne e meee e eee eee eeesteeee weeeeeee Peete eesee Id *eeseevevesseesecereseevensees (12° secsssoee/Directed from J Cypiti..|.sessesssssceceessssssscesecs ‘Id. ing nucleus, drawing... annApooeallso CRG CADCOCLECCOCALELPOD Fee A singular shooting-star Id. a tail of red sparks. 66 Date. 1864. Sept.24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 25 25 Hour. h m 9 42 p.m. 11 13 11 15 ll 26 26 26 27 45 30 50 11 30 7 48 p.m. p.m. p.m. p.m. p-m. p.m. p-m. p-m. p.m. p-m. p.m. Place of Observation. Hawkhurst Wolverhampton Hawkhurst (Kent). see e tee eweeee wee ee ee eeaneeee Toten eee ewe -|Wolverhampton a LDIG)..csese0. dees ee Bete ee ee eeeneee -| Hawkhurst (Kent). Weston - super - Mare. p.m. p.m. Wolverhampton Hawkhurst (Kent). REPORT—1865. Apparent Size. =3rd mag.x =3rd mag.x enews =3rd mag.* =3rd mag.x =I1st mag.x =2nd mag.x =3rd mag.* ee teee =2nd mag.+ =2nd mag.x =3rd mag.* =2nd mag. =2nd mag.* =2nd mag. =3rd mag.« steer Large fireball Pee eee eeeeee 2x Mars =3rd mag.x Colour. Duration. Yellow ...... 0°7 second ... White csccccess 0°7 second .,. Yellow .....s00e 0°3 second ... t PERCE T eee e eee eneeeeeeeeeetone De dectdescoies Directed from 3 (0, 6) shoes Oe eestor eeeeee eee eeee A. Cygni. | «».|A. S. Herschel. Id. Communicated by W.H.Wood. Communicated S. Herschel. 68 Date. 1864. Sept.27 27 27 Hour. hm “02 Si 8 16 8 34 8 44 8 44 8 52 cee | 9 14 9 37 9 50 9 53 9 55 27\10 27 27 27 29 30) Oct. TTAE 11 14 9 15 5,10 46 p-m. p.m, p.m.) p-m., p.m. p-m. p.m p.m. p.m. p-m. p-m. p.m. p.m. p-m. p.m. p-m. a.m. p.m. p-m. Place of Observation. Hawkhurst (Kent). Ubidl Sceateshedese HEDIG) Needeccoeen eee Hawkhurst (Kent). Apparent Size. =5rd mag. a Lyre, then= 2nd or 3rd mag.+* =2nd mag.* =3rd mag.* =3rd magek «see. =3rd mag. .|=3rd mag. .|=2nd mag.x* =2nd mag.x Did) .cesssesnnesens |=3rd mag.* =3rd mag.x =3rd mag.« REPORT—1865. White, red. Yellow = Sirius .........0..[Red,_ white. ante Yellow Yellow S> Mars ..cesesss0e8 Golden yellow|2} seconds Colour. Fine yellow.. then ip paaase 0°6 second .. coves] White ....0000./1°1 second Yellow Yellow, green. at see White ......... Duration. then/4 seconds,,,.../From ¢@ Aquile to 1-6 second ... 15 second ... 0-8 second ... weenee 0°5 second ,.. ./3°8 seconds ... ee: 0°6 second ... 0-8 second 13 second ... .--../0°5 second 1°4 second Sescns 0-6 second SPOR ee eee twee enter eneeee CHEN enodecensrentasven 1-1 second 0-7 second ..,|From y From e Custodis to From 4 ...|Began at « Aquarii From 4 (A Andro- ...[From 6 Cephei te ...|From 3 (S, L) Cas} ---/To d Telescopii, 3) From 4 (9, x) Per- -.-[In the E., altitud ...|From 3 (Ah Urse’ Position, or Altitude and Azimuth, Draconis to c Herculis. 2 (8, «) Ophi-lp + (% «€) Cassio- to z Cephei. i (p, Draconis to (y Draconis, « Cygni). mede, g Lacerta} to e Pegasi). 2 (W Draconis, y Ursze Minoris). melopardi to 7 (Polaris, P Ca- melopardi). of the way from 6 Aurigz. sei to 2 (0, KF Andromedz. 35°. Majoris, \ Dra- conis) to 6 Urse Majoris. A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 69 Direction ; noting also Appearance; Train, ifany,| Length of | whether Horizontal , : and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or i Remarks. Observer. Inclined. MN Re anne le- ous SIPLUS) cemaye teed 13) (ae Se 2 seconds....../About 20°above the| | E.S.E. horizon. } G2 2, TLIC: .cavtesencssee =Ist mag-%......... Green ...Ist mag.x ..... 18)10 58 p.m.|lbid........ soeeeee =3rd mag.x ...... 18/11 2 p.m.|[bid .......00.e060.|=2Nd Magee wes... USWA WO) pimcMWbid csscsvesesnaes =3rd mag.% se... IS|11 14 pm |[ bid sccccccseescees = @ LY sesseeee. 18/11 27 p.m.jIbid............... =2ndmag.* ...... 18/150! spams | [bid <..5..006.cscee =2nd mag.¥ ...... 18/11 52 p.m.|[bid .......s0s0000 = 2nd mag.* ......! 18)11 58 p.m.|Ibid ...........006 INU ATS siawalses costes 19/0. 2 a.m. |[bid .........e0cc0e] = 2nd Mag.x ...00 M5 | O)peae asin. |Ubid "sedeccess Nearly NOMIZOMtal We..2cs|-as-scaccetctersaesescaseneses W. C. Nash. Reece sccceccs[LO° sescoscees Nearly perpendicular ...|......cs0s..cseeeeeee ern Id. MIT ee tase ccapcccocesc|oscascccssencec| | 5... occas seseeeee(At Ramsgate, Mr. R./A. S. Herschel. Cramp reports no me- teors before 115 p.m. on the 20th, although the sky was clear. Slight train ....... Webcdesvsee Dnneedstboeace 1 yA | eee 9b ld Being leader tte ete a W. C. Nash. Ll ee DO Perpendicularly down...|-++-++++++ enecen masssanncee H.T.Humphreys. Slight train ..........00-cc0ee 10° or 12°.. TiGsigt wa nceeCarsastese clones Desc eeette ee met Me W. C. Nash, Tncli veft a train for 1 second)-.-.--.++.+. EE ties. MNO Ie OED «ee vecsssss[As S. Herschel. ssaeta rede seceesceescccscesenses[teteeeteeeeeres] Imperfect view ........./W- H. Wood. 96 REPORT—1865. Place of : : Position, or Date.| Hour. Obséeeutinit Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. pet etsy 1865.| h m Apr. 23! 1 8 a.m.|Weston - super --=2nd mag. ......|Dull yellow .../2 seconds......|From R.A, 270° Mare. N. Decl. 37°, t R. A. 290°, N Decl. 35°. Pole O MATIC LDIC la culedessienenvesweetena trectts Id. ‘ore disappearance. T proceeding two or|3° or 4° ...|Horizontal; W. to E....|Left no train; no report|J. H. Abrahall. ree degrees across heard. e sky it flared up to rice its proper size d burst. ad two maxima of\.............../The path was not The train appeared to| Jos. Baxendell. ightness in its flight, straight, but slightly) consist of a number d a tapering train waved. of much smaller me- ree or four degrees g- teors. 98 REPORT—1865. Position, or Date.| Hour. On dete at Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. | Altitude and — servation. Azimuth. — 1865./h m Apr. 30) 0 45 a.m./Weston - super -/2x Venus ........ Yellow, red,|5 seconds...... From R. A. 0°, Mare. and green. Decl.58°, to R.é 315°, N. Dee 30°, Began pré cisely at B siopeiz; well ol served. 1. First appearance. 2. Appearance after first quarter of its course: ab, expanded diameter ; ¢, om tracted diameter. 3. Appearance near the end of its course: de = 12’, diameter of temporary | white envelope of the nucleus; 7, contracted diameter of the nucleus, green. $ : 4 30} 15 am.lIbid :...csceeecsee: =1st magee sss Yellow sess. 1 second ......|From R.A. 0°, 0) Decl. 58°, to RA } 6°, N. Decl. 56% | From R. A. 206 N. Decl. 51°, t R. A. 30°, N Decl. 42°. .|From direction @ a Urse Majo is disappeared ne: t Urse Majoris. 1/10 30 p.m.|Ibid ...........000 =2nd mag.* ...... Blue, scstesees Lessthan1sec./From the directio) of « Lyre ; dis appeared near | Cephei. } 110 31 p.m.|Ibid .........0. pees] LR PINO Dene sates Bright blue.../0°7 second ...|From v Draconis disappeared ay degrees above Lyre. a4 ..|From 4 y, w Ce phei to fC Cus, 2 todis. 611 5 p.m.|Ibid..... ecccccesce|—= Df ceesesccees ++eee+|Orange red ...|4°5 seconds ...|From T Cepheit 0 point midw tween 23 an Cygni. 30} 1 30 a.m.|[bid .........0.c0ce =3rd mag.x ...... Blite —~sa-00es<| bk SCCOHM ss enee May 1| 9 40 p.m.|Greenwich ...... =Ist mage .,.... Bluish white.../2 second ..... 6; 0 16 a.m./Hawkhurst =2nd mag.x ...... WIE crcberene 0°7 second . (Kent). A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 99 Direction; noting also ppearance; Train, ifany,| Length of | whether Horizontal, and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Inclined. Remarks. Observer. h. igeebe Rear Bireersc|seres eerorcuneyd ire steseceseceeceeseeseeeeeeee| Began as a mere lumi-/W. H. Wood. | nous point. Grew to equal alst mag.* (yel- low with yellow tail), in the first quarter o its course. Equal to Venus at half its flame-like protube- rances behind) ; tail 18° long, and bright yellow. Expanded and contracted alternately four or five times, in the second half of its course, increasing in brightness until it burst with a flash twice as bright as Venus, faintly illumi- nating the country. The train remained 3 seconds; 8 or 10 minutes after disap- pearance, a rumbling noise was heard which lasted 3 seconds. OR POO SOP aar sr eeeraseeeserenn| OOTP OEEE ET OOe) Lee ee cers ses ee SSS SOEs seee ses |seeeseeeees Pee e eee eereneseseee CESS wc ceseeses caer ccscccecess RED ca |e. eee be aie Sl a condelne aaumanesgneswatatee ees BRU Esbeecsens--e. coven 16° cecseeeee Nearly horizontal ......|-- steeeeseeeeeteceecceeecsrees A. S. Herschel. al to a Ist mag.*,........... Palit iebbedccsestecaccssseeressese|L hep, minutes, later) alld: msisting entirely of a report, like that of a ream of red sparks; cannon at some miles nd having a flash, or distance was heard. 100 REPORT—1865. Place of Position, or i : ion. Altitude and Observation. Apparent Size. Colour. Duration ea eh Date. Hour. 1865./h m : May 611 53 p.m.|Greenwich ......\Larger than Istl.......ecccseeeee About 1 sec. ..|From a point b mag.* tween & and oCy ni; flew upwar across A Lyre, ai disappeared 1° 2° beyond the la’ ter star. 8) 0 5 a.m./Hawkhurst =3rd mag.x ......|White ........./0°4 second ... From % Urse M (Kent). noris to 3 Ursj Majoris. 18/11 20 p.m.|Weston - super -|— ...jsmoky blue...|2 seconds....../From R. A. 195 4 eee j ay: ane y N. Decl. 28°, t R. A. 205°, N Decl. 15°. 24/11 20 p.m.|Manchester ....-.|= a Lyre .........|Bluish white.../0°9 second ... vy Oe Cephei ygni. a | a | | 25/0 4 a.m./Weston - super -|—3rd, then = Ist|Pale blue....../1°5 second .,.\From R. A. 262 Mare. mag. S. Decl. 8°, t R. A. 264°, Decl. 4°. 25) 1 40 a.m.\[bid ......... eevee] 3rd mag.x .sse-.[Blue ...46.../0°5 second .../From R. A. 8° N. Decl. 57°, ti R. A. 32°, B Decl. 59°. 25/11 10 p.m./Hawkhurst =3rd mag.x ....../White ...,...../0°S second ... To f, halfway fro (Kent). i Canum Venati corum. 25/11 13 p.m.|Weston - super -|—1st MAZ.% sees Blue — seeseeses 1:5 second .../From R. A. 348° Mare. N. Decl. 60°, t R. As © 0773 Decl. 67°. June 8) 0 8 a.m.jGreenwich ......|—Venus ............/ Yellowish 2 seconds......|From a poin white. near 0 Draconis passed _—acros (8 Cephei an y Cassiopeie, t a point 5° be 20/10 41 p.m.|/Hawkhurst =2nd mag.x% ...... White ........./0°5 second ... Appeared midwa (Kent). between f La 20/10 57 p.m. [bid .,.......e00/=3rd mag.x ....../Yellow ...... 0-7 second .../From f to « Pegasi 20/11 32 p.m.|[bid ........se000e/=2nd mag.x wa... White ........, 1 second ...... From ¢ Delphini halfway to Equulei. A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 101 Direction ; noting also \ppearance; Train,ifany,) Length of | whether Horizontal 3 " and its Duration. : Path. Perpendicular, or ; Remarks. Obsetvers Inclined. | ee —— — a a fe eet ek eesasecsss.s MICE CCOOEEY CELLO Ser COPEL CES CELLEL DEERE PEPPERS. mea tasee-cea re W. C. Nash. |. PERCE conc eSSBOLEEOd CRRRRE Sinecenslessontnans eeancosececautiten ../[n thirty minutes onelA. S. Herschel. meteor. eft a smoky streak 4° in}...... AA ae ees «als Meee tet Sed ae sadgianes tacancace tehicee W. H. Wood. length. ightly defined disk.|.........05. +++ Directed from Tarandus| Radiant, Ny ..........00e0 R. P. Greg. Left a momentary train. tetecessesseessessereeesensee|AZ—=4° — |Rose vertically from|The last 8° of the path/W. H. Wood. ry =15! Radiant Q,, Q.. were conyex towards z the west. oer ed A | |ssssecennssscnsnnssnnsnecesses OCOCOCOT COUCAOU ARSC CEA a SCO CAC rere awaeus M,, D Ww, and D G, this Id. H year; occurred in April | and May, rather than PS in May and June. PPAUIOE SPATKS 00000000). sescscsvoeesss|scescecsscersascoveee -ensevnce|sessscsasseceescensens sssseees|Ae S, Herschel, SERERT See a eee HEHEHE OE OH Hele eee eeeeesses eeeccccccces ee eeteeeeee-ee SCOT eee eee eee eereneeeretens W. H. Wood. teeceeeenscerevcessseees| 40°F seeeee Perpendicular ............/A very brilliant meteor..| W. C. Nash. train or sparks ........,!6°........e|Directed from ¢ Cepheil....sssssesssssssseeesesseeees(A. S. Herschel, EMIEED Ny 565 cyh:|cseaseseoneseas|sesrcccvhous ces Neecseapvasiseelantanecarcphedenctaveiee sabsaa|lds maxima of brightness|............066{..00 AL COceOCBEROURED seseesene| oe Madensandsoxeassene cocesoees| LG. its flight. 102 REPORT—1865. Bluse of Position, or Date.| Hour. Ob ti Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and Reryoee Azimuth. 1865.| hm s June20)11 35 p.m./Hawkhurst =3rd mag.x ...... Yellow ...... 0°5 second ...|From c¢ to p Pega (Kent). July 1)11 50 p.m.|Weston - super -|=2nd mag.x ...... Blade) accswes=s 0°5 second ... a= 6 Mare. From 190° + 58° to 193 + 50 2 Oko Dpatemm UDI sesse yas sece. —OrdmMagrk ancess/ SIUC eneceaee 0°5 second .../From 168° + 72 a.m. to 161 + 52) 2) 1 20 a.m.|[bid ...........008. =3rd mag.* ...... Hine caresses l second ...|From 270° + 30° to 245 + 35 9 Night ; WGI iosc secs suisvase Very large ......... Vari-coloured |Several secs.../From a little W. 20 =r N. to some di p-m. tance E. of N. 15/11 35 p.m./Warrington Very large .....-... Pure WILE \ocs|.0+ 5000 snsmrenae es First appeared ne (Lancashire). a Pegasi, pass' very near to Lacerte, abo midway betwee a and 6 Cephe and disappeare at a point n far from 6 Urs Minoris. : 17)11 4 p.m./Weston - super -|=2nd mag.x ....../Blue ...+0+0e- 1-5 second ... — = Mare. From 231° + 12 to 228 + 5. L7|TL 20: pim.'Thid’ ..c..istssesees SSierer candy Blue . cedessnete 0°25 second ...\From 267° — 3 to 267 — 10. 19/10 26 p.m./Greenwich ...... =2nd mag. ...... Blue .....:.--|Lessthan1sec./From a point mi¢ way between Urse Major and « Draconis pursued a pat for 10° or 12) parallel to joining 6 and Urs Majag and directed wards Capella. 19/10 26 40 |Lewisham so[—=20d MAF ..102-|DIUE .deeceene 3 seconds. ...|From@ Ursz Min p-m. ris; disappear near \ Drac PONTO! 30-58 || Bristol gseeccceeee- Very large ....+0++ Pale blue...... Several secs...|From que 8. t p-m. 19/10 32 p.m.'Greenwich ...... ==(Gnnelldvacccssesrs: Brilliant bluish|Lessthan 1 sec.|From a little b white. e Urse Majo to ~ Urse joris. 28/10 30 p.m.|/Hawkhurst =2nd mag.x ...... INVIItE cacescree 0°6 second .../From ¢, halfw (Kent). 3 Draconis. 28/10 39 p.m.|Ibid .......s-sseeee =2nd mag.* ...... White, then|2°5 seconds ...|From 4 (C, F) red. culis to « Co1 28}10 56 p.m. |[bid .........ce000e =Ist mag.« ......|Whiteé ......... 1°4 second .../From » Urse joris tod (3. Canum Ve corum). A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 103 Direction ; noting also whether Horizontal, Perpendicular, or Inclined. ppearance; Train, if any, and its Duration. Remarks. Observer. A. S. Herschel. W. H. Wood. PREGUMIOIOBYIBES) sc500scse| Ist mag.x ...... White: csc .../0°7 second .,./From r Tarandi 2 (p, 7) Cephe ZOO 10: “asmulbid...co2..cc.. =2ndmag.x ...... White:..css.ces 0:5 second .../Close to 3 Draco: 20102 -acmWWid«. oe... = 3rd magt......00. Yellow ...... 15 second ...|/From ~ Cephei te Urs Minoris 29) 0 15 a.m.|[bid ...............J=1st Mag.# ...... White. .cccsss. 0°7 second ,../From Y Dracoy to y Ursx I joris. 291°0) 20° astm: |Tbid........ccseeees =Ist mag.x ...00.| White o2...... 1 second ....../FromoHonorium a Lacerte, 2 as far again. — 29| 0 36 a.m.|Ibid....... seseseee] = OF MAG. saeee. Wellow:svdscvces 0-9 second ... From y to 4 (@, iscium. 29] 0 44 a.m.[Ibid......... veees.| = 2nd mag.* ....,./White ........./1°3 second .../From Honorit to B Cassiopei and half as again. --/To « Urse M 29] 0 52 a.m. |[bid ......c.ececcee/==_SITIUS sevcevecevee| WhHItE ....0000-/0°9 second «.. 0 : halfway from Camelopardi. 29} 0 53 a.m.|[bid .....eceeeeeee| = OFA MAG. vee.4.| White seoseeee./1 SECON .00..- To X Pegasi, $1 the way from Andromede. 2910 10 p.m.|Combe, near {2 the size of Venus/Pale yellow ...|Slow motion.../Appeared in the Woodstock at a moder (Oxon.). altitude, and moved tow: 29/10 45 p.m.)/Hawkhurst =3rd mag.* ....,.| White ........./0°5 second ...\From a to- (Kent), Cygni, and _ far again. 29/10 46 p.m.|Ibid....... Seen = 2nd mag.x ..,...| White .........|0°5 second .../First appeared a Custodis. 2911 © p.mnlibidestscesssesseee =2nd mag.x ......| White ......... 0°8 second ...\From 8 Cephei | a Draconis. — 29/11 12 p.m.|[bid .,..0.......004/= 2nd mag.* ...... Yellow ......|1°5 second ...|From 4 (« € ni, z« Cephei + (B, y) Minoris. cig 14 p.m.|Ibid ............e0/=3rd mage ......| White .......0. 0°6 second ,,. Disappeared Pegasi. 29/11 16 p.m.|[bid .........+.045] = 2nd mag.* ......|White ..,.......0°7 second ,,./From « Androm dz, halfway to egasi. A CATALOGUE Of OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 105 Direction ; noting also ° ypearance; Train, ifany,| Length of | whether Horizontal, ~ and its Duration. Path. Perpendicular, or Inclined. Remarks. Observer. C—_—_—_— i sappeared with a flash/7° or 8° ...|From asouthern Radiant!...+.+..ssesccssveccecussceees A. 8. Herschel. about one degree in length, at which place a rain remained 4 secs, train or sparks ....... pei2Oeembenvesc| nected: trom! Komal... .csfccessseeesccareasceeullid haut. BREDAIT OF SPALKS .....ccce}ecccseceeee ris|ssaseeeestes naciews creas Woh uyteieeedec ge twepiierer Fe ti ado Id. dulating, throwing off|23° ........./Directed from Fomal-|Undulating motion in Id, dery sparks in the last haut. the last half of its aalf of its course. course. SEMIPESEMECOUIAINE cs scncaNisenss|Seoasssdeced cocassvaosueedeced|voostqanaceensebecosie cacti ld: apon the whole course + seconds train or sparks ..... sreofNO path. ...[Stationary ...csssseccooss|osssens sidspedesasdtecdesscavasl Gs train or sparks ....,..../26° ......... Dirécted | from omal|...<¢.--cce+s».s0eesceeeeee sels haut. REESE ESES- Geol ccssevetccsaes|-oovesseseetonscccascsseacces {eee te eeeeeeeees secesesceveeel I. EE ee ee Belvesseneascesceualnes ssgagentsucevark chignenocks [d. train or sparks .........].......seeeee+-(| Directed fromasouthern!.....e.ece00e Rocco. Sacco donseee! | ( be . Radiant. train or sparks .........|21° .........|Directed from Fomial-|.ccccosssscccsoscescececeee ve (Id. haut. a streak upon the See neereeeeeees teeeeeneesessevccseserssenenss tttereessscsseseesssesessvegee| Le vhole path for 3 secs. 5 SUMMORTEDARICS 5....,00.|o0ccseseevscseclocesssccssssccsescceeccsseses{Zit 2" 30™ forty-three|Id. meteors: one observer ; t clear sky; no moon. tained a uniform|Long path...|Almost horizontal, in-|A second at 10" 20™,|J. H. Abrahall. rightness. Drew a clining downwards. | equally bright; de- vain of sparks, scended vertically. A third appeared at the same hour on the fol- ; lowing night. RE er eee or mera BAe ee socesceccsrscccessceoe(As Se Lerschel. a streak for 2 seconds/4°.............|Directed from x Persei..|sssssssesercesseseeecssseeees Id. a@ streak for 2 seconds SOOO oe er ereeel see PEO EOOr demas seetesrssesenes | FOOHOHHeeeeasaesy Terre rere rere Td. drain or Sparks ........./30° .........{Directed from Fomala|.s.ccsessesessesssececeeseees Id. haut. ain or sparks ......... 4°...se00e0ee-(Directed from 6 Cygui..|....- teeeeeeees seseeeeeevevere Td, Eero er ve Rae See NS EE, cv ceva ctl coatavs deta acdtevet el JEG, 106 Date. 1865. July 29 29 29) 29 29 29 30 30 Aug. 3 _ hm 11 38 11 39 11 50 52 55 56 25 46 56 11 25 Hour. S p-m. p.m. p-m. p.m. p.m. p-m. p.m. Place of Observation. Hawkhurst Mare. p.m. p-m. p-m. a.m. am. a.m. a.m. a.m. a.m. a.m. am, 30 p.m. p.m. Hawkhurst (Kent). DIG Sa censyswrtaeo St. Helier’s (Jersey). Weston - super -|/=Sirius . Mare. eee eeeeeeeseree See we ev ereenees eee teteeeeneeee Weston - super - eee renew eenee eee ee cece eteeee ....|=2nd mag.x REPORT—1865. Apparent Size. =2nd mag.* =Ist mag.x =dsrd mag.* =3rd mag.* ...++.| White =3rd mag.x =dsrd mag.x =drd mag.* =dsrd mag.x =2nd mag.x =2nd mag.x =3rd mag.* =I1st mag.« =3rd mag.x =drd mag.x* ener eeee seer seee tee eee ee eeet eres Colour. WHAGE) scdeewnce 1°9 second ... White eeeeeeeee wen eeeeee WIGE sdeavecs White White .........|0°8 second Bright yellow |0°5 second . set eeetes teens Pee eeererees eeenenees eet eeeaee Position, or Duration. Altitude and Azimuth. 0°6 second ...|From K, halfway p Camelopardi From 6 Androme| to 2 (@ Andi medz, 7 Pega ..|From 3 to y Ly and as far age 0°8 second 0°8 second . 0°7 second .../To « Cephei, % the way from Cassiopeiz. 0°9 second ...|From « Cassiopé to vu Persei. ...|Erom 8 Cephei Draconis. = b= From 150° + 44 to 163 +38 To 4 (« Dracon Z Ursee Majori = of the Ww from L Came pardi. N _|From ¢ Cyg halfway to Lacerte. | To o Urs Major 4 of the way fre L Camelopardi .../To « Honorium of the way fr a Andromed e. To 7, halfway fre 3 Urse Minor and 4° furth r From 4 (A, u) B norium to mL certe. | ...|From @ to d P 0°5 second ... 0°8 second . 0:5 second ... 0°8 second 0°6 second ... 0°7 second ... gasi. ! .|0°5 second .../From w to 4 (%, Andromede. — 0-9 second .../From « to # Aj rige. : 1 second ...... From 5 Cassiope to m Custodis. 1 second ...... From g to 4 (4 | Draconis. | From 3} (A, «) H 1-1 second ... a norium to 0 Ca siopeiz. {| A few seconds,|Dropped vertical) very brief. to the S.E. li E. horizon, ro) altitude “; || : 2= 35 From 233° + 38 : to 234; ae A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. and its Duration. train or sparks ...... alk 13 second » 2 streak for 1 second i ain or sparks ’ like a cricket-bali. jopearance ; Train, if any, train or sparks ........ astreak on the whole f its course for 2 secs.. ain or sparks ......... grain or sparks .........|, PPP Cece eee eee eee re ee 107 Direction; noting also Length of | whether Horizontal, Path. Perpendicular, or phat ehemne Inclined. gots PabUE seven [yn ea piedN deeavs's sudspeseds Li eeeuedsuesscneasaedsbdideesad/As Ss Hersvhel hha CGipasts5. ANA ives cvtcanece Slbtentl concen easiest tieote Id. BuaubgugGiwal Alccclec Jeans antisacnduea NeavabsaaniebcuavovudeCoae da . Ld. Reet ege | seas svcto nse. Seneesescek stones caavaei ae aulosooct ceanacetanayiee amy ak ade Mlavawsasedveceseli.csccccvct sconces sedaueeecae|Raedshoeddseees spate eancecadd ae Bee [ssavevatcasssal icc seseseceseeseeesesess.(L2 One hour sixteen me-|Id. teors: one observer; clear sky ; no moon. Pek crea ls Lecceccccsseedenca[rsscngou te aetaees eee teeta Wicd, Wied: heer Cee Se Cer ee | Cea Ort Laem ema ...../A. S. Herschel. Peer OT eee bier oe aaa SWesdbsesorsgsressessctyeosads| LO. aie beans aos HOGOCCG Mee 2 eee ieee des cdvbstsiddiacgarcewides.de/LG. sen eeesereescesceececnceees SIGE Id. SOPH R eee eae eee eee eee EES EEe eee Ee EESeeeneseeeees BeatseseBainesns|ivasaast act aes seeecscesess sss \ ses Sognshioreevateve seavendeoe [ECs SacCeED- ddSemaeep ces Gastasucscereids|dervctsductscceteowsrncssodes Id. Rigg ev egies aR apes sebanaeedeanensbsceel |v eect Ssaawebearmsageoss sodmos (LCs SOCDEG0 JoREES RACBEOE rap Bereee soa satiietaal Messer bass veces tes wevcdewase(Lde neues. sttteeeescslscseeeesceuseeereeeereeeseeees(Ln One hour twenty-four|Id. meteors : one observer ;) clear sky ; no moon. 3 Deiat oiealtweptaiwtthsasssscccexaiaues df Seen by several persons|Communicated at St. Helier’s. W. H. Wood. steeeeseeeeeeees-|Bright moonlight byA.S.Herschel. aoe REPORT—1865. Place of Date.| Tour. Obeereaton. Apparent S 1865.|h m s Aug. 5) 9 35 p.m. St.Malo(France)|=2nd mag.* 8) 8 55 p.m.'Dax (S. France)|=3rd mag. SMO MAO MINGIC sco.secesrecses =3rd mag.+ 8) 9 40 p.m.|Ibid .........000.../—= 2nd mag.* 8] 9 46 p.m.|[bid ..........00<0 =2nd mag.* SiO Amped act coeceaecerel = OP. vaceeess 8) 9 57 p.m.|Ibid ..........0..../=2nd mag.x 810 20 p.m.|Weston - super -|>1st mag. Mare. 8/10 42 p.m.|Ibid ........000 ++ />L1st mag. 9)11 37 p.m./Greenwich ...... =2nd mag.* 10; 0 to 1 a.m./Surbiton 11} 9 41 15 p.m. 11 9 48 + p-m. 11; 9 48 10 p-m. 11) 9 51 45 p.m. OOOO O eee lice teen ee eetens oe Greenwich ......|=4th mag.x Ibid ...............;=3rd mag.x Royal Observa-|=3rd mag.* tory, Green- wich. MDW teeceseie. says =4th mag.x ize. wees ee eeee err! White ........./0°7 second .../From y to B € siopeia. reek Blue .,.......{0°5 second ... “= 3" From 138° +5 to 151 +4 oersea| LUCY rxgcnsessee O°5 SECON ,,.|+eerereeeeeeeeneeees saat Bluish white...|} second ..,...|Across_ Draco” wards « Lyre SG RRHEDME ovduna ..2 second ...,../From the diree of « Béotis a point N. o Bootis. svees|Reddish\ s,s Less than 1 |From a_ point Colour. Duration. White ......... 0°8 second ... White ceccssce. 0°7 second ... Wihitesive-cs- 9°9 second . Wihite: sctdbecce 0°7 second ... WLC “sce ceese's 0°7 second ... Blue and red..!1°5 second ... Bluish white...|4 second ...,../From a point second. .|Bluish white.../Lessthan}sec.|Between y and ../From Q Cephe' Position, or Altitude and Azimuth, © From ec Draconi a Herculis. From yp to Lyre. n Draconis. From ¢ Urs } of y Bootis t point Bootis. way betweer and 0 Bootis’ wW Bootis. | Draconis. | A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 109 Direction ; noting also earance; Train, ifany,) Length of | whether Horizontal, . d p Bt its erations Path. Perpendiedinr! ‘ay Remarks. Observer. Inclined. OS) a a Be ee ee caakeebacealee. dens savauaeceds aeiventecsue as S. Herschel. train or sparks .....0...|..0..008 siaesnes eseweduscsehesmeessonssdasna'sc|baseltecveasacerepateiadeees arn ‘Td. MEME a oan acn|sqcase2cocees..|scecuctsaacesessasczsscanescce | yess souldaiasysaseus sivean--+-|Bluish white...|1 second ...... Royal Observa-|=I1st mag.x tory, Green- wich. seeeeseeeens ....-.{Bluish white...|1 second =Ist mag.*... of 1 Sb MAGE. sy acne Bluish white... Sdikevedecsetre =2nd mag.x ......|Bluish white.../3 Spon =I1st mag.x ....../Bluish white.../1 second ... Weston - super -|=2nd mag.* ....../Blue ......+«.|0°S second ... Mare. : Royal Observa-|=2nd mag.x Bluish white...|1 second tory, Green- wich. Weston - super -|>Ist mag.*......... Yellow ......... 1 second ...... Mare. =4th mag.x ......|Bluish white...|Lessthan1sec./From the vicin Bluish white.../Rapid motion..|Fell through Eq PC errs More than 1/From the direct In N.N.W., altity .eeeee(In W., from a po lsecond ......|From the zen From ...[From a point From a position Position, or Altitude and Azimuth. — a= o From 175° + 5f to 191 + 4¥ of o Cygni, @ appeared nea Cygni. leus towards rizon. of BB Pegi passed acr Delphinus an Aquilz to a Do 5° beyond { latter star. 60°, directed © wards W. ¥ 4 10° below a passed across Ophiuchi. in the viein of n Dracor to a point 1 W. of » U Majoris. the tion of Berenices, (¢ appeared neal Bootis. below 7» Ur Majoris towal Arcturus. | o— D From 37° + 5f to 23 + 6 W. of 12 Cam Venaticorum wards the — horizon ;_ disi peared at @ tude 10°+. — a oF From 162° + dt) to 170 4 A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. pla Gt Direction ; noting also ance; Train, if any,, Length of | whether Horizontal, F and its Duration: Path. Perpendicular, or Remarks. Observer. Inclined. D EFAIN OF SPATKS ......00+]...cevceessecee|scorersessceneeeees ts birest The nights of the 9th|W. H. Wood. and 10th were over- cast. UMEMEUTEE ME cacusss-cccve|L 2” ccccccccclacccccssceccsccccascccovecncos|ecascees Repro: ePaper -ee.|W. C. Nash. RUUAEe caveceassosssse. 10° ......40e/Perpendicular .....seeseee|ssersteeetsteseecteeeees ehh IRE 1 26615 Oa seevese|asecsdalclssonesencedbsbiviees A very brilliant meteor..|Id. train or SPArks ......s0s|eceeeeenves ren eee sdibebdacsedcascecuccuc |*aaes> Saadaananvevasaeesasdues| WelklasWVOOG. ETAL. «2. seeeeseeeec sence aepee cre seers AS BENE 8 NG open 2) Peo re seeecessecees seseeee/Ernest Jones. CETAIN...0..seeeeseseeeeres|.sseeeeeeeeeeee|Almost perpendicularly| Very brilliant ............/W. C. Nash. down. MEY ic cuscns:|-< a Lyre. -+-|White ... =Srd Magee ...00 «|White. ....000. = 4th mag.+; then se eeee Yellow weetee Orange, then red. Lessthanlsee.\{n the 0-5 second ... .|L*4 second Position, or Altitude and Azimuth. Duration. 2 seconds......|Disappeared near ¢ Lyre. 1 second ....../From y Bootis toy wards y Serpentis|) l second .,..../From direction 0j) t Urs Minoris: passed between | and e Draconis. 3 second ......|Fellperpendicularl) from a point } little to the lef of Arcturus. .|From a point 5)) below y Bootis: disappeared nea e Bootis. Fell almost perpen}: dicularly in W. fron) near y Serpentis. From a_ point little below Draconis to Draconis. 1 second ..... 1 second 1 second ...... N.N.W. altitude 20° | Emerged from — cloud at a poin midway betwee! € and » Ursd Majoris. } To y Cephei, $ 0 the way from Honorium. From y Pegasi to (w, t) Piscium and as far again From 4 (« Cygni, | Draconis) to 4 ( K) Camelopard: 1:3 second ... 10-12 seconds A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 117 Direction; noting also whether Horizontal, Perpendicular, or Inclined. ppearance; Train, if any,) Length of and its Duration. Path. — —__ | ——_. RO Do ceveeeerenerleteeesteeeetenesetens veeeeeees Lyra. p * 20° ...+++...|Nearly horizontal ... FORE e eee e ROE e eee etree et toreane MEtYAIN.....00000. been eeeees PRMPAUEN Ss. c0de0cs<65s o0ece5 5° .eeseeeeeeee/Almost perpendicular... Cc A ee Vasdbeliveesaxts vesess| ECF PENGICULAY scscctaetee WERIPELAMD Gt odeeccesassencee| LO? 2.220503: tte eaeeneceecesuseeesepenenens PAU dclceccecocesoecescecees|D°scccceses...(Almost perpendicular... 01 Oe ivastelhoses adiade ca sreel|eteesiss peetaenescconiedsen acho Ve Ob ees cvcreesscccersseeseeecoelscccces Aree Beene eee t ee eeene teeeee Jo train ..sssccorscccecsceee-[12° seseeeee.(Nearly horizontal; E. | to W. jeteor not seen, The|Length of,Direction from « Dra- | streak remained visible] streak 6°.| conis. }15 seconds. Fusiform, fading from the ends | towards the centre. PO Crain OF Sparks .........|....ceccscovces seeesenseesescesees se eeteeens aft a streak for 1 second).......csc000 0 Maracas san’ Sezai iice jqual to a 4th mag.x in|/50° .........)°° )the first half of its course; gradually in- | creasing, it drew a train of ruddy sparks 3° in ‘length behind it. In Cee e steerer eet eeeettere | the last 10° of its course | it was followed by four or five distinct balls of | light, thus— Remarks. eee eeeee AERO e meee Oe ae eee teen aeeenenes OOO OOOH Oe eee ness et et eseens Orne e ewe ee beet eeseseereseeee Bright meteor . . . ..|Three or four bright me- teors seen together. Shooting-stars by no meansplentiful. Afew bright meteors were also seen on the 13th. Very cloudy; no stars discernible. The meteor lighted up the landscape with a bright flash. seeee eee ener ereneesesees SOON M eee rer eeeneraseereeeeree The meteor and the fragments gradually disappeared. The duration of the flight was from 10 to 12 seconds, well counted immediately after the disappearance of the meteor, Observer. Ernest Jones. Id. Arthur Harding. Id. Ernest Jones. W. C. Nash. .|Ernest Jones. J. HW. Abrahall. W. C. Nash. A. S. Herschel. Id. Id. Id. 118 Date. 1863. |h m Aug.17/11 51 p.m./Argeles (Hautes 19] 8 40 13/595 a0 21) 9 12 p-m. 22) 8 55 p-m. 22) 8 59 24) 8 27 25) 8 58 pm. 25| 9 34 25| 9 35 p-m. 25| 9 41 25/10 43 p.m. 2610 6 26) 9 10 26) 9 35 Hour. Place of s Pyrenees). p-m. (Pyrenees). p-m. 18 |Greenwich 30 p-m. p-m. (Sussex). 30 |Greenwich Pang ssahccmestbont 30 Ibid ...... p-m.|Ibid ..... 30 - a.m. p-m. p.m. Observation. Lac de Gaube Halton, Hastings eaeeee eaeed ..».|=2nd mag. eee eetaee Apparent Size. = 3rd mag.* =3rd mag.x =2nd mag.¥ ...... — WETS hess, a, auktos =4th mag. =2nd mag.x =4th mag.* ..... REPORT—1865. =3rd mag.% ...... Whites. ters=<- pigeee White Blue Blue = Ist mag.+......... Reddish weeeee EDI escaeancsseen .|=3rd mag.* ...+-.|Bluish white Colour. Duration. ditesavee 0-7 second .../From A to e Cyg: 10°7 second Wascenses 0°5 second } second seeees.|0 SecOndS 4 second ...... fee eeeees nena 3 seconds...... achece Brilliant blue/Very rapid motion. = Ist mag.x......... White’ ..4ys-5.- 1 second ...... «/Very rapid motion. seeisones 1 second ...... % second ...... ooee( SECON ...46 ..-|From ¢ Aquilz ...|First appeared at ..|From the zeni ..-|From a point ne .|From the dire ..|Rapid motion.. Position, or Altitude and Azimuth. ——. % (0 Aquilz, Serpentis). Herculis. to a point on the right of Draconis. wW Pegasi to Trianguli. Fell from a poii in the vicinity ¢ a Persei. dromedz, passe 3° under y Ai dromede, an disappeared F of to 6 Persei. From the directio of W Cassiopei to a point abe e Cassiopeia. Towards horizon path parallel to line connecting and 6B Urse M joris. , From a. point left of » Urs Majoris, in th direction of Bootis. Passed between and « Serpent towards y Booti Passed above of @ Serpentis, From direction ¢ a Cephei, disay peared near Draconis. tion of » Urs Majoris to Bootis. Passed above @ Ay dromedz towal y Andromede. A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 119 Length of ypearance ; Train, if any, Path. and its Duration. Direction ; noting also whether Horizontal, Perpendicular, or Inclined. Remarks. train or sparks ............. Seatseva-ss|sans?ebetiottneaesssanc;aeamiaslie’s Sed soiasesnseee Bamaeiee ss « ) train or sparks ......... Bae ciastecs Scone eons idotecccdesslreveeases sacetosetents savebed train or sparks ......... ORM Us isis to sss... eecees PETRY Wuahbccs soi. ate ght short train ......... UMLIUINE EEGs coc, e0ccss0-|D ccccvccecese \ train Miigeds=ssve> Io eday iyo. cesess|2 co cessenes aaalieninee ae Pay coerce shaesaesne|> ass Pertoee commer ne ae MIT TaT ore ie cor 20s|F 7, ctsdescnsacfIMGLiNGd sgdyeseee icésce+ee|vscsnasdaneasecenecessessoees/ANthur Harding. ‘Directed from #Lyre... Nearly horizontal ... Perpendicular ............ Inclined Me xseescecceecs<- a#Urs.Maj. ok x* BUrs.Maj. Inclined Nearly horizontal, to-|............. wards N. evesee PTA meee eee eeeeee Almost perpendicular.../Slow motion ............ Burst about 1 second before disappearance, throwing off a shower of sparks. OPP e emer etter eee eeere SO eee er eweeeeeeeeeeseneee eee hee eeeed PETTITTE TEST Tee eee eee Tee Peer eee ee tet nenene Observer. — A. S. Herschel. Id, Id. W. C. Nash. Arthur Harding. Id. F. Howlett. Stee eeeeeteesene [Td Arthur Harding. Id. Id. W. C. Nash. 120 REPORT—1865. Position, or | Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Altitude and Azimuth, Place of Observation. i | | 1865.; hm s Aug.26| 9 52 30 |Greenwich ......,=Venus .........+5 |Blue see... 6 seconds...... From « Cassiopeiz p-m. disappeared i the neighbou’ hood of « Pers 26/10 4 p.m.|[bid............+00 = 3rd mag.x .... BUG. - soerenere 4 second ......|From direction ¢ ; 6 Cephei; di appeared near Coronz Boreali 26/10 25 p.m.|Ibid ........e+0006.,=4th mag.x ...... BuWe essences Very rapid j|From the directio motion. of o Urse M noris to a poil above« Draconi 27| 8 15 p.m.|Perigueux (S. |=3rd mag.x ..... White ..0...00. 0°7 second .../To o Honorium, France). of the way fro e Cephei 2719 5 p.m.{[bid ............00 =2nd mag.* ...0. White ......00 0:7 second .../From @ Cassiopeil to 4 (6 Cassi peiz, x Persei). 29) 8 38 p.m./Greenwich ...... = Ist mag.x....ceee WIRE ocean cars| svaesconenlecesaeeny From a point 5f altitude ; 5° righ of Polaris to Majoris and Draconis. APPENDIX. I. MerEors DOUBLY OBSERVED. (1.) Fireball; 1864, August 31st, 10" 31™ P.m, At Exeter, the meteor disappeared at an altitude of 18° in the E.N.E., whilst at Frant in Sussex it appeared to move at an altitude of about 50° in the W., disappearing S.W. From Exeter to Frant, the direct distance is 167 British statute miles, and the distance of the meteor from the earth at disappearance was from forty-five to fifty miles above Chichester, on the coast of Sussex. The character of the data does not permit the investigation to be carried further. (2.) Fireball; 1864, November 11th, 5" 35™ p.m. The meteor was vertical over the west of Auvergne, where it was seen in twilight, and over the valleys of the Lot, Dordogne, and Garonne, in the south of France. It was observed at Hawkhurst, Tunbridge, and West Peckham, near Maidstone, in Kent. The height at disappearance, derived from the English, compared with the French observations, is forty-five miles, between Limoges and Rhodez. The flight, of more than eighty miles, was accompanied by a brilliant streak, which remained visible several minutes in the twilight. This was nearly horizontal, directed from between N.H, and N. Ls A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 121 pearance ; Train, if any, and its Duration. ght train TERIA ene. ase see eeeeee Length of Path. stew eeeeees WL oss errr Direction ; noting also whether Horizontal, Perpendicular, or Inclined. hee eee eee eee ees Teme eee eee eee ee esas eennene- from an opposite another very closely (v. Report, 1862, p- 865. direction. The meteor observed at Manches point of disappearance was 8° above the horizon this point is therefore fixed. The flight was directed from the usual radiant of the 6th to the 13th of December, between Ge the rest of the flight is easily determined. 13 second, directed from R. A. 95°, N. Decl. 30° per second. Began ninety miles above Todmorden peared thirty miles over York. Although a vivid its appearance at Manchester. eee eee eee eee reer res FOO e ee ew eee eee seen ease et eeenels Hee e eee eee e ee eneeeeeesseeeeel, Remarks. Observer. re eee eee ere rs eee eer rere ees Arthur Harding. A. S. Herschel. eee errr rere rrr Id. POO e meee reeset ereseneesee \F. P. Trapaud; Ernest Jones. eee eee ee ree re (3.) Detonating Meteor ; 1864, November 20th, 9" 50™ p.m, Disappeared over the North Sea, not far from off the coast of Lincolnshire. was heard near Uppingham, in Rutlandshire, the distance. The descriptions at Manchester, &c., leave no doubt that the meteor was direc fireball which occurred under similar circumstances of time and 19th of November 1861, was directed from a little E. the mouth of the Humber, A few minutes after the appearance a report like the discharge of cannons in Mobberly, Weston-super-Mare, ted from N.E. The detonating place, on the of S., or very nearly In other respects the two meteors resemble one 79). (4.) Fireball; 1864, December 9th, 3" 45™ a.m. ter disappeared N.E. At Hawkhurst, the , N.N.W. The situation of mint and Awriga, and thus Path seventy-five miles in Velocity fifty-eight miles » in Lancashire. Disap- meteor, no report succeeded K 122 REPORT—1865. (5.) Detonating Meteor; 1865, February 21st, 9° 25™ p.m, Over Perthshire, in the neighbourhood of Perth and Stirling. In Fife- shire, a concussion like prolonged thunder was heard in the N. The light reflected from the snow had a very imposing effect. The track of the meteor was from between N. and N.E., with no great inclination towards the earth. (6.) Detonating Meteor; 1865, April 30th, 0" 45™ a.m. Observed at Manchester, and Weston-super-Mare, in Somersetshire (vide R. A. 8. Monthly Notices, 1865, June 9th). Path seventy-five miles in two and a half, to five seconds, directed from azimuth 161° W. from §., altitude 12°, near the star Capella. Velocity twenty miles persecond. Began fifty-two miles above Lichfield (N. lat. 52°43', W. long. 1° 52'). Disappeared thirty-seven miles above Oxford (N. lat. 51° 44’, W. long. 1° 16’). The disappearance took place with a flash, at a distance of eighty-six miles from Weston-super-Mare, where eight or ten minutes afterwards a rumbling report was heard, which lasted a few seconds. Sound, with its ordinary velocity of 1090 feet per second, would take seven minutes to travel the same distance. This meteor belongs to the few whose real tracks are found to lie from the W. to the E. side of the meridian. II. Merroric SHowers AND THEIR RADIANTS. (1.) (R. A. 8. Monthly Notices, 1864, Dec. 9.) The radiants T and AG, (of the list contained in the last Report) were conspicuous on the night of the 27th of September 1864. The first, evidently an early appearance of F (No. 49 in the same list), remained in force until the 6th of October, producing swift white meteors, almost entirely dissolving into streaks. A third radiant, O (No. 48 of the same list), was for the first time observed during the occurrence of a considerable shower of ruddy meteors, on the night of the 18th of October 1864. The meteors of this shower are swift and leave voluminous streaks. (2.) November Star-shower. The sky was generally cloudy in England on the morning of the 13th of November 1864. The following extract from a letter addressed to the Secretary, Mr. Herschel, proves that the shower was observed at Malta on the morning of the 13th of November, and that no trace of it remained on the morning of the 14th :— 8.8. Ellora, off Malta, 1864, November 14. ‘There was a grand display of meteors from midnight to 4" a.m., all through the watch, the night before last. The watch, an old ‘salt,’ and an intelligent man, said that it was the grandest shower he had ever seen, and that the whole watch had been look- ing at them with delight. There were no very striking ones, and none burst. Last night [Sunday night] I watched till 11" 30™ myself, and told the watch to wake me up if any were seen, and at all events at 5 o’clock. He did, so, but reported that not one single one had been visible. The sky was clear enough, but bright moonlight. I looked out a little while, but not a single shot. The watch told me in the morning that there had not been a single one visible till daylight.” (3.) (R. A. 8. Monthly Notices, 1865, March 10.) Two fireballs, on the 9th and 13th of December 1864, were shown to be conformable to G, the general radiant of smaller meteors, which reaches its A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 123 maximum about this period. The radiant coincided, as in the previous year, with a point between 7 and § Geminorum. (4.) Star-showers of April, July, and August. The numbers of meteors recorded on the nights of the Ist-2nd of January, 19th—20th of April, and 10th—11th of August, in the year 1865, were not greater than ordinary. The return of these well-known star-showers was either altogether wanting, especially in January, or very inconsiderable, as in April and August. On the 11th, 12th, 13th, and 14th of August, a few meteors were observed. Several large meteors appeared on the night of the 25th of April 1865. The same was also noticed by Sir John Herschel on the 25th of April 1843 (Proceedings, Brit. Met. Soc. Jan. 1865 ; p. 314). During a considerable shower of meteors on the 28th of July 1865, a radiant of novel and interesting character was observed at Hawkhurst. The new radiant was situated-close to Fomalhaut, and belongs properly to the southern hemisphere. The letter H, omitted by Dr. Heis from his nomen- clature of radiant-points, is chosen to designate the shower. Epoch of the shower; 1865, July 28-9. Position; R. A. 338°, 8. Decl. 28°. The following extract from Sir James C. Ross’s ‘ Voyage to the Southern Seas’ (vol. i. p. 98), may be noticed in connexion with this shower. “ H. M.S. Erebus, 8. lat. 47°, E. long. 97°, 1840, July 28th to 29th. The gale continued all night with a heavy cross sea; there was much lightning to the eastward; meteors im great numbers were seen darting about in all directions, and the whole aspect of the sky proclaimed a convulsion or dis- turbance of the atmosphere of an unusual character.” The position of Fomalhaut above the horizon, at the time and place of this observation, on board the ‘ Erebus’ was 17° from the zenith. Only one such meteor was observed at Hawkhurst on the night of the 29th. (5.) General Radiant-points of shooting-stars (Proceedings, Brit. Met. Soc. 1865, Jan., vol. 11. p. 302). A list of fifty-six General Radiant-points of shooting-stars, which appeared in the last Report, was founded upon a series of charts prepared by Mr. Greg. The accompanying reduced engravings of meteor tracks contained in three of these charts, illustrate four of the most interesting general radiant-points of shooting-stars occurring in January, February, and March. (Pp. 124, 125.) The radiant A G, (fig. 1.), near Aldebaran (No. 3 in the list), embraces the period from Dec. 21 to Feb. 4. A remarkable display of it was first noticed by Mr. Herschel, and by other observers, on the night of the 24th of December 1861. (Report 1862, pp. 40, 80.) M, (fig. 2) represents a radiant between Leo Minor and the head of Leo (No. 7 in the list), enduring from February 4th to 26th, and having a tendency to a maximum on the 13—15th of the month. It was first noticed by Mr. Greg, Mr. Herschel, and Mr. Wood, in February 1863. In other showers no tendency to a maximum can be perceived. The radiants M,, M, are of this kind (Nos. 14, 15 in the list), and form a double or twin radiant (fig. 3), advancing, with the time, across the principal stars of Ursa Major, from March 8rd to 31st. The same radiant afterwards advances as far as the last star in the Tail of Ursa Major, presenting an interesting and well-established instance of the same meteoric shower enduring (from March 3rd to June 2nd) a period of thirteen weeks, and haying a radiant advancing throughout the interval in a right line. K2 124 REPORT—1865. (6.) Shooting-stars observed at Minster, 1864-65. Simultaneous observations by Dr. Heis and his assistants were continued Fig. 1. [| GES CG SSS \ SOSH : es: in § pegr’ aN KLAN WW, \ CHS “ith -S peg from the 27th of July to the 10th of August 1864, and from the 27th of July to the 9th of August 1865, at Miinster, Peckeloh, Gaesdonck, Lippstadt, and eo A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 125 Papenburg. The situations of these places, with the exception of Lippstadt, E. long. (from Greenwich) 33" 20*-9, N. lat. 51° 41', and Papenburg, E. long. (from Greenwich) 29" 31*0, N. lat. 53° 4! 30", are given in the Report for 1863. The comparative observations given in Tables I. and II. (p. 126) were obtained :— No. 4. Length of Path ninety-one miles. No. 5. Length of Path sixty miles. No. 6. At both stations blue: shot upwards; at Miinster from altitude 51° to 71°, at Peckeloh from altitude 45° to 56°. The radiants observed at Miinster in the year 1865 were as follows :— 1865, Apr. 15-29 { N, = a=310°, d= +4819 M@=175° 5a pode fim all 38 meteors. i FE : hae From A came 26 meteors=21 per cent 1865, July 27 to ee » 43 » =3d 5 Aug. 10. ” N ” 5) ” = 4 ” », Uncertainradiants ,, 49 , =40 ,, In all 123 meteors. III. Larner Merzors. (1.) 1864, September 24th, 12" 20™ (noon). Tarbes (S. France). The occurrence is described in the ‘Comptes Rendus’ (for 1864, October 3rd and 10th). The meteor presented the appearance of a ball of fire moving with the rapidity of a flash of lightning, and leaving a cloud of smoke for several minutes. It was seen in broad day as far south as the Balearic Islands, and as far north as Nérac, and Couzon in Creuse. The point of disappearance was nearly over Tarbes, and the flight assigned by M. Le Verrier is forty miles high above the Department of Gers. The following extract of a letter from 126 Ref. FS cme 15. Height in English 69°16=1° miles. Beg. |End. REPORT—1865. Taste I.—Heights of Meteors, 1864, July 27th to August 10th. * Hour, ow First appear- 1 Date, | Minster a zs THe nee, ance. End. 1864. mean 3 Jes time. & se =) 3g i é= a= é= hm s S 6 July 27 | 10 339} M | 2 {With ......... 299 | 427) 299 | +15 Pesta. With’ |. <.caroee 281 33 | 273 16 27 | Reo SG AE WIE) ieactecees 331 5 | 325 48 Bet Me With. pxavasece 307 6 | 276 32 27 ede 22-36") MAYS PWath — cpecasnas 307 21} 298 10 Pe. je With. 23.s5eae0 285 15 | 267 3 28 | 10 21 21 | M | 13 [Red, with ...| *23 60 | 232 10 Pe} 1 | sparks. With) 214 52| 211 23 28 2O' S97 SO Me Bey eee cs 245 62} 2J1 63 itch Be ol UL Peretee 246 55 | 245 56 28 | 10 56 36 | M | 14 |With ......... 357 60 | 346 43 | Re a de or 253 76 | 321 70 30 | 10 41 3/M | Q@ /|Red. Train | 278 38 | 210 55 Pe} % one minute | 267 30 | 321 41 30 | CE Sras MT 2a ae eee 315 15 | 308 6 Fedeas |} A) cdisas 289 29 | 289 7 Aug. 5 OSA UB TM 2 Pie) eee ° 345 85 | 107 85 Pe | 3 wrx 323 | +52] 211 | +67 5 | 10 16 30 | M | 33 seieta NOCp——eet 318 —) Pen ak Pease 5 303°) —'4 | 307 | —11 5 | 10 26 44 | M | 2 atouse 213 | +58 | 199 | +56 Pe. |" See reese 212 43 | 195 43 re id We 3 Ae | a | fr al lt 7 71 32 81 Beal 4th Sense 233 THa|" 240 71 O 1 940 480M tlie) oo saenss 299 14 | 294 8 LE ral Cl A 5 282 15 | 268 15 10 }) 9:47 Or MBG UR Dye os. 333 33 | 316 10 Got iy Wierda 346 25 | 336 18 10 |} 2) 2ae2b wl 2 eee ccesas 300 21 | :292 2 ra (ee Poa 41 | 4:20 |. 49.) 447 Average heights of 14 Meteors:.......::css--.csessenseanchqa-ressvassicdeeeste wiesdvdeb cesves * [2 @=223°.] Taster I1.—Heights of Meteors, 1865, July 27th to August 9th. First appear- ance. End. £= o= ° ° 259 | +33 245 26 353 18 340 27 240 31 225 29 195 57 205 44 155 50 194 44 255 59 234 | +46 Hour, i 3 Ea Ref.| Date, Minster | S |#@ Peain ee No.| 1865. mean = |mS sid time. n S a 3s hm s 1. | July 27 | 10 20 18 | M | 2 (Colour blue. Pe | 2 |Burst. With 2 27 | LOGS e2 Bal Wie ermine a. FEW eh |! ices 3 23 9* 521390) IMO Wied lee tose. od Reds Sublix yi! sessace 4, 28 | 9 57 30| M | 2 |Blue. Long Pe} 3 | path. With 5. | Aug. 9 | 9°30 25 | M | J [With ......... Pil cb 1) Withig AA. 6 9| 9 48 22 | M | % |Blue. Shot up- Pe| 2 | wards. With Average heights of 6 Meteors .........006 eeceeeee es Pee eee errr eee rer er rT eer erry Height in English miles. Beg. |End. 65 | 65 32 | 29 60 | 53 86 | 29 81 | 52 - A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 127 a resident at Pau to a relative in England, describes the character of the meteor :— « Pau, 1864, October 6th. On Saturday, 24th September, the day before I arrived here, M— heard in the house, like many others, a loud report (louder than any cannon). The report was so loud says another, sitting in the English Club, that he thought the windows were smashed in. Another eyewitness here at Pau says he observed a flash of light in a dark cloud, fol- lowed immediately afterwards by a tremendous detonation. The enclosed extract from the newspaper will give you the description of it as experienced at Lembeye, twenty miles distant from this (see Catalogue). The detonation was also heard startlingly loud at Orthez, twenty-four miles from this ; also at Monein, twelve miles from this, and at Mont-de-Marsan. These places are relatively situated thus (see fig.). At Monein they thought the houses were coming down about their ears. I cannot discover that any meteorite fell.” Mont-de-Marsan. O Orthez. i) ee Lembeye. 20 IZ Monein. Pau. (2.) 1864, August 10th, 6" p.w. Island of Milos (Cyclades). A detonating meteor appeared over Milos and the Cyclades thirteen minutes before sunset, in full sunlight, leaving a cloud of smoke for more than a quarter of an hour. The meteor was seen at Athens, and the streak was visible sixteen minutes. The heights at appearance and disappearance are estimated by Dr. Julius Schmidt at twenty-five and twenty-three English miles respectively, over gina and Paros. ‘The direction was from Leo, and the velocity about thirty miles per second. Stones are reported to have fallen upon the island of Polinos, but their meteoric character is not con- firmed. The detonation was heard at Milos, where the train of smoke was visible more than a quarter of an hour. (3.) 1865, February 9th, 6" 50™ p.m. Salem, Carnatic (S. India). The following extract of a letter from an English gentleman residing at Bangalore, situated on the high road from Bombay to Madras, was received by Mr. Herschel from a relative in England, to whom the letter was addressed. “ Bangalore, 1865, February 10th. We have had a splendid meteor. I was walking with H—, and at first I thought it was a blue light. It came perpendicularly down; at first it was bright blue, then purple, and at last deep red. It lit up all the country with just the same glare that a blue light makes. Everything could be seen most distinctly. At Salem*, I read in a newspaper it was accompanied by a noise equal to 100 cannons. You could see the trace of it for nearly five minutes after. The moon was up, and * Salem, in the Carnatic, is eighty miles 8.8.E. from Bangalore. 128 REPORT—1865. the body itself was larger than it. My boy told me it only comes when a king dies, and curiously enough we hear that the Rajah of Mysore has just died.” IV. Mereorrres, Siperires, Srperoxrres. (See also VY. (5) to (8.)) (1.) 1863, December 10th, 3" a.m. Trebizond (Asia Minor). Three days after the meteoric fall of Tourinnes-la-Grosse, and five days after the largest meteor described in the Catalogue of the last Report, a de- tonating meteor of very unusual character passed over Samoronitza, near Trebizond. The meteor descended with a report equal to a hundred cannons, into a wood near Inly (twelve miles from Samaronitza), which it set on fire. A thick fall of snow following, a few fragments, only, of doubtful meteoric character, could be recovered on the 6th of March 1864. The real substance of the meteorite appears to have eluded search, from its pulverulent or otherwise easily destructible nature*. Large meteors on the 3rd, 9th, and 13th of December are described in the present Catalogue. They indicate a return of this aérolitic period, rendered famous by the earlier falls of Benares, Wold Cottage, and Weston, and by the recent fall of Montréjeau, near Tou- louse, on the 9th of December 1858. Incendiary meteors have twice been recorded to have taken place upon the 13th of November. The first instance is described in the ‘ Astronomische Nachrichten’ (vol. viii. p. 107),—a meteor which fell near Prague on the 13th of November 1829, and burned the surface of a field brick-red. The second meteor set fire to a barn at Ain, in France, on the 13th of November 1835. The “phosphorescent lines of light” observed in great numbers in the great November shower of 1833, are perhaps meteors of the. same description, Among the municipal records of the town of Ludlow, in Shropshire, there is preserved, in vellum, a roll of bailiffs from the time of Queen Elizabeth. Under the date 1594, occurs the following passage :— u “‘ A greate barne in Lempster [ Leominster, Hereford] fired by a comett, and burned 15 dayes.” The occurrence must have created considerable sensation at the time, or it would not have been recorded in such a document; and the writer of the record certainly lived at the time, and in the neighbourhood. (2.) Stderites. Two large blocks of iron at Western-port, near Melbourne (Victoria), weighing 5 to 6 and 13 tons respectively, have been examined zn situ by Dr. Neumayer, who supposes them to be of meteoric origin. The larger is now in the British Museum. A third, weighing 14 ton, has been transported to Melbourne from the Dandenog hills, sixty miles east of Melbourne, and some miles to the north of Western-port (Vienna Acad. Sitzungsber., 1861, April 18, and June 6). A portion of metallic iron labelled ‘native iron” in the Museum at Ziirich, has been recognized by Dr. Haidinger as a fragment of the meteoric iron of Steinbach, in Saxony (Vienna Acad. Sitzungsber., 1864, April 28). (3.) Siderolites. (Vienna Acad. Sitzungsber., 1864, May 12.) A large block of mixed meteoric iron and stone (Siderolite), similar to the * Vienna Acad. Sitzungsber., 1864, April 28. A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 129 meteorite of Hainholtz, has been discovered near the Sierra de Chaco (Chili), in the neighbourhood of the celebrated locality of meteoric iron of Atacama (Comptes Rendus, 1864, Mar. 28). A new specimen of meteoric iron, weighing 20 cwt., is described at Toconado, 120 miles north of the former locality of Atacama, where the iron is exhausted. A breccia-like fragment of similar iron and stone, found at Copiapo, 300 miles south of Atacama, has been examined by Dr. Haidinger. The included minerals contain a larger proportion of nickel than the iron by which they are surrounded. (4.) Aérolites. M. Wohler, who in 1860 analyzed the aérolites of Cold-Bokkeveldt, and Kaba (Vienna Acad. Sitzungsber., 1860, July 5), reports the analysis by M. Cléez, of the meteorites of Orgueil. Besides the usual inorganic constituents, they contain 6 per cent. of a black amorphous organic substance, composed of the organic elements, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, in proportions quite similar to those in which they occur in lignite and peat; in other words, a veritable humus. M. Wohler infers from all the facts that wherever meteo- rites originate, organic matter,—and hence probably, also, organized matter— must have an existence. (5.) Catalogue of the Collection of Meteorites belonging to R. P. Greg, Ksq., Manchester. The meteorites in this Catalogue are described under a new system of ar- rangement, based upon those of Shepard and Rose, and altered so as to bring similar meteorites together by their resemblance to different terrestrial minerals. Great uncertainties still exist in the classifications adopted by Shepard, Rose, and Reichenbach, over which this natural system of arrange- ment in many instances possesses an advantage, Y. Papers BEARING on Merroric AsTRONOMY. (1.) Cold days in February and May. Brandes, at the beginning of the present century, first pointed out the existence of a hesitation in the curve of temperature of the air about the 12th of February. Madler, in 1834, drew attention to a similar depression of temperature about the 12th of May. Erman, in the year 1840, ascribed these cold days of the year to the obscuration of the sun by the passage of meteorites across its disk. At the opposite extremities of their orbits, one ring of these meteorites furnishes us with the meteors of August, another passes us in November. At these latter periods, M. Petit has shown that the temperature of the air undergoes a small but appreciable elevation. In support of Erman’s theory, M. Ch. S. C. Deville cites the mean temperature at Paris of the cold and warm days in question for fifty-seven years from 1806 to 1863 (Comptes Rendus, 1865, Mar. 27). M. Faye remarks upon this mode of accounting for the anomalies in the temperature of the air, that the theory must be received with caution. A slight glance at Mr. Glaisher’s Table, showing the adopted mean temperature of every day in the year, as determined from all the thermometrical observations taken at the Royal Ob- servatory, Greenwich, in fifty years, from 1814 to 1863, is sufficient to show that a great break in the continuity of the temperature-curve, perhaps the most remarkable of any in the year, takes place at the end of November, 130 REPORT—1865. causing a maximum of temperature on the 3rd of December, which cannot be explained by any regular appearance of meteors at that date. M. Le Verrier communicates to the Academy of Paris the observation, at Constantinople, of a black body seen to cross the disk of the sun in forty-six minutes, between 9" and 10" a.a. (local time), on the 8th of May 1865. The observation adds interest to the former paper on the remarkable variations of temperature in the months of spring (Comptes Rendus, 1865, May 29). (2.) Heights, and Numbers of Meteors (Am. Journ. Sci. vol. xxix. p. 193, and Mem. Am. Acad. 1864, Aug. 6). From the table of heights of meteors contained in the Am. Journ, Sci. (vol. Xxxvill. p. 135*), Professor Newton estimates the mean height of the centre of the paths of shooting-stars above the earth to be 95:55 kilometres, or not quite sixty miles (see also ‘Les Mondes,’ vol. v. p. 756). Their distribution at other altitudes above the earth’s surface is plainly indicated by the following Table :— From 19 to 38 miles ( 30 kilom. to 60), Total 114 meteors. ff Bee EH 5 NOU oy 90). fe ee ORDERED bay C08 5 ndaO): Pa oe jo) See. toy Cla sy)» 200) 33 JOC See jy) 94 54 M2), © (150 yy LO: yy SF, Egy A consideration of 1393 meteors (recorded by about forty observers) shows that the whole number of meteors visible at one place is 50-35 times the number visible within 10° of the zenith, and therefore 50°35 times the number of meteors occurring within this cone. If m represents the hourly number, N the total number visible over the whole earth in the same time, it is shown from the law of distribution in altitude, already stated, that N=10,460 x m. Thirty meteors per hour in all the sky, concluded from the careful obser- vations of M. Bouvard (Comptes Rendus, xiii. p. 1029), is not too large for the mean value of m. It may therefore be concluded that the average number of meteors traversing the atmosphere daily, and large enough to be seen with the naked eye on a dark clear night, is more than seven and a half millions. The number of such meteors traversing a space equal to the sphere of the earth (radius R), at any moment, with an average relative velocity (V), is R 116-2 x 7 meteors, omitting the effect of the earth’s attraction. The average length of flight of shooting-stars is 12°-6. The mean distance of the centres from the observer is upwards of ninety miles, the average length of path upwards of twenty-five miles, and the average velocity calcu- lated from a mean duration of 0:45 second, is at least forty-eight miles per second. If, however, the average velocity is only thirty miles per second, it follows from this formula that in each volume of the size of the earth, on the track of its orbit about the sun, there are as many as 13,000 meteoroids, large enough to furnish shooting-stars visible to the naked eye. Of telescopic meteors, it is shown that their numbers are at least forty-fold as great. * Misprinted vol. xxxvi. in Appendix III. of last Report. A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 131 Their average velocity, greater than that of the earth, implies that the meteoroids are not closely grouped about the earth’s orbit. That they are grouped according to some law is, however, altogether probable. Ist. They may form a number of rings, like the August ring, cutting or passing near the earth’s orbit at many points along its track. The sporadic shooting-stars may be outliers of such rings. : 2nd. They may form a disk in or near the plane of the orbits of the lanets. i 3rd. They may be distributed at random like the orbits of the comets. According to the first of these suppositions there should be a succession of --yadiants corresponding to the several rings. Dr. Heis and Mr. R. P. Greg believe that they have detected such a series. Continued observation di- rected to this end will probably decide whether the meteoroids belong entirely or mostly to rings. The meteoroids neither belong exclusively, nor even largely to a disk, or to a lenticular-shaped group about the sun, like that which the zodiacal light is often supposed to indicate. The orbits of their rings are not in general cir- cular, as may be inferred from their great velocity, but resemble more the orbits of the comets. Finally, they cannot be regarded as the fragments of _ former worlds, but may rather be described as the materials from which new worlds are forming. (See pp. 135, 136). (3.) Streaks, Detonations, &e. of Meteors (Vienna Acad. Sitzungsber., 1864, November 10th). From a carefully revised catalogue of 2950 meteors in the northern hemi- sphere, the percentages of detonating, caudate, and aérolitic meteors are sepa- | rately determined by Dr. Julius Schmidt for every month. The percentage of detonating meteors in August is three times less than in March. The | greatest percentage of aérolitic meteors is observed in May, when the per- centage of caudate meteors is the least. On the average of the whole year, different coloured shooting-stats are observed in the following proportions :— White... . 75-8 per cent. Red ....5°7 per cent. Yellow ..15-9 if Green ..2°6 Br : The average durations in seconds, for the different colours, are as follows :— White meteors. ...0°775 sec. Red meteors ....1:905 sec. Yellow meteors ..0-921 ,, Green meteors ..3:127 secs. If the meteor of the 18th of October 1863 is omitted from the thirty- \two green meteors, included in the last average, the average duration of the remaining thirty-one green meteors is 2-584 secs. (4.) Meteorological Observations at the Flagstaff Observatory, Melbourne, Victoria, 1859 to 1862, p. 137. From the mean of 1428 meteors observed in 668 hours, in three years, r. Neumayer concludes the following hourly numbers of meteors at Mel- , in the different months :— January 2-1 April 1-4 July 2-7 October 2:9 February 1-9 May 1:9 August 2:7 November 1-7 March 1:7 June 2:8 September 2:5 December 2°8 132 REPORT—1865. The following hourly numbers were observed at seasons when meteors were most frequent :— Between Jan. 25 and 27 5:0 Between Aug. 31 andSept.4 4:3 » 2 vune 2s,, 10. 4-1 Pr Dec. 11 ,, 4, 13 45 » duly 26-,,.31. 7-5 5 0 2S" 5° uly ae see yy ANE. 1S ee tee It may be noticed that, at Melbourne, meteors at the latter end of July are nearly as abundant as in August. (5.) Inferences and Suggestions in Cosmical and Geological Philosophy. New Theory of the Origin and Formation of Meteorites. By Professor E. W. Brayley, F.R.S. Professor Brayley, a Member of the Committee, communicated to the Royal Society on the 23rd of February last (1865), a paper entitled “ Inferences and Suggestions in Cosmical and Geological Philosophy,” an abstract of which was read on March 23rd, and appears in the ‘ Proceedings’ of the Society, No. 73, vol. xiv. p. 120-129. In this paper a new theory of the origin and formation of meteorites is enunciated. In the introductory section, the author calls attention to the fact that the position, powers, and functions of the Sun, as the physical centre of the solar system, are peculiar, and in fact unique. The ‘“ Primary Induction” from them,—indicating, in his opinion, “the principle of philosophical investiga- tion” which should be applied to the Sun,—is conceived by him to be ‘“‘ That they imply a corresponding uniqueness and peculiarity in its constitution, characterizing also the nature as well as the disposition of the substances of which it essentially consists. But the particular density of the Sun indicates that it actually consists both of ponderable and imponderable matter. The nature of the former as constituting apparently its relatively exterior regions [is] believed to be made known in part by Professor Kirchhoff’s researches in Prismatic Chemistry applied to the Sun, as showing that some of the ele- mentary substances of the Earth exist also in the Sun”*. The author proceeds to state some of his reasons for believing “ that, as a class, the stars are the most ancient objects in the creation, and also (each in its own sphere of action) the origins of the series of physical agencies and processes by which the planets and other classes of heavenly bodies were finally produced and are maintained.” This being admitted, he infers that the original production of ponderable matter takes place in the stars, and in our Sun as one of them—a conception to which he had been led by the pre- ceding and other considerations long before the application of prismatic che- mistry to the Sun. , The energy set free in the condensation within the Sun, of matter in its highest and most elementary character, of course imponderable, which is conceived by the author to be essential to it, into ponderable matter (an ex- pression which is shown not to be a solecism) and eventually into the me- tallic vapours which the observations of Kirchhoff and other spectroscopists have discovered in the Sun and other stars, is inferred to be at once the ex- clusive proximate source of the heat and light and other energies of the Sun, and (in our solar system) the only and universal origin of ponderable matter, the absolute synthesis of which, from its imponderable elements, is thus be- lieved to take place in the Sun. In the second section, the “ Cause and Nature of the Phenomena called the * Syllabus of Lectures on Astronomical Physics, delivered at the London Institution in 1864, here cited from a revised edition, printed for private use. Lecture V. tt ——————— oO eee A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 133 Solar spots” are considered. The energy arising from the transition from im- ponderable into ponderable matter, will in part become, it is here said, the centrifugal or projectile force by which the torrents of matter (finally assum- ing the gaseous form) so produced, are impelled through the denser envelopes of the Sun, causing the spots and the other phenomena of ebullition of which the photosphere is the scene. * The next subjects of discussion are The Origin of Meteorites, Series of Physical Processes of which they are the result, and their Functions in Nature. - The vapours of metallic and other elementary matter evolved or discharged in the ebullition of the photosphere of the Sun, partly remain upon the Sun, consti- tuting its atmospheres*, but are principally ageregated into masses of immense magnitude (terrestrially speaking), of the nature of bubbles. Having undergone a certain amount of condensation, these first become visible to us as those particles the collective brighness of which reveals to us the existence of the zodiacal light, and are, in fact, the matter separated from the Sun’s equator by rotation. These articles, termed by the author meteoritic masses, are projected from the zodiacal Freht by the force to which its variable extension is owing, and are further gradually condensed during their passage through the interplanetary spaces into the liquid and solid state, constituting eventually the nuclei of meteors, which are tinall recipitated upon the Earth (and doubtless upon the other planets) in the form of TEORITES. The sudden outburst of light over a solar spot, witnessed on September 1, 1859, by Mr. Carrington and Mr. Hodgson, the author regards as a fact confirmatory of this view, and as having been the consequence or accompaniment of the produc- tion, and the transfer with immense rapidity from within to without some exterior region of the Sun, of a meteoritic mass, or more probably of an immense congeries of such masses, enabled by its consisting of ponderable matter to manifest the higher temperature and consequent greater effulgence of the interior regions of the luminary, whence it was originally derived. Certain phenomena before recorded by astronomers, but not yet understood, are probably of the same nature. The structural characters of meteorites are those of bodies which have been origi- nally condensed from heterogeneous vapours—the mingled vapours of uncombined elementary substances variable in their nature, and requiring different temperatures for their maintenance in the gaseous form, but all existing originally at a very high temperature ; and their adequate investigation may afford, as an experimentum erucis, an independent confirmation of Kirchhoft’s discovery, and of the truth of the spectrum-analysis of the composition of bodies distant from us in space. They consist, mineralogically, of two groups, meteoric iron and meteoric stones, forming, however, by graduation into each other, as first pointed out by the author many years since, one series of bodiest. The intermediate examples, and indeed most of the stones, are aggregates of earthy matter partly in the crystalline and partly (as Mr. H. C. Sorby has shown f) in the vitreous state, and distinct portions of metallic iron alloyed with other metals. They are, in fact, always heterogeneous gregates, in conformity with the origin here assigned to them. While, as a class, meteorites are perfectly distinct from all terrestrial rocks—the presence of metallic iron as a mineral constituent imparting to them, indeed, a character which is perfectly unique—some of their constituent minerals, and all the elementary substances of which they are composed, are such as are found, but differently asso- ciated, in the Earth’s crust, although there are many other terrestrial elements which have not yet been discovered in them. “Ten, or perhaps more, of the elements of the solar atmosphere,” according to Kirchhoff and Angstrém, “are also those of meteorites—iron, nickel, cobalt, chro- mium, and magnesium being characteristically such. But the non-metallic base * Companion to the Almanac for 1864, p. 46; for 1865, p. 53. t Annals of Philosophy (January 1824), second series, vol. vii. p- 73; Philosophical _ Magazine (December 1841), third series, vol. xix. p. 501. { Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. xiii. p. 333. Article V. (7) of this Appendix. = 134 REPORT—1865. silicon, which, in union with oxygen as silica, is an abundant and equally charac- teristic element of meteorites, is absent in the Sun, according to our present know- ledge, in which also other elements of meteorites, including oxygen itself, are not known to be present”’*. It cannot be doubted, however, that by the further pro- secution of spectrum-analysis, other elements will be discovered in the Sun. It must be remembered also that our knowledge of meteorites is confined to a few only of those which have fallen upon the Earth, and that during a very small space of time, physically speaking, not exceeding a few thousand years, or perhaps even not many centuries; while the synthesis of ponderable matter in the Sun may reason- ably be supposed to vary from time to time as to the particular chemical elements produced. A remarkable and instructive fact, in the actual condition of science on this subject, is that the metal iron is now known to be an abundant and character- istic element of the Sun, of Meteorites, and of the Earth. In harmony with these views on the origin of meteorites is a recorded, but per- haps hitherto unpublished opinion of Sir H. Davy, that they originally consist of the metallic and other combustible bases of the earths and alkalies of which me- teoric stones are principally composed. But whether the oxidation of these bases is effected in the Earth’s atmosphere, as he also suggested, or whether in some cases, though not in all, oxygen is present in the original assemblage of elementary vapours, and combines with certain bases, and with portions of others, as the con- densation proceeds, is a difficult question. The latter theory may be thought to agree better with the entire series of phenomena presented by meteors, and with the constitution of meteorites as a peculiar class of mineral aggregates ; but some facts relating to either branch of the subject tend to support the former. Both may be true to a certain extent. The facts, however, that scarcely any oxidation of the iron meteorites has taken place, and that there are no meteorites which con- sist principally of oxide of iron, while there are some in which metallic iron and earthy matter (oxides) are present in nearly equal proportions, but that even in these no excess of oxide of iron occurs, are opposed to the supposition that meteor- ites have derived any considerable part of their oxygen from the atmosphere ; with which also the existence of sulphide of calcium in certain meteorites is incon- sistent. In what part of space between the zodiacal light and the Earth the final conden- sation takes place is not at present determinable. It would seem that these masses must retain much of their original heat, and therefore to a great extent an aériform or vaporous condition (though one of greater density than that in which they left the Sun, or even the zodiacal light, and mingled with liquid or solid matter as just suggested) in the interplanetary spaces where the ether alone exists, and that their entire conversion into a liquid and finally a solid form may not occur until their arrival in a region of positive cold in the vicinity of the Earth or other planets. Mr. Sorby has lately inferred, from the equable manner in which mineral ingredients eatly differing in specific gravity as well as fusibility are mingled in meteorites, that their formation must have taken place in some physical locality where the force of gravitation is small; “ that they come either from the outside of a very small planet much less than the moon, or else from the interior of a larger planet since broken up”’t. The first inference is in perfect accordance with the theory of meteorites announced in this paper; for it is evident that the force of gravity in the original meteoritic masses must be very small, quite inadequate to interfere with the disposition within them, and among one another, of their proximate elements, however discordant in fusibility or specific gravity. It will follow also that the * Companion to the Almanac for 1865, p. 65. + Letter to the author [dated July 29, 1864. At the Meeting of the British Association in September 1864, Mr. Sorby stated his inference in a somewhat different form, suggesting “that the fusion and cooling” of metallic meteorites (such as the Pallas Iron) ‘‘ might have taken place in the metallic centre of small independent bodies, where the specific gravity was nil, the meteorites being fragments of such bodies entering subsequently within the earth’s attraction, or that each meteorite had been itself a separate small body cooled in space.”’— Quart. Journ. of Science (Oct. 1864) vol. i. p. 747. The last alternative, it will be seen, is exactly the description of a meteoritic mass as contemplated in this paper. The equable diffusion of proximate elements is equally characteristic of meteoric stones]. « A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 135 final condensation of these vaporous masses cannot take place either very near the Sun or very near the Earth. According to observations of the author already published*, the iron meteorites, if not certain single meteoric stones id most probably also the entire nucleus, which in some cases is broken up and falls as a shower of meteorites), have the form (resembling that of the meteors themselves, which is nearly that of a flame) of the solid of least resistance, or of one derived from it, and received in fact from the resistance of a medium they have traversed, but having in general one termi- nation, and sometimes the other also, truncated to a variable extent. This would seem to prove that they must once have been—as individual masses, and not merely as portions of a body of which they originally formed put nor as to their preexisting materials only—in a fluid or mobile condition. These and other sig- nificant circumstances are adduced in the paper as tending to the discrimination of the physical changes by which meteoritic masses are affected prior to their entering the earth's atmosphere, from those which they afterwards undergo within it, and from its action—the conclusion arrived at being that the solid meteorite is finally left, with a slight alteration in figure, and however greatly reduced in volume, in the approximate actual form—that of a bubble elongated by being impelled in a certain direction through a resisting medium—in which, when in a gaseous state, it left the Sun. The phenomena of luminous meteors (shooting- stars and fireballs) more or less examined by physicists from the latter part of the preceding century (the author having himeclf endeavoured to elucidate certain characteristic phenomena of fire- balls by applying to them the results of modern’ scienee+), but which, since the appearance of the persistent meteor-shower in November 1833, have been so assi- duously observed and discussed by meteorologists, especially in relation to the periodicity they exhibit, are shown to be entirely conformable to the views of their origin which are enunciated in this paper. The petrological characters of meteor- ites themselves, as recently investigated by mineralogists{, together with others before noticed by the author§, are also accounted for by these views, though, with respect to the former, in a very different manner from that hitherto accepted. he long-continued study of meteorites and of the phenomena which attend their fall, affected by the consideration of the probable synthesis of ponderable matter in the Sun, and—since the conclusions of Kirchhoff have been announced— the special study of solar physics and chemistry, in connexion with both subjects, appear to the author to justify him in entertaining the hope that he may thus have succeeded—by means partly of a new deductive cosmical hypothesis submitted for verification, and partly by uniting, and in some cases newly interpreting, preceding inductions on particular Pai of their hysical history—in effecting at least the approximate solution of the problem of the origin and formation of meteorites, which has been sought by philosophers from the time of the communication to the Royal Society, now sixty-three years since, of Edward Howard’s paper, demon- strating their peculiar nature and establishing the reality of their fall||. In the succeeding section of the paper, relating to the “ Original Forma- tion of the Planets,” it is remarked that the only known phenomenon in which the process of the formation of the Earth as a planet is actually observed, is * First announced in Lectures on Igneous Meteors and Meteorites given at the Royal Institution in 1839, and at the London Institution in 1841. See English Cyclopzdia, Div. Arts and Sciences, Mzrzors, Icnrovus or Luminovs, vol. v. col. 604. t See “A Sketch of the Progress of Science respecting Igneous Meteors and Meteorites during the year 1823,” read before ‘the Meteorological Society,” May 12, 182+, and pub- lished in the Philosophical Magazine (for October of the latter year), first serics, vol. lxiv. pp- 288-292 ; also, Second Supplement to the Penny Cyclopedia, “‘ Mrrnors, Ianzous or Lyurvous;” and English Cyclopedia, as referred to in the preceding note. _ } Reichenbach, Haidinger, G. Rose, Maskelyne, Sorby, R. P. Greg. _§ Syllabus of Lectures on Igneous Meteors and Meteorites, delivered at the London In- 2 in 1841, as reprinted in Phil. Mag., third series, vol. xix. p. 501, with addition, p. 502. || Read February 25, 1802; published in the ‘Philosophical Transactions’ for that year, part 1. 136 REPORT—1865. that of the fall of Meteorites upon it, by which its magnitude is augmented, and that by the addition of materials homogeneous with those of its existing elementary constitution, being chiefly*those chemical elements which are present in the greatest quantity in the Earth’s crust, and seem to be most essential to its constitution. According to the principle of the adequacy of Existing Causes, therefore, we must conclude that the fall of Meteorites is a continuation or a residue of the process of formation of our planet, and that the Earth was originally produced by the aggregation and coalescence of Meteorites, or of greater masses into which they had previously coalesced. The “ Theory of the Minor Planets” is briefly considered. All the pheno- mena they present are regarded as supporting the conclusion that their pecu- liar relations and community of character are not, as hitherto supposed, effects of their having formerly constituted one heavenly body which has been reduced to fragments, but of their being bodies intrinsically of the same nature, meteoritic masses in fact, in an advanced intermediate state between the condition of meteorites and that of true planets, in process of gradual convergence towards each other, preparatory to their coalescence into one greater planet. (6.) On the Microscopical Structure of Crysrats. By H. C. Sorby, F.RS. &e. (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xiv. pp. 453-500). From the size of the vacuities seen by the aid of the microscope in certain cavities contained in quartz, felspar, and other crystalline minerals, it is pos- sible to calculate the circumstances of heat and pressure under which the crystals were originally consolidated. On heating the crystals gradually, the vacuous spaces gradually diminish and ultimately disappear. Their dimen- sions in the natural state are therefore an exact measure of the contraction of the incarcerated fluids in cooling down from the originally high temperature of consolidation. Great liquid pressures at the time of consolidation tend to diminish, and great temperatures to increase the size of the vacuous spaces contained in the cavities in their ultimate or natural state. These fluid cavities exist by millions in every specimen of ordinary quartz, and cause the opacity of this (and the generality of other crystalline minerals) to the pas- sage of the rays of light. Decrepitating crystals are familiar examples of their occurrence among artificial products, such as those of salt, sulphate of potash, nitre, &c. They are indeed of such universal occurrence in crystals, as to form in mineralogy a microscopical test of crystalline aggregation. By alternate overgrowths and restorations of the Fic. 2 erystalline figure in deposition, minute cavities are ones constantly formed, especially when the deposition a3 a is rapid (fig. 2). In these cavities a portion of the flux, or mother-liquor, becomes incarcerated. The foreign substance by which the deposition is for a moment arrested so as to form the cavity is also frequently caught up and confined within the cavity. The cavities are irregular in size, but generally take their figure from the crystalline figure of the mineral. After being cooled down from the temperature of deposition, the cavities exhibit a variety of solid, fluid, and gaseous con- tents, as well as a vacuity due to the total con- traction of the incarcerated fluid. Various examples of cavities in the erystals A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 137 of minerals are given in the figures at the end of this paper. These consist of, fluid cavities, glass cavities, gas cavities, and stone cavities, according to the different materials by which the cavities were filled in deposition. The coexistence of all of these in the crystalline minerals of igneous rocks, is a certain proof of the combined influence of igneous fusion, aqueous solution and gaseous sublimation in the process of their consolidation. The fluid commonly enclosed in mineral crystals is an aqueous solution of chlorides of potassium and sodium, sulphates of potash, magnesia and lime, and free hydrochloric or sulphuric acid. It forms in some specimens of quartz, fully ene per cent. of the total weight of the mineral. If for various specific reasons a dull red heat (680° F.) is adopted as the ordinary temperature of consolidation of the igneous rocks, lavas, trachytes, and granites, a fluid pressure of 4000 feet of superincumbent rock would exactly equipoise the vapour-tension at this temperature of the saline fluids. if a greater liquid pressure prevailed than this, which would generally be the case, no vacuity could be formed within the cavities, until by cooling and contraction the liquid pressure within them should decrease so far as not to exceed the vapour-tension of the fluid. If p be the excess of pressure at the time of consolidation at a temperature of 680° F., measured in feet of superincumbent rock, v the observed proportion of vacuity to liquid volume in the cavities at 0° C. (32° F.), the equation between these quantities, derived from the best data of the elasticity of water, and of its vapour, in combination with saline substances, is briefly 0-3—v p=369,000 793 ee eee ee ee eae ot Ley If P be the total pressure of superincumbent rock, including the vapour- tension at 680° F. at the time of consolidation, P=4000+ 28,385 (0:3—v). The contraction of the fluids can be observed with considerable accuracy by the aid of the microscope, in cavities that are equiaxial, or else (as in figs. 50, 101) in such as are long and slender, or very thin and flat. The value of v varies in different specimens of quartz from 0:04 to 0-25, and from these the following Table was calculated of depths at which a variety of igneous rocks submitted to the microscope were probably consolidated :— ; Depth in feet. Pomeyee Or Penta Ts.6c > i, 6h) ts. . AOOO Peeemen GWENMAD. es ow», 0 18,100 0 MA aS ae 0S) 7) | rrr rr re 32,400 Mean of Cornish Elyans ...... . . 40,300 More recent veins of Aberdeen Granite cu vety ate OO Mean of Cornish Granites . . . . « » «+ 50,000 Elvan, at Swanpool, near Falmouth . . . . . 53,900 Granite from Ding-Dong Mine, Penzance . . . 63,600 Mean of the Highland Porphyry Dykes . . . . 69,000 Exterior of the main mass of the Aberdeen Granite 69,000 Mean of the Highland Granites . . . . . . 76,000 Centre of the main mass of the Aberdeen Granite 78,000 Mean of all the igneous rocks . . . . 49,692 The greater depths of the Aberdeenshire granites over those of Cornwall (figs. 100, 116), shown in this Table, are conformable to general opinions ies these granites, derived from purely geological considerations. “1865. L 138 REPORT—1865. The mean depth of consolidation of all the igneous or gneissoid rocks of the Table is nearly 50,000 feet, and a rate of increase of 1° in 85 feet, according to the information of Mr. R. Hunt, observed in descending to the bottom of the deepest mines in England, would require a temperature of 680° F. (adopted in calculating this Table) at a depth below the surface of 53,500 feet, very nearly in accordance with the original supposition. The molten lava of Mount Teneriffe can hardly be supposed to have an actual depth less than that of 30,000 feet. The height of the mountain and the depth of the ocean near its western side, indeed, amount together to 28,000 feet, and if the lava have any lateral extension to a moderate distance in the same direction, a few thousand feet of rock must necessarily intervene between its surface and the ocean-bed. The igneous rocks, hitherto examined in the microscope, appear therefore to have been consolidated at depths com- mensurate with those of modern lavas. In other words, granites, trachytes, and gneissoid rocks are unerupted lavas of older volcanoes, consolidated by loss of temperature, and variously protruded to the surface along with the superincumbent strata. Explanations of the Figures. The sign of multiplication indicates the ampli- fying power employed; in linear measure. Fig. 2. (p. 136). A portion of the growing edge of a crystal of chloride of sodium, x 200: showing how the fluid cavities are formed. The shaded part represents the concentrated solution entering into a deep notch formed by the irregular growth of the crystal. The notch may be enclosed by a plane sur- face, or, as shown by the dotted line, by the further growth of the crystal, and cavities like those upon the right or left of the figure will be the result. Fig. 50. A fluid-cavity. eae A fluid-cavity in the nepheline of a block ejected from Vesuvius, x . ; Figs. 81, 82. The cavity, fig. 80, after having been subjected to a more or less bright red-heat. Fig. 86. A gas-cavity in the nepheline of a block ejected from Vesuvius, in a natural state, x 1000. Hig A glass-cayity in the nepheline of a block ejected from Vesuvius, x 5 Fig. 91. The cavity, fig. 90, after having been subjected to a bright red heat. Figs. 100, 101. Fluid-cavities in the quartz of a Trachyte from Ponza ; 100, x 2000; 101, x 800. . A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 139 Fig. 116. A fluid-cavity in the quartz of the main mass of granite at Aberdeen, x 2000. Fig. 117. A stone-cavity in the quartz of the granite at St. Austell, Corn- wall, x 1000. (7.) On the Microscopical Structure of MErEorirEs. By H. C..Sorby, F.R.S., &e. ; (From the Proceedings of the Royal Society, June 16th, 1864.) “For some time past I have endeavoured to apply to the study of meteorites the principles I have made use of in the investigation of terrestrial rocks, as described in my various papers, and especially in that on the microscopical structure of crystals Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1858, vol. xiv. p. 453. See the preceding Article). I therein showed that the presence in crystals of ‘fluid-, glass-, stone-, or gas- cavities’ enables us to determine in a very satisfactory manner under what con- ditions the crystals were formed. There are also other methods of inquiry still requiring much investigation, and a number of experiments must be made which will oceupy much time; yet, not wishing to postpone the publication of certain facts, I purpose now to give a short account of them, to be extended and completed on a subsequent occasion *, “In the first place it is important to remark that the olivine of meteorites contains most excellent ‘glass-cavities,’ similar to those in the olivine of lavas, thus proving that the material was at one time in a state of igneous fusion. The olivine also contains ‘ gas-cavities,’ like those so common in volcanic minerals, thus indicating the presence of some gas or vapour (Aussun, Parnallee), To see these cavities distinctly, a carefully prepared thin section, and a magnify ing power of several hundreds are required. The vitreous substance found in the cayities is also met with outside and amongst the crystals, in such a manner as to show that it is the uncrystalline residue of the material in which they were formed (Mezi-Madaras, Parnallee), It is of a claret or brownish colour, and pos- sesses the characteristic structure and optical properties of artificial glasses. Some isolated portions of meteorites have also a structure very similar to that of stony lavas, where the shape and mutual relations of the crystals to each other prceve that they were formed in situ, on solidification. Possibly some entire meteorites should be considered to possess this peculiarity (Stannern, New Concord), but the evidence is byno means conclusive, and what crystallization has taken place i situ may have been a secondary result; whilst in others the constituent particles have all the characters of broken fragments (L’Aigle). This sometimes gives rise to a structure remarkably like that of consolidated volcanic ashes, so much, indeed, that I have specimens which, at first sight, might readily be mistaken for sections of meteorites. It would therefore appear that, after the material of the meteorites was melted, a considerable portion was broken up into small fragments, subsequently collected together, and more or less consolidated by mechanical and chemical ac- tions, amongst which must be classed a segregation of iron, either in the metallic state or in combination with other substances. Apparently this breaking up oc- curred in some cases when the melted matter had become crystalline, but in others the forms of the particles lead me to conclude that it was broken up into detached globules whilst still melted (Mezé-Madaras, Parnallee). This seems to have been the origin of some of the round grains met with in meteorites; for they occasion- ally still contain a considerable amount of glass, and the crystals which have been formed in it are arranged in groups, radiating from one or more points on the ex- ternal surface, in such a manner as to indicate that they were developed after the fagments had acquired their present spheroidal shape (Aussun, &c.). In this they differ most characteristically Fes the general type of concretionary globules found in terrestrial rocks, in which they radiate from the centre; the only case that I know at all analogous being that of certain oolitie grains in the Kelloways rock at Scarborough, which have undergone a secondary crystallization. These facts are all quite independent of the fused black crust. * «The names given thus (Stannern) indicate what meteorites I more particularly refer to m proof of the various facts previously stated. L2 140 REPORT—1865. “ 56°0 3°6 39°! AGM me leachacen|t-sdsceii|) scoeas lf centse AGOR “|! Sceene 56°0 3°8 40°0 48°0 capNenmflecccesee |" cacless 40°0 40°0 41 39°6 43-2 4°0 39°6 4°3 38°5 48°0 3°9 eu" [EBs hed fiseceesiel Pitecec ae Mesaeron Beesate eee 47°0 40 37°4 3°8 RM asec | vspesqh|aresaty|(erctes || senees seater aages 44°5 33 36°3 43 379 5°0 29°7 80 29°7 4°6 MMR esse | eat csth|lneqeesg.|| esesseclbisevete | usedson? | toecehs 40°0 55 25°6 6°0 DEES seers Levtuscr|istscay | eeccess tl casets 20°0 6:0 23°38 Gamal Neca ceed |vtaseal|| ecaeno lt « in. feet. a * (1) BaAORMOND-MI a] Sustaicss) |) |) \tesn), Ree Ul Liesecas 28°70 3,381 42°0 40°3 (19) Anta O.), shins seer 28°80 1,280 42°1 40°2 (20) Aigls) sors, ne one mee 28°60 1,394 42'0 39°5 Ane 20) sy achOte ee anaes 23°50 1,451 41°5 39°2 (21) AnI7 %O\ eee Bowens 28°35 1,532 Al'2 38°7 ye ¢- oe aacens wsidiae 28°40 1,496 40°5 39°0 4 I9. 0 ,, sasenct® + |) jaterss 28°50 1,424 4I°5 39°5 420 Oy beeen wile eee tT 28°70 1,280 42°0 39°7 1, 2. 3. 4, 5. 6. 7. (1) No dew on either Daniell’s or Regnault’s Hygrometers. (2) A chill to sense; sand thrown out. (3) Heard voices. (4) The setting sun illuminated the topmost part of a dark stratus cloud, witha very deep orange-colour ; not a cloud in the sky above altitude 15°. Put magnets away. (5) A sudden chill again. (6) Sand thrown out. (7) Wind W.N.W.; smoke below moying 8S. (8) Heard a clock strike 4» plainly. (9) Sand thrown out. (10) Saw a railway-train. (11) Heard people calling cut. ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 Anpd 1865. Balloon Ascent, from Woolwich Arsenal, December 1, 1864 (continued), 153 mometers (free). Dry and Wet Therms. (aspirated). Hygrometers. Gridiron [a Bae es Ss Daniell’s, | R ult’s. Ceeneds Difference.|Dew-point. eee Dry. | Wet. Diff. eer noe tbat OF a pgs Dew-point. | Dew-point. | ™O™°'E™ a8 | 184 z pile} iho 7 ; ; 5 370 16°5 3°0 15°3 2°8 18°4 34 1955 3°3 22°9 3°5 22°5 Shtadey |" Ran cce Me sewvels) ft .wahrbie H veccok 21°5 ce 231 33 231 [dew uz, TAL) cisisss cael PROABOCON [SR CROcch a @ricrte ci] ICASr aml Mie See, . I5‘ono 330 50 15'0 50 15°0 4°5 19°2 [dew 39 EMMIS Fanisisigs™ 9 || Sesees, |) ewancie || canoes seeeee 20°0 no 34 213 2°5 PMamM acces |iSescscallrasseas | cocees |) sanece 25°0 2'0 25°0 2°0 29°2 a9 273 20 Con eerste sets eel im ncoms || vsaccerlll cases 28'0 15 30°5 a7 308 19 Reed irevercaealll- eee eos Ml seed J]! sedice tlt asics 30°0 2°0 30°5 201 30°3 24 29°4 2°70 29°8 22 30°0 14 32°7 aru 32°3 16 33°0 1s 34°1 13 35°2 1:2 35°8 ro 367 '7 36°38 19 37°9 2°5 36°4 23 36°3 25 35°5 15 37°71 2'0 37°0 2'3 36°4 a ec Eee ERE ee eee es Se ee ee 8 8. 9. 10ers 1. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. ale (12) A great deal of moisture on the balloon. (13) Nearly south of Gravesend. (14) Heard many voices. (15) Can hear cries of “ come down ;” wooded country. : tia} Cobham Park. (17) Moist to sense. 18) Moisture almost dropping from the balloon. (19) Approaching the Medway. to) Ascending to a higher current to cross the river. 21) We can see Rochester Bridge and Castle. 154 KEPORT—1865. Taste I. a.A—Meteorological Observations made in the Twenty-third = Siphon Barometer. Dry and Wet Ther- oa os ° oa : ; Aneroid Height above 5 = Time. Reving Attached |Barometer,| “sea-level. a i So Therm, o 2. Ty: et. m2 and reduced ) ; to 32° Fahr. in o in feet. ° oO acacoo:. | WE|| bc4scs 28°80 1,208 412 39°7 5 Hacer | eereres 28°82 1,194 41°3 39°7 cpincas awl Seasons 28-90 1,137 410 40°2 eaatae: Pull lpLteae ess 29°12 979 4r'l 40°2 | AS |) SAaRS 29°82 } ground { 45°2 43°0 : Zi2 OPM. |S reawicse Meeestsce 29°86 } { 42°5 39°0 Oy) Vira Geert me RG soca (adie ground oe ee oe A SANS esa |) Pabodee 29°80 80 42°1 38°5 DETAR NO Ges) on uieueiorsnee | Mereawess 29°51 355 41'0 37°72 (3) OMTR PO) y5-) i) Wneueesel ns |tbetececs 29°25 602 40°0 362 ETE ZON Uyy ss || nueewsioce |) IP seein 29°05 782 39°0 36°0 BELOR FON 59) |e uPiecrs:. UMMeen ace 23°95 877 38°2 cp (4) DaTOCZOn Es. © ihc. Waeeseh mele seciese 28°80 1,020 37°72 34°38 2 ETO Esse || oeiieaeeses |peree tees 28°50 1,321 36°2 34°2 DEFT Obese hl waveecs ~ | vessel | [EWecgsps © ae feeeens tee ee DOTS! 1O! Gy Wee ccmece” Alm tesace) | RSedeepeon [EU Iesces< = > [eel Meer ZPLS) 30) Nog Meiisceinwe | +||ersesere 27°80 1,995 34°1 32°9 ii) ones) Mel | osaceem tel codecs 27°60 2,220 33°0 32°0 (5) PrTOMGO se. |f | eetenn) FIP lessees 27°50 2,310 32°5 32°0 (6) SZ LOWAGN opin resusebewe|, — [-enenes 27°45 25355 32°7 31°8 oa, Ufa) oe ye NL Brceog ||) Secoces 27°40 2,410 92°58 31'9 (7) 2 Oey oy Rep 2 2ZPION cs) A mircceces’ UPlimete ase 27°10 2,634. 32°2 31°5 B23: Heyl) || WaMessoess Re sonics 27°05 2,699 31°9 30°5 (8) MENA Cn pie a||E sotced. lh eons 27°05 2,699 31°9 30°8 (9) DeoAe TOWN, Sullmiiiccss ee 2 53 39 » 254 2° » 2 54 39 » SAS CO ieys 2570s» 2 57130 |, (10) 2 58 30 » 259 OS » 3 ° ° ”» Siphon Barometer. Reading corrected and reduced to 32° Fahr. weeeee eee eee eeeaee seeeee seeeee seeeee eeeeee teeeee teteee teres teneee weneee eeeees tereee eases seeeee eens teseee weeeee Aneroid | freight above Attached |8 pom ees sea-level. Therm, enews eeeeee tenes teens eeeeee feeeee eereee Seeeee eeeeee eerees eeteee (1) Sun shining dazzlingly. A beautiful sky of Prussian blue; not a cloud above us; to in. feet. 26°28 3,424 26°12 3,580 26°12 3,580 26°00 35735 26°15 3589 26°15 3,589 26:25 3,492 26°50 3,249 27°20 2,570 27°65 2,133 28°90 932 28°95 837 25195 797 29°18 689 29°05 1,009 23°90 1,369 28°72 1,669 28°60 1,929 28°52 2,129 28°48 2,219 28°32 2,589 28°30 2,699 28°26 2,829 28°25 2,860 28°24, 2,946 28°40 2,796 28°40 2,796 28°40 2,796 28°45 2,666 28°50 2,536 28°60 2,276 28°68 2,070 28°35 1,621 28°92 1,462 29°00 1,256 29°10 1,096 29°35 556 29°38 511 29°39 495 29°32 556 29°31 565 29°60 299 29°31 570 29°20 670 28°95 goo 28°78 1,056 4, 5 beautiful sea of cloud below of varied surface, bright and shining. 2) Sun brighter still. (4) In a very dense cloud. (3) Sun observed in mist. (5) Out of cloud. Dry and Wet Ther- Dry. Wet. °o 27°2 26°5 30°0 26°0 29°5 26°2 315 26°0 29°5 26°2 29°0 27°2 28:2 27°1 28'2 27°0 28°2 28°0 30°2 29°7 33°0 32°0 34°0 32°5 34°5 32°9 35°2 33°5 35°9 33°8 36°0 33°9 35°5 33°8 35°5 33°5 35°5 33°2 35°5 332 34°9 32°8 34°5° | 33°70 34°2 32°5 34°0 33°0 34°0 33°0 34°0 33°0 34°0 33°0 34°0 33°0 34°5 33°3 35°0 33°2 35°3 33°2 35°6 33°5 35°6 33°5 35°6 33°8 35°8 33°8 360 34°0 36-2 34°0 362 34°5 36°2 34°5 36:2 34°5 3671 34°5 382 36°7 38°2 36°7 33°2 35°5 37°2 36°0 37°2 360 6 i ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 AND 1865. 157 Balloon Ascent, from Woolwich Arsenal, December 30, 1864 (continued). mometers (free). Dry and Wet Therms. (aspirated) Hygrometers. Gridiron Delicate Thermo- Dew Daniell’s. | Regnault’s. Seni aa Difference.|Dew-point.| meter, Dry. | Wet. Diff. point wioineter: Dew-point. | Dew-point. 8. 9. 10. ll, 12, 13. 14, 15, 16, ure 3 Falling quickly ; revolving in 2 minutes. 3 th are ee + mile north of Purfleet. oving W.S.W. 9) Moving towards Sea Reach, tid) Sand thrown out. ®) : ‘ helt 158 REPORT—1865. Taste I. s.—Meteorological Observations made in the Twenty-fourth 2 Siphon Barometer. Dry and Wet Ther- BS - . Aneroid | Height above y Bz —s Reading Attached hs AR fs D Wet Zs and reduced | Therm. id a ahs i to 32° Fahr. bh m s in. o in. feet. 5 = Riegel stil. a]! Orassacsy fp anwsteass 28°62 1,203 g7:2 35°7 See ON) ll aadene se) |) aosoee 28°55 1,266 37°2 35°6 Bem eSOn ps wll sticee, > ill ksansisa 28°60 1,216 3775 36°0 (1) Che Gig o)( aed ale rec jane | peeneeety= 28°70 1,116 37°8 36°0 BM cAS Sy a] | issweres Al Sewn ase 29°05 766 37°8 36°2 Bier TeOmysh Mills Gidesacs) slot biyeenass 29°42 396 382 36°4 GeO to MES iam es tome lucie seins 29°50 316 38°2 36°74. (2) BeO BOUT aeull Ierassten ys Ne asco 29°63 186 382 36°4. (3) hy eve “CR PEG || eros oer |) geen prem oa [ie fie | ound { A eLS INO! sy dl rutcenpes werwal Mvaiscune 29°82 gr 38°2 36°5 Tastz I. c.—Meteorological Observations made in the Twenty-fifth Tees ONDA salle aecases uN cea (4) ev fold < ARE Wie COROMeE || aeCRECE (5) DNG2 OE bill weedesone. A | euameces (6) TGS | Om, CMe donee SMe ates « PRS OTTOMPS:. CRIM ieaeyic cy ie) teganss ep ede): ie! ates AAPM |e Sone 5S GOMmen. Mlemirsccs | tile gscees LES TO! Mey eal ehredccss| alktets ses 7) ZG OBR orl Meee. Bloetene, 8) 2 Our, (9) ZIT RGOMEs tale) adedes |B vessves 22 MOLE Ul sutamtans ipl cece : (10) ZED SCONES) Sil) eMwacerse Call Cases cs Ae LOSE oie ccapanme. ||" sgsacne 2 MES RO Wes. MND Paaeseae, RIP vebiese (11) ee ew cle Femi creda || Yeon (12) Zh COUR en teaes'sve al|pe roto ees 13) BPG AO) Bes Jo] Uheaeecs’ = ||P neeacee {14} eb eSO\ Bese aiil) weiadees oN) uisceees Aas “oe ee Cac SCRERE || me AACHAE (15) MIORZOWON, by «|. wT stacest yh eee tes (16) Bap Bee oy || webcsobs lf tascobs (17) Segoe ap il) cceceade |} 7 eakeee Dy ROuMOsEsy al sarees (18) PRG) Oe che I cecande ee |] asacboe (19) DEMERO: Vey” Uy Sieedes | ltaleccces PMT SOM) I el sence Maal bcs cic 1 2. 3. (1) Moving direct for Sea Reach; we must come down if we do not change our direction. (2) Packed up all the instruments, cleared the tops of some trees, and came down within a mile of the river, near the Railway Station at Stanford le Hope. (3) On the ground. (4) A pilot balloon went nearly due N. (5) Wind §. (6) Left the earth. (7) Over the river. (8) Bells sound very clearly. (9) Wind §.W.; sun obscured by cloud. (10) Moving towards Barking Creek ; moving N.E. (11) In cloud; cold. (12) In a white cloud. (18) Faint gleams of light. ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 ann 1865. 159 Balloon Ascent, from Woolwich Arsenal, December 30, 1864 (continued). momcters (free). Dry and Wet Therms. (aspirated). Hygrometers. ated | es ee | Delicate Gridiron | Daniell’s. | Regnault’s. Blackened- Difference.|Dew-point. ea Dry. | Wet. | Diff. hos ede *Dew-point. | Dew-point. ee | | Ray Wee |e ° ° ° ° ° fe} ° ° 1's 362. S 16 33°4 15 34°0 rs 34°2 16 34°0 18 33°9 rs 33°9 18 33°9 07 34°2 Balloon Ascent, from Woolwich Arsenal, February 27, 1865. 5°3 36°5 Ss 35°9 69 eM E tccaety alll crtessyllhip sees ||'-ceeces-ilt ooo te ce sae 34°2 EE EAM cette. 1 cetocs ll) ceces- ||) ccsacs eevseas || epdeea. IP acdece 52°0 6°6 38°5 6°6 PREM Geeta al| <-t6ctllMeaters ||. saaauenl|? conesceIi-racescs.. Wim boaaee 52°0 69 36'9 74 SME alo cupene® plc wtscauleaussce | swnineo Ole ockass Sass: | Nes stapes po 63 33°9 61 33°2 51 34°2 48 33°1 4:1 32'0 rT scene. || scvscmaliwaccsa {|| oseece \Nosececilt sadece 29'0 2°5 291 2°38 27°5 2°8 2725 34 27°2 39 PRE ansan s | smccvgtlinnddsse” || assess) | oo w al Le} w mn fa) w f WwW O0o00000000 000000000 WWOwWWWHNNHDHNHKHHNDHNDNNNNDNKNHNHNDNDNNNNDKNDN wn _ — . REPORT—1865. Siphon Barometer. Reading corrected and reduced to 32° Fahr. seeeee seeeee seeeee teneee weeeee aaeeee eeeeee see eee seeeee seeeee teens seeee to (1) Over Dagenham Marsh. (5) Must come down. Attached Therm. teens ste eee wena eteeee seeeee Aneroid Barometer, No. 2. Height above sea-level. seeeee Dry and Wet Ther- Dry. Wet. °o ° 33°7 30°6 33°7 29°7 39°2 29°4 39°2 292 38°2 29°0 38-2 29°0 33°2 29°0 38°2 29°0 38°2 27°5 38'2 27°5 381 27-2 382 27°5 382 27°5 39°2 295 39°4 329 392 30°0 39°2 30°0 412 315 407 32°3 42°0 310 42°0 31°0 43°2 32°5 43°3 33°0 42°5 35°5 42°0 36'0 4U'7 36°0 4°°7 35° 40°5 36'0 410 365 410 37°5 41°0 380 432 380 4r8 38'0 43°0 39°5 432 39°90 (2) Lowered grapnel. (3) Entered a more southerly current; about S.W. (4) Clouds very high. (6) Sun again bright. F ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTs IN 1864 anp 1865. ‘161 Balloon Ascent, from Woolwich Arsenal, February 27, 1865 (continued). mometers (free). | Dry and Wet Therms. (aspirated). Hygrometers, : abot Daniell’s. | Regnault’s blackened ermo- fs 3 Difference. Dew-point. ier Dry. | Wet. | _ Diff. oa ; eee Sal * | Dew-point. | Dew-point. ; | ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° Sr 19°4 g'0 Uli § 9°8 16°5 b Tone) ete He tees. | sen ads (eee tooo | ceeeee 15°0 92 16°6 92 16°6 92 16°6 g2 |. 16°6 10°7 ta) | Epc en eee ag | coca lsdasaaerPoeseu|'™ . wetiae 15‘0-+ 10°7 1370 10°9 T2°4) | sevens [Pea eRMME en oie foewtowie Ih sis sasncdet occdses | acd he 38°3 10°7 130 10°7 13°0 Ry Ee ote || ssp ectiTlRSe.00 Coen | wee 17'0 9°4 17°7 Aaa (Peas sa t|tnck creel ‘saects (Procure oe 160 ie 17°9 92 X79. 9°7 193 Sad Lisanc coltnensin: Aliaineweeas 29°80 322 Clie fener ie a Na wee cesar. || Mecsas 29°85 7° ONO Ray al) Gitecones \|Plivasn 29°89 | ground 1, 2. 3. 4, 5. (1) In cloud ; cold. (2) In fog. (3° Opened valve ; one bag of ballast only. Dry and Wet Ther- Dry. Wet. ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 AND 1865. 165 Balloon Ascent, from Woolwich Arsenal, February 27, 1865 (continued). mometers (free). Dry and Wet Therms. (aspirated). Hygromceters. ¢ Gridiron —_______________| Delicate | Thermo- Dew. | Dauiell’s. | Regnault’s, |Plackened- Difference.|Dew-point.| mcter. Dry. | Wet. Diff. point. , ; mometer. | Dew-point. | Dew-point. ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° I‘o Mapes |S care sih etl! Wwidwawee | eeaties #| wemeter | wrdece 30°5 1'0 30°0 os 310 Pee CeO Crea | oc tad Men | rc ae 30°7 o'3 30°0 | 05 31°0 Someone a barewerei(l ticles, lc canas aevi'ed |. encses 30°5 o's 310 04 319 I'l 41:2 2°5 29°2 40 331 38 34°0 38 34°6 43 34°4 39 3571 38 | 35-7 3°6 36°4 3°6 36°6 3°6 36°7 93 37°3 8 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16, 17. (4) In cloud. (5) Out of cloud, (6) Just over some trees. 166 ane £Y REPORT—1865. § 4. Avoprrp Temprraturns or THE AIR, THE Wert-BULB, AND THY Drw- ; pornt IN THREE Battoon ASCENTS. From all the observations of the temperature of the air, evaporation, and dew-point in Table I., a determination was made of these elements, with the corresponding reading or mean of readings of the barometer and heights, and then the next Table was formed. Tasie II. 4—Showing the adopted Reading of the Barometer, calculated Height above the Sea, Temperature of the Air, Temperature of the Wet- bulb Thermometer, and Temperature of the Dew-point, in the Twenty-THIRD Ascent.—December 1, 1864. Time of |Reading Height | Temp. | Temp. ime Reading! weight |. Temp. | Temp. observa- eee alioie the a: of the of the | Sebebg - oe pave the oa =e of the of the tion, feeauced level of Air, | Wet- | Dew- tion. reduced level of | yj | Wet- Dew- AM. jtg 390 p,| the sea. bulb. | point. PM. |i gyop,| the sea. bulb. | point. ss = es | —— — a him 8] in feet. is * Ps }h m_ s/} in. feet. o 5 ° TI35 O| wees 46°5 3.43 O)/25°45 4541 | 32°0 | 28°1 gt 30°15 || SS || 462 | 43°8 34 ©|25°20 | 4805 | 32°0 | 282 919 P.M. | 30°19 = ae alee 43'2 40 0] 24°78 5245 | 30°O | 27°2° | 18:4 4% TS) | Oliiecsecs © & {1468 | 43°2 41 0f 24°63 | 5403 |29°5 | 26°5 | 16°59 2 30. Oj 30°10 48°0 | 44°2 | 40°0 42 0} 24°60 5431 |2g | 261 | 15°38 37 -o| 29°95 206 }482 | 44'r | 39% |) 43 of 24°95 | 5063 | 30°0 | 27°2° | 18'q © 38 | 29°61 515 | 48° 44°0 | 39°6 44 0125°52 | 4464 |31°2 | 281 | 19°39 38 30) 29°38 584 |47°5 | 432 | 38°5 | 45 0/2645 | 3487 | 32°8 | 29°5 | 22°9 39 9 29°20 890 | 47°2 | 43°3 | 389 | 46 0/2647 | 3470 |33°0 | 29°5 | 22°5 © 40 0] 28°35 1230 |46°0 | 42°0 | 37°4 || 46 30) 26:45 3491 | 33°0 | 29°38 | 2371 41 0} 28°45 1618 |45°0 | 412 | 36°8 47 0} 26°20 3759 | 33° | 25°97 | 23m 42 0/ 28°23 TSZL.. |AS3Gul AO". 36s 48 0/2600 | 3973 |33°0 | 278 | a7m 43 0/27°80 | 2248 | 43°0 | 38°7 | 37°9 || 49 | 25°82 | 4170 |33°0 | 28:0 | 15°0 44 0127740 | 2636 |41°0 | 36°0 | 29°7 || 50 0 26°00 3968 |33°0 | 280 | 15°0 45 ©2670 | 3298 | 40°0 | 36°0 | 29°7 51 02616 | 3789 | 32°7 | 28:2 | 19°2 46 0)2642 | 3570 |39°5 | 34°9 | 28°6 52 o|26:20 | 3744 | 32°4 | 285 | 20°0 48 cl2619 | 3804 | 38°5 | 33°0 | 25°6 53 of 26°20 | 3744 | 32°1 | 28°7 | orem 50 ¢/25°78 | 4222 | 38°0 | 32°0 | 23°83 cesses | ooveee 3759 | 324 51 0/25°68 | 4324 | 38°0 | 32°0 | 23°8 54 0|26°65 | 3240 | 32°5 | 30.0 | 24°7 54 012530 | 4630 | 36°0 | 2971 | 18°7 54 30| 26°75 3124. | 32°5 | 30°5 | 25°70 55 0125719 | 4742 |35°0 | 28°5 | 1575 55 0/2680 | 3082 | 32°8 | 30°38 | 29°29 57 2124°90 | 5038 |33°0 | 261 | 12°5 5§ 30|27°00 | 2914 |33°0 | 3r°x | 27-9 58 c\24°70 5328 131°5 | 261 | 122 || 57 o]27°30| 2662 | 34°° | 32°0 | 28°5m 59 24°70 | 5328 | 3175 | 261 | 12°2 58 0127°45 | 2536 | 34°5 | 33°0 | 30°5 3. 5 25°50]. 4496 | 31°2 | 26°5 | 15°6 59 0127750 | 2497 |35'2 | 33°5 | 30°Sm 6 30)25°67 | 4319 | 312 | 265 | 15°6 || 4 © o]27°30| 2691 |35°5 | 33°6 | 30°78 8 of 25°80 | 4184 | 3370 | 2971 | 213 || I 0}27°30 | 2691 | 35:6 | 33°6 | 30° 9 ©/25°35 | 4128 | 33°5 | 29°8 | 21°9 I 30/27°20 | 2788 |35°7 | 33°6 | 30°3m 1O 0/25°80 | 4170 | 34°5 | 3070 | 22°4 2 o127°14| 2847 | 35°38 | 93 | 20m 14 0/25°09 | 4766 | 32°2 | 2971 | 22°0 || 3 0 27°25 | 2744 |35°0 | 33°0 | 298 15 ©}24°92 | 4909 | 31°8 | 27:2 | 16°6 || 4 027740 | 2603 |35°5 | 33°3 | 30°07 17 ¢/24°90 | 495% | 310 | 271 | 16°5 || 5 o|28co | 2039 | 362 |.34°8 | 32°97 23° 0/1 24°78 5052 | 30°2 | 257% gil 6 0 28°25 1804 |371 | 35°70 | 32°3 24 C/24°72 | 5122 |29°8 | 25°0 9°8 7 09/2830 | 1759 | 37°3 | 35°5 | 33°O 26 c)24°70 5197 | 30°2 | 2571 39 8 0 28°42 1644 | 38°3 | 36°5 | 34:0 27 ©/25°00 | 4931 | 30°2 | 25°2 | 8'9 8 30, 28°50 | 1569 | 38°3 | 37°0 | 3572 32 9 25°50 | 4489 | 31°5 | 28:1 | 9°6 9 0 28°52 | 3550 | 38°7 | 37°5 | 35°38) ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 anp 1865. Tabre I. an—Twenry-rutrp Ascent.—December 1, 1864 (continued). 167 observa- tion, hm = sin. 4 10 0} 28°60 13 0} 28°70 14 0} 28°80 15 0/ 28°60 15 30) 28°50 17 0} 28°35 I8 0/2840 19 0} 28:50 5 Reading Time of of the Barom. : reduced PiMe Ito 32°F. 2 15) 26°12 33 0| 26°00 34. 15] 26-15 34 30) 26°15 34 45) 26°25 33 0} 26°50 5 30| 26°20 36 0 27°65 37 0} 28°90 38 0 28°95 39 9) 29°05 | a Height Temp. | Temp. ime of enone Hei Temp. | Temp. anare the Jenp: of ‘ie of the aeneeva: ie have thd pow of the of the level of Air, | Wet- | Dew- tion. Ea Aaned level of |° ye Wet- | Dew- the sea. bulb. | point. PM. |19 g20p,| the sea. bulb. | point feet. = = a hm 8} in. feet. = 3 6 1475 |39°0 | 38:0 | 36°7-|| 4 20 0} 28°70 1280 | 42°0 | 39°7 | 364 138r | 42°0 | 40°3 | 36°38 2r 0/28°80 | 1208 |41°2 | 39°7'| 3774 1280 |42:1 | 402 | 37°9 21 30) 28°32 1194. |41°3 | 39°7 | 3772 1394 |42°0 | 39°5 | 364 22 0| 28°90 1137 |41'0 | 40°2 | 3972 1451 |41°5 | 3972 | 36°3 23° «(0/2912 979 |4r1 | 40°2 | 397% BESZe i402 | 64870) ZE-s WE Ol svaceiee } soouna { 1496 |40°5 | 39°0 | 37°71 3BF Ol] teaseee 45°2 | 43°70 | 40°5 TAZA 4ES | 39°5 | 3770 B. Twenty-FourtH Ascent.—December 30, 1864. ground | 42°5 | 39°0 | 34°8 || 2 40 0} 29°18 689 |35°2 | 33°5 Bo |421 | 385 | 3471 41 0) 29°05 | 100g | 35°99 | 33°8 355 |41°0 | 37:2 | 32°4 || 41 30/2390 | 1369 | 360 | 33°9 | 30°8 602 |40'0 | 36:2 | 31°72 || 42 0} 28°72 1669 |35°5 | 33°38] 312 782 |39°0 | 36:0 | 32°0 43 0] 28°60 TO2Z0 95°51 33h | Br r 877 | 382 | 35°1 | 30°9 43 30| 28°52 | 2129 | 35°5 | 33°2 | 29°6 1o2g) | 97°2) | 94°38 | S1°5 44. 0] 28°48 2219 |35°5 | 332 | 29°6 Hs52¥ | 36°2 |" 34°2 | 34-2 | 45 0/28°32 | 2689 | 34°9 | 32°38 | 29°4 Pica at Besser | Saoce 45 30) 28°30 | 2699 |34°5 | 33°0 | 30°5 eee st Goctens. || “Boro 46 0/2826 | 2829 |34°2 | 32°5 | 29°6 1995 |341 | 32°99 | 30°8 47 0/ 28°25 2860 |34:0 | 33:0 | 312 B22 'R9°O 4 4Z°O | “gp'o 47 30)/ 28:24.) 2946 |34°0 | 33°0 | 312 2310 | 32°5 20 | $170 48 0/2840 | 2796 |34°0 | 33°0 | 312 2355 \32°7 | 383 | “30°0 48 30) 28-40 | 2796 |34°0 | 33°0 | 31°72 2410 | 32°5 | 31°9 | 30°7 49 0/2840 | 2796 |340 | 33:0 | 3172 saad || 322 | 3175 | *Zo°o 49 30;23°45 | 2666 |34°5 | 3373] 3172 2699 | 31°99 | 30°5 | 27°71 49 45) 28°50 | 2536 |35°0 | 33:2 | 303 2699 |31°9 | 30°38 | 283 50 of 28°60 | 2276° | 35°3 |. 33°2 | 29°9 2644 | 31°9 | 3075 | 27°2 50 30/28°68 | 2070 |35°6 | 33°75 | 30°3 2350 |31°9 | 310 | 28°9 $i 0/2885 | 162% |35°6 | 33°5 | 303 2301 |3I°9 | 31:2 | 29°6 51 30) 28-92 1462 |35°6 | 33°38 | 31'r 2077 | 319 | 31°6 | 30°9 51 45)29'00 | 1256 | 35°38 | 33°38 | 30°8 ZOIQ) §|'42°3 |" BS-0. |, “2074 52 ol2g10] 1096 |36'0 | 34:0 | 31°0 2215 |322 | 32°2 | 32°2 53 01 29°35 556 |362] 34:0 | 30°8 Mane Biss | Sr-2' | ~Fo°4: 53 30] 29°38 511i (36:2 | 3-5 | 3270 2552 | 31°3 | 30° | 28-9 Chel Senge) 495 |362 | 34°5 | 32°0 2822 | 29°5 | 29°0 | 27°3 54 30) 29°32 | 556 | 362 | 34°5 | 320 3018 |28°8 | 28:3 | 264 55 ©2973 5S" Rg rh Gace egatk Carer foe eftsere: || 22770 | 57 0} 29°60 299 |382 | 367 | 34°7 322041 27°5 | 27:2 | 26°70 | 57 30] 29°31 570: (fgS2° |) Bey | 9407 3424 (272 | 265 | 23°4 58 30/29'20 | 670 | 382 | 35°5 | 34°9 3580 |30°0 | 260 | 13°4 59 0} 28°95 goo |37°2 | 360 | 344 3580 |29°5 | 26:2 | 1570 || 3 0 of 28°78 | 1056 |3772 | 360 | 344 S7SSEALSEo eo. | £2°2 I oj 28°62 4203 | 37'2 |. 35°7 | g4°2 3589 [2975 | 262 | I5°r 2% dl 26755 3266". 3752 | "g56 | 39°4. 4580" | 2970 | 27:2 | 20°7 2 30/2860 | 1216 |37°5 | 35°6 | 3q°0 3492 |28'2 | 27°r | 22°7 3. 0/28°70 | 1116 |37°3 | 362 | 34°2 3249 [282 | 27°0 | 22°3 3 45) 29°05 766 | 37°38 | 362 | 34°0 2570 |282] 280 | 273 4 0] 29°42 396 | 382 | 364] 33°9 2133 | 30°2 | 29°7 | 28°3 5 0| 29°50 316 | 382 | 364 | 33°9 932. [33°70 | 92:0 | 30°o 6 0} 29°63 186 |382 | 36:4 | 33°99 837 | 340 | 32°5-] 29°8 15 0| 29°82 | ground. | 38:2 | 36°5 | 34°2 FOE 93425) 3219) fr 30125) 168 : REPORT—1865. Taste II. p.—Twenty-rourru Ascent.—December 30, 1864 (continued). | \| i ¢ |Reading) weight Temp. | Tem Time of |Reading| preignt Temp. | Temp. Coa re shave the see of tle | | ae thee | observa- oe hove the se He of the of the tion. | eaueca| levelof | ai | Wet- | Dew- tion. | cauced| levelof | air, Wet- | Dew- P.M. to 32°F. the sea. bulb. | point. P.M. to 32° F, the sea. bulb. point. hm s/in. feet. a Fe 3S |h m_ s}| in, feet. ° ° 3 125 0| 30°27 e 47°7 | 42°4 | 36°5 || 2 48 30)27°72 | 2360 |4r'2 | 38°0 | 34°0 35 Of verve B 1/|47°5 | 4270 | 35°9 49 0/27°75 | 2330 |418 | 380 | 3373 52 0] 30°20 Ep 5271 | 4572 | 38°0 50 c\27°80 2281 |43°O | 39°5 | 35°3 58 10] 30°13 60 |51°8 | 452 | 38.5 51 0] 28°05 2035 |43°2 | 39°0 | 34°0 58 20) 30°00 17 514 | 44°38 | 3871 54 | 29°31 796 |\44°2 | 402 | 35°5 58 30) 29°92 244 |51°O | 44:1 | 3679 55 0} 29°80 322 |46:2 | 4rro | 3571 59 0/2965 | 474 |49°5 | 42°2 | 34°71 56 of29°65 | 460 [46-2 | giro | 35°1 2 © ©}29°30 767 |47°2 | 40°9 | 33°9 56 30] 29°45 644 |46°0 | ara | 35°7 I 30| 23°98 1085 |46'2 | 4go1 | 33°2 57 30) 29°14 927 |44°5 | 40°0 | 34°7 2 0/2852 | 1543 | 45°2 | gorr | 34°2 58 oj 29'11 957 | 43iaas 915) || S47 2 30/2821 | 1851 | 43:7 | 38'9 | 3372 59 29°00 | 1057 |43°5 | 3970 | 33°6 2 45/27°78 | 2279 | 412 | 37°71 | 32°0 || 59 30/2890 | 1148 | 43°5 | 38°5 | 32°6 2} on (ollgeeceo ti lite coco te liocer soon hmccosor 29°0 || 3 © 0} 28°92 1130 ©|43°0 | 38°5 | 3371 3 30) 26°98 3074. | I 0| 28°98 1075 |43°0 | 38°5 | 33°12 4 0/2672 | 3333 | 35°5 | 33°° | 291 1 30) 28°99 | 1066 | 43°5 | 38°5 | 33% 5 0/2642 | 3632 | 34°8 | 320 | 27°5 2 ©/29°00 | 1057 |43°5 | 39°° | 35°3 5 30\26'20 | 3851 | 34°8 | 32.0 | 27°5 3. 29°07 | 990 |43°5 | 39°5 | 34°7 6 0/2605 | 3990 |35°0 | 31°6 | 27°72 4 C)2g°t1 953 |43°5 | 39° | 35°3 6 30) 26:00 | gogo | 34°8 | 30°9 | 24°7 5 2975 926 |43°5 | 39°3 | 343 7 30;25°62 | 4418 | 34°0 | 29°2 | 20°9 5 39/29°50 | 605 |43°5 | 39°0 | 33°6 8 30) 25°39 | 4647 | 34°0 | 283 | 18:2 6 o}29'50 | 605 |44°0 | 39°3 | 33°8 9 025°34 | 4697 |34°5 | 285 | 177 7 0 29°61 504 |44°5 | 40°0 | 34°7 ® 3G)25°30 |) 4737, 11.35°2 | 29:0), || Lor 8 0] 29°63 486 |45°0 | go-2 | 34°6 II 0(25°30 | 4737 |38'2 | 311 | 21°6 9 | 29°68 441 |45°3 | 40°3 | 34°6 1X 30/25°25 | 4795 (382 | 30°6 | 2073 10 0/29°75 377 |45°9 | 40°5 | 344 | 12 o0}25719 | 4855 | 38:7 | 30°6 | 194 II 0) 29°80 322 |45°5 | 404 | 34°6 12 30) 25°17 4875 | 387 | 29°7 | 17°7 IZ C\ 29°80 322 |46°0 | 4r°o | 35°3 | 13 0/2517 | 4875 | 39°2 | 29°4 | 16°5 12 30) 29°65 459 |460 | 410 | 35°3 | 17 0/25°08 | 4965 |39°2 | 29°2 | 161 13 0] 29°32 761 |45'2 | 40°0 | 34’0 22) iBO\ieetenem allt Stace ece 38°2 | 2970 | 16°6 14 0} 29°30 779 |45°2 | 40°0 | 34°0 | 23 0/2530 | 4828 | 38:2 | 29°0 | 16°6 15 30/2915 916 |45°0 | 402 | 34°6 24 0/25°30 | 4828 | 38:2 | 29°0 | 16°6 16 cl2ag%o | 3053 |44°2 | 39°8 | 34°6 | 25 0/25°30 | 4828 | 38:2 | 29°70 | 16°6 | 17 C| 28:90 1148 | 43°2 | 39°0 | 340 27 0/25°30 | 4828 | 38:2 | 27°5 | 13°0 | 17 3¢| 28°90 1148 | 43°2 | 39°0 | 34°0 | 27 30/25°25 | 4840 | 38:2 | 27°5 | 13°0 18 0) 28-90 1148 |43°2 | 38°7 | 33°3 28 o]25°22 | 4847 |581 | 27°2 | 124 19 ©} 29°08 978 |43°2 | 385 | 32°9 / 29 0/2520 | 4865 | 38:2 | 27°5 | 13°0 20 0} 29°10 959 |43'2 | 38°5 | 32°9 : Bo!) 0) 2520 dh ACOm, 5 38320) 2775 ai TZ°0° || 21 0) 29°30 779 |43°2 | 38°0 | 31°38 | 34 0)25°60 | 4408 | 39'2 | 29°5 | 16:7 22 0©|29°30 779 |43'2 | 380 | 318 | | 34 20|/25°60 | 4408 | 394 | 30°0 | 17°7 23 ©} 29°30 779 |43°2 | 381 | 32°0 36 0 25°50 | 4517 |39°2 | 30°0 | 17°9 24 cl29°33 | 742 [437 | 386 | 33°2 | | 38 0/2542 | 4604 | 39°2 | 30°0 | 17°9 25) 9) 29°59 582 |43°3 | 39°0 | 33°9 | 4O 0/25°30 | 4734 |41°2 | 31°5 | 19°3 26 0} 29°38 698 | 4375 | 39°0 | 33°6 | 41 025730 | 4734 |41°7 | 3173 | 18°5 27 0} 29°20 872 |43°5 | 39°2 | 34°0 fF) “Spor ajo 7a pa ae aetna 42°0 | 310 | 17°5 28 0) 28°30 969 |43°3 | 39°° | 33°9 42 0/25°50 | 4538 | 42°0 | 31°0 | 17°5 29 0/2872 | 31375 |42°5 | 37°5 | 314 : 42 301 25°70.| 4332 1432 | 32°5 | 19°7 30 0/28°55 | 1463 |42°0 | 37°3 | 31°6 | 43. 0/25°90 | 4136 | 43°3 | 33°0 | 20°7 30 30/2825 | 1689 |40°6 | 36°5 | 312 | 44. 0} 26°60 3450 |42°5 | 35°5 | 27°0 31 0] 28°00 1944 |39°6 | 36°0 | 45 0/26°78 | 3274 |42°0 | 360 | 28°6 32 027790 | 2046 |38'9 | 35°5 | 31°3 45 30/27:10 | 2960 | 41°7 | 36°0 | 28°9 32 30/27°80 | 2148 |38°0 | 35:0 | 30°9 46 0/2735 | 2715 |40°7 | 35°5 | 29°0 33 0|27°72 | 2230 |37°9 | 35°0 | 3170 | | 46 20|/27°40 | 2676 | 40°5 | 36°0 | 30°2 35 0/27°68 | 2271 |37-2 | 35°70 | 31°9 46 30/27°55 | 2529 |41°0 | 36°5 | 30°8 37 9127750 | 2455 |37°2 | 34°5 | 30°7 47 027°70 | 2382 | 410 | 37°5 | 33°1 38 30/27°30 | 2659 | 36°5 | 33°9 | 30°r 48 0/27°72 | 2360 |41'0 | 38°0 | 34°2 39 0/2700 | 2965 | 36:0 | 33°5 | 29°7 4 = ' Taste II. 3.~—Twenry-rovrrn Ascent.—December 30, 1864 (continued). ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS-IN 1864 AND 1865. 169 Ts Reading F | A Reading 5 f Height Temp.| Temp. || Time of Height Temp. | Temp. _.. of, the ipaue, the pore of che of the | ered eS the aes the brea of ie of the tion ome level of |° ae Wet- | Dew- || tion. ca level of | ° eee Wet- | Dew- P. to 32°F. the sea. bulb. | point, | P.M. to 32° F,| the sea. Lulb. | point. | q ee i" = [9 Fey ee asi hm_ ~°s)/in. feet. 5 3 a / h m_ s}/ in. feet. = a a 340 92682 | 3149 | 35:2 | 33°0 | 29°5 |] 3 51 C2771] 2252 | 34°2 | 33:2 | 31°2 4I 0/2682 | 3149 | 35°2 | 33°0 | 29°5 | 52 “ol'28"20 P73 aoe 33 Or We Oc 42 c/ 26°78 | 3190 | 34°2 | 32°71 | 28'4 | 54 © 29°co 1022 | 42°0 | 38°0 | 33°1 43 0} 26°78 3190 | 34°2 | 32°2 | 28-7 | 55 ©} 29°30 731 |42°5 | 38:7 | 34:0 44 026-61 | 3360 | 342 | 3270 | 283 || 56 clag4o 634. | 43°0 | 39:2 | 34°6 45 92645 | 3521 |33°0 | 32°0 | 30:0 || 56 30 29°47 561 |43°8 | 39°5 | 3474 45 30/2632 | 3652 | 57 929756 | 472 |43°7 | 39°83 | 3571 45 40|26°20 | 3772 |33°0 | 32°0 | jo0°0 57 3°] 29°70 448 |44°0 | 402 | 35°7 46 0/2652 | 3415 |32°5 | 32°0 | 310 | = 58 0/ 29°79 331 | 442 | 40°6 | 364 ay po) 20°72) 14218 | 32°5°| 31°7 | 30°0 | 59 9/2980 322 |44°4 | 40°38 | 36°6 48 0/2690 | 3042 | 32°5 | 32°@ | 31° | 59 3°, 29°85 7° |44°5 | 40°9 | 36°7 49 27°30 | 2650 | 32°5 | 32°0 | 31°0 || 4 © 0} 29°89 | ground | 44°5 | 412 | 37°3 go 0}27°32 | 2637 | 3371 | 32°7 | 319 | | a a EE Se ee So ee ee er 170 REPORT—1865. § 5. Variation or TeMPERATORE oF THE Atk with Hetcur. Every reading of temperature in the preceding Tables, or the means of small groups of readings when observations bayve been taken in quick succes- sion at about the same altitude, or when the Balloon has passed and re- passed through nearly the same space within a few minutes—as, for example, on December 1st, between 3° 44™ and 3" 49™ it fell from 4464 feet to 3470 feet, and rose to 4170 feet—these readings, or means of readings, were laid down on diagrams, the points joined, and a curved line made to pass through or near them, so that the area of the spaces between the original and the adopted lines on one side was equal to that of the spaces on the other side. Thus treated, temperature decreased with increase of elevation on December 1st and 30th. On February 27th it was found to increase, after attaining the altitude of 4647 feet. On descending, the temperature at first declined, and at 4800 feet the reading was the same as at the same elevation on as- cending ; then a warm current was met with, and the readings at the same elevation were much higher than were noted in ascending, and continued so through a space of 2800 feet, below which they were lower than on ascend- ing; im consequence of these differences no temperature has been adopted for these, and another ascent and descent were made, for which temperatures have been adopted. The numbers in the first column show the height in feet, beginning at the ground and increasing upwards ; the numbers in the second column show the interval of time in ascending to the highest point; the notes in the third column show the circumstances of the observations; the numbers in the fourth and fifth columns the observed and the approximate normal temperatures of the air; and those in the next column the difference between the two preceding columns, or the most probable effect of the presence of cloud or mist on the temperature, or other local disturbing causes. The next group of columns is arranged similarly for the descent, and the other groups for succeeding ascents and descents. - Seales | ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 Anp 1865. 171 Taste III.—Showing the Temperature of the Air, as read off the curve drawn through the observed temperatures, and as read off the curve of most probable normal temperatures, called adopted temperatures, and the calculated amount of disturbance from the assumed law of decrease of temperature, Twenty-Tutrp AscEnt. Temperature of the Air. he” Es Ascending. | Descending. pein feet, Calcu- | Caleu- above the mean ' 7 ; , 4 ted! lated level of the sca, |PORTE"| Circum-| orvcd |'tentpe. [effect of | canaeCircum-| ,O-, |Adopted) tated times. | §**9°€S-) ‘temp. | rature. | disturb-|| times. | §4"ces- temp. | rature. | disturb- ance. ance. ° ° ° ° io} ° 5400 29°3 | 29°5 |— 072 29°3 | 2911 |+ 0-2 5200 30°99 | 30°38 |+ or 29°6 | 29°6 o"0 5000 : Zr | 31°7 |— 06 30°0 | 301 |— ovr 4800 32°5 | 32°38 |— 0-3} 30°5 | 303 | 92 4600 a6 | 39°6 oro 310 | 30°5 |+ 0°5 44.00 34°6 | 3571 |— 0°5 314 | 30°8 |+ 06 4200 36°9 | 362 |+ 07 31°38 | 312 |+4 06 4000 SOR 7-2) =~ Ok 324 | 317 |+ 07 3800 F 38°6 | 37°99 |+ O7 2 3255. Nig2k. | ora 36co Ep ap | ae6 (tS 7) 8 32°4 | 32°74 oro 3499 & : 39°8 | 392 |+ 06) & Q | 32°5 | 327 |— o2 3200 = a | 40x | 39-7) |1.041 a, = 216) | 33°F |= ong 3000 re = 45-3 | 4072 |- O71} oa. bed 33°09 | 33.6 |— 06 2300 See) 457 ,aes. ee ee | Sas | $4 I OG 2600 E = 4V2 | 45 |— o3]) © S, 2) Sao | 84°S. sls Ots 2400 2, S | 4273 | 422 [+ ol] “= 8 | 357 | 350 |+ 07 22c0 2 S | 4370 | 43°0 ool] & =) 36-2- |igcig t-vioig 2000 3 S 43°2 | 43°7 |— o°5/] a 36°6 | 363 |— o2 1800 5 43°8 | 444 |— 06) & 37°% | 380 |— o9 1600 es AGE WW AGOtrt Osi 3 33°3 | 389 |— 06 140c) 45°38 | 45°6 |+ o-2) 416 | goo [+ 16] 1200 46°2 | 46-2 foe) 412 | arr |+ ot 1000 46°38 | 46°77 |+ o'1 40°9 | 41°9 i ae} 800 AGO Nl 47°2 |—" 77 417 | 42°4 |— 07 | 600 472 | 4776 |— 04 42°6 | 43°0 |— 074 | 4.00 480 | 47°99 |+ o1 AYA | 43°6 |= o2 200... 48°2 | 48:0 |+ 072) 45°3. | 44°93 |+ 1°0 ° 48°0 | 48:0 90 | 454 | 451 |+ 073 December 1.—The temperature of the air at the height of 400 feet was the same as on the ground, viz. 48°; on passing above this point the temperature declined to 473° at 600 feet, very slowly to 452° at 1600 feet ; a decrease of 17° then took place in the next 200 feet, remained very nearly the same for 0 fect more, and then declined to 411° at 2600 feet, still decreasing gradu- ally to 383° at 3800 feet, and then rather more quickly to 297° at the highest point. On descending, the temperature increased very uniformly _ till 4000 fect was passed, then almost without change through a decline of 800 fect, or to 3200 feet high ; increased 1° in the next 400 feet downwards, and 13° in the succeeding 200 feet; after this the temperature increased by pretty even amounts, till the height of 1800 feet was reached ; here a warm current was entered, for by the time the balloon had descended to 1400 feet, _ the temperature had increased to 413°; it then declined to 41° at 1000 feet, 172 ‘ REPORT—1865. after which it increased by even amounts till within 200 feet of elevation, where the temperature was 45°-3, being only 0°1 less than that found on the ground, Tani III. (continued.) TwENTY-FOURTH ASCENT. | Temperature of the Air, 1864. ; jl ; December 30 Ascending. | Descending. ead in feet, | Calcu- | Galett above the mean | Between! 7. Ob- |Adopted| lated | Between _; Ob- |Adopted lated level of the sea. | what i served | tempe- leffect of | what heicoay served ares effect of times. | S*°™°€S temp. | rature. |disturb- || times. ort temp. rature. |disturb- ance. | ance. Just out! © ° ° | ore eo ie of cloud. a 2600 Raesedlo7S | esa 0°3 | = | 31°83 | 31°8 o"0 sj cloud. ; ; | 5 , 2400 2 ie 32 5 | 32 5 loko) w 31 9 31 9 fowe} a o's a fe) NS nN 5 a) ics] } aS Ry a 5 Qs | 2200 | & BP | 33:0 | 33°71 |— ox be @3 | 32°0 | 32°0 0°09 | al = ro] Eo 2000 a 341. | 33°8 |4+ 03 = Br | 32°5 | 32°5 fohe) 1800 a 34°38 | 34°8 oro|| & The bjalloon |then 1600 gS 35°6 | 35°6 oro |) turned |to ascejnd. 1400 5 3671 | 361 role) Az | 12c0 A 36°9 | 36°9 oo|| 4 | 1000 = 37°38 | 376 I+ o2]) 3S 800 rs| 39°0 | 39°0 oo|| B 6co | 2 | misty. | 40 | 399 [+ 071 400 A 40°9 | 40°9 o°o 200 41°6 | 41°6 o'o ° 42°6 | 42°6 oro |! poe cloud. : 3600 SB 29°6 | 29°5 |+ oF In very| 79:9 | 29% 3e og 1Oc3 5. us dense 3400 . | SSB) az | 274 |- 0! cloud. | 28:4 | 284 | oo Shell eas Ro ree Se nae | g 3200 i Thee | yee Reeser oo|| 6B 284. | 28°4 fone) 3000 5 dense | 28°8 | 28°6 |+ or2 28°3 | 28°3 o'0 LA cloud . 7 st w 8: g- ° 2800 cn = 29°5 | 29°6 G7til| s ces 28:2 | 282 = oro} = ust B : | H 2600 a entering) 31°0 | 30°6 |+ 0-4 st Out of | 282 | 28°5 |— 03 +5 cloud. S cloud. 2400 EB) 312 21-3 es Our = 29°0 | 29°r |— Ov1 2200 a 3272, | 32'2 Goll], 30°0 | 29°38 |+ o2 2000 _ 92569 34°. |—20'0 = 30°6 | 30°6 o'o 1800 q Fs grr | 311 oo 1600 = : 316 | 31°6 oo 1400 i “9275 Megaen oo 1200 | 32°5..| 32°5 [oXe) 1000 33°0 | 33°r |— o7 800 \| 34°2 | 34°2 [eKe) The balloon |then | | / turned |to ascend. 4 - ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 anp 1865. 173 Tasxe III. (continued.) TWENTY-FOURTH ASCENT (continued). Temperature of the Air. 1864. ; i Dee. 30 (con). Ascending. | Descending. lap hag feet, Calcu- | Calcu- above the mean |Retween| ,: Ob- lated ||Between| ,,. Ob- |Adopted|. lated : Circum- Adopted Circum- fc Be | cc, [soneen| ered ‘camp. [afectof | hat | tance | neva | tempe- [elec of ance. | ance, | fC) ° ° ° ° ° 2800 S, 343 | 344 | —o1 34°09 | 34°3 | —0%3 26co ° 35°0 | 34°9 | tor) 4y 3570 | 35°0 oro 24.00 z 35°4 | 35°3 | tor! g 35°% | 352 | —o71 2200 = 35°5 | 35°3 | -+o2|| 8B 3553f So05 oro 2000 Pera lioce 356 | SSR]! ool ee a Maes I gg aric—or 1800 a 3 | 35° | 356 | oo] » SB | 35°5 | 35'5 oro 1600 £ rs =| 356 | 35°6 oo! % & | 35° | 35° "0 1400 5 gy | 360 | 353 | +02] = Bare Wn 3507 oro 1200 + Z 36:0 | 36:0 o'0 iS 2 35°99 | 35°38 | +o 1000 rh 5 36-0 | 36°0 ool] & | 360 | 35°99 | +o1 8co g 35°9 | 35°9 as = Roots |) Zorr o'o 600 POU © 95 Re ee oe ne eee ee 63 | 364 | —o71 FA = ; A eee | Rol) cause! |, tc 8 37°5 | 3772 | -o3 ° The balloon then turned to ascend. | 1200 = S772) aye | KOON los ag 37°7 | 37°6 | +o 1000 2a] 8 | 372 | 374 | -o2 | | & | 377 | 377 | 0 800 goa} ‘Ss Sieg eae? SN a z g 37°83 | 37°99 | —o7 600 See 5 38:2 | 380 | toz|| "8 8) S 38:0 |. 38°0 fhe) 400 aS 3 382 | 383 | —or5 = So (egee2) | 78-2. fohze) 200 PCS |Vevesses|Pocetveml| vaaeee |? 5, | 383 | 383 "0 ° s J teteee | ceeeee | seeeee 38°4 | 38'5 | —o'1 December 30.—The temperature of the air was 42}° on the ground; it declined 1° in the first 200 feet ; 0°-7 in the second; 0°-9 in the third ; 1°0 in the fourth; 1°-2 in the fifth, where it was 37°°8, or nearly 5° less than on the ground ; it then decreased by amounts varying from 2° to 1° in every 200 feet, till 2400 feet had been passed, where the temperature was 322°, declining to 327° at 2600 feet. The balloon then turned to descend, the temperature re- maining at nearly the same value, viz. 32°, for 400 fect, and increased 3° on falling to 2000 feet, when the balloon turned to ascend, the temperature de- creasing very evenly up to 3400 fect: here a warm current was met with ; for the temperature increased 24° in passing from 3400 feet to 3600 feet, the tem- perature there being 293°. On descending, the temperature decreased to 284° at 3400 feet, and remained very nearly at that value for the next 800 feet, but increased to 29° at 2400 feet and to 30° at 2200 feet; after this it in- creased about 3° for every 200 feet, till the balloon had fallen to 1000 feet, and 17° whilst passing from that to 800 feet ; the balloon then turned to re- ascend for the second time, the temperature remaining at 36° whilst passing upward from 800 feet to 1400 feet; it then declined about 3° in passing through the next 200 feet, and remained nearly at that value till 2400 fect were reached, and fell to 343° at 2800 feet, when the balloon turned to descend, the temperature increasing from 34° at 2800 feet to 38°2 at 300 fect 3 on again ascending, the temperature did not vary until 600 feet was reached, but declined to 37°-2 at 1200 feet, and gradually increased to 38°-4 on the ground, 174 -REPORT—1865. Taste IIT. (continued.) TweEntTy-FIrtH ASCENT. 1865. Temperature of the Air. February 27. Ascending. { Descending. See diew titel Gb lAdoptea| Sated — Ob above the mean | Between) Gi aym_ is eas er eee Cireum- Fi lela eon} sinner] ore, | ere ee | ee amas en ance. || ° fo} ° ° 5000 Above | 39°4 | 33°4 | +670} 39°0 4800 Cloud. | 38°3 | 33°F | +52) 38°4 4600 “| 34° | 332 | +08 39°5 4400 34°0 | 33°4 | +0°6 421 4200 ry «| 343 | 336 | +07 433 4000 g Ba Sor | 38's. | pee 43'1 3800 ay «| 348 | 34r | +07]! ty 43°0 3600 5 A | 348 | 345 | +03] gS 42°8 34.00 a 35:5 | gst oo|| EB |_| gars 3200 Seog eae | ae ees foe) -S, 42°0 3000 2 S732 36°9 +03 8 cues 4r'7 2800 “: 38:0 | 37°38 | +02 3 cloud. | 41°7 2600 5 394 | 387.) +07) ‘o. /Bponthel 43-2 2400 . |Below| 494 | 396 | +08 = the cloud.| 42°0 2200 S$ |eloud.| 47°5 | 407 | +98) 43°0 2C00 & 42°38 | 41-7 | +1'1 a) 43°2 1800 3 439 | 428 | --r1]) 8, 43°2 1600 EB 44°9 | 43°7 | +1°2 = 43°2 1400 & 45°5 | 44°6 | +09] & 43°2 1200 45°38 | 45°6 | +072 s 432 1000 465 | 466 | —o'1 43°6 800 47° | 477 | -O'7 43°7 600 48'7 | 489 | —o'2 45°3 400 49°9 50°0 —o'! 45°7 200 51°3 Sir +o0'2 ° Ce lal eA o'o 3600 33°6 | 33°5 | +o Tn | 32°7 S406 ve 33°9 | 34°0 | —onr cloud. | 32-6 3200 Z "| 34°2 | 34°8 | —o0°6 32°6 3000 6, 35°7 | 354 | +0°3|) T 32°6 28co 5 Ta | 2039] 359 ah hOB Belo] ms 32°6 2600 sell ig Set 36°7 | 36°5 | +o-2 & jeloud.| 3,-, 2400 % fate ah ae Se | Se is 33°5 2200 37° 38°0 | —o72]) + 7. 2000 ic 38°9 | 389 foMe) Z | Below Ge 1800 8 Below | 40°° | 398 | +072 S |cloud. 35°2 1600 xo) cloud. | 42"2 40°6 | +0°5|| FL 37°0 1400 “i "| 423 | 414 | +o'9]| ‘3 38'9 1200 a 43°0 | 42°3 | +o°7|| B 40°4 1000 =| 43°7 | 43°2 +0°5 42°0 800 = 44°3 | 44:0 | +073 42°6 600 3 44°9 | 448 | +o'1 43°2 480 =e 45°7 | 45°7 oro 44/1 200 eres anes | ance | 44°5 Gy. of raRhiny SON ice. oees Seeees! |) veges 44°5 Calcu- Adopted| lated tempe- | effect of rature, | disturb- ance. The balloon then turned to ascend. 32°7 (oye) 32°38 | —o'2 32°99 | —03 33°0 | —o'4 33° | —0'5 33°3 | —o°6 33°5 oro 3470 | +0°4 34°8 oo 36:0 | —o'8 27:2 | = Oe 38°5 | +04] 39°9 | tos] 414 | +0°6 42°7.| SO 434 | —o2, 441 o'o 44°5 co 44°5 oro February 27.—The temperature on the ground was 52°-3, which declined 1° on passing through the first 200 feet, and about 1}° in each space of ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 anp 1865. 175 200 feet up to 800 feet, where the temperature was 47° or 5°3 lower than on the ground: the decline was then less rapid, for on passing through the next 800 feet the whole decrease was 2°-1. The temperature then declined rather more rapidly to 35°-1 at 3400 feet high ; at 3600 feet it was 342°, and varied but little from this till 4000 feet had been passed ; it then decreased to 34° at 4600 feet, when it suddenly became warm, the temperature increasing to 382° on passing above 4800 feet, and to 395° nearly on reaching 5000 feet, the same temperature having been passed at 2600 feet. The balloon then turned to de- scend, the temperature at first decreasing to 38°-4 at 4800 feet, being the same as noted on ascending : here a warm current was met with, and the tempera- ture increased rapidly ; when at 4200 feet it was 43°°3, being 9° warmer than was noticed at the same elevation on ascending ; this excess gradually diminished, till at about 2000 feet high the temperature observed during the descent was very nearly the same as. noted.during the ascent ; and below this the temperatures were all lower by.some degrees than were recorded at the same elevation during the ascent: these differences seem to be chiefly owing to the presence of cloud situated between 3100 feet and 4100 feet high, or 1000 feet in thickness passed through in ascending, and seen at the same level, but not passed through in descending. The point where the tem- peratures noted were the same ascending and descending was a little below the cloud-plane ; at lower ¢élevations, to the ground, the air was some degrees warmer under the cloud, during the ascent, than in the absence of cloud during the descent. The effect of the. presence of the cloud in this ascent seems to have been to cool the air several degrees ; and this cooling influence seéms to have extended for nearly 1000 feet above the cloud, and for 500 or 600 feet below; nearer the earth the presence of the cloud seems to haye exercised a warming influence. In. the descent it will be seen that the temperature differed very little from 43°, from.4200 feet high to 1000 feet high, the depression’ to 41°+ from 3000 feet to 2600 feet being evidently influenced by the passage through the cloud-plane. On ascending again, first haze was passed through, then cloud entered, giving readings differing but little from those met with in the first ascent. On descending to the earth, temperatures a little lower, owing apparently to the diurnal decrease of temperature at these altitudes, were met with, thus far agreeing with those during the first ascent; and comparison with those during the first descent through a large break in the clouds gives a great deal of information upon the large influence exercised by the presence of cloud. In previous Reports a Table (No. IV.) was formed here, showing the decrease of temperature in every 1000 feet; as no additional information at high elevations is given this year, this. Table has not been formed. The results of Table V. of preceding years are included in Table III. of this year. 176 : REPORT—1865. - Tasrr VI.—Showing the Decrease of Temperature with every Dec, 1, Dee. 30, Height, i864. 13864. in feet, above the State of the Sky. level of the sea. a Cloudy tb # & Bee as, 2 ee % 2 ee ee eee ee & 9 & 2 = Oo S o Ss o From To < a a a < ra) a a = a feet. | feet. 5 & A 4900 | 5000 0'5 ol on 4800 | 4900 06 o'r os 4700 | 4800 o4 o'r oe 4600 | 4700 o'4 ol os 4500 | 4600 o'7 ol os 4400 | 45co o°8 o2 a 4300 | 4400 O'S o'2 an 4200 | 4300 06 o'2 ts 4100 | 4200 o's o'2 xs 4000 | 4100 o'4 0°%3 ee 3900 | 4000 O74 o'2 ee 3800 | 3900 O74 oz ee 3700 | 3800 o*4 oz e 3600 | 3700 03 o'r se 3500 | 3600 o%3 ol oe 34.00 | 3500 03 o'2 54 3300 | 3400 03 oz ee 3200 | 3300 o'2 o'2 ee 3100 | 3200 o'2 o2 oo 3000 | 3100 03 03 ee 2900 | 3000 03 03 oe 2800 | 2900 o3 o2 - 2700 | 2800 0°3 o'2 oe 2600 | 2700 o4 o'2 on 2500 | 2600 o%4 o'2 o'2 2400 | 2500 O73 on 03 2300 | 2400 o'4 0% 073 2200 | 2300 o'4 o'4 03 2100 | 2200 o'4 o's 0°%3 2000 | 2100 || 0°3 06 O74 1900 | 2000 || 0°3 06 O'S 1800 | 1900 o"4 06 O'S 1700 | 1800 0°3 o's o'4. 1600 | 1700 o3 o"4 o"4. 1500 | 1600 03 O'S 03 1400 | 1500 03 06 o'2 1300 | 1400 03 06 o'4 1200 | 1300 3 O'5 O'"4 1100 | 1200 0°%3 o'4 o'4 1000 | 1100 o°2 o'4 03 goo | 1000 ||} 02 03 o'7 800 | goo || 03 o'2 o°7 700 800 oz 03 o°5 600 | 700 o'2 3 o'4 500 | 600 2 03 0°5 400 500 || OF o'3 o's 300 | 400 || o'r 03 | O4 200 | 300 oo o4 °° Ico | 200 oro o'4 0'5 © | 100 oo o'4 o's No. of col, 1, 2. 3 4, ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 AND 1865. 177 erease of 100 feet up to 5000 feet. | | General mean (omitting July 17, 1862, August 31, isa ans | Mean. | 1863, Jamia 13, April 6, Suly 13, 20, a7 a and February 27, 1865). State of the Sky. ee ot sa) 1... OO Cloudy. | Cloudy. | Clear, Number Number | | : 7 & of of Space SLaabe % 2 Ae Cloudy. | experi- | Clear. experi- Sembee past | Dosis ieassed: 3 A : ments. ments. |! Mean. expec. | fore. Mean. | oars for a 2 3 3 ments. | decline ments, | decline < a a of 1°. | of 1°. ° ° ° ° ° feet. 5 feet. a Ee “ie ee 0°%3 2 0°%3 20 333 03 12 333 a os 25 on 03 2 o3 20 333 O73 12 333 a ar =i I 0% 2 0% 20 333 03 12 333 ee ee <3 I 0°3 2 0°3 20 333 0°3 12 333 ne eee} orl I o'"4 2 o°%3 21 EA ion MN Ne 2 333 vs Re o'r I o'5 2 o'3 21 333 || of 12 333 ar aie abe I O74 %, 0% 24 333 73 12 333 ee we ats I o"4 % 03 24 333 03 12 333 ee < ot I o'4 oI o%3 24 333 || of 14 333 ory ra or : Ss 2 o°3 25 333 o°%3 14, 333 thea | 4 | agg tegetiae | es) 22 locke | a8 ee ee is 1] F I 2 oe A o'2 2 03 2 ac 27 333 | i a 333 2 oe ate o2 2 o'2 o o3 27 333 o3 %3 333 Ps o2 | of || o2 3 o'2 2 03 28 333 || 03 3 333 3 o°%3 ol o°2 3 o'2 2 0.3 28 333 03 13 333 3 04 | o71 oz 3 o'2 2 0.3 28 333 || 03 13 333 "4 o4 foto) roy 5 o'2 2 03 30 333 || o3 ry 333 °s o'3 o"o o2 5 o"2 2 O73 31 333 || 03 12 333 “6 °3 ol 0% 4 o'2 2 O74 30 250 0°3 12 333 5 03 ol O73 4 o%3 2 o"4 31 25° || 03 12 333 4 oz | oo | o2| 5 03 2 o4 | 31 250 || o3 | a2 | 333 “4 03 or o%3 7 0% 2 o"4 34 259 || 03 12 333 bs 073 ol O73 yi o°3 2 oy 34 250 03 12 333 5 o3 ol o'2 9 0% 2 o'4 27 259 ||} 03 12 333 "4 o"4 ol o2 9 03 2 O74 37 25° || 03 12 333 4 | 04% | o2 02 9 0% 2 o'4 36 259 || 03 12 333 ep oe} 03] 03 | 9 Ck i a o4 | 36 | 2501] o3 | 32 | 333 5'| of | 04 0%3 9 o'4 2 o"4 36 25° || 03 12 333 Fae Or5e| °° 04 04 9 o4 2 o"4 36 250 | 03 12 333 re o'5 06 o'4 7 o'4 2 o4 34. 250 03 12 333 6 o'4 06 03 7 o'4 2 o4 34 25° || 03 12 333 6 o%4 06 03 7 o's 2 o4 36 25° ||. 0°3 12 333 | ‘Sap o4kil: 06 03 7 04 2 o"4 36 259 || 03 12 333 5 | 04 | 06 073 7 o4 2 o4 | 38 2504 of | 1 250 6 See oF?" o3-| 7 o4 | 2 o4 | 38 | 25° || 04 - 250 ‘s "4 o7 03 7 o"4 2 o%4 35 25° o4 Io eae s o°5 o'7 o4 7 0°4. 2 o4 35 250 0°5 Io e's "S o's O'7 03 9 o4 2 o*4 37 25° || o5 | 10 209 5 O74 o'8 03 9 03 2 o'4 37 250 o'5 10 200 “5 o'4 o'7 0%3 9 o%3 2 o4 33 250 o's | 10 2c0 Gero | 06 o'4 9 03 2 0°4 33 250 o°5 10 290 E O4 | 04 03 7 03 2 o4 | 29 25O a ORS 10 zAele ‘6 o'4 0°3 °3 7 03 2 o'4 29 250 o'5 10 200 BE oq Sus! 0°3 7 o°3 = os af 2oe o°5 10 290 ’ 05 04 o'%4 7 o'2 2 o'5 27 200 || o4 10 250 on o2 O'3 4 o'2 2 O5 24 209 o"4 10 259 5 .- ol o'2 4 o'2 2 o°5 24 200 a5 10 200 : oe love) 0%3 4 oz Zz: o's 24 200 o's TO 200 an oo || 03 4 o2 2 o6 | 24 167 || 06 | 10 167 | 178 REPORT—1865. § 6. Varration or tHE HyGRromerric Conprrion or THE Arr with ELevArron. All the adopted readings of the temperature of the dew-point in Section 4 were laid down on diagrams, and joined by lines drawn from one to the other. Tn the case of the temperature of the air, when thus joined, a curved line can be drawn through them, giving equal weight to every observation ; but this cannot be done with respect to the temperature of the dew-point, it being far more variable than the temperature of the air; and the numbers in the fol- lowing Table are those read at every 200 feet, from the diagram formed simply by joining the points of observation. Taste VII.—Showing the Variation of the Hygrometric condition of the Air at every 200 feet of Height. TWENTY-THIRD ASCENT, Humidity of the Air. 1864. : x December 1. Ascending, Descending. ete ghey Between| _. i pies ae Elastic aa) ©¢ |'Between| _. Z ey of Elastic Degree level of the sea. | what pee the dew-| force of | pumi- || what ee the dew-| f2r¢e Of | }.umi- times. point. vapour. dity. times. ‘ point. vapour. dity. 2 in. 5) in. | 5400 150 | 086 | 53 | 15°3 | "087 |. 54 5200 130 | ‘078 | 45 1699 | "093 |. 57 © 5000 I2°I | 074 | 42 18°4 | ‘100 | , 60 4800 14°4 | 083 45 18°5 | ‘100 58 4600 17°8 | ‘097 50 18°7 | "101 59 4400 20°4 | “110 55 I9'I | *103 59 4200 22°0 | "118 54 19°3 | “104 58 4000 23°75.) 027 57 196 | *106 57 3800 gq 25°7 | °139 59 2 17°5 | *096 52 3600 a 28°5 | "156 65 g 15°99 | ‘089 | 48 3400 | 29° "162 66 194 | ‘10 8 00 + s 29°6 | 164 | 66 “ 2 i side 6 3000 a rs «| 29°76 | 164 | 66 BS Bo) 267s) 145 e(> 86 2800 2 b | 296 | 164 | 62 e P| 27°Oslen2 rio Ze 2600 E Ss 30°r | *168 65 ° & a") 39°51 ja Fz7o 83 24.00 & S | 35°0 | 204 | 76 a & | 309 | 173 | 83 2200 4 & 37°6 | -225 81 & 3 31°4. | "176 82 2000 36°9 | ‘219 79 5 g 318 | “179 82 1800 5 36°5 | ‘216 76 S 32°5 | *184 83 1600 Fe 36°9 | *219 72 E 34°7 | ‘207 87 1400 1 a ae 72 36°38 | 218 83 1200 3 37°6.| *225 72 37°20 |, 222 86 1000 38°6 | 234 | 73 39°9 | 238 | 93 800 38°8 | +236 73 39°3 | °240 | ft 600 B75 142233 75 39°5 | *242 89 400 39°5 | °242 | 72 39°99 | 246 | 88 — 200 39°5 | °242 72 40'2 | ‘249 82 9 40°O | °247 74 40°5 | °252 33 December 1.—The temperature of the dew-point on the ground before start= ing was 40°, or 8° below that of the air ; this difference slightlyincreased to 83° at 1600 feet, when the air became more moist, the temperature of the air at 2200 feet being 48°, and that of the dew-point 374°; these temperatures then separated suddenly, the difference between them at 2600 feet being rather more than 11°; this difference remained about the same until 3600 feet were passed, when it began to increase quickly up to 5000 feet, where it was 19°, the temperatures of the air and dew-point being 31°-1 and 12°-1 respectively, the degree of humidity being as low as 42. ‘The air then became somewhat more moist, and the degree of humidity increased to 53 at 5400 feet ; at 5000 feet, on descending, the temperature of the air was 30°, and that of F | . > ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 anp 1865. 179 dew-point 18°-4, showing a difference of 11°-6, which increased gradually to 122° at 4000 feet ; the air then suddenly became much drier, the degree of humidity being 48 at 3600 feet, and the difference between the temperatures of the air and dew-point was 162°. and continued so till the ground was reached. experienced at the height of 1000 feet from the earth. Tasre VII. (continued). Twenty-rounra ASCENT. Humidity of the Air. 1864. December 30. Height, in feet, above the mean level of the sea. 2200 Ascending. Descending. iL at ey = Degree Tempe- . | Degree poaeg Cireum- faves. of Elastic of. ponte BI Circum-|rature of es of dns, | anse: hee fore OF| Mm | cme, pane. de epour | Mam Just out) o in. | ° in. , of cloud.| 30°0 "167 gt 272 | "148 3 Entered cloud. | 30-7 | +172 94 + 28°6 | °137 76 wo | wz . & = fo} a | 23 Se ® Ba aa > 2 |e 4p | os | bt ae A it os os . e 30°0 167 89 E 5 EB 30°2 168 93 5 E = 30°8 | "172 88 30°5 | "170 92 a 30°9 | °173 86 The baljloon th/en ia gro | *174 | 84 turned | to asce/nd. a ep ei 174. 82 EI gra. | *n76 81 ey 314 | 176 | 77 316 | 178 | 75 Misty. | 31°5 | ‘177 72 g2°2) | sro2 7 fe SiS Teal igs 73 bt Fol mes] 74 . 144 | ‘083 | 51 Above | 180 | “098 | 62 | ‘In very | gy oS dense tn Baa cloud, B oS 23°6 | -127 | 86 22°6 | ‘121 | 78 8, | 824 oh a 5 =] a a S £ 3 2670 | “141 94. E 22°9 | "122 92 | 88 | 265 | 144 | 97 || 244 | ‘131 | 35 ay 53 | 2775 | "150 92 os 258" oT 91 a | Just | 28°7 | “158 | 97 B | out or | 272 | 748 | 96 entering Ss cloud, ' FS cloud. | 30rr | *168 | 96 2 27°6. | *151 95 922 | °X82, | LOO ss 28:4 | °156 94 30°5 | *170 92 “ 28°7 | *158 g2 ce] 29'°0 | ‘160 92 B 20°r | ‘160 go | i 294 | ‘162 | go | 29°8 | *166 go 9 300 | "167 | 89 30°0 | *167 85 Theballoon th jen turned | to ascend. 02 The air then became much more moist, The most humid state was 180 RnEPortT—1865. Taste VII. (continued). Twenty-rourrH Ascent (continued). F Humidity of the Air. 1864. Dec. 30 (cont.) Ascending. f Descending. Height, in feet, -e th Tempe- -, | Degree Tempe-| p Degree Pate the ' eat pane # Circum-|rature of, plate of Peines iy Circa eae of, pete : of | dines. | tances: "hedew-yapour| Mui | mes, [stan he dev- vapour | HU a in. 5 in. 2800 29°8 | ‘166 84 .| 3070 | *167 85 2600 = 29°5 | *163 80 30°74 | *170 83 24.00 a 5 29°8 | 166 80 jor | *168 83 2200 ane ms 29°77 | °165 80 Sy ty | 30°r | 1168 82 2000 4 S 3 30°0 | °167 80 2 Oren] ZOrs et =170 83 1800 a § ra gery | “37g” | Sgt es 2 | gos) S170 Sz 1600 Sisk . Cy eA ell Gn (3 84. +. oe | 395-176 82 1400 Ea | 8 B0°7 iri, 81 is S 30°5 | “170 82 1200 a | f& | 307 |\172 | 83 33] & | 30°9 | ‘173 82 1000 oy 3077 | °172 | 81 : 30°7 | 172 | 81 800 | 30°8 | °172 82 30°2 | +168 79 600 sof 456 soe Be "164 77 400 tide a eee 3°5 | “192 86 | | Thebal loon then | turned |to ascejnd. 1200 F : 34°5 | “199 go le ty | 3471 | “196 87 1000 | o& 3 34°6 | ‘200 go eae & | 340 *196 87 800 Seah Sat ote. tees | 2! teu Bl 3 33°8 | "194 | 86 Goo =f n| & | 35° | 204 | 89 | eS) go | 33°99 | “195 | 85 goo «6 2s| Q | 3570 | 204 | 89 owe Bi 2 | 33°8 | 194 | 84 200 “ol a 507 sa meet ill ey ue & | 336 | +193 $4 ° ees tee vow |] 34°4 | “199 86 December 30.—The temperature of the dew-point on the evicted was 34°°9, and the heeety 74, the former decreasing to 313° at 600 feet, where the humidity was 72; the dew- -point then varied but little, and much less than the temperature of the air, so that the degree of humidity increased to the height of 2400 feet, then was smaller at 2600 feet. The balloon descended oiee to 2000 feet, then turned to ascend; the air continued humid till 3200 feet was passed ; the degree of humidity at this point was 94; above this point the air was much drier. During the subsequent successive ascents and descents the air in the lower atmosphere was found to be very humid. February 27.—The temperature of the dew-point on the earth was 38°, or | 14°-3 below that of the air, the air being consequently unusually dry, and particularly so for February, the degree of humidity being 59 only. On ascending, the air gradually became more moist, till the height of 3200 feet in the centre of cloud, where the degree of humidity was 78. On leaving the cloud below, the air became drier, and was the driest at 5000 feet high, where it was 37. On descending, the air was much drier down to 2600 feet than at corresponding heights during the ascent. No cloud was passed through, and at lower elevations the air was more moist than in the ascent. On ascending again through cloud, and descending also through cloud, the results were very similar to those noted in the first ascent, the most humid states being those in the cloud, which in the last descent were found but little short of saturation. ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 Anp 1865. 181 Taste VII. (continued.) TWENTY-FIFTH ASCENT. Humidity of the Air. 1865. : 7 = February 27. Ascending. | Descending. | | | Height, in feet, tir Tempe-) pastic | Degree lp t Tempe- pyacti een shore the mean /Betv] 25-7, Wy 127 46 3600 =| Ss 2726.4): HST 75 S 25°5 | "138 50 3400 Ae 2 eee ee 2774 | "149 | 55 3200 -e 29°3 | “162 78 = | Ona | 28°6 | +157 59 3000 Ney 296 | 164 | 74 || & pe 28°8 | 158 | 60 2800 a | 29°7'| 165 | 72 uF |elonds.| 29°0 | "160 61 2600 Bie | Zoom |r67-|-/69)/*||) “ov fame]. 304 UP s1 70" || 66 2400 8, | Below | 312 | 175 | 69 || & | BgO¥| 32°6 | 185 | 69 2200 ‘9 | cloud. | 32°2 | 182 | 69 || % | tevel of | 34°9 | "203 | 73 2000 io 32°7 | 186 | 68 || w« | cloud. | 33°99 | °195 | 70 1800 g 33°3 | “190 66 || “3 33°38 | "194 70 1600 E 33°38 |*194 | 65 || BD 33°7 | 193 | 69 1400 33°8 | *194 64 B 3372) 192 69 1200 33°4 | "191 62 334 | ‘I91 69 1000 33°4 | 191 60 34°5 | "199 70 800 33°77 | 193 } 60 34°0 | *196 69 600 34°0 | "196 | 57 344 | ‘199 | 66 400 34°7 | “201 57 35°3 | ‘206 | 67 200 37:6" | 1225 | "Gor || Theballoon then ° 380 | ‘229 | 59 turned to ascend. : | 3600 In_ | 30°0 | *167-| 87 In 30°5 | "170 | ox 34c0 . cloud. | 28-6 | *1 57 81 cloud. 30°9 "173 94 3200 gq | 28°5 | 156 80 30°2 | *168 91 3000 ae or 29°7 | 165 79 = | 31°0 | "174 94 2800 Q is 30°70 | +167 78 z In 310 | "174 94. 2600 E = 30°3 | "169 78 § | cloud. | 31°9 | “180 97 2400 Ee. S 310 | °174 79 we 314 | 176 | 92 = atid 4, JOO" | 173) 77 $ | Below. | 31° | “174 | 87 Been ° Ws VED GAS @ | coud. | 30°r 168 | 83 1800 = malar ote =| 175 71 ES 29'2) | 1638 79 1600 o cloud. | 31°3 | “176 68 mS 30°0 = *167 78 3400 a, 344 | 176 | 65 °. 310 17474, 1200 6 32°70 | 181 66 5 32:0 9) “ESL ae Toco a 32°7 | 186 | 65 bE | 331 188 | 71 800 3 33°4 | “19t 66 . 33°83) 194 | 73 6co 2 34°0 | "196 | 66 | 344 | "199 | 72 4co i 34°8 | -2c2 | 66 36°0 | :212 | 74, 200 36°6 | -217 74, 2 373 | 223 | 76 ; The numbers in this Table having been found from experiments taken at different times in the year, and under different circumstances from those in previous years, can scarcely be combined with them, till we know more about 182 REPORT—1865. the general laws at the different seasons of the year. I defer for the present making any further use of them, particularly as their combination would not change the general Tables previously found, Taste VIII.—Showing the Degree of Humidity at every 200 feet. Dec. 1, 1864. December 30, 1864. February 27, 1865. Mean, State of the Sky. eee Laird Cloudy. Cloudy. cae Cloudy.’ : level of 2 the sea. ed | 3 to «| eo] . | eb] .| eo} | el : th > to a P| 8 |elele jelele/elei # | € | ¢ | & ie =) = s1sig |B) e182 S 3S 8 - 2 S < A |lzlale lalZlalziall 3 A 4 A |lélgls feet. 5400 53 G4. | nvelene| cnn Jeceleeelece|ooe]oee «00/53 5200 45 57 |leveleee| ene |evelecelece|eeelene eee / hI 5000 42 GO |eee)eee] eee |eeeleeef eee) eee lens 37 37 37| 2/51 4800 45 58 47 39 43) 2/51 4600 5° 59 : 51 AI » 46] 2/5412 4400 55 59 52 39 46] 2\57|2 4200 54 58 wnels gehts > 60 41 50) 2/56) 2 4000 57 57 slerelere 71 42 56) 2\57/2 38co 59 | 52 ee) 74 | 46 60} 2155/2 3600 65 48 se] 85 1\62)---|... 75 50 87 gt ||69| 6|56)2 34.00 66 58 86/78)...]... || 77 55 81 94 |I78 6)62 2 3200 66 66 94192)...» 78 59 80 gi ||82| 6,66) 2 3000 66 86 91|85)...|.. 74 ° 79 94 ||80} 6/76) 2 2800 62 79 92/91|84)85)...|..- 72 61 78 94 [82] 8)70l2 2600 65 83 |/91/83| 91/96|80|83)...]... 69 66 78 97 ||83|10\74| 2 2400 76 83 |\94)76, 96 95 80)/83....)... 69 69 79 92 ||82\10/79] 2 2200 81 82 ||89'93 100 94 80/82. 69 73 1 87 ||84\r0.81)2 2000 79 82 ||/88)\92| 92\/92)80/83)...]... 68 7° 74. 83. |/82|10|8o} 2 1800 76 83. ||86 +++ 192/83/82)...]... 66 70 71 79 |\|79| 8/80\2 1600 72 87 |/84 190|84/82)...]... f 65 69 68 78 \I77| 8\79\|2 1400 72 83 |/82 \90|81/82)...]...]) 64 69 65 74 ||76| 8/78) 2 1200 q2 86 |/8r g0|81/82,90/87|, 62 69 66 72 ||\78|10)79| 2 1000 73 93 ||77 89/81/81 90/87), 60 70 65 71 |I177|10|83)2 800 73 gt ||75 85/82|79 91/86), bo 69 66 71 |!76|10/82\ 2 600 75 89 (/|72 77)89|85|| 57 66 66 72 \173) 8/82)2 400 72 88 |\71 7680/84! 57 67 66 74 173} 8\80)2 200 72 SPAN Ge eee] eee Be ea on $4|| 60 74 (|172| 4:77|2 ° 74 SBP ZAI se-lee|sbcleee|see| aoe 86) 59 76 |\72| 4/78) 2! te 2. em He tO: Osage OO Lethe. 13. 14. 15. 16.17.18.1 The numbers in this Table show, as in all similar experiments at all times in the year, that the moisture in the air is very different at the same eleyation _ at different times ; and that the moisture on the same day was differently dis- | tributed over different places. The most remarkable in this Table is that of — the first descent on February 27, the balloon having ascended through clouds, descended through a break in the clouds, and then ascended and descended — again through clouds, showing a marked difference at the same elevation in the degree of humidity of the air. These results are too few, and having been deduced from experiments made at a different season of the year from those previously made, had better be left till more winter ascents have been _ made to combine with them. : ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 anv 1865. 183 § 7. Compartson or THE TEMPERATURE OF THE DEW-POINT, AS DETERMINED BY DIFFERENT [NSTRUMENTS AND MurHops, AND CoMPARISON oF THEIR ResvLts TOGETHER. Taste [X.—Showing the Temperature of the Dew-point, as determined at about the same height by different instruments and methods, and compa- rison of the results together. Under 1000 feet. Dew-point’ ‘Temperature of the dew-point as deter- temperatures. mined by Calculated Observed Dry and Wet (free) Dry and Wet s f b h (aspirated) 3 rom y above that by above that by Be. Date. Height.| as 55 tes ° So Po BO] BA g z g 5 | bas Poles lee (Se lee | wt }Se1 ot) aateee (a) =} ue — P= 2 1 2 o xo me pe jpg | se| BS] es | ee | Be] EP | EB Ig A A~ |} Az | am oO” |Aam |am |] am] am la d hm feet. ° oO. ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° Dee. 1 © o ground] 404] .. | 402] .. +o°2 I I5 (ground! 39°1 4O°o | 1s. —o'9 2 30 |ground) 400 4o'o|] 4o°o]} . oo} o'o Mee; 39 2 55 S65 | 320 sen ASSES +. |—0'%4 Feb. 27 1 52 /ground} 380 Fetal tee) -- |+3°8 258 | 957 | 347 35°90] -- |] -. |—0%3 3 6 605 | 33°8 BAO | aie -. |—o'2 3 10 377 | 344 +. 32°0 oe |+2°4 3 14 779 | 340 | we) 193410 fu) cig ie) 3.24 | 742 | 332] -- | 340] . —o8 From 1000 to 2000 feet. Mee 30 2 51Z | 1256 | 308}... | ws 4 ee) | Or Heb. 27 3.38 | 1148 | 33°3 33°0 - |+o%3 From 2000 to 3000 feet. Meares) 3057 | 2662 | 28:5] ...| 28:0] .. -» |+0°5 i 4 0 | 2691 | 30°77] .-- | 30°0] .. ee [+07 Dec. 30 2 22 | 2634 | 30°0| .. «2 | 28'0|| « =) (ptzee 244 | 2219 | 29°6| «2 | 300] .. «- |—0'%4 Heb. 27 247 | 2382 | 33:1| «- ss 11 3350 -. jor Bao i230 913358 f= 't | Bar Olin: cE 7 3 35 2271 | 31°9| -- | 30°5] o- oe [IG 184 REPORT—1865. Taste IX. (continued). From 3000 to 4000 feet. Dew-point | Temperature of the dew-point as deter- eS temperatures. | mined by | Dry and Wet} 5 Calculated Observed Dry and Wet (free) bin g : from by above that by Bae I 2. Date. Height. | Se ic bal S| cect MS let Silleed nee eee PA Pee! oS | ae || 28 lao (se | me | sare ieee, w2|)es |2—/38 ) 22|S8 | 8a 158138 see aS/ee8/ S82) 88) eh) Se) 82 | Se) ge |e P| Ps | ge) BS ee | oe eevee ieee A A~ | Aq | az AW | AM |/mm | am | amg iA ae x “=. Waal | d h m| feet. s 6 a a Mee _ 6 é 5 z Mee. X 3 46 | 3470 | 22°75) 05. | 215) ss «e {+10 3 52 | 3744. | 2010) -. | 2o'O|}) «. | foe) 354k 3240. | 2AsTalammie | 2'5°O'l | —0°%3 Dee. 30 2 334735) | 12°2)) 988 | 15°0)! x4s0}|| cag] —2°8 |— 18 Feb. 27 3 45 | 3521 | 30°0| +. | 30°5 —o'5 3.46 | 3415 | 31°0| -- | 30°7] .. +. [+03 3.48 | 3042 | 310] -- oe | 30°5 +s |-or5 From 4000 to 5000 feet. Dee. x 2 50'| 4222 | 23°8| 2.5 | 20°0| o> os |+3°8 3.15) 4496 | 056) S00] 1570} Se ++ |--0°6 3. 14| 4766") 22°) 2." | 160)! 6s «+ |+6:0 3.17 | 4951 | 16°5] .. | Ig°0| .«. » |—2°5 3.49 | 4170 | 1570] .. +» | 15°0) a5 oo Fob. 27 2°73 4418 | 20°9| -. | 185] .. | +2°4 2 11 | 4737 | 21°6| .. +s | IQ'O] os «+ |4+2°6 2317 | A965 | X6Or| «s | TSO] 5. | +11 | 2 27 | 4828 | 13'0| «. +. | 15°0 5 2. |—2°0 2 34 | 4408 | 167} .. | 17°0] .. —0'3|- 2 343/ 4408 | 17°7| .. ++ | 1670} .. e. [+17 i J { } From 5000 to 6000 feet. Dec Le 2585/5320 are estan cd | os 43 | | | | — - es Es ee Taste X, Excess of Temperature of the Dew- point as determined by Dry and Wet Thermometers (free) above that observed by Heights between 5 A = 5 n se | 3a 3 ee ro) cage) ro} a 3 anes 3 Am A o-tes) A feet. _ feet. . EB o and 10co | —0% 7 +14 4 TO00)4),, -2Cco eee ale +03 2 2CCOM Es -4CCO 4 1-015 5 +1'o 2 3000 ,, 4000] —o4 | 6 —o'6 2 4000 ,, 50c0 +16 Ti +0°6 4 5§coo ,, 6oco —4qs8 | 1 | | | | | | | | ese ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 anp 1865. 185 Taste XI.—Simultancous readings of a delicate blackened-bulb thermometer fully exposed to the sun’s rays, and of a delicate thermometer carefully shaded from the influence of the sun, the bulbs of the two instruments being within 3 inches of each other. December 1, 1864. Height Temperature of Excess of : "a above reading of Pee es obser mean Shaded |Blackened- Blackened- Remarks, : sea-level. | Thermo- jbulb Ther-|bulb Ther- meter. mometer. | mometer. hm s feet. emetic. ground, 46°2 56°0 +9°8 Sun shining. 115 op.m.|ground,| 46:8 56°0 +9'2 ya IA 890 47°2 47°0 —o'2 | Sun shining brightly. ar O° "5 1618 45°0 44°5 —o’s5 | Sun shining brightly. BG. tO”) 3570 39°5 40°0 +or5 | Sun warm, 5t 0 5 | 4324 38°0 39°0 +10 55 Oo » 4742 35°0 35°5 +0°5 | 3.5 Oo » | 4496 312 ayo | 18 9 O° » | 4128 33°5 29°5 —40 14 0 5, | 4766 32°2 31°5 —o7 7 Oe ',, 4951 310 31°0 foure) zy ,O. 1s 5122 29°8 30°0 +02 43 0 5, 3973 33°0 33°0 oro December 30, 1864. 2 34 30p.m.| 3589 | 29°0 29°0 | o'o 39 O » 797 34°5 34°5 | oro A2L. O° 5, 1669 3575 a5°5 | o'o 437 Oo 5 1929 Sis) eye Oo) February 27, 1865. 1 58 op.m.| ground oe 52°0 58 20 ,, 176 514 5270 +0°6 / pO. » 474 49°5 eS +270 | Bamb 30 4040 34°8 3570 +o-2 | Sun shining faintly. | 280 , | 4847 | 38% 33°3 +o'2 40 0 , 4734 412 45°0 +3°3 | : es 42°90 43°5 +1°5 | Sun hot to sense. 42 0 4332 42ZO '\" 43°75 ara 2 45 0 5 3274 420 | 425 o's Zon 0 ,, 2330 48 410 —o8 R640. 5 644 460 46:0 | foie) 186 REPORT—1865. December 1, 1864, Observations of the time of vibration of Evans’s Magnet and Glaisher’s Magnet, Evans’s and Glaisher’s Magnet. Place of Height Are of vibration. | yfean ti 1864. observation. | aes Nook vis amimelocs of vibration brations in| cupiedin | At eom- from each | Magnet. each set. | each set. | mence. | At | Set of ob- agate end. |Servations. h feet. 8 ° = s Dee. 1. 2 48 [In Balloon.| 3600 28 45°2 ie -» | 1614 |Glaisher, B52 5 4200 50 119°5 60 5 | 2°390 |Hvans. 2 56 “F 4800 20 50°0 100 Se 2°500 53 2 56+ a3 4800 28 68°4 120 aia 2553 + ae . 5000 34. 562 Adv Nee 1°653 |Glaisher. Bie y 50c0 10 23°2 TQ 4 eg 2°320 |Evans. a7 5 4100 30 50°5 80 | .. | 17683 |Glaisher. 3 Iz ‘ 4300 40 93°3 60 at 2°333 |Hvans. 3 16 ” 4900 20 42°2 10 Ar 2°110 5 3 20 rr 5000 52 123°8 go I 2°381 or 3 30 cf 4500 10 24°1 TOO | a.) sata 5 3 37 +3 5000 58 140°0 100 [oa |) Peas a 3 47 » 3600 20 47°3 go | ++ | 27365 » 1z o |Blackheath. 160 80 165°2 5a Inve, | 2005 S 6 oe 60 124°4. 50 alg 2°073 55 7 is 38 550 Bo dee 1448 |Glaisher. or ste 40 67°2 50 AA 1680 vy A te 20 32°2 50 3 1610 a Dee. 2. Royal Ob- servatory. 160 30 5970 25 3.| 1967 |Evans. as os 10 19°8 27 5 1'980 = 7 nc 40 819 113 38 2°O47 5 +4 3h 20 40°2 40 8 2°010 x :, a0 Io 15°3 80 2] 1°§30 |Glaisher. » aap 30 47°3 160 | 30 | 1°577 » A AD 20 31°38 150 6 1*590 Kc 5 ae 10 15°5 aq | Go | 1550 ‘5 re a 20 1? . 150 50 1°56 1865. 313 5 3 595 ” Feb. 27. In Balloon.} 4900 40 89°9 100 | 20] 2°247 |Evans. * 4800 38 87°7 15O | 50 | 2:907 7" South Han- ningfield. 110 50 100° 150 | 10 | 2°c02 a * Pe 50 100° 140 | 10 | 27000 is } ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 anp 1865. 187 Herents AND APPEARANCE OF THE CLoUDs. December 1, 1864. Before starting the sky was cloudy. At 3" 50™ p.m., at 3968 feet, the setting sun illuminated the topmost part of a dark stratus cloud with a very deep orange-colour; not a clovid in the sky above altitude 15°. December 30, 1864. At 2" 15™ p.m., at 602 feet. Misty all round. At 28 19™ 458 p.m., at 2355 feet. Approaching cloud, At 2" 21™ p.m., at 2532 feet. Entered cloud. At 2" 23™ 308 p.m., at 2699 feet. Just out of cloud. At 28 28™ p.m., at 2215 feet. Approaching cloud. At 27 28™ 308 p.m., at 2552 feet. Just entering cloud. At 2" 28™ 45* p.m., at 2687 feet. Passed into cloud and lost sight of every- thing. At 2" 30™ p.m., at 3228 feet. Cloud dense and cold. At 2" 31™ p.m., at 3424 feet. The sky was of a beautiful prussian-blue colour, with a beautiful sea of cloud below of varied surface, bright and shining. At 2" 34™ 40* p.m., at 3550 feet. In a very dense cloud. At 2” 35™ 30° p.m., at 2570 feet. Out of cloud below. February 27, 1865. At 25 3™ 30° p.m., at 3074 feet. In cloud. At 2" 4™ p.m., at 3333 feet. In a white cloud. At 2" 5™ 30° p.m., at 3850 feet. We are in cloud: the clouds below are moying much more quickly than we are. At 2" 7™ 30° p.m., at 4418 feet. The clouds below appear to be moving N. At 2" 8™ 30° p.m., at 4647 feet, The clouds below are moving at right angles to us. At 2" 9" 30° p.m., at 4737 feet. Clouds haye avery fine purple tinge over a very beautiful even surface. At 2" 27™ 30° p.m., at 4840 feet. Clouds very high above us. At 2" 45™ p.m., at 3274 feet. Clouds on our level. - At 3" 1™ 30° p.m., at 1075 feet. Upper clouds moving as before. At 3° 38™ 30° p.m., at 2659 feet. In haze. _ At 3" 39™ p.m., at 2965 feet. In thicker haze. At 3" 40™ p.m., at 3149 feet. In cloud. At 3° 41™ p.m., at 3149 feet. Still in cloud. - At 3" 43™ p.m., at 3190 feet. Misty. At 3" 44™ 30° p.m., at 3440 feet. In cloud. At 3" 45™ p.m., at 3521 feet. In fog. At 3° 46™ p.m., at 3415 feet. In cloud. At 3" 49™ p.m., at 2650 feet. Out of cloud. Drrection oF THE WIND. December 1, 1864. On the ground the wind was from the W.N.W., light and variable. On the ground at 1"15™ p.m., a pilot balloon first moved W., and after- wards N.W. y 188 At 3° 33™ p.m., at 4541 feet. reaching 1000 feet, moving N. At 3"56™ p.m., at 2830 feet. moved 8. REPORT—1865. At 2 40™ p.m., at 1230 feet. At 2°57™ p.m., at 5038 feet. The balloon entered a S.W. current. The wind was W.N.W. Smoke near the earth moving §8., but after The wind was W.N.W. The smoke below February 27, 1865. On the ground before starting the wind was from the §. At 2" 1™ 30° p.m., at 1543 feet. At 2" 7™ 305 p.m., at 4418 feet. At 2" 25" p.m., at 4828 feet. S.W. At 3° 32™ 30° p.m., at 2148 feet. The wind was 8. W. The wind was W. Entered a more southerly current, about Changed direction, moving W., I think. On tHE Propacation or Sounp. December 1, 1864. At 3° 49™ p.m., at 4170 feet. At 3"°58™ p.m., at 2536 feet. At 4"6™ p.m., at 1804 feet. At 4° 7" p.m., at 1759 fect. Heard voices. Heard a clock stricke 4" plainly. Heard many voices. Can hear cries of “ come down.” February 27, 1865. At 2° 1™p.m., at 877 feet. Bells sound very clearly. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. December 1, 1864. At 2" 38™ 308 p.m., at 644 feet. At 2° 39™ 30° p.m., at 890 feet. At 2" 42™ p.m., at 1831 feet. ceptible vibration ; every rope vibrating ; At 2" 43” p.m., at 2248 feet. At 2" 46™p.m., at 3570 feet. At 2" 54™p.m., at 4630 feet. At 2" 59™ p.m., at 5328 feet. stinctly visible. At 3° 9™ p.m., at 4128 feet. At 3 15™ p.m., at 4909 feet. ford. At 3° 17" p.m., at 4951 feet. At 3" 33™ p.m., at 4541 feet. At 3° 34™ p.m., at 4805 feet. over Cobham Park. At 3" 46™ p.m., at 3470 feet. At 3" 52™ p.m., at 3744 feet. At 3" 53™ p.m., at 3744 fect. At 3" 59™ p.m., at 2497 feet. A gun fired; felt the shock. Sun shining brightly. Report of proving guns at Woolwich; per- and every instrument shaking. Opened the valve ; nearly opposite Belvedere. Sun warm. Between Erith and Belvedere. Nearly opposite Erith; hills and dales di- Sand out. A little to the right, or nearly over Dart- Moving towards Cobham Park. South of Greenhithe. In a line with Northfleet ; we shall pass A chill to sense ; sand thrown out. A sudden chill again. Sand thrown out. Sand again thrown out. ON THREE BALLOON ASCENTS IN 1864 anp 1865. 189 At 4" 1™ p.m., at 2691 feet. Saw a railway train. At 4" 2" p.m., at 2847 feet. A great deal of moisture on the balloon. At 4" 3™ p.m., at 2744 feet. Nearly south of Gravesend. At 4" 8™ p.m., at 1644 feet. Cobham Park. At 4" 9™ p.m., at 1550 feet. Moist to sense. At 4" 13" p.m., at 1381 feet. Moisture almost dropping from the balloon. At 4" 14" p.m., at 1280 feet. Approaching the Medway. At 4" 15™ p.m., at 1394 feet. Ascending to a higher current to cross the river. At 4" 17™ p.m., at 1532 feet. We can see Rochester Bridge and Castle. At 4" 33" p.m. On the ground at Delce Farm near Rochester. December 30, 1864. At 2* 16™ 30° p.m., at 1020 feet. Cold. At 2" 19™ 30° p.m., at 2310 fect. Dropped the grapnel. At 2" 23™ 30° p.m., at 2699 feet. Just over the wall of the river. At 2" 24" p.m., at 2641 feet. At least 150 vessels in sight. At 2" 26™ p.m., at 2301 feet. Our course is taking each bight of the river. At 2" 27™ 15% p.m., at 2019 feet. Sand out. At 2" 28™ p.m., at 2215 feet. Cold to sense. At 2" 29™ p.m., at 2822 feet. Very cold. At 2" 29™ 45% p.m., at 3128 feet. Much lighter; very cold. At 2" 32” 15° p.m., at 3580 feet. Sun brighter. At 2" 34™ p.m., at 3610 feet. Sun obscured in mist. At 2" 34 40° p.m., at 3522 feet. In a yery dense cloud. At 2" 36™ p.m., at 2133 feet. Falling quickly, revolving in two minutes. At 2 38™ p.m., at 837 feet. We are about a mile north of Purfleet. At 2" 41™ 30° p.m., at 1369 feet. Moving towards Sea Reach. At 2" 58™ 30° p.m., at 670 feet. Sand thrown out. At 3°3™p.m., at 1116 feet. Moving direct for Sea Reach ; we must come down if we do not change our direction. At 3" 6" p.m., at 186 feet. Packed up all the instruments, cleared the tops of some trees, and came down within a mile of the river, near the Rail- way Station at Stanford-le-Hope. At 3" 10" p.m. On the ground. February 27, 1865. At 1°58" p.m. We left the earth. At 2" p.m,, at 767 feet. Over the river. At 2" 1™ 30° p.m., at 1085 feet. Sun obscured by cloud. At 2° 2" 30° p.m., at 1851 feet. Moving towards Barking Creek. At 2" 3™ 30° p.m., at 3074 feet. Cold. At 2" 5™ p.m., at 3632 feet. Faint gleams of light. At 2" 5™ 30° p.m., at 3851 feet. Over water. At 2" 6™ 30° p.m., at 4040 fect. Sun shining faintly. At 2" 9™ 30° p.m., at 4737 feet. Over Barking level ; Tilbury line to our left, or N. At 2" 11™ p.m., at 4737 feet. Sensibly warmer. - At 2" 12" 30° p.m., at 4875 feet. Over Dagenham Marsh. At 2" 24™ p.m., at 4828 feet. Lowered grapnel. At 2" 25” p.m., at 4828 feet. Entered a more southerly current about 8. W. At 2" 34™ p.m., at 4408 feet. Must come down. 190 REPORT—1865. At 2" 36™ p.m., at 4517 feet. At 2" 37™ p.m., at 4580 feet. Moving along Sea Reach. At 2" 41™ 30° p-m., at 4600 feet. Sun hot. At 2 42™ p.m., at ‘4538 feet. Opened valve. At 3° 5™ p.m., at 926 feet. Neck of balloon tied up. At 3® 29™ pm., at 1375 feet. 12 miles from Chelmsford. At 3" 38™ p.m., at 2560 feet. Water looks like polished steel. At 3" 38™ 30° p.m., at 2659 feet. Country brightened up by the sun. At 3° 39™ p.m., at '2965 feet. We have only one bag of ballast. At 3" 45™ 30° pm., at 3652 feet. Opened valve ; only one bag of ballast Sun again bright. left. At 3" 59™ 30° p.m., at 70 feet. Just over some trees. At 4" 1™ p.m. On the ground at South Hanningfield. December 1, 1864.—Royat OnservaTory, GREENWICH. Meteorological Observations made in connexion with the Balloon Ascent on . , Reading of f eet be it $ Temp.| Ten- |Degree Direc So B | ee ot Barom,| Thermom. obey Amal ee tion of E Ss Bs Remarks. reduced point. | pour. | dity. wind. r= eal is) 6 a to 32°F.) Dry. | Wet. |58 Each spot has an aren of 33 square | males, the rain gauae | being we the centre. Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. (2) Those who are willing to help on the completion of the collection will see at once what I have, and what I haye not ; and thereby they will be saved much needless copying and I much corre- spondence. A barren index, however, throws little light on the history of rainfall-in- vestigations. Before entering on this I desire to meet at the very outset an objection sometimes raised, viz., that we cannot trust very old observations, and therefore 1 may be busy collecting useless materials. I maintain that we can trust them, and have the pleasure of knowing that my friend Mr. _ Glaisher fully agrees with me on this point. I think them far more reliable than many modern ones ; for in the 17th and early part of the 18th century, to measure the fall of rain was esteemed a serious undertaking, only to be accomplished by first-class men. The repeated reference to the height of their gauges, their diameter, and the number of pounds and ounces troy cor- responding to an inch of rain over the area of the “tunnel” of their gauges, and the details frequently given, combine to render it certain that they took every reasonable precaution to secure accuracy. The ‘results they obtained, and which they would hardly credit, we of the 19th century know to be just what was due to the situation of the gauges. Another point to be remem- bered is this :—it is not intended to use any old observations in determining the absolute mean fall at any place, or, in other words, in determining the geo- graphical distribution of rain; that will be done from recent observations with tested instruments. The old observations will only be used for determining the existence or otherwise of secular variation, and for that purpose an in- accurate gauge would do as well as a perfect one. The earliest observations I have yet obtained are those of Mr. Townley, of Townley in Lancashire, extending (with two intervals) from a.p. 1677 to 1705, or twenty-eight years. Mr. Townley believed his to.be the first made in England ; I do not feel sure that they were so. The.only: other observer in the 17th century whose observations have yet been obtained was the Rev. W. Derham, of Upminster, near Romford in Essex, who began in March 1696, and has left a series of yearly totals (months also for some years) for nine- teen years. v The longest and most perfect record at present obtained was kept by Thomas Barker, Esq., of Lyndon in Rutland; it extends from 1736 to 1794, or fifty-nine years. It is doubtful if so long a record will ever again be kept by one person, with one gauge, and without interruption. From Table I. it will readily be seen how sudden and great has been the increase of observers during the last thirty years, and especially during the last five, in which one finds the results of the recent grants of this Associa- : tion. From 1677 to 1800 the returns never number more than twenty-six perannum, and averaged only four ; and in subsequent ten-yearly periods the numbers average, up to 1810, 15; to 1820, 21; to 1830, 40; to 1840, 103; to 1850, 178; to 1860, 366; and at the present time the returns number rather more than a thousand. It is right to mention that no records have yet been obtained for 1687 and 1688, 1694 to 1696, 1717 to 1721, 1724 and 1725, since which time there is no year without one or more complete registers; that is to say, rain-records go back complete 140 years, and with intervals about fifty years more, or nearly 200 years altogether. ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 193 | | | 1865. : } | 194 REPORT—1865. Taste I. ; Number of Records obtained for each year frorh 1677 to 1864. Total in each Number. Number. 3 ots 3 Year. | & 2 ; aq Year. | & : Bal: ecb gfe! |2 ey Be) 2| El a5\2|2| 2 |z83 as|2|4| a ah. id eed, a Pie ee ie 1677. 1 A i 1720. 3 1678. 1 ; 1 1721. its 1679. 1 3 1 1722. 1 1 — 3 || 1723. 1 1 1680. | 1 : 1 OAs eacxe 7“ 1681. | 1 : 1 (VR eR Be 1682. 1 4 ; 1 1726. 1 i 1683. 1 a ib 1727. 1 1 1684. 1 - : 1 1728. 1 1 1685. i - * 1 1729. 3 3 1686. | 1 ; ; 1 — pC Sor Pee arms a she 1730. 3 Se 3 1688. | .. fy is 1731. 3 1 4 1689. 1 ae it 17382. 4 1 5 e —- 8 || 1733. 4 1 5 1690, 1 1 1734. 5 1 6 1691. il 1 1735. 4 1 5 1692. 1 1 1736. 2 = 2 1693. 1 1 1737. 2 2 TGA li is « aC 1738. 2 2 1695. | .. dim 1739. 2 2 1696. | .. wie — 1697. 2 2 1740. ik 1 1608" | 2 2 1741. | 1 1 1699. | 2 2 1742. | 1 1 10 || 1743. 1 1 1700. 2 < 2 i 1744 1 1 1701. 2 z 2 1745. 1 1 1702. 2 : 2 1746. 1 1 1703. 2 2 1747. if u 1704. il 1 1748. 1 ak 1705. i! 1 1749. 2 2 1706. | 1 1 —— 1707. 1 ef! 1750. 2 , 2 1708. i i 1751. 2 . 2 1709. 1 ‘ ; 1 1752. 2 : 2 —_— 14 || 1758. 2 . 2 1710. 1 F 1 1754. 2 2 1711. 1 . 1 1755. 2 2 1712. il : > 1 1756. 2 2 1713. 1 “ 1 1757. 2 2 1714. 1 ; I! 1758. 2 2 1715. 1 1 1759. 2 2 1716. 1 j 1 — al ee ae z ot 1760. | 2 2 TVA Kepeal Ka - 1761. 2 2 ALOE ete : : 1762. 3 3 —-~ 7 || 1763. 1 1 decennial pe- riod. PPE bea ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 195 3 ag sg 2) Year. | 3 ¥ . a4 Year. | & | : 3 om) 7 < 3B 3 2 uo) : =| ‘Ss as =I so i aa f=] Lm] = eP| =| 3) 2/282 er| 2 | 2) 2 /g82 a Sat Ss ia a ot oe tee tee 1764. | 1 = it 1815. 8} 10; 1 19 1765. 2 1 3 1816. 11 LOW > Re 21 1766. | 4 1 6 S07; |. d4, | Dh) fab 26 1767. | 9 i 10 STS shied Gal ll el: 28 1768. | 5 1 6 1819. | 17} 11] 1 29 1769. | 4 1 5 ———_| 209 ——| 39//1820.; 22; 11] 1 34 NZ702 2 1 3 1821. | 25 a eal I 35 74..|; 2 2 4 1822. | 24 9; 1 34 a7. .| 2 2 4 1823, | 24 9} 2 35 G7OS |o2 6 8 1824.} 27} 10| 2 39 1774. | 4 6 10 TSO5: Vie2Sqepl a! Vb 41 1775. 5 ri 12 1826. 32 9 1 42 1776. | 5 fe 12 TBE 32) | 12. | 45 Mgiites| 5 12 AS28 ral) role ohbul a 47 1778. | 7 3 10 TSAO See al eG, ee 49 1779. | 6 3 9 i——_| 401 ——| 84 //1830.| 37; -19] 1 57 1780. | 6 3 9 18315 |er46)) “25:| ol 72 1781. | 7 2 9 1So2.e bes) ele w 84 1782. | 8 2 10 L8334}-—G) |" 324}-—L 93 1783. 7 2 9 1834, 63 33 1 97 1784. | 10 i an! 1835. | 64] 42| 3 | 109 M76; | 11 3 14 1836. al 49 3 1 P33 1786. | 11 2 Te 1837. | 81) 45| 4 | 180 1787. | 14 2 16 1838. | 90| 39] 6 | 185 1788. | 17 4 21 1839. 88 36 5 129 1789. | 18 3 21 ——/| 1029 ——| 133 |1840.|} 95] 38] 6 | 1389 1790. | 19 5 a: 24 1841. |. 89 | 389) 9 | 187 1791. | 20 5 1 26 1842, 99 38 9 146 1792. | 18 5 1 24 1843. | 93} 89,10 | 142 1798. | 14 5 1 20 1844, | 128 | 42] 13 | 183 1794. | 8 4 1 13 1845. | 145 | 42] 18 | 200 1795. | 8 7 1 -| 16 1846. | 144 | 41] 12 | 197 1796. 8 3 2 13 1847. | 160 46 | 12 218 1797. 8 3 3 14 1848. | 148 44} 12 204 1798. |. 8 2 4 14 1849. | 155 | 46/10 | 211 1799. | 5 4 3 12 ——| 1777 ——| 176 |/ 1850. | 180 54 | 11 245 1800. | 5 3 2 10 1851. | 212 | 53] 13 | 278 1801. 6 4 1 tT 1852. | 238 57 | 15 310 1802. | 5 4 if 10 1853. | 237 | 71|14 | 322 1803. | 5 5 1 11 1854. | 223 89 | 15 327 1804. | 6 6 1 12 1855. | 266 | 107 | 16 389 1805. | 4 if il 12 1856. | 286 | 121 | 16 | 423 1806. 5 5 1 11 1857. | 297 | 180 | 138 440 1807. 6 7 1 14 1858. | 309 | 185 | 13 457 1808. | 20 9 1 30 1859, |. 827 | 131 | 14 472 1809. | 19 | 11 30 ——| 3663 ——| 151 || 1860. | 411 | 122 | 19 | 552 1810. | 18 7 25 1861. | 466 | 134 | 26 626 1811.| 6 | 10 16 1862. | 507 | 192 | 82 | 7381 1812.| 6 | 11 1 18 1863. | 564 | 206 | 47 | 817 1813. | 6 7 a 13 1864. | 671 | 240 | 56 | 967 1814. | 6 {i i 14 196 REPORT—1865. The collection of these records has been spasmodically attempted by several persons, Dr. Dalton being among the earliest and most successful: he, m the year 1799, submitted to the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society by far the best paper on rainfall published until many years after. Still, owing probably to the absence of postal and other means of communication, his paper by no means included all that had been done up to the time of his writing it. * The following list (Table IT.) of old stations prior to 1800, is not only handy as such, but also available as a check on the completeness. of Dr. Dalton’s search, and of my own. The result appears to be that the Doctor, who undoubtedly took great pains with his Table, and most truly described it as “‘the most complete hitherto published,” had not half of the records then existing, and which I and my friends have hunted up. On the other hand the Doctor has one station, ‘Crawshawbooth near Haslingden,” of which I can get no information. Taste IT.—Showing the Stations at which the Fall of Rain was. measured previously to the year 1800. ENGLAND. SPs Counties. Stations. Years in hand. a F a5 a BR igs Ai 7A Cornwall ...... Ludgvan ........ iB/62, L7Gi—Al..* ao 6 5 Cumberland ..../Carlisle.........- WN, Gidscre thot es tone’ tee 1 1 pe KGS Wet. se sick 88-94 Oe. Sac ae = 7 fe Derbyshire ....|Chatsworth ...... BITI-OD ge fe ws ae eee 22 | 15 Devonshire ....|Plymouth........ NiSI-3o) fae. bo bie tae) St. ss Fe By 5.2 hk eee LG and U768 se, ee 2 2 Darham 56... Darlington ...... L7S4tand L735. 2 o. ee 2 HEsex st 4: 2 Upminster ...... BGOTAVTNG oe. gat 19 2? Gloucester’* 5 55 Aeat, 3 55 Salfordil'786=93 Jo... 0cc5: 8 8 fe 4 te aphellfoot “fra. £7, £12 W7S8= 9 pete csa ets. 4 3 ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 197 Taste Il. ENGLAND (continued). By tae Counties. Stations. Years in hand. = F a 2 S BRIA g . = aa Middlesex...... Edmonton ...... W/O2=96 joie de ohiod’ bere 5 m ».~|Crane-ct., London |1729-35. ..........5- 7 7 3s +» .|Royal Society... ..|1787-99 2.0... 5. ss. 13 5 b...,/Lemple Bar ....... 179b-O9 feb san awl. | 8 Wortolk® ....... Norwich’ gee sik v: 1 ¥49—62 55 LR. see 14 | 138 Northampton ..|Oundle.......... P2639 hy aah 628 Mie 14 | 14 Northumberland |Widdrington ..../1722-23 ............ 2 1 Mutland.< .).’. . diyadon? “et. 5132 he 1756-947 So ale. jysid. we 59 | 21 Somersetshire ..|Bridgewater ...../1767-69 ............ 3 3 of »»+.|Minehead ........ If | a 4 See ae i a 1 Se South Lambeth... .|1782-92 ............ 11 9 Westmoreland ..|Kendal.......... ISB -O2 4. Uae T. cmon t 5 “f Pal ait sme Aes ses AUS AO tol akecshs. be» is 13, \j, 41 on Pe cHsonuKnoLe. . -s|Lio0-ol. ©. 3. 2s. Ayde 2 5 -|Waith Sottom :.../1 789-93) 6 of. cece ne 5 5 Yorkshire...... Leeds, Barroby....|1772-81 ........000: 10 6 fn. re .|\Garsdalewio! val. crc! ATR G9 ahs bi c- ocbhancce 3 3 SCOTLAND. Banffshire... ... Gordon Castles... :)2/1799. 2. cosii. da wae 1 iaennarton .. . :|Karkintillock jx, hiql'7 88%) s.% sai x oc Del. 1 Dumfries ..... Dumfries ........ ti COS stat vt htereruc cy 18 at fe tePancholmy js. ik tH: Ad Sa CNet asekh ok abcdib 5 Edinburgh ....|Dalkeith ........ UM SET Basse aisiel S'. louaes 5 as ....{Edinburgh ....... DIB9 99 os ea waiee so 11 E spSrtiDhe ltt att WOR cers Astesat is 5 3 ei eet Oe 2 ZOE 299. Ft es 3 A 4 ia peek eb ge etacg: ae biel za. test tt ge kas 5 hs bs) Wlawhkhall 2.52.) ac. DCA SiOy ee Suet Gti alike 6 ae Urquhart ........ TDA Diirrisa dh Seocsweyshs 3 3 i Dundee. .......:.. A 7TEO OS! os casawanily : 6 Moaatark .o.5..4. Glasrowrn.. 2 «ac 1765, 75, 85, 88,95 ..| 5 Peebles........ Peebles... |. c0% 08: WAS ec ee 14 ae Belmont Castle... .|1789-95 ............ 7 Roxburgh ....|Branxholm ...... APP S—G8 eres pdb Gee 11 _ eee Wook 7 f.Giskhe vet: WU arth | a ae 5 IRELAND. oy Belfast Uicstews. en BM9G—90 Gi nacre de ile 4 a Muablints. 2. ion. DVDIFO9 121) ijl cx alge 9 Londonderry ..|Londonderry ....|/1797-99 ............ 3 Longford ...... Kdgworthston ... .|1798.. 0... ceed ee oe a After Dr. Dalton’s collection in 1799 there was a long interval in which, though observations were steadily continued, no one seems to have thought of collecting and discussing them. Dr. Dalton’s averages were (and, I am sorry 198 REPORT—1865. to say, are still sometimes) constantly quoted, and no notice was taken o subsequent observations. This is the more to be regretted since some of the gauges quoted by Dr. Dalton were on roofs, others on the ground, and no dis- tinction was made between them. I am not at present aware of any extensive collection between 1799 and 1840, or thereabouts, when Mr. Joseph Atkinson, of Harraby near Carlisle, published a rain-map of the British Isles: to my great vexation I cannot ob- tain a copy ; and there is not one in the British Museum. It only gives the mean fall, and contains only two or three places besides those I possess; but it is provoking that a copy of so recent a publication (1841 or 1842) cannot be obtained. During the last ten or twenty years several collections have been made, those of Mr. Glaisher for the British, and Dr. Stark for the Scot- tish, Meteorological Society having been published, with other meteorological details, quarterly by the Registrars-General of the respective countries. The prize offered by the Marquis of Tweeddale for an essay on rainfall, and awarded to Mr. Jamieson, of Ellon, led to the collection of the yearly fall at about twenty British stations, and the collection in Mr. Beardmore’s splendid ‘ Ma- nual of Hydrology’ completes the list of my precursors. The two last have been published since 1860, but it seems appropriate to notice them here; the most copious of these Tables, however, did not contain a tenth of the ex- istent observations. It is a singular fact, that, with the exception of the last two works, no notice has ever been taken of the position of the gauges, on which so much depends that a West-country roof record will often be less than an Eastern-counties ground-record; that is to say, the difference due to elevation is often greater by far than that due to a hundred miles geographical distance. Paramount as is the importance of distinct information on this point, it is never referred to in any of the old or many modern Tables. This omission naturally leads me to refer to the variation in the amount collected according to the height at which the gauge is placed above the sur- face of the ground. This was first noticed in 1765 ; andin 1766 Dr. Heberden, F.R.S8., placed a gange on the square tower of Westminster Abbey, another on the roof of an adjacent house, and a third in a garden, and found the fall to be, —garden, 22:61; roof, 18:14; abbey-tower, 12:10. These experiments were promptly repeated at “ Bath, Liverpool, Middlewich, and elsewhere ;” but I have not been able to find any notice beyond the simple fact that ‘“ the results were similar to those at Westminster.” (This shows how much is either still buried, or lost altogether.) Shortly after this, the Hon. Daines Barrington erected two gauges in the vicinity of Bala, in North Wales—one at Rennig, and one on the summit of Bochyraidr (1700 feet ?)—and ascertained therefrom that the decrease did not depend on actual elevation, but on the height above the surface of the ground. This subject, I need hardly remind mem- bers of this Association, was carefully investigated by our esteemed President, Professor Phillips, when living at York in 1832; in fact it was one of the first subjects this Association took in hand. The heavy fall of rain in mountainous districts was noticed at a very early period; but very little was done, until a comparatively recent date, towards systematic observation and the determination of the laws governing the distribution of rain in mountainous districts. Mr. Bateman’s observa- tions in the Derbyshire and Yorkshire hills, followed as they were by the elaborate investigations carried on by the late Dr. Miller in the Lake-dis- trict, have left for future examination only the subsidiary and minor vari- ations to which the laws they deduced are liable. ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 199 2. What has been done since 1860.—Having thus described what had been done previously to 1860, I proceed to mention briefly what has been done since then; and if it seems that this portion is egotistical, I reply I cannot help it: it would be strange indeed if the one person who has devoted him- self solely to the subject were not mixed up with most of its ramifications. In the first place, then, it has already been stated that prior to 1860 there had been no general collection of all reliable rainfall-records; this was the primary object I had in view, knowing that without such a col- lection it was impossible to determine, with any approach to accuracy, either the geographical distribution or secular variation of British rainfall. To what an enormous magnitude this collection has grown may be inferred from the Tables attached to this Report; but as a ready means of enabling engineers and others to estimate the stores awaiting them, I may say that, supposing the lists closed at once, I believe the publication of the monthly values and discussion of the observations would fill two of the bulky annual volumes of this Association. Of course bulk is a poor test of value; but I wished to give some better description than that of “twenty-three folio volumes of MS.,” which are already full. I should not omit to state whence these observations have been copied. Most of them have been obtained from the observers, many of whom have sent me registers of ten, twenty, thirty, and even more years in length; some are from privately printed papers, others from magazines, scientific journals, and Transactions of the Royal and other Societies. Particulars as to the position of the gauge are always care- fully noted along with the observations, when they can be obtained. I had not been at this work very long before I felt the desirability of publishing some information of a reliable character, and at the close of 1860 I published a Table giving the total depth in that year at 168 stations, being more than double the number ever previously collected; this Table has grown into an annual volume, both by giving additional information on the undermentioned and other subsidiary investigations, and by its increased body of contributors, now numbering over 1000. Next to compiling the general Tables and annual reports, the most trouble- some, but probably also the most important, work is the examination of the gauges actually in use, both as to their own accuracy and also as to the suita- bility of their position. I need not point out how necessary this is; it must be evident to everybody that until it is done there will be liability to all sorts of errors in deducing results from observations with gauges either themselves incorrect, or badly placed. I do not wish to be discursive ; or I could quote many positions in which I have found gauges, nothing less than absurd. (Very gross errors are now impossible, owing to the number of new tested gauges interspersed among the old ones and available as checks upon them.) This examination of the gauges in situ involves an amount of travelling which takes far too much time and too much money for me to make any very great progress with it. However, I have visited 113; and if this Association will find the needful funds, I will endeavour to double the number before I draw up the next annual Report. Next to personally visiting each gauge, the best plan is to test the gauges before the opticians send them off to their destinations. Of the exact number thus tested I have no record, but believe it to be about 800, a number easily mentioned, but by no means so easily examined. At the outset of the investigation an attempt was made to collect returns of the number of rainy days or days of rain; but it was speedily found that utter want of uniformity prevailed, and that it was useless to attempt to do 200 REPORT—1865. anything with them. After consulting the observers, each of whom was asked to send in his or her definition of a rainy day, the plan I recommended was to count as a day of rain every one on which 0-01 inch fell. How this will work remains to be seen ; but it is certainly a step in the right direction— that is to say, towards uniformity. Another point noticed at an early period was the unequal geographical distribution of the stations, some parts of the country being amply provided, while in others the gauges were fifty or sixty miles apart. Thanks to the £55 granted by this Association, this state of things no longer exists ; how it has been removed may be learnt from my previous Reports, or from the accompanying Map. Of course there are still great inequalities, but they are as nothing compared with what existed in 1859. It remains to notice the series of experimental gauges which have been recently started to settle various disputed points. Reference has already been made to the decreased amount of rain caught in gauges placed on high build- ings, and to the experiments of Dr. Heberden and Professor Phillips on the subject. On finding that (owing to the previous absence of any rainfall centre, if I may so term myself) the gauges throughout the kingdom were at all sorts of elevations, from 90 feet downwards, it was evident that -some means must be devised for correcting these observations and redu- cing them to what they would be if made at one uniform level. Many of the gauges being elevated on pillars or pedestals, it was urged, and with apparent reason, that as all previous elevation experiments had been made upon, and in the vicinity of, buildings, the laws of decrease deduced there- from were not, or at any rate might not, be applicable to gauges mounted as above described. In order to test this point, Colonel Ward, of Calne, kindly undertook the cost and trouble of mounting a set of gauges on part of his lawn, a description of which I read to this Section at the Newcastle Meeting ; they are now eleven in number, and at heights varying from level with the ground to 20 feet above it. In order to check the applicability of the Calne results to other localities, a similar but less extensive set of gauges has been established near Manchester by the Rev. J. Chadwick Bates. It was rather singular that, although, as before stated, rainfall has been measured in this country nearly two hundred years, there had been prior to 1860 no published experiments on a comprehensive scale to determine the best size and form of gauge. It would be inappropriate here to enlarge to any extent upon the various theories put forth upon the subject ; and I will only remark that the gauges principally issued by the Scottish Meteoro- logical Society are but 2 or 3 inches in diameter, while a high Scottish authority “has no faith” in anything less than a foot in diameter. Mr, Glaisher’s gauges, everybody knows, are 8 inches in diameter, Luke How- ard’s 5 inches, and the Royal Engineers’ are 1 foot square. An exhaustive set of experiments have therefore been undertaken on this point also, by Col. Ward and Mr. Bates, the gauges varying from 1 inch to 2 feet in dia- meter—square gauges, turf-gauges, snow-gauges, &c., being also tried. Col. Ward has altogether 29 gauges at work; and Mr. Bates has, I believe, 13, beside the thermo-rain-gauge mentioned below. Reference was made in the earlier part of this Report to the peculiarly heavy rainfall in mountainous districts, which had been carefully observed in Cumberland during the years 1844 to 1853. It was felt that it would be very interesting to ascertain if similar physical configuration received similar fall in other parts of the country, and that the district round Snowdon appeared very suitable for the experiments. Favoured by the assistance of my friend Mr. Rogers Field, of Hampstead, and that of Captain Mathew, of Wern, ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 201 Carnarvon (who really did most of the work), we now have returns from more than thirty tested gauges in that district, at elevations varying from 15 feet to 1100 feet. Simultaneously with the establishment of these, the Cumber- land gauges have been reestablished by Mr. Isaac Fletcher, F.R.S. ; so that we now have for the first time full records from both districts. At present the Welsh records are far below the Cumberland ones ; whether this is due to the fact that the wet places in Snowdonia have yet to be found, or whether the deficiency is due to the Cumberland gauges lying near the track of the centres of British cyclones, or to some other cause, has yet to be determined. 3. What remains to be done—On this point it is not so easy to speak clearly and decisively as on the preceding ones, because every one knows that just as an investigation progresses so do new branches claim attention. Some of the leading items may, however, be easily specified. In the first place, the collection of old observations must be rendered as complete as possible, by diligent search at the British Museum, in the libraries of the various scientific societies, and elsewhere. As an illustration of the meaning of that simple word “ elsewhere,” I may mention that on the day I was writing this Report I received a note from the Secretary to the Board of Northern Lights, respecting the rain-records kept at their lighthouses, with copies of the cwrrent returns of which I have been favoured during the past three years. From this note I find that the returns have been kept ever since 1813, but that they have never been tabulated or discussed. As far as I can at present tell, there seems to be about fifty years’ records of twenty- five stations (1250 yearly records) to copy out. This T have ordered to be done; but of course the expense will fall upon me. This however, is, only quoted as a specimen of the work to be done in collecting. After it, will come the discussion, which will also occupy a considerable time. The current returns for each year have of course to be examined and prepared for publi- cation at its close (this takes two persons six weeks). About 900 gauges remain to be visited ; and this involves perhaps 10,000 miles’ travelling, much of which must be on foot, and all of which involves a heavy expenditure of time and money. I need not dwell on the testing of new gauges, since the time so occupied is comparatively trivial. A more serious item will be the analysis and discussion of the experimental-gauge records of Col. Ward and Mr. Bates, and the mountain gauges of Mr. Fletcher and Capt. Mathew. I have been already much helped by volunteer labour; perhaps some careful person, who does not mind voluminous work, will relieve me of one or other of these discussions. Tn drawing this section of my report to a close, I may just mention a few other matters I have in hand:—The construction of a cheap and accurate gauge for ordinary use: the one here shown is the last improvement and most compact I have seen ; and the maker, Mr. Apps, of 433, Strand, under- takes to supply them at 10s. 6d. each; so I hope no one will say they use a home-made gauge because the opticians charge so much. Mr. Apps is also making a self-recording gauge, to show the exact duration and intensity of each shower. The Rey. J. Chadwick Bates has at Castleton Moor started a thermo-rain-gauge-for ascertaining the temperature of falling rain, on which the variation according to elevation is supposed to depend. Then I have on hand some experiments suggested by Mr. Smith, of J ersey, for measuring, by nitrate of silver, the percentage of sea spray mingled with rain-water at West-country stations. I close this programme of work to be done, trusting that I have shown that far more remains to be done than I have yet accomplished, and that, if I am only efficiently supported, important points may be cleared up. Into 202 REPORT—1865. financial matters I believe I must not enter; but there can be no harm in stating that by what has been done I have lost over £300, and a lucrative post; and inasmuch as.it is impossible for me to continue under such con- ditions, the “‘ work to be done” will not become “ work done” unless I am protected from further loss. The Royal Society have recently granted £50 towards the general expenses of the investigations; the observers naturally think that by observing they do their share, at the same time they have subscribed about £150; but the total of £200 by no means meets the outlay of so extensive a work as mine. 4, A few particulars respecting the rainfall of the last fifty years, and the fall in 1864,—And first with reference to the fall during the past half century, to an examination of which I gave some little attention during the last spring. The accompanying diagram* best explains the result of this 40 in 40 in, Pi 30 in. —S——| 20 in, a Co a CI co Ce || 20 in. — 20 in. C] 10 in. a i z z a a CI loin, a ia | | [| 5 [| SI Oin, BERRBEES 0 in. temporary investigation. I wish to emphasize that word temporary very strongly, because one can never be sure that a partial investigation, based on a few records, yields the same result as if all were combined, as I hope eventually to have them, when, instead of discussing the variation in half a century, we may hope to discuss the records of two centuries. So much interest is now taken, both in and out of Parliament, in questions of drainage, water-supply, and the condition of our rivers, and I am so con- stantly urged to give some information on the point, that I rather feel as if I was acting the part of the dog in the manger, in gathering volume after volume of rainfall-observations and yet deducing no results. My objection has been, that though much has been collected, as much (or more) remains to be done, and I have a great horror of incomplete work; but not having hitherto had the least assistance, and seeing no prospect of getting any except * Tt is almost superfluous to state that the total fall in each year is shown by the top of the column, whether black or shaded, the difference being only made to show prominently the years above and below the dotted average line. ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 203 by paying clerks’ salaries out of my own pocket, it will be some years before the inquiry can be completed. Under these circumstances, it seemed un- reasonable to persist in my refusal of an interim investigation, and I have therefore drawn up the following statement. My object has been to determine (1) whether the decreased annual fall of rain which has been observed at Greenwich is a local variation, or whether it prevails generally throughout the country; (2) (having ascertained that the present, temporary investigation shows it to be general) to ascertain in what districts the decrease is most marked. Unfortunately there are very few continuous records extending back more than about thirty years. A few, however, are available and, having carefully interpolated for one or two missing years, I have been able to form the following Table from the mean of ten widely separated stations—one in each of the following counties: Devon, Kent, Middlesex, Surrey, Essex, Lincoln, Lancashire, York, Edinburgh, and Argyll. It may be well to add that on carrying the examination back to 1800, the fall seems to have been Jess than it was about 1815, when the following more reliable Table commences. Mean depth of Rain at ten stations, 1815-1864. Year. | Depth. | Year.| Depth. || Year.| Depth. '| Year.| Depth. || Year.| Depth. 1815 | 27:12 1825 | 26°57 1835 | 28°56 || 1845 | 27-87 1855 | 23 37 1816 | 29-26 1826 | 25-76 1836 | 33-49 || 1846 | 29:57 1856 | 25°89 1817 | 29-73 1827 | 29°53 1887 | 2454 ‘| 18477) 25°80 1857 | 25-70 1818 | 30°34 1828 | 33-02 1838 } 27-11 1848 | 35-98 1858 | 22-79 1819 | 30-46 1829 | 28-70 1839 | 31:27 1849 | 28-51 1859 | 28°53 1820 | 24:53 1830 | 30°53 1840 | 24°67 1850 | 26°35 1860 | 33°34 1821 | 29-92 1831 | 32-28 1841 | 33°51 1851 | 26-70 1861 | 26:98 1822 | 26°63 1832 | 26-20 1842 | 25°53 1852 | 35°53 1862 | 30°37 1823 | 31-09 1833 | 29-71 1843 .| 30°40 1853 | 27-38 1863 | 26:93 1824 | 30-91 1834 | 2452 1844 | 23-72 1854 | 22°38 1864 | 22-11 Mean | 28:°999 | Mean] 28°512 || Mean] 28-280 | Mean} 28-607 || Mean | 26-601 1 Several curious results may be noticed in this Table: for instance, in the first ten years, seven were above the average of fifty years; in the next ten, six; in the next, five ; in the next, four; in the last, three. Again, out of the first twenty-five years, sixteen were above the average; and in the next, six- teen were below it. Means from the above values. Five-year Means. Ten-year Means. Years. Mean. | Difference. Years. Mean. | Difference. 1815-1819 29°38 +1:18 1815-1824 29-00 + -80 1820-1824 28:62 + 42 1825-1834 28°51 + 3 1825-1829 28°32 + 12 1835-1844 28:28 + 08 1830-1834 28°71 + ‘51 1845-1854 28°61 + 4] 1835-1839 *28-99 + ‘79 1855-1864 26-60 —1-60 1840-1844 27:57 — 63 1845-1849 29:55 +1:35 1820-1829 28:46 + :26 1850-1854 27-67 — 53 1830-1839 28°85 + ‘65 1855-1859 25-26 —2-94 1840-1849 28:56 + °36 1860-1864 27°95 — 25 1850-1859 26-47 —173 Mean of 25 years, 1815-1839 = 28:80. 3 » 1810-1864=27-60, » 560 4 1815-1864=28-20, 204. REPORT—1865. From these Tables we find that when, as in this case, local irregularities are neutralized by the combination of observations from a large tract of country, rainfall-records evince a regularity not before expected, the main and marked feature being the drought in the years 1854 to 1858; omit these five years, and the records run in five-year means without a single departure of an inch from the average. But it will not do thus to omit them; they were excep- tional, but are part and parcel of the whole, and must by no means be sepa- rated, but the whole carefully examined. For several reasons it seems better to take the ten-year means; and from them we find that the annual fall in each ten years from 1815 to 1854 was nearly equal, and always greater than in the last ten years, 1855 to 1864, and, moreover, that the ten years 1845 to 1854 had a rainfall (28-61) nearly identical with the mean (28-60) of the preceding thirty years, 1815 to 1844. Hence it is evident that at any stations where observations have been made continuously from 1845 to 1864, we may take the ten years 1845 to 1854 as representing the forty years, 1815 to 1854, and the difference between the first and last ten years as representing approximately the decrease of rainfall at that place. The results of this investigation are condensed in a Table, and laid down on a map* (not printed), which shows the percentage by which the rainfall in the last ten years fell short of the mean of the previous ten (=40) years, the numbers being enclosed by a ring in those few cases where the fall in the last ten eaceeded the previous ten. It will, I trust, be evident to all, that though there are some stations which yield discordant results, yet the general harmony is quite equal to what could be expected of a preliminary investigation. Still the results are only those of a partial examination of the question, and of course may be proved fallacious by observations subse- quently received. The leading features at present seem to be (1) a decrease averaging 4 per cent. over the whole British Isles, but unequally distributed, the decrease being exchanged for an increase in parts of Ireland and the south of Scotland. (2) In England, although the amount of decrease varies up to 18 per cent., it never falls below an excess (if the expression may be allowed) of 2 per cent. (3) Although at first the figures seemed very dis- cordant, yet on drawing the lines shown on the map referred to, some order seems to become evident, viz. that the maximum deficiency has existed along a line running nearly 8.W.—N.E. from Cornwall to the Wash. Proceeding north- westward, the deficiency becomes less, until the parallel line running through the centre of Ireland, and passing into the North Sea at Edinburgh, marks a district in which no deficiency has existed, but, on the contrary, an excess of nearly 10 per cent. The next districts follow nearer to each other, and seem to involve the eventual adoption of W.—E. instead of 8.W.-N.E.: possibly this is not really the case, but due to errors of observation at the lighthouses, whence most of the values herein assigned for Scotland are derived; or it may arise from the modifying influence of Ireland not being felt in those higher latitudes. I might further point out that the deficiency seems in some degree connected with the large drainage operations in the midland and eastern counties of England; but until, either by my own efforts, or the assistance of this Association, the observations are rendered more complete, it is not safe to attempt to determine the causes of the recent fluctuations. The next point (and one on which I reserve full particulars for the next Report, so that 1864 and 1865 may be considered together) is the rainfall of 1864, which, as everybody knows, was far below the average in most parts of England ; and in the eastern counties scarcely half the usual quantity of rain * The map can be seen at Mr. Symons’s residence, 136 Camden Road, N.W. ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 205 fell; in Cornwall also, and in Devon, where ordinarily water in abundance runs to waste, great inconvenience and loss arose from its deficiency. The most singular case was that of the Pentland Hills and the south-east of Scot- land generally, where the drought was equally severe, but in less than a week the rivers rose from almost the lowest point previously known, to a higher level than had been known for eighteen years. The Edinburgh Water-works reservoirs had been so empty that the city was put on short supply; the floods of October 22-24 came and almost filled them ; the rivers rose, and carried away farm-produce, buildings and bridges; and the rain- returns for that district eventually show a yearly total nearly as much above. the average as our English returns are below it. Explanation of Arrangement and Symbols used in the following List. The stations are classed primarily into countries, secondarily into counties (which are in alphabetical order) ; and in each county the stations are ar- ranged alphabetically under their own name, if a well-known one, as “ Want- age ;” if the place is not one generally known, they are placed under that of the nearest well-known name: for example, “ Tiverton (Hayne),” Hayne being the absolute place of observation, and being near to Tiverton. When a station is on the edge of a county, and the most prominent adjacent town is in the next county, the station is classed under its own name, and that of the town is in brackets: thus, “ Stotfold [Baldock].” The column headed “ Elevation” states the height of the gauge above mean sea-level. An asterisk (*) prefixed to a station shows that the gauge was tested by Mr. Symons before it was used; a dagger (t+), that it has been visited, tested, and its position examined. The letters B.A. indicate its having been supplied out of the grants made by the British Association. The column headed “‘ Observer” is added principally as a means of identifying the returns when there are two or more in the same place. The column headed *« Period” states the years of which the monthly fall has been collected; the letters C and T denote respectively the commencement and termination of the register; in all other cases there may be, or are, additional years con- stantly accruing. A bar between the date thus, 1846-52, shows that every year from 1846 to 1852 is in hand; a bar at the end thus, 1851-, shows that every year from 1851 to the present is in hand, and that the register is still kept up. When no date is given, no observations have been obtained. When a date is given in parenthesis (1840-8), it indicates the date during which I believe it to have been at work. ENGLAND. BEpForDsuIRE. Stati Eleva- : ation. on, Observer. Period. Pe RIE eareprsesecs Acc eecsstefe ase W.S. Slinn, Esq...) C 1865- Bedford (Britannia Farm) ...| ... Mr. T. Bowick...... C 1865— T ee (Harpur Street)...... 112 | Dr. Barker ......... C 1851- : 5 (Observatory)......... --. | Admiral Smyth...... 1831, 1833-38 ,, (Cardington Staffgauge)| 100 | Mr.M‘Laren......... C 1846— »» (Obs. gauge)...............| 100 es C 1g4g— » (86 ft.+ ground) ...... 135 . C 1848— » (Sharnbrook) ......... ... | BR. S. Stedman, Esq. Potton (Sutton Park) ......... --- | SirJ. M. Burgoyne.| C 1864— Stotfold [Baldock] ............ 220 | W. Denne, Esq. ...) 1864— Woburn (‘Aspley)............005 460 | Rey. G. W. Mahon..| C 1856- 206 REPORT—1865. BERKSHIRE. Station. Blew Observer. Period. Abingdon (Kington Bagpuze))... A. Murdoch, Esq. .| 1845 Pe (Long Wittenham)) 170 | Rev.J.C.Clutterbuck) C 1851- HMungerfordiy, s~ 238 | M.S.&LR. ...... 1858— Sawiley? 2. [2.200 t-seeesesars oe 170? | Mr. Windle ........- C 1864- Spondon &....<..csederecernese es 200?| T.C. Cade, Esq. ...| _ 1864— Stoney Middleton ............ oat Rey. U. Smith ...... C 1865- Woodhead (Station)! ......... 939 | M.S. &L.R. ...... C 1851- 2 (Black Clough) ...| 1700 | Manchester Memoirs, 1849-51 DrvonsuirE. Bampton (Huntsham Court)| 584 | Miss Troyte ......... 1859-62 Barnstable: 3..-.<-.2:52-.0220-2- 1 | T. Mackrell, Esq....) C 1857- 5 (Bratton Fleming) a Rey. H. S. Pinder .| C 1865- ,», (BrauntonLighthouse) Otay OW Geer 1855 imp. Bideford(Appledore ,, )} -- | _eeeeee 1855 imp. i(iBuckish):.......-.... Rey. J. H. Kirwan.) C 1865- 55 Northam) °:..:...<..2 ane Rey. J. H. Gossett ..| C 1865- : Bovey Tracy .......0-s0-cssceeeee 96 | J. Divett, Esq. ...... 1852, 1856— Buckfastleigh (Hawson) ...... Bee Mit Scott sas-caesas 1861 5 (Holne)......... 6g0 | Rev. T. Hullah ....) C 1851-56 T oa eee ocean sok F. Sullivan, Esq. Buckland Monachorum (Crapstone)... 500 | G. Leach, Esq. ...... 1857-58, 1860 T Chumleigh (Chawleigh) .. £ on oe) mee es, 1857-59 (Witheridge)...... wap (Olle: Shweta. 1855 imp. Collumpton (Bradninch) . 250 | Mr. H. Matthews...) C 1841— 4 (Clyst Hydon)... 200 | Rev. J. Huyshe ....| C 1847- (Strath Culme)..| 200 | C. R. Collins, Esq. ..| C 1864— Dartmoor(Burrator,Sheepstor) 950 | H. Terrell Hsq....... 1855-58 » (Lee Moor) ......... goo | H. H. Treby, Esq...| C 1860— » (Prison Roof) ...... 1400 | Dr. Roome ......... C 1853- 35 » Reservoir) .| 1400 | Mr. Watts C 1862- » (North HessaryTor) 1596 | yy eesseeeeeee C 1862- + (Prince Town)...... 1360 | Mr. Windeatt ...... 1838-40 (RoughTorConsols)| 1200 Dawlish (Mamhead) ......... ... | Gardener’sChronicle| _ 1852 Pee Sc chci en ncccsstuorepes 62 | P. J. Margary, Esq.) C 1857— Devonport ...........sseeeeeees 118 | Mr. T. Lancaster...) 1852-53 StOKe) weresuan-.s- 195 | Mr. Mould .........) C 1817-29 T Exeter (Barnfield) ............ 146 | Dr. Shapter ......... 1847-58 » (Brampford Speke)...| ... W.H. Gamlen, Esq.) C 1865— »» (High Street) ......... 180 | W.H. Ellis, Esq...) 1860- Bs lt: Ses ee 184. EY ...| C 1864— »» . (eLoopern)) qao..7-.7--3s wa. G. Kennaway, Esq. | C 1864- », (Institution)............ 155 | Mr. Parfitt ......... C 1817- » (Pen Leonard)......... aa Dr. Barham ......... 1840-42 » (St. Leonards) ......... 140 | W. Vicary, Esq. ...| C 1861-64 T ” 5) PCP eeactecss 160 be ...| C 1860-64. T 9 1 Pea 141 | R. Dymond, Esq. ..| C 1860— sn, (Sb. Bhoreas)) \ccesesss- 5Odil. selumeeeess C 1814-61 +++ Exmouth (Bystoke) ++ k K+ * B.A. + * ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES, DrvonsutreE (continued). Station. pe yf Honiton ” Peer eee reer errr errr eres (Broadhembury) ... (Otterhead) " (Overday) Ivybridge (Torrhill) Kentisbury (WestlandPound) Kingsbridge (The Knowle)... Ledford (Hexworthy) Milton Abbot (Beckwell) » (Edgecumbe) ......... : (Endsleigh) worend Moreton Hampstead (Chag- BOTAN ree catch icSzscmasiees Newton Bushei (High Wick) North Tawton Plymouth (Compion Hartley) (Flora Place) (Whimple Street).. Peete ee te wees (Ham Plympton St.M.(Goodamoor) (Ridgeway) * (Saltram) Sidmouth ” (Blackmoor (SalcombHill House) South Molton (Castle Hill)... (Meshaw)... South ‘Sydenham Tavistock ” eeeeee Peewee ee ee ewseeneeseeees ere eee ee eee ee ee rere ees tan eeeeee Be (Mount Tavy) Teignmouth ” (Westbrook) . » (Bishop’ sTeignton) Tiverton (Cove) (Hayne)............... Topsham (Clyst St. George).. Torquay (Lamorna) (Melville) (South Town Villa).. » (Woodfield) Torrington (Great) ” A eaeerees eer ee errr | Beaminster (Netherbury) ... Blandford Bridport (The Cedars) Cerne Abbas (Melbury House) ae Observer. Period. 280 | E. Divett, Esq. ...... C 1860-63 T Rey. T. Chope Sena C 1864- Pe || ay: aA: 1841 imp 600 | Rev. W. Heberden | C 1837— Miss Beadon......... C 1856-63 T tt R. T. Abraham, Esq. 1862 240 | J. Widdicomb, Esq.) C 1857- 930 | Mr. Smith............ 1855 imp 143 | Mrs. Harris ......... 1857— ee ee ee C 1863- MA Mr. Easterbrook ...| C 1863 om H. Clark, Esq. ...... 1860-63 T sce Hae Dees pees be 1832 nae Mr. Cornelius ...... C 1863- 660 | R. L. Berry, Esq....| C 1862- 250?| Dr. Barham ......... C 1851- 450 ZO db «2. quuncas aus 1826-34, 1838 30 | Dr. Huxham.........). 1731-35 imp. nee Dy, Ramee ¥p3)) 1767-68 . Miss Molesworth C 1864— BR pairs Soke ot * 1841 imp i Mr. Jeffery ......... C 1864— 94 | Rev.C.T. Trelawney C 1842- 580 | H.H. Treby, Esq....| C 1834- 116 | Miss ai SeiHaai Bho C 1857- 96 | Mr. Snow .. C 1855- aS Dr. Cullen ......... (1843-?) ue Dr. Mackenzie ...... C 1865— 30 | W. Strahan, ie w.| C 1864— 74. | A. North, Esq... C 1861, 1863- 150 | Mr. Saul ...... C 1851- 472 | Rev. W.H. Karslaké| C 1861- ae) Saale proms B93 1858 ... | Mr. Windeatt ...... ae aa Dr. Barram ...... an Rep. Cor. Pol. Soc. 1840, 1842 273 | Mr. Merrifield ...... C 1844— bes ici, 1) Ssen kus for tek C 1865- 4p: J. Carpenter, Hed. C 1864- 61 | W. C. Lake, sq. ...| C 1860-62 T 50 | Miss Clark ......... C 1859- too | Rev. S. M. Scroggs..| C 1864— 450 | W.N. Row, Esq. ...| C 1862- 400 | W.H. Gamlen, Esq. C 1853-64 T es Rev. H. Ellacombe.| 0 1865- 205 | W. Pengelly, Esq. ..| C 1864- Pa T. G. Braden, Esq. ae Rev. C. Malden ...| C 1865 T 150 | E. Vivian, Hsq.......| 1860-1, 1864 450 | Rey. S. Buckland...| C 1863- DorsETsHIRE. 120? | Rev. C. B. Mount...) C 1857-65 T W. Shipp, Esq....... C 1864-— 85 A. Stephens, Esq. ...) O 1855- Earl of Ilchester ...} 1852-54 imp. a2 211 212 REPORT—1865. DorseEtsuirE (continued). Station. aera Observer. * Dorchester. 2...<.42-peareeaeteacr sae J. Jowett, Esq. ...... 5 (Little Bridy) ...... 348 | H.S. Eaton, Hsq.... 5 (Upwey) .......-.-.- 70 | J. Miller, Esq. ...... 5 (West Lodge) ...... a Mrs. Wyndham ... rr (Abbotsbury) ...... : Earl of Ichester. Forde Abbey [Chard] ......... 4 G. Miles, Esq. ...... Gallmetiamy | 52.0. .secsenees-aee* 110? | T. Thompson, Esq. Portland (The Grove) ......... 220 | Dr. Houghton ...... A (Breakwater)......... 52 | J.T. Leather, Esq. * Shaftesbury ........-..ccsrereess Rs T. Ackland, Esq. ... * BA 3 (Fontmell Magna) W. J. Salkeld, Esq. - (Sutton Waldron).| ... Archdeacon Huxtable Sherborne ......c.c.0---ssseerro2 120 | J. Kidd, Esq. ...... Wareham (Encombe) ......... 150 | O. W. Farrer, Esq. .. * Wimborne (Chalbury)......... Rev.G.H. Billington Durum. Bishopwearmouth ............ 130 | Dr. Ogden ......... Darlinip Gon Senses -deacee dee ecree= sce) it: oat beer Ce) tet or eee top ncnceeeete 140 | Mr. Richardson 7 (Long Newton)... F. H. Dyke, Esq. * np (Dinsdale)......... Rey. J. W. Smith... ” (Raby Castle) ...} ... Mr. M«Intosh. Durkams pt sce teaee «asses 339 | M. R. Dolman, Esq. 3 (139 esc OeeeEe Aa Rev. T. Chevallier .. » (Ushaw College) ...| 600 | Rev. J. Gillow...... Gateshead(BurghfieldGrange) 68 | G. Wailes, Esq. Seaham Hall \ccsacsie0sdeeeees: 1oo | R. Draper, Esq. ... Sunderland (Esplanade) ...... 5 Dr. Pyle. t os (Field House) ... 85 | Rev. G. Tliff......... t A (Hendon Hill)...| 120 | J. W. Mounsey, Esq. t 5 (West Hendon)..| 125 | T.W.Backhouse, Esq. t ” ” ” 125 ” Sad chutaccentas ceetnes 130\5)|(b sda reeeee Washington .....:.......0.s0008 1z0 | J. Watson, Esq. ... Winston (Stubb House) ...... 458 | T. Dodgson, Esq. ... WHHOFIGON f:pcocesacceertes be | a Rev. A. Headlam... Essex. + BoA.) | Billentesy sy: .coscsacuecsess eee es eee F. Carter, Esq. ...... Braintree (Bocking)............ 200 | 8. Tabor, Esq. ...-.. Colehester -0.5:. ie tesesteceaeen se: ie Army Med, Corps. * * (Broom HillHouse) 55?| Capt. Walker ...... HY (Birch Hall) ...... ee C. G. Round, Esq. .. * (Frating) ...........: 80?| Rev. R. Duffield ... WARIO pe bisa eee sans ee soso kes 234 | H. E.Cockayne, Esq. 19) S) 0005) bebobe atsoachononeidacoe tog 360 | H. Doubleday, Esq. Harlow (Sheering) ............ 100? Rey. E. Hill......... Hedingham Castle ............ ee L. A. Majendie, Esq. t Toeytotigiscscteeeetoeee sad oses. 93 | J. G. Barclay, Esq. . PlaistOw* -J..scepeceeteeee nesses +s ot L. Howard, Esq. ... Rochford (Clements Hall) ... 25?| A. Holt White, Esq. Romford (Upminster)......... bas Rev. W. Derham ... Saffron-Walden (Ashdon) ...!_ 300 | Rev. J. T. Walker.. | Witham (Dorwards Hall) ... 20 | H. Dixon, Esq....... GLOUCESTERSHIRE, Berkeley: <....cscnuesuacheteeer a6 Rey. C. T. Pratt ... IBYISUOL scctecesssent cen cemeaeeaee | ne | ain Period. C 1865- C 1855- C 1862- 1852-53 imp. C 1861-64 T C 1832- imp. C 1851-58 T C 1856- C 1864— C 1864 T imp. C 1864 T C 1863- C 1360- C 1865- C 1835- 1734-35 ump. C 1859- C 1865- 1850— C 1861— 1864— C 1862-— 1854—- C 1862- C 1859-60 imp. C 1860- 1856-59 1856-58, 1360 1856- C 1865- C 1851- C 1864— C 1865- C 1854-62 T C 1851— C 1822- C 1863- 1864— 1861, 1863 1806-12 C 1863- 1697-1716 C 1858- 1847- Cc 1865— 1774-78 ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. GuovcesTErsHIRE (continued). 213 Station. ae Observer. Period. Bristol (Institution) .......... 98 | Rev. C. T. Pratt .. 1860-61 » (Park Row) ............ 140 | C. W. Bragge, Esq. | C 1859- » (Small Street) ......... 40 r C 1855- Cheltenham (Charlton Kings)|_... Rev. F. H. Potter ..| C 1864- 35 “3 BS Dr. Williams ...... C 1864— -cfoggge © COREEEE ERS AS Senet oa Mr. Moss ............ 1833-39 os (Hospital) ...... 200 | Mr. Moon............ C 1862-63 T Cirencester (Further Barton)} 446 | T. C. Brown, Esq. .| C 1844— i (Royal Agr. Coll.) CONTE Te Se aU ies ee 192 | W. C. Burder, Esq.| C 1853-65 T ec OBR RE SeohB cops Se ita 242 7 C 1853-65 LT Frampton-on-Severn (Saul Jb 213 OR Re Asay 42 | W. B. Clegram, Esq.| C 1862- Gloucester (Ayslum) ......... too | Dr. Williams ...... 1860-62 : (BarnwoodHouse)| ... Dry Woodseca ees 1864- » (Clarence Street).. 60 | C. J. Fowler, Esq...) 1858-59 = (Gas Works) ...... of: R. Spinney, Esq. ... 1837 imp. 5 (Quedgeley) ...... 100? | J. C. Hayward, Esq} 1849- - (The Spa). 225. 50 | A. Price, Hsq. ......| C 1860- % eae 84 2 C 1864- ” (Twigworth) ...... 50 | W.B.Clegram, Esq.| 1858-62 T 5 (Water Works) ... -.. | Mr. Richardson. = (Whitcomb Court) A. Bubb, Esq. Stroud (Bedford Street) ...... J. Bateman, Esq. ...| C 1g65- 7). DERE coos iss toe Dr. Paine. Hampsuire. Aldershot. 0.0. 2A 325 | J. Arnold, Esq....... C 1858- + (25 fh) ee Seta 350 By eee as C 1864- 5 (Bourley)............ 370 | E. Shaw, Esq. .. 1864—- Alresford (Arle Bury) ......... 80?| F. Marx, Esq. ...... 1862— #9 0 eacatc aeeee zs Mr. Fielder ......... 1861 Alton (Newton Valence) Rey. J. White. Dna. ee CREAR Fede Saas sa W. Curtis, Esq. » (Medsted) ................ 680 | Rev. M. A. Smelt...) C 1863-64 T PATIO VER St .: WIR ccc be oe: was Mr. Holt ............ C 1785-89 - (Abbots Ann) ...... 177 | Rev. F. H. White ..) C 1847-62 T x (Eigfield)) eos. - =r Fines] Ban Daur et 1784-92 Basingstoke (Sherborne) ...| ... Rev. C. H. Cholmely » (Strathfield Turgess)} 169 | Rev.C.H.Griffith..| 1862 Christchurch (Bournemouth) gov! Drs Walistive2.)...-- 1862-63 » (Mudieford House) 10 | F. Moser, Esq. ..... 1864- Wareham <9... ete 0 8 | R. Porter, jun., Esq.| C 1861- a (North Brook) ...... 26 | H. Sharland, Esq....| C 1860— Krosport. 0.080. et Je) 2 PT een 1837-40,1842,1856 ATMA: oh ne ts be J. H. Maverly, Esq. 1841-42 Havant (Leigh Park) ......... 40?| W. H. Stone, Esq...) C 1864— Isle of Wight (Carisbrook) ... oN sedate 1847-48 imp. sf (Newport) ...... 24 | J.C. Bloxam, Esq...} 1841-56 3 (Osborne) ...... 172 | J.R. Mann, Esq. ...) 1852-56 imp. be (Fae chided, ¥ 172 ep C 1858- 7 (Parkhurst)...... ace Army Med. Corps. 5 (Ryde) ......... 110 | B. Barrow, Esq. ...| 1860 % Pm) ees eee 15 | R. Taylor, Esq. ...| C 1860- 3 (St. Lawrence) . : Rey. C. Malden...... C 1865- bs ene Wait a: W. T. King, Esq. ...| C 1865— % (Ventnor) ...... 150 | Dr. Martin ......... C 1840- LE Re i Se fe en | ee 1860, 62, 63 Petersfield: .. 22. .encwis) Dr. Peskett ......... C 1860— 214 ” REPORT—1865. Hampsuire (continued). Welwyn (The Hall)............ Eleva- Station. ‘ek Observer. Period. joa. Petersfield (Heath Lodge) ...| 200 ‘Rey. M. A. Smelt ...| C 1857-63 T iS 45 ...| 200 | Rev. H. Haigh ...... C 1864— (7.072 :) ORREGec ere 53 G. E. Coryton, Esq. 1853- Portsmouth .......cccsccsesesees %: Army Med. Corps. Selborne (The Wakes) ......... 500?| Gilbert White, Esq. | C 1780-93 T ‘Cp pend eb 3 T. Bell, Esq. ......... C 1851- Southampton (Gas Works)... C 1848-61 st (COTS AO 8) Ser 1855- 8 ( meses 9 1855- (Bassett Wood)} 230 | J. Bullar, Esq. ...... C 1865- 6 (Cadland) ...... ee E. Drummond, Esq.|} (1863-) - (Eling House) 15 | W.C. Spooner, Esq. > (Netley)......... : Army Med. Corps...| 1848- (ShirleyWarren)} 102?] R.C.Hankinson,Esq.) _ 1862- Winchester (Gas Works)...... 156 | Mr. Sharp............ C 1842-47 T - (Hursley) ......... 300?} Rev. S. M. Scroggs .| C 1861-63 T % (Itchen Abbas)...|... Rey. W. W. Spicer .| 1850-62 Bs (Otterbourne) ...| 112 | J.B. Yonge, Esq....| 1864- BPN). ineeccnosanmatos tears ... | Army Med. Corps. HEREFORDSHIRE. Hereford (Blue School) ...... 158 | H.Jd. Isbell, Esq. ...| C 1863- - (Hign Hill)......... oe W. Cook, Esq. ...... C 1864- 4 (Broomy Hill) ...} 194 | T. Curley, Esq. ...... C 1864— o (Infirmary)......... 160 | A. Thompson, Esq. .| 1858, 1861~3. Pe Seottdacccuceencerics ape H. Lawson, Esq, ... 1836-41 ns (Pool Cottage) ...| 450 | J. Pendergrass, Esq.| C 1818-43 T 5 (Stretton)............ 250?| Rev. H.C. Key...... 1860- Kington (Titley or Burches).|_... HR. Boddington, tea: C 1841-52 Leominster (Leyuiees) oponpoces oe Rey. T. S. Hewitt .. 1861- (West Lodge) . E. P. Southall, Esq. C 1857- Ross (Rocklands) ivometd«« oda dy I ce 3 J. M. Herbert, Esq. 1852 HERTFORDSHIRE. Baldock (Hinxworth) ......... YA Cue ee eee 1856-57 imp. Berkhampstead...........-..006 370 | W. Squire, Esq. ...] C 1848- Buntingford (Aspeden) ...... oa Rey. A.P. Sanderson} C 1865— Chipping Barnet (Totteridge Park). Hatfield House ............... oe Bal A ede? nbs 5° I asa 1854-56 Hemelhempstead(Nash Mills)} 250 | J. Evans, Esq. ...... C 1833- (Kensworth) go? | T. Jones, Esq. ...... C 1864 Hertford (Bayfordbury) ...... 250 | W.C. Baker, Esq. .| C 1859- 3, © (Parkgate)....2...022 Eas Rey. R. P. Davies .| C 1864- ican; 2...) een. dos beedauaes 242 |. W. Lucas, Esgq....... 1850- Hoddesdon (Fields Weir) . 82 | N. Beardmore, Esq.| 1861- pyston,.-...4iert. verve. 1, 266 | H. Wortham, Esq. .| C 1842- St. PA Back (Gorhambury) . oa Mr. Bogue............ C 1853- - (Rothamstead) . +e J. B. Lawes, Esq.... > ( 4 Small gauge) #3 Pe Stevenhge .......fisdes tides. a: ae C. B. Pearson, Esq. 1852-55, 18 » (Woodfield) ......... badia Boreueas wa yl Semmes Ware (Youngsbury) ......... wee Oia. tee 1787-91 Watford (Bourne End) ...... 300? | R. Littleboy, Esq. .| 1854, 56-59 T » (Bushey Heath) ... J Capt. Beaufoy ...... 1818-20 imp. | yy. BOOB) 2A.5.2 bs * 1820 imp. 2 (Eastbury)............ 380? | D. Carnegie, Esq. .| C 1861- » (Hunton Bridge) ...). 200?| R. Littleboy, Esq. .| C 1860-64 'T 4 (Watford House) ...|. 190 | R. Clutterbuck, Esq.) C 1857- ae C. Trueman, Esq. 7 ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 215. HunTINGDONSHIRE. Stati Eleva- : ion. fan. Observer. Period. Conington Rect. [Peterboro]] ... Rev. G. Heathcote.) 1864- Huntingdon (Ramsey) ...... ae Lady Bayning ...... oe imp. (Wistow)......... ae Rey. T. Woodruff...) C 18 Kimbolton (Hamerton) ...... 170 | Rey. A. P. Stopford) C cd St. Ives (Harith) ............... 35 Mr. Brown ......... 1862-63 St. Neots (Tetworth) ......... as H. M. Kaye, Esq....} 1862— » (Warésley) ......... 200 | Revy.W.M.H.Elwyn.| C 1863- Kent. Bexley Heath (Danson Hall). : Mr. H. Johnston. * (Welling) ...... 150 H.S. Wollaston, Esq.) 1852- SORTBE DUD oo sa ctgce nic tania ce 25 Army Med. Comps. BS (Chartham) ......... s+ C. J. Drew, Esq. - 1864- as (Patrixbourne)...... 97 | Rev. M. A. ‘Smelt .. C 1855-56 T MCHA oo 5.'sogas aeons ance nca>e a Army Med. Corps. SITS CITC 5 ie Sap eee seed ils. DP ceaeeeeee 1729-30, 1732-35 RO TORRANCE S yey dont cas wncn ens aue od to | J.W.Bazalgette,Esq.} C 1864- IOV CR MD. ioc Sere onecotssco ss cta ses Army Med. Corps. PoMEMD sc os cdancsdacasasasanscuge ade Mr. Mantell ......... 1789-93 3 imp, » (Castle Keep) ......... 512 | H.J. Poulter, Esq. 863- », (Castle Street) ......... 16 “ 78 59-61, 1864— Edenbridge(NewFalconhurst)| 400 | J. G. Talbot, Esq. | 1864- AF PCONWICH on sexu 25 fds «aegis 0 4. W. Rogerson, ae 18335 1838-51 » (Observatory) ...... 155 | J. Glaisher, Esq. ...| C 1815- » (,,, Various gauges)| ... = Various. LEI Hit 2s see ae Paani olan Ag H. Mackeson, Esq. » (Horton Park) ...... 280? | J. Kirkpatrick, Esq.| C 1858- * (Saltwood) ............ we G. 8. Court, Esq. Lamberhurst (Court Lodge) .| 200?| W.C. Morland, Esq} C 1862- a (Scotney Castle)) ... E. Hussey, Esq. 1862— imp, LST RI hee eee ae Aad a J. Glaisher, Esq. LOL TUT ae ee a F. Dobell, Esq....... 1856— Ss (Fant Road) ...... 60 |J.H.Baverstock, Esq.| C 1857- Bee saneisch x smans vue ats Dr. Fielding .........| C 1848-57 T Margate (2... 01) ae 60 | E.S. Lendon, Esq. .| C 1864~ » (R. Sea-B. Infirmary) 25 | H.W. Maude, Esq. .| C 1864- Ramsgate (Trafalgar Place) .| ... C. J. Fowler, Esq. .| 1860 imp, ERs Easecaites ds cecee's tes ox% 2. R. Cramp, Esq. S70 a ee 25 | T. Du Boulay, Esq. | C 1864- Seven Oaks (River Head) ...| ... Rey. J. B. Murdoch} C 1865- ‘ (River Hill)...... 520 | J.T. Rogers, Esq. .| 1860- POHGEENOBR) coh wc cnacestercesccncsen a Army Med. Corps. MHORNGIIC sah ccnseeccs<-cpec0ss- : 5d Staplehurst (Hunton Court) . . Mr. P. Goddard ...| 1858- (Linton Park)...|_ 200?) Mr. J. Robson ...... C 1855- Tunbridge Meena see cae ant cieenace 125 | Dr. Fie‘ding......... C 1857- =) Seb Bass: een pt a NO pc eed 1840, 1848-4 MS KVWWellss ett..7 <..50.s- Sorel. Baus k 1840-43 ine, VCE (eee conocer fee Army Med. Corps. Westerham (Chartwell) ...... 4co0 J. C. Colquhoun, Esq.| C 1862— West Wickham. ............... 300 | Rev. J. T. Austen...! C 1848- eee eee 500? | W. Steuart, Esq. ...| C 1861- Woolwich. Ae Army Med. Corps. LaAncasnire. Blackpool (South Shore)...... 29 | G. Sharples, Esq. ...| C 1855- Bolton-le-Moors (The Folds)| 286 | H. H. Watson, Esq. 1831- FS (Belmont) .. 800 | H. Baylis, Esq....... C 1843 (,, Old Lyons) 216 ++ REPORT—1865. Lancasuire (continued). Vint Eleva- Station. tien. Bolton-le-Moors (Heaton) ...| 500 5 (Vale Bank) 300 Broughton in Furness. Burnley (Townley) ............ Bury (Greenbank) ............ 450 Fe Gnd Pee cco re areee 313 », (mock Street) ...........- 320 Cartmel (Pit Farm)............| 170 », (Allithwaite) ......... 88 a (Aynesome) ......... 60 »» (Backbarrow) ...... 305 iy, > (APRN ED) eterna a: 25 (Holker) ieeeerre-<.- 155 Clitheroe (Downham Hall)...} 474 (COmIBtOW -y.Acecraeeeee see 150 Dalton .....3.ee tee ee 35, (Ramipside)'.<2.... 2.5 + 342 Garstang ( Bleasedale) ......... 600 * (Vale House) ...... 455 Tian Caster co secem eno ence ses ne: a. FR oct by cAsbr eRe ee 30 np (South Road) ...... 114 ss (Cito), Fos. .5c 5 120 a (Hest Bank)......... 82 = (Hornby Castle) ...|. 103 Liverpool ..)...) Some ney a. » (Dock Offices) ......] ... = (Starfield)............ = ‘ (Brooks) “se .sear- she a FA (Lord Street) ...... Ae ne (Observatory) ...... 23 mG ( W) Beast ca 52 a (Sandfiela Park) .. ee . (Walton) ~.:5.--2.--0 Fe oo, egaes-no saeetoseereee es: was Manchester ..-.sscscscsscecsees] »» (Market Street) ...) ... ss (Piccadilly)......... 194 5 (Ardwick) ......... 130 ay sty CAREOD) 2.05. me * (Crumpsal), 5) ( Denton) eraes sence 324. + (Mecles) "7 5.- <0... 115 Fi (Fairfield) ......... 312 _ », Soc. Gauge)! 320 = (Gortom)\e eee 263 a Holme) re apeae a: . (Old Trafford) 106 ” Cpe had oceS5 104 . (Outwood) ......... 295 Observer. H. Baylis, Esq....... J. Watkins, Esq. ... R. Townley, Esq.... W. Wanklyn, Esq. . T. Norris, Hsq....... T.R. Croasdale, Esq. T. Norris, Esq. ...... J. B. Binyon, Esq. . Mr Nash) ssecccaace H. Remington, Esq. D. Ainsworth, Esq. A. Beardsley, Esq. . Mr. Wilson ......... R. Assheton, Esq.... J. G. Marshall, Esq. R. J. Bywater, Esq. Rev. W. Dawson ... J. Hill, Hsq. ......... J. Jackson, Esq. ... Rey. A. Christopher- W. Roper, Esq. Rey. A. Christopher- R. B. Peacock, Esq. C.H. Lethbridge, Esq. Dr. Campbell Mr. Hutchinson ... W. Lassell, Esq. ... W. Lassell, jun.,Esq. Mr. Abrahams ...... J. Hartnup, Esq. ... W. Lassell, Esq. ... Mr. Holt Nicholson’s Journal Dr? Dalton ~,.ss15.25 J. Casartelli, Esq. ... MOS. SG AR, ce J. Casartelli, Esq.... L. Bucham, Esq. ... J. F. Bateman, Esq. T. Mackereth, Esq. M.S. & LR. J. F. Bateman, Esq. G. Lloyd, Esq. ...... G. VY. Vernon, Esq. J. Curtis, Esq. ...... W. Horrocks, Esq. Period. C 1859- C 1863- 1677-86,1689-93, 1697-1703 1861-63 1830-45 T 1861, 1863 1797-1801 1861-63 C 1860- C 1854- 1864— C 1849- C 1855- 18 50— C 1865-— 1854 imp. 1853-57 C 1860-62 T C 1863- 1800-02, 1804-17 C 1849-51 T 1861- 1775-1792 1842 1861-63 T 1840-41 C 1864- 1846— 1860 T C 1791-1801 1338 imp. 1802-04. 1784-92, totals. 1808-10 1794-1840 1830-53 T 18 50— C 1853- 1825-39 T 1854— C 1861- 1840, 1845-47, 1851— 1845-47 1854— 1765-69 1850— C 1862— 1860- *B.A. *B.A. + * *TB.A. “y ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 217 LANCASHIRE (continued). Station. ane Observer. Period. Manchester (Rhodes Wood). 520 | J. F. Bateman, Esq. 1855— f 5 (Sale) cscs sce ctdansep 134 | J. Curtis, Esq. ...... 1855-61 T < ((S/21b%0) x06) eee wk Mr. Walker ......... 1786-93 Middleton (Slattocks) ......... 450 | Manchester Mem....) 1833-40,1845-47 4 ( ,, Soc. gauge)...| 450 “ 1344 Oldham (Brushes Clough)... 950 | J. Taylor, Esq. ...... 1861- » (Gas Works).........| 600 1860- # (Royton) ............ 484 | Mr. Heap ............ 1836- ~ so. eaetscas act 480 = C 1865- a (Strines Dale)...... 800 | J. Taylor, Esq. ...... 1859- x (Waterhouses) ...) 345 | M.S. & L.R.......... 1845-47,1850- imp. Ormskirk (Rufford)............ 38 | J. Porter, Esq. ...... C 1847- Preston (Fishwick) ............ 154 | ‘T. Oddie, Esq. ...... C 1850- » (Holme Slack)......... 143 | J. Newton, Hsq. ...| C 1861- MEA ELOWICK) 66. coc on's ai. «os 72 | T. Norris, Esq. ...... C 1845- » (House of Correction)} 140 | Mr. Hesketh......... C 1849- ps eve as ess] e187 re C 1848- SMM So nak sh cwtcbn dels aante: ane Army Med. Corps. Radcliffe (Mount Sion) ...... 250 | H. Eaton, Esq....... 1862— Hachdale \. 022. c.cces.e<.0aee- aa MiS2@ ORE ce 1863- a (Castleton Moor)...| 475 | Rev. J.C. Bates ...| C 1863- A » Exp. gauges)| ... + Various. ss toaas | 3 Er) je ea soo | Mr. Keroyd ......... 1832-47 », (Heywood W. W. Res.)} goo | C. E. Cawley, Esq...) C 1848- is (Moss Lock) ......... 500 | Manchester Mem. 1825-40, 1844-47 rs (.,, Soc. gauge) ...! 500 “3 1844, 1846, 1847 sce MGR cpeereer ree ee ctr Le ARTO 1843 Southport (Virginia Farm)...|—... R. Stokes, Esq. ...... C 1861-63 T Todds Brook .................. 6z0 | Manchester Mem....| 1847 MMIVER SOOM. cc o.c en kes se tap 98 | J. H. Matthews, Esq.! C 1864— - cnet tal| tes Lama teeces 1852-58 imp. Watt Sniton’ ) 2)... 22.30. i Manchester Mem....)_ 1789-93 |S /ES S70) a a a 33 | T. G. Rylands, Esq. 1849-55 5 (Penketh School)| ... L. J. Reynolds, Esq.) C 1865 9 (Winwick) ...... be E. Rothwell, Esq. ... 1844 imp. i (Walton Lea) ...| ... G. Crosfield, Esq. Whalley (Stonyhurst) ......... 381 | Rev. W. Sidgreaves| C 1846- Wigan (Waterworks Reserv.)| 225 | J. L. Hunter, Esq. .| C 1863- sae (Standish) *, 200.!..2. 300 a C 1858- Windermere (Fell Foot)...... ae Manchester Mem....|. 1788-91 3 (Wray Castle) ...|. 250 | Dr. Dawson ......... C 1849- Yealand [Burton on Kendal].| 1826 imp. LEICESTERSHIRE. Appleby School ............... 340 | Rev. B. F. Falkner | C 1864- Belvoir Castle [Grantham]...| 237 | W. Ingram, Esq...) 1855- Leicester (Museum)............ 3a: J. Payne, Esq. ...... 1856-63 imp. 5 (Hotel Street) ...... 220?/ H. Billson, Esq. ...) © 1861- - Loughborough (Emanl.Rect.)| 150?) Rev. R.J. Bunch...) C 1861— 99 (Belton)......... 300?| Rev. R. Dalby ...... C 1863- 65 (Rothley) ...... 210 | Rev. R. Burton ...| C 1860- 3 (Woodhouse)... “| Rey. J. Hiley ...... C 1865— Market Harbro’ (Fleckney)... J.B. Putt, Esq. ...) C 1863- Melton Mowbray ............... Rey. C. A. Holmes | C 1861- # (Dalby Hall) ...... ods E. B. Hartopp, Esq.) C 1863- a (Waltham) ......... 540?| Rev. G. E. Gillett... C 1860— Owston [Oakham] ............ 580?) Miss Gilford......... C 1864— Thornton (Reservoir) ......... 420? | J. Bevins, Esq. ...... C 1855- sad (Vicarage) ......... 500? Rey. R. S. Adams...| C 1857 T imp. Wigston Grange ............... | 220 | 7, Burgess, Esq. ...| C 1835-43, 1845- 218 *x «tf ++ —_ + REPORT—1865. LINCOLNSHIRE. Station Hs Observer Period. tion. IBGSt@Hige- <0 esene es cnnccen sae 1o | Dr. Adam............ C 1864— A Race BA EEE 10 | W. Veall, Esq. ...... 1830-56, 1860-64 RI rns. ses cc egar acess 16 | OM SUG RS oon. 1859- s (Appleby Hall) ...... as Mr, Usher ..........-. 1849-55 f _Micarage).--|. ~.-. Rev. J. E. Cross ...| 1858- 5 (Barnetby) ...........- gy pew. Side Wyle. uenee C 1859- ec ee reer 5: Nicholson’s Journ. 18c8-10 oy esas ae Mr. Smith............| C 1860- Gainsborough (pelea Ho.) 38 | T. Dyson, Esq. ...... C 1851- Bs teh amiaiece i eaax arearen 76 | M.S.&L.R.......... C 1859- », (Gate Burton)...... 96 * 1860— »» (Stockwith) ......... 21 5 1855- Gravtthamy-so-assaceereenenns en 179 | J. W. Jeans. Esq....| C 1851— te paige toe den eens eee sok Mri Reade... sacea0s 1851 Grimeby -; «s--cccteetnasenenee= 4z | M.S.&L.R. ...... C 1859- Horncastle (Vicarage) ......... Ses Rev. W. H. Milner | C 1863- va jat sqagesvareiaveuesss A Nicholson’s Journ. 1808-10 e (Minting Vicarage)| ... Rey. F. Bashforth. Diincolinn. 2 aaeoe nee eee 26 | M.S.& LR. ...... C 1859- jt cp (GOLDY) meee verse =e 100?| Rey. T. T. Penrose 1855-61 Market Deeping (Greatford ERAN) cc eohemest ease seasensee 4004 Dr: Tepe’ .s-es--- CONCEP ore .-- | Lady Bayning ......) | 1836-42 imp. Notting Lee eae eee ee a .. | S. B. Blunt, Esq. ...) C 1865- Paddington ...........se0ee.+e-. A ocak © ee ee 1854-56 JRO ICS Vind Bertone Cee Sey eee 25 | Mr. Gaster ......... C 1862-63 T St. John’s Wood (Lit. Soc.)...|. 16r | H.J.Montague,Hsq.} 1857- % (Melina Place)| ... | G. Leach, Esq....... 1852-57 imp. Spring Grove’... .nc-sscgenanasapys- ... | Rey. R. W. Kerrison| C 1865— BUTE se cs°t = eases naacaaancat ace — Cooper, Esq. DISH evades shantessacesonseqstors, 110 | Dr. Stewart ......... C 1860- EEE eev ech voacSinaps Nap -sgres. 180 - 1862-63 », (Dickleborough) ......... scot | Show cites 1840 imp. Downham Market (Bexwell) ... | Rev. E. J. Howman| C 1864— 3 (Fincham)| 60?| Rev. W. Blyth...... 1864- East Dereham (Mattishall)...) 155 | Rev. J. M. Du Port] C 1863- Hunstanton ..................66- 60 | Mr. Rippingale...... 1856- Lynn (Hillington) ........... ... | Rev. H. Ffolkes ...) C 1865— Iya 00171 Ny See ae .-. | Philos. Trans. ...... 1749-62 » (Grey Friars) ...... 50 | W. Brooke, Esq. ...| C 1836- 5 We mteheeeeee ... | CO. Evans, Esq. = (Institution) ......... 100 | W. Brooke, Esq. ... 1861-62, 1864. i (Carron House) .. ... | J.J. Colman, Esq. . (Clenchwharton) ...}_. Rey. F. Currie...... 1853-59 = (Cossey) <...02...... se H. Culley, Esq. 1862— o (Felthorpe) ......... £ — Fellowes, Esq....| 1848-55 * (Haverland) ......... ... | Lady Bayning ...... 1835-42 imp. Pa (Honingham) ...... 110 i 1843- af (Stoke Holy Cross) «-- | J.J. Colman, Esq. a. “5 (Thorpe) ............ x W. Birkbeck, Esq. * * B.A. * B.A. * + REPORT—1865. Norrouk (continued). - Station. pe Nas Observer. Period. ion. Reepham ............ seine ates T. Aldate, Esq....... C 1865- Swalllham’ §. .ccccacacoccssosseness ah C. J. Drury, Esq. ...) C 1865- Dhotiord’ 3.5555 oetes 75 | Dr. Bailey............ 1840-63 T (Watton) ............ woe S| MERE Mier tins ike ce. C 1865- Wells (Burnham) ............ 102 | H. E. Blyth, Esq....) 1840- »» (Hgmere) .....e.....e00 150 | R. Overman, Esq....| C 1853- sy ee(Holkham). 'itevee4. 39 | J. Davidson, Hsq....| C 1848- Son’ SHE) tnaeloemaiotae | 48 7 1860— NorvTHAMPTONSHIRE. Brackley 398 | Rev. B. F. Falkner | C 1864 T Kettering .- | Jd. Wallis, Esq. ...... C 1863- Northampton ...........s00008. ane. “Pir Mliveices2 renee es C 1863- ‘5 (Althorpe House)| 310 | Mr. Jakeman ...... C 1841- a ate) ana, S/N Toeteenenee 1827 ~ (Holdenby) ...... 385 | Rev.C.H.Hartshorne C 1864- pe (Yardley Hastings)} 180?] Rev. R. W. Prichard C 1862— Oundlon:covecess seen teesee nee 124. >| Mr) Wilcke ese | C 1860-62 T » (Southwick): ..:....:. a G. Lynne, Esq. ...... 1726-39 Peterborough (Marholm) ... Rev. R. S.C. Blacker C 1859-62 T Potterspury|[StoneyStratford } Rey. R. E. Crawley , C 1865- Towcester (Blakesley) ......... Rev. F. H. White.... C 1824-46 T Wansford (Kings Cliff) ...... M. J.B. Weedon Beck .................. Rev. J. S. Winter...) C 1864- iWrellinghoronghit.cccicscexcsses|| eke (7 = Eee 1840 imp. AMP f vicec-sovmcwesiocd M. Sharman, Esq.... 1860— NORTHUMBERLAND. Allenheads [Alston]............ 1400 | Rev. W. Walton ...| 1841-43 3 Pa Oh eesbiaveatcs 1369 | T.J. Bewick, Esq....| C 1854- (Gere) ecnaran tees 1375 3 ...| OC 1852- Alnwick ( Glanton Pike) ...... 534 | F.Collingwood, Esq.| C 1862- 5 (High House) ..... 400 | Mr. Scott ............ C 1860- ‘3 (Howick) ............ 120 | Earl Grey............ 1864— - (Roddam) ............ 545 | Mrs. Roddam ...... 1861- Bellingham (Hesleyside)...... 420. | W.H.Charlton, Esq. 1863- - (Otterbourn) . «| Rev. T. Wearing ...| C 1865- Berwick (Cheswick)............ 95 | J.D. Selby, Esq. ...| 1842,1845-49imp IBY Wel ie i o.6 sonnet dider decease 87 | Mr. Dawson ......... C 1855- Deadwater,55°17'N.2°38'W.| ...._ | Mr. Scott ............ 1862— Hexham (Bingfield) ......... 410? | Capt. Orde ........ C 1864- Pe (Newborough) ...... ... | Rev. H. Wastell ... 1821-24 > (Ovingham). Fey (backend)! cvyscsscsa, 277. | M.A. Ridley, Esq. 1846-52, 1860— Morpeth (Brenckburn Priory)| 200? | C. H. Cadogan, Esq.) 1864— - (Cresswell) ......... ... | B. Cresswell, Esq. me (Widdrington)...... aun Mame OL See 1722-23 imp. Neweastle-on-Tyne (O.S8. O.)| 187 | Lieut. Sitwell ...... 1852, 1856— 62 T a (Institution) ...... se | W. Lyall, Esq. ......) C 1865— 5 (Stamfordham)...). goo | Rev. J. F. Bigge ...) C 1854- = “arog Ginoel ay eee a: C 1865— 5 (West Denton)...) 250 | G.C. Atkinson, Esq.) 1845-52 T eS (Wylam)) ve... 96 C 1854- sae ( (Camphill. «- | D. D. Main, Esq....| 1864— oot | (Fawcett) ceo c.c..s is on 1864— 35 S (Green Crag) ...| ... * 1864- » ‘| 4 (Hallington)...... 400 rh 1864- » & | (Valley N.Tyne)| ... n 1864— a = (Whittle Dean)...| 380 bs 1864— 5 \ (Woodford) ......) ... Fi 1864— * B.A. ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. NortHuMBERLAND (continued). 221 Station. oe Observer. Period. North Shields (Rosella Place); 120 | R. Spence, Esq. 1356-58 ” ( ” ) 124 ” 1860— “ (Low Lights) zo | J. R. Proctor, Esq. | C 1862- 3 (Tynemouth) 61 | P. J. Messent, Esq. 1864— is (Wallsend) ...| 100 | R. R. Deas, Esq. ...) 1863- = (Whitley) 83 | Rey. R. F. Wheeler| C 1864— RSE Saco. oes. sSenaadideen 309 | Mr. Routledge ...... 1859- Wooler (Lilburn Tower)...... z90 | H.J.Collingwood...; 1860- », (Middleton Hall)...... 240 | J. T. Leather, Esq. 1864- aE field) 1). .455 sees 200 | G. A. Grey, Fsq. C 1864— Norrinenamsnire. Nottingham .............00..-..- Nicholson’s Journ. | 1808-10 », (Beeston Observatory) ... | E. J. Lowe, Esq. » (.,, Meadow) ...| 100 | Mr. W. Barker...... C 1861- » (Bromley House)...... ... | R.N. Harris, Esq....| 1836, 1839 imp. » (Highfield ,, ) ...| 162 | E. J. Lowe, Esq. ... 1860- pie. 5; pee) a ind “SZ. 35 1860— », (West Bridgeford) ...|.... | Nicholson’s Journ. 1808-09 HEIOPER., «sc onsidoSees scents erence 52 | M.S. &DR.....:.. C 1855- pone Tash) is cad see ek estectent 50 | J. 8. Piercey, Esq. 1860- Bias VW ORt) coscs. cette! “| 50 | Rey. D. Butterfield | C 1853- Bondi wells. -......2tiase0e 200 | W.W. P. Clay, Esq.| C 1844- 3 (Oxton)).. eek: ... | H. Sherbrook, Esq. 1862— VGH vos sn (Barton Hall) ... Mr... Allan 72S > (BotanicGardens) E. Skepper, Esq : (Culford) ......... Mr. Grieve ......... a5 (Fornham Hall).. Mr. Halliday ...... es (Thurston Lodge) Rev. W. Steggall ... (Nether Hall) ... W. C. Bassett, Esq. - (Westley) ......... R. Burrell, Esq. ... iyo) (Waxley) 1... cecetesccece Rey. W. H. Sewell Hadleigh (Aldham)............ Rey. J. H. Lloyd... Tpswich (Grundisburgh)...... ... | P. Harris, Bsq....... Lowestoft (Carlton Colville) . 8 | G. Edwards, Esq.... co. OE eaRe ree tae ... | Sir FB. Crossley ...... = (Gisleham)......... .. | Rey. J. Jodrell...... a (Burgh Castle) ....). 310 | ©. Cory, Esq. ...... % (Hopton Hall)...| -70 i Mendlesham (Thwaite) ...... Mr. Whistlecraft ... Surrey. TAP RONS .E%. 3. 00s-nasws sce vanles «l 430 | Dr. Blount ......... as fea’ A) etwas. ... | H.J.B.Hancock, Esq. GERACE ALK) 5-50 ccscetibesth 230 | SirJ. Clark, Bart.... » (Windlesham)......... 205 | G. Dines, Esq. ...... SSAGUERSCD 625. oo. senn doxsen sks 13 |J.B.Faunthorpe, Esq. Betchworth (Brockham) ...... 130 | W. Bennett, Esq. ... < (The Holmes) ...| 300 | E. T. Bennett, Esq. = (Buckland) ...... .. | Rey. W. F. Hotham Brixton Hill... .22...cc005.0se00s ... | Miss Sweeting ...... CINE TO ee 370 | Dr. Westall ......... Clapham (Cedars Road)...... -.. | H. Doxat, Esq. ...... Cobham Lodge..............00. 1oo =| Miss Molesworth ... Movant: 2.4.28). s easiest oh «+ | Dr. Westall ......... fe (Waddon House)... See 8. Courtauld, Esq. Dorking (Box Hill)............ 500 | E. Boorman, Esq.... “ (Bury Hill) ......... 377 | A. K. Barclay, Esq. ~ (Deepdene) ......... -.. | Mr. Whiting......... ey (Denbies) ............ 600 | Mr. Drewett......... - (Kitlands)............ 580 | D. D. Heath, Esq. Period. 1863- Cc 1864- 1863- 1863- 1864- —1864-— 1860- 1863- 1864- 1858 1859— 1843- 1843-47 imp. C 1860— C 1861— C 1859- .| C 1863- C 1858— 1847 1834, 1860-63 C 1860-63 T 1860— C 1858-64 T C 1864— 1830- 1860- C 1865- C 1864— C 1864— C 1856- C 1865 T C 1864- 1852-59 1851— 1861 C 1352- 224 * + REPORT—1865. Surrey (continued). Station. Godalming (Dunsfold) 3 (Wonersh) Kew Observatory.........+.-.+5 ” 3 (Ham, Red Hill)...... St. Thomas’ Hospital South Lambeth................5. Wandsworth (St. Ann’s Hill) (South Fields) Weybridge (Heath Bartropps) Arundel (Dale Park) s (Slindon) Bognor aa ee (Bervted Lodge)...... Brighton 99 RRR eee tent e anes », (Upper Brunswick Pl.) Chichester sces.-.seehveneteceo fee e weet nee ee te seeeeee i (Museum) ......... + (West Gate) ...... “- (Chilgrove) .......+« pe (Bepton Hil) ...... 5 (Funtington) ...... 5% (Shopwyke) ......... = (Westbourne) ...... s (West Dean) ...... f West Thorney) .. Crawley (The Hyde) «........ Cuckfield (Balcombe Place)... Eridge Castle ...........:.s0008 arest# ROW, ss. | (Xstalyfera) “2.00.5... 368 | J. Rogers, Esq. ...... C 1852- pineal BOO RTEER COE ES 52 | J. W. Gutch, Esq....| 1836-39 imp. aa BER PBR EE cicccereaen ... | — Moggridge, Esq. MERIONETHSHIRE. * Balas ies 0.305. .4sgeeaeaesenaatee | 43 | Capt. Mathew ...... C 1865- *B.A.| ,, (Llandderfell) ............ ... | W. Pamplin, Esq....) C 1865- Corwen (Rhug) .............5- J. Wagstaffe, Esq. Dolgellpy ’ \.J.:speaecssesndotes st oes, GEE. carers C 1865- «B.A. a (Brithdin)............ 500 | J. Hill, Esq. ......... C 1864- * a (Llanelltyd) ......... 20 | H. Moon, Esq. ...... C 1861-62 T * Festiniog (Blaenyddol) ...... 600 | G. Carson, Esgq....... C 1864— * Meentwrog (Czen-y-coed)...... 15 | Rev. W. H.Trendel| C 1864- * ees Hall et 150 | C. F. Thruston, Esq.| C 1864- Binaneeeaianciece auuwacecides 18 | Dr. Williams.........) C 1864— * Mraiatyaoda “OS-RDE ADORIIS BF AaB | 7oo | Mr.Jarrett . C 1864- MonrtcGomerysuire. *B.A.| Berriew (Henllys) ............ Miss Williams ..,...| C 1864—- Llanidloes (Broomeliff ) ...... T. F. Roberts, Esq. .| C 1865- Machynlleth ...............0.00 Rev. J. Evans ...... C 1861-62 T PEMBROKESHIRE. Haverford West ........:+0s00: 60: |, Hi: P. Philltps .5.. 1849- * Kil me rnan fos, oxancsiseaatt vance < Rev. D. Evans. ...... C 1865- Pembroke: Dock... .2.<+.n.sss 1852-59 oad os 4 nae 1849-54 807 2 stay oon) OSRa— 171 ey 3 * 1847-49 imp. 555 9 ” 1864— eee ” ” ae 1847-48 imp. 182 ?| Bd. of North. Lights} C 1813- 60 | Mr. M‘Auslane...... 1837- Exe. 59 ?| Bd. of North. Lights] C 1846- 28 | Dr. Geddes ......... 1856-61 33 | W. Topp, Esq. ...... 1862- 38 | Mr. J. Martin ......) 1835-38, C 1862- OP tgey atheros 1795-97 imp. 53 | Mr. M‘Farlane...... C 1860- Bren ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. Fire. Station eva: Observer Period : tion. ) 1 Burntisland ............000-02+8- go | Mr. Machean......... C 1863- Dunfermline (Waterworks). .| ... | cases 1853-59 TEL) RE ipsa Coeece ee 182 ?| Bd. of North. Lights} C 1817- Kirkcaldy (Abbotshall). ; Leven (Nookton) ............... 80 | W.M‘G. Miller, Esq.) C 1857- Markinch (Balfour) .....:...... 129 | Mr. Dewar............| C 1857— Pittemweem .......s.sceeseeeeee 75 | Mr. Tennant......... C 1831- Pa (Balchrystie)...... 135 | Mr. Forgan ......... 1841-51 St. Andrews ...........ccesssaces = Statistical Account 1835-36 Forrar. Arbroath (Kepty Road) ...... 65 | A. Brown, Esq....... 1844- BMP ecko ioaciocatehastadtn; 2 ..._ | Bd. of North, Lights C 1840-52 T SUN Reg LF < bance dnspided one dade 35 | Mr. Proctor ......... C 1856- Danie (Burnhead)............ oe dey Matec ee 1836-39 imp. », (Constitution Road) 60 | R. Adamson, a 1853— me (Craigton)® cscccscs ess 440 PBF 1850— prea (Crescent)iy:..c0c-sscans ".. | Mr, Fairweather SS 1790-95 », (Hill Head)......... 500 | R. Adamson, Hsq....). 1836-41, 1844- pee (Kawloch)! “.-:. 50.4. ... | J. Leslie, Esq. ...... 1838 gee (Nisin) ce22 682 nae 5s 450 Borie ef e phanran 1836-41 pees (Lowder Mapazine):.:|9 0 2. fl yt) NE a. 1837-40 WET QNOICHEN) cee sea-tses, 550 | R. Adamson, Esq... 1836-41, 1844- » (Somerville a «| 240 “| od. Kerr, Hsqecct..... C 1856- (Taybank) . GOiear sessevens 1836-45 imp. SESE SE eran alc no mecetnet 1836-38 Kettins (Cupar Angus] ...... 213 | MreGibb!*:is.2tesc..: 1856- IMEQYIGNOHO. . <20<0ssesecescecesnste- 20 | J.Aberdein, Esq....) 1842-56 3 (Asylum) ............ 200 | Dr. Howden......... 1864— i. (Bridge Street) 25 | D. Scott, Esq. ...... C 1864— x (High Street) ...... 21 | Mr. Leighton ...... C 1858- 3 (Museum) ......... 8 | Mr. Campbell .. 1857- a GUIBADI) cae eas sasen sep 150 | Mr. Wyness ......... 1861- HaAppINGTONSHIRE. Drem (Dirleton) ............... aa C. Stevenson, Ts eer 52 imp. » (Fenton Barns) By ee 100 ee Hope, Esq. . 863- Dunbar (Thurston) ............ 320 | Mr. Mossman ...... Cc Lf ral Gifford (Yester) ............... 420 | Mr. Shearer ......... 18 56— Haddington (Kast Linton) .. go | Mr. Storie............ C 1856— ey Sepsis 140 | Mr. Dods ............ 1835- Prestonkirk (Smeaton)... “100 || Mrt Black 7., ..scesss= 1831- East INVERNESS-SHIRE. Beauley (Beaufort Castle) .. 40 | Lord Loyat ......... 1860-63 » (Belladrum). ee ee ene) 2. Mr. McDonald...... C 1865- (Knoydant) .. - J. Band, Esq. ...... C 1865- Inverness (Culloden House) 104 | A. Forbes, Esq. 1855- * a (Gordonville) ...... ees Wie Carruthers, Esq.) C 1865- " (High School)......J... J. Robertson, Esq... C 1865- re (Royal Academy) 30 | M. Adam, Esq....... 1829-31 IRGTIPRIBEIO .--.scciccctes Dalheatie ss ee ered ie Mr. Grieve ......... Kells (Kenmuir Castle) . Sop ae Whenoe Kirkeudbright (Little Ross) 30? | Bd. of North. Lights New Galloway (Glenlee) ae W. Maxwell, Esq... % (Waterside) .. P. Dalziel, Esq aseae LANARKSHIRE. Airdrie (Auchengray) «....-.«. 650 | Dr. Rankin ......... », (Hillend House)......) 620 | Mr. Thomson ...... Avondale (Gilmourton) .... 600 | Beardmore’s Hydro- [logy Douglas Castle .............000+- 783 | Mr. Russell ........ FS git ipeanate he 75 | Mr. Anderson ...... Glasgow ...s....- EA isle My wkeeewes ” (Baillieston) .........| 230. | Mr. P. Jarvie ...... - (Cessnock Park) ... 34 | R. Hart, Esq. ...... - (Ibroxholm) ......... 20 | Messrs. Gardner .. a3 (Macfarlane’s Obs.)} 80 | — —— seease + (Observatory) ...... 200 | Prof. Grant ......... 9 (O4S8:O,). tact ee. 166 | Major Bayly ...... _ (@ark)) osssesocevesen ae Messrs. Gardner ... Period. C 1833- [1863- 1853-56,1858-59, C 1813- C 1857—_ C 1857- 1863 T C 1865- C 1860- .| C 1851- C 1857- 1864— 1860-65 T C 1859- C 1857- 1835749)1855- 57) C 1858-63 T 1860— C 1833- 1856 1842-56, 1860- C 1859- C 1865- 1864— 1864— C 1865— (1832-38) C 1843- C 1865— C 1865- C 1856-58 T C 1852- 1845-47 1765, 1775-78, 1788, 1795, 1805 imp. 1846-50, 1854-60 C 1801-37 1856-62, 1864 C 1855-62 T 1843-51 ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 237 LANARKSHIRE (continued), Station. se ti Observer. Period jion. Hamilton (Auchinraith)...... 150 | R. Ker, Esq.. Siseeeen ss C 1853- | Ce peers D. Alston, Esq....... 1833-46 a (Bothwell Castle) 147 | Mr. Turnbull ...... 1807-21, 1844 PRE TRLON: 10h a Ue chee fens. seh, | Clie. Phy RaBaaceen 1830 imp. Peary EA Ss.) 2. icecescaseeses 1280 |. Tow jesusts 1813-20 imp. Linuituaow. | New Liston ............. eee | 165 | Mr. Gibson ......... | 1857-59 TuE Orkneys. me (Cantick Head) ......... os Bd. of North. Lights] C 1858- (Graemsay, High, E.).. 27 joreane | Madaee 1851- s) Low, W.).. Ze: CRE Nene PRtsypens oe heen C 1851- 4 (Melsetter) ........02025..- 55 | J. G. Heddle, Esq. 1863- B.A. | Pomona (Holme Manse)...... =e Rev. O. Scott ......) C 1865- 53 (Inganess Cottage) | 190 | Dr. Baikie............ C 1860-61 T t Pe (Kirkwall)............ 8 | Mr. J. G. Iverach | C 1862- t + (Sandwick Lawn)... 78 Rev. C. Clouston . 1840- t (6 Sige North: Park). 94° | aged iosy a ree 1862— N. Ronaldsay siaceeadees sa2ees 21 | Bd. of North. Lights) C 1854— *B.A. | Papa Westray ........0......0.- ep — Traill, Esq. ..,... C 1865- Sanda (Start Point)............ 29 | Bd. of North. Lights| C 1814-21, 1823- Shapinsa (Balfour Castle) . 50 | D. Balfour, Hsq. ...) C 1856- (ON) 5 ne ste Seneae 1811 imp. PEEBLEs. PEGE DCH ponaahe cate gs 08 + ca hncWash oe ee weer ce 1765-79 », (Stobo Castle)......... 600 | Mr. Anderson ...... 1857-59, 1861-62 Pennycuick (North Esk Res.)| 1150 | Mr. Garnock ...... C 1850- PERTHSHIRE. Aberfeldy (Black Hill) ...... 823 | J. S. Hepburn, Esq.) C 1863- + (Bolfracks) ......... 350 | Mr. Wylie............ 1861- * (Taymouth)......... 370 | Mr. Murray ......... C 1861- Annat Cottage [Dundee]...... 170 | Mr. Gorrie ......... C 1846-57 T Auchterarder House ......... 172 | Lieut.-Col. Hunter | C 1860- a (Colquhalzie) too | J.S. Hepburn, Esq.| 1857- ms (Trinity Gask)...|. 133 | Mr. Wylie............ C 1856- Blairgowrie (Rosemount) ...| 300 | Mr. Gibb ............ 1863— (Clunie Manse) ... | Rev. W. Macritchie 1834-36- Callander (Blairhoyle) ...... aoe) gids Mamn0) aynsscants C 1862- re (Lanrick Castle) ...}. 150 | A. Glover, Esq....... 1853-62, 1864— (MEN) eB oct tn 345 | J.B.Hamilton, Esq.) 1852-55, 1860~ Crieff (livia ane 247 | Rev. A. J.T. Morris! C 1863- (Ub aek CELE SRM RRR Pe ..- | Mr. M‘Owen. Doune (Deanston) ............ 130 | J. Finlay, Esq. ......)| C 1837- mee GaxhincHber)) .......c. ... | J.B. Murdoch, Esq.| 1853-60 Dunblane (Kippenross) ...... too | J. Stirling, Esq. ...) 1852- Errol. ee ec anbidden) Sl alpened } est oxe 1846-47 T (Stronvar) ...|- 463 | D. Carnegie, Esq.... 18 85 3-54, 1859- Loch Katrine (Aberfoyle) . 60 | J. M. Gale, Esq. ...) C 1853— a (Bridge of Farn) u : ‘ 1855 imp. Ne. 3 Turk)| 270 5 «| GC 1853- # (Glen Finlas) ...| 1800 = -| C 1853-55, 1857- 1 See also Dumfriesshire, Wanlockhead. 238 * B.A. REPORT—1865. Prrtusnire (continued), Station. a Observer. Period. Loch Katrine (Glen Gyle) ...; 380 | J. M. Gale, Esq. ...| C 1853- 3 (Ledard) ......... 1500 9 ..-| C 1853- = (Loch Dhu)...... 325 i) .. | C 1861— hi », Drunkie) 420 99 ..| C 1861- 3 f » Lubnaig) od, OPST tes 1846-48 imp. 9 (_,, Vennachar)| 275 | J. M. Gale, Esq. ...)| C 1861- 59 (Tunnel Hill Top)| 830 * ...| C 1861- TAO PICNAIE 02. oecs-cccqeccocwbebae -.. | Rev.G@.D. R.Munro| C 186 5- (Mouline) ......... woe). Te temeneeee (1813-18) Meigle (Belmont) ............ 300 | Mr. Stewart ......... 1860-61 ( » Castle) 204 | Mr. Robertson ...... 1789-95, 1799 Perth Academy: ...:..ccssseesoee 79 |.Dr. Maller...iJ-cectt- 1852-54, 1856— »» (Harly Bank)............ 66 | Gen. Lindsay ...... C 1845-62 Pome (1: Sas hal) Wee spose Cee eee 185 | Rev. R. Gordon ...| C 1817-25 re a Castle) ...... zo | Harl Gray...........: 1815-30, 1832-43 +s al £ Tower)...... 129 ” 1815-30, 1832-41 4 o( Methven), \......edseeee cs G2. 1 Tea 1830-36 imp. »» (Rose Bank) ............ 130 | Rev. R. Gordon ...| C 1812-16 T »» (Scone Palace) ......... 80 | Mr. Halliday ...... 1860- St. Fillans (Dunira). Stanley. s-ty.ceb nd Scheiudes tes 200 | Rev. W. Mather ...| C 1833- Tyndrum (56°24’N.,4°42’W.), 792 | Mr. M‘Laren ...... 1857-61 imp. RENFREWSHIRE. Eaglesham (Cross Keys)...... | 600 | J. Arneil, Esq. ...... 1864- (Revoch) ......... yoo || Mr, Scott ..1c. 22.05: 1862, 1864— Gorbals (Black Loch) ......... zoo | J. M. Gale, Esq 1854-58, 1861— 59 (Middlefon) ......... 550 1854~ » (Ryat Linn) ......... 310 _ 1854-58, 1860— » (Waulk Glen) ...... 280 + 1854-58, 1860— hae ft occ oereemia sca Sos unecoe 296 A 1849-50, 1852 Greenock ecctaseesobtacae es azs0 PME ty Calton re 1833 Pe! TAME GES, of 30 +| Capt. M‘Kellan...... 1846-49 33 (Bagatelle) ......... 7 led | Suomen Soon 1847-55 - (Hamilton Street) 50 | J. Gardner, Esq 1853- 5 (Infirmary) ......... 120 re 1820-38 “*. En Garden) ace, SITE Baxsatnes 1836-37 imp. » (Shaws W.works I.) 600 Morison, Esq 1864— im | oF II.)} 560 5) 1864— Pade} 5 III.)| 800 5 1864- es IV.)| 540 * 1864— Sine Ge Everton Cottage)| 472 or 1864- (.,, Meanof 5 gauges) ba 5 1835-39, 1841-55 Johnstone (Castle Semple) ...|_ 180 | D. Robie, Esq 1827-33 3} (Kilbarchan) ...... 350 + 1860— DaviGine o.csteaesescedteateleceons a, || aoe 1831 < House) ............... chs. “Fike seams ibis 1831-52 » (Old Gauge) ......... es, alt Ge Proknees 1831 TLamgside ...:::.Jcisecsere-sosees Cron tal ee & Mus Was oe ioe -33, 1835-37 Lochwinnoch (Lochside Ho.)} ... | J. C. Burns, Esq. C 1865- bei (Nither Place) ...... 350 | W. Mather, Esq. . 1841-50, 1860-— aisley. » (Back Thornly Muir) | 693 | Statistical Account 1836 imp. > (CraigyPark)" <. 04s... 379 aR ovens 1849-50 imp. », (Ferguslie House) . 85 | Mr. Stewart ......... 1858- », (Locherfield)............ ... | Mr. Hardie ......... 1861-62 », (Nether Craigs) ...... 160 | Statistical Account | C 1834-36 (Orn: Square) ..5.cee- 62 * 1836 imp. ae * B.A. * | ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. Ross-snirz, East. 239 Station. ates Observer. Period. ion. Alness (Ardross Castle) ...... 450 | Mrs. Matheson ...... 1862- GEOMAMLY ............0ceceseeeees 28 | Bd. of North. Lights) C 1846- 1) 21) ee aes ot ... | Statistical Account 1830-35 Fr (Brahan Castle) ... K. 8S. M‘Kenzie, Esq.) C 1865- ra (Free Church Inst.) J. Boyd, Esq. ...... C 1865- Invergordon Castle ... | A. E. Maclure, Esq.| C 1865- oa eee eee go | — Gordon, Esq. ...} 1862-63 PCH OATN) 5 ooo. cs nsieesiesendct 48 Mr. Maclean......... C 1865- Tarbetmess) ..........scsee0eee0s 61 | Bd.of North. Lights| C 1830-56, 1861- Ross-suHirE, WEsrv. PAIPPIOCFORS. ..2...0...2.s-0.00tes 50 | Dr. Haynes ......... C 1865- Lewis (Bernera) ............... 15 | Mr. Matheson ...... C 1859- MEA Utt OL)" "...s6c sac serns- ... | Bd. of North. Lights) C 1863- FpPMCASIBON) oo. << aceite seassiee G5) | ReydaGuan) ccs: 1856-58 imp. » (Stornoway) ............ 31 | Bd.of North. Lights) C 1859- » (Lewis Castle) ......... 70 | SirJ.Matheson,Bart.) 1853- » (Uig Lodge) ............ ... | Mr. J. M‘Kay MeochWsroom: .:255....0...055-..- 30?| Mr. M‘Teary......... C 1865- » Duich (Inverinate Ho.)} 100 | Mrs. Matheson...... C 1864— i » (Shiel House)... 30 | A.E.M‘Dougall, Esq. 1860 RoxBuRGHSHIRE, Hawick (Borthwick Brae) ...|_ 800 | A. E. Lockhart, Esq.| © 1860- » (Branxholm) ......... Trans. Roy.Soc. Edin. 1773-83 si) (Halnash), \.........s00 800?/| Mr.Turnbull ...... 1862- » (Goldielands) ... 505) || Dr. Hlliot ...122...0-. 1862— » (Kirkton) ...... eh Piphir: Welsh: .c.52....s: 1862- EM CEAUIOTAW \ilwcatecaese + 570) |\evin. Oliver:.cstcass- 8 1862— PIMCLINLON))| sas. scccaeess os Be Mr. Barton ......... 1863- », (Lynnwood) ......... B87) eve: Nixon! Jess. .2 ese 1862— »» (Menslaws)............ 4 Mr. Cockburn ...... 1862— », (Sillerbit Hall) ...... eee), Mie Wider 852%. cccuse C 1865- Jedburgh (Sunnyside) ......... 333 | G. Hilson, Jun., Esq.) C 1864— LE) ER eee ee 120 | Tweedside Nat. Club} 1840-43 » (Springwood Park) ...| 130 | SirG.Douglas, Bart.| 1864- Makerstown .................04. 203 a Mrs Ope J cncdens 1855-59 ~ (Garden, 6}ft.)...). 171 | Trans.Roy.Soc.Edin. 1832-45 » (Greenhouse, 18 ft.)| 192 * “t 1837-45 + (Observatory) ... ob: + us C 1842-45, 1847-53 = (Blagden Cur) ...| 1783 | Tweedside Nat. Club] 1842-44 » (Grange of Hownam)) 367 | Trans.Roy.Soc.Edin.| 1840-43 imp. Roxburgh (Sunlawshill) ...... ope 2 gal be Aiurcioatiea 1862-63 Yetholm (Mowhaugh)......... 612. | Mr. Carter...........: 1863- SELKIRKSHIRE. LOLOL eee eee | 597. | Mr. Mathieson ...... 1856- Roberton (Wool)............... ... | Trans.Roy.Soc.Edin.| 1773-76 THE SHETLANDs, Bressay (Lighthouse) ......... 72 | Bd. of North. Lights| C 1859- as IMance)iiet. 222.552. 12 | Rev. Z.M. Hamilton) C 1849- ECTS NGL ea 176 | Mr. Mathewson...... C 1858- Sumburghead .................. 265 | Bd. of North. Lights) C 1822-24, 1826- STIRLINGSHIRE. Ben Lomond .................. | 1800 | J.M. Gale, Esq. ...| C 1853- PI EVTINGH S/S ceacosedteticce thee. Rey. A. Lochore . 1834-37 240 REPORT—1865. SriRLinesHiRE (continued). : Eleva- . Station Gén: Observer. Period. Fintry Hills (Source of the Hin Gri Cha) Meaenn aes seaecant iGO SIF. treet rseves 1853-55 T Millfield (Gardens) ............ 165 | J. Miller, Esq. ...... 1863- 3 (House) Set.o 169 | Mr. Scott ............ 1849-54, 1856-59 Monteith (Cardross)............ vee fe Mir Wiyber ieee: 1860-— Polmmont octet tee es 2 tbc Ae Sr aeeeear (1821-37) Stirling (Ordnance S. O.)...... 299. Re anne tranee 1858-60 », (Polnaise Gardens)... 12 Mr. Gorrie............ 1852— Strathblane (Carbeth) ......... 470 | W.Smith, Esq....... C 1815- ii (Mugdock Res.)..| 320 | J.M. Gale, Esq. ...| C 1862—- SUTHERLANDSHIRE, Cape-Wrath oor... ieee ceseres 355 | Bd. of North. Lights| C 1829- Golspie (Dunrobin Castle) ... 6 | Mr. Mitchell......... C 1860- *B.A. | Helmsdale....0./05..2.....ses00+: 34 | Mr.Campbell ...... C 1865- Lairg (Invershin) ..............- 20° "| Mr Yount-y..u2nsa0s 1863- SCOUNICLinatratenoeeccntanene eee 20 | J. Simpson, Esq. ...! C 1856-61,1862imp. Tongue House ................2- 33 | J. Crawford, Esq. ...] C 1856— WIcTONSHIRE. Worsawallge. ccncctrttcdetac ccc 22 | Bd. of North. Lights) C 1816- Mull of Galloway............... ant | Cc 1832- Stranraer (Castle Kennedy)...| .... | Mr. Burnett .........| 1837 » (South Cairn) ...... 209 | Mr. Kennedy......... | © 1859- ¥B.A. | Wigton (North Balfern) ...... ... | W.MacLelland,Esq.’ C 1865- IRELAND. ANTRIM. #B.A, | Antrim %...:.s00008...ccceeecenees 150 | Rev. J. H. Orr...... C 1864- Belfast (Harbour Office) ...... 47 | O. Shaw, Esq. ...... 1863— + (Linen Hall) 12 | Mr. Stevens { Capea: e » (Linen Hall)............ . Stevens ...... Cx812—32imp.1835- i »» (Queen’s College)...... SS QaVinBellens nace 1851- ARMAGH. | Armagh Observatory .........| 247 | Rev. Dr. Robinson.| —1836- CavaAN. B.A. | Bawnboy (Owendoon)......... 218 |G.H.L’Estrange,Esq.| C 1864— | * | Belturbet (Redhills)............| Rev.B.B.W.Venables| C 1864- : Gavan: 40-ft:)...] 240 -}- Fogger tee F864S oy (Bann Reservoir)...} 440 - ...| © 1861- Downpatrick (Seaford) ...... BOB «bs | he scvsvess ecntee 1863- Holywood (Green Mount)...! ..._ .|-G. W. Kyle, Esq. ...|(C 1865-) Lurgan (Waringstown) ......|. 190 | T. Waring, Esq. ...| C 1861- Dusuin. 2 LL RS ee ee ee ... | A. Semple, Esq....... a 1823-24 » (Black Rock) ......... 95 .|.T. Bewley, Hsq...... 1840-_. » (Broadstone Station) 95 | J. Price, Hsq.......... C 1863- », (Cavendish Row)...... SceciDr. Kirwan ......... 1791-1808 4). AClonsilla) -~.:.....0%.. 220 | J. Price, Esq -.| C.1863— -- ; », (College of Surgeons) ‘es eee mes d 1839-44 ' 3 \(Glameyin),........... :-| 66 | D. Moore, Esq....... 1860- » (Monkstown) ......... roo _| A. Pim) Haq..ce<-ks-: C 1859- | “ a 40 ft.) ...) 140 gs enstee teresa. C 1864= 5 _ 90 ft.) ...} 200 rf csteees| © 28675 »» (Phoenix Park).........|° 166 Capt. Wilkinson, R.E.| C 1837-52 T % aah s: dD a Sistas er Pa cersryytecersoeeesed CO 1893—55, 1861=— © » (Trinity College)...... 42 | Rey. Prof. Galbraith} C 1841-60, 1863- » (Vicar’s Lodge) ...... 89 | S. Yeates, Esq. ...... 1843-60, 1862— OS SCO ee ate oon bt te Podtag 1835-39 imp. FrrManacu. Enniskillen (Florence Court)| 300 | Earl of Enniskillen 1844-45, 1854, 1856- »» (Royal School, Portora)| —.. Mr. Steel. - Gauwar, NTERVIBN ER Oh. S06 occu Sch aba 40. | J. Price, Esq. ......| C 1863- ‘sy (Drainage Office) ...| 40 |.G.H. D’Arcy, Esq. 1852-60 y) (Prospect).........00. ae eld 1838. imp. » _ (Queen’s College) ...) 25 | Prof. Curtis ......... C 1861- * Gort (Creg Park)............... 130 | R.J. Lattey, Esq...) C 1864— *B.A.| Outerard (Innishambo) ...... ... |d.D’Arcy, Esq....... € 1864- Krrry *#B.A.| Killarney ........ccccccceeveees Mr. Spillane .........| C 1865- *B.A, Peep ieee acaraccierenestcdee:| iste =f -ve+sntees C 1865— Knights Town (Valentia)......). 30 | The Knight of Kerry! 1861— KInkenny. Inistogue (Woodford)......... ... | Rt.Hon.W.F. Tighe! C 1865- TLL 200 | Messrs.Duffy&Boyd| 1863- ” (Gowran Castle) ...) ..._ | Rt-Hon.LordClifden| C 1865— *B.A.| Stoneyford (Inisnag) ......... | Rev. J. Graves :.....| C 1865- 4 Kine’s County. Cangort Park [Roscrea] ...... 340 | H. B. Trench, Esq. | C 1863- Parsonstown (Birr Castle) ...| 200 | Earl of Rosse ...... 1862— PAMAMOPO........rsc0scepas soone 235 | H.J.B. Kane, Esq.) 1850- Limerick. | Tamerick .............. peeacstant - |-Rev. C. Mayne...... 1861 * ” (Blackwater).........| 92 | S. Caswell, Esq....... C 1864- | 1865. ; 8 242 : REPORT—1865. LonpdonDERRY. Station. preity Observer. Period. ion. -# | Garvagh (Moneydig) ......... 120 | H.R. Morrison,Esq| C 1864- Londonderry _ .....seeeesereeree ro. |e aint 1797-1800 imp. »» (Literary Association)} 50 | Dr. Cuthbert......... 1861- spo SeBASSereree eee---| 150 | D. Watt, Haq. ...... C 1862- Lonerorp. Drumceashel ........0.eseerseeeee tas SOIREE —Lerado state (1865) Edgeworthstown ....c..ses-ee0 ... | H. Edgeworth, Esq. 1798, 1807-08 snnodenor nena ..» | Mrs. Butler .........) 1862-63 T Longford (Viewmount) eeease .. | M.W.O’Connor, Esq.| OC 1864— Mayo. ares soopeeocgsiveecesesaevce 130 | J. Price, Esq. ...... C 1863 Daciniacacavepierraneaeenete eta: G. H. D’Arcy, Esq. 15ee eG 1860 -ithahiord Court) ... — Guiness, Esq. Mratu. ] Moynalty .....0.sssecssssssseeees] cee | J D. Fanell, Esq. ...|(C 1861-) QuerEn’s County. ] Portarlington .,....cssccseerss: | 236 | M. Hanlon, Esq. ...| C 1844—- Roscommon. *B.A.| Holywell ...... iavesusbssusennee |) ae. i) Ee Smyth; sq:.-...- | C 1864- Suco, ¥B.A.| Bunninadden (Doo Castle) ...| ... | Mr. O’Dowd......... C 1864- Collooney (Markree) ......... 145 | Mr. Smith............ C 1833- Sligo (Hazlewood) ............ 45 | Rt.Hon.J.Wynne...| C 1863- » (Railway Station) ...... 50 | J. Price, Esq. ...... C 1863- TIPPERARY, *B.A.| Borrisoleigh (Ballinlonty) ...|. °..._ | Mr. Kearns ......... C 1865- Cashel (Ballywalter) ...,..... 300? | L. Cust, Esq... C 1864 T * Tipperary (Ballytristreen) .. sas ake Bolton, Esq. .. C 1865- a (Cordaggan House) 3007] L. Cust, Esq wsabeee ae C 1864- TYRONE. | Strabane (Leckpatrick) ...... | 260 | Rev. J.C. Maxwell C 1861- WATERFORD. Waterford (Newtown School)| 60 |. Mr: Greer ....-.1.++- 1840-49, 1852, 1860~ or (Portlaw) ......... Bee RVUI STOR © pp aspinasenac C 1841- “ (Rathculliheen)...} 140 aeeien 1859- WESTMEATH. |] Athlone...........- Seosnpevesseres|.11050 ||.d. Price, iWaqs) wcenss | C 1863- WEexrorp. «B.A.| Gorey (Courtown) sesso, .» | Earl of Courtown...| © 1864— Wexford .........sesseeseeeeeeee J. D. Farrell, Esq...) 1863- * (Reclaimed Lands) 1 | C. M. Palliser, Esq. 1863- WIckLow. | Bray (Fassaroe) ......-.2...0+] 250 | E. Barrington, Hsq.| C 1853- ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS FOR IRON SHIPS. 243 On the Strength of Materials considered in relation to the Construction of Tron Ships. By Witw1aM Fairparrn, LL.D., F.R.S., §c., and Tuomas Tarts, Esq.*. 1; Ix the following investigation it will be assumed that, under the action of equal forces, the extension of the fibres of a beam will be equal in amount to their compression, and that the amount of the extension or compression, as the case may be, is proportional to the magnitude of the force producing it ; and in order to render this hypothesis more fully in accordance with the fact that the ultimate resistances of the two forces of compression and extension in a beam are in almost all cases different, it will be further assumed that the material reaches its ultimate limit of resistance to the one force before it reaches its ultimate limit of resistance to the other force. . Srcrton I. On thé Qualities of Iron best adapted for Iron Ships, especially Ships of War. 2. The work expended in the elongation or compression of a bar is equal to one-half the force multiplied by the corresponding. elongation. Moreover, for bars of the same material, the work varies as the solid content of the bar ; that is, U=uKL, eae a ee ee ee (1) where U= the work of elongation, K= the section of the bar in square inches, L= its length in feet, and wa constant for each class of material, Hence which determines the value of wu from experimental data for different kinds of material, where P is the strain in lbs., and J is the extension of the bar corresponding to this strain. 3. The value of uw, determined for different kinds of material, gives us a comparative measure of their powers of resistance to a strain of the nature of impact, or of dynamic effect; hence the coefficient « may be called the modulus of dynamic resistance, or, as Tredgold named it, the modulus of resi- ence. It is presumed that the best kind of iron for resisting the impact of shot or shell is that whose modulus of dynamic effect is greatest. plates A, and that the resistance of these latter plates is one-half greater than that of the rolled plates D. . 5, Similarly the work expended in the deflection of a bar supported at its extremities, by a force applied at its centre, is equal to one-half the pressure multiplied by the corresponding deflection ; and, moreover, we also have WHC OL. e's TG ee (3) where w, the modulus of dynamic resistance, being constant for the same kind of material, gives us a comparative measure of the resistance of different kinds of material to a force of impact tending to produce transverse rupture. * In this inquiry Mr. Tate has deduced useful formule from Mr, Fairbairn’s experi- ments—independent of other researches—on the strength of iron ships. s2 244 REPORT—1865. Secrron IT, Transverse Strains produced on a Ship under various conditions. 6. The value of M, or the strain tending to rupture a beam, depends on the magnitude and the relative position of the pressures applied to the beam. When the pressure W is applied at the middle of the beam A B, supported at its extremities (fig. 1), the pressure Fig. 1 on the support at A is equal to iv 3; and ——————_—_—__== FI A Q 'C B Ow Q, is equal to the product of the pressure ks by its leverage AQ; that is, the moment M, of this pressure tend- ing to rupture the beam at any point, Now this will become a maximum when AQ=AC; that is, the greatest strain will take place at the centre of the beam, or at the point where the weight is applied. 7. A beam AB, fiwed at the extremity B, is acted upon by a series of ver- tical pressures, Py Poy +s2 00s P,» Whose distances from B are respectively ee ee a,. ‘To find the value of M. Here the greatest strain must take place at B; Pee Mego tt, fri alge: « FP py %q=(pite we ee pAyGB) 4 es (5) where GB is the distance of the centre of gravity of all the pressures from the point of support B. 8. A beam AB, supported at its extremities, is acted upon by a series of pressures on each side of the central pressures ; + Pas Py» applied at the insie E,F,H. To find the great- Pay Par Par PP P est value of M. Fig. 2. Let p, be the resultant of the pressures applied be- 4 vp A YP 2 YP, YP y Ps tween A and E, and p, the DB EGQ FE H, x resultant of those applied t between B and H, Py P, By the principle of the equality of moments, we get 1 P.= 55 (2.x DB+p, x EB+p, x FB+p, x HB+-p, x IB) ye Aah _WxGB | =p ieits:: ...+p,)GB= Ants ee ee (6) which gives the pressure on the prop A, where W is put for the sum of the pressures, and G is their centre of gravity. Supposing Q, lying between the pressures p, and p,, to be the point corre- sponding to the greatest strain, or, in fact, the point where rupture would take place in a beam of uniform dimensions. Now when the lever AQ turns on Q as a centre, we get M=P, x AQ—(p,x DQ+p, x EQ) Q =(P,—p.—P.) AQ+p, x AD+p,x AE =19 {Wx GB—AB (r,+p.)} +p, AD+p, AE .... +... (7) by substituting the value of P, given in equation (6). ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS FOR IRON SHIPS, 245 Substituting the value of W x GB given in equation (6), and putting g, for the distance of the centre = gravity of p,, p, from A, and g, for that of p,, p,, p, from B, 4 get = a4 (P,+Ps+Ps) Is— (Pi +P.) I } +(p, +7.) Pr (8) By interchanging the symbols of this expression, the moment taken in re- ference to the pressure P, will be BQ M=7R BY +7.) —(PstPstPs) Io \ +(PstPs HPs) Jor s+ eee: (9) This expression may be shown to be identical with the former by putting AB—AQ for BQ. Similarly, supposing the point Q to lie between F and H, we get A ua >? { W x GB—AB (p, +p. tps) } +p,xAD+p,x AE+p, x AF, (10) Now, if the quantity within the brackets of equation (7) is positive, while that of equation (10) is negative, the value of M expressed by equation (7) will increase with AQ, attaining a maximum at F; on the other hand, the value of M expressed by equation (10) will increase as AQ is decreased, at- taining a maximum at F; hence it follows that the point F under these con- ditions will undergo the greatest strain, and equation (7) will express the maximum value of M by substituting AF for AQ, the test for the point F of greatest strain being as follows :— Wx GB—AB (p, +p,)== positive. (6. ec ed tee ev ce aces (P) W x GB—AB (p,+p,+p,)=negative...... cece cece eee (N) Example.—Let AB=40, p, =6, p,=10, p,=20, p,=8, p,=6 tons, DB= 32, EB=25, FB=22, HB=12,1B=4. Then from (P) and (N) we find that F is the point of greatest strain, and from equation (7) we find M, the greatest moment tending to rupture the beam, to be 361 nearly. 9. When W x GB=AB (p,+p,), or (p,+P,+Ps) Jo=(Pi+P2) Iv €9- (7) becomes PN Ba oS ain ahr cielo A dies nie an at aed (11) Now as this expression is independent of AQ, it follows that the value of M is the same for all points lying between E Fig. 3. andF. This remarkable result may be rea- E @ sF dily verified by observing that in this case A Sse eg P.=p,+?,. i When there are only two pressures, p,, P,, re) O applied to the beam—that is, when p,=p,= te fe P;=° (see fig. 3), then equation (8) becomes M=F9 (p, x BF —p, x AE)+p,X AB. 1... cc ceee cece eee e ee (12) _ Ifp,x BF>p, x AE, then M becomes a maximum at F; that is, AQ=AF. _ When p, x BF=p, x AE, then this expression becomes M=p, % AB, orp, KBR o ora soo cies gages ena m9 (13) which, being independent of AQ, shows that the moment is constant for all points lying between E and F. 10. When a ship has its load unequally distributed throughout its length, to find the point of maximum sania &e., the ship being supported at the extremities A and B. 246 REPORT— 1865. Fig. 4. AS D KHG Ss { w, (l—g,)+2p, 4+, 9, } Shah, Fe eee Bn Ae (1) M=P,xAQ—w, (AQ—g,)—=2s x(AQ—AE)x3 AQ—AE) =P «—w, (e—g,) —fs pk) sieatceyd Ak Ss oe, e el (2) ca ye (e#—k,)=0, when M isa max. ; , os Z { bei EDI. } Jona. Baie Seabee anaes (3) Substituting the value of P, given in equation (1), this expression de- termines the point Q of greatest strain; and substituting the values of P, and x, here found, in equation (2), the maximum value of M will be determined. ; 1 (1) Tfw,7,=w,g,,aud k,=k=k,=3; then from equation (1) we get Pi=u, TPs» which, substituted in equation (3), gives woes that is, the point of greatest strain is at the centre. Again, substituting these values in equation (2), we get M5 pdidang dc . si. tui ~deea) aioe dae (4) respectively ; then es AK=KE=ée-= 4 and i : Pi=5 {p. XLB-+p,xVB+ &e. } il) : we { p.+8p,+5p,+7P,+97,+p, } fie we Bids bile (5) < ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS FOR IRON SHIPS. 247 1 Ln 3 1\ M=P,e—p,(«—5) ~p(»—z)—("-3 pate alee (6) And to render M a maximum, we find _l 3(P,—P)+P:—P tay | PPP} evcecee a (7) The values of P, and a, substituted in equation (6), give the greatest mo- ment, M, tending to rupture the ship. _ 1 : (1) If p,=p,, and p,=p,, then equation (7) becomes w=5; that is, the greatest strain will be at the centre C. And from equation (5) we find P,=p,+p,+p,; and substituting in equation (6), we get 1 M=75(7,+p,+ 5p, see icant (8) (2) If ba be put for the sum of. the pressures, p,, 7,, p,, on each half of the ship, and let G, be the centre of gravity of these pressures, then MP ee x G,c=¥ x ao—¥ x G,C WwW = xAG,; ic that is, the moment tending to rupture the beam at the centre is equal to the load on one half of the ship multiplied by the distance of its centre of gravity from the extremity. 12. Now let us suppose that the ship is balanced upon its centre C (see fig. 4); then, in this case, the greatest strain will obviously be at the point of support C; hence we have M=p, x DC+p, x HC+p, x ZEC ; but DC=,3, l, HC=.3, 1, and 3 EC=j5 1; 1 Le M=j5(5p,+3p.+Ps) S) eunaias 5h cele wad Daven (10) " or proceeding as in equation (9), we get W W (1 M=5 xG,C, or 5 (5—A6, P nail onc n hal (11) Comparing this expression with equation (9), it will be observed that as the load is accumulated towards the centre of the ship, AG, will be greater than G,C, and therefore (9) will be greater than (11). _ 18. If the load be equally distributed, or p, ees then AG, = 3 of and equation (9) becomes jal W/1\_ Wi m=3()=5> a ee ce (12) and from equation (11) we get pt aro wl 1\ Wl May s-a)=s er ee ar ot: (18) where the results of equation (12) and (13) are the same; that is to say, the 248 p _REPORT—1865. moments tending to rupture the ship, in the two positions, are the same when the load is uniformly distributed throughout its length. 14. When the load has the form of a trapezoidal fieure ADEFB, to find the greatest moment tending to rupture the beam AB supported at its extre- ~‘Let AB=1, Al==¢,. IB=a,, EI =e, AD=8, BF =6, AQ=z, »=the weight of a unit of surface in the load. Now, observing that the moment of the surface ADEFB is equal to the moment of the rectangle AJLB minus the sum of the moments of the triangles: « - DJE and ELF, we find, after reduction, P, canas Be a When a,=a, this expression becomes =5 (Ge-4-Bb 4p.) p61.) eee (15) The trapezoid ADRQ being composed of the rectangle ADVQ and the triangle DVR, we have x e M=P,e—phe x 5-5 = eke —b =P,w—3 pba? — Iya, i ee een ae (16) Hence for the maximum yalue of M, dM. ne ae aoe pba— a’ =0; =—5 {, i= P 2—Do +90} vo (17) which gives the point Q where the greatest strain takes place. The values of P, and w being substituted in equation (16), we find the maximum value of M as required. (1) When a,=a, then P, is expressed by equation (15), and we get wa ot Vi(e—b)(6e+50-+ 0, ye}. seameaeel (18) Substituting these values in equation (16), we find the maximum moment required. (2) When 6, =6 in the last equalities, we find «=a; that is, the greatest strain will take place in the centre of the beam; and from equation (16) and (15) we get OE a6 -E0). os ves es wee one emis (19) Secrron EIT. Strength, §c., of Beams. 15. The moment: of the forces tending to rupture a beam being always equal to the moment of the forces resisting rupture, the symbol M may be ; La : ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS FOR IRON SHIPS. 249 used to express either of these moments. It must be observed, therefore, that all the expressions hereafter given for M, the moment of rupture or the moment of flexure, as the case may be, are equal to the moment of the forces tending to break the beam. 16. Let A equal the distance of the upper edge of the section of rupture from the neutral axis passing through the centre of gravity of the section ; h, the distance of the lower edge from the neutral axis; S= the resistance of the material, per square inch, to compression at the upper edge ; 8,= the resistance of the material, per square inch, to extension at the lower edge; and I,= the moment of inertia of the section about its centre of gravity ; then 8 8 M=; wii te 2s ae elisa sof? aoe al Sli toe (1) The value of I, depends solely on the geometrical form of the transverse section of the beam. 17. The following values of I, for different sections of material will be found useful in calculating the transverse strength of a beam having a com- plex section, such as that of an iron ship. (1) For a thin plate, AB, about any axis, Fig. 6. NCO, passing through its centre of gra- vity C, I, = KP sin’ 6, where K is the area of the section, and 7 sin @ the projection of 7, the length of the plate, upon the vertical or upon a line perpendicular to the axis. (2) For a hollow rectangle, L=yy (bd —1,4,", where }= the breadth of the section, d= its depth, b, = the internal breadth, and d,= its internal depth. (3) For an ellipsis about any axis NO passing Fig. 7. through the centre C, oma Kp’ 4 ? where 2p=AB, the vertical depth of the section when the major and minor axes are equal, p=r the radius of the circle. (4) For a hollow circle, K 1=7g(@+4,), where d and d, are the external and internal diameters respectively. When the plate is thin, I, =1Kd? very nearly, which also approximately expresses that of a hollow elliptical section, d being the vertical axis. (5) When the depth of any surface is small as compared with its distance from the axis, I=aa? very nearly, where a= the area of the section, and a= the distance of its centre of gravity from the axis about which the moment of inertia is taken. (6) The moment of inertia of a square is the same for all axes passing 250 , REPORT—1865. through the centre, whatever may be the in- Fig. 8. clination, Thus b L=45%, where 7= the length of the side. N ra) And for a square hollow girder of uniform thickness, I=), (I'—1,!), where J,= the length of the interior side. (7) For a parallelogram CEFG about any axis AB passing through the centre, oH TK {P sin’ (0,+6) +e’ sin’ 6,}, Fig. 9. where 7=CG=EF; e=CE=GF; K= area of C parallelogram; @=angle GCE, 0,=angle B, the angle which the side CE or CE produced makes with the axis of moments. E When 6=90°, or the surface becomes a ree- tangle, A B I= 75 K{P cos? 6, +e? sin’ 6,}. LI (8) For angle-iron AMRFE about any axis 3 T =, (t—1,) +? la, where 1=AM=MR, 1 =EF=FL, x, “= the distance of the centres of the squares MC and FC respectively from NO. (9) If A and B be put for the moments of inertia of a surface about its two principal axes, perpendicular to each other respectively, then the moment of inertia of the surface about any & axis passing through the centre will be J,=A cos? 0,+B sin’ 6,, where 6, is the inclination of the oblique axis to the principal axis corresponding to the mo-O Cc N ment of inertia A. ; (10) For a plate RB in the form ofa quadrant, about the axis NO paralle to the radius CB, = i { (r+ 4c?) —7,7(r7,? + 4c’) } +2e(7?—r,*), Fig. 11. where r is put for the external radius of the plate, 7, for its internal radius, and ¢ is put for the distance of the axis NO from the radius CB. When the thickness of the plate is small as com- pared with its distance e from the axis, then T=1K(r?-4e?) + 2¢(r°—r,?). Srctron IY. To find the Moment of a Complex Girder, such as an won ship, composed of a series of parts. 18; Led, Gis'e ae a, represent the sectional areas of the portions com- oS ae ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS FOR IRON SHIPS. 251 posing the transverse section of the beam; a, a,,.... «a, the distance of the centres of gravity of these areas respectively from the upper edge AB of the wenons Q,,@,..... Q,, the moments of inertia of these areas respectively about their respective centres of gravity ; hk the distance of the neutral axis of the whole section from the upper edge. For the neutral axis we have Uy FAG, + see TUG, ; = a,+a,+ ....a, eee eee teoerseve (1) The distance of the centre of gravity of the area a, from the neutral axis is (k—a, ), and so on to the others ; hence we find T,=Q,+Q,4+. ..-Q,+4,(h—a)?+a;(h—a,)+ ... +a,(h—a,) emanate 2 ee — Oh Vier Were rie no ainints Se ose eed wines Sie wg ode ae lores (2) where it will be observed that (h—a,)’ is always positive. Hence we have the following general theorem :— General Theorem I.—If the section of a compound girder be composed of a series of sectional areas, the moment of inertia of the whole section, about its neutral axis, is equal to the sum of the moments of inertia of the different sections about their respective centres of gravity added to the sum of all the areas multiplied. respectively. by the. square of the distance ef their centres of gravity from the neutral axis. N.B.—It may happen that the moment of inertia Q, of some part of the section can be most readily found by referring at once to the neutral axis NO of the whole section; then, in this case, the value of Q, must be added to equation (2). 19. If Q,, Q, be taken as the moments of inertia of the sectional areas which meet or pass through the line of the neutral axis, or which may have a considerable depth, as, for example, the side plates of a tubular girder; and supposing the, other sectional areas to be accumulated toward the upper and lower parts of the section of the beam; then the depths of these sectional areas being small as compared with their respective distances from the neutral axis, Q,,....,Q, may be neglected without incurring any consi- derable error ; 1 = Kya n° 1,=Q,+Q,+ 340,(h—a,). -.0i eee eee flap cha Sa (3) And if Q,, Q, be neglected, then sta (h—a,). .. 200. td LES ee Jes pistes Kopi site (4) Hence we have the following general theorem :— General Theorem 11.—When the different depths of the sectional areas of a series of plates, forming a compound girder, are small as compared with the distance of their respective centres of gravity from the neutral axis, then the moment of inertia of the whole section is very nearly equal to the sum of all the areas multiplied respectively by the square of the distance of their centres, of gravity from.the neutral axis. 20. To determine the strength, &c., of a tubular beam, ABCD (fig. 12), composed of a series of cells AF, with angle-iron, at the top part, and of thick solid plates CD at the bottom part. Here the section ofthe beam. may be divided into three portions, viz. the cells at the top, the bottom plates, and the side plates. 252 REPORT—1865. For the position of the neutral axis NO we have by equation (1), art. 18, 1 a KOM Fe ee) ee ee eee er (1) where a,, a,, a, are the areas of the material in the sides, in the top cells, and in the bottom plates re- spectively, and so on. If D=AC, the depth of the beam, then h,=D—hA. From equation (2), art. 18, we get T,=Q,+9,+Q,+4,(h—a@,) +a,(h—@,)?+a(R—O,)") oe neaeeeceeees (2) where Q,=the moment of inertia of the side plates about their centre of gravity, Q, that of the top cells, and Q, that of the bottom plates. If the beam be loaded in the middle and sup- ported at the ends, then M=4W1, and WI=M="l, et h, 481, _ 48,1, AA W= hil or sy 9 CC which gives the load corresponding to any assumed value of SorS,. Con- versely § or S, may be determined for any given load, W. (1) The following is a more simple and practieal method of calculating (approximately) the strength of these beams. Putting a, a, for the areas of the top and bottom parts respectively, g, g, for the distance of their respective centres of gravity from NO, and G=qg+4q,, neglecting the side plates, for the position of the neutral axis, we have GION Ge PF, FEN POO be ae (4) And from General Theorem I1., art. 19, we get I,=ag’+4,9,°=a9(9+9,) OF %9(9+9,) SSG Ora G.Gis is 8S Come ge eyes ge Geen (5) 8 8 ae M=;a9G or jn an gG 4 9,6 =S8aD x AD §,a,D x hD ==Sall or: 8, @ imedtly,-. 45. isi ghia ss alngiew og (6) taking es and a as constants, each being nearly equal to unity. 1 Here the strength varies as the top or bottom areas multiplied by the depth. SgG Sg,G If K be put for the whole section, and taking ID = AD =? constant, we tk get M=Cf(e--e)D—CEDin) on el eo egaenes (7) Here the strength varies as the whole sectionmultiplied by the depth. When M=3W1, we get _ 48aD 48.a,D = ‘ Feels Be Sia dealin ale (8) or ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS FOR IRON SHIPS. 253 A similar formula may be derived for beams with double flanges. From the experiments on the model Conway tube we find 8,=16-5 tons ; hence we have which is the formula usually employed for calculating the strength of these beams; where W is expressed in tons, a, being the area of the bottom plate in inches, D the whole depth of the beam, and / the distance between the two supports expressed in the same units as D. In cast-iron beams with double flanges, as derived from the experiments of the late Mr. Hodgkinson, Strength of an Iron Ship. 21. To determine the strength, &c., of an iron ship, the transverse section being represented in the annexed diagram, AB and EF the upper and lower decks, AD and BD, the sides down to the bilge, LR, RS, SD, &c. a series of plates, assumed to be straight, forming the bottom, and so on. Fig. 13. Having divided the section into a convenient number of parts, formule (1) and (2), art 18, give the most exact method of calculating the moment of inertia of the whole section ; where the moment of inertia of each part about its centre of gravity must be determined, and soon. But the following method of calculation is more simple and sufficiently exact for all practical purposes. Put a, for the area of the material in the upper deck; a, for that of the lower deck ; a, for the lower hold stringers ; a, for the bilge keelsons; a, for the sister keelsons; a, for the middle keelson ; a, for the keel piece L; a, for the plates LR, LR, ; a, for the plates RS,R,S, ; a,, for the plates SD, S,D, ; 254 REPORT—1865. a, for the side plates AD, BD, down to the top of bilge, d, being their depth ; and so on, as before ; the equations (1) and (3), art. 18, 19, will become : h=EE) hey ee eeee : ee ‘i Beene coats aie Ss (1) T,=Q, +2) a, (ha, = yao + BYU, (h—ay)'s veer ere eeees (2) where Q, is the moment of inertia of the side plates about their centre of gravity. It will be observed that (h—a,)* is always positive. And we further have .) ) Misyleren gly, <= 2-=s.0 saad ake so fate ahedes Mp (3) and MA. Mh Rarer een ee vse e sos. © a! ya eie lems els) aie miaha oils (4) If the plates AE, ED have not the same thickness, then Q, of formula (3), art. 19, must be retained, and Q, and Q, calculated accordingly. 22, If aship is supported at its extremities, and the load distributed as de- scribed in art. 10, then equations (6) or (2), accord- S fag ing to circumstances, will give the value of M in the Fig. 14, foregoing formule ; or if the ship be supported at the centre, then equations (10) or (11), art. 12, will oppttte © give the value of M, and so on to other cases. si Sed To adopt a more summary though less accurate method of calculation, let AD represent the section of the material of an iron ship; the flange a, the section of the materials of the main deck; the flange a, the section of the lower deck ; the flange a, the section of the bottom; a, the secticn of the material in the side plates or rib, d, being the depth, andso on, as before. In this case equations fp (1) and (2), art. 21, become 1 h=_(G% $US, $48, F%%5), Bs ctae, Sua aicale) ae.ke, SMT es ee (5) T= had, +4(h—%,) +a, (h—a, +a(h—a,) +a,(h—a,). -... (6) If we take d,=D, the whole depth of the section, a,=D, 4,= 3 D, and a,=0, these formule become =4 {Ga+a)D+a2,}, eS re eee Pass. L=a,{1,D?-+(h—2D)}-+4,h?+.4,(h—a,)*+a,(h—D). oes... (8) When the depth and the amount of material in the transverse section are given, to determine the distribution of the material so that the beam may have the greatest strength. 23. The first and most important condition of maximum strength is, that the material should be accumulated, as far as practicable, at the upper and lower edges of the beam. In tubular girders, where the material is accumulated at the upper and lower edges of the girder, the sectional areas at these parts should be in the inverse ratio of the ultimate resistances of the material in these parts re~ spectively. ‘ aes ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS FOR IRON SHIPS. 255 _ The results of experiments closely confirm the truth of this deduction. In wrought-iron girders, for example, the bottom section is about 2ths of the top section ; and in cast-iron beams the section of the bottom flange is about 63 times that of the top flange, which is approximately, in the case of cast iron, the ratio of the resistance of compression to that of extension. The next condition of maximum strength determines generally the relative amount of the material on each side of the neutral axis. The principle upon which this distribution of material depends is this: when the material at the upper edge of the beam is upon the point of yielding by compression, the material at the lower edge must at the same time be upon the point of yielding by extension ; hence & 16: S kh. (1) ee) jo h? or S, = h, ? that is, the distances of the neutral axis from the upper and lower edges of the beam should be in the ratio of the ultimate resistances of the material at these parts respectively. ar 2 and D=the whole depth of the beam, then 1 . *D D ‘ b= «»»(2), and b= HE IRM: ER D8 (3) In the case of wrought iron, r=# nearly; that is, the ultimate resistance of wrought iron to compression is about 2 of its ultimate resistance to ex- tension. 24. To determine the area, a,, of the material in the transverse section of the upper deck (art. 22) so as to have a maximum strength with a given amount of material. The strains on a ship afloat are somewhat different from the strains on an ordinary fixed girder; for it is found that the upper part of the transverse section of a ship when afloat is sometimes subjected to compression and at other times to that of extension. But of these two strains the former is generally the more violent. It will therefore be expedient, in calculating the distribution of the material in the section of an iron ship, to regard the upper portion of the section as that which is subjected to extension ; and therefore in this case we should have D ease Making this substitution in equation (7), art. 22, and putting a,+a,+a,+4, for K, we get h r+l1 1=p- {Ga,+4,)D-+a,2, } —(Q, pa, +d). cece ee ee ceee (1) _ If we assume r=1, then this expression becomes 2a,a,, a,=a,—a,+ ~ owas we een bea els 6 ap ye (2) In one of our most approved iron ships, a,=440 square inches, a,=156, @,=490, D=23} feet, a,=74 feet, required a,. Substituting these values ia equation (1), we find a,, or the area of the upper deck, to exceed 300 square inches. Now in this iron ship the equivalent area of the upper deck is only about 230 square inches; hence it appears that this portion of the ship should be about one-half stronger than it is, in order to have a proper distribution of the material, 256 : REPORT—1865. It may not be practicable in all cases to construct iron ships with such a large section of iron at the upper deck; yet such should be the distribution of the material in the section in order to secure a maximum of strength with a given amount of material. In the distribution of the material there is another consideration of some importance ; and that is, that all bodies in the form of beams, whether hollow or solid, follow the same law as regards a transverse strain, viz. that ina beam uniformly loaded the strains are always greatest in the middle and progres- sively diminish to the points of support at either end. These facts are self- evident, and show in the case of an iron ship that the same thickness of plates is not required when working from the centre at midships to the stem and stern. In fact, they should taper or be reduced in thickness according to a certain ratio of their distances from the centre till they reach the extremes ateachend. Theoretically this is true; but in practice we have to consider how much the thickness can be reduced without danger to the structure, and in general we may here observe that the reduction should not exceed one-third between the centres and the twoextremes. Or, in other words, if we assume the strakes or sheathing plates of the bottom and round the bilge to the height of the interior floor, or one-fifth of the depth, to be seven-eighths of an inch, it then follows that their thicknesses may be safely and progressively reduced to five-eighths thick towards the bow and stern. The same reduction to five-eighths may be made from that point, one-fifth of the depth, to the neutral axis of transverse strains, or about halfway up the ship’s side, when they should again increase to seven-eighths thick for the top strakes at the deck, on each side, where they have to perform the office of stringers and columns under the action of the two forces of tension and compression. From these remarks it is obvious that a careful distribution of the material is a consideration of great importance in ship-building ; and although it may be necessary in some constructions to deviate somewhat from the absolute rule, yet it is nevertheless essential that the law of strains should be carefully observed, and weak parts sufficiently guarded against. Section V. On the Penetration of Iron Armour-Plates by flat-faced tempered Steel Shot. 25. The experiments conducted at Shoeburyness seem to warrant the con- clusion that, in firing at strong armour-plates with cast or wrought-iron shot, about one-half of the effect is lost in distorting or in breaking up the shot itself, and, further, that with steel shot of tough temper nearly the whole of the work stored in it is expended upon the plate. Mr. Fairbairn’s experiments on punching led to the following general laws relative to the resistance of iron plates to a force tending to rupture them :— The diameter of the punch being constant, the pressure requisite to pro- duce rupture varies, approximately, as the thickness of the plate. When the thickness of the plate is constant, the pressure requisite to pro- duce rupture varies, approximately, as the diameter of the punch. And, generally, the pressure requisite to produce rupture varies as the thickness of the plate multiplied by the diameter of the punch, or, what amounts to the same thing, as the area of the shearing surface abraded in the process of punching ; that is, Port, where P is the ultimate pressure in Ibs., ¢ the thickness of the plate in inches, and r the radius of the end of the punch. Plate 2 | View of portion of the S.W. Coast of Malta trom the Sea, showing the relative postions of the strata, fossiliterous Caverns, and Fault,with the alluvial de - post on the surface of the depressed land._/ Fig.1/ > -AAAA. Lower Limestone | Tine of Fawlt marked by --_line and slickensides CC.of Ditto. | B.B.B. Upper Limestone f Miocene 1.2.3. Positions of the three Caves containing eauvizxe of Elephas ) | SAlluvium and breccia contaimng rerains of FE. Melitensis. 6 Modern Aluvium covermg 5. B Islet ef Fiarla,| composed of the Upper Limestone. 1 The Malak Cave Hippopotamus Mvocus &e.2 Middle Cave Myoxis Melitensis| Arvicola Land Shells &c. 3 Mnaidra Cave Elephas Melitensis, Mvocus &e. | | Section of the coast showing the positions of the Middle and _ Mnaidra laves with reference to the downthrow and | fessiliverous deposit thereon. MAA RAQY A. Islet, of Filfla, composed of the . Bent and contorted Strata D pper Limestone ’ | consequent orm the downthrow B. Breccia. and red earth containing | e Section of Middle Cave remains of E:Melitensis - Section of Mnaidra Cave C. Modern Alluvizan co vering B TW. Lowry seudp© os ble rt British Association 1865 Plate. 3 I a= OE Cdr” Ct A, Superticial drift containing traces of Mvocus Melitensts, and masses of the parent rock | (Lower Limestone /_B, Shelf of Stalactite contaming land shells, teeth and bones of the large . | Rodent Vyoazus Melitensis, Elephas Melitensis,and Birds bones _C, Red clay and rounded stones | mostly wv the cattre , with remains stmilar to B_D,A shelf of Stalactite and rounded stones at ‘ the bottom _E. Red loam barre of orgamie renans_F, Yellow band, Ditto G,Reddish black . loanv, Ditto _H White calcareous drypping with a black seam ow the top, Ditto The dark markings indicate where organte remains are found. Z ZZ. EZ A, Superficial drift with fragments of parent rock and remains of Mvoaus Melitensis _B, | Stalactite of roof__C, Red earth and rounded stones with orgac remains, Elephas, Mroaus, . Birds, &c._E,Yellow band depending tron D a gap in the roof with black seams 1& 2 above & below it_F, Fossiliferous deposit similar to © _G,Hardened shelf of § talagmite with rounded stones and organic remamns , chiefly Birds _H, Red loam devoid of organic remains 1 Band | of yellow loam Ditto_ J, Reddish black loam Ditto _K,White calcareous Stalagmite with a | black seam on its surface at «_L, Gaping horizontal fissures containing red earth | _M, Last corner where the left tanas of the lower Jaw of E.Melitensis was found’. | Fig 5, Ground plan of Cave, dare lines show the ectent & course of the fossilifarous band 2, The edge of aw shelf of rock under whic the cave 1s supposed to extend inwards. Ei naraved by IW. Lowry. MALTESE CAVES. 257 Now the work U expended in the penetration of a plate by a force vary- ing as the depth of penetration is expressed by the formula ik aA ie Sg UR So (1) where the work requisite to penetrate a plate varies as the square of its thickness multiplied by the radius of the shot. Substituting the value of the constant C, deduced from the experiments with ordnance, we get 24400 CE/ corte gies Soci eaiatess aes (2) 2 where U=5— the work in the projectile at the instant of impact. q Hence we have for the depth of penetration by a shot with a given weight, size, and velocity, U = SRS OTE RAG ts cn we 3 \/ 24400r @) From this formula it follows that a 100 Ib. steel shot of tough temper, 6 inches diameter, with the velocity of 1200 feet per second, will completely perforate an armour-plate 5 inches in thickness. This result is fairly borne out by the results of experiments with ordnance. If 32 inches be taken as the average radius of a shot, then formula (3) becomes ‘= shy MU Srey «5 eee e eee teens (4) which may be regarded as a rough approximation of the damaging effect of shot not differing widely from this dimension. Maltese Caves.—Report on Mnaidra Cave. By A. Leirn Apams, M.A., M.B., F.G.S. 1. Tuer strata composing the Maltese Islands belong to an early Miocene period ; and attain a maximum height of about 720 feet above the sea-level. They consist, from above downwards, of the Upper Limestone, underlaid by beds of Sand, Marl, Calcareous Sandstone, and last of all, a rather compact and durable rock called the Lower Limestone. The latter attains its greatest height on the south and south-west coasts, reaching an elevation of 300 feet above the sea-level. Several cliffs of this bed contain natural caves, one of which, the subject of this Report, was discovered by me in 1863. 2. The Maltese strata are all more or less displaced by faults, whilst their exposed surfaces well attest the denuding effects of bygone atmospheric and aqueous agencies. This is very apparent in many situations; indeed the generally bare aspect of the islands, and the accumulations of soil and frag- ments of rocks in the fissures and hollows, together with depressions existing here and there, fully testify to the great changes which the area underwent during and subsequently to the period or periods when the remains of its post- tertiary fauna were being buried in those situations. 3. The alluvial deposits of the Maltese Islands consist—1st, of a calcareous red clay, containing peroxide of iron, and similar to that of many of the other islands and along the shores of the Mediterranean; and 2ndly, a blue marl, which is obtained from the degradation of the bed of that name, found in situ 1865. 4 258 REPORT—1865. in the higher parts of the islands. Intermediate varieties of both, consequent on the destruction of the rock formations, are also common, but it is in the deposits of one or other of the first two sorts that the remains of the extinct fossil fauna are usually found. These are generally intermixed with angular or rounded fragments of the rocks, forming compact breccias or conglome- rates, which in the caves are often covered up by stalagmitic infiltrations and red earth; again, in fissures and hollows, large and loose accumulations of red soil, stones, and animal remains, huddled together in great disorder, display states of arrangement clearly referable to aqueous agency, and that of no common order and intensity. 4. Turning to the caverns, many may be said to be merely water-worn rents or fissures hollowed out at some period anterior to the introduction of the deposits and organic remains; for in many I have examined there existed communications with the surface by means of either perpendicular or lateral rents, through which their contents might have been introduced, or at least water in sufficient quantity to have rearranged any remains that were lying on the floors of the caves. 5. The subject of this Report I have named Mnaidra Cave*, after a re- markable ruin of that name in the immediate vicinity (supposed to have been constructed by the Pheenicians), and also to distinguish it from two other caves close by, one of which, viz. the “Middle Cave,” is situated on a terrace- cliff within a few yards of the last and about 12 feet below it, whereas the third, called the “‘ Hippopotamus” “ or Malak Cave,” opens on the same ter- race cliff with the “ Middle Cave,” and is 200 feet distant from the Mnaidra Cave. The latter stands on the edge of ‘a steep declivity overlooking the sea and above-mentioned terrace cliff, and is about 300 feet above the level of the former. Perhaps none of these caves maintain their original dimensions ; for although at the time of their discovery each opened independently of the other, I have since been enabled, in the cases of both the “ Malak” and ‘* Middle Cave,” to trace their lower deposits outwards from their entrances to the edge of the cliff, a distance of from 60 to 70 feet. It will be under- stood, therefore, that all these caves were situated close together on the side of a limestone cliff which faces the sea on the south-west coast of the island of Malta. 6. Nowhere in any of the islands forming the Maltese group is there a bet- ter illustration of the disturbances that have brought about the present insular condition of this area than at the point (represented in Plate II.); for along the base of the cliff there runs a fault by which the Upper Limestone of the series had been let down several hundred feet, and is now submerged, except- ing a narrow belt that fringes the coast and spreads out into a stony flat west- wards, whilst three miles out at sea the islet of Filfla forms its ‘ outlier.” On the surface of the depressed fragment, and washed by the waves, are masses of alluvial deposit and breccia formed of red earth, angular and par- tially rounded stones, of not only the parent rock, but also the Calcareous Sandstone and Lower Limestone, besides small portions of a black limestone rock, nowhere found in situ in the islands. These superficial deposits run up the incline towards the “ line of fault,” and are to all appearance the “ talus ”’ or washings of the slope above the caves. From among this mass of breccia and loose red earth and stones, my learned friend Dr. Errington, Archbishop of Trebizond, assisted me in removing the upper jaw and teeth of the “ Pigmy * ‘Mnaidra’ in Arabic means a “ sheepfold,” from the fancied resemblance this mega- lithic circle presents to a “‘ sheep or cattle pen.” MALTESE CAVES. 259 Elephant’ (Elephas melitensis), which were found jammed between large blocks of limestone ; their chipped and fractured condition, together with that of subsequent teeth and bones found in the same situation, clearly testify to the rough usage they had sustained from having been rolled along with stones and earth. The point therefore where the above remains were discovered was almost directly below the caves, and within a few feet of the sea- level. It is apparent, moreover, that the remains were deposited at a time when the depression was either taking place, or at least when it was below the level of the caves, else how could the fragments of the Lower Limestone have found their way into the deposit, seeing that the caves are situated at or about the uppermost limit of the Lower Limestone bed? 7. Before proceeding to give an account of the deposits of the Mnaidra Cave, it appears to me requisite that I should describe the chief particulars in connexion with the contents of the two other caves in its immediate vicinity, in order that the members of the Association may fully realize all the pheno- mena presented by the former. This I shall now do as briefly as possible. 8. The Malak Cave was discovered in 1858, but its outlet was destroyed and deposits disturbed, and the greater portion of them removed before any geologist examined it. The quarrymen who found it stated to me that it formed a simple excavation of an oval shape, and had a small opening looking on the afore-mentioned terrace-cliff. Its roof was seemingly entire (but that has not been proved). Onits floor there was a hard conglomerate formed of light blue and red clays, intermixed with very rounded and water-worn stones, belonging to the parent rock only. Throughout this deposit, in great disorder, were strewn teeth and bones of two species of Hippopotamus, together with a few bones of large birds. One solitary lower molar of the Pigmy Elephant was found by me among the débris. It was very much worn, and adhered to the rounded pebble with which it had doubtless been rolled. This is the only instance I know where the Pigmy Elephant’s remains have been found in connexion with the Hippopotamus. Not allowing for what had been re- moved by visitors and lost or destroyed, I counted the straight tusks of no less than thirty Hippopotami among the débris and in public and private collections, all I may add, procured from a deposit not exceeding a few yards in circumference, and certainly not more than three feet in thickness. No traces of gnawing were noticed on any of the remains I have examined, but many teeth and bones bore signal marks of having been much rolled. I may here state that in another deposit of Hippopotamus remains, found many years since at the entrance of the Melleha Valley, at the N.E. side of Malta (possibly also in a cave), they presented the exact appearances disclosed by those from Malak (7. ¢. both as to the nature of the deposit and condition of the remains). Upon the top of the Hippopotamus remains of the Malak was a stalagmite sparsely mixed with red and blue clays, where abundant remains of the Gigantic Dormouse (Myowus melitensis) had been gradually introduced during the period that the cave was also being filled by calcareous drippings and soil. The bones of this rodent were also much broken and mixed in great disorder; teeth and jaws predominating, and just as I have seen the bones and teeth of the Egyptian Jerboa strewing the bottoms of caves in that country, after having been ejected in pellets from the craw of the Horned Owl (Stria asca- laphus). So much for the Malak Cave, which, as regards the order and nature of its organic remains and deposits on its floor, differed entirely from the Middle and Mnaidra Caves. 9. The deposits of the Middle and also the Mnaidra Cave were very simi- lar. On their floors at the entrances. were found the usual white calcareous r2 260 REPORT—1865. dripping with a black seam on its top, resembling coffee-grounds, and pos- sibly chiefly consisting of the droppings of Bats. Over this deposit there lay three feet of a reddish black loam, much hardened here and there by stalag- mitic infiltrations; and over this a seam of yellow earth, from half an inch to three inches in thickness, preceded* by a bed of a brick-red clay, averaging from 3 to 4 feet, and also interspersed with shelves and hardened masses of dripping. So far, as regards Mnaidra Cave, not a trace of organic remains was visible ; and, excepting in the Middle Cave, two teeth (much worn) of the Miocene Shark (Carcharodon megalodon) (a fossil found in the calcareous sandstone overlying that in which the cave existed, and possibly washed out of it), also in the brick-red clay a jaw of Arvicola, closely allied, if not identical with, A. pratensis, and frog’s bones, both caves seem so far to have been filled up at the same time, and subjected to exactly the same influences. The Middle Cave continued to receive red earth slowly until within 6 feet of its roof, where a shelf of stalactite, containing abundance of recent land shells, bones, and teeth of the Gigantic Dormouse, marked a period of prolonged tranquillity, which was again broken by an influx of red earth to within 3 feet of the roof, when the stalagmite filled it up. There was no appearance of fissure on the roof of this cave, but it had many lateral rents ; I did not, however, pene- trate beyond a few yards on account of the great difficulty in working the deposits; I could see, however, that at no period in the history of the filling up of this cave was there any evidence of a large body of water having passed down it. Turning back to Mnaidra Cave, it was now very clear that a decided change had taken place in the mode and nature of its deposits; for on the afore-mentioned shelf of stalagmite, and about halfway up, were rounded water-worn pebbles, interspersed among the red earth and calcareous infil- trations. Here were found many fragments and a few entire teeth of the Elephant, together with abundant remains of birds’ bones of large dimen~- sions, and teeth and bones of Myowus melitensis. As the adit was being pushed inwards the fossiliferous deposit increased from 4 to 6 feet in thick- ness, and ran along the eastern wall, where it changed to a blue and red clay in nodules, whilst here and there depended masses of stalactite and dripping, in which were also found many Elephant’s teeth and bones, associated with land snails of such species as Helix aspersa, H. candidissima, H. vermiculata, H. aperta, Bulimus decollatus, Clausilia syracusana, &e. As the tunnelling proceeded inwards another yellow seam began to appear about 4 feet from the bottom of the fossiliferous stratum, and to increase in depth until at the distance of from about 45 feet from the entrance it suddenly deepened and ran towards a depression on each side, and near the roof of the cave, where it measured 41 feet in thickness. It was composed entirely of the same ochre-yellow earth as the underlying stratum before mentioned, and like it was totally devoid of organic remains ; moreover, from the manner in which it rose towards the opening on the side, there can be little doubt that it had been either partially or wholly introduced into the cave through the above — epening. Although no alluvial deposit of the same description now exists in the surrounding area, there is every likelihood that it was obtained from the breaking up of the yellow variety of the calcareous sandstone, which has been entirely denuded from the surfaces around the cave, and for a little distance inland. On this yellow band lay another black seam, which thinned out on * [The author probably means ‘succeeded.’— G. Busk.] MALTESE CAVES. 261 elevated parts of the floor, but was several inches in thickness in the hollows. Large pillars of stalactite depended from the roof, and one central mass at the furthest limits of the adit, with its lower end resting on the black seam, seemed to divide the cave into two parts. On the eastern side of this pillar there was a deposit of black earth lying on the seam, through which ran a stratum of organic remains fully a foot in depth, rising upward towards the above-mentioned gap on the side of the cave near the roof. In this corner, and on a surface not 2 feet square, lay the left ramus of the lower jaw and tooth of a young Pigmy Elephant with several detached teeth, one cervical and six dorsal vertebre of the animal, besides bats’ bones, and bones and skulls of large water birds, and a vast assemblage of the remains of the Dor- mouse, together with very perfect specimens of land shells, all huddled toge- ther among minute fragments and splinters of bones. Both the deposit and organic remains in this side of the cave showed clearly that they had been en- veloped by the slow introduction of the black loam, which was soon hardened by calcareous drippings, in fact that the pillar of stalactite here divided the cave into a wet and dry side (Plate III. fig. 4). On the western or wet side of the pillar very different causes had evidently been at work. The soil there was loose and mixed with the rounded pebbles of calcareous sandstone, only the latter were larger than any I had met with before, but like them they were nearly all hardened by calcareous infiltrations. Among the stones and clay numerous teeth and fragments of tusks and heads of bones of the Ele- phant were found. The organic remains seemed most abundant near the bottom of this fossiliferous deposit, which varied from 6 to 7 feet in thick- ness, and from 5 to 6 feet in breadth; but fragments of bones and plaits of teeth were met with even on the upper limits of the stratum close to the stalactite of the roof, which was upwards of 3 feet in thickness. Such was the sequence of the various deposits in the Mnaidra Cave from below upwards, and for the distance of 54 feet inwards to the limits of my excavations; and how much further remains to be seen, as from the great heat of the weather and the Association’s grant being expended, I have been obliged to defer any further researches until the return of the cold months, when I propose tracing the fossiliferous stratum to its limits. The Mnaidra Cave at its entrance measured 22 feet in height, and about 11 feet in breadth, when it gradually expanded and contracted, expanding a second time at the termination of the excavation, where its height was about the same as at the entrance, and breadth fully 13 feet. The sides of the cave were smooth, excepting where horizontal fissures formed gaping rents, into which the fossiliferous deposits had been washed, and much water and the - finer portion of the clay introduced. The entire roof of this cave had evi- dently been cleared away from the entrance to the limits of the explorations, leaving merely the stalactite, and here and there a portion of the parent rock, the interstices being filled with soil drifted from the slope above, and composed of red earth and disintegrated fragments of the rock surfaces around. In this deposit I found remains of the great Dormouse, which I had previously met with in the stalactite on the roofs of other caves and superfi- cial deposits in other situations in the island, all leading towards the belief that the above-named rodent may have lived on the area up to comparatively modern times. 10. With reference to the organic remains in this cave, it will readily be surmised, from what has been already stated, that the most prominent be- longed to Elephas melitensis and Myoawus melitensis, just as the Hippopotamus 262 REPORT—1865. and the latter predominated in the neighbouring cave, with this exception, that in no instance were the remains of the rodent found in connexion with the Hippopotamus, whereas they were always intimately associated with bones and teeth of the Proboscidian, and not only in this cave, but in several other localities in the island. 11. Of the teeth of the Pigmy Elephant, either entire or in fragments, and guessing what were destroyed by the workmen to be equal to one half, I surmise that the remains of upwards of fifty old and young Elephants were brought to light during the late excavations in MnaidraCave. They include individuals of all ages, from the calf to the adult. Many teeth were in good states of preservation, others were much decayed and broken, especially the “‘ true molars.” The large bones were nearly all reduced to fragments but vertebre and feet bones were usually entire. Many articulating sur- faces of bones had their outer tables removed, and were firmly encrusted with stalactite, especially the specimens lying on a black seam and among the rounded freestones. It was clear, however, that they could not have been conveyed for any very long distance, as will appear from the specimens I have forwarded for the inspection of the members of the Association. Among the remains were found certain foot bones not referable, apparently, to this species, and at present undetermined; these I forwarded in another collection, now, I believe, in Mr. Busk’s charge*. 12. The remains next in the order of frequency, and even, perhaps, more abundant than the last, were those of the Gigantic Dormouse (Myowus Meli- tensis). The number of bones of this rodent brought to light during our ex- cavations was almost beyond conception. They embraced all ages, and were strewn about in great disorder, but were far more entire than any of the others, or than those I have referred to in connexion with the Malak Cave ; so much was this the case that I had seldom much difficulty in removing the greater part of skeletons, which enabled me to determine the relative dimensions of the animal with accuracy. For example, the total length of the skull, taken from many specimens, averaged in the adult from 2°3 to 2:5 inches; length of the humerus 1-6 inches; length of femur 2:2. The hind foot from the extremity of the calcaneum to the tip of the last phalanx of the middle toe measured 0-7 inch. 13. The avifauna of this cave embraced numerous remains of birds of various species, differing considerably in dimensions, Some of very large size were evidently water-birds. The collection I have forwarded for study?. 14. The Mollusca include the majority of the land-shells at present met with in the islands. The following have been identified by the late lamented Mr. S. P. Woodward :— : Helix aspersa. Helix striata. >, vermiculata. Bulimus acutus. 5, candidissima. Cyclostoma 2 > aperta. Clausilia syracusana. The shells were found in such excellent states of preservation in the “ Mid- dle Cave,’ and with the rodent’s remains in the “ Malak,’’ also with the jaw * [So far as I have been able to determine these bones, they all appear to belong to one or other of the small Elephants.—G. B.] + [These bones have been subjected to the inspection of Mr. W. K. Parker, who has ~ detected among them many remains of the Gigantic Swan, which he had already observed in the collection of Fossils from Zebbug brought by Captain Spratt.—G. B.] MALTESE CAVES. 263 and bones of the Elephant in the corner east of the pillar of stalactite in “ Mnaidra Cave,’’ as to lead to a belief that they had crawled in and had been enveloped during the gradual filling up of the caves. 15. From the evidences here adduced and other proofs too lengthy in detail for this Report, it would appear that the lowermost deposits and organic remains of the Malak Cave were not deposited at exactly the same time with those of the other two in the vicinity. Its clayey bottom and conglo- merate, formed solely of water-worn portions of the parent rock, seemed to indicate that the cave had at one time opened on the side of a river or lake, which occasionally washed its floor, whereas the lower deposits of both the Middle and Mnaidra caves show clearly that they were gradually filled by red earth and dripping from the roofs and sides, until some change in the phy- sical condition of the surrounding area caused the roof of the Mnaidra Cave to be in great part removed, when bodies of water either swept the organic remains into the cave, and beyond it into the breccias and deposits, forming below on the sinking portion, or else disturbed and rearranged whatever remains may have been lying on the floor of the cave on the western side of the pillar of stalactite, leaving the remains on the east side unaffected. This, however, will become more evident when the fossiliferous deposit has been worked out, which I am of opinion ought to be done, not only with the view of ascertaining that point, but in hopes of finding new forms, and especially remains of the carnivorous quadrupeds which undoubtedly roamed over the area at the same period with the River-horse and Elephant, as the bones found by Captain Spratt and others in the cave of Zebbug clearly show. LEvery relic, of course, with reference to this point must be in- teresting ; I therefore take the liberty of forwarding the lower jaw, femur, and tibia, appearing to belong to the “ Common Weasel” (Mustela vulgaris), removed by me from a mass of clay that had been excavated from the deposit on the floor of the Zebbug Cave, where abundant remains of Hlephas meli- tensis, &c., were discovered by Captain Spratt in 1859. It is the same locality described by that gentleman and the late Dr. Falconer at the Cam- bridge Meeting of the British Association in 1862. 16. Taking into consideration all the facts and probabilities furnished by careful examination of the Maltese caves, fissures and alluvial deposits, and the physical aspects of the various localities, I think there can be little doubt that at a late geological epoch in the history of the Maltese islands large bodies of water flowed over, at least, the greater part of the island of Malta, washing whatever soil or organic remains then happened to be lying on the ’ surface into gaps, hollows, and depressions. No sea-shells have hitherto been met with in the soils and superficial deposits to indicate that the islands had been submerged and reelevated ; on the contrary, from all appearances the last movement to which these islands were subject was a downward one. Unless, therefore, we suppose the giving way of lake barriers, divergence of rivers or streams, or the agencies of violent floods and freshets during changes consequent on oscillations of level, I see no other way of accounting for the phenomena represented by the above deposits and the fossil remains. In fact, I opine much the same conditions existed in Malta during the period of the fossiliferous deposits in Mnaidra Cave and others as obtained at Gibraltar when the ‘“ Genista” Cave was receiving its Pachydermata and other quadrupeds. 264 REPORT—1865. Report of the Gun-cotton Committee, consisting of Witt1am Fatr- BAIRN, LL.D., F.R.S., Joserpa Wuitwortn, LL.D., F.R.S., James Nasmytu, C.E., F.R.A.S., J. Scorr Russet, C.E., F.R.S., Joun Anperson, C.E., Sir Witt1am G. Armstrong, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., Dr. GLapstone, FER. S., Prof. W. A. Mitier, M.D., FR. 8, Prof. FRANKLAND, F.R.S., aan F, A. ABEL, F.R.S. Arter the report presented by this Committee at the Newcastle Meeting two years ago, the British Association, through a deputation headed by General Sabine, drew the attention of the Minister for War to the probable usefulness of Gun-cotton. In January 1864, the Government appointed a Committee to investigate the subject in all its bearings. This Committee consists of General Sabine as President, General Hay, Captain Brandreth, R.N., Commander Liddell, R.N., Colonel Boxer, R.A., Colonel Lovell, R.E., F. hs, Abel, Esq., T. Sopwith, Esq., Professor W. A. Miller, Professor G. G. Stokes, and Dr. J. H. Gladstone, with Major Miller, R.A., as Secretary ; representing thus the army, the navy, military and civil engineering, as well as chemical and physical science, and comprising three of the members of the British Association Gun-cotton Committee. Experiments on an exten- sive scale, and in a systematic manner, have been carried on by this Govern-- ment Committee, and are still in progress; but no report has yet been published. Until that report is made, your Committee have suspended their labours. On the Horary and Diurnal Variations in the Direction and Motion of the Air at Wrottesley, Liverpool, and Birmingham. By A. Fouiett Oster, F.R.S. [A communication ordered to be printed among the Reports. ] ANEMOMETRICAL observations having been taken hourly with considerable accuracy for several years, and those at Wrottesley, Liverpool, and Bir- mingham having been recorded on exactly the same principle (originally commenced by Mr. Hartnup in 1852), I was desirous of tabulating the results from those stations on a plan which I thought might prove of some value in extending our knowledge of the motion of the air in these latitudes, and possibly of developing some further laws bearing on that subject. Having observed that the hourly records of certain currents obtained from the integrating anemometer seemed to exhibit some peculiar features different from those I had obtained from the registration of the force of the wind, I wished, in the first place, to carry out some investigations on the horary variations by taking out the amount of horizontal motion instead of the force; the records of Dr. Robinson’s integrating instrument have therefore been arranged in conjunction with those of time and direction, these registers being peculiarly suited for accurate tabulation, much more so than those of the force, which are most available for examining storms and sudden changes and marked variations in the aérial currents. Besides these hourly results, I desired to investigate the records of the daily variations in the atmospheric currents throughout the year, with a view of ascertaining whether indications of any laws could be detected respecting their periodicity and amount. Accordingly I applied to Lord Wrottesley, who most kindly placed the whole of the valuable anemometrical records taken at his observatory at my it issue on ee oe eth, — iar uReport Brit. Assoc. 1865. wy RO" TES Sa rE Jes, 28 we Crew a eer arse Plate 4 N. iM ates Miles lo ping DEC 1 a Probable winted a ; Mmittee : ‘andreth, 1, RB, | Peete al 5 an - =0 | 0 tovery | tovern- | blished, | atlas’... =|, Ie t iN Motion | By A. | | lerable l Bir- inally the some tudes, bject, from ferent ind, I orary the efore these than dden 1e aw | | 4 FE ha Be 2 y placed vatory a ws* Report BriteAssoc: L865 WROTTESLEY NNW N AM. BM seoizsce seouse s Mile ho DEC ho JAN Po FEB y (tein 57" *° JUNE JULY AUG '° Sumanter vical (mdi 7" =50 ‘ na 36923 00 AM Po WN W. Mowe 19 Miles M Tor eae hoe °o a ald an alg Enqrav ed by TW Lo P.M. N.W. AM. 36912369 a” OEGVERPOOL S.S.E. A i aGveaaD SO TENTES an Hae u i Haaritenacaay 7° JUNE ramet °° JULY s© AUG Ls. Summer Mar Eele0 lisa] SEPT 1° ocr NOV 1 | if 1 Miles » Hea, ir ecich S6osG9 369 2 a 26 Des SOy JESUICS BeVEIGs Fevwevos [oie a eee “ee ae ae se Mor ase A Be Pt a GME W.N.W. N.W. N.NLW. E.N.E. E.S.E. Enaran od by IW Lowry ta yptit Lear THEY i yyy TATA uJawaidas isnony y3awaoda ¥7QWIAON y390190 gga igi Plate 7” SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER 20 25 20 6 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 ee jeans | Fe shade : 5 SUBRSRESEECERNENOS ©1111, 1! faeEat sibsseae Paihia iit aa oifintae His tes ae tA |l to EN pigband Geartitss mo Z| : ee noir - cess i iewaseatene = t CES HE to E E HRHEiaHiaaeeabpenseest oe” UHEEIiieiteassiesetizes tasiaies | :SeEEETELL HEUGGRESTEE TT SE Benner ge geen He Sohigeags teases mt cee Gees Tht m et erie | ray e o oe mt + o ° Ww \ fH 1864 Fpl} \28 58 +4 f to SSW ix /iac4 +t ar ao ® oo ® w a ES FS o n . yay jisbe pea tow SW | tow NW aaah gt ESET Toke esstadesetess essteest mies opispeeege tt eae zt 1864 ais m= Hoes Bitte he depertine ator, 1 pom Bb HA Si ieea reuesssseussuncesesessacccspessansesscensereqessess | TEP| nine hi i SeeecSEOERE GEE pREEECaERRCeTsaaT fe yosait Pen Sreetacha. aikeezen: | eek] bea aseees raguees usbeteer eeeeea CL) rH perky hn td ober oS to SEEEE SSS Ns aansasa FuStagens runes Saseastsnesnge, eatnapaseeeaeeyee? tats go tice i=: | POWs 1658 toes 3 1864 Sus pussuaeeeenst es 33 easne Gee} t] 111 sue! tzaes tansakucunees of ces taaee Heiner isshdunbs snes & .10 15 20 “25 a «6S S225" 30 SW Ip ee 25 3h OCTOBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER Vincent Brooks, Imp. ee WROTTESLEY sae JANUARY FEBRUARY Sw as 40 an AUGUST SCPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER HAC Wweoapemee Whine gy tau i Hea rere [tt ut : f ‘i is arta iit FB ; TL aaRERT Peat tt eythane ata Me: Fists rate a te f at eg WHT hater yeti SNE Sa cy na : | iat Ment Teaver een Tt RIT a eT nt ar ear if aT) fit i Au tlh hts il f i amt mH Hata sll Hh fi i i aoe re ues eae ve cH i a aa le ea Grae renal t iu a t 7 nein 1 7 " = ws te AE Ai oe Se et i A a i Mi Ms Feng Ma wagia'g eet hee Raa ws Uae ‘ua i Aan be i iia at a Hi inne i) ¥ ga 4 ye 7 Sean « Hn a on ht tf = ena : — 28h Meta i iff ERT sane ii F iH zt rail: ite 4 tl | ran te ee tan on tH cent! i “a “ Wo inelftl ane bem 5a www JANUARY FEBRUARY AUCUST SCPTCMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER Finownt Breoks, Exp Atmo'y Mr if) prrvabury 494d aAON we s@ O02 ST ol S Of 38 OF ST OL UDOUL [aie d z I att HE BE EEPEE i HE eFisifsiest gies: - a | PE isnony Tiddy HOuVW Ant. s ‘int: r HA: \ 1! HOUWA aaa TOOUHNMATT ON VARIATIONS IN DIRECTION AND MOTION OF THE AIR. 265 disposal ; my friend Mr. Hartnup did the same, and furthermore aided me very greatly by allowing his assistants to tabulate, in the manner I required, the observations of the direction and horizontal motion of the air as recorded at the Liverpool observatory. I have worked out the Birmingham observa- tions on the same plan. To commence with the horary variations. These extend over a period of nearly eight years at Wrottesley and thirteen years at Liverpool. The amount of motion of each wind for each of sixteen points of the compass is taken note of for every hour, from the daily records, and tabulated for every month. Commencing with the N.N.E. wind, the number of miles of air from this point that passed between midnight and one o’clock in the morn- ing during the month of January in each year is tabulated; next between one and two o’clock, and so on through the twenty-four hours of the day. February is then treated in the same way, and thus through every month in the year, for each of the sixteen points of the compass, as shown in Table I., which is given as an example, exhibiting the amount of motion and duration of the south wind during each hour in December for each year. From the mean of the seven years thus obtained, the monthly curves of horizontal motion for each hour at Wrottesley are projected. See Plate IV. The means of the separate months are also combined so as to obtain averages for the seasons and the whole year. In Table II. an example of this is given in the horary variations in the 8.E. wind at Liverpool. Plate V. exhibits the curves projected from tables so arranged for Wrot- tesley, and Plate VI. for Liverpool. Beginning with the N.N.E. (Plate IV.), and proceeding through the easterly points to 8.E., the curves present no very striking features ; in some months they approach that of temperature, as the N.E. in April, the E.N.E. in February, May, and October, also the E. in February, May, June, Octo- ber, and November. The prevalence of winds having an easterly or north- easterly bearing during the spring and early summer is also seen, but their particular periods and amount are more perfectly shown in the diagrams of “Diurnal Variations” than in those which are prepared for exhibiting the horary variations. The 8., $.8.W. and 8.W. currents, or anti-trade-winds, are the next in order, and exhibit some remarkable features. Independently of the great and sudden increase in the amount of these, especially of the south, when compared with any of those from the east, it will be observed that they exhibit a striking peculiarity in the horary curves; for while the greatest amount of air passes from the south before noon, diminishing rapidly for several hours after noon, with the S.W. the reverse of this takes place, the greatest quantity passing after noon and the least before—the intermediate wind, namely, the 8.8.W. showing the most in the middle of the day. It will be observed that the winds on either side of these three, namely, the 8.8.E. and W.S.W., partake of the same peculiarity, but in a less degree, the former haying its maximum in the morning, and the latter in the afternoon. The west and north-westerly currents present variations that show the greatest difference between the amount of air that passes by day when com- pared with the night, and correspond most nearly with the curve of tempera- ture. The N.N.W. winds in the summer months, and especially in June and July, show the greatest extreme, while the winter months indicate the least difference between the day and night. 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The amount of east and north-easterly winds re- corded is, however, much less, owing to the observatory being somewhat shel- tered on that side by the town. The peculiar horary variations which at Wrot- tesley are exhibited in the S. and S8.W. winds, extend at Liverpool from the S.E. to the W.S.W., the former showing the greatest amount in the morning, the latter in the afternoon. The extension of these variations over so many points of the compass forms one of the most striking differences between the observations taken at this station and those at Wrottesley. No doubt the course and valley of the river Mersey lying in a S.E. direc- tion, also the town of Liverpool situated to the N.W., would have a consi- derable influence in deflecting these south and south-westerly currents, and in giving them a more easterly bearing; though probably there are other causes in action yet to be discovered. The west and north-westerly currents show the same peculiarities as to the difference between the amount of motion in the day and night as at Wrottesley, and at this station exceed that of any other wind. The integrating registers for Birmingham having been taken for only three years and a half, have not been engraved; they present much the same features in their horary variations as the observations taken at Wrot- tesley, the only difference worth mentioning being in the great S.W. or anti-trade-current, which has a rather more westerly bearing at Bir- mingham than at Wrottesley. The curves that have been obtained by projecting these integrating re- cords of horary variations, especially those of the south and south-westerly winds, differ much from those of force or velocity as given by me in former papers to this Association, when it was shown that the latter nearly coincide with the curves of temperature, the greatest force occurring at or shortly after noon; but by subjecting the present observations to the test of velocity by dividing the number of miles of air that pass during each hour of the day throughout the year, by the number of hours occupied in passing (see Table II.) it will be found that the law as. to the period of greatest force or velocity is still correct, notwithstanding that some of the curves show a larger amount in other parts of the day. These curves are there- fore interesting and important, as showing that the different currents have forces acting on them producing horary variations, besides those of acce- leration from increase of temperature. In the last row of diagrams, Plates Y. and VI., curves are projected on an enlarged scale, showing the horary variations in the velocity of the air at Wrottesley and Liverpool. The next series of observations have reference to the amount and direction of the various winds throughout the year. In tabulating these, it was neces- sary that each day should be recorded separately, for by throwing together an arbitrary term of days, as a month or even a week, many important facts would be lost. The records have therefore been tabulated so as to give the direction, duration, and amount of horizontal motion of the air for every day in the year for seven years, referred to sixteen points of the compass. Com- mencing with the Ist of January in each year, the number of hours that each current has lasted, and its amount of horizontal motion during the day, are obtained from the diaries in which the indications registered by the instru- ments are recorded, and this is repeated in rotation for every day during seven 1865. REPORT 268 se Ak amoy UROPT LOFT AA se eeeeentee “UROL suraidg f UBvITT TOPUTAA “UBey, uBeT, ToPUTAA P.It 11 L.11 I 9.21 S.z1 £.z1 L.zt 9.1 S.E1 vr Z£I yore 107 Ly100J9a URaP £.z|€.9z| £.z|9.$z] z.zlo.$z| 6.1 |rbe| gr |S.cz] La |erz| g.riz.cc| L1lg.1z] 9.1 [L.rz| £1 jo.€z| get |z-be] gt [gEz| ster uReyl 6.2 |v.0£ | g.z |L.gz| 2.2 |z.6z| 4.2 |6.g2| £.2|S.gz| oz [g.cz] 6.2 |r.rz| 6.1 [S.1z| 1.2\zbz| 0.2 bz] 1.2 |9.Sz | 0.7 p.Ez i. “ake “199 “ydeg €.1 |Z.z1| 0.1/1.6 | 6.0/€.6 | g.0\z.g | Lo/Z2 | 9.0J€.2 | Lolg.g | L.0|6.g | 9.0/4g | 205.6 | 6.06.11] g.0|%.11 1 amd Wop eae 1.2 |$.€z| 6.1 |1.€7] git |t.1z| 9.1 |b.6r| 9.1 [1.61 | $.1 |g.or | g.1 |S.ez| 9.1 |2.zz| 9.1 gaz) Lx jobe| Lr lgbz| $.1 Pe key qudy ‘qoaeyy g.z\b.gl| ¥.€ lb.rb| z.£lo.Eb| g.z|g.6£ | 9.z1g.96| 2.z/6.28| 9.2 |E.9£ | v.z/.€8| zzz | £.zjovf| 9.2 \g.bf | 2.7 \9.88 de eae uep “oacf Wa bz | wae | waze | ‘waiz | waoz | -wa6r | wagr | ‘wad | ‘wagt | ‘WaSr | ‘War | ‘Wa €1 | gotten wbyeeR an “+ anoy £.€1 g.EL 6.21 a 8.11 £.11 8.01 g.O1 I.1I L.ol 1.11 £.11 qove xoj Sy100]aa URayy g.1|6.£7| 1.2 6.gz| £.z |9.6z| 9.2 |9.06 | L.zlg.1£| 6.2 |d,z£| 1.£|S.€6| of |S.c£| g.z jor | gz [6.62 | 2.2 |1.08 | g.z |$.62 | oes ae ee a be ee | ae || ee ee ee a ee ee ae Ps it lie a wteeeeee . urea uum 6.1 \z.Ez| £.2 6.gc/| g.zl6.r£| of |g.of| €.£ |L2f| wf loze| C.£/6.6| ££ lot | Ef lof | H.£ |Pbe| 2.£/S.c£) of lz.of { Som Bae SAE ORE uvoyy outumg g0|f.10] r.0jZ.er| rr jer) 1 \Zpr| 2.1 \.61]} 1.26.02) $.z|1.€2] 1.2 |g.gr| 21 jo.gr| g.1|S.o1| V1 /¥.21] 9.1 |z.$1 ‘asnSny ‘Ane ‘oune seeweeee UROTAL sutadg S.1|z.1z| 0.2 \b.9z| oz |b.Le| S.zjr18| Lz |p.r£] o£ |o.¥E| ¥.£ |9.2£| z.€ |z.0f|] 0.€ /.6z) 1.6 |b.18| g.z |2.gz} 2.2 jo.gz key Tady ‘qorepy g.zjo.ob| o£ S.oh| z£|S.Sb| ££ 16.5b| ze Leb] 2 (Leh) £6 /6bb| +.€ loch] 2£ bbb] of \z.fb| $.€ [Loh] 1.6 lrtb 42 dor iGug see “BAY |SOTTUL| “SAY |SOTIUM) “SX |STTUL) “siq |saprum| ‘sry septal ‘say |So[tut] “say |Soyrar| “Say |SeyTUI) “SAY |SOTLUN) “say |Saytut) “S1Y |Se[IU) “say | soprar WY Zl | ‘WyIr | ‘wyor | ‘wy 6 ‘WY 8 wy LZ ‘WY 9 wy $ wy + my & Wy Z ‘WV I ‘FORT 01 GEST "ISVY-HLOOG—"]] Wavy, *TOOdAAATT ON VARIATIONS IN DIRECTION AND MOTION OF THE AIR. 269 years, thus sorting, as it were, all the winds. The mean amount of these is then taken for each day, as represented in Table III., showing the daily amount and duration of south wind during the month of January. From these Tables diagrams are drawn (see Plates VII. & VIII.), repre- senting to a scale the comparative number of miles of air that passed from each point of the compass for every day in the year, taken from a mean of seven years, the length of the line being in proportion to the length of the current from each point on each particular day. An approximate meteor- ological division of the year is thus obtained, having reference to the currents that pass each station. When examining these diagrams it is important not to be misled by the extent of a current that was due to one or two years being mistaken for the type of a period of years. A space is therefore allotted under each day, which is divided into seven parts, representing the seven years. One of these divisions is then marked to indicate the year in which each wind occurred, the size of the mark having reference to its duration on its particular year. By these means the prevalence or otherwise of any wind at any period of the year is at once rendered conspicuous. The diagrams explain this mode of illustration. Thus at Wrottesley (Plate VII.*), commencing with the north-easterly and easterly winds, a re- markable cessation is observable towards the end of J anuary and beginning of February, again at the end of June, also at the beginning of August and September, and in the early part of December, while the amount towards the end of February, and the prevalence in April, and more particularly in May, often extending to the early part of June, is very clearly shown. The 8. to the W.S.W. winds have their maximum in January, increasing greatly towards the end of the month. They also prevail in the early part of April, during the latter half of July, and through the month of August, and more than any other current in September. The winds from the W. and N.W. prevail in March, towards the end of May and in June, especially in the latter half of that month. During the last four months of the year currents from these points are exceptional. On reference to the diagram representing the diurnal variations of the wind at Liverpool (Plate VIII.), it will be observed that there is the same cessation of the easterly and north-easterly winds at the end of January and beginning of February as at Wrottesley, also at the end of June, &e. The times of prevalence also occur about the same periods. The 8.E. and 8.8.E. winds, however, correspond to the periods of the 8S. and 8.S.W. at Wrot- tesley, and the §.S.W. and S.W. at Birmingham. The W. and W.N.W. winds prevail with considerable regularity in March, also at the end of April and beginning of May, again at the end of May, and particularly at the end of June, extending into the early part of July, and at the end of August and first portion of September. The diagrams show better than any written description the features of each current. The last row of diagrams in each of the Plates VII. & VIII. represents the mean amount of horizontal motion of the air, without reference to direc- tion, for every day in the year—projected on the same scale as the separate winds. From these it will be observed that a considerable amount of mo- * Tn Plate VII.a, the portions of Plate VII. which exhibit the duration of each wind on every day throughout the seven years, are brought together in such close juxta-posi- tion, as to give a comprehensive view of the periods of prevalence of each wind during _ that term of years at Wrottesley. The points from N.N.H. to 8.8.E. are repeated. REPORT—1865. 270 0.9 |9.£6 |9.2 bror|r.L |b.26 9.8 rbor {££ {6 1b.S |9.7 I gli Li Lot eee eee ll Czz ZI gli pt ar LL I I 98 Sor Iz off 1Z% 261 Aten een enter eens 19gt = eee wee vee ZI Lgz eet eertcescecce see eee wee eee 9 S9 gt o61 I 6 oe ane Il 161 Il Sg I V8 see eeeeetersecceseeee gigt "rE uve | ‘of -uep | ‘6c ‘up | ‘gz-uee | “Le -uvp | ‘oz uep | ‘Sc -uee | “be ure | “fz ‘uve 6.£ |9.9$ |6.§ |Z.ozr|9.2 |Z.2tr\9.$ v9 |rv ILS [rb | E.2b |b |o.22 |¥.S |h.€g lox |bEr |6.2 [6.61 |£.9 |9.62 I +1 L o@n | Fer Jobz | Eri) Wogr zn) 2 9 gt I oI € Bae || Rese Rec eAel Sar Eas z1| £91 £ 6¢ £ LE wee eee eee ee see eee £ ob eee eee wee tee eee eee g Ot 8 +L tr $7 eee eee nee eee tee eee 9 88 tee eee £ c¢ nee eee see eee 8 gs 9 z9 see eee eee eee + LE Lr Lot ZI 624 eee eee nae eee eee eee see wee 6 99 ZI 991 tee eee L 1fr OL Bgl g 98 eee ace 6 89 ¢ Lo Sr Ize § aL wee eee ace see 6 61r| bz} LSS| xz] fgt| x 6 CO fe or] Lor} zz| 1fb| oz} Sbvz| 9 on || ee | es eee wee eee eee nee wee eee eee I Il I € ace oo eee eee cee aoe eee wee 9 ZL ‘ez uve | ‘Iz ‘up | ‘oz ‘up | “61 ‘ure | ‘gr uee | “Zr ‘ue | ‘or ‘up | “Sr uve | “br ue | “fr ‘uRp | ‘z1 ‘URE LE |€.1S |£.$ |€.g8 |r.2 |9.zZ |g. |E.co1]b.g |9.S6 |£.€ loSz |6.2 |€.ge |x.z [bor Ibhb £98 jib [Lb [1.8 |g.2q port uve iL €L 9 gt aoe see I ¢ nee nee see see wee aoe see nee 9 €r wee one wee eee aoe see I ES eee wee Oee| el te || On|| OOm laces Gel 2 ke BOOM | SOM Weed |Omel MO Gl ls a) ulnar oon lemme gin 6 LS1 Zz Sz + gs 6 LSx +1 9gt 9 ate 6 as oR I 9 Ned wa eee cercenccasinoccewes ZQgI Z EL eee Pe ate = tal poieis |aap ea: Roeser oc see Tp Oty eee ece eee eee gt 1S1 8 gor eee eee nee ase 8 Zor £ gt ol ZI Z 61 9 Lt eww were nero eterenee Oggt see ee aoe or S $f eee oe one . aoe aes eee aoe tee tee I 9 eee rr ¢ €S t 6b | z1| voz] z of Sx) WOgr eee. | Lot ecg ame reny |e tel) meee | Sal ae Ola ie an |iOz | 1Oz)|| yz, ance ier emer ter™ sem on oir ‘say | ‘SaTrUr| ‘sty | ‘soTrUr] ‘say | “soz TUT} “say | ‘soTIUA| ‘say | *seprur| ‘say | ‘Seyrar| “say | ‘SoTTUL| “s4y | “SOTTUT| “say | ‘SopruT| ‘say | “SoyLur| “say | “BOTTUT ‘Ir uve | ‘or ‘uve | “6 ‘uve ‘gure ‘Loup ‘g ‘une “Sure “by wep £ uve Z URe "Ir ‘uve ‘HLQOG-—"T[]T @TAVY, *AWISHLLON AA ‘SNOILVIUVA TIVNYOAIC ON VARIATIONS IN DIRECTION AND MOTION OF THE AIR. 27% tion takes place throughout the year, and that no period can be regarded as calm. The early part of January is, however, much calmer than might be expected, while the latter portion of that month and beginning of February are just the reverse, as is also March. The great increase ob- servable in the portion of the diagram that shows the amount of motion of the air that passes Liverpool at the end of June and beginning of July, is due to the very strong W., W.N.W., and north-westerly currents at that period of the year. At Wrottesley the same currents exist, and at the same period, but their violence is so much diminished as not to disturb the general averages. These observations seem to indicate, both from the diagrams of each day as well as from those exhibiting the horary variations, that there are three principal currents or groups of winds that may be classed together. First the north-easterly, prevailing mostly in the spring, and also appearing in the autumn. Whether they may be regarded as a temporary extension of the trade-winds will require further observations to determine. They possess some of the characteristics of that wind. The next group is the great south and south-westerly current, or anti- trade-wind, the peculiar horary variations of which and periods of greatest motion have already been referred to. The currents from the N.W., including those from W. to N.N.W., form the last group. Although the north-west and south-west groups are in many respects distinct from one another, yet they often blend so much that it is not pos- sible to draw a definite line between them. Further observations on a more extended scale are required to. define with accuracy the periods of prevalence or otherwise of the various currents, and to determine many interesting points regarding their course and action, which can now be only dimly shadowed forth. It is, however, hoped that what has here been done will aid in showing the importance of keeping a constant record of the movements of the air over as large an area of the earth’s surface as can with convenience be arranged. The geologist, whose researches also extend over the whole earth, finds in the great globe itself a vast registering instrument, where the changes that he is studying have been permanently written, enabling him at his leisure to examine its records, and refer to periods so immeasurably distant that he may, by reversing his train of thought, have glimpses of eternity. The meteorologist, on the contrary, finds himself lost by reason of the ephemeral nature of the forces and conditions which he has to deal with; he requires all the artificial appliances that can help him, to take note of and record the various changes that occur; but of all the conditions, there are none more important than those of the great cur- rents of the atmosphere. A knowledge of the quarter from which the air arrives at given points on the earth’s surface, and the duration of the current, will be a key to its various conditions of temperature, humidity, weight, and all the other features it may possess; while to trace it onward, over a large area, will materially aid in unravelling the secrets of the producing causes, and the laws that determine its course. 272 REPORT—1865. Second Report on the Physiological Action of certain of the Amyl Com- pounds. By BensaMin W. Ricwarpson, M.d4., M.D., F.R.C.P. Ar the last Meeting of the Association, I read before the Physiological Section a “ Report on the Physiological Action of Nitrite of Amyl.” On that occa- sion the members were good enough to express a wish that I should continue the inquiry. The present Report is the result. In accordance with the desire of the Committee, I have in this Report carried out a more general enquiry. Instead of confining myself to one spe- cial body in the amyl series, I have taken several of them, viz. amylene or valerene as one of the simplest of the type, amylic alcohol, acetate of amyl, and iodide of amyl. I hope, from the researches I have made, to leave in the hands of the Association a fair history of the physiological value of all these compounds. Before proceeding further, permit me to invite the attention of the Section to a very brief summary of the facts brought forward at our last Meeting, in 1864, respecting the nitrite of amyl. I showed then that nitrite of amyl was— 1. The most powerful excitant of vascular action known. ‘ 2. That in animals whose bodies admit of its spontaneous evaporation, the nitrite suspends animation; and that in animals of higher organization it induces a condition resembling cataleptic insensibility. 3. That it is not an anesthetic. 4, That the effects produced by it are developed on the motive powers of the organism, which it first vehemently excites, and then paralyses. 5. That it arrests the process of oxidation. I shall not trouble the Section with further observations in detail on this compound, inasmuch as the report upon it, as a whole, is published in the Transactions of the Association. I pass therefore at once to the other compounds of the amy] series. AMYLENE. The substance called amylene was first separated by Balard, of Paris, twenty-one years ago. It attracted but little attention until 1856, when Dr. Snow having read of it, and learned theoretically its composition and physical characteristics, came to the conclusion, on theoretical grounds only, that it was possessed of anesthetic properties. In process of time he ob- tained some of the fluid; he found that his theory proved correct in prac- tice, and he was so satisfied with the action of the substance, that he em- pioyed it as an anesthetic in 238 cases. M. Giraldis, of Paris, also em- ployed it in seventy-nine cases. I used it myself in connexion with Snow in three cases, and many other physicians and surgeons used it also. For a time, indeed, it seemed that amylene would in the end take the place of chloroform, but the promised success wes marred by the occurrence of two fatal cases, from its inhalation, in the hands of Snow himself. Since that period, (July 30, 1857, date of the second fatal case,) amylene has fallen into entire disuse. Snow during the last year of his useful life “returned to chloroform, and I have occasion to know, from my intimate friendship with him, that the occurrence of the fatal accidents caused him as much anxiety as surprise. It has been suggested since Snow’s- death that the specimen of amylene which he used was not pure, but was in fact a compound of various substances. This may be true, but it is certain that he had used the same specimen successfully in other cases, and I have experi- "= Pcs . ae ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF CERTAIN AMYL COMPOUNDS. 273 mented on animals with a little that remained from the same store, without producing any dangerous symptoms. I introduce amylene to notice in this place, because it not only links itself naturally with the series, but is, in fact, a proper body of the series from which to date observations as to variation of action. Amylene is made by acting on pure fusel oil or amylic alcohol with chloride of zinc; it has also been obtained, together with hydruret of amyl, by the action of zine on iodide of amyl. In the distillation of the amylene other products are almost certain to pass over, and I think I am right in saying that the substance has never been obtained actually pure for physio- logical purposes. It ought, when quite pure, to be neutral to potassium, and to preserve that element from oxidation; but, as far as I am aware, this degree of purity has not been secured. The liquid has an oily character, and an odour compared by most persons to raw whiskey. It boils at the temperature of the blood, 98° Fahr. ; it is soluble in alcohol and ether to any degree, it is soluble in water to the extent only of one part in 9319, and the specific gravity of its vapour, according to Snow, is as low as 2:45. Asa fluid it is nearly colourless. It is composed of two elements, C,, H.,,. Antiseptic Properties.—Like the nitrite of amyl, amylene is antiseptic ; if dead tissue be placed in the pure vapour of amylene securely it remains un- changed, but the great difficulty consists in retaining the vapour in the - vessel. If 60 grains of amylene be placed in a jar having a cubic capacity of 80 inches, the organic substance to be preserved being previously put into the jar, sufficient amylene may be diffused by the warmth of the hand to enable the specimen to be kept in preservation. Animal tissues in amylene- vapour do not gelatinize as in ammonia; they become soft, evidently from the action of water retained in them, but not offensive. Decomposed animal tissue placed in vapour of amylene does not become less offensive, although the process of putrefaction is for a time arrested. Amylene preserves blood from putrefaction so long as it is present in the mass. During the past weeks of extreme heat I have retained blood un- changed in my laboratory by simply treating it, from time to time, with sufficient amylene to render the odour of the substance detectable. After it has been for a time in contact with blood in a closed bottle, the odour evolved resembles rosemary so closely as not to be distinguished from it. Effects on Flowers.—Amylene prevents the decomposition of fresh flowers, but it is not applicable as a preservative, owing to the change it produces in colour. The leaves pass from green to a dirty brown, the yellow colour grows slightly dingy, and the red fades. The colour least influenced is yellow. Physiological Effects on Living Organisms.—Amylene does not in any de- gree irritate either the skin or mucous membrane; it acts feebly when exhi- bited by the mouth or by injection under the skin. It is by inhalation only that we can bring out its actual properties. 7 I have administered amylene in vapour to dogs, cats, guineapigs, and men. The symptoms presented in all are in the main the same. There is not the terrific excitement of the circulation which is seen when the nitrite of amyl is used, but there is some excitement, and there is quick inebriation. This is followed by powerlessness of the limbs, and sudden collapse and coma, with total insensibility to pain, but not always, and indeed rarely, with an equivalent loss of consviousness. In one case I saw a person who ender amylene, and entirely senseless to a severe surgical operation, 1865, U 274 = REPORT—1865. talking with considerable correctness on the topics of the day, seizing ob- jects with precision, and showing scarcely a perceptible gradation during re- covery from mental inebriation to perfect and sober consciousness. In a psy- chological point of view this fact is doubly interesting, for the expression of consciousness is but asemblance. The person on recovery does not remember the period when, to the bystander, he seemed as wide awake as one unaf- fected. To test this phenomenon I myself inhaled amylene alone, and, before inhaling it, made up my mind that I would test for sensibility by pinching my hand. I inhaled, sitting in an arm-chair, 10 grains of amylene from a jar holding 100 cubic inches of air; the air was thus charged with rather more than 13 per cent. of amylene-vapour; this quantity is small, except it be inhaled backwards and forwards in the manner I then followed, when the action is quickly decisive. Soon after inhaling I forgot myself altogether, but four minutes from the time I took up the jar I was quite conscious again, waking as if with a start. Ah! I thought, this experiment will not do; the amylene acts so quickly that there is no interval during which a man may test his own sensibility ; but turning now to my wrist, I found I was wrong in this suspicion, for there were deep marks of pinches in several places; and further, the bottle containing the amylene-vapour had been replaced on the table with the stopper firmly adjusted, as I had intended. Thus I had, in fact, been performing acts of consciousness preconceived and carefully carried out without remembering any single fact connected with the process. — I have seen a phenomenon nearly similar under chloroform, but never so marked as under amylene: Snow had an experience of the same in kind. During a severe operation on a child under the influence of amylene, the child was playing with a ball, throwing it into the air, catching it with pre- cision, and talking and laughing the while. I presume that there is not one hearer present who, quite irrespectively of the special subject’ of this report, will not, on contemplating the pheno- menon just cited, be struck with the facts adduced. It is clear that the human mind, through its manifestations, may exhibit a mere objective con- sciousness apart from the ordinary subjective consciousness of daily life. It may exhibit a consciousness of which it is itself unconscious, and this under the mere influence of a volatile liquid obtained from common potato-starch, and which mixes so indifferently with blood at 96° Fahr., that one part only will combine with 10,550 parts of blood. Have we any analogous phenomena apart from experiment, and spon- taneous or natural like this? You will all anticipate me when I say yes, there is the very counterpart in somnambulism. The somnambulist is in pre- cisely the same state as the experimentalist under this amyl-compound: he pursues acts of consciousness of which he is not self-conscious ; he presents to us, 7. ¢., mere objective consciousness. Have we not here a key to the hitherto mystery of sleep-walking and acting? I will not say it is certain, but the evidence is as clear as inferential evidence can ever be, that persons who are subjects of somnambulistic movements do, through some abnormal process of digestion or respiration of the starchy elements of food, produce in their own organisms by their own organic chemistry, an agent which, like amy- lene, destroys remembrance, and perhaps judgment and reason, but which leaves the brain still able to act and to direct the limbs to do things which they could not do better in the most wakeful hour. One might linger long on this subject, but I must leave it after noticing yet one other peculiarity of what may be called amylene dreaming. It is this, that during the period of insensibility the mind is capable of carrying on ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF CERTAIN AMYL COMPOUNDS. 275 certain proceedings upon which it was predetermined. We have a similar phenomenon to this in our daily range of experience, in the fact that we can under pressure go to sleep determining that we will wake at a certain time, and do so almost to the minute. In both these cases it seems as though the dark sleep were pierced by one pervading conscious gleam of light which obeys the orders it has received, and watching the slumbering spirits around it, calls them forth into activity at the proper time, and then itself dies away. The insensibility produced by amylene is very complete but exceedingly transient ; recovery after the vapour is withdrawn is sudden, and it is therefore necessary to keep up the effect by constant inhalation of large quantities of the vapour. Between the period of full sensibility and com- plete insensibility there are three well-marked stages. The first is one of mild excitement,-during which the face becomes red and injected; then a period of staggering inebriation ; and thirdly, a period of collapse and insen- sibility. Snow added a fourth stage of entire muscular relaxation, but I have myself not been able to follow it. During narcotism from this agent there is no convulsion, but not unfrequently there is a peculiar tremor of the muscles very general, but, if I may use the term, minute. Carried to an extreme, _ the vapour kills animals. The only structural peculiarity found after death, is engorgement of the right side of the heart. The lungs are healthy, and the blood is unchanged in its general physical properties. I would dwell on this last fact with emphasis in order to correct an error made by the reporter on amylene to the Academy of Medicine of Paris, to the effect that amylene removed the red colour from arterial blood, whereas chloroform does not. This is a mistake, founded obyiously on an inference derived from imper- fect observation. When amylene is added in quantity to arterial blood drawn from the body, it does unquestionably produce darkness of colour ; but in the living animal, during its exhibition by inhalation, no such eyent occurs; for I have taken the blood from artery and vein, and have compared the specimens. The colour of both bloods is normal, the period of coagulation is natural, and the corpuscles are unchanged. Owing to the fact that amylene is feebly soluble in water, and therefore feebly soluble in serum of blood, a very large percentage of it requires to be. inhaled before any effect is produced. Snow estimated that the air must be charged with 40 per cent. in order to produce entire insensibility, and in fact he under-estimated the quantity by working on water at a temperature of 56° instead of 96° Fahr. I find that, instead of 40, 50 per cent. of the vapour actually is required. But as the blood at its ordinary temperature can only absorb ~,4,,th part of the vapour of amylene, it cannot, even in an adult man, receive at any time more than from 42 to 5 grains. It is clear, too, from the rapidity with which recovery takes place, that the fluids of the tissues receive but feeble impregnation. In order to institute a physiological comparison, I tried the effect of the analogue of amylene olefiant gas. Olefiant gas is the hydruret of acetyle, but, like amylene, it is a pure hydrocarbon; its composition is different only in one respect, yiz. that it is composed of four equivalents of carbon and four of hydrogen. As I had anticipated, the action was nearly the same ; to produce perfect insensibility, 50 per cent. of the gas was required in inha- lation. The effects also were transient. The effect of amylene on the muscular tissue was studied in various ways. As will already have been gathered, it reduces the muscular power, but the effect is not abiding. In fact amylene approaches the class of v2 276 REPORT—1865. negative narcotics, and enters into no chemical combination with the tissues. This fact led Dr. Snow to say that in action it almost resembled nitrogen. I should myself rather compare it to carbonic oxide; only that carbonic oxide produces convulsive movements and vomiting, which amylene rarely does. When an animal has died from amylene, the peculiar odour of the sub- stance may be detected in the tissues for many days. This circumstance may seem at first sight to be opposed to the statements already made re- specting the feeble absorption of the vapour by the blood. However, there is no contradiction ; the phenomenon is due to the circumstance that amy- lene possesses the power of charging water with its own odour and taste when in extreme division. This fact was observed by Snow with his usual precision. ‘‘Amylene,” he says, “requires 9319 parts of water for its solution ;”’ and, he adds, “‘ the water which has dissolved this small quantity of amylene tastes as distinctly of it as amylene itself.’ I notice this pecu- liarity, as it might happen some day to be of service in medico-legal inyes- tigations, Amytic ALCOHOL. Amylic aleohol, the hydrated oxide of amyl, is obtained in the fermenta- tion of potato-starch or starch of grain. It is an almost colourless fluid, and boils at 270°; its density is 0-818. Its smell is sweet, nauseous, and heavy. In composition it differs from amylene in that it contains oxygen ; its chemical composition is C,,H,,0,. Its solubility in water is about the same as amylene. In action it resembles amylene in being antiseptic, and in changing the colour of flowers and plants. It acts on the body, whether administered by the mouth or by inhalation, but it is most effective when inhaled in minute subdivision from an atomizer. Administered by inhalation in small quantities, it produces in the first instance signs of irritation of the nostril and then of drowsiness, but there is no anesthesia ; if the inhalation be continued, and the quantity increased, the symptoms of coma or sleep are more fully developed, but without any insensibility, and with almost immediate recovery on the animal being re- moved, Pushed further still, the animal sinks on its side and loses the use of the limbs. At last the coma becomes very profound, and it may be intensi- fied up to the point of insensibility. At this stage of the process, and some- times a little before it, a peculiar symptom is developed, viz. a universal tremor, accompanied with a very deep inspiration. There is no spasm, no pain, no rigidity, but in medical language rigors of an intense kind. These rigors are soon established in regular rhythm, and by maintaining the expe- riment cautiously, they may be kept up for several hours. I have seen them for one hour at the rate of sixteen in a minute as regularly as possible, and by reduction of the agent have lowered them to twelve, eight, and four per minute. All through the breathing is tranquil and the action of the heart good. The rigor occurs spontaneously in this manner, but it can be excited at any moment by touching the animal or blowing upon it, or even by a sharp noise, such as the snap of the finger. When the animal is reduced to entire insensibility, if it be laid in the open air, it begins to recover its sensi- bility at once, but the power to move is suspended for two or three hours, and the rigors also continue, but with decreasing force and frequency. Ultimately the animal recovers thoroughly, and is always very eager for food. When these urgent and, as they would seem, extreme symptoms are carried _ ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF CERTAIN AMYL COMPOUNDS. 277 to their full extent, even an experienced observer would think that recovery were impossible; but in truth the animal cannot be killed by any fair play with this vapour. In order actually to kill, it is necessary to complicate the experiment by actual reduction of air, or by closing the chamber and retain- ing the carbonic acid of the breath. Amylic alcohol produces a crenate and slightly shrunken condition of the blood-corpuscles, and the red blood is slightly darkened by it, but no change is produced in the property of coagu- lation. The odour of the substance remains for many hours in the tissues, The oxide has little action on the skin. r ACETATE OF AMYL. The acetate of amyl is made by distilling together 1 part of potato oil, 2 of acetate of potassa, and 1 of concentrated sulphuric acid. The distilled fluid is washed with alkali, and distilled from chloride of calcium. It boils at 272°. Its composition is C, H, O,. Acetate of oxide of amyl is a compound of oxide of amyl with acetic acid. It is a clear fragrant fluid, and is sold for flavouring purposes under the name of essence of pears. It acts like the other preparations in preserving organic substances. Physiologically the effects of the acetate of amyl may be induced feebly by subcutaneous injection, or by administration by the mouth, but best by inha- lation from the atomizer. It is very pleasant to inhale, and produces scarcely any irritation. When inhaled by an animal, it produces the very same sym- ptoms as amylic alcohol ; indeed these are so closely alike, that I could not by mere observation of the symptoms tell which agent was being employed. It is quite possible to induce perfect insensibility to pain by this agent. The rigors, so remarkable as regards their regularity of occurrence, are presented in marked degree ; a touch or noise calls them into action, and the paralysis of the voluntary muscular system is complete; but by itself the acetate does not destroy, and I have held an animal under its influence for ten hours with perfect recovery afterwards. I have inhaled the vapour myself in proportions varying from fifteen to twenty-five per cent. without any unpleasant symptom. It slightly quickens the action of the heart, and it produces a little irritation of the throat, such as follows the inhalation of vapour of vinegar, but, on the whole, the effect is pleasant. After a short time there is a gentle sensation of drowsiness, but no loss of sensation nor of consciousness, no faintness, no nausea, but a slight tremulousness of the muscles, the same unquestionably as the tremor which is seen in the more determinate manner in the lower animals. The acetate of amyl does not interfere with the process of coagulation of the blood, but it renders the blood darker in colour, and the corpuscles are made irregular and crenate. The odour of it does not remain long in the tissues. The acetate exerts a feeble action upon the skin, causing some vas- eularity and soreness when long applied. Top1pr oF AMYL. The iodide is made by distilling together 15 parts of potato oil, 1 of phos- phorus, and 8 of iodine. If volatizes, without being decomposed, at 294°. ; a i oe of amyl is a compound. of amyl with iodine. Its composition 18 10 TE It is a slightly pinkish liquid, the odour is less agreeable than that of the acetate of amyl, but is more pleasant than that of amylic alcohol. It rapidly changes the colour of flowers and plants, and although it is an antiseptic e 278 REPORT—1865. when brought into contact with dead organic material, it is much less active in this respect than any of the compounds which have up to this time been before us. The physiological action of the iodide of amyl is well illustrated when the substance is administered with the atomizer, but it may be admi- nistered by direct inhalation. The symptoms induced are peculiar, being a mixture of those brought out by the nitrite of amyl, the hydrated oxide and the acetate. In the first stage of inhalation there is a profuse flow of tears and increase of saliva, followed by rapid breathing and vehement action of the heart. In the second stage there is prostration of the muscular system with commencing rigors; in the third stage there is entire prostra- tion, and precisely as with the oxide and acetate, there are regular series of general tremulous movements which can be excited at any moment by touching or by a sharp noise. During the tremor the limbs are agitated in movements which are so rapid that they cannot be counted. Pushed to a fourth degree, the breathing becomes paralysed, and the action of the heart intermittent and at last prolonged. But at this last degree, when extinction of life is within a second, there is no insensibility to pain. The merest prick causes expression of consciousness. Removed from the vapour, even when the existence of life is almost doubtful, recovery, if there be the faintest de- tectable action of the heart, is certain, and not only so, but it is rapid also. In the course of recovery the tremors quickly subside, but a special and curious phenomenon is commonly presented, consisting of a series of revolu- tions of the body ina circle. At first the animal moves round almost on its ~ own axis; as it regains power, it makes a little circuit, and then a wider one; at length it moves less methodically in jerks, and last of all attains the straight line. It seems at no time to suffer anything, and yet always to be alive to what is passing. It eats food voraciously on recovery. I should add that during the whole process there is copious elimination of water from the lungs, skin, and indeed all the emunctory organs. If the blood be examined microscopically before, during, and after the in- halation, several changes are observed. The colour of the blood is not darkened, but the fibrine appears to undergo entire solution, while the blood- corpuscles in greater part retain their natural characteristic form. The dissolved condition of the fibrine lasts many hours, and if the skin be pricked the blood flows for an unusual time, but it is bright red in colour. When added to drawn blood, the iodide renders the coagulation loose and feeble, but does not stop the process altogether, possibly because its molecules do not come into such minute contact with the blood as when they are brought into union with the blood in the lungs. The upper surface of blood charged with the iodide becomes oxidized quickly in the air, and exhibits a bright red layer very deep and regular. ° The iodide causes little irritability of skin or of mucous membrane. It is not disagreeable to inhale, but it excites secretion of saliva. It also produces vascular redness of the extremities during its inhalation. In regard to the whole of the amyl-compounds, the properties of which I have investigated, I may state that, while they destroy the voluntary power of the muscles, they seem in no way to destroy the muscular irritability, the vis insita of Haller. This is proved by the facts that when the animal lies most prostrate any muscle or any group of muscles can be called into brisk action by the application of the galvanic stimulus, and that when an animal is actually destroyed by them, the muscular irritability remains for many hours after death. When ths nitrite is employed as the destructive agent, ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF CERTAIN AMYL COMPOUNDS. 279 the muscular irritability of the heart is retained in some cases for so long a period as eighteen hours; hence I think it follows conclusively that the influence of the poison is exerted mainly on the nervous centres, and that the stimulus to muscular action or the tension of force derived from thosé centres is simply reduced or withdrawn. I conceive also it is another fair inference to suppose that the compounds exert their influence first on those portions of the nervous organism from which the motor power, as apart from the sen- sory and conscious, is derived. Before closing this descriptive section of my report, I would add that, in the experiments to which attention has been drawn, dogs, rabbits, and guinea- pigs were the animals subjected to observation. To make the experiments strictly fair, to forbid any suspicion to the effect that the differences or even the analogies observed were due to peculiarities of the animals, one animal, a strong guineapig, was subjected at intervals of ten days to the extreme action, short of actual death, of the various compounds submitted to exami- nation. Practica ConcLusions. It remains for me now, in a few short paragraphs, to sum up the lessons which are taught by these experiences. I.—In the first place, something is added to our knowledge of therapeutics or rational principles of remedies. This is hardly perhaps the place to descant on special remedies: for thé treatment of disease, and I shall forbear on this - point; but I may state generally that, according to present knowledge, none of the amyl-compounds can be said to replace either ether or chloroform as anesthetics: amylene, the best of the series, is known not to be free of danger, and it is less manageable than chloroform without being devoid of any of the objections of chloroform, except the one, that it does not so often produce vomiting. This advantage, though most important, is after all insuf- ficient as a single favourable recommendation. But there is one direction towards which our minds cannot fail to be di- rected, and following which we may expect useful results in a therapeutical inquiry,—I refer to the application of these substances as remedies in certain convulsive and spasmodic diseases, in Which the symptoms are obviously in- duced by morbid sensibility or excitability of the motor tracts and centres of the nervous system. When we know that in these agents we possess reme- dies which produce lessened action of the motor force resident in nervous matter, but which at the same time affect the consciousness in a secondary degree only, and do not affect the muscular irratibility at all, we cannot but be impressed with the feeling that they would largely control the nervous excitation in cases where that is dangerously and fatally called forth. I refer more particularly to cases of tetanus or locked jaw. Here I think it would be rational to bring these agents into requisition as remedies, and comparing the agents one by one, and after studying carefully their effects, I should conclude that the iodide of amyl would on the whole be most pro- mising. It has the advantge of being readily administered by inhalation ;- it produces less muscular excitement than the nitrite, and it is, I believe, chemically a safer preparation ; it does not so determinately check oxidation as the rest; it promotes secretion; it is more permanent in its effects than amylene, and it is less persistent than either the acetate or the amylic alcohol. In a case of hopeless tetanus I should have no hesitation in administering iodide of amyl until decided reduction of nervous excitability was indicated, 280 REPORT—1865. nor do I doubt the possibility of sustaining such reduction of irritability for several hours. The iodide of amyl might possibly also be found useful as a means for bringing forth the medicinal virtues of iodine itself in the many cases for which that element is now, under other forms, so usefully employed. It would make, for example, an excellent embrocation for glandular enlarge- ments, and would come in efficiently in other ways, as will occur to every medical practitioner. It is unnecessary, however, to dwell on these matters; haying pointed out the physiological bearings of the question and framed the institute, I leave the practice to experience. II.—In the second place, a lesson is taught by these researches relative to the possible cause, or to some allied cause, of certain diseases as yet most obscure in reference to their causation. I showed last year that the nitrite of amyl produced a condition of system closely allied to the disorder known as catalepsy. On this occasion I have indicated that another of these compounds produces symptoms analogous to those which characterize the disease known as sleep-walking or somnambulism. But it will further occur to the mind of the philosophical pathologist that hysteria and certain sudden and as yet unexplored forms of paralysis of voluntary muscular power, following peculiar dyspeptic derangements, admit of explanation on the hypothesis of a perverted animal chemistry, and the formation in the organism itself of a substance made from the same organic material and approaching in character one of these amyl-compounds, If, as we know is the fact, a peculiar fermentative process of amylaceous material out of the body leads to the production of the base of the amyl series, it is hard to avoid the thought that in the body, where the zymosis of amylaceous matter is a constant process, no similar per- version should occur. III.—The last lesson suggested by this research relates to the modifications of action exhibited in animals by charging them with the same chemical base but with diverse compounds of the base. A very shrewd and profound question was asked me last year by Dr. Heaton of Leeds, when my report on the nitrite of amyl was read, to this effect :—Is the action of the compound due to the base, or to the compound*as a whole? I was unable then to answer that question properly. Now I can answer it; and I do so by saying, that in the midst of the phenomena observed the base amyl is, if I may use such an expression, the key-note, but variations are introduced as new elements are added. The order of variation is most interesting. We take a simple hydrocarbon, the hydruret of amyl, and we have an almost ne- gative body acting not unlike nitrogen and destroying motor force and con- sciousness parily but no more. We introduce the element oxygen into the inquiry by using the hydrated oxide of amyl or the acetate, and there is added to the above-named phenomena violent and persistent tremor. We move from this to another compound, and bring iodine into the field, and the phenomena now embrace free elimination of fluid from the body, vascularity of the extreme parts with increased action of the heart and of respiration. We change the combination once more to bring nitrogen and oxygen into operation with the base, and the vascular action is raised beyond what is seen from any other known substance, to be followed by a prostration so pro- found that the still living animal might for a time pass for dead. It seems to me, but I put out the thought with the profoundest sub- mission, that in these experimental truths, so simple and yet so striking, ON THE LINGULA-FLAGS OF SOUTH WALES. 281 we have presented to our minds a new line of therapeutical inquiry run- ning somewhat parallel with that line of inquiry so prominent amongst our learned and more exact brethren of the Chemical Section, which they follow under the term “the law of substitution.” Iwould ask,—Is there not a physiological law to be worked out similar in character ? and might we not by looking into it become more sure and determinate in our knowledge and application of medicinal remedies? What if, after having learned the exact action on the economy of the organic bases, we followed the chemist, and by taking the compounds moulded on those bases, we learned their true phy- siological values? Surely, if we did this, long though the labour should be, we might in time venture to lay down. “ This osier cage of ours With baleful weeds and precious juiced flowers ”— and without forgetting the words of that wise friar, whom we of physic still so blindly follow, “ Oh mickle is the powerful grace, that lies In herbs, plants, stones, and their true qualities,” might begin to approach to that accuracy of knowledge, the absence of which makes us so weak and the charlatan so presumptuous; the possession of which makes the other physical philosophers so proof against presumption and so proudly certain in their stupendous knowledge. In conclusion, were I a youth, just entering one of the best professions, I should be glad to devote my first years simply and solely to the branch of therapeutical research which I have here so faintly sketched out. As it is, I can but feel fortunate in that, supported by the fostering care of this Asso- ciation, I have been enabled to do even so much as turn the first sod in this great and novel field of labour,—I mean the investigation, physiologically, of the organic chemical compounds on a plan that aims at least at a principle in science, however obscurely it may have been propounded. ‘To say I shall be happy to do more, and again to lay what I may have done before this Section, is to say the least I can in return for the kind consideration I have received at your hands, Report on further Researches wn the Lingula-flags of South Wales. By Henry Hicxs. With some Notes on the Sections and Fossils, by J. W. Satter, F.G.S., A.L.S. Tue district to which the following Report refers, and for the examination of which a grant was made at the Meeting of the British Association last year, is in the N.W. of Pembrokeshire, and in the immediate neighbourhood of the city of St. David’s. The principal section occurs to the S. and S.E. of St. David’s, along the north coast of St. Bride’s Bay. It is, moreover, bounded by two well-marked faults, which run up in a N.-westerly direc- tion, and which serve rather to isolate it. One only of these faults is marked on the Survey Map, that forming its eastern boundary, and which may be seen running up almost immediately behind the now well-known creek of Porth-y-rhaw, and which cuts off the upper and principal part of the Middle Lingula-flags, leaving only a few hundred feet to rest conformably upon the Lower Lingula-flags. The western fault occurs directly to the south of St. David’s, at a place called Nun’s Well, and just at the spot where the Conglomerate and lowest Cambrian beds are exposed on the coast line, so 282 REPORT—1865. that within the boundary of these two faults we have an exposed section of all the Lower Cambrian beds, the whole of the Lower Lingula-flags, and a part of the Middle Lingula-flags, following one another in true succession. I have taken three parallel sections across the line of strike, as follows :— Ist. Caerbwddy section, to the west of Porth-y-rhaw, including nearly the whole of the Lower Cambrian beds exposed in this neighbourhood, and above 400 feet of the Lower Lingula-flags. 2nd. Porth-y-rhaw section runs along the east side of that creek, and in- eludes the uppermost beds of the Lower Cambrians, and nearly the whole of- the Lower Lingula-flags. 3rd, or Cradle Rock section, includes the remaining beds of the Lower Lin- gula-flags, and the Middle Lingula-flags as far as they are exposed here in true succession. It extends from a point inland of Porth-y-rhaw to the Cradle Rock—the latter an islet about midway from Porth-y-rhaw to the mouth of Solva Harbour. The first, or Caerbwddy section, cuts across the beds in a direction from N.W. by N. to 8.E. by 8., and includes about 1980 feet of conformable strata, comprising, in ascending order,— Syenite. Fine-grained shales, altered. feet. 1. Some Canglomerates (chiefly quartz pebbles in a purple| 59 Base) it sf. ARPT aa RUT BER Aas OME { 2. Greenish sandstones in thin beds ...........00..00 0000s 280 3. Purple sandstones, Massive ...... lec. eset eee ween eens 860 A variable series. Yellowish sandstone and ~ Lower 4, Upper Grey shale in thin beds, and. grey grit, with ( 945 Cambrian. series .. purple bands in thick beds, a few beds({ * of purple slate among them.......... a, Hard grey compact beds .........0.53- 100 5. Fossiliferous series b. Black and dark grey striped shales, with Upper (part of). interbedded trap oii osbese stows cites. 330 { Cambrian. 1980 The lowest third, or base of the fossiliferous series, is especially worth notice, as resembling very nearly in lithological character the immediately underlying Lower Cambrian beds, and distinguished from them only by the absence of the purple bands. It must be understood also that the absence of these bands by no means contradicts us in assigning these fossiliferous beds (No. 5 a) to the upper portion of the true Lower Cambrian or “ Harlech Grit” series, since many beds of the immediately underlying series are as free from purple colour as are any of these. Purple and red beds, moreover, are not found to be favourable for the exhibition of organic traces. In the true purple beds (No. 3), and, indeed, in the whole of the Lower Cambrians of this district, worm tracks only have as yet been found, though it is to be hoped that the presence and true position of the Oldhamia will also be determined here ere long. As we ascend from the coarse-grained compact beds already mentioned, the beds gradually become darker in appearance, of a finer grain, and more flag-like ; the dip is very high, and often vertical. The 2nd, or Porth-y-rhaw section, extends along the east side of that creek, in a direction from N. by E. to 8. by W., includes about 700 feet of strata, nearly all fossiliferous, and shows the most perfect section of the Lower Lingula-flags anywhere exposed in this neighbourhood. It begins in the Grey grit, or lowest fossiliferous beds (5a), and upon ON THE LINGULA-FLAGS OF SOUTH WALES. _ 283 these, in ascending order, lie the Grey flag with black bands, and the true black beds (5 6), all well marked, and easily traced through their transitional states into one another. The passage, moreover, is quite perfect. The upper part of this section contains a thick bed or two of trap,—a circumstance com- mon throughout the Lingula-flags in this district, as also occasionally in the Upper Grey series of the Lower Cambrian, though I have never seen it occur lower down. Mr. Salter has found it abundantly in the same beds in North Wales. The 3rd, or Cradle Rock section, is a continuation of the second. The first beds in this section are the thick sandstone ones which terminated section 2; and upon these we have thin alternating beds of sandstone and shale of a dark grey colour, fossiliferous, and occupying a thickness of about 250 ft.; next, a series of beds still dipping in the same direction for about 450 ft., and composed of grey flaggy sandstone in thin beds, alternating at first with dark grey or black shale, and afterwards with yellowish shale. These last are evidently the base of the Middle Lingula-flags. After this the beds curve into a synclinal, which is again repeated about 600 ft. further on, so that but a portion only of the Middle Lingula series is in consequence exposed here. The general section thus sketched includes about 3000 ft. of conformable strata, and may well be looked upon as the typical section. Several other sections are also exposed inland, and along the coast, but in no case do we find one so continuous or uninterrupted by faults. Again, all others that I have examined, and which I may say include all the chief Cambrian masses exposed in N.W. Pembrokeshire, tend in every case to prove the facts exhi- bited clearly in this one. In most cases I have found the lithological charac- ters of the beds, the thicknesses of the various series, and the fossils, when present, to tally in every particular with this section. In section 2, or that of the east side of Porth-y-rhaw Creek, we meet with all the principal fossil types. By means of a fault, the purple-stained beds (4) are immediately followed by a set of beds, excepting in colour, appa- rently identical with them, hard Grey grit(5«) in thick compact beds, which, as in the first section named, appear to be the top of the Lower Cambrian. In these beds, and within a few feet of true purple beds, I found a new Paradowides,now named P. Awrora ; associated with it a new Conocoryphe, of large size; a new Theca, a Lingulella, an Obolella, and fragments of Agnostus and Microdiscus. Unfortunately the first two are very fragmentary as yet, but there is quite enough to pronounce them new; and the Paradowides is a very peculiar species. Fragments of these lowest fossils are also found in the creek to the west of Porth-y-rhaw, and through which I have taken section 1 i and at two or three other places, where they hold exactly the same relation to the underlying purple beds, and to the series above. Though the purple band series have not yet yielded any definite traces of these higher forms of fossils, we are scarcely, I think, warranted in looking upon that as proof of their absence ; neither is it, I think, likely that so rich, though limited, a fauna should come so suddenly into existence. About half a dozen only of the lowest beds are distinctly fossiliferous, the succeeding 150 ft. having yielded scarcely any traces as yet, though we may expect to find them. These last beds are much lighter in colour, being a grey grit, and having only afew narrow dark bands. Rather abruptly the beds now become darker in colour and of a finer grain,—a dark-grey flag. In these we meet with Parad. Hicksii, not a new species, but one described already as P. Forchham- meri, from some unknown locality in North Wales, according to the testimony of my colleague, Mr. Salicr, who has been trying for the last twenty years to 284 REPCRT—1865. find out the true position and locality of this fossil. Associated with this second species of Puradowides are three or four other trilobites, two or three shells, &e. From this point the beds become still darker in colour, black, flag-like, and slaty beds, full of fossils. A small cavern marks a good line for these highly fossiliferous beds, and here we meet with numerous new species, and even genera, which are not found elsewhere. The beds between the cavern and the traps are the chief repository of our species; and I will mention more particularly as occurring there two or three new species of Sponge, a Cystidean or two of undescribed form, several minute Brachiopoda, which range through a considerable space, and a host of trilobites, of which the more conspicuous genera are Agnostus, Microdiscus, Conocoryphe of four or five species,"a new genus ?Hrinnys, allied to Harpides, a new genus Holo- cephalina, and last of all, the great Parad. Davidis, already well known to British geologists. It sometimes attains the length of 18 inches. The genus 7'heca here, as elsewhere, accompanies the primordial fossils ; it is in considerable abundance, and of two or more species. From a Table which contains the distribution of the fossils in these beds, and which has been carefully drawn up according to observations made by Mr. Salter and myself during the last three years, we are enabled to observe how that many of these species were very short-lived, whilst others on the contrary ranged through considerable spaces, more particularly the smaller species, such as Agnostus, Microdiscus, Lingulella, Obolella, &c. This Table also shows altogether 6 or 7 new genera of trilobites and about 16 species, and with brachiopod and pteropod shells, Cystideze and Sponges, an addition within the last three years to British paleontology of about 33 new species. Notes on the Sections and Fossils. By J. W. Satter, A.L.S., F.GS. I rryp but little to say regarding the fossils, my friend and colleague having forestalled me, and completed in a masterly way the section I roughly sketched out in 1862. ‘he district around St. David’s will soon become popular, as it exhibits the most accessible section of the Cambrian rocks, Lower and Upper. to be seen anywhere in Wales. Those in the estuary of the Ffestiniog valley are perhaps more complete, but are not seen, except partially, in coast sections; and nowhere in one continuous series. More- over, lying at lower angles of dip, they are extended over a much greater space. Of the following list of 33 species—an ample fauna for the purpose— I may say at once, there are none common to other horizons of the palzozoic group, and as the thickness of the series is considerable, 3000 or 4000 feet, we only follow the precedent of older and better geologists by proposing a new name. ‘The classic name of the district is Menevia, and we propose that the term ‘ Menevian’ should stand for the Lower, as the ‘ Ffestiniog’ of Prof. Sedgwick already stands for the middle and upper groups of the Lin- gula-flags. The ‘Menevian’ group, therefore, rests immediately on the ‘Harlech’ or Bangor group of Prof. Sedgwick, and passes imperceptibly into it. The Cambrian groups will then stand as follows :— Tremadoc group (Upper and Lower). Upper Cambrian (Lingula-flags) < Ffestiniog group (Lingula-flags). Menevian group (Lower Lingula-flags). \ Harlech group (Grey grits and purple beds). Lower Cambrian .........5+- peti group (sandstones and conglome- rates). ON THE LINGULA-FPLAGS OF SOUTH WALES. 285 Fossils of the ‘ Menevian group,’ or Lower Lingula-flag. . Black Slate series. vee nd ey eae Base of Upper Cambrian. Lower Lingula-flags. Paradoxides Aurora ........ es Hicksii........ SOC OOO Tl Manet cto peer IR MIOLISM itepatate ecerrers otal iliA ccjaayayuids. va apes atecuars er, kee : Microdiscus punctatus. ......sJeeceseeeenee LS ey eae a a ae a CULE Sera letaccttce: a'e.s a9 "5: s0) 05s + Pea wiada,¢ ER ae 22) oh a eae BRVIGINT Se ste tars ae te: — hci aie end Aa ec | ete a a A — Conocoryphe ihuniexosae S.A ae eRe sited & pe Es Sime applanata ePeNa ec aten auch abaxed all Ck aha veteee cd chgdgeat st alarateoue SEs aE yatrolaris:.c cities telereepemaw ls Alek «nak peer cro s 6 Stee Se ALLOY oat 34 as « stuageh ousiatoteray siete aE ieocaeomeoer. IN Eire cclee sich vtekes syn eaveatuspe ellctdccoractis Wecsue. eee Anopolenus Bee DEN neta Calera Cnlcr™ tale tte ox Cotte eee Eeonthinerstre settee ce caic ecto hee Coren — Erinnys (Harpides) venulosa ..J...........0..005. =——— Holocephalina primordialis....} ...........0..004 —_—_—— Leperditia solvensis.........-)...... SOKA BRR cine — PERE AIRESS BES A reechaneyil are «6s fa) anata shut Tes Dhelaehs —_—_—_— Be SE TICOLUS ieerats ceded. cueisveksiell eaters: fordsiarela. ek cere _—_ LAGS PRES Se tee eg Ce ae a —_ — ee Lingulella unguiculus....,...]..........5 — ne mibe erenies asta sane Sa SSE ae Obolelln SAPHG LAUSD Boscia toys cs chen |'s seetsferseere ts. otere ote meate pase 9 ee dd i state Aan cls 07 tp AICTE Kia LCL TORR Rei Plot 2k ivt) Aa hsb soos Theca pain &, One ea abE ee ne corrugata Coeevcevnsevaccecel|**eceveeceebeneccees ————— jaiicen ( Protocystites) ena lear svatanet onerenet ens — a Protospongia fenestrata ......|.+.4. aahciatie — RUEEL LER sy o-avsteten tiny ta eee eee eee seals — ——, SP. veeeeeeee Seow alte s Limatmernnrrn's —— | - This list will surely be increased. But it may serve already to show the near resemblance the group bears to other parts of the Lingula-flag or Upper _ Cambrian series in some points, and the wide difference in others. All the species are distinct. Many of the genera are only known here at present, e. g. Puradowides, Microdiscus, Anopolenus, Erinnys, Holocephalina, and the peculiar sponge, Protospongia. The Cystidean may be different from others, But we cannot yet prove this, though it seems likely. In beds higher up in North Wales Olenus is found. But of this more hereafter. The “ Menevian group” is distinguished by possessing the largest and smallest of Trilobites—those with the most multiplied segments, and those with the fewest. Paradowides, Erinnys, and Olenus are the opposites in every respect of Agnostus with 2, and Microdiscus with 4 segments to the body. Indeed Hrinnys (if it can be thoroughly separated from. Harpides, which we doubt) has nearly the greatest number of free segments known in the order, more than Paradowides; but probably fewer than Harpes. * The length of the lines indicates the range of the species, long or short, as the case may be. 286 REPORT—1865. We have here a larger proportion of blind Trilobites, and those without facial sutures, than in higher formations. Agnostus, Microdiscus, and Erin- nys are destitute of facial suture, and probably of eyes. Holocephalina seems to have been furnished with very minute eyes, so far out as nearly to be lost. And Anopolenus, while it has immense eyes, has a most singular restriction in the development of the free cheeks, and is in many respects abnormal. The Brachiopods are such as we were led to expect. Minute and almost rudimentary forms of Lingule and Discine, with some kindred genera, form, with Theca, the whole of the shells. The Sponge seems to be a peculiar form ; yet not so different from the Silurian ones as at first supposed. The fibres are very rudimentary in structure. The Cystidean is as yet imperfectly known. Perhaps the most curious point about this fauna is the greater resemblance it bears to the Bohemian primordial group than is borne by any other member of the Lingula-flag. The Paradoxides which mark seyeral distinct horizons here, are not known in the Upper Lingula-flag. The species of Conocoryphe resemble Bohemian and Spanish types. Hrinnys or Harpides is like the Bohemian species. Holocephalina resembles Arionellus, dc. If from such scanty indications we may judge anything, it would be that the Bohemian primordial group represents our Lower, and not our Upper Lingula-flags. These last are rich in Olenus, a genus absent altogether from Bohemia, but abundant in Northern Europe. It is accompanied, according. to Angelin, by Paradowides in Sweden. But with us, the genera follow a very regular order. Paradoaides appears first, Anopolenus second, and then various species of Olenus last. Several of the forms above catalogued (Microdiscus, Erinnys, &c.) are found in beds’ of the same age near Ffestiniog in North Wales; and the great Paradoxides Davidis occurs in black slates on the same horizon at the gold- mines of Dolgelly, North Wales (see Decades, Geol. Survey, No. 11, Pl. 10). We have included in our list those species found in the uppermost grey beds of the Lower Cambrian; but all may for the present be included provisionally in our ‘ Menevian’ group. Report of the Lunar Committee for Mapping the Surface of the Moon. By W.R. Brrr, at the request of the Committee, consisting of Jams GuaisuEr, F.R.S., Lord Rossz, F.R.S., Sir Joun Herscuet, Bart., F.R.S., Professor Puriuirs, F.R.S., Warren ve ta Ruz, F.R.S., President of the Royal Astronomical Society, Dr. Lun, F.R.S., Rev. W. R. Dawes, F.R.S., Rev. T. W. Wuzs, F.R.A.S., J. N. Lockyer, F.R.A.S., H. 8. Evcis, F.R.A.S., and W. BR. Birt, F.R.A.S. Tux first object of the Committee appointed at Bath in the year 1864 was to prepare forms suitable for the registration of lunar objects, for recording original observations, for facilitating the formation of a catalogue, and for computing the coordinates of the positions of objects. The results of the labours of the Committee are now presented to the Association in the shape of Form No, 1, for recording observations; Form No. 2, for facilitating the arrangement of objects in a catalogue; Form No, 3, for recording the posi- tions, extents, heights and depths, brightness and alignments of lunar objects, with descriptions, synonyms and references to existing authorities ; and Form No. 4, for computing positions of the second order. The annexed form is that for recording general observations of the moon. ON MAPPING THE SURFACE OF THE MOON. 287 [Form No. 1.] British Association for the Advancement of Science, General Observations of the Moon, made at the Observatory, By Telescope Eye Piece Y a Estimate Symbol x, re Day. | Hour. Subjects of Observation. of of oo Brightness. | Reference. No. af 2 3 4 5 6 This Form is intended to be bound in volumes for use in obseryatories. It contains the usual columns for registering the year, month, day and hour of observation, a wide column for the reception of the observations themselves, and two additional columns, one for the registration of the brightness of objects, the other for receiving a symbol of reference on which a word or two in ex- planation may be appropriate. Whatever object may be the subject of observation, either physical or micrometrical, as soon after the observations as may be convenient, the pro-. per symbol of reference which is described in Form No. 2 is to be inserted in the last column against the name or description of the object observed ; and as Form No. 1 is intended as a chronological record of observations of all kinds, the entries in this column will indicate the proper sheets of Form No. 3, in which the data obtained by observation are to be entered. Employing a commercial simile, Form No. 1 is the day book, Form No. 3 the ledger, and Form No. 2 the directions for posting. A vast amount of detail having reference to the moon’s surface has been accumulating since the time of Heyelius, but up to the present period a systematic arrangement of the objects discoverable on the surface has not been attempted ; for although Beer and Midler in their “‘ Der Mond” have arranged the descriptive part of their work in quadrants, commencing with the north-west and ending with the south-west, it embraces only the most conspicuous objects; numerous features, some even of large extent, are entirely passed over, and indeed those which haye been noticed by Beer and’ Midler form a very small portion of the objects that may be detected with a telescope even of small aperture, or an object glass of two or three inches diameter. It is also not a very easy matter to arrange objects on the moon’s surface, inasmuch as they are unlike those celestial objects which have been arranged in catalogues. The fixed stars, double stars, variable stars, and nebule find a natural arrangement in the order of right ascension ; not so the objects on the moon’s surface ; it is true they are invariably situated with: regard to the central meridian of mean libration, but to arrange them in the _ order of selenographical longitude east and west of the central meridian, it is necessary that the position of each should be rigorously determined, a work that still remains to be done, and it may be many years before it can be accomplished. In order to meet this desideratum, the Committee have drawn up and issued the following Form (No. 2) for facilitating the arrangement of a cata- logue by means of symbols; and in accordance with it more than 1000 objects are now symbolized and entered in Form No. 3. 288 REPORT—1865. [Form No. 2.] British Association for the Advancement of Science.—Lunar Comairree.—Tasie or AREAS. Zones and Limiting Latitudes. Limiting’ Taq. IIL. Iv. V. VI. | ny longitudes. 0° to 5°. 5° to 10°. 10° to 15°. | 15° to 20°. Oto 5 A AS AX AT 5 10 AB AN AL Ap 10 ,, 15 AY AQ AY Ag 15-,, 20 Ae At Ag AT 20 ,, 25 Ae A* A? Av 25 ,, 30 Be BE BY BT 30 ,, 35 Be Bl BE Be 35 ,, 40 BY Bp? BY Be 40 ,, 45 Be Bt BS Br 45 ,, 50 18 BS Be Bu 50 ,, 55 ca ord cr c™ 5D ,, 60 c8 qu cH cP 60 ,, 65 CY Cc cv Cc? 65 ,, 70 ce it ed cT 70 ,, 75 cé cr Cc? cv 75 ,, 80 De pe pA DT 80 ,, 85 pe Dp! DE pe 85 ,, 90 DY p? DY De a b c d Limiting ike ok XT, XII. XIUT., XV. XV. XVI. longitudes. 20° to 25°. 25° to 30°. 80° to 35°. 39° to 40°. Oto 5 Ae Et 14 pA » 10 AX EB El EE 10 ,, 15 Av EY Ee EY 5, 20 AY Ee Et BR 20 ,, 25 A E& EX E? 25 ,, 30 Be Fa 4 FA 30 5, 35 BX Fe F” FH 35 ,, 40 BY FY Fo FY 40 ,, 45 Be Fe Ft Fe 45 ,, 50 B Fé ES Fr? 50 ,, 55 ce at rer Gr 55 ,, 60 cx Gi Gn GH 60 ,, 65 ov GY G? Gv 65 ,, 70 ce G Gt aé 70 ,, 75 Cc Gs G* q@° 75 ,, 80 De He 1364 H 80 ., 85 DX He isu) HE ON MAPPING THE SURFACE OF THE MOON. 289 Limiting | XVII. XVIII. KE Xx. XKU KA XXIII. XXIV. longitudes. 40° to 45°. 45° to 50°. 50° to 55°. 55° to 60°. Oto 5 ET Ee 1@ re 5 ,, 10 HP EX {8 qT 10 ,, 15 Ee EY TY 19 15 ,, 20 ET Ee ye iu 20 ,, 25 EU E Te I* 25 ,, 30 ET Fe kK Ke see) FP FY KS K? 35 ,, 40 Fe FY KY K? 40 ,, 45 FT FY kK? Kt 45 ,, 50 Ru F Ké K* 50 ,, 55 GT ae Le re 55 ,, 60 qe ax Le 10] » 65 qe av LY rag 65 ,, 70 Gr qe Le Lt 70 ,, 75 qv G Lé L* 75 ,, 80 H™ H¢ M4 Mé 80 ,, 85 He HX mB M? 85 ,, H? HY MY M9 z k 1 m Limiting | XXV. XXVI. |XXVII.XXVIII.| XXIX. XXX. | XXXI. XXXII. longitudes. 60° to 65°. 65° to 70°. 70° to 75°. 75° to 80°. bto 5 1A 17 1? Na 5 ,, 10 TH yp re nB 10 ,, 15 yy {er Tv NY 15 ,, 20 1e Ir qo we » 2D j° qv I NE 25 ,, 30 KA K™ Ke 02 » 85 Ke Ke Kx of 35 ,, 40 KY Ke Kv OY 40 ,, 45 Ks Kr Ko 0? 45 ,, 50 Ke Kv K Of 50 ,, 55 rA L™ L¢ pe 55 ,, 60 Le Le L* PB 60 ,, 65 LY Le LY PY 65 ,, 70 Lé Lt Le po 70 ,, 75 L? LY i pe 75 ,, 80 M* MT Mée Qe 80 ,, 85 Me Me MX Qs 85 ,, 90 MY M? MY QY n ~ oO Pp q 1865. x 290 REPORT— 1865. Limiting |XXXIIJ. XXXIV.| KXXV. XXXVI. longitudes. 80° to 8d°. 85° to 90°. Oto 5 No nA 5 ,, 10 Nn” NE 10 ,, 15 NO NY 15 ,, 20 Ne N ” N. Latitude ...... 1 20 ,, 25 N* No W. Longitude... ¢ Quadrant I. 25 ,, 30 0% or ' 30 ;, 35 o” oH Dy Loneitade 2, } Quadrant TT. 35 ,, 40 09 OY - OnE 40 ,, 45 ot O , ” . Latitude ...... 45” 50 OK 0° & lone "| Quadrant TI. 50 ,, 55 ps pA : ? S, Latitude ...... n ’ 25 », 60 By = W, Longitude... f Quadrant TV. 65 ,, 70 Pp ps 70 ,, 75 pe pe 75 ,, 80 Qe i 80 ,, 85 Q) QH 85 ,, 90 Q Q” Tr $s Taste for facilitating the Arrangement of a Catalogue of Lunar Objects. The preceding Table is based upon the following considerations :— It is proposed to divide the visible hemisphere of the moon into four qua- drants, as in Beer and Madler’s map, which are numbered as follows :—N.W.L., N.E. I1., 8.E. II1., 8. W. IV. Each of these quadrants to be subdivided into sixteen grand divisions, as under, distinguishing the space between of long. of lat. of long. _ Of lat. ° ° ° ° fe} ° ° ° 0 to 25 and 0 to 25 by the letter A 0 to 25 and 50 to 75 by the letter I. ape ,. | DBs. B 25,50 ,, 50,75 ,, K. SO eet oly (vs) 20) 6 eos Cc. BOl55-7b ) 5) 0, ano ees L. 780. D5 a. D. be ,, 90°,, 50.45. M. E. 0.55354 ,, 3b ce ae N. F 25, 50 ,, 754,90 4, fe) G P. 50 ” 75 2 25 »? 50 » 50 2? 75 » 75 2? 90 ” 45 ., 90 ., 25, 50 These grand pubaariaans to be still further paniteied into endaal of 5° of longitude and 5° of latitude. Each of the nine grand subdivisions included between 0° and 75° of longitude and 0° and 75° of latitude will thus be divided into twenty-five smaller spaces, and distinguished successively by the twenty- four small letters of the Greek alphabet in their order, leaving one division blank, which will always be the last, in each of the nine divisions. In each of the spaces included between 0° and 75° of longitude and 75° and 90° of latitude, designated by the letters N, O, P, there are only fifteen smaller spaces, which are distinguished by the first fifteen small letters of the Greek alphabet. In each of the spaces included between 75° and 90° of longitude there are only fifteen portions or areas of 5° of longitude and 5° of latitude, and these are distinguished by the three of the first five Greek letters in each corre- sponding group of five in the same parallels of latitude. A ~T oO ite} So ~T or ‘Ss ot ON MAPPING THE SURFACE OF THE MOON. 291 ’ By this arrangement objects situated in any area of 5° of longitude and 5° of latitude may be readily designated, and very readily so after a little prac- tice, every space on the moon being thus classified and designated by a Roman Capital with a small Greek character as the index: thus an object situated between 40° and 45° of longitude and 25° and 30° of latitude will be desig- nated by F*, while another situated between 20° and 25°-of longitude and 20° and 25° of latitude will be designated by A without the Greek index. It is intended to distinguish the separate objects by the Arabic numerals, thus, “ASG, It is intended to collect in Tables various information appertaining to each object—as its selenographical coordinates, degree of reflective power, height or depth as the case may be, accompanied by references to more detailed descriptions, previous notices, drawings, and maps, including photographs, each separate Table being headed with one of the symbols in the annexed Table. Thus the Table which is intended to include all objects between 5° and 10° of longitude and 10° and 15° of latitude in Quadrant I. will be headed I, A#; in Quadrant IT., II. Av; in Quadrant II1., IIT. Av; and in Quadrant PV, LY. Ar. When a sufficient number of objects are entered in the above-mentioned Tables, it is intended to arrange them in zones of 5° of latitude, each zone consisting of two parts, west and east, the dividing line being the central meridian, 0° of longitude, mean libration. The zones are arranged as in the preceding Table; in which the numerals indicating zones I, and II., each from 0° to 5° of latitude north and south of the equator; ILI. and IV., each from 5° to 10° of latitude also north and south of the equator, and so on, to zones XXXY. and XXXVI., are placed over the respective latitudes which deter- mine them. By this arrangement zones I., III., V., VII., &c. belong to the north part of the moon’s visible hemisphere in Quadrants I. and II., and zones II., TY., VI., VIII., &c., to the south part of the moon’s visible hemi- sphere in the Quadrants IV. and III. In those instances in which the longitudes of objects exceed 90°, being brought into view by changes of libration, the nomenclature is carried on; for example, an object having 93° W. longitude and 3° N. latitude is desig- nated by the symbol I. Dé. In respect to the use of this Form, the Mare Crisitwum may be adduced as an example of employing the symbols for designating objects. The surface of this Mare is extended upon twelve areas, as follows :— Tos hohe}. EOS: Pha IC. IC, rc? hee, Ic’| Ic to pore and upon these areas various craters and other objects are found. Beer and Midler give ten craters on their large map, and on the small one, published in 1837, Midler gives fifteen additional, but small craters. In the year 1863 I ascertained with the Hartwell Equatorial two additional craters to those on the large map, also a small pit-like marking west of Picard. During the year 1865 the existence of several more has been ascertained, so that now at least forty-nine are known, exclusive of fourteen of the fifteen addi- tional craters given by Madler in 1837 *, * The fourteen craters here alluded to require ¢dentification; ten of them are situated, according to the map, south of I C* 1 and ICG” 3 near the 8.W. border of the Mare Cri. sium, one to the west of and in a line with I0“* and IC” * and the rest south of Picard. x2 292 REPORT—1865. The following Table exhibits the mode in which the existence of an object, when once ascertained, may be readily recorded, and the object itself so designated that very little, if any, difficulty may be experienced by future observers in identifying it. It is intended that the symbols appropriated to the objects described shall be wnalterable, I C*', for example, always pointing out the crater Picard. The forty-nine objects symbolized in the Table have been entered in Form No. 3. Craters on and near the Mare Crisium, arranged in order of Areas of 5°. > ae Date of dis- : No. |Symbol. Description. covery. Discoverer. LON 1.| 1C*? | Schriter’s “ Picard.” 2.| 1c*? | An ancient ring near the §.E. border... | |... ; Schriter. 3.| 1C** | A deep crater NW. of IC*2(a.B.&M.).| —..... Cassini. 4.| 7 ¢*® | An ancient ring between Picard and the| Aug. 31, 1863.| Birt. E. Pass. 5/ rons | A minute crater near E. Pass ....essee.ss... Oct. 28, 1863. | Webb. 6.| tc*® | A minute crater between I 0*® and I C*3.| Oct, 28, 1863. | Webb. 7.| ~o*l| A small crater on E. branch of Schriter’s | Oct. 5, 1865. | Knott and Birt. ee forked ridge. 8.| IC "| A small crater W. of IC*? 0.0... eee Nov. 4, 1865. | Knott. 9.| TC*13) A small crater W. of [0% ?........cceceee. Nov. 4, 1865. | Knott. 10.| rc***| A small craterN.W. of [C* 9 oo. Noy. 4, 1865. | Knott. Ic. 12d, EG ated: small crater between Prom. Agarum | Jan. 6, 1794. | Olbers. and Schroter’s forked ridge. 12.| 10"? | A small crater W. of 1C*? (Picard) ...... Dee. 12, 1864.) Knott. 13.)10°7 | A ied on the E. branch of Schroter’s | Oct. 5, 1865. | Knottand Birt. ridge. 14,| T0"> | A minute crater 8. of LC" 7... cece Dec. 12, 1864. | Knott. 15.| I or A oe on the W. branch of Schroter’s | Oct. 5, 1865. | Knott and Birt. 1] ridge. 16.| IC“ | 4 small crater near the §. border of M. | Nov. 4, 1865. | Knott. * Crisium. 17.| 1C* 1g| A Small crater E.of LO" oe esssseeees Nov. 4, 1865. | Knott. 18.} TC" "| A small crater N. of LO") ooo cceeeeeee Nov. 4, 1865. | Knott. 19.| 10" "*| A small crater E.N.E. of 10“ "4.000.000... Nov. 4, 1865. | Knott. 20.! ra” 5! A small crater on the W. branch of | Nov. 4, 1865. | Knott. Schroter’s forked ridge. Lor 3 21.) 10° A small crater between IC“! and Prom. | Jan. 6, 1794. | Olbers. vs Agarum. 22.| IC A small crater just E. of Prom. Agarum. . | April 29, 1865.! Dawes. ON MAPPING THE SURFACE OF T HE MOON. 293 Date of dis- No. |Symbol. Description. covery Discoverer. BG" 23. 107" | Beer and Madler’s “ Picard A.” 24.| TC™2 | Beer and Midler’s “ Picard B.” 25.) 1074 | A small crater nearly N. of I C*? (Picard)| Aug. 8, 1865, | Ingall. 26.| IC™ | A minute crater nearly N. of I rea (Picard)| Oct. 7, 1865, | Bird. 27.| ~075 | A crater in the interior of LO7!............) 0 veeeee Schmidt. 28.| ¢ O77 | A crater on the exterior W. wall of 1C7?.| Oct. 5, 1865. | Knott and Birt. 29.| t o7™8*) On the N. extremity of theridge W. of the}... Cassini. E. pass (B. & M.). 30.| 1c” 9 | A small erater 8. of TO) 30..000..6 000.01 Noy. 4, 1865. | Knott. | 31.| 107 °| A small crater E. of 107}, near E. border | Noy. 4, 1865. | Knott. | of M. Crisium. | 1e*. 32.| 10°" | A small craterN.W. of 1C*? (Picard) ....| Feb. 28, 1865, | Dawes. 33.| 10° 2 | A crater on Schroter’s ridge N. of the fork.| Noy. 4, 1865. | Knott. 34.| To? 5 | A small crater near the N. part of Schré- April 29, 1865.} Dawes. ter’s forked ridge. 35.| 10°5?| A small crater W. of 1C°* 0.......csseeeeee. April 29, 1865.) Dawes. IC’. 66,| 107! ra ring on the W. part of the surface ...... Oct. 7, 1865. | Birt. 37.| I ice A small crater N. of Prom. Agarum ...... April 29, 1865.) Dawes. 38.| I oe A small crater S.E. of 107? oo... eeceeeeee April 29, 1865,| Dawes. 39.| LC” * | A small crater between I C7? and I 073.:| Nov. 4, 1865, | Knott. 40.| LC7> | A small crater E.of L07* oo... cesses. Noy. 4, 1865, | Knott. EG ih 41.| 107? | A small crater near the W. border of the April 29, 1865,| Dawes. M. Crisium. 42,| L07* | Acmall crater N. of L07?........ccseccceseese Nov. 4, 1865. | Knott. Tox: 43, | I CX) | A crater near the N.E. border (F. B. & M.) 44,| 10%? | A smaller crater S.W. of I OX 1 (B.& M.).| May 3, 1794. | Schroter. 45.| 10% STA crane ar ON Pe 28. NOMS ae ne May 3, 1794. | Schréoter. 4¢.| 10%* | A small crater 8.W. of 1C° . 10%, 1 47.) I cr i A ring near the N.W. border (B. & M.). 48.) IC" ” | A small crater N.W. of LO”? ...............| May 3, 1794. | Schroter. 49.| 10"” | A small crater between I CY and 10%. May 3, 1794. | Schroter. Note.—Nos. 5, 29, and 35. The symbols of these crater of the craters require to be more accurately determined. S are queried, as the positions 294 REPORT—1865. In order to arrange the objects seen on the moon’s surface in a systematic and orderly manner, with a view to the formation of a catalogue, we must in the first instance adopt some means by which we may so fia an object observed that it may ever after in all time be sufficiently identified by all future observers. Hevelius laid the foundation of this process, although the nomenclature of his successor, Riccioli, has been grasped firmly by the astro- nomical mind, so that the larger features and craters are now so readily recognized, and in one way or another brought before the attention of astro- nomers, that we should as soon expect to lose sight of Sirius, Lyra, Arcturus, Capella, Regulus, or any of the brighter stars, as to experience any difficulty in identifying Copernicus, Tycho, Plato, Hipparchus, Ptolemus, Gassendi, the Mare Crisium, the Mare Nectaris, or any of the more conspicuous craters and regions of the moon; but as there are smaller stars in the heavens requiring the aid of catalogues for their exact identification, especially when used as comparison stars in the observations of small planets, comets, &c., so in several questions connected with lunar physics, there are small objects, forming in many instances portions of the larger features, that require to be particularly specified, especially when questions of supposed change obtrude themselves and claim a hearing, a small crater or apparently insignificant mountain being adduced as evidence. In the present state of selenography we cannot say positively of any object ‘it is new.” All questions of this kind that may be raised must be left in doubt. Astronomical juries cannot agree on their verdicts. A great authority thus expressed himself:— Al- though not in a position myself, after twenty-five years’ close observations of this kind, to bring forward even one certain example of new formation, when the question is confined to crater forms, yet I am far from disputing the fact of the existence of new formations on the moon”’*. Close and systematic record, as well as close and unremitting observation, is necessary to be able to settle a question of this kind, and the record should embrace the results of the obseryations of all observers. The symbols alluded to under the head of Form No. 2, to be inserted in column 2 of Form No. 3 (see page 296), appear to be suitable for accomplishing this object; more than 1000 lunar objects being absolutely fived as to all future identification by their means, provided certain elements, hereafter to be named, are ascertained. The next step in the formation of a catalogue is the determination of the exact positions of the objects symbolized. This has been done with more or less accuracy in numerous instances,|the coordinates (latitudes and longi- tudes) of many objects having been settled from observation, nevertheless these already settled points will not appear numerous; as the process of symbolizing proceeds, they will be found on the 1440 sheets of Form No. 3 requisite for drawing out the catalogue, few and far between ; and in order to increase them, the use of the micrometer, or of a meridional instrument, will be essential. There are three methods by which these points may be fixed. First, by differences of right ascension and declination between the preceding or following, and upper or lower limbs of the moon and the object, the lati- tude and longitude of which is to be determined. This method was em- ployed by M. Bouvard at the Royal Observatory of Paris in 1808 to 1810. From a series of 124 such differences in each direction, M. Nicollet deter- mined the selenographical latitude and longitude of the crater Manilius, and also the amount of the moon’s libration. Second, by measures taken with the micrometer between the apparent east and west and north or south limbs * See Julius Schmidt’s communication to the ‘ Astronomische Nachrichten,’ translated by Lynn, on page 299. ON MAPPING THE SURFACE OF THE MOON. 295 of the moon and the object. This method, proposed by Encke, has been employed by Lohrmann and Beer and Madler. Third, by measuring the lengths and position-angles of ¢wo lines on the moon’s surface ; one joining two objects, the coordinates of which have been already determined by one of the methods above mentioned; the other joining one of the same two ob- jects, and a third, the position of which is to be determined. The difference of the position-angles will give the angle between the two lines from which, with the lengths of the two lines, the position of the third object may be known. Beer and Midler employed this method for the determination of positions of the second order. The latitudes and longitudes of lunar objects require to be expressed by . the rectangular coordinates X and Y in parts of the moon’s semidiameter, which is regarded as unity. This is for the purpose of properly inserting them in a map on the orthographical projection. The latitude of an object, which we may call , being its distance frem the moon’s equator, X is equal to the sine of the latitude or @, and the expression for X becomes X=sin ZB. The longitude of an object, which is designated X, is its distance east or west from the moon’s central meridian on the same projection, which is proportional to multiplying the sine of the longitude into the co- sine of the latitude; for on the equator the longitudes are simply pro- portional to the sines, the distance of an object 30° E. longitude, for example, from the centre of the moon’s disk on the equator is equal to the natural sine of 30° or 0:5; but at 10° of latitude and 30° of longitude, an object is nearer the moon’s central meridian in the above-named proportion, and the expression for Y becomes Y=sin A cos 3, which, when computed, gives 0-49240, and we have X=0°'17365, Y=0°49240. In Form No. 3 pro- vided by the Committee the column (2) for the reception of the symbols is followed by four (3,'4,5, and 6), for inserting the values of the coordinates X and Y, and the latitudes and longitudes. Next to position comes size or extent of lunar objects, which may be expressed in two ways, and for which the Committee has provided two columns, one (7) headed “ Mag.,” a contraction for magnitude, the other (8) ‘< Miles,”’ in which it is intended to enter the values of the diameters of lunar craters in English miles, and also, as suggested by W. De la Rue, Esq., in French kilometres. As both these elements, magnitude and diameters in miles, must be ascertained by measurement—estimation being altogether too rough—a word or two on the method of effecting it may be acceptable. It is intended to express the magnitude by a number showing the ratio as to size which the crater, mountain, or spot, dark or light as it may be, bears to one chosen as a standard (Dionysius for example) ; any given measure of the standard, which may be called “‘s”—however the? measures may vary from time to time, arising: from differences of distance, effect of libration, dif- ferences in the lines measured, and other circumstances—is considered equal to unity, and if the measures of any other spots, made on the sume evening, be designated a, 6, c,d, &c., the magnitude m of each will be determined by the simple formula mas wea lS m=", and so on. s s s For the column (8) headed “ Miles,” it is necessary to measure across the crater, but as it has been assumed that most of the lunar eraters are strictly circular, and the experience which has been gained relative to the standard Dionysius, appears to point, in this instance at least, to some irregularity of form, the determinations of the extent in miles can only be considered as approximate. Beer and Midler give a list of 149 objects, the diameters of 296 REPORT—1865. which are = in German miles. This list in “ Der Mond” is preceded by a formula for computing the diameters from observations, dependent on the moon’s distance from the earth, as ex- pressed by parallax, the moon’s altitude above the horizon, and the position of the object with regard to the visible centre of the moon’s disk. The computation of the heights of mountains requires, according to Beer and Midler’s method, three measured elements, viz., the length of the shadow, the distance of the summit from the ter- minator or boundary between light and darkness, and also its distance from one of the horns or the extremity of the enlightened part of the moon north or south. These measured data, combined with the longitude and parallax of the sun, and the longitude, latitude, and parallax of the moon, enable the obser- ver to determine the true length of the shadow in parts of the moon’s radius, having previously ascertained two im- portant angles, viz., that which the ter- minator makes with the line joining the horns, and that which measures the sun’s altitude above the horizon (at the moon) of the object measured. After having ascertained the length of the shadow in parts of the moon’s radius, it is not dif- ficult to determine the height of the object. Schroter has given, in his ‘ Selenoto- pographische Fragmente,’ numerous in- stances of measured mountains, both iso- lated and on the rings of craters, the re- sults being expressed in Parisian feet. Beer and Midler have given a list of 1095 measurements of heights expressed in French toises, and Midler, on the small map published in 1837, gives 236 ex- pressed in Parisian feet. For the results of the measurements converted into Eng- lish feet two columns (9 and 10) have been appropriated in Form No. 3. Two columns (11 and 12) are also provided for brightness, or ‘ Reflective Power,” one headed Estimated the other Measured. The observer of the moon’s surface cannot fail to be struck, not only with a great variety of tints in which British Association for the Advancement of Science.—(Lunar Commirrex.) [Form No. 3.] with Description, Synonyms and References to existing Records and Authorities. Positions, Extent, Heights, Depths, Brightness, and Alignments of Lunar Objects, Dela Rue Beer and Lohrmann. | SS ad A PE IB Madler. |Map.|Sections. Synonyms and References. Schroter. Alignment. |Description] — Brightness. n gh o£ San Lote | refs ft lcs Ba Mi ao og 2o ae ey OD DE cal al Rd ee Extent. Coordinates. 14 13 9 La) | Notes. ON MAPPING THE SURFACE OF THE MOON. 297 the presence of colour is unmistakeable, from a deep blackish grey to an almost dazzling whiteness, but also with a gradation of brilliancy, some spots shining with a vividness far exceeding others, which, although they may be regarded as “bright,” are yet dull as compared with those that are more vivid. Some of these spots are supposed to vary in intensity of brightness, while others may be regarded as tolerably steady; and if some amount of interest attaches to the smaller features of the moon’s surface, as bearing upon the subject or question of change, no less amount of interest will be found to characterize the range of brilliancy, especially when changes which cannot altogether be referred to an alteration in the direction of the incident rays, obtrude themselves on our notice. In the time of Schréter, if not earlier, an attempt was made to chronicle these gradations of brilliancy by adopting a decimal scale, in which the absolute absence of light was regarded as zero, and the brightest spot on the moon’s surface was denomi- nated 10°. Schréter, Lohrmann, and Beer and Midler adopted this nota- tion, and the first column, under the general heading “ Brightness,” is intended to receive the results of a careful examination of all their estima- tions, as well as the results of future eye-estimations of the brightness of lunar objects. It is quite evident that estimations of any element can never command that reception which instrumental determinations are able to do. With this view a column: has been inserted for receiving the measures of brightness or reflective power, and it was thought that, by means of an instrument such as that described by Mr. Dawes at the Meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society, June 9, 1865 (see Monthly Notices, vol. xxv. p. 229), the gradations of brightness might be measured with facility. The use of the instrument, as recommended by Mr. Dawes, requires that the feature under examination should be isolated by means of the solar eyepiece, thus shutting out all rays from surrounding objects. Doubtless a graduated series of brightnesses may be obtained in this way which would possess a great amount of value; but one feature has presented itself in some trials which were made to ascertain the deepest tint that would quite obscure the brightest spot ‘ Aristarchus.” It was obscured, and perfectly invisible, upon a ground of which the collective power of reflexion was able to pierce the dark-tinted glass, and not only to pierce it as a dull light, but also to show the outlines (somewhat indistinctly) of the brighter and darker spaces on which the brighter spots then visible were situated (not unlike the appearance of the night-side of the moon illuminated by earth-shine a few days before and after change), the larger darker spaces coming out with the same intensity as the larger brighter spaces, so that upon settling the zero-pvint, the brighter spaces would be positive and the darker negative ; thus while a zero might be obtained for a collective reflective power, it would be difficult to express by the same notation the absolute brightness of the smaller brighter spots, or the absolute darkness of the smaller darker spots. This being the case, it is possible a modification of the homochromascope may be employed with advantage. (See Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xxii. p. 11.) One very important circumstance that may present itself to the observer, and one that will assume a much greater degree of importance in the estima- tion of the selenographer, engaged in symbolizing and cataloguing objects, is the unmistakeable identification of the smaller features, such as minute craters, mountains, rills, soft ridges, &e. A simple mode of recognition and identifi- cation presents itself in the alignment of objects, and for this two objects, one on each side of the object to be identified, will suffice, If, however, it should 298 REPORT—1865. so happen that one on each side cannot be conveniently chosen, three objects _ (including the one to be identified) in a line will contribute perhaps quite as much to finding the object sought. The column (13) in Form No. 3, headed Alignment, is intended to receive three symbolical references, one being the object catalogued under the symbol heading the sheet with the Arabic numeral at the commencement of the line, for example; IIT :IIE™*: ILE? ’, in which ITE” “ represents the crater Piazzi Smyth, and this aligns with ITE” ’ and ITE”. The wide column (14) headed ‘ Description” scarcely needs a remark. The descriptions of objects are intended to be as brief as possible, noting principally their relative positions, &c. with regard to other objects. In order that a catalogue, such as the one now in progress, should be per- fectly efficient and accomplish the object intended, it is manifest that nothing should be omitted, nor should it be compiled hastily ; the labours of all pre- vious selenographers should find a place, all synonyms should be inserted, and references made to existing maps and drawings. With this view a por- tion of each symbolic sheet of Form No. 3 is devoted to the reception of such synonyms and references; the first column (15) being intended for references, in Roman numerals, to a special catalogue of objects, the descriptions of which have been drawn up from careful observation with the telescope. The second column (16) in this department of Form No. 3-is intended to receive an appropriate symbol, which at once indicates whether the object be a crater, mountain, mountain-chain, rill, low ridge, lucid streak, or other feature. For this purpose the following symbols are employed :— Craters and depressions are indicated by a small italic character, with an index number, both inclosed in parentheses thus, (4'). Confluent craters are thus shown, (c’:¢’). Ancient rings thus, (e°). Valleys thus, a||'. 7 Mountains are indicated by a small Roman character, with an index num- ber, both inclosed in parentheses thus, (a'). Mountain-chains are indicated in the same way, with a dash under the letter thus, (a). These letters are not to be applied arbitrarily. To each zone of latitude of 5° a character, Roman or Italic, is especially appropriated. One of these letters (Italic) is printed at the foot of each column of symbols, under the head of “ Zones and limiting latitudes” in Form No. 2, ranging from a to s, they are to be used thus :—If a mountain be found in zone XV. or XVL., viz., 35° to 40° N, orS. latitude in any quadrant, the symbol pointing it out to be a mountain is (h), the numbering being consecutive, a catalogue of moun- tains will ultimately be formed; the same may be said of craters or any other feature. ' Low ridges are indicated by an Arabic numeral, inclosed in brackets, thus [2]. cid streaks in the same way with a dash under, thus [6]. Incid spots by a number with a cipher below, thus [8,]. Dark streaks are shown by the number having two dashes, one aboye, the other below, thus [4]. Dark spots are shown by the addition of a cipher to the left and above, thus [°6]. Rills are indicated by the symbol 1 . ON MAPPING THE SURFACE OF THE MOON. 299 It is expected that by the employment of these symbols the distinguishing character of the feature catalogued may be seen at a glance. It is intended that the numbering should proceed consecutively, as objects are added to the separate catalogue in which Roman Numerals are employed to enumerate the features observed. The communication of J. F. Julius Schmidt, Director of the Observatory at Athens, to the ‘Astronomische Nachrichten’ bears so greatly on the subject of observing the smaller features, that I am induced to give in extenso the translation of it, by W. T. Lynn, B.A., F.R.A.S., of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. “ Of late years, several observers in England have occupied themselves very perseveringly with the special study of the moon’s surface, and have occasionally arrived at conclusions leading to the belief that newly formed mountain ranges are now being discovered upon the moon. Although not in a position myself, after twenty-five years’ close observations of the kind, to bring forward even one certain example of new formation, when the question is confined to crater-forms, yet I am far from disputing the fact of the existence of new formations upon the moon. I do not, however, seek them so much amongst the craters, of which thousands of smaller ones, wanting in Lonrmann and MAprer, are now from time to time being de- tected, but have for about fifteen years past directed my attention especially to the rills, of which I have newly discovered a very great number, and amongst these several of remarkable form, easy to be recognized, which have not been seensince thetime of Schréter. With regard to the craters noticed by Messrs. Webb and Birt, in Marius, in Mersenius, near Delisle, b, &c., I have known these since the year 1846, and am in possession of various drawings of them. As importance is being attached to these in- dividual isolated craters (for which there are indeed good grounds), it may be here mentioned that I detected on the 2nd and 4th of January in the present year, in the inner surface of Picard A (Mare Crisiwm), a small erater, which, together with two others in the northern wall, has escaped all the observers up to this time, although in a region frequently and par- ticularly scanned both by Schroter and myself. ‘As objects repaying careful investigation, I recommend the extremely remarkable r#ll-systems near Ramsden, and a little westerly of Aristarchus, discovered by me on January 4, 1849, at Bonn, and on May 10, 1862, at Athens. Any one experienced in this department of observation who will consider, under favourable circumstances, the twelve or thirteen extraordi- nary rills and crater furrows, will perceive for himself how small is the pro- bability that phenomena so remarkable should for so many years have escaped the notice of practised observers, merely on account of external circumstances. “ Athens, Jan. 5, 1865.” (Signed) “J. F. Juxres Scummr.” The indefatigable Schriéter accumulated a large amount of information relative to the moon’s surface, which he published in two quarto volumes, entitled “‘Selenotopographische Fragmente.” It is principally arranged as topo- graphical notices, including, as we have before remarked, numerous measure- ments of mountains, craters, &c., with estimations of brightness, and accom- panied with numerous engravings of the sketches and drawings which he _ made from time to time. Every conspicuous object, and in many cases very small objects in peculiar situations, have upon the engravings letters refer- ring to a description of the objects in the text. These delineations and descriptions are increasing daily in value, and it is easy to see that labours such as those of Schmidt, recorded in the above article, are themselves 300 REPORT—1865. increased in value by the existence of records such as Schréter’s, Lohrmann’s, and Beer and Madler’s. Lohrmann’s sections, with the text, may be placed in the same category as Schroter’s, and his map, with 500 reference-numbers, but no teat, including a very large amount of detail, furnishes material by which the selenographer may confirm his observations, or by means of it, objects may be indicated that may have been overlooked, or possibly may even be new. Beer and Miidler’s large map is of the same character as Lohrmann’s, but with this advantage, notices of the features on the map (to which reference-letters, Roman, Italic, or Greek, are attached) are to be found in the text, affording, with the results of previous labours in the same field, a large amount of existing material to catalogue ; for it is evident that features found on the maps and drawings, and referred to in the text, had a bond fide existence, and were subjects of observation at the three several epochs. The later and smaller map of Midler is also valuable for reference. In order to ensure the insertion of these objects in the catalogue, four columns (17, 18, 19, and 20), having suitable headings, are appropriated to references to these authorities, the reference-letters and figures being given when available ; and in other instances, where the objects are found in the maps or engravings, but without any reference-letters or figures, a dash (—) is inserted, the absence of a dash against any object indicating that it is not to be found in the records of the selenographer whose name is at the head of the column. Of all the aids that we possess to the attainment of a valuable and exten- sive knowledge of the moon’s surface, none are calculated to afford such accu- rate results, so far as mapping, symbolizing and cataloguing are concerned, as photography. The large number of negatives produced by Warren De la Rue, Esq., and the enlargement of them both on glass and paper, must become of much valuable assistance in the progress of this work. The true relative positions of objects are capable of being very readily determined, and when reference is made to the normal position of mean libration,—the photograph taken on October 4, 1865, at 9" 0" 4s mean time, at Cranford being a standard in this respect,—the photographs will contribute in no small degree to accurate mapping and symbolizing ; other important data are also obtainable by their means. In order to ensure a careful comparison of all existing records with the results of photography, a column (21) is inserted, and headed “ De la Rue,” in which every object found on the photographs is indicated by a dash (—). [Form No. 4.] British Association for the Advancement of Science.— (Lunar ComirrEz.) Form for computing the Positions of Lunar Objects (the Second Order). or Z of Diff. of + | m' Mea- Position Y Symbol | Symbol é vf of inclination a and — sured bie at Reference. |Reference. Zz AC to AB. * | Readings. | Distance. EMER SB Sen hey Y 7 r r Log. (X—X’) Log. (Y-¥") | Log. Tan o = Log. Cos é Log. 1 l= Pe ON MAPPING THE SURFACE OF THE MOON. 301 MOP SOC. Weve scssanccsasarense Bia) Wore «| che etenbosscencenaae OTN 970/ 4 tases detdees Deas Praha data ctaais do dscec we colasic«' Ar, co. Log. 77 ......seeeeeeee Sum=TDog. AC ...........000- ° / “ ° / “ut ° 7 Mt ° 4 ut ° / Mu ° / Mt |. oe eS ae Scat Meena ar Raccssacdestseesenene ss nated Suites ss abnstee ageseabat Log. Cos (@— W)...csescsseeeee NT EMA. Oncee, seca: slensecedven ss: Ra Op XO iC yet ssexedaansee “ saongtgSceRSOBRe Ben conrad asehe Persea cnc teotcaeacsenenate Sum=x=fin B ............... ° / “ur ° / ut ° / “ut ° , ut ° / Mt ° / ut == Watitoder si. cssescecqecsss Log. Sin (@—W) «0... eee eee MEA OP: 5.05. dcessccrneaenes. BOs Yin sa paves tohiaens a Wo Acecisoedcsdgadagoaderc dbodsotraae PEM ahs cancers aces st oduemntcl ve | TITTNESS a ee BaR EREPE OrCAD Spore BRNO co csescyscardsmecatvecees’ BRIE IOC™ [3.52 ccuscssencercovss Sum=Log. Sin A ............ A=Longitude................. Notes. This Form is intended to aid in the computation of positions of the second order, which are determined, first, by measurements of the angle of position and distance between two points the positions of which have been deter- mined by measurements of the first order (see Beer and Midler’s ‘ Der Mond,’ pp. 40-45), and secondly by the angle of position and the true distance be- tween one of the points of the first order and the point whose position is to be determined. The calculation is performed according to the following - formule :— Let AB (fig. 1) be the measured side of a triangle of the first order, 7 . 302 REPORT—1865. its length, expressed in parts of the moon’s Fig. 1. semidiameter, m the same measured in revolutions of the micrometer, C the point of the second order whose position is to be ascertained, and AC the line whose length is to be determined for this purpose. The position angles of the lines AB and AC being determined at the time of ob- servation, the angle y or inclination of AC to AB is known, and the angle g, or in- clination of AB to the line of abscissz being determined by the formula Shp remo where X and Y represent the coordinates ——— of A, and X’ and Y’ the coordinates of B, the inclination of A C to the line of abscisse=o—y. Now if the true distance between A and C in micro- ” meter revolutions = m’, then 1 ail expressed in parts of the moon’s m semidiameter. Resolving AC into the coordinates x’ and y’, we have x'=AC cos (¢—w) and y'=AC sin (¢—wy). Now X and Y are the coordinates of the point A, and x and ¥ those of the point O, therefore x=X—x’, and y=Y—y'*, We have consequently for the latitude sin =x, and for the longitude sin A=¥ sec 3. In consequence of the greater foreshortening of the lunar features in pro- portion as they may be removed from the middle of the disk towards the limb than as represented in the true orthographical projection, Beer and Midler considered it necessary to limit the points to be determined by mea- surements of the second order to such as lie near the sides of their measured triangles, of which they give the sides and angles in ‘ Der Mond,’ pp. 78-83. These measured triangles amount to 176. They also considered it important, both for convenience and accuracy, that the angle p should be small; and if it were necessary to include a larger angle, the distance AC should be shorter than if the angle were smaller. It would appear from the example given on p. 87 of ‘ Der Mond,’ that their measurements were effected on the line AB, from the point A towards B as far as D (see Fig. 2. fig. 2), at which point they > D B were stopped by the micro- feck) Gor meter wire at right angles to = mu” AB, bisecting the point of the ’ second order, C. ‘This measure, m’, from A to D, they called the curtat distance ; and from this they determined the true distance, m", by the for- mula m''=m’' sec y. Beer and Midler’s measures of the second order were made when the points were near the terminator, or boundary between light and darkness. The Committee has not only given a considerable share of its attention to the preparation of Forms Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4, but also to the subject matter to be entered in them. The resolution appointing the Committee states, “That the Forms are for registering the various craters and visible objects * Ov, as in the figure, X + x’ and Y+y’. ON MAPPING THE SURFACE OF THE MOON, 303 on the moon’s surface.” At the time of the appointment of the Committee, I had made 291 series of observations, which were commenced as early as January 6, 1860. During the year, between the Meetings of the Association at Bath and Birmingham, I have lost no opportunity of increasing the number of observa-= tions, and have made 124 series, which are equivalent to 124 nights of observation. These observations amounted to 416 series at the time of the Meeting at Birmingham ; and, with 33 made since, now amount to 449, The whole are of various kinds, including physical examinations of several portions of the moon’s surface, particularly of the crater “ Plato,” every crater, mountain, ridge, plain, or other feature that had been the subject of observation being distinctly specified in the observations. Numerous micro- metrical measurements for the magnitudes and positions of objects are also included. The whole of these observations are in process of being examined, reduced, and classified, and the results entered in Form No. 3. The series of observations between J. anuary 5, 1860, and September 22, 1863, amounting to 176, were made with two telescopes. The one most extensively used in London was the Sheepshank’s Telescope No. 5, lent by the Council of the Royal Astronomical Society expressly for the purpose of lunar researches, The diameter of the object glass is 2°75 inches. It is furnished with three powers, is mounted on a tripod, and has vertical and horizontal motions in altitude and azimuth. The observations not made with this instrument were made during various visits to Hartwell with the Equatorial of 5-9 inches aperture. Early in January 1863, the Council of the Royal Society voted a sum of money for the construction of a telescope with an object glass of 47 inches diameter, under the superintendence of Warren De la Rue, Esq., suitable for the work in which I was then and am still engaged. This was completed in September 1863, and has since been employed in the observations, stated visits during the period that has elapsed between June 1863 and September 1865 having been made to Hartwell, at Dr. Lee’s request, for the purpose of continuing tLe observations with the Hartwell Equatorial. At the time of the appointment of this Committee, I had drawn up preli-« minary forms for the insertion of various data appertaining to objects on the moon’s surface, a large amount being scattered over the works of Schréter, Lohrmann, and Beer and Midler. It was then, and still is, my intention to increase these data by observation, and enter them in Form No. 3, each object, as before mentioned, being designated by a symbol. When the Asso- ciation met at Bath in 1864, 386 separate objects had been entered in the preliminary Forms ; 62 of these have since been transferred to Form No. 3, which, with 399 entered independently, make 461 objects entered in Form No. 3, the total number of objects now catalogued being 785*, Early in December 1863 I conceived the idea of forming a catalogue of lunar objects, as I had met with considerable difficulty in recording many, especially the smaller features, in such a way as readily to identify them afterwards. At that time I had accumulated a number of observations, first, of the crater ‘ Plato’ and its immediate neighbourhood, and afterwards of the N.W. portion of the Mare Imbrium, including all the mountains which are seattered over its surface, which have been named the < Teneriffe’ Mountains, to commemorate ‘an astronomer’s experiment,’ as recorded in Professor Piazzi Smyth’s work entitled « Teneriffe.’ Tn the course of my observations several remarkable features of the moon's * Now augmented to 1032, 304 REPORT—1865. surface have been presented to my notice; and here I would remark that observations of this kind differ considerably from ordinary astronomical observations ; many of the features appear to be exceedingly evanescent, and can only be detected on rare occasions, and these at considerable intervals, the one from the other; a very slight alteration in the direction of the inci- dent or reflected ray suffices to render an object invisible which a few hours before might have been seen with distinctness, and good measures of it ob- tained. Webb has alluded to this where he says, in his ‘ Celestial Objects for common Telescopes,’ p. 54, “ As the angle of illumination increases, a fresh aspect of things creeps in, and this aspect is such that we may sometimes catch the whole, sometimes a portion, sometimes nothing of many a familiar feature.” It is therefore important to seize the opportunity when presented for examining carefully a district the illumination of which is such as to bring out in strong relief the most minute features discernible. During a period of nearly seven years’ observations, there are some features that I have seen only four or five times, and some only once. The rill-system on the S.W. of Triesnecker I have seen favourably only on one occasion, nearly twelve months since, and that after waiting many months to obtain it. After carefully scanning the surface of the moon, should an opportunity of the kind now alluded to be presented, no time should be lost, nor trouble spared in obtaining as correct a record as possible of the details visible. The following are a few of the instances in which remarkable features have been brought out with extraordinary distinctness, so much so as to mark out distinctly the boundaries of individual regions. The Plain of Dionysius.—“ On the morning of January 18, 1865, between 5 and 7 a.m., the subject of observation was the great Rill of Ariadeus dis- covered by Schroter, and described, under this head, by Beer and Midler. It was well situated, both as regarded visual and illuminating angles; and I noticed that south of the rill, between Ariadeeus and Silberschlag, the surface, which forms a somewhat extensive plain, is slightly depressed, much in the same way as the surface on one side of the Straight Wall is lower than the other, with this difference—the rill of Ariadecus appears to have resulted from a crack; and throughout the length above specified the depth of the rill is plainly perceptible by its shadow. The depressed plain south of the rill is extensive; the four portions of it are symbolized, and in progress of entry in Form No. 3. The Valley J. J. Cassini. In the course of Mr. Webb’s correspondence, that gentleman has communicated an account of the recovery of one of Schroter’s valleys, named by him J. J. Cassini, which, although appearing on Beer and Miidler’s map, does not bear the name appropriated by Schréter. On the morning of the 9th of February, 1865, I had an opportunity of comparing Schroter’s drawing of J. J. Cassini with the moon; and although the weather prevented that full examination which I desired to make of the region, yet the general accuracy of Schréter’s drawing was unmistakeable. The state of libration was such as to bring the objects into full view with less foreshortening ; and although the form of the valley J. J. Cassini was not precisely as Schréter has given it, yet the general outline and the neighbour- ing craters fix Schroter’s drawing to the part of the moon which he describes in his text; accordingly Beer and Miidler’s statement, to the effect that Schréter’s drawing is irreconcileable with the surface of the moon, appears to be without foundation *. * This statement of Beer and Madler appears to have originated from Schroter mis- naming some craters in the neighbourhood. ON MAPPING THE SURFACE OF THE MOON. 305 ‘ The Table Land—Terra Photographica.—A few months ago Warren De la Rue, Esq., presented to the Committee an enlarged photograph of the moon (in four compartments), taken a few days after the first quarter, and directed the attention of Dr. Lee and myself to an elevated tract surrounded by the craters Cysatus, Curtius, Zach*, De Luc, Maginus, and Clavius, which he had discovered during the progress of his photographic experiments It is proposed, in accordance with Mr. De la Rue’s suggestion, to designate this Table Land ‘ Terra Photographica’ (De la Rue). I have carefully com- pared the region with Lohrmann’s and Beer and Midler’s maps, and find a portion of it very imperfectly represented by Beer and Midler, with some of the coordinates apparently misplaced. I have also obtained two series of observations of its physical character. Under ordinary states of the atmo- sphere, a few craters appear on its surface; but on August 1, 1865, at Hart- well, the surface of the plain was seen to be pitted with numerous small craters ; and at a still later period I found that it consisted of a depressed basin, with highly elevated rugged land abutting on Clavius, and an interest- ing mountain-chain. Beer and Midler describe another mountain-chain, which I have not seen, nor does it appear prominently on the photograph. The great Rill of Ariadeus.—The Rev. T. W. Webb refers in his work on Celestial Objects to a minute prolongation of this rill through the portion of the Mare Tranquillitatis near Sabine and Ritter, detected by Gruithuisen and Kunowsky; a small portion only was seen by Beer and Midler. I succeeded in observing it on October 20, 1864, and have seen it since. It has also been seen on two or three occasions since October 1864 by Mr. Freeman at Mentone,in the Alpes Maritimes. Mr. Freeman has traced it to the group Ritter, Sabine, &e. Among the observations of an instrumental character, | may mention some “that are differential of the second order, and which have reference to five groups now under systematic observation, both physically and instrumentally, as the state of illumination and other circumstances may allow, viz., the Picard group, the Posidonius group, the Dionysius group, the Gassendi group, and the T'riesnecker group, each crater (or in some cases mountains within them) forming a central point; the angles and distances of each measured object being referred to a standard line, the coordinates of the two extremi- ties haying been determined by Beer and Midler. APPENDIX. Translation of a Letter from the Director of the Observatory at Athens, J. F. Julius Schmidt, to Mr. W. R. Birt, London. Your favour of the 23rd of September with which you honoured me is in my possession, T beg leave to answer your inquiry at once and in general, partly to show a mark of my sympathy for the interest you take concerning the topography of the moon, partly to make known to you and others the . limits within which I have been occupied on the same object during a quarter of a century. Passing over in silence my observations before the year 1842, I allude only to those which afford a topographical interest, and that are at present of some utility to me. Since June 1842 I could employ more powerful tele- scopes, and the sketches of detailed landscapes of the moon were obtained * A crater between Zach and De Luc, perfectly visible in the photograph, but not on Beer and Madler’s map, forms part of the boundary of the “Terra Photographica.” It is proposed to name it “ Pollock, O.B.” 1865, Y 306 REPORT—1865. partly at Hohenfeld, near Hamburg, and partly with the instruments of the observatory in that town. In the year 1845 I observed the moon but seldom, at the observatory at Bilk, near Dusseldorf. From 1846 to 1853 I have obtained at Bonn, and from 1853 to 1858 at Olmutz, many sketches; and with the refractor of the observatory at Olmutz I made and reduced 4000 micro- metrical measures of the altitudes of the mountains of the moon. In the interim I was twice so fortunate as to be able to apply refractors of the first class to the moon, by the kindness of Encke and Bruhns in Berlin (1849), and by the favour of Secchi in Rome (1855). Since 1860 I have con- tinued these labours at Athens, partly because the very defective condition of this observatory is such that I could not participate in greater researches, or in those which appear more important at the present day. Perceiving, in January 1865, that I could not with satisfaction continue to neglect the mass of accumulated material, I considered it necessary to unite all my sketches in one great picture or plan; and I resolved at once to undertake that labo- rious work, without contemplating any publication. I selected a scale double that of the charts of Lohrmann and Midler, giving my general chart, consist- ing of four folios, a radius of 3 feet, or about 2 metres diameter. This is now, with the assistance of my original sketches (nearly 1000), so far accomplished that the positions of the principal objects are laid down; and even in the landscapes near the limb but little is wanting. The chart exhibits already a considerable progression, and will probably be completed in two or three years. I chose the method of those authors, and took for points of the first and second order the data of Midler and Lohrmann. ‘The whole detail is based upon my own observations only. The edition of Lohrmann’s works was transferred to me from the pub- lishers in Leipzig in the year 1854. The copper plates of all the twenty-five sections, with the exception of part of the shading, are completed, and I possess already a perfect copy. In the text to this chart I shall give a critical comparison with Midler. Both in their way form well-executed charts for the selenographical local determinations, the proper and true basis of the more modern selenography of which Tobias Mayer laid the first foun- dation. Let us continue in trying, by the aid of more powerful telescopes, to represent the topography of the yet undelineated details of the surface of the moon, without, however (so far from setting a determinate limit), being able to see the end of such a work; it is as if from the ordinary determina- tions of place of the brighter stars down to the eighth magnitude one passed on to that of the stars in the Milky Way. The study of the rills has particularly occupied me during the last fifteen years. The resemblance of numerous transformations and combinations of the rills and craters, has led me to the opinion that all rills present only volcanic phenomena, like all the rest of the moon, The study of the topo- graphy of our satellite will at once become very important for our geology. ’ But it is a great error to believe that a survey once or twice of a mountain of the moon would entitle us to make certain comparisons or to arrive at certain conclusions. I find, after many years’ minute observations, that at present it is prudent to avoid all speculations, and at first and before all things to establish an extended topography in conformity with our present means, free from contracted views, and so far exact and searching that we may hope thereby to give satisfaction to a remote posterity. That was also the opinion of Alexander yon Humboldt, with whom I had often, from 1853 to 1856, communications on the subject. I myself have never been in possession of sufficient means to produce anything émportant for selenography, ON MAPPING THE SURFACE OF THE MOON. 307 and have been obliged to content myself with small contributions; but I abandon not the hope that I shall yet be enabled to make observations with great instruments. Respecting the rills, I have now ready for printing a small pamphlet, in which are classified, up to February 1865, all those known to me. I hope to get it published in Leipzig. It contains 425, and these are divided in the following order :— From 1787 to 1801 Schroter discovered 11 rills. 1823 ,, 1827 Lohrmann ye Ui 39 » 1832 ,, 1841 Midler i 55, » 1847 ,, 1848 Kinau : rth », 1842 ,, 1865 Schmidt pepeginerinys gee Since that time I have discovered thirty or forty new rills. I point out as particularly remarkable the systems I observed in 1849-1862 near Rams- den and Aristarchus. The rills near the southern capes of the Apennines, Hyginus, Ariadzus, and Sabine, are in connexion with that of Goclenius, as rills are existing in the plain near Torricelli: I enclose only a few slight sketches of remarkable rills, which, in case they should not yet be known to English astronomers, may give occasion to future researches. Those who are in possession of large telescopes should not neglect to make drawings of eraters of the most minute kind, which are visible even in very small and well-limited regions, as the craters in Plato, Archimedes, Hevelius, Gassendi, Mersenius, Marius, &e. Less important appears to me the study of such disturbed formations as Maginus and Longomontanus, because here we may never arrive at certain conclusions, for all the territory appears to consist only of craters of the smallest kind. As other objects of a rigorous and Searching examination, I mention those little craters, crater-rows, crater-rills, that, situated in the interior of the ring mountains, form the limits of the plain and the be- ginning of the wall mountain. Here the eruptive forms have issued, as it were, out of cracks, and in parts of considerable and high mountains, where’ two mountain-masses, approaching each other, form a narrow valley, or a sharp corner, Just as important is the parallelism of many little craters, where they, as on Etna, cover the exterior of the walls of the mountains, Among such forms, spoken of to the fullest extent of the word, I class such bodies as Copernicus, with his many hundred neighbouring craters. But in a more limited sense, however, I comprehend examples, such as the craters outside of the north wall of Newton, where the wall mountains, covered with craters, slope against the south-east wall of Moretus. But everywhere a keen and unprejudiced course of observation will indicate that rills are only crater-rows in a particular modification, as the innumerable transformation- forms prove, and as Midler first pointed out. In the climate of Hellas (still more so in that of the more southern isles), so favourable for astronomical observations of every kind, many of the most important problems would in a short time be solved, if a practised . observer, completely free from hypothetical views, were furnished with the necessary means. , Athens, October 6th, 1865. In illustration of this memoir, Herr Schmidt has forwarded a drawing (Plate IX.) of the rills west of the Mare Serenitatis, from Posidonius to a point south of Littrow. x2 308 REPORT—1865. Postscript.—Since the above Report was drawn up, an outline Map of the Moon, of 100 inches in diameter, has been commenced, and is now in pro- gress. The positions of 105 points of the first order, as given in Beer and Madler’s ‘ Der Mond,’ pp. 77, 78, form the basis of measurement for all the features discernible upon the photograph taken by Warren De la Rue, Esq., on October 4th, 1865, a short time before contact with the Earth’s shadow, and when the apparent disk was not far from a state of mean libration. In this Map every important feature of the Full Moon will be laid down from measurements on the photograph referred to the equator and central meri- dian. Report of the Committee on Standards of Electrical Resistance. The Committee consists of Professor Williamson, Professor Wheatstone, Pro- fessor W. Thomson, Professor Miller, Dr. A. Matthiessen, Mr. Fleeming Jenkin, Sir Charles Bright, Professor Maxwell, Mr. C. W. Siemens, Mr. Balfour Stewart, Dr. Joule, and Mr. C. F. Varley. Tur Committee has the pleasure of reporting that the object for which they were first appointed has now been accomplished. The unit of electrical resistance has been chosen and determined by fresh experiments; the standards haye been prepared, and copies of these standards have been made with the same care as was employed in adjusting the stan- dards themselves; seventeen of these copies have been given away, and sixteen have been sold. The chief work of the Committee this year has been done by Dr. A. Mat- thiessen. Last year’s Report announced the completion of the experiments determining the resistance in absolute measure of a certain coil of German- silver wire. ‘Taking this coil as the basis, Dr. Matthiessen, assisted by Mr. C. Hockin, prepared ten standards, each expressing the British Association unit of electrical resistance ; two of these standards are coils of platinum wire, two are coils of wire drawn from a gold-silver alloy, two are coils of wire drawn from a platinum-iridium alloy, and the remaining two are tubes of mercury. The wires employed in the coils are from 0:5 millim. to 0-8 millim. dia- meter, and range from one to two metresinlength. They are insulated with white silk, and are wound round a long hollow bobbin of brass. The wires are imbedded in solid paraftin, and enclosed in a thin brass case, which allows the coils to be plunged in a bath of water by which their temperature may be conveniently regulated and observed. Two short copper terminals project from the case and are forked at their ends, so that they may be connected with the Wheatstone’s balance in the manner recommended by Professor W. Thomson, avoiding the error due to the possible resistance of connexions. The mercury standards consist of two glass tubes about three-quarters of a metre in length. These ten standards are equal to one another and to the British Association unit, at some temperature stated on the coil or tube, and lying between 14°°5 and 16°-5C, None of them, when correct, differ more than 0-03 per cent. from their value at 15°-5 C, In the choice of the material, of which the standards are constructed, the ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE, 309 Committee have been.much assisted by the experiments on permanency made by Dr. Matthiessen, Silver and copper were found to alter in their resistance simply by age. German silver was also found to alter in some cases. These materials had therefore to be rejected. Gold appears constant, but owing to its low specific resistance a considerable length would have been required, unless a wire had been adopted of very small diameter. This was not thought desirable, for several reasons ; any slight decay or injury in the surface of a small wire would cause much greater alteration in the resistance than the same injury to a large wire. A small wire would be more liable to mechanical injury, and would be much more rapidly heated by the passage of currents. The Committee having rejected small wires for these reasons, thought it unnecessary to incur the expense of a large and thick gold wire. The great change of resistance caused by a change of temperature furnished another reason for rejecting gold and other pure metals. One pair of standards was, however, made of platinum, which appeared the most suitable of all the pure metals. Platinum and the three alloys named appear all to be very constant, that is to say, their resistance is not altered by age, or even by being subjected to considerable heat and recooled. These materials also possess considerable mechanical strength; they are not easily injured by chemical action, they have considerable specific resist- ance, and that resistance, in the case of the three alloys, changes little with a change of temperature. It is of course impossible to say with certainty that their resistance will not vary with time, but it is most unlikely that the resistance of all will vary in the same ratio. If, therefore, as is hoped, the eight coils made of such different materials retain their relative values, some confidence may be felt in the permanence of the unit. Some additional security is given by the power of reproducing the unit, if lost, by chemical means, or by fresh experiments on absolute electro-magnetic mea- sure, although neither of these means at present appear to give such perfect accuracy as would be secured by the permanency of a material standard. Fresh absolute experiments of the kind described in previous Reportswould hardly re- produce the same value much within one part in a thousand, and Dr. Matthies- sen, as appears from last year’s Report, is not very sanguine of obtaining a better result than this by chemical means. Thus a difference exists in Dr. Siemens’s and Dr. Matthiessen’s reproduction of a unit by means of mercury, as pointed out in last year’s Report. It is of course probable that differences of this kind will in time disappear, and Mr. Siemens fairly points out that the discrepancy mentioned in last year’s Report, between coils made from a very old and those made from a new determination of the mercury unit, affords no criterion of the accuracy with which mercury can now be used as a means of reproduction. Dr. Siemens was the first person who produced numerous sets of coils accurately adjusted; and although unable to recommend the adoption of his unit of resistance, the Committee once more take an oppor- tunity of expressing their sense of the high value of Dr. Siemens’s researches on the reproduction of units by means of mercury. Dr. Siemens is confident that a unit can be and has been reproduced by means of mercury with an accuracy of 0-05 per cent.; but meanwhile, the chief security for the per- manency of the unit consists in the preservation of standards constructed in yarious ways and of various materials. The mercury tubes furnish an additional security. A molecular change may occur in the wires, that is to say, they may become of harder or softer 310 REPORT—1865. temper, they may be injured chemically in course of time by some action on their surface ; it is just possible that the repeated passage of currents may alter them in some way, although we haye no reason as yet to expect such an alteration. Mercury is free from all these objections. Its temper cannot vary, and as it would be purified afresh on each occasion, it will be chemically uninjured. On the other hand, some fresh dangers may occur in its use. The tubes themselves may alter in time, or the mercury may not always be absolutely pure. Absolute security cannot be had, but the choice of a variety of | materials will probably prevent any serious alteration from occurring without detection. The copies which have been issued are similar in form to the standard coils, but the terminals are simple thick copper rods, intended to be dipped in mercury cups. The security given by this mode of connexion is sufficient for all ordinary purposes, and it was feared that the use of the double termi- nals might not be everywhere understood. The platinum-silver alloy has been used in all the copies.. Wire made of this alloy is very strong and ductile. It can, for instance, be drawn down to a diameter of 0:0002 inch. Its resistance is not permanently altered even by a great change of temperature, and even annealing hardly affects it. Moreover, the change in its resistance due to a variation of 1° Centigrade is at ordinary temperature only 0:032 per cent., being less than that of any other alloy tested. It is also a commercial alloy, which has been long used by dentists ; and Dr. Matthiessen points out, as a curious coincidence, that many commercial alloys coincide with proportions indicating peculiar electrical properties. Vide Appendix A. The copies of the standard have been supplied for £2: 10s. in boxes with small mercury cups for the connexion, and with a printed direction for use inside the box, stating the temperature at which that particular coil is equal to 1 B.A. unit. Cea A satisfactory proof of the accuracy with which these coils have been pre- pared was given by four independent observations, by practical electricians not belonging to the Committee, of the relative value of four distinct B.A. coils, and four independent standards issued by Dr. Siemens. These four observations gave of 10456, 10455, 10456 and 10457 as the measure of Siemens’s standard,in terms of the B.A. units, proving the accuracy both of Dr. Siemens’s work and that of the Committee. Twenty coils were to be distributed gratis, and seventeen have actually been given away to the following recipients :— The Directors of Public Telegraphs in— France. _ Spain. Prussia. Austria. ~ el tay’. Sweden and Norway. Belgium. Portugal. Russia India. Victoria. Qucensland. New South Wales. Also to Professor Kirchhoff, Dr. Joule, Professor Neumann, and Professor Weber. Three remain for distribution. Sixteen have been sold. Dr. Faraday, on behalf of the Royal Institution, was the first purchaser. In distributing the coils, it was thought best not to give them to institu- tions, where they would probably have laid on a shelf useless and unknown, but rather to distribute them widely, where they might become available to practical electricians, ON STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. 311 The new unit has been actually employed to express the tests of the Atlantic Telegraph Cable. Mr. Varley promises that the unit shall in future be the basis of the coils used by the Electric and International Company. Sir Charles Bright promises that the unit shall be exclusively used by the British and Irish Magnetic Telegraph Company. A standard has been supplied to the Royal Engineers at their request. The head of the Telegraph Department in India has introduced the unit, and there is little doubt that the British Colonies generally will adopt it. More time will certainly be required to introduce it on the Continent. The French Government has taken no steps to ensure its introduction, but M. Blavier, the official editor of the ‘ Annales Télégraphiques,’ has promised his cordial support to the Committee. The Austrian Government has pro- mised to use the coils experimentally, and the German gentlemen to whom coils were given have promised to give their best assistance. Coils have also been bought by the managers of two large telegraphic establishments in Switzerland, at Neuchatel, and Zurich. There is there- fore reason to hope that the unit may come into extensive use. When standard galyanometers, Leyden jars, and electrometers are issued, all forming part of one coherent and necessary system, it is probable that the ‘B.A. unit will be found so much more useful than any other as to supplant them entirely. Until these further issues take place, it will only be adopted either by men who can understand the advantage given by it in calculation, or by electricians who feel confidence in the recommendations of your Committee. With a view to experiments which will allow of these further issues of electrical units, a large electrodynamometer has been designed, and is nearly complete. Graduated Leyden jars, with air as the only dielectric, have also been designed and are nearly ready for use. An apparatus for the determi- nation of the quantity called v in Appendix © of the 1363 Report is in the same condition. Prof. W. Thomson has for some time had ready apparatus for absolute measurements of electrical effects, but his connexion with the Atlantic Cable has suspended his work. Dr. Joule promises fresh measure- ments of the mechanical coefficient of heat, and has only been delayed by the want of experiments which other members of the Committee must pre- viously complete. In conclusion, the Committee are at last able to report one positive result, but they feel that much more remains to be done. Apprenpix A.—On the Construction of the Copies of the B.A. Unit. By A. Marrutessen, F.R.S., and Mr. Cuartes Hocxr. Tus standard coil used in the experiments at King’s College, described in the Report of your Committee for 1864, was put into our hands about last Christmas, in order that unit-coils representing a resistance equal to ten million metres per second in Weber’s electro-magnetic system might be made from it. Since that time several unit-coils have been made and issued. We propose to state the method by which these coils were made, and the reasons for choosing the particular alloy which has been adopted for the con- ductor. The alloy referred to is composed of 66 per cent. of silver and 33 of platinum. This alloy possesses many properties which fit it for the use to which it has been put. As to its electrical properties :— 312 REPORT—1865. I. It alters less in electrical resistance with changes of temperature than any other known alloy, The importance of this point needs hardly to be enforced on any one who has used resistance-coils, The increment in the resistance of the alloy due to a change of tempera- ture from 0° to 100° C. is only 3-2 per cent. II. The conducting-power of the alloy is yery low, and is about one-half that of German silver. III. The conducting-power of the alloy is not altered by baking, that is by exposing it to a temperature of about 100° C. for several days. This is a property of great importance, for it has been observed that those conductors which do not alter by baking, do not alter by age either. The experiments by which this has been established have been published in for- mer Reports. IV. The conducting-power of a wire of the alloy is little altered by annealing. Further, the alloy does not oxidize by exposure to the air ; it does not readily alloy with mercury ; it makes a sufficiently pliable wire, and can be drawn to a very great degree of fineness. Dentists have made considerable use of it in consequence of its good chemical and mechanical properties*. Of this alloy, twenty unit-coils have been made and sent to several leading electri- cians at home and abroad. The form of bobbin adopted for putting up the wire, and shown in Plate X. fig. 1, has been found very convenient, as it can be immersed in water during an observation. The wire is twice coated with silk, and protected by being imbedded in solid paraffin. Besides the coils already mentioned, ten unit-coils have been made, which will be deposited at the Kew Observatory. Any one possessing a copy of the B.A. unit may have it compared at any future time against one of these coils for a small payment. Of the coils to be sent to Kew, two are of the platinum-silver alloy, two of the gold-silver alloy, two of a platinum-iridium alloy, and two of commercially pure platinum. Two mercury units have also been prepared. With so many coils for reference, made of such different metals, it appears quite improbable that the unit now proposed should be lost. Along with the above-mentioned coils will be preserved the standard coil used in the experiments first referred to, the coil used in the similar experi- ments made by your Committee in 1863, and several copies of these coils. Of the coil called ‘June 4th”’ in the Report of your Committee for 1863, two German-silver copies haye been made. Of the other coil used in 1864, two German-silver, two gold-silver, and one platinum-silver copy have been made, These coils have twice been recompared together at intervals of three months, and will be again compared, and if they are stiil found not to have altered, will be deposited at the Kew Observatory for reference, their values being engraved on them. The method adopted to obtain the unit from the standard which had at a certain temperature a resistance of 4-6677 B.A. units was this :— Coils were made with the following approximate resistances, viz. : Two coils nearly equal to one-half a unit, called 3(a) and 3(b). » if one unit » Ley 5a One coil a two units se Py) a two and a half ee * Messrs. Johnson and Matthey inform us that this alloy has been in use for nearly twenty years, : ? 35 Report Brit. Assoc:1865. Plate 10. Standard Unit of Electrical Resistance. nT MTT B; | 4 I} 4 q | ; q q = tT y 4 { il q y j SS il q 3 : 4 BS [Tl q oe y é 4 = 4 q 4 4 q Be aa yj y BN Y JA Y y— A Y 4 | 4 ey a Sed N SECTION. ELEVATION. me Jul size. Metal. MINN 22 onsee. SIDE ELEVATION. PLAN. ¢ full size. Engraved by IW Lowry. IN FAVOUR OF MAGNETICAL OBSERVATIONS AT TIFLIS. 313 The electrical balance used was that described in a paper on the repro- duction of a unit by chemical means in the Report of your Committee for 1864. With this instrument, two conductors, differing in resistance by not more than 3 per cent., could be directly compared, and the ratio found depended on to 0-0025 per cent. Numerous comparisons were made by means of this balance between the following sets of coils, viz. :— (a) was compared with 4(b). (a)+2(b) ” 1 (a). 1 (a i 1 (b) 1 (a)+1(b) rong 2+3(a) 25 2424 » Standard. By taking the mean of several very concordant observations, the value of the coil 1a was found in terms of the standard, and therefore of the unit, to a great degree of accuracy, and from this coil the first platinum-silyer unit was constructed. All the coils to be issued are recompared some weeks after they are made, and rejected if they are found to have altered in resistance by 0-01 per cent. All the coils sent out are correct at the temperature written on them to within 0-01 per cent., and this temperature lies between 14:5 and 16-5 in all cases. Report of the Committee, consisting of Major-General Sasrne, P.R.S., Sir Joun Herscuet, Bart., F.R.S., J. P. Gasstor, F.R.S., and Sir R. I. Murcuison, Bart., F.R.S., appointed for the purpose of com- municating to the Russian Government the opinion of the British Association, that the establishment of magnetical observations on the Kew system at the Observatory of Tiflis, by Professor Moritz of that place, would largely conduce to the furtherance of Magnetical Science. By General Sazrne, P.R.S. At the Meeting of the British Association at Bath in 1864, a resolution was passed by the General Committee appointing a committee, of which my name stood first on the list of its members, ‘‘ for the purpose of communicating to the Russian Government the opinion of the British Association, that the esta- blishment of magnetical observations on the Kew system at the Observatory of Tiflis, by Professor Moritz of that place, would largely conduce to the furtherance of magnetical science.” Not having been myself present at the Bath Meeting, and knowing nothing of what had passed there, beyond the words of the resolution transmitted to me by the Assistant-Secretary, Mr. Griffith, I addressed the letter marked No. 1 to Mr. Hopkins, the General Secretary. No. 1. 13 Ashley Place, Noy. 9, 1864. “‘My pear Srr,—I received a few days since from Mr. Griffith a notice of a resolution adopted by the General Committee of the British Association at 314 REPORT—1865. Bath, appointing a committee, my own name standing as the first member, ‘ for the purpose of communicating to the Russian Government the opinion of the British Association, that the establishment of magnetical observations on the Kew system at the Observatory of Tiflis, by Professor Moritz of that place, would largely conduce to the furtherance of magnetical science.’ «“‘A communication to a foreign Government is a serious and somewhat delicate matter. The communication must necessarily pass, I believe, either through our own Government, or through the Russian Ambassador in London ; and must in either case, I apprehend, be made by the President of the Asso- ciation. The duty of the Committee is therefore to supply the President with such information, if they can obtain it themselves, as may enable him to fulfil in the best manner the wishes of the General Committee. ‘« Not having been present myself at the Bath Meeting, I have no knowledge of the discussion, either at the Section which originated the resolution, or in the Committee of Recommendation which adopted and recommended it, which doubtless preceded and influenced its adoption. I wish, therefore, to seek through you for information on some points on which more knowledge than I possess is desirable. « Professor Moritz is, I believe, and has been for some years past, Director of an Observatory at Tiflis, which is one of several observatories established in different parts of the Russian empire, acting under and in concert with the ‘ Observatoire Central Physique de la Russie’ at St. Petersburg, receiving instruments and instructions from the Central Observatory, reporting to and transmitting their observations in MSS. to M. Kupffer, the Director-General of the Magnetical and Meteorological Observatories in Russia, by whom the whole of the observations so transmitted are published annually in the well- known work ‘ Annales,’ &c., according to a uniform pattern. The purpose of the resolution, if I understand it correctly, is, that the instruments and system of observation hitherto pursued at Tiflis should be changed by the addition of magnetical instruments on the pattern of those at Kew, compre- hending the tabulation from the photograms, the reduction of the observations, and their application to theoretical conclusions. Of course I do not entertain the slightest doubt of the advantage that might be expected to result to magnetical science if the recommendation were acceded to and perseve- ringly and faithfully carried out; but in respect to the probability of its being received with favour by the Russian Government, and acceded to, it is mate- rial to inquire whether Professor Moritz’s application for the interference of the British Association on behalf of the Tiflis Observatory was made with the knowledge and concurrence of the head of the department under which he acts. It is unnecessary to dwell on the very different aspect which the whole matter would assume according as the reply to this question be in the affirma- tive or in the negative. «The University of Kasan, a station of peculiar magnetical importance in theoretical respects, but which is not one of the stations of the Russian system, being desirous of forming such an establishment, sent its professor of mathe- matics, Professor Bolzani, to England in 1862 to examine and report on the magnetical instruments employed in England. Professor Bolzani strongly recommended the adoption of instruments similar to those at Kew, with which, and the modes of reduction of the results and their theoretical appli- cations, he made himself fully conversant by attendance at Kew. Whereupon the University addressed a Memorial to the Russian Government, offering, on being supplied with instruments similar to those at Kew, to be at the whole expense themselves of the locale, the staff for observation and for reduction, IN FAVOUR OF MAGNETICAL OBSERVATIONS AT TIFLIS. 815 and of publication. The reply was, not a refusal, but a postponement of the consideration of the Memorial until the Russian finances should have recovered from the heavy expenditure of the Crimean war. How far this decision was influenced by the spirit of centralization, which is very strong in Russia, and causes all such applications to be referred in the first instance for a report from the central head, cannot of course be known; but it is worthy of remark that it was immediately followed by an application from M. Kupffer for a complete set of instruments similar to those at Kew for the Central Observa- tory at St. Petersburg. These have been furnished, and I have very recently learnt from M. Kupffer that they have arrived, and have been established in . the Observatory. The observations have not yet commenced, because the gas-pipes leading to the observatory are not yet quite finished. My impres- sion is, though I can only speak of it as an impression, that M. Kupfter pur- poses to make himself thoroughly acquainted with the instruments by using them under his own eye; and if he approves of them, to have others made like them at St. Petersburg (or to procure them from England as he may deem best) for those observatories under his, direction to which they may appear most suitable, and for which the Government is willing to supply the necessary funds. It may be hoped that the observations at such observatories will be reduced and applied to theoretical deductions, which has not been the case hitherto in the Russian observatories. The publication of the erude observations is comparatively of little value; but the labour of the reduction adds very considerably to the cost. “And this brings me to a second inquiry, which may be very important in contributing to the success or otherwise of the recommendation contemplated by the resolution adopted by the General Committee. Was it understood from Professor Moritz that there existed at Tiflis a separate fund by which, if the instruments were supplied by the Russian Government, the current cost of the locale, the staff for observation and reduction, and for publication, might be defrayed? This was the proposition from Kasan ; and if made on behalf of Tiflis, might entitle Tiflis to be placed in the same category of independence of the Central authority. “The object sought by the resolution of the General Committee is clearly defined—the establishment of magnetical observations on the Kew system at the Observatory of Tiflis by Professor Moritz. It is a perplexing circum- stance, however, that I received from Professor Moritz a letter dated the 27th of September, viz. a few days after the Bath Meeting, desiring an inter- view to discuss his project, ‘ d’un lévé magnétique, qu’on se propose d’exécuter au Caucase.’ His letter neither names or refers in any way to ‘magnetical observations on the Kew system at Tiflis.’ The two projects are incompatible if they are to be conducted by the same person. Is it possible that there may have been some misunderstanding between the Professor and the gentlemen who brought forward the Resolution, as to which project is uppermost in the Professor's mind? A ‘ Lévé magnétique’ in the Caucasus is a far less costly affair than such an observatory as is contemplated at Tiflis. There would be a degree of awkwardness if Professor Moritz’s desire to be employed in a magnetic survey of the Caucasus were brought before the Russian Goyern- ment at the same time with the recommendation of the British Association that he should be employed in a work which would require his whole time and thoughts at Tiflis for some years to come. It is a point which I should think Sir Charles Lyell would desire to be cleared up before he should make his communication to the Russian Government. The President of the Section which originated the proposition, or the officers of the Association who were 316 REPORT—1865.- present at the discussions in the Committee of Recommendations, may be able to throw some light on which of the two projects M. Moritz is himself most desirous of pressing. I may at the same time remark that the Committee appointed to aid in the obseryatory project can take no official cognizance of the survey in the Caucasus. «‘ My object in addressing this letter to you is to obtain either from your- self, or through your intermediation from other Officers of the Association, or from the President of the Section by whom the recommendation was brought forward, any information which they can furnish which may be useful to Sir C. Lyell in the communication he will have to make with the Russian Govern- ment. It is important to keep in view that, whilst we desire to give every proper aid to Professor Moritz’s wishes, we should have at the same time a clear understanding of the recommendation we are making in all the lights in which it may be viewed. Will you therefore kindly return me this letter, after you have communicated its contents to any person who you think may throw light on any of the points touched upon, and accompanied by any documents referring to the recommendation which may be in the hands of the officers, or which they may be able to procure? I will then communicate with the other members of the Committee. * Sincerely yours, * Wilkam Hopkins, Esq., “ EpwARpD SAaBine.” General Secretary of the British Association.” At the time when my letter reached Mr. Hopkins he was already suffering from the illness which has since obliged him (to the general regret) to resign the Secretaryship. My letter was, however, immediately sent to Mr. Galton, associated with Mr. Hopkins in the duties of the Secretary’s office, who most readily and promptly undertook to communicate with Professor Moritz him- self, who had returned to the continent ; and also to make my letter known to Sir Charles Lyell, the President of the Association, by whom any direct application, either to the Russian Government or to our own, should such an application to either Government be deemed expedient, would have to be made. Mr. Galton’s letter to myself, of Feb. 27 (marked No. 2), states the result of his communication with Professor Moritz, and was as follows :— No. 2. “42 Rutland Gate, W., Feb. 27, 1865. “My prEAR Grenerit,—lI have at length received a letter from Professor Moritz, dated Feb. 5 (? old style), which I enclose. It is not satisfactory, for it does not reply to all my questions ; nevertheless you may possibly find it sufficient to afford a basis to some limited action. “1, Professor Kupffer is stated to approve of Professor Moritz’s scheme, and of the resolution of the British Association. “2. The funds to carry the scheme into effect would be supplied, if at all, by the Russian (? Imperial) Government, through the Grand Duke Michael, Lieut. of the Emperor in the Caucasus. His decision is final, and to him the resolution of the British Association would be most properly addressed. ** 3. Professor Moritz wishes to obtain a self-registering apparatus of the Kew pattern, partly to afford comparative observations with those he proposes to make (by means of portable instruments) at the chief geodetical stations of the Caucasus survey. He also wants the self-registering instruments for regular work at Tiflis, where he deplores the insufficiency of assistants capa- ble of making two hourly observations. NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE COAL-FIELD ORGANIC REMAINS. Pal tt “4, He does not say whence he proposes to obtain the above mentioned portable instruments, nor does he say anything concerning the tabulation of the photograms of the self-registering instruments; nor of the reduction of the observations, nor of their application to theoretical conclusions. Neither does Professor Moritz give cause to believe that he has had, as yet, the neces- sary experience to enable him to establish a regular magnetical observatory. (I pointedly made inquiries of him on this very subject in my second letter, dated Feb. 3.) ‘«« The final paragraph of Professor Moritz’s letter is his own version of what took place at the Bath Meeting, and for that he is alone responsible. It appa- rently has formed part of some report he has made to the Grand Duke, who commissioned him to attend the Meeting. ‘«‘T herewith return your letter of Noy. 9, addressed to the General Secretary. It has formed the basis of both my letters to Professor Moritz. * Yours very faithfully, * Major-General Sabine, R.A.” « Francis Garron.” On the receipt of Mr. Galton’s letter of Feb. 7 I wrote to M. Kupffer, then at St. Petersburg, referring to the resolution passed at Bath, and to Professor Moritz’s communication with Mr. Galton, and expressing a desire to be guided by his advice in any further step which it might be advisable to take. It had been previously arranged between M. Kupffer and myself that he should be in London in April or May of this year, for the purpose of discuss- ing many questions bearing on magnetical and meteorological observations. In reply to my letter he referred to his proposed visit to London as a suitable time to discuss fully the subject of Professor Moritz’s wishes, at which discussion it was my intention to have asked Mr. Galton and the members of the Committee joined with myself in the resolution of the General Committee to be present. But in May I received the intelligence of M. Kupffer’s unexpected death, and I have not yet learnt who has been, or is to be; appointed his successor, Epwarp Sasrne. September 1, 1865, Appendix to Report of the Committee on the Distribution of the Verte- brate Remains from the North Staffordshire Coal Field. By Joun - Youne, M.D., F.R.S. Edinb. In the large series of specimens obtained by Mr. Molyneux, the genus Paleoniscus is numerically the most important. The vast majority of the specimens are referable to two species, P. ornatissimus and P. Egertoni. The variations in the proportions of the body and sculpture of the scales admit of a series being established so gradual that at no point can a sharp distinction be drawn between the two species. The occurrence on individuals in this series, of scales identical with those of P. monensis, renders it probable that the last-named species, founded on isolated scales from Anglesea, is only a variety of the North Staffordshire forms, the difference in conjectured bulk being perhaps due to local conditions. A small number of specimens belong to P. striolatus or P. Robisoni. The comparison of these specimens, and others elsewhere, with the types in the Royal Society’s collection at Edinburgh, raise doubts in the writer’s mind as to the distinctness of the two species, In 318 | REPORT—1865. these, as in the foregoing species, the comparison of many individuals from beds of the same general age occurring in the same district, illustrates the wide range of variation which accompanies great fertility. Similarly, the many specimens of the Mansfeldt species in the Royal College of Surgeons, in the British Museum, in Sir P. Egerton’s Cabinet, and in Edinburgh, confirm the hesitation with which Geinitz enumerates them, and justify the reduction of their specific differences within very narrow limits. The figures of the same species given by him, by Agassiz, and by King, differ in general proportions and the position of the fins, as markedly as do the Burdie House forms, and in this respect fairly parallel the variations in the more limited area of North Staffordshire. The comparison of individuals belonging to prolific living species, as the Herring, Salmon, Trout, yields similar results. The writer drew attention to the American specimens in the Geological Society’s collection. The species representing those of the English Carboni- ferous series are associated with forms allied to those of Mansfeldt, whose coexistence in Staffordshire has been asserted, but is not yet certain. Of the genus Rhizodopsis, established provisionally by Prof. Huxley for the reception of certain specimens whose cranial and dental characters approached those of Rhizodus, Ow., while the scales, not yet found in unquestionable relation to the crania on which the older genus was founded, belong to the cycloidal section of the Glyptodipterini, several good examples occur. None of the individuals reach the size of Rhizodus, with which they are coextensive in distribution in the English and Scottish Coal-fields. The facial bones are not determinable. The strong conical teeth with plicate bases are of two sizes; the larger, slightly incurved at the apex, want the lateral compression which marks the laniaries of hizodus. Only two pairs of jugular plates seem to have existed. The pectoral fins are lobate; the two dorsals, the ventral and anal, opposite each other respectively, are placed in the posterior half of the body. The vertebral rings are thin, shallow. The scales are cordate, but vary in the proportions of their measurements at different parts of the body. Their ornament consists of concentric and radiating ridges, the for- mer entire on the sides, but interrupted at either extremity by the latter ; the concentric ridges of the free area are robust. A subcentral boss on the lower surface, nearer the anterior margin, corresponds to the point of radia- tion on the upper aspect. The amount of overlap is uniform, extending to one-third of the surface. These are the chief points in which this genus differs from other Glyptodipterines, The character of the larger teeth justifies its retention as distinct from Rhizodus. Reliable specific differences are wanting; the greater flexibility of the scales in specimens from shale than in those from the ironstones, is due perhaps as much to the nature of the matrix as to different stages of growth; while greater and smaller size are not accom- panied by other noticeable variations. Certain cycloidal scales were determined by Prof. Huxley in 1863 to belong to a new genus which he named Cycloptychius. His description of the genus was not then published, though read at the British Association. Several excellent examples have since been found; their structure is in abstract as follows. Body: average length 5 inches, slender, tapering to a finely pointed caudal extremity; covered with thin scales, cycloid anteriorly, pointed posteriorly, marked with well-defined concentric ridges. Head nearly one-fifth of length of body, compressed; muzzle rounded. Orbits far forward, bounded by large supraorbitals, prefrontals, and inferiorly by a long suborbital bar. Pre- maxilla large, its anterior margin prolonged laterally. Maxilla in one piece, NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE COAL-FIELD ORGANIC REMAINS. 319 curved slightly upwards anteriorly, posteriorly descending more abruptly. Mandible in one piece, tapering to a slender, slightly upcurved, symphysial extremity. Both jaws beset with fine conical smooth teeth of two sizes, the larger about three times that of the smaller, among which they are set at regular intervals, and from which they are distinguished only by size. Operculars narrow, elongate ; suboperculars small, square. No trace of inter-operculars, Branchiostegal rays numerous, flattened, enamelled. The sculpture of the cranial and facial bones consists of close-set tubercles, sometimes confluent into short ridges. The occipital bones are perhaps represented by large scale-like plates occurring close to the head. Pectoral arch weak; scapulars flat, articulated, not coalescent with the truncated coracoids. Pectoral fins small, not lobate. Ventrals small, at middle of body. Dorsal and anal small, triangular, equal, opposite; intermediate between yentrals and caudal. Tail markedly heterocercal; upper lobe slender; its short rays entirely beneath the prolonged axis of the body. The rays of the lower lobe increase in length up to the fifth or sixth, which exceed the anal fin; and thence diminish till they meet those of upper lobe at an angle of 35°, The dorsal fin is preceded by a few, the upper caudal lobe is covered by many fulcral scales. The thin enamelled scales, disposed in oblique series, are similar over the body, those of the upper and lower margin being slightly smaller than those on flanks. The obliquity of their axis from the - production of the posterior inferior angle, gives them in situ a rhomboidal appearance. ‘The ridges are more numerous on the lower than the upper half, and are not continuous across. This very elegant genus is nearly allied to Palgoniscus and Catopterus, “Renf., and ranks therefore with them among the Lepidosteidew. It has as yet been found only in Staffordshire. Species unica Cycloptychius carbonarius, Huxley. Specimens of a tooth, named Stepsodus, in the Jermyn Street Collection and Catalogue, are frequent. This tooth, figured as Holoptychius sauroides in the Tyneside Natural History Club’s Reports, has also been referred to Megalichthys, but is generically distinct. It varies from three-eighths to one inch in length, and is distinguished by its bayonet form, a knee-bend occurring at the commencement of its distal fourth ; it is slightly curved backwards, the conyex surface being smooth, the concave traversed by fine parallel, longi- tudinal, discontinuous ridges, which die out as they curve outwards towards the anterior aspect. The pulp occupies three-fourths of the base, but is re- duced to a point near the knee-bend. Seven such teeth are preserved, with a fragment of a jaw, in Mr. Ward’s Cabinet at Longton: the implanted equals the exserted portion in length. On the same slab a scale with radial furrows occurs. Teeth of the same kind are associated on a block of shale in the Hunterian Museum, Glasgow, with cycloidal scales, whose free surface is traversed by radiating broad grooves, large vertebral rings whose central space is one-third to one-fifth of the whole diameter, flattened neural spines and rounded bony spicula, which are probably fin-rays. The form and sculpture of this tooth are amphibian rather than piscine ; while neither order offers any good analogy to its mode of occurrence in the jaw above men- tioned. Several doubtful fragments and a deep amphiccelous vertebra suggest the presence of Amphibia in the Longton district. : A quadrilateral scale, with rounded angles, provisionally named Rhombo- ptychius, Huxl., is found near Longton ; one specimen measures two square inches, but is exceptionally large. The posterior smaller portion, marked off by two oblique shallow grooves, is ornamented with coarse concentric ridges ; 320 REPORT—1865. the anterior with very fine striz crossed at the margins by equally fine radii. The fine pores between, but not on the coarse ridges, are wanted on the anterior surface. The scale seems to belong to some large Glyptodipterine, and merits description from its occurrence in the same shales with the tooth last described. The large transversely oval scale, named Dendroptychius, belongs to the same group; its anterior half is finely tubercular by the intersection of con- centric and radial striz; the distant, rudely parallel, vermicular, frequently bifurcated ridges of the posterior do not radiate from a centre, but pass from the whole transverse diameter. The determination of this, like the preceding from the same locality, awaits further discoveries. The Acanthodian remains are abundant and well preserved. Scales of two species of Gyrolepis occur along with those of Palwoniscus. Amblypterus is represented by a few scales. The Plagiostomous remains are numerous and varied; among them occur Orodus, Helodus, Cladodus, and Ctenodus. Among them, as among the numerous spines, are several forms which are yet under investigation. Of the genus Platysomus, one species, P. parvulus, and a variety unnamed, are found; the scale ornament of the one is tubercular’, of the other striated. P. striatus, obtained in Derbyshire, is wanting in this coal-field. The list both of genera and species will doubtless be augmented when the large mass of materials, collected by Mr. Molyneux and others, shall have been more fully investigated. First Report on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea. By Henry Woopwarp, F.G.S,. A erant having been made in September last at Bath (1864) in aid of my researches into the structure and classification of the Fossil Crustacea, for which the Earl of Enniskillen, Professor Phillips, and Mr. C. Spence Bate were appointed a Committee, I beg to submit my first Report. The first portion of my investigation relates to the Crustacea of the Devo- nian and Upper Silurian formations belonging to the order Hurypterida. These are now elaborated, and will be published in a Monograph, with plates and woodcuts of all the species, by the Palsontographical Society during the ensuing year. The following is an abridged list of the genera :— T,, Hurypeerts 7.5.6... + « 9 species examined. 2. Pterygotus ........ Os. 35 SP OLMON ayy. eine tae Sie eS i 4, Stylonurus ..°.~... 6s as 5. Hemiaspis ........ 5? | Ray and includes three genera defined, viz. :— Slimoniat, Stylonurust, and Hemiaspis§ ; and also six new species added * Anew genus, Amphicentrum, has been founded by the writer upon certain fossils bearing certain strong anatomical resemblances to Platysomus, while the dentition indicates affinities with the Pyenodonts. The description of this genus, with a review of its relations, will shortly appear elsewhere. + See Intellectual Observer, vol. iv. 1863, p. 229, “On the Seraphim and its Allies.” t See Geological Magazine, vol. i. 1864, p. 196, “ New Paleozoic Crustacea.” § See Quart. Journ, Geol. Soc, vol. xxi. pt. 4, Noy. 1865, “ On Hemiaspis.” STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE FOSSIL CRUSTACEA. 9321 to the list, including the great Stylonurus Scoticus*, nearly 4 feet in length. ’ oe Of the other species we now possess much more ample material than was at the disposal of Messrs. Huxley and Salter in 1859, when their Monograph appeared, and many important details in the structure and position of the parts and their mutual relations are now elaborated. In addition to the Devonian localities of Herefordshire, Forfar, Arbroath, and Dundee, the Upper Silurian of Lanark, and the Lower Ludlow of Leint- wardine, Shropshire, all of which have yielded new and characteristic forms (several of them described by me during the past year), I have lately obtained from the Wenlock Limestone and Shale, Dudley, good evidence that in this locality also species of Pterygotus occur. Until June 1865, the oldest known Cirripede was the Pollicipes Rheticus from the Rhetic beds of Somersetshire; but I have just described t a new Cirripede with intersecting rows of plates (similar to the Cretaceous genus Loricula), from the Wenlock Limestone and shale of Dudley, figures of which are added, TURRILEPAS WrRiGHTII, H. Woodw. (Chiton Wrightii, De Kon.). Fig. 1. Specimen from Mr, E. J. Hollier’s collection, Fig. 2. “5 Mr. Charles Ketley’s __,, Fig. 3. 5 Mr. H. Johnson’s rh Figs. a, 6, c represent the three forms of plates of which the several rows are composed in figs. 1-3, which bear the corresponding letters. ‘Lhe opercular valves are not known. Another Cirripede of the genus Pyrgoma, occurring recent on the south coast of England and Ireland, living in deep water attached to the edge of the cup of Caryophyllia, and fossil in the Coralline Crag of Suffolk, has now been detected by me in the Upper Chalk of Norwich. As this is a new species I have named it Pyrgoma cretacea. It is interesting to find it asso- ciated with the same genus of corals (Caryophyllia) both in the Chalk and in recent seas. I have examined and determined six genera, and am preparing descriptions of about sixteen new species of Liassic Crustacea. * See Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. xxi. pt. 4, Noy. 1865, “On Hemiaspis.” t See Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxi. pt. 4. ‘ { Two detached valves of this fossil were discovered by Mr. John Gray of Hagley, and described as a Chiton by M. De Koninck, Bulletins de l Acad, de Bruxelles, 1857, 2nd series, vol. iii, p. 199, pl. 1, f. 2. 1865, % B22 REPORT—1865. Among the new genera are— aL, Baliga ess oie fos ic 2ic0 (0 a ee BPOCIOS A) 45) Re 3 B. GlyphWa bee eee es Dial, 4. Pseudoglyphwa ..........4.6. 2 45 5. Scaphetis: a. 2 e004. a nl ea besides the genus Hryon, to which two or three new species have to be added. I have likewise detected a minute species of Squilla. All these seven genera (save one) characterize also the Solenhofen limestone of Bavaria* (Upper White Jura). J have now to notice a remarkable burrowing Crustacean of the family Thalassine (a genus of which (Callianassa) occurs in the uppermost bed of the Cretaceous series at Maestricht), as occurring in our Hempstead series (Upper Eocene) in the Isle of Wight, and another species in the Greensand formation of Colin Glen, Belfast. The death of my brother and colleague Dr. Samuel P. Woodward (my best scientific adviser during the past eight years), has materially retarded my accustomed work ; I beg therefore to be allowed to speak of this as my first report only, and that I may be permitted next year to offer a more com-— plete and detailed statement of my researches in this interesting group. Report on the Theory of Numbers—Part VI. By H. J. Srepuun Smitu, M.A., F.R.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry in the Uni- versity of Oxford. 124. Application of the Theory of Elliptic Functions to Quadratic Forms. —The Theta Functions of Jacobi.—It will be for the convenience of the reader to give in this place a brief statement of a few principles and results which belong to the theory of elliptic functions, and to which we shall have occasion to refer in the following articles. The Theta functions of Jacobi are defined by the equation m=+0 Guy (Gyula B (Iw LOmto f+ gentle), 3 mrm=—O or if e'™~=q, by the equation so pei 4 (em+n)® mtu) Our(@w)= BS (—l)|g é “. ge: m=—a Tn these equations, » and y are given integral numbers; w is an imaginary constant, having for the coefficient of ¢ in its imaginary part a quantity dif- ferent from zero and positive ; so that the analytical modulus of q is inferior to unity, and the series defining the Theta functions is convergent for all va- lues of w real or imaginary; lastly, a is a constant at present undetermined, but to which we shall hereafter assign a particular value depending on that of w. When it is not necessary to specify the value of w, we shall write 0,, » (#), instead of 6,,,(v,). The following equations are immediate con- sequences of the definition of the Theta functions : * See Oppel’s Palaeontolog. Mittheilung. Munich, 1863. ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 3823 6) =D, @): . eae eS ) Oe = OR Oe ae eee. (2) CO) et ce a Os PM mate) 0, (a-+a) (1) 0, @). ered Wie. 2. A 0,,»(e+an)=(—1y 4, (a) ew(2Z44). 6 we 2. . Buty, v+v(%)= Bu,» (@+3(p!w+7')a) x eri[w' 7 tu” ae ee (6) Thus there are only four different Theta functions, O(a), O:(&), 010 (&), 6,; (#) (equations 1 and 2); of these, the first three are even functions, the last an uneven function (equation 3); they are all periodic, having a or 2a for their period, according as p is even or uneven (equation 4); the quotient Ou. v (”) Ou', v(& as y—vr’ is even or uneven (equation 5); finally, any one of the four can be expressed as the product of any other by an exponential factor (equation 6). The identical equations Le qty )4tP V+ )+PV +) +g itu) + .... » @) is doubly periodic, having aw or 2aw for its second period, according =(1—¢?)(1—g*)(1—g") x... x (L4gu)(14g°v)(1+y%).... X(L+qu +o) +g%73) oo. giv+o)+qe(+u) +9 # (vi +o) + gece ‘\ =(1—q)(1—q)\(1—9") .... x goo") oe x x (L+qv)(1+qtv*)\(1 +9")... ae x (1+q°u*)1+q*v)(1+ q°u-?) o Semen f in which v is any quantity whatever, and q any quantity of which the ana- lytical modulus is inferior to unity, express an important property of the Theta functions. Elementary demonstrations of the first have been given by Jacobi and Cauchy* ; the second is immediately deducible from it, by writing qv’ for v, and multiplying by g*v. We infer from these identities the four formulee | +0 Oo, o(#)= =, 9” cos Ls —0o a oo a Ona . =II,, d—q") 11, 1 +297" cos get as? Se en te i le a . 00 , (z= E (—1)" gx cos 28M 09) a nn. (1g) 1, (129% cos get) Lo 6 googien 1 1 a * Jacobi, Fundamenta Nova, p. 176-183; Crelle’s Journal, vol. xxxvi. p. 75; Cauchy, Comptes Rendus, vol. xvii. p. 523, 567. See also the note (by M. Hermite), ‘Sur la Théorie des Fonctions Elliptiques’ in the 6th edition (Paris, 1862) of Lacroix, Traité Elémentaire du Calcul Differentiel, vol. ii. p. 397. Aa a 824 REPORT—1865. t = THe O;, o(#) = ad quent cos (2m+ 1) a ——) 00 ee) = 2 cos m Tn (1—4q’") cos Thy(3-+24* aE ite poe Ly il ee : we ~O,:(@)==2 (— Lyng en? sin (2m-+-1) — a oe a io8) ao : =2¢3 sin me 1 (1—q") I, (1-20 cos Pre 4 gim ; P (12) a 1 1 a by which the Theta functions are expressed as convergent products of an in- finite number of factors. Other important consequences are deducible from the equation 26.1, yy (v,) Dus, V2 (x,) Ou.5, V3 (@,) Dus, V4 (@,) “ = Ooo, (8 —&,) MOn ns, og (8-2) K Og y,,\o? ng (8 Ha) X Do— py, o!—v4 (s—2,) +O o— ty, o!—v, +1 (S—2) X Bo py, of rgt1 (S— 2.) X Og— ps, of —vy+1 (s—#,) x Oo—v43 o!—vyt1 (s—*,) > (13) + (1) Oo -n, 41, o' =v, (SH) X Do—pg+1, ov, (S— 2) X Og—ps+1, o'—v, (S— 23) X Oo—p,41, o!—v (8S—%) + (1) 904-41, 0,41 (SH) X Bo po 41, of vy t1 (Ss) X Oo—p3t1, 0/—vg+1 (S—#5) X Og—py-+1, o—v,+1 (S— 4), J which contains four independent arguments, w,v,x,,, and in which 2s= V,+%,+4,+%,, 2o=p, +e. testey 2o' =r, +r, +7, +%3 the numbers fy My Mg H, Od v, v,v, 7, being subject to the restriction that their sums are respectively even, so that ¢ ando’ are integral*, Let x, Vx’ be two quan- tities defined by the equations = = Bi g(O — 01:(9), Vimeo} Vimeo} Mr attributing in (13) to the elements By Uy, Vy, Ly Pi> Par Bs Ma | Vis Vor Var V4 0, 0, 0, 0 | the systems of values 0, 0, 0, 0 0, 0, 0, 0 * This very symmetrical formula is, it would seem, nearly the same as that employed by Jacobi in his Lectures on Elliptic Functions at the University of Konigsberg (see his letter to M. Hermite in Crelle’s Journal, vol. xxxii. p. 177). It may be proved by actually ur (i) multiplying the four Theta series, and transforming the indices of —1, e””, and e¢ in the general term of the product by means of the elementary formule +P 424 d= (s—a)?+(s—B)4(s—e)+ (84), da B+ cy-+dd=(s—a)(3—a)+(s—0)(2—B)+(s—e)(2—7) + (—@(2—9), where 2s=a+0+¢+d, 22=a+B+y+0. iss) nG or ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. aera OS, (0 (i) 1, i 0, 0 ial, 0.0] x, x, 0, 0 (iii) 0 0; 0; 0 tf 70.20 we obtain successively r+c?=1,. E auttpe = sw C6) x63 o(@)=021(@) + x68 i(@)y 2. ss es (16) K'05,0(@) =05,1(%)+K631(w). - 2 6 ee ee (17) Again, attributing to the same elements the values wo: u—y, 0, 0 ’ 3 , 18 60; 0 91,1(@—Y) 80,1 (@+Y) 81, 0(0) A, 0(0) = 91, 1(@) 90,1 (@) 8, 0(Y) O1,0(Y) —o,0(&) 81, 0(@) 1,1 (Y) 80,1(Y)- Dividing by ¥, and diminishing y without limit, we obtain 5 (72 — 9%,1(9) 61,10) 8, 0(#) 8,0(@) > (eed 2 (18) AL\O1(@)J 84,09) 85,0(0) 3. (z) Similarly, we might form the differential coefficient of any other quotient of two Theta functions ; of these we require only the two following :— ge —9,0(9) 61,1(9) 81,1(2) Oo,0(#) ee (1s a) dx\8o1(@)F — A4,0(0) O,1(0) 65,1 (@) Fe (gst) hia) moi) th) en We shall now attribute to a, which has hitherto been left indeterminate, the value 2K, K being a constant, the square root of which is determined by the equation 2K He eset : a / 78 =6,0(0) = Dn . co (1 [7 gy ery ; c = ® (19) —o T we find we shall also write K’ for = Attending to the values of x’ and x, we a find from (10) and (11), IK hip Ee / = 6o,1(0)= Dobe ( we AD go Tn(1 ee ot —gr ly,” : (20) —0O Tv 2 ae 1/9, 2 ee 9 A/ A= 61,0(0)= Bn hm? = 27 d—gy1+a) « (21) —o Multiplying together the infinite products (19), (20), (21), and reducing by an identity of Euler’s, ice) ioe) 1 II f— aia =IT ae . . . . . . « 1 ( q ) 1 m 1 + q” (E) 326 - REPORT—1865. we obtain also Q2ec'K 3 ie om\soe gy m 1(2m41)2__ gf oi =, (l1—-g yv=ss En(—1)"(2m+1) =_ 6{' (0) (22) a K* 4 71 ae ve Bee These equations (19-22) are of great importance in the arithmetical appli- cations of the theory. The constant a having the particular value 2K, the functions it Bo,0(%), 8o,1(%)> 0,,0(x), = 4,1(#) are denoted by Jacobi by the symbols 0,(x), O(x), H,(x), H(x); we shall find it convenient occasionally to employ this notation. The elliptic functions (properly so called), sinam#, cosamy, Aam«, are defined by the equations _; 1,H@), —V« H(2), = n/p! 2) sinam# Je O(a)? cos ama Ve a)? Aamxv=v/« Q(x)” - (238) These functions are all doubly periodic, having for their periods 4K, 22K’ ; 4K, 4iK'; 2K, 47K’ respectively ; introducing them into the equations (16-18), we obtain 2 77) 2 —— oe ame ene eal, } (24) APame +x’ sin’? am z=1, d.sin aM# 44, am «7 Aam 4, 2 dx d.cosam ttn am aA shi ‘ ar aaa am 2, Or |RSS Sa pee d.Aama2 Bice ae sk’ sin am @ cosam 2. dx From these formule it appears that if y=sin am #, w is one of the values of y dy i t ] —— the integra > Vad ey presented by the formula a+ 4mK + 2m'tK', in which m and m' represent any integral numbers whatever. Since sinamK=1, K is one of the values of the ; dy o VA—y)\1—«'y*) 1 values of the integral All the values of that integral are re- integral ; and it can be proved that K’ is one of the dy When the real part of w va- » Vy) «%y") nishes (in which case g, K, K', «, «' are real and positive, and x, «! less than unity), K and K’ are the ordinary values of those definite integrals ; 2. ¢. the values obtained by causing y to pass from the inferior to the superior limit, through a series of real values. The well-known formule of Addition and Subtraction which express the elliptic functions of the sum or difference of two arguments in terms of the elliptic functions of the arguments themselves, are easily deduced from (13). But as we shall not require these formule in the following articles, we may omit them here. 125. The Modulus and its Complement.—The Theory of Transformation.— In the arithmetical application of the theory, the functions « and «’, which are respectively termed the modulus of the elliptic functions, and the complement of the modulus are of primary importance. They are respectively fourth powers of the quantities ON THE THEORY. OF NUMBERS. O27 io@) co $ ili } ad F t ae t= a a ee et a Ab ee ee a gs 26 V q 14 ge m—1 1 14 qui ( ) which are themselves sate determinate functions of w, if we understand the positive square root of 2 by 2, and e® by qs. Of these functions, which we shall designate by ¢(w) and Y(w), the following equivalent expressions have been given by Jacobi (Crelle’s Journal, vol. xxxvii. p. 75-77). L=— gq 2 us V 293 I i See 2 Cee 0-e e = ‘ll m qe” 24 om Sy Syke es =(— Lene) qn +m) (1+q"*)1—9) = WV Io8 U N 29 II (+) —q™) Am?--2m a) eee 2g 1, 0 ( 0, 5) wevoe nore Ge a=") e- +1 Vou HU te 7 FO,0(0,55 ; a) = V3y i x(~ 1)" Ly" gen Ts, By 00,1 (0, ay > a iy tte a v= V 26°11 (+9 Pd —9¢") pias De 0, (0 ah = V2 248 329 2 zy Bo ols wi? F yess q” a © eae) ] ( x(— 1y"g2 (3m?+-m ) (= 1)nomt )gg3(3m?-4m) 2 me a_i —¢r- eo L=9¢") (1 +9" \(hSi qi") 1 Xx = 1D ie cua aren 0, (0. “) es —— eg ge eee Se a gan Caer") | (l—g""l=9"") — (—D"9"" _ (0, w) | X(—1)"g"%,1(0, 2w) ” ‘i pe gr hiss g'”) Cae a) —2(=1)"9?"" _%,1(0, 2w) Xq™ 8,00; w) 3828 REPORT—1865. These expressions of w and w' may be verified by a comparison of their general factors with the general factors in the formule (26): for some of them, this comparison requires the Eulerian identity already cited (E). Limits of II and & are 1,4 0, and —w,-+0; the transformation of the products into sums is effected by means of (7). If w=a+0i, and if the positive quantity b increases without limit, a re- maining finite, we infer, from (26), that lim y (a+0i)=+1, Tim +) — 095 < tisin S V2e— 8 We shall presently see that ow)=v(—= ; hence if w=; and 6 increase Ww without limit, lim ¢ () = lim (bi) = +1, lim p (;) is) 05. u 4) lim eS if V2e~S The principal properties of (¢) w and) (w) are deducible from the Theory of the Transformation of Elliptic Functions. The general problem considered in c+dQ a+6Q tegral numbers, to express the Theta functions containing Q by means of the Theta functions containing w.” The determinant ad—be must be different from zero and positive, because the coefficients of 7 in the imaginary parts of w and Q must both be different from zero and positive ; if ad—be=n, the transformation is said to be of order n. Let A, A‘, , X!, v, v' be the same that theory is “ Given w= , where a, b, c, d are positive or negative in- functions of © that K, K’, x, x’, wu, w are of w; since Q=2 x = the K c+da equation w= implies the existence of two others of the form a+ba ak =aA+bidl, 1 ver, TU yee Atha ; in which M is a coefficient termed the multiplier; when A has been found, M is determined by the equation —— (a+0Q)= it also satisfies the relation _IMI=N) deg a) c(1—x") Wak. If n=1, the theory of the transformations of the first order has been com- prised by M. Hermite in the single formulary, ike int, BS (29) A 1K’ (c--dO);". ". . ees (ee) we 5 sits amen Oe * Fundamenta Nova, p. 75. + Liouville, New Series, vol. iii. p. 26; and, with less detail, in the Comptes Rendus, vol. xlvi. p. 171. ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 329 zitba2 w JS a i) Gp 0) = ier gRAMap ” B,; ’ e 32 (Pye Ona + + G2) in which m=au+by+ab, n=cu+dry+cd. cama (acp?+ 2bepnv + bdvy?+2abeu+2abdv +ab2c) ie ye 4 3 z 1 b—1 ;, = ve b\w. Bee =(—}72-24, if a is uneven, a *) 4-24 X t-2(4@—-1)(6—-)), if b is uneven* ; or =(‘ MIND the radical VW —7(a-+bQ) represents that square root of —i(a+bQ), of which the real part is positive; lastly, A is determined by the equation f2A0 Joo, == 0,0 = —— ab, ¢ 0 5 . . Be | a/b = huh = yaaa tenet 0) (33) which is a particular case of the formula (32); and M by the equation kere Pap, ca (9, w) SO Gi ee arg = are aap a ee ee M 7 6 0,0 64,0 (0, @) (34) The formula supposes that } is different from zcro and positive; if b=0, we may suppose a=d=1, so that w=c+Q, and the formula of transformation is On» (Sp 2) =e Oy, qurery @ia),0. 790 Oo Lie (35) 1_ 6%. (0, ») M 6%, 0 (0, w) The equations of the annexed Table, which, for any transformation of the first order, express the relation snbsisting between the given and the trans- formed modulus, are also due to M. Hermite, and are of great importance in the theory of the functions ¢(w) and Y(w)t. They may be obtained by applying the formula of transformation (32) to the expressions of ¢(w) given by Jacobi (27). There are six cases, answering to the six solutions, of which the congruence ad—bc=1, mod 2 is susceptible. We add, in each case, the value of the multiplier. where * These determinations of the value of J coincide with those given by M. Hermite in Liouville’s Journal, vol. iii. p. 29; where, however, it would seem that the formulz re- lating to the two cases of “‘« pair” and “‘« impair” ought to be transposed. t+ “Sur la resolution de l’équation du cinquiéme degré,”” Comptes Rendus, vol. xlvi. . 508; or in a separate reprint (including other memoirs from vols. xlvi. and xlviii.) with the title “ Sur la théorie des équations modulaires, et la résolution de l’équation du cinqui- éme degré,” p. 4. 330 REPORT—1865. Tasie A, ; fa eee a+bQ CU —— — — — , g(w)= a: ay “7 he ala eae (5)" (2) |= d 9(Q od e+1 Pe Be ao (=). ati bane a C Y(Q) fF og b-1 CF a a ae a bs Nl EN RP od AR PALS Se It would be easy to write these equations so as to express ¢(Q) in terms of ¢(w), thus completing the solution of the Problem of Transformation of the first order; but it is more convenient to retain them in their actual form. Similar formule exist expressing U(w), ron in terms of ¢(Q) and (Q)*. Ww The propositions implied in the equations of the Table may also be enun- ciated conversely. Thus to case I. corresponds the theorem “If » and Q are imaginaries in which the coefficient of 7 is positive, and if ¢2*(w)=9¢?(Q), where v=1, 2, or 3, four integral numbers a,b, c,d can be found satisfying the relations ont ad—be=1 ; a=d=1, mod 2; b=0, mod 2; c=0, mod 24-».” “Tf ¢(w)=9(Q), four integral numbers a, b, c, d can be found satisfying the relations pata, ad—be=1; b=0, mod 2; and either a=d=+1, a+bQa mod 8, c=0, mod 16, or a=d=+3, mod 8, c=8, mod 16.” * M. Hermite has also shown that the function = x(o)=4/2.9?4 (Lg (1+ P1—@\(1 +98). whichisa cube root of ¢(w) X (w), possesses a similar property ; viz. if w See ad—bc=1, x(w) can be expressed in terms of x(Q), ¢(@), and (Q). (Sur la théorie des équations Mo- dulaires, p. 15.) . ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 331 These converse propositions may be demonstrated by means of the differ- ential equations satisfied by the elliptic functions; by a similar process we obtain the following equally important theorem :— «Tf A is any quantity, real or imaginary, other than zero or positive unity, there exist values of w, having the coefficient of ¢ in their imaginary parts different from zero and positive, which satisfy the equation g°(w)=A.” When » is an uneven integer other than 1, the formula of transformation is ibna® Ow» (Sp o)=Te ™o,,.(0, 0) at a 28. sl cae in which m and n are determined as before, and T is a homogeneous function —1 2 - not occupy ourselves here with the determination of A and T, but shall confine ourselyes to the consideration of the modulus and multiplier alone. Representing by ®(n) the sum of the divisors of n, every binary matrix of n of order of the squares of two of the functions 0,,,(v, w). We need order » is included in the formula | . a |=! A|xX|e], in which | ¢| is an unit matrix, and | A| one of the @() matrices | es m ; y and y' being conjugate ? divisors of n, and & representing any term of a complete system of residues, mod y’, It is thus sufficient to consider a system of ®(n) transformations of order 7, since all others arise from compounding transformations of the first order with the transformations of that system. If we take, in particular, the —164+ 72 system of transformations, w= , corresponding to the matrices 16% _ | (since n, and therefore y’ is uneven, we may take a system of residues, mod y’, of which every term is divisible by 16), we have for the determination of the transformed modulus, the fundamental theorem*, “) SS ilep ee ( ) = "l—q™ "(1—q)? =162,2; 69’. v-1 SK: 1 163 nq” 43 z0is vq” =14163, AS 21) 3s (5) ae ake 4 1+q™ ( ) 1l—q’, a) =1443,3,(—1) 2 (48?—6%)q". v—l SK? 4 9g” Fg 6 =43, —43, (-1 (6) Eas, PE as, (1) * m1 o=1 =43,3{(—1) ? —(-1) ? ee 16K* ng” Fy as Se oe ( ) = - “L—(—1)"q" =1+163,3,(—1)"*4d'¢". di 6 KA n3: qr" 8 = 2565, —+— ( ) a 2» Tom = 2563, 3359”. Of these formulz, the first two are the analytical expression of the prin- cipal theorems relating to the composition of numbers by the addition of two squares (see art. 95 of this Report); the others may be paraphrased as follows*. (3) “The number of representations of any number N as a sum of four squares is eight times the sum of its divisors if N is uneven, twenty-four times the sum of its uneven divisors if N is even.” . (4) “The number of compositions of the quadruple of any uneven number N by the addition of four uneven squares is equal to the sum of the divisors of N.” (5) “The number of representations of any number N asa sum of six é-1 squares is 43(—1) 2 (46°—6?), 6 denoting any uneven divisor of N, 6 its conjugate divisor. In particular if N==1, mod 4, the number of represen- 6-1 é-1 tations is 125(—1) 2 &; if N=—1, mod 4, it is —203(—1) 2? &.” (6) “The number of compositions of the double of any uneven number N * The expansions of (1) x (2), (1) x(4), (3) X(2), (8) X (4), are also given in sections 40 and 41 of the ‘ Fundamenta’; and may be similarly interpreted. ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 337 1 é-1 by the addition of six uneven squares is ;!,[(—1) 2 —(—1) ? ]é?; ifN=1, jet mod 4, this number is zero; if N=:—1, mod 4, itis —} X(—1) 2 3.” (7) The number of representations of any uneven number as a sum of eight squares is sixteen times the sum of the cubes of its divisors; for an even num- _ ber itis sixteen times the excess of the cubes of the even divisors above the cubes of the uneven divisors.” (8). “If N is any number whatever, the number of compositions of 8N by the addition of eight uneven squares is equal to the sum of the cubes of those divisors of N whose conjugates are uneven.” In counting the number of compositions by addition of squares, two com- positions are to be considered as different if, and only if, the same places in each are not occupied by the same squares; but in counting the number of representations we have to attend also to the signs of the roots of the squares, Thus each composition by the addition of four squares, none of which is zero, is equivalent to sixteen representations. Only one or two of the preceding theorems are enunciated in the published writings of Jacobi: see Crelle’s Journal, vol. iii. p. 191; vol. xii. p. 167. Some of the others have been given by Eisenstein (Crelle, vol. xxxv. p. 135), who had also obtained purely arithmetical demonstrations of them from the theory of quadratic forms con- taining several indeterminates. ‘In my investigations,” he says, “ these theorems are proved by purely arithmetical considerations, and appear as special cases of more general theorems; at the same time we see why these developments close with the eighth power; since, in fact, eight is the greatest number of indeterminates for which only one class of forms, represented by a sum of squares, appertains to the determinant —1.” In the second of the notes to which we have just referred (Crelle, vol. xii. p. 167), Jacobi has given an arithmetical demonstration of the theorem (4). It consists in a kind of translation of the analytical proof into an arithme- tical one ; and is of great interest and importance, as the first example of a new method, and as having suggested important researches to MM. Liouville and Kronecker (see Liouville’s Journal, New Series, vol. vii. p. 48; M. Kro- necker, ‘ Monatsberichte,’ May 26, 1862, p. 307). The doubly periodic functions of argument 2Ke obtained by dividing any Tv Theta function by any other, or the product of any two of them, by the pro- duct of the other two, admit of development in series proceeding by sines or cosines of multiples of the argument 2. These developments, which, unlike the developments of the Theta functions themselves, are not convergent for all values of x, real or imaginary, will be found for the most part in section 39 of the ‘ Fundamenta Nova’; and the complete system has been given by M. Hermite (Comptes Rendus, July 7, 1862). One, which we require in this place, will serve as an example of the rest, eR nam 28#_» géinve 2a T 1l-_y Prema rie 3. = Dy 3; sin da. qt. It is from these developments that the expansions (1)... (8) of the powers of , 2K and / 26K are deduced Thus, writing = forain (A) 7 7 2 ; we find, since sinam K=1, 1865. 2a 338 REPORT—1865. v—1 «kK =z «9 == ead) Fee 2 of ) io : which is the formula (2). We shall now show how the equation (4) can be obtained by squaring this formula. For this purpose we represent by a and ( any two unequal positive uneven numbers congruous to one another for the modulus 4, and by a’ and #’ any two positive uneven numbers not congruous . to one another for the modulus 4. We then have 2172 U Y ir deca ge ERT Me ot ae ae a ee ea nae hee oo =P+Q-—R, for brevity. Here n n 1—q=" ; pP=3x,—__? _—3,. 39. qr=s, ey : again in Q, if we double each term we may suppose B>a; let B=a+4n; observing that a may be any positive uneven number, and n any positive number whatever, we find Q=2>,, >, gant Cleator) (de anttt) 2n v 4n+v oS ee: eee 2nd 1— qi” 1l—q l—qinty dn-1 g™ty YY d=¢d=¢ey Lastly, in R let «'+'=4n; so that 2 LAC SOUR q™ Gia) i —gte-*) 4n—1 2n v 4n--v =o le [+S] 1l—gq l—q 1—qi?-” 4n—1 " n+p 9 on et) aah Wey a Eee Sp whe! : Teg) Ta Consequently kA pagiR TS ng” 2ng?" ie , 1g eins “T—q nT gin Tg? which is the formula (4). ; { Thus by a purely analytical process we deduce from an equation which ex- hibits the number of compositions of the double of an uneven number by the addition of ‘two uneven squares, an equation exhibiting the number of com- positions of the quadruple of an uneven number by the addition of four uneven squares. This analysis Jacobi has expressed arithmetically as follows. Representing by N an uneven number, by [4N] the number of compositions of 4N by the addition of four uneven squares, we resolve 4N in every possible way into two unevenly even numbers 2N, and 2N,, and each of these in every possible way into two uneven squares; we thus obtain the equation ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 839 [4N]=2(2N,=(2e+1)+(2y+1)*] x [2N,=(2e+1)?+(2y+1)'], in which the summation extends of every pair of uneven numbers N, and N, which satisfy the equation 2N=N,+N,, and the square brackets represent the number of solutions in positive integers of the equations included in them. Observing that [2N,=(2v+1)’+(2y+1)’] is the excess of the number of divisors of N, which are of the form 44+41, above the number of its divisors which are of the form 4/—1, retaining the signification of «, B, a’, A’, and denoting by a and } any positive uneven numbers, we may transform the ex- pression of [4N] into the following, [4N]=[2N=(a+b)a]+[2N =aa+68]—[2N =aa' + bp"), in which the square brackets still retain the same signification. Supposing, as before, B>a, and B=a+4n, we have [2N=aa+b3|=2[2N=a(a+b) +4nb]; or, putting a=rv+4kn, » being less than 4n, [2N=aa+ bBJ=2[2N=1(a+b)+4n(a+ bk+b) J=2(N Svar + Qny], y being uneven and y<2n. Again, if in [2N=aa'+'] we write 4n for a’ +3’, and suppose a>b (the supposition a=) is inadmissible as it would render N even), we have [2N= aa! +0B'}=2[N =a? + ond] =2[N= ve+2ny |, as before. Hence (2N=aa+06|)—[2N=aa'+b6']|=0, and [4N]=[2N =(a+b)a], i.e. [4N] is the sum of the divisors of N. In this arithmetical process we determine the coeflicient of gN in P, Q, R, instead of determining 2nq2” . il u 4n even function in the analytical process, so the difference [2N=aa+bG] —[2N =aq@'+6/3'] vanishes in the arithmetical one. Lejeune Dirichlet, in a letter addressed to M. Liouville (Liouville’s Journal, New Series, vol. i. p. 210), has put Jacobi’s demonstration into a form in which it is more easily followed, but is a little further removed from the analysis. He shows that to every solution of the equation az+b@8=2N, in which a> /3, there corresponds a solution of the equation a'a’+6'6'=2N, in which a'>', and vice versd, the two solutions being connected by the relation S an those functions themselves ; and as the difference Q—R=—», CeO; e+1,¢+2| |b, «a Bee | 42s, ee oe —B / 3 - ter 3 where w is the integral number immediately inferior to B rh or, which is the pus ! same thing, to B Hence, as before, [2N=ae+b68]=[2N=a'a' +b'f'], a — and [4N] is equal to the sum of the divisors of N. 128. Theorems-of Jacobi on Simultaneous Quadratic Forms.—In an elabo- rate memoir “On Series whose Exponents are of two Quadratic Forms” *, Jacobi has established a great number of elliptic formule, which are the ana- lytical expression of theorems relating to the representation of numbers by certain quadratic forms. A comparison of the two criteria of Gauss for the biquadratic character of 2 with respect to a prime p of the linear form 8k+1, leads to a result which will serve as an example of these theorems. By the first criterion, 2 is or is not a biquadratic residue of a prime p of the form 8k+1 according as a is even or uneven in the equation p=(4a+1)? + 80? ; * Crelle’s Journal, vol, xxxvii. p. 61 and 221; or Mathematische Werke, vol. p: 67. So eae = 34.0 REPORT—1865. by the second, 2 is or is not a biquadratic residue of p according as # is even or uneven in the equation p=(4a+1)°4+163°*. We infer therefore that a+ (is even, or (since a+b-+ a is even by virtue of the congruence (4a+1)*+ 8b?==(4a+1)*, mod 16) that a+$+0 is even. This result is thus gene- ralized by Jacobi. «For any number P the sum ¥(—1)’, 7. ¢., the excess of the number of solutions of the equation P=(4a+1)*+82* in which 6 is even above the number of solutions in which } is uneven, is equal to the sum 3(—1)**, i.e. to the excess of the number of solutions of the equation P= (4a+1)°+ 16), in which «+3 is even above the number of solutions in which « + (3 is uneven.” The generalized theorem is expressed analytically by the equation =x(-- 1) gant? sn? x(— 1) gE ES, . % (3) in which the summations extend to all values of m and » from —wto +a. But this equation is an elliptic formula; for, on dividing by q, and writing q for g°, it becomes x( == 1)"g™ x Soe — = ner yg = dy gree which is included in the equations (28) of art. 125, and is therefore a corol- lary from the fundamental property of the Theta functions expressed in equa- ~ tion (7) of art. 124. We infer at the same time, from the equations (28), that either of the sums 3(—1)"t"q@mt)"+1" or ¥(—1)"gt*t8" is equal to m=00 the infinite product gil (1—g*")(1—q""). i We thus arrive at an analytical proof of Jacobi’s theorem, including, as a particular case, a proof of the identity of Gauss’s two criteria. But the con- tinuation of Jacobi’s memoir was intended to contain direct arithmetical demonstrations (which, however, have never been published) of the theorems of which the equation &(—1)’==(—1)*** is an example. He says, «Though these arithmetical demonstrations of results obtained analytically present no essential difficulty, yet they are sometimes of a complicated cha- racter, and require peculiar classifications of numbers which perhaps may be of use in other researches. We have here a certain amount of freedom in the choice of methods, so that the proofs can easily be varied’’?. Probably one of these methods was that employed by Dirichlet in his earliest arithmetical memoir, to which Jacobi expressly refers. In this memoirt (written when only the enunciations of Gauss’s criteria for the biquadratic character of 2 had been published) Dirichlet gives a demonstration of the first criterion, which * Theoria Residuorum Biquadraticorum, arts. 13-21. To the second criterion we have already referred in this Report (art. 24, and in the additions to Part I., printed at the end of Part IT.); the first is more elementary, and is inferred from the equation p=(4a+1)?+- 82, in which p isa prime of the form 84+1. Raising each side of the congruence —80°= pal p-1 _— oo 9 ai (4a+1)?, mod p, to the power ee and observing that 2 ” =(5)=1 (—1) 4 =], je we find 2 4 C=). But if b=27 B, where 6 is uneven, <) = By () =), P Pp 4041 R32 P easy 3 J a es Pp (eco ny (es) Pep because p==(4a4+1)%, mod 6; and (4 )=(25)-(Ga) (qa) =(- B= Hence 2 * ==(—1)*, mod p, which is Gauss’s first criterion. t Mathematische Werke, vol. ii. p- 73. t Crelle’s Journal, yol. iii. p. 35, ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 341 does not differ from that subsequently given by Gauss (Theor. Res. Biq. Comm. prima, art. 13), and then deduces the second criterion, as follows, from the first. Since p=(4a+1)?48b’=(4a+1)*+166", we have [4(a+)+1] x [4(a—3) +1 J=(4a+1)?—80°. No common divisor of 4a+41 and 6 can also be a common divisor of 4(a+/3)+1 and 4(a—)+1, 7. e. of 4a4+1 and b; for p is not divisible by any square. The greatest common divisor of (4¢+41)? and 6° must therefore be a product of two relatively prime uneven squares é and 6”, dividing 4(a+6)+1 and 4(a—/3)+1 respectively ; ——— is thus a divisor of the quadratic form v’—8y?, in which v and y are rela- tively prime; it is, consequently, itself of that quadratic form, and 4(a+8)+1=1, mod 8; this congruence implies that a+ 6 = 0, mod 2, or, which comes to the same thing, that 6==a@+/3, mod 2. It will be seen that this demonstration of the congruence 6==a+(3, mod 2, applies to any two representations of any number P by the forms f=(4a+1)’?+80? and g=(4a+1)°+16/°, provided that in the two representations the four num- bers 4a+1, 4a+1, 6, 3 havenocommon divisor. To prove, for every uneven value of P, the truth of Jacobi’s equation 3(—1)*=3(—1)***, we observe, first of all, that the equation is evidently true if P is not =1, mod 8, or if P contain an uneven power of a prime of the linear form 8447; for in these cases there are no representations of P by either form. We may therefore suppose that P is of the linear form 8/+1; then the equation is true if P contains an uneven power of any prime p of cither of the linear forms 8/3 ; thus if P=p?”+1P’, where P’ is prime to p, and p= P’=3, mod 8, there are no representations of P by @, so that 3(—1)**°=0; let the equations pytiza*4 2y*, P’=X*°+42Y* denote generally those representations of p2”+1 and P’ by the form (1, 0, 2), in which the first indeterminate is = 1, mod 4; then the representations of P=p?’+! x P’ by f will be comprised in the for- mula P=(2yY—wX)?+8 eee *; but of the two numbers 3(yX+2Y), 3(yX—xY) (both being values of the second indeterminate), one is uneven the other even; whence 3(—1)?’=0=3(—1)*t?. Similarly if P=p?+1P’, where P’ is prime to p, and p= P’=5, mod 8, there are no representations of P by f, and it may be shown that 2(—1)*t*=0=3(—1)*°. We may therefore confine ourselves to the case in which P is composed of any powers of primes of the linear form 8/+1, and of even powers of primes of the forms 8k+3, 5, 7. If, on this supposition, P=P’x P”, where P’ and P” are rela- tively prime, and each is = 1, mod 8, the sums 3(—1)* and 3(—1)***, rela- tive to P, arethe products of the corresponding sums relative to P’ and P”, This may be proved by observing that the representations of P by f [or ¢] may be obtained by compounding the representations of P’ and P” by that form, and that each representation of P has the character of an even or uneven b [or a+/3] according as the representations of P’ and P” of which it is com- pounded agree or differ in respect of that character. Thus it is sufficient to consider the four cases in which (1) P=p’, p=1,mod 8; (2) P=p”, p=3, mod 8; (3) P=p, p=5, mod 8; (4) P=p”", p= 7, mod 8. In the last of these cases it is evident that 3(—1)’=+1—= 3(—1)***; in the others, the proof is supplied by Dirichlet’s method. (i) If P=p», p=1, mod 8, there are two primitive and y—1 derived representations of P by each form; and ~ * Por 2y¥—xX=1, mod 4; and the representations comprised in the formula are all different, their number being equal to the number of sets of representations of P by (1, 0, 8). 342 | REPORT—1865. the application of Dirichlet’s method shows that, for every representation of P by ¢, (—1)*** has the same value as (—1)’ in either primitive represen- tation of P by f, and, conversely, that for every representation of P by f, (—1)’ has the same value as (—1)**® in either primitive representation of P by ¢; whence the units (—1)’ and (—1)**® have all the same value, and 3(—1)’ =3(—1)**8=+(y+1). The ambiguous sign is that of (—1)’ in the pri- mitive representation of P by f, and will be found (by reasoning similar to that which establishes Gauss’s first criterion) to coincide with (—1)*?- ev, where p-l1 e is the unit satisfying the congruence 2 * =e, mod p. (ii) If P=p, p=3, mod 8, there is but one representation of P by ¢, and [(—1)***=(—1)’: there are 2v +1 representations of P by f, of which two are primitive, 2(v—1) are derived from the primitive representations of p*, p*,... p?”—), and in the remaining one b=0. Applying Dirichlet’s method to the equation g27=(4a+1)?+80?=(4a+1)°4+16/5* (in which o=1, 2,.. 17, B=0, 4a+1=(—1)7q’, and the representation by f is primitive), we find (—1)’=(—1)”; whence inasmuch as the character (—1)? is the same in a derived representation, and in the representation from i which it is derived (—1)’=1+25(—1)"=(—1)’"=3(—1)"**. (iii) Lastly, 1 if P=p”, p=5, mod 8, there is but one representation by f,and £(— 1)’=4+41; there are 2y-+1 representations by ¢. Applying Dirichlet’s method as in the preceding case, we find that for any primitive representation of an even power of p by ¢, (—1)**?=+1; whence, for a derived representation in which the greatest common divisor of the indeterminates is q7, (—1)**? y—1 =(—1)%. Consequently 3(—1)*t?=2 3 (—1)"+(—1)’"=+1=2(—1)’. 0 This completes the demonstration of J acobi’s theorem. Let P be any uneven number and y(P) the positive numerical transcendent defined by the equation d—l d?—1 d—1 ,d?—) = —— "+ PS Kel) eee ee where ¥(P) is the number of divisors of P, and d is any divisor of P. It will be seen that x(P)=0, except when P is capable of representation both by o and f: when P is capable of such simultaneous representation, let P=(4a+1)?+166" be a representation of P by @ in which the greatest common divisor of 4¢-++1 and # is the least possible; let a=4a+1 +4 40, and let [=] represent the quadratic character (art. 27) of 1+¢ with respect wD to a; the equation 3(—1)=3(—1)**"¥ = Ea x(P) @ will hold in each of the cases considered separately above; but the nume- rical functions occurring in this equation satisfy the condition (P,) x ¢(P.) =9(P,P.), where P,, P, are relatively prime; the equation is therefore uni- versally true for every uneven number P, and implies the identity x ay, ig (nba ten? — xX be 1 yet ng (amt) )?-4+16n? __ x [=| x(P)q’- ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 343 From the nature of the identity (=) it is evident that we may substitute any function whatever (which renders the two series convergent) for the exponential of g. Thus, for example, we find Sv sgt pet ORE ian | 8 Wang ee [((4m41)?+8n?]'t8 ~ [(4m+1)’4+16n7]'* a =e De eee rae ha p22 Ly sp dt: Be iat cate Ee pire pire pare where p,, 2, p, are primes of the forms 8n+1; 8x43; 8x+5 or 7, respect- ively; and 7 is a positive or negative unit determined by the congruence Pi-! Pir} (—1) 5 2 : ——s mod py. It would seem that the method of Dirichlet which we have here described may be employed to prove all the theorems of Jacobi’s memoir in which the two forms compared have different determinants. Those in which the two forms compared have the same determinant, or determinants differing only by a square factor, are of a more elementary character, and are capable of immediate verification. But Dirichlet’s method may also be extended to cases in which one or both of the forms compared has a positive determinant. One example will suffice. If P=(2a+1)?+8b°=(2a+1)*—8G", we have 3(—1)"¢[(2m+1)?+8n?]=3(—1)""gL(2m + 1)°—8n'*], @ representing any function whatever which renders the series convergent, and the limits of m and » in the first sum being 0, ©, and —o, +0; in the second sum 0, ©, and 1, 3(2m+41). 129. We proceed to indicate very briefly the origin of the principal formule in Jacobi’s memoir. Three of them are distinguished from the rest as general, being deduced from the equation (7) of art. 124, without any specialization. If in that formula we write successively +2 and —z for v, and multiply the results together, the left-hand member becomes 3(—1)"¢’""?""z"+"; the right- hand member may be written in the form (e.@) [e8) me —¢"”) at —¢") x (l— Vimo — 2 (1 —qi"*z-*), where the second infinite product, by the equation (7), is equal to BC 1)"g"2™, and the first to x(— Lege: Hence x( ah Lye ee Pil x ar pyre q mie) 2mm F Ss 5 : ( A) which is one of Jacobi’s general formule. The other two general formule, and most of the special ones, are obtained in like manner by considering infi- nite products which are capable of being expressed in more ways than one as the product of two Theta functions. To arrive at his special formule, Jacobi transforms the equation (7) by writing q*, where a is positive, for g,and +q° for v. He thus obtains the equations ic.0) m1 a2 gna meer) ate Gana ck = ey = x(— Litera: Z ice) (1 a genes B\(1 + grat \(1 —q?n*) = Sqr tm, i 044 REPORT—1865. Any infinite product of cither of the types occurring in these equations he calls an elliptic product ; and every infinite product which can be formed in more ways than one by the multiplication of two elliptic products, leads directly to one of his special formule. The five following elliptic products are of great importance in the theory; they correspond to the suppositions a=, b=0; a=2, b= 1; a=3, b=3. ) pot, ic 8) T1(1 —gr ty (1 rae i= =( —s 1 ve" 1 cs 2 (1 + goo) (1 fs G") — Zq"” 1 io.) u (1 _ giz?) (Gl —¢")= x(- 1g m (B) 1 -\-- ice) md EE gy (1 ag) Egat 1 29 ° cA me! q”) — x(— rege ™) ; the first two are the equations (19) and (20) of art. 124; the last is a cele- brated formula due to Euler. The infinite products in the numerators and denominators of the fractions equal to wu and w’ (equations 27 and 28, art. 125) are all elliptic products of one or other of these five types, in some cases with q’, or g*, or —q substi- tuted for g. Hence a comparison of any two of the fractions equal to « or to wu’ gives immediately one of Jacobi’s special formule. The demonstration of the formula (2) in art. 128 will serve as an example of this process. Again, Jacobi has shown that the Eulerian product (art. 124, E.) 1 nd + ga) = i {= (a Vv which Euler had himself =e ae the fraction 7 1 —¢F 2m _— =(—1)” gt +m af le - ak: x(—- as | —1)qhen +m)? (C) can be represented by six other fractions of which both the numerators and denominators are elliptic products; either the numerator or denominator, or both, being of one ig the types (B). Thus, for example, 2 mL gi *\(1+q"- ya- q”) Bqian?tm) n+g")—= 1 — “se 1 © T(1 ate, ey —¢'*") 1 Here again a comparison of any two of the seven equal fractions gives one of the special formule: thus writing q** for q in the two fractions (C) and (D), we find ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 045 x( = Lrg omtur conti — =( ns 1 joiner tie Pi which, however, is only a particular case of the general formula (A). The Eulerian product is also of importance in the theory of the partition of numbers. If it be developed in a series proceeding by powers of q, the coefficient C(m) of the mth power of ¢ in the development, expresses the number of ways in which m can be composed by the addition of unequal numbers, or by the addition of equal or unequal uneven numbers. Euler observed that his fractional expression of the product furnishes a recurring formula for the calculation of C(m), and the same thing is true of each of Jacobi’s fractions ; the simplest of the seven recurring formule being that arising from the fraction (D), viz., =(—1)*C(m—3s")=e, the summation extending to all positive or negative values of s for which m—3ds* is not negative, and e representing 1, or 0, according as m is or is not of the form 3(3n*+n). eo) +a The equation M(1—q”")= & (—1)"q2@»+™ is memorable historically as Al —n the earliest example of the introduction of a Theta function into analysis*. It expresses the theorem «The excess of the number of ways in which a given number can be com- posed by the addition of an even number of unequal numbers above the number of ways in which it can be composed by the addition of an uneven number of unequal numbers is (—1)” or 0, according as the given number is, or is not, of the form 4(3m*+m).” Of this theorem Jacobi has given an arithmetical demonstration, repro- ducing Euler’s proof of the analytical formula. w 0 The logarithmic differential of 1(1—gq”) is = = @(m)q”, where @(m), as 1 1 in art. 125, is the sum of the divisors of m: Euler thus obtained the equation 8) +a +0 VH(m)qg?X BS (—1L)"g2erFtm=F BS (— 1)" Bm? + m)qzanrim, 1 —o —a which supplies a recurring formula for the calculation of @(m), viz., F 3s°+5s =x(—1) a(m— = )=F(m), the summation extending to all positive or negative values of s for which 33°+s 2 m— is positive, and E(m) representing (—1)**’m, or 0, according as m is, or is not, of the form 3(3s°+s)f. * In the year 1750 or 1751. Noy. Comm. Petropol. vol. iii. p. 155. t+ On the equations I(14+g9”)= Tet T(1—g”) = 3(—1)"g20""4™), and their connexion with the partitions and divisors of numbers, see Euler, Nov. Comm. Petropol. vol. iii. p. 125, vol. v. p. 59 and p. 75; Acta Petropol. vol. iv. part 1, p. 47 and p. 56 (or Commentationes Arithmeticee Collectee, Nos. [X., XI., XVI., L.; the first memoir in yol. iy. of the Acta is omitted in the collection) ; Introductio in Analysin Infinitorum, part 4, cap. 16; Waring, Philosophical Transactions for 1788, p. 388; Legendre, Théorie des Nombres, ed. 3, vol. ii. p. 128; Jacobi, Fundamenta Nova, p. 185, Crelle, vol. xxxii. p- 164, vol, xxxvii. p. 67, 73 (or Mathematische Werke, vol. i. p. 345, vol. ii. p. 73, 79). 346 REPORT—1865. The cubeof the Eulerian productis equal to the series 33(—1)”"(2m + 1)qam?+m) (art. 124, equation 22); so that [3(—1)"q2om? +m) P= 2 E(—1)"(2m+1)qemtm, » 2. . (PF) a result which in an earlier memoir (Crelle, vol. xxi. p. 13, or translated in Liouville, First Series, vol. vii. p. 85) Jacobi describes as “ hitherto unparalleled in analysis.” Writing g™ for ¢, and multiplying by q’, it becomes b-1 € 3 ——— [=G)e"] =2,(—1) * bg%, a the summations Y, and =, extending respectively to all positive uneven numbers, and to all positive uneven numbers prime to 3. In this form it expresses the theorem «The sum = ( 3 Ay Ay Us the addition of three uneven squares aj, a3, «3, all of which are prime to 3, is m—1 (—1) * m or 0 according as N is or is not the triple of an uneyen square.” Differentiating logarithmically, we find b-1 a This equation (in which all the exponents have the same quadratic form) admits of immediate verification, elementary considerations sufficing to show b-1 that the sum =(—1) * -) b(a? —b’) extended to every solution of the equa- a ) extended to all compositions of any number N by tion N=a?+3d?, is zero. Jacobi thus obtains a direct arithmetical proof of the formula (F). (Crelle, vol. xxi. p. 15-18.) The square and the cube of the Eulerian product can. also each of them be represented in two different ways as the quotient of two elliptic products, Other formule of Jacobi’s are inferred from the fundamental equation (7) in asomewhat more complicated way. Replacing v in that equation by certain roots of unity, and multiplying two or more of the results together, Jacobi obtains products which can be expressed in more than one way by means of elliptic products; the formule thus deduced are remarkable chiefly because they lead to equations, not between two, but between three or more series, the exponents of which have certain quadratic forms. Lastly, a few additional equalities are derived not from the fundamental equation, but from the modular equations of the third and seventh orders. The modular equation of the third order was brought by Legendre into the form Vc + “%cA\=1; whence evidently ¢7(w)¢?(8w)+v7(w)y7(3w) =1 ; writing for the functions ¢? and y’ their values given by equation (14), art. 124, and changing q into q*, we find x(1 aS ( — Lynn) gator tH) = Adg(anr UP raan ty The equation of the seventh order, in the form in which it has been put by M. Gutzlafi*, “ &/kN i/krh=1, admits of similar treatment, and furnishes as many as seven formuls on account of the variety of expressions which the equations (27) and (28) allow us to substitute for ¢ and y in the equation $(w)9(7w)+Y(w)Y(7w)=1. It * Orelle’s Journal, vol. xii. p. 173. ON THE. THEORY OF NUMBERS. B47 is only necessary to observe that we must choose for ¢(w) and (w), and similarly for ¢(7w) and Y(7w), expressions having the same denominator. At the beginning of his memoir Jacobi says that the formule to which it relates are probably finite in number. It would seem that when he expressed himself thus, he had not yet found his three general formule, each of which contains an infinite number of equations between series having their exponents contained in the same quadratic form. But it is certainly very unlikely that equations between series whose exponents are contained in different quadratic forms, exist for any but a few of the simplest forms, or for them in infinite number. 130. The Formule of M. Kronecker.—We now come to an important series of results, discovered within the last few years by M. Kronecker, which form a memorable accession to our knowledge of quadratic forms, and which have opened an entirely new field of arithmetical inquiry. Their demonstration requires considerations of a very complicated kind; and as they are certainly among the most interesting, so also they must be reckoned among the most abstruse of arithmetical truths. Unfortunately, in the brief notices* which M. Kronecker has given of his investigations, his methods are indicated only in a very general manner ; and, notwithstanding the light which has been thrown on them in the subsequent memoirs of MM. Hermite and Joubertt, it is occasionally difficult to rediscover them. Nevertheless, as a mere enu- meration of formule, unaccompanied by any explanation of the methods by which they have been obtained, would be of little use to the reader, we shall attempt in the next article a complete demonstration of one or two of them, which may serve as specimens of the rest. The following (with an unimportant change in the notation) are the eight equations given by M. Kronecker (Crelle, vol. lvii. p. 248; Liouville, New Series, vol. v. p. 289). I, F(2*m) + 2F(2"m—1?) 4+ 2F(2"m—2”)4+... =26(m) + (2 ?m) + (247m). wy I. F(2m)+2F(2m—1*)+ 2F(2m—2?) + 2F(2m—3") +. 2.7 =20(m). IIT, F(2m) ak tiem 1*)+2F(2m—2*)—2F (2m—3’)+..., IV. 3G(m)+6G(m—1*) + 6G(m—2*) + 6G(m—3?) +... =0(m)+3¥(m). V. 2F(m)+4F(m—1*) + 4F(m— 2’) + 4F(m—3*)+... = 0(m)+ ¥(m). * The following are the memoirs of M. Kronecker on the application of the theory ot elliptic functions to quadratic forms. 3 (1) “Ueber elliptische Functionen und Zahlen-Theorie,” Monatsberichte, Oct. 29, 1857 ; and translated in Liouville, New Series, yol. iii. p. 265 (2) “Ueber die Anzahl der verschiedenen Klassen yon quadratischen Formen yon negativer Determinante,” Crelle, vol. lvii. p. 248; and translated in Liouville, vol. v. . 289. (3) “Ueber eine neue Eigenschaft der quadratischen Formen yon negativer Determi- nante,” Monatsberichte, May 26, 1862. y 4) “ Ueber die complexe Multiplication der elliptischer Functionen,” Ibid, June 26, 1862. ts} “ Auflésung der Pellschen Gleichung mittelst elliptischer Functionen,” Ibid, Jan. 22, 1863. t M. Hermite, “Sur la théorie des équations Modulaires ;” M. Joubert, “ Sur la Théorie des Fonctions Elliptiques et son application a la Théorie des Nombres,” already cited in the note on art. 125. ! 348 REPORT—1865. VI. 2F(m)—4F(m— 1°) +4F(m—2’)— 4F(m—3?)4+... =(—1)"—-)[O(m) —¥ (m) }. VIL. 2F(m)—4F(m—4*) + 4F(m—8*)—4F(m—12")+... =(—1)"—7)[6'(in) —¥'(m) ]. vai ane EiGrs —36( ee =] =( = Pu if 274 1=dy, mod 8. If we give to y, y', and & in succession all the (n) etapa systems of values of which they are susceptible, ¢° Reaper Fe os will ac- quire in succession ®@(n) values, which (except for particular values of oc) doi +2141 are all different ; o-§ 7) will therefore also acquire the same 6 number of different values ; 7. ¢. 6 will represent in succession every divisor of n, and 2/41 every residue of its conjugate divisor 3’. We thus obtain the equation Ala, 1— @)=n1[ oi) — yra(iei Die), the sign of multiplication extending to every combination of a values of 6, a’, palsy ‘ gi without limit, and is of the same dimensionsas e% (art. 125). Pas nee the mee 5; -8 wat) has a finite ratio to «7, if 1= 5) and to fei PLd) é! and 21+1. Now let ¢ increase without limit, so that e=— increases factor -*(ci)— g 6 ro", if 1-2 has a = finite ratio to &[®@+¥@]e7, that is to € we see that the product I [9-*(o)—9-*( v( at) 86(n)+8¥(r) AC) ence ¢8 (128) and g(r) are identical, # denoting any term of a complete system Y Y of residues, mod y’. ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 351 FACE if —#) > vPt+¥() is finite, when x increases without limit, or f,(w,1—w) is of the order O(n) +(x). (ii.) Neither 0 nor 1 is a root of the equation f,(w, 1—x)=0; for f,(0,1)=1, f,(1,0)=1; therefore (art.125) any one of its roots can be represented by ¢*(w), w denoting an imaginary quantity, in which the coefficient of 7 is different from zero and positive. But ifw=¢*(w), f(@, 1--2)=0| Y*(w)—¢* wt) ; of hence the supposition that 9°(w) is a root of the equation f,(v, 1—«)=0 im- plies that Y*(w)=9° (os) for one system (at least) of values of y, y', Y and &; 7. e. (art. 125) that there exists an unit matrix zhi satisfying thé equation yot2k_c+dw Ba) TPB Er | OUauR clbale td (A) and the congruence ip! = eG fo Benen pene ae ey 0: \D | Thus, if ¢°(w) is a root of f,(x, 1—x) =0, w is the root of a quadratic equa- tion 2Qak—cy' + 2(bk—3dy' + Zay)w+byw?=0, whose extreme coefficients are both uneven, and whose determinant, if o=—bk+3(ay+dy’), is o’—n, a number necessarily negative, because w is imaginary. Conversely, if w is the root of a quadratic equation, of which the extreme coefficients are both uneven, and of which the determinant is negative and included in the formula o°—n, 9°(w) is a root of f(a, 1—w)=0, Or, more precisely, if w is the root of a properly primitive quadratic equation, of which the determinant —A is negative and the extreme coefficients are both uneyen, and if ” can be represented by the form (1, 0, A) with a positive and uneven value of the second indeterminate, ¢°(w) will be a root of f0, but, even if A= —1, by only one such matrix: 6=w, lim is neither infinite nor zero. For this limit a0 aes dé vebuligh'| bi ad 8 (0) nM? d 0 ; 4 ; =f 6=w where M is the multiplier appertaining to the transformation gatas x since (equation 31, art. 125), ' gt (Ey (ret — rn a am ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 353 Pann 2 rd - a] ads fyb+2k\ | at a Tam 75% ( y Tee. wa? ( y' jon The determination of M is effected as follows: from the equation yw +2k_¢ +dw y atbw or wat a2het (y'd— 2b yatybw it appears (art. 126) that the multiplier corresponding to the compounded _ 3h y | and Pa |; applied to-w, is [s+iz7 ¥A]'; while b-1 that corresponding to the second of these transformations is simply (—1) 2 7 ete)? therefore = —(c+ir A)’, and the limit above written transformations oti; VA o—irV A f:(v, 1—«) is divisible by w«—9*(w) precisely as often as there are factors 2 ? (6) —9" wi) which vanish when @=w; i.e. the multiplicity of the becomes —1+ which is certainly neither infinite nor zero. Hence root v=@'(w) in fs (vw, 1—a)=0 is precisely equal to the number of solutions of the equation »=o¢*+Ar*,7r being positive and uneven. It remains to assign all the values of w, which, annulling one or more of the factors Y'(0)—¢° wee), give different values to ¢°(w). It is evident that values “of w, arising from equations associated to properly primitive forms of different determinants, or of the same determinant and different classes, give different values to ¢°(w); again, of the six subclasses, contained in any one class, the extreme coefficients are uneven in only two; so that from eack class we obtain two and only two values of g°(w). In the particular case in which the deter- minant is —1, there are but three subclasses, and but one subclass in which the extreme coefficients are uneven ; so that to such a class there corresponds but one value of ¢°(w). Denoting then by h(A) the number of properly pri- mitive classes of determinant —A (we count 3 instead of 1 for a class of de- terminant—1), and by (zn, A) the number of solutions of the equation n=o°+ Ar’, in which 7 is positive and uneven, we have, for the number of unequal roots of f,(7, 1—x)=0, the expression 23h(A), and for the whole number of its roots, when each root is reckoned with its proper multiplicity, 23(n, A)A(A), the summations in each case extending to every value of A, for which the equation n=o°+ Ar’ is resoluble with an uneven value of r. We haye now obtained the equation * 22(n, A)A(A)= O(n) +¥(n), * M. Kronecker (Crelle, vol. lvii. p. 250) has exhibited each of the equations I.-VIII. in a similar form. 28 354 REPORT—1865. of which the left-hand member may be written in another form. Instead of counting the roots which appertain to the same value of A, and then summing with respect to A, we may count the roots which appertain to the same value “of o, and then sum with respect to c. If F(N) is the number of uneven classes (primitive or derived) of determinant —N (we again count 3 for a class of det. —1, or for a class derived from such a class), 2F(x—o*) will be the number of roots appertaining to either of the values +cor—oc. We thus obtain, finally, 2F(n) +4F(n—1?) + 4F(n— 2’) + 4F(n—3") + ... =6(n)+ ¥(n), which is the formula Y. 132. We shall oe demonstrate (but with less detail) the formula VII. Writing x for u, aks for v, in the function f (n, u, v), where n =—1, mod 8, and multiplying by 2%, we obtain an integral function of order 2(n), which we shall designate by j(«). This function is not divisible by x, for F(O)=1; but we shall now show that it is divisible by (a8 —1)HE™)—¥@) +01) -H'(n)], and that the quotient is prime to «’—1. For this purpose we shall first determine the index \, for which im [ i ee ext] i is finite and different from zero. Let »=6(2) so that Cc 7 be w=e Or )| and let the positive quantity ¢ increase without limit; then, ultimately, i eda enanlarienc ks pale i Five o (-)=ue)=1-5 ¢* (ic), and 1—2=— 9 (ir): Also, if 6 is the greatest common divisor of 16% and y’', andif a, b, 8! are determined by the equations 16k n See Bed a 3 uh hog while ¢ and d are two numbers (of which d is divisible by 2) satisfying the equation ad—be=1, we find et Co Pes Baie ae ee y—+16k p ail - Y t y-=+16% whence solving for eae and applying the formula ii. of Table A, ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 355 +) Cote) if 21 = dy, mod a’. But (- )= (3): because be = —1, mod 8, and 2 inte d G5) = (=) = (53) = (-,); because yy'=—1, mod 8; so that z (2) (ts) (8) (ee) 6) fia (hee )| Oa 20S he ome cern (bare amar ultimately ; and tim A). ont OH Ol paisa Cy) a—ay oa) i the sign of multiplication extending to every divisor 6 of n, and to every term 1 of a complete system of residues of its conjugate divisor 6’. Observing that 2 every factor of the numerator, in which (G)= —1, is finite, and that every factor, in which G)= +1, is evanescent, and is of the same dimensions as 0, das : foecg f ' e-? ore é , according as 6>0’, or 6<0’, we see that, in order to obtain a finite value for lim ( Sw Te we must take for \ twice the sum of those divisors of 2 e— which satisfy simultaneously the equation (=) =+1, and the inequality 6< Vn, so that we shall have = }[(n)—¥(n) + 0'(n)—¥'(n))}. Further, if » is any eighth root of unity, it will be found that, when n= —1, mod 8,f (=. on) = F(u, v), whence #(=) =f(v), or f(a) contains | | only powers of a haying exponents divisible by 8. Consequently j(w) is divisible by (at —1)1#™-VO) +8 @)—¥O)], and the quotient is prime to #*—1. Kevadiee Representing, as we may now do, any root of the as ip 2 — by $(w), we find that w et satisfy the equation ay G)4 ry) for one system at least of values of y, y’, and &; that is (Table A, iii. art. 125), w satisfies a quadratic equation of the form c+dw _ yo +16 abe y’ or l6ak — y'c+(ay'—dy' +16kb)w+byw*?=0, 232 356 REPORT—1865. 1 —1=0, mod 16, because pan ® § =(—1)% =)(=) =1. Therefore o is divisible by 8, and the quantity w is the root of an equation A+2Bw+Cw*=0, in which A is even, C uneven, and of which the determinant is included in the series of negative numbers, —n, —n+8", —n+16°,..... An application (which we need not here repeat) of the method already employed to prove the formula Y. will show that every qua- dratic equation satisfying these conditions supplies a value of g(w). Sixteen different values of ¢(w) will be obtained from the quadratic equations associated to the forms of any uneven class of a determinant included in the above series ; because the conditions with respect to the extreme coefficients are satisfied in only two of the six subclasses contained in each class, and because each of these two subclasses supplies (art.126) eight values of ¢(w). Lastly, the multi- where plicity of the root ¢(w) of the equation SS =0 is ascertained, by an ap- xe— plication of the method of M. Joubert (which also we need not here repeat), to be equal to the number of factors 1—(=)o(w)o( =) which are Y Y annulled by w; or, which comes to the same thing, to the number of repre- sentations of n by the form o*+ Ar’, the first indeterminate being divisible by 8, the second being uneyen and positive, and —A representing the determi- nant of the primitive equation by which w is determined. Denoting by (n, A) the number of such representations, we have for the whole number of roots of the equation Lo =0, each root being taken with its proper multipli- Te city, the expression 162(n, A)h(A); whence, by a transformation already em- ployed, 16F(n)+32F (n—8*) +32F(n—16*)+... (A) = 20(n) —4[ O(n) —¥(n) + @' (nr) — (nr) J. =i Considering, instead of the function f(«), the function vo,,)f («, -:), we 2 obtain, by reasoning precisely similar, the formula 32F(n—4°) 4+ 32F(n—12*) 4+ 32F(n—20°)+... = 2b(n) —4[ O(n) —P(n) + ¥'(n)—O'(n)], whence, by subtraction, 2F(n) —4F(n—4?) + 4F(n—8?)—4F(n—122) +... =¥'(n)—®'(n), in accordance with M. Kronecker’s formula VII. ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 857 If we had supposed n=7, mod 16, the left-hand members of the formule (A) and (B) would have been interchanged, and the right-hand member of the formula resulting from them by subtraction would consequently become O'(n)—WV'(n). 133. We shall only indicate the origin of the remaining formule. Of these, the formula I. requires the simultaneous consideration of the modular equations F(2", w, v°)=0, and f,(n, 1—w’*, v*) =0 (art. 125). Writing w for v*, and eliminating wu” dialytically from these two equations, we obtain a resultant R(x) of the order 2+!@(n) in v, as appears from the theory of elimination. Writing ¢°(w) for «, and observing that the coefficient of the highest power of u in fiw’, v*) is vt", and in f,(1—w', v°) is unity, we find Rw) =[9'(w) P O [?" Gj a) se ee = an equation which expresses the resultant in terms of the roots of the two equations, and in which the sign of multiplication M extends to every combi- nation of two roots. Since all the roots of #(1—w*, 1)=0 are zero, while none of the roots of f(w*, 1) are zero, no root of the equation R(a)=0 is a positive unit. But the equations #,(1—w*, 0)=0, fw’, 0)=0 have common roots ; so that v=0 is a root of R(v)=0. To determine its multiplicity, write ot for w in the expression of R(«), and increase ¢ without limit. The quan - a ; , tity ¢” _—®° _) which occurs in (nr) of the factors of R(w) is equal to 142 wo 7 ¢*(2"oi), and therefore increases without limit; but since lim [g°(oi)]" x p—%(2"0r)|=1, these (n) factors are cancelled by the initial factor [o°(ci) "2. Evaluating the remaining factors by the method of art. 131, : R(x) we find that lim 28 (at n) 24 (24 =n) is finite when x diminishes without limit ; so that the order of R(), after division by the highest power of 2 contained in it, is 2**'@(n)—20(2"-*n)+2w(2"-*n), or, since (24 *—1)@(n)=0(2"n), 46 (n) + 20(2"-2n) + 24 (2"?n). The formule II. and III. are obtained by successively combining with the equation f,(n, u*, v‘)=0 (art. 125), the equations vu'+v4+u'—1=0, and vtu'—vt+u'+1=0, the first of which is equivalent to the system v'=9"(w), w=y'($) the second to the system v'=¢'(w), u'=—w! (5). The resultant of the elimi- nation of w* is, in each case, an equation of the order 26(n) in a=v", and is not divisible by x, e—1, or «+1. The following Table indicates the highest powers of a and of the divisors of «*—1 by which the functions specified in it are divisible. 358 Function. Order. re ee i aa #) O(n) + ¥(n) ae a aga (w, 1— es og: al O(n) +¥(n) 1 2(n) ey. 2, Ge) 20(n) it (L—x) Ff, (« 26(n) (@—D4(#, 20(1) w—l RAO) Ff, («: = ) 20(n) | se Gogh oro, (=: 4) 26(n) a 1 HP) AG 5) 26(n) n=3 ~ ell | Oa | OL, (« 9) | 20(n) | n=3 An 5 maak aP¢ TAG P | 20(n) | n==1 ee pal raed xr(n) fF G 5) 20(n) | m1 Bln : 1 Db( mod 4 Pose («: -5) | 2(n) ln—=— 1 Bln nal 5 8 1 = _mod 8 a (2 5) | 20(0) | la=—1 2P(n . 1 2 ,mod 8 pet ~ ieee a) ee =1 1S) fee) EHO mz een sd 3 Sy 8) me) sae REPORT—1865. TAsxe B. at) Pees a“ a t—1 (at —1)2?™)-¥@) Extraneous factor. Order after division. (x? =2)®™)—¥™)| 3y(n)—@(n) B(n) + ¥(n) (w—1PO-*@ | O(n) +¥(n) 20(n) 2®(n)—¥(n) ®(n)+¥(n) (a? —1)2@)-¥@) | 2¥(n) 20(n) 4¥(n) —20(n) (a? —1)®@)—-¥@) | 24(n) (a? +1)°@™)—¥@) | 24(n) (2*—1) [B(n)—¥(n)+ B'(2)—¥'(n)] | (a —1)22@)-¥@)-9'@)+¥'@)] | } gr(n)—¥(n) (a? a= 1) 212) —¥(m) +4'(n)—¥'(n)] xP(n)—¥() (a¢? — 1) 22) —¥(m) + ¥'(n)—8'@)} ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. ‘859 The formule in this Table relating to f(x, x), fw, w), and fiw, —2x) require a certain modification, when v is a perfect square*. If, on this hypo- thesis, we represent by f,(, w) the function obtained by writing e=v°=u* 8 8 in (“>”), £(a, 2) is of the ofder 6(n)+¥(n)—1, and is divisible by vU—U 5) , (—x)?™)—-¥@—-1, Again, if n=r? and (=)=1, we represent lim ) 3 , VU—U 1 [w=v=-2] by f(a, x); this function is of the order b(n) +¥(n)—1, and is divisible by v?+#™)-1 x (g8—1)i8)—¥(m)+0(n)—¥(@)]-1, it(2)=—1, we Vv represent lim Aer [w=v=w] by f(v, —w), and this function is of the Ith order &(n)+(n)—1, and is divisible by eP(n+¥(n)-1 x (ac? — 1 )2(8()—¥(n) + ¥'(n)—'(n)]—1, The formula IV. may be deduced from the equation SA&, x) x f(x, 1—x) x oon (, ) xq 2) (2, -755)=0. of which the order (after division by powers of # and e—1) is shown by the Table to be 26(n)+ 6¥(n). In proving the formula V., we might have employed the equation a? f, (« =)=0 instead of f(x, 1—x)=0. If, instead of the former equa- tion, we employ the two 2®™f, (a, =)=0. wos, (« —7)=0. we obtain x x the formule V. and VI. simultaneously. Lastly, the formula VIII. depends on the equations Je, «)=0, and x, —xv)=0. shen Birches of the formule of M. Kronecker with Elliptic series —Re- searches of M. Hermite——M. Kronecker has given a remarkable analytical expression of the formule IX. and X. (art. 130). He employs the identical equations Bet (Zi ajpes 2! ewe rn) =i n y= nan ]2? 1 1i+EC Yet Sw antyg * 8 2 n qd 5 n— 2? *T ys) (14+2¢-+294-429°4...)x 3B (w)g" =3[E(n)+2E(n— 14) + 2E(n—24)4.. Jy", 0 7 25 2) (2G +2¢8+ 276+...) x ale =2¢!3[F(n) +F(n—1.2)4+F(n—23)-4...]g" 1 of which the first two are immediately verified by expanding their right-hand * The necessity for a corresponding modification of the formule LV. and VIL. is obvi- ated by the assumption G(0)= —+4. 360 REPORT—1865. members, the last two by multiplying together the series in their left-hand members. Combining these identities with the formule IX. and X., and attending to the genes E(0) = 5 we obtain 3 se 3 qn t= -1 (n)q"= 7 e de Rie ie roe: 3G.) mee bbe reread ae 0 8, (0) 11+ (—1)"¢"f. of which the second (art. 127, equation 3) may be written in the form 00 123.E(n)q"=(1+29¢+2¢*+29¢°+...)®, . . . « (BY) 0 in which it expresses the arithmetical theorem of Gauss, to which we have already referred (art. 130). It appears from the equations (A) and (B) that the generating functions of F(n) and E(x) are elliptic series; and M. Hermite, in two important memoirs (Comptes Rendus, Aug. 5, 1861, or Liouville, New Series, vol. vii, p. 25, and Comptes Rendus, July 7, 1862) suggested, as it would seem, by these equations, has succeeded in deducing the second of them, and others of the same character, from the general expansions of elliptic functions, without having occasion to consider the special modules which admit of complex multiplication. He has thus discovered a new and comparatively elementary method of arriving at the formule of M. Kronecker ; to whom indeed this method was already known, as his expressions of the generating functions of E(n) and F(x) indicate, and as he has himself expressly stated in a note published after the appearance of M. Hermite’s first memoir (Monatsberichte, May 26, 1862, pp. 307,308). M. Hermite’s method is an extension of that employed by Jacobi (see art. 127), and depends on the developments of doubly periodic functions in series pro- ceeding by sines or cosines of the multiples of the argument. To this set of developments, however, M. Hermite adds a second obtained by dividing the product of two Theta functions by a third. A series of the first set, and one of the second (both alike containing only sines, or only cosines, and only even, or only uneven multiples of the argument), are then multiplied together. The non-periodic part of the product (or its integral, taken from the limit 0 to 7) is a function of ¢ only, and if the product can be formed in more than one way, we obtain different expressions of this function, a comparison of which supplies in each case an arithmetical formula. We take the following example from M. Hermite’s first memoir; and, with him, we write for brevity, 0, ©,, H, H, for o(° ="), 0,(=) H a 1), and 0, 0, n, for 0(0), us us us T 6,(9), H,(0)*. Multiplying together the three pairs of series 2 io @) n [o8) n 7 107 = és 79 ee ng” cos sll e" 1 1—¢" 1 1-—¢ (i i Feber ae 1 +0 Q= > g” cos2nx | = gq” cos2ne, Ay} J * The developments of elliptic. functions, in series proceeding by sines or cosines of the multiples of the argument, which are employed in this article, will be found in the Fundamenta Noya (sections 40-42), or in M. Hermite’s second memoir (Comptes Rendus, July 7, 1862). al ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 361 : ms 003 HO; _4y eet sin (2n+1)a, OF Fs on ye er 4 i eT (ii) ‘| i ee H=22 (— 1)"g@™" sin (2n + 1a, 0 2n+1 oe a i arma [opr sin (2n4+1)x, oO ‘ (iii) 9, #9: 99 git” sin (2n+1)2 S) 0 where Q,=1+42q7'+2q‘+.. Bg es y) 7 172 and designating the definite integral ,6; ( os dx by «J, we obtain 2/9 ng” 1 = a be nq” 2 nd = 82 83 tle (2n + 1) g2@n tents) ’ D eJ=45(—1)" 0 1 ae git ie’) q2en tients) J=45 Q,, a Ee 3 Ge 0 itt ats gent Let A(n) represent the sum of those divisors of m whose conjugates are uneven, and [',(n) the sum of those divisors of » which do not surpass Vn, and which are even or uneven, according as their conjugate divisors are un- even or even ; we find immediately o) n= ee —T(~)]q"; also 4n4+3 i) a oJ =23 (—1)"[b(4n+3)—¥(4n+3) lq *, 0 a +t+no J=4>, et Dah alent N(an+ 45+3)— 47] 0 —n0 4n+3 i) Lass =4>3 F'(4n4+3)q *, 0 if F’(4n+3) represent the number of solutions of the equation 4n+3=ac—}’, in which a and ¢ are positive and uneven, a is less than ¢, 6 is even, and less in absolute magnitude than a. But M. Hermite has shown that F’(4n+3)=F(4n+3). For F’(4n+3) is evidently the number of quadratic forms (a, 6, c) of determinant —(4n+3), in which the second coefficient is even, and less than either extreme coefficient, and in which also the first co- efficient is less than the third. But each uneven reduced form is equiva- lent to one, and only to one, of the forms (a, 6,¢). For the reducing trans- 362 REPORT—1865. formation of a form (a, 6, c) is necessarily one of the five following :— apie a | raya Peo, : therefore, conversely, a reduced form can be transformed into a form (a, b,c) only by one or more of the transformations, 0 dae 0, —1 a gs a tere and upon trial it will be found that there is always one, and only one among them which applied to a reduced form, produces a form (a,b, ¢). The number of forms (a, 6, c) is therefore equal to the number of reduced forms of deter- minant —(4n+3); i.e. F(4n+3)=F(4n+4+3). Eliminating J, we obtain the first es third formule of M. Hermite’s memoir, ats io 6) "0 3 Fdn-+3)q | =a) — Pm) J9"s ats (o.@) coin es F(4n+3)q * =35(—1)"[0(4n+3)—V¥(4n+3)]q * , 0 om or, equating coefficients, F(4n—1*) + F(4n—37) + F(4n—5’) +. =A(n)—T,(n), F(4n43)— 2F (4n4+3—2*) +2F(4n43—4’)— = (—1)"3[®(4n+3) — ¥(4n+3)]. In his second memoir M. Hermite occupies himself with the demonstration of the equation (B’). Multiplying together the two series, eH te 4q" sin 2nv 6} = 4= cot #= 3(— 1) = 3 1 0,H 1 if +(— 1)"4 a oO 6, HO, _ tanv+23(—1)""'Q,-1 qr” sin 2na, iA 1 and employing the formule Tr ‘| sin 2nx cot « dw=r7, 0 7 . (n—1) i} sin 2nv tan adxw=(—1) “zx, 0 he finds sl (aa pet (pg OM. f Ort F ae a Oda lft en” i, dae fa 2 = 24 —2> =!) fe ie =1443 $= =e pokare yap 2 Qagt +4 4> , 14+(-— S=iyy™ an expression which, by a detailed discussion, is showh to be equivalent to wa 123 E(n)q". 0 ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS, 363 In the note of May 26, 1862, to which we have already referred, M. Kro- necker has given other examples of the use of this method. Multiplying together the three pairs of series, ng” a3 ng” cos 2nz 3 i= Le? ’ i g iL q : Ph anit? (1) H, cos r=gi + [g2@"-)? 4 gi@"+0") e908 2nx, i q q* <2) Non Dy, a 700, pe gy 29" sin ae ae s : Gi) H cos w= (—1)"[qgie¥?— gi-)" sin Ing, 1 2n-1 2n+1 H we 2 2 : mr cos ar: Tet | sin 2n2, (iii) ie. 8) m1 Ee =43 R,q” sin 2na, i rv. where R,=q-t+9q-#+97 * +. pga J 2 and designating the definite integral ai ah: cos a da by wI, we find 0 e? F(n)q”. Qt 2 M4 OT 7%) 0 1 135. M. Kronecker asserts that the formule I.-VIIT. are independent, 7. ¢., that none of them can be deduced from the others by means of the elementary equations satisfied by the functions F and G; and that all the similar relations, which are supplied by the theory of complex multiplication, may be obtained, with the help of those elementary equations, by combining the eight formule. And it is certain that the system of the cight formulze does, in this sense, ex- plicitly contain all the relations of similar form, which have been subsequently given by MM. Hermite and Joubert. Thus, many of these relations are par- ticular cases of the formule XI. and XIL., or of the combinations (XI.)+(XI1.) (in M. Joubert’s memoir, the formule 1, 2, 3, those of page 28, and the first of page 29; also the first two formule in M. Hermite’s memoir (Liouville, new series, vol. vil. p. 25) are of this kind); others, again, are immediately deducible from the two formulze 4F(n) + 8F(n—4°) 4 8F(n—8*) +...=6(n), n =3, mod 8, SF (n—2°) + 8F(n—6*)+ 8F(n—10°) +. . .=@(n), n=7, mod 8, combined by addition or subtraction with V., VI., and VII. But each of these two formule results from the combination $(V.) + 3(VI.) —2(LV.), sim- plified by means of the elementary equations satisfied by F and G. In this way the formula 4—9 of M. Joubert’s memoir, and the third formula in M. Hermite’s memoir (Liouville, 2id, p. 36), may be obtained. Lastly, the equation n—I1? 2—3° 6G (=) +6G (=) oe = 1(3¥(n)—2(n)) n=1, mod4 (M. Joubert, p. 30) arises from the combination (IV.)—3(V.). M. Joubert’s formule, however, as they are given in his memoir, are not immediately comparable to those of M. Kronecker. He rejects from the modular equation of the uneven order 7, the factors due to the square divisors of n (sce art. 125 of this report), and, in consequence, those derived classes whose coefficients have any common divisor with » are excluded from his enumerations. At the same time, the numerical functions, depending on the ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 365 divisors of x, which occur in the right-hand members of his formule, are ren- . dered somewhat more complicated than those of M. Kronecker. It is always possible to pass from one of M. Joubert’s formule to the corresponding for- mula of M. Kronecker, by an elementary process, of which M. Joubert has himself given an example (at p. 25 of his memoir). One formula, however, has been obtained by M. Hermite from his investi- gation of the discriminant of the modular equation, which is entirely distinct in form, and as it would seem in substance, from those of M. Kronecker. Taking a modular equation of a prime order n, M. Hermite shows that its discriminant is of the form u't(1 —u8)"* Ge) @r(u’), where Q(w) is a reciprocal polynomial, prime to uw and to 1—w*, containing no 2 equal factors, and of order }(n’—1)—3 [+ (=)| . From the nature of a 7 aye » Ic discriminant, if w renders two of the quantities ) ot ng equal to one another, ¢(w) is a root of the equation @(u)=0, and conversely. It is thus possible, by a method of which we have already given examples, to assign a system of quadratic equations (or quadratic forms) having integral coeffi- cients, which shall correspond, one by one, to the roots of the equation 6(v)=0. Equating the number of these quadratic forms to the index of the polynomial 6(w), M. Hermite obtains a formula which is essentially limited to the case when » is a prime, and which, translated into the notation of M. Kronecker, is as follows, 23, F(A)+22,F(A)+63,G(A) =2(n?—1)—3 [" == () > the summations %,, 3,, 3, extending respectively to all values of 5 which give positive values to the numbers A= (86—8n) (n—20), A=86(n—88), A=ES(n—168). The difference between these series of determinants, and those which occur in M. Kronecker’s formule, is very remarkable. 136. Arithmetical Demonstrations of the Formule of M. Kronecker.—M. Kro- necker informs us that, when he had connected his formule, in the manner already described, with the expansions of certain elliptic functions, he directed his attention to the process (art. 127) by which Jacobi transformed the ana- lytical proof of the ‘theorem of four squares’ into an arithmetical one*. Applying a similar transformation to the analytical proof of the equation of 6, ,°(° H°H, Niessen’ ate asf ~@2. ‘3 a F(n)q ’ he succeeded, after many reductions, in obtaining a purely arithmetical proof of the formule I. II. and Y. which are included in XI. This important investigation has not yet been published: instead, M. Kronecker has given a remarkable theorem which appears (as he observes) to contain the germ of another, and very different, arithmetical demonstration of his formule. He has enunciated the theorem for prime numbers only, remarking, however, that it admits of extension to composi‘e numbers also, The result is simplest in the case of a prime number p of the form 4m-+3. * Monatsberichte for 1862, p- 307. 366 REPORT—1865. “Let (a, b, ¢) represent in succession every uneven reduced form of the de- terminants —p, —p+1*, —p+2’,....3 only, ifa=e, let the reduced form satisfy the special condition (art. 92) b<0, instead of 6>0; the rvots of the congruences dw” + 2bw +¢= 0, mod p, of which roots the number is F(p) + 2F (p—1°)+2F(p—2’)+ ..-; are a complete system of residues for the modulus p.” As it appears from the formula V. that the number of these congruence- roots is equal to p, it is only necessary to prove that they are all different ; the demonstration of this very difficult point M. Kronecker has effected by showing that the contrary supposition is inconsistent with the inequalities satisfied by the coefficients of the reduced forms. A proof, independent of the formula V., that every residue of p is a root of one of the congruences, would of course supply a direct arithmetical proof of that formula, for the case in which is a prime of the form 4m-+3. Arithmetical demonstrations of the formule of M. Kronecker have also been obtained by M. Liouville. These demonstrations depend on the prin- ciples introduced by him into arithmetic in the series of memoirs ‘“ Sur quel- ques formules générales qui peuvent étre utiles dans la théorie des nombres”’*, and originally suggested (as he himself informs us) by Jacobi’s arithmetical proof of the theorem of four squares. M. Liouville has given, as an example of his method, a proof of the equation (XI.)-(XIT.), or 4F(n—1”) +4F (n—3*) + 4F(n—5*) + .. =A(n)—IT(n)-T'(n), for the two cases in which n is unevenly, and evenly, event. We shall con- fine our attention to the latter and somewhat simpler case. It requires two preliminary Lemmas, both included as very particular cases in M. Liouyille’s general formule. I. Let m represent a given uneven number, @ a given positive exponent other than zero, f(z) an even function, so that f(r)=f(—.«) ; we have the equation 3 fd —d") —f(d' 4") = 2 2d (0) —fl2"d)}, the summations in the left and right-hand members extending respectively to all solutions of the equations Qem=d'd' + d's", m=de, the indeterminates d’, d'’, 8’, 2’ in the first equation, and d, 6 in the second, being positive and uneven, and two solutions of either equation being re- garded as different, unless the indeterminates of the two solutions are the same and in the same order. To establish this equation, we consider the system d's +"3" =2°m d'+d" =2u | (a) oa =P, in which p and » are given positive integers. The solutions of this system are equal in number to the solutions of the system d's +d"s"=2*m 2 d'—d" =—2u | gins gl tg (a’) +6’ =2p * Tiouville's Journal, vols. iiiviii. (New Series. ) t Liouville, New Series, vol. vii. p. 44. ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 367 For, eliminating &' and d', we find that (a) has as many solutions as 2% m= rd' + pd" has solutions in which d'<2u4; and (a’) has as many solu- tions as the same equation has solutions in which 6" —2y: i.e. (a) has as many solutions as (a’); inasmuch as to every solution of 2*~'*m=yrd'+,d" in which d'<2y, but 6’>2y, there corresponds a solution, in which d'>2p, but 6’<2y, and vice versé; for example, if d'<2u, but 5’'>2y, let 2kv be the multiple of 2y next inferior to 6”, then 2°m =r(d' + 2kp) + p(d!—2kv) is a solution of the equation, in which d'+42hky>2u, but 4'—Qky<2y. Similarly it will be seen that the solutions of the systems d's’ +d"3"=2%mn d'+d'' =2u | (b) o—d" =—2y U0 +"9" = 22m d—d" = | (b’) o+6" =2,y are equal in number. Also the number of solutions of either of the systems dé! + d"3"=2¢m d'+d" =e | > (ec) oa Us +0"8"=2*m d=d" =s | (c’) +5" =2ed in each of which d, é are two given conjugate divisors of m, is 2*71d. Let us now attribute to p, v, d, 3 in the systems (a), (6), (c), (a'), (8), (e'), all values, in succession, for which those systems are resoluble. We shall evidently obtain the sum 3f(d' +d"), which occurs in the equation to be proved, by extending the summation, first, to all solutions of the various systems (a), secondly, to all the solutions of the various systems (6), and lastly, to all solutions of the various systems (c). Similarly we shall obtain the sum 3/(¢ —d") by extending the summation to all solutions of the systems (a’), (0'), (c’). But the terms f(d'+d") arising from any one of the systems (a) or (4), are cancelled in the difference Zf(d'—d")—df(d'+d") by the terms f(d’—d") arising from the corresponding system (a’) or (b/). That difference is, therefore, equal to the excess of Sf(d'—d"'), extended to all solutions of the systems (c'), above 3f(d'+d') extended to all solutions of the systems (c); so that, finally, } 2 fd —a")—f(d' +a") = 2" SA f(0) —f(2"d)}. Il. Let m be an uneven number, and f(#) an uneven function; we have the equation 2A +2n'=3p (24%), the summations in the left- and right-hand members extending respectively to all solutions of the equations m=2m’? + d's’, 2n=mj+d,6,, the indeterminates d’ 8’ d, 6, m, being positive and uneven, but m’ being even or uneven, positive, negative, or zero. 368 REPORT— 1865. If we write 2m'+d'=a, 6’ —2m'=y, 2m'+d'—d' =z, so that conversely 2Qm'=x—y—z, d=y+z2, d=ax—z, the equation m=2m"+d'd' becomes 2n=a°+y?—z*, the indeterminates being subject to the conditions y+z2>0, 0, «+z>0,z0, 2>0,° [elma Oe a Se Va Again, if we write 3(d,+3,)=a, m=y, 3(d,—6,)=z, the equation 2m=mi+d,é, becomes 2n=.v°+y*?—=*, the indeterminates being subject to the conditions y= Oy. 250, 7 (Z| Ses" sa oop oe T’o establish the proposed equation it is now only necessary to show that the equation 2m=2*+ y?—z admits of equal numbers of solutions satisfying the inequalities (¢) and (d’). But this is evident ; for if [w, y, z] satisfy one of the two sets cf inequalities, but not both, [v, —y, —z] satisfies the other, but not both. By combining these two lemmas it may be proved that four times the number of solutions of the equation 2°* =m? + dado+(de-+0s)0s » » + » «© « (A) (in which m is a given uneven number, and a a given exponent >() is A(2** 4m) —T(2*t?m)—I1'(2**'m), the indeterminates 72, d2, 8, 3 being all positive and uneven and d,—6, being evenly even. Representing by m’ any number whatever, and by d’, c’, d; positive uneven numbers, let us consider the two equations 2° thm —2d,0,= m2 +-dad,, 4 1b. Re ey 2 Ogden Oy. wo dee me etl By Me and let f(w) be an even function, so that f(v—d,)—f(v+d,) is an uneven one, and may be used instead of f(a) in the second lemma. Applying that lemma to the two equations (e) and (e’), and afterwards summing for every value of d;, we find >» (2-4) —f ae +4,)] =X f(2m'+d'—d;)—f(2m'+d'+d,)], the summations extending to all solutions of (e) and (e’) respectively. Ob- serving that if m'’=0, f(2m'+.) is an even function of w, and that if m’ is not =0, f(—2m'+x)+f(2m'+) is an even function of a, we transform the second member by the first lemma, and we obtain 5 . f (4 2 é, —4,) =u (oF 4+ a,)] =2’"'3d[ f(2m')—f(2%d+2m')], the second summation extending to every solution of the equation 2°m —2Qm'"?=27d6, d and é being positive and uneyen, and 2’ representing the highest power of ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 369 2 contained in 2*m—2m". Let f(w)=1,if w=0, but let f(w)=0 for every other value of 2; the sum [PCa ICE +4)] will then represent the number of solutions of the equation (A); the sum 2’ 3df(2m’) will become 2*~'Sd, the summation extending to all solutions of the equation m=dé ; and the sum 27~'Sdf(2m' + 27d) will become 227d, the summation extending to all solutions of the equation 2°-hin=27-"d(2Y—'d +8). Of these sums 2*~'Sd is evidently A(2*~'m)=3A(2**'m); and 22’—!dis the sum of those divisors of 2*-m, which are less than / 2*—!m, and which are not of the same parity as their conjugates, a sum which is identical with g1(2**"m) + 31'(2"*"m) ; as may be seen by considering separately the cases in which g=1, and a>1. A second determination of the number of solutions of the equation (A) is obtained as follows. Write 20+1 for 3(d,+6,) and 4a for d,—3é,; it becomes 2°* in —m2=(20 +.1)(20+1+4 28;)—4a?, which is of the same form as that considered by M. Hermite (sce art. 134). If then we attribute to m, any particular value, the number of solutions of the equation (A) is F(2**'m—mi); its whole number of solutions is therefore B(2°7 im — 1?) + F271 m—3*) + F(2** m—5?) +... ; equating this expression to that which we have already found, we obtain the formula (XI.)-(XII.). M. Liouville tells us that, until M. Hermite’s discussion of the equation 4n+3=(20+1)(20+1+4 20;)—4a’, he had not observed that the number of solutions of the equation 2°+ hn —mi=d,5,+(d,+6,)b,, d2=8,, mod 4, is equal to the number of classes of quadratic forms of det. m?—2**'m; but that with this exception all the principles of the preceding demonstration were in his possession; so that he had already arrived at formule identical with those of M. Kronecker, but referring to the numbers of solutions of certain indeterminate equations instead of to the numbers of quadratic forms of certain determinants. We also learn from him that formule exist, analogous to those of M. Kronecker, in which the series of determinants are of the type 23°—n, 3s°—n,... Instead of s°—n. 137. Equations satisfied by the Modules which admit of Complex Multipli- cation —We have already observed (art. 126) that the 6G(A) values of ¢°(w), corresponding to the quadratic forms of det. —A, are the roots of an equation of that order, having rational coefficients. Several important properties of this equation have been indicated by M. Kronecker ; but, notwithstanding their intimate connexion with the theory of quadratic forms, we can only offer an imperfect account of them. We resume the notation of art. 131; and we shall begin by showing that if is an uneven number, greater than 3, the values of g°(w), corresponding to the properly primitive classes of det.—n, satisfy one or other of three equations, each of the order 2h(n), and each haying rational coeffidents. We have already seen in art. 131, that every value of @ (w), corresponding to a 1865, 2¢ 370 REPORT—1865. form, of which the extreme coefficients are uneven, and of which the determi- nant 1s o*—n, is a root of the equation f(a, 1—a)=0, and that this equation has no other roots, Again, if y, 9) =0 is the equation satisfied by the Co squares of the multipliers appertaining to the 6(n) transformations of order n, the equation y,(n, #)=0 will be satisfied by those roots of the equation f2, 1—w#)=0 which correspond to quadratic forms of det.—n, but not by the other roots of that equation. For, if $°(w) is a root of f,(v, 1—a)=0, ¢'(w) is transformed into W*(w) by one of the ®(n) transformations of order n ; and if $°(w) corresponds to a quadratic form of det.—n, the multiplier apper- i taining to this transformation is +——; whereas if ¢*(w) corresponds to a 2 ¢ "the multiplier is +[7¥.A-+io]7? (see art. = 131). Forming then the greatest common divisor of the two functions S,(#, 1—«) and x(n, x), we obtain an equation of which the roots are, exclu- sively, those values of ¢°(w) which correspond to quadratic forms of det.—n*. Let y(n, w) represent this greatest common divisor, and denoting by p, po... the different primes, of which the squares are divisors of n, let us form the expression quadratic form of det.—A= a(n, x) x h(—» 3) Xe Pips n WW =, @yXas ss “(5 w) x If (A, B, C) symbolize a system of quadratic forms, having their extreme coefficients uneven, and representing the properly primitive classes of det.—n, the roots of the equation ¥,(n, «)=0 are those values of g*(w) which corre- spond to the systems of quadratic equations A+2Bwo+Cw?=0, C—2Bo+Au?=0. Thus the order of the equation is 2h(n): if v=9*(w) is a root, l—w=¢"* —*) @ P(n, v= is also a root: the first coefficient is a power of 2, and the last coefficient is unity, because W,(n, x) divides f,(w, 1—w), of which the first and last coeffi- cients are respectively a power of 2 and unity}. From the equation W1(n, 21)=0, we may deduce two others, ¥.(n, x.) =0, ¥3(n, v3)=0, by the substitutions 2,=—, v,—= "3 2s v,—L1 4h(n) values of ¢°(w) corresponding to properly primitive forms of det.—n, not included in the subclasses (A, B, C), (C, —B, A). The roots of the equation ¥,(n, 2)=0 are the reciprocals of the roots of ¥,(n, v)=0: its first coefficient is therefore unity and its last a power of 2; the equation ¥,(n, 7)=0 is a reciprocal equation, and its first and last coefficients are units. Each of the three functions ¥,(n, a), ¥,(n, x), V,(n, «), can be decomposed into two factors, of the order h(n), and containing no irrationality but x. : these equations will have for their roots the * Tt is here assumed that if + is not the multiplier appertaining to any of the trans- n formations of order » by which « is changed into 1—a, it is also not the multiplier apper- taining to any of the (7) transformations of the order 2. t The limit of A(2, 1—2)+2%™+¥™), when «x increases without limit, is 24%, or —24¥(™) +1, according as n is not, or is, a perfect square. ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 371 y-1 If n=3, mod 4, the value of — hos (art. 125) corresponding to one of the two forms (A, B, C), (C, —B, A) is +4/n, and that corresponding to the y-1 Oop other —/n; if n=1, mod 4, the values of se ae corresponding to those two forms are both / or both — s/n, according as the generic character of fl fa) the two forms is(—1) 7 =+1, or (—1) ? =—1; in either case, therefore, the decomposition of ,(n, x) into two factors, can be effected by comparing y=) oy te £5 h it with the equations y(n, x)=0, x,(— Vn, v)=0, if x, (0, and let the positive quantity p be ‘diminished without limit, the limit of the sum 3 x=+n y=+o e2ri(ow+ry) x ae ee TREE Ee a= —0 y= —m [A+ 2bay +ey*}*8 (in which, however, the value 0 is not to be attributed to v and y simulta- neously) has been found by M. Kronecker to be 20° x ‘ Tt gq oe ga, #) x90, #)| a - wie G) — ya el- Heck ew, wf) O(a where _—b+iV A wo tiv Pe} Fa ea ee ws Me LL: a a d. O(a, w), O(a, wes 0, (2Ka, w), O'(x, () ee da W A being positive, and the logarithms real. Again, let a,c,—b?=A=ac—b’, a,b,c, being real and a,c, positive; and let é represent an evanescent quantity, we find ; See a0 ais G Naty ve) gite 2nid(#V ty) Was =) [aa* + Qbary fey? | te Fite obey boys and hence, by the theorem of M, Kronecker, ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. 373 lim [22§ LAs ] [ax + 2hay +cy?}'t8 [aya? +. 20,09 Ley? |! F¢ : b a ia auf. ‘ ie orl Naty al se anil VN ayty | | rad ee [ua 4+ Qhay+ey2}te ~ [aya + 2b,ay+ ey? |! T8 _ 20 ik an ad'(0, w,)0'(0, wy’) Gi) BVA? aa,0'(0, w)0'(0, w’) This result M. Kronecker has applied, in the following manner, to the solution of the Pellian equation. Let P and Q be positive integers not divisible by any square, of which P is > 1, and let m and n represent positive integers prime to 2P and 2Q respectively, the limits of the sums m=00 N=00 > (;) q= and 3» (= 1 . mal Vey mite mest We Pde are known from the researches of Dirichlet (Crelle, vol, xix. p. 360 and 364; or art. 101 of this Report), and are respectively h(P) log/T+U oy P] 2/7P h(P) and A(—Q) denoting the number of properly primitive classes of the determinants P and —Q, and T, U being the least positive numbers which satisfy the equation T’—PU*=1. Multiplying the two results together, and designating PQ by D, we find w : P\ /—Q 1 _—.— h(P).h(—Q).log(T+ U / P)=lim 33( — )( —*)_-—__. 4/D We Sake hen ck 2 ed ae (,)( n [eee If P and Q are relatively prime, and congruous to one another, mod 4, so that D is not divisible by any square, and is =1, mod 4, the series 4]1-(G)are| 2(G)22 Rae hay.) 2 Ryartey AR) (aa? + Qhay + cy?) *8 (in which R=P, or R=Q, according as P=Q=1, mod 4, or P=Q=3, mod +; f or (a, b,c) denotes any one of a set of representative forms of det.—D ; (4) is the particular character of f with respect to R, and the first 1 7(—Q) and 27Q” (111) sign of summation extends to every form of the representative system) is identical with the series 22(—)(")— = BG! 0 organ hacen m)\ 2» ) (mnt? To verify this we observe (1) that, because D==1, mod 4, the numbers of sets of representations (art. 87) of N and 2N by forms of det.—D are equal, N de- noting any number whatever; (2) that, because D is not divisible by any square, the number of sets of representations of N by the forms of det.—D is = =), N denoting any uneyen number, and d any divisor of N which is a prime to D; (3) that the generic character of a form f of det.—D may be ascertained from any number whatever N which is represented by f; in fact if p is a prime divisor of D, and if N=N'p, N’ being prime to Pp, we have (4)=(-): if N=N'p¥+1, D=D'p, N’ and D’ being prime to DP 374 REPORT—1865. (Z)=E) (=>) From (1) and (3) we infer that the series (A) is equal Pp Pp to the series 1 z's! ee i ei eee citi (ax? + Qhay +ey*)'*8 ©) (in which the summations 53'S’ extend only to those values of w and y for which f acquires uneven Ee from (2) and (3), considering separately the two cases in which R=P, and R=Q, we infer that the coefficient of ve is the same in (B) and (C), N representing any uneven number; i. e. that the two series (A) and (B) are identical. Diminishing p without limit in the equation (A)=(B), and employing the equations (ii) and (iii), we find immediately 2 f ana : —Q).log =f 12—(2)) 3 (2 hip ee 1(P).h(—Q).log (T+U ¥ P)=2 [ (x) (i) So oyuey a remarkable equation which connects the least solution of the Pellian equa- tion with the theory of the Theta functions. If we suppose (as we may do) that the form (a, 6, ¢) is reduced, so that a<2 MA : we may approximate to the values of 6'(0, w) and 6'(0, w’) by omitting in their developments all terms after the first, and writing 2 pearl 6'(0, w) X00, w)=4r*e 7 +... Substituting in (iv), we obtain the approximative equation _ (P).W(—Q) log (P+Uy P)=[2 -(3)]2 (a (73 rv) + log al. (v) The following wee of this formula are given by YF. Kronecker. If Q=1, the exponential Le 7) is approximately equal to af V9, 18+5/18, 8824145 / 37 when we attribute to D the values 5, 13, 37; again, gets" *V44 17, 3 gett 7 5004 +569 1 97, if D=17, 97; lastly, if D=85, and we give. to Q in succession the values i 5, 17, we find Gert Pe etal Jeb, sce 4 Ye, oto Se These approximate representations of quadratic surds’ by exponentials are very remarkable; a similar observation had, however, already been made by M. Hermite*. If D=3, mod 8, the equation of which the roots are the values of @*(w) corresponding to the improperly primitive classes of det.—D, resolves itself into factors of the form (w?—a+1)'+a(a°—w«)’=0; and, in particular, if (2 nlp pies i is the only such class, a is an integral number, Attributing to w the yalue pe ict value w np phe ira nea (equation (14) or (26), art. 124), we find 2565 ND—744 256 Thus if D=43, M. Hermite has found that e* V8 =884736743.9997775. . and that if D=163, the decimal part of e7 V1 commences with twelve nines. , and substituting for «, or ¢*(w), its approximate , nearly. * Théorie des Equations Modulaires, p. 48. we «Poe UNIFORMITY OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 375 M. Kronecker states that the formula (iv) implies the resolubility of ¥,(n, w) into its generic factors, and that conversely the resolution of that equation into its factors implies the possibility of expressing certain solutions (though not necessarily the least solution) of the Pellian equation by means of the modules which admit of complex multiplication. For the case when D=5, mod 8, he has given the singularly elegant formula sin a II 6 =H / 40K, sine D the first sign of multiplication extending to all numbers less than D and prime to it which satisfy the equations OVE 1; (;)=-1 ; the second to a certain sixth part of the modules which admit of complex multiplication with Y¥—D. The formula may also be written in the form [T—U VD} =11. 4x°«!? (see Dirichlet, Crelle, vol. xxi. p. 151), Report on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Medsures, with reference to the Interests of Science. By a Committee, consisting of Lord Wrorrrstry, D.C.L., F.R.S., 'The Rt. Hon. C. B. Apperuey, M.P., Sir Witt1am Armstrone, C.B., F.R.S., Tan Asrronomer Roya, F.R.S., Samuzet Brown, W. Ewart, M.P., T. Granam, F.R.S., Sir Joun Hay, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., Prof. Hunnessy, F.R.S., James Heywoop, M.4A., F.R.S., Dr. Lez, F.R.S., Dr. Lzonr Levi, F.S.A., F.S.S., Prof. W. A. Mitirr, F.R.S., Prof. Rankine, F.R.S., Rev. Dr. Roxpinson, F.R.S., Colonel Syxzs, M.P., F.R.S., W. Tire, M.P., F.R.S., Prof. A. W. Wiuutumson, F.R.S., James Yates, F.R.S., Sir Rosperr Kant, F.R.S., F. P. Fecxows, C. W. Sremens, F.R.S., Marrarw Arnoitp, M.A., Right Hon. Earl Forrescur, and FRepERIcK Purpy, F.S.S. Ar the Meeting of the British Association, held in Newcastle in 1863, a Committee was appointed to report on the best means of providing for a uniformity of weights and measures, with reference to the interests of science, and a report embodying certain recommendations was presented by the Com- mittee to the British Association, at its last Meeting at, Bath, which was received and adopted after considerable discussion in Section F, the Chemical and Mechanical Sections having also had the subject under consideration. The substance of these recommendations was the adoption of a decimal sys- tem of weights and measures, and the choice of the metric system on account of its scientific capabilities; the use of such metric system, as far possible, in statistical documents and scientific communications ; the placing of metric standards in our public and frequented buildings ; the teaching of the system in schools; and the use of it at the Custom House and Post Office. On the recommendation of the Section the Committee was then reappointed, and a grant was made to it of £20, 376 REPORT—1865. In furtherance of the object remitted to it, the Committee met and passed resolutions recommending the preparation of a small book for elementary instruction in the metric system, and the appointment of a Deputation to the President of the Board of Trade, for the purpose of representing to Her Majesty’s Government the advantages of reducing the Tariff in the terms of the metric system, allowing importers of goods from countries using that system to pay duties calculated by the same; and also a Deputation to the President of the Committee of Council on Education, recommending the teaching of the metric system in schools supported by the State. It has been suggested, however, that the Committee had no power to do more than to report again on the subject to the Association, since the report of its Com- mittee was only discussed and adopted in Section F, and not by the General Committee, and therefore it was deemed best to seek from the Association more definite power on the subject. The Committee has pleasure in reporting that the necessity of introduc- ing uniformity in weights and measures throughout the country is generally admitted, and that there is little or no difference of opinion as to the superior merits of the metric system, in the choice of which lies the only method for obtaining not only a thorough reform in our weights and measures, but also the great desideratum of international uniformity. By the Act of Par- liament passed in 1864, the use of the metric system in this country was legalized, and thenceforth a contract has become equally enforceable whether in the terms of the metric system or in the terms of the imperial standards. Since, however, the use of the same is at present optional only, and not compulsory, much remains to be done, not only in recommending the prac- tical use of the metric system in the different branches of business and industry, but also in disseminating the necessary teaching of the same, espe- cially in schools and colleges, with a view to its more general adoption. The Committee has learnt that the metric system is already in use in many great establishments. Those especially which supply machinery to the Continent of Europe are under the necessity of using the metric measurement in fulfilling their orders, and it does not appear that the workmen in such establishments have any difficulty in understanding the system, and in using it with as much readiness as the imperial scale. Since the last Meeting of the British Association, the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, at their meeting in Birmingham, had a favourable opportunity for discussing the question, a paper having been prepared for them by Mr. John Fernie, a member, on the relative advantages of the inch and the metre as the unit of a decimal line or measure. On that occasion, Sir William Armstrong, Mr. C. W. Siemens, F.R.S., and Mr. Robinson of the Atlas Works, all practically acquainted with both systems, recorded their opinion decidedly in favour to the metre ; and though in accordance with the rules of that Institution no resolution was passed, there is reason to believe that a large number of members were of opinion that the metric system was in every way preferable. Another important testimony in favour of that system was also given by a Committee of the Liverpool Chamber of Commerce, especially appointed on the decima- lization of coins, weights, and measures. That Chamber, in common with many other Chambers of Commerce, petitioned Parliament in favour of the Bill since passed into law; and now, after mature inquiry, we find a Committee of that Chamber recommending the ultimate adoption, and at no distant period, of the metric system of weights and measures as the sole legal system in this country. The teachers are also moving. At a meeting of Professors, Teachers, and others interested in education held in Birmingham, on Wed- UNIFORMITY OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 377 nesday, the 15th of March, 1865, Rev. Charles Evans, M.A., Head Master of King Edward’s Grammar School, in the chair, it was unanimously decided, «That, having regard to the merits of the metric system of measures and weights now legalized in this country by Act of Parliament, to the facility with which it may be learnt and afterwards retained in the memory, to the great saving of time which would thereby be gained in education, to the convenience it offers for the largest as well as the most minute calculation, and to the decided advantages of the decimal method in any arithmetical system, this meeting is of opinion that the metric system of measures and weights should be introduced as a branch of instruction in the schools of the United Kingdom.” At a meeting of British teachers connected with the British and Foreign School Society in the Borough Road, London, the same question was discussed, and there is no doubt that the teachers see the importance of giving instruction in a system which will speedily replace the present uncouth practice. What is now wanted for the purpose of educa- tion is a book sufficiently elementary yet complete in itself, likely to be used as a text book in all schools and colleges. Several books on arithmetic already give considerable prominence to the decimal and metric system. More especially we may mention the treatises on Arithmetic by the Rey. Barnard Smith, Mr. Dowling’s Comparative Tables, and also the useful Ready Reckoner published in this town by Mr. Rickard, the able teacher in King Edward’s School. In Continental schools M. Carpentier’s ‘Nécessaire Métrique,” which is a small cabinet containing samples of all the smaller weights and measures, the cubes, &c., is largely used, and there is no doubt that the children on the Continent obtain much more early in life an accu- rate knowledge of numbers, their properties, and their combinations, with the metric system than the English boys do with the imperial scale. Nowhere could we see more clearly the need of altering the present practice than in the practical routine work in railway management. With the enor- mous traffic of our railway companies, the inconvenience of the present sub- division of weights produces a decided appreciable loss to the income of the shareholders. For example, the London and North-Western Railway Com- pany, whose annual income equals the entire revenue of the majority of Euro- pean states, carries to every station in the Empire some thousands of packages of all sizes, many exceedingly small, and nearly all having fractions of weights. At the head station in Camden Town nearly 1200 entries are made of such packages every day, which are sent to the station in the course of the day, and despatched on the same evening. Before they are sent, however, such pack- ages must nearly all be weighed or measured, and taxed at a great variety of rates. But great is the liability to error arising from our cumbrous system, when the calculations are to be performed in a hurried manner. It isin fact calcu- lated that, on an average, the clerks commit one error in every 500 items; and the consequence is that the Londen and North-Western Company are under the necessity of nearly doubling the number of clerks. For every 100 clerks employed in weighing, or measuring and taxing packages, nearly another 100 are wanted to correct the errors committed. But with a decimal and metric system this liability to error is immensely reduced, and therefore a practical economic benefit would certainly arise from the adoption of that system-in railway traffic. A Royal Commission has been recently appointed on railway management, and they are to inquire into the more economic arrangements for the working of railways, so as to make a considerable reduction in the cost of conveyance. ‘This is a favourable opportunity for calling attention to the question, and the Committee is pleased to find that the Council of the Inter- 378 REPORT—1865. national Decimal Association has offered to give evidence before the Com- mission on the subject. P As a practical mode for diffusing information on the metric system, it has been suggested to fix the metric standards in one or more frequented places in the leading commercial cities of the empire. The Act for rendering per- missive the use of the metric system did not provide for the introduction of standards, but only furnished a table of equivalents of the metric and imperial systems. It would, however, be highly desirable to furnish the people with the means of ascertaining the accuracy of the metric weights and measures used by comparison with certain authorized standards. The great want seems to be a Weights and Measures Department connected with Government, as was recommended by the Committee of the House of Com- mons, whose duty it should be to procure such standards, and to super- intend the necessary arrangements for the security of trade and the diffusion of sound information on the subject. Till recently the control of the imperial standards was in the hands of the Comptroller of the Exchequer, but since that office has been abolished and incorporated with the Audit Office, it has become almost imperative to establish such a department. It would be desirable that such a department should super- vise the examination and comparison of the weights and measures in use throughout the country, superintend the Inspectors now appointed by the municipal councils of each town, and more especially issue such tables, books, and specimens of the metric system as will diffuse information of the same throughout the country. This is the plan which has been adopted with great success wherever the metric system has been established. And we are glad to find that the Committee of the Liverpool Chamber of Com- merce has recommended the same course in the following resolution :—* That a Department of Government of weights and measures should be established, subordinate to the Government and responsible to Parliament, to whom should be entrusted the conservation and verification of the standards, the superintendence of inspectors, and the general duties incidental to such department. That these duties should especially include the use of all means for promoting the use and extending the knowledge of the metric system among the people.” The Committee has observed with much pleasure, that in several scien- tific communications in the Transactions of the Royal Society, and some official documents issued by the Government, metric weights and measures are given side by side with the imperial. In many cases, indeed, a decided preference seems to be given to the former, especially in papers on chemical science. It is greatly to be lamented that the Pharmaceutical Society did not adopt the metric system, the same not being then legal, when settling a new Pharmacopeia; the mixed system they have adopted was far from meeting general approbation, and they will be under the necessity of making a new change. In foreign countries the principal movement in favour of the metric system isin Germany. For some time past the different German States have been labouring towards the attainment of greater national unity; and, after having come to an agreement about the coimage, they haye given their attention to the state of weights and measures in use in the different States. In 1862 a conference was held at Frankfort for the purpose of concerting as to the choice of one common system, when official delegates were present from nearly all the principal states except Prussia, and after much discussion they recommended the adoption of the metric system. ON THE BED OF THE OCEAN. 379 Since then the International Statistical Congress having been held at Berlin, their proceedings regarding international units, had due influence on the Prussian Government, and it is expected that the opposition of that Goyern- ment may haye thereby been overcome. Another meeting of the same Congress of delegates from German States has just been held at Frankfort, with the presence of Prussian delegates, and we trust to hear speedily of the unanimous resolution in favour of the adoption of the metric system. Though the instructions of this Committee are confined to weights and measures, and do not include coins, the Committee are convinced that the advantage of the metric and decimal system will not be fully realized until the coins also and mode of accountancy are decimalized. In conclusion, the Committee would recommend the reappointment of this Committee with power to use such measures as it may deem expedient for promoting the extensive use of the metric system in scientific. and official documents, in the Custom House and Post Office, as well as the teaching of the system in schools and colleges; with instructions also, as regards the coinage, to represent to Her Majesty’s Government the expediency of the early adoption of such a system of decimalization as will the more effec- tively facilitate the social and commercial transactions. of the country, and at the same time advance the great purpose of international exchanges, and especially to urge upon Her Majesty’s Government the great benefit that would arise from the early assembling of an international monetary conven- tion, as recommended at the last meeting of the International Statistical Congress, held at Berlin. On the Bed of the Ocean. By A. G. Finvuay, F.R.G.S. TE progress which has been made of late years in deep-sea sounding, ehiefly in connexion with the selection of a route for the Atlantic Telegraph Cable, and the curious results it has developed, led to the desire, at the Bath Meeting, that a wider and more systematic survey of the ocean bed should be carried on, and for this purpose the. General Committee appointed Sir R. Murchison, Rear-Admiral Collinson, and Mr. A. G. Findlay, to endeavour to promote this object. Up to the present time we know less of ocean physics than of almost any branch of science. The volume, depth, circulation, temperature, &c. of the waters of our globe are only vaguely to be surmised from isolated and imperfect experiments; yet it has. an influence on phy- sical geography second only to that of the atmosphere. The fact of animal life existing at the greatest depths, and of exactly the same nature, under every variety of surface climate, has only lately been satisfactorily determined. The wide range of speculation which the late accessions to our know- ledge as to the perpetual interchange and circulation of the whole of the ocean water, from the surface to the bed, from the equator to the poles, by which it would seem that the universal identity of its nature and composition could be maintained, the wide area over which species of animal life are found, the formation and composition of the sedimentary and oolitic rocks now in progress, are of apparently the same character as our older geologic strata. ; The state of our knowledge of the’ whole is detailed by Dr. Wallich 380 REPORT—1865. in his work on the Atlantic sea-bed, and he will lay before this Meet- ing a description of the mode of sounding. From the nature of the work to be done, it is manifest that individual efforts cannot be made available. The apparatus is both cumbersome and costly, and it requires a small steam-engine to use it. It must there- fore be left to Government. Perhaps the best form of apparatus, and the relation of the sounding lines to it, have not yet been determined; but it is believed that, when these preliminary matters are fully adjusted, the work could be carried out with celerity and certainty ; and if the services of some of the ves- sels of Her Majesty’s Navy could be impressed, we should soon have an accumulation of data whereon a satisfactory system of ocean physics might be raised. For the. direct benefit of seamen also, we should have the means of proving, or, what is better, of disproving the existence of the great number of reported shoals and dangers which embarrass navigation. In furtherance of the views of the Committee of Recommendation, Admiral Collinson has conferred with several officers since the last Meeting. There may be some difficulties as to the mode of carrying out the plan desired by the Committee in its full extent ; but the recent adop- tion of steam launches in the navy might give the necessary steam power, and some form of apparatus will have to be adapted to the special cases of those vessels not otherwise properly fitted. But the subject has made some progress. Commander C. Bullock, R.N., the Oriental Surveyor, son of Rear-Admiral Bullock, has been supplied with apparatus for H.M.S. ‘Sphinx,’ under his command, and he will doubtless send home good accounts of it in his progress toward the Indian Archipelago, and in the seas north of Australia, to which his expedition is bound. The first instalment of the observations has not yet arrived, but is expected shortly. We therefore hope that by the next Meeting some considerable advances will have been made in this interesting subject, and which, as far as possible, will be laid before the Meeting. On the Composition of the Gases evolved by the Baih spring called Kings Bath. By Prof. A. W. Wixttamson, University College, London. Tr was at the suggestion of Dr. Daubeny, who examined the gases from the Bath water in 1832, and measured the quantity evolved per hour, that the Association did me the honour to request me to undertake an analysis of the gas, and to make arrangements for its carefw collection. I understood that one reason for desiring these experiments to be made, was the possibility that variations might have occurred in the rate of their evolution since the time of Dr. Daubeny’s analysis. On inquiring of the authorities in Bath, I learned that there are in that city no less than four hot springs, each of which continually evolves gas simultaneously with hot water. These springs supply respectively the King’s Bath, the royal private bath in Hot Bath-street, the Cross Baths, and the Kingston Baths, ay 5 * ON THE COMPOSITION OF GASES EVOLVED BY KING’S BATH. 381 The arrangements for conducting the hot water from the three last-named of these springs to their respective baths are, however, so unfavourable to the accurate collection of the gas, that no means suggested themselves of attaining the desired object in any of those cases without incurring far greater expense than was authorized by the Association. Under these circumstances I haye confined my attention for the time to the gases from the King’s Bath, and have had the less regret at doing so from the circumstance that Dr. Daubeny’s observations were, if I am rightly informed, also limited to the gases from the King’s Bath. It will be seen from the accompanying section of the shaft supplying the water of the King’s Bath, that several pipes project into it with their open mouths downwards, and that some of the gas in rising up through the water is liable to enter these pipes. By far the greater part of the gas rises to a grating through which it issues to the floor of the bath together with hot water, The central grating is surrounded by several smaller openings, but all the gas escaping from these gratings could be collected by a funnel of 3 ft. 9 in. diameter. All other openings were closed at the times of collection, partly by stones and cement, partly by corks. Little more than 3 fect of water were in the bath at the time of collection. Well-stoppered Winchester quarts were employed for collecting the gas. Each stopper was coated with paraffine of such melting-point as to be semi- fluid at the temperature of the bath, and, carefully enveloped in paper, was attached to the neck of the bottle to which it belonged. Each bottle was numbered, and all were packed in a box with cellular divisions, well lined with a springy material. It was arranged that each bottle should be par- tially filled with gas, about one quarter of its space remaining filled with hot water, and that it should then be closed while still under water by its greased stopper, and packed mouth downwards with water over the stopper. This arrangement appears to have been effectual. I have been indebted to Dr. Falconer, the Chairman of the Committee of Baths, for valuable information and assistance in the course of the necessary arrangements. Mr. John Cooke of the Mineral Water Hospital, Bath, was good enough to undertake the operation of collecting and sending off the gas, and he has been aided by Mr. Tyler of Bath in his labours. The specimens of gas were measured and analyzed by Mr. Bowrey in the laboratory of University College, with the aid of the apparatus described some time ago by Dr. Russell and myself, Each bottle of gas, when received, con- tained some water, and as it was required to measure the quantity of the gas, the following method was adopted: the stopper of the bottle being removed under mercury, was re- placed by the cork A, fitted with two glass tubes, B B’, on to which were firmly wired the caoutchouc tubes ((’, in which fitted loosely the pieces of glass rod, DD’; before the cork was placed in the neck of the bottle, the caoutchouc tubes C (’ were closed by wiring the rods D D’, and the tubes B BY filled with mercury. The bottle was then placed in the retort stand as shown below, and the tube F connected with the caoutchouc tube Cat E. This tube, F, was then filled with water, care being taken to remove all air from the bend. The wire was then untwisted at D'; so as to establish free communication of the water in W and in F, Water was poured into F, or removed from it as needful, till the level 382 REPORT—1865. of the water at H and I was about the same. The whole affair was then left for an hour or two, so that it might become of the same temperature as the air of the room. When the temperature had become the same as that of the room, the water in the tube was levelled with that in the bottle (exactness being obtained by the use of a telescope moving in a hori- zontal plane). ‘The bottle was then marked in three places at the level of the water, and when the gas had been used, its amount was found by filling the bottle to these marks (placing it so that the water poured in was level with all three marks at the same time), and measuring the quantity of water. To transfer the gas to the eudiometer for analysis, the tube F was removed after the wire round the rod D' had been tightened, and the bottle placed upright; the portions EE! of the caoutchoue tubes CC’ were filled with mercury, and the tube K of the tube and fun- nel K L connected at E'; mercury was then - fn oat poured into L, the tap N being open, when a 4 few taps caused the air in the tube to be displaced by mercury, and on the wire at D’ being loosened, mercury flowed into the bottle; some little quantity was allowed to enter, and then the wire at D’ was tightened, and the tube K and funnel removed. To the caout- choue tube C at EH, a capillary tube P was fitted, this tube being full of mercury, which was kept in by a caoutchouc cap at §, and as the gas was under pressure, on loosening the’ wire at D it issued from the tube P. As soon as enough had come out, the wire was tightened, and the bottle placed with its mouth downwards so as to form a water joint. In each case of explosion with oxyhydrogen gas, from 30 to 40 measures of the detonating gas were added to 100 measures of the gas, or mixture of air and gas. As each bottle was opened, from 200 to 300 cub. centims. of water entered. Bottle No. 2 Fixed at 12 o’clock. Marked at 2 p.m. ; Therm, 64°-4 F. ; Barom. 30-04 inches. Contents up to marks 1840 cub. centims. =1733 cub. centims. at 0° Cent. and 760 millims. 5717-7 in 45 seconds = 2310-7 cub. centims. per minute. afer Gas taken wir xia agate abi ale ded 380-867) Diff. 13-156 = 3-454 After 15 minutes’ contact with potash 367-711 per cent. of carbonic After 15 minutes’ more contact ...... 367711 acid. After 16 hours’ contact with potassic ; ann eine ee \ 367:003 =:19 per cent. of oxygen. a ee A ae ON THE COMPOSITION OF GASES EVOLVED BY KING’S BATH. 3883 2. EMOGET 2, SUPA ME ale crs olsan «2 245-692 P ee After 15 minutes’ contact with potash.. 237-056 Ce . a Sid an After 15 minutes’ more contact ...... 237°056 SESE gene After explosion with oxyhydrogen gas.. 240-917 Anincreaseof 1:63 percent. After addition of hydrogen .......... 279-524 ) Showing <1 per cent. of After explosion with oxyhydrogen gas.. 278-807 oxygen. 3. les gas free from carbonic wa 268-282 | Being an increase of -83 After explosion with oxyhydrogen gas.. 270°509 ea aie Same gas, after exploding again with) 5-, ,, Being a still further in- = 274-608 Sb Gz yNydrosen FAS... 6.2 essen: crease of 1-52 percent. Bottle No. 4. Fixed at 2 p.m. Marked at 5.45 p.w.; Therm. 65°-8 F.; Barom. 30-05 inches. Contents to marks 1870 cub. centims. = 1760 cub. centims. at 0° Cent. and 760 millims. in 40 seconds. 880 = 2640 cub. centims. per minute. iu; WO ee eee a ees 242-999 7.169 = 2 After 10 minutes’ contact with potash.. 235-837 ate sa aioste thse Fh. After 10 minutes’ more contact ...... 235°837 . ahs S Measured next morning ............ 236-04 Difference or absorption ed s contact with cee | 235-024 1:016, or ‘42-per cent, After another hour’s contact.......... ed 024 of oxygen. After addition of air................ 295°055 Pe ee eon ae 1:164 on the gas taken, After explosion with oxyhydrogen gas.. 293-891 or of -48 per cent. After ten minutes’ contact with potash. . No alteration on longer contact. -42 percent. of carbonic acid, calculated on the gas taken. 2. ROD ee ce ema sg Difference 5-376 = 3-056 After contact with potash............ th ‘i per cent. of carbonic Aacer longer contact ............-..- 170-524 acid. - After contact with potassic pyrogallate 169-6 Absorption :924 = -525 mater longer contact .........- sess 169:6 per cent. of oxygen. Meror addition of air... 0.0... 6. de 245-082 | Contraction -914, or -52 After explosion with oxyhydrogen gas.. 244:168{ percent.onthe gasused. Showing the formation of After absorption of carbonic acid...:.. 243:457 ‘4 per cent. of carbonic After longer contact with potash ...... 243-457 acid, calculated on the EI “| a | gas taken. 384 rREPORT—1865. Bottle No. 5. Fixed at 9.15 a.m. Marked at 11.30 a.w.; Therm. 64°-4 F.; Barom. 30-15 inches. Contents to marks 1975 cub. centims. ' = 1867-5 cub. centims. at 0° Cent. and 760 millims. in 45 seconds. 622°5 = 2490-0 cub. centims. per minute. ARAM SRE F566 .S Oe Sos 219-498 ) Absorption5-982=2-721 After 10 minutes’ contact with potash.. 213-516 per cent. of carbonic After 10 minutes’ longer contact...... 213:516 acid. After half-hour’s contact with potassic 212-69 | Absorption -826 = -376 pyrogallate owe’ yak specter crete fein ae After another half-hour.............. 212-69 } an Ree After addition:of alr. does. tev: 282-354 |) Contraction 2:42 = 1:1 After explosion with oxyhydrogen gas.. 279-934 { per cent. on the gas used. Absorption -912, showing After contact with potash............ 279°022 the formation of *416 After longer contact... Ts. es ee 279:022 per cent. of carbonic , acid. Bottle No. 3. Fixed at 1.10 p.m. Marked at 4 p.m.; Therm. 65°-3 F.; Barom. 30-04 inches. Contents to marks 2000 cub. centims. = 1880 cub. centims. at 0° Cent. and 760 millims. in 50 seconds. 376 = 2256 cub. centims. per minute. Bottle No. 6. Fixed at 10.15 a.m. Marked at 1 p.w.; Therm. 64°-1 F.; Barom. 30/15 inches. Contents to marks 2325 cub. centims. = 2200 cub. centims. at 0° Cent. and 760 millims. in 70 seconds. 314 = 1886 cub. centims. per minute. Two or three small bubbles of air entered this bottle on opening. Bottle No. 7. Fixed at 2.15 p.m. Marked at 4:45 p.w.; Therm, 64°3 F,; Barom. 30°15 inches. Contents to marks 2150 cub. centims. = 2016 cub. centims. at 0° Cent. and 760 millims. in 55 seconds. 183 = 2199 cub. centims. per minute. A few bubbles of air entered on opening. Bottle No. 8. Fixed at 5 p.m. Marked at 10 o’clock next morning ; Therm. 66° F.; Barom. 30-125 inches. Contents to marks 1895 cub. centims. = 1784 at 0° Cent. and 760 millims. in 60 seconds, ON THE COMPOSITION OF GASES EVOLVED BY KING’S BATH. 385 Composition of Gases in 100 volumes. yee Oxygen. Marsh-gas. pase Nitrogen. bi fle » 9454 19 hadi nc Gl I. 2-948 42 18 124 96-212 4.) IE 3056 525 216 186 96-019 = 2-721 376 The carbonic oxide was no doubt produced by the potassic pyrogallate ; allowing for this, the composition of the gases will be pee ee Oxygen. Marsh-gas. Nitrogen. 9° { ED: 3°454 "19 i ine 3-511 4 I. 2°948 “54 18 96°332 F { EP 3°056 “617 216 96-111 3. 2°721 *376 No. 2 gave 2311 cubic centimetres per minute. 3? 4 3? 2640 ” ” ” 9 3 39 2256 ” ” a” 3? 5 39 2490 ”? > ” 3”? 6 33 1886 ”? 39 33 ? Zz 33 2199 39 2? ” ” 8 ” 1784 ” ”? ” 7) 15566 Mean 2223-7 cubic centimetres of gas at 0° Cent. and 760 millimetres mercurial pressure per minute. Method of collecting Gases from the King’s Bath at Bath. The bottle marked 1 to be taken from box at a time when there is a depth of eighteen inches of water in the bath. The string by which its stopper is attached to be cut, and the stopper (enveloped in paper) to be put in waistcoat pocket of operator. The bottle to be filled with water by immersing it in bath mouth upwards, until all the air has escaped from it. ‘ Tin funnel to be placed over the opening through which water flows into the bath, in such a position that all the gas which bubbles up from the spring will rise into the funnel. Bottle full of bath water to be inverted over funnel and left there until quite full of the gas.’ The bottle is then to be carefully lifted off the funnel, its mouth being constantly kept under wa- ter, and again filled with water in the same manner as before, viz. by immers- ing it in the bath until all the gas has bubbled out of it. When thus filled with water a second time, the bottle is to be slipped over the mouth of the funnel at the moment that an assistant, holding a watch mark- ing seconds in his hand, calls out that the seconds’ hand is at the point marked o on the scale. 1865. 386 REPORT—1865. The bottle is to be left over the funnel until ? or } of the water is driven out of it by the gas, and the assistant being warned that the time for stopping the collection is approaching, the bottle is to be lifted off the funnel at the instant that the assistant calls out that the seconds’ hand of the watch has arrived at the point marked o on the circle, so that it has completed an entire number of revolutions since the collection of gas commenced. The exact time at which the collection began is to be written down by the assistant while the operator is collecting, and in the line marked with the number of the bottle, and the time at which the collection ceases to be written down by the assistant in the same table when the operation of collecting is complete. i aes eee The stopper is to be immersed, held by its handle, in the water of the bath for some minutes before the collection is complete, and pressed firmly into the mouth of the bottle while that mouth is under water and held downwards. The stopper is then to be firmly tied down into the neck of the bottle, the bottle returned to its place in the box, and the box locked up again till next period of collecting. NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS OF MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. “its Aisrs). x = ek GNSS, Oe i am eae sunbeeia weaiecgeh ie are gi : & : : tS aa a hae a io Eppessing i one necaioge a ‘@TOAM TAKA aa oEEOK > NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS OF MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. Address of W. Srorriswoopr, F.R.S., President of the Section. Tue ereat range of subjects comprised in this section, and the multiplicity of papers submitted to it, have doubtless contributed to deter my predecessors in this chair from preparing addresses so elaborate and comprehensive as those delivered to other sections. The custom, however, of prefacing the business apa by a short sum- mary of subjects which have engaged the attention of philosophers during the past year, and which may therefore be expected to come before us during our present sittings, appears to be sanctioned by the wishes of our members, and may perhaps be followed without materially departing from that brevity which is here both customary and desirable. Foremost among the astronomical subjects in which we may hope to receive communications are the researches of Messrs. De la Rue, Stewart, and Loewy, in solar physics. Without attempting to anticipate what they may have to state, it may be as well to remind the section that it seems now to be established that solar spots are at a lower level than the penumbre, the faculie at a higher ; that the photosphere is gaseous ; and that the behaviour of the spots, as to appearance and disappearance, is connected with the position of the planets, and principally with that of Venus. The objection to this view of the nature of sun- spots which has been raised on the ground of the unbroken curvature of the sun’s limb, notwithstanding the elevation of the faculz and depression of the spots, has been answered by Professor Phillips in a paper read before the Royal Society. That the central mass is of less brilliancy than the photosphere is also ascertained ; but whether this arises from solid matter at a lower temperature, or otherwise, is still a question. M. Faye, in an elaborate memoir presented to the French Academy, suggests that it may consist of transparent gas. The moon continues to be the subject of careful investigation, both theoretical and observational. M. Delaunay explains that the delay in completing the second part of his lunar theory arises from his having to carry his developments beyond the order originally contemplated, viz. the seventh—in some cases as far as the ninth. M. Allégret states that the terms involving the cube of the time became im- portant when determining the secular variations. Under this head mention must not be omitted of Professor Cayley’s valuable contributions to the lunar theory. The Lunar Committee of this Association have been most actively engaged during the past year, and will state the results of their labours in their report. The planet Mars has been the object of much telescopic research on the part of - ot Messrs, Dawes, Lockyer, and others. The supposition that the 3. 1 2 REPORT—1865. redder parts of its disk are land, and the greyer parts sea, appears to be verified ; recent observations also confirm the view that snow is visible in its polar regions. Comparing the latitudes of arctic climates on Mars with those on the earth, it has been concluded that the temperature on the two planets is not very different. The solar radiation in the two cases is, of course, very disproportionate ; but the expla- nation of the result is to be sought in the action of a dense atmosphere, which, as Professor Tyndall has shown, serves to retain large quantities of heat which would otherwise radiate into space. Mr. Lassell has communicated to the Royal Astronomical Society an ephemeris of the satellites of Saturn, now finally reduced to four. The number of the minor planets continues to increase. M. Serret has presented to the Academy of Paris a theory of the movement of Pallas, complete as regards the perturbations of the principal planets. He promises a second part, discussing the influence of the minor planets, in which he states that he has arrived at some curious and unexpected resulis. . Although the subject of auroras more properly belongs to that of terrestrial mag- netism, it may here be mentioned that the height of these phenomena has been determined to be from 35 to 290 miles. Meteors and falling stars, whose periodic visits in August and November are well known, have both, by the labours of Alex. Herschel, Quetelet, and Secchi, been shown to be minute planetary bodies, differing only in size. When visible, they pass at a height of from fifty-two to seventy-three miles above the surface of the earth. M. Deville has even at- tempted to account for the known depression of temperature in February and May, and the elevation in August and November, by their position intercepting the heat of the sun during the former periods, and preventing the heat from the earth radi- ating into space during the latter. Before leaving our solar system, we must notice the discussion which has arisen respecting an expedition to the Antarctic regions to reconnoitre for practicable stations for the observation of the transit of Venus in 1882. It is unnecessary to remind this section that upon accurate observations of this phenomenon, at proper points upon the earth’s surface, will depend a verification or otherwise of M, Fou- cault’s correction of the sun’s distance, due to his new measurements of the velocity of light. The question of the expedition, however, will doubtless be fully discussed in the eengmantioes section, A celestial atlas, just published by M. Dien, promises to surpass all its prede- cessors in accuracy of detail, The difference of longitude between points on the great are of parallel—Bonn, Nieuport, and Hayerfordwest—has heen carefully ob- served; so has the longitude of the observatory at Glasgow, The usual amount of attention has been paid by observers and calculators to the subject of comets and their orbits. But, besides this, M. Hock, in a paper presented to the Royal Astronomical Society, has argued in considerable detail in favour of his view that comets move in parabolic and hyperbolic orbits, not in ellipses—that they are not isolated bodies, but consist of groups of fragments of bodies broken up by the sun or planets. Passing to the more remote celestial objects, Mr. Huggins has been continuing his observations on, and has determined, the spectra of the fixed stars and nebule, of which we may hope to hear some further particulars, In the meantime, I will notice only one point, but that a very curious one. Lord Rosse and Professor Bond find, by telescopic observations, that the brighter portions of the great nebula in Orion are apparently resoluble into stars. Mr. Huggins’s analysis, on the other hand, gives a spectrum consisting of three bright lines only, indicating a gaseous condition, An explanation of this apparent contradiction is perhaps to be found in the sugges- tion that the bright points shown by the telescope are not stars in the ordinary sense of the term, but condensed parts of the nebulous fluid. Imagination would lead us to suppose that we haye here before us a stage of cosmical process interme- diate between nebula and stars—the formation of a sun; but strict science forbids us as yet to adopt this as an ascertained conclusion. Spectrum analysis continues to receive further additions at the hands of the chair- man of our Kew Committee, Mr. Gassiot, who has carried the question so far as to construct an apparatus for determining whether the so-called fixed lines of the TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 3 solar spectrum undergo any displacement through the variation of gravity, in passing from one latitude to another on the earth’s surtace. The operations at the Kew Observatory in terrestrial magnetism, and with the pendulum apparatus recently erected there, will form the subject of a separate re- port. In the former department the observations at Stonyhurst give, as the annual “secular decrease of dip for the mean epoch of 1861-69, 2"G14—a result not very dif- ferent from that determined by General Sabine for London, viz. 269, From the same quarter we are informed that the annual increase of total force is 0030 British unit, Although this requires observations continued over a longer period, it may still be regarded as confirmatory of the fact that the total force is increasing. To Professor Tyndall’s researches in radiant heat allusion has been already made. From himself, however, we hope to receive a communication on his more recent experiments, whereby he has been enabled entirely to cut off the luminous from the calorific rays, and to produce not only combustion in an absolutely dark focus, but also the incandescence of platinum by non-luminous rays. Among the experimental improvements in subjects kindred to this may be men- tioned M. Marcus’s new thermo-electric battery, an invention likely to render this kind of battery far more generally serviceable than has hitherto been practicable. Like many other inventions, this has not been without some kind of anticipation, in pespenthon by Mx. Wheatstone in ‘The Philosophical Magazine’ as long ago as 837, We should also notice a suggestion by M. Carlier, for dispensing with the covering of the wire in electric coils. It is said that this has been carried out with such success as to produce an increase rather than diminution of power. M. Richer also suggests the use of sulphur plates instead of glass in electrical machines. Mr. Beale has succeeded in using object-glasses for the microscope of much higher power sz in.) than heretofore; and I must not omit to mention that an essential part of the apparatus consists of a cap of the thinnest possible glass, manufactured only by Mr. Chance of this city. From the Committee on Electrical Resistance we shall doubtless receive a fur- ther report, But the gigantic experiment to which the whole subject has recently been subjected—an experiment which, notwithstanding its present interruption, we may still call a great scientific suecess—will doubtless give an additional interest to anything that the members of the committee who accompanied the Atlantic expedition may haye to communicate. ide by side with these experimental researches, the mathematical theories of molecular physics have been advanced in several directions. Professor Maxwell, in this country, and M. Renard in France, have each contributed a memoir on electro- nice; and the latter has deduced his fundamental formulee from the hypothesis of a single fluid. M. Corun, by a happy application of M. Chasles’s principle of homographic planes, has deduced from MacCullagh’s theory some propositions relating to crystalline reflexion and refraction. These have the remarkable property of being independent of the wave-surface, and therefore may be said to rest upon a simpler frame of hypothesis. M. Corun is preparing some apparatus for the experi- mental verification of his method. M. Boussinecq also has presented to the Academy of Sciences a memoir on the theory of light, in which he has taken into account terms of the second degree in the displacements, It would seem that the paper contains generalizations comprising the theories of Fresnel, MacCullagh, and Neumann. Lastly in this connexion may be mentioned the writings of M. Saint Venant on the vis viva of elastic systems, and his extension of the investigations of Narvier and Poncelet on the resistance of elastic bars, rods, &c. In each of the main branches of pure mathematics, geometry and analysis, a modern school has arisen. The former, originating with Carnot, Dupin, Poncelet, and others, dates from the early part of the present century ; the latter, due in the first instance to Cayley, Boole, and Sylvester, belongs wholly to the present gene- vation. Both schools have this in common, that figures in the one case, and forms in the other, are considered not merely as isolated individuals, but as associated with other concomitant forms which characterize their various properties. In pure geometry we have the principle of projection, whereby any plane figure is considered in connexion with all or any other plane figure lying on the same * A REPORT—1865. cone, in such a way that a theorem relating to one figure frequently establishes a corresponding theorem relating to the other. Thus many properties of conics in general are at once suggested and proved by reference to the circle. Again, the theory of reciprocal polars, or rather the principle of duality, which enables us to see points and straight lines in a condition of interdependence such that theorems relating to points (e. g. positions or curves, intersections of lines, Xc.) at once give rise to corresponding theorems relating to straight lines (tangents, rec- tilinear loci, &c.). Under the head of modern geometrical methods falls also the theory of pencils of rays and transversals; straight lines radiating from a point and cutting another line, straight or curved. This again suggests the idea of relations between the segments of the transversal (when straight) or between the angles made inter se by the radiating lines. The most fruitful conception of this kind has been that of the anharmonic ratio of four points or rays. This peculiar ratio re- mains unchanged under such a variety of circumstances, that it has arisen to an almost independent principle in geometry; and upon it M. Chasles may be said to have founded, to a very great extent, his ‘Geométrie Supériewre’ and his new work on conic sections, the first volume of which has recently appeared. Before quitting this part of the subject, it should not be omitted that a great part of these theories have their application to figures in space as well as to those in plano. The second volume of M. Chasles’s work will contain a full exposition of his recent most important contribution to the theory of conics. He has found that the properties of a system of conics satisfying any four conditions whatever may be most ery a expressed in terms of two elements or characteristics—namely, the number of such conics which pass through any point, and the number which touch any line. Starting from this fruitful notion, he has, by a process which may be termed geo- metrical substitution, heen able to express, in a single symmetrical formula, the number of conics which satisfy any five conditions whatever. We may almost say that he has condensed into this formula the whole theory of conics. Again, connected with this is the principle of deformation—another method of considering one figure in relation to another, the points of the one being connected by a definite construction with those of the other. By this, and in particular by a most happy extension of it by Professor Hirst, theorems and properties of curves of higher degrees are demonstrated through those of lower, e.g. curves of the fourth and fifth degrees by conics. Passing to analysis, we have in the first place the analogues of the geometrical theories above mentioned. 'To the method of projection corresponds (in one of its interpretations at least) the method of linear transformation ; to that of deformation, non-linear transformations. The method of transversals as well as those of anhar- monic ratio and geometrical involution admit of a concise analytical statement ; but they cannot be called methods even in analytical geometry, still less in analysis proper. The principle of duality, however, as treated by Plicker, may claim an analytical with as good a right as a geometrical basis. Before quitting this part of the subject, mention should be made of two impor- tant and original contributions to analytical geometry in space. One, by Professor Cayley, is directed to the representation of curves in space (by means of cones having variable vertices), a method free from the extraneous branches sometimes intro- duced by the ordinary conception of the complete intersection of two surfaces; of the other, by Professor Pliicker, we have at present only the abstract in the pro- ceedings of the Royal Society; it promises, however, to abound in processes of great power and originality. But the greatest acquisition to modern analysis is what is now generally termed the new algebra. This calculus, which originated in this country, and from the first received wide developments at the hand of its founders, Boole, Cayley, and Sylvester, has, during the last few years, found numerous cultivators both amongst ourselves and on the Continent. The main problem proposed for solution is the investigation of the properties of rational homogeneous algebraical functions of any number of variables, the forms to which they are capable of being reduced, the subsidiary expressions to which they give rise or with which they may be asso- ciated, and the bearing of the latter upon the former. Investigations so general, so abstract, and so apparently removed from any practical application could not TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 5 fail to be regarded coldly by many whose attention had been principally directed to special problems in physics. And one at least of my hearers will doubtless, with myself, recollect the unrestrained censure which, in the midst of a most hearty greeting, the late astronomer of Turin would pour upon the labours of any disciple of the modern school who chanced to visit him. The promoters, however, of this science, sure of their footing, and confident that nothing which could lead to results of such a remarkable character or of such great generality, that nothing which could unite, correlate, and simplify the apprehension of such numberless disjecta membra of analysis—confident that no such method would in the end prove useless or unmeaning in the interpretation of nature—pursned their investigations; and a very short time has justified their firmness, by witnessing the new algebra reaching out and indissolubly connecting itself each year with fresh branches of mathematics. The theory of equations has almost become new through it; algebraic geometry has been transfigured in its hight; the calculus of variations, molecular physics, and mechanics have all felt its influence. The memoirs of Cayley on quantics, those of Sylvester on the calculus of forms, have become classical. Intimately connected with this subject is the theory of numbers, which, at the hands of some leading analysts, principally German and French, has recently received such large extension. One peculiarity, but that of a very general character, which distinguishes some of the modern from the older methods, consists in the introduction of variable quantities into the expressions—in other words, in bringing the processes of continuous to bear upon the properties of discrete quantity. But into this it is unnecessary to enter in any detail, as we have already in our volumes the very able and comprehensive reports by Professor Smith, of Oxford. We are now anxiously expecting his final communication, not only because we shall then have before us a survey of the whole subject brought down to the present time, but still more because we trust that the author may then find leisure to complete the original work upon the theory of numbers upon which it is understood that he has been engaged for many years, and to which the reports in question form only a prelude. The tendency which is here exhibited of some common principle running through various subjects, and bringing them into connexion, reappears in the differential resolvents of Cockle, Harley, aud others, and in the transcendental solution of equations which has been effected on the Continent. In both cases a relation is established between ordinary algebraic equations and the differential caleulus—in the one with linear differential equations, in the other with a simple integration. Some future developments will, perhaps, throw further light upon the ultimate issue of these processes. The calculus of operations, or of symbols, as it has been also called, whereby the symbols of operation are separated from those of quantity, has for some years been in use among analysts in this country. And although no very remarkable step has recently been made, or is perhaps to be expected, in this field, still some consider- able progress has been effected towards completing the algebra, or laws of combi- nation, of these non-commutative symbols. It would occupy too much time to touch upon the many more subjects which suggest themselves, but it would be impossible to pass over without mention the important contributions to the theory of differential equations, and in particular of those which occur in mechanics, by the late Professors Jacobi and Boole (in whose deaths mathematical science has sustained so great losses), and, secondly, the extension which the theories of elliptic and Abelian functions have received at the hands of Riemann, Hermite, Weierstrasse, Clebsch, and others. The last-men- tioned mathematician has brought the subject of Abelian functions to bear in a most remarkable and unexpected manner upon algebraic geometry. I will allude to only one more instance of modern generalizations—namely, the conception of imaginary quantities introduced alike into geometry and algebra, one of the most fertile sources of new and important theorems. The funeral on this very day of one of our most profound mathematicians—Sir W. R. Hamilton —the inventor of quaternions, invests the subject with a somewhat mournful aspect on the present occasion. And here I must bring this brief and imperfect sketch of recent progress in our subjects to a close. It would have been more 6 REPORT—1865. interesting to myself, and more justice would have been done to the writers whose names have been little more than mentioned, if I could have completed the outline, or, better still, have filled in the details. As it is, some apology is due for having so long detained you upon mathematics; but, as a science whose rules all others must obey, it has large claims upon our attention ; and if a personal motive must also be confessed, one’s mind lingers upon a favourite subject. MATHEMATICS. On Dual Arithmetic. By O. Byrnn. The author explained his method of dual arithmetic, which he has applied, in connexion with the calculus of form, to imvestigate the relations and properties of angular magnitudes and functions, plane and spherical trigonometry, &e. On certain Theorems in Laplace’s Discussion of the Figure of the Earth and Precession and Nutation. By Prof. A. H. Curtis, On the Theory of Differential Resolvents. By the Rey. R. Harney, FL. The theory of differential resolvents owes its origin to the discovery that, from any algebraic equation of the degree m, whereof the coefficients are functions of avariable, there may be derived a linear differential equation of the order n—1, which will be satisfied by any one of the roots of the given algebraic equation. These differential equations are now known by the name “ differential resolvents.” The author explained how they are formed, and pointed out their connexion with the theory of algebraic equations. One of the most important of his recent results is the following :— If w represent the mth power of any root of the algebraic equation y" —ny"”—" + (n—1) x=0, then w, considered as a function of «, satisfies the linear differential equation n—r ad m)n—r (fia ea : PV Wee ities - Ft n n” [ nt =| al u=(n—1) E ab ree Ly Brey r dx r . dx. a in which the usual factorial notation [a}’=(a) (a—1)...(a—b+1) is adopted. And the complete integral of this differential equation is u=C, yyr+C, yi”... +Cnyn™, Yr You «++ Yn being the n roots of the given algebraic equation. From this theorem, which is an extension of one given by the late Prof. Boole in the Philosophical Transactions for 1864, p. 735, all the differential resolvents of algebraic equations of the above trinomial form may be readily deduced, by making m=1, in which case u=y, and depressing the differential equation by immediate integration. On Chasles’s Method of Characteristics. By Professor T. A. Hirst, F.R.S. After briefly explaining the nature and scope of this important method, by which the theory of conic sections has now been completed, the author communicated a few of the results of Professor Chasles’s most recent researches on the properties of conics in space, which satisfy one less than the number (eight) of conditions neces- sary to determine them. These results were communicated to the Academy of Sciences, on September 4, 1865, and”appear in the ‘Comptes Rendus’ of that date. On Quadric Transformation. By Professor T. A. Hirst, F.RS. The object of the paper was to establish new properties of two figures (in one and the same plane) so related to one another that to a point in one figure corresponds but one point in the other, and vice versd, whilst to a right line in the one figure corresponds a, conic section in the other. Among these properties were several which cxhibit a remarkable connexion between a correspondence of this kind and TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. vA the theory of numbers. The author’s attention was first directed to this connexion by Professor H. J. 8S. Smith, of Oxford. On a Method of discovering Remainders in Arithmetieal Dwision. By C. M. Inetusy, LL.D. Let A be any number (or aggregation of units), and let the prefix R indicate the operation of distributing the number to which it is prefixed in a scale of nota- tion whose radix is7. Let B be the number of units im RA; then pariter MB is the operation of distributing B in a scale whose radix is m ; and so of other prefixes. Then aes is an integer, m being + or —. Now, if MB>7, let C be the wire ae RA—MC. F ; , number of units init. Then te is an integer; and so on until we arrive at —MT. ; f MT, a number 1, and MT (or SA) > m, (it must be <1), we have appa- rently a case of failure. On a New Method in Geometry. By Prof. Priicxer. On the Extension of Taylor’s Theorem by the Method of Derivations. By Prof. Price. On some Applications of the Theory of Probabitities. By Prof. Pricx. 8 REPORT—1865, On the Calculation of the Potential of the Figure of the Earth. By W. H. L. Russert. The object of this paper was to simplify and render symmetrical certain portions of Professor O’Brien’s investigations on the figure of the earth. In that paper the reduction of the expression for the potential to a convenient form is effected by the introduction of a discontinuous quantity ; the author of the present paper has found that the required form is obtained much more shortly by dividing the original definite integral into two parts, and then expanding separately. On the application of D’Alembert’s Principle to the Rotation of a Rigid Mass. By Dr. StEvELLY. The author explained that the present method of applying D’Alembert’s prin- ciple to the investigation of the spontaneous axis assumed by a free, rigid mass, under the action of force, in all the works he was acquainted with, led to what he showed to be a false conclusion, viz. that that axis must be a principal axis of the rigid mass. He showed how the error arose from neglecting, in applying the prin- ciple of D’Alembert, to take into account not only that part of the motion of each elementary part of the body which related to the magnitude of its motion, but also that part which relates to its direction, and from which its centrifugal endeayour at each instant arises. But if the force impressed tend to produce rotatory motion round an unstable spontaneous axis, how can the present mode of applying D’Alembert’s principle lead to a true conclusion,-when it proceeds on the method of bringing the bedy into such a state that the equations of equilibrium (that is, of no after-change) shall give the direction-courses of the axis ? On a Special Class of Questions on the Theory of Probabilities. By Professor Sytvuster, /.R.S. After referring to the nature of geometrical or local probability in general, the author of the paper drew attention to a particular class of questions partaking of that character in which the condition whose probability is to be ascertained is one of pure form. The chance of three points within a circle or sphere being apices of an acute or obtuse-angled triangle, or of the quadrilateral formed by joining four points, taken arbitrarily within any assigned boundary, constituting a reentrant or convex quadrilateral, will serve as types of the class of questions in view. The general problem is that of determining the chance that a system of points, each with its own specific range, shall satisfy any prescribed condition of form. For instance, we may suppose two pairs of points to be limited respectively to segments of the same indefinite straight line: the chance of their anharmonic ratio being under cr over any prescribed limit will belong to this category of questions, to which, provisionally, the author proposed to attach the name of form-probability. In questions of form-probability, in which all the ranges are either collinear seg- ments or coplanar areas, or defined portions of space, rules may be given for trans- forming the data, so as to make the required probability depend on one or more probabilities of a simpler kind, leading to summations of an order inferior by two degrees to those required by the methods in ordinary use. Thus Mr. Woolhouse’s question relating to the chance of a triangle within a circle or sphere being acute can be made to depend upon an easy simple integration, the solutions heretofore given of this problem inyolying complicated triple integrals. It was shown, as a further illustration, that the foes eabebaliig of a group of points all ranging over the same triangle remains unaltered when the range of one of them is limited to any side of the triangle chosen at will, and, again, (for convenience of expression distinguishing the contour into a base and two sides) will be the mean of the two probabilities resulting from limiting one point to range over either side with uni- form probability, and simultaneously therewith a second point of the group over the base, with a probability varying as its distance from that end of the base in which it is met by the side. An analogous rule can be given for transforming the form-probability of a group limited to any the same parallelogram. So again for a group of points ranging over a plane figure bounded by any curvilinear contour. — — TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 9 The preblem may be transformed by supposing two of the points of the group to range on the contour itself, according to a law which may be expressed by saying that the probability of their being found on any are shall vary as the product of the segment included between the are and its chord, multiplied by the time of describing the arc about any centre of force arbitrarily chosen within or upon the contour,—a theorem which, accepting the idea of negative probability, admits also of extension to the case of a centre of force exterior to the contour, Among other problems which the author readily resolves by aid of his principle of transformation, may be mentioned that of determining the mean value of a triangle whose angles are taken at random anywhere within a given triangle, See lelderom, ellipse, or ellipsoid. In this description of questions a peculiar difficulty arises, from the fact that the figure which is to be integrated in order to determine the numerator of the fraction which gives its mean value must always be taken positive, whereas its algebraical expression will repeatedly change its sign, according to a more or less complicated law. This quality of the analytical expo- nent of the arithmetical value of the figure constitutes, in fact, a sort of polarization which has to be got rid of; and the depolarizing process is effected with great ease by virtue of the simplified form impressed upon the data by the method set forth in the paper. The author further took occasion briefly to allude to the form in which his own problem of four and Mr. Woolhouse’s problem of three points were originally pro- posed, viz. in each case without a specified boundary, and to express his opinion that the principle which had been applied to them, and in which he had formerly acquiesced, was erroneous, as it could be made to lead to contradictory conclusions, and must be abandoned. Ile was strongly inclined to believe that, under their original form, these questions do not admit of a determinate solution. On Professor Price’s Modification of Arbogast’s Method. By Professor Sytvesrer, J’. 2S. Licur. On Moving Photographic Figures, illustrating some Phenomena of Vision con-= nected with the Combination of the Stereoscope and the Phenalistoscope by means of Photography. By A. Cuavpet, F.RS. From the beginning of photography it must have struck those who were ac- quainted with the phenakistoscope, invented by Plateau, that photography could produce with advantage series of pictures for that instrument with greater accu- racy than any made by hand. M. Duboscq made some ingenious attempts in this direction, but not entirely satisfactory. The author had also turned his attention towards the subject, and had practically experienced the difficulty of obtaining together the phenakistoscopic and stereoscopic effects. He desired to lay before the Association an attempt he had made some years ago, illustrated by an instrument showing how easy it was to obtain the illusion of moving figures, but without stereoscopic effect,—two pictures of different positions being sufficient to elicit the phenomenon, although the illusion suffers from the deficiency of intermediate posi- tions. Nothing, however, is easier than to employ eight different pictures in as many different stages of the action, and the effect will be sufficiently complete. For this, Mr. Claudet, having placed in his stereoscope two separate cubic frames, has only to fix on their four sides, at right angles, two sets of four pictures, which are made to pass in consecutive order before the lenses, and the figure assumes consecutively eight different stages of the whole action. The instrument with only two pictures will suffice to illustrate the principle, and, at the same time, elicit some curious henomena of the perception of vision. The author has constructed his instrument in such a manner that by means of a slide with one hole he can, by moving it rapidly in a reciprocating horizontal direction, shut one lens while the other remains -open; and in continuing that motion, while one eye sees one of the two pictures, 10 REPORT—1865. the second eye cannot see the other picture. If, before the sensation of one eye exhausted, the slide shuts the first lens and opens the other, a new impression is pro- duced, and we have an uninterrupted sensation of vision as if the object had moved before-us ; and if a sufficient number of pictures represent that object in the various consecutive positions it has assumed during the several stages of its motion, we expe- rience the sensations we have when we see the object while moving; and although the pictures in their limited number do not show all the intermediate positions, still the mind has the power of filling up the deticiency, as it does if, when looking at a real object in motion, we accidentally wink the eyelids, or an obstacle happens to pass between us and the object. To exemplity this, Mr. Claudet has employed two photographic pictures, one representing the beginning of an action, the other the end. By moving the slide one way, the right eye can see the picture repre- senting the figure in one position, while the picture showing the other is invisible to the left eye ; then by moving the slide the other way, the left eye sees the figure in the second position, and the first picture is invisible to the righteye. Although we have really only seen the figure in two extreme positions, still we have the illu- sion of having observed the intermediate positions—as, for example, in a slide exhibited having one picture of a boxer with his arm close to his side as preparing to hit, and another with the arm extended delivering the blow. Here, although a the intermediate positions are omitted which must have been assumed during the act, the mind completes the action. Another curious phenomenon of this alternate vision is, that one cannot distinguish which eye the object is seen by ; for although the vision is transferred alternately from one eye to the other, we are not conscious of the act; and during the change of pictures which has taken place in the mean- time, we have had a uniform and uninterrupted sensation, and consequently it has appeared as if the object were moving. On Spectacles for Divers, and on the Vision of Amphibious Animals. By ¥. Gatton, h.RS., F.GS. Bathers who have surmounted the very natural repugnance, felt by beginners, to open their eyes when they dive, find when they look about them under water that nothing is to be seen with distinctness. They perceive little more than a haze of diffused light; for their eyes are thoroughly out of focus in a water medium. When aman under water holds his hands at a little distance from his face, so great is the confusion of outline, that he cannot discover the spaces between his fingers even when he has separated them as widely as possible. The appearance is a formless blurr of white. Now what is the precise cause of this indistinctness of vision ? By what optical arrangement can it be overcome? And how do amphibious animals accom- modate their sight to the requirements both of air and of water? Suppose a tube, with a flat bottom of glass, filled with water; when the surface is perfectly still, and we look down the tube, we see objects lying in the water and others in the air below the glass bottom, with perfect distinctness. But if we bend the head down to the tube, the instant the eye touches the water all distinctness of vision ceases. The convex surface of the eyeball has indented the plain surface of the water and thereby turned the tube into a concayo-plane water-lens. The convexity of the eyeball is very great ; according to physiologists, the radius of its curvature is only 0-31 of an inch; the effect of the concave lens which it stamps on the surface of the water must be proportionately large; and if it be desired to counteract its in- fluence, a convex lens must be used of such high power that, when immersed in water, its effect shall be equal and opposite to that of the concave water-lens. A simple calculation shows the description of lens required. A double-convex lens of flint glass, each of whose surfaces has a radius of 0°48, is the equivalent. It would exactly neutralize the effect of the concave water-lens, if it were held close, to the eyeball. This curvature of the lens would require to be somewhat modified accord- ing to the convexity of each individual eye, and to the refractive power of different kinds of flint glass. When held at the usual distance of an eye-glass from the eye, a lens of more moderate power, such as a radius of 0-60, or even 0-70, is found sufficient. Furnished with eye-glasses containing suitable lenses, we might expect that the vision of a diver would be rendered as clear under water as in air, that its range would be limited only by the turbidity of the water, and that it would not be TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 11 affected by indistinctness due to the disordered focus. But the author had found that the eye, when looking through a lens of. this description under water, has not much power of accommodating itself to different distances ; and with the best -of those the author had as yet constructed, the limit of distinct vision appeared practically restricted to a range of about eight feet. The attempt, however, was only provisional: his experiments had but very recently been commenced. It must be distinctly understood that men in diving-machines or helmets do not require such lenses; for their eyeballs are separated from the water by the apparatus in which ._ they are cooped up. All that is needed by such a is to have ordinary windows of stout plate glass through which they can look out into the medium which sur- rounds them. ‘The author’s contrivance refers to the wants of divers in pearl- and sponge-fisheries, to sailors who have occasion to examine the bottoms of their ships, to Nong tee who have dropped something in the water which they wish to recover, and to bathers generally. To those who can swim, the author promises a material addition to their enjoyment, in the possession of these eye-glasses or spectacles. It is no slight pleasure to live in some degree the life of a mermaid, keeping below water for a minute at a time, and seeing everything in one’s immediate neighbour- hood as clearly as it could be seen by leaning over the gunwale of a boat on a still day, when the glare from the water was perfectly shaded. There are many amphi- bious animals that see as well under water as in air. Amongst these are seals, otters, hippopotami, water-rats, and diving birds of many descriptions. The cornea of the seal is flattened, but that of the other animals appears to be as convex as in man. By what means these other animals are able to adjust their eyes to the re- quirements of water and of air indifferently, is wholly unexplained. Physiologists do not seem to have been aware of the vast powers of optical adjustment which the habits of these animals necessitate. The Refraction Equivalent of Carbon. By Dr. J. H. Guavstonr, F.R.S. The refractive index of a substance, minus unity, divided by the specific gravity, is termed its specific refractive energy ; and this multiplied by the chemical equiva- lent has been termed, by Landolt, its refraction equivalent. The present commu- nication was intended to show that carbon, whether as the pure element, or as a part of solid, liquid, or gaseous compounds, has the same refraction equivalent, viz. 5, or a little more. Diamond gives 5; carbonic acid, 5:03; bisulphide of carbon, 5:3; chloride of carbon, 5-15; cyanogen, about 5-2; many hydrocarbons, 5; sugar, about 4°8; while Landolt, from the refraction equivalents of compounds differing by one equivalent of carbon, determined the number 5. In some highly dispersive substances a higher number was arrived at by calculation. On a New Form of Spectrum-Microscope. By H. C. Sorny, F.R.S. The superiority of this instrument, as compared with that first proposed by the author, consists in the employment of a compound direct-vision prism over the eye-piece. The slit is fixed in the focus of the upper lens of the eye-piece, which is made achromatic, so that all parts of the spectrum may be distinctly seen at the same time. By using a binocular microscope, the inclined tube can be employed as a finder ; and on arranging so that a minute object is in the centre of the field, it will be directly in front of the slit fixed in the eye-piece of the other tube. On looking through this eye-piece it is easy to see that the object is properly placed in front of the slit ; and then, on placing the prism on the eye-piece, as if it were a Nicol’s prism, the spectrum of the object can be seen to great advantage. This compound analyzing prism consists of two right-angled prisms of flint glass, between which is a rectangular prism of crown glass, and at each end a crown-glass prism of about 75°, all cemented together with Canada balsam. Arrangements are also made in the instrument, by means of a reflecting prism covering half the slit, so that the spectrum of a minute object placed on the stage may be compared with that of a larger object placed on a stage attached to the side of the eye-piece, and thus their diilerence or identity may be seen at aglance. It is thus easy to compare the spectra of minute crystals and of their solutions, to study the spectra of small coloured blowpipe beads, and, in fact, accurately examine the nature of the light 12 REPORT—1865. transmitted through any minute coloured substances. By using a parabolic reflector attached to the object-glass, opaque bodies may be examined by reflected light ; and, as a curious test-object, 1t may be mentioned that, by this means, a speck of blood on white paper, sail would not weigh more than one-millionth of a grain, will show a perfectly characteristic spectrum. Heat. Experimental Inquiry into the Laws of the Conduction of Heat in Bars, and into the Conducting-Power of Wrought Iron. By Principal Forses, F.2.S. The experiments described in this pape were all made in 1850 and 1851, upon a plan which was fully explained by the author in letters to Mr. Airy and Pro- fessor Kelland in the former year. Some notice of them appeared in the British Association Reports for 1851 and 1852, and the apparatus was supplied by a grant from the Association. In previous inquiries into the thermal condition of a long conducting bar heated at one end, two assumptions have always been made :—/irst, that the flux of heat across any transverse section of the bar is proportional throughout to the rapidity of the decrement of temperature reckoned along the axis of the bar (or to ze where p 5 da’? v represents the temperature, above that of surrounding space, of any point of the axis of the bar at a distance x from the origin) : secondly, that the loss of heat by radiation and convection from the surface of the bar is at every point qEOOE, tional to the same temperature ». By assuming these principles (the last of which is certainly more or less inexact), the well-known solution of the problem of the heated bar is, that the temperatures (or excesses of temperature) diminish in a geometrical progression from the origin, and finally, of course, become insensible. Previous experimenters have confined themselves to finding the constants of the logarithmic curve for different substances, and thence their relative (not absolute) conducting-powers. In the experiments now described, neither of the above-mentioned principles is assumed. The external loss of heat is directly ascertained by experiment, and the admissibility or otherwise of the first of the two assumptions is also directly tested. That assumption may be thus symbolized: F = — a where F is the flux of heat across unit of section, / the conducting-power for the substance employed, and v and x have the same signification as before. I. In the first instance, a bar of iron 8 feet long and 14 inch in diameter, was heated at one end by means of a crucible containing melted solder. Thermometers were inserted at various points of its length. The results, v in terms of 2, were projected in a curve (approximately a logarithmic), and the values of S were found by projection or calculation, or both. Il. Next, a Fit bar (20 inches long), perfectly similar in section and condition of surface to the long bar, is heated to above 200° Cent. in a bath of fused metal, and allowed to cool in free space, a thermometer being inserted at the centre of its length. This gives us the rate at which such a bar is parting with its heat from all causes whatever, in terms of the temperature shown by a thermometer in its axis. III. The losses of heat in unit of time (one minute) last found, may be taken as representing the amount of heat dissipated from each elementary section of the long bar in the statical experiment (I.), being given in terms of the temperature proper to each point of such a bar. A curve may thus be constructed, having for its line of abscisse the axis of the long bar, and for ordinates, the rate of dissipa- tion of heat from each portion of its surface due to both radiation and convection. This curve is called by the author the statical ewrve of cooling. IV. If we can by mechanical quadrature, or otherwise, find the whole amount of heat dissipated between any point of the long bar and its coolest extremity, we TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 13 have, in fact, the flux of heat passing from the hotter extremity of the body across the particular section in question ; for the condition of permanence of the tempe- rature of the bar arises from the equality of the heat supplied and dissipated. But the whole heat dissipated in unit of time is the integral of the partial dissipations represented by vertical ordinates of the last-named curve, taken between any as- sumed point x and the furthest or cool end of the bar. This quantity, then, is I° or the flux across unit of section at the point 2. : V. We are now able to resolve the question whether or not the flux of heat is in the given bar everywhere proportional to the rapidity with which the temperature A F dv ; decreases as x increases, or whether the equation holds, F= —hy the conductine- ower & being supposed to be constant. The following Table shows that the constancy of / in the case of iron cannot be assumed,—on the contrary, that the conductivity diminishes when the tempera- ture increases. Conductivity of Wrought Iron. bl ai Units the Foot, | Units the Centi- ? Minute, | métre, Minute, and and Cent. Degree. Cent. Degree. 0° 01337 12°42 50 01144 10°63 100 ‘01012 9-40 150 00934 8:68 200 00876 8-14 250 00826 7-67 The author had pointed out so long ago as in 1833 the apparent coincidence of the order of metals, taken with reference to their power of conducting heat and elee- tricity. In 1852 he announced that the conductivity of iron for heat diminished with the temperature. Since that time Dr. Matthiessen has clearly established the same result for electricity, and finds, moreover, that the temperature- coefficient varies most rapidly at lower temperatures—a law which may be sary also to hold in the preceding Table for Heat. It would be premature to assert from these expe- riments alone that the “percentage decrement” in the case of iron is the same for heat and electricity, although it is not impossible that it may turn out to be so. On the Second Law of Thermodynamics*, By W. J. Macavorn Rankine, F.R.S. It has long been established that all the known relations between heat and me- chanical energy are summed up in two laws, called respectively the first law and the second law of thermodynamics, viz. :—First Law: Quantities of heat and of mechanical energy are convertible, at the rate very nearly of 772 foot-pounds to the British unit, or 424 ldlogrammetres to the French unit of heat. Second Law: The quantity of energy which is conyerted from one of those forms to the other during a given change of dimensions and condition in a given body is the product of the absolute temperature into a function of that change and of the kind and arrangement of the matter of the body. By absolute temperature is here to be un- derstood temperature measured according to a scale so graduated that the tempe- rature of a homogeneous body shall vary in the simple proportion of the quantity of energy it possesses in the form of sensible or thermometric heat. The laws of thermodynamics as here stated are simply the condensed expression of the facts of experiment. But they are also capable of being viewed as the consequences of the supposition that the condition of bodies which accompanies the phenomena of sensible heat consists in some kind of motion amongst their particles, The first. * Printed in full in the Philosophical Magazine for October 1865. 14, -REPORT—1865. law would obviously follow from the supposition of any kind of molecular motion whatsoever, and it therefore affords of itself no reason for preferring one supposi- tion as to the kind of molecular motion which constitutes sensible heat to another. But if there be molecular motions in bodies, it is certain that, although all of them are capable of conversion into that which constitutes sensible heat, some of them are not accompanied by sensible heat. For example, the motion, supposed to be vibratory and wave-like, which constitutes radiance, whether visible or invisible, is not accompanied by sensible heat, and only produces sensible heat by its absorp- tion, that is, in the language of hypothesis, by its conversion into some other kind of motion ; while, on the other hand, in the production of radiance sensible heat disappears. The object of the paper, then, is to give an elementary proof of the proposition (of which the author gave an intricate algebraical demonstration in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh for 1851), that the second law of thermodynamics follows from the supposition that sensible heat consists in any kind of steady molecular motion within limited spaces. Steady motion may be defined as motion in a set of streams of invariable figure. When steady motion takes place in matter that is confined within a limited space, the streams in which the particles move must necessarily return into themselves, and be circulating streams, being, in - hat respect, of the nature of whirls or vortices. Steady motion keeps unaltered the distribution of the density of the moving matter; and it therefore keeps unaltered. the forces depending on such distribution whether of the nature of pressure or of attraction. In this respect it differs from unsteady motion, such as vibratory and wave-like motion. Supposing that the dimensions of the limited space in which the moving matter is enclosed undergo an indefinitely small change by the appli- cation of suitable forces, and that after that process the motion becomes steed as it was before, then the dimensions and position of each circulating stream will have been altered, and the work done in effecting that alteration will consist of energy converted between the forms of potential energy of the applied forces and actual energy of the molecular motions—that is, between the forms of mechanical enerey and heat. Prof. Rankine then works out the problem to this conclusion—that, if sensible heat consists in any kind of steady molecular motion within limited spaces, the conversion of energy during any change in the dimensions of such spaces is the product of the absolute temperature into some function of that change and of the sort and distribution of the matter. It is obvious that the steadiness of the sup- posed molecular motion is the essential condition which makes the second law of thermodynamics deducible from a mechanical hypothesis, and that no kind of un- steady motion, such as vibratory or wave-like motion, would lead to the same results. If then it be admitted as probable that the phenomena of heat are due to unseen molecular motions, it must also be admitted that, while the motions which constitute radiance are vibratory and wave-like, the motions which constitute sen- sible or thermometric heat must be steady, and like those of circulating streams. The function by which the absolute temperature is multiplied in calculating the conversion of energy between the mechanical and the thermic forms is the variation of what the author has called the ‘ metamorphic function,” being one term of the differential of the “thermodynamic function,” which corresponds to what Prof. Clausius calls “ entropy.” ELECTRICITY. On India-Rubber and Gutta Percha as Insulators for Submarine Telegraphic Cables. By W. Farrzatrn, PRS. My. Fairbairn stated as his opinion that gutta percha, although not so perfect an insulator as india-rubber, was nevertheless preferable for deep-sea cables subjected to great pressure. He found by experiment’ that the conductivity of the core was improved by gutta-percha insulation under severe pressure to a greater extent than by india-rubber or any other insulating material; and he believed it was more durable and better calculated to resist the action of salt water at great depths. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 15 Out of a great number of specimens of different kinds of insulators, he found that gutta percha, with the exception of Chatterton’s compound, absorbed less water under a pressure of 20,000 Ibs. on the square inch than any of the others, aud that it closed much tighter upon the conducting wires than any of the other materials experimented upon. . As regards the ‘Great Eastern’ ship and the paying-out machinery, he went in her from the Nore to Valentia for the purpose of witnessing the behaviour of that vessel, and nothing could be more satisfactory than the ‘Great Eastern’ as a submerger, Her smooth and easy motion at sea, and the efficiency of the paying-out machinery, were in every respect-calculated to ensure success ; and it was much to be regretted that this important enterprise had failed from causes over which the parties engaged had probably no control. On the Change of Form and Colour which the Stratified Discharge assumes when a Varied Resistance is introduced in the Circuit of an Extended Series of the Voltaic Battery. By J. P. Gasstor, V.P.RB.S. Some months since the author commenced the construction of a voltaic battery, consisting of 4000 insulated glass cells, into each of which, in lieu of sulphate of copper, as used by the late Prof. Daniell, about a tablespoonful of sulphate of mercury is introduced ; the elements carbon and amalgamated zinc plates are then inserted, and the cells filled with rain-water. In this form of battery the zinc plates apparently remain free from local action, and are consequently not oxidized or acted upon, except when the circuit is completed. When the, battery is in action, sulphate of zinc is obtained in solution, and the mercury that is set free assists in the amalgamation of the zinc plates: the water being so slightly acidulated, and the resistance in the carbon plates being so much greater than if this element of the battery had been a metal, the amount of chemical action, and that of the elec- trical force, is proportionally less than that in the nitric-acid battery ; but the dis- charge is constant and regular in a most remarkable degree. For his researches upon electric stratified discharges the author has now more than, four hundred vacuum-tubes, some exhausted by himself, and others by Geissler, of Bonn. In one of the latter he obtained certain phenomena which it was the more immediate object of this communication to deseribe. The appearances in the tube, with discharges from 1200 and 4000 series of the battery taking place, and when the resistance of various lengths of a column of distilled water is introduced into the circuit, were illustrated by diagrams. The water is contained in a tube half an inch in diameter, and three feet long; two wires are introduced into it, one being connected with one terminal of the battery, and the other with the vacuum-tube ; while by raising or lowering either of the wires the length of the column of water remaining in the current is increased or diminished, and in this way the amount of resistance can be altered with great facility. When one wire is inserted in the water, and the other touches the moistened surface of the glass, but is not in actual contact with the water, a luminous discharge will be observed, filling the entire tube, without any sign or appearance of stratification. On depressing the wire, and thus bringing it into contact with the surface of the water, small crescent-shaped disks of red light are observed to be rapidly produced in quick succession from the positive pole. On shortening the resistance by further depression of the wire, the disks commence receding, one by one disappearing at the positive terminal, until nineteen remain, much increased in brilliancy and definition. From this condition of the discharge a remarkable change takes place on further depressing the wire and reducing the resistance; the two disks nearest the negative terminal join together, assuming the form of a double-convex lens, the side facing the negative being of a slightly blue tinge, that towards the positive of a reddish fawn, and the centre a bril- liant red colour. At the instant this change of form and colour takes place in the two disks, another crescent-shaped disk simultaneously appears at the positive terminal ; and as the depression of the wire in the water is continued, each of the two disks nearest the negative terminal will successively join, and assume the double-convex form described, at every such change another crescent-shaped disk simultaneously appearing.. When the circuit is completed without any resistance of water being 16 REPORT—1865. introduced in the current, all the nineteen striz assume the double-conrex form, the blue being far more intense or vivid, particularly in those nearest the negative, the red line in the centre continuing in all. In this state of the discharge the tube was placed between the poles of a very powerful electro-magnet; and on exciting the magnet the disks separated, precisely as if a resistance had been intro- duced, but deflected to the upper or lower part of the tube, according to the direction of the magnetic power. On the sides of the tube, where four or five of the disks nearest the negative impinge, there at present remains a black deposit similar to that deposited from the negative metallic wires by an induction-coil. As much heat is evolved at the negative wire, and until the author obtains an- other tube which will exhibit the same results he does not like to risk its destruc- tion, he is thus prevented from continuing the experiment to the extent he desires : but if it is found that a deposit can be obtained at defined portions of the stratified discharge, it may probably assist in explaining phenomena which have hitherto baffled the researches of every electrician. On a New Method, introduced by Messrs. Siemens, for the Measurement of Electrical Resistances. By R. Sasinn. The insulation of submarine-telegraph cables was, until the Red-Sea and Indian lines were submerged, in 1859, determined qualitatively by the simple deflection of a galvanometer-needle. The manufacture of the core of the Malta cable, with the scrupulous surveillance of its electrical conditions, formed an era in cable-work ; and Messrs, Siemens, who were intrusted by the Government with the duties of electricians to the cable, may be said to have then first established with success the science of cable-testing. After various improved plans, the Messrs. Siemens intro- duced, in 1860, for cable-work, a differential galvanometer with two coils, one of which exerted two thousand times as much deflective force upon the needle as the other. The cable and the measuring-battery were inserted in the circuit of the larger helix, and a single element with a set of resistance-coils in that of the less sensitive helix of the instrument. The resistance in the latter circuit was altered until the magnetic forces of the two currents upon the needle were equal and oppo- site and the pointer rested over the zero-line of the card. The manipulation was simple, and the necessary calculations reduced to the mere multiplication of the value of the resistance in the smaller circuit by the constant of sensibility and the relation of the electromotive forces. On the fitting out of the Carthagena cable it was considered desirable in measurements of insulation to dispense with mathe- matical reductions, and to read off the resistances directly from the instrument. It is easily understood that, to establish an equilibrium between the magnetic forces of two coils of a differential galvanometer, it is not absolutely necessary to alter the currents in either of the circuits; the same may be attained by altering the re- lative distances of the coils from the needle. This is the principle upon which the new differential galvanometer, forming the subject of this communication, was based. The mechanical construction of the instrument is very simple. hina aalobs Hew boc 2:3 PAMTEETUUIN Es eave. g Rissay=ss.c, 0's cuss pce ¢ the tietoues 97) Piagcetake sete nae ree 6°52 i Le ae ena nian ini birch fon 4:89 ALON vate as Ses kee at coh et the eure sgh oie areietete/ te) ae tee 13 PSDUUp 1) APs, SM ob eid aid Ae HIG RGR SOO ERIOM tac Lioid iol 9.0 La9t Ghind Sorin C Yor lis os Sacto mipicenor ae iNe Hine Syd otceloicnes 0/2 oe... 12:23 EnsOluble SUICCOUS ANALUOL “ss oye oe go « eel Mie ae bie erecta 20:95 Sul pW GrmclUe step ea sie sislg Cae crates s)sie cts efeitere erin rem 16 Orpanie Wiatier atid TOSS ee. en e.cericnes 29 cise sts eiclsfercreenr ine 3°58 These constituents, united together in the usual manner, give the following com- position for this phosphatic limestone :— Tribasic phosphate of lime .........++.eesse eee seeeeeeees 34:92 Oxadejab nen yh tin it. kis antnied swictlenl. 52 0 ain eee 2:34 Alina) ye. 2h. TREES ee Laas). Rew ae eh Ae ewieines 652 Garhonateoflinie <2) docti a ask Bates ie Aes sanliie tee 20°75 Carbonate of magnesia. s.5 witecii. esos csonaveds val ewaas 5:92 Macnesia in a state: of silicate: .2csceisiess ees cheeses 2:07 Tron. pyritesatinlisiowe 2e ob ehidee 2 ® aivattis sirsiotrsion need is ae 2:79 Sulpliurievacidily. We deus hiie dages an. v6 ancisle Srebrenorm 16 Insoluble siliceous matter ....... tere | ihe loots kewurane 20:95 Organic matter and loss. ieiciswie neds snerisds whem ewng 3°58 100:00 A specimen of black phosphatic shale, found at a depth of about 20 feet below the surface, furnished the following results :— Orgame matter and 108s". << asa sjeleye = cog e * rid g cipiets oes 3:98" LUTTE, -oFicore! ais nee ciepe PLRO AIK RRO or OREN Oe IRN ed OE 37:16 ode: POS Ute gleg aU hae Ree Ie eae Fees ee Bane che o: 29°67 | saree coe Benrereme tts ite ohideead + arieslt "sa aeoet Le ¢ hectare 285 oe 9 (oem Raat tee a el AMR bi gk Sa 1-07 lies a MINTER 0 hey IEE WIARTON PIC RIC T She qin. Acro oncn SNe, ERO 5°84 Matters insoluble in dilute hydrochloric acid .......... 22°14 100-00 A specimen of black phosphatic shale, taken at a depth of about 12 feet, on analysis yielded the following results :— Bhosphorieacidesiycse: aye. eww «pis Paws ense Seals baw heels views 24:07 TTAB ope chaos) aj sue fous Gispeseiei sacks’ elas «sa eysi0 "yo ara anos Sage as 32°31 Oxide Gfaron:s cathgi tans - sions b. scigas cx'sisantiaws aneae bein s 2:01 ENT reiibt: Goa Sey eRe echt, Fone SEP Were aig). revel Maone gly. Cesiaiiised aap fests seit sie tyh ays vfemyns baw wraieitys Bo oa 32 Sulphune acid sche jaye pens emp ak vhesleoras ae spies aewe Oe 26 Anni: ais yidyiubin 4 hak a: ew Pyaar Be ldrare ah ald aed camn sine 351 Sulphutsth dismnuatena chew Mire sbrigioseewvieniasian cadences 4:01 Insoluble siliceous, matter, js dej-u ssaebaeye ses Onel oo a 22°44. Organic matter and oss «.. 0... « «is sis, ¥iaiecod\e eeeestyneyalsrad « 3:36 100:00 * Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime........,, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 39 Accordingly the composition of this specimen of black shale may be repre- sented as follows:— Waiposie Piasphate Ge DW eo)... soe t tse cee eemeee gs . 52°15 Lime present as fluoride of calcium and as silicate.......... 4:23 NUR EIERTE: Si calspic..0-10-0.00 GO EET SEDUCE OOOO TE ler ie Etc 32 sdlis Tuttle Fa) Gh oer GEIS IDE Ie CGO EIESIEIIAEH Ie ane: (GG MEI CeO MINOT sere oes sie nigie Ae ravages dlolgin old attaches (oe 8 3 2-01 EI SR Ra Aa PS ae ea ‘26 Lud) ORG Ripa dingy Aborto rac. Boloe Hola Gn aerate 752 freoluple siliceous midtter V5. fpecscord. +> es ciesaret sete 22°44 SLO ALLED AO LOSS)’ s esis + #4 an saie aig ow etnies = oe 3°36 On the Composition of a Marine-Boiler Incrustation. By Dr. Aue. VorLcKEr. A marine-boiler incrustation, analyzed by Dr. Voelcker, yielded the following results :— MOTTE re Ao cieacrore Suhre autre de sele m LS Hehdns teed vete, aNhe 4 1:01 WV ater.Ob CGOMDINALOIM A .. 25.4 47s «\sya, aie wlaltielonls’/auaiuels slasig saigele 7748 Oxides of iron and alumina, with traces of phosphoric acid .. 64 MOTH ies raat, Sant ice, d tea ait) < dislgnus + hartlvisie, sade sid eee Ve Sete 30:05 PAG SOI ate usin At iniels. sun, dyteree micva auiele ser exes talarel«'s,b)m biesaht y= 16°72 SUMMONS BOG a cyivrest ti6 ss ek odin Baas fealy a ota ae hee 42°60 MOT TIM Birr t Get tsdicthn oiayi.6) 4:4, 814 pu dies ay laa leg Bd ele haa wie slgdiy ss 90 USI RINTC HI or, ccesays ovis ao ss <'<'h Sta ot ergata eT SIMELMS he sus’ Gus: Seay cl 06 EB REECEETELO tetatee csi c ois, fe, crests 0.5 thas valk cies Gus ©